Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons

Author(s): N L Jain
Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001670/1

Page #1

P. V. Series : 84
General Editor Prof. Sagarmal Jain
SCIENTIFIC CONTENTS IN PRAKRTA CANONS
Dr. N. L. Jain
वासीसिनतरवसचिनका बाढिपना प्रमियपहमाहाधिविनमालाथवि।। लियताल मणिरयाणगामियदयाराबजसममुवित समितागपंचवनसरससरहिसक्ष्य
डावयारकलिणाकालागुरुप वरऊंदा वजमकटतमयमतगधडा आतिगमे, सगंधवगंधणगंधवाहिएतसि तारिसरा समयमिछमिासालिगणवहिए।
उसमविश
SAMUZKIATRIA LALALA
BANNĀ SA MIKKHA BHAMMAR PARSVANATHAVIDYAPITHA, VARANASI.
Jain Education
LEORrivaERPEOPAL

Page #2

About the Book There has always been two categories of scholars — traditionalists and moderates. It is the later who carry the torch of knowledge ahead. The scientific age has resulted in increase of moderate scholars with scientific outlook presuming knowledge as ever-flowing river. The Austrian indologist and Dixit have initiated the approach of studying Jainology with historical and scientifically evaluative perspective to contain the current of faith erosion.
The early Jaina Canons contain about one-third of their contents related with physical world. The above approach directs to treat these contents as specific to those periods and as mile-stone in development of thought process. This book is an attempt to induce this approach to cover the contents in the areas of Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology, Food Sciences and Medical Sciences. The material presented here will convince the reader that religious themes have also been undergoing changes like scientific concepts and therefore science should not be degraded on this score. Secondly, the book will lead one to learn that the Jainas have had better intellect in contemporary theorisa-tion. However, their physical observations on visible phenomena seem to be quite insufficient in number and variety in views of our current knowledge, which has not only supplemented them to a large extent but has given better understanding and clarity on many issues. This non-traditional book has a point to improve the status of scientificity in religion to strengthen faith in moral and spiritual values.

Page #3

ärśvanatha Vidyapitha Series : 84
SCIENTIFIC CONTENTS
IN
PRĀKṚTA CANONS

Dr. N. L. Jain
Project Investigator, U. G. C. Girls College, Rewa (M. P.)
विद्यापीठ
साविज्जाजा
General Editor Dr. Sagarmal Jain
वाराणसी
खु भगवं
PĀRSVANĀTHA VIDYĀPĪTHA
VARANASI.

Page #4

Published by Pārsvanatha Vidyapitha
I.T.I. Road, Karaundi, P. O. B. H.U Varanasi 221 005 (India)

Phone: 311462
Fax: 0542
311462
First Edition: July, 1996
Price Rs.
200.00 ( Paper Back) Rs. 300.00 ( Hard Bound)
$ 20
ISBN 81 - 86715 - 118
Type Setting
Naya Sansar Press
B. 2/143 A, Bhadaini, Varanasi 221 005
Printed at
Vardhamana Mudranalaya Bhelupura, Varanasi - 10

Page #5

Publisher's Note This institute has been bringing out books on various familiar and non-familiar aspects of Jainology developed out of scholastic efforts of the authors since early fifties of this century. Almost all its publications belong to the category of intellectual nutrition designed for the thinking people very few in number even in this age of scientific development. Despite this, its publications have earned credit for thier quality of contents throughout the scholarly world in India and abroad. They have now reached all the continents of the world of today. The popularity of these publications can be judged by the facts that almost a fourth of its publications have gone out of print with similar number running in more than one editions.
The institute is proud to publish its eighty-fourth book entitled "Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons" by Dr. N. L. Jain who worked on it under the Humanity Research Scheme of the University Grants Commission, New Delhi and approved by them for publication. As the name indicates, the book summarises and evaluates the Scientific Contents ( on six subjects Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology, Food Science and Medical Science ) contained in the major Jaina canonical and pro-canonical literature up to about tenth century. This book encourages us to study these contents with historical and comparative perspective giving due credit to the ancient and medieval Jaina saintly scholars for their ingenuity, keen observation and conceptual power. It shows that they have contributed to almost all the branches of knowledge involving physical sciences which have been only stray explored. Our two earlier publications authored by J. C. Sikdar have encouraged us for this adventure. The author has exhaus

Page #6

[ TV
]
tively dealt the contents with critical and comparative approach in the fields of the subjects discussed in this book. This is a thought provoking book to encourage the scholars to work. Similary in the subjects other than those dealt with in here. It is hoped that this book will make a valuable contribution not only in history of science in Jainology but in the over all history of world science also. The book, thus, will serve as a landmark in the world of Jainology in particular and Indology in general in the area of scientific contents.
We are extremely grateful to the U.G.C. Delhi and to Dr. N. L Jain for allowing us to publish this book.
Tam thankful to Dr. Sagarmal Jain, Director, Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh and Dr. Shriprakash Pandey, Research Officers of the institute for seeing it through the press. I must also appreciate the other academic staff of the institute who have helped in various ways in publication of the book.
Shri Upadhyayaji of Naya Sansar Press and Shri Rajkumarji of Vardhaman Mudranalaya have taken great pains in bringing out this book. I must appreciate their efforts.
B. N. Jain
Secretary Pārsvanātha Vidyāpitha

Page #7

Introduction
Every religious system in the world has either a single sacred book or a set of such books called scriptures. They may be either revealed, divine or self-experienced in origin. The Jaina system has a self-realised twelve-fold book-basket in the main to which many secondary texts were added. These scriptures contain (i) narrations and instructions for moral or spiritual development, assumed to be eternal truths and (ii) many noneternal, physical and verifiable facts. The followers of the faith are called upon to take them as all-time truth and unchangeable ones. However, Vaiseṣika-sūtra-Upasķāra has raised the question about their authenticity on the basis of many (i) untrue (ii) contradictory and (iii) repeatatory statements in them causing doubt, prejudice and confusion. These points were Isatisfied by assuming the scriptures to be divine and nonviolable. A similar notion might have been raised in the examination-based Jaina system even in early centuries. They, therefore, postulated some criteria for authenticity of their sacred scriptures. Collectively, they are as follows:
(a) The scriptures must be composed by the Aptas (Attaineds) who have special qualifications mentioned in literature.
(b) Their contents should be non-contradictory with respect to sensory perception and inference or contradictory proofs must be absent about postulates and statements.
(c) They should be consistent with prior and posterior
texts.
1 (d) They should be devoid of logical or experimental discrepancies.
(e) Their statements should be non-violable by any process. Samantabhadra, Siddhasena, Akalanka and other

Page #8

[
V
]
scholars emphasized the examination-based nature of Jaina system in comparison to the merely faith-based one. This led to critique texts in Jainology. The tradition of such texts continued upto about 12th century which gave a prestigious image for the system. Both types of contents in sacred texts were intellectually or intuitionally examined by them.
The twentieth century scientific age has gone more critically analytical of old concepts and practices to confirm them or indicate about their modifiability. It atternpts to elaborate the scriptural, spiritual and physical facts and phenomena not only intellectually but by experimental evidences also. This dual support strengthens our faith. The scientific mind is not satisfied with the concepts like divinatory, revealatory or self-experiencial origin of scriptures. It has, however, been found that the Jaina system holds a superb place not only contemporarily but alltimely also in the field of moral or spiritual instructions and many physical conceptualisations. The Jainas have shown intellectual giantness in many fields through their
(1) Karmic theory ( cause-effectism or Newton's third law),
(2) Non-absolutist synthetic approach in philosophical postulates, a little ahead of the theory of relativity,
(3) Concept of simultaneous existence of physical and psychical aspects in subjects and objects and
( 4 ) Theory of micro and macro - non-violence and limiting desires in practical life.
These principles form the core of religions. The scientists have nothing to say but to appreciate all this. The current age has a credit to expand their sphere of action from purely individual to society, nation and world. However, when one looks at the extra-religious contents of the scriptures with scientific eye, one observes that there seems to be sufficient ground for examining them directly and deeply. Jainas have shown that the criteria of authenticity in scriptures fail partly or wholly due to

Page #9

(i) unverifiable but ideal concept of the Attaineds (modified later as specialists) as composers of scriptures.
(ii) containment of many inter or intra-contradictory statements in canons violating the criteria of consistency, (iii) containment of many perceptual, inferential and logical contradictions.
Moreover, the criteria of unchangeability of postulates is also violated because many of their contents do have (i) definitional (conceptual ), (ii) numerical, (iii) namal, (iv) sequential and (v) reductio-incremental modifications as shown in Table 1 in some typical cases whose references could be found in relevant chapters which start from the first book of Ācārānga onwards. The final point has been shown in the end against each entry in the Table.
[ VII
Table 1: Some Typical Conceptual and Physical Modifications in Jaina Scriptures.
(A) Conceptual / Definitional
1. Religion
2. Definition of Upayoga
3. Definition of Direct Perception
4. Birth-types of 1-4 sensed beings
5. Shape and volume
of Universe
6. Animistic Concept
(B) Sequential
7. Order of Realities/Tattvas
(C) Namal
8. Six essentials

Three-fold, four-fold, five-fold Knowledge & Conation: Bliss & energy etc. in addition Without-sense knowledge With/without-sense knowledge Asexual to sexual also
Different in Sutras and
Dhavala; 239-343R.
Animistic and non-animistic concept
As like Gitā: Logical (Umāsvāti)
Partial difference in Dig. & Svet.

Page #10

(
VIII
9. Six types of Living
Pre-Acārānga and postĀcārānga
(D) Namal and Sequential 10. Pratimās/Model Stages
11. Reflections
11 (number same, names different by Somadeva & Hema candra Ācārya) 12 ( Names and order different ) 10 ( Names, order, definitions different in Rājvārttika & Sthānānga
12. Truths
(E) Numerical and Reductio-incremental 13. Number of Tattvas/ 10, 11, 9, 7 ( Umāsvāti )
Padārthas/Realities 14. Conduct/practices 5-fold, 4-fold, 3-fold ( Gem-trio ) 15. Scriptures, Perverse, 9, 19, 26, 29
worldly/black 16. Basic Qualities of
18, 27, 28, 36, 36 (Vidyānanda Mendicants
Muni) 17. Vows (Vratas )
5, 6,12 ( With/without holy
death) 18. Positings ( Nikṣepas ) 6,4 ( Umāsvāti ) 19. Disquisition Doors 14, 20, 23, 24, 36, 9, 8, 6
(Umāsvāti) 20. Puffs
8 (RKS), 4 (SK) 21. Causes of Karmic 4,5 ( Umāsvāti )
bondage 22. Predications of Syādvāda 3, 4, 7 (F) Physical Observations 23. Male Arts
72 ( with different names, now totalling 140 )

Page #11

24. Female Arts
25. Number of Diseases
26. Medical Practices
27. Parts of the Body 28. Number of eatables/
dishes
29. Types of Food
30. Organs of Knowledge (Pramāņas)
[ IX ]
64 (with different names, now totalling 140)
7, 10, 16 (with different names, now totalling 64)
5 increasing upto 36 9, 32 (Acārānga ) 9,14,18
6, 8, 4
4,2 (with sub-classes)
Currently, this state of variability in scriptural contents could be clarified on at least five counts as below:
(a) Almost all the current scriptural and post-scriptural texts have been redacted and composed by sufficiently distant (upto 500 years or more after Mahāvira) saintly authors.
(b) Absence of transmission or communication between contemporary and other scholars and their literature in olden days with some exceptions.
(c) An attitude towards supporting traditionalism under incomplete or indirect informations.
(d) A gradual but continuous loss of memory and intuitional genius among the successive generations of scholars leading to variable understanding.

(e) Contemporary challenges and an attitude towards correspondence based on relativity principle.
It, thus, seems that each series of Mahāvira's near and distant disciples took his instructions in their own way though they were in popular language of the time and in simple allegorical style with reference to their contemporary correspondence. That is why, many later scholars felt many types of inconsistencies in scriptures. Most of them, however, preferred to keep silence to maintain them as such on the basis of nonviolability without venturing any elaboration. One could not say

Page #12

[
X
]
whether academic honesty supports this attitude. Deep faith associated with timidity will, however, definitely favour it. This seems like a clear over-looking of instructions of the seers from Acārānga, Sūtrakrtānga, Uttarādhyayana, Niyamasāra, Pramānamimāmsā etc. to use the innate nature of curiosity and intelligence to examine the contents before acceptance by using the science of logic. The current 200-300 years have developed an additional tool of experimental examination. However, it has been pointed out that scriptures could be taken as authentic on issues which are out of bounds of logistics and experimentation.
Moreover, this trend of critique and intellectual examination could not be maintained in medieval period because of political circumstances, lack of better quality of genius as pointed by Shastri and sin-fearing attitude leading to conservatism and loss of multi-faceted growth of Jaina studies. The current scientific age requires re-adopting the forgotten critique type of attitude to re-establish the excellence by moving a little forward frorn the current static state and following basic canonical instructions and newer technics. Amar Muni has also hinged on this point.
The current age has two types of scholars including many sages-traditionalists and moderates. This has always been the case. However, the later category has been in acute minority. But it is the only category which is or has been wanted most and which carries the torch of knowledge ahead. The industrial revolution and literacy drive have added fuel to the firy mind resulting in increase of moderacy. They have now realised that though the traditionalism has maintained their system, they have also been instrumental in internal faith erosion and reduction in religiosity. If it has to be checked, larger number of moderates, logicians and scientifically grounded scholars must come forward to serve as newer commentators and prestige-earners of the Jaina system.
The moderates have a scientific outlook. They maintain

Page #13

[ XI ]
that knowledge is an everflowing and growing river rather than a static pond. Hence, the knowledge contained in texts of different periods should be taken as specific to those periods and a mile-stone to future growth fronts. Thus, the contents of ancient periodical texts should be studied and analysed with historical perspective. This gives a chance for evaluating the growth of knowledge in different periods. This approach was initiated by the Austrian Indologist in case of Jainology which has been followed by Dixit in this country. The author feels that by adopting this attitude, one is in a position to clarify many earlier inconsistencies at any time without disregard to earlier scholars who had their own limitations of intelligence, studies and experiments. This will also validate the ancient texts on this basis, thus maintaining the continuance of faith in them. Of course, this perspective gets somewhat blurred in cases of those systems which have shown little sense for history. However, it is the current scholar's duty to approximate this history from the available material and contents. It is also felt that this has not probably been the case with many authors of articles, books, booklets on some subject-matters covered by this academic attempt despite the fact that some could mention the differences in canonical and current physical facts. Modern scientific age, therefore, requires to collect, classify and discuss at least the physical contents in early Jaina canons mostly written in Prākṛta language, in a co-ordinated way so that it could be comparatively evaluated with respect to its growth and current state of knowledge. An additional advantage of this exercise will be that it will be let known to the science historians of the world who are little informed about these contents and their overall contribution to the history of science.
These objects have encouraged to undertake the current work. This is a partly materialised form of the project entitled Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Literature approved by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, under their humanities research scheme. It has covered only six subjects: (i) Chemistry,

Page #14

[ XII
(ii) Physics, (iii) Botany, (iv) Zoology, (\) Food science and (vi) Medical sciences. It contains 17 chapters, 880 references, 129 tables and 5 diagrams. The author wishes to extend this work to other subjects like mathematics, astronomy, astrology, geography, engineering etc. which will form the basis for another publication.
The general scholars will find this presentation in a nontraditional format covering the past and present. It has many informative and comparative tables and diagrams to instil better clarity and support for statements made leading to evaluative relationship. The references have been kept to minimum and given at the end of the chapters in current traditions as practiced in humanities avoiding quotations, thus, minimising the space. A large number of references include those of current authors working in this direction. This is in contrast with traditional publications. The terminology of Jaina terms used here follows the pattern of glossary published by Jaina International, Ahmedabad ( 1995 ) which stands approved by many noted Jaina scholars. Many discordant notes and suggestions for further studies and guidance by competent canonists have also been mentioned as and where required. The author wishes this exercise may lead them to be in a position to realise the trend in growth in knowledge and estimate the position of Jaina system in current comparision. They may realise many points not in tune wirh their traditional conceptions
The author does not feel himself to be a competent scholar either in Jaina system or science. However, whatever background he has, he has tried to study the relevant literature for his neutral analysis. He does not claim that his studies are complete while undertaking this exercise for his inferential comments. The deeper scholars will, therefore, do well to point out flaws or additional informations to correct or modify his views. The author will be highly pleased to receive such comments and criticisms.
The author could not have undertaken this exercise

Page #15

[
XIII
]
without the encouraging approval of the UGC and its DeputyChairman Prof. Murthy. He could also not complete this work without the co-operation of (a) institutions like Pārsvnātha Vidyāpitha, Varanasi; Jaina Viśva Bhārti, Ladnun; Prākrta Institute, Vaisali; Vira Sevā Mandir, Delhi; Jaina Kendra, Rewa and Girls College, Rewa ( who allowed free access to their libraries ), (b) individuals like Prof. M.A. Dhaky, Dr. Sagarmal Jain, Muni Mahendraji, Late Pt. J. M. L. Shastri, Dr. V. P. Dubey, Prof. M. K. Bhargava, Late Johrimal Parekh, Miss Sheela Goel and others ( whom I troubled many times to remove my ignorance in part on issues of language and concepts ) and (c) many publishers who supplied me necessary books when asked for. I hope they will be extending similar help in any future adventure like this. The author has a sense of deep gratitude to all of them and also to them not mentioned. I will be doing injustice if I do not give due credit to my wife, Mrs. Kshama Jain and children who have pleasantly suffered great inconveniences due to my study room and long hour working. I hope they must now be pleased to see this outcome in this form.
My thanks are also due to Dr. A. K. Singh, Dr. S. P. Pandey, who have rendered extensive co-operation in editing, proof-reading and indexing of the book and without whom the early publication of this book might have been impossible.
In the end, I must express my sincere thanks to the Director and managing committee of Pārsvnātha Vidyāpitha, Varanasi for publishing this volume.
N. L. Jain
July, 1996 Rewa, (M.P.)

Page #16

Page #17

Abbreviations
Books
1. A 2. ADS 3. AGDT 4. AKT 5. AN 6. ANU 7. AUP 8. Ay 9. B 10. BA 11. CON 12. D 13. DD 14. DSV 15. GS 16. JD 17. JDK 18. JDP 19. JPP 20. JPV 21. JSK 22. KK 23. KS 24. KV 25. MR 26. N 27. NL
I!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Ācārānga Anuyogadvāra Sūtra Anāgāra Dharmāmrta Antakrtddaśā Ācārānga Niryukti Anuttaropapātika Sūtra Aupapātika Sūtra Ayurveda Bhagavati Sūtra, Buddha Bhagavati Ārādhanā Cosmology, Old & New Dhavalā, Digambara Disquisition Door Daśavaikālika Gommațasāra Jayadhavala jñātādharma Kathā Jambūdvipa Prajñapti Jaina Path of Purification Jambūdvipa Prajñapti Vịtti Jyotişkarandaka Kalyānakāraka Kāma-sutra Kalpasūtra-vịtti Mulācāra Nandi-sūtra Vrtti Numerable Lacs

Page #18

[ XVII
28. NS 29. NT 30. NV 31. PPB 32. PRJN, PS, P 33. RKSR, RKS 34. RP 35. RS 36. RV 37. S 38. SDS 39. SGDT 40. SK 41. SKD 42. SS 43. Sth. 44. STR 45. SV 46. TP. 47. Ts 48. TS 49. TSR 50. TV 48. UTN, U 49. V 50, VN 51. VS
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
Niyamasāra Numerable Thousands Nyāya-Vaiśeşika Prasastapāda Bhāşya Prajiāpana Sutra Ratna-karanda-śrävakācāra Rājapraśniya Rasa Ratna Samuccaya Rājavārttika Svetāmbara, Sānkhya Şad-darśana-samuccaya Sāgāra Dharmāmsta Sūtrakrtānga Şațkhandāgama Sarvārtha-Siddhi Shãnanga-Sutra Siva-tattva-ratnākara Samavão Triloka-prajñapti Trilokasāra Tattvārtha-Sutra Tattvārtha Sāra Tandula Veyāliya Uttarādhyayana Vaiśesika Vātsyāyana Sūtra Vipāka-sūtra
Publishers
1. APS
Agama Prakashana Samiti, Beawar. Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi.
2. BJ

Page #19

[ XVII
}
3. CJP
4. HSS
5. JSS
II i III.
6. JVB 7. NS 8. MLBD
Central Jain Publishing House, Lucknow. Hindi Sahitya Sammelana, Allahabad. Jaina Samskriti Sanrakshaka Sangha, Solapur. Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun. Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay. Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi. Parshvanath Vidyashrama Research Institute, Varanasi. Shvetambara Jaina Sthanakavasi Sangha, Sailana. Shvetambara Sthanakavasi Jaina Sanstha, Bikaner.
9. PVRI
10. SJS
12. SS Jaina Sanstha

Page #20

अ
a
ऐ
ai
System of Transliteration

15100
आ
ल०
क्
k
pro
C
For
टू
च् छ्
ch
!
ter
t
प्
P
य्
دری
У
Er S.
इ
i
‍
औ
au
ख्
kh
For £.£
ठू
th
थ्
th
फ्
ph
ML
र्
Consonants
ग्
r
Vowels
स् S
pr
"ल
अं
am
FO
15..
ज्
MD.
For o
द्
اهری
ब्
1 -
ल्
her c
ज्
jn
उ
अः
ah
घ्
gh
tor .
dh
ध्
dh
for >
ऊ
ऋ
!

fior.c
ङ्
n
bre
ក
BY C.
ण्
IT C
न्
n
भू म्
bh
mr E
श्
७.
क्ष त्र॒
ks
tr
e

Page #21

CONTENTS
Publisher's Note Introduction Abbreviations System of Transliteration
III - IV
V - XIV XV-XVII
XVIII
Chapter
Page No.
1 - 139
Section One : Prākrta Language and Canons
1. Prākta Bhāșa 2. Prākrta Canons 3. Branches of Learning in Canons 4. Canonical Techniques of Studies
28 75 121
141 - 243
143
Section Two : Chemistry 5. Reality and Matter : Properties and
Classification 6. Jaina Theory of Skandhas/Aggregations 7. Jaina Theory of Atoms
193 224
Section Three : Physics
245 - 361 8. Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume 247 9. Weights and Measures-2: Length and Time 270 10. Contents of Physics-1 : Heat and Light 297 11. Contents of Physics-2 : Sound,
328 Electricity and Magnetism
363 - 494
Section Four : Biology
12. Definition of Living
365

Page #22

| XX ]
Chapter
Page No.
13. Classification & Life Cycle of the Living 14. Botanical Contents in Prākta Canons 15. Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons
403 439 465
Section Five : Food and Medical Sciences
16. Food Sciences 17. Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons
495 - 559
497 527
Word Index
561

Page #23

Section One Prākrta Language and Canons
Various studies of Prākrta Language indicate it as one of the oldest and most popular laymen's language of ancient Indians during early pre-Christian centuries. Mahāvira and Buddha popularised it through their sermons and consequently it became a literary language. The major subject matter of this work is related with Präkrta canonical literature spread over many centuries. Though primarily localised, it spread throughout the country due to royal patronage and wandering monks. It is found in many forms. Ardhamāgadhi is a specific name given by the Jainas in its pre-developmental stage. It is, therefore, necessary to have a preliminary idea about it and its literature.
This section contains four chapters concerning (i) the language, i. e., Prākıta Bhāṣā (ii) literature survey, i. e., Prākrta Canons
(iii) branches of learnings mentioned in this literature, i. e., Branches of Learning in Canons
(iv) techniques of studies in ancient times, i. e., Canonical Techniques of Objective Studies.
These chapters form the basis of ensuing chapters and sections. The readers will find them an interesting and informative reading.

Page #24

Page #25

Chapter 1
Prākṛta Bhāṣā
Man is a social being. He is mutually related with others, co-existingly associated with animal kingdom and moving and enjoying around natural surroundings with feelings and emotions. He requires a medium for communicating his intentions, emotions, thoughts and desires etc. for his ways in the world. Language is such a vehicle for expressing all such activities. These may be effected through all the perceptual senses like touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing ( signals, symbols, symptoms, etc.). These mediums are employed by the sentients like men and animals and insentients like natural objects (rivers, oceans, etc.) alike. However, when we talk about language in modern sense, it has comparatively a limited meaning. It refers to the medium for human species only. The ancient symbolism did not prove sufficient for the above purposes and the spoken language was the natural outcome. And hence, it refers to the organ of hearing and speech only. Currently, the language, in general, consists of in the pronunciation of sounds, words etc. to be meaningful. The word 'language' is now defined as an ordered structure of arbitrary sound symbols pronounced through human speech organs and through which speaking, hearing and later writing activities are performed in specific groups'. It is clear that without language, a man can not become a man. That is why, the science of linguistics has been developed in the west during the last two and half centuries. It studies the (i) language characteristics like (a) arbitrariness, (b) acquiremental nature, (c) creativity, (d) imitability, (e) transformability, (f) dual levelling, (g) non-finality, (h) speakability and audibility; (ii) its internal and external structures under five major heads like (a) syntax, (b) morphology, (c) wordology, (d) phonetics

Page #26

4 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
and (e) semantics; (iii) its applied aspects like origin, classification, comparative studies and other topics. It is seen that each language or its group has its own characteristics. Though there is difference between languages ( mental, nonmaterial; speech, material ), still, it is the speech which represents the language. Origin of Language
The ancient major religions of the world assume the vitalistic theory about their scriptural languages ( Hindus - Samskrta, Buddha --Pāli, Jainas --Ardhamāgadhi, Christians - Hebrew, Islam - Arabic ). They presume their language as the origin of all the world languages. However, Plato presumed the naturalistic origin of languages. The intelligensia nas not accepted this view. Experiments since 500 B.C. upto fifteenth century organised by Psammitichos of Greece to Akbar ( 1556 - 1603 ) have shown that the children remained dumb or without language when kept aloof for long times. Herder concluded in 1772 that there cannot be any vitalistic language logistically and scientifically. However, the origin of language is still a problem for the linguists. Despite many theories with individual defects, it is now agreed that many direct factors have cooperatively taken part in the development of a language. These may be denoted as ( a ) symbolism, (b) conscious and unconscious imitation, (C) sound conformability, (d) interjectional, emotional and gestural expressions, (e) singsong and (f) intellectual and emotional contact and interaction. Sweet and Johnson’ have developed the co-ordinated theory of the origin of language on some of these points. However, no single factor could be pointed - an issue awaiting answer from the intelligensia. Indirect methods in this direction have also not yielded substantial confirmation on this issue.
The Samskrta scholars have postulated four stages through which language appears in spoken form — Parā, Pasyanti, Madhyamā and Vaikhari - the last one forming the

Page #27

audible sound or speech. The other three stages are finer inaudible sounds leading to audibility through emotions, air contact and movements, thus giving basic importance to air and respiration. The Jainas associate origin of speech through conversion of kārmic species attracted by mental activities into sound variforms (groupings). This stage occurs at a sufficiently developed state of human mind. The difference in the different languages of the world may be ascribed to physical, social and cultural environment, incomplete irnitation, simplicity trends, the theory of survival of the fittest, mental status, etc. The language due to fine mental emotions followed the gross emotional sounds. The factors, accounted for the origin of language by Western scholars, may be said to be in the zone of mental activity. Thus, the Western thoughts seem to be elaborations of Eastern ideas.
―――
Whatever be the origin of language, it has developed in three stages (i) bodily actions or symbols, (ii) vocal symbols and (iii) written form. The first stage expresses only gross emotions, requires light and directness and it has a limited scope. The vocal stage has no such difficulty except place and time. The written stage has even removea' these limitations.4
Prākṛta Bhāṣā: 5
Classification of Languages
The Indian maxim that language changes every 16 miles (25 kms.) has been superseded by the actual number of 2796 languages in the world. Their alround systematic study is possible only when they are scientifically classified. This has been done on the basis of (i) religion, (ii) continents, (iii) countries, (iv) historical periods, (v) symptoms, (vi) typography or syntax and (vii) family or geneaology. Out of these, only the last two are linguistically important.
The typographical classification is based on morphology or the structure of language. Many authors have suggested more than two varieties but proper consideration suggests that

Page #28

6 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
primarily there are two varieties under this category with some sub-varieties as shown below :
Language
Analytic (Ayogātmaka ). (Isolating, Positional, non-agglomerating, Chinese)
Synthetic (Yogātmaka ) (Agglomerating, prefix-suffixed)
(i) incorporating (greenlandish)
(ii) non-incorporating (iii) Inflecting (Turkish, Santhali, Polynesian )
Internal
External
(i) Synthetic
Arabic
(ii) Analytic
Hebrew
(i) Synthetic (ii) Analytic
Samskrta Hindi Indo-European English
It should, however, be borne in mind that no language completely satisfies a single class or subclass. It has only its major structure referring to a class. Secondly, there seems a trend towards development of analyticism in languages rather than syntheticism.
The languages having non-incorporation of elements of meaning and connective structures are known as analytic languages. They do not have cases, prefixes and suffixes etc. They do not require them as they have separate words for separate meanings. Each word may have its meaning depending upon its position or order. The connective element is a separate word. There is no change or derivations in the word like Samskrta. Chinese, Burmese, Thai and Tibbetan ( position,

Page #29

Prākrta Bhāṣā : 7
indeclinable ) are important languages of this class. Their nonincorporating nature is also termed as analytic.
in contrast, the incorporating languages are those which have incorporation of meaning and connective structures in words, sometimes like either milk and water or seasame-rice. These languages have cases, suffixes, prefixes, derivatives etc. in the words. Majority of world languages belong to this class. The words in the incorporating languages are such that the meaning and connective elements are synthesised in them and none of the elements can be separated. The inflectional languages have these elements with some inflections in the words. The agglutinative languages have words where both the elements can be identified and they are there like sesame-rice. The structure of this type of language is simple. The human language named Esperanto and Mānavabhāsā of Satybhaktas are based on this principle.
Samskrta words illustrate the nature of the incorporating and inflectional type of languages. Hindi is inflectional analytic while Dravidian languages are mostly agglutinative. Some examples follow : (i) Incorporation of connective elements completely like milk
and water : (a) Rtu – Ārtava sisu - Saisava sāli – śāleya (b) Mrdu - Mārdava Diti - Daitya Agni -- Āgneya (c) Mudga - Mudgina Nādi - Nādeya (ii) Inflectional incorporations like sesame-rice : (a) Karma – Kārmanya Dhanusa - Dhanuska
Nikata - Naikatika (b) Dharma - Dhārmika Ākāśa - Ākāśika
Dhenu - Dhenukā (c) Udupa - Audupikā Pāṇini – Pāniņiya
Samvatsara - Samvatsarika (iii) Agglutinative words (a) Sundaratā - sundara+tā
Maine - Main+ne (b) Karegā - Kar + e + gā
10

Page #30

8 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Now-a-days, the typological classification has lost its significance. The family classification has replaced it. A family of language is based upon — (a) linguistic similarity in words, sounds, syntax, sense and forms and (b) regional proximity. On this basis, languages of the world have been grouped under a number of families varying from one to one hundred, suggesting a difficulty in systematic grouping. However, most Indian scholars are agreed on Von Humboldt ( 1822 ) classification of languages in thirteen families : (a) Africa Zone
(i) Sematic-hematic ( Inflectional ) (ii) Vantu ( Aggl.) (iii) Sudanese ( Analytic )
(iv) Bushman (b ) Euresia Zone
(v) Malay-polynesian ( Aggl. ) (vi) Ural-Altaic (Aggl. ) (vii) Chinese (Analytic) (viii) Dravidian (Aggl.) (ix) Austro-Asiatic ( Aggl.) (x) Indo-European ( Inflectional ) (xi) Caucacian (Aggl.)
(xii) Japanese-Korean ( Aggl. ) (c) American Zone
( xiii ) Red Indian and others (d) Pacific Zone ( Polynesian )
Sematic-hematic
The world has also been linguistically divided under four zones as above where these language families are found. It is observed that the Euresia zone is most important one where some nine families are found. Some families are found even in more than one zone. The various language families are shown in Table 1.

Page #31

Prākrta Bhāṣā : 9
Table 1 : Language Families and their characteristics.
2
3 (a) Africa Zone 1. Sematic-Hematic Aggl. (a) Egypt, Iraq, Arab, (Hebrew, Arabic,
Syria, Algeria, Morocco Sumerian, Egyptian,
(b) Libya, Somaliland, Somali etc.)
Ethiopia 2. Vantu
Aggl. Central and South (about 150 languages )
Africa, Tanzania 3. Sudanese
Analytic African Countries surrou( about 400 languages) Isolating nding HM Zone 4. Bushman
Bushman area of South
Africa (b) Euresian Zone 1. Dravidian
Aggl. South, East and Central ( Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
India, Baluch. Malayalam, Gond, Tulu etc.) 2. Chinese
Isolating China, Tibbet, Burma, ( Chinese, Thai, Bur
Thailand, etc. mese, Tibbetan, etc.) 3. Ural-altaic
Aggl. Finland, Hungary, (Finish, Hungarian, Turkish, Turkey, Mongolia, etc.
Mongolian, Russian, etc.) 4. Caucasian
Aggl. Caucasians area (Georgian, Kavadian ) 5. Japanese-Korean
Aggl. Japan, Korea, Nearby (Japanese, Korean )
Islands 6. Malay-Polynesian Aggl. SE Asia, New Zealand, ( Languages of concerned
Fiji, Hawai, Philip., countries )
Formosa, etc. 7. Austro-Asiatic
Aggl.
East India, Cambodia, (Santhali, Mundali,
• Burma, South India Kole, etc.)

Page #32

10 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
3
8. Indo-European
Synthetic India, Bangladesh, ( Samskrta, Pali, Prākrta, Inflectio- Srilanka, Pakistan, Persian, Greek, Latin, nal Afghanistan, Russia, English, French, German,
Europe, USA, Russian, Italian, Hindi,
Canada, Australia Bengali, etc. ) (c) American Zone 1. Red Indian
Incorpo- USA, Greenland, Languages ( about rating, Mexico, etc.
1000 languages) synthetic (d) Pacific Zone Malay-polynesian
Aggl. As above in 6 languages
Family of Indo-European Languages
The Linguistics is supposed to have developed through the studies of the languages of this family specially Samskrta. This family is, therefore, most important of all families because
(i) Geographically, its area covers larger part of the world.
(ii) It is spoken by the largest number of people
(iii) There is larger number of dialects and sub-dialects in this family.
(iv) This family has played a dominant role in the transformation, growth and progress of the world culture, civilization, literature and education.
Geographically, this family extends from Europe, British isles upto Indian sub-continent with few exceptional areas. Because of its manifold importance, various rames have been suggested for it ( such as Indo-Haitti, Indo-Germanic, IndoKeltic, Samskļtaic, Aryan, Wires, etc.) during the course of time. But the name Indo-European still persists with least botheration

Page #33

Prākrta Bhāṣā : 11
points. This family is characterised by inflectional form with suffixing nature.
This family is sub-divided into two sub-groups ( one with S and the other with K oriented) consisting of ten language families as below: (a) Kentum Sub-group (K) (b) Satam Sub-group (S) 1. Keltic
1. Armenian 2. Germanic
2. Volt-slavic 3. Latin
3. Albanian 4. Greek
4. Baltic 5. Tokhari
5. Indo-Iranian or Aryan Almost all classical Indian languages like Pāli, Prākta and Samskrta belong to the Indo-Aryan 'sub-group of IndoEuropean family of Euresian zone. This means that these three languages seem to be Aryan languages.
There has been a large number of varied opinions among the scholars of East and West about the original place of Aryans, However, it is now generally agreed that the Aryans originally belong to the dry south-eastern plateau of Ural mountains in Russia. A good part of them moved towards the south-east to Iran and Asian countries full of green lands and prosperity while the other section moved towards the west-now called Europe. Linguistically, Grearson opines that they moved to these places in at least two groups. There was natural exchange between the languages of the immigrants and the original dwellers of the land and a conceded language gradually developed. This might have happened during 2400-2000 B. C. in Indo-Iranian case. They might have settled in India by about 1500 B. C. This could be said to be the period of start of the history of Indo-Aryan languages.
The scholars opine that this group has now three distinct but closely related sub-divisions - (1) Iranian, (ii) Dravidian and (iii) Indian. The Dravidian language belong to current Kashmir and Afghanistan. Out of these, the Darad languages form the

Page #34

12
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
intermediate links between the Iranian and Indian languages. The above description leads us to state the geneaology of main Aryan languages in this continent as below:
Euro-Asian Zone
Indo-European Family
Indo-Iranian Sub-group
Indo-Aryan Branch
Präkṛta, Pāli and Samskṛta
Prākṛta Language
The Prākṛta, Pāli and Samskṛta languages fall under the Indian sub-group of Indo-Iranian group. These are the important languages of the world. We will refer here to the Prākṛta language specifically.
The Prakṛta language is found by different names in literature. Muni Nagarāja9 has mentioned at least ten such names from different sources including Sthänānga. Bharata has mentioned its name as Prākṛta. Hemacandra, Singhadeva Gani, Dhanika, Nārāyaṇa, Sankara and others have advocated the origin of Präkṛta from Samskṛta assuming it to be the basic language per chance predominant at their times. However, this opinion is not supported by earlier Jaina and non-Jaina scholars. Rudrața, Siddhasena Diwakara, Vākpatirāja, Rajasekhara ( 89th century) and contemporary commentators like Nami-Sādhu postulate it as the earlier, native, natural and unpolished language. And therefore, this might be the philological origin of Samskrta. This is much more logical than the earlier view. Moreover, a grammatised language cannot originate others. The current scholars express surprise, on the one hand, on the view of Hemacandra on the basis of his idea of the nativity of Prākṛta in his other works and on the other, they guess about his intention on the ground of time and study. Prākṛta means natural, simple, elegant, beautiful, pleasant and popular language.
There is, however, another opinion that Vedic and Chandas language is the earliest and oldest literary language.

Page #35

Prāksta Bhāṣā : 13
Hence, it might have either parallely developed independently or from the Chāndas itself. In this context, parallel development of literary Prākta seems to be more logical. Of course, when one considers the nature of language in a spoken form, it may be guessed that the literary form of Prākta might have developed at a little later date. Per chance, P. B. Pandit may be right that any language has to attain an ideal Saṁskrta form if it has to stay long.
The following similies support the point in question": Samskrta
Prākrta 1. River bridge River bank 2. Adult virgin
Young virgin 3. Well water
River water 4. Never Young Lady Ever young lady 5. Non-germinating Germinating (Apabhramsa etc.) 6. —
Cupid Prākrta has been a common language among the common masses for a good length of time as can be judged by the dialogues in Prākrta by the children, women, servants and other persons evertm later plays of Samskrta. Seth, along with Pischel and Woolner, also support this philological contention about Prākrta'?. In contrast, even Siddharşi ( 10th century) states Samskrta as the language of the vainly proud persons - the so called royals and literateurs 13. Development of Prākrtas : First and Second Stage
The development of Prākrta is related with the movement of Aryans from the current Punjab (country of five rivers ) towards Mathurā ( Śūrasena ) and Ayodhyā ( Kośala ) in the central India. The first batch of Aryans was moved towards these territories to accommodate next batch of immigrant Aryans. It is now agreed that the Vedas and Chāndas were composed in the central country. They contain the earliest Aryan language form in them. Though these Aryans had their own language, the natives of this country had also their own language. There

Page #36

14 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
were eighteen such languages during the canonical period. They have also been described regionwise in three categories as — (i) Northern (Punjab Area ), (ii) Central ( Sūrasena ) and (iii) Eastern (mostly Magadhan area ). Samavāyanga and Prajñāpanā mention eighteen scripts rather than languages. Perchance, it is presumed that each language had corresponding script. Other canons like Jñātādharmakathā, Rājapraśniya, Vipākasūtra and Aupapātika-sūtra also mention eighteen native languages without naming them. Perchance, they wish to follow Samavāyānga. Later books like Kalpasūtra commentary and Višeșāvasyaka Bhāsya mention eighteen scripts differently. Lalitavistara mentions 64 scripts having a more or less mixed nature'.
As the Aryans had to live with these natives in different sections on their movement, their language was naturally influenced and many native words and usages became part of the Aryan language. The literary language of the Vedas developed out of this mutual exchange. These native languages ran parallely and have been called primary or earliest Prākrtas by Grearson's. Though they have no written literature, still their existence cannot be denied. They existed in spoken form. They did not have many varieties as found when they attained the literary form. Thus, the native Prāktas and Chandas are sister languages rather than parental 16. That is why there is quite a large amount of similarity between them as shown by many scholars. One can observe large number of Prākrta forms in the Chandas literature. Hardeva Bahri has also summed up his conclusions similar to this description.
The period during which this process continued may roughly range between 1600-600 B. C., i.e., before Mahāvira and Buddha. The period is designated as ancient period of IndoAryan languages. Literarily, this period is not very important for studies in Prākrta.
The Vedas and Chāndas have their own languages called Vedic Samskrta. However, the third Veda specially shows

Page #37

Prāksta Bhāṣā : 15
more nativity than the first one. It is from this third Veda that the literary Prākrta has derived many of its characteristics and constituents. The literary Prākıta has many specialities. It has words of three types - (i) native, (ii) similar to, (iii) derived from Samskrta. It has cerebral sounds. It has more simplicity than Chandas and later Samskrta in terms of (1) absence of consonants in the end, (ii) vowel sound insertions, (iii) use of long vowels in place of junctioned letters, (iv) contraction of bigger words by elimination of intermediate letters and many others.
The literary form of Prākrta is the second stage of its development. This form is most important for the studies of Prākrta. The native spoken language takes the shape of written form in this stage. Lord Mahāvira and Buddha encouraged this language by adopting it as the medium of their sermons with the majority benefit approach and Samskrta parallelism. They gave Prākṣta a forceful popularisation capacity.
The period of this type of Prākrta is designated as middle Indo-Aryan period ranging from 600 B. C. to 1000 A. D. This language has developed despite grammatisation and/or systematisation of Chāndas language during this period. It has incorporated many words from Chāndas, absorbed innumerable words from native languages from north, central and eastern country. In fact, naturalism and non-systematisation led to its literary growth for the next 1600 years during which it became even the royal language for centuries ( i.e., in Asoka and Khārawela period). It represented the native culture and history of the period. This has also helped development of polished Samsksta through incorporation of native words and popular subjects in it. Moreover, it became the progeny of Apabhramsa and many modern Indian languages in due course of time.
This Prākrta developed in the central part of India extending from Sūrasena to Košala and Magadha though the last countury 17 has been said to be non-Aryan in early days of Yāska and Satapatha. This could be due to non-impact or least

Page #38

16 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
impact of Aryans in this country. It is only later that it was included in Aryan lands.
Forms of Literary Prākṛta
The various forms of middle Indo-Aryan Prākṛta have been critically examined by many eastern and western scholars. On this basis, the development of literary Prākṛta has been classified in three stages as below with their probable periods: (1) First Stage Pāli and Inscriptional Prākṛtas (600 B. C. - 100 A. D.) Normal Präkṛta Languages (100 A. D. - 600 A. D.) Modern Präkṛtas
(2) Second Stage
(3) Third Stage
(600 A. D. 1000 A. D.)
These stages suggest its living and growing nature. It has grown in different regions of India and adopted regional characteristics leading to various forms mentioned by many authors of different periods. Linguistically, the whole period of Indo-Aryan languages is called as Prākṛta period.
The different forms of Prākṛtas mentioned are based on regions, religions, literature and dramatics. They are given below
(a) Regional Basis
1. Bharata (300 B.C.)
2. Vararuci (300 A. D.)
3. Dandi (600 A. D.)
4. Hemcandra
(11th Century)

7
4
4
7
Vahlika, Śaurseni, Māgadhi, Ardha-māgadhi, Avantikā,
Eastern (Pracyā) and Southern ( Dākṣiṇātyā)
Śaurseni, Magadhi, Paiśāci, Mahārāṣtri.
Śauraseni, Gauḍi, Lāți,
Mahārāṣṭri.
Sauraseni, Māgadhi, Paiśāci,
Mahārāṣṭri, Ārṣa ( Ardhamāgadhi), Apabhramsa, Culikā Paiśāci.

Page #39

Prāksta Bhāṣā : 17
5. Trivikrama
6 Sauraseni, Māgadhi, Paiśāci,
Mahārāștri, Cūlika Paiśāci,
Apabhramśa. 6. Pșthvidhara
4 Śauraseni, Māgadhi, Eastern,
Avantikā. 7. Mārkandeya
4 Language types :
16 Sub-classes
52 Sub-classes in more details. Language Dialect Apabhramśa Paiśāci Total 5 5 3
3 = 16 27
11 = 52 The Mārkandeya classification and sub-classifications are as follows: Languages Dialects Apabhramsa
Paisāci 1. Sauraseni Sakari Nāgara Lāta Kaikaya 2. Māgadhi śabari Brācada Baidarbha Sūrasena 3. Mahārāştri Candāli Upanāgara Barbara Pañcāla 4. Avanti Abhirikā Avanti Mālavā Kāñci 5. Prācya Takki Takkā Kaikaya Pandya
( Eastern) (Dramil) 6. Ardha- Odaraj Pāñcāla Udra Brācada
māgadhi 7. Vählika Dravida Dravida Pāndya Dravida 8. Dākṣiṇātya - Karnāta Sinhal Dākşiņātya
(south) 9. -
Gauda Kalinga Gauda 10. -
Madhyadesiya Gurjara Magadha
Abhira Kāñci Takkā 12.
Pracya Kontala 13.
Haihava Takkā (b) Religion Basis
4 —- Pāli Ardhamāgadhi Śauraseni Mahārāștri (c) Literary Basis
4 - Paiśāci Māgadhi Sauraseni Mahārāstri
11.

Page #40

18 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
(d) Dramatic Basis
3 — Māgadhi sauraseni Mahārāstri
It seems that most of the names of these forms are regional. The native sub-forms of Mārkandeya are mostly supposed to be sub-classes of Māgadhi and Sauraseni (Abhirika), Dākṣiṇātya, Paiśāci ( corrupt Sauraseni). It could, however, be seen that the Apabhramsa form was added to the list in later periods where many native language forms were also included in it due to later corruptions in their original forms, Similarly, it seems that Paisāci ( a tribe originally of north-west Kaśmira ) also spread through the country in east, west and south where it also adopted different forms. One also finds that there are large number of duplication of names in each category suggesting the regional forms of many dialects. This long list of forms need not surprise any body as the different regional forms belonged to the same basic language with minor differences. These were virtually dialects or sub-languages. Whatever be their number, they could all be included in the following five categories of Prākrtas as mentioned by Tiwari 8 :
(i) Māgadhi (ii) Ardhamāgadhi or Semi-magadhi (iii) Sauraseni (iv) Mahārāștri
(v) Paiśāci The Literary Prākrta of First Stage and Period
The different forms of literary Prākrtas developed due to regional and other characters. The first stage literary Prākrta is the most important for the studies of Jaina canons. Seth has suggested many forms of this Prākrta :
(a) Language of Pāli literature or Pali (b) Language of Jaina canons - Ardhamāgadhi (c) Jaina Mahārāstri Language (d) Inscriptional Prākrta Language (e) Paiśāci and Cūlika Paiśāci Language

Page #41

Prāksta Bhāṣā : 19
(f) Prākrta of Dramas of Asvaghosa
The Prākrta of Buddhist or Jaina canons is coined by the single name of 'Archaic Prākta' or canonical language. They, however, seem to be quite different in origin and structure. The categories are later developmental forms, Before proceeding to Jaina canons, we will describe these Prākrta forms in brief. (a) Pali Language
Many scholars agree that Pāli is the oldest form of Prākrta. It does have only written form and no spoken form. The word Pāli for this language is a later coin-probably of fourteenth century20. The word Pāli has various meanings as below21 : 1. J. Kashyapa Paliyāya Words, Speeches,
sermons of Buddha 2. Buddhaghosa Pāthā Readings of Buddha
sermons 3. B. Bhattacharya
Lineage 4. Maxwelsar
Pātaliputra 5. Bhandarkar et. el. Palli Village Pāli (by corruption)
Präkta Pāli (by corruption ) 6. Rajwade
Prākrta Pāli (by corruption ) 7. Abhidhän
Protector of meaning of Buddha Lexicon
Prāleya Neighbouring hilly region. Out of these, only three valid meanings have been suggested for Päli -- (a) words, speeches and sermons of Buddha, Village or protector of the meaning of Buddha. It is the recorded language of Buddha's words and it has preserved them since centuries.
There are large number of opinions about the origin of Pāli. They can be summarised to suggest that it has not been a spoken language. It has developed as a literary and inter-provincial language based on different dialects covering the extended areas involving Magadha (Bihar), Srāvasti (U.P.), Avanti (Ujjain, M.P.) and Janapada ( Haryana ). It may have predominance of

Page #42

20 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Magadhan words and usages as Budhha's sermon area was mainly Magadh. Due to political and cultural importance of Magadha, her language became lingua franca for the whole central country accomodating words and structures from many dialectical areas and Samskṛta.
The language of the early Budhhist literature is Pāli which has some specialities of its own. It extends from 483 B. C. to the modern age. The Tripitakas or Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma ( a little later) and many Anupitakas form the basic Buddhist canons.
(b) Inscriptional Prākṛta
This variety of Prākṛta extends from Asokan period of 300 B. C. to about 400 A. D. The inscriptions are found in caves, pillars and coins. A large number of inscriptions are found throughout the country including Srilanka. The inscriptions of Aśoka, Khāravela (150 B. C.) and later Andhras; and central country are very important and represent different and periodically developing forms of Prākṛta with a large number of similarities among them. While Aśokan inscriptions represent Pāli-cum-Māgadhi Prākṛtas, the Khāravela and Andhra inscriptions represent old or Jaina Šauraseni Prākṛta.
(c) Transitional Prākṛta
-
The transitional Prākṛta belongs to a period ranging from 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. These Prākṛta forms have been found outside India. They are contained in — (i) dramas of Asvaghosa (app. 100 A. D.) obtained in Central Asia, (ii) Dhammapada (200 A. D.) obtained in Khotāna and (iii) Kharoṣṭhi inscriptions in Chinese Turkistan area called Neya (200-300 A. D. ). While the language of the later two belongs to the west-northern India, Iran and Tokhare, the Asvaghosa dramas have old Magadhi, Ardhamāgadhi and Sauraseni language. These dramas give these three existing old forms of Präkṛta through - (i) speeches of the wicked and low-castes, (ii) joculars and prostitutes and (iii) ascetics respectively. They represent somewhat developed

Page #43

Prāksta Bhāṣā : 21
forms of Asokan Prākrtas. They also seem to be culminating points of the first period of Präkrtas. Many scholars have studied them and differentiated them. Bhāșa also followed Aśvaghosa later.
The other two forms obtained outside India are later developments of different forms of Prākrta. We need not go into details about them here. (d) Paiśāci and Cūlikā Paisāci Languages
It is now agreed that Piśāca was a tribe residing in northWest Indian region. The Paiśāci Prākrta is related with this tribe. The Culikā Paiśāci of Hemcandra seems to be a dialect of this form. It has many names including Bhūtabhāsā. It is an old Prākrta of a little later period than Pāli. It has a Sauraseni structure influenced by Samskrta together with languages of south and north-west regions of India including Käshgara, Gāndhāra and Turkey. It does not have any noticeable independent literature. It is found in the speeches of the actors of Hemcandran drama. It is said to be of many varieties and covers a wide area of the country. (2) Mahārāștri Prākrta
As the rame indicates, this form of Prākrta developed in the Maharashtra region, though it has a much larger area of its adherents. Many scholars have opined it to have developed after the Sauraseni form. This Prākrta is literarily very rich. It has both the forms : prose and poetry. Jacobi has called it Jaina Mahārāștri as large number of Jaina texts are written in this Prākrta. It has been influenced by Ardhamāgadhi and Sauraseni. It has attained a standard form. It is said to be the best of the Prākrtas. That is why this form has been the subject of Prākrta grammars with other forms assuming a secondary comparative nature. (f) Māgadhi and Ardhamāgadhi Prakrta
The native language of Magadha country or Bihar and eastern India of today has been called the Magadhan Prākrta.

Page #44

22
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Because of this area's political, cultural and overall importance in Indian tradition, this language had dominating influence over a large area. It has also been influenced by Sauraseni of the Mathura region (of U, P.) of Mahābhārata. Some scholars opine Māgadhi's origin from Sauraseni which might be taken to mean that it helped its development. It is surprising that such an important language existed only in spoken form and no worthwhile literary work is found composed in this language. It is also seen that it was taken as the language of the low castes, women and joculars as could be guessed from drama dialogues of different periods.
The Magadhi language is, however, characterised by the following aspects:
(i) Use of 'I' in place of 'r'
(ii) Use of palatal 's' in place of all the three - cerebral, dental and palatal 's'.
(iii) Use of 'e' in first inflection in place of 'visarga'. (iv) Use of 'hu' in singular number of sixth inflection. (v) There is use of 'ya' in place of 'ja'.
Magadhi has various names and forms. Srilankans call even Pāli as Magadhi. Despite the Magadhi, the literary language turned out to be the archaic and sage spoken ArdhaMāgadhi (Semi-māgadhi). - a standard inter-provincial medium. Lord Mahavira belonged to Magadha (Bihar) and Lord Rṣabhadeo belonged to Kośala (Ayodhya, U. P. ). Both of them are the first and the last of the torch-bearers of Jainism. They delivered their sermons in a language canonically described as Ardhamāgadhi. This is called as godly and its speakers are termed as linguistically Aryans. This is the language of the basic Jaina canons. It is surprising to learn that Vararuci has not mentioned this language - perchance it might not be used in his times despite Bharata Muni of earlier age.
This has been defined in many sources summarised

Page #45

below22:
(i) Ardha-māgadhi consists of half Magadhi (by
ii) Ardha-māgadhi represents the language of half of
derivation).
Magadha.
Prākṛta Bhāṣā : 23
(iii) It represents the conglomerate of 18 native
languages.
(iv) It is the combination of all languages.
(v) It is a pleasant and happy language which is automatically transformed into the languages of Aryans, nonAryansand even animals.
vi) it is the mixture of Magadhi and many native
languages.
(vii) It is the co-ordinated forms of Māgadhi and Saurasen.or Mahārāṣtri.
(vi) It is characterised by half the characteristics (two out of three) of Magadhi.
It has been opined that Ardha-māgadhi originates from Ayodhya (brth-place of Lord Rṣabha, U. P. ) a central KāşiKośala country between Magadh and Śūrasena. Hoernie and Grearson suport the view. This means that it may be developed some three hundred years later than Šauraseni though it has influenced it i later periods. Ardha-māgadhi has also been influenced by Smskṛta, neighbouring native language including Mundā and Draiḍa ones. Mārkaṇḍeya, however, calls it as derived from Saraseni due to neighbourness. The opinion of Kramadiśvara at original Ardha-magadhi is a mixture of Māgadhi and Maārāṣṭri does not seem to be correct. Of course it may represent he current canons compiled in about 453-63 A. D. It may also e true for dramas composed in western India in later dates. Thearlier Ardha-māgadhi has an eastern tinge and it has many nanes and varieties. The fact, however, is that the Ardha-māgadthas some characteristics of both Māgadhi and Sauraseni as sown below:

Page #46

24 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Magadhi Characteristics Saurseni Characteristics (i) Use of 'l' in place of 'r' Use of palatal 's' in place of
cerebral or dental 's'. (ii) Use of 'e' in place of Use of 'o' in place of 'e'
Visarga in singular number of first inflection.
Use of 'g' in place of 'k'. Use of 'Kkha' in place of 'kaha'.
Use of mostly active voice Ardha-māgadhi developed as a Lingua Franca cue to its religious, royal and public patronage in Magadhan east. However, Samskrta became dominant there after Miuryan period. This led its road towards west and south wheret grew and we get the written forms of canonical literature. Mihārāștri also developed in west and became the standard lançuage for Jaina compositions later. Ardha-magadhi Literature
There is ample literature in this language spreding over many centuries. The major portion of this literature:onsists of Jaina canons. That is why this is called the languageof (canons of) Jainas as Pāli is noted for Buddhist canons.
The Prākrta literature has been classified23 irthree ways(i) Period-wise, (ii) Linguistically and (iii) Literrily. The last way is most important for us. Period-wise, the lierature could be classified in three classes - (i) Preliminary priod ( 600 B. C. to 100 A. D. ), (ii) Middle period ( 101-800 D.) and (iii) Modern period ( 600-1600 A. D. ). Linguisticily, Shastri has classified its eight varieties. However, literarily there are nine classes of Prākrta literature as below :
(i) Jaina canonical literature including sibhāṣita (500200 B. C.)
(ii) Inscriptional literature ( 300-150 : C.) (iii) Classical epics (iv) Dramatics ( 100-200 A. D.)

Page #47

Prākrta Bhāsā : 25
(v) Story, fames ana'ales "" (vi) Biographie Land- og (vii) Small poetic literature ( Muktaka ) (viii) Detached proses ( Khanda kävya ) (ix) Miscellaneous Literature.
We will take special note for category (i) only for our discussions. It is noteworthy that Prākrta has literature on all elegant and non-elegant subjects.
It should, however, be noted that the first period of growth of Ardha-māgadhi was followed by the period of growth of its two important forms24 Sauraseni and Mahārāstri --because of fall of Magadhan patronage. The Sauraseni Prākrta consists of mainly Digambaras pro-canonical literature like Satkhandā - gama, Kasāyapāhuda (100-200 A.D.), Kundakunda's literature, Mūlācāra, Bhagawati Arādhanā, etc. extending upto roughly
12th century in the central and south of the country. The Mahārāștri literature also ran parallel in the west (i. e, Ujjain and Valabhi) after the finial redaction of canons during the councils in third and fifth centuries A. D. The language of this literature is not the archaic Ardha-māgadhi spoken by Mahāvira but a mixed one having predominance of its one or other forms in regions of composition. It is also not unnatural as the literature was composed or compiled after a long time where many changes must have occurred. However, technically, canons are said to be composed in godly Ardha-māgadhi in origin. These forms of Prākṣta got national importance because of - (i) voluminous literature and (ii) religious, royal and public patronage. Moreover, the language was grammatised like Samskrta in this period which led to its standard form and therefore contracted literary nature beyond general public. While this led to literary growth of Prākrta, the native languages associated with it got their way ahead towards getting into Apabhraíśa and then different Indian languages of today under the new Indo-Aryan chronology.
It could also be noted that the linguists prescribe the

Page #48

26 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
period of Prākrtas upto about 1000 A. D., but references are available that a variety of Prākrta literature has been written upto the early nineteenth century. A noted Udaipur scholar is writing an epic even in these days. Secondly, despite the fact that most of the Prakrta literature is written by Jaina ascetics and scholars, there are a number of noted non-Jaina scholars too who have contributed to the growth of this language. Mention may be made of immortal work of Aśvaghosa ( 100 A. D. ), Vararuci ( 300 A. D. ) Pravarasena, Vākātaka ( 5th. century), Vākpatirāja ( 760 A, D.), Kouhal (350 A. D.), Rājasekhara (900 A. D. ), Rāmpanivāda ( 1707 A. D. ), Rudradāsa ( 1680 A..D.) and others. The Präkrta language is still continuing despite its third generation in vogue. It has become one of the Degree subjects and large number of post-graduate departments in Indian Universities and Institutes are involved in researches and development related with this language.
References 1. Bholanath Tiwari, Bhäsā Vijñāna, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,
1984, p. 4. 2. Ibid, pp. 40-45. 3. Muni Nagarāja, Āgama aura Tripitaka : Ek Anušilana - 2,
Arhat Prakashana, Calcutta, 1982, pp. 37-84. 4. Tiwari, Bhāsā Vijñāna, p. 50. 5. Swami Satyabhakta, Esperanto and Mänavabhāṣā, Satyā
śram, Wardha, 1971. 6. Baburama Saxena, Sāmānya Bhāṣā Vijñāna, H.S.S.,
Allahabad, 1971. 7. Tiwari, Bhāṣā Vijñāna, p. 121. 8. Muni Nagarāja, Āgama aura Tripitaka : Ek Anušilana-2, p.
117. 9. Tiwari, Bhāṣā Vijñāna, p. 131. 10. P. B. Pandit, Prākrta Bhāsā, Pārsvanātha Vidyāśrama,
Varanasi, 1954, p. 41.

Page #49

11. N. C. Shastri, Prākṛta Bhāṣā aura Sahitya: Ek Anusilanātmaka Itihāsa, Tara Book Agency, Varanasi, 1988, pp. 10-11.
Prākṛta Bhāṣā: 27
12. Ibid, pp. 15-17.
13. Muni Nagarāja, Āgama aura Tripitaka: Ek Anusilana-2, p. 138.
14. (a) Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Samavão, Jaina Vishwa Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, pp. 105-108.
(b) Ed. Devendra Muni, Jñātādharma Kathā (Intro.), Agama Prakashana Samiti, Beawar, 1981.
15. Muni Nagarāj, Āgama aura Tripitaka : Ek Anusilana -2, p. 126.
16. Shastri, Prākṛta Bhāṣā aura Sahitya, p. 9.
17. Muni Nagarāja, Āgama aura Tripitaka : Ek Anusilana -2, p.153.
18. Tiwari, Bhāṣā Vijñāna, pp.140-141.
19. Muni Nagarāja, Āgama aura Tripitaka: Ek Anusilana-2, p. 187.
20. Ibid, p. 161.
21. Tiwari, Bhāṣā Vijñāna, p. 135.
22. Shastri, Prākṛt Bhāṣā aura Sahitya, p. 32.
23. Ibid, p.162..
24. S. S. Misra, in Jaina Vidya evam Prakṛta, Samskrita University, Varanasi, 1987, p. 221.

Page #50

Chapter 2 Prākrta Canons
All religious, philosophical, scientific and other systems in the world have some basic literature which regulates their working, followings and progress. This literature is called canons. Lexically', the word has been defined in traditional sense as
(a) Authentic laws of religion, spirituality, thoughts and behaviours and
(b) Alist or collection of authoritative books or writings containing the above laws.
The Vedics, Buddhas and Jainas – all name these canons as Śruta or Śruti ( heard ) or Agamas ( traditional precepts). Though the term Agama seems to be coined later perchance in logistic period and surfacially there seems to be no difference in the meaning of these terms, but there is a fine thread of differentiation between them. The Agamas are said to be always consistent ( avisamvādi ) while the Śruta may not be sometimes so?. Siddhasena and Akalanka have pointed out the inferential and canonical consistence arising out of direct knowledge and logistics. Perchance, these scholars were the first to blow the bugle of intellectual examination and logistics in case of canons for their credibility and impressions on others'.
The term Sruta has been etymological or derivative in the first instance. Apte“ gives its meaning as general learning and holy learning. In general, it represented reading, teaching and preservation of learning by successive and traditional teacher-taught hearings and memorised communications in olden days. Later on, the term became more general in Jaina system in contrast with the Vedic system (where Sruti means Vedas only ). The Jaina Sruta could not be written in olden

Page #51

Prākṛta Canons : 29
days as the process involved different types of violence and possessive attitudes contrary to ascetic rules, causing negligence and leading to atonements5. However, loss of memory power led to the idea of putting the Śruta in written form even in Aryarakṣita days (100 B. C.-100 A. D.) when he mentioned the book writing as essential effigical duty. Though it was rare in those days, but it got sanctified later during 4-5th centuries.
It may be pointed out that the derivative meaning of Śruta referred only the heard words and their meanings. However, as it is a general form of knowledge, there are many other non-vocal and non-hearing methods using other senses like eyes, touch, body, motion, etc. in practice. They may also be included in this term. The meaning was later modified when it could include all the instrumental causes leading to produce the Śruta'. Sūtrakṛtānga mentions Śruta for livelihood and sainthood both. Many scholars have agreed to this more generalised meaning of the term.
However, it must be agreed that though Śruta involves any knowledge or learning, good or bad, but as one is dealing with the spiritual and moral upliftment of the living beings, the Śruta leading to this direction will only be called right, superworldly or extra-ordinary Śruta in Jaina tradition. Thus, the term Śruta has now a traditional meaning in this sense. This is being subjected to critique for agreeing to its derivatively generalised meanings. The other form of Śruta will be termed as worldly or perverse oneo.
The term 'Agama' is a specific and later form of Śruta. The Śruta is a form of general knowledge while Agama is a form of specific, valid and consistent knowledge given by the direct knowers. It is because of this definition that this term
became prodominant over the term Śruta according to Bhagavati1o
However, in practice, both the terms are taken as synonymous by later tradition despite their fine differences. That is

Page #52

30 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
why, Anuyogadvāra and Tattvartha-sutra-Bhāṣya give a number of synonyms for these two terms. There are ten synonyms in Anuyogadvāra11 and eight in Tattvärtha-sutra 12 having three in common. Thus, we have fifteen synonyms in all which characterise these terms and connote the same meaning in various aspects, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Synonyms for 'Śruta' and 'Āgama'.
1. Śruta
2. Upadeśa 3. Agama
4. Sutra
5. Grantha
6. Siddhanta 7. Śāsana
8. Ajñā
9. Vacana
10. Prajñāpanā
11. Jinavacana
12. Pravacana
13. Aptavacana 14. Aitihya 15. Āmnāya 16. Sastra
individuals.
Heard from the Attained or his disciples. Instructions to learn about good or bad. Traditional doctrines or sacred canons containing them.
Abbreviated indicators, aphorisms or sacred collections.
Treatises of sermons, collections, connecting or stringing together of sermons. Tenets or established truths.

Authentic controlling instructions on disciplines.
Sacred traditions.
Teaching, awakening and disciplines about constraints and preservation of culture (Viseṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣyā).
The synonym 'Sastra' for these terms connotes allpurpose utilitarian meaning pointing :
(i) they contain rules governing the society and
Jina's commandments.
Sermons in the form of spoken words.
Communication of sermons.
Words of the Jinas.
Special sermons. Instructions of the Attained.
Traditional instructions.
(ii) they preserve the culture of the community.

Page #53

Prākrta Canons : 31
However, we will be dealing with Agamas rather than Śruta here despite the fact that they are part of the śruta.
These Agamas are as important to the Jainas as Vedas to Hindus, Quoran to Muslims, Bible to Christians, Avestā to Persians, Tripitakas to Buddhists and Guru Grantha Sāhib to Sikkhas. Besides lexical meanings of these terms, many Jaina scholars of different ages have defined them as below: (i) Bhagavati Tikā Traditional Instructions, Religious
Texts, Sacred Books. (ii) Malayagiri
Means of obtaining full and accurate
knowledge about the objects. (iii) Ratnākaravatārika Means of obtaining accurate
knowledge about objects. (iv) Kundakunda Consistent instructions of the
perfect souls, defect free and
omniscients. (v) Virasena ( Dhavalā ) Dealing with supra-sensory and
supra-logical objects. (vi) Vadidevasūri Knowledge about the meanings and
objects by the instructions of the Attained, the instructions of the
Attaineds themselves. It is seen that most of the Svetāmbara texts and their early commentaries have not added the word Attained ( Apta ) to define Agama, though it might be pseudo-existent there. It seems to be predominantly a Digambara addition. This word has been defined by Kundakunda 13 as representing a person who is free from 18 defects* and possessed of pure attributes.
He differentiates Āpta from perfect souls. Samanta* The 18 defects are --- (i) hunger, (ii) thirst, (iii) fear, (iv) anger, (v)
attachment, ( vi ) delusion, (vii) anxiety, ( vili ) old age, (ix) disease, (x) death, (xi) perspiration, (xii) fatigue, ( xii) pride, (xiv) surprise, (xv) sleep, ( xvi) restlessness, ( xvii) indulgence and (xviii) birth. (N. S., 6)

Page #54

32: Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
bhadra supports this definition and calls the Apta as sermoniser of Āgamas. However, if the sermoniser is not the Attained as qualified above, the knowledge could be attained by reasoning!4.
Perchance, Siddhasena Divākara was the first Jaina scholar who led us to the age of logic. He clearly mentioned that authentic knowledge could be obtained from two sources - ( a ) direct observations, inference, reasoning, etc. and (b) scriptures or āgamas. Jinabhadra has elaborated this by saying that ordinary cognition is obtained by determinate perception and scriptures which are jñānas ( knowledges ) rather than pramānas (organs of knowledge). This opinion is held despite the fact that Umāsvāti spoke of equivalence or synonymity of both these terms much earlier. He included the different pramāṇas of various Indian philosophical systems under sensory knowledge1s. However, it was left to Akalanka who quotes the 'Attained as a consistent and non-deceitful one while describing about the objects16. The definition seems a better generalised form than the omniscientific view of the Snuta. Thus, consistency and specialised knowledge became the characteristic of the 'Attained'. This way, a consistent scientist or scholar of even today may be called as Attained, in the age of logic. The definition of Sruta, therefore, got more generalised than the canonical age. It became more realistic and practical. To satisfy intellectuals, he called Sruta as authentic organ of knowledge gained through three sources (a) direct observations, (b) intellectual reasoning associated with 'a' and (c) scriptures. The three sources were reduced to two 'a+b' and 'C' by the author of Rājavārtika. And thus, we have two types of authenticated and theoretical Sruta based on different sources.
There are quite a nurnber of subjects whose knowledge could be authenticated by 'a+b' while there may be many subjects — say spiritual and religious where these methods cannot be applied which can be learnt through the authenticated scriptures, composed by the canonically defined 'Attaineds'. Thus, scriptures, canons or āgamas become important part of

Page #55

Prākrta Canons : 33
the Sruta and their field automatically gets limited to those subjects not amenable to senses or intellect. Had this Akalanka version of Sruta been taken into account, we would have a better co-ordinated outlook regarding the balance between faith, reason and scientificity and the darker age of blind faith could be avoided and we could stand the contemporary thought processes for better knowledge. Amar Muni?, Svami Satyabhakta's and other Jaina thinkers have suggested on these lines during the later half of this century. Authors of Canons or Scriptures
It is clear from the above that the scriptures contain moral, religious or supra-sensual subjective instructions given by the all-knowing passion-winners or Jinas. They communicate them through divine speech which are organised by their chief disciples known as Ganadhāras and put in the language of common man ( known as Ardha-māgadhi during Mahāvira's period) in the forms of Sūtras or Granthas. They are explained to common man by them or later scholars. These basic sūtras are termed as physical canons. In addition to these, ascetics and scholars of different periods have also written a large number of authentic perceptual treatises. These are termed as procanons, canon-like, neo-canons or neo-āgamic texts. Some of this literature is quite old even belonging to third-fourth centuries B. C. Some of this literature may be quite later as much as 600 A. D. Many scholars presume all this literature as authentic as the canons themselves.
It is, however, found that Lord Mahāvira is described as omniscient in early Jaina literature (Acārānga, 2 a later composition than 1, Satkhandāgama-Payadi ) though Buddhists dispute about it. It is this characteristic that led to his authenticity. His chief and remote disciples following him have placed their credibility of their compositions on his authority.
Kundakunda has defined (Niyamasāra, 158 ) omniscience from real and ideal ( practical point of view. It is only the self which is known in full reality by the omniscients. Thus,

Page #56

34 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
an omniscient is a real religion-knowing person. There could be no controversy if the term is defined in this way. The extrapolated meaning of the word later as all-knowing has resulted in logical discussions through many centuries by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Virasena and others when it became an important Jaina concept per chance due to the influence of other systems 19. That is why it has been facing multi-directional onslaughts which has been the causes of erosion in canonical credibility during different periods. Malvania and Satyabhakta tend to support this contention.
However, looking to the current contents of canonical and pro-canonical literature, it would be more reasonable to assume that :
(i) The canons are not directly authored by Mahavira. They have been compiled or composed by his chief disciples (Gaṇadharas) or remote followers on his authority. The primary canons called Angas are composed by chief disciples and the pro-canons called Anangas are composed by remote disciples.
(ii) The canons and other scriptures have been composed/collected at different periods after Mahāvira as suggested by Dixit20 and others.
(iii) The available canons contain records of thoughts, precepts on different aspects of human activities like religion and physical phenomena. Dixit has, therefore, suggested that they should be viewed with historical perspective as a means to learn about the process of gradual development of Jaina thoughts and concepts. This perspective has a capacity to give us a reasonably broader outlook to evaluate the Jaina contribution in different fields of knowledge and verify its position. This is comparatively better than the traditional perspective. Vijaya Muni had also expressed similarly21.
Gautama Svāmi or Sudharmā Svāmi - the chief disciples of Mahāvira are said to compile the basic canons while many pro-canons have been written by other ācāryas. Table 2

Page #57

Prākļta Canons : 35
2
3
gives the current state regarding the authorship and period of different canonical and pro-canonical books. This may not be very accurate but it will give some idea about the authors and their approximate periods. Table 2: Assigned authors and periods of composition of
canons/pro-canons. Canon/Pro-canon
Author/Compiler App. Period 1 1. Drstivāda
Pre-Mahāviran period 2. Dasavaikālika
Sayyambhava 452-429 B, C. 3. Āvasyaka-sūtra Compiled 527 B. C. 4. Uttarādhyayana
350-250 B. C. 5. Rşibhāṣita
500-300 B. C. 6. Ācārānga Sudharmā Svāmi 400-300 B. C. 7. Sūtrakıtānga
300-200 B. C. 8. Cheda-sūtra, Nisitha Bhadrabāhu-l 350 B. C. 9. Daśāśruta, Vrhatkalpa 10. Vyavahāra 11. Vyākhyā Prajñapti
200-100 B.C. 12-13. Sthānanga/Sama- Compiled 100 B. C.-300 A. D.
vāyanga 14. Six Narrative Canons
100 B. C.-400 A. D. 15. Prajnapanã
Ārya Syāma 190-150 B. C. 16. Jivābhigama
100 B. C.-100 A. D. 17. Current Prasna
700 A. D. vyākarana 18. Niryuktis
Bhadrabāhu-11 400-500 A. D. 19. Nandi Sūtra
Deva Vācaka App. 500 A. D. 20. Anuyogadvara Sūtra Aryarakṣita 100 B. C.-100 A. D. 21. Jitakalpa
Jinabhadra 600 A. D. 22. Mahānisitha
700-800 A. D. 23. Catussarana etc. Virabhadra 950 A. D.
Though the different basic canons are supposed to be based on the sermons of Lord Mahāvira, but their written forms

Page #58

36 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
seem to have developed later, per chance by the second council in Mathurā or Valabhi, many of pro-canons are also compilations as no author is mentioned for most of them. It is nearly by the beginning of the Christian era that we begin finding names of authors of many books in the above list. Linguistical Period of Canonical Composition
The Jaina canons and pro-canons as available today are composed in Ardha-māgadhi, Sauraseni and Mahārāştri Prāktas. These languages represent different periods of their development. Thus, the literature composed in these languages should also have different periods of compositions. The basic Jaina canonical literature covers a period of roughly one thousand years after Mahāvira. This is the literature which will be taken into account for the purpose of this study. It must be added, however, that the Buddha Tripitakas were collected and written much earlier than the Jaina canons. Hence, linguistically they represent better antiquity. Classification of Sruta or Jaina Canons
(a) Angas and Pūrvas and (b) Primary and Secondary Canons.
The basic Jaina Sruta or Agama is in the form of twelve sacred books called Nirgrantha Pravacana ( Sermon of the Jaina Saints ) in canonical books. The earliest part of the first two holy books mention the terms 'Sruta, Śrutadharma, Srutasthavira, śrutakevali, Śrutadhara', but they do not have any description about Jaina śruta. Despite naming 14 Pūrvas in chapter 14, even Samavão, chapter 2 and 12 do not mention the Sruta variety. Strangely enough, it describes their contents in its miscellany. Bhagavati also makes a confusing reference about eleven Angas and 14 Pūrvas beginning with Sāmāyika (Ācārānga 122. However, the later compendium of Sūtrakrtānga (2.1.35) mentions 12 Angas and Sthānānga (2. 104 ) mentions the two-way Sruta classification alongwith ten synonyms of Drștivāda. These later additions suggest that the classification

Page #59

Prākṛta Canons : 37
of Jaina Śruta took place sufficiently later when the Jainas had to face challenges from Vedic, Buddhists and other existing philosophers. Their elder scholars of the day organised the oral tradition in texts by authentication from the Jina's in contrast with the divine Vedas and other older philosophies. That is why the classification excels numerically in all text classes. This could be assumed to have taken place in about 350 to 200 B.C., i.e. sufficiently later than Mahavira. And since then, despite many later classifications, the two prong classifications persist. This leads us to infer Acārānga 1, Sūtrakṛtānga and some Bhagavati portions (possibly 1-20) to be older than the age of classification.
Currently the basic and major part of Jaina canon is called twelve member teacher-basket-Dvādaśānga Gaṇipiṭaka in consonance with Buddha's Tripitakas. However, the term 'Anga' is current today which could be in consonance with six Vedāngas ( auxiliary to Vedas) and nine or twelve Buddhists Angas (sermons and narratives in different styles). Contrastingly, the Angas of Jainas are the main, not auxiliary and they form a composite unit. Traditionally, they were collected out of memory and classified during the first council of Pataliputra during Bhadrabāhu-1 time (376-335 B. C.) after an acute 12-year famine. This compilation seems sufficiently later (about 160 years after the salvation of Mahāvira) in comparison to Buddhas who compiled their canons barely 49 days after his death. The nonIndian religions have a three day compilation period. However, Sūtrakṛtānga and Bhagavati mention them under the extent learnings of the day23. Thus, the Vedas and Buddhists canons seem to have better antiquity with reference to composition and linguistics.
Though Sthänänga mentions 'purvagata' (Pūrva) as the synonym of Drṣtivada, it seems that this was the first traditional canonical collection which Mahāvira might have inherited. Looking to its voluminous doctrinal contents and historical importance, the Pūrvas were taken to be the separate class by

Page #60

38: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
themselves. That is why Samavao mentions them in chapter 14. Thus, Devendra Muni suggests the first classification of Jaina canons in terms of Angas and Purvas 24. Acārya Tulsi also supports it. Not only this, the knower of the Purvas had the most respectable position.
However, when Mahāvira established and systematised his church, the Pūrvas were included in his twelve Anga system as part of the twelfth Anga and thus, Angas became the chief canons of Jainas and Pūrvas were submerged.
There were many treatises authored by direct, remote or other disciples or elderly scholars (Sthaviras) and followers of Mahavira whose contents were based on canons, hence consistent and authentic. They were also treated as canon-like. But they could not be added to the Argas as their number was fixed. Hence a separate category of pro-canonical texts was thought of. And Sthānānga, thus, has a second two-fold classification in terms of: (i) Angas or basic or primary texts and (ii) Ananga, Argabāhya, pro-canons or secondary texts. This has been followed by scholars and ācāryas of all the Jaina sects. They have suggested that even the Anuyogadvāra of first century A. D. does not have this classification. It is only in Nandi (5th century) that this dual classification with its contents is observed25. It could, therefore, be surmised that the current accepted classification might have been evolved during 100400 A. D.
There is one more classification different from the above in Mulacăra and Satkhaṇḍāgama2 the noted Digambara texts. They have three types: (i) Worldly, (ii) Vedic and (iii) Spiritual or Sāmāyika. Though there is some difference in their elaboration, but they include current subjects of humanities and science, Vedas and Indian philosophies and the twelve Anga system of Jainas. Sthānānga gives these three categories in terms of professions. The basis of this classification is not clear, but it represents a liberal attitude of the Jainas towards the credibility of non-Jaina, non-spiritual literature of that period.

26

Page #61

Prākṛta Canons : 39
However, it may be noted that Satkhanḍāgama has followed in some way the Anuyogadvāra Sūtra.
Anuyogadvāra and Nandi-sūtra have classified the Śruta on the basis of generalised definition of the term. They unfold the manifold character of Śruta as given in the Table 1. The older Anuyogadvāra uses the four-fold positing method where its last form -the actual Śruta is pertinent to us here. This could be canonical or quasi-canonical. It has worldly and superworldly types. The basic twelve are designated as actual quasi-canonical superworldly type in contrast to the worldly one including different arts, sciences and philosophies. Pro-canons are not mentioned here. The Nandi-sūtra mentions 14 while Devendrasūri goes upto 20 types. The canons and pro-canons are included in right Śruta while others are called wrong or perverse Śruta. The Anuyogadvāra calls them superworldly and worldly respectively. It should be taken that the right category of Śruta of Anuyogadvāra includes the 13-14th category of Nandi. This classification is easier and it avoids positing basis of Anuyogadvāra. However, on comparing, it is seen that the following category of couples :
(1-2) Right and wrong Śruta
(3-4) Anga and no-Anga or primary and secondary Śruta
fall under the actual positing while other couples fall under substantial positing. Three points may be noted here :
(i) While Anuyogadvāra refers to 12- angas as of quasi-canonical superworldly category, Nandi mentions them under right category which also includes secondary Śruta not mentioned in Anuyogadvāra. This suggests that the secondary canon might not have gained recognition by the period of Anuyogadvāra. The terms worldly and super-worldly should be taken in terms of objectives of the writings. This is reasonable to assume primary texts as extra-ordinary as they direct us towards moral and spiritual upliftment in comparison to the troublesome and temporary worldly prosperity. Thus, the right

Page #62

40 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Śrutas are extra-ordinarily merit-promoting compositions.
(ii) Nandi27 has 25 general, perverse worldly or demeritpromoting Srutas in place of 19 in Anuyogadvāra. Of course, 72 arts and four Vedas are additionally common in both cases. Nandi has added seven ( Maths, Patañjala, Puśyadevata, Prognostics, Bhagavata, Scriptology and rule of three or Ajivaka) and substracted one (Science of love and livelihood). Despite different names ( wrong, worldly or demerit-promoting), they should be taken as synonymous on the basis of their contents.
(iii) Nandi is liberal in pointing the view that even the perverse Sruta could be right for the right-faithed and perversefaithed who is encouraged to attain rightness in faith and action through their contents. This point is suggestive of liberal and non-dogmatic attitude of the Jainas in Nandi days when Siddhasena was also heralding the age of logic.
The two categories of right Sruta are still maintained. There is no sub-classification of the primary twelve. But the secondary texts are sub-classified in different ages from Sthānānga to Vidhimārgaprapā (Jinaprabha, 1270-1330 A. D.) and the number of these texts have also got varied. Nandi mentions 60 texts in this category. Currently, it has about 73. In contrast, the Digambaras have only 14 texts in this category (10 common and four specific ). They are given in table 3. The Nandi list seems to be a mixed one when it is compared with the current and systematic classification of later dates ( per chance after fourteenth century A.D.). This has the following six categories : Table 3 : Primary and Secondary Texts of Jainas. [A] Svetāmbara Sect 1. Primary or 11 11 11 Drstivāda being lost out Anga texts
of twelve. 2. Upāngas 12 12 12 They are called so but
there seems to be no
co-relation with Angas. 3. Mūlasūtras -
Texts of indispensable duties/recites.

Page #63

Prākrta Canons : 41
4. Chedasūtras - - 6 Texts of atonements. 5. Cūlikā Sūtra 2
Classified description about methods of
studies and knowledge. 6. Prakirnakas 49* 9 10 Small texts on different (timely/trans-timely )
religious subjects
( Miscellaneous). Total 84* 32** 45*** [B] Digambara Sect 1. Primary Texts 12 ( Drstivāda sub-classification
makes a total of 52 ) 2. Secondary Texts 14
It is clear that the number of texts in right Sruta category varied with respect to times and development of different sects. However, only the twelve are auto-authentic while others are non-self-authentic. The secondary texts included in this description are varying in number and many of them were composed much later than the classification was proposed.
Canons
Anuyogadvāra
Nandi (i) Namal
Seven pairs : 1. Lettered, 2. Non(ii) Representational lettered, 3. Instinctive, 4. Non(iii) Substantial
instinctive, 5. Beginningful, 6. (iv) Actual
Beginningless, 7. Ending, 8. Non-ending, 9. Repeatory, 10.
Non-repeatory, 11. Right, 12. Actual
Quasi- Perverse or Wrong, 13. Primary canons
canons or Anga, 14. Secondary or no
Anga.
Worldly 19
Super-worldly 12
* Idol worshiphers
** Terāpanthis
*** Others.

Page #64

42 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
There has been a disquisitional ( Aniyoga ) classification of the canons by Aryarakṣita (100 B, C.-100 A. D.) on the basis of the subject-matter of the canons. This could not be taken as important as almost all the primary canons have varied subjects and they could not be classed in one or the other disquisitions. This classification is only of historical importance. However, many books have been composed later which could be easily codified under this classification. This has not been mentioned by different scholars like Umāsvāti, Kundakunda, Pujyapāda and others though some post-Christian authors mention it.
Whatever be the classification, the primary and secondary texts under right Sruta will be the main source for our studies here. Descriptions of Canons
( a ) Pūrvas or Pre-canons - There is a difference of opinion about the word 'Pūrva' (earlier ) whether it represents the pre-primary literature of Mahāvira himself who delivered the Angas in simple language for the laymen or the Pārsvaic sermons. Schubring28 opines that the two types of literature existed parallely and independent of each other. The supposed origin of different canonical Anga texts from the Pūrvas should be taken merely as relationship in contents as exemplified below: 1. Satyapravāda Pūrva Dasavaikālika, 7 ( Vākyasuddhi ) 2. Ājñanuvāda Pūrva
3 ( Dharmaprajñapti ) 3. Karmapravāda Purva
5( Pindaişaņā ) 4. Pratyākhyānapravāda
(Other Sections ) Pūrva 5. Karmapravāda Pūrva Cheda-sūtra, Daśā, Kalpa, Vyavahāra Sec. 20
etc. 6. Agrāyani Pūrva (Part) Satkhandāgama 7. jñānapravāda Pūrva Kaşāyapāhuda ( 10th section )
Jaina scholars, however, presume the Pūrvas are the ancient existences dealing with philosophical and epistemo

Page #65

Prākṛta Canons
logical subject not easily intelligible by layman. Fortunately, these do not exist today, though one finds references towards their size and contents in literature as shown in Table 4.
:
There are fourteen Purvas and all but four (1, 2, 11, 14) have their names ending in Pravada ( discussion on specific controversial subjects). This gives us some idea regarding their intellectual and heretic nature. The Jainas wanted to refute their contents. However, Schubring29 goes too far when he says that the most of the Purvas are obscure and speak in favour of their fictitive nature.
texts.
43
The Svetambara and Digambara versions about them are not very different in their descriptions except names of the (11, 12) Pūrvas and size of two (8, 12) Purvas. The variance in names is not so substantial but size differences are large. In case of eighth Purva, there may be a copying mistake. This could be rectified. In case of twelfth, the difference is too largetoo complex to be resolved. Moreover, the size of the Pūrvas is very irregular in comparison to the Argas as shown later. Despite this, there seems to be some difference between the two versions. For example, Table 4 suggests that :
(i) Śvetāmbara version does not have Prābhṛts and Anuyogas in the Purvas.
(ii) In contrast, the Digambaras do not have Cülikās in their details.
(iii) Despite the individual number of Sections (Västus) being different in both versions, the total of them is nearly the
same.
(iv) The contents of Purvas are given only in Digambara

The tabled contents of the Purvas suggest that they did contain the same material as contained in the Angas. They are supposed to be all inclusive. These were taken to be so important (as well as voluminous) that a separate Anga was thought of to include them alone or alongwith other of its

Page #66

Table 4 : Details of Pūrvas or Pre-canons : Contents and Size.

Name
Padas
2 1,00,00,000
Vāstus 3 ** 10 10
7
1. Utpada Pūrva
2. Agrāyani Pūrva
96,00,000
14
14
Prābhrts*? Anuyogas* Culikās** Contents*
4 5 200 4800 4 Origin, decay, permanence of
substances, five practices 280 720 12 Substances, modes, 363
philosophic systems, 700
good / bad viewpoints 160 3840 8 Six types of internal energy
of systems, accomplishments 360 8640 10 Polyviewism
44 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
3. Viryapravāda
70,00,000
18
18

60,00,000
18
18
4. Astināsti
pravāda 5. Jñānapravāda 6. Satyapravāda
5760
99,99,999 1,00,00,006
12 12
12 2
240 240
- -
5760
Description about 8 knowledges Description about truth, speech, language and its rules Description about soul, consciousness, living.
7. Atmapravāda 26,0,00,000
16
16
320
7680

Page #67

6
7
4 400
5 9,600
Theory of eight Karmas
600
14,400
3 8. Karmapravāda 1,80,00,000 20 30
1,00,80,000** 9. Pratyākhyāna- 84,00,000 30 20
pravāda 10. Vidyānu- 1,10,00,000 15 15
pravāda 11. Kalyāna Pra- 26,00,00,000 10 12
vāda ( Avandhya Pūrva ) 12. Prānāvāya P. 13,00,00,000 10 13
( Prāņāyu P.) 1,56,00,000** 13. Kriyāvisāla 9,00,00,000 10 30
300
200

Renunciation, Atonement, Aspects of good conduct. Different types of Learning, Sciences, Accomplishments Prognostics, Astronomy, Stories of greatmen Ayurveda, Medicines ( Senses, Respiration, Demonology, etc.) 72 arts, 64 arts for women, poetics, prosody, etc. Maths, Best accomplishments, Salvation methods and bliss
200
4
,800
-
200
4,800
-
14. Lokabindusāra 12,50,00,000 10
25
200
4,800
-
Prākrta Canons : 45
34

95,50,00,005 195 194 3,900 93,600 * Digambara Version
** Svetāmbara Version
1. Sections
2. Chapters

Page #68

46 4: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
varieties. As pointed out earlier that Pūrvas became a major part of the primary twelfth Anga in later classification.
On going through the contents of the Purvas, one finds many Pūrvas ( 1, 2, 10, 12, 13, 14) did have contents or concepts regarding physical world and its different phenomena. How best it could have been if Purvas could be available today. The history of science could have a different course of progress in that case. Per chance, the loss of Purvas (or the twelfth Anga in general) could be attributed to the two facts:
(i) Its contents had much material for science of incantation, ritual and amulets which was not in tune with Mahāvira's teachings.
(ii) The heretic disputations contained in different sections could arouse discussion in Mahavira's church. This position was undesirable and its preservation was overlooked. This fact is also mentioned by Jacobi and Schubring.
The Purvas seem to have been available in native Prākṛts of early days-though not in Ardhamāgadhi which is a somewhat developed form. They could not be in Samskṛta, as some say, as it could not be the language of the mass in the days of Pārśva.
(b) Primary Canons or Angas
The post-Mahavira canons are called Primary Angas (members or limbs) or pitakas (baskets) the former being most prevalent in contrast with the term Purva for the Pārsvan archaic literature. There are twelve books agreed by both sections of the Jainas. Their basic names are given in Prākṛta but we will use the Samskṛta names for simplicity. There is some difference among the various names of the Angas in different versions but it is very minor and may either be overlooked or unified in current age. The numerical twelve has been explained in Abhidhāna Rajendra Kosa (a lexicon) and Nandi Curni. It suggests that the scripture as a whole is like a scriptureman who has twelve major parts in his body like human body

Page #69

Prākrta Canons : 47
as given by Malaygiri31 : 2 feet
Ācārānga and Sūtrakrtānga 2 hands Anuttaropapātika and Praśnavyākarana 2 thighs Sthānānga and Samavāyānga 2 knees
Vyākhyāprajñapti and jñātādharmakathā 2 body-halves Upāsaka and Antakrddaśā 1 Neck
Vipāka-Sūtra 1 Head Drstivāda
This personification of Sruta suggests its basic importance for human upliftment.
The details of these twelve canons are given in Table 5 a according to both the sections where Samavāo order is followed. This description is somewhat different from Jaina Sāhitya Sansodhaka, Vol.1, p. 108 and is based on Journal of Bhandarakar Oriental Research Institute referred by Doshi32. The Digambaras have only the description about contents and the number of padas ( 1/4 gāthā of 32 letters ). In contrast, the Svetāmbaras have more details about the sections, chapters and sub-chapters in addition. We find that there is a good amount of difference in the number of padas found in both the versions, specially in the 6-11 Angas. The Svetämbara version had the padas in terms of numerable thousands or lacs (N T or NL) while the Digambaras have them by definite numbers. Despite the fact that both the versions agree on the memorical loss of Drstivāda only, the Digambaras give the number of padas for it. It has been suggested that the mention of number of Padas of every Anga (or for any text) was necessary for making payments to the copiers33.
Besides Drstivāda, there is also something to be said about the tenth Anga - Praśnavyākarana, the current form of which does not conform to the contents in Samavāo. It is felt that the available version is a sufficiently later corruption. One is, therefore, unable to justify its present inclusion and enumeration in the Anga canons. It may satisfy the tradition but not

Page #70

48 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
the intelligent mind of today. The contents of this Anga included astronomy, astrology, prognostics and the like. This was felt against the Jaina tenets. Hence the new contents were substituted. They can not be original. The matter requires serious consideration. Why this could not be taken as lost like DỊstivāda ? (C) Secondary, Supplementary or Angabāhya Canons
The third series of Prākrta canons are called supplementary ones. They consists of five groups. They are detailed in Table 5 b. Many of them are as old as basic canons but quite a number of them are of later composition. The first group is called Upāngas - a term coined not earlier than seventh century. Each Anga is said to have an Upānga. Their contents are varied and involve didactic stories, legends, Jaina mythology and metaphysics, many topics related with physical phenomena, astronomy, astrology and others. The other groups also reflect a variety of contents for the laymen and ascetics. The details of these groups indicate their variety of size reflecting their volume. Many of these books are useful for this study in different contexts. However, it must be pointed out that Digambaras do not have this much number and variety of secondary canons. They have only 14 as said before and named below:
(i) Sāmāyika, (ii) Caturvimšatistava, (iii) Vandanā, (iv) Pratikramana, (v) Dasavaikālika, (vi) Uttarādhyayana, (vii) Kalpavyavahāra, (viii) Kalpyākalpa, (ix) Mahākalpa, (x) Niśithika, (xi) Vainayika, (xii) Krtikarma, (xiii) Pundarika and (xiv) Mahāpundarika. The equivalents of 1-10 are in the earlier list ( Table 5b E) while 11-14 are specific. Dhavalā (1. 1.2, p. 98) describes the contents of these books. The last four describe humble conduct, method of worship, religious activities and penances leading to higher human status. The first ten have similar contents as in Table 5 b.
It is noteworthy here that the sizes of these supplementary canons are fairly reasonable in comparison to the primary canons.

Page #71

Table 5 a : Details of Primary Jaina Canons or Angas.

Name
Padas (S) Padas (N) Padas (D)

2 1. Ācārānga 18,000 2. Sūtrakrtānga 36,000 3. Sthānanga 72,000 4. Samavāyānga 1,44,000 5. Vyākhyāprajñapti 84,000 6. jñātādharmakathā 5,76,000 7. Upāsakadaśā N.L. 8. Antakrtadašā N.T. 9. Anuttaropapātika N. L. 10. Praśnavyākaraṇa N. L. 11. Vipāka-sūtra N. L.
3 18,000 36,000 72,000 1,44,000 2,84,000 N. T. N. T. N.T. N. T.
4 18,000 36,000 42,000 1,64,000 2,28,000 5,56,000 11,70,000 23,28,000 92,44,000 93,16,000 1,84,00,000 4,15,02,000
Padas Details ( Current) Chapters 5
6 7 2644–54 2 25 2100 2 23 3750–70 1 10 1667/1767 1 101 15800/16000 1 100 5500-6000 2 19 812–912 1 10 900 1 8 192
3 33 1250 1 45 1250 2 20
Subchapters 8 9 85 85 33 33 21 21 - - 100 104 29 29 10 10 10 10 10 10 45 20 20
?
?
N. T.
Prākṣta Canons : 49
?
N.T.

Page #72

12. Dṛṣṭivada (D) (a) Parikarma
i) Candraprajñapti ii) Sūryaprajñapti
iii) Jambūdiva Pannatti iv) Dvipasāgara Pra.
v) Vyākhyāprajñapti (b) Sūtra
(c) Prathamanuyoga
(d) Culikā
i) Jalagatā
ii) Thalagatā iii) Māyāgatā iv) Rūpagatā v) Akāśagatā (e) Pūrvagata (Table 4)
Total Padas
2
1 1 1 1 1
3
1
36,05,000 5,03,000
3,25,000
52,36,000
84,36,000
88,00,000
5,000
Сл
5
2,09,89,200
2,09,89,200
2,09,89,200
2,09,89,200
2,09,89,200
95,50,00,005
1,08,68,56,005
1,12,83,58,005
6 7
8
9
50 Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons

Page #73

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 12. Drstivāda (S)
N. T. (a) Parikarma (b) Sūtra (c) Anuyoga (d) Cūlikā (e) Pūrvagata 14 ( See Table 4) (S): Samavāyānga Vitti Basis (N): Nandisūtra Vrtti Basis (D): Digambara Scriptures N. L. : Numerable Lacs
N. T. : Numerable Thousands Pra. : Prajñapti In Samavāyānga Vitti, N. T. and N. L. are given in numbers similar to Digambaras with some differences. No details about Padas are available for four Drstivāda forms in Svetāmbara version.

Table 5 b: Details of Secondary Canons, Pro-canons or Angabāhyas*. Pro-canons
Sections Current Size ( Slokas) Contents 1 2
3 [ A ] Upāngas 1. Aupapātika
2 1167-1500
Didactic Stories 2. Rājapraśniya
2019–2509
Didactic Stories
Prākrta Canons : 51

Page #74

4

4700-5200 7787-8100
Description regarding living Description under many heads The world of Sun The world of Jambūdvipa The world of Moon Didactic stories
4146--4458
2058 1109
52 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
2000–2300 700
3. Jivābhigama 4. Prajnapan 5. Sūryaprajñapti 6. Jambūdvipa Prajñapti 7. Candraprajñapti 8.- 12. Nirayāvalikā [B] Mūlasūtra 1. Uttarādhyayana 2. Daśavaikālika 3. Avasyaka 4. Pinga Niryukti 5. Ogha Niryukti 6. Pāksika Sūtra [C] Cheda Sūtra 1. Nisitha 2. Mahānisitha 3. Vyavahāra 4. Daśāśruta ( Kalpa-sūtra) 10

Legends, Kesi-Gautama, Tenets Fundamental Principles, Asceticism Six Indispensable essentials Alms and food rules Conduct classifications, 70 Major vows, liturgy, worship
7691
1154-1460
812
4544

Violatory atonement and penances Atonements and Narratives Prescriptions and Interdictions Disciplinary regulations
1596

Page #75

63

5. Vrhatkalpa
400
Discipline, Mahavira's Life 6. Jitakalpa
103-105
Violatory disciplines [D] Cūlikās . 1. Nandi
700
Theory of Knowledge 2. Anuyogadvāra
1399–2005
Classified descriptions [E] Prakirnakas
10 - 39 1. Catussarana
Four-fold refuge 2. Candravedhyaka
174-175
Renunciations by the sick 3. Atura Pratyākhyāna
84
Behaviour at the time of death 4. Mahāpratyākhyāna
142-143
Confessions, Renunciations 5. Bhakta Parijñā
173
Dispensing with food 6. Tandula Vaicārika
400
Embryology, Women condemnation 7. Ganividyā
75–86
Astrological concepts 8. Devendrastava
292-307
Celestials descriptions, liturgy 9. Maranasamādhi
Method of voluntary death 10. Sanstāraka
121
Pallet of Straw, legends Many others are also there * Doshi, Bechardas : Jaina Sahitya Ka Brihad Itihasa, Vol. 1, P. V. R. I., Varanasi, 1966.
Canons : 53

Page #76

54
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Magnitude, Size or Volume of Primary Canons
(a) Physical size The magnitude of any text could be expressed in two ways (i) physical size and (ii) subject content. The physical size of the primary canons including Pūrvas has been expressed in terms of number of Padas (1/4 verse, gāthā or sloka of 32 letters). They are sometimes expressed by the authors and mostly by the copiers for their payments.
Of course, we do not find any definition of term Pada in canons and pro-canons. It is, however, found in texts of later dates. Many scholars34 have defined it as a collection of meaningful words or letters without quantifying it. Per chance Jaidhavalā 35 seems to be the first to quantify the term. Accordingly, pada has three forms:
(i) Meaningful pada consists of as many letters and words as may carry a gainful meaning. This form is the same as defined by early scholars.
(ii) The metrical pada consists of one-fourth of the whole verse in a particular meter and, therefore, one-fourth the number of letters in that meter. As in the days of canons, gāthā or anuştup slokas were common meters, the pada normally could mean a group of eight letters. This seems to be the most relevant quantitative definition of pada.
(iii) The medium pada seems to be rhetoric consisting of 1634, 8307, 888 letters. Before actually defining it, Nemichand Chakravarti points out 'pada' containing numerable letters.
It has been suggested that the canonical 'padas' mean the medium 'padas'. If this is agreed, one could easily calculate the number of letters contained in Acārānga's 18,000 padas.
18,000 x 16,34,83,07,888 = 29,42,69,54,19,84,000 = 91,95,92,38,17,000 slokas of 32 letters.
If a normal book is taken as a 600 page book containing 36 lines of 32 letters each, the Acaranga, alone, will be equivalent to forty-two crore fifty-seven lacs thirty-seven thousand and
Jaín Education International

Page #77

Prākrta Canons : 55
one hundred eighty five books, an unimaginable figure
29,42,69,54,19,84,000/ 32 x 36 x 600 = 42,57,37,184.5 books
In contrast, if the anustup-meter-based definition of eight letter 'pada' is taken into account, we have a book of 125 page for Acārānga which is a reasonable size :
18,000 x 8 = 144,000/ 32 x 36 = 125 page
Thus, one should agree to a 'pada' definition as a 8letter unit. The current size of Acāranga is roughly 2650 ślokas or 10,600 padas. This means that approximately 40% of the original text seems to be lost in memory at the time of its putting into writing, i.e., during about 1000 years after Mahāvira. Devendra Muni says that this is not surprising as this has i happened in case of Vedic and Buddhists literature too. However, it must be pointed out that :
(i) The concept of Madhyama pada is a heavy extrapolation and mythological. It should be discarded for describing - the size of canons. Comparatively, it is seen that the Jainas have been master extrapolators in almost all descriptive aspects which could be confirmed from the Table 6.
In a sense, all descriptions regarding visible aspects of the universe should be made reasonable and reliable. Malvania, Amar Muni, Satyabhakta and others have expressed the imaginary and unverifiable nature of these types of magnitudes. This author inquired personally from many saints and scholars regarding the canonical size but all kept mum on the issue except one who explained the issue on the physical and psychical basis. Psychically, the Sruta may have an infinite magnitude. The credibility of this point is teasing to the scientific mind,
(ii) The metric pada of 8-letter should be the basis of canon size computations. However, even on this basis, the other angas may not fare well. Looking to their current size as shown in Table 5 a, their memory loss may be very high. Take for example, the case of Vipāka-Sūtra with 1,84,00,000 canonioal

Page #78

56 : Scientific Contents in Prākta Canons
padas in comparison to the existing 5000 pada size or approximately 99.97% lost. Thus, the assumption of mythological size or its loss to the extent of 99.97% will erode the canonical credibility together with the regard for spiritual power of the Ācāryas. The days of impressing by size are gone. Hence one must accept the canon size as it is current, assuming some reasonable memory loss. Table 6 : Extrapolative character of the Jainas.
Point
Hindus
Jainas
1. Cosmography
4-7 conti
Innumerable nents
continents 2. Wives of Cakravarti 16,000 96,000 3. Age of Universe cycle 1015 yrs. 107 yrs. 4. Incarnations/
10/24
3x24 Tirthankaras 5. Deitification of Idols Simple Pūjā By grand elephant
charioteering festival 6. Age of Krsna
100 yrs 1000 yrs 7. Unit of time
10-4 Sec. 10-250 Sec. 8. Jambu Tree, diameter -
90 Km. & ht. 9. Palace dimensions
410 x 547 x 273
meters 10. Pada of Letters 1/4 ślokas 1634, 8307, 888
letters 11. Arts for men
64 12. Concept of god God is one Every body could
be god 13. Sacred canons
4 Vedas 12 Angas However, it must be noted that the sizes mentioned even in terms of current padas suggest that the primary texts are voluminous. And their commentary literature is many times more voluminous and in many forms composed during different periods after 453 A. D. when Angas were put to writing.
72

Page #79

Prākṣta Canons : 57
Table 4 indicates that the Purvas were more voluminous than the Angas. Secondly, as part of Drstivāda, it seems that its biographical and didactic story content of Anuyoga section was very small with only 5000 padas in comparison to the 611 angas having lacs of padas in each. This may also be one of the reasons of loss of Drstivāda by memory as didactics make more permanent impressions.
It may here be mentioned that no commentator has tried to explain the difference in padas in books of different versions and the current position. Had they dealt with this problem, they would have served the system and its followers better. Doshi® has also mentioned this point.
(b) Subject Content --- The subject content also reflects magnitude of a book. This is given in Table 7. One finds that the Svetāmbara version for 11-anga is more detailed and illustrative while the Digambara version for Drstivāda is not so. It seems that the extent Digambara pro-canons are mostly based on Pūrvas rather than Angas. However, it could be verified that the variety of contents in the Angas is enormous, covering every sphere of physical, spiritual and moral universe. Despite
is, some differences in the content mentioned in the two versions may be pointed out. These differences suggest that these holy books were not thoroughly studied to tell the actual contents. The contents were pointed out according to interests. Table 7: Contents of Primary Angas.
Anga
S-version
D (JD) Version
2
1. Ācārānga
Rules, practices for ascetics.
Rules, practices of mendi- cancy ( food, dress, residence, etc.). Five types of practices – faith, knowledge, conduct, penance and internal energy.

Page #80

58 :
Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
2. Sutrakṛtānga
4. Sama
vāyānga
5. Vyakhyāprajñapti
3. Sthānanga Cataloguing different catogories in the
universe under 1-10.
6. Jñātādharma
kathā
2

Description about living/ non-living, non-violence, etc.
Description of doctrines of self and others.
Descriptions about Universe, living, other realities.
Cataloguing of different
categories of subjects with successive numerical
increments.
Details about contents of
Angas/Purvas.
Descriptions about 54/63 great men.
36,000 questions and answers regarding universe and its tri-timic phenomena. Description about various doctrines of Mahaviran age.
350 lac legendary stories of
those attaining salvation under different karmic
dispensations.
Description about culture, civilisation, geography of different periods.

3
Different doctri
nes, Feminology, Masculinity, sexology,
etc.
Cataloguing with respect to
substance,
time, etc. Collective
description of
material with
respect to place, substance,
time etc.
60,000 questions & answers.
Description about good/ bad from many
viewpoints.
legendary
religious stories by lords through divine speech.

Page #81

Prakrta Canons : 59
2
7. Upāsaka- Legendary stories about Jina 11 model stages daśānga devotees, how they pros- of laymen's spipered and liberated.
ritual progress. Eleven pāramitās (model stages) of laity and other religious performance.
Other contents as in (6). 8. Antakrd- Legendary stories about Legendary storidaśānga liberated men and women es about ascewith moral didaction.
tics liberated
through acute Various aspects of
painful life during religion.
Tirtharkara's
periods. 9. Anuttaro Stories about ascetics As in column 2.
papātika transcendented to higher Daśā vimānas through acute
sufferings and austerities. 10. Prasna Futurology and prognostics. Prognostics, Vyākaraṇa* Different types of accompli- Four types of
shments and miracles. stories. 11. Vipāka- Stories relating to conse- Same as in sutra quences of fruition of merito- column 2.
rious and demeritorious
karmas. 12. Drstivāda** Parikarmas 7 types.
Parikarmas 5
types. Science of sacred incanta- Solar/unar astrotions or Mathematics. nomy.
Oceanic/continental geography. Living, non-living & the liberated.

Page #82

60 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
3
Sutra : 88 varieties.
Sutra : no varieties, 363 dog
mas & Maths. Prathamānuyoga : 2 varieties Legends & legend & biography of
stories. No (i) Tirtharkaras and
varieties. (ii) other torch bearers. Purvas : 14 Pūrvagata : 14 varieties, varieties. See no contental description. table 4 for
contents. Cūlikā : No varieties
Cūlikā : 5 varieNo details available.
ties. Science of incantations, rituals, austerities regarding specific movements
in earth, sky, etc. Current book contains stories about 5 sins, 5 merits and details of many tenets, expained therein. Sthānanga ( 4.131, p. 325) does not mention Cūlikā as a variety of Drștivāda. It points only four varieties.
**
Table 7 gives us a reflection that there is a large difference in the contents of (a) Vyakhyāprajñapti and (b) Upāsakadašā. Secondly, it is also not clear why there is difference in the number and name of the varieties of Parikarma in the two sects. Other such differences can also be observed. Thirdly, the name of Vyā- khyāprajñapti is duplicated in Digambara version under pari-karma group which needs investigation. Fourthly, the contental details of Praśnavyākarana are not found in current versions. Why the original could not be assumed to be lost though at a much later date than Drstivāda ? However, one may guess that astrology and prognostics were in an impressive vogue in olden days.

Page #83

Prākṛta Canons :
The contental disparity of Drstivada in both the sects suggests that while Digambaras did not give much importance to the 11-Angas, the Svetāmbaras were averse to the twelfth Anga. These and many other discrepancies require deeper elaboration. Though the Digambaras may not bother about them, as, for them, the canons are said to be lost and per chance what they have said about the magnitude should be assumed as just heresays and not authentic. However, as they are supposed-to-be-authentic and canon-like books of Akalanka and Virasena describe the details, the differences or contradictions require intensive examination.
61
There is large number of difference in the magnitude of size and contents of canons in the two major sections of Mahāvira's followers. How they may be called them as authentic? The criteria for the authenticity have been the following: (i) Composition by Tirthankaras, their chief as well as remote disciples (the disciple lineage could not be extended too far as there is a gradual loss of retentive power and attendant internally concentrated energy).
(ii) The absence of contradictory testimony-intellectual or otherwise for the canonical contents. This has been called the consistency of the descriptions.

However, we say that canons are not physically composed by the Tirthankaras. Their chief disciples listened the divine speeches, memorised and put the contents in technically abbreviated forms. A large amount of omissions and commissions in their contents and meanings due to gradual reduction of destruction-cum-subsidential knowledge-obscuring karma of later scholarly disciples who put them in their own way, is assumed. Shastri37 and Jaina38 have illustrated a large number of inter and intra-canonical contradictions and incompatibilities with current scientific facts. All these points suggest that a nontraditional evaluative method of their studies be evolved. The same contention is applicable to the secondary canons, though their contental details are not available canonically, still quite a

Page #84

62: Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
number of them represent the first few books of the Jaina ascetic duties and practices.
Jaina system is a polyrealistic one with a high spiritualistic bias. Consequently, its basic texts must deal with the phenomena of physical universe alongwith the spiritual kingdom. The traditional ascetics and scholars communicated mostly their spiritual contents and kept mum about their physical contents. The Table 5 a, b, suggests that most of the texts have about a fourth or more part dealing with this category of contents, either in separate chapters or stray or casual mention in different chapters. Some texts are fully devoted with this category. It was the practice of early scholars to sermonise analogically with the help of illustrations from the laymen's life. Hence a large amount of physical and observational contents could become part of these texts. It could be illustrated from Daśavaikālika containing more than one-third of its total contents dealing with the physical aspects :
(i) Şaq-jivanikāya -- Six types of living beings (Physics, Chemistry, Biology).
(ii) Pindaişaņā -- Science of food and its purity for mendicants.
(iii) Vākyaśuddhi — Science of speech.
Besides, there are analogical mentions of physical phenomena. Similar is the case with other texts. Physical or scientific contents of these texts could be collected, analysed and classified into the following branches of current sciences :
1. Physics - General properties of matter, Heat, Light, Sound, Electricity, Magnetism, Atomic energy, etc.
2. Chemistry — Atoms, aggregations, mixtures, molecules, compounds, properties and structures, Chemistry of living/non-living, Classifications, etc.
3. Botany - Science of plant kingdom-non-mobile beings.
4. Zoology - Science of insects, animals and humans, mobile living beings.

Page #85

5. Food & Nutrition Dietetics and food science. Science of Prāṇavāya, Ayurveda.
6. Medicine
7. Mathematics Worldly and super-worldly.
8. Cosmology
Geography.
9. Astronomy & Astrology.
Prākṛta Canons M. 63
―――

10. Engineering Science.
11. Humanities and Performing Arts Education and useful arts for men and women.
A good number of stray efforts have been made by many scholars of this age in analytical reporting of these contents. However, a concerted and evaluative effort is needed for an overall picture regarding these contents and their comparative contribution in the contemporary knowledge of different period of their compositions. This evaluation will lead us to judge the growth in knowledge in different areas at present with reference to canonical age. This study of scientific contents is actually desired to re-establish faith in canonical sermons in these days of traditional faith erosion on intellectual grounds. Digambara Prākṛta Pro-canonical Literature
It is agreed that Bhadrabahu-139 was the last all scriptureknowing scholar ( preceptor-period, 29 yrs., contemporary of Sthulibhadra) before the two sects of Jainas began making their pseudo-appearance culminating as distinct schisms in late first century A. D. known as Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras. The Digambara tradition of preceptors continued upto 683 years after Mahavira (683-527 = 156 A. D. )* with aphorismic wise sayings through Gautama - the first chief disciple, as the base (in contrast to Sudharma, the second chief disciple as the base in Śvetāmbara tradition). Shastri opined that the first stage of this tradition could be assumed to continue upto 5th century A. D. (i. e. 350 B. C. - 500 A. D.) by which the proximate and remote preceptors were communicating the Śruta orally in their own words. They also agreed about the oldest existence and Currently, the salvation of Mahavira is being dated at 468 B. C. thus,it is 683468 = 215 A. D.

Page #86

64: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
importance of the two types of Śruta with its size and contental description. They hold however, that almost all the Śruta has been lost because of absence of knowers gradually by 156 A. D. (215 A. D. ). Thus, the Digambaras do not treat the extant canons as authentic because of large number of interpolations in them during the three councils between 357 B. C. to 453 A. D., i. e., nine hundred and eighty years after Mahavira, whereby they lost their original form. They neither took part in these congregations nor thought of committing the original version to writing even at a later stage, per chance feeling this act as going against the rules of naked asceticism. They could not realise the importance and future implication of this conservatism realised by present scholars. Two surprisingly contradictory phenomena are observed in this case which require clarification:
(i) The Digambaras have proved themselves more conservative in following their ascetic discipline restricting it for the self only.
(ii) The better ascetic discipline of meditation, equanimity etc. should be associated with more internal energy and capacity to memorise. Despite this, Malvania has proved with the help of 683 year tradition that the rate of loss of scriptures in Digambaras, is comparatively very high.40
However, all the scriptures are not lost at a time, they are lost partly and there might still be partly scripture-knowing preceptors. They mentioned about the existing scriptures upto the beginning of ninth century A. D. (i.e. Dhavalā period) but nothing about their written form. The reason for not committing the original scriptures to writing and higher rate of their loss in case of Digambaras requires critical evaluation.
The Digambaras, thus, have no original canon extant. Whatever they have at present, is some pro-canonical texts composed between 100 B. C. to 500 A. D. However, whether the extant canonical literature is religiously recognised by them or not, their contents are important for scholarly studies, because a good part of this literature, though put to writing at a later

Page #87

Prākṣta Canons : 65
stage and also existent partially as Digambaras contend, has a high antiquity with respect to tradition and contents in comparison to the existing Digambara pro-canons. It is not clear whether they form a separate category with respect to primary and secondary canons.
This is further astonishing that the Digambaras disregard the total loss of Angas. However, as Bhadrabāhu-I did not give substantial recitation of entire twelfth Anga, i.e. Drstivāda, the Digambaras presumed that it existed partially and it is more important than the Angas as it contained the archaic Pārsvan Purvas. Quite a good amount of Purva part has been in memory of many Digambara scholars upto 156 A. D. (215 A. D. ) who could commit the memorised material to writing in the form of books. The texts composed upto the second century A. D. or so by these communicative scholars are treated with canonlike authenticity and regard. The first two of these texts are given in Table 8 followed by some other similar but later texts. The composition period given is approximate and seems comparatively more justifiable. The Kundakunda period should be considered on the basis of its comparative contents and it should neither be stretched too far nor contracted too early out of love for unconfirmed logic and antiquity based devotion. He should be taken as post-Yapaniya ācārya. The above facts suggest that Dixit" is not justified in questioning the salvaging of Purva material in these texts on his fabricated basis. However, he may be right in his suggestion that contentally these texts were devised in such a way as to make the canonical studies superfluous and, therefore, contrary to the Svetāmbaras attitude of preservation of older texts unnecessary. That is why, despite their mention by later scholars like Pujyapāda, Akalanka and others, no reference is found due to their early repudiation, though Yāpaniyas did refer them.
It is seen from Table 8 that Digambara pro-canons are not only small in number but in size too. For example, Mūlācāra – a counterpart of Acārānga has half its size. But size is secondary

Page #88

Table 8 Details of main Digambara Pro-canons.
Name
1. Kaṣāya Prabhṛta
3. Bhagavati
Ārādhanā
4. Mülācāra
Author
Gunadhara
2. Sat-khaṇḍāgama Puspadanta, 75-150 A. D. 6
Bhutabali
Śivarya
5. Prabhṛta-traya
Period (App.) Sections Slokas
35-100 B. C. 15
233
Baṭṭakera
100-150 A. D. 1
100-200 A. D. 12
7000
( aphorisms)
2148-70
Kundakunda* 150-250 A. D. 16
Contents
Passions, subsidence &
destruction of deluding
karma.
Karma theory, Disquisitional treatment, Sciences.
885
Ideal/real living, knowledge &
knowables, ascetic
discipline, six realities, five existences, etc.
According to new researches, the period of Kundakunda is being fixed as 6th century A. D. (See Aspects of Jainology, Volume III, P. V. Research Institute, Varanasi, 1991, pp. 187-206).
5 types of ascetic disciplines, deaths, meditation
1252/1403 Ascetic discipline,
basic Jaina tenets.
66 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons

Page #89

Prākrta Canons : 67
in comparison to contents. Despite large amount of similarity in contents like purity of foods and practical conduct, Mūlācāra seems to be quite advanced in systematisation, classification and descriptions suggesting its late composition. There are also many topics which are either non-existing or elementarily mentioned in primary canons. Moreover, Digambara early texts do not contain legendary, didactic biographies and religious stories (though mention of some story characters are made in Bhagavati Arādhanā ). However, other contents in these procanons are as varied as the other canons. Despite the dominance of the theme of five-fold practices for spiritual development, there is a good amount of material relating to physical world which could be classified in the forementioned categories with similar approximate proportion of contents as given below :
(i) Satkhandāgama -- Nearly 2 section out of 5. (ii) Mülācāra -- 3 sections out of 12.
(iii) Bhagavati Arādhanā - app. 400 gāthās out of 2170.
(iv) Prābhrta-traya - app. 300 gāthās out of 885.
However, the Digambara pro-canons have scientific contents mainly relating to three fields : (i) Physics, (ii) Chemistry, (iii) Biology. Other sciences find occasional and analogical mention.
The stretching of Digambara pro-canonical literature upto that composed till about tenth century or later, containing even books on logical subjects and biographies, does not appeal to reason because of their complexity and intellectualism. Linguistic Compositions of Digambara Pro-canon
The Digambara canon-like texts are mostly written in Sauarseni Prākrta and were composed by authors mostly of south and north ( Mathurā ) during 35 B. C. to 250 A. D. It might be possible that the older oral traditions were prevalent there, but textual compositions were none.
in contrast, the Svetāmbara tradition, permitting composition of books in Aryarakṣita days, got its canon in writing in

Page #90

68 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
app. 460 A. D. The textual language has a form known as Jaina Mahārāștri. This has some specialities in comparison to the Jaina Sauraseni which the linguists can very well identify. It is established that this western language was originated much later. They make it a point to prove Svetāmbara canons as a later compostion. Most western scholars, however, have linguistically verified and confirmed that a good number of these canons (if not canons, their contents) are of early origin, though it is agreed that the second part of them are later additions. We are more concerned with the conceptual contents whose gradual developments will enable us to guess about the early or late historicity of these texts.
With the foregoing discussion, one could now guess that linguistically Purvas, Digambara pro-canons and Svetāmbara canons cover a period of about 600 B. C. to 500 A. D., i.e. the first and second stage of Prākrta development. Though a good amount of explainatory, commentary (and some original) literature in Prakrta was written later, but it is not included in this study as it could not come under canonical class. Period of Composition of Canons and Pro-canons
The current analytically evaluative age has developed certain procedural concepts regarding objective studies in any branch of learning. This enables the researcher to assess the developmental position of the branch from its nucleation period to the period of study. It is done by studying the available literature in such a way which might give a reasonable mental construct chronologically so as to measure the conceptual or otherwise growth, the branch has undergone in different periods of time or the progress it has made since its nucleation point. This also enables one to frame a future picture about it. The western philosophy and science has grown to an alarming extent, realised by all, following this well developed and intellectually logical procedure.
This progress by westerners in a relatively shorter period has forced the orientalists to ponder over the cause their glorious

Page #91

Prākrta Canons : 69
past failed to keep pace with the present. The Jaina school will specially be discussed here in this context.
The western evaluative practice is generally not appreciated in the Orient though the oldest literature like Ācāranga and Samayasāra tell us that doubt, examination and conscientious thinking are the methods for proper knowledge and growth. Viveka-cūdāmani states that canonical attachment is an obstruction of knowledge like the attachment to body and worldly affairs. It is on this basis that our canons have become so important and they will remain so in the scholar's view for the times to come. They indicate the scientific approach for obtaining growth of knowledge. But, apparantly, this approach was rare in early days and completely lost in middle ages due to the following facts :
(i) The concept of all-knowing and omniscient was nurtured in parallel with the divine origin of the scriptures of the Vedic system. This was a large improvement over the divinity concept.
(ii) The concept (a) involved the idea that all-present, past and future is known by and through the divinity or omniscient. There is nothing left to be known. The process of knowledge became static one like a pond rather than an everflowing
river.
(iii) The concept ( a ) also led to the idea of the infinite authenticity of past and non-credibility of the current scholarship. Thus, stagnancy in conceptual and realistic growth appeared.
(iv) Due to super-authenticity vested in the all-knowers, every subsequent scholar, ācārya based his credibility on them, and often kept mum even about his identity and the period in his works. He merged his identity in the Attained and the early scholars did not even mention their names. It is from counterreferences that many authorships are ascertained. This tendency may be a quality of submission out of devotional tradition. However, this trend of early Jaina ācāryas is not to the liking of modern scholars.

Page #92

70 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
(v) This trend has highly confused about the authorship of most important early texts of Digambaras specially. One still finds many disputes today about their authorship and historicity. The modern scholars wish to clarify certain points as to evaluate the conceptual growth comparatively.
Dixit42 rightly says that thought process is like a living system, assimilating new material and discarding the waste for its proper growth. Modern scholars agree with him that the idea of permanent constancy of thought is a mis-conceived one, One cannot substantiate it by deeper studies of Jaina texts themselves. A scientific scholar will, therefore, formulate some thesis on which to work for constructing the history of Jaina thoughts and scientific subject matter, on the basis of scriptural and documentary material available with us spread over between pre-Christian centuries and many post-Christian centuries.
This thesis requires classification of canonical literature on the basis of their approximate period of composition for their evaluative studies. Certain guidelines could be observed in this connection:
(i) Linguistic and metrical analysis,
(ii) Status of systematisation of contents,
(iii) Arrangement of contents,
(iv) Methodological tendencies.
Despite the fact that Acārānga has the oldest linguistic and metrical pattern, the other canons do not show much linguistic peculiarities. Hence, they are classifiable on this basis. The other idea of antiquity could be based on the fact that older the text, lesser should be its systematic treatment and arrangement of subject matter. The methodology of treatment of subject matter could also form a guide in this matter.
Following the above guidelines, Dixit43 has classified the existing canonical literature in three periodic groups as below: Acārānga, Bhagavati (early part) etc.
500-200 B. C.
(i) First
period

Page #93

(ii) Second 200 B. C.-100 A. D.
period
(iii) Third period
tioned.
100 A. D.-500 A. D.
Prakrta Canons : 71
Tattvärtha-Sūtra etc.
This is quite approximate and could serve our purpose here. However, many authors have discussed this issue in detail for individual texts with sufficiently reasonable approximations. The personal discussion of this author with many scholars has led Table 2 for the canonical composition period. There are also some personal approximations for getting things in better direction. Table 2 confirms the opinions of many scholars that many of the canonical texts may be multi-author compositions during a certain period range. For many canons, the contents and linguistics suggest their differrent portions belonging to different periods. Some known examples could be cited: (i) Acārānga Part I is earlier, Part II is later.
(ii) Bhagavati, śatakas 1-20 are earlier, 21-41 are later. (iii) Uttaradhyayana, 4 chapters are later.
(iv) Daśavaikālika, chapter 4 is later.
Many texts are collections for which no author is men
Prajñāpanā, Jivābhigama, Rajapraśniya, etc. Digambara pro-canons, Nandi, Anuyoga,

It is now generally agreed that rare additions might have been made in canons after the final congregation of 460 A. D. The table of compositional period confirms Dixit's contention and could reasonably be a guide for comparative and critical studies with historical perspective.
Procedure for Current Study
In the present study carried out with historical perspective, the various scientific contents will be grouped under several current branches to show the development having taken place in different canonical periods. The observations will be charted or tabled as and when necessary. These contents, in the end, will be compared with current stage of our knowledge to learn

Page #94

72 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
the progress man has made.
Prior to that, various arts and sciences, mentioned in different canons under different science subjects will be classified. Despite the absence of much details about these branches of learnings, it could be surmised that these must be in some preliminary or developed form useful for man and women of those periods. It may be noted that there is a good amount of later literature in many canonical branches of learning.
References 1. Ed. Procter Paul, Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary
English, Longman, England, 1981. 2. Muni, Nathamal, Daśavaikālika : Eka Samiksātmaka Adhya
yana, S.T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 7. Mahendra Kumar Nyāyācārya, Jaina Darsana, Varni
Grantha-mala, Kashi, 1966, p. 536. 4. V. S. Apte, Student's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, MLBD
Delhi, 1986, p. 566. 5. Bechardas Doshi, Jaina Sāhitya kā Vrhad Itihāsa, Vol.1,
PVRI, Varanasi, 1966, p. 6, p. 12. 6. Āryarakṣita, Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, Agam Prakashan Samiti,
Beawar, 1983, p. 13. 7. Bechardas Doshi, Jaina Sāhitya kā Vrhat Itihāsa, Vol.1,
PVRI, Varanasi, 1966, p. 566. 8. Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Sūtrakrtānga, Jaina Vishva
Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, p. 158. 9. Deva Vācaka, Nandi Sūtra, APS, Beawar, 1982, p. 146. 10. Sudharmā Svāmi, Bhagavati-Sūtra-3; Sadhumargi Jaina
Sangha, Sailana, 1967, p. 1432. 11. Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, p. 13. 12. Ācārya Umāsvāti, Sabhasya Tattvārthādhigama-Sūtra,
Raichand Granthamala, Agas, 1932, p. 42. 13. Ācārya Kundakunda, Niyama-sāra, CJP House, Lucknow,
1931, pp. 3-4.

Page #95

Präkṛta Canons :
14. Acārya Samantabhadra, Apta-mimām sa, Varni Granthamala, Kashi, 1974, p. 256.
15. Sabhasya Tattvärthādhigama-Sūtra, pp. 34-37. 16. Jaina Darśana, p. 532, p. 533.
73
17. Upadhyay, Amar Muni, Panna Sammikkhaye Dhammam, Virayatana, Rajagir, 1987.
18. Swami Satyabhakta, Satyāmṛta - 2, Satyashrama, Vardha, 1942.
19. Jaina Darśana, pp. 283-288.
20. K. K. Dixit, Jaina Ontology, L. D. Institute, Ahmedabad, 1971, Chapter 2.
21. Nandi Sūtra (Introduction), p. 20.
22. (a) Bhagavati Sūtra, Sadhumargi Jaina Sangh, Sailana, 1967, p. 1956.
(b) Bhagavati Sūtra, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1974, p. 152.
23. Ibid, p. 152.
24. Devendra Muni, Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, APS, Beawar, 1983 ( Introduction), p. 13.
25. Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Sūagado, p. 158.
26. (a) Acārya Battakera, Mūlācāra - 1, Bhartiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1984, p. 123.
( b ) Puśpadanta & Bhūtabali, Satkhandāgama-Vedanā, Section, S. L. Jaina Trust, Vidisha, 1941.
(c) Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Thāṇānga, JVB, 1984, p.
232.
27. (a) Ed. Madhukar Muni, Nandi Sūtra, APS, Beawar, 1982, p. 146.

(b) Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, p. 36.
28. Walter Schubring, Doctrines of the Jainas, MLBD, Delhi, 1962, p. 74.
29. Ibid, p. 75.

Page #96

74
:: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
30. (a) Doshi, Jaina Sahitya kā Bṛhad Itihasa, Part 1, p. 48. (b) Nandisutra, p. 198.
(c) Nemicandra Siddhanta Cakravarti, Gommaṭasāra Jivakända, Raicanda Granthamala, Agas.
31. Doshi, Jaina Sähitya kā Bṛhad Itihāsa, Part 1, pp. 28-29. 32. Ibid, p. 39.
33. Ibid, p. 41 (Introduction), p. 52.
34. Devendra Muni Shastri, Acārānga-1.( Introduction), APS, Beawar, 1980, p. 28.
35. Acārya Guṇadhara, Kasāypāhuḍa (Jaidhavalā-1 ), Digambar Jaina Sangh, Mathura, 1974, p. 83, p. 84. 36. Pt. J. M. L. Shastri, Personal Communication.
37. Doshi, Jaina Sahitya kā Bṛhad Itihāsa, p. 41 (Introduction), p. 52.
38. Pt. J.M.L. Shastri Sadhuvada Grantha, Rewa, 1989, pp. 228-295.
39. Ibid, pp. 228-295.
40. Nemichandra Shastri, Mahāvira aur Unaki Ācārya Parampara-2, Digambara Jaina Vidvat Parishad, Sagar, 1974, p.
24.
41. Pt. Dalsukha Malvania, Āgama Yuga Kā Jaina Darśana, Sanmati Jnanapitha, Agra, 1966, p. 16.
42. Dixit, Jaina Ontology, p. 79.
43. Ibid, p. 83. 44. Ibid, p. 31.

Page #97

Chapter 3 Branches of Learning in Canons
As defined, śruta is a form of knowledge obtained through verbal or written records. It also means the general learning aiming at all round development of personality and character, preservation of culture, shoulder the responsibilities of the household and society and performance of religious duties towards spiritual aspirations. These aims are achieved by learning such subjects as could strike the balance between the worldly and spiritual life and happiness. The earlier canons mention different subjects of learning as current in Mahāviran days. It seems that the following subjects were predominantly learnt as mentioned in Bhagavati'. They are all non-Jaina subjects which mostly involve four broad topics of today as shown in Table 1. Table 1 : Pre-Mahāviran subjects in Bhagavati. 1. Vedic Studies (a) Six Vedas
1.-4. Vedas, 5. History & Legends
6. Glossary or Index (b) Six Vedic Supplements ( Vedāngas )
7. Vedic phonetics (Sikşā ) 8. Religious Rituals (Kalpa ) 9. Vedic Grammar ( Vyākarana ) 10. Meterology (Chanda ) 11. Etymology or Linguistics (Nirukta )
12. Astronomy (Jyotisa ) (c) Six Vedānga Supplements (Upāngas )
13. Mathematics (Ganita )

Page #98

76 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
14. Sāńkhya Philosophy (Şastitantra ) 15. Logic (Nyāya Philosophy ) 16. Brahman Philosophy 17. Parivrājaka Philosophy ( Ethics )
18. Religious Scriptures. Pārsvan canons are not mentioned here. Per chance, they might not be very prominent at that time. It is very clear that these subjects have very limited applications for earning common man's livelihood. This point must have occurred in the mind of later scholars as to what type of useful learnings should be made available to common man for his worldly life. Religion or basic Āgamas teach the world as sorrowful and sinful, hence it was in the fitness of things not to mention or teach gainful learnings in early canons. However, stray references to many such learnings for princes and others have been made in Bhagavati without mention of their seperate category, showing that early sections of this canon represent the period of unclassified descriptions. The Sūtrakrta? also mentions many types of Sruta for livelihood.
However, it was thought essential to categorise these different learnings for the benefit of not only the common man but also for maintaining scripturists. Two categories of learnings were then presumed.
There is no mention of first category of learning supposed to be as sacred (or white ?), but it could be inferred from the name of the second category called as non-sacred, sinful or black learnings ( as it teaches about worldly useful and therefore demeriting learnings”). Accordingly, Bhagavati" seems to improve quite a lot upon the contemporary Mahāviran learnings by mentioning many of them as given in Table 2. This shows that the number of departments have increased from four to seven and number of subjects from 18 to 34. It also shows that scriptology must have started by now. Newer subjects (21-34 ) and branches ( 5-7) were added which were more useful for men and women. This two-prong classifi

Page #99

Branches of Learning in Canons : 77
cation may be taken as equivalent to worldly (Apara ) and spiritual (Para ) learnings of Kathopanişad5. Table 2 : Branches of learning during Mahāviran and Post
Mahāviran Period. (a) Mahāviran Period (b) Post-Mahāviran Period
2 1. Vedic and Religious Studies 1-4. Vedas
1-4. Vedas 5. Religious Rituals
5. Religious Rituals 6. Religious Scriptures 6. Religious Scriptures 7. Vedic Phonetics
7. Vedic Phonetics (Museology)
( Museology ) 2. Languages and Literature 8. Languages ( Vedic/ 8. Languages (18 languages )
Samskrta ) 9. Literature ( Legendary 9. Literature
Stories ) 10. Grammar and
10. Grammar and Meterology Meterology 11. Lexicology
11. Lexicology 12. Linguistics ( Nirukta ) 12. Linguistics 13.
13. Scriptology 3. Humanities 14. History
14. History 15. Logic (Nyāya Philosophy) 15. Logic 16. Sānkhya Philosophy 16. Sānkhya Philosophy 17. Brāhmanic (Mimāmsā ) 17. Brāhmanic Philosophy
Philosophy 18. Parivrājaka Philosophy 18. Parivrājaka Philosophy
(Ethics ) 4. Pure and Applied Sciences 19. Maths/Arithmatics 19. Maths/Arithmatics 20. Astronomy/Astrology 20. Astronomy/Astrology 21.
21. Biology ( Life Sciences )

Page #100

78 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
2
22.
23.
22. Physics 23. Chemistry 24. Food Sciences 25. Medical Sciences
24. 25.
5. Fine Arts
26.
27.
28. 29. 30. 31. 6. Military Science
26. Drawing and Painting 27. Dance 28. Drama 29. Vocal Music 30. Instrumental Music 31. Sculpture
32.
32. Warfare 33. Archery
33. 7. Engineering Science 34.
34. Civil & Architectural Engg.
The Digambara pro-canons like Mūlācāra and Satkhandāgama' mention three categories in place of two-li) Worldly, (ii) Vedic and (iii) Jaina (Samaya ). The first two come under non-sacred category while the third under the sacred category. This has already been mentioned earlier. They will be dealt separately. Non-sacred Learnings
For the sake of integrated contental approach, the nonsacred learnings should be taken as synonymous with noncanonical worldly real learnings of Anuyogadvāra and perverse learnings of Nandi. However, if the order of canons is taken into account, the first mention of this category is found in Sūtrakrtānga (2. 2. 18 ) and Sthānānga ( 9.27 ) followed by Samavão ( 29. 13 ) and Uttarādhyayana.
The number of non-sacred learnings is 9 in Sthānānga while it is 29 in Samavāyānga ( taken as 13, see latter ). The

Page #101

Branches of Learning in Canons : 79
current Praśnavyākarana, Āvasyakaniryukti and Uttarādhyayana have a mention of 29 of them but their names given by later commentators show that they are different from Samavāyānga. And this list is different from Samavāyānga not only in number but names also. Sūtrakrtänga is still ahead with 64 types of non-sacred learnings as shown in Table 3. Table 3 : Number of Non-sacred Learnings. 1. Sūtrakrtānga
64 2. Sthānānga 3. Samavāyānga
13 ( 29-16) 4. Uttarādhyayana
13 ( 29-16 ) different from 3 5. Avasyakaniryukti
13 ( 29-16) Same as in 4 6. Praśnavyākarana 13 ( 29-16) Same as in 4 7. Anuyogadvāra
20 8. Nandi-sūtra
25 9. Digambara pro-canons No number mentioned.
There are approximately 12 names in Dhavalā with some other names.
The number 29 has been reduced to 13 as eight of them have two types of commentaries which could not be taken as separate unit.
Strangely most of the early works have difference in qualitative and quantitative contents on the same subjects. The redactors should have attempted uniformity in all these texts for their authenticity. The discrepancies of this type are prone to faith erosion in the sermons of the jinas. This point could be rectified only through the studies under historical perspective. There may be good number of reasons for this types of discrepancies, some of which may be as follows :
Til Authors at different places and times might have composed their different texts without proper knowledge of early works.
(ii) Among contemporaries, the communication gap might have led to these differences.

Page #102

80 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
(iii) Sūtrakrtānga may have followed 64 tradition of Vedic system probably overlooked by other authors.
(iv) A large number of non-sacred learnings of Sūtrakrtānga are included in 72 practical arts of Samavāyānga and other canons, not included in non-sacred classification there. This seems to be a duplication. These arts are also included as a separate category in Sthānānga in addition to a category of worldly learnings seemingly again to be a duplication as the latter involves these arts. They should have been included in the non-sacred learnings.
(v) The commentators of Uttarādhyayana and Āvasyakaniryukti have attempted to make the Samavāyānga list as much equivalent to the Sthānānga as possible. It does, however, not supersede the all inclusive specialities of this classification.
(vi) Chronologically, Muni Nathamale opines that Samavāyānga list seems to be the oldest. Others have followed it and modified it.
This list is also given in Anuyogadvāra and Nandi under different names. These, composed later, might represent another improvement over the early canonical texts. The comparative list and its branchwise classification is given in Table 4. These texts seem to harmonise the intercanonical discrepancies by assuming two ways of classifying non-sacred learnings. The first method is very general : (i) Vedic studies and (ii) 72 practical arts. This seems to be very reasonable. The second method is specific in mentioning names of books, systems and many practical arts. The second method has been tabulated in Table 4. The 72 arts will be classified later in Table
5.
It is seen in Table 4 that the trend set in Bhagavati stands changed in Sūtrakrtānga and other canons. The Vedic and religious studies are nowhere there. However, they have been substituted by two important popular subjects : (a)

Page #103

Branches of Learning in Canons : 81
science of prognostics and (b) science of acquisition of various types of supernatural powers. These two branches of psychological learnings are based on empiricism and austere performances. Many canons have mentioned the prevalence of demonological performances, acquisitions and prognostics though the ascetics have been debarred from applying these learnings for livelihood and without emergency. The number of prognostical branches vary from 2 in Sthānānga to 16 in Sūtrakrtānga and acquisitional branches vary from 2 in Sthānānga to 16 in Sūtrakrtānga. It seems that Sutrakrtānga description to be sufficiently older following Vätsyāyana and Nitisāra numeration and Samavāyānga follows it partially. Table 5 : Comparative table of Departments/Subjects during
different Canonical Periods. Period
No. of Departments No. of Subjects 1. Mahaviran
19 2. Bhagavati
34 3. Samavāyānga 4. Sūtrakrtānga
64 5. Anuyogadvāra 6. Nandi-sūtra
37
32
Despite the fact that later commentators have tried to narrow down the differential gap between Sthānānga and Samavāyānga in this regard, the former remains special. The commentators have modified the science of dreams into science of divination and added science of medicine to the list not found in the latter. Moreover, the later does not have archery and architecture. Secondly, the canons mentioning 29 non-sacred learnings point out three types of texts - aphorismic, commentatarian and supplementary for each branch of prognostics, thus making the total of 8 x 3 = 24 + 5 (additional) = 29 non-sacred texts in counting. As we are considering the branches of learnings, this textual numeration has been overlooked here and the number of learnings has been taken as

Page #104

X
III
X
82 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
III
X
X
Table 4 : Classification of Non-sacred, Worldly real and Perverse learnings* 2 3
5
6 Nandi-sūtra ADS Sūtrakıtānga
Sthānānga Samavão Comm15 + 25 – 3R = 37
32 64
9
2 9 – 16 = 13 entaries 1. Vedic and Religious Studies 1.-4. Vedas
5. Religious ritiuals 6. Religious scriptures *
7. Vedic Museology X 2. Linguistics and literature
1. Science of Prognostics 8. Grammar and X 1. Geology/Earthaquakes 1. Prognostics 1. Geology/ X Meterology
Earthquakes 9. Lexicology
x 2. Science of natural) 2. Science of X public Calamities natural/pub
lic calamity 10. Linguistics
X 3. Astrology 11. Legendary Stories X 4. Science of Notes of
Birds

Page #105

2
3

12. Scriptology
-
13. Rāmāyana 14. Mahābhārata
* X

15. Bhāgavata 3. Humanities 16. Kautilyan Economics x
and Politics 17. Cārvāka Philosophy X
5. Science of Limbal
movements 6. Palmistry 7. Science of bodily
Marks 8. Dreamology
X Sci. of divination 9. Meteorology
2. Humanities - 10. Science of glow of 3. Non-Jaina 9. Non-Jaina Horizons
philosophies philosophies 11. Science of notes of 4. Worldly animals
Learnings 12. Sci. of notes of crows — 13. Prognostics of dustfall — 14. Progno. of hairfall 15. Progno. of bloodfall 16. Progno, of meatfall 2. Humanities
18. Sānkhya Philosophy X 19. Vaišeșika Philosophy x 20. Buddha Philosophy X 21. Pātañjala Philosophy – 22. Ājivika Philisophy - 23. Pusyadaivat Philo. -
Branches of Learning in Canons : 83
III

Page #106

1
2
24. Mäthara Philosophy x 25. Şasti-tantra (Roguery) x
26. Nyāya Philosophy
X
27. Mimāmsā Philo.
X
28. History
X
Cupidology
4. Pure and Applied Science
29. Mathematics
30. Astronomy/
Astrology
31. Toxicology
(Nāgsukoma)
32. Alchemy
(Kanakasaptati)
33. Science of Prognostics (Bhimāsuroktā)
X
X
X
X
3
17.-20. Astronomy of Sun,
Moon, Venus & Jupiter
21.-30. Biological
Sciences
31.-37. Chemical
Sciences
4
5. Medical
Sciences
5
6
10. Cupidology
Medical Sciences
84 Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons

Page #107

6

2 3 34. Animal Sciences X
( Horses, Shatmukha ) 5. Fine and Practical Arts
3. Science of Super- 3. Science of natural Acquisition Supernatural
· Acquisition 35. Drama etc. or 72 X 38.-63. Aquisitions 6. Science of 11. Science of Arts
and Learnings--26 Incantations incantations 36. Textiles and
7. Science of 12. Science of Fabrics
Magic/Jugg- Supernatural lery
Acquisition 13. Science of sub
duation Powers 6. Military Science
4. Military Science 4. Fine and 37. Military Service X 64. Archery
practical Arts (Sakatabhadrika)
8.72 Arts
Drama, to Repeatitions excluded, see main text. ! Commentaries on Uttarādh- 5. Engineering
Music yayana, Āvasyaka Niyukti, Prasna Vyākaraṇa. x means inclusion
9. Civil Engg. &
Archery means non-inclusion.
Architecture
Architecture
Branches of Learning in Canons : 85

Page #108

86 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
13 in the table. However, the number of departments vary between 6 to 9 and the subject between 9 and 64.
In contrast, the A. D. and Nandi seem to revive the Bhagavati tradition of including Vedic studies in their lists. They do have only general branch of prognostics and no department of supernatural acquisitions so prominent in Sūtrakrtānga. They have about 32-37 subjects in seven departments. A tabulation of these points suggests a very irregular pattern regarding the development of departments and subjects of learning during a period of 1000 years between 500 B. C. to 500 A. D. Of course, it is observed that newer subjects have been added to the list in many cases, single general subject like non-Jaina philosophy has been expanded in eleven specific philosophies like Vaiseșika etc. which were only two in Mahāviran period. It also seems that Bhāgavat was not prevalent in Anuyogadvāra days. It got included in Nandi days. The number of pure and applied science subjects also show increase from 2 to 7 including medical and biological sciences. The number of practical arts increase to 72. It has also been pointed out that these arts should not only be learnt by textual and meaningful learning but by practice tooto. In addition, 18 crafts are also mentioned for learning'. Table 6 classifies the growth of subjects under different categories which leads us to infer that whereas many subjects have gone up, there are some subjects which have been contracted to minimum.
The science of prognostics and super natural acquisitions may be cited as examples.
It may also be pointed out that there are many subjects which are repeated, such as legendary stories, Grammar, Mathematics and others. They have been adjusted in Table 5 assuming them as one. The numeration is also based on this fact.
Sthānānga has also a repetition of 72 arts which form part of worldly learnings. The traditional scholars may justify

Page #109

their separate mention on the ground of Vedic and non-Vedic learnings. This, however, does not seem reasonable.
Table 6 Growth of subjects in Different Categories.
Departments
Subjects
Branches of Learning in Canons : 87
Minimum
1. Vedic and Religious Studies
7
2. Language, literature & Humanities 7
3. Abstract Science
1
1
4. Life Sciences
5. Agriculture
6. Military Science
7. Engineering and Technology
8. Science of Prognostics
9. Science of Supernatural Acquisitions
10. Ayurveda
11. Home Science
12. Physical Education
Upangas
012
1
0
O
29

Two Categories of Non-sacred Learnings
The most concise categorisation of non-sacred learnings could be found in Anuyogadvāra Sūtra and Nandi. They mention its two classes:
Maximum
7
46
40
11
4
16
11
16
26
(a) Vedic studies including Veda, Vedāngas and
16.
9
26
8
220
(b) 72 practical arts and crafts
72.
This point may be disputed by many scholars because of the word Athavā (or) whether this could mean an alternative to dramatic art etc. or separate way of classification by itself. This author, however, feels it most reasonable to presume it as a separate categorisation. The Vedic and religious studies should include all the non-Jaina philosophies of even postVedic origin.

Page #110

88 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
It could be shown that the seventy two practical arts category involves almost all canonical branches and subjects. It could be easily clasified in current terms and tabulated later. Formerly, the terms Kalā (arts ), Silpa (crafts and technology) and Sāstra ( religion, philosophy and other subjects ) were taken as virtually synonymous. Kautilya, Vātsyāyana, Sukrācārya, Mahābhārata and other sources mentioned sixty four arts while Lalitavistara indicates 84-86 arts including Vedic studies. However, if these are not counted, the number may be roughly 64. Not only this, 64 arts for women are separately mentioned. The first mention of arts as a separate non-sacred category in Jaina texts is in Sthānānga without numeration, though a partial repetition of worldly category is found in later literature. The Sūtrakrtānga's 64 also include many of these arts. The list of seventy two arts is found in at least eight older Jaina texts or their commentaries which is tabulated in Table 7.
As earlier, it is observed that different canons have different listings with many in common and the total number of practical arts are approximately over 140. Secondly, there are many arts whose actual equivalent terms are just under guess. The author has attempted for reasonable equivalence in many cases under discussion here. Table 7 has the following characteristics :
(a) The Sūtrakrtānga list has between 12-19 arts common in many other sources.
(b) Groupings of Arts : Samavāyānga seems to be specific in grouping the following arts under one category and if the different number of arts is added in each category, the total number of arts comes to about 86 -- the number of arts given in Lalitavistara. It has also included many arts ( 124138 ) which are mostly not found in other lişts. 1. Military Science
7 topics ( 103-109 ) 2. Chemistry/Medication 6 topics ( 90, 91, 112, 113,
114, 115 )

Page #111

Table 7 Different Types of Learning Arts and Sciences in Various Canons.
4
5
6
7
8 9
AKT GDK AUP ANU JDP KV KS
72
72
72
72, 72
1
2 3
SK RP SV
64
72 72
X
X
3. Dreamology
X
4. Astrology
X
5. Science of Limbal Movement
X
6. Science of notes (birds)
X
7. Palmistry
X
8. Science of Distinctive marks in body
X
9. Science of Women Studies
X
10. Science of Men Studies
X
11. Sc. of Horses (Training & Management) x
12. Sc. of Elephants (Trg. & Manag. )
X
13. Science of Cows and Oxen
X
14. Science of Sheep
X
Number of Learnings 1. Terrestriology (Storms)
2. Meteorology
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
XX
X
X
101010
Branches of Learning in Canons
:
89

Page #112

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

X
X
-
-
xIII xxx x ! ! ! * * * xIII x x x x x III! xxxxx
- x
x
90 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
x
15. Science of Poultry 16. Science of Portridge 17. Science of Quails 18. Science of Young Quails 19. Science of Royal Wheels 20. Science of Royal Umbrella 21. Science of Royal Sceptre 22. Science of Swords 23. Gemology ( Precious Stones ) 24. Science of Coinage. Cowries or
Special Gems 25. Science of Shieldings 26. Science of Prosperity 27. Science of Fiascos 28. Science of Natural or Acquired
Conception 29. Science of Stimulation
x

* III x x x x x x II I
X x
X x
X x
X x
X x
X x
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1
x
x

|

Page #113

30. Atharva-vedic Incantation
31. Science of Jugglery/Magic 32. Science of Oblation with Fire
33. Archery
34. Science of Moon
35. Science of Sun
36. Science of Venus
37. Science of Jupiter
38. Meteorology
39. Science of Glow of Horizon 40. Science of Notes of Animals
41. Science of Notes of Special Birds 42. Prognostics of Dust-falls
43. Prognostics of Hair-falls 44. Prognostics of Meat-falls 45. Prognostics of Blood-falls 46. Science of Goblins
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
3 4 5 6
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
X
8
9
10
X
Branches of Learning in Canons
: 91

Page #114

1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

| X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
47. Science of Semi-goblins 48. Science of Sleeping 49. Science of Unlocking 50. Cāņņālic Learning/Psychotherapy 51. Shabari ( Kirátana ) Language 52. Dravida ( Tamila ) Language 53. Kalingi ( Oriya ) Language 54. Gauri ( A specific cardiolic ) Language 55. Gandhari Language 56. Science of Descending 57. Science of Ascending 58. Science of Yawning 59. Science of Sustainance 60. Science of Embracing/Clinging 61. Science of Dispeptisation 62. Science of Surgery and Medicine 63. Demonology/De-demonology
92 : Scientific Contents in Präkrta Canons

Ix!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
X
1111!!!!!!!!!!!!!
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X

Page #115

64. Science of Invisibility/Disappearance
65. Art of Writing 66. Mathematics
67. Dramatics
68. Vocal Music
69. Instrumental Music
70. Science of Musical Notes, Phonetics 71. Science of Percussion Instruments
(Drums etc.)
72. Science of Archestra
73. Art of Gambling
74.
75. Art of Playing by Dice
76. Art of Playing by Special Dice
77. Art of Quick Poetics/Art of Guarding City
78. Water Purification/Ceramics
79. Food Science/Agriculture 80. Art of Soft/Medicated Drinks
Special type of Gambling/Art of Speech
1
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4 5
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
X
X
X
X
―――
X
X
10
X
X
X
X
X
T
X
X
Branches of Learning in Canons
: 93

Page #116

81. Textiles and Fabrication 82. Cosmetics and Perfumery 83. Science of Bed-dressing 84. Art of Composing Arya-metrics 85. Art of Riddlery Poetics
86. Magadhan Language Poetics
87. Art of Composing Non-Samskṛta 32 Letter Poetics
1 2
88. Art of Composing Gitika-meter Poetics 89. Art of Composing Anustup-meter Poetics - 90. Chemistry of Silver
91. Chemistry of Gold
92. Art of Goldsmithy
93. Women Cosmetisation
94. Building/Architectural Engineering
95. Town Planning
96. Construction of Army Barracks
—
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
T
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
――――
X
X
X
X
4 5 6
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
X
X
X
-――――
X
X
X
X
X
10
X
Xx
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
94 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons

Page #117

2 * X
| x
3 - X
4 - X
5 - X
6
- X
7 - X
8 - X
9 - X
10 -
x
x
x
x
x
*
x
x
x
x
*
x
x
*
x
*
x
X
*
x

1 97. Science of Measures
- 98. Astrology/Medicine/Military Science : -
Counter movement of Army Art 99. Military Science : Arraying of Army in War 100. Cyclic Arraying of Army 101. Garudic Arraying of Army 102. Wedge Arraying 103. General Fighting 104. Wrestling 105. Intense Fighting 106. Sight Fighting/Stick Fighting 107. Fist Fighting/Boxing/Pugilistic Fighting 108. Hand-to-Hand Fighting 109. Creeperlike Fighting 110. Art of Divnie Arrows/Transformation 111. Art of Swordery 112. Silver Digest ( Pak )
x
*
x
IIIIIIIIIIIII
x
x
x III III III xxx
x
*
x
X
*
x ! ! xx
X
X
Branches of Learning in Canons : 95
x
*
x
*
x
*
- x
x
- -
x x
x
x

x

Page #118

9 --
2 X X X X X
3 - - - X* -
4 X
- -- X X
6 X - - X X
- - -
X
113. Gold Digest ( Pak )
- 114. Metal Digest
- 115. Jewel-Gem Digest
- 116. Rope Tricks
- 117. CircularPlay-tricks/Playing with Fabrics - 118. Special Type of Gambling ( Nalika-khela ) -— 119. Art of Piercing Leaves 120. Art of Drilling Hard Earth
- 121. Art of Animation/Inanimation 122. Science of Omens/Omenology 123. Science of Dramatic Dressing/Painting 124. Science of Planet Rahu 125. Planetology 126. Town Planning 127. Army Barracking 128. Horses Training 129. Elephant Training

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
x II x x x x x x 11 x x x x
Tx1 x x x x x x x x x *! x x x x x L xx!!!!!!
|xx|||||| xLxxIIII!!
xlxx!!!!!! x 11 x x x x x | xxIIIIII
96 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
e I x 1 x 1 x IIIIIIIIII

Page #119

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

x x x
x x
x x
-

1 2 130. Knowledge of Special Learning 131. Science of Incarnation 132. Science of Knowing Secrets 133.Sc. of Direct Knowing About Objects 134. Planetory Motion/Science of
Military Movements 135. Chemistry of Perfumes 136. Art of Flowering/Tasting of Foods/
Art of Wax-technique 137. Counter Arraying of Army 138. Art of Home Construction 139. Powder Technology 140. Art of Inanimation 141. Agriculture 142. Science of Architecture
Total 64 72 —: means non-inclusion
x: means inclusion
IIIIIx 1111 x 11 xl xxxl
| x | xx
11 III II 1 1 1 1 1 x 1 x 1 xxx IIIIII XI XII III
x *
x, -
x TTT x x
Branches of Learning in Canons :
x
X
X
x
x
72
72

72 72 72 72 26 24 * : All variables included in one class
97

Page #120

98 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
3. Sports
4. Piercing/drilling
18 in 4 groups or 18
4 14 [861472 Arts ]
(c) Some canons have grouped similar two into one : (i) Arts of Metallurgy and Calcination (Sajivanirjiva of Metals)
3 sports (116, 117, 118) 2 crafts (119, 120)
(ii) Cara-Praticāra
(iii) Vyūha-Pratívyüha
(iv) Skandhāvaramāna and Skandhāvaraniveśa (v) Nagaramana and Nagaraniveśa (vi) iṣusāstra and Tṣarupravāda
Their distinctive meanings are not clear, still many canons, have them separately.
(d) Non-inclusion of many arts of Samavāyānga Table 7 indicates that Rajapraśniya, Jñātādharmakathā, Aupapātika, Antakṛta, Jambūdvipaprajñapti and Anuttaropapātika do not contain the following arts listed in Samavāyānga and Sūtrakṛtānga:
14, 25, 26, 27, 34, 35, 16, 17, 18, 124-138
There are some other cases too which could be easily sorted out individually.
(e) Additional listings in different texts
In contrast to (d) above, different canons have many arts which are not found in Samavāyānga and Sūtrakṛtānga. They are listed as below:
75, 81, 88, 90, 91, 94, 100, 101, 102, 114, 115, 120, 139, 140, 141.
(f) Many names of the arts are defined differently by different authors as shown below:
(i) Purāṇa-kāvya/Pauraskṛtya (a) Art of quick poetics (b) Guarding or administration of city
(ii) iśitva/īṣuśāstra

(a) Art of Transformation

Page #121

Branches of Learning in Canons : 99
(b) Art of Divine arrows (iii) Janavāya
(a) Special type of gambling
(b) Art of speech or discussion (iv) Udakamrttikā (a) Science of Ceramics
(b) Water treatment or
purification (v) Praticāra
(a) Art of movement of Army (counter) (b) Planetary movements
(c) Medicine ( vi ) Cāra
(a) Movement of Army
(b) Movement of Planets (vii) Aștāpada (a) A specific type of gambling
(b) A special play with dices
(c) Chess ( viii) Asthi/musti/drsti (a) Stick fight Yuddha (b) Fist fighting
(c) Sight fight ( ix ) Madhusiktha (a) Art of flavouring and tasting
(b) Art of Wax-technics ( x) Varta-cheda (a) Art of tilling the land
(b) Art of textile fabrics
(c) Circular playing ( xi ) Musti Yuddha (a) Boxing
(b ) Fist fighting The current age demands accurate definitions of these arts so that there could be no ambiguity in their analysis. Table 7 mentions these meanings as such in its listings.
(g) Repetition or Inclusion : Names of many arts seem to be repetitions or inclusive of each others as shown below :
(i) Utpāta - Ulkāpāta - Ulkāpāta is included in general Utpāta.
(ii) Grahacarita — It includes Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Venus and Rahu systems.

.

Page #122

100 :
Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
(iii) Sakuniruta
animals and birds.
(iv) Gandhayukti/Cūrṇayukti ·
lator gives the similar meaning to both the terms. (v) Nagaraniveśa/Nagaramana
3. Humanities
meanings of town planning.
(vi) Lavaka and Vartaka These are birds with similar lexical meaning.
It is hoped that the Agamic specialists will try to clarify the above points so that better understanding may be possible for the younger generation.
4. Biological Sciences 5. Ayurveda/Medicines
It includes science of sounds of
Current Classification of Arts or Learning Skills
Guptas seems to be the first scholar who attempted to classify ancient Indian arts under current branches of learnings. Though his groupings do not seem to be quite modern, still, a clue can be taken from his work. One could classify the current learnings under two broad terms - ( a ) Faculties and (b) Subjects under each faculty. Accordingly, the different arts will be classified under the following faculties 12 in number:
1. Vedic Studies and
Religion
2. Abstract Sciences
6. Agriculture
7. Technology
Samavāyānga trans
8. Home Science

These have similar
16 Vedic subjects
Physics, Chemistry, Maths, Military Science, Astronomy/Astrology Language and Literature, Philosophy, History, Economics, Politics etc.
Botany, Zoology
8-member branch of Indigenous medicine.
Crops, Gardening.
Ceramics, Pharmacy, Useful
materials.
Cookery, Cosmetics, Dressing, Household arts.

Page #123

9. Engineering/Architec. Civil Engineering, Architecture. Chess, gambling, dice, etc. Different branches of prognostics. Many magical or surprising arts
10. Sports and games 11. Prognostics
12. Supernatural or
surprising arts
We see that we do not find three current faculties : Library and Information Sciences, Commerce and Law and Modern Medicine. Of course we should have nothing about what we call allopathic medicines; but we have the Ayurveda for it. The newer listings in Kalpasūtravṛtti and Kuvalayamālā do have it. The information science is definitely a subject of very recent origin which was non-existent in early days. Though trade and commerce is one of the arts for women but it is not known why it does not occur in general arts. Later listings have included it.
Branches of Learning in Canons :
It may, however, be noted that the contental status of most of the canonical subjects seems to be quite introductory in many cases. It could be taken as an early stage of the development with reference to the current status of contents.
2.
The faculty-wise classification of arts is given below:
1. Faculty of Vedic studies and Religion
1-7. Subjects mentioned in Table 2. 8. Science of oblation with fire.
Faculty of Humanities
(a) Language, Linguistics and Literature.

1-8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
101
Subjects described earlier in Table 2. Science of speech and discussion.
Arya meter poetics. Art of Riddlery.
Magadhan Language. Gitikā meter poetics.
Prākṛta language and literature. 32-lettered sloka poetics.
Sabari language.

Page #124

102
: Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Canons
17.
Drāvidi language.
18-19. Kalingi and Gauri Language. Gandhāri poetics and language. Science of quick poetics.
Science of Incantational studies.
20.
21.
22.
(b) Kautilyan economics and politics.
(c) History.
(d) 1-11 Philosophy (Table 4)
(e) Polity.
12-14 Science of Royal wheel, sceptre and umbrella.
(f) Music and Performing Arts.
1. Dramatics and dancing.
2. Vocal music.
3. Instrumental music.
4. Science of phonetics.
5. Science of percussion instruments.
6. Science of Archestra.
7. Painting.
3. Faculty of Abstract Sciences

(a) Physics: Astrology and Astronomy. Planetary Kingdom.
1.
2-6.
7-8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
(b) Chemistry
1.
Solar, Lunar, Venus, Jupiter, Rahu
physics.
Planetary motions and counter
motions.
2-3.
Astrology.
Gemology.
Gemology of Käkini gem.
Weights and measures.
Chemistry of water and its purification/treatment.
Chemistry of Silver and its medication.

Page #125

Branches of Learning in Canons : 103
4-5. Chemistry of Gold and its medication.
Chemistry of Perfumery and art of making perfume powders. Chemistry of flavouring and tasting
foods. 9. Chemistry of cosmetics. 10. Science of sleeping medication.
11-12. Metallurgy and calcination. (c) Military Science
1-2. Arraying and counter-arraying of Army. 3-4. Cyclic and Gārudic arraying of Army.
Wedge arraying. 6. Normal war. 7. Special war. 8-10. Intense, stick and fist fighting. 11-12. Hand to hand and cover fighting. 13. Archery. 14. Swordery.
15-16. Horse and elephant riding. (d) Mathematics 4. Faculty of Biological Sciences (a) Zoology
1-2. Science of men and women studies. 3-4. Science of horse and elephant
studies. 5-6. Science of cow and cock studies. 7-8. Science of sheep and partridge
studies. 9-10. Science of quails and young quails
studies. (b) Botany 5. Faculty of Ayurveda
1. Science of dyspeptisation. 2. Science of surgery and medicine. 3. Science of natural and artificial conception.

Page #126

104 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
4-6. Science of gold, silver and metal digest
medication. 7. Science of gemal medication. 8. Science of stimulation. 9. Psychotherapy. Faculty of Home Science 1. Home management. 2. Women cosmetics and makeup. 3. Food science. 4. Science of soft and medicated drinks..
5. Science of bed-dressing. 7. Faculty of Technology
1-2. Goldsmithy and ceramics.
3-4. Textiles and leather science. 8. Faculty of Engineering 1-2. Art and Science of Architecture and Building
construction. 3-4. Art and Science of Town planning and
construction. 5-6. Art and Science of Buildings/Army barracks/
residences. 7. Art of drilling rock.
8. House building on mountains. 9. Faculty of Sports and Games : Physical Education
1-2. General and special gambling. 3-4. Playing with general and special dices. 5-6. Rope trick and circular playtrick.
7. Art of piercing leaves/papers. 10. Faculty of Prognostics 1-2. Science of terrestriology and public
natural calamity. 3-4. Science of Dreams and Palmistry. 5-6. Science of limbal movements and
sounds of birds.

Page #127

Branches of Learning in Canons :
105
1.
7.-8. Astrology and science of distinctive
marks on body. 9. Meteorology. 10. Science of horizontal glow. 11.-12. Science of notes of animals and birds
( wild ). 13.-16. Prognostics of dust, hair, blood and
meat-falls 17. Science of Omens 11. Faculty of Supernatural and Surprising Arts
Science of divine arrows, arms and weapons.
Science of Incantations. 3.-4. Science of secret knowing and special
learnings. 5.-6. Science of direct knowing and magic. 7.-8. Science of prosperitisation and fiascos. 9.-10. Science of throwing upwards and
downwards. 11.-12. Science of yawning and sustainance. 13.-14. Science of de-demonisation and dis
appearance. 15.-16. Science of goblins and semi-goblins. 17.-18. Science of unlocking and demonology.
19. Science of yogic embracing postures.
This classification leads one to compare the number of subjects taught today and in the canonical days. He can also judge about the variety, quality and quantitative character of the new learnings of the day. Practical Arts for Women
Women form an important part of society as a whole. How their case could become a left over one ? Though the first few and older Prākṣta canons do not mention learning arts for women separately, but jñātādharmakathā "2 and Prasna

Page #128

106 : Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
vyākaraṇa mention 64 arts for women without naming them, per chance, this mention may be a later inclusion which could be an influence of Mahābhārata and Vatsyāyana. Jambudvipaprajñapti Vṛtti, Prameyaratna-mañjūṣā and Śivatattva-ratnākara mention 64 arts and crafts for women13. Table 8 gives these names in the two references alongwith Vätsyāyana. It is observed that there is a large difference in the three references with a similarity of about 25-30 % in each list. It is also found, by comparison, they about one-fourth of the womens arts and crafts are the same as in the general 72 arts detailed above. The total of the list comes to be about 140 including all common ones.
Table 8 Sixty-four Arts for Women.
1
Number of Arts/Learnings
64
1. Vocal music
X
2. Instrumental music
X
3. Dance
X
4. Painting
X
5. Drum playing
X
6. Art of Characterising
X
7. Engraving
X
8. Embriodery
X
9. Weaving/Tailoring/Knitting x
X
10. Souping
11. Cookery
12. Beautification
13. Ornamentation
14. Head dressing
15. Flower beds
16. Surface-dressing
17. Cosmetics art
18. Bed-dressing
2
VN

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
JPV
64
X
X
X
X
| | | | | × | X | 11
XX
X

4
STR
64
X X
X
T
X X 1
IIXI111
5
General
47
X
X
X
X X
| | |× | | XXIII XX

Page #129

Branches of Learning in Canons :
107
w
4
5
X X
X
X
MIX IIII IX X
X
I IIII IX X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
III III IX X X XI XII III IX X
X
- 1
2 19. Physical sporting 20. Flower-dressing 21. Water sports 22. Flower cresting 23. Dress-wearing 24. Dress-making 25. Ear-dressing 26. Art of perfumery 27. Art of incantations, rituals x
and mystical diagrams 28. Bamboo crafts 29. Science of omens 30. Science of justice 31. Politics 32. Jugglery 33. Magic 34. Riddlery 35. Last Lettery 36. Secret wordings 37. Secret writings 38. Art of reading 39. Dramatics 40. Problematic composi
tions/Art of cavilation 41. Civil Engineering 42. Gemology 43. Metal dressing 44. Enamelling 45. Gardening 46. Cock, Sheep, Portridge
Fighting 47. Parrot-messengering X 48. Annointing & massaging X 49. Finger tipping
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
XIII IX XIIIII X XI XI III
XI XXI XIII XII X X X i XI III
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X III

Page #130

108 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
N
x
x
X X
1
1 1
X
1
X
1
1
X
1
1 X
X
X
X
1 X
X X
X
X
1
1 X
X
1
X
X
X
1
1 X
X
1
X
1
1 X
X
X
1
X
1
50. Country languages 51. Palanquin dressing 52. Art of mechanic
appliances 53. Memorising 54. Multi-lingual poetics 55. Lexicology 56. Metrical poetics 57. Rheotrics 58. Masquerading 59. Gambling 60. Chess and Dice play 61. Bed-dressing 62. Wood craft 63. Playing with children 64. Drawing 65. Conceit 66. Knowledge 67. Science 68. Water-sustaining 69. Music-in-motion 70. Music timing 71, Science of rains 72. Fruit-crops 73. Art of concealment 74. Religiosity 75. Last rites 76. Art of commerce/trade 77. Samskrta prattling 78. Religious practices/rituals – 79. Frolicity 80. Science of horse/ele
phant 81. Science of men/women –
1
X
1
1
X
1
1
X
1
X
1
X
1
1
X
1 1
1
X
X
1
1
X
1
1
X
1
1
X
1
X
1
X
1 X
1
X
X
X
X
X

Page #131

Branches of Learning in Canons : 109
x | =
= |
x |
x x
| |
|
m| X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X IIII
| |
|
|
| |
82. Scriptology 83. Instantaneous intelligence 84. Cupidology 85. Cherishing 86. Ayurveda 87. Pottery 88. Collyrium-making 89. Digestive powders 90. Handicrafts 91. Art of speech 92. Story telling 93. Milling rice 94. Art of Satire 95. Manual labour treatment - 96. Hosuehold traditionalism - 97. Grammar 98. Hair-dressing 99. Mathematics 100. Cavilation 101. Civics 102. Scriptures 103. Literature 104. Palmistry 105. Hand-to-hand fighting 106. Mineral knowledge 107. Proficiency in horse,
elephant and chariots 108. Fire reflection 109. Speech retention 110. Age retention 111. Stimulation art 112. Art of attraction Water
retention/Arts of figure of speech
w xxx 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 XI XIII IX XI XI II III
|
x |
x
x x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x
III
x

Page #132

110 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
1
1
1
4
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
113. Art of stupefaction 114. Art of detraction 115. Incantational root-out 116. Science of killing 117. Tuine-tricks 118. Art of entering others
body 119. Sandal accomplishment - 120. Vocal accomplishment121. Beadal accomplishment - 122. Deceptive sighting 123, Deceptive voice 124, Gemal/Medicinal
accomplishment 125. Theft/Burglary 126. Blacksmithy 127. Stone-craft128. Leather-craft 129. Invisiblisation 130. Dentistry 131. Animal husbandry 132. Hunting 133. Agriculture 134. Fermentation 135. History 136. Repudiatory tact 137. Special dressing 138. Art of equitability 139. Veena-playing
NIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
X X X XI III III I II III III III ILIW
W XIIIIIIIIII XIII IX XIIIII
X X X X X X X X X X X 1
It could, thus, be inferred that, here too, the topics and subjects have changed from time to time. It may be surmised that the concept of 64 arts for women developed later than general 72 arts.

Page #133

Branches of Learning in Canons : 111
As with worldly learnings for men, the women arts may also be classified under current faculty as in Table 9. These subjects comprise twelve faculties. A comparative evaluation of learnings for men and women has been given in Table 10. Table 9 Facultywise Classification of Arts for Women.
1.
Canonical and Religious Studies
1.
Scriptures
2.-3. Religion and religious practices 4. Religious rituals
2. Humanities
(a) Language, Literature and Linguistics
1.
Grammar
2. Meterology
3. Lexicology

Legendary stories
4.
5. Scriptology
6. Country languages
7. Literature
8. Poetics
9.
10. Riddlery
11. Last lettery
12. Art of reading
13. Art of speech
14. Problematic compositions
Phonetics
15. Samskṛta prattling
16. Secret wording
17. Secret writing
18. Art of memorising
19. Instantaneous intelligence
20. Satires
21. Cavilation
(b) 1. Arts of Trade (Commerce & Economics)
2. Manual labour treatment

Page #134

112 : Scientific Contents in Prākļta Canons
(c) 1. Politics
2. Civics
3. Science of justice (d) 1. History
2. Household tradition (e) Music and Fine Arts
1. Dramatics 2. Dancing 3. Painting 4. Vocal music 5. Instrumental music 6. Drawing 7. Drum playing 8. Music timing 9. Music motion
10. Time tricks 3. Faculty of Abstract Sciences 1.
General knowledge 2. General science (a) Physics
1. Science of rains
2. Gemology (b) Chemistry
1. Metal dressing 2. Mineral science 3. Fermentation
4. Art of perfumery .
(c) Mathematics 4. Faculty of Life Science
(a) Botany (b) Zoology
1. Science of men and women studies
2. Science of horse and elephant studies 5. Faculty of Engineering and Technology
1. Leather-craft

Page #135

Branches of Learning in Canons : 113
2. Textiles and Dyeing 3. Blacksmithy 4. Rice milling 5. Handicrafts 6. Pottery and ceramics 7. Woodcraft 8. Bamboo craft 9. Enamelling 10. Stone craft 11. Civil engineering
12. Mechanical appliances 6. Faculty of Home Science
1. Cosmetics 2. Food Science 3. Science of soft/medicated drinks 4. Science of bed-dressing 5. Engraving 6. Embroidery 7. Beautification 8. Head dressing 9. Flower dressing 10. Surface dressing 11. Flower bedding 12. Dress wearing 13. Dress making 14. Flower cresting 15. Knitting and weaving 16. Ornamentation 17. Ear dressing 18. Palanquin dressing 19. Masquerading 20. Proficiency in horse, elephant & chariot 21. Deceptive voice 22. Deceptive sighting 23. Hair dressing

Page #136

114 MO Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Canons
24. Special dressing
25. Parrot messengering
26. Finger tipping
7. Faculty of Physical Education & Sports
1. Gambling
2. Chess and dice play
3. Hunting
4. Water sports
5. Physical sports
6. Playing with children
7. Art of frolicity
8. Cock-sheep-portridge fighting
8. Faculty of Agriculture
1. Crop production
2. Gardening
3. Fruit crop
4. Animal husbandry
9. Faculty of Ayurvedic Medicines
1. Ayurveda system
2. Digestive powder making
3. Dentistry
4. Annointing and massaging
5. Stimulation
6. Collyrium making
7. Cupidology
10. Faculty of Prognostics and Supernatural or
Surprising Arts
1. Science of omens
2. Palmistry
3. Art of characterising
4.
Science of incantations
5. Science of mystical diagrams
6. Science of invisiblisation
7.

Gemal and medicinal accomplishment

Page #137

Branches of Learning in Canons :
115
8. Beadal accomplishment 9. Incantational root out 10. Supernatural killing 11. Art of stupefaction 12. Art of detraction 13. Art of fire retention 14. Art of age retention 15. Art of speech retention 16. Art of water spouting 17. Art of attraction 18. Art of concealment 19. Art of cherishing desires 20. Science of jugglery 21. Science of magic 22. Vocal accomplishment
23. Art of entering other's body 11. Faculty of Military Sciences
1. Hand-to-hand fighting 12. Miscelleny
1. Art of Equitability 2. Art of repudiatory tact 3. Art of conceit
4-5.Art of theft and last rituals
It is noteworthy that Vidyānuvāda Pūrva 14 mentions 700 minor learnings, 500 major learnings and 8 prognostics and Āvasyaka Cūrni 15 states about 48,000 learnings. The current listings, however, seem to be too small in number. It seems the total may not exceed 250 combined for men and women. In view of this current canonical descriptions, the above mention seems to be little off the track unless names and details about them are found. Researchers have high responsibility to verify the above statement. However, whatever the canons have, is also enormous and a man or woman cannot master in his or her single life time.

Page #138

116 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Comparative Evaluation of Worldly Learnings
The description given above regarding the different faculties and subjects of learning in general and for woman suggests that there were twelve faculties under which 139 to 191 subjects were taught during the period under consideration as shown in Table 10. This may be quite comparable to the listings of the university of Cincinnati, Ohio, U. S. A. ( one of the most developed countries of the world ) where 150 subjects are mentioned under 11 faculties. However, the varieties and names of the subjects must vary as has been shown even in early days. Many subjects have lost importance, gone out of date and many new ones have been added. The contental status of many practical subjects has also been raised enormously. It is now attempted that there should be threading between the ancients and modern status of learning so as to measure the growth of knowledge fronts.
Table 10 suggests that the learning in canonical age had two important faculties - those of prognostics and supernatural or surprising arts which involve about 20 % of the total subjects. These two faculties are not found in the educational system of the current age. It is also clear that men had to learn many more of such subjects per chance for impression. Though traditionalists have still sufficient faith in them, however, most of them elude scientific verification.
Table 10 has quite a number of points to indicate the difference between learnings of men and women. The women studied some scriptures but no Vedas as they are not mentioned in their list. However, they had to study many more language arts in comparison to many aboriginal languages. They had to learn very small number of science subjects but a large number of Home Science subjects alongwith agriculture and technical arts. In contrast, men had to be proficient in various Military science subjects. It is surprising that though men and women learnt chess, dice plays and gambling, but hunting, water sports and physical exercises are mentioned

Page #139

Branches of Learning in Canons : 117
~ Nov
WAO WwWNAO A
7
only for women. Similarly, it is seen that women of those days had also to learn architecture and Civil engineering. Table 10: Number of subjects in different faculties for general
and women studies. Faculties
General Women
Deptts. Subjects Deptts. Subjects 1. Vedic and Religious
8 4
4 Studies 2. Humanities
46 6 38 3. Abstract Sciences
10 4. Life Sciences
- 11 2 3 5. Ayurveda
93 7 6. Home Sciences
3 26 7. Engineering and
11 3 11 Technology 8. Physical Education 9. Agriculture
- 4 4 10. Prognostics and 8 . 38 3 22
Surprising Arts 11. Military Science
- 16 - 2 12. Miscellaneous
35 191 38 140 However, the different types of arts mentioned for women indicate that they must be clever and intelligent enough to meet any odd situations they could be in. The list of their home science and supernatural subjects confirms this statement.
The subject difference for men and women does not mean that all subjects were learnt by education by every man or woman. Of course, it could be desirable to learn as many subjects as possible to lead a successful and pleasant life. Men or women could be trained in any of the subjects and faculties of their interest.
It may also be guessed that these arts were learnt by
1 0
1
I

Page #140

118 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
well-to-do women of the day in general rather than common women.
It could also be noted here that there is not much variation in number of arts for women being fixed at 64, there is a large number of variation of arts for men. The minimum mentioned is 48 in Nāyakumāracariu of Puşpadanta. Somadeva mentions 64 while the canons mention 72 and Samavāyānga can be treated as to go upto 86 as detailed earlier. This suggests constant changing pattern of not only the number but additions and modifications from time to time. Superworldly Learnings
The wordly learnings of different types made the men and women capable of earning their livelihood and work towards betterment of themselves and the society. However it must be noted that these learnings started at a later stage. What was the early education ? The answer would be the learnings about subjects consisting contents of superworldly nature.
Bhagavati mentions about many early ceremonies of children like tonsure, sacred threading and alphabetical beginning at proper ages. These represent inculcation of some religious spirit in children. However, proper superworldly education started at some higher age under saintly scholars. When pupils had an urge for it, they had to accept certain formalities like celibacy and other vows. They had much to practice than learn.
However, there were two types of texts to be learnt by them. The first types are called primary or Anga texts twelve in number -- one being lost to memory – hence now eleven. The other types are called secondary – without Anga texts. Their number varies between 14 to 72. They are extensions of primary texts and elaborate their contents in different ways. However, one can have their preliminary studies to make one's life ethically sound for better worldly living.
It must, however, be pointed out that these super

Page #141

Branches of Learning in Canons : 119
worldly texts have worldly contexts also to elaborate the nature of the world system and its ways. A good proportion of them describe these contexts through legends, history, stories and other general descriptions. They indicate men and women about their duties and efforts to make themselves capable of spiritual growth. Thus, superworldly learnings should not be taken as exclusive but it is inclusive of worldly learnings also. The worldly learnings form a part and parcel of these learnings. They are invariably connected. They are, however, taught by religious teachers instead of other two classes of teachers. Scope of Current Studies
The current studies will involve only those subjects which come under physical sciences and life sciences, home science and medicine. It must be apprehended that the early literature does not prove to have had watertight classification of subjects or branches as it is today. It is observed that every important text of canonical period involves contents covering many branches of learnings. Bhagavati, Samavāyānga and Sthānānga are said to be encyclopedial in nature. An attempt, therefore, will be made to sort out the early material subjectwise and arrange it with historical perspective for proper evaluation.
References (a) Bhagavati Sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1974, p.
1.
152.
(b) Ibid, Sadhumargi Jaina Sangha, Sailana, 1967, p.
1690. 2. (a) Sūyagaďo-1, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1984,
p. 158. (b) Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Thāṇānga, Jaina Vishva
Bharati, Ladnun, 1979, p. 232. 3. ibid, p. 355. 4. J. C. Sikdar, Studies in Bhagavati Sūtra, Jainology
Research Institute, Vaishali, 1964, pp. 327-387.

Page #142

120 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
5. Nathulal Gupta, Jaina-Bauddha Siksana Paddhati, Vishva
bharti Prakashan, Nagpur, 1985, p. 57. 6. Ācārya Battakera, Mülācāra-1, Bharatiya Jnanpitha, Delhi,
1984, p. 123. 7. Acarya Puspadanta & Bhutabali, Satkhangãgama, Vedana
Section, S. L. Jaina Trust, Amaravati, 1949, p. 232. 8. ibid, p. 232. 9. Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña, Samavão, Jaina Vishva Bharati,
Ladnun, 1984, p. 154. 10. Nandi Sūtra, APS Beawar, 1982, p. 155. 11. jñātādharmakathā, APS, Beawar, 1981, p. 48. 12. Gupta, Jaina-Bauddha Sikşaņa Paddhati, p. 70. 13. jñātādharmakathā, p. 137. 14. Ibid ( Introduction ), pp. 15-22. 15. Bhatta, Akalanka, Rājavārtika-1, Bharatiya Jnanapitha,
Kashi, 1953, p. 76. 16. Graduate Studies Bulletin, Cincinnati University, Ohio,
U. S. A., 1992.

Page #143

Chapter 4 Canonical Techniques of Objective
Studies
Objects of Studies
There are infinite number of objects, things or topics for studies in the world. However, their proper studies could not be done until a proper classification and methodology is developed. Bhagavati mentions unclassified list of 23-28 items for studies in a condensed manner which contains two broad classes :( a ) visible and (b) invisible. There are said to be ten invisible objects to the common man and the rest being visible. They are shown as below : Invisible Objects
Visible Objects? 1. Medium of motion
1. Earth 2. Medium of rest
2. Oceans, dense oceans 3. Space
3. World regions 4. Soul
4. Hells 5. Physical atoms
5. Heavens 6. Sound
6. Time (Samaya, Addha ) 7. Smell
7. Reals, Reality (Astikāyas ) 8. Air
8. Colourations 9. Omniscience
9. Faith 10. Salvation capacity 10. Cognition
11. Conation 12. Instinct 13. Karmas 14. Activity 15. Consciousness 16. Body 17. Parts and modes 18. Realities (Dravyas )

Page #144

122 0. Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
The invisibles have to believed on the authority of allknowing Jinas. The invisibility of smell and air is due to gaseous state. However, their liquid and solid forms have been proved to be visible. Similarly, the visibility of consciousness, cognition and conation, faith, hells and heavens is a matter worth rethinking.
These topics may also be classified in two ways (a) living and (b) non-living. Later on, all these topics were classified under six basic realities in the universe as below :
(a) Living (b) Non-living
(1) Mattergy, (2-3) Medium of rest
and motion, (5) Space and ( 6 ) Time.
Thus, the infinite objects involve only six variety of Reals which one could learn or study about.
Doors of Disquisitions: Aspective Studies
Dixit seems to be right in saying that Jaina scholars were in the habit of 'Aspective Studies' about objects. They have gradually developed a ready-made list of such aspects. This development could be surmised from the descriptions available in canons of different periods. Not only this, one finds some parallel and seemingly unrelated lists in the two traditions. While Svetāmbaras1 have aspect listings from 10 to 36 finally culminating in 20 to 23, the Digambarass have 6, 8 or 20 aspects from different considerations. Some lists have only aspects of living activities as the aim while others have general aspects as well. However, inclusive similarities could be traced in both types of lists. The Svetambara lists are contained in Bhagavati, Prajñāpanā and Jivābhigama while Digambara lists are contained in Satkhandagama, Niyamasāra, Mūlācāra and Tattvärtha-sutra. Table 1 shows that the number of aspects varies in each text and Table 2 indicates that the names of aspects also vary therein with a final numerical agreement of 20 aspects in Jivabhigama and Mūlācāra.
This aspectology of the Jainas is canonically termed as Anuyogadvāra system or a system of Doors of Disquisitions

Page #145

(D. D.). The author prefers this term in preference to others by many authors. Of course, the word Anuyoga is a postcanonical term. Previously, Nikṣepa ( Positings ), Adhigama (Knowledge) and Nyasa (Placement ) terms were used for this meaning. The tabulated D. D. could be seen to suggest that they are related with physical and psychical or superphysical aspects, the ratio being nearly 2: 1. Also, it is seen that the first and oldest attempt of Bhagavati in this direction is chiefly based on physical (life span, body, activity, intake, respiration, instincts, births, etc.) aspects. The concept of soul seems to be not that important as later. The inclusion of many other disquisitions related with the living and non-living entities are extensions from time to time as the process of gaining knowledge could develop due to karma theory, selfrealisation process and other concepts. That is why, at some stage, the doors of disquistions mainly represented life activities in their multi-farious formulations as in the case of spiritual stages (Guna-sthānas ). It is due to this periodical development that one finds different numbers and names in different ( and even in the same also ) canonical or pro-canonical treatises. In Satkhaṇḍāgama and Mūlācāra, even different traditions are also mentioned. Table 1 gives the numerical listings of disquisition doors in different chronological ( assumed) canons suggesting that each has a list differing from the other either in number, name or tradition.
Table 1: Numerical Listings of Disquisition Doors in Some
Canons.
No.
Source
1
2
1. Bhagavati
2. Bhagavati
3. Bhagavati
4. Bhagavati
Canonical Techniques of Objective Study: 123

No. of D. D.
3
5
11
10
11
Reference 4
p. 211, ( Positings 4,
Quality 1)
1. 2, pp. 35-45
1. 5, p. 75
9. 3, p. 1595

Page #146

124 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
3
4
1 2 5. Bhagavati 6. Bhagavati 7. Prajnapana 8. Prajiāpanã 9. Prainapanã 10. Prajnapanã 11. Jivābhigama 12. Jivābhigama 13. Satkhandāgama 14. Satkhandāgama
23
15. Mūlācāra
20
20 8. 2, p. 1317 36 25. 6, p. 3344 36 Vol. 1, 1 p. 13 27 Vol. 1, 3 p. 326 22 Vol. 2, 18 p. 326 10 Vol. 2, 13 p. 123
Vol. 1 p. 57 20 Vol. 3. 10 p. 1374 14 Vol. 1,1.4 p. 33 8 Vol. 1. 1.7 p. 156 (Şat
sankhyādi ) 7 1,5 p. 10,
Body, Senses, Age, birth-place, species 14 Märganās (Investigations ) 14 Gunasthānas ( Spiritual stages )
2, 707 p.11 (Nirdeśa etc. ) 20 2, 1045 p. 205 ( Paryāpti
chapter )
p. 31. Species, birthplaces, 17
Living/ Mārganās – 14 42 p. 40. 14 species, 14 Mārganās
and 14 Gunasthānas Vol. 2,
Instincts 10, 2. Upayoga 12, 20 3. Prānas 10, 4. Paryāptis 80 (Completions ) 6, 5. Species
14, 6. 14 Mārganās, 7. 14.
Gunasthānas 8 Şat-Sankhyādi 2,4,6,8 1. Pramāna-naya
2. Positings 4
16. Mūlācāra 17. Mūlācāra
18. Niyama-sāra
19. Dhavala
20. Dhavala 21. Tattvārtha-sūtra

Page #147

1
2
Canonical Techniques of Objective Study: 125
3
22. Anuyogadvāra- 9
Sutra

4
3. Nirdeśa etc. 6
4. Sat-sankhyādi 8
p. 68. 1. Sat-sankhyādi - 8 Bhāga (proportion )-1 4
p. 51. Positings Place and Time
23. Anuyogadvāra- 6 Sutra
It is noteworthy that Satkhaṇdāgma and Mūlācāra of Digambaras mention two traditions. The first being related with traditional canons, while the origin of the second is not clear. There are two types of second tradition one of 8 D. D. in Satkhaṇdāgama and Anuyogadvāra-sūtra and the other of 6 D.D. as in Mūlācāra. The ADS mention of 8 or 9 and nonmention of canonical D. D. suggests that it is a composition later than these pro-canons -Satkhaṇḍāgama and Mulācāra. Secondly, mention of four doors in Niyama-sara ( 17 or 30 by sub-classification) of Kundakunda in place of seven ( 20 or 33 by sub-classification) in Mūlācāra suggests the later to be of earlier date. Thus, Anuyogadvāra should be later than Kundakunda or Baṭṭakera. Thirdly, the mention of the second tradition of D. D. differently in Satkhaṇḍāgama and Mūlācāra indicates that they must have different sources, per chance, one western or northern ( 8 ) and the other southern ( 6 ). It seems that this tradition may have developed separately though its seedlings could be traceable in canonical D.D.'s. It is specific to the Digambara tradition followed by ADS. Many of these disquisition doors (upto 10-12) are included in 26 expository introductions in ADS (p. 459 ). This shows ADS has attempted to consolidate the variety of D. D.'s under one set which Umāsvāti seems unable to do as he mentions all sets separately, his commentators explaining this for the benefit of different disciplary standards'.
It is observed, however, that these new sets of disquisition doors have a speciality of having general applicability for

Page #148

126 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
learning about any object of living or non-living, visible or nonvisible nature. The induction of topics of investigations (Mārganas ) or/and spiritual stages (Gunasthāna ) and others as disquisition doors was an intermediate stage during canonic period when only life activities became primarily important. The first list of Bhagavati lead to this surmise. However, out of six or eight D. D. systems, the latter was preferred by Umāsvāti, Aryarakṣita, Pūjyapāda, Virasena and others while 6 D. D. System of Mūlācāra was overlooked. This seems to be reasonable as there is duplication in the lists as suggested by Jaina recently as below. Moreover, the 8 D. D. system is more generalised by introduction of 'modal' door into it which the 6 D.D. system does not have. This 8 D. D. system does also involve the 4-6 positing systems and the valid cognition system. The 8 D. D. system does show a good amount of scientific approach. Doors of Disquisitions in Different sources
Table 2 gives a comparative list of canonical disquisition doors from different sources. The list, on consolidation, suggests that
(a) Canonically objects could be studied through 79 aspects.
(b) Many aspects seem to have synonymity as shown below : (i) Bhavyatva, Carama, Antakriya Salvation capacity (ii) Caritra, Samyama, Samyata Restraint ( iii ) Prajiāpana, Sat, Năma, Nirdesa Naming (iv) Darśana, Samyaktva, Drsti Faith (v) Kāla, Sthiti
Life span (vi) Antara, Kāyasthiti
Interval (vii) Jiva, Kāya, Jivasthāna,
Classification, Taxology Jiva-Samāsa-Vidhāna (viii) Parimāna, Sānkhya
Numerical strength (ix) Upayoga, Pasyattā
Consciousness (*) Avagāhana, Kșetra
Accomodation ( xi ) Paryāya, Višesa, Bhāva Modes, modifications

Page #149

Table 2: Doors of Disquisitions in Jaina Canons* (Anuyoga-dvāras ).
No. Name
1
2
1.
Life-span
2. Spatial accommo
dation
3. Body
Bone Joints
4.
5. Shape
6.
Colouration
Outlook
Knowledge
7.
8.
9. Activity
10. Consciousness
11. Libido
12. Passion
13. Height
14. Effort
15. Intake
16. Respiration
Samskṛta 3
Sthiti
Avagahana
Sarira Samhanana
Samsthāna
Lesya
Drsti
Jñāna
Yoga
Upayoga
Veda
Kaṣāya
Uccată
Adhyavasaya
Ahāra
Svāsocchvāsa
B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 P-1 P-2 P-3 J
S
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X
-
X
1
1
-
X
T
X X
T
││
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
x x
X
X
X X X I││││
1
II x I x x
-
x x
x | | x
I
X X X
X
-
1 x x x x x x
x
x x x I
X | I
-
x I x x x x x | | x |
T
X II X X X X II XXI X
X
1
--
X
x II x x x x x x | | x |
X
-
F
| | | x¦ x x x x x II x
-
X
X
X
I
X
X
x x x x x x x x x x II X
I
T
T
T
N M ADS
14 15 16
XII x I x x x x x x x
1
X
i 1 x
I X X
X II x x |
I
X
X
X X I X
1 x x
I x x I
x 1
1
T
T
TIT
I│
U
17
1
I
Canonical Techniques of Objective Study: 127

Page #150

2
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14
17

1
i
1
-
-
i
1
I x
X
X
XX X
x
- X X
X
- X X
X X X
x
- X
x x
X
128 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
X
1 1 1 1 1 * * 1 * * , illo
X
X
X
17. Karmas 18. Colour 19. Feeling 20. Instinct 21. Birth, genesis 22. Destinity 23. Senses 24. Completioned 25. Fine 26. Births 27. Liberatable 28. Attainment 29. Interval 30. Relative Strength 31. Modification 32. Time ( sacred ) 33. Identification 34. Spatial Location 35. Time, Duration
1
3 Karma Varņa Vedanā Safịĩã Upapāta Gati Indriya Paryāpta Sūksma. Bhāvastha Bhavya Labdhi Antarkāyasthiti Alpabahutva Paryāya, Parināma Tirtha Linga Ksetra Kala

III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X
** I * I *1 III IX X XI XII c
1 1
1 1
. III IX XIIIIII * !* && ! * X X X X X X X
x
-
1
X
1
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
--
X
X
1
1
1 1
1
1

1
-
X
X
1

Page #151

3
6
7
9
10
11 12
13 14
15
16

1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
X
X
1
|
|
1
|
1
|

1 2 36. Karmic Exp. 37. Attachment 38. Conduct form 39. Right Conduct 40. Transgression 41. Kārmic Bondage 42. Conduct ( attain) 43. Extrication 44. Conduct 45. Measure, Number 46. Modes (P/P) 47. Naming 48. Restraint 49. Prematuration 50. Loss of Gains 51. Contact area 52. Position, station 53. Specification 54. Birthplace
Veda Rāga Kalpa Caritra Pratisevana Karmabandha Akarsa Samudghāta Sannikarsa Sārkhya, Parimāna Bhāva PrajñāpanẸ, Sat Samyama Udirana Upasampat-Hana Sparsana Sthāna Višesa, Paryāya Yoni
1 1 1
1
x пт тxxxx xxxxxxxx xxxx | Ф
x 1 * 1 1 1 * * *
III x 1 1 1 1 1 x 1 1 1 1 1
x
|
|
|
Canonical Techniques of Objective Study : 129
x
|
|
x
1
|
1
|

1
X

Page #152

1
2
55. Last birth 56. Right faith
57. Descendance
58. Direction
59. Living 60. Righteousness
61. Mattergy 62. Destinities 63. Speech, Language
64. Liberality
65. Existential Ext.
66. Spiritual Stages
67. Liberatability 68. Species 69. Naming
70. Cause, Prep.
71. Ownership
72. Proportion
73. Durational, Interval
3
Carima
Samyaktva
Cyavana, Gati-Agati
Diśā
Jiva, Kāya Samyaktva
Pudgala Mahādaṇḍaka Bhasaka
Parita
Astikāya
Guṇasthāna
Bhavyatva
Kula
Nama-nirdeśa, Sat
Sādhāna
Svāmitva
Bhāga Kāyasthiti
4 5 6 7
1
I│
11
8
∞ | |
9
XIII I X
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
X
X
x x I x x x x
I
1 x x I
X X
1 1 1 1 X
T
XX
I
I X X I
X
1
x
1
X
X
x
I
1
T
1
T
IXXI
1 x x I
17
1
I
1
1
X
X
x x
X
I │
130 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons

Page #153

1
2
74. Last effort for
liberation
75. Feeling Bonding 76. Consciousness
77. Sex-activity
78. Clairvoyance, ESP 79. Activity`
3
Antarkriyā
Veda-bandhaka
Paśyatta Pravicāra
Avadhi konwledge Prayoga, Yoga
TOTAL
*B-1 - B-5: Bhagavati 1.2, 1.5, 8.2, 9.3, 25.6 J: Jivābhigama 1, p. 57
M: Mūlācāra
x : Inclusion
NOTE
4
5 6 7 8
1
I
1
1111
1
││
I
9
X
P-1
10 11
12 13 14 15 16
│││
x x
11
1 1
│I
1
11 10 20 11 36 36 27 22 22 27 18 27 9
S: Satkhaṇḍāgama
ADS: Anuyogadvāra-sūtra
- : Exclusion
There are some differences and repetitions in many references.
17
T
1111!
8
- P-3 : Prajñāpanā 1.1, 1.3, 2.18 N: Niyamasāra
U: Tattvärtha-sūtra
Canonical Techniques of Objective Study: 131

Page #154

132 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
(c) Many aspects seem to be duplications :
(i) Sanghata, ( ii ) Safina-Safịni ( instincts ), ( iii ) Veda ( Libido ), (iv) Kāla.
. If these synonyms and duplications are regularised, one can find that there could be about fifty aspects for knowing about any object. The present generation is not in a position to explain such a variety of names except to say that communication gap and different periodical insertions might have led to the current state of affairs. The present canonical scholars should look into the co-ordination in this regard for the younger generation. Kapadia has not dealt with this pointo.
(d) It is observed that 6/8 aspect tradition of Satkhandāgama and Mūlācāra are indirectly involved in later canons. The Bhagavati and Prajñāpanā seem to be unknown to these systems. As stated earlier, these systems are shown in Table 3 on comparative basis and the readers could draw their own conclusions despite author's expressions. Table 3 : 6/8 Disquisition Doors. 6-system 8-system
Scientific system Naming (Nirdesa ) Existential naming Name
(Sat) Preparation
Preparation ( Sādhana )
methods Classification Number, Relative Properties (Vidhāna )
strength Substratum
Abode, pervasion Properties ( Adhikarana ) (Kþetra, Sparśana ) Duration (Sthiti ) Duration, Interval Properties
(Kāla, antara) Ownership
Physical/mental Uses (Svāmitva ) modes ( Bhāva )
(e) The development of topics of Investigations ( Mārganās ) seems to have post-canonical origin. The spiritual stages have also the same fate though traces of their develop

Page #155

Canonical Techniques of Objective Study : 133
ment exist in canons. The classification of living ones also seems to have the same track which starts with six living species.
(f) It is observed that most texts under reference contain more than one list of D. D.'s in different sections. This is also the case for many more descriptions. This has led to some logical suggestion by recent authors :
(i) Most canons are authored by many ācāryas of different periods.
(ii) The different listings suggest periodical interpolations and corruptions in original texts.
(iii) The canons are supposed to be consistent. The different listings and descriptions on any single topic in different parts of the same book or different books contain their consistency. This fact, therefore, should be interpreted in a better logical way with historical perspective.
These suggestions should be checked and verified with proper seriousness to alleviate faith erosion in canons. Overall Doors of Disquisition
Despite later predominance of 8 D. D. system, one should look into the canonical disquisitions whether they represent the specific points of 8 D. D. system. As said before, the 80 odd D.D.'s of Table 2 can be consolidated into the 8door system also as shown in Table 4. It is observed that most of the disquisition doors come under the physical and psychical category of modal disquisition. Secondly, while most of disquisitions are related with the living entities, there are some which refer to all type of entities. Thus, Akalanka has illustrated the non-living on the basis of these doorso. It is these doors which are most interesting to us in modern times.
Jaina's equation of these doors has already been pointed out. Umāsvāti has illustrated that quantitative studies could also be made about the objects alongwith qualitative ones. However, it could now be borne in mind from Tabl3 3

Page #156

134 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
that even in olden days, the categories of aspects were nearly the same as current though their horizons might have broadened. Table 4 : Different Disquisition Doors under 8 D. D. System. 1. Existential Naming Prajñāpanā, Astikāya, Sādhāna, (Sat)
Sat, Nirdesa 2. Sankhya
Dravyapramāņa, Vidhāna, Kāya, (Numeration ) Jivasamāsa, Quantity, Akarsa 3. Spatial Location Kșetra, Avagāhana, Height, Fine(Kşetra )
ness, Position, Direction, Dandaka ( Places of kārmic realisation ),
Adhikarana 4. Pervasion/Contact Sparsana
area ( Sparśana ) 5. Kāla ( duration, time ) Kāla, Sthiti ( life-span ), Tirtha 6. Interval (Antara ) Antara, Kāya-sthiti 7. Relative Strength Bhāga (proportion ), Alpabahutva
(Alpabahutva ) 8. Modes (Bhāva ) Physical
Modification (Pariņāma, Visesa, Paryaya ), Shape, Bone-joints, Sex (pravicāra, sex-pleasure ), Intake, Respiration, Colour Instincts, Speech, Senses, Completions, Birth, Birth-places, Species, Expansion, Pudgala, Attainments, Identification, Kalpa ( form, conduct ), Destinity ( Chyavan ), Ownership. Psychical Colouration, Passion, Activity, Consciousness (Pasyatta ), Feeling ( feeling, feeler ), Kārmic bondage, Kārmic feeling, Kārmic prematuration, Attachment, Restraint (Caritra, Sannikarşa ), Spiritual stages, Libe

Page #157

Canonical Techniques of Objective Study : 135
ratability ( Bhāvaparita, Caram, Antakriya, bhāva-siddhikā), Knowledge, Avadhi, Trangressions (Pratisevana ), Loss of Gains (Upasampat-han ), Right faith (Outlook,
Darsana ), Feeling-bonding. Cognitive Processes for Objective Studies
The different aspective studies are to be carried out through some cognitive processes. Bhagavati-sūtra and Rājapraśniya are the early canons mentioning five types of cognitions - Sensory (Mati ), Scriptural ( Sruta ), Clairvoyance (Avadhi ), Telepathy (Manan-paryaya ) and Absolute (Kevala ). The major objective studies are made and catalysed by sensory and scriptural cognitions. There is quite a good description about them in canonical and post-canonical literature. The sensory knowledge about objects is most important and is saia to consist of five stages shown in Table 5. These stages are virtually equivalent to the current five scientific steps for obtaining knowledge mentioned in Table 5 too. This makes it clear that the canonical or post-canonical period has been utilising the same processes as used today. Moreover, despite the fact that there was no instrumentation in those days there was high intellectual acuteness as shown by classification of sensory knowledge in 336-456 types'. It was agreed that the knowledge will be exact when senses, mind, light and other auxilliary causes are normal. This is the basis of canonical descriptions about the physical phenomena. It is, therefore, highly interesting to compare the canonical and current descriptions. It could be expected that there should not be much difference in both types of descriptions due to similar processes being adopted. Jaina has, however, shown that the canonical descriptions are more of physical and qualitative nature. Barring few cases, there seems to be not much fineness there. There seems to be sufficient gap between these two descriptions. However, L. C. Jainal2 has shown that historically, the

Page #158

Table 5 Five Stages of Sensory Knowledge.
No. Stage
Definition
1. Perception/Conation First sense-object
( Darśana)
contact
2. Apprehension
(Avagraha)
3. Speculation ( Ihā)
4. Perceptual Judge
Repeated sense-object
contact
Identification process
about object
Intellectual Identifi
ment (Avaya, Apāya) cation of Object
5. Retention/Recording Memorising/recording
( Dhāraṇā)
the inferences
Nature
Physical
Physical
cognitive
Mental
Mental
Cognitive
Function
Indistinctness
Perception/
cognition
Analysis
Judgement
Retention/
recording
Scientific Equivalent
Experiment
Observation
Classification
Inference
Communication,
hypothesis.
136 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons

Page #159

Canonical Techniques of Objective Study : 137
Jainas stand better in many concepts.
There are three basic concepts of the Jainas on which their theory of knowledge is based and which might be the gapping sources. They need elaboration with reference to current concepts :
(i) The eyes and mind are non-contactile. They do not have contact with objects for knowledge.
(ii) The eyes see grosser objects in comparison to other senses.
(iii) There are perfect souls which are omniscients. They observe all the phenomena all the times accurately.
The non-contactility of eye is a canonical concept13. It seems to be based on point (ii) mentioned above. Scientists, however, say that the eye works like a camera which works in the presence of light (normal or infra-red) through indirect contact with the object. Thus, non-contactility should mean indirect contactility. The scientists proclaim that even the darkness is a form of light outside the human visibility range and within the range of cat or owls. Similarly, the brain or physical mind is working more indirectly than eye. It must receive sensations before it works.
The second concept also does not seem to be wholly correct'4. Actually, it is the eye and visual instruments which determine the fineness. The other senses have molecular contacts only.
The concept of omniscience of Mahāvira was disputed by Buddhists in his times. The concept seems to represent highest extrapolation of knowledgeability. The canons are recognised on this basis only. The major criteria of omniscience is consistency in descriptions with respect to logic and validity as Kundakunda points out in Niyamasāra and other trea tises. However, the descriptions about astral world, redefining about many conceptual contents and others are the facts which suggest that this concept needs reconsideration and exami

Page #160

138 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
nation. Many scholars have expressed thought about this concept's. This attitude will lead the proper growth of knowledge. This leads to a more intelligible fact that the scriptures should not be taken as final word on any matter. Uttarādhyayana gives the new generation a pointer by asking one to analyse things by intellect16. The respect for sacred texts is as obstructive of true knowledge as the respect for the physical body and world. It is said that only that sacred text should be accepted as worth following which describes what is seen, heard, well thought and passes the intellectual test. Thus, they should be taken to represent and communicate about what is known and indicate about the new possibilities. They should be viewed with historical perspective for faith therein.
References 1. Bhagavati Sūtra-3, Sadhumargi J. S. Sangha, Sailana,
1967, p. 1297. 2. K. K. Dixit, Jaina Ontology, L. D. Institute, Ahmedabad,
1971, p. 19. 3. ibid, p. 14. 4. (a) Bhagavati Sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1974, p.
75. (b) śyām Ārya, Prajñāpanā, A. P. S., Beawar, 1983,
p. 13. 5. (a) Ācārya Puşpadanta & Bhūtabali, Satkhandāgama Sat
prarūpaņa, Varni Granthamala, Varanasi, 1971, p. 12. (b) Ācārya Battakera, Mūlācāra, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Delhi, 1984, p. 10 and Mülācāra-2, p. 11. Ācārya Kundakunda, Niyamasāra, Central Jaina Publish
ing House, Lucknow, 1931, p. 31. 7. Pujyapāda, Sarvārtha-siddhi, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi,
1971, p. 21. 8. N. L. Jain's Article in Pt. . M. L. Shastri Sädhuvāda
Grantha, J. M. L. S. S. Sarunt. Sewa, 1989, p. 218.
6.

Page #161

Canonical Techniques of Objective Study : 139
9. H. R. Kapadia, History of Canonical Literature of Jainas,
Surat, 1941. 10. Bhatta, Akalanka, Rājavārttika, Bharatiya Jnanapitha,
Delhi, 1953, p. 39. 11. Pt. J. M. L. Shastri Sādhuvāda Grantha, p. 218. 12. L. C. Jain, Basic Mathematics, Prakrit Bharati, Jaipur,
1982. 13. (a) Mahendra Kumar, Jaina Darsana, Varni Granthmala,
Varanasi, 1966, p. 269. (b) Kundakunda, Pravacanasāra, Raichandra Ashrama,
Agas, 1984, p. 35, p. 386. 14. Bhatta, Akalanka, Rājavārttika, p. 484. 15. Doshi, Bechardas, Jaina Sāhitya kā Brhad Itihāsa, Pārsva
nath Vidyashram, Kashi, 1966, p. 109. 16. (a) Uttarādhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967,
p. 307. (6) Upadhyay, Amar Muni; Panna Sammikkhaye Dhammar, Virayatana, Rajagir, 1987, p. 9.

Page #162

Page #163

Section Two
Chemistry
The world of matter is chiefly described in Physics and Chemistry of today. While physics deals with gross matter and natural energies, chemistry deals with the definition, properties and classification of gross and fine matter, its transformation, structure, actions and reactions together with synthesis of new materials. In canonical days, the studies were limited to natural substances. A large amount of material is available in canons concerning these branches.
Attempts have already been made by many authors to present Jainological contents in stray manner. However, it has been found necessary to describe it in a comparatively comprehensive and coherent way. The following three chapters will deal with chemical contents followed by physical contents:
1. Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification.
2. Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations. 3. Jaina Thory of Atoms.

Page #164

Page #165

Chapter 5
Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification
Defining the Definition
The Jainas assume the world as real consisting of many realities. The realism is in contrast with the idealism of Vedāntins and Madhyamic Buddhas. It is better realistic than Carvāka or Nyāya-Vaiseṣikas1. The various realities are commonly termed by different names like Tattvas, Arthas, Padarthas, Tattvärthas and Dravyas. These terms include most of the terms used in other Indian philosophies like Padarthas of Vaiseṣikas, Arthas of Nyāya school and Tattvas of Sankhya school. These have some difference in their meanings and number as well. This is shown in Table 1. For example, Dravya is one of the realities in Vaiseṣika school while it is the common name for the reality in Jaina school. However, Umāsvāti must be given credit for retaining only two terms of Tattva and Dravya for the reality which have been followed by later Jaina scholars2. Table 1 Realities in Major Indian Philosophies.
System
Name Number
1. Sankhya Tattvas
25
2. Vaiśeşika Padarthas 6, 7
16
Artha
3. Nyāya 4. Buddhas Aryasatya
5. Jainas

Classification Non-living Qualities
Living
1
21
1 (part) 1 (part) 1 ( part ) 1 ( part)
1
1
1
4
(a) Dravyas 6 (b) Tattvas
5
7 (c) Padartha 9-11
7, 8, 9
Prior to this, different canons used varied terms for
3
5, 6
15
1 (part) 3
4,5
1
1

Page #166

144 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
realities. Uttarādhyayana ( Tattva, Dravya ), Sthānānga (Padārtha, Astikāya ), Sūtra-krtānga, Bhagavati, Samavāyānga (Astikāya ), Kundakunda (Artha, Padārtha, Tattvārtha, Dravya, Astikāya ) have used different terms to mean the same realities. It is clear that Kundakunda's period was most varied in this respect. Reality is the english term used here preferably for these terms over the term substance as it traditionally connotes only the material nature of the reality.
The basic question here is - What is reality? How to differentiate it from non-reals ? A definition is required for its distinctive identification from similar or dis-similar class. The canonical definition for reality has been developed through the ages. It has changed from reality as substratum of qualities to substratum of qualities or attributes and modes between canonical and Kundakunda period. However, these are the characteristics of reality and not proper definition.
Akalanka has classified definition in two types — (i) basic or non-separable (ātmabhūta ) like hotness of fire and ( ii ) non-basic, dissimilar or separable (anātmabhūta ) like Deva-datta with a rod. Later on, it was classified in two other types — general and specific. The general definition is meant for identifying the class of substances on the basis of basic, natural or similar properties ( svarūpa-upādāna ). In contrast, the specific definition is meant for distinguishing one substance from another of same or different class on the basis of dissimilarities between them. This definitional classification is based on the assumption that every reality has an inherent quality and the change associated with it called modality. For example, colour is a general quality while white or black colour is a modality. Any coloured substance could be classified under similar definitional category but black or any specific coloured substance will be classified under dis-similarity-based category. Both of these qualities and modalities have generality and specificity. Devasena' and Manikyanandis have illustrated these definitions in their own way leading to the same meaning.

Page #167

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 145
However, it is noteworthy that while Devasena classifies definition with respect to quality and modes, the latter does it on the basis of generality and specificity of these factors. Though the latter seems to be better refined, we will follow Devasena because of its better illustrative nature as shown in Table 2 and 2A. The elaboration in defining the definition has led much refinement in the definition of reality in general and matter in particular by the Jainas. Table 2 : Details of Definition (Devasena ).
Definition
Qualitative
Modal
General': Specific Fine, Indistinct Gross, Distinct 8 attributes (M) 16 attributes (M) 11 attributes (A)14 attributes (U/A) I Normal Non-normal
Normal. Non-normal Table 2A : Details of Definition ( Mānikyanandi)
Definition
General 8 Attributes ( Mallavādi) 11 Attributes ( Akalanka, A)
Specific 16 Attributes (M) 14 Attributes (U/A
Similarity based Similarity based Dis-similarity Dis-similarity based on qualities on Modes based on qualities on modes (Sãdrsya-astitva ) (Svarūpa-astitva ) (Paryāyas) (Vyatireka)
Definition of Reality
The definition of reality has developed over a long period. Canons and Umāsvāti have played dominant role in it. Akalańka described it literally by the term 'Dravya' which is like a raw wood (dāru ) which can undergo changes in shapes, size etc. This literalism is elaborated by the other terms used for it. However, we could define reality on the above-imentioned

Page #168

146 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
definitional basis. Accordingly, it has been defined in three ways leading to same meaning.
Firstly, a reality may be defined as that which has some general and some special attributes. It can not exist without these attributes. The general attributes are called common properties, existential similarities, qualities, tiryak-sāmānya, coexisting and natural properties. The other types of attributes are called distinctive, specific, višeşa, ürdhvatā sāmānya, svarūpa-astitva, paryāyas or modes. They may be co-existing or consecutive.
Akalanka' and Devasena have mentioned 8-11 genera! attributes of reality shown in Table 3. It is clear that Devasena has better clarity in this respect where only eight of Akalanka's attributes fit in five of Devasena. He has not only repeatitive properties of 2-3 and 4-5, but it also has a gross discrepancy of omitting perceptibility attribute altogether and mentioning only upward motion rather than general one as an attribute. Table 3 : General Attributes of Reality. Akalanka ( 11 )
Devasena ( 8 )
1. Existence
1. Existence ( Permanence ) 2. Particulate nature 2. Particulate nature 3. Non-pervasiveness 4. Modifiability
3. Changeability 5. Bonding with modes 6. Permanence or eternality 7. Motion upwards 4. Motion or action ( Functionality) 8. Non-perceptibility 5. Sense perceptibility or otherwise 9. Actorship ( Kartā ) 10. Enjoyer (Bhoktā ) 11. Differentiation
6. Knowledgeability (prameyatva ) 7. Weightlessness ( Individuality ) 8. Livingness or otherwise
-

Page #169

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 147
Per chance, there might be some copying mistake here as Shastrio has suggested in one more case. However, he seems to have livingness or otherwise as specific property. This variation indicates that despite Malvania! accruing fifth century to Mallavādi, his opinion could not become prevalent during Pūjyapāda ( mentioning only the first three followed by the word etc., fifth century )" or Akalanka ( 8th century ) age. His period, therefore, requires reconsideration.
Table 3 indicates that all the realities have all the eight attributes with two alternatives — they will either be (i) living or non-living and (ii) with or without sense perceptibility. These are the co-existing qualities without which nothing could be called a reality. Akalanka's attributes mainly refer to the living reality. Special Attributes
Devasena has also stated sixteen special attributes of realities. Out of which, six are attributed to material realities (touch, taste, colour, smell, form and non-livingness ) as accepted by Umāsvāti12 and six are attributed to living realities ( Knowledge of eight types, sight of four types, energy of two types, happiness of two types, livingness and formlessness or sense imperceptibility ). These are also co-existing properties. Auxiallary casuality in motion, rest, change and accommodation are the other four specific properties attributed to non-material and non-living realities.
In contrast, Umāsvāti13 has five specific properties of living realities in terms of volitional activities due to subsidence, destruction, subsidence-cum-destruction of karmas, rise of karmas and inherent nature like livingness. The first four of these are causes of the first four of Devasena. These together with livingness may be taken as equivalent to his five specific ones. Akalanka does not mention formlessness as a specific property of the living reality.
The non-material and non-living realities have formlessness and non-livingness as two common specific properties.

Page #170

148 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Moreover, each reality has a third uncommon attribute out of the four mentioned above. The details of specific properties are given in Table 4 which indicate that formlessness makes the difference between the two authors. There is one more point worth mentioning here. Despite the fact that Pujyapāda14 has defined forms as consisting of aggregation of touch, taste, smell, colour and shape, the separate mention of form leads one to conclude that Devasena differentiated between form and other four qualities. Secondly, inclusion of form or otherwise in both types of qualities seems to be a repeatition. Similar is the case with qualities of livingness or otherwise. These are specific to specific categories. It would have been better, had they not been included in the general attributes by Devasena. Natures of Realities
The duality of reality has been described in one more way by Devasena's. The nature of reality may be general with 11 varieties and special with 10 varieties as shown in Table 5.
Table 4 : Specific Attributes of Realities. Reality Akalanka/Umāsvāti15 Devasena Living 1-5. Volitional activities Knowledge, conation
due to (i) Subsidence of Karma Energy (ii) Destruction of Karmas Happiness (iii) Combination of (i) & (ii) Livingness (iv) Rise of Karma Sense-imperceptibility (v) Inherent properties ( like
livingness ) Non-living 6 Touch, taste, colour, 6Touch, taste, colour, Material smell, shape/form
smell, shape/form Non-livingness
Non-livingness Non-living 1-4 one of the four
1-4 one of the four non-mate- causalities
causalities rial Non-livingness
Non-livingness Formlessness

Page #171

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 149
All types of nature total 21. The natures in general consist of qualities or modes representing the existing present or permanent form, appearance or mode of the reality. Outwardly, there seems to be no co-relation between the earlier attributes and these natures. But, on closer examination, one can find sufficient equivalence together with some discrepancies from the earlier attributes. For example, the first six special natures are general attributes of Table 3. The last five general and the last four special natures show some repeatition and specificity from Table 5.
This generality-cum-specificity of reality represents another definition of reality as possessing qualities and modes. The living and material realities have all the 21 natures. The realities of medium of motion, rest and accommodation have 16 natures. The reality of time has only 15 natures.
Table 5 Natures of Realities.
General Natures 11
1. Permanence
2. Modifiability
3. Existentiality
4. Non-existentiality
5. Uni-naturality
6. Multinaturality
7. Differentiality 8. Identity
9. Salvation capacity 10. Salvation incapacity 11. Inherence
Specific Natures 10
Conscious Nature
Non-conscious Nature Formlessness
Formness

Uni-particulateness Multi-particulateness
Absolute nature
Non-absolute nature
Denaturation capacity (Bibhāva) Empirical nature
Existentiality as Reality
A third and basically simplest definition of reality has been given by Umāsvāti1. A reality is that which is Sat or existential. This existence has been defined as that which could be produced and destroyed despite maintaining its basic nature or it has changeability through permanence. The gold

Page #172

150 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
and its ornaments are cited as examples in this regard. This definition is also akin to the earlier ones as changeability refers to specific properties or modes and permanence to qualities. These terms have been generalised by Umāsvāti in an aphorism stating that a reality consists of qualities and modes. It is, thus, a substratum for them. This definition represents synthesis of the exclusivists like Buddhas and Vedāntin's opinion1". This definition is ahead of Uttaradhyayana 19 which specifies a reality with qualities only and is suggestive of Vaiseṣikas influence. Jaina20 has referred the periodical modification of the definition of reality in Uttaradhyayana, Pravacansara and Pañcāstikaya. Amṛtacandra21 has qualified reality with length and breadth. While the breadth represents coexisting attributes, the length represents consecutive attributes.
The existential definition is highly peculiar to Jainas and it has made the definition of other realities as defectless as possible.
Based on the above properties of general and specific attributes, qualities and modes or existentiality, one is in a position to define reality in a more concrete form. Accordingly, it can be defined as an entity consisting of aggregation or combination of eight general and 3-6 specific attributes, 15· 21 natures and existential characteristics. It means that a reality in Jaina philosophy is neither a particularity nor a universality exclusively, but it is a synthesis of both these types as Mehta has pointed out. Padmarajaiyā22 has stated these attributes in terms of their static and dynamic nature and has mentioned the reality to consist of a blend of both of them. It does not have any exclusive nature. This definition has accommodated all these types of attributes and has been made as accurate as possible.
The Vaiseṣikas are also credited for defining their reality of Dravya (material and non-material) which is an entity virtually equivalent to Jaina realities inclusive of the living and non-living. They define it as an entity having action or motion, quality and

Page #173

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification 151
inseparable causality in efforts23. The Jainas agree to this definition except the fact that they maintain the four basic qualities of touch, taste, smell, and colour as coexisting rather than otherwise. These and other qualities are inherent and inseparable from the reality. This is in contrast with the Vaiseşikas who agree qualities as a separate reality24. Jainas postulate their view on the basis of polyviewism and remove many discrepancies in characterisation of the reality. Sikdar25 has equated the property of action of Vaiseṣikas as modification in qualities of Jainas.
However, despite the similarity of definition of quality as such, the Vaiseṣikas seem to have large difference in enumerating them as shown in Table 626. They agree to 24 or 27 (modified) qualities including three sub-class of samskāra (trait) and two of Adrsta ( divinity) and liquidity at present. They have 11 general and 16 special qualities while the Jainas have 10 general and 16 special ones. Despite this nearly numerical similarity, Table 6 makes it clear that it would be very difficult to compare and contrast these qualities except the fact that the Jainas agree to touch, taste, smell and colour coexisting in material bodies and happiness, knowledge, sight and energy/effort to the living bodies. They also agree to quantity (fine, gross), combination (bond), decombination (division), sound, action, gravitation, liquidity, separation and number indirectly in different contexts27. Despite this difference, Vaiseṣikas description of similarities and dis-similarities is noteworthy. Table 6 Qualities in Jaina and Vaiseṣika Philosophies.
Jainas
Vaiśeşikas
(a) General Qualities
1. Existence or Permanence Number
2. Particulate nature
3. Motion/action
4. Sense perceptibility
5. Sense imperceptibility

Quality/measure
Differentiality/separation
Combination
Decombination

Page #174

152 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
11.
6. Weightlessness
Distantness 7. Livingness
Nearness 8. Non-livingness
Gravitation 9. Changeability
Liquidity ( casual ) 10. Knowledgeablity
Velocity
Elasticity (b) Specific qualities
(i) Material qualities 1. Touch
Touch 2. Taste
Taste 3. Colour
Colour 4. Smell
Smell 5. Form
Viscosity 6. Non-livingness
Liquidity ( Natural ) *. -
6 from above ( 6-11) (ii) Non-material Qualities 1. Livingness 2. Knowledge
Intelligence 3. Happiness
Happiness 4. Energyness
Effort 5. Formlessness 6. Sight 7. Medium of motion
Sorrow 8. Medium of rest
Desire 9. Medium of Accom
Jealousy modation 10. Medium of Change ( time) Emotion
Merit, goodness (dharma ) Demerit (adharma )
Sound However, Pañcānána's28 categorisation of qualities seems to be better as it maintains only the first five as general qualities and the rest as specific qualities. Here, the merit/demerit are forms of Adrsta and velocity, elasticity and emotions are forms of traits or latencies.

Page #175

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 153
Despite this, the Vaiseșika definition of reality (Dravya) seems to be incomplete on Jaina count as it does not include the qualities of sense-perceptibility ( or otherwise ), form, weightlessness, sight etc, in attributes, though they agree to some as separate realities. Nevertheless, they must be given credit to have qualities like elasticity, viscosity which the Jainas do not have. Despite this, Malvania29 points out that the Jaina definition of reality has been influenced by the Vaiseșikas. Classification of Reality
Jainas postulate poly-realism. They have classified their realities with different angles and they range from one to nine (sometimes upto eleven in canons ). From existential point of view, there is only one reality — Sat, which could be taken as expression based on universality of reality. This view does not lead to study them properly. The scriptures classify them in two ways -- (i) conscious (jiva ) and ( i ) non-conscious (ajiva.). This is the basic classification. Their inter-relationships have led to further divisions of reality in terms of (1) Categories or Tattvas seven in number or (ii) Padārthas nine in number and (iii) Dravyas formerly five and later six in number. These divisions seem to be relative ones. When the aim is religious, spiritual or ethical one, they vary between 7 to 11 in number. Umāsvāti30 reduced the canonical number to seven only excluding weal, woe, experiencing and substratum on the assumption of their possible inclusion in other classes ( influx and bondage ). When the aim is to study the physical world, they are five or six only. Thus, Umāsvāti has gone ahead of canons and Kundakunda in giving a concrete shape to the classification of reality which has been followed by later Jaina scholars. The various divisions of Jaina reality is given in Table 7. It is clear that the living and non-living realities form the base for other realities. Philosophers have discussed the possible origin of these two realities in terms of three stages -- concept of elements, concept of livingness originated from specific elemental combination and doctrine of dependant and indepen

Page #176

154 : Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Canons
dant souls. Nobody knows who postulated this independant soul doctrine but it has stayed since long and has been able to subdue the non-living elemental doctrine and most probably merge it in itself32.
Table 7: Division of Realities by Jainas.
Reality
Ethics based
Canonical 9-11
Living
Non-living
Influx
Bondage
Stoppage
Shredding
Salvation
Experiencing
Substratum
Weal
Woe
Umāsvāti 7
Living
Non-living (i) Living
Influx
Bondage
Stoppage
Shredding
Salvation

World-based
Non-living
Non-material
(ii) Medium of rest
(iii) Medium of Motion
(iv) Medium of accomodation (v) Medium of change (Time) (vi) Mattergy (Pudgala )
Material
One point must be mentioned here with respect to table 7. Though the table indicates the names of ethics based realities in a comparative way, but it is observed that the order of naming them is different in canons and Tattvartha-sūtra. The descriptions of Kundakunda and Sthānanga are similar where the reality of bondage is at eighth position in both and precedes salvation. Uttarādhyayana and Aupapātika have the bondage in the third place while Umãsväti puts it in the fourth place. No commentator has dealt with this difference of order. Possibly the canonical order was influenced by Bhagavadgitā advocating human mind as the cause for bondage and salvation. However, the order of Umāsvāti sounds more logical and psychologically convincing33.

All the realistic philosophies of India are unanimous about two realities living and non-living under different

Page #177

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 155
names. However, many schools considered quality, action etc. also as realities subject to logical scrutiny by the Jainas 34. While the Sānkhyas would include their realities in their basic classification, others have sub-classified them. This advanced method of classification suggests other philosophies developing later than the Sānkhyas. Even if one presumes their development at or near the same period, their different ways of classifications suggest their independent origin. However, it could easily be surmised from Table 8 that the Jainas and Vaišeşikas have excelled the others in this regard. Table 8 : Sub-classification of Reality-Dravya in Indian Schools. School Number Names Vaiseșikas 9 Soul, earth, water, fire, air, space, time,
direction, mind. Jainas
Soul, Mattergy, space, time, Medium of
rest & motion. Nyāya - 12 Soul, Body, Senses, Mind, Matter,
Actions, Liberation, other qualities-5 Buddha ( a ) 5 Skandha, Safjfa, Samskāra, Vedana,
Knowledge. (b) 12 Body, Five senses, Mind, Touch, Taste,
Colour, Smell, Sound. (c) 28 Life, Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Sense-organs,
Two sexes, Form, Taste, Smell, Sound,
Mind, Seven qualities, Expressions. Table 8 gives details of sub-classification of reality called Dravya (J, V), Prameya (N) and Dunkha (B). It is seen that despite varying forms and numbers of this class, any system can easily be explained in terms of Jaina school with some differentiations. For example, one could see that the 12 varieties of Prameya in Nyāya could be included in 2 varieties of Jainas ( Soul and Mattergy ) as qualities and actions are part of mattergy or soul. Similarly 9 varieties of Vaišeşikas could be included in four categories of Jainas as below :

Page #178

156 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
1-5
6-7
8
9
Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Mind
Space and direction
Time
Soul
in Mattergy non-living matter
in space (non-living non-matter) in Time (non-living non matter) in living entity
Five, Twelve or Twenty-eight varieties of Buddha school could be included in two (Soul and Mattergy) of the Jaina school. Sänkhya's twenty-five could be included in three (Soul Mattegy and Space) of the Jaina school. Thus, table 8 clearly shows that the Jaina classification is the most brief and scientific having minimum number of classes with a maximum of generalisation.
The Jaina classification has one more speciality. It postulates medium of motion and rest as primary reality which no other Indian school has advocated. Though the Vaiseṣikas have a quality of gravitation in Dravyas which is non-material and first cause of falling bodies but that does not compare with Jaina medium of rest as they have presumed it to be temporary as well as permanent, active and associative with earth and water only. The Jainas, on the other hand, assume it to be a universal medium, inert, permanent, neutral and external cause of rest. Thus the qualities of gravitation are just opposite to that of the medium of rest of the Jainas. Also, the Vaiseṣikas do not have the medium of motion which should be a complementary entity to gravitation. This also confirms more developed classification of reality by the Jainas adding proof to the statement of Sanghavi35 that the Jaina thought followed Vaiseşikas. Ray and Subbarayappa also agree with the ideas of Indian thoughts developing through S. V. and J. schools.
It may not be out of tune here to point out Prof. Jain's 36 statement that the concept of these mediums as realities was unknown even in the realm of scientific thoughts until Newton. He enunciated active force of gravitation or attraction (called Negative ether by Javeri37) among earthly and heavenly bodies. The indescribable medium of motion for light through space

Page #179

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 157
called ( positive ) ether of space was also postulated at the same time. Both of them were assumed material in the beginning but this nature was modified later to be non-material and inert. The development of relativity has cast some doubts on these postulates and the phenomena explained by them are now explained on the basis of 4-dimensional world. This description suggests, had the Jaina concepts been known to the world before Newton, science would have made a high intellectual jump. The above also indicates that the scientists are now moving far off the Jaina thoughts. The progress of knowledge has always been a continuously growing process.
We are concerned here with the world-based divisions of reality by Jainas. Among the different realities, the non-living reality seems to be quite important. It is responsible for the physical phenomena of the world. Table 7 indicates that it has two varieties - material and non-material. The material nonliving includes the current matter and various forms of energy and henceforth to be called mattergy while the other class includes the mediums of rest, motion, accommodation and change. This chapter will be limited to the material non-living only as we can directly study about it by many methods today and compare and contrast our current knowledge with the canonical one. Definition of Non-living Reality or Mattergy
The non-living material reality is most important. It is called Pudgala. It is of interest to learn about this reality involving the physical world of mattergy described by the philosophers. The term mattergy has been coined for this reality here, though it does not carry the same meaning as the original Samskrta term. The above mentioned definitions of reality apply to it. It is sat or existential. It can be specified by general and specific properties. Grammatically, the Samskrta term is very sound and consists of two words -pud and gala connoting the two important qualities of mattergy -- association (pud- ) and dissociation (gala ). Bhagavati 39 and Umāsvāti40 describe

Page #180

158 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
mattergy as 'Rūpi'. The word 'Rūpa' has six meanings - nature, practice, gross matter, heresay, quality and form41. But here it means 'mūrti' ( form ) or that having qualities perceptible by senses-specially the eye. Two qualities could easily be perceived by it - colour and shape. Thus, on first count, 'rūpi' means an entity perceptible to eye. However, a wider meaning has also been given to it. 'Rūpa' means five qualities - touch, taste, smell, colour and shape. This meaning is more general and utilitarian involving other senses too. Thus, the mattergy is that which undergoes changes in the above five qualities. Kundakunda and Umāsvāti favour this meaning leading to the conclusion that it is not the eye perceptibility which matters for mattergy but it is the sense perceptibility in general. The latter also holds the above qualities to be co-existing. If any one of them is manifest in a mattergy, the others will also be there sometimes in a dormant or indistinct form.
This definition of sense perceptibility of mattergy has been accepted by later Jaina scholars. This seems to be better developed over Bhagavati ( receivability by Jiva, binding or combining capacity ) and Uttarādhyayana 42 The literal definition refers to changeability. Thus, in summary, sense perceptibility and changeability through permanence are the characteristics of mattergy. This has all the eight general attributes and twenty-one natures. It is said to be eternal, active, extensive, pervasive in worldly space, formful, infinite and, of course, non-living real. Bhagavati mentions that different bodies, senses, activities, kārmic particles, mind, respiration etc. are all mattergies. Pañcāstikāya 43 adds one more adjective to this -- all sense-perceptibles are mattergies. Scientific Definition of Mattergy
The scientists have two different terms for Mattergy (Pudgala ) of the Jainas – matter and energy. Earlier these terms were separately defined but since Einstein, both the terms have now been merged in scientific world also.

Page #181

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 159
The scientists define matter with three common properties 44 -
(i) It should occupy space or it should have a volume or form.
(ii) It should have a weight.
(iii) It should be subject to our experience or knowledge.
The Jainas counted only ( 1 ) and (iii) as common property of matter, though their concept of Agurulaghutva - neither-heavy nor-light connotes the idea of weight indirectly.
Jainas have many additional attributes not postulated by scientists. In fact, the scientific definition is not complete and accurate. It fails to illustrate many of the basic properties. Jainas postulate particulate nature, constant motion, insensibility, changeability and other co-existing properties. Hence, the non-inclusion of weight as a common property may be due to the fact that the Jainas assumed energies like light, heat, etc. to be material not seemingly possessing weight.
Recent researches, however, suggest that howsoever small it may be, energies must have weight equivalent to Einstein's equation45. Even if we presume Jaina's 46 point of equating electron or other fundamental particles like quarks as the Jainistic atom, they have already been weighed. The scientists are trying to detect particles like neutrons or gravitational energies and they have every hope to prove even these particles to be material. Thus, the weightlessness should be taken as to mean small or negligible weight rather than complete absence of it. The same also applies to the scientific term of energy.
Muniśri"? holds that atoms in Jaina scriptures have two varieties – one with four tactile properties and the other with eight tactile qualities. The first one does lack property of weight while the other has it. This only means that the first of these should be energy while the other to be matter of the present.

Page #182

160 : Scientific Contents in Präkrta Canons
It could be surmised that inter-coversion of these two types must be occurring in nature specially energy into matter. The current scientists are trying to explain the process. Anyway, whether it is energy or matter, both must have weight, howsoever small it may be and, therefore, of particulate nature sometimes showing dual nature too in the finest states. This is what the Jainas must mean. However, Munisri has pointed out that this point of two varieties of atoms by Jainas has a capability of solving many intricate problems arising out of various theories of Universe.
The other common properties of matter not indicated in the scientific definition of matter are very important as they have a clear concept of law of conservation of mass and energy, changeability and the kinetic state of basic unit. The modern world is still unaware of these canonical concepts and books on history of science still have no mention about them. An effort should be made to let these facts be known to the world to evaluate Jaina contribution in the field of scientific concepts.
In the light of the above, it could be suggested that the general definition of matter by scientists must be made more illustrative of its general nature. Undoubtedly, this modification will follow Devasena.
The scientists also agree to many specific properties of matter besides the above general definition. Though the major specific properties could be included in those mentioned by philosophers, still there are many such attributes scientists have added to the list which do not find mention in Jaina canons. They are noted below :
1. Tactile properties - Density, hardness, state, melting and boiling points, brittleness.
2. Taste 3. Smell 4. Colour 5. Shape

Page #183

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 161
6. Others - Deliquescence, Effervescence, plasticity, porosity, solubility, surface tension, diffusion, malleability, viscosity, elasticity, etc.
Per chance, many of these scientific properties are based upon experimentation while the philosophical properties are based on natural observation. It is seen that there is deeper specificity shown by the scientists. The deficiency of general definition is, thus, partly made up by them in this way. Description of General Properties of Mattergy
Most of the general properties pointed out earlier are self explanatory and, per chance, do not require any special description. However, Akalanka44 and Devasena“9 have defined them through their commentaries and aphorisms. The existential property is related with the word 'sat' having a meaning of generality-curn-particularity ( quality and modes ). The quality of Dravyatva-reality-ness refers to changeability while Vastutva refers to functionality of the realities. Visibility should be taken as sense-perceptibility rather than eye-perceptibility only. Livingness refers to the two special qualities of seeing and knowing. Particulate nature and weightlessness refer to the basic atomic nature of the realities. Special Attributes of Mattergy
It has been pointed out that Jainas agree to six basic specifics of mattergy. All of them are sense-perceptible. The non-livingness is characterised by insensibility towards sense and absence of seeing and knowing. Rest of the five are subclassified in Table 9 with mention of innumerable varieties of each of them. Sthānanga mentions that these qualities are known or seen by common man only partially. These properties are co-existing ones. Scientists also agree to them. Thus, the Vaiseșika's view of their non-co-existence seems less scientific. For example, they assume air to have only tactile quality while all these qualities can be perceived in its liquified form.
The sub-classification of these qualities is also varied

Page #184

162
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
in different philosophies as shown in Table 10.
Table 9
Attribute
Sub-classification of Special Attributes by Jainas.
Subclasses Name
1. Touch
8
( tactile quality)
2. Taste
5
3. Smell 2
4. Colour 5 5. Shape
(a) 550
(b) 751
(c) 1152
Table 10: Sub-classification of Special Attributes in Some
Indian Philosophies.
System
1. Vaiśeṣikas53
2. Buddhas54
3. Jainas
4. Science55
Hot-cold, Light-heavy, hard-soft, Smooth-rough ( four pairs)
Sour, Sweet, Astringent, Bitter, Acid Good, Bad.
Black, Blue, Yellow, Red, White.
Point Space, Long, Circular, Triangular, Tetragonal.
Long, Short, Point space, circular, trigonal, tetragonal, hexagonal. Point space, Circular, Spherical, Triangular, Rectangular, Square, Hexagonal, Upper/Lower part symmetrical, Dwarf, Hunchbacked, Irregular/Unsymmetrical.

Touch Taste Smell
3
11
8
20
6
0654
2
4/14
2
9
Colour Shape

7
4/8
5
7+2
4
8
The scientists and philosophers agree that sense-perceptible matter is mutually effected directly or indirectly by the senses. Still, the basis of many canonical descriptions seems to be primarily eye-perceptibility. This is the first step for our learning/knowing process. But as this is based on non-contactile theory, the knowledge gained through eye has been called interior or of gross quality. That is why, many currently incorrect statements have crept in the canons. Some of them may be
11(5,7)
7, 32

Page #185

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 163
mentioned here :
(i) Energies like light etc. are said to be grosser than the gaseous air etc. by Kundakunda in his classification of mattergy (category 3-4) aggregates.
(ii) Sun has been said to be nearer the earth than
moon.
(iii) Sound has been said to be grosser than light particles as shown in 23 variforms (groupings - Vargaņās, Taijas (Light), Sound).
(iv) Fine bodied nigodas (micro-organisms) have been called grosser than gross bodied nigodas in variform classification.
(v) The senses in various types of living beings. (vi) The enumeration of colours and shapes.
Thus, the knowledge or effects based on partial contactility theory become important. The current scientists and Vaiśeṣikas do not agree on the non-contactility theory regarding eye. They believe a special type of contactility of this sense. It is in this context that Jaina has suggested to define the word A ( a, i.e. non- ) of Jainas56 as having a meaning of partial or indirect contactility making the Jaina theory more scientific. The eye perceptibility has been accepted to have a wider meaning of all sense perceptibility as stated earlier. The mattergy has five important aspects as shown in Table 9. These are disoussed below.
Tactile Attributes
Tactile attributes are related to touch effects. Samavāyānga 57 refers to ten touch effects but eight are common. The pair of heavy-light and neither-heavy-nor-light (which is also present in Sthānānga) has been missing in later canons. It has to be searched when this elimination took place. Does it mean that the concept of weightlessness is a later development? Table 11 shows that the common eight could be subclassified in four categories (a) thermal, hot and cold. (b)

Page #186

164 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
surfacial, hard, soft (c) gravimetric, light, heavy and (d) natural effects, smooth, rough. Jaina58 has referred the last two as representing crystalline nature. This does not seem to be correct as this should be included in shape or surface effects. In exemplifying the two, goat's milk and sand have been mentioned which also do not lend support to Jaina's view, However, Pujyapāda59 has clarified these effects in terms of electrical nature. Table 11 : Tactile Attributes. System Number Thermal Gravi. Natural Surfacial 1. Vaise- 4 hot, cold,
elasticity șikas
a-hot-a-cold 2. Bud- 11
Light, desires smooth, dhas
heavy
(thirst, rough
4 bhūtas hunger ) 3. Jainas 8/10 hot, cold light, smooth hard,
heavy ( 1 rough soft pair as
above ) 4. Science 20 hot, cold density pain, hard, soft,
effervescence, deliquiscence, smooth, rough 10, brittle etc.
cold
It is clear from Table 11 that the Vaiseșikas have only thermal and surface effects. Buddhas have pointed out all categories of effects with some difference. The scientists have only three types of touch-effects thermal, gravimetrio and sur-facial with a large number of additional varieties. In addition, they have also added feeling of pain ( as by pricking the needle in the body ) as one of the touch effects. They have been able to measure the pain sensitivity. This touch effect does not find mention in canons, though there appears to be some description about it, but it refers more to mental or spiritual

Page #187

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 165
process. However, the table suggests that Jaina touch effects are in advance of the Vaiseṣikas and Buddhas but they lag behind the current science.
(a) Thermal Effects
The thermal touch effects are agreed by all the systems. However, their number and accuracy varies. The Jainas have two thermal effects. There were no thermometers in philosophical age, hence, the normal healthy human body was taken as standard for relative hotness and coldness. Vaiseṣikas realised a third variety for those bodies which had the same temperature as the body. The Jainas did not feel for this variety. The Buddhas seem to include hotness in coldness. The scientists, however, express the thermal effects in terms of temperature. By measuring the melting and boiling points etc., they determine the purity of substances. By the concept of temperature, the scientists have given quantitative aspect to the thermal effects. This leads one to feel the comparative refinement by the scientists over the philosophical age.
(b) Surfacial Effects These effects are also agreed by all systems but their number and definition varies. The Jainas have only two varieties hard and soft. Though the Vaiseṣikas have not included them in their touch effects but they agree to hardness in solids and liquidity in liquids. In addition, they have enumerated elasticity as one of the effects which does not find mention in Jaina canons. The Buddhas and the scientists define the surface effects in terms of smoothness and roughness together with hardness and softness. Though the Buddhas have only one each in both types, but the other type of opposite nature could be inferred. On the other hang, the Jainas have explained the smoothness and roughness in terms of internal electrical nature of matter leading to their combination process. Moreover, the scientists have added many more surface effects (more than a dozen ) mentioned earlier. All these effects are related to the basic two of the Jainas but they show better insight into the surface effects. Their quan

-

Page #188

166 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
titative nature like the scale of hardness etc. makes them still more refined.
(c) Gravimetric Effects — All systems agree to the gravimetric effects in matter except the Vaiseșikas. The Jainas have two ( four earlier ) such effects - lightness and heaviness. Their description of 4-touch and 8-touch matter61 leads one to believe that the Vaiseșika's touch effects are based on atoms. The Jainas too propose atoms to be weightless and therefore surfaceless. But their term of a-light-a-heavy has been explained to mean very small or negligible weight normally called as weightless. The weightless atoms have only thermal and electrical nature, i.e., they are forms of energy. The others have all the four effects with particulate nature. The scientists denote gravimetric effect by density. The word 'ghana' in canons denotes solidification rather than density. The lightness and heaviness, thus, are due to low or high density. This property seems to be more fundamental rather than gross observation of gravimetric effects.
(d) Natural Effects - The Jainas have mentioned fourth type of effect, the natural effect in terms of electrical nature of bodies. There are two such forms - one opposite of the other termed as Snigdha and Rūkşa. This is the property by virtue of which bodies combine with each other. The enumeration of this effect suggests the deeper observation power of Jaina seers. Other philosophies have no mention of these forms though scientists agree to this nature of atoms developed by early twentieth century. But they have three varieties in this regard - positive, negative and zero. The first two terms are equivalent to the Jaina concept. The additional atoms (or matter ) of zero electrical nature were recently discovered. Contrary to others, the Buddhas inclusion of desire of thirst and hunger as touch effects does not seem to be logical as they are preferably concerned with taste and smell. Before concluding the tactile qualities, it must be added that there are many more of them known today. They refer to the

Page #189

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 167
physical or mechanical strength of matter. They have become important in modern world as they decide the utility of materials for specific purposes. The scriptures have little mention about them. The Vaiseṣikas seem to face little better in this regard as they have at least defined viscosity, liquidity, elasticity, velocity and other attributes of differring character though added later to the original 17 qualities.
It is observed, however, that the Jainas have shown sufficient observational capacity in their touch effects in comparision to other philosophies. They pointed out their electrical nature in fifth century62.
Taste Attributes
Taste is a property perceivable by tongue or sense organ of taste. It is found in bodies having tactile attributes. This is different from the nine literary ones. This could also be taken as different from the six food tastes. Table 12 shows that the Jainas agree to five tastes in comparision to the six by Buddhas and Vaiseṣikas. They have overlooked the salty taste though Haribhadra's commentator63 has suggested its inclusion in sweet taste. The salt is called sweet in western part of India and it seems that five taste philosophers belonged to this part. In contrast, the scientists agree to only four basic tastes and two complex ( astringent and metallic) tastes. They assume that tastes due to corriander etc. are complex sensations and they are not basic tastes. They have included some tastes in their bitter category.
The scriptures have no mention of any mechanism of tasting. The scientists, however, point out that the taste is experienced by nearly 10,000 taste buds in various parts of the tongue. They could also explain why the same substance might seem to have different tastes. It has been found that the tongue is 10-20 thousand times more sensitive towards non-sweet tastes than the sweet ones. They presume that the normal taste sensation is a combined effect of taste and smell

Page #190

168 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
organs. This requires that two sensed living beings might be actually three sensed ones. This has to be investigated properly. Table 12 : Varieties of Tastes. System Number
Names of taste 1. Vaiśeșikas
Sour, Sweet, Bitter, Acidic, Astrin
gent, Salt. 2. Buddhas
Sour, Sweet, Bitter, Acidic, Astrin
gent, Salt. 3. Jainas
Sour, Sweet, Bitter, Acidic, Astrin
gent. 4. Science64 4 Sour, Sweet, Bitter, Salt.
The Jainas have mentioned innumerable varieties of tastes but the scientists have confirmed only about few thousand types. They have also made structure-taste relationship studies and shown that similarly tasting materials have some similarity in their chemical structures. This result is also an advance over the canonical descriptions. Attribute of Smell
The smell is an atiribute percieved by nose or organ of smell. The Jainas and the Vaiseșikas have only two types of smells -- good and bad. The Buddhas, on the other hand, agree to number of smells varying between three to fourteen as shown in Table 13. This seems to be better and finer. The current scientists go still finer and classify the smells in nine varieties, though arbitrarily. They have pointed out that smell sensation is much more acute than taste and have described it as a taste at a distance. They have also been able to measure the intensity of smells by olfactory co-efficients. Structureodor relationships have also been observed in many cases, Though their classification is arbitrary, but it has a more general base. It is suggested that the smell sensation is also a combined effect. These facts suggest that philosophic classification of smeils represents only the common-sense view and the new

Page #191

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 169
2
age has gone much deeper into the science of smells and tastes. Table 13 : Varieties of Smells. System
Number Names 1. Vaiseșikas
Good, bad 2. Jainas
Good, bad 3. Buddhas 65 (a) 3 Good, bad, a-good-a-bad
(b) 4 Homogenous ( good, bad )
Heterogenous ( good, bad )
(c) 14 As in Dharmaskandha 4. Science
Ethereal, Resinous, Ambrosial, Garlic, Burning, Goat, Repulsing,
Nauseating, Balsamic. Attributes of Colour
The colour is an inherent attribute percievable by the sense of sight - the eye. It may be natural, pigmentary or spectral. All have eye perceptibility. The number of colours agreed by Jainas is five. Their order, however, varies from Pujyapāda66 (black, blue, yellow, white and red) to Akalanka67 (blue, yellow, white, black and red ) the former being more scientific. Table 14 indicates that all realistic philosophies agree to four colours - blue, yellow, red and white, while they differ in other colours. The Vaiseșikas agree to green, brown and a variegated one (citra ) in addition while the Jainas have a black one. The Buddhas have primarily four colours, the Vaiseșikas have seven in contrast to the Jaina's five. The Buddhas have an additional variety of nine colours as shown in Table 14. This represents the colours of the various objects like clouds ( whitish ), smoke (blackish white ), sand ( yellowish white ) and sky (bluish ). However, this does not add to the basic four. The assumption of black colour by the Jainas may be due to the fact that owls and cats can see things even in the dark. The dark photography has confirmed this. It could be surmised that the philosophers felt the other colours as mixed rather than primary.

Page #192

170 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
Table 14 : Varieties of Colours. System Number
Name 1. Vaiśeşikas 7
Blue, Yellow, Red, White, Green,
Brown, Variegated. 2. Buddhas (a) 4 Blue, Yellow, Red, White.
(b)9 Clouds, Smoke, Sand, Vapour,
Light ( sun, moon ), Shadow,
Darkness, Sky. 3. Jainas 5
Blue, Yellow, Red, White, Black. 4. Science 7+2 Ultraviolet, Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange, Red, Infrared.
Munisri and Jaina 68 have referred Optical Society, 1922 to define colour as sensation produced through light and eye from the activity of retina and its attached nervous mechanisms. It is an objective natural property depending upon structural specificities. Accordingly, the colour has two types - (i) perceived by the eye and (ii) objective. If there is no sense of sight, how the colour could be perceived ? Thus, the objectiveness of the colour becomes important. Each object must have its own colour visible to our eye. Many scientists and philosophers, however, agree to colour as only to be subjective. In contrast, Muniśrite has described two factors responsible for colour sensation - (i) subject and (ii) object. If 'a' is the objective property, b, b, etc. are subjective properties and k, k, are perceived colours, the colour sensation will be similar to all subjects, their senses being normal, or
If b = b, k, = k, or a + b = a+b = k, = k = k
This suggests that for normal colour sensation, the two factors must be normal and undistorted. If the factors are faulty, the sensations may also be similar. Thus, the nature of the object is also important for colour sensation. The supra-sensuals have a different case, however.

Page #193

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 171
The scientists presume that different bodies do absorb light and emit it in part depending upon their structure. The colour of the body is not due to its absorbed light but it is dependent on the nature of light emitted by it. Each colour has a range of wavelength of its light. It could be represented by spectrum. All visible colours fall in the wavelength range of 4000-7000Å which is known as visible range. The wave- length lesser than the violet is known as ultra-violet and the range larger than red colour is known as infra-red. Both these ranges are human invisible ones. These may be called dark or black in general. Thus, the black colour of Jainas may denote the ultra-violet and infra-red regions of invisible light. Jaina70 has called this range as empirical colour.
For convenience, the scientists have classified colours in seven broad classes known as VIBGYOR ( Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red). It is seen that when a substance is heated, it emits black infra-red light in first instant followed by red, yellow and finally white light on further heating. At higher temperature, blue hot light may be emitted. That is why many stars are bluish white. Thus, one may have different colour in cold and hot conditions.
The white light of the sun was studied by Newton who proved it to be consisting of the above seven colours. Out of these, the Jainas do not agree to violet, green, orange and indigo, though these colours are specific and have their spectrum range. But it seems that Jainas assume them to be mixed colours as observed in painter and printer's colours. However, splitting of white light and rainbow suggest the existence of seven spectral colours. How the Jaina scholars with keen observation powers missed these colours, is a matter of surprise. Still, while inclusion of black colour is a distinction for the Jainas, the exclusion of other spectral colours shows some overlooking in their observations. Their concept of white colour as a basic one also requires re-examination. Jain11 has called it also not a normal but a formal colour.

Page #194

172 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Prof. Jain?? has classified the colours as pigmentary, natural and spectral. He has suggested that the philosopher's colours are the natural ones. Does it mean that rainbow colours are not natural ? He has differentiated between pigmentary and spectral colours. However, this does not make any difference in their number and spectrum ranges. Whatever be the colour, it will be perceived by its spectral characteristics. It is on this basis that pigmantary colours are said to be of mixed spectrum and saturated one. Moreover, his comments in support of the number of canonical colours requires reconsideration. Jain73 has suggested a way out. He points out - there are two types of colours – atomic and molecular. The Jaina colours represent the atomic colours which are basic three - red, yellow and blue. The rest two being called formal rather than basic ones. This logic may be applicable to all the qualitative discussions and per chance this may solve some of the problems and increase scientificity in Jaina concepts.
The spectrum range of the colours (blue-red) of the Jainas and other Indian philosophers represents that of only five colours of the scientists. The philosophers have accepted only three of them (blue, yellow, red). This should not be taken as a large defect looking to the pre-instrumental age observations. Their range does not include ultra-violet, violet and indigo colours. On this basis and by the composition of white colour, scientist's observations seem to be finer and more accurately additive to the canonical ones. The canonical infinite variety of each colour, however, is substantiated by the spectroscopists as each of the seven colours represents a range of spectrum rather than a specific one. Attribute of Shape
While defining mattergy, the word 'rūpa' or 'form' was coined. The form is denoted by shape. It is also a property perceivable by the eye. This is property of extension in space in two or three dimensions. Some Buddhas presume?4 form and colour as inseparable as one cannot exist without the

Page #195

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 173
other. Thus, the property of colour is also associated with shape. While the Vaiseșikas mention only four or five types of shapes, the Jainas have upto eleven types with the Buddhas having eight types as shown in Table 15. Table 15 : Varieties of Shapes. System Number
Names 1. Vaišeșikas 4+1 Space point, Trigonal, Spherical,
Tetragonal, Flat. 2. Buddhas
Space point, Long, Short, Circular, Symmetrical, Non-symmetrical,
Raised, Flattened. 3. Jainas
Space point, Long, Circular, Trigonal, Tetragonal. Space point, Long, Short, Circular, Trigonal, Tetragonal, Hexagonal. Space point, Circular, Triangular, Rectangular, Symmetrical, Lower part symmetrical, Upper part symmetrical, Dwarf, Hunchbacked,
Irregular, Hexagonal. 4. Science 7 Cubic, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Trigonal,
Pyramidal, Prismic, Hexagonal. Geometrically, they include two or three dimensional units. The number of shapes by Jainas was five in the beginning which has developed upto eleven through six and seven. It is clear that this number is an advance over the other systems. However, the current scientists75 agree to only seven types of basic geometrical shapes – almost all with three dimensions. They do not include irregular shape as one of their varieties - it being taken as a mixed and undefined one. They also do not include dwarfs, hunchbacked etc. as their nature is not basic. The shapes by scientist contain the property of sym-. metry and a-symmetry. They have sub-classified them into 32 sub-classes too complex to be detailed here. However, the

Page #196

174 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Jainas must be given credit for observing symmetry in shapes and mentioning diamond of a hexagonal shape as agreed today?
The Jaina scriptures do not mention the specification of various shapes. On the other hand, the crystallographers can tell their internal structures with their unit cell dimensions. Not only this, they have learnt the condition under which a body can be given different shapes. The Jainas seem to have observed the gross crystalline substances. The scientists can now tell that a gross body is made up of a group of single crystals or unit cells useful for modern electronic equipments..
The property of shape has been included in the term 'rūpi' in Bhagavati and by Pujyapāda and others. But it seems that the original literature mentions it separately as in aphorism 5. 24 of Umāsvāti by the word 'Sansthāna' and in Uttarādhyayana. It could be due to its gross nature in comparision to other qualities. However, the aphorism also mentions other forms of matter which are finer than basic shapes (i.e. shadow, darkness, hot and cold light ) which are either forms of light or its phenomena and perceptible by eye. Uttarādhyayana? seems to be right by keeping light and sound in one category and shape in another category of matter manifestations. This raises the following points for serious considerations :
(i) The period by which sound has been taken to be grosser than light.
(ii) Umāsvāti has mentioned 15 modifications of matter in his aphorisms 5. 23-24 while Uttarādhyayana mentions 16 of them by excluding some of Umāsvāti's contentions ( fine, gross, binding, dissociation, motion ) and including some additions ( oneness, separateness, combination, division, number, lustre ). This difference in number and types of manifestations also requires elucidation. It could be mentioned that Umāsvāti's binding and dissociation are equivalent to combination and division of Uttarādhyayana. Further, Rampuria78 seems to have condensed these manifestations to keep the number fixed.

Page #197

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 175
These include motion, fine-grossness and a-light-a-heavy forms too. Still, the difference remains to be considered.
There seems nothing to learn when shape as a basic property was eliminated but most Digambara scriptures do not mention it in that way. Besides grossness, it is also clear that the property of shape refers to solids only, liquids and gases have no definite shapes. This could be an additional reason for its elimination from basic qualities later.
Besides the above, one more related point requires evaluation. Akalanka maintains that touch, taste and smell are finer than colour (and shape too ) due to their non-perceptibility by the eye. The concept of eye-perceptible objects being always grosser does not seem to be correct. This is the only sense which defines and determines the order of fineness. The optical instruments have increased the capacity of eye enormously. Actually, the fine properties of an atom by the Jainas prove the equivalence of the four qualities. But it seems that the commentators have led to some controversy in this regard. This could have been avoided if Umāsvāti's aphorism 5. 23 would not have been there, though Bhāskaranandio has explained its utility in pointing out their co-existence.
It must be pointed out that touch is a sensation due to shape, size, etc. It is due to gross material bodies themselves. In contrast, taste and smell are due to some specific chemical substances in matter which are molecules whose normal sizes could be measured in Angstrom units. These molecules are definitely grosser than light particles. In view of this, the canonical position leads us to some very unpalatable conclusions that ( a ) eye perceptible objects are grosser.
(ii) This assumption also leads one to presume that our knowledge about matter is mainly grosser one, though there is quite a good amount of fineness in many cases due to intellectual analysis of visual observations. Attribute of Motion
Motion is a common attribute for matter and energy.

Page #198

176 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Akalanka1 describes ten types of motions in them. These are projectile, uncoiling, wave, collision, immersion, gravitational, brownian, combinational, natural (air, fire etc.) and motion due to lightness. These are only translational motions. However, Bhagavati82 mentions, vibratory, penetration and transformatory motion also besides colliding and translatory one. The two terms -parispanda and parināma - normally refer to static and dynamic motions, translatory and transformatory motions. These various types of motions are indicative of a very good order of observational power of Jainas over the Vaiseṣikas who have only five types of actions like throwing upwards, downwards, contraction, expansion and movement. Moreover, what the Jainas have called a natural motion, they have assumed it to be a super-powered motion83. Current science also agrees to almost all types of these motions. However, they have two additional motions rotatory and spin. These motions are playing good part in the development of our physical comforts. The Jainas presume that even the fine atoms have motions of various types.
-
Umäsvāti84 has mentioned 39 types of activities causing influx of karmic matter. These are more of mental character rather than physical and are not related to our discussion here. Modifications of Specific Attributes: Consecutive Properties All the attributes described above undergo modifications. These are called paryayas or modes. They are not coexistents like the general attributes. For example, colour will always be there in matter, but the specificity of colour is always changeable. The specificity of colour could be called a mode or the process of modification. These are temporary in contrast to general attributes. Mattergy is, thus, always associated with some permanent attributes and temporary modifications. It is these latter which are called consecutive properties. These are manifested in many ways. Grossness, fineness, shape, associated and dissociated forms and motion are found in matter while heat, light, sound, shadow, darkness and motion are

Page #199

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 177
associated with energies. The details of these modifications are given in post-canonical literature. The modifications due to energies will be described in Physics section and the material modifications are summarised here. As already pointed out, about a total of 14-16 manifestations are described in canons.
The fineness and grossness represent the size and quantity of matter. Each of the two has two varieties - absolute (in atom ) and relative (in universe ). These represent the lower and upper limit of length and number. Shapes and motions have already been described.
Dissociation or division (bheda ) may have six varieties – (i) sawing ( wood ), grinding ( wheat ), breaking (into pieces), threshing, layering and hammering. All these represent only the physical processes involved. They also give us an indirect idea of different types of mechanical strength in matter. Chemical or electrical methods of division or dissociation are not mentioned in canons,
Association or bond or union has been classified in different ways. It may be classified as partial or total. The partial bonding may be equated to physical bonding, temporary and unquantitative. The total bonding may be equivalent to current chemical bond. Both these bonds may be natural or experimentally/externally caused. They may be due to mixed causes too. The natural has two varieties - with beginning ( rainbow, lighting, meteoric phenomena etc. ) and without beginning (bond between non-material realities ). The first one has both the varieties of current bonds-physical ( rainbow) and chemical (lightning ). The second one has no equivalent term in current science. Akalanka86 mentions its nine classes.
The experimental/external union has also two varieties - union between non-living materials and union between nonliving and living entities ( which may be kārmic and quasi kārmic ). The material bond consists of five varieties and seems to be mostly physical. The classification of bonding has been summarised in Table 16.

Page #200

178 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Table 16 Bonding in Matter. Bonding or Union
Natural
(i) With beginning ( fire, rainbow etc.) (ii) Without beginning (bonding in non-material bodies: 9 types: Soul, Space-points, many souls, largest aggregates
Union of
bodies
15 types
Fastening

Experimental
Union between material objects
Painting
(i) Kārmic bond
Adhesion
Union between
material and
living objects
(ii) Quasikärmic
The details of union of bodies and embodied are given by Akalanka 7. However, his classification differs from Bhagavati which maintains that experimental bonding has three varieties without beginning and end, with beginning and without end and with beginning and end. The last variety has four subclasses instead of Akalankas five. The second sub-class known as Alina has four varieties including painting and adhesion. It also includes jointing and heightening. The jointing may be partial or total. Also, the Sariri ( embodied ) bond is termed as śarira-prayoga or body-using bond. Some details are also different in Bhagavati. However, it seems Akalanka has simplified the classification.

Ligamentation ( embodied)
2 types with
or without beginning
The atomic bonding does not seem to be included in the above but they could be included in the variety of material bondings. Though they have both types of bonding processes. Their bonding may be partial or total and subject to certain rules described in later section. The other four varieties of bond

Page #201

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 179
ings seem to be physical only. They lead to physical changes only. However, it has been stated that gross bodies or molecular aggregates are formed due to them. These are always in the form of aggregates in contrast to touch etc. which may be atomic also.
All modifications in matter taking place due to the above processes occur in two ways - distinctly and indistinctly. The latter are fine and comparatively momentary while distinct ones are clearly discernible and somewhat more durable. The above modifications of Umāsvāti or Uttarādhyayana belong to this class. They are caused internally or externally. The change of colour, formation of molecules, formation of curd from milk and the like are modifications due to internal causes. They are quite common even in our daily life. In some cases, cause of change has also been mentioned in literature. New age has not only identified the causes, but it has utilised them in many more fields. It must, however, be added that there are very few changes mentioned in canons which are of chemical nature. Function of Mattergy
Canons and Umāsvāti89 mention some of the functions of matter. It is said that they form the basis of bodies of living beings or six types of embodiments, the sense organs of speech, mind and respirations. They also cause and contribute to the feelings of pleasure, pain and livingness. Death is another phenomena which is also effected by matter through stopping respiration etc. These are normal observations and verifiable ones. Classification of Mattergy
Bhagavati mentions that reality could be described with respect to five angles - substance, place, time, mode and characteristics90. It is infinite with respect to all these angles. The scholars felt the necessity of classifying this infinite variety for proper studies. This has been classified in many ways. These classifications are based on many aspects like basic

Page #202

180 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
nature, sense perceptibility, forms, formations, grouping, parts and grossness-fineness. Accordingly, it has been said to be of one, two, three, four, six, twenty three and five hundred and thirty types. They are described below in short. It may be added that only some classifications are tuned to recent methods. One and Two Varieties of Mattergy
Basically, it is assumed that all mattergy is made up of atoms. Hence, structurally, all types of bodies are ultimately atomic in nature, i.e., of one type only. However, the literature classifies mattergy in two types - one by sense perceptibility including tactile qualities, particulate nature, spatial property and soul-binding capacity and the other by composition and constituents. On the first basis, the matter may be gross and fine. The gross one has touch, particulateness and space occupancy. The fine variety is normally sense-imperceptible despite having all the characteristics of matter. Compositionally, the two varieties of mattergy are designated as ~ (i) atomic (aņu) and (ii) atomic aggregate (skandha ). The first is ultra-fine and the second type could be fine and gross, visible and invisible. They will be described in next chapters. The Vaiseṣikas and Buddhists also agree to the fine and gross variety of mattergy in their own specific terms.
There are many other ways also in which two types of matter has been mentioned in canons91. They are as below: (i) Receivable and non-receivable by soul substance (kärmic/quasi-kārmic ).
(ii) Different and non-different.
(iii) Fragile and non-fragile.
(iv) Bonded and touched and non-bonded-nontouched or ( a ) Receivable by sense-organs of touch, taste and smell and (b) Receivable by sense of hearing.
(v) Desirable and undesirable.
(vi) Pleasant and unpleasant or liking and non-liking. (vii) Mentally pleasant and unpleasant.
(viii) Divided and undivided.

Page #203

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 181
(ix) Associated with or without consciousness. (x) Good and bad.
Some of these classes represent specific properties of matter and others seern to be literary classes only. The compositional and perceptibility based classification is most important. Three Classes of Mattergy
Bhagavati92 has classified Mattergy in three varieties depending on the types of changes it undergoes. Some have capacity to change naturally without any effort from human beings. There are twenty-three phenomena cited under this heading which include lightning in sky, fog and hail-storms, rainbow, rains, meteoric falls, storms and hurricanes etc. These could have five main and twenty sub-classes and 530 total classes as per Prajñāpanā 1.193, with respect to changes in touch, taste, colour, smell and shape. Some mattergies have capacity to change or modify themselves through external or experimental causes and human beings play a role in it. That is why they have five varieities represented by 1-5 sensed beings. The divisions of these beings make the varieties quite enormous. Some changes take place by mixed process of natural and efforts of living beings. This variety has been classified similar to the second category. No examples are given in this case.
The changes and modifications take place in atoms and their aggregates. The methods of change mentioned here seem to be very general and one could guess their preliminary nature in today's comparison. Four Classes of Mattergy
Bhagavati94 and Kundakunda95 have classified mattergy in four types :
(i) Aggregation ( skandha ), (ii) Half of the aggregation (skandha-desa ),
(iii) Half of the second category (skandha-pradeśa, of skandha ) and

Page #204

182 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
(iv) Atom (paramāņu ).
This classification seems to be an extension of the two compositional varieties as above. These varieties have been equated to molecules, atoms or ions, nuclear particles and electrons by Jain which does not sound logical in view of Javeri's opinion which is realistic. This matter will be referred later. Six Classes of Mattergy
Pañcāstikāya and Niyamasāra 97 of Kundakunda mention six types of aggregatal mattergy on the basis of their perceptibility by the eye and senses other than eye. In other words, this is a classification of Skandhas ( aggregations ) based on grossness and fineness. They will be described in appropriate chapter. However, it must be pointed out that there is some doubt about these classes. Whether they represent aggregations or matter in general. However, Kundakunda mentions the classes for aggregations only. Jain98 has called this classification as most scientific and uptodate as it includes all types of solids, liquids, gases, energies and subtle matter. Twenty-three Types of Mattergy
The Satkhandāgama book 1499 and Gommatasāra (J) describe another classification based on compositional similarities. It is known as variform or Varganā classification. These variforms or groupings occur in aggregations according to Puşpadanta Bhūtabali. Thus this classification also refers to aggregations. Gommațasāra 100 seems to confuse this point by mentioning the six-fold ( as above ) and this classification as belonging to mattergy in general. This also seems to be an extension of earlier classification. The word Varg'aņā means aggregation, atomic grouping or molecules. This is found in sense perceptible and imperceptible bodies. The twenty-three types of groupings start from the finest ( mono-point atom ) and end at the grossest. This has fine atomic aggregate in the first place and the universe as a whole in the last place. In

Page #205

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification FO 183
between, there are many variforms shown in table 17. It could be seen on the first count that atoms should not be included in this grouping as it is not an aggregate, though it has capacity for aggregation. Secondly, it could be taken as an effect atom or phenomenal atom. Any atomic aggregation could be included in grouping 2, 3 and 4. The first four groupings are said to be non-receivable by the living ones.
Table 17 Variform (Vargaṇā ) classification.
Canonical
1. Atomic aggregate Numerable atomic
2.
aggregate
3. Innumerable atomic
aggregates
4. Infinite atomic aggregates 5. Intakeable aggregates (3 bodies)
6. Non-receivable intake
aggregates
7. Fire, light, electricity, Taijas or caloric aggregates 8. Non-receivable Taijas
(caloric) aggregates 9. Sound or speech aggregates
10. Non-receivable sound
aggregate
11. Physical mind aggregate 12. Non-receivable mind
aggregate
13. Karmic aggregates
14. Fixed or un-differentiated
aggregates
15. Continuous differential
aggregates

Suggested modified form
Real atom
Numerable atomic
aggregate
Innumerable atornic
aggregates
Infinite atomic aggregates Karmic aggregates
Non-receivable intake
aggregates
Receivable intake aggre
gates
Non-receivable Taijas (caloric) aggregates Receivable Taijas aggregates Non-recievable sound
aggregate
Receivable sound aggregate Non-receivable mind
aggregate
Receivable mind aggregate Fixed in differential
aggregate
Fixed aggregates

Page #206

184 : Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
16. Continuous differential zero aggregate
17. Individual body aggregate
22. Sky aggregate
23. Largest aggregate
Continuous differential zero
aggregate
Continuous differential
18. Fixed indifferent (zero) aggregates
19. Gross common-body (Nigoda) aggregate
Gross common body aggregate (zero) Gross common body aggregate
20. Gross common body zero aggregate
21. Fine common body aggregate Fine common body aggre
aggregate
Sky aggregate
Largest aggregate
aggregates
Individual body aggregate
On the basis of the first smallest and last largest variform it is natural to assume this classification to be based on increasing grossness. There seem to be following discrepancies in this assumption :
(i) Light particles are shown to be smaller than sound particles while both are energies. This is against Kundakunda classification who has placed them in different classes.
(ii) Karmic aggregates are placed below sound whereas Kundakunda has taken them in his fifth category of increasing fineness. He has placed sound in fourth category.
(iii) The fine common body variform has been placed below the gross common body which is against the common experience.

(iv) The fine unreceivable variforms (6,8,10,12) have been placed below the receivable gross ones.
(v) The corresponding indifferent or zero groupings (16, 18, 20) have been placed below their normal variform. (vi) The position of 18th grouping-fixed indifferent is incongruous.
These discrepancies require clarification to make this

Page #207

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 185
classification a little more scientific. This might involve the following points :
(i) Real or phenomenal atom should be substituted in place of atom in the first position.
(ii) Placement of kārmic aggregate should be done below atomic aggregate or fourth variform.
(iii) Placement of all unrecievable variforms above their corresponding normal variforms.
(iv) The position of 18th variform should be corrected and placed below the 14th variforms.
These points require a modified variform classification which has also been suggested in Table 17. However, it must be pointed out that there will be no incompleteness if the suggested variform numbers 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 and 19 are eliminated and the total mumber of variforms is limited to fifteen.
It is said that the intake variform involves the first threegross, transformable and ejectable-bodies. Similarly, it has also been pointed out that the variforms of intake, caloric, speech, mind and kārmic are bondable with the living, as they contain infinite atoms in their groupings. These are also known as receivable by the living units. The receivable variforms are defined as those containing one atom more than those contained by the non-receivable groups. Larger the number of more atoms, greater will be the receivability. It is stated that there are eight receivable groupings - gross body, transformable body, ejectable body, luminous or caloric body, kārmic body, speech, respiration and mind - according to Karmagrantha-V. These are important for the spiritual upliftment. Five Hundred Thirty Classes of Mattergy
Vanthia refers Pannavaņā Sutta to mention five hundred thirty varieties of mattergy depending upon its primary and secondary nature of five basic qualities and their subdivisions. As stated before, touch has 8 types, taste 5, smell

Page #208

186 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
2, colour 5 and shape has 5 types. Accordingly, we have the following countings :
(i) With colour as primary and others as secondary, the varieties are, 5 ( 8 + 5 + 2 + 5 ) = 100 types.
(ii) With touch as primary, we have 8 (5 + 5 + 2 + 5 + 6 ) = 184 types.
(iii) With taste as primary, we have 5 ( 8 + 5 + 2 + 5 ) = 100 types.
(iv) With smell as primary, we have 2 (8 + 5 + 5 + 5) = 46 types.
(v) With shape as primary, we have 5 ( 8 + 5 + 2 + 5) = 100 types. Total Types = 530 types
This classification seems to be meant for classification only. It is quite vague and may be overlooked for fundamental discussion. It only indicates that a mattergy can assume a variety of types on the basis of predominance of its properties. Infinite Types of Mattergy
The last classification assumes mattergy to be of infinite variety with respect to class and intensity of its various attributes. Actually, this is no classification but a statement indicating complex nature of matter made up of atoms and its aggregates of various types. The qualities and modes enter into picture to make up infinity.
It may be said here that all the above classifications of mattergy date back from pre-Christian era to about 200 A. D. and most of them are extensions of the two basic varieties. Some discrepancies in various classifications are observed and they need examination and rectification.
The Vaiśesikas and Buddhists have not much to offer in this regard. Their four basic elements of earth, water, fire and air are atomic or combined atomic. Their atoms combine to form diads, triads, etc. with no special names for these

Page #209

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 187
species called skandhas by the Jainas.
Modern science has classified mattergy in two forms : atoms and their combinations or molecules akin to Jaina's basic two. However, the Jainas presume all the atoms (per chance ideal ) as similar contrary to 109 varieties of scientists. Their atoms should be equated to real atoms of the Jainas. The aggregating of atoms may be classified in many ways specially chemically and structurally. The structure of atoms and molecules is within current scientific knowledge. The Jainas could not go deeper into the atoms and molecules because of their all-time truth authority. However, the various classifications of philosophers suggest their base to be sense-perceptibility and common sense. The scientists classification, on the other hand, is based on more fundamentally structural and instrumental basis. Conclusion
The above comparative description of the definition, properties and classification of mattergy suggests that the philosophical contents of the Jainas stand in a contemporarily high position where concepts and intellectual maturity is concerned. Their observation power has been enormous. However, when one compares the canonical contents with the current knowledge, one feels the difference. But here the fortunate position is that most of new additions to the knowledge are supplementary rather than contradictory. Though there are many discrepancies in many descriptions but they could be rectified or rearranged easily in view of the current knowledge. One has to feel, however, the keen and acute observation power and analytical capacity of the Jainas. The above descriptions about mattergy point out about the gap between the level of knowledge during the scriptural age and our age. It could be confidently said that had there been instruments like today, little less aversion to physical labour for experimentation and proper communication, the seers of the past would have stood the current times.

Page #210

188 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
References 1. M. L. Mehta : Jaina Philosophy, Jaina Mission Society,
Bangalore, 1954, p. 25. 2. Dalsukha Malvania : Āgama Yuga Kā Jaina Darsana,
Sanmati Jnanapitha, Agra, 1966, p. 208. 3. Bhatta, Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, Bharatiya Jnanapitha,
Delhi, 1944, p. 119. 4. Devasena : Ālāpa-paddhati, Jaina Sansthan, Mahaviraji,
1970, pp. 43-51. 5. Ācārya Prabhācandra : Prameya-kamala-mārtanda,
Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1941, pp. 466-525. 6. Bhatta, Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, Bharatiya Jnanapitha,
Kashi, 1957, p. 436. 7. Akalanka : Räjavārttika, p. 111. 8. Devasena : Ālāpa-paddhati, pp. 43-46. 9. J. M. L. Shastri : Jaina Šāstron Main Vaijñānika Sarketa,
J. M. L. S. Sadhuvada Grantha, Rewa, 1989, p. 228. 10. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi ( English Translation ), Vira
Shasana Sangh, Calcutta, 1960, p. 54. 12. Ibid, p. 132. 13. Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 100. 14. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 132. 15. Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 100. 16. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 132. 17. Umāsvāti : Tattvārtha-sūtra, Digambara Jaina Sangha,
Mathura, 1951, p. 127. 18. M. L. Mehta : Jaina Philosophy, p. 24. 19. Uttarādhyayana, Shvetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha,
Calcutta, 1967, p. 375. 20. N. L. Jaina : Arhat Vacana, Kundakunda Jnanpitha, Indore,
1, 3-4, 1989, pp. 1-17. 21. Kundakunda : Pravacanasāra, with commentary of
Amritcandra, Patni Jaina Granthmala, Marotha, 1950, p. 108.

Page #211

Reality and Matter: Definition, Properties and Classification : 189
22. Y. J. Padmarajaiya Jaina Theory of Reality and Knowledge, Jaina Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay, 1963. 23. Shankara Mishra : Vaisesika Sūtra-Upaskāra, Chaukhamba Sansthan, Kashi, 1969, p. 50.
24. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda Bhāṣya, Sanskrita Vishvavidyalaya, Kashi, 1987, p. 3.
25. J. C. Sikadar Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy, P. V. R. I., Kashi, 1987, p. 3.
26. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda Bhāṣya, p. 231.
27. Akalanka: Rājavārttika, p. 485.
28. Pañcānana : Kārikāvali, Gujrat Printing Press, Bombay, 1935, p. 98.
29. Dalsukha Malvania: Agama Yuga Kā Jaina Darśana, p.
211.
30. Ibid, p. 208.
31. Kundakunda : Darśanapāhuḍa in Aṣṭpāhuḍa, Jaina Sansthan, Mahaviraji, 1967, p. 29.
32. J. C. Sikadar Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy, p. 15.
33. N. L. Jain: Arhat Vacana, 1989, pp. 1-17.
34. Prabhacandra : Prameya-kamala-märtanda, p. 587.
35. Ed. Sukhalal Sanghavi : Tattvärtha-sutra, P. V. R. I., Kashi, 1976.
36. G. R. Jain: Cosmology, Old and New, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1975, p. 14.
37. J. S. Javeri : Atomic Theory of Jainas, Jaina Vishvabharati, Ladnun, 1975, p. 49.
38. Akalanka: Rājavārttika, p. 434.
39. Dalsukha Malvaniya: Agama Yuga Kā Jaina Darśana, p.
214.
40. Umāsvāti: Tattvārtha-sūtra, p. 109.
41. Akalanka: Rājavārttika, p. 444.
42. Bhagavati, Sadhumargi Sanskriti Sangh, Sailana, 1970, p.
2191.

Page #212

190 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
43. Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, Bharatiya Jnanpitha, Delhi,
1975, p. 70. 44. N. L. Jaina : Rasāyana, Madan Mahal General Stores,
Jabalpur, 1973, p. 14. 45. A. J. Mee: Physical Chemistry, E. L. B. S., London, 1964,
p. 103. 46. G. R. Jaina : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 139. 47. Muni, Mahendra Kumar : S.C. Divakara Abhinandana
Grantha, S. C. D. Fel. Committee, Rewa, 1976, pp. 4-17. 48. Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 444, p. 484. 49. Devasena : Ālāpa-paddhati, p. 140. 50. Ācārya Bhikhanaji : Nava Padārtha, S. T. Mahasabha,
Calcutta, 1967, p. 113. 51. Thāṇam, p. 721. 52. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 17. 53. Prasastapāda-bhāşya, p. 17. 54. Basubandhu : Abhidharma Kosa, Hindustani Academy,
Allahabad, 1958, p. 17. 55. P. Day and N. Bhargava : Prārambhika Rasāyana, Upper
India Publishing House, Lucknow, 1973, p. 7. 56. N. L. Jain : K. C. Shastri Felicitation Volume, Rewa, 1980,
p. 392. 57. Samavāyānga ( Hindi Translation ), Jaina Vishvabharati,
Ladnun, 1984, p. 126. 58. Jain : Cosmology Old & New, p. 123. 59. Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 152. 60. C. H. Best & N. B. Taylor : The Physiological Basis of
Medical Practice, Scientific Book Agency, Calcutta, 1967,
p. 56. 61. M. R. Gelra : In Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture,
Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1975, p. 221. 62. Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 152. 63. Haribhadrasuri : Şad-darśana-samuccaya, Bharatiya
Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1970, p. 254.

Page #213

Reality and Matter : Definition, Properties and Classification : 191
64. C. H. Best & N. B. Taylor : The Physiological Basis of
Medical Practice, p. 424. 65. Abhidharma-kośa, p. 17. 66. Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 150. 67. Rājavārttika-2, pp. 485-488. 68. Jaina : Cosmology Old and New, p. 129. 69. Muni, Mahendra Kumar : Visva Prahelikā, Javeri Prakashan,
Bombay, 1969, p. 152. 70. A. K. Jaina, in J. M.L. Shastri Felicitation Volume, Rewa,
p. 234. 71. Ibid, p. 234. 72. Cosmology Old and New, p. 129. 73. A. K. Jain, in J. M.L. Shastri Felicitation Volume, Rewa,
p. 234. 74. Abhidharma-kosa, p. 16. 75. A. J. Mee : Physical Chemistry, p. 241. 76. Kundakunda : Bhāvaprābhrta, Jaina Sansthan, Mahaviraji,
1970, p. 371. 77. Uttarādhyayana, p. 375, p. 503. 78. Bhikhanaji : Nava-padārtha, pp. 109-114. 79. Rājavārttika, p. 444, p. 484. 80. Bhaskaranandi : Tattvārtha-sūtra (Commentary ), Mysore
University, 1944, p. 122. 81. Rājavārttika, p. 490. 82. Javeri : Atomic Theory of Jainas, p. 73. 83. Prasastapāda-bhāsya, p. 740. 84. Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 169. 85. Ibid, p. 152. 86. Rājavārttika, p. 490. 87. Ibid, pp. 485-488. 88. Bhagavati, p. 1471. 89. Rājavārttika, pp. 468-476.

Page #214

192 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
90. K. C. Lalavani : Bhagavati -1 ( English Translation ), Jain
Bhavan, Calcutta, 1975, p. 210. 91. Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 17. 92. Bhagavati, S. S. Sangha, Sailana, p. 1232, p. 713. 93. Shyama Arya : Parajñāpanā-1, A. P. S., Beawar, 1983,
pp. 15-27. 94. K. C. Lalavani : Bhagavati -1 (English Translation), p. 216. 95. Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, p. 64. 96. Jaina : Cosmology Old & New, p. 139. 97. Kundakunda : Niyamasāra, Ajitashrama, Lucknow, 1931,
p. 12. 98. Jain : Cosmology Old & New, p. 65. 99. Puspadanta Bhūtabali : Satkhandāgma, book 14, S. L.
Jaina Trust, Vidisha, 1957, p. 48. 100. Nemichanda Siddhanta Chakravarti : Gommațasāra-Jiva
kānda, Raichand Granthamala, Agas, 1972, pp. 267-270.

Page #215

Chapter 6
Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations
Skandhas: Definition of a Specific Term
Primarily, the postulate of two classes of mattergy aņu, paramāņu-pudgala ( atoms) and skandha (aggregations) based on basic conceptual structure of matter is most important among the various classifications. The various atomic aggregations of the current times are now equated to skandhas. They are comparatively gross and perceivable. They could, therefore, be studied and described in an intelligible way. They are treated first in preference to finest anus or atoms. They are like trunk of a tree supporting the material universe.
The term Skandha is a typical and specific in Jaina philosophy representing a unit of mattergy different from atoms but composed of them. The scriptures define the term quite clearly with the following points :
(i) Aggregations are aggregates or combinations of atoms'. They are non-natural modifications dependant on other objects2.
(ii) They are gross and fine in forms. Some of them are visible to the eye while other may not be so.
(iii) The atoms in the mattergy are in a state of motion caused internally or externally3.
(iv) They can be taken by hand, received or bonded with others and handled as desired".
(v) There are smaller entities too like those formed from aggregation of two atoms. They may not be satisfying (iv) above, still by interpolation, they are also called aggregates, of course fine ones5.
(vi) There are infinite number of aggregates of different

Page #216

194 :
Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
forms and manifestations like sound, bonding, division, grossness, fineness, shape, darkness, shadow, sunshine, moonlight, motion and touch, taste, smell and colour etc. They have varied qualities.
(vii) These aggregates are produced by association, dissociation and a mixed process. The sense perceptible ones are produced by the mixed process.'
(viii) The aggregates are supposed to be embodying all characteristics of the piece of matter to which they belong. (ix) They are active and may be transformed or modified in various ways.
(x) The aggregation may be caused and effected due to atoms. They may also become cause for higher aggregational effects.8
The Buddhists have one word for matter - rupa consisting of two varieties primary elements or mahābhūtas and secondary elements or utpādarūpa. Both of them are called rūpa-skandhas consisting of atoms or aggregates. However, the Buddhist atoms, combined atoms or primary elements are all equivalent to skandhas of the Jainas as they are made up of 7-10 small constituents. Thus, for them, matter is nearly aggregational or molecular. The utpādarūpas have been descri-bed to be 15, 16 or 24 in number all aggregational species.9 The Vaiseṣikas postulate atomic theory but they do not have a separate or common term for atomic aggregations. They are called effects by them, their nomenclature is depending on the number of atoms participating in aggregation like dyads, triads etc. These may be called large or composite mattergy forms10. The composite-constituent concept of inferential nature in this connection has been discussed by Prabhacandra.11
—
Current scientists have the term-mixtures, molecules and compounds for various atomic aggregations. However, the molecules and compounds are chemically bonded in contrast

Page #217

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 195
to many physically bonded atomic aggregates. The Jaina term skandha includes, however, both types of bonding – physical and chemical as well. The current examples may be mixture of inert gases in air, molecules of hydrogen or oxygen elements or water as compound. The skandhas or aggregates, thus, include all types of aggregation of elements, molecules, compounds or mixtures. This Jaina term is, therefore, more general than the term molecule of the scientists. These molecules, however, have the capacity to get dissociated into their constituents. Classification of Skandhas or Aggregations
Bhagavati 12 and Sthānānga 13 classify aggregations on the basis of number of atoms (or space points they occupy ) contained in the aggregates. That is why, they are said to be infinite with respect to the number of atoms and their arrangement or properties. They have given the aggregation varieties or sub-classes of four properties upto infinite-atomic gross aggregations as shown in Table 1. These seem to be more intellectual rather than real. There is large amount of degree of variations in properties and hence Sthānānga mentions infinite varieties of all types of atomic aggregations.
The post-canonical scholars, however, felt the need to realistically classify them for proper studies. They have been classified in many ways. The first classification consists of their two varieties-gross and fine's, sense-perceptible or otherwise. The fine mattergy like diatomics, kārmic matter, 4-8 touch mattergies, finely transformed infinite atomic aggregations come under the first category. The rest are under the second category. This classification is based on common-sense view. The other classifications are also based on matter as such and summarised in Table 2. They are not illustrated except in the fourth one, where the criteria of eye perceptibility has produced a discrepancy in current terms pointed out by this author 16 and Jain'?.

Page #218

196 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
45
45
Table 1 : Types of Atomic Aggregates (Bhagavati )14. Aggregate type T ouch Taste Smell Colour Total 1. Diatomic
9 15 3 15 42 2. Triatomic 25
120 3. Tetratomic 36 906
90 222 4. Pentatomic 36 141 6 141 324 5. Hexatomic
36 186 6 186 414 6. Septatomic
36 216 6 216 474 7. Octatomic 36 231
231 504 8. Nonatomic
36 236 6 236 514 9. Decatomic 36 237
237 516 10. Infinite atomic-fine 398 237
237 878 11. Infinite atomic- 1296 237 6 237 1786
gross
Table 2 : Various Classifications of Aggregates or Skandhas.
No. Classes Names
in two
o ww
Gross and fine, small and large 2. 3 Skandha, Skandha-desa, Skandha-pradeśa
Transformable by internal, external & mixed
cause. 4. 6 Gross-gross, gross, gross-fine, fine-gross, fine,
Gross-ar
fine-fine. 2321 Twenty three variforms ( detailed earlier ). 53022 With reference to five qualities as primary and
secondary ( detailed earlier ). The second classification is based on structure of mattergy in general ( which is of four types ) where three out of four varieties should be aggregates'8. Accordingly, the canonical atomic sizes should be less than one-fourth the size of an aggregate at the minimum level. Here one is unable to guess the meaning of an aggregate whether it is diatomic or polyatomic. If it is diatomic as a minimum, the skandhadeśa will

Page #219

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 197
be atomic and the skandhapradeśa will be sub-atomic. In other words, the canonical atom should be divisible which seems undesirable. This suggests that Jain's '9 illustrative equations of these terms are not correct. Javeri, on the other hand, takes a real view of defining Skandha with grosser bodies and the other terms being its conceptual divisions and skandhas by themselves20. The skandha-pradeśa in this way will mean a single molecule of an element or compound consisting of number of atoms possessing the property of skandha itself, The classifications 3, 5, 6 are described in the earlier chapter. They seem to be more philosophical than scientific. The fourth classification requires some exploration.
This classification seems to be moving from gross to fine on the basis of eye-perceptibility criteria and it has been exemplified by solids, liquids, energies, gases, kārmic matter and finer diatomic aggregates. Because of eye perceptibility criteria, categories 3 and 4 in Table 3 have become discrepant as energies are finer than gases. This is also clear from classification 5 where taijasa (energies ) has been shown earlier
and karmic matter. Despite this, Jain2 has called this classification as most scientific and uptodate as it includes all types of solids, liquids, gases, energies and subtle matter.
There is one more point regarding the illustrative meaning of the sixth category of fine-fine class. Kundakunda illustrates it with finer particles than kārmic aggregates24. Javeri supports it by saying that kārmic particles are made up of innumerable number of ideal atoms. He means that even this type of aggregate will be finer than the fifth category. This may include dyads, triads etc. However, G. R. Jain25 illustrates it by current atomic constituents like neutrons, etc. It will be aggregate in Jainological terms and hence skandha. They are approximately 10-13 cm in size according to Yativșşabha – a size representing the current nuclear size26. This suggests that Jain's illustration should be taken as meaningful. This, however,

Page #220

198 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
creates another problem in explaining the various properties of canonical atoms to be discussed later. Jain and Sikdar27 have made a basic mistake in assuming this sixth category as atomic on the basis of some later authors28 despite "Khandhā Hu Chappayaro" statement by Kundakunda. This should be rectified and the resultant discussion be modified accordingly. This six-fold classification of aggregates is given in Table 3. This does not find mention in canonical books.
29
The term Atapa has been treated to mean sunlight rather than heat though it is associated with heat and light both. But heat, in general, will be involved in fourth category because of its touch effects. This is also a discrepancy. The Einstein's equation gives us a rough idea about the possible mass of energy particles varying between 10-37 to 10-50 g. in comparision to 10-27g. of lightest atom of 10 cm diameter30. This data further confirms the discrepancy in Kundakunda classification (Table 3). Thus, all the aggregatal classifications seem to be precursors of current classifications based on processes, reactions and factors. Moreover, no symbols or formulae are found in Prākṛta canons for these aggregates. Table 3 Six Varieties of Aggregations.
Variety
Example
1. Gross-gross Earth, mountains (Solids)
Water, Oil, Ghee (Liquids)
2. Gross 3. Gross-fine
Shadow, Light etc.
(Energies)
4. Fine-gross Gases, tastes, smell,
sound etc.
5. Fine
Karmic aggregates
6. Fine-fine Real atoms, karmons, diatomics etc.

8
Perceptibility criteria
Eye
Eye
Eye

—
Senses other than eye
Ultrasensual
Ultrasensual
Methods of Formation of Aggregates and Molecules The formation of aggregations takes place by mixing and combination of atoms according to the theory of bonding

Page #221

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 199
proposed by Jainas and discussed later and elsewhere32. When small number of atoms combine, they form sense-imperceptible aggregates. When many atoms or aggregates combine, they may form gross aggregates. It is stated that aggregatal combination may take place by three mothods33 :
(i) By division or dissociation of bigger aggregates to smaller ones in size. This ultimately produces atoms in the end.
(ii) By association or sharing of atoms together.
( ili ) By a mixed process of association and dissociation.
The dissociation may take place internally or externally as in the case of radioactivity or process of ionisation ( not mentioned in canons ). We also know today that it may also take place thermally, by application of pressure or particle bombardment. It has been shown later that the atomic aggregation takes place by three methods akin to the three types of valency or bonding of current science.
Canons aim at spiritual development on the basis of law of karma -- a form of law of cause and effect with a prospect of mutation. In this connection, canons mention that there is bonding uni-spatially of the living and kārmic matter by the activities - mental, vocal and physical. This bond is continued in later times in succession by two more stages34. However, this type of bonding is not subject of physical exploration.
Umāsvāti and Pūjyapāda35 have pointed out that sense perceptible aggregates are formed by the mixed method of association and dossociation. The latter has illustrated this point by saying that a fine aggregate may be split and its parts may combine with other bigger units to form a gross aggregate. However, Shastri 36 has raised a point whether Umāsvāti's aphorism, Bheda-sanghātabhyām Cakşuśāh, should mean a mixed process or two individual processes. Grammatically, the dual number in aphorism should mean two processes rather than a single one, otherwise, there should be singular number

Page #222

200 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
in the aphorism. There must be some specific object in this composition which the commentators have not elaborated. However, it is quite common to have visible aggregates or molecules by combination of atoms or fine aggregates. Shastri seems to be right to seek how the division as a single process can yield gross aggregates ? There are, however, a number of examples today to prove this. Sulphur dioxide or Carbon dioxide are canonically invisible gases and they, on thermal or electrical decomposition, give solid Sulphur or Carbon skandhas. Jain37 has exemplified these processes by formation of Hydrochloric acid and ionisation of air representing combination and division respectively. Hence visible aggregates are formed both ways and the corresponding aphorism could mean two individual processes also. Nevertheless, examples of molecular formation by combination of the two processes are also available. Thus, the concerned aphorism seems to be superfluous in view of the aphorism 'Bheda-sanghātebhyah Utpadyante'. This point requires closer examination in view of recent knowledge. Conditions for Formation of Aggregates or Molecules
Normally, various types of motions in the moleculeforming atoms are elastic in nature. They are not only irregular but they are non-bonding also. This poses a problem how the bonding takes place and aggregates are formed. Bhagavati mentions two types of bonds – loose and tight which may be equated to physical and chemical bonds38. One does not have a clearcut idea whether soul-kārmic matter bond is physical or chemical. Still it is a bond which could be broken only after austere purification processes of many births. It is said to the psychic or volitional bond in contrast to matter bond. Recently the embodied living-karma bond has been pointed out to be approximating the nature of physico-chemical or electrochemical bond of current science.39
The canons assume that the bonding takes place due to partial or total contact between active and colliding atoms

Page #223

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 201
and bonding entities. It is said that the contact by whole leads to homogenous entities like milk and water and hot iron. But of course, only contact does not lead to aggregate formation. It must be forcefully colliding and bond forming. There is collision, but it may lead to change in speed only40. Different atoms combine when there is sufficient difference between the velocities of the combining atoms. This could be either internal or induced. This causes inelastic collistion leading to bonding. Besides contact and bonding collision, difference in nature of bonding atoms (positive or negative) also plays an important part in bonding. This causes natural bond.
The bond could also be formed in the presence of metallic catalysts like containers (there was no idea of modern catalysts) and micro-organisms ( alcohol etc.) and changes in conditions (like temperature-heat and now-a-days pressure too). The solar rays also bring out many reactions11. The production of natural sparks, burning of planets, eruption of volcanoes are examples of natural bonding by division. Formation of clouds, rainbows, hail-storms, lightning are also other forms in which aggregates are formed, though they represent physical aggregation in most cases. The denaturation of milk and separation of argentiferous ores, inertness of gems and gold and solubility etc. have been mentioned by Akalanka as additional examples42. Thus, we have physical, physicochemical and chemical changes under different conditions of aggregates.
We, thus, see that canons mention the various conditions of bonding which are nearly the same as are known today to every High-school student. However, many more agents and conditions like heat, electric current, particle bombardment etc. are now available for this purpose.
Functions of Aggregates or Skandhas
The aggregations have three major functions to perform. The first is physical or physico-chemical. The molecules of our body, mind and other organs are there for proper fun

Page #224

202 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
ctioning of our life. Current scientists have found the basic unit of living as protoplasm which has a company of molecular structures including nucleic acids. But how this company of non-living molecules bring about life ? This is the problem and a dividing line between science and philosophy. The sign of the living respirations - both ingoing and outcoming are also skandhas without which we cannot live long.
The second function of aggregates may be taken as spiritual or supra-sensual. The living beings have feelings of pleasure, pain etc. These depend on physical environment and changes therein which are all molecular. These actually effect the sensing system of our bodies leading to the corresponding sensations. These environments are very fine and consist of even the karma particles. Besides our own actions, their effects also lead to a variety of reflex actions and reactions producing characteristic aura around the body. Thus, the molecules not only create our lives, but they effect its course too indirectly. Different glandular secretions effect our mentality. All our tendencies towards better thought and actions are governed by the quality of karma molecules getting in and out of bodies. We require better type of molecules for better lives.
The above functions are directly related with our lives. However, the most important aspect of aggregations is their capacity to maintain, modify and form newer and changed objects of different types of molecules. This capacity is the base for development of modern amenities. The purification of water by alum, production of butter from milk, extraction of metals by borax and alkalis are examples of utilitarian changes of chemical nautre. Of course, few examples are observed in canons in this regard. This capacity of aggregation has been explored by the scientists extensively and as a result, we have a world full of entertaining materials. Could we say these materials will not lead to our spiritual development ?
Bhagavati 43 and Umāsvāti mention six embodiments ( earth, water, fire, air, plants, moving beings ), five bodies,

Page #225

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 203
speech, mind and respirations as the effects of aggregations, They also mention 14-16 manifestations of aggregations with some variations with Uttarādhyayana ( 16 )44 and Umāsvāti ( 14 )45. These consist of some physical energies and some properties in or through which changes are observable. These are shown in Table 4 and have been discussed in proper places in this volume. Sthānānga46 points only ten manifestations in contrast. Kundakunda mentions only seven. The symbols U, T. S. and Sth. represent Uttarādhyayana, Tattvārtha-sutra and Sthānanga respectively in Table 4. Table 4 : Aggregational Manifestations. Non-energy manifestations Energys forms 1. Bonding (U., T. S., Sth. ). Sound ( U., T. S., Sth. ) 2. Shape/form (U., T. S., Sth.) Darkness (U., T. S. ) 3. Division/Dissociation
Shadow or image (U.,. T. S., Sth. )
(U., T. S.) 4. Touch ( U., T. S., Sth.) Sunshine ( hot light)
(U., T. S.) 5. Taste ( U., T. S., Sth.) Moonlight ( U., T.S.) 6. Smell (U., T. S., Sth.) Lamplight (Prabhā ) (U) 7. Colour (U., T. S., Sth. ) ( Lustre ) 8. Separation (U) 9. Non-separation (U) 10. Number (0) 11-12. Grossness, Fineness (T.S.) 13. Motion ( Sth. ) 14. A-heavy-a-lightness ( Sth. ) Properties of Aggregations
All fine and gross skandhas have all the general and specific properties of mattergy. There are eight general and six specific properties of matter. These have already been described. Besides, it may be mentioned that each aggregate has cohesive or adhesive force inherent in it, so that it could combine with its own or different types. There is a variety of action

Page #226

204 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons !
.
or motion including rotation, vibration, translation. The translatory motion requires highest energy for chemical bonding. There are some technical terms used in this connection like parispanda, parivarta, pariņāma, etc. which have been explained by Sikdara?, Description of Specific Skandhas
The infinite variety of aggregations can be seen to exist in four specific forms – earth, water, air and fire. The order in Kundakunda and many philosophies is different putting fire before air due to eye-perceptibility criteria. Kundakunda mentions them as dhātus (basic ones ). The four mahābhūtas of the Buddhists and four types of basic atoms of Vaisesikas remind us of some conceptual similarities. This four-form aggregation concept suggests that karma theory (where karmas are also mattergical aggregates ) was probably developed later as has also been suggested by Dixit 48. As the karma concept is concerned with spiritualistic discussions, we will skip it here.
It may be suggested that these four aggregatal forms represent the various states of mattergy rather than the specific aggregates. Thus, the earth represents solids, water the liquids, air the gases and fire the various forms of energies. On the one hand, this statement is supported by the fact that the seers have enumerated a variety of earth ranging between 21-40 and involving metals, minerals, non-metals, alloys, ores, gems, compound and mixtures. On the other hand, this surmise becomes little doubtful when one finds that they have classified water, air and fire only in their naturally occurring or commonly observed forms. Though Kundakunda49 exemplifies ghee, oil etc. among the gross (liquid ) class, still they are not mentioned in water varieties. How they could overlook the enormous variety of liquids and gases is a matter of surprise and clarification. It could also be surmised that other varieties of different classes might not be known at canonical times.
Another fact stated in canons is that all these skandhas or the visible world is basically termed as living during their

Page #227

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 205
growth and development50. Their internal heat, hardness or adhesiveness has been taken as sign of their livingness. However, they turn non-living by heating, solution, cutting or weapon operation. We shall describe them as in canons. The Earth
The earth, representing the class of solids, is characterised by different degrees of hardness. It has valuables under and over it. Acäränga51 and Mūlācāra 52 have classified the earth in the first instance followed by others later. The canonical description is based on its assumption of being one-sensed living one. Though canons do not have it but Pujyapada53 has classified it in four categories of (i) earth, (ii) earth-body, (iii) embodied earth and (iv) would-be living earth. Similar classification exists for other aggregatal forms like water, etc. Out of them, the first and second are clearly non-living, the third has been called living, because of its being substratum for living entities. The fourth variety also seems to be living system about which no tangible clarification is available. No other realistic system agrees to livingness of the earth in any way. Currently, it is debatable whether living characteristics apply to earth as a class. However, it has been shown to have many types.
It has been observed that a number of older canons and pro-canons do not have much details about the earth. However, the earliest mention of some of its varieties are traceable in Acārānga and Daśavaikālika54 (i. e. about 427 B. C.). They mention four types of earths-rocks, lumps, stones and sands. Later on, these types have been expanded. Scriptures have mentioned its two broad types - soft and hard. The soft one has five or seven-coloured varieties as shown in Prajñāpanā 55 (P) and Acārānga-niryukti (A. N. ). They are as below : Red, Green, Yellow, White, Black-coloured earths.
(A. N.)
Red, Green, Yellow, White, Black, Pale-white (Pandu) and algae (panak) earths (P).

Page #228

206 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
The hard types are shown in Table 5 as found in canonical literature. Though there seems to be large amount of similarity in these types, still some additions and deletions forecast many informations. The Ācārānga Niryukti contains all solid earths, the 14 gems being additional to the list totalling 35. In the second classification of about 250 years later, not only gems included in the list but their number also increase from 14 to 18. Moreover, mercury is also added to the metals. This is an exception to the class of solids. This suggests that mercury was discovered or put to use between 500-300 B. C. Though śāntisūri follows Prajñāpanā, but he has curtailed the number to 21 by condensing the gems to three types and seven metals to one type. Some new substances like chalk and soda have also been added with the exclusion of diamond and pebbles, etc. Amrtacandrasūri follows Mūlācāra with 21 substances and 15 gems making the total to 36 earths. The last two classifications add pewter to metals which is actually an alloy. Sūri has made Masargalla variety into two types. Table 5 : Various types of Earth. UTN A
MR/TS PRJN Sānti Sūri - 40 35 36 40 20
2 3 . 4
5
Soils Stones
Soils Stones Slabs Pebbles
Soils Stones Slabs Pebbles
Soils Stones Slabs Pebbles Kirelaka
1. Soils 2. Stones 3. Slabs 4. Pebbles 5. - Metals 6. Iron 7. Copper 8. Lead 9. Silver 10. Gold 11. -
Iron
Gold etc.
Iron Copper Lead Silver Gold
Iron Copper Lead Silver Gold
Copper Lead Silver Gold Mercury
Mercury

Page #229

1
14. Salts
15. Usam
Alloys
12. Pewter
Non-metals
13. Diamond
Mineral/Compounds
16. Yellow
2
Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 207
prabha
36. Vaidurya

Salts
Usam
3
Pewter
Diamond Diamond Diamond
Coral
Salts
Usam
Anka Indranila
Candra
prabha
Vaidūrya
Sulphate
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Orpiment Orpiment
Orpiment
Orpiment Orpiment
17. Vermillion Vermillion Vermillion Vermillion Vermillion 18. Realgar Realgar Realgar Realgar Realgar
19. Ant. Sulph. Ant. Sulph. Ant. Sulph. Ant. Sulph.Sauviranjan 20. Mica
Mica
Mica
Mica
Mica (5 col.)
21. Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
22. Fine sand Mica sand
Mica sand
23.
24.
4
Pewter
Coral
Salts
Usam
Anka Indranila
Candra
prabha
Vaidūrya
---
Cop. Sulph.
Natural Substance
25. Coral
Gems
26. Gomeda
Gomeda
Gomeda Gomeda
Rucaka Rucaka
Rucaka
Gems
27. Rucaka 28. Sphatika
Sphatika Sphatika Sphatika
Sphatika
29. Lohitākṣa Lohitākṣa Lohitäkṣa Lohitākṣa Jewels Marakata Bappaka Marakata
30. Marakata
Chalk
5
Coral
Salts
Soda
31. Masargalla Masargalla Masargalla Masargalla
32. Bhujmodak Bhujmodak Bhujmodak –
Anka
33. Arka 34. Indranila
Moca or Nila –
35. Candra
Candra
prabha
Vaidūrya

Sand
Coral

Page #230

208 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
2
4
5 37. Jalakānta Jalakānta Jalakānta Jalakānta - 38. Sūryakānta Sūryakānta Sūryakänta Sūryakānta - 39. Candana -
Candana Candana 40.- " Manikānta - 41. Gairika
Gairika Gairika 42. Pulaka
Pulaka Pulaka 43. Saugan
Saugan- Saugandhika
dhika
dhika 44. Hansa
Hansa- Hansagarbha
garbha garbha 45. -
Pānduranga46. -
Rucakānka -
Puşparāga, Baka 48. –
Rucakānka -
47.-'
On chemical examination of these various earths, it is seen that they contain elements, compounds, minerals, alloys, gems and mixtures known during different canonical periods. The earths are said to be carriers of many valuables. Dasavaikālika mentions 24 such valuables including some trees and medicinal plants but excluding cereals and pulses 56.
Gold has an important status among all the solids. It was used for coins, ornaments and medicines. It is said to be anti-posion and rejuvenator. It was taken to be an auspicious metal, inert, unattacked by fire and valuable. Its purity is judged by heat resistence, beating, rubbing and drilling. It was assumed that when lead was converted into gold, many factors including vital force worked. It is obtained by heating its ores with salt and borax. Other metals are also obtained similarly57. Artificial gold has also been mentioned in Niryuktis. Tempering has been one of the ways to improve the qualities of iron. Description of other earths or metals is not available in canons.
The earths described above form the gross class. There are fine earths too. They are found everywhere in the

Page #231

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 209
universe and they belong to one type only. They are invisible aggregates. They are infinite in number58.
The above canonical description about solids seems to be quite small and incomplete when compared with current knowledge. There are thousands of compounds and minerals known today. Many useful materials are being synthesized now-a-days. Canons deal with only natural earths. Still, it proves that the ancient scholars did observe what was existing.
The Vaiseṣikas 59 have only three types of earth-soils, rocks and minerals and immobiles (vegetable kingdom). Later, Annam Bhaṭṭa omits the last category and adds the word etc. inclusive of many solid and liquid materials found in nature. The Jainas have a separate category for vegetable kingdom to be described later. That is taken as living rather than nonliving. Table 5 indicates the Jaina advances over the Vaiseṣikas in this regard. Prasastapāda exemplifies each of three categories in general but the Jainas have gone specific. The Buddhists have not much to offer in this matter.
The Water Class
Like earth, water should represent liquid class. The factual description is different. However, water is divided in two classes fine and gross. The fine variety has similar specifics as the fine earth. No examples of fine variety are available. However, gross water could be of three types (i) general water (paniya), (ii) alcohols (pāna) and (iii) medicinal waters (pānaka1). Fluidity is the chief characteristics of this class. Many substances like butterfat, metals, etc. could get into this class when heated and liquefied. They therefore casually belong to this class.

Ordinary water has two varieties overground and underground. They have been sub-classified in different canonical periods, as shown in Table 6. The Prajñāpanā gives the best classification with seventeen varieties of water liquids including all the above three major varieties. Mulācāra and
—

Page #232

210 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Amṛtacandra have nothing special. Jivābhigama follows mostly Prajñāpanā. Uttaradhyayana and Daśavaikālika are nearly similar with less varieties in comparison to later literature. Santisūri has seven varieties on which the earth rests. Table 6 Various Types of Water in Jaina Canons.
UTN
DSV
MR/TS
PRJN
5
5
6
7
Overground Waters
1. Dew
2. Ice
3. Mist
4. Hails
5. Water
Dew
Ice
Mist
Hails
Water
drops on drops on
Dew
Ice
Mist
Hails
Water
Water
drops on
drops on
greengrass greengrass greengrass greengrass greengrass Under-ground Water
6. Udaka
Udaka
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. -
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
-
17.
19.
-
18.

111 I
Dew
Ice
Mist
Hails
Water
drops on
Udaka
Santi Sūri 7
Dew
Ice
Mist
Hails
Pure Udaka Rain water
Dense water
Water, Well, River etc.
Cold
Hot (spring)

Alkaline
Slight acidic
Acidic
Salt/Sea water Wine (Varuna) ·
-
water
Milk (Kṣira)
water
Butter (Ghṛta)
water
Sweet (Cane)
water
Rasodaka

Page #233

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 211
There are two types of creatures found in water-air born and water born (Vāyu-yonika and Jala-yonika )62. The normal water is purified by boiling or by using alum. It is said that the ascetics should use the water cooled after boiling. The pure water becomes substratum for micro-organisms when kept for 12-24 hours. Fermented or lemon waters are acidic which increases on keeping them longer due to further fermentation where alcohol or vinegar is produced. These waters should not be used for drinking. The Prajñāpanā description about the sources of water is quite satisfactory. But they describe only solid or liquid water. Gaseous water does not find any mention in canons or later pro-canons.
Jivābhigama 63 mentions about 21 sources from which different types of alcohols or alcoholic medicinals could be prepared. Many partially fermented waters are included in Prajñāpanā waters. Mūlācāra points out that their eatability is only limited upto 24 hours fermentation64.
The general canonical literature does not contain much about alcohols and medicinal waters. However, Jivābhigama points out that these increase the strength of the body and health. These liquids form the subject of other faculties. It has been pointed out that they should not be used for better health and spirits. Amrtacandra65 has described alcohol as a source of many micro-organism and it causes intoxication and idleness. Butter is also produced by similar process. One does not have much description about liquid oils. However, butter and oils form a class of liquids which are water insoluble. Many other liquids are water soluble. They are described to some extent in Ayurvedic texts.
Jivābhigama mentions the shape of liquids in the form of water-drops ( spherical ) in contrast to circular shape of the earths basically66
It seems from the above that there were three main types of liquids in the olden times. Their number has grown enormous today. Their properties vary. The earlier description

Page #234

212 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
of general properties show that quite a good number of liquids are found in canons. The Vaiseșikas have sea, river, dew and ice-water with many other varieties included in the word 'etc.' not mentioned specifically67. This seems to be much less than what is described in Jaina literature. The Buddhists have also a similar case as with the earths.
Current science has gone sufficiently ahead of canonical age not only in the number of liquids, but their classification ways and qualitative and quantitative properties. A good amount of knowledge about them has been added. The Air or Gaseous Aggregates
As earlier, the air should represent the gaseous class of substances. They move in all directions. Formerly, only colourless gases might be known which were not visible to the eye but other senses could sense them by their blowing, flowing or smell and touch. It seems, however, that no other gas except air was known in canonical periods. That is why, only various types of airs are described in this category. The earths and water fare better in this regard though to a very small extent.
Air has been classified differently in different periods as shown in Table 7. Daśavaikālika classifies it in seven types – a common sense view. But there is a peculiarity. Air from mouth is also included in it. It is now taken as chemically different from normal air in the sky. Other airs may be called nonviolent airs or breezes. Prajñāpanā has a better classification of air consisting of 19 varieties depending on direction, velocity, action or physical state. Sāntisūri has eight varieties which include air from mouth and some other Prajñāpanā varieties. It has excluded all directional winds. Battakera and Amrtacandra have seven varieties excluding mouth air. All these categories do not include air from nose without which our life would be in danger. Per chance, this could be taken as included in mouth air though it is compositionally different. Of course, if

Page #235

the concept of prāṇas as substance is taken, respiration may include it.
Table 7 Various types of Airs in Jaina Canons.
MR/TS
Śantisūri
7
8
Wind
Wind
Wind
Wind
blowing
blowing
blowing
blowing
1. Upwards Upwards Upwards Upwards Leaves, Air Downwards Downwards Downwards Downwards Air, breeze
2.
3.
Whirlwind Whirlwind
Whirlwind
4. Singing air Dense air
Singing air
Whirlwind Singing air Dense air
Singing air Dense air
Air, cloths Air, hand Air, feather
5.
Dense air
6.
Breeze,
Breeze
Breeze
Breeze
Air, mouth
Pure air
7.
8.
UTN
6
9.-16.
17.
18.
19.
Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 213
PRJN
19

Rarefied air Rarefied air Rarefied air
Air from
Air from
mouth
mouth
Air of eight directions
Stormy air
Air, destructive
Wind in Waves
DSV
7
Fan air
││││
Some properties of air find mention in canons.It has been said that it helps combustion while the whirlwind obstructs it.68 It is inhaled and exhaled by the body. Its mattergic and aggregatal nature can be proved by its obstruction, subjugation and resistance by material objects.69 Bhagavati 70 mentions its property of contraction and expansion. There are many types of micro-organism in air. Their properties have come to be known quite late in Pasteur's time. Airs have kite shape.

││
Though air is an aggregate but there is no mention whether it is a mixture or a compound. The canons contain meagre physical or chemical properties about it. Now it is known as one of the many gases, some of them coloured (Chlorine, Nitrogen Peroxide etc.) and many colourless

Page #236

214 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
( Carbon Di-oxide, Cooking gas etc. ). They could be liquefied and solidified. They could be put to a large number of uses including medicines, pesticides and polymers.
The Vaišeşikas? have obliquely moving air recognised by touch and inferred by a-hot-a-cold touch, production of sound and vibrations and by causing lighter bodies to float in the sky. Despite mentioning of innumerable varieties, they have pointed only inhaling and exhaling airs present in all parts of the body. Its obstruction has also been mentioned to show material aggregatal nature of general air. It is said that it causes bio-chemical processes to proceed and the body to run — a fact mentioned by the Jainas due to fires. The Buddhists have air as primary matter with not much details about it. The Fire or Energy or Taijasa ( Caloric ) Aggregates
The fire or Taijasa aggregates represent various types of energy particles. Some of them like light are visible by sense of sight while others are perceived by senses other than sight ( Heat ). Basically sunrays or fires are called Taijasas. They are hot by nature — a point not mentioned in canons but observed physically. That is why sound energy is not called so. The Prajñāpanā?2 classifies these aggregates in two forms --- fine and gross. It is the gross variety which has been classified in canons and shown in table 8. The flames ( with or without light) are known forms of fires. Daśavaikālika mentions seven forms while Prajñāpanā points atleast twelve forms. Others mention their own numbers. Jivābhigama follows Prajñāpanā and mentions its shape as needle type. If one takes pure fire as fire produced from non-traditional fuels or without fuels ( striking stones, bamboos and gems, fire burning through glass or gems) and star burnings, electric lightnings etc. are all included in Ulkā variety, then there is not much difference in the varieties of fires by different authors. It may be guessed that those mentioned ones are not the only fire aggregates but there may be many more as the authors use the word etc. They have done so in the case of waters and earths too.

Page #237

Table 8: Various Types of Fires in Jaina Canons.
UTN
TS
6
6
3. Flame
4. Ulkā
5. Pure fire
6. Electric
lightning
7.
8.
1. Burning
Burning
Burning
Burning
Burning
coal with- coal with- coal with- coal with- coal without smoke out smoke out smoke out smoke out smoke 2. Straw/cow-Straw/cow-Straw/cow-Straw/cow-Straw/cow
dung fire
Flame
dung fire dung fire
Flame
Ulkā
Fuel-less
fire
9.
10. -
Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 215
-
11.
12.
DSV
7

Fuel-less
fire
PRJN
12
-
dung fire
Flame
Ulkä
Fuel-less
fire
Electric
lightning Half-burnt
Half-burnt Wood fire
Common fire Common fire
Star fire
Wood fire
Lamp fire Lamp fire
Santisūri
7
dung fire
Flame
Ulkä
Fuel-less

fire
Electric
lightning
Star fire
(Kanaka )
Fire by rub
bing
Gem fire
Nirghata fire
The above fire aggregations have three aspects heat, light and electric lightning which is produced by difference in charges. Thus, it may be inferred that the term Taijasa has included energies ( of today) known during the canonical periods. The important point to be noted here is that the electric lightning or its forms in the sky has been taken as fire aggregates. These are natural forms of electricity. All these are described in Physics rather than Chemistry of today.
Shastri has raised a point on the nature of Taijasa *(luminous) body-fourth out of five bodies living beings possess.

Page #238

216 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
It is the cause of heat, activity and digestion in the body. It is said to be fire invisible, devoid of impediments, caused by supernatural powers and luminating others while luminous by itself. It consists of an aggregate of infinite atoms (real) which are infinite times the number of atoms in earlier bodies. Due to dense packing, the overall size becomes finer. The luminous body is made up of energy aggregates or Taijasa variforms (varganās ) whose size is between āhāraka (ejectable, heat ) and bhāsā (sound) variforms?4. Jain and Javeri75 have called it as electrical or electro-magnetic in nature. This is found in every living beings from birth to death and even post-death state. Many have called it as caloric (heat ?). Per chance, heat generated by āhāra (food) is converted into this energy for the body to be active and living. It may itself be inactive but it makes the others active. Thus, the Taijasa body is thermal or electrical form of the fire aggregates. Akalanka76 mentions a number of times that heat and light are simultaneous in sunlight and they cause sweating and digestion due to heat content. He also mentions that fire bakes the earths, gets absorbed in materials like metals etc, in addition.
He has defined Taijaşa as white lustrous ( Prabhā ) light. It could be described in fourteen ways somewhat different from descriptions of today. Accordingly, it is as white as cronch. It produces anger and happiness in the living ( due to digestional secretions ) and creates burning and combustion in others. Its size is innumerableth part of an angula, i. e., less than 10-15 cm. It is infinite and universal. These points are based on the aggregatal nature of the fire body. It exists in the form of fine particle basically and forms aggregates. This description requires deeper studies for comparative evaluation.
Thacker77 has raised one more point regarding the livingness of light and electricity, i.e., fire energies. The commentator of Haribhadrahas given many arguments for the livingness of all the above four types of aggregates including air and fire on the ground of their heat content, growth under

Page #239

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 217
favourable conditions and other factors. It seems these represent the animistic trend of early Jainism as found in canons. However, the current science does not agree with these arguments and points out their non-living nature though the canons tell us these could be bothways. For example, air is necessary for life and lamps cannot burn without it. In contrast, electric lamps burn only in an airless atmosphere. These could become non-living by many processes some of which are mentioned in Ācārānga even.
The Vaišeşikas 79 presume Taijasa atoms with hot touch and white glistening colour. They consist of four forms -- fuelfire, sky-fire, biochemical-fire and mineral-fire. Out of these, the Jainas have only the first two. The biochemical-fire or heat is produced in the body by which it functions due to digestional conversions of various intakes. It is termed as stomach-fire. Mineral-fire is said to be found in many minerals containing gold, silver etc. This is not acceptable to the Jainas who also do not aggree to the exclusive nature of hot touch to the fire aggregates which include gem fires too. Buddhas have Taijasa as an aggregate with hotness causing cooking of materials. Table 8 clearly indicates that the Jainas have detailed the Vaiseșika fires. Physical and Chemical Changes in Aggregates Mentioned in Canons
The canons do not mention the changes in mattergy in terms of current knowledge about bonding. However, many of the changes have been mentioned which could be classified under the current heads. The physical changes are temporary, reversible easily without changing the internal nature of the constituents and they generally do not follow any law. The chemical changes are just the reverse and follow laws of chemical combinations and bonding. They are generally irreversible but they could be reversed under harder conditions. A selection of phenomena found in canons are classified below in table 9. It is clear that majority of changes or phenomena

Page #240

218 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
mentioned in the canons are physical. They have been mentioned in connection with explaining religious or philosophical facts so that they may be easily intelligible to laymen. They, however, represent what was commonly known at those times. The chemical changes are few and indicate some processes in common use. They have also the illustrative purpose. It is, however, learnt that there are very few of chemical/physical processes mentioned in the canons. Quite a good number of them are found in Prāṇāvāya treatises. Still, scholars of today can easliy feel how scanty had been our knowledge in practical fields. We did not try to improve upon it for centuries and are now feeling for lagging behind seriously in current age. Table 9: Classification of changes mentioned in Canons. (a) Change of States: Physical Changes
(i) Heating, cooling and solidification of milk.
(ii) Liquidity of earths, solidifaction of water, solidification of gases.
(iii) Old Molasses and old ghee.
(b) Physical phenomena
(iv) Formation of clouds and sky-tree.
(v) Rains, fogs, lightning.
(vi) Storms and hailstorms.
(vii) Rainbow.
(viii) The aura and lines surrounding sun and moon. (ix) One to multi-atomic mattergy.
(x) Fabric made from fibres.
(xi) Absorption of fire by metals.
(xii) Separation of gold from auriferrous sands of Kuru
kşetra.
(xiii) Raw pitcher from wet clay-mixture.
(xiv) Mixture of oil and water.
(xv) Precipitation of salts on woods in salt solutions.
( xvi) Poisoning or bitter-tasting of eatables by poisonous or bitter substances.
(xvii) Swarming of dust particles in sweet wet jaggery.

Page #241

(xviii) Inertness of gold, gems etc. in dirty places. (c) Chemical/Physico-chemical Changes
( xix) Formation of alcohols from materials mixed with ground powders of enzymes (kiņva ). (xx) Baking of earths and raw pitcher. (xxi) Burning of lamp with wick and oil.
( xxii) Precipitation of pearls from water ( CaCo ̧).
( xxiii) Agricultural crop from seeds through water, sunlight and soil.
( xxiv )Production of fire by rubbing woods or stones. (xxv) Souring of various washings by indirect/direct fermentation.
( xxvi )Extraction of metals from their ores.
Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 219
(d) Undefined bonding
( xxvii) Bond between the living and fine karmic aggre
gates.
( xxviii) Bond between pure soul and karmas.
( xxix) Emulsion (milk) and diffusion ( fragrance in flowers) processes involving weak electrostatic forces.
Conclusion
The above description of theory of aggregations and specific aggregates of Jainas confirm that the theoretical concepts in this regard stand on better footing than the practical side. The description of visible or gross world seems to be quite incomplete and small. It must however be admitted that Prajñā-panā gives the best details of the period. Another fact emerging from the above is that the canons have differing or modified contents in nearly every specific case. It is therefore very necessary to collect and co-ordinate the material to present to the current man.
References
1. Acārya Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, Bharatiya Jnanpitha, Delhi, 1975, p. 65.

Page #242

220 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
2. Ācārya Kundakunda: Niyamasāra, Jaina Publishing
House, Lucknow, 1931, p. 15. 3. Nemicandra Cakravarti : Gommațasāra Jivakāņda, Rai
chand Jaina Granthamala, Agas, 1972, p. 267. 4. S. A. Jain : Reality, Vira Shasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960,
pp. 151-154. 5. Ibid, p. 150. 6. bid, p. 51. 7. Ibid, p. 54. 8. Kundakunda : Niyamasāra, p. 13. 9. A. Chaudhuri : In K. C. S. Felicitation Volume, Rewa, 1980,
p. 426. 10. Ācārya Prasastapāda : Prasastapāda Bhāsya, Sanskrita
University, Kashi, 1977, p. 78. 11. Ācārya Prabhacandra : Prameya-kamala-mārtanda,
Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1941, pp. 605-619. 12. Bhagavati Sūtra, Sadhumargi Sangha, Sailana, 1966, p.
884.
Edited by Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, Jain Vishva
bharati, Ladnun, 1976, p. 950. 14. Bhagavati Sūtra, Sadhumargi Sangha, Sailana, 1966, pp.
2842-2885. 15. Acārya Kundakunda : Pravacanasāra, Patni Jaina Grantha
mala, Maroth, 1950, p. 211. 16. N. L. Jain's article in 'Amara Bhārati', 1985. 17. A. K. Jain : 'Tulasi Prajñā', Ladnun, 1987, 12. 4, p. 40. 18. K. C. Lalwani : Bhagavati-sūtra-1 ( English Translation ),
p. 216. 19. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, Bharatiya Jnanpitha,
Delhi, 1975, pp. 73-75. 20. J. S. Javeri : Atomic Theory of Jainas, Jain Vishvabharati,
Ladnun, 1975. 21. Nemicandra : Gommațasāra Jivakānda, Raichand Jaina
Granthamala, Agasa, p. 267.

Page #243

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 221
22. Śyāma Ārya : Prajñāpanā Sūtra-1, p. 31. 23. Jain Cosmology, Old and New, p. 73-75, 24. Kundakunda : Niyamasāra, p. 13.
25. Jain Cosmology, Old and New, p. 17.
26. Acārya Yativṛṣabha: Tiloyapanṇatti, Jivraj Granthamala, Sholapur, 1955, p. 13.
27. J. C. Sikdar : Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy, p. 239.
28. Nemicandra : Gommaṭasāra, Jivakāṇḍa, p. 270.
29. S. A. Jain: Reality, pp.151-154.
30. V. K. Gupta & R. G. Sharma : Advanced Physical Chemistry, K. Nath & Co., Meerut 1987, p. 168.
31. N. L. Jain: Griha Rasayana, Rama Prasad & Co., Agra,
1985, p. 32.
32. N. L. Jain: Chemical Theories of Jainas, Chymia, 11. 1, 1961, p. 11.
33. Jain Cosmology, Old and New, p. 140.
34. Bhagavati-sūtra, Sadhumargi Sangh, Sailana, 1966, p.
2897.
35. Pujyapāda: Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 221.
36. J. M. L. Shastri : Jaina Śāstron Main Vaijñānika Sanketa, J. M. L. Shastri Sadhuvada Grantha, Rewa, 1989, p. 241. 37. Jain Cosmology, Old and New, p. 146.
38. Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 2687.
39. (a) N. L. Jain in Tulasi Prajñā, xx, 1994-95, pp. 9-20. (b) Aradhana Jain: in paper read in Guna Seminar, 1994. 40. M. L. Banthia: Jaina Padartha Vijñāna Mein Pudgala, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 76.
41. Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 1473.
42. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 23, p. 92, etc.
43. (a) Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 203.
(b) Jain : Reality, p. 144.
44. Edited by Yuvacārya Mahaprajña: Uttarādhyayana, p. 375.

Page #244

222 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
45. Jain : Reality, pp. 150-151. 46. Thāṇam, p. 905. 47. J. C. Sikdar : Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy, p.
239. 48. K. K. Dixit : Jaina Ontology, L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, 1971, p. 30. 49. Kundakunda : Niyamasāra, p. 13. 50. Edited by Muni Nathamal : Daśavaikālika : Eka Samikṣā
tmaka Adhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p.
113. 51. śānti Sūri : Jiva-Vicāra-Prakarana, Jain Mission Society,
Madras, 1950, p. 23. 52. Battakera : Mūlācāra-1, Bharatiya Jñānapitha, Delhi,
1984, p. 177. 53. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 122. 54. Edited by Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśavaikālika, Jain
Vishvabharati, Ladnun, 1974, p. 110. 55. Śyāma Ārya : Prajñāpanā-sūtra -1; p. 31. 56. Muni Nathamal : Daśavaikālika : Eka Samiksătmaka
Adhyayana, p. 117. 57. N. L. Jain in Jaina Vidyā evam Prakrta, Sampurnananda
Samsakrit University, Varanasi, 1987, p. 194. 58. Edited Muni Nathmal : Uttarādhyayana, Jaina Vishva
bharati, Ladnun, 1967, p. 375. 59. Prasastapāda : Prasastapāda-bhāsya, p. 89. 60. Annambhatta : Tarka-sangraha, Varanasi, 1934, p. 21. 61. Muni Nathamala : Daśavaikālika : Eka Samiksātmaka
Adhyayana, p. 207. 62. Ibid, p. 117. 63. Jivābhigama -1, Jaina Šāstroddhāra Samiti, Rajkot, 1973,
p. 517. 64. Battakera : Mūlācāra, Part II, p. 67. 65. Amộtacandra Sūri : Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, D. J. S. N.

Page #245

Jaina Theory of Skandhas or Aggregations : 223
Trust, Sonagarh, 1978, p. 61.
66. Jivābhigama-1, Jain Sastroddhāra Samiti, Rajkot, 1971, p. 141.
67. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda-bhāṣya, p. 96.
68. Pūjyapāda: Sarvārthasiddhi, p. 213.
69. Ibid, p. 213.
70. Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 674.
71. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda-bhāṣya, pp. 118-120. 72. Syama Ārya: Prajñāpanā-sūtra, p. 46.
73. Shastri : Jaina Sastron Main Vaijñānika Sanketa, pp. 228
241.
74. Nemicandra: Gommaṭa-sāra, p. 267.
75. Jain Cosmology, Old and New, p. 57.
76. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika, p. 16, p. 38, p. 60 etc. 77. Sānti Sūri : Jivavicāraprakaraṇa, p. 29-32.
78. Haribhadra Sūri : Şaḍ-darśana-samuccaya, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1976, p. 243.
79. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda-bhāṣya, p. 97.

Page #246

Chapter 7 Jaina Theory of Atoms
Constitution of Gross Matter
The question regarding basic nature and constitution of gross matter has been the subject of speculative study since the earliest times. It is only in recent centuries that a large amount of progress has been made in our understanding in this regard. Most philosophers postulating the material world as real propose that the gross matter is made up of smallest particles called atoms (anus or paramāņus ). The eastern philosophers generally have coined the word anu for the smallest constituents. However, Vātsyāyana' has differentiated them from paramānus which make up anus. The Jainas have the word anu for this smallest particle. It will be shown that the term used for basic particles could be taken as equivalent to the current term - atom for comparative elaboration and evaluation. Besides Jainas, Ajivikas, Cārvākas, Buddhas, Vaiseșikas and Greeks also have their atomistic theory for gross matter. This is being treated after the gross matter because of its fineness and intellectual conceptualism. Historical Perspective of Atomic Theory
Though Sarton” refers to some historically unverifiable record of Phoenician thoughts regarding earliest conception of atomic theory dating as early as 800 B. C., but Basham seems to be more realistic in pointing out the earliest authenticated instance to thoughts on atomic origin of mattergy to Prakrddha and Ajivikas dating 600-544 B. C. It is opined that the atomic theories of Jainas, Buddhas, Vaiśesikas, Cārvākas and others seem to have these earlier theories as their base and, therefore, have developed later.
It is very difficult to state the chronological order of

Page #247

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 225
development of various Indian philosophical systems. They all have sufficiently pre-Christian era of development as approximated by prominent scholars“ and given below in Table 1. Their literature grew first by oral tradition and then in script form some two to three hundred years later. The major commentaries developed later between second and ninth centuries A. D. elaborating and incorporating the newer tenets on this theory. It is clear from Table 1 that Gośāla was senior to Mahāvira and others", and in turn Mahāvira and his literature is the first to be counted authentically. All other systems seem to be junior in all respects. It should, however, be mentioned that some scholars hold different views about contents of Table16 but the majority subscribes to it. Nevertheless, the table supplements and supports the contention of Rieppe as above. Table 1 : Approximate dates of origin and first literature of
Indian systems of philosophy. System
App. Hist. Date First Literature 1. Markhali Gośāla 600-544 B. C.
(Ajivaka ) 2. Mahāvira ( Jaina ) 599-527 B. C.* App. 400 B. C. 3. Buddhas
599-486 B. C. 300 B. C. 4. Sānkhyas
500-400 B. C. 150 B. C. 5. Cārvākas
600-400 B. C. 150 B. C. 6. Vaiśesikas 500 B. C.
300 B. C. 7. Democritus ( Greek 1420 B. C.
420 B. C. * 540-468 B. C. under current thoughts.
Despite Prakrddha belief in seven elements - water, fire, air, earth, soul ( life ), joy and sorrow — in the world, the Upanišadics, Ājivikas, Cārvākas, Buddhas and Vaiseșikas had four basic bhūtas, dhātus, elements or atoms. The contemporary Sankhya school seems to have peeped a little deeper in assuming a formless matter (Prakrti ) as the fundamental cause to produce infra-atoms or tanmātrās, subtle senses and they leading to fine and gross senses and matter. The earliest

Page #248

226 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Sankhya literature does not mention the word aņu or paramāņu but later scholars like Vijñānabhikṣu introduced it in their works equating tanmātrās as the essence or infra-atoms causing the formation of fine and gross world. This tanmātrikā system is more imaginary and philosophic than the atomist system, In contrast, the Jainas have a clear exposition of atomic base of the universe.
From the above, it may be opined that eastern atomism had its origin during 600-500 B. C. Democritus of Greece also happened to be living during 460-370 B. C. who developed atomism in the west out of inconsistencies of various theories of unitary elements from Thales to Empedocles (500440 B. C).
It would be very difficult to tell who is the first originator of atomistics. The east, however, wins the race as far as timings are concerned. It is also surmisable that each system developed its theory independently in the east and west as well on philosophical conceptual basis. There is no proper record to confirm either intellectual contacts or literature of this period between the two regions despite Mellor's suggestion of a historical possibility that the Greeks were influenced by Indian thought travelling through Persia. Rieppe definitely points out that the east has not been influenced by the west despite the fact that there are many similarities in approach and conceptions on many philosophical problems. However, it may be said that the development of various atomic theories took place during a very small period of time (about a century).
Table 2 summarises various atomic concepts. It will be clear that the eastern atomism excels not only the Greek one but the Daltonian one also in many respects. Also, the Jaina atomism, in particular, seems to be quite advanced contemporarily and even much akin to many concepts of twentieth century. The distinctive features of Table 2 lend support to this view.

Page #249

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 227
Equivalence of Anu or Paramāņu with Atom
Nearly all realistic systems presume atoms as the basic unit of matter. However, it is only in early Vaiseṣika and Jaina literature that this has been postulated to a credible extent. They have been led to it from the four types of gross bases which were supposed to be pre-mordial substances. However, the nature of atoms varies in each system. Before we describe them, it will be pertinent to establish the equivalent meaning of the word aņu or paramāņu.
Despite the fact that the scientific world has accepted the divisibility of atoms into large number of constituents on the basis of early twentieth century discoveries, the Indian atomists, specially the Jainas have been unable to agree to this fact1. Many Jaina scholars have, therefore, tried to suggest the various equivalents for the canonical 'anu' or 'paramāņu'. Their main point in this regard has been the concept of indivisibility together with the size of real atoms which has been shown to be approximately 10-13 cm.11 The validity of these facts has been associated with the view of absolute knowing capacity of the Jaina seers ( omniscients). Barring super-humanistic elements, the canons are found to have many flaws accepted by Vaiseṣikas and Jainas too flouting their authenticity on the basis of non-contrariety and consistency. The traditionalists, however, would not agree to flaws in the canons. Hence, they would consider the canonical atom as equivalent to some smaller but indivisible constituent of current atom. Prof Jaina12 equated them formerly to ionised atoms, stripped atoms and then to electrons, positrons etc. and now to a new particle quark (3 Q = 1 proton). Javeri13 has gone further to equate it to mere energy. The Jainācāryas have, however, shown some genious to solve their own problem by assuming two types of atoms fine or ideal atoms to be innumerableth times finer than the real ones14. They have also postulated two types of real atoms- one supposed to be without mass (aguru-laghu) and the other with mass (4-touch and 8-touch atoms )15.

Page #250

Table 2: Comparative Properties of Atoms in Important Systems.
Properties
Greeks
Vaiśeşikas
Nature
Non-living
Non-living
Smallest unit
Smallest unit
Eternal
Eternal
Indivisible
Indivisible
Invisible
Invisible
1.
2. General
3. Shape
33 9
4.
5.
properties
6.
Size Qualities
Forms
Indestructible
Impenetratable Different shapes Different Sizes No colour, taste etc. Matter association
7. Number/Types Many
8. Identification
Indestructible
Impenetratable Space Point, Solid 10-4cm (1/6 sunrays) Touch, taste, colour Smell, Association
4 (Earth, Water, Fire, Air)
By effects
Jainas
Non-living
Smallest unit
Eternal, Non-eternal
Indivisible, divisible
Invisible
Indesructible
Impenetratable, hollow
Space point, Hollow 10-13 cm
T, Ts, C, S
Matter, Energy
Current atom
Non-living
Small unit
Eternal, Changing Divisible
8-Touch, with mass Fundamentally one 16 (T,Ts, C, S)
200 (Due to Promine
nce of Qualities)
By effects
Instrument-trackable
Destructible in energy. Penetratable
Hollow, Spherical, Elliptical
10-8 cm
T, C, Shape
Matter
Association, dissociation Association, Dissociation
Two : 4-Touch, no mass
109
Real
Wilson tracks
228 Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons

Page #251

Dynamic
Natural, external
Natural, external

9. Motion,
cause of
Primarily at rest, motion due to vital force Not specified
10. Motion, types
Linear, collision
11. Speed
Irregular
(i) Irregular Vibration, rotation (ii) V, R, Tr & spin Linear, translation Linear One space point to Measurable speed, the end of universe minimum, 100 cm per unit samaya maximum, 3 x 100 cm (10 27-104 cm) (Light) Chemical by 3 methods Three Valence types (Modified Version)
12. Bonding
By collision
Chen

By Vital Force By association, Thermal Energy Heating of gross matter
13. Transformation Dissociation-cum-
association, living matter can be produced from atoms.
Association, Dissociation Displacement methods mixed process, no living living matter from atoms from atoms
Chemical by full contact Physical by partial
Contact presence of adhesivity, Opposite electrical nature, Contact,quantitative ele- catalysts, contact, other ctrically opposite nature agents (Snigdha, +; Ruksa,- )
Jaina Theory of Atoms : 229
14. Cause of bond- --
ing

Page #252

230 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
On consideration, these contentions are crowded with many problems. Some of which are given below:
(a) Firstly, on the basis of size, the atom is supposed to be of point size. This will mean a solid atom as the point is the beginning, center and end of itself. This will further mean that the property of vast contraction and expansion will not stand scrutiny. Thus, the hollowness of the atom will not be substantiated16.
(b) The various types of motions of atoms described (see below) can also not be explained on the basis of space point size.
(c) The Jainas assume their atoms to be of same shape (shapeless ), size and type irrespective of the gross matter they form. Their equation of these atoms to current atomic constituents like electrons, etc. will mean atoms of at least two types. The space point shape proves them to be particulate in nature. Their sense-imperceptible form ( or rupiness) also supports this view.
(d) The Jainas have formulated rules for bonding of atoms among themselves and with other molecules forbidding the bonding of similarly charged similar atoms. However, formation of heavy electrons, protons and even of elementary molecules goes against this rule. Prof. Jaina17, Sikadar18 and others have not given any clue to this point.
(e) The equivalence of atoms with radiant energy is also not creditable as the energy particles (if they are like photons, nutrinos etc.) have smaller mass and sizes as postulated. Moreover, it will be very difficult to explain how gross matter could be formed from these energy particles with the amount of energy normally utilised in normal chemical transformations like formation of molecules of even elementary atoms. The fusion process of light atoms like hydrogen to helium has not been possible in practice for the last fifty years.
These and many other difficulties lead one to have a

Page #253

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 231
inore realistic view about the equivalence. The best point is to have the word paramāņu in its historical perspective and equate it to the contemporary atom of Vaiśesikas, greeks and Dalton even. It is only then that its properties could be compared and evaluated.
The Vaiśesika atom'' has also a point size but its dimensions are about 10? ( a crore ) times larger than the Jaina real atom of canons. Thus, it is really an atomic or molecular aggregate in current or even in Jaina terms. Surely, it could be easily divisible and weighted. There is, thus, no comparison of this atom with the Jainas or the current atom of 108 cm. size. However, we will presume the Vaiśesika atom with the same view as above for our comparison.
The Sānkhyas are not basically atomists but Sikdar20 has suggested their Prakrti to be equated with atom. However, the nature of this agency is not in tune with the activities of the atom. Secondly, how an atom could form tanmātrika infraatom ? it is like a vital force which the Jainas would not agree with. Sanghavia has suggested that the Jainas have the synthesis of their atom from the Sānkhyas and the Vaiseșikas in their fine and real variety.
It may be pointed out that there are some Indian systems like Sankara's Advaita-vedānta and Buddhas Vijñānavāda who do not agree to atomism as the cause of gross matter. They have refuted atomistics logically. However, it holds sway over these systems and has got support from modern science. Definition of Paramāņu or Atom
Of all the canons, Bhagavati22 is most important in giving many details of atomic concepts of the Jainas. They are followed by pro-canons written by Kundakunda23 with some additions to the theory. Table 2 points out the distinctive features of the Jaina theory comparatively. It is found that all systems of atomists agree an atom to be non-living, basic and

Page #254

232 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
finest constituent of matter with the qualities of indivisibility, impenetratibility, incombustibility and sense-imperceptibility. It is a true point without dimensions. It is ultimate and eternal unit. Despite its basic eternal nature, it undergoes changes to form molecules and gross matter. In contrast with the Greeks, the Jainas and Vaiseṣikas have attched touch, taste, smell and colour to it with the difference that the Jainas presume all the four qualities co-existing in all atoms. It can easily be guessed that the Jaina view is more scientific. This is exemplified by air when it is liquified. Earth and water definitely have all the four. Fire atoms have been shown to possess taste and smell too24. The Vaiseṣika statement25 of other than specified qualities in atoms being not natural but casual does not, thus, stand scrutiny. These qualities have been classified and we find a good amount of difference there too as shown earlier. It is because of these qualities that the atom and matter are termed 'rūpi' or with form.
It is said that at least five out of twenty sub-classes of these qualities exist in an atom at a time 1. taste, 1. colour, 1. smell and two touches (temperature and one of the electrical natures )26. The basic atom is, thus, a 4-touch one. The real atom may be 4-touch or 8- touch one. Other qualities develop later. This suggests that mass and density are not assumed to be basic properties of atoms by the Jainas. Javeri and Munishri27 call these basic atoms as forms of energy. This concept may not be valid in these days of relativity when all forms of energies are also supposed to possess mass, howsoever small
may be. In olden days, it was just impossible to feel even for such an infinitesimal mass. It is even today imperceptible by senses and instruments. The atoms are, therefore, basically said to be aguru-laghu 28 ( neither-heavy nor-light) rather than massless. Radhakrishnan seems to be partially right when he points out Jaina atom to possess weight. In fact, this word or quality shows the limitations of reason and thoughts on this point. By this, the two terms rūpi and aguru-laghu should

Page #255

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 233
be taken as complementary rather than contradictory.
Besides indicating the four qualities, the word 'rūpi' also indicates about the shape and size. Though each system points out atoms to be of solid spherical point shape, the Vaiseṣikas and Jainas have estimated their sizes to be between 10 to 10-13 cm. It could be guessed that this point alone can not make Jainistic atom to be different from the contemporary atom.
Despite the space point, shape and size, Jainas postulate quality of contraction and expansion capacity in atoms. This could be possible only when atom is supposed to be sufficiently hollow. No other older system has assumed this property in atoms. This hollowness, however, has been proved by the scientists of this century. But how a space-point could be hollow for the Jainas ?
Atoms are supposed to be real and their existence is proved by their activity and effects like formation of molecules and gross matter. It is the fourth variety of mattergy. It has indefinite activity and different types of motion and velocity. It has bonding capacity of a high order. Munishri29 and Ramapuria have summarised different properties of atoms described in canons. This indicates that the Jainas have pointed out many qualitative and quantitative properties which could be classified and described under the following four heads :
(i) Dynamic properties
(ii) Law of conservation of mattergy
(iii) Bonding properties
(iv) Variety of atoms.
The substantial, spatial, timal and modal description of atoms include all these properties.
Dynamic Properties
All systems assume dynamism in atoms. While the first motion in atoms is assumed to be due to vital force called adṛṣṭa by the Vaiseṣikas, the Greeks assume it to be natural,

Page #256

234 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
linear and colliding one. However, no details are specified by them. In contrast, the Jainas have given better and finer details about their dynamism. They presume the atoms to be static as well as dynamic. Their movements may be linear or complex, elastic or non-elastic, vibratory or otherwise'. It could be in different directions and it may or may not touch other atoms in their way. The cause of motion may be natural, external or both. The natural motion is, however, always irregular. When it is caused by external source like collision with other particles, it may have complex and non-linear motion. Normally, the motion is elastic, but there can be non-elastic motion also due to (i) absence of medium of motion, (ii) high velocity collision or (iii) bonding with other atoms32. Due to this, the atom looses its independence and free state of activity. The free atom has irregular motion only. The literature mentions seven types of motions - simple and complex vibration, linear or directional translation or transformation, collision and penetration and rotation. The scientists have added only spinning motion in atoms in addition.
Besides motions, the Jainas have also mentioned the speeds of atoms. Their speed can vary from a minimum of one space point to the maximum of the end point of this spacy world or lokākāśa of 1027 cms. (as per Einstein ) per unit instant time 34. The Greeks and Vaiseșikas have not mentioned the atomic speeds at all. The scientists have, however, calculated normal atomic speeds to be of the order of 104-106 cms. per second35. It could, however, be increased or decreased enormously depending on various conditions. The Jainas have not suggested normal speeds of atoms per chance due to lack of measuring teachnics. But they seem to point out the limits of speed. The scientists are not in a position to substantiate the highest speed in view of their maximum speed of 1010 cms for light -- so called massless mattergy of the Jainas. Despite current theories, it has still to be seen whether this could reach 1027 cms. The unit of time of Jainas is too small in comparison

Page #257

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 235
to scientist's unit of second. The Jaina atom, thus, seems to be more ferrocious than the current one. Recently, A. K. Jain 36 has given a calculation for the atomic speed of 1047 cms. per unit of time assuming 1 Prati-vipalāmśa to be equal to 9000 secs. and the 'samaya' unit of time to be innumerableth times smaller than this. Measurements upto 10-23 sec. have been made in laboratories now. Even if this is taken as equivalent to the sarnaya unit ( which is not canonically correct ), still the speed passes 1047 cms, mark. Munishri's37 calculations still seem to be imaginary, though mathematical. Law of Conservation of Mattergy
The term 'mattergy' includes the current matter and energy. The postulate of eternal nature, indestructibility and beginninglessness of mattergy naturally lead to their conservation law. It was Lomonsoff who first described law of mass conservation in 1774 and the combined law of conservation of mass and energy came into existence after Einstein's theory in early twentieth century. Thus, this concept existed long before in Indian system except Buddhists. The Greeks and Vaiseșikas also agree to the eternal nature of atoms and, thus, conservation law is seeded in all the three systems. It must be noted, however, that the atoms could change modally under different conditions or causes without loosing their substan
tivity.
Bonding between Atoms
The bonding between atoms convert them into molecular or new forms. The bonding is due to non-elastic collisions according to the Greeks and it is due to vital force for the Vaiseșikas. The latter have, however, thought of gross transformation and suggested that despite initial vital force, the visible changes in forms can be specified through the heating process which either dissociates the gross matter first into active atoms rearranging themselves later into new forms or the heat energy enters into the gross matter whose atoms undergo transformations directly without dissociations 38. This means that che

Page #258

236 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
mical changes can be brought about by heating or supplying the necessary energy for them. The conversion of raw pot into baked pot by fire in five to eleven instants is their popular example. In current language, it means that the chemical changes take place by the mixed process of association and dissociation through thermal energy, the only form of energy known at that period. Of course, one now knows that there are many complex chemical reactions taking place during the baking process.
The Jainas have also thought on this problem. They have pointed out that new forms are made by simple association, dissociation and a mixed process. It has also been pointed out that visible molecules are formed by mixed process. Some scholars have used fission and fusion terms for these processes. This does not seem to be correct because of their high energy requirements. These processes are a later development in Jaina atomic theory during Kundakunda age. Previously, Bhagavati 39 mentions that bonding could take place due to the presence of some glue or sticky substance ( sineha ) which makes it possible to contact the binding atoms intimately. The word 'sineha' has been shown to have many meanings. Per chance, it could be precursor to the properties of roughness and smoothness not found in canons jointly. It is said that two atoms do not combine in this way but more than two atoms do combine.
Kundakundao and Umāsvātio' have gone deeper into this problem and have made great advance over the canonical age concepts. They have postulated some fundamental rules for governing atomic combinations based on their electrical nature as pointed out by Pujyapāda". Accordingly, all atoms have quantitatively and qualitatively differing electrical nature of smoothness and roughness akin to current positive and negative charges. Their combinations take place due to nonelastic ( counter-blowing ) and high velocity collisions. Atoms always combine totally leading to chemical change. Atoms do

Page #259

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 237
so either partially or totally with molecules leading to physical changes also. The total combination may be caused due to natural or external causes like presence of catalysts and other physical factors.
The real cause of total combination is the electrical nature of atoms. It is of two types. Satkhandāgama (Varganā Section )43, Kundakunda, Umāsvāti and later scholars have given four basic rules for atomic combinations. They are given in a co-ordinated form as there seems to be some difference between various versions :
(a) The atomic combination takes place between the atoms of opposite electrical nature. The natures are quantitative as well as qualitative. The electrical charges are always in integral number.
(b) However, no combination can occur between atoms with lowest level electrical nature, i. e. O or 1. In early period, zero was not taken as a number, it seems. But, if the charge of one of the atoms is differing, the combination may occur (i. e., inert gas compounds of today).
(c) Under some circumstances, the atoms with quantitatively similar nature can also combine. Atoms having quantitatively similar but opposite nature can also combine. The formation of hydrogen molecule and sodium hydride are the current examples :
H + H = H, :: C+ + 4H+ = CH, Nat + H = NaH
This rule is given here in positive rather than negative form following Amritcandra Sūri44. The earlier scholars did not take it that way and have to face large number of problems leaving them unexplained. Those who equate Jaina atom with electrons or positrons, are also not in a position to explain the formation of heavy electron or proton on the basis of negation of this type of bond. Firstly, these combinations require huge amount of energy not commonly available. Secondly, they have

Page #260

238 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
to take shelter of force of attraction at nearest approach causing the particles oppositely charged. But there too, the charges are similar but opposite. This leads to explain this law in a very conforming way to meet the real situation.
(d) Those atoms do combine which have similar or dissimilar charges differing by two or more than two units (according to one view, similar charged only). Though the literature does not cite examples for this rule but formation of hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid prove this rule. Some scholars prefer difference in charges by a minimum of two units only, while others prefer otherwise.
It seems that Satkhandāgama rules for bonding are more liberal and realistic than Kundakunda and Umāsvāti. The Svetāmbara version seems to be still more liberal. These rules are tabulated in Table 3, where current bond theory is also shown. One can evaluate the canonical variations as well as current opinion. Table 3 : Jaina Rules for Atomic Bonding.
Quantitative Electrical Nature (X=0 or 1, Lowest )
Similar Nature
Dissimilar Nature
Current science
SD SV S D Sv A( 1 ) x + x
Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν (2)X + (x + 1) N N N N N N Y : (3) X + x + 2) etc N N N N N N Y B (1) (X + 1)+(x + 1) N N Y Y N Y Y
(2) ( + 1)+(x + 2) N N N Y N Y Y C (1) (x + 1)+(x + 3) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
(2) (x + 1)+(x + 4)etc Y X Y Y N Y Y Sv = Şatkhandāgama Vargaņā Kānda, SS, p. 230. N = No bond, Y = Bonding, S = Svetambaras, D = Digambaras.
It is said that during bonding, basic atoms do not change but they merely associate with other atoms to have

Page #261

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 239
different forms. The nature of newly formed combination may be either neutral or similar to the combining atom having higher electrical qualities. Many examples like formation of sodium chloride (neutral), sodium hydroxide (basic) and ferric chloride (acidic ) can be given to support this assumption.
There is a remarkable qualitative similarity of these rules with modern chemical bonding concepts. The chemists tell us three types of bonding — electro-valent, co-valent and coordinate valant, whose definitions are nearly akin to the rules above ( though modified or co-ordinated ). Similarly, there are four methods of molecular formations where the mixed process of association and dissociation may be equated to displacement methods of today 5. Neither the Greeks nor the Vaišeşikas have given so much details about bonding in atoms. Ray46 and Subbarayappaay have described the latter system without much comparative evaluation. However, they seem to agree that Indian atomism developed through Sānkhya, Vaiseșikas and the Jainas. These authors may be right in analysing in nonimpactiveness of these thoughts.
The bonding theory of Jainas goes far ahead of Berzelius hypothesis as it is more quantitative. The chemists could give answers to many points in this regard only by early quarter of twentieth century. The current views may partially vary with the canonical concepts which is quite reasonable. Variety of Atoms
The Greeks have postulated innumerable variety of atoms of different shapes and sizes. They are, however, devoid of four qualities though they are felt because of our sensuous experience. They have property of touch. Vaiseșikas, on the other hand, postulated four kinds of atoms -- earth, fire, water, air - with different properties of touch, taste, smell and colour. As against this, the Jainas have manifold variations from many angles. They used the physical properties for their classification besides other bases. However, a large number of their classifications are only conceptual. Anuyogadvāra 48 mentions two

Page #262

240 :
Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
types of atoms - (i) fine and (ii) real or phenomenal. They have also been called as effect atom (fine) and (ii) causal atom (real). Absolute and phenomenal atoms are also described having similar meaning. In quite a number of descriptions, it is the real atom which consists of infinite number of fine atoms. A large number of properties canonically described refer to real atoms rather than fine atoms. This classification seems to have developed when there seemed unsurmountable difficulties in the concept of all paramāņus being assumed of the same type and forming a single class. This concept has not stood the scrutiny with times as shown earlier.
The atoms have also been classified in four aspective types49 - substantial, spatial, timal and modal. Almost all early literature refers to these types. The physical quality based classification consists of two hundred varieties of atoms. Their number could be estimated by assuming combinational aspects of 2 smells, 5 tastes, 5 colours and 4 touches (out of 4 opposing pairs), thus forming 2 x 5 x 5 x 4 = 200 varieties of atoms. If intensities of these qualities are also taken into account, infinite types of atoms may be thought of. Bhagavati 50 mentions 16 varieties of atom on the basis of four qualities which have grown to 200 later, it seems.
The current science also takes physical properties like atomic weight or number into account for atomic classification, Accordingly, they have 109 types of atoms at present with further chances of discovering and synthesizing newer ones. One is not in a position to judge which method of classification based on perceptible or measurable properties is better. But credence must be given to measurable properties. However, credit must be given to the Jainas in using physical properties for their classification, thus, excelling in this regard over the contemporary philosophies.
Conclusion
The above description makes it clear that the atomic theory developed by the Jainas has many qualitative and quan

Page #263

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 241
titative aspects worthy of note. The history of science could not be complete without taking them into account alongwith other Indian systems57.
References 1. Gautam, Akşapāda : Nyāya Darśanam, Bauddha Bharati,
Kashi, 1976, p. 326. 2. Rieppe, Dale : Naturalistic Traditions in Indian Thoughts,
M. L. B. D., Delhi, 1964, p. 41. 3. A. L. Basham : The Sect of Ajivikas, M. L. B. D., Delhi,
1975. 4. S. Radhakrishnan : Indian Philosophy, McMillan, London,
1958. 5. Bhagavati --15th Sataka, Prakrit Vidya Vikas Mandal,
Ahmedabad, 1966. 6. O. P. Jaggi : Prācina Bhārata ke Vaijñānika aur Unaki
Upalabdhiyān, Atmaram & Sons, Delhi, 1971, p. 157. 7. S. Radhakrishnan : Indian Philosophy, Vol. 11. 8. J. W. Mellor : Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and
Theoretical Chemistry, McMillan, London, 1967, p. 22. 9. Rieppe : Naturalistic Traditions in Indian Thoughts, p. 94,
p. 96. 10. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 73. 11. Acārya, Yativșshabha, Triloka Prajñapti, Jivaraj Grantha
mala, Sholapur, 1956, p. 13. 12. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 73. 13. J. S. Javeri : Theory of Atom in Jaina Philosophy, Jain
Vishvabharati, Ladnun, 1975, pp. 140-147. 14. (a) Anyogadvāra Sūtra, Agam Prakashan Samiti, Beawar,
1987, p. 250. (b) Padmanandi : Jambūdiva Pannatti, J. S. S., Sholapur,
1958, p. 237. 15. M. R. Gelra, in Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture,
M. L. B. D., Delhi, 1975, p. 221.

Page #264

242 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
16. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 166. 17. Ibid, p. 73. 18. J. C. Sikdar : Jain Atomic Theory, Indian Journal of History
of Science, 5-2.199, 1970. 19. Gautama : Nyāya-Darsanam, p. 326. 20. J. C. Sikdar : Jaina Atomic Theory, 5-2. 199. 21. Umāsvāti : Tattvārtha-Sūtra (Ed. Pt. Sukhalalji Sanghavi ),
Parshvanath Vidyashrama, Varanasi, 1976, p. 119. 22. Ed. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Āgama Sabda Kosa, Jain
Vishvabharati, Ladnun, 1980. 23. (a) Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya (eng.), Bharatiya Jnana
pitha, Delhi, 1975, pp. 67-69. (b) Pravacana-sāra, Patni Granthamala, Maroth, 1950,
pp. 207-209. 24. Jain : Cosmology Old and New, p. 127, pp. 160-166. 25. Sankara Mishra : Vaisesika-Sūtra-Upaskāra, Chaukha
mbha Sansthan, Varanasi, 1969, p. 111. 26. Bhagavati-Sūtra, Sadhumargi Jaina Sangha, Sailana,
1967, p. 2710. 27. Muni, Mahendra Kumar, II, In S. C. D. Felicitation Volume,
Jabalpur, 1976, pp. 4-7. 28. Thānam, J. V. B., Ladnun, 1984, p. 905. 29. Muni, Mahendrakumar 11 : In S. C. D. Felicitation Volume,
Jabalpur, pp. 4-7. 30. Bhikhanji : Nava-padārtha, p. 100. 31. Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 864. 32. Thāṇam, p. 251. 33. Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 3247. 34. Muni, Mahendrakumar 11 : In S. C. D. Felicitation Volume,
pp. 4-5. 35. H. Mahan Bruce : University Chemistry, Addison-Wesley,
New York, 1965, p. 52.

Page #265

Jaina Theory of Atoms : 243
36. A. K. Jain : In Tulasi Prajñā, Jaina Vishvabharati, Ladnun,
12.1, 1986, p. 74. 37. Muni, Mahendrakumar 11 : In S. C. D. Felicitation Volume,
pp. 4-7. 38. Shankara Mishra : Vaišeşika-sūtra-upaskāra, p. 371. 39. K. C. Lalwani : Bhagavati-Sūtra-1 (English Translation ),
pp. 139-142. 40. Kundakunda : Pravacana-sāra, pp. 207-209. 41. Umāsvāmi : Tattvārtha-Sūtra, Varni Granthamala, Kashi,
1970, p. 108. 42. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi,
1971, p. 219. 43. Ācārya, Puspadanta & Bhūtabali : Satkhaņdāgama, Book
14, pp. 30-32. 44. Amritacandra Sūri : Tattvārtha-sāra, Varni Granthamala,
Kashi, 1970, p. 108. 45. N. L. Jain : Griha Vijñāna Rasāyana, Ram Prasad & Sons,
Agra, 1985, pp. 32-33. 46. P. Ray : Indian Journal of History of Science, 1.1.1966. 47. B. V. Subbarayappa : Ibid, p. 19. 48. Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, A. P. S., Beawar, 1987, p. 250. 49. Bhagavati-sūtra, p.2885. 50. Ibid, p. 2846. 51. Post-script : Arhat Vacana, 1995 postulates a new mean
ing to the Jaina Theory of Bonding indicating that aphorismic meaning of bonding due to 'snigdha and ruksa' should mean three types of bondings — (i) Snigdha - Snigdha, (ii) Ruksa -- Ruksa and (iii) Snigdha - Rukșa. This does not seem to be right as there is only singular number in the aphorism. This will also have repercussions on the following aphorisms in this regard. Secondly, one is also not right to say that bondings specified in literature refer only to electrovalent linkage.

Page #266

Page #267

Section Three
Physics Section Physics deals with general properties and forces associated with gross and fine matter. It also deals with various natural energies like heat, electricity, sound, light, etc. Where do these energies arise in substance ? What is the nature and function of these energies? Can we utilise them for more useful purposes ? These and many other questions encourage the scholars to study them in a fundamental way. There has been keen curiosity about them in non-experimental canonical periods. Like other Indian philosophies, Jaina canons and later philosophical literature contains many related phenomena about them. The canonical period varies between a few centuries B. C. to about 10th century A. D. This chapter is an attempt to collect and estimate these contents with reference to current knowledge.
The general properties have already been described under Chemistry section. As the sciences depend for their crediblity upon weights and measures, it will be attempted first. This will be followed by descriptions about various energies in canons.
This section contains four chapters concerning : (i) Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume Units (ii) Weights and Measures-2 : Length and Time Units (ii) Contents of Physics-1: Heat and Light
(iv) Contents of Physics-2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism.

Page #268

Page #269

Chapter 8 Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and
Volume Units
Jainological texts belong to two categories -(a) purely religious with the basic thesis of moral and ethical values and (b) semi-religious which have other aspects along with that of the first category. The earliest canons belonged preferably to the first category. It is difficult to tell as to how and when this category took the new shape of the second one. The first category is represented by Acārānga, Daśavaikālika, Kundakunda literature and others while the second category is represented by Umāsvāti, Aryarakṣita and others. It could be surmised that the second category must have developed later than the first one when sufficient knowledge about the physical world and events must have been obtained in a form to be given to common man. This knowledge is sensory in the first instance which is analysed by mind to give proper form and explanation. Barring super-sensory knowledge, all other forms are primarily relative and qualitative. This has to be expressed in a reliable and accurate form. And what else could be more accurate method than the mathematical or quantitative representation ? This could be done only when there is a firm basis of standardised units of weights, length and time. This gives reliability and credibility to descriptions.
The Jainācāryas realised this fact. That is why they have written many special and general treatises in this direction during different periods. It is somewhat later periods that the quantitative nature of many descriptions got diversified and the scientific mind of today has something to say for or against it. Nevertheless, the Jainas seem to be quite finely advanced

Page #270

248 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
when they consider the numbers to the tune of 10-190 to 10250 as normal and put up the ideas of numerables, in-numerables and infinites in respect of many types of descriptions of the universe. Areas of Measurement
jñātādharma-Kathā' mentions four types of measurable materials for trade and commerce :
(i) Numerally countable (Ganim : coins, fruits etc.)
(ii) Weightable (Dharim : grains and minor things like sugar etc.)
(iii) Measurable (Meya : measured in terms of Volume, preferably liquids )
(iv) Estimatable (Parichhedya : measured in length units ).
These involve two types of measures - (a) weights and volumes and (b) length. This has also been expressed in another terminology in Bhagavati and other didactic canons. They have used three words while describing about kings and richmen regarding height, weight and volume of the body. They are Māna (Meya ), Unmāna ( weightable ) and Pramāna (height or length )2. Sthānāngao also mentions the units of Bhara and Kumbha for gems and a term avamāna with Unmāna ( whose meaning of volume measure seems to be more reasonable ) without definition. Antakrtadasāo mentions about an iron hammer of a demon weighing 1000 palas and Upāsakadaśa tells us about donations of a king limited to two Dronala measures and Kārsāpaņa value of medicated oilss. Anuyogadvāra and Trilokasāra define these units and give their details 6. Time measures are also found in different canons'. Thus, there have been three major areas of measurements during the canonical or post-canonical periods :
(i) Mass and volume (i) Length, distance, area and volume (iii) Time

Page #271

In contrast, the International Congress on Weights and Measures, 1971 has accepted seven areas under this category as shown in Table 1 with their units of measureR.
Table 1: Canonical and Current Units of Measures.
Measure
Canonical Units
Sc. Units
1. Mass
Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units:
Dravyamāna Practical atom, Kārṣa, pala, tulā 2. Distance Kṣetramāna Space point,
Angula Samaya, Avali, Prāṇa
3. Time
4. Electric
current
Canonical
Name
Kālamāna

249
mg., gram, Kg.
etc.

mm., Centi
meter, metre Second
5. Heat
6. Light
7. Matter
Mole
8. Abstract quality (Not approved by I. C. W. M.): No Units in Canons too.
ampere, volt
Calorie, Kelvin
Candela, Lux
It could be surmised that the four to seven categories of measures could not develop during canonical times. Of course, one finds mention of heat (tāpa ), light (prakāśa) and electricity (vidyut ) in canons in their various aspects.
Concept of Measures in Jaina Canons and Pro-canons
The Jaina descriptions on measures date back from many centuries of pre-Christian and post-Christian era. On closely going through them, one finds two traditions developing, per chance, side by side with a large amount of diversity in quantitative values in the units and their current equivalents. This is the case with all types of measures. These difference may refer to Mathuri or Valabhi Councils or South-north regions. Of course, the basic fundamental unit of space point or atom is an exception where there seems to be no difference. Quite

Page #272

250 : Scientific Contents in Präkrta Canons
a good number of higher values seem to be mythological rather than scientifically logical. They represent the changing concepts and ideas in different ages when standardisation was not the practice. This seems to be more surprising that despite the fact of scholars regarding the origin of decimal system in the east, no attempt seems to be there to adopt it in measuresystem. This has resulted in large number of statements not seemingly credible. This author wishes to attempt to collect and present them to suggest modestly, with proper analysis, the need for their uniformity and standardisation so that the descriptions made on their basis may become consistent, coherent and better credible. It is worthwhile to note that many modifications in definitions, concepts and details have been taking place throughout the canonical and commentators' periods to make them more accurate and generalisedo. This attempt is meant for encouraging this attitude in current times.
Jaina texts have coined the term 'Pramāna' and 'Māna' (T. S. ) for the process of measurements of length, time, weights and volumes. They are contained in Bhagavati ( B ), Sthānānga ( Sth. ), Anuyogadvāra Sūtra ( A. D. S. ), Triloka Prajñapti (T. P. ), Tandulaveyaliya (T. V.), Rājavārttika (R. V.), Dhavalā (D), Jambūdvipaprajñapti (J. D. P. ), Trilokasāra ( Ts. ) and in some other canons in stray form as shown in Table 2. However, it must be pointed out that there are more descriptions about length and time units than weights and volume units of matter. It is also observed that R. V. and Ts. follow different ways of classification of measures from the other canons''. This matter seems to be a later development. Despite the fact that there is not much difference in different initial units of weights and measures, these sources classify the measurements in worldly and para-worldly varieties like the
Jaina scriptures in A. D. S. and Nandi''. The first variety of worldly measure is mainly concerned with weights, volumes, cost, numeration and has six classes instead of five in A. D. S. where these are included in mass measures only12. Though

Page #273

Table 2 : A. D. S. Classification of Measures.

Measure, 4
Mass Measure
Length Measure
Time Measure
Quality Measure
Space point Based Atom
Division Based

Space point Division Space point Division Qualities Standpoints Number Based Based Based Based
7 Types 8 Types Atom
7 classes with angula Existence Samaya 3 types of Atoms Āvali etc. Jiva 3 Ajiva 5
Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units: 251
9 Māna 2
Unmāna Avamāna Pratimāna Ganita
Knowledge, 4 Conation, 4 Conduct, 5
Vol. of Solid Vol. of Liquid.
colour, 5 Taste, 5 Smell, 2 Touch, 8 Shapes, 5

Page #274

252 : Scientific Contents in Prākşta Canons
A. D. S. and R. V. seem to include the length measure through the variety of 'Ava-māna', but Ts. has described it as a measure of small volumes. This seems to be more reasonable in view of the Dravyamāna descriptions.
A second difference is also discernible concerning the nature of units of different measures. There are two types of units — (i) Fundamental ( atom or space point based ) and (ii) Derived or division based. A. D. S. has both types of units for weights, distance and time while R. V. and Ts. has this case for length units only. These units are meant for visible or tangible mass.
Thirdly, in contrast with A. D. S., the R. V. and Ts. do not include time units in their worldly measures which A. D. S. and D have in their general measures. There is also a difference between mass measure and abstract measures in these texts as in A. D. S.
Sthānānga 13 and A. D. S. classify the different measures in four basic classes ( Table 3):
(i) Dravyamāna ( matter and mass ) (ii) Kșetramāna ( length in all respects ) (iii) Kāla-māna ( Time measure ) (iv) Bhāva-māna (Abstract measure )
(v) Naya-māna ( Standpoint measure ) --- special in Dhavalā 14.
The mass measure gives us weight and volume of solids and liquids from the smallest atom to the largest earth. The length units measure the distance, area and volume from one space point to the last of the world space. Time units measure from one 'samaya' unit of time upto infinite time units. The abstract measure gives us an idea of quality of faith, conation and standpoints. All these four general measures of A. D, S. are covered by the four para-worldly types R. V. and Ts. In contrast, the Satkhangāgama has five types of measures separating standpoint type from abstract measure of A. D. S.

Page #275

Table 3 : Akalanka Classification of Measures.

Measures ( 10 )
Worldly 6
Paraworldly 4
As in A. D. S. 5 Tatpramāņa 1
Mass 2
Length
Time
Quality
Upayoga 2

Samaya, Āvali etc.
Number 3
Simile 8
Space point Based
Division Based
Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units : 253
Knowledge Conation
and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume Units : 253
Numberable
Infinity
Innume.
Angula etc. 7 types
Each of 3 types
3 types
Palya Sagara SA PRA Ga J L
PL

Page #276

254 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
and adding this to R. V. measures which did not include it in their abstract measure.
The para-worldly nature of these measures seems to be the creation of Akalanka of eighth century who has many such credits. It is also observed that para-worldly mass measure of Akalanka has been differently classified from the A. D. S. mass measure. The authors of B, T. P., J. D. P. do not propound any para-worldly measures. Of course, Bhagavati has countable and simile time's.
The A. D. S. has three main classes of Abstract measure-conation, quality ( of living and non-living ) and standpoint with many sub-classes thereupon. Bhagavati does not have these types. Akalanka has given only five types of knowledges ( with no conation or its varieties ) in his explanatory commentary. Table 2 and 3 summarise the A. D. S. and R. V. measures. It seems that A. D. S. classification is more logical and avoids repeatition and confusion than R. V. Table 4 summarises the useful information about the different measures.
This also makes it clear that no dividing line could be drawn between worldly and para-worldly measures as the latter includes six varieties of worldly type. Of course, it seems that the latter type has more extensive area or measure to cover length, time and qualities. If we define this measure as that which has measuring limits beyond the grossness and fineness of worldly measures which may be invisible or unholdable, still the numerable measures of matter, the varieties of Angula (A) etc. of length and Muhūrta, day etc. units of time can never be called para-worldly. In addition, Akalanka has divided mass measure in two varieties - number and simile measures which could be included in countable measures as in A. D. S. The simile measure has eight varieties, out of which palya and sagara are definitely time units and the rest six are length units. The simile measure, therefore, Could not be taken as a subclass of matter measure of para-worldly type. Of course, it would be a different case if one assumes them to be matter units as

Page #277

Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units : 255
they are closely related with matter. In view of these discrepant facts, Akalanka's first stage classification of measures, thus, seems to be superfiuous and could be overlooked at present. The abstract number measure of A. D. S. has taken care of the above two measures of Akalanka. A serious reconsideration on this first stage Aklanka's classification is necessary to avoid non-uniformity.
We will describe the three canonical measure units in order of (i) weights and volume of solids and liquids (ii) length, area and volume and (iii) time. Measurement Units of Weights and Volumes of Matter
Stray references to specific weights and measures are found in many canons. But the first systematic treatment is given only in A. D. S.'6. The A. D. S. has given first five types of matter measures as shown in Table 4. One could see that they could be reduced to three only as no weighing (Unmāna) could be done without standard or model weights (Pratimāna) and hence two should form one category. Secondly, Avamāna may be included in Māna as it should represent smaller volume measures according to Trilokasāra. The addition of comparative cost measure of Tat-pramāna by Akalanka seems to be empirical but adds to the measurement areas. All these are described below.
It is learnt from canonical stories that not only solids and liquids, but coins were also measured through bronze vases or pots of specific sizes which actually measured volumes rather than weight. This practice is still observed in case of rich people in rural India. It seems easier and less time taking than counting in numbers.
The canons tell us that there were different types of measures for solids and liquids of different values. Precious metal measures were still different from and smaller than general measures. The volume measures are termed as 'Māna' or 'Meya'.

Page #278

Table 4 : Useful Informations About Different Measures. [A] Matter Measure, Dravyapramāna ( A. D. S.) or Worldly Measures (RV)
No. Name
Definition
Units
Uses
1. Pratimāna
Model/standard measures Guñā, Kākini, Myrtle seed, Weight of gold, silver, Suvarna
pearls, minerals etc.
256 : Scientific Contents in Prākļta Canons
2. Māna
Volume measures Solids Liquids
Guñjā, māsa, Prastha etc. Şoðaşika, Māni etc.
Vol. of solid/ liquids in large containers

3. Avamāna
Small volume measures
Water in handcup
4. Unmāna
Weight measures by balance
Pala, Tulā, Bhara, Karşa etc.
Weight of medicines, sugar, jaggery etc.
5. Ganana Māna Countable measures
1, 2, 3 etc.
Wages, foods, fruits, coins, accounting
6. Tat-pramāņa
Comparative costing

Halo of gems, Height of horses

Page #279

[B] General Measures ( A. D. S.) or Paraworldly Measures ( R. V.)

No. Name
Definition
Units
Uses
1. Dravyamāna
(Abstract measure,
Matter Nolume measure (a) Number Measure (b) Simile measure
Finite, infinite numbers
Ages of living beings etc.
2. Kșetramāna
Angula etc.
Length, area, volume. measure
Distances, Height, Volume of Universe/parts
3. Kāla Māna
Time measure
Avali, Prāna, Muhūrta etc.
Time & duration etc.

4. Bhāvamāna
Abstract Measures, Qualities, Standpooints, Number ( A. D. S.)
Measures/count intensity of qualities
Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units : 257

Page #280

258 : Scientific Contents in Prākta Canons
It is pointed out that there were two prominent types of such measures current in early periods - (i) Magadhan measures and (ii) Kalingan measures. The first ones were more popular and Jaina canons have followed them. The Kalingan measures had somewhat smaller values for their unit of Karsa
(= 1 tolā, 0.83 of Magadhan value ) in the end. These measures are found in Ayurvedic texts also. Vāgbhața coordinated these measures later but canons have only Magadhan measures". (a) Māna and Avamāna
The measures of Māna and Avamāna seem to be the most important in canonical periods. Both of them measure volumes. However, volumes and weights have been related at some stage so that one could express one measure into another measure without involving the concept of density.
The A. D. S. describes 'Māna' into two classes — (i) grains measure or measure of solids and ( ii ) fluid or liquid measure. It is said that the tip of the grains measure is pointed upwards while it is pointed downwards in case of liquids. This is an observation pointing out the quality of surface tension in liquids indirectly.
The first unit of grains measure is 'Asati' - an equivalent of 'Pala' unit of Magadhan system according to Apte'8. Table 5 gives comparative details of solid measures in different systems. Table 6 indicates that though these measures follow basically Magadhan system, the quantitative nature of practical units seems to be different in many sects. The A. D. S. values are highest and nearly double the Magadhan ones and R. V. values are smallest in comparison. They are dependent on the relationship between 'pala' and 'Kudava' units which are varying in different system. The T. V.19 has given two types of unitsone the same as A. D. S. and the other one as different from A. D. S. One of the two seems to be an interpolation as it does not seem to be coherent when the value of 'Prastha' is calcu

Page #281

T. V.
R. S.
5G=1M

Table 5: Māna or Volume Measures of Solid Substances**,
Magadhan Measures Kalingans Bagbhatan A.D.S R. V. 1. 30 Atoms = 1 Trasremu, TT 6 Atoms=1 T - 2. 6 T = 1 Marichi, Mi 3. 6 Mi = 1 Rai, R 4. 3 R = 1 Sarsapa, S
1296 T = 15 - 5. 8 S = 1 Yava, Y
6 S=1 Y - 6. 4 Y = 1 Guñā, G
6 Y = 1 G - 6 G = 1 Māsā, M
6 G = 1 M
2G=1WM 8. 192 S = 1 M
216 S = 1 M
16WM=1
Dharana 9. 4M = 1 Shan, Sh
4 M = 1
2.5 Dh=1 Niska, N
Suvarna, Sk 10.16M = 1 Karşa, K 10M = 1K 4N = 16M=1K - 11.4 K = 1 Pala, P PP
4SK=1P 12. 4P = 1 Kudav, kd. Kd Kd
4 Asati,P=
1 Setika, Se - 13. -
4 Se = 34 p= 1KG 1Kd
6 S = 1Y 6 Y = 1 G 6G = 1 M 12M= tolā,t
Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume Units : 259
4t=1P
16M=1K 4K=1P
- -
-
4P=1 Se 4 Se =

1 Kd

Page #282

Magadhan Measures
Kalingans Bagbhatan
A. D. S
R.V.
T. V.
R. S.
Pr=12.5P
14. Kd = 1 Prastha, Pr 15.4 Pr = 1 ĀŅhaka, A А 16.4 A = 1 Droņa, D 17.4 D = 1 Dr 18. 4 Dr = 16D = 1 Khari, kh Kh 19. 100 P = 1 Tula,
T T 20. 2000 P = 1 Bhara, B B. 21. -
à coil
260 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
0.7
B = 4000 P

- 100A = L. - Kumbha 800A = 1 20Kh=1V Vah, v -
-
22.
-
-
-
.
.
800A=1V -
23.
-
22.5 V=576 Q
i
** Q = Quintal, 100 Kg. : 20 kn ( in R. V.) = 320 D = 1280 A : 22.5 V = 100 Years feed ( T. V.)
Some intermediate steps have been omitted in this table. Where there is only symbol of measure, it should be taken as equal to base in front. R. S. = Ratna-samuccaya.

Page #283

Table 6. Values of Same-named Measures in Different sources

No. Unit
Equivalent in Magadha Kalinga
Most probable
Current value
A.D. S.
R.V.
T. V.
R. S.
10M, 80G - ,
16M, 80G
16M, 80G
72G
11.6 g
320 G

1. Karśa, K 16M, 96G
(Tolā, t) 2. Pala, P 384 G 3. Māsā, M 6G 4. Kudava, kd 4P 5. Prastha, Pr 16P 6. Ādhaka, A 64P 7. Khāri, Kh 4096 P 8. Vāh, V -
320 G 8G 4P 16 P 64 P 3200 P
-
- 1 6 P 64 P 256 P - 800 A
3.125
P 12.5
P 50P 3200 P 1280 A.
320 G 5G 16 P 1 2.5 P 50 P - . 800 A
288 G 6 G - - - -
:
46.40 g 1.44g. 185.60 g 0.80 Kg 3.20 Kg
Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units : 261
:
2.6 Quintal
1

Page #284

262 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
lated. It turns out to be 12.5 and 64 respectively. This noncoherence requires clarification from the canonists.
As far as the current literature goes, no author seems to have made out this disturbing point for the advancing knowledge. For example, Sadhvi Divyaprabha refers to Sarngadhara Samhita for another unit equations as given below :
46.40 g (P. S. M.)
(i) 10 M = 1 Kd 14.4 g (ii) 2 Kd = 1 Pr 4 tolā (iii) 1000 Pr = Demonic iron This is in contrast with 4 Kd Pr. This will give half the value for pala.
hammer
(b) Liquid measures
The canons begin their liquid measures with units four times larger than solid measures. The first unit is based on 'pala' unit and is equal to four 'palas' named as sixty-fourfold measure (Catuṣṣastika ). Its last unit is 'Mani' which is equal to 256 palas. The following Table 7 gives the details of its seven measures which have twice as much value as the preceding one on direct order. Similarly, the preceding ones have half the value when taken in reverse order.
Table 7: Canonical Liquid Measures.
Canonical name
Unit
4 palas
1. Catuṣṣaṣṭika 2. Dvātrimsikā 3. Soḍaṣikā
8 palas
16 palas
4. Aṣṭabhāgikā 32 palas 5. Caturbhāgikā 64 palas 6. Ardha-māņi
7. Māni
=

Value
(measure)
64-fold
32-fold
10-fold
8-fold
4-fold
128 palas 2-fold 256 palas Māni
Rela
tion
Current
Value
46.40 ml
C Twice 92.80 ml
Twice 185.60 ml
Twice 371.20 ml
Twice 742.40 ml Twice 1484.80 ml Twice 2969.60 ml
These volume measures make important to learn about the value of 'pala' unit in terms of weight units. These are described under 'Unmāna' and 'Pratimana'. Rajavārttika defines the liquid measures with example of Soḍaśikā etc.

Page #285

Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units: 263
without much details indicating it follows the tradition. However, if 'pala' is taken as equal to 46.40 g., the 'mani' unit of volume will weigh about 3 Kg. This seems to be too small a measure for volume specially in comparison of today's water tanks and Industrial tanks.
(c) Avamāna: Volume Measure or Length Measure
A. D. S. and R. V. define this unit as a measure of length and area through the units of Danda, Hasta, etc. In contrast, Ts. mentions it as volume measure of small amount of liquids just like water in hollow hand cup. This seems to be comparatively correct in analogy to the Pratimāna (Model) variety which also weighs small amounts of precious metals and materials. Though no units of 'Avamana' variety are given in Ts., still one could assume them as smaller than 64-fold measure. This first measure seems to be too big (equivalent to 46.40 ml. of today) for measuring costly liquids like Mercury or medicated oils where very small quantities have to be measured off and on. Normally, the term 'Avamāna' also means small measures.
Secondly, if Pramāņa means measures, the five or six varieties should also include time as it is also measured empirically. Moreover, measure of length and area is included in paraworldly category of Akalanka. Bhagavati also mentions length units during descriptions of simile time measures. A. D. S. has also length measures as one of the four basic measures. Thus, it does not require repeatition under matter measure.
(d) Unmāna and Pratimāna ( Model) measures of weights As today, there were many materials in olden days which were sold or used by weights. The Mana and Pratimāna measures refer to weights. They were estimated with the help of balance on the basis of standard or model weights. Medicines, sugar, jaggery, candy, precious metals and the like are weightable materials. They could be in gross and fine forms. The units used in case of weight measures start from half Karṣa

Page #286

264 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
and end in 'Bhāra' unit. The total number of weight units are eight. Here also, each following unit is twice the preceding unit upto 'pala'. There is difference of opinion about the value of 'Tula' unit in terms of 'pala' the two values differ roughly by a factor of five as shown in Table 8. Table 8 : Units of Weights in A. D. S. (Pratimāna, Model ). Units
Equivalence Current Value, gm. 1. Ardha Karşa ( Half
5.8 g. Karsa, H. K.) 2. Karşa, K 2 H. K.
11.6 g. 3. Ardha-Pala ( Half- 2K
23.2 g. Pala ), H. P.. 4. Pala, P
2 H. P.
46.4 g. 5. Ardha-Tulā ( Half
Tulā ), H, T. 6. Tulā, T
105 P: 500 P 4872.00 g. 7. Ardha-Bhara ( Half- 10 T
48720.00 g. Bhara ), H. B. 8. Bhara
2 H. B. = 20 T 97,440.00 g.
= 97.44 Kg.
However, Magadhan measure in R. V. has this unit as equal to 100 Palas which is supported by Ayurvedic texts. This should be taken as reasonable in comparison to higher value. Akalanka's volume measures may be equated to weight measures on this basis. Thus, with a Karşa of 11.6 g., one starts with a minimum of 5.8 g. and ends at 97.44 kg ( roughly a quintal of today ). Modern weight unit start with about 580 times lesser weight (mg.) and ends with 10 times larger weight ( 1000 kg. = 1 ton ) on the other side.
The standard weights or Pratimāna are said to be smaller ones to be used for weighting valuables like gold, silver, gems, pearls etc. These weights also start from Guñjā, G (or Ratti ) and end in Suvarna ( gold coin or Sonaiya ). They are

Page #287

Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume Units : 265
given in Table 9 according to A. D. S. Gunja becomes the base here. 96 G has been taken to be equal to weight of one gold coin prior to decimalisation of weights in India. Now as one gold coin is equal to one 'Tolā' or roughly 11.6 g, one unit G = 11.6/96 = 0.121 g. On the basis of this value of G, one can find out the current equivalent of different canonical weights. However, it seems difficult to do so in view of Table 6 where tolā unit varies between 72-96 G. One has therefore to refer to some most common values given in literature and overlook others. For example, if G is taken as 0.121 g, the Suvarna coin will have a value of 9.68 g, which is sufficiently less than the weight of standard 'tolā' ( 11.6 g) of today. This discrepancy has arisen as the value of Karma-masaka here is only 5 G rather than 6 Gas in Table 5. Thus, these standard weights are discordant with earlier units. It should be 'sat-gunjão' in place of 'pañca guñjāo' in A. D. S.20. This is a case of intracontradictions in canon-like books. Many such examples have been cited on many topics by Shastri2. Table 9: Model weights in A. D. S. Units
Equivalence Current Value 1. Guñjā, G
0.121 g 2. Kākini, KK
1.25 G
0.151 g 3. Nispava, Np
1.33 KK
0.200 g 4. Karma-masaka, KM 3 Np = 4KK = 5G 0.605 g 5. Mandalaka, Md 12KM = 48 KK 7.260 g 6. Suvarna ( Gold Coin ) 16KM = 64 KK 9.68 g
it is, thus, seen that the weight and volume units mentioned in Jaina texts are smaller in value than the normal Magadhan values. They could have been based on 96 G = 1 K ( Karşa ) in place of 80 G = 1 K so that proper comparisons could be made.
Secondly, it is observed that the Jainācāryas have not used their extraordinary interpolation and extrapolation technic

Page #288

266 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
towards infinity on both-minimum and maximum sides of weight values as they have done in the case of length and time units described later. The canonists are the only ones authorised to explain this treatment towards units of weights and volumes.
On current reckoning, the canonical weight units seem to be sufficiently gross as they start with 0.121 or 5.8 g in comparison to 0.001 g in each case. They also do not have much on the maximum side too. (2) Different Terms Used for Various Units
The Hindi commentators of canonical treatises have referred to different names of various units described above found in many books. For the sake of proper understanding, the different equivalent terms are given below : 1. Ardhapala, H. P. Sukti, Astamika 2. Ādhaka, A. Bhajana, Känsya-pātra, 64 palas 3. Dharana, Dh Sāna, Tanka 4. Drona, D Kalasa, Unmāna, Ghāta, Rāśi 5. Droni, Dr
Vāho, Goni 6. Karşa, K
Panimānika, Ākāśa, Pich, Kiñcitpāni, Tinduka, Vidālpadaka, Sodasikā,
Suvarņa, Udumbara etc. 7. Kole, ki
Drankşaņa, Kșūdraka, Vātaka 8. Kudava, kd Añjali, Ardhasaravaka, Aștamāna 9. Māşa, M
Haem, Dhānuka 10. Manikā, Mn Śarava, Aştapala 11. Pala, P
Muști, Āmra, Caturthikā, Șodasi, Vilva,
Asati 12. Prastha, Pr 64 suvarna, 64 tolās = 1 seer 13. Sūrpa, s
Kumbha (f) Countable or Numeration Measures
In olden days, fruits, vegetables and many other things were sold by counts. This system still persists in an appreciable way in rural areas and partly in urban markets. However, it is

Page #289

Weights and Measures-1: Mass and Volume Units : 267
being replaced by weight measures in gradual practice. Besides, every measure requires knowledge of numbers as there can not be any unit without them. Hence, numeration serves two-fold purpose. A. D. S. mentions that this measure is useful for paying the wages to workers, purchasing foods and utilising proper amount of coins for purchases and accounts22. It goes to count the numbers upto a crore or ten million. However, it also mentions that numeration could be expressed in eight ways, out of which countable number is most useful as Munisri also makes out23. Primarily, Akalanka does not mention numbers more than four as they are described under paraworldly measures in terms of (i) number and ( ii ) simile measures. Both, A. D. S. and Akalanka describe them in more detail which is given later in chapter on spatial or length units. (9) Tat-pramāna Measure
No details are given in R. V. regarding this measure ( measure of comparison ) as it is too empirical for canonical days. However, some units could be found in current sciences under this category. (h) Current Measures
Looking to the variety of measures in different parts of the country, the British tried to have uniform measures of weights overlooking the earlier ones. In the first instance, they were not based on decimal system but they represented simplification and co-ordination. Later on, they have also been converted to decimal system. The Ayurvedic system did not have specific volume units but there was a weight-volume conglomerate. Now because of density concept, the two units are separate. Table 10 summarises them and their details could be found in any physics book. The C. G, S. system is most current today.
With these new units in vogue, the canonical units have gone historical. Thus, the weights and measures have undergone change from irregular multiples to regularly decimalised.

Page #290

268 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
They have also changed from a mixed nature to an identifiable nature in weights/volumes. Table 10 : Current Units of Weights and Volume.
(a) British period (b) Scientific units
Length
Volume
8 G = 1M
Basic weight unit : 1mg. 1 mm 1 ml 96 G = 1 Tolā 1000 units : 1 g. m, metre 1, litre 5 Tolā = 1 Chatāka 16 Ch.=1 Seer, Se 1000 units : 1kg. Km, KI, 40 Se = 1 Maund, Mn
12.
References 1. Edited Madhukara Muni : jñātādharma-kathā, Agama
Prakashana Samiti, Beawar, 1981, p. 384. 2. (a) Ibid, p.12.
(b) Edited Ghevarachandaji Banthia : Bhagavati-Sūtra, S.
J. S. Sangh, Sailana, p. 1945. 3. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, Jain Vishva
Bharati, Ladnun, 1976, pp. 863-864, p. 887, p. 100. 4. Edited Madhukara Muni : Antakrtadasā, A. P. S., Beawar,
1981, p. 113. 5. Edited Madhukara Muni : Uvāsagadasão, A. P. S., Beawar,
1980, p. 31, p. 374. 6. (a) Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyogadvāra-Sūtra, A. P.
S., Beawar, 1987, p. 227. (b) Nemchand, Cakravarti : Triloka-sāra, Digambara Jain
Sansthan, Mahavirji, 1974, pp. 12-13. 7. Edited Ghevaachandji Banthia : Bhagavati-Sūtra, p. 767, p.
1033, p. 3332. 8. M. S. Tarnikar, et. al. : Prārambhika Bhautiki, J. Nath &
Co., Meerut, 1989, p. 95. 9. N. L. Jain : in Pt. J. M. L. Shastri Sādhuvāda Grantha, p.
95.

Page #291

Weights and Measures-1 : Mass and Volume Units : 269
10. (a) Bhatta, Akalanka : Rājavārttika, pp. 205-208.
(b) Nemichand Cakravarti : Triloka-sāra, pp. 12-13. 11. (a) Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyoga-dvāra-sūtra, pp.
36-38. 11. (b) Edited Madhukara Muni : Nandi-sūtra, A. P. S.
Beawar, 1982, p. 153. 12. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyoga-dvāra-sūtra, p. 231. 13. Sthānānga, p. 324. 14. Puspadanta & Bhūtabali : Şatkhandāgama, p. 81. 15. Edited Madhukara Muni : Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 1038. 16. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyoga-dvāra-sūtra, p. 229. 17. Vishvanātha Dwivedi : Bhāratiya Rasa-śāstra, Sharma
Ayurveda Mandir, Jhansi, 1977, pp. 103-106 18. V. S. Apte : Student's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Motilal
Banarasidas, Delhi, 1986, p. 372. 19. Tandulaveyaliya, S. S. Jain Sanstha, Bikaner, 1949, pp.
45-46 20. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, p. 240. 21. Nemichandra Shastri : Mahāvira ki Ācārya Paramparā-2
Digambara Jain Vidvat Parishad, Sagar, 1974, p. 25. 22. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, p. 239. 23. Muni, Mahendrakumar-2 : Visva Prahelikā, Javeri Praka
shan, Bombay, 1969, p. 255.

Page #292

Chapter 9
Weights and Measures - 2 : Length and
Time Units
Basis of Measure of Length in Jaina Canons : Space Point or Pradeśa
Jainas have an independant reality of space like time. It accommodates all the realities in the universe including itself and it forms the basis for their movements. It was included in five Astikāyas ( reality with space points ) from the very beginning and, hence, its position is somewhat different from the reality of time. The space has infiniteness, extension and omnipresence. It has no varieties of practical or ideal type like time. Nevertheless, it is assumed for practical purposes that the space occupied by an atom is known as Pradeśa or unit space point. The extension of space is denoted in the form of these space points. The infiniteness of space is due to its infinite number of space points. These are the basis for length or distance units. These also form the base for quantitative descriptions of the canons. These space points are also termed as Ākāśa-anu or space atoms like matter atoms. These represent the measure of minimum length and, thus, form its basic units. As the space has extension, it could be two or threedimensional also. Hence this basic unit of Pradeśa also forms the basis for area and volume units.
It has been seen that time and distances are independant of each other, still the length units are described in canons as co-related with time units. The larger units of time Palya and Sagara - have been defined on the basis of Yojana-- a length unit'. Though B., T. P., R. V. and J. D. P. follow this tradition, the A. D. S. and S. K. -1 deal with length units independantly.

Page #293

Weights and Measures - 2 : Length and Time Units : 271
Measures of Length in Bhagavati and Other Jaina Canons
The Jaina canons like B., A, D, S., T. V., R. V., Ts., J. D. P. and others written between 100 B. C. and 12th century A. D. contain descriptions about length measures. Muniśri2 and Lishk et. al.' have discussed them as detailed in A. D. S. Accordingly, these have three varieties – (i) self measure, (ii) utsedha measure and (iii) pramāna measure. These are utilised in measuring lengths of different types and extensions shown in Table 1. Table 1 : Uses of different Length Measures. Name Units Equivalence
Uses 1. Utsedha Utsedha- 0.5 A A Measurement of heigangula, UA
hts of bodies and idols 2. Self or Atmāng- 2 UA Measurement of utility Ātma ula, AA
and small useful things 3. Pramāna Pramāna- 500/1000 Measurements of islanangula, PA UA ds, oceans, cities, solar
system etc.
All the above canons have these three types of measures. A critical and comparative study of these measures is presented here which is summarised in Table 2 resulting in the following facts :
(i) All scholars have accepted the seven measure units from Angula, A to Yojana, Y, as the practical units.
(ii) All agree upon Angula, A as the practical unit of length. The category of this unit determines the value of Y. The basic A has been taken as UA.
(iii) The standard unit of Atmāngula, AA is the fingertip of a standard healthy person with a height of 84 Ātmangulas 5. The human heights of 120, 108 or 96 AA depend upon different conditions and hence not taken as standard.
(iv) One Atmāngula, AA, is canonically equal to 2 UA. (v) The Angula unit is generally 1-dimensional which

Page #294

Table 2: Units of Length in Some Jaina Canons (UA basis)
Bhagavati, B
Trilokaprajñapati, TP
[A-] Smaller Units
Basic Unit-Paramāņu ∞ P = 1 Utslakṣaṇaslakshanika, U
8 U = 1 Slakṣanaslakshanika, S 8 S = 1 Urdhvareņu ( Tṛtireņu), Tr
8 Tr = 1 Trasaneņu, Ts
8 Ts = 1 Rathareņu, Rr 8 Rr = 1 Hairhead, UBHH
(Devakuru-Uttarakuru)
8 UBHH
=
1 Hairhead, MBHH (Hari-Ramyaka area)
8 MBHH = 1 Hairhead, JBHH
(Hemavala-Airāvata area)
8 JBHH Hairhead, PVHH
(Purva Videha)
8 PVHH
= 1 Likṣā, Li
∞∞∞o P
sanna, U
1 Sannäsanna, S 1 Tṛtireņu, Tr
1 Ts
1 Rr
1 Ubasannā
Rājavārtika, RV
1 Hairhead, UBHH (Uttama Bhogabhūmi) 1 Hairhead, MBHH (Madhyama Bhogabhūmi)
1 JBHH
1 Li
(Jaghanya Bhogabhūmi)
1 PVHH (Karmabhūmi)
∞∞ P
sangyā, U
Ts
1 Rr
1 Utsangyā- ∞∞∞ P- 1 Avasannā
sanna, U
1 Sannāsanna, S
1 Tr (Practical Atom)
1 Ts
1 Rr
1 UBHH
(As in TP)
1 MBHH
1 Sangyasangya,S
1 Tr
Jambuddivapannatti, JDP
1 Hairhead, UBHH
(As in B)
1 MBHH
(As in B)
1 JBHH
(As in B)
1 PVHH
(As in TP)
1 JBHH
(As in TP)
1 PVHH
(Bharata-Airāvata videha) (As in TP)
1 Li
1 Li
272 Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons

Page #295

Rājavārtika, RV
Jambuddivapaņņatti, JDP

1 Eu 1 Yavamadhya, Ya 1 A 500 A = 1 PA
1 Eu 1 Yava, Ya 1A 500 A = 1 PA
Bhagavati, B
Trilokaprajñapati, TP 8 Li = 1 Yukā, Eu
1 Eu 8 Eu = 1 Yavamadhya, Ya 1 Yava, Ya 8 Ya = 1 Angula, A
1 A 1000A = 1 Pramāṇāngula, PA 500 A = 1 PA [B] Normal Units 6 A = 1 Pada, Pd
1 Pd 2 P = 12A = 1 Vitasti, V
1 V 2 V = 24A = 1 Hasta, H.
1H 2 H = 48A = 1 Kukşi, K
1K 2 K = 96 A = 1 Dhanusa, D 1D 2000 D = 1,92,000 A=1 Koša, ko 1 ko 4 Ko = 7,68,000 A = 1 Yojanā, Y 1 Y [C] Larger Units 1000 A = 1 PA
500A = 1 PA 1000 Y = 1 PY
500Y = 1 PY Jagaśreņi J = 1 Raju, R
As in B 1 Raju, R = 1/7 Jagaśreņi, 1/7] As in B

1 Pd 1 V 11 1 K 10
1 Pd 1 V 1H 1 K
10
Weights and Measures-2: Length and Time Units: 273
1 ko
TY
1KO 1 Y
500 A = 1 PA 500Y = 1 PY As in B As in B
500 A = 1 PA 500Y = 1 PY As in B As in B

Page #296

274 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
is also known as Sūcyāngula. It has, however, 2 or 3 dimensional units also.
(vi) One UY (Utsedha Yojana ) has 7,68,000 Angulas. Taking this as the last practical unit and assuming it as equal to 4ko (Kośa ) or 8 Miles ( 1 Mile = 1.66 Kms. = 1,66,000 cms.), 1 UA comes to be equal to 13, 28, 000/7, 68, 000 = 1.73 cms. Datta and Singh' have shown that one Anguliparva unit of the Buddhists is equivalent to 1.32" or 3.36 cms. The UA of Jaina has, thus, half the value of Anguliparva, i, e., it is equal to 1.68 cms. It is on this basis that 1 UY has been calculated to be equal to 8 miles or 13.28 kms. Thus, by interpolation of Yojana, Y or extrapolation of angula, the UA has a value of 1.68-1,73 or 1.70 cm on the average.
In contrast, G. R. Jain has assumed a Hasia, H = 24 UA = 45.70 cms. and hence 1 UA = 0.75" = 1.90 cms. This means a UY = 15.09 kms. or 100/11 miles instead of 13.28 kms as above. He has used this value to calculate the velocity of light based on its Vedic value of 4404 Y per nimesa ( 0.25 sec.) which is sufficiently close to the current value. It must, however, be said that there is no confirmed base for this value of Angula, though L. C. Jain 10 also agrees with this value. In contrast, Panini scales of length give the value of Y just about the half of it, i, e., 7.45 kms for UY which is quite close to the value suggested by a noted Jaina saint recently'. The acceptance of different values for the same basic unit creates doubt on the reliablity of calculations based on them.
Muni Candana12 has also discussed the equivalence of UA on the basis of height of Lord Mahāvira as 7 H. He maintains that the canonical height is based on UA which is equal to 3.5H in self measure. This is equal to 84 AA as 1 H = 24 AA and 1 UA = 0.5 AA. Hence, 7UA X 24/2 = 84 AA. If one assumes the UA as 1.70-1.90 cms., the Lord's height comes to be a minimum of 7 x 24 x 1.70 = 285.6 cms or 9.25 feet. This value seems to be inconsistent on all accounts for a man born in tropical Bihar area. Thus, he has questioned both

Page #297

Weights and Measures -2: Length and Time Units : 275
the above UA value. He also does not agree with the Paramānu or atom as the basic unit of length due to difficulties of its standardisation. Instead, he has supported the Jaina concept of Angula standard on the basis of its being natural. He has given a value of 0.42" or 1.07 cms. to UA on the basis of many comparative references and logistics. Based on this, 1 UY = 5 miles or 8.30 kms and the height of the Lord as 5.84 feet or 178 cms which seems to be reasonable. He has given critical descriptions about the various body heights in literature and has canonically defined the standard UA. However, his concept of natural Angula being standard could not be justified on account of its larger variablity than an atom.
Lishk et al' have given a fourth value for UY as 0.085 km (0.051 mile ) equivalent to a value of approximately 0.001 cm for the UA. They have suggested that the values of these units should be decided on the basis of historical period and place. Thus, they seem to be adding to our difficulty in the process of standardisation and he has conveyed that the value of standard basic Angula is variable, that is, it is a secondary standard rather than primary as desired by canons. One would like to wonder how a variable quantity could be treated as standard. Moreover, the authors of A. D. S., B., T. P., J. D. P. and S. K. belong to the same side of the country and there should not be any variation in their equivalences and descriptions. On the other hand, Akalanka and others originate from south and there should not be variations in their measures. But we see variations in not only both the groups, but in the same group also. One has to look as to when and how this variation started and should try to regularise it. Length Units Smaller than Angula
The length units based on UA are known as Utsedha measures representing their division-based category. The smallest unit of this category is atom. As this is very fine, there is another practical unit known as practical atom. When we interpolate the UA units towards smaller units, we reach the

Page #298

276 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
point of practical atom. Though the J. D. P. mentions 'trtirenu' (ūrdhvareņu of A. D. S.) as practical atom, the A. D. S. points it to be much smaller unit ( 8 -1 12+0) ). The real practical unit is an infinite multiple of this unit which has the same name in A. D. S. and B, but Table 2 shows that its name is different in T.P., R. V. and J. D. P. The same is the position of the second unit eight times larger. These two units should have the same names in current times. The cause of different names should also be looked into.
It is seen that there are 13 stages of smaller units upto U. A. in A. D. S. while there are 12 stages in other treatises including Bhagavati. These treatises have combined the third and fifth units into one. The how and when of this change requires further consideration. Is it the mistake of the copyist? Currently, A. D. S. UA is larger by 10' unit, say.
Besides the above two differences, B ( 100 B. C.) and R. V. (- 750 A. D. ) have same names of other ten units upto Angula. In contrast, there is similarity in names in T. P. and J. D. P. ( names of hair heads and yava or yavamadhya ). This difference should also be looked into and formalised for the current age.
It is clear from Table 2 that each of the 12 stages from Angula backwards is eighth part of the preceding unit. The first unit, thus, have a value of 1.6 X 10-10 A. If we multiply this value by its cm. equivalent of 1.70, the first unit seems to have a value of 2.72 x 10-10 cms. If one takes J. D. P. as little more practical, and the practical atom or trtirenu is taken as 64 times the first unit, the practical atom has a dimension of 1.75x 108 cm, which is the normal size of current atom. This suggests that J. D. P. concept of practical atom unit has the same atomic dimension as the current one. In contrast, the unit of length smaller than atomic one is that of atomic nucleus of 10-13 cm. This does not coincide with the canonical smallest unit of 10-10 cm. It is, therefore, reasonable to suggest that trtirenu

Page #299

Weights and Measures - 2: Length and Time Units : 277
or practical atom unit should be recognised as standard unit with a value of 10-4 cm. and the canonical descriptions be made consistent on this basis.
The units smaller than this may be simile based. The unit of infinite times infiniteth part (1/2000) seems to be imaginary as it does not seem to have a measurable value. This inference does not seem to be consistent with definitions of Trasarenu and Ratharenu of A. D. S.'4, but it seems better for accuracy. The A. D. S. definitions of these terms seem to be akin to Vaiseșikas who have Trasarenu as their standard length unit equal in size to the colloidal dirt particles seen floating in light path. This unit is almost about 10 times larger than the Jaina smallest unit's. The discrepancy between the values of A. D. S. unit and other reference units has to be explained. The common names of some of the units in Jaina and Vaiśesika systems further suggest about looking into original source of these units.
Besides concurring with the size of the atom, the 1.70 cm. value of UA has another result to its credit. If one takes Y = 8 miles, the velocity of light based on Vedic data comes to be 1,40,930 miles/second ( 2.34 x 1010 cms./second ). The value of 1.90 cm. for UA gives this value as 1,87,300 miles ( 3.10 x 100 cm./second ). These values are reasonably approaching current values. This is quite encouraging. But when we move for distances in solar systems, we find that we have the distances fourteen times larger for moon and thirty times lesser for Sun. This descrepancy is awaiting explanation. The other values of UA will increase the discrepancy still further.
It has already been pointed out that normal Angula is 1-d and it is also named as Sūcyāngula. There seems to be some difference in R, V.16 and J. D. P. discription of this unit. However, J. D. P. seems to be more reasonable. This Angula has three varieties as shown in table 1. It is seen that there is a difference between the values of PA in Digambara and Svetāmbara versions. No comment has been made on this

Page #300

278 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
point by modern scholars who have mostly mentioned this difference. For equivalence, the two PA's must be equal. One could suggest that this difference could be accrued due to the two forms of Angula units – self and utsedha – the one being (AA) double of the other (UA). It could be surmised that the Digambara PA is based on UA scale while the other PA is based on AA scale. Candana Muni has also indicated that while canons base their quantitative statements on UA basis, the commentators based their explanations on AA basis. If both are taken on the same scale, the difference may vanish. From the example of Lord's body's height, it is the UA scale coined by the canonists. Thus, the Svetāmbara value converted to UA scale will give us the Digambara value of PA. Some calculations on this basis are given in table 3. If one takes the Svetāmbara value of PA, the results will be highly discrepant.
The treatment of current equivalence of UA by many scholars to suit a particular value of a parameter, presents a situation which was prevalent in the scientific world some 150 years ago when lack of standardisation produced confusion and choked growth of science at proper rate. The same is the case with atom when scholars of the orient are pitching on the indivisiblity which has been shattered. Jaina"? has pointed out some problems in this regard and suggested the description to be taken in historical perspective. However, there seems a tendency of some scholars to trace canonical origin for all the newly developed facts and to either overlook or keep mum over the scientific evaluation of a large number of canonical descriptions about the physical phenomena. Sometimes varied explanations are given for the same fact to make it scientifically consistent despite the fact that inconsistent or opposing results accrue from this trend. Some of the results of calculations based on current opinions regarding equivalent values of UA are shown in Table 3 which will substantiate the above statement. The calculations based on values of Lishk et. al. are most discordant. Table 3 will confuse one to decide the

Page #301

Table 3: Some Calculations based on Various Values of UA.

1.90
15.09 100/11
7545
1.70 13.28 8.00 6640 4000 13,280 1.7 X 10-
6 285.6
1. Values of UA, cms 2. UY ( a ) Km.
(b) miles 3. PY ( 500 UA), Km.
miles 4. PY ( 1000 UA), Km. 5. Size of Atom, cms. 6. Lord's body height, cm 7. Velocity of Light, UY
(a) cms/sec
(b) miles/sec. 8. Distance of Moon, PY
( 880 PY), lac miles 9. Distance of Sun, PY
(800 PY), lac miles
1.07 8.30 5.00 41.50 2500 8300 1.09 X 10-8 178
0.001 0.085 0.051 4.25 25.55 85.00 1.00 X 10-10 0.168
4545 15,090
.94 X 10-8 319.2
1

Weights and Measures-2 : Length and Time Units: 279
2.34 X 1010 1,40,930
3.10 X 1010 1,87,300
1.46 X 1010 88080
1.49 X 108 898.5
35.20
39.95
22.00
00.398
32.
00
3 6.36
20.00
0.204

Page #302

280 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
truth or accuracy of the fact. It is worth consideration which of these values may be taken as applicable in all cases. Lord Mahāvira must have given one value for each unit. How and when this variety of values of Angula started is a problem for further research. One of the reasons for this might be the personal or literary communication gap between scholars of different or same periods. This gap has vanished in this century and it is the best time for uniformity in units and their values. Area and Volume Units
When areas or volumes are to be expressed, the 2-d or 3-d units are used. The 2-d and 3-0 Angula units are known as Pratarāngula ( Pra) and Ghanängula ( GA ) respectively. Their values are equal to the square and cube of the Angula unit. They are shown in table 4. Larger Units of Length
The UA-based Yojana Y, is the unit of length of practical and average value. It seems quite small for larger distances. Jaina ācāryas have, therefore, coined some larger length units like time. These are known as Pramāna units. The PA-based yojana, PY is a l-d unit in this direction. It has a value of 500 or 1000 times larger than UY or it is equivalent to 4000 or 8000 miles ( 1 UY = 8 miles ). Other different values based on various values of UY are given in Table 3 varying between 6640-15090 km. These are measurable units.
With reference to the dimensions of the universe, there is one more unit named as Rajju, R. Canonically, it seems difficult to evaluate the current value for it as its calculations involve innumerable number. Despite this, Jaina 19 and Jaina20 have calculated the value of R unit to be between 1018 -1024 kms. Jagasreni is still a larger unit which is equal to 7 R. These larger units are just akin to the current units of light year which has a value of app. 1012 kms. This suggests that the larger units of the Jainas are sufficiently larger. These are also included in Table 4.

Page #303

Weights and Measures - 2 : Length and Time Units
Table 4 Current Values of Length Units in Jaina canons.
Current Values
Unit
1-d Units
1. Uvasannāsanna or the first smallest unit
2. Trutireņu or Practical atom 10-8 cm.
3. SA or UA, cm.
4. AA
5. PA
6. Yojana, Y
(a) UY, km.
(b) PY, km (500 UY) ( 1000 UY )
7. Rajju, R, km.
8. Jagasreni, J, Km18. 2-d Units
1. Pratarängula, PrA
2. Jagapratara/Pratarāloka,
JP/PL
3-d Units
1. Ghanāngula, GA
2. Ghanāloka, GL
3. Khanduka, k
10-10 cm
0.001, 1.07, 1.70, 1.90
2 UA
500 A, 1000 A

: 281
0.085, 8.30, 13.28, 15.09 42.83, 4150, 6640, 7545 84.66, 8300, 13280, 15090 Innumerable Yojanas, 3.7 x 1018 - 2.4 x 1021
7 R; 2.6 x 1019-1.68 x 1023
(UA)2 J2
(UA)3 = UA x PrA
J3 = ( 7R )3 - 343 G R
1/64 GR (Ghanarajju )
The above larger units have also their corresponding 2-d and 3-d units named as Prataraloka and Ghanaloka or Loka respectively. These are equal to square and cube of Jagaśreņi unit. Lokaprakāśa21 mentions another 3-d unit of Khanduka, k equal to 1/4 cube of a Rajju. This and its derivative units are not found in Digambara tradition.
The above description of larger units show the PY to be different in different traditions. Thus, descriptions based on them will have a variance and their reliablity will be more mythological. The current century, however, requires uniform value

Page #304

282 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
of PY for proper evaluation of different descriptions in canons. Some descriptions based on Larger Length Units
Many descriptions relating to larger distances, areas and volumes are available in Jaina canons. Some of them are presented here in current terms in Table 5. Table 5: Current Values for Some Canonical Description.
Items
Value Based PY based on UY, Km. values, Km.
15 x 105 47.4 x 105
7.5 x 108 2.4 x 109
11.6 x 1011
5.9 x 1014
7890
3.5 x 106
7.5 x 106
7.4 x 108
1. Jambūdvipa
(a) Diameter, 105Y (b) Circumference,
3.16 x 105 y (c) Area 2. Bharatakhanda
(a) Diameter, 526 Y 3. Mount Meru (a) Under the earth,
1000 Y (b) Over the earth,
99000Y 4. Jambū Tree
(a) Diameter, 6Y (b) Height, 6Y
(c) Length, 8Y 5. Height of Lord Rşabha
Deva 0.006 Y 6. Height of Palace, 225D25 7. Length of Palace, 300D 8. Width of the Palace, 150 D 9. Height of Vijayadvāra, 8726 10. Diameter of Vijayadvāra, 4Y
90 90 120 910 meters
45,000 45,000 60,000
410 meters 547 meters 273 meters 120 Kms. 60 Kms.
Let us first look at the island - Jambūdvipa - in which we live. It is named after a Jambū tree in its center, It is 6Y in

Page #305

Weights and Measures - 2 : Length and Time Units : 283
height, 8Y in length and 6Y in diameter. The corresponding description is given in Table 5. It is clear that this can not be based on PY. Basing it on UY also, looks like an exaggeration. Not only this, 108 Jambū trees of half the dimension of the main tree are surrounding it. If we assume that there is at least one tree surrounding it in one direction, there will be a row of approximately 27 trees of 60 km length covering a distance of 27 x 60 = 1620 km. in one direction. This is equal to a distance from Delhi to Kazipeth, Bombay, Veraval and Howrah. It seems that more than half of the present India will contain only the family of Jambū trees. This description seems to be imaginary when one thinks the current distances and description of the trees.
The Jambū island has a diameter of 105 Py23. This island has the Bharata Khanda with an area of 1/190 of main island and a diameter of app. 526 PY. The island has mount Meru 24 in the center with is 99, 000 PY overland and 1000 PY underland. The current values for these details given in Table 5, suggest that it is very difficult to determine the category of reliability about them. Table 5 gives the values on the basis of UY = 15 kms. and PY as 500 UY. Calculations based on other values of UY also yield similar discrepant values. These values can only be presently explained on the basis of faith in canons and religion which do not seem to require verfication. Time and its Units : Smaller Units
Time is also one of the Jainistic realities assisting in the continuity and changes in the substances. There is some discussion whether it was originally included in the realities or added later. But it has come to stay. It consists of two varieties — ideal and apparent or de jure and de facto. The apparent time is countable and is useful for us. The ideal time is eternal and causes continuity. The substantiality of time has been discussed by many philosophers of east and west. Scientists call it as a frame of reference to measure present, past and future course of events as every change is related
with time and space.

Page #306

284 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
The time consists of units which never mix with each other and are always separate. They are like grains, invisible and inactive, represented by uni-dimensional mathematical series. This de facto time is expressed in three types of measures — (i) Numberable, (ii) Innumerable and (iii) Infinite time27. Out of these, the first one has values useful to us while the other two types have mathematical values of enormously complex nature and, therefore, comparatively not very much useful to us. They will not be discussed here except a brief reference. The different units and values of numerable time described in literature are summarised in Table 6. Table 6 : Apparent Time Units in Jaina Canons. A. D. S.
T.P. R. V. J. D. P. 1. Samaya, S = Basic unit in all references 2. J. Y. S. or As S = As. S = As. S = As. S = Avalika, A
1 A TA 1A 3. Ss. A = Ucchvāsa/Prāna, - do - - do - = 1 P
44463959 A29 = 1 P 4. 7 P = 1 Stoka, St - do - - do - - 1 St 5. 7 St = 1 Lāvā, L
- do - - do- = 1 L 6. 38.5 L = 1 Ghāti, G = Nali, N - 7. 77 L = 1 Muhūrta, M = 1M = 1 M 8. 30 M = 1 Day, D
1 D
1 D 9. 15 D = 1 Fortnight, F = 1 F = 1 F = 1 F 10.2 F= 1 Month, Mn = 1 Mn = 1 Mn = 1 Mn 11.2 Mn = 1 Season, Sn = 1 Sn = 1 Sn = 1 Sn 12. 3 Sn = 1 Ayana, An = 1 An = 1 An = 1 An 13. 2An = 12Mn = 1 Year, Yr = 1 Yr = 1 Yr = 1 Yr 14.5 Yr = 1 Yuga, Yg = Yg = 1 Yg = 1 Yg
It must be pointed out here that the countable numbers are also classified in three types :
(i) Least countable number which is 2.
(ii) Middle countable number - it may be taken from 3 to ( HN-1).
=10

Page #307

Weights and Measures 2: Length and Time Units
(iii) Highest countable number (HN). It may have value upto 1019739 or more, a very large number28.
Table 6 shows that there is difference in the name of some units in literature. R. V. does not mention the unit of Nali or Ghati at all. There is difference in the values of Prāṇa, P units also. It is seen that despite 'Samaya' being smallest unit of time, it is very difficult to define it mathematically. However, if Nali unit of T. P. and J. D. P. is taken as equivalent to Ghāti, G of A. D. S. and Ucchvāsa is the same as Prāņa, we get coherent time units up to 'Prana' from below which is equal to 1/77 x 7 x 7 = 1/3773 M 60 x 48/3773 = 0.75 (3/4) seconds approximately.
: 285
=

Above that, we have differing opinion regarding Avalil Āvalika, A, as the value of Sankhyāta, Ss is not known. Though the 'Prana' is defined as the time for one complete respiration, yet it is said to be consisting of sankhyāta Āvalikas according to all references above except the one quoted by Muni Mahendraji30. This Sankhyāta is said to be equal to 84' x 10' where x varies between 36-26 and y varies between 90-180 and this numerable number censists of 192-250 digits. It would mean that 10-192-250 Avalikas make one Prāna. Interpolating, an Avalika would be 10-190 to 10-248 second. The innumerable 'Samayas' form an Avalika. The value of innumerable number also varies according to its types (there are three types) but it must be greater than at least the value of numerable number, i. e., 10-192-250. Thus, with the minimum reckoning, the value of 'Samaya' unit should be approximately 10-380 to 10-500 second. This value of 'Samaya' may be least and finest mathematically, but it seems to be impractical at present. Besides the diversity in the value of innumerable, its value is not definite. Hence, to call it a basic unit requires serious consideration. Because of this, its absoluteness can not be taken as granted. Moreover, if 'Prāṇa' is taken as the time taken for one complete respiration (one inhale and one exhale ), which is roughly half a second, the Avalika unit becomes still smaller. Hence, it

Page #308

286 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
seems that 'Prana' as a unit of time should not be related to the time of respirations.
Muni Mahendra, however, refers the Prāņa unit as consisting of 4446 or roughly 4450 Avalikas which mean Avalika unit is roughly 1.2 x 10 seconds of today. This seems to be more logical and practical value than the earlier. This value is measurable today, though a little bit difficultly. The 'Prāṇa' ( 3/4 sec.) or Avalika (104 sec. ), thus, seem to be better practical units. On the basis of fineness, it is suggested that Avalika/Āvali, A should be reckoned as a standard unit of time with a value of 104 second. A. K. Jain suggests still further. He points out the measurement of time upto 10-23 sec. This time should be taken as equal to a 'Samaya'31 unit and calculations may be made accordingly. This suggestion does not look logical as the value of 'Samaya' is subject to further changes on finer experimentation or instrumental methods. The basic unit must have a fixed value. It would be like the varying equation of Jinistic atom with newer fundamental particles. Larger Time Units
The time units described above are based on common unit of month or year and move towards smaller parts to the basic unit which has been found to be of immeasurable valuehence impractical and scientifically not accurate. The same situation is found when one moves towards larger time units. These units are required to define other bigger Jainological units of time used for pointing out of ages of hellish or heavenly beings and karmas. In these larger units, 84 or 84 lacs years (84 x 105) form the base. The cononical units based on these numbers are given in Table 7. It is presumed that the last of these units in any reference forms the value of highest numerable time (H. N. T. ). Table 8 shows that there are diversities not only in the numerical value of the last units, but there is also a difference in their names and numbers of steps they are arrived at. It is also found that in A. D. S., J. K., R. V. and J. D. P., the multiple for each higher units is 84 lacs, but in T.

Page #309

Weights and Measures 2: Length and Time Units
P., it is 84 in 13 units and 84 lacs in 17 units. It also seems that the Parvanga and Parva units have been left in T. P. by copyst's mistake as it is mentioned that numerical value of Acalatma is 8431 x 1090 while it is less when these units are not counted. It is also found that the same names appear in different order in many reference leading to their different values. Thus, the value of H. N. T. varies between 1090 and 10180 a fact suggesting a situation where every scholar took his own order and value without caring for the others and common man. The standardisation of values of the canonical time units is, therefore, necessary not only to understand them accurately but also to evaluate their contents, contribution and credibility.
Table 7: Larger Units of Time in Jaina Canons.
A. D. S.
T. P.
1
J. K.
2

R. V.
4
: 287
Nalina
Kamal
1. Pūrvānga Pūrvänga Pūrvānga Pūrvānga Pūrvänga Pūrva 2. Pūrva Pürva Pūrva Pūrva 3. Trutitānga Latānga Niyutänga Niyutānga Parvanga Latā 4. Trutita Niyuta Niyuta Kumud
Parva
5. Adadānga Mahā
Kumud
Kumud
anga
ānga
latānga ānga Mahālatā Kumuda Kumuda
6. Adada
Kumuda
7. Avavānga Nalinanga Padmanga Padmanga Niyutānga
8. Avava
Nalina
Padma Padma Niyuta
9. Huhuk
Mahānalin-Nalinanga Nalinanga Padmanga
anga
änga
10. Huhuka
Mahānalina Nalina
11. Utpalanga Padmanga Kamal
anga
anga
12. Utpal
Padma
Kamala
Kamala
Nalina
13. Padmanga Mahāpad- Trutitānga Trutitanga Amalanga
mānga

J. D. P.
5
Padma
Nalinānga

Page #310

288 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
1
2
3
4
5
14. Padma Mahā- Trutita Trutita Kamala
padma 15. Nalinānga Kama Atātānga Atātānga Trutitānga
länga 16. Nalina Kamala Atata Atata
Trutita 17. Arthani- Mahāka- Amām- Amām- Atātānga
purānga malānga anga ānga 18. Arthani- Mahā- Amama Amama Atata pura
kamala 19. Ayutānga Kudu- Hahānga Parvānga Amamānga
mānga 20. Ayuta Kuduma Hāhā Parva Amamā 21.Prayutā- Mahāku- Hūhānga Hūhānga Hāhānga
nga dumānga 22. Prayuta Mahā - Huhu Huhu Hāhā
kuduma 23. Nayutānga Trutitānga Latānga Latānga Hūhānga 24. Nayuta Trutita Latā Latā
Hūhū 25. Chulikānga Mahātru- Mahāla- Mahala- Latānga
titānga tānga tānga 26. Chūlika Mahātrutita Mahālatā Mahālatā Latā 27. Sirsapra- Adādānga Srikalpa
Mahālathelikānga
anga 28. Sirsapra- Adāda Hastapra
Mahālatā helikā
helikā 29. - Mahādā- Acalātmā
Sirşadānga
prakampita Mahādādā Parvānga
Hastapra
helita Hūhānga Parva
Acalātmā Hūhū Mahānūhānga

Page #311

34.
35.
36.
1
Weights and Measures - 2: Length and Time Units
Basis
2
1. A. D. S.
2. J. K.
3. T. P.
4. R. V.
5. J. D. P.
Mahāhūhū
Sirṣapra
helikānga Sirṣapra
helikā

3
Last Name
of Unit
4
Numerable Time
8428x10140 8436x10180 8431x1090 8426x10130 8431x10165
84x105
84x105
84&84x105 84x105
Table 8: Details of H. N. T. in various references.
Reference
Numerical
Value
Acalātmā
Mahālatā
Acalātmā
Širṣaprahelikā 8428x10140
8436x10180
8431x1090
8426x10130
8431x10165
50│
T
28
36
31
26
31

:
84x105
Number of
Stages
289
Innumerable or Asankhyāta Time Units (I. T. U. )
Besides the above small or large numerable time units, Jainology has also postulated innumerable time units larger than H. N. T. Actually, the name of these units suggests that they could not be counted but they have their values which in every case should be larger than H. N. T. These time units are expressed in simile measures and have two types - Palyopama and Sāgaropama. They are related to each other by a factor of 1014. Each of these units is further divided into three classes as shown below in Table 9. It seems there is some difference in A. D. S., T. P. and R. V. regarding these classes.
The definition of Palyopama is too complex and mathematical to be given here but many scholars have calculated the values of its various classes in both the traditions20. The

Page #312

290 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
A. D. S. tradition has some sub-classes for these units. These values also show large diversities not amenable to scientific credibility. However, while T. P. tradition has only Vyavahāra Palyopama as a numerable unit with a factor of only 1046, the A. D. S. tradition has two such numerable units of gross/ Uddhāra and Addhā Palya with factor of 1036 and 1038 respectively. These diverse values make it difficult to assess the canonical facts based on them. How these numerical units have been included in this class could be a good subject for researchers. These observations are summarised in Table 10. However, A. D. S. points out that by adding one to the numerable number, it becomes innumerable. Table 9 : Innumerable Time Units, I. T. U. (as per T. P., R. V.).
I.T. U.
Palyopama
Sagaropama
Vyavahāra Uddhāra Addha Vyavahāra Uddhāra Addhā Table 10 : Values of Palyopama Units.
A. D. S. T. P. 1. Vyavahāra palyopama, gross -
4.13 x 1046 yrs 2. Vyavahāra palyopama, fine 3. Uddhāra palyopama, gross 3.3x1036xa 4.13x1051 xa*
samayas years 4. Uddhāra palyopama, fine 3.3x1036xa* --
samayas 5. Addhā palyopama, gross 3.3x1038 4.13x1051x a**
years years 6. Addhā palyopama, fine 3.3 x 1038xa*
years
*, ** This indicates different types of innumerables.
By multiplying different Palyopamas by 104; different

Page #313

Weights and Measures 2: Length and Time Units
types of Sagaropamas could be evaluated. A. D. S. has another type of Palyopama too-spatial Palyopama based on space points.
Miscellaneous Time Units
Besides the above units, there are some other units indicated in the canons. One of them is Pūrvakoti which is a numerable time of 7056 x1010 yrs. Another is Koḍākoḍi which is a crore multiplied by a crore, i. e., 1014 yrs. Some other smaller units may also be available.
(a) Normal world 48 mts. (b) Videha world 48 mts.
Uses of Innumerable Time Units
A good number of Palyopama units are not used but they form the calculation based for other useful units. One of the important uses of these units has been to point out the maximum ages of various living beings shown in Table 11 according to Umāsvāti tradition. It is surprising that human beings have been rated with hellish beings in respect of their maximum age and with animals with respect of their minimum age, whereas it is said that it is the human beings which have the capacity and power of attaining full salvation and that they are the best of living beings.
Table 11: Ages of Different Living Beings.34
Category
Minimum age
1. Human Beings
2. Animal Beings
3. Hellish beings
4. Heavenly beings
:
48 mts. 10,000 to 22 Sagaropama yrs. 10,000 to 32 Sagaropama yrs.

291
Maximum age
3 Palyopama yrs. 7056x1010 to H. N. T. yrs
3 Palyopama yrs. 1-33 Sāgaropama yrs
1.5 Palyopama to 33 Sāgaropama yrs
Per chance, this has been done with a view to march ahead more for spiritual values resulting in heavenly life of partial

Page #314

292 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
or full salvation. But the span of maximum life for them seems to be too much with 1036-46 yrs. specially in the scientific age when the present world is supposed to be existing for about 1010 yrs. only. This point needs deeper thoughts. Cause of Differences in Time Units
There does not seem to be much difference in time units on smaller scales as they have been common since Bhagavati days in both the Jaina traditions. However, there is a good amount of difference in larger units. Muni Mahendra suggests that this difference might have arisen due to two Agamic councils. The Bhagavati and A. D. S. follow Valabhi council while Jyotiskarandaka seems to follow Mathuri council. There is no discussion on difference in Digambara tradition and it seems faith reigned over these discrepancies disregarding even the crediblity aspect of the future. However, this is a problem for the canonists to clarify. Useful Time Units and Their Use
It must have been clear from the above that interpolation and extrapolation of common units of time in Jainology has a large number of problems to understand the world and its event in their true perspective. Many other Indian systems have also their time units. They can be described in two categories — (i) Ghāti based ( 24 mts. ) and (ii) Muhūta based ( 48 mts. )36. These are shown in Table 12 with their equivalents of today. The Ghāti-based units seem to be finer but Prof. Jaina seems to favour the other ones. On thiş başis, he has been able to calculate the velocity of light with a value of 1,87,670 miles per second as mentioned earlier. Similarly, by assuming Nimeşa =1/4 sec., he has also been able to calculate the numerical value of Rajju R-another unit of distance for larger dimensions as equvalent to 1018-24 miles based on the data of Colebrook and Einstein37. This has been done despite the fact that one tradition of Jainas assumes its value to be known to the omniscients only.

Page #315

Weights and Measures 2: Length and Time Units : 293
Table 12 Useful Time Units in Other Systems
(a) Ghāti-based
(b) Muhurta-based
15 Nimesa 1 Kaṣṭā, K
1. 60 Prativipalāmśa
=
1 Prativipala, PV
2.60 PV = 1 Vipala, V 3. 60 V 1 Pala, P
30 K = 1 Kalā, KI 30 KI = 1 Muhurta, M (48 mts.)
4. 60 P 1 Ghati, G (24 mts) 1 minute = 54 x 104 Prativipalāmśa (P.Vs. )
1 Second 9 x 103 P. Vs. 1 P. V. = 10-4 sec. ( app. )
= 281 N (Nimeṣa)
=

1N
4.7 N
1/4 sec ( app. ).
Thus, P. V. seems to be equivalent to the unit of Avalika (10-4 sec.) of Jainas as stated above. This calculated equivalence is surprising and worth following.
This author has no idea whether any useful values have been calculated by Jaina seers on the basis of Palyopama or Samaya units. It seems that even on doing so, no comparable or pertinent data could be obtained as above.
The overall study of Jainological weights and measures seems to substantiate the fact that the Jainas had developed a tendency to create excellence in details upto the extent of miraculous mythology in comparison to other systems. The same trend is seen in the case of time and length measures on the minimum and maximum side of the scales. Whereas the other. systems describe them in reasonable units, the Jainas go in for mythological units as seen in many cases in Table 13. This process neither serves the truth nor it has a scientific aspect. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt a better method of quantitative descriptions which have a realistic base and consistency in results.
In the absence of this suggested trend, a continuous erosion of faith in religion itself has been taking place.

Page #316

294 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Table 13: Comparative Descriptions of Hindus and the Jainas. Description
Hindus
Jainas 1. Age of Universe Cycle 1015 yrs. 1077 yrs. 2. Deitification of Idols Simple pūjā Five-auspicated
Festival (Gaja
ratha ) 3. Cosmography
4-7 continents Innumerable
continents 4. Incarnations/Tirtharkaras 10/24
3x24 ( present,
past, future ) 5. Queens of a Cakravarti 16,000 96,000 6. Body-height ( Rşabhadeva ) -
800 metres 7. Age of Neminātha/Krsna 100 yrs. 1000 yrs. 8. Unit of Time
1/4-104 sec. 10-380-10-500 sec. 9. Unit of Length
10-4 cm. 106 or 10-10cm. 10. Prastha, Pr
16 palas 64 palas (ADS) 11. Human characters 11
18,000/84 lacs39 12. Monarch's possessions 40 -
1014 ploughs Chariots : 84 lacs Horses : 18 crores Soldiers : 48 crores
Cities : 75,000 Dr. Upadhye 38 has exclaimed similarly in his editorial in T. P. adding that canonical descriptions are not appealing to the scientific world in general. The twentieth century Jainists have a duty to improve the situation. If we wish to convert the mythological category into reliablity, one has to fix the canonical length and time units and other measures with a definite current value uniformly. Most probably, this may not be possible. In that case, we must not insist on their permanent truth on omniscient wordings. They must be taken in historical perspec-tive as an attractive mythology so common in all the systems of olden periods. A Khārvela, Pāțaliputra or Valabhi type council may also be a way out.

Page #317

Weights and Measures - 2 : Length and Time Units : 295
References 1. Edited Ghevarachandji Banthia : Bhagavati-Sūtra-2, p.
1038. 2. Muni, Mahendra Kumar, ll : Viśva Prahelikā, p. 233. 3. S. S. Lishk et. al. : Length Units in Jain Astronomy, Jain
Journal, 143, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1979. 4. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, p. 280. 5. Candana Muni : Utsedhamāna : EK Mūlyārkana, Tulsi
Prajĩa, ix-7-9, 1983. 6. Ācārya Padmanandi : Jambūdvipa Prajñapti, J. S. S.
Sangh, Sholapur, 1958, p. 237. 7. Muni Mahendra - || : Visva Prahelikā, p. 233. 8. G. R. Jain : Cosmology : Old and New, p. 83. 9. G. R. Jain : In K. C. S. Felicitation Volume, Rewa, 1980,
p. 377. 10. L. C. Jain : Trilokaprajñapti kā Ganita, in J. D. P., J. S. S.
Sangh, Sholapur, 1958, p. 20. 11. Candana Muni : Utsedhamāna : Eka Mūlyānkana, Tulasi
Praj7ã, IX-7, 9, 1983. 12. Ibid, IX. 7 - 9. 13. S. S. Lishk et. al. : Length Units in Jain Astronomy, Jain
Journal, 143, 1979. 14. Edited Muni Madhukara : Anuyogadvāra-Sūtra, p. 280. 15. Gautama : Nyāya-darśanam, Bauddha Bharati, Kashi,
1976, p. 326. 16. Bhatta, Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 208. 17. N. L. Jain : Atomic Theory: An Evolution, Tulasi Prajñā,
XI-1, 1985. 18. Edited Muni Madhukara : Anuyogadvāra-Sūtra, p. 280. 19. Jain : In K. C. S. Felicitation Volume, p. 377. 20. Jain : Trilokaprajñapti Kā Ganita, p. 20. 21. Muni Mahendra Kumar : Visva Prahelikā, p. 233.

Page #318

296 : Scientific Contents in Prākta Canons
22. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 169. 23. Ibid, p. 170, p. 190. 24. Śrutasāgara Sūri : Tattvārtha-vrtti, Bharatiya Jñānapitha,
Deihi, 1949, p. 124. 25. Yativrsabha : Tiloyapannatti, J. S. S. Sangha, Sholapur,
1956, p. 145. 26. Padmanandi : Jambūdvipa Prajñapti, p. 5. 27. Edited Madhukara Muni : Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, p. 409. 28. Muni Mahendra : Visva Prahelikā, p. 271. 29. Ibid, p. 242. 30. ibid, p. 242. 31. A. K. Jain : Ultimate Particles of Matter, Tulasi Prajñā, 12,1,
1986, p. 7. 32. Edited Ghevarachandji Banthia : Bhagavati-Sūtra-2, p.
1038. 33. (a) Muni Mahendra - 11 : Visva Prahelikā, p. 233.
(b) Padmanandi : Jambūdvipa Prajñapti, p. 237. 34. Śrutasāgara Sūri : Tattvārtha-vrtti, p. 402, p. 214. 35. Muni Mahendra - 11 : Visva Prahelikā, p. 244. 36. Jain : Cosmology : Old and New, p. 91. 37. Ibid, p. 91. 38. Yativrşabha : Tiloyapannatti, Preface - 1. 39. Ibid, pp. 325-326. 40. Padmanandi : Jambūdvipa Prajñapti, p. 249.

Page #319

Chapter 10
Contents of Physics - 1 Heat and Light
Origin of Heat and Light
The first canonical book, Acārānga1, mentions about non-harming of fire-bodied (Taijasa) beings. This confirms that the Jainas have followed the general Indian concept of sun and fire as god (i.e. living entities) since the early times. Their quality of hotness is, thus, found in all living beings. Their hotness is not only the life of their own, but it gives life to all other living and non-living world. The term Taijasa means as produced from hotness or causing hotness2. Bhagavati3 mentions that even the so-called inanimate matter has capacities of shining, brightening, lightening and glowing. All these are facets of Taijasa. One experiences daily that when one falls sick, his body gets hot. When one dies, one gets cool gradually in the end. This hotness and breathing are signs of living body. The first and later intense hotness and the last ashy coldness of wooden coal fire are just akin to the cycle of birth and death of the living.
In olden days, fire was the only best known common form of energy. Hence every substance containing hotness was given a general name of fire-bodied substances (Agnikāyika or Taijaskāyika ). Their order of livingness is, though, of a lower quality than that of human beings as they are said to contain one sense, sense of touch while man and other sub-humans may contain upto five senses.
The scholars have pointed out that the heat present in the substances and changes in them is not a fundamental property of theirs. The Vaiseṣika school has described water as cold in touch, but in cold days and at sunrise, look at the water in river or tank, you see vapours arising out of it. Where

Page #320

298 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
does this heat in water come from? The source giving this hotness or life in matter is an energy which might be called soul or Atman. may be called spiritual or supernatural force. In olden days, such and other unintelligible phenomena were said to be due to this force. This makes it clear that the basic sources of life is an energy which exists in every living one in the form of heat. Is it that the so called Atman a form of energy of heat? According to Jainas, hot bodies are living ones. On this basis, sun, fire, burning lamp, sewage, frictional fire and the like are all living substances inherently. They come under the category of fire-bodied one-sensed living substances*. These substances are also called light-bodied (Taijaskāyika ) as their bodies have normally (specially fire) a glistening light. They contain hotness with shining. In Jaina canons, light is not only associated with body or mass alone as taijasa body but with energy also in the form of Tejoleśyā ( aura). These bodies have been said to possess breathing and ageing. Their age varies between 48 minutes to three days. A burning coal piece also lights with hotness. This is also a form of energy. The source of this light is also as supernatural as that of heatR. Canonically, heat and light, are the two forces which are contained in the living matter. In fact, there are some more natural forces which contribute to livingness. Thus, the word 'agni' or 'taijasa' should be taken to mean a form of energy containing heat and light.
Bhagavati mentions about cycle of changes in heat and taijasa forms. Later scholars have elaborated many facets of these forms as below:
(1) It may be in the form of physique-making karmic matter which causes glistening hotness to the body (taijasa, luminous or caloric body). Some, now, call it as electrical or electromagnetic body. It may be ejectable or non-ejectable, auspicious or inauspicious. It could be associated with living or non-living9.
(ii) It may have the form of Taijasa emanations or

Page #321

Contents of Physics - 1: Heat and Light : 299
aural colourations from the body (tejolesyā ).
(iii) it may be in the form of extrications of spatial units of soul ( Samudghāta )
( iv ) It may be in the form of homologous atomic variforms called Vargaņās. All these facets are related with some phenomenon associated with taijasa or fire.
Naiyāyikas have also Taijasa with hot touch only with no light effect. They have four forms depending upon sources:
(i) Earthy or material fire like that from wood.
( ii ) Mineral like gold and some other metals ( now radium etc.)
(iii) Digestive fire working in stomach for metabolism.
(iv) Divine fire like electric lightening, sun, moon, planets etc.
However, they presume it to be non-living only. All the Jaina forms of taijasa are in the fine atomic or their aggregatal forms.
The canons state that the different forms of taijasa aggregates (Skandhas ) are found in three varieties : (i) Heat, (ii) light and (iii) electric lightening. This means the term Taijasa is more general and represents the natural energies of heat, light and electricity known in canonical days and produced or obtained from natural sources. Besides, there are sacrificial fires ( three types ) for religious purposes in which sacredness arises due to deity-worship factor. These are taken to be psychologically different from general fires. There are also volitional fires like fire of anger, meditation and sex which indicate their effect like fire'?.
The later Jaina's canons have given following arguments to prove livingness of Taijasa bodies in contrast to the Nyāya school :
(i) The light/hotness is due to vital force ( soul ) because it resides in the body just like light in firefly, hotness in a sick person or planets.
(ii) The fire or taijasa is living because it grows and

Page #322

300 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
decays due to denaturation or fuelling.
(iii)The human body is living because of the presence of the digestive fire in the bodies.
(iv)There are many fire-gods mentioned in literature like asura, keepers, sky gods, planetary gods, etc. They are all living and some of them creating troubles for the ascetics in olden days which were overcome due to Lord Rāma.
Contrary to the vital force theory of energies as above, Sthānānga1 shows some improvement. It points out that boththe light forms (shadow, moonlight, darkness) and heat itself could be living as well as non-living. That is why, hot and cold touches have been included in the basic properties of nonliving matter. These touches represent the natural internal thermal nature of matter. It could be surmised that at some critical thermal point, the matter may be called living. The canons also point out the criteria for livingness. Initially every thing in the world is supposed to be living until it is struck, weapon-operated, torn or denatured15 disturbing natural thermal equilibrium of the system.
[ A] Heat
The term Atapa for heat is traceable in Sthānānga and Uttaradhyayana 16. Kundakunda and Mūlācāra have the term 'Agni' with reference to the one-sensed living. These compositions do not give other details of these beings and mattergy (pudgala) involving related phenomena. However, other terms like Taijasa, Pratapa, Tāpa are also observed in canons besides 'agni' and 'atapa'. Etymologically, these terms may have specific meanings, but they could be taken as synonyms" for heat (Heat and light) for our purposes.
It seems there was a concept of simultaneity of heat and light18 but the scholars like Akalanka19 knew the distinction between the two by their different functions. He pointed out that heat causes the substances to burn, to cook or digest foods or bake bricks. It leads to sweating of the body and gets

Page #323

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 301
things illuminated like lamp20. It also leads to change of states like solidifying the milk by heating, liquefaction and solidification of earthy compounds and liquids, solidification of gaseous vapours, etc. It has also been pointed out that the air helps the heat of fire during burning. In contrast, light and glistening fire illuminates things, causes them to be visible and subject of knowledge.
Pujyapāda21 defines ātapa as hot light exemplified by sunlight. This is supported by many later authors. This suggests light energy is developed out of heat at some point giving visibility to the sources and surroundings. Nature of Heat
Upadhye22 has raised a point about the current obscurity of organic nature of the first four one-sensed beings in canons including 'agni or taijasa'. While on the one hand, he iş pleased with Jainism's antiquity on the animistic basis suggested by European scholars, he, on the other hand, is not satisfied with the idea of livingness in non-living physical objects like water and fire. He laments that even the great scriptural commentators have not been helpful to clarify these canonical and commonsense contradictions. He feels that association of fine microscopic organisms with these non-living entities may fall un-intelligible in case of fire and Atapa.
However, the gross forms of fire/heat available to us may be treated as non-living because of denaturation through its passage to us. Thus, we have two sources of fire/heat : (i) natural like sunlight, gemfire and volcanoes, etc. and (ii) nonnatural like burning of fuels, lamps and frictional fire. Many more sources of non-natural fires have been added in twentieth century. The basic question is not that of the sources but that of the nature of heat.
Despite vital force theory of origin, Jaina canons point heat as material in nature23. It is one of the finer forms of transformation of matter. As matter is basically said to be atomic in nature, heat must be atomic. Jainas, thus, have heat

Page #324

302 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
energy with corpuscular nature. Its atomic nature is confirmed from the fact that when a stone or iron mass is heated in fire, fire atoms enter into them making them hot, though the process of heat transfer has not been mentioned in canons before. The earth and fire are opponents of each other24. Its material nature is proved by three facts : (i) it gives heat (ii) it lets sweat and (iii) it is hot by itself.
Actually, it is not really atomic but atomic aggregate or skandha, of course, an invisible one. Its size varies between infinite atomic variforms and sound variforms according to homologous grouping or variform classification25. This will contain at least infinite times infinite homologous atoms. When converted into practical atomic dimensions, the heat corpuscles will be somewhat less than 10-13 cm. in size and about 10-40g. in weight as per current Einstein's eqation though not actually applicable to microparticles like heat26. This means that heat particles should be invisible occupying finer microbodies. It is because of this ultra-fineness that these corpuscles enter other bodies in direct or indirect contact elastically or collidingly. In contrast with this, the earlier canon, Bhagavati27 mentions that heat particles are finer than earth and water particles while they are grosser than plant and air particles. This seems to be highly gross statement and the later canons seem to have improved upon it.
The atomic material nature of heat envisages that heat particles must have qualities of colour ( white or black), touch (hot), taste and smell, though the later two qualities may be commonly non-manifest or indistinct28. The atomic variforms of heat corpuscles may be fine or gross29. The fine corpuscles are found everywhere while the gross heat particles are found in part of the world. It is these later which are classified into innumerable varieties. Both types of these heat particles are sense-imperceptible. The intensity and nature of their hotness varies with respect to many of their qualities. These corpuscles may be hot at the base and/or throughout their mass30.

Page #325

Classification
Contents of Physics 1: Heat and Light :
Gem fire
( mineral)
Prajñāpanā31 classifies the fire-bodied substances into two classes visible and non-visible. It also has a wider classification detailed earlier. Pujyapāda 32 classified the firebodied substances in one more way. Accordingly, they have four types -- (i) fire, (ii) fire-body, (iii) fire-bodied and (iv) fire-soul. Out of them, only the third variety (and fourth variety also) is said to be living, the rest being hot and non-living. This classification is more basic. All types of fire bodies may be developed or non-developed. The Prajñāpanā classification details indicate that in olden days, light, gem light and electricity all were supposed to be firy substances. In general, heat may be said to be of three types :
(i) Wood fire (Kāṣṭhāgni)
(ii) Frictional fire (Gharṣaṇāgni ) (iii) Interconvertible fire
These can be in four different forms as shown in Table
1 below:
Table 1 Various Forms of Hot Bodies.
(i) Heat forms Ashy fire
( straw etc.)
Fuelless fire

*
Lampfire Frictional fire
(ii) Heat/light (iii) Electricity (iv) Light
Flame
Electric light- Sunlight
ening
Starfires
Ulkā
Transform
ational fire Burning coal
303
Electric
sparks
( smokeless)
It is clear that none of the classifications include sun and stars though the canons indicate their hotness and heating capacity of their rays. In fact, the sun and stars have been included among the four types of five-sensed celestial beings which are highly developed ones.

Moon-light

Page #326

304 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
There is a basic query about what burns in the lamp to produce hot light. It is said that it is neither lamp, wick nor oil in it which burns but it is the fire which burns. Though we cannot justify this point because of the oxidation theory of combustion of fuels, still the Jaina seers could try to peep into common phenomena like this gives credit to them for their zeal for knowledge during pre-christian days33.
The above canonical description about it leads us to the following postulates therein :
(i) Heat is a form of energy.
(ii) It is corpuscular in nature. Its corpuscles are made up of innumerable atoms.
(iii) Heat heats the substances, cooks them, destroys them, absorbed by them. It also leads to changes in states of substances.
(iv) When the substances are heated, atoms of heat enter elastically into them.
(v) Light and electricity are also forms of heat. The glow of gems is also due to heat. Heat is available in the forms of electricity and light.
(vi) Heat is a characteristic of life. (vii) Fire bodied substances are of various types.
We will, now, examine these postulates with reference to current science of physics which has to say the following facts about heat pointwise34 :
(i) Heat is a form of energy.
(ii) Its nature is dual. Some of its properties are explained by assuming it as wave and some are explained by assuming it as corpuscular. The wave-length of heat is greater than red light. The particles of heat are not atomic but they consist of finer particles called electrons. They have a specific minimum energy to be called as heat.
The wave nature of heat is not specificallly described in canons but the size of these particles may lead to such a guess. The corpuscular nature of heat was held by western

Page #327

Contents of Physics - 1: Heat and Light : 305
scholars from the early Christian era upto Newtonian age. It is only in late nineteenth and early twentieth century that heat has been assigned a dual nature with proper verification of its properties. Thus, the Jaina view is more similar to Newtonic age.
Now, not only the nature of heat is much more clear, but it can also be quantitatively measured. The gross idea about the quantity of heat can be obtained by thermometers and its accurate measurement is done by calorimetric methods. The canons have no mention about this aspect.
It may, however, be added that Jainas have given two types of atoms : one with mass and the other without mass. In this sense, heat energy might be equated as particles without mass which can convert into particles with mass under suitable conditions. Thus, heat may be considered as a 4-touch atomicus,
(iii) The various functions are agreeable to the physicists. But how this happens - is not very clear from canons except the fact that heat enters elastically into the matter. It is now known that there are two different methods of heating : (i) heating the iron and (ii) heating the water. The solar heat reaches us by an altogether different method
radiation. The earlier methods are known as conduction and convection. The canons and their commentaries describe none of these methods. These heat transfer processes have been discovered by sharper observation and analytical technics, per chance unknown during canonical periods.
(iv) The change of states of matter by heat takes place due to increase in their motion of particles by thermal energy rather than only by the entry of heat atoms in them. Moreover, changes in states have not been characterised. That is why, there seems to be no mention of common concept like melting and boiling points of substances. However, a crude guess about boiling point of water may be made by the fact that its energy does not change much on boiling to convert it into fire. It may be lost by boiling due to vapourisation.

Page #328

306 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
(v) Heat is a form of energy and it can change into other forms of energy like light and electricity. There are large number of examples now to illustrate this interchange. But we do not find any mention in canons that heat could be converted into mechanical work and it can run machines. The process is known only since James Watt whose steam engine has revolutionised our whole civilisation. Similarly, conversion of electricity into heat as in heaters does not find any mention.
( vi ) The relation with heat and life is specific in Jaina philosophy. In fact, it is now known that all substances from atom to the Himalayas have certain energy contained in them during their formation which is available during their transfor
7 and breakdown. It is due to this internal energy that substances are found in different states in nature. If there happens some change in this energy, the temperature changes. Lowering of energy lowers the temperature and vice-versa. As the basic particle of matter has an inherent energy, it contains heat whatever its quantity may be. This fact applies to both stones and animals. If energy is a criteria of life, does it not mean that as it is all pervasive in the universe, the whole matter in it should be living initially ? This cannot be, then, divided into living and non-living. The canons support this view as they say that some disturbance or treatment makes living as nonliving36. Does this mean that this dual classification of entities is a later development ? Possibly, it may be a reason that the earth etc. have been said to be living in canons. One looks rocks grow and reach a height. This shows their birth and growth. The six-fold description of living of the first book - Acārānga and Uttarādhyayana holds basis for this view. That is why, boiled water has been assumed to be non-living and prescribed for Jaina monks. This principle of heat characterising life makes Jainas as Vedāntins. Are we ready for this interpretation ?
The current scientific theory states that heat is a general constituent of matter. This can not specifically be assigned to

Page #329

Contents of Physics - 1: Heat and Light : 307
the living only. When there is less than the critical for the livingness, the matter is non-living. The so-called electromagnetic field theory about the living also points out about the material nature of the living with a critical amount of electric power associated with it which is a measurable quantity. The roundabout treatment of livingness does lead us to confuse matters. It is, thus, clear that canonical concepts about heat are only qualitative and represent a gross observational order of early days. At times, some explanations have been given for some facts, but these are not completely satisfying to a man of today. Nevertheless, it is important that Jaina scholars could take up these matters of worldly life and many of their statements still stand. Of course, many more additions have been made.
(vii) Looking at various classes of the fire-bodied substances, one finds a large amount of difference in their nature. They represent the sources of heat rather than varieties of heat itself. Of course, the observation of fuelless or smokeless heat is surprising during those days. These are the newer developments of this ege. However, the difference of heat sources has not been clarified on structural basis. Their uniformity has been shown due to their common atomic nature. All the canonical classes are visual and obtained from natural sources. Now, it is known that wood-fires are due to burning of carbon in air. This fire is chemical in nature. If there is no air, it cannot be produced. Frictional and other fires are nonchemical in nature produced by physical processes mainly. Air is not necessary for these fires. The enormous heat due to fission and fusion also comes under this class which finds no mention in canons. Air, sometimes, causes obstructions in production of non-chemical fires. Invisible radiation heats also do not find mention in canons. The examples like gem-fire or meteoritic fires are now said to be light or electric effects rather than heat effects, though invisible heat is involved in them.
From the above statements about the physicists' con

Page #330

308 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
cepts regarding heat, one can easily guess about the advance in knowledge about heat in current period. It suggests that large amount of qualitative and quantitative aspects have been added and theories about nature, origin and functions of heat have also been modified.
[B] Light
Many light effects were observed during canonical periods. It makes objects visible and we can see and know about them. We see the seven-coloured rainbow. The shadow and images of the objects, mirage, colours, darkness, reflection and refraction phenomena, micro- and macro-scoping and the like are other effects of light. Some of them are described in Prākṛta canons along with concepts about the nature of light summarised below.
Nature of Light
Prākṛta canons contain stray accounts of the nature and phemomena concerned with light. The current word light is denoted by many terms in canons (i) Agni, (ii) Taijasa
(
) Ātapa, (iv) Tapa, (v) Udyota (cold light) (vi) Äloka (sunlight), (vii) Prabhā (lustre), (viii) Prakāśa (light) and (ix) Jyotsna (moon-light). The first four and the sixth terms are associated with light accompanied with major portions of heat while the rest denote light with minor content of heat. They may represent cold light. Though Uttaradhyayana 37 uses the term prabhā a nearly synonym for light (prakāśa ) as a modification of mattergy, there is no similar term in Tattvärthasūtra like that used for sound. Of course, the canons mention the effects of light like darkness and shadow besides the terms like cold light (udyota) and hot light (Atapa ). It is said that all lit materials have different power or energy of light. Dhavala and Samaya-sāra assume it as power or energy to know about things 38. Akalanka points out functions of light (i) illumination, (ii) colour and shape of the objects and (iii) seeing and knowing about the objects through eyes and mind. This energy

Page #331

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 309
is due to super-natural force as that of heat39. It has already been pointed out that excessive heat is also the cause of light as observable in red-hot iron. That is why Jaina philosophy puts both the energies under one head – Atapa. As heat is material and atomic, light should also be atomic in nature. Satkhandāgama-1440 mentions it to be a four touch entity. Nyāya school'' also postulates atomic nature of light though its atom is a large aggregate in comparison to the Jainas.
The corpuscular nature of light has been proved by some effects explained similarly today. The over-powering of low-light objects like planets under sun is one point. The interference or destruction of light is another point to the issue. The image of the object in the mirror is caused by the entry of shadow of the mattergies of the objects into the mirror converting into image by their special capability. It is the fineness of the light particles that they could enter into the hard objects like mirror. The comparison of shadow with air and moonlight with water also indicates their material nature, though the simily refers to the pleasant cooling quality only. The size of light particles is very small in comparison to air and water. Their size and mass could be calculated in a similar way as heat particles. These turn out to be smaller and, therefore, lighter than heat particles ( roughly 10-42 g. or less ). The canons include corpuscles under homologous Taijasa variforms like heat.
Many types of light is described in literature as shown below: (i) General light
a-hot-a-cold light (ii) Shadow ( form of light) Cold but dark light (iii) Fire light
Hot and shining light (iv) Moon light
Cold light
Contrary to common-sense view, the Jaina philosophers point out that sunlight or light, in general, does not help in seeing an object by the eye as there are many birds like cat

Page #332

310 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
and owl who can see even in the dark. This view is not supported by Nyāya school and physicists. The Jainas maintain that the primary cause of seeing a thing is the inner knower, without whom no vision is possible even in the presence of other factors.
The canonical concepts about light and related phenomena are summarised and tabulated in Table 2 alongwith current scientific concepts. This indicates that while some canonical concepts are surprising for their modernity, others seem to be somewhat preliminary in today's contrast. Table 2: Canonical and Current Concepts about Light. Canonical
Current science
1. Light forms a category of
luminous bodied materials like
heat. 2. Light is corpuscular in nature. Light in wavicular in nature. 3. It is atomic aggregate in It is photonic in structure.
comparison. 4. It is a form of energy. It is a form of radiant energy 5. Light is a sign of livingness. 6. Light could be obtained from Light is obtained from two
two sources : hot ( sun ) and sources : hot and cold.
cold ( moon ). 7. Light is over-powered and Light is sub-dued and interfered like sound.
interfered like sound. Light does not help in seeing Light helps in seeing the
the objects through eye. objects through eye. 9. Shadow is obtained by obs- It has the property of refle
curance of light. This is also tion/refraction.
material and atomic. 10. Darkness is opposed to light. It is a form of light beyond
One cannot see it or through human visible range (IR/ it. It is atomic.
UV).

Page #333

Contents of Physics 1 Heat and Light:
-
Canonical
11. It should have atomic
velocity.
Current science
It has high velocity of 3 x 1010 cm/sec. It is the highest velocity.
Light can pass through
transparent mediums (fineness).
13.
14. It shows five colours/infinite
It has property of diffraction It shows seven/infinite colours.
colours.
15. Light is a four-touch mattergy Photon has virtually no
without mass.
mass.
12.
311
Current Concepts About Light
The physicists42 have a notion of light as energy. However, current science has passed through many stages about explaining the nature of light. Newton proposed corpuscular theory of light in 1675 with wave-theory being proposed in 1678. This type of nature was confirmed by the phenomena of reflection, photo-electric effects and others. However, electromagnetic rather than mechanical wave-theory held the field until once again the quantum ( corpuscular) or photonic theory could rescue the physicists to explain various phenomena un-explained by wave-theory in 1901. Thus, light is now supposed to have dual nature called wavicular rather than corpuscular alone. The energetic nature of light behaves like a wave having a high velocity. Despite non-mention of this aspect of light, the concept of energetic corpuscular nature in canons suggests keen conceptuation power of Jaina seers. The 4-touch aspect of energy forms may be treated as precursor to this partial waval aspect.

The scientists agree to the phenomena of reflection, interference and overpowering of light. The canons presume these as corpuscular while scientists would explain them on electromagnetic waval basic. While canons have only qualitative

Page #334

312 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
mention about them, the scientists have gone highly quantitative in these matters.
The scientists tell us about the origin of light from hot bodies when heat energy converts itself into light energy in the end changing its colours from red to white. In contrast, the light from fire-fly and moon is not originated this way. The radium-dialed clocks, phosphorescent screens shine even in night without feeling heat. This suggests origin of light from cold sources too. Thus, light originates from both - hot and cold sources as the canons proclaim.
Light and/or its obstruction helps formation of shadows and images. The canons have one term for both these effects - chāyā or shade. Scholars like Pūjyapāda and Akalanka43 differentiated between the two phenomena. The shadow may be produced by obstruction of light path by opaque materials. The image is produced through reflection at mirror surfaces of passage of light through different types of lenses. This qualitative theory of Jainas is approved by physicists as Jaina has shown44
The wave nature of light suggests characterisation of light waves. Each wave has a wave-length and it has a frequency. The visible range of light waves vary between 4000 to 7000 Angstrom units. The velocity of light waves has been the highest 3 x 1010 cm. per sec.45 which is now under some newer experimentation. The Jaina canons suggest upto 1047 cm, per sec. Despite this velocity aspect, wave characterisation is not found in canons.
What is Darkness
There are two terms used for darkness in canons - tama and andhakāra. Sthānānga 46 adds two more terms to it - tāmaskāya and mahā-andhakāra. Bhagavati“? makes the terms as thirteen in number suggesting different aspects of darkness. Though the dictionary mentions both the above terms as meaning darkness but canons differentiate between them. While the

Page #335

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 313
term tama refers darkness due to absence of light, andhakāra refers to the absence of sight or defective eye. Sūtrakrta 48 seems to indicate tama as deeper darkness. Bhagavati 49 mentions darkness in night due to presence of inauspicious mattergies. It is spread over an area a celestial travels in six months with high velocity. There are eight black hole formations high above the earth in the so-called celestial lands. Clouds and lightenings occur in dark areas. Rainbows also appear there. The colour of darkness is pitchblack and dreadful. It has a blackening lustre.
Bhagavati 50 also points out that the shape of darkness is like an earthen lamp at the base and it is cage-like at the top. It is a modification of living and mattergy. This canon also mentions many uses51 of darkness, of course not related to scientific facts. They are as below:
(i) It is useful for giving a surprise attack over the enemies.
(ii) It is useful for keeping the wealth in and for safety.
(iii) It is useful for covering and beautifying the bodies of men/women.
(iv) It is also useful for sex, sports and fun.
In general, canons define darkness as obstructor for vision or seeing objects and opposite of light52. It is a separate form of energy different from or anti-thesis of light. This suggests that darkness is a positive existence. Akalanka points out that it is not negation but separate entity as it has specific blue-black colour with other specific qualities 53. However, it is obvious that one can not see in the dark. But this is not correct to say that there is no light in the dark. The liquid water type nature54 does not seem to be sustainable as water is too dense and it has partially illuminating quality too contrary to Bhagavati statement.
Scientists tell us that there is light in the dark which has a range beyond human visiblity. This light is sufficient for

Page #336

314 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
some birds to see through it and some cameras have been developed to photograph in dark only. Thus, darkness may be called as human invisible light. Some call it as 'black heat rays'. In this way, darkness is a form of light of specific nature rather than opposite of light. Jaina55 and Sikdar56. have also opined similarly contrary to Pūjyapāda. However, Nyāya schools defines it in terms of absence of illuminating light which now seems to be a crude definition. Jainase suggests that darkness has a separate existence from visible light, thus classifying light into visible and invisible forms. That is why Jainas have two types of mattergies – sunlight and darkness included in their mattergic forms – all of which are corpuscular.
Currently, it is presumed that infra-red light is present in the dark for which sensitive films have been developed. Chirilian photography has also developed on this basis which pictures the invisible volitional aura of individual confirming the aural concept of the Jainas. These infra-red rays have been fully characterised and they are used in deducing the structure of many complex chemical compounds59. We are unable to see in the dark because of incapacity of our eye-camera. Under the current scientific knowledge, the canonical definition of darkness requires reconsideration as per Jaina and Sikdar. Description of Chāyā or Shadows and Images
The word Chāyā has many meanings in Apte's dictionaryso ( shadow, image, reflected image, colour and lustre ). They seem to be extension of the main meaning given by Pūjyapāda61. He defines Chāyā as that which causes the obscurance or obstruction of the path of light. Actually it should mean its formation due to this obstruction by solid or opaque bodies. The canons seem to apply cause into effect secondarily.
The above canonical definition is followed by its two varieties :
(i) A shadow in which colour, size etc. of the object is changed. Whatever be the type or colour of the object, its

Page #337

Contents of Physics - 1: Heat and Light : 315
shadow in shape is always black, the size of the object varies with the direction and distance of the source of light. D. C. Jaina2 has called this type as a form of darkness though this shadow is visible. Jaina and Sikdar have overlooked this point. However, Samavāyānga mentions the change in size of shadow at different times and position of the sun as below63 :
(a) When sun is north of equator, length of man's shadow is 24 Angulas in the first 1/8th of the day.
(b) On seventh day of later Srāvaņa month, length of man's shadow is 27 Angulas.
(c) in the month of Caitra and Āśvina, length of man's shadow is 36 Angulas.
(d) On seventh day of early Kārttika, length of man's shadow is 37 Angulas.
(e) On 15th day of later Phālguna, length of man's shadow is 40 Angulas.
If an Angula unit of length is taken roughly as equal to 1.75 cms., the above shadow lengths per eighth part of the day during specific times have to be verified. The phenomenon of shadow formation represents indirectly the postulate of linear propagation of light. We can experience this fact through our own shadows in sunlights.
(ii) The second type of shadows are those in which images of the objects are formed. These are called Pratibimbas ( images ). There are two ways of image formation :
(a) Formation of images by reflecting surfaces like mirror. These are virtual and laterally inverted ( side-wise ).
(b) Formation of images through the interspersion of different types of transparent concave or convex lenses between the light source and objects. The nature of such images depends upon the nature of the lens and their surfaces. The size and distance of the image may vary. The images through lenses are generally known as real. Sometimes they may be inverted also. Cinema screens give un-inverted real images.

Page #338

316 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
It seems that mirrors were known during Akalanka days of eighth century A. D. The scholars could see the laterally inverted images in mirrors. The cause of this inversion is said to be the nature of reflecting surfaces. However, its main cause is the linear propagation of light. This is indicative of the fact that this phenomenon was unknown during those days. There is full knowledge about the virtual image formation now and mathematical relationships have been developed for the shape and size of the image at the reflecting surfaces. There are many toys for the children made on this basis. The canonical language indicates that the first type of shadows are equivalent to virtual images as seen in mirrors.
The second type of real and/or inverted images are called only images in literature. But there are no examples of these images. This might be due to the fact that there may not be knowledge of different types of lenses. However, even the foresight of these types of images seems to be a good gesture about the scholars' keen intellectual insight. Now-adays, magic bouquet and daggers are played with the help of lenses.
The images formed by different reflecting surfaces are given in figures below. The normal shadow can be exemplified by solar eclipse. It is seen that when moon comes in between earth and sun, there is solar eclipse ( fig. 1). If the reflecting surface is plane, the image is formed at the same distance behind as the object from the surface. If it is a convex or concave surface, the situation becomes different. With the convex mirror, the image is virtual ( fig. 2) while with the concave mirror, it is real ( fig. 3).
SUN
Earth
Fig. 1 : Solar Eclipse.

Page #339

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 317
---
--
Fig. 2: Virtual Image.
Fig. 3 : Real Image.
The above figures indicate that there are two causes of image formations by the reflecting surfaces - (i) nature of the reflecting surface and (ii) linear propagation of light. We find that canons contain one of the two causes. Secondly, image is just a feeling or visual light effect. It is not actual. Thus, the images' particulate nature does not seem to be reasonable. Sikdar64 also points out this difference in canonical and scientific contentions. Thus, the cooling shadow of tree or images could be termed mattergic rather than material. Thirdly, shadows must be taken as of different nature from darkness. Seeing Objects : Theory of Non-contactility of the Eye
It is a common experience that seeing and knowing. about an object is a phenomena directly related with light and sense of sight. However, one does not find a reasonable total mechanism about this process in canons. Nevertheless, Pūjya pāda65 points out that the eye sees only suitably qualified objects which stand in proper direction, distance and illuminated with light without actual contact with it like other senses. He also mentions that all the factors like sense, mind, light and even the object are only efficient causes rather than the immediate ones for seeing an object.

Page #340

318 : Scientific Contents in Prākļta Canons
The Prākrta canonists and Jaina logicians have thought over the working of physical perceptional senses. In contrast with the Nyāya-Vaiseșika, Sānkhya and Mimāmsaka theory of sense-matter contact, they postulate that the sense of sight is an exception to this theory (for the Buddhists, the sense of hearing too ). They have validated this concept on the basis of (i) canons and (ii) logistics with two different renderings. The canons have a traditional gāthā saying that the eye sees the shape and colour of the object without contact with it. Logically, they hold the view that any or all physical factors are inanimate and hence they cannot be immediate cause, but secondary ones, the primary one being the knower soul. This concept of primary and secondary factors for the process of seeing and knowing gives an impression of a bit deeper (and of course, supernatural ) insight of Jaina logicians67. Their logic has developed over the canonical concept of non-contactility of the eye. It has led to another concept that other senses could also be non-contactile alongwith their prominent contactility 68.
The logic has been developed by eminent scholars like Pūjyapāda, Akalanka, Prabhacandra, Hemcandra, Vadideva Sūri and others in their religious and logical treatises during one thousand years from fifth to sixteenth century. Pūjyapāda seems to have initiated the logical treatment, Akalanka developed it and Prabhacandra of 11th century completed it by initiating the natural capacity concept. His logistics has been followed by later scholars without much addition. A summary of points supporting the non-contactility concept is given below :
The eye sees the objects without contact with them
as 69
(i) Neither the eye, nor the objects go to each other. They stand at different locations in their own positions. The eye-ball also stays put in place. How, otherwise, its defects could be cured ?

Page #341

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 319
(ii) It works like a magnet attracting iron without contact.
(iii) It sees the objects covered by transparent mediums like glass, mica and quartz etc. Of course, it cannot see objects covered by opaque mediums as light cannot pass through them.
(iv) The eye is motionless. That is why it can see the distant tree and moon simultaneously.
(v) In the dark night, it can see only the neighbouring area round a distant flame and not the objects in the intervening area.
(vi) It does not see the collyrium applied to the eye.
(vii) Far and distant, small or big objects are seen by the normal eye without any difficulty.
(viii) This is the specific nature, functional capacity and power of the eye that supports its non-contactility. It also answers many other related phenomena based on commonsense contactility theory of Nyāya-schools.
Besides the above points, the Jainas have rightly refuted the Taijasa ( hot shining and ray emitting ) nature of the eye held by Nyāya-school69. They postulate that neither the eye is hot and shining nor there are rays coming out of it to contact the object. Normally, the taijasa light rays of lamp are selfilluminating as well as non-self ( object ) illuminating. Similar · should be the case with eye. However, nobody could see his
own eye or collyrium applied to it by self. The rays from the eye are neither visible nor percievable. They do not, therefore, exist. Secondly, if the eye is itself hot and illuminating, there should be no necessity of light or sunlight to see other objects. Scientific Concepts About Non-contactility
The foregoing summary makes it clear that virtually nothing was known regarding the construction and working of human eye upto the canonical times except that it is the eyeball which is responsible for viewing the object. That is why

Page #342

320 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
there are many fundamental and unexplained defects in the philosophers' theory of vision related with eye.
Currently, the eye is supposed to be like a camera where there are adjustable pupil lenses ( eye-balls ) to have images or pictures of the objects on the retina in dark or light to be conveyed to brain for identification. For getting pictures, light is as essential as the object and camera. Due to the difference in pupil lenses in the eyes of cats and owls, they have different powers of sighting. Human eyes work under light of visible range frequencies while the above animals could work even beyond that range.
It is the light which is the contacting agent between the object and the eye. Definitely, there are no rays in or from the eye like the camera. Hence any source of light – candle, sun, bulb etc. can serve the purpose. The light source emits rays passing through or accross the objects while going towards eye to make the picture at retina. These rays could pass through the transparent or transluscent mediums and pass across the opaque objects. This simple mechanism of seeing with eye explains all the points raised for or against the above theories of vision as summarised in Table 3. Table 3 : Scientific Explaination on Philosophers Points.
Philosophers' views Scientific Explaination 1. Neither eye nor It is not required as rays from a
objects move from light source travelling through or their place origin. across objects are the actual
contacting agents. 2. Identification of smell They are sensed without light. Eyes
etc. by the eye. have no function for them. 3. Experience of far The distance is judged by the path
and near objects. traversed by rays coming to the eye. 4, Doubtful or wrong This is possible due to refraction of knowledge.
rays through rarer or denser medium and defects in the eye.

Page #343

Contents of Physics 1: Heat and Light : 321
Philosophers' views
5. Seeing the intervening objects in dark night along with distant burning flame. 6. Inability to see bigger objects.
7. Simultaneity of observing far and distant objects. 8. Seeing the covered objects.
9. Seeing the collyrium or medication to the eye.
10. Seeing everything at the same time.
11. Eye is a physical and stationary sense and serves as a factor to see things.
12. Viewing by cats and owls at night.

-
Scientific Explaination
It is only the flame wherefrom rays travel to the eye-lenses and not from intervening objects.
The rays fall on the eye from small or big objects making their image on retina accordingly.
It is an illusion. All observations are in succession in small intervals of time due to high velocity of light. The eye can see only those objects whose cover is transparent like glass. It can not see objects covered by opaque bodies.
There is a least distance for distinct vision for a normal eye. It can not see objects clearly or totally at a lesser distance than this. Applied collyrium comes below this limit. Similar explanation as in 7.
Agreeable
This is due to different characteristics and visual power of their eye lenses which work in darkness.
It is clear from above that it is not possible to see an object until light-rays of visible range through or across it fall on eye. Thus, despite non-moving nature of the eye, it comes in indirect contact with the object through the light. The word, 'non-contactile', therefore, need redefining as partially or

Page #344

322 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
indirectly contactile rather than its complete negation. The letter 'a' has many meanings including partial aspect. This will make the Jaina description more in tune with current scientific theory. It is also surmisable that the points mentioned in Table 3 lead us that while the Nyāya school is right in :
(i) postulating the part played by rays and light in observing the objects.
(ii) and holding simultaneity of observations as an illusion, the Jainas are also right in :
(a) discarding the firy nature and rays from the eye concept of Nyāya school and
(b) introducing the capacity concept in cognitive senses.
However, the Jainas do not seem to be right in postulating the secondary nature of light rays in viewing the object and refuting the solar rays in night'. It seems that both the schools had no proper idea about the following phenomena associated with light :
( a ) Proper structure and functioning of the eye. . (b) Concept of least distance for distinct vision.
(c) Very high velocity of light. (d) Rectilinear propagation of light.
(e) Many other newer phenomena like refraction, diffraction, Photoelectric and Compton effects etc. and interchange of energies.
The Jainas have an undefined capacity concept involving many of these phenomena indirectly. Despite this, the deep intellect of Jainas led them to develop capacity concept of unique distinction through which they could have some contemporarily advanced observations as below :
(i) They could explain seeing objects through transparent mediums.
(ii) While refuting the firy nature of the eye, they have exemplified many qualities of gold, hot water, gems, ice, etc.

Page #345

Contents of Physics 1 Heat and Light : 323
-
(iii) Iron-attracting power of natural magnets, serpentattracting power of incantations and use of rotators.
(iv) Non-observation of intervening objects and applied collyrium etc.
The above comparative desription leads us to judge how much the current knowledge has developed qualitatively and quantitatively over the canonical and logicians' periods in this regard. This enables us to think about composing twentieth century new canons.
Colours
Jainas call mattergy by the term 'rūpi' which means it is sense-perceptible. It has a set of four inseparably co-existing qualities of touch, taste, smell and colour including shape. Thus, colour is one of the fundamental qualities of mattergy. It refers to two meanings, the colour and the shape of the coloured. It is obvious that the eyes and light are responsible for the sensation of colour and its shape. Thus, colour is also a phenomenon associated with light.
The early canons like Sūtrakṛtānga"1 and Samavāyānga 72 mention the colours on the basis of common examples like golden (yellow), fire (red), light beam (white), pigeon (black or grey ), peacock-neck (blue), parrot neck ( green ), divine ( ash-grey), saffron (yellow), tail of blue pigeon (green) and the like. Despite the fact that rainbow colours are taken to be seven, volitional aural colours are taken as six, the canons agree with five colours. Most canons do not mention much about how colour sensation is felt.
Normally, colour is mostly objective depending upon structural units of the objects, though some subjectivity may also be involved in it. Recently Muniśri73 Jain74 and Jain75 have thrown some comparable light on this matter pointing out two facts:
(i) There are only three basic colours blue, yellow and red approved by science. The rest two may be called so only empirically.

—

Page #346

324
(ii) A. K. Jain has suggested that the three basic colours refer to the colours of the atoms or sub-atomic particles only and not to their aggregations. Thus, aggregations may have any number of colours, infinite in number. This has been discussed under general properties of matter in an earlier chapter.
The above description about the canonical contents of light indicate that there is sufficient observational record about many light associated facts and phenomena. There is some attempt regarding theorisation on many observations. This seems to be highly qualitative and intellectually logical. However, there is no doubt that most of the canonical matter is ahead of contemporary postulates on the subject. The summary of current knowledge in this regard gives us an idea about the advance man has made over the canons. This fact, once again, leads us to study canons with historical rather than absolute perspective.
1.
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
2.
3.
Pujyapada: Sarvärtha-siddhi, p. 137.
Edited Ghevaracandji Banthia : Bhagavati-3, J. S. S., Sailana, 1967, p. 1228.
4.
Haribhadra Sūri : Saḍdarśana Samuccaya, p. 241.
5. Jivābhigama-1, S. Shastroddharaka Samiti, Rajkot, 1970, p. 169.
Haribhadra Sūri : Şaḍdarśana Samuccaya, p. 241. Edited Ghevaracandji Banthia : Bhagavati-sūtra-4, 1968, p. 2032.
Gyanachand Jaina In Jain Journal, Jain Bhawan, Calcutta, January, 1989, p. 81.
9.
Haribhadra Sūri : Saḍdarśana Samuccaya, p. 241. 10. Annambhaṭṭa: Tarkasangraha, Channulal Gyanchand,
Varanasi, 1934, pp. 10-11.
6.
7.
8.
References
Edited Madhukara Muni: Acārānga, A. P. S., Beawar, 1980, p. 21.

Page #347

Contents of Physics 1: Heat and Light :
·
11. See chapter 2. 6 'Theory of Aggregations' in this volume. 12. (a) Jinendra Varni: Jainendra Siddhanta Koşa-1, Bhartiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1995, p. 35.
(b) Uttaradhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 375.
13. Haribhadra Sūri : Şaḍdarśana Samuccaya, pp. 240-244. 14. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Sthānānga, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, p. 100.
15. Edited Acārya Tulasi : Daśavaikālika, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1974, p. 106.
16. Jainendra Siddhanta-kosa-1, p. 35.
17. (a) Pujyapāda: Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 5.
(b) Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 16, p. 128. 18. (a) Ibid, p. 5.
(b) Ibid, p. 16, p. 128.
19. Bhaṭṭa Akalanka: Rājavāntika-1, p. 16, p. 128. 20. Ibid, p. 38, p. 120, p. 127, p. 133.
21. Pujyapāda: Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 137.
22. A. N. Upadhye (Introduction) Pancastikāya, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1975, p. 98.
23. Edited Ghevaracandji Banthia : Bhagavati-sūtra-3, p. 240, p. 268.
24. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 16, p. 128. 25. Nemicand Siddhanta Chakravarti

325
Gommaṭasāra-Jiva
kāṇḍa, p. 368.
26. Acārya Yativṛṣabha: Triloka Prajñapti-1, p. 13.
27. Edited Ghevaracandji Banthia : Bhagavati-sūtra-4, pp. 2786-2788.
28. Kundakunda : Pravacana-sāra, Paramartha Trust, Maroth,
1950.
29. Shyam Arya : Prajñāpanā, p. 44.
30. Jainendra Siddhanta-kosa-1, p. 373.
31. Ibid, p. 373.

Page #348

326 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
32. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 122. 33. Edited Ghevaracandji Banthia : Bhagavati-sūtra-3, p.
1406. 34. Resnika, R. & Halliday, D. ; Physics-1, Wiley Eastern,
Delhi, 1988, p. 545. 35. Muni Mahendra : In S. C. Diwakar Felicitation Volume,
Rewa, 1976, pp. 4-15. 36. Edited Acārya Tulsi : Daśavaikālika, p. 106. 37. Uttarādhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 375. 38. Jinendra Varni : Jainendra Siddhāntakośa-3, 1972, p. 86. 39. Haribhadra Sūri : Şaq-darśana-samuccaya, p. 240. 40. Edited Hiralal Jain : Satkhandāgama-14 ( with Dhavalā
commentary), Jaina Sanskriti Samrakshaka Sangha, Sola
pur, 1962, p. 528. 41. Annambhatta : Tarkasangraha, p. 27. 42. Bajpai : Refresher Course in +2 Physics, Dhanpatrai &
Sons, Delhi, 1982, p. 87. 43. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, p. 489. 44. ( a ) N. L. Jain : Paper read in Bodhgaya Seminar on
Jainology, 1975.
(b) G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, pp. 69-135. 45, A. K. Jain : in Tulsi Prajna, Ladnun, 1986, p. 70, 46. Sthānānga, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1976, p. 360. 47. Edited Ghevarchandji : Bhagavati-2, p. 1010. 48. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrt-2, 1986, p. 121. 49. Edited Ghevarchandji : Bhagavati, p. 916. 50. Ibid, p. 1003. 51. Ibid, p. 2295. 52. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 220. 53. (a) Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, p. 486.
(b) Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 1008. 54. Ibid, p. 1000.

Page #349

Contents of Physics - 1 : Heat and Light : 327
55. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 135. 56. J. C. Sikdar : Matter in Jaina Philosophy, p. 215. 57. Annambhatta : Tarkasangraha, p. 9. 58. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, pp. 69-135. 59. V. K. Gupta and R. G. Sharma : Advanced Physical Che
mistry, K. Nath, Merrut, 1987, p. 123. 60. V. S. Apte : Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 213. 61. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 220. 62. D. C. Jain : In Tattvārtha-sūtra, Varni Granthamala, p. 233. 63. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Samavão, p. 45, p. 91,
p. 133, p. 190, p. 199. 64. J. C. Sikadar : Matter in Jaina Philosophy, p. 216. 65. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 71, p. 82. 66. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, p. 69. 67. Prabhacandra : Prameya Kamala Mārtanda, Nirnay Sagar
Press, Bombay, 1941, pp. 229-240. 68. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-Siddhi, pp. 71-82. 69. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, p. 69. 70. Prabhacandra : Prameya Kamala Mārtanda, p. 224. 71. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrta - 2, p. 31, p.
36, p. 69, p. 73, p. 127, p. 131, p. 282, p. 283. 72. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Samavāo, p. 126, p. 344,
p. 349. 73. Muni Mahendra Kumar : S. C. Diwakara Felicitation
Volume, pp. 4-15. 74. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 128. 75. A. K. Jain : J. M. L. Šāstri Sādhuvāda Grantha, Rewa,
1989, p. 234.

Page #350

Chapter 11 Content of Physics - 2 : Sound, Electricity
and Magnetism
[A] Sound
The canons and commentaries contain large amount of material regarding sound - a term which includes its nature, forms like letters, words, speech, language, notes and tones of music, its attributes and propagation. It has been described by the terms – sabda, vacana, bhāṣā and dhvani in canons. These are closely related terms but often taken as equivalents. The canons indicate many terms associated with bhāṣā (language or speech ):
li) Bhāṣā-dravya Bhāṣic matfer (ii) Bhāṣā-varganā Bhāṣic variforms (iii) Bhāṣā-paryāpti Bhāṣā completion (iv) Bhāṣā-samiti Bhāșic carefulness (v) Bhāṣā-vicaya Bhāṣic meditation'
There is mention of two terms associated with sabda, Sabda-naya ( verbal stand-point ) and sabda-kāma ( wishprovoking sounds )2. The standard scientific term for 'sabda' is sound. Dhvani is another term for sound and it is clear that this is more basic as no pronunciation of words is possible without it. There has been science of sound or acoustics for literary authors and musicians since early times in India and canons also have description about it with good details.
The early canons use the term 'sabda' without any inner details about it. Of course, they mention its various effects as below :
(i) Sound may be pleasing, desirable or otherwise. (ii) Sound may effect psychologically.

Page #351

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
; 329
(iii) Sound excites enjoyment. (iv) Sound makes heart stirring and thrilling. (v) Sound provokes desires. (vi) Sound makes one sleep or awakened.
Sūtrakrta mentions some types of sounds like thunderclouds and words under pains and sorrow. Its Cūrni mentions the motion of sounds throughout the world,
Sthānānga, Bhagavati and Prajñāpanā have given more details about nature, propagation and classification of sounds observed. This is still maintained with some modification. Sthāmāngas mentions that sound is produced by three methods :
(i) by conjuction ( beating of drum ). (ii) by disjunction or splitting ( splitting of bamboos ). (iii) it can be produced from part or whole of the body.
In contrast, Kundakunda mentions sound as being produced by the atomic aggregates without mentioning the method. He opines an atom as soundless. Could this fact reflect on the period of Kundakunda before Sthānānga was compiled ? The Vaiśeșikas? have a fourth method producing sound by sounds themselves as in echoes and recoils.
Sthānānga: also gives ten varieties of sound and their classification in different categories as shown in Table 1. The following are the ten varieties :
(i) Bell or announcing sound on the (ii) Small or big drum sound (iii) Splitting sound ( bamboo split ) (iv) Rough sound ( crow sound ) (v) Stringed instrumental sound ( violin ) (vi) Loud sound ( thunder ) (vii) Fine/low intensity sound ( lute) (viii) Combined sound ( archestra) (ix) Throatal music ( kakini or cuckoo ) (x) Small bell sound ( deformed )
These are the different forms of sound and included in Table 1.
ta

Page #352

330 00 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Table 1: Sthānānga Classification of Sounds.
Sound
Lettered
( scripted)
(i) Languagical
Sistrum
sounds (Ghana)
Vitāta
Ghana
Non-lettered (non-scripted)
2-4 sensed &
subhumans
Musical
Stringed
(Tāta)

Ornamental
(anklet sounds)
Violin
Instruments
Drum
(Susira ) ( Susira )
Sthānānga
Musical sound due to stringed instruments (Lute, Violin etc.)
(ii) Non-languagical
Musical sounds due to non-stringed instruments
Metallic sounds (sistrums/cymbals )
When one looks at the later literature, one finds that this classification is modified to avoid duplication. There also seems some difference in the meaning of some terms as
below :
Term
Tāta
non-stringed Instruments (Vitäta )
Non-musical
Metallic (Ghana)
Non-ornamental
(i) Metallic (Bronze)
(ii) Clapping
(iii) Kicking
Pūjyapāda
Musical sounds due to stretched membranes (Drum)
Musical sounds due to stringed instruments Striking (metallic) and reed instruments (Harmonium etc.)

Page #353

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism : 331
Susira Wind instruments &
stretched membranes ( drum & flutes)
Wind Instruments ( pipes & conch etc.)
There are other classifications mentioned by Umāsvātii in Bhāṣya, Pujyapāda, Akalanka and other later scholars. The earliest one seems to be in Bhasya 10 with six classes of sounds five of non-languagical type including collisional sound and the languagical being the sixth no classification like Sthānanga or Pujyapāda type. This is based on the method of production of sounds. The sound may be produced naturally (thunder, electric lightning etc.) or by effort of different beings. The languagical sounds are all by effort while the non-languagical ones may be of both types. Pujyapada classification is summarised in Table 2. This seems to be more general and condensed. This is mostly found in Digambara literature. It is seen that this classification eliminates an inter-classification of Sthānānga, thus, giving an independance for some classes. Similarly, the ornamental and non-ornamental classes seem to have been merged in other varieties. Thirdly, if Mahāprajña commentary11 is taken into account, there seems to be no inclusion of sounds produced through air columns (flute, conch etc.). Rampuria12 has pointed out the difference of opinions about the meaning of the term susira ( air column or metallic sounds). The Pujyapāda classification eliminates these discrepancies by clearcut definitions.
Rampuria mentions an another classification, also based on source. Accordingly, sounds may be (i) due to living (language), (ii) non-living ( thunder, lightning etc.) and (iii) mixed sources (conch, flute etc. ). This seems to be quite preliminary classification of historical interest only.
Akalanka12 has given a little deeper two-fold classification of languagical sounds: (i) Physical and (ii) Psychical. Both are said to be mattergic arising due to specific karmic fruitions. The physical language is generated due to psychical

Page #354

332 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
form. Yaśovijaya Gani'4 has given a three-fold variety of physical languagical sounds : (i) acceptable by self ( ii ) emissible by self or others and (iii) impact producible. Table 2 : Classification of sound by Pujyapāda.
Sound
(i) Languagical (by effort )
(ii) Non-languagical
(a) Scripted or By effort
Natural lettered : (a) Stretched membrane sound (b) Non-scripted : (b) Stringed instrumental sound Thunder, (Non-lettered) (c) Metallic & Reeds sound Lightning (d) Air column sounds
etc. Prajñāpanā is also has a two-fold classification in terms of developed and undeveloped speech with many subclassifications. Nature of Sounds
Bhagavati and Prajñāpanā are the most important canons to learn about the nature of sound in nutshell. Later scholars begining from Kundakunda, Pūjyapāda, Akalanka, Haribhadra, Vidyānandi and Prabhācandra have contributed to the logistics to support the canonical statements – specially regarding the material nature of sound and its relative eternalcum-non-eternal nature. The following points have been mentioned in canons in this regard :
(i) Sound is one of the modifications/effects of nonliving mattergic entity.
(ii) It is itself material and non-living.
(iii) It is a four touch (hot-cold, positive-negative) entity. Thus, it seems to be massless. However, it is in the form of aggregates of infinite mattergic entities 16.
(iv) It is fine-gross class of atomic aggregates which is non-perceptible to eye but perceptible by the ear-sense of hearing.

Page #355

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 333
(v) It consists of similarly grouped aggregates (Variforms ) called Vargaņās ( 9th out of 23 ) – the aggregate being larger than light energy.
(vi) It is not subject to full knowledge and full visibility by the common man.
(vii) The sound aggregates are pervasive throughout the space. The body first acquires them in the first instance from all directions ( six ) and the speech comes out in the second instant. Thus, it takes two instants of time to speak.
( viii ) The sound mattergy is received by the body successively with or without interruptions.
( ix ) The sound is heard by ear-contactility. Nearer sounds are generally heard ( because of the capacity of the ear and intensity of sound aggregates ).
(x) The basic source of sound is the living entity where it is produced by variety of actions in different parts of the body involving palate.
( xi ) Sound is called language while speaking, neither before nor afterwards.
( xii ) The sounds are sometimes split or broken into different species of letters and words while speaking and sometimes non-split or unbroken ( gross ) depending upon the speakers. However, the initially non-split sounds undergo split after sometime during their movements.
(xiii) The speed of sound depends upon the mattergic fineness, speakers efforts and association with medium particles.
(xiv) Sound has a motion and it can go upto the end of the universe.
(xv) No two languages can be spoken simultaneously by every being.
( xvi) Sound has a shape of thunderbolt.
( xvii) Languages have two forms: (i) understandable and ( ii ) non-understandable with many varieties in each class.

Page #356

334 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
( xviii ) it could be classified in many ways as already detailed
(xix) Sound can be produced by conjunction and disjunction of material bodies. Satkhandāgama mentions a mixed process too for its production.
(xx) Sound has a two-fold nature. Substantively, it is eternal and modally it may be non-eternal and momentary.
The above canonical concepts suggest that sound is a form of energy rather than normal tangible matter. Its aggregates are eye-imperceptible and possess imperceptible colour, taste, smell and touch because of fineness and dormancy. Many later scholars have observed additional phenomena about sound and they have proved material nature on the following grounds :
1. Sound is material because": (i) It is received by material objects like the ear drum.
(ii) It is obstructed and repulsed by material objects like wall, dry leaves and opposing air.
(iii) It is overpowered by higher intensity sounds. (iv) It is interfered by many objects.
(v) It is the effect of material entities and moved by air in all directions like cotton.
(vi) It is produced by variety of actions and disturbances in material objects like those in heart, throat, tongue, teeth and palate etc. It produces changes in these organs like eating a medicine.
(vii) Vibrations are produced in material objects when sound is produced from them as when beating a drum, tuning a fork or ringing the bells.
( viii) High blowing conch sound has sometimes a deafening effect.
(ix ) Echo is produced when sound is struck by solid walls or objects.
(x) It has qualities of compression, rarefaction, weak

Page #357

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 335
ening, intensification and even destruction under different circumstances besides other qualities already mentioned in (i-iv).
(xi) It is active and it moves in air in all directions with different velocities. Its maximum velocity is said to be larger than normal light.'8
(xii) It has qualities of being slow and loud, small and large. It has touch, numericality, quantitativeness, conjunction and concussion.
The above points indicate that as a rule, matter effects matter only. The Jaina logicians have observed many properties of sound studied in current days to prove its material nature. The above points also substantiate the definition of mattergy to apply to sound with its properties of action and perceptibility by external sense and eternal-cum-non-eternal nature. This seems to be quite a good advance over canons. Indian Schools of Thought on Sound:
The above canonical and post-canonical conceptions about sound seem to be realistic and represent a synthetic approach about many of the postulates in other Indian philosophies as could be inferred from Table 3. It could be seen that eternalist Mimāmsakas stand on the one end ( substantiality later a quality, eternality, formless, oneness ) while Vaiseșikas to be on the other extreme ( quality of space, noneternality, form-lessness, multiplicity). By defining a reality as having qualities and modes, Jainas have postulated sound as a manifestation of matergic reality. They have maintained a single term 'sabda' for it in contrast to the three terms ---dhvani, varna and sabda- of the Mimāmsakas The Jainas point out that these terms connote the same meaning as sound, different from words can not be proved. The Vaiseșikas have followed Jainas in this regard.
There seem to be four important points of considera-. tion :
(i) It is a quality and/or menifestation of reality

Page #358

336
0:0 Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Canons
(ii) It is perceived by ear.
(iii) It is produced by collisive vibrations in materials. (iv) It travels in the medium ( air in general ).
The Mimamsakas assume words as permanent, otherwise how they could have constant meanings ? Kumārila's logistics in this regard has been tabulated in Table 3 with their counter-arguments from Nyāya-sūtra19 and Prabhācandra20. It is seen that the latter did not only utilise the arguments of the earlier but has added many more to them to show that the eternalists are not on an all-proof right track in the light of many similar phenomena exhibited by the non-eternalists too, proving thereby the non-eternality of words. Mimāṁsakas believed words to be non-corporeal but later ones have professed them to be the quality of space as the Nyāya school21. This brings them nearer to Vaiseṣikas. It is, however, important that the logistics on both sides is partly factual and mostly intellectual deliberations. The Jainas seem to be somewhat advanced in this regard.
Table 3: Logistics of Mimāṁsakas, Nyāya-Vaiśeṣikas and Jaina School on Eternality and Non-eternality of Sound/ words.2
22
Mimāmsakas
1. Words are eternal.
(1) Vedas declare them to be eternal.
(II) The knowledge about meaning of words is, otherwise, not possible.
(III) The eternality could be proved by many types of

N. V. and Jaina Schools Words are non-eternal.
The knowledge about meaning of words could also be possible with their non-eternality concept as with relationship of non-eternal entities like smoke and fire because of similarity.

Page #359

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism : 337
Mimāmsakas
N. V. and Jaina Schools cognitions of validity (Pramānas ) like (i) Recollection (ii) Recognition
Recognitive similarity does not (proves similarity and unitary prove unitary character as character of words )
they are produced by palatal efforts etc. at each instant like
recognition of lamp etc. (iii) Inference
a. Sound is eternal as it is related with ear or subject of sense of hearing.
b. The same word under different conditions has the same meaning and pronunciation.
c. Expressed word is related with its meaning.
d. Time is never devoid of this reason could go other words as they are related with way too with respect to light timeness.
and electricity which are non
eternal. e. Words are supra-sen- Not agreeable. sory. (iv) Direct Perception : Direct perception also contra
It is directly experienced dicts eternality and unitary by sense of hearing.
character of words. (v) Implication
Words are eternal, otherwise how their meanings could be learnt ? The apparent sameness in words shows their unitary character rather than expressed one. It

Page #360

338 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Mimāmsakas
may cause illusion. There is no real sameness in words.
Sound becomes apparent by implication.
Words, ears or both are refined by sounds.
2. Words are expressed/manifested rather than produced.
Palates etc. and sounds are manifesting agents rather than producing hearing.

N. V. and Jaina Schools
Words are not eternal as otherwise,
(i) They should always be heard as there seems to be no visible cause of their nonexistence.
(ii) Expression of words at one place or time should lead to their expression at all places and times.
(iii) Because of same-sense receivability, all the words should be heard simultaneously at all places by all people leading to their non-meaning. (iv) There is no rule that manifestable is always manifested by agents. This suggests non-omnipresence of words.
(v) Sounds are the same as words.
(vi) The manifestational flaws could be avoided if the agents are treated as sound-producing agents.

Page #361

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism : 339
Mimāmsakas
The words are not always heard due to the absence of co-operating causes. 3. The words are eternal as they have non-touchability like space.
4. The words are eternal as they are bestowed and practiced by and through the teacher to the taught.
5. Sound is eternal as there is no visible cause for its destruction.
6. The componentless space is the inseparable cause of sounds. This proves its etrnality and pervasive
ness.

N. V. and Jaina Schools (vii) There can be no expressed-expressibleship or obscured-obscurableship under the concept of eternality.
(viii) The concept of manifestation does not stand logical scrutiny.
The logic is inconclusive as actions and atoms are noneternal despite their nontouchability.
This logic is not practically substantiated due to the absence of words during the interval of reach and formalisation of practice.
The cause of destruction of sounds is observable in the form of succession and hindrances in the path which is a common experience. The space has apparent component, as it covers space between interrupted lands.
Words are non-eternal as (i) it is directly perceivable by a sense and a specific quality of the pervasive reality. (ii) it is produced through wave-motion type mechanism. (iii) they are effects because

Page #362

340 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Mimāmsakas
N. V. and Jaina Schools they are produced by efforts
of different parts of the body. 7. They become unmanifest (iv) They do not exist before
rather than destroyed be- or after they are pronounced. fore or after the pronun- There can be no obscuring ciation.
agent for eternal and pervasive entity. One must accept the concept of prior and destructional non-existence in this case. (v) They are receivable by
ears. 8. Humans only manifest ( vi ) The human sounds are them.
individualised ones. 9. Words are not many. It is Many peoples listen to the
just an illusion like experi- same words at different plaencing many suns in water ces indicating manyness of
pots or different places. words. 10. The words are not defor- The words are transformed/
med, they are replaced by deformed grammatically.
others. 11. The sounds have no qua- Sounds have qualities of loud
lities as they are eternal. It ness etc. which could be reis only a sounding effect. fined or modified.
Nyāya-Vaiseșika school is, on the other hand, on the other extreme. They postulate it as non-eternal one and not mattergy but quality of the reality called space. It is perceivable by sense of hearing, destructible by cause and effect, productible by similar or dissimilar concussion, disjunction and by word themselves and part pervasive23.
The Jainas represent the third school. They refute the first two postulates of Nyāya school. Firstly, they do not agree words to be quality of space which is non-corporeal. For them,

Page #363

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 341
it is a form of mattergy and it has manyness. Secondly they do not agree to permanent non-eternality of words. Their material nature imposes upon them basic permanence with changing qualities. The arguments and counter-arguments in this regard are tabulated in Table 4 where, again, we find that percievability and various qualities dominate the field of logic. They have given six-fold arguments that as the words can not be the quality of tactile substances, they must be quality of space. The Jainas, on the other hand, argue that :
(a) Words are material because they contain many qualities.
(b) They are substrates for many realities like us.
(c) The space qualityship is proved to be inconclusive with the examples of air, taste etc. which are contactile qualities. The words are with form and movements.
(d) The words are not totally permanent. Table 4 : Supporting and non-supporting logistics regarding
mattergic nature of sounds/words24. N. V., Mimāmsaka School
Jaina School 1. Word is not a reality as Word is a reality as (a) it is substrate of a perva- It is not a substrate but a sive reality ( space ). substratum of many qualities
like touch, slowness, loudness, numericality, conjuction
etc. (b) it is substrate as it is per- The reality can also be per
ceived by an external ceived by external sense,
sense. (c) It is not action as it does it does have action or motion
neither cause conjunction/ despite its non-livingness. disjunction nor it is eye percievable despite its
non-eternal nature. 2. The word is a substrate as it See ( a ) above. It is also
is a quality like colour etc. dependant on many realities.

Page #364

342 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
N. V., Mimāṁsaka School
Jaina School
3. (1) Word is a quality of
space reality as
Words are not quality of space but a reality ( mattergic ) by themselves. Agreeable
(a) They cannot be the quality
of touchables as they are directly percievable while
the words are not. (b) It is produced with space as its inseparable cause.
do not last until their 'substratum. (d) It is percieved away from
its substratum like drum, conch etc.
it cannot be so as words are not its quality. Agreeable ( It proves their non-eternality too ). Drums etc. are not its substratum but instrumental causes for producing it which is heard at a distance. The perception is not the effect of space qualityship but it depends upon its nature of origination. Agreeable
(e) It is percieved by nearby
persons and not by distant persons.
(ii) It is also not the quality of realities like soul, mind, direction as their properties are different. (iii) By remainder, it is a
quality of space. 4. Words are non-mattergic
as they are quality.
Not agreeable
The logic is inconclusive. The sounds may not be percieved like space. The logic is inconclusive. The sounds may not be percieved like space.
5. Words are non-mattergic
as they are quality of non- mattergic space.

Page #365

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 343
Jaina School
N. V., Mimāmsaka School 6. Words are non-mattergic
as: (i) they are non-percievable by sight etc. like
pots etc. (ii) Sounds have no perce
ptible form.
The words have unmanifested and fine form, hence, not percievable like smells etc. One does not percieve even forms of dyads etc. though they exist there like hot water or eye-rays. The words have all these properties of common experience.
it does occur but not felt because of fineness.
(iii) The words have no exten
sion, throw, air impelling, motion, collision, subdua-
tion, resistance etc. (iv) The ears of listeners are not
filled with material words
when hearing. (v) The words are heard by
other persons when one is
hearing them. (vi) There is no visible cause
for their destruction. (vii) The sounds are non-
touchables.
They are heard by many persons because of their manyness, fineness and motion. There are many obvious causes for their destruction. The sounds have touch experience when they are pronounced loudly or when gun-firing or lightning etc. takes place. Their obstruction and subduation also prove their touchability. The word 'non-porous' should mean finely porous. The fine sound-particles can pass through (or get absorbed ) in
(viii) The sounds pass through
non-porous bodies.

Page #366

344 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
N. V., Mimāṁsaka School Jaina School
such mediums. They recoil from perfectly non-porous
mediums producing echoes. (ix) The sounds are produced The wave-motion mecha
through wave motion-like nism may lead to absence of mechanism.
motion everywhere. Wave motion mechanism can neither produce another single word nor many words. It indirectly proves motion of sounds. Space should have components in this mechanism. Words are produced or deformed by material bodies, due to vibration. They require medium for propagation.
The logic of table 4 also subscribes to the remark for Table 3. In addition, the Jainas have also refuted the wavelike transmission ideas of the Vaiseșika25. They travel by themselves as well as with the help of air in all directions. If they are quality of space, it should be all pervasive, inactive and imperceptible. It should either be always heard or not heard at all. The Jainas also find Buddhist conception of permanent momentariness of words as untenable.
It may be presumed that space exists between the earth and planets. Its all-pervasiveness may be equated to the atmosphere surrounding us. The air or other gases contained in it are responsible for propagation of sound. Thus, if one equates the space of canonical era to the present atmosphere, it becomes clear that there arise waves, like water, in space

Page #367

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 345
during sound production and they travel to our eardrums which vibrate and produce sensations of sound. Different sounds have differring vibration frequencies, hence identified differently. Thus, atmospheric space becomes an essential part to propagate sound. The Nyāya school, thus, seems to have taken the propagation medium as the source of origination of sound.
The definition of space is nearly similar in both the philosophies. On the basis of the theory of like produces like, the non-material space can not produce material sound. However, if non-material nature means energiness of sound, the philosophical theory may become better scientific as will be shown later. Jaina Postulates and Scientific Theory of Sound
Physicists have studied large number of facts about sound during the last two hundred years. It will be interesting to see how far our canonical concepts move with them. This will be described under five main heads : (a) Nature of Sound
Physicists tell us sound as a form of mechano-kinetic energy produced due to vibratory motion of molecules above a threshold. This energy has wave-length greater than heat or light waves26. It might theoretically be logical to presume energy as basically material in the Einsteinian days, but there is a clear difference between common material and energy. It is normally imperceptible and inferred by its effects. The weight of energy is so small as to call it weightless, and hence formless, and non-material. Actually, it has been shown to be wavicular by nature as has already been described in other cases. Secondly, energy is a symbol of action and motion with its two varieties - potential and kinetic, sound being a form of kinetic energy. Thus, to call sound as material – is just a question of reference to the definition of matter and energy. All forms of energies of today were supposed to be material upto Newtonian age irrespective of their dimensions. Einsteinian theory abolished the

Page #368

346 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
distinction between them. On this basis, the Jaina material view of sounds and refutation of its wave-nature represents the classical physics though postulated some 2100 years ago. The 4touch atomic aggregate nature of sound by Jainas stand on a firm footing even today. The Vaiśesika non-materialistic and wave-like propagation postulate about sound seems to be somewhat post-Newtonian in approach. The current scientific view seems to synthesise these two viewpoints though holding more towards waveside. That is why they have mathematicised the science of waves and wave-fronts27. However, for a common man, Vaišeșika view seems to be more intelligible as he is not in a position to realise the finer dimensions of energy particles. The Sānkhya's infra-atomic ( tanmātrika ) view of sound also falls in this category.
Very little is said about the detailed nature of sound in other Indian philosophies like its fine-gross and atomic aggregatal nature. The Jainas presume many qualities of non-perceptible nature in sound but not non-existing. Some of these qualities of materiality are not substantiated by physicists (like thunderbolt shape etc). However, they point out that sound particles ( waves ) have larger wavelength/size than light particles. The amplitude of sound waves varies between 10-910-2 cm. and its wavelength varies between 0.3 to 3.0 meters 28.
Many Jaina concepts are agreeable to physicists where they have quantitative aspects in many cases. These include almost all properties mentioned in earlier part of this section. The facts enunciated for proving materiality of sound are also aggreeable to the physicists. However, they have added some more to them like refraction, diffraction, beats and resonance, ultrasonics and interconversion of sound in different energies which have proved a boon to modern civilisation. (b) Generation of Sounds
The physicists agree to the four canonical methods of sound generation in a qualitative way. However, there seems to be no mention about vibrations being produced in sounding

Page #369

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism.: 347
bodies until 14th century A. D. when Gunaratna Sūri pointed it out in his commentary on Haribhadra Sūri's noted work - Sad-darsana-samuccaya 29. However, it is mentioned there in connection with proving the material nature of sound. It seems there that sound produces vibrations which is scientifically just the other way. Vaiseșikas also talk about vibrations but its relation to sound production is not clear. Sridhara Bhatta of 10th century30 and Sankara Miśra of 15th century state about the loudness and intensity of sound but they also do not mention about vibrations in sounding bodies. However, they tell about continuous flow or motions of sounds through air to the ear drum.
Acousticians have demonstrated that collisions produce vibrations, their strength being dependant on energy of collisions. Not all vibrations but a range between 2-3000 produce audible sound. Higher range tend to disrupt our auditory mechanism. Human ear is sensitive to audibility in the range varying between 20 to 20,000 cycles per second. This range has sufficient energy not only to cause sound sensation in ear but to deafen it too32.
The acousticians have analysed the sound producing vibrations and characterised them. This has given them the capacity to control over the sound one likes. (c) Propagation of Sounds
The acousticians accept propagation of sounds. However, the Prākrta literature mentions only air ( and space too for Vaiseșikas ) as a medium which is a mixture of gases. The physicists state that not only gases but liquids and solids also serve as the medium for propagation. They tell us that these two are better mediums as sound travels faster in these two by 4 to 10 times ( 330-3000 meters/sec. ) in comparison to gases. The sound recoils from smooth surfaces and absorbed in porous surfaces33.
The mechanism of propagation of sound is found to

Page #370

· 348 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
be different in various Indian philosophies. The Nyāya-Vaiseșika school ( app. 300 B. C. ) presumes that the original sound produces a series of sounds in space in all directions like waves in water or concentric petals in flowers to be heard by various people at different distances until the sounds die out due to collisions with obstacles34. In contrast, the Jainas have a different mechanism based on their materialistic theory. They believe, when material collisions take place, sound particles are shot-off with differing velocities in all directions. These particles travel long distances coupled with their associations with air which also induces their motion. Of course, sound dies for the Jainas the Vaiseșika way. It has already been told that Jaina sounds may travel to the end of the universe 35 and their velocity may be sometimes faster than light despite their particles being larger. They may move in continuous or broken form and linearly, circularly or in curved line36.
The physicists believe that due to kinetic energy associated with sound, successive motions are produced in the medium in the form of longitudinal ( concentric flower petals ) or transverse ( ripples in water or air ) waves moving in all directions until receptors are available. Thus, sound energy is medium or air born during its propagation. This mechanism suggests an apparent equivalence with the Vaiseșika school with water wave theory. However, this should mean contradiction with Jaina view. The wavicular nature of energy suggest sound to be cluster of fine energy particles behaving like waves not explicitly expressed in canons. However, it could be inferred from this type of nature.
While the Vaišesikas do not mention about the velocity of sound, the Jainas have made two statements about it as pointed earlier. The first of them may be acceptable to the scientists of today ( which is regarding the limit of motion ). The second postulate of faster than light velocity seems to be an speculation looking to the fact that its velocity in air is 330m/ sec. in comparison to 3 x 108 m/sec. for light. Secondly, it

Page #371

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism: 349
seems surprising how the fact of seeing light first and listening sound later could not be experienced in early days by the insighted scholars? Thirdly, the normal velocity (maximum) of heavier particles can not be larger that lighter particles. This maximum velocity statement, therefore, requires reconsideration or substanciation. It is a different thing that sound converted into electricity travels with the speed of light.
(d) Quality of Sound
Besides many properties of sound, Prabhācandra37 has mentioned some qualities of sound with proof. They are : (i) Touch (obstruction and collision effects). (ii) Short and long or soft and loud sounds.
(iii) Intensity.
(iv) Numericality (number of sounds).
(v) Receptacle for concussion.
(vi) Motion and echo.
Various touch effects are confirmed by scientists from the early days of studies on sound. The sounding bodies do vibrate causing vibrations in the nearby material medium. It is this medium which touches the neighbouring molecules successively causing them to vibrate to produce sounds further when they are in the audible range. The weakening or collisions of sounds are also due to medium resulting in reduction or increase is vibration energy or velocity resulting in the corresponding sound effects. It seems, therefore, that the Jainas have superimposed the material nature of medium on sound as seems to be more tangible to the common man. Moreover, even if sound is assumed material, its fine particles should have elastic collisions which will not have enough energy to produce sound sensation. However, wavicular nature of microparticles has improved the canonical view-point to some extent.
Though canons mention the qualities of intensity (1) and loudness (L) separately, but there seems to be no clear definitions for these terms. The laymen take them as equi

Page #372

350 :. Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
valent. The physicists have distinguished them even mathematically. The intensity is defined as the amount of energy transferred to the medium per unit area by moving waves, or I = ev (e = energy density; v = sound velocity)
In contrast, the loudness, L, of sound is a feeling depending upon the sensitivity of the ear. Thus, while intensity is a measurable quality, loudness is not. However, a relationship between the two has been developed as
L = K log |
suggesting that doubling the intensity does not lead to doubling the loudness.
Besides, the scientists have added two more qualities to sound pitch and timbre or quality. Pitch measures the sharpness or flatness of sound and dependant upon the frequency of waves independent of intensity. The quality called timbre measures the purity of and overtones in sounds. These qualities are meant for distinction and identification of different sounds. They do not find mention in canons. Per chance, the intensity term of canons covers both these qualities in their wider sense.
The numericality and receptaclity of sounds is a common experience without any dispute. The first one relates to the number of sounds varying between one to innumerable in comparison to Mimāmsakas one sound. The quality of substrateness for concussion etc. may be taken as superimposition of quality of medium causing strikes and counterstrikes.
The scientists have not only agreed to sound motion, but also have characterised it by simple harmonic motion as in pendulum of clocks for which they have developed sound mathematics.
(e) Classification of Sounds
Different classifications of sound by Jainas have already been given earlier. It seems that this is sufficiently advanced over the Vaiseṣikas who have only non-detailed two-fold one

Page #373

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 351
lettered and non-lettered ( where drum sounds are given as an example. It may cover musical sounds and noises too, it seems, as there are mention of lute, flute, etc. instruments at many places ). The earlier Pūjyapāda classification is sufficiently supported by physicists of today as far as non-languagical or musical sounds and noises are concerned. The musical sounds are produced exactly by the same four methods, i, e., (a) stretched membranes, (b) strings, (c) rods and plates and (d) air columns as mentioned by Pujyapāda. However, the noises may not only be natural, they may be man-made also. The languagical sounds, per chance, do not find place in physicists classification. Sikdar and others do not seem to be justified when they call languagical sounds as to be included in current noises, these being defined as undesirable by recipients. Table 2 indicates that humans, 2-4 sensed beings, subhumans and omniscients have languagical lettered or nonlettered sounds. The term language is defined as meaningful words and sounds. They must form a separate class. It is therefore clear that classification of table 2 is wider in scope than the scientific one. It includes languages and non-human sounds too.
The Jainas have classified languages and speeches too in Prajñāpanā 38. The language is a means to express number, gender, tense and sense and it could be true, false, non-truefalse and non-true-non-false. It could be purposeful, awakening and deawakening towards salvation path. Sthānānga 39 and Anuyogadvāra-sūtra 4o delve deep into music septat and its details. It is said that there are seven primary notes derived from the efforts of various parts of the body as shown in table 5.
Though the music details belong now to musicology still the basics are described under sound. The septat is accepted by scientists but canonical details about it in Table 5 are interesting for the music specialists. They require confirmation from the singers themselves as these must be traditional in canonical days.

Page #374

352 1: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Table 5: Music Septat by Jainas.
Sources
Name
1. Six organ derived
2. Bull
type
3. Smelling/ Gandhara
4. Medium
5. Fifth
6. Sixth/
Dhaivata
7. Abori
ginal
Living Sources
Peacock

Cock
Swan
Sheep
Drum
special
COW
mouthed
instrument
conch
cymbal
Cuckoo Godhika
crane Tymbal
Elephant Large
drum
Nature
fortunate
prosper
Ous
Dutiful,
intelligent
happy
king and
leader
Low
qualities
sinners
Point of
. Origin

front
tongue
chest
Throat
middle of
tongue
nose
Qualities
head
Eight qualities
in many
forms
Defects
Six
teeth & lips
The development of acoustics has led to the progress of civilisation of 20th century. The transformation and retransformation of sound in various forms of energies has led us to loudspeakers, radios, telephones and the like. These recent phenomena do not find mention in canons. One is also unable to trace the property of sound-proofness which has come to be a modern necessity. There is mention of conducting mediums in canons. Little mention of absorbing or non-conducting mediums is there.
Conclusion
The above descriptions indicate the canonical contents about many aspects of sound are supported by many observational and logical base. They contain sufficient factual truth but there seems to be sufficient gap in the way of explaining them. It is seen that scientists have added many newer aspects about sound over the canons. Their explanations also seem to be more realistic and intelligible in many cases. These contents represent in most part the Newtonian concepts though deve

Page #375

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 353
loped much earlier. However, the Jainas excel in details about sound over the Vaiseșikas. It seems that despite surfacial similarities about the canons and scientific postulates, the difference that exists qualitatively and quantitatively is much more to cast a keener eye on them. The canonical contents represent the stage of knowledge of their times and this comparative survey leads us to learn about the growth and gap existing between now and then. To assert the authenticity of canons, it is necessary to dive deeper with analytical mind to reduce the gap. [B] Electricity and Magnetism 1. Electricity or Vidyuta
There is comparatively little description about electricity and magnetism in canons in comparison to heat, light and sound. The canons have used the term 'Vidyuta' as proper noun and common noun“. As a proper noun, there are Vidyuts as queens, Vidyuts as celestials, Vidyuts as islands, Vidyutamukha as men and the like. However, it is the common noun which is pertinent to us. The term is actually indicative of electric lightning in the sky.
The first book Acārānga does neither have this term, nor the fire-bodied ones have been classified there. Dasavaikālika also does not have this term despite classification, The Cūrni-authors have included it in the term Ulkā which is generally meteoritic fire known as sky-fire also42. It seems that on further observations, Ulkā (sky fire ) varieties were specified. Sthānānga 43 mentions its four types :
(i) Vidyuta or electric lightning (ii) Meteoritic falls ( Ulkā ) (iii) Dik-daha ( spatial conflagrations ) (iv) Yakşadipta ( demonic lightnings ).
It is stated that the monks should not study when any of these forms and other six causes are there. Prajñāpanā has only the first three of the above forms. Per chance, this and

Page #376

354 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Uttaradhyayana are the first secondary canons which define Vidyuta or electricity (and all other forms) as a variety of gross fire bodied substances44. Pujyapada ( 5th century A. D. ) tells us that electricity is an example of natural bond independent of human effort45. It is produced by oppositely charged atoms (when they come in contact through any medium ). The animistic theory of fire-bodied substances leads Vidyuta to be living which is in contrast to Vaiseṣika school mentioning it as non-living and atomic46. However, mention of living and nonliving nature of fire-bodied ones in Sthāṇānga makes a good point helping us to study the nature.
Post-Prajñāpanā scholars have generally followed the tradition of assuming Vidyuta as one-sensed fire-bodied substance. Ulkā, ulkāpāta and taḍita (special sound occurring when lightning takes place in sky) are other equivalent terms for Vidyuta though differing somewhat in their meanings. Actually, none of these things. are electricity but they either produce it or are its effects as the scientists call today. It is just formalisation of effect into cause.
Canons would call electricity as atomic or corpuscular in nature as other energies. It is produced due to the meeting positive and negative (snigdhatva and rūkṣatva) charges. It means that when two qualities of opposite natures meet, there is production of energy. When the energy is high and intense, it is known as electricity. In the various commentaries of Tattvārtha-sūtra, the terms, snigdha and rukṣa have been described as oiliness and roughness of the substance. The oiiness has been exemplified by water, milks of goat, cow, buffalo, camel in or of increasing quality. The roughness has been similarly exemplified by dirt and sand. However, it is Pujyapāda, who clearly mentions that Vidyuta is produced due to the attributes of oppositely charges. The important point here is the basic principle of contact of oppositely natured particles to produce electricity. This is indicative of ingenuity of Jaina scholars of early days. The Nyaya school does not

Page #377

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 355
mention this point. It is said to be eternal (ayonija ) form of taijasa, by them.
Dhavalā mentions an another term seemingly to be quite important. This is vidyuta-karana 47. It may have two meanings : (i) materials may be electrified and (ii) breaking away into the components of the composite - an indirect statement about electrolysis of today. This term belongs to 8th century A. D. which again reflects Jaina scholars deeper insight into the properties of natural forces. The book, however, does not exemplify the term.
The canons also indicate that the property of positivity or otherwise is characteristics of different atoms due to which they combine or produce electricity. Currently, electricity is taken as a flow of electric current for which a contact between two oppositely charged particles is necessary through a medium like wire. Every substance has its own electric nature which may be one of the two types - positive or negative and that is what it should be meant by the terms snigdha and rūkşa. There has not been any method of measuring these qualities in olden days. The touch was the only means to judge the qualities crudely. But even this qualitative picture is important as these qualities are indicated by numbers and this numerical strength has been said to be solely responsible for the binding capacity of different atoms or substances. This point has been detailed in an early chapter. On the whole, the Jaina canonical postulates about electricity are tabulated in the following Table 6 with current views.
The physicists do agree about the variety and energetic nature of electricity. 48 But they describe it wavicular rather than particulate as postulated in other cases of energies. Moreover, electricity is not now produced naturally in sky only, it can also be produced by men from different sources like coal, water, wind and atoms. The natural energy has never been of any use to mankind except indirectly for his farming, the electricity produced by man has been useful to him in many ways to

Page #378

356 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
improve his comforts in life. Thanks to Volta, Galvani, Faraday and others of the nineteenth century who laid the foundations of the age of electricity. The magnetic, chemical and heating effects of electricity have brought the man in the age of new civilisation of radio, television, loudspeaker, home appliances, telephones, tele-communications and many other facilities. One feels that there is more unification of humanity now than the religions proclaim. There is no mention of this manproduced electricity and its effects in canons.
Table 6 Jaina Postulates about Electricity.
Jaina Postulates
1. Electricity is a fire-bodied Agreeable.
mattergy.
2. It is atomic in nature.
3. Lightnings etc. are forms
of electricity.
4. Electricity is produced due It is produced by contact of
to contact of opposite natured substances. 5. Substances combine due to their electrical nature.
oppositely charged materials through wire. Agreeable.
6. Electricity production is a natural phenomenon.
8.
Current Science
9.
It is flow of high speed electrons which are sub-atomic particles.
These are effects of electricity.
7. Interconversion of energies Agreeable but in both direction.
is possible.

Besided natural, it can also be produced by man from coal, water and atomic fission/fusion etc.
It could be measured in different units.
It has many uses.
The physicists would not agree to the living nature of energies purely on account of their hotness as there are no

Page #379

Contents of Physics -2 : Sound, Electricity and Magnetism
: 357
specific qualities there as ascribed to the living beings. Many people assuming it to be living do not use light bulbs and loud speakers. This seems to be a paradox. On the one hand, they would make the natural water non-living by heating and prescribe the heated and later cooled water for the saints and on the other hand, they would not use electricity becuse it is hot?
The canons indicate the transformation of fire into light and electricity. Light can also be transformed into heat. This is clear from the heat produced from glasses or gems. There is, however, no example of transformation of electricity into heat in canons. It may be, probably, due to oversight about the conducting or insulating nature of substances. We are quite familiar with large number of useful applications of this fact in daily life.
The electricity could now be measured in terms of power in watts or kilowatts, voltage in terms of volts and current in terms of amperes. This quantitative aspect of electricity is also missing in canons. Table 6 has given many points of extension or modification of knowledge about electricity in current age over the canonical period confirming sufficient growth in post-canonical centuries. 2. Magnetism
Though canons do not contain the term magnetism, but history of magnets starts since 800 B. C. It has been defined with a power of attraction between two substances without contact. This power is maximum in iron. That is why, a magnet is called 'Ayas-kānta', iron-loving. It is said that the magnet attracts the iron without touching it. But if the iron (or the magnet ) is covered, it will not be able to attract it. Thus, the attraction of iron by magnet without touching or covering shows its nature to be non-contactile as has been pointed out in case of vision by the eye. Hemcandra and Prabhācandra49 have pointed out this property in their treatises. The Jaina literature does not have any other property besides this. The scien

Page #380

358 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
tists today proclaim magnetism as a form of energy like light etc, which is found in certain materials due to their specific molecular orientation. This energy is specially centered at the south and north boundaries in the forms of lines of force which has capacity to act in definite area. If the iron is within this area, it will be attracted. If it is beyond this area or the magnet is covered by impervious substance, it will not be attracted. Hence the magnetic attraction is caused due to the presence of invisible lines of force. Oersted and Faraday evolved the basic principles about them in nineteenth century.
The canons describe only the natural magnets like Ayas-kānta. This also does not include the biggest natural magnet – the earth. Magnetism has now been observed in substances other than iron. Many materials can be magnetised by rubbing them with the magnet or passing electric current through them. This artificial magnetisation is responsible for many electric machines and proves transformation of magnetic energy into electricity. Quantitative aspects of magnetism have also been developed.
Thus, we see that the observation of non-contactile nature of magnet seems to be a macroscopic one as the lines of force are invisible. The Ayas-kānta also becomes working under the indirect contact through the lines of forces like the eyes. The canons do not mention any other magnetic substance or magnetisation process which the twentieth century is familiar with. This all is suggestive of the fact that canonical contents about magnetism are comparatively the least.
1.
2.
References Edited by Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1976, p. 923. Edited Ghevarachandji Banthia : Bhagavati-3, pp. 11711173. (a) ibid, p. 2319. (b) Thāṇam, pp. 207-208.
3.

Page #381

4.
5.
6.
7.
Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism: 359
(c) Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Samavao, JVB, 1984, p. 17.
Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Sūtrakṛta-1, JV B, 1984, p. 299.
Thāṇam, pp. 68-70.
Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, p. 68.
Prasastapāda: Prasaatapada Bhāṣya, Sampurnanand Sanskrita University, Varanasi, 1977, p. 695. Thāṇam, p. 131, 898.
8.
9.
Pūjyapāda: Sarvārtha-Siddhi, p. 219.
10. Umāsvāti: Sabhāṣya-Tattvärthādhigama-Sūtra, Raichand Ashram, Agas, 1932, p. 270.
11. Thāṇam, p. 131, p. 898.
12. S. C. Ramapuria: Nava-padartha, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1966, p. 110
13. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-2, p. 470.
14. J. C. Sikdar : Sambodhi, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1972.
15. Shyam Arya: Prajñāpanā-2, A.P.S., Beawar, 1984, p. 66. 16. (a) Thāṇam, p. 905, p. 932.
(b) Bhagavati-3, pp. 2245-2247.
(c) Prajñāpanā-2, p. 65, p. 75, p. 78, p. 81, p. 85, p. 90.
(d) Kundakunda: Niyamasāra, Jain Publishing Society, Lucknow, 1932, p.15.
(e) Jinendra Varni: Jainendra Siddhanta Kośa-3, p. 520. (f) Puspadanta Bhūtabali: Satkhaṇḍāgama-14, p. 125. (g) Bhaṭṭa Akalanka: Rājavārttika-2, p. 487.
17. (a) Haribhadra Sūri : Sad-darśana-samuccaya, pp. 266
267.
(b) Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 212.
(c) Rājavārttika-2, p. 470.
(d) Prabhācandra: Nyāya-Kumuda-Candra, Manikchand Granthamala, Bombay, 1938, p. 243.

Page #382

360 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
18. J. M. L. Šāstri : J. M. L. Šāstri Sādhuvāda Grantha, Rewa,
1989, p. 234. 19. Gautama : Nyāya-sūtra, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Prati
sthan, Delhi, 1988, pp. 112-135. 20. Prabhacandra : Prameya-Kamala-Mārtanda, Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Bombay, 1941, pp. 404-427. 21. lbid, p. 697. 22. (a) Divānacanda : Darsana-Sangraha, U. P. Publication
Division, 1958, pp. 197-199. (b) Nyāya-sūtra, pp. 120-134. (c) Prameya-Kamala-Mārtanda, pp. 404-427. (d) Nyāya-kumuda-candra, pp. 697-720. (e) Kanāda : Vaiseșika-sūtra, pp. 181-195. (f) Samantabhadra : Apta-mimāmsā, Hindi translation by Udaichand Jain, Varni Granthamala, Kashi, 1974, pp. 117
122.
23. Vaišeşika-sūtra, pp. 181-195. 24. (a) Prameya-Kamala-Mārtanda, pp. 562-564.
(b) Nyāya-kumuda-candra, pp. 240-250. (c) Şad-darśana-samuccaya, pp. 266-267.
(d) Āpta-mimāmsā Tattva-dipikā, pp. 119-121. 25. Nyāya-kumuda-candra, pp. 245-250. 26. R. Resnik, & D. Halliday : Physics-1, Wiley Eastern, Delhi,
1982, pp. 463-497. 27. Ibid, pp. 463-497. 28. Ibid, pp. 463-497. 29. Şaq-darśana-samuccaya, p. 266. 30. Prasastapāda Bhāsya, p. 146. 31. Vaiseşika-sūtra, p. 186. 32. Physics-1, pp. 463-497. 33. Ibid, pp. 463-497. 34. J. C. Sikdar : Matter in Jaina Philosophy, pp. 205-230.

Page #383

Contents of Physics -2: Sound, Electricity and Magnetism: 361
35. Jinabhadra Gaṇi : Viseṣāvaśyak Bhāṣya, Divya Darśan Trust, Bombay, 1982, p. 104.
36. Matter in Jaina Philosophy, pp. 205-230.
37. Nyaya-kumuda-candra, p. 243..
38. Prajñāpanā-2, pp. 66-93.
39. Thāṇam, pp. 724-728.
40. Edited Madhukara Muni: Anuyogadvara-sutra, p. 179. 41. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Agama Sabda Kośa, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1980, p. 659.
42. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśvaikālika, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1974, p. 906.
43. Thāṇam, p. 906.
44, ( a ) Prajñāpanā-1.
(b) Uttaradhyayana, S. T. Mahāsabhā, Calcutta, 1967, p. 519.
45. Sarvärtha-siddhi, p. 219.
46. Annambhaṭṭa: Tarka-sangraha, p. 27.
47. Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa-4, 1973, p. 554.
48. Bajpai, Refresher Course in Physics, Dhanpatrai and Sons, Dehli, 1982, p. 118.
49. Nyaya-Kumuda-Candra, p. 82, pp. 239-246.

Page #384

Page #385

Section Four
Biology
Modern Biology deals with the two most important class of living beings the plant kingdom, the least developed one and the animal kingdom with gradually developing consciousness. It has developed during the few centuries. However, the biological contents in Jaina canons are quite old. They have also primarily classified them in two classes, later sub-classifying in many types on physical and spiritual bases. This chapter presents a comparative study of Biology in the context of Jaina Canons and Modern Biology.
➖➖➖
This section contains four chapters:
(i) Defintion of Living
(ii) Classification and Life-cycles of the Living
(iii) Plant Kingdom and
(iv) Animal Kingdom.
This section covers the canonical as well as current postulates and descriptions. It also deals with the staticism and dynamism in growth fronts of knowledge in these fields.

Page #386

Page #387

Chapter 12 Definition of Living
The three-level universe of the Jainas (lower, middle and upper) is the play-ground of all the entities found in it. It is its middle portion termed as middle, circularly flat or tiryaka universe which is important to us. The humans and animals reside in it. It is innumerable island-oceaned. The animals are collectively called as 'Tiryañcas' or transverse movers. They are said to be crooked, instinctive and load-carriers having 1-5 senses1. They include plant and animal kingdoms. In contrast, human beings are 5-sensed and have highly conscious, active mental faculty. The following sections will deal with them. However, before we deal with them, it is pertinent to learn about their characteristics.
There has always been a visualisation about the existence of two distinct types of mutually supporting entities in the world with different characteristics. They are designated as non-living and living. However, both of these entities have faced difficulties in their proper origin and definition. First, there has been an unitary concept regarding their origin based on common-sense approach. Accordingly, one entity seems to be the specific form of the other. This approach has taken two faces animistic and inanimistic. Acāränga starts with animistic approach2. Everything in the world is living primarily, changed into non-living only by weapon-operation on it as pointed out in Daśavaikālika3. Thus, the non-livingness originates form the living ones due to their operation or death. This view coincides with the terminal Upanisadic and Vedantic thoughts.
The inanimistic approach is reverse. It holds that livingness arises through specific inanimistic combinations. It is a

Page #388

366 : Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
specific state of the non-living. Thus, there is no separate living for materialists like Cārvākas or Buddhas (who call it as aggregation of five skandhas or basic elements and equivalent to the physical body and psychical mind). They seem to believe in spontaneous generation of life. The continuity or feeling of similarity is said to be due to continuing streams of subconscious mind impressions (Vāsanā) like a burning lamp*. This postulate is also partially supported by Acārānga which classifies mobile beings in eight varieties on the basis of birth including spontaneous generations. It seems there was a time when both options were acceptable.
It is difficult to guess when independent existence of these two entities was formulated. Probably, the Ajivikas were the first to make an advance over the above unitary spiritualist or materialist views by assuming the living as separate entity from the non-living one. Their living unit is material in nature. It has transmigration properties - a non-aryan theme according to Basham. It is atomic, circular or octagonal in shape and blue in colour. Basham has called some of these points as strange, fantastic and bizarre. Since then, whatever may be the origin of the living, it has been treated as a separate entity by most Indian philosophers denoting it by several names as tabulated in Table 1. Each of these systems has its own description about it having many similar or dis-similar points regarding name, nature and properties. The non-material living cannot be identified without its association with fine physical bodies with different names: Linga-sarira (S), Sūkṣma-sarira (V) or Taijasa or Karman sarira (J). That is why the living one in the world is said to be impure with self-purification as its aim of worldly life. How this non-material and pure living becomes initially impure, is not very clear even from Jaina canons for a common man'. Though some philosophies have different names for worldly living (Jiva, Jivātmā) and pure living (Atmā, Paramātmā etc.), but the Jainas have intermixed the two states of the living during their descriptions creating some

Page #389

Name
Jiva
2. Upanisad Jiva, Ātmā
Parmatma,
Brahma
Puruşa
confusion among scholars and votaries. The current description will presume the worldly or impure living as Jiva and pure living one as Atmā or soul.
Table 1: Denotations of Living Entity in some Indian Systems.
System
Nature
Definition
1. Cārvāka
3. Sānkhya
4. Vedāntins Jiva, Ātmā (V)
5. Nyāya-Vai- Atmā, śeṣika (NV) Jivātmā
6. Jainas (J) Jiva, Ātmā
7. Buddhas Pudgala
(B)
Definition of Living

:
367
Material, Non- Spontaneous pemanent Consciousness Non-material, Knowledge,
permanent energy
Non-material, Consciousness,
permanent Unchangeable Non-material, Consciousness permanent
Non-material, Adventitious permanent Consciousness,
Happiness etc.
Material, non- Consciousness material, Perma
nent-cum-non
permanent
Material, non- Mind activity permanent
Ācārya Umasvāti is an isolated aphorist who does not use the term 'Atma' in his Tattvärtha-sūtra and Prasamarati Prakaraṇa. He has written them for the upliftment of poor Jiva to free himself from worldly or karmic clutches. In the canons also, we have the term Jiva though 'Appā, Āyā, Ādā, Atta' and other terms (meant for pure living ) are seen in countable places. Kundakunda has defined the two terms interchangeably in terms of pragmatic (worldly impure) and idealistic (karmically freed) aspects. He might have taken clue from adopting NV and V systems who pointed out the realistic and synthetic approach for extremist ideas about the living. It

Page #390

368 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
is, however, very difficult philosophically to prove and scientifically to disprove the pure living.
The Jainas are non-materialists about the pure living and materialistic about the worldly living. They also favour the postulate of separate existence of the living entity since the Ācārānga period. The Jaina logicians prove the existence of the living on the ground of :(i) doubt about it, (ii) the realisation of T', ( ili ) substratum of consciousness and (iv) its manifold functions'. The function of mutual support is also the proof for worldly living. A number of phenomena or feelings ( like happiness, life-span, death, respiration, embodiment, inkling of eyes, mind, etc. ) given as proof for the living by NV philosophers are said to be material in origin by the Jainas". The many facet description of the living abound in large number of Prākṣta canons and their later commentaries. Though the canonical obiect is moulded more towards spiritual aspects. yet references to its physical and biological aspects are not wanting. The scholars like Lodha'?, Jain 13, Sikdar14 and Pralayankara's have attempted towards this direction. It will, however, be endeavoured here to sum up and evaluate the overall Jaina picture in this regard.
The worldly living or 'Jiva' is material and impure because of its inherent adherence to fine and gross luminous and kārmic body or other particles. It could be described in better positive terms and subjected to physical descriptions and scientific verification or evaluation. One could easily extrapolate from impure to pure state of the living. It is surprising that large number of modern concepts regarding the living were developed by the Jainas even before the early Christian era. Some of the points of contrast are now coming to the point of comparability. Attributive Definition of Living Entity
The living, a separate reality has two types of definition : general and specific. The early canons like Ācārānga 16, Dasavaikālika, Bhagavati, Kundakunda's Pañcāstikāya and Dhavalā

Page #391

Definition of Living : 369
of Virasena described its characteristics as given in Table 2. Though not referring them as general or specific, yet containing many general and a number of specific properties. Acārānga describes the property of sensitivity, irritability or consciousness (in terms of feeling for pain when weapon-operated ), killer weapons and method of attaining soul-hood by the Jiva in the first instant. This concept gets modified there itself with reference to plants indicating some nine points mostly proving the material nature of Jiva. These points grew to a maximum of 23 in Bhagavati (increasing from six marked with asterisk in Table 2) with 17-20 in Pañcāstikāya18 and Dhavalā 19. The terms 'Atma' and 'Antarātmā' connote different meanings in these characteristics from their general meaning. When this change of meanings did occur-is a matter for scholars to dive deeper.
Some duplication is visible because of similar meanings of a few terms. However, only three terms represented as the non-observable, most of them represent observable properties when karma particles are taken as material. The facts have been dealt in detail in Pañcāstikāya, Dhavala commentary and Nava-padartha of Bhikhanaji20. Moreover, Bhagavati, Tandulaveyaliya and some other canons also mention the size, weight, reproduction and adaptability characteristics of the living21.
Contrastingly, Kundakunda and Dhavala give 17-20 attributive terms, many of them have similar meanings as in Bhagavati with minor differences. Quite a good number of terms assume non-materiality, weightlessness, thought activities, physical body, size and the like to the living hitherto not mentioned by the canons like Acārānga and Bhagavati. Its reason may be that the early canons assumed it a nearly material in contrast to Kundakunda's presumption of basically non-material nature of living. That is why he has not mentioned birth and growth of the living while in Dhavala these terms are mentioned.
22
One could currently equate sensitivity or irritability with

Page #392

Table 2 : Attributive Names of the Living Reality. Ācārānga
Bhagavati
Kundakunda
Dhavala
4
1. It has Prāņas /vitalities ( Prāni )* 2. It is knower/experiencer ( Vijña )* 3. It has capacity to bind karmic particles ( Sattva )* 4. It is actor/detractor of karmic particles ( Kartā vikartā ). 5. It is collector, victor, leader of karma particles (cetā, jetā, nāyaka ) 6. It is material and has body (pudgala, sa-śariri )
1. It has physical/psychical 1. Prāņi prānas ( Prāni) 2. It has knowledge/conation 2. Mānava ( Upayoga )
( Ksetrajña ) 3. It is associated with kārmic 3. Kartā particles ( karmayukta ) 4. It is actor of kārmic 4. Kartā particles ( kartā )
370 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

5. Bhoktă
5. It is enjoyer of karma particles ( bhoktā )

6. It has extension upto 6. Pudgala innumerable space points ( Asankhyāta pradesi) 7. It is pervasive in the body 7. Visnu ( Aikya )
(Pervasive)
7. It is pervasive in the body (Antarātma )

Page #393

4

2 8. It moves ( Jagat, Hinduka, Atmā) 9. It has life-span ( Jiva )* 10. It gives aura of love! hate ( rangana )
3 8. It moves in all directions ( Upakrama ) 9. It has life-span ( Jiva ) 9. Jiva 10. It gives aura in the body ( Prabhāsana, rangana ) 11. It has extension of bodysize ( dehamātra ) 12. It is imperceptible to senses ( Amūrta ) 13. It is weightless ( agurulaghu ) 14. It has potency to live in different states ( Prabhu )

1. It can be transformed
in different states
( Vipariņāmi) 2. It takes/gives birth
( Jāti )
Definition of Living :
11. It takes birth ( Jantu )
10. Jantu
12. It gives birth ( Yoni )
11. Speech
371

Page #394

4 12. Attachment 13. Expansion 14. Contraction
3. It grows ( Viddhi ) 13. It has particulate nature 4. It takes food ( Āhāra ) - 5. It fades or gets sad
( Mlāna ) 6. It is mortal ( Anitya ) 7. It is imperamanent
( Aśāśvat ) 8. It has a metabolism
( cayopacaya )
Til 1 1 1
15. Activity ( Yogi) 16. It lives inside kārmic body. 17. It has pride
372 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

18. It has deceit
Non-observables 10. It has consciousness
(Cetana )
14. It has sensitivity towards 15. It has element of consci- 19. Veda good/bad ( Veda )* ousness ( cetā, cetanā ) 15. It has neither beginning 16. It has neither beginnor end ( Bhūta, Mānava )* ning nor end ( anādi-nidhāna ) 16. It is self-existent
20. Svayambhū ( Svayambhūta )
17. It has five volitional activities ( Bhāva )

Page #395

Definition of Living :
373
consciousness in these cases. The two terms of "Vijña' and 'Veda' in Bhagavati convey sense of consciousness. The same is true for Kundakunda's two terms - upayoga and Cetana having similar meanings. One, however, finds a difference in the meaning of the terms 'Cetā' and 'Cetană' in Bhagavati which mean collector of karma particles rather than consciousness. Assuming Bhagavati as the older canon, one may infer consciousness was evidently not a basic property of the living in early philosophical development. Does this mean that the Jainas had similar views with NV theory in the beginning in this regard ? When was this concept of concommittant consciousness evolved in Jaina philosophy ? This needs a further academic scrutiny. The use of two terms - Upayoga and Cetanā – characterising the living seems to bear some impression in this regard. By mentioning 'speech' also among the attributes of living, Dhavalā has slightly differed in this regard. Because speech is specific for human beings rather than general living beings.
Ācārya Umāsvāti23 and Kundakunda — both stated two types of characteristics. The former mentioned five types of volitional or thought activities ( the last one including all general attributes in current terms ) and Upayoga. Pujyapāda24 defined 'Jivatva' as consciousness. To him, all living beings have inherently a life element or consciousness. It may have two aspects – capacitative and functional. It is subjected to various types of volitional activities due to realisation, subsidence and destruction of fine kārmic particles and inherence. The activities also prove material nature of the living as they are related with mind-endowed consciousness. These activities include 53 types of actvity of physical and psychical nature. The canons describe six types of such volitional activities25. Their details are summarised by Umāsvāti as shown in Table 3. Many activities are common in a number of volitional activities representing their different degree and status. These are various expressions of element of consciousness through its

Page #396

no
Table 3 : Different Volitional/Thought Activities of the Living. Şubsidential Destructional Mixed
Realisational Inherent 9 18
21
3+10 1. Right belief Right belief Right Belief
1-4. Destinities 1. Livingness 2. Right conduct Right conduct Right conduct 5-8. Passions 2. Salvation capacity Knowledge 3-6. Knowledge-4 9-11. Sexes
3. Non-salvation
capacity Conation 7-9. Wrong knowledge-3 12. Wrong belief 4. 10 others Gift
10-14. Attainments-5 13. Wrong knowledge Gain
15-17. Conations-3 14. Non-restraint
Enjoyment 18. Restraint-non-restraint 15. Non-salvation 8. - Re-enjoyment
16-21. Colourations Energy
374 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
4.

-
-
wond oil

Page #397

Definition of Living
: 375
capacity of knowledge and conation. The living one has the capacity of experience and susceptibility towards sensation of various types. These capacities vary from a negligible extent to infinity depending on the types and development of livingness. The volitional activities are differentiating attributes supported by Akalanka26. These activities are related to mind or brain in current terms. Psychologists have delved deep into the nature and function of mind. Some have equated it with consciousness itself and called it as substantive. This substance may be materially protoplasmic or non-materially psychoplasmic as suggested by Bausfield27. The true definition of these two terms depends on the meaning of what we call material. In pre-microscopic age, the terms conveyed the idea of sense-imperceptibility, thus indicating its non-material nature. It has, however, become material in microscopic age.
Bhagavati and Dhavalā do not mention these volitional activities in this connection. Devasena also does not mention them. Instead, he mentions six special attributes of the living: consciousness, knowledge, conation, bliss, energy and nonmateriality ( with duplication of two – the first and last general attributes )28. He has also used different terms in this regard. Thus, despite consciousness being a common namal characteristics for the living, the terms used by canonists and procanonists seem to create some difficulty for general votary for proper understanding. Characteristics of the Living
The Jainas have characterised the living in many ways. They have some physical aspects attached to it. They also have some mental states associated with it. The physical aspects include - (a) Vitalities or Prānas (b) Completions or Paryāptis and (c) Instincts or Sanjñās. The mental aspect involves volitional activities, the manifesting symptoms of consciousness or Upayoga. (a) Upayoga or Functional Consciousness
Uttarādhyayana29, Bhagavat;30 and Sthānānga mention

Page #398

376 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
functional consciousness as one of the innate property of the living, followed by Kundakunda, Umāsvāti and others. But the definition of Upayoga has varied with times for long. Sthānānga suggests that the term means determinate and indeterminate knowledge alone as conational manifestations have been mentioned there separately32. However, Umāsvāti33, like Bhagavati34, means both knowledge and conation by this term, though Kundakunda uses two different terms – Upayoga and Cetanā in many of his compositions to mean 'Upayoga' alone35 Akalanka clearly gives different meanings to these two terms. He opines that Upayoga is the manifestational form of consciousness and is a capacity factor. Does the above dual terminology of Kundakunda have some bearing on the order of his compositions ?
The literature reveals some difference regarding the meaning of the term consciousness itself (Cetanā ). While to Umāsvāti, it means only knowledge and conation. Devasena keeps separate from it in his six specific qualities of the living (10th century ). Bhagavati and Akalarika add bliss and strength also to the meaning of consciousness as it is a general property of the living comprehending a group of qualities like bliss, strength, knowledge and conation. All these qualities, therefore, characterise consciousness. The term, thus, represents, the generality of attributes distinguishing the living from the nonliving. Mehta6 also opines similarly. This seemingly correct interpretation suggests that its meaning has been modified in terms of four infinities in comparison to early periods. However, the general votary, conventionally takes it in terms of knowledge and conation only. Rājamalla has added another dimension to the term by pointing out its knowledgal and actional varieties. This requires elaboration. (b) Vitalities, Vital Airs or Prānas
Ācārānga mentions four terms - Prāni, Bhūta, Jiva and Satva to denote the living in general38 without defining them. Bhagavati gives their etymological reaning as representing the living. However, commentator Silanka39 has indicated that each

Page #399

term represents different classes of living as shown in Table 4. Bhagavati definitions seem accurate. The important fact here is that all these terms represent observable qualities of physical expressions of the living.
Table 4 Meaning of Terms Denoting the Living.
Terms
1. Prāņi
2. Bhūta
3. Jiva
4. Sattva
Etymological Meaning17b
Vital aired, having
vitalities
Tri-timal existence
Durational existence Good/bad karma binding existence
Definition of Living : 377
Silanka commentary meaning

2-4 sensed living beings (Mobiles)
1-sensed beings (plants or immobiles) 5-sensed beings
Rest of the types of living beings
The definition of the living has been concocted here in the first term also with the first term of Table 2. It has been called Prāņi as it is characterised by 'Prāṇas' translated as life principle, life force, life winds, vital airs and vitalities. The existence of vitalities is the most important property of the living. That is why Dhavala refers vitalities as the cause or instruments of livingness40.
Canonically, there are four vitalities of (i) strength, (ii) senses, (iii) respirations and (iv) duration or life-span or age sub-classified into ten types: (i-iii) three strengths of physique, speech and mind, (iv-viii) five senses known popularly and (ix-x) the last two as individual units41. This is in contrast with 4-7 vitalities by Vedāntins. It is said that the lowest class of living ones has at least four vitalities out of ten : (i) sense of touch, (ii) strength of physique, (iii) respirations and (iv) age. This number increases upto ten as the living character is gradually developed as shown in Table 5. Later scriptures classify the vitalities in terms of physical and psychical varieties. The physical varieties are material in nature while qualities like three jewels or consciousness itself is a psychical vitality42.

Page #400

378 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Table 5 : Vitalities among Living Beings. No. Type of living No. of Narnes No. of Complbeings Vitalities
etions 1. 1-sensed beings 4 Sensed of touch, 4.
Strength of physique,
respiration, age. 2. 2-sensed beings 6 First 2 senses, physi- 5
cal & vocal strength,
respiration, age 3. 3-sensed beings 7 First 3 senses, 2 stren- 5
gths, respiration, age 4. 4-sensed beings 8 4 senses, 2 strengths, 5
respiration, age 5. 5-sensed, with 9 5 senses, 2 strengths, 5 out mind
respiration, age 6. 5-sensed with 10 5 senses, 3 strengths, 6 mind
respiration, age 7. 5-sensed non- 7 5 senses, physique, completioned
strength, age 8. 4-sensed non
4 senses, physique, completioned
strength, age 9. 3-sensed non
3 senses, physique, completioned
strength, age 10. 2-sensed non
2 senses, physique, completioned
strength, age 11. 1-sensed non
1 sense, physique, completioned
strength, age 12. Beings of 13th 4 Physique & Vocal stre- - spiritual stage
ngth, Respiration, age 13. Beings of 14th 1-3 (i) Age only. spititual stage
(ii) Respiration and age. (iii) Respiration, age, physique strength.
4
3

Page #401

Definition of Living
: 379
Sānkhyas 43, Vaišeşikas 44, Vedāntins 45 and Ayurveda scholars46 have also the word 'Prāņas' with reference to the living. They have comparatively quite a restricted meaning of the term. Activities like vibration, expansion, contraction is the vedic view47. The inhaling and exhaling are their main idea during which one takes in air and gives it out in and through different parts of the body. This process of respiration supplies the necessary energy for physiological processes occuring in the body at every moment. This energy is known as Fire of Fire-god. Hence 'Prāna' is the fire. Vedāntins will equate them with senses as well as airs48. Sankhyas clearly state that 'Prānas' etc. are five airs. Vaiseșikas also mean respiratory activity by this term but they agree to five airs. In contrast, the Jainas have a more complex concept about these vitalities.
Acārānga means the living unit by itself49 and Bhagavati 50 means respiration by this term. The commentator Silānka and Agastya Singh51 mean mobile beings with observable respirations. Does all this indicate that livingness in 1-sensed plants is a post-canonical phenomena ? Umāsvāti also has referred 'Prānas' at many places as material. He was supported by Pūjyapāda52 and Akalanka53. This term also means respiration for him.
All this suggests that the term 'Prāņa' was used in the same sense by Jainas as in other philosophies. Later, more activities of the living were observed to cover physical, vocal and mental ones. They incorporated the senses, their sensitivity, and physico-chemical actions together with the duration of these activities. Thus, its meaning was also extended to comprehend all the terms in general which gave a better meaning for the term for the Jainas. Even, Kundakunda54 has this meaning in mind and now it can be seen that respiratory process becomes only a part and not the whole of the term 'Prāna'. When and how this widened meaning was coined by the Jainas, is a subject matter for scholar's pursuit.
During the days of spiritualistic trend in philosophy and

Page #402

380 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
symbolism replacing factualism55, the term 'Prāna' also seems to have been spiritualised to mean a force or energy making it indefinable in physical terms. It became spiritual air or even Brahma for Vedāntins56. That is why it has been translated through many terms in English. The Yogis have also a term called 'Prānic energy'. At times, the common air or oxygen was called 'Prāņavāyu'. For simplicity, we have to be better factual. Thus, we have the term vitality or vital airs representing the most appropriate meaning for various types of fluids or gases so necessary for different types of physico-chemical activities including the respiratory one which is the most essential or direct proof of livingness. The Samskrta-Hindi dictionary also supports this meaning. However, the term should not only mean the respiratory activity but any process essential to life and supplying the necessary energy for functioning, maintainance and growth of various organs of the body. Thus, vitality, rather than the vital airs should be the preferred term in English for 'Prāņas'. Normally, the processes occurring in body for defining the livingness have been mostly found to be exothermic chemical reactions. More recently, Gurudatta's commentary on Nyāya-sūtra 58 maintains that air and 'prānas' are synonymous and mean inner energy rather than physical material. The livingness is the functional aspect of 'prānic' energy. This statement requires revaluation. Astānga-sangraha mentions 'prāna' to mean blood which has never been a generally acceptable view.
Because of the difference in meaning of Prānas in various systems, one finds different numbers of vitalities in various systems as shown in Table 6. This does not require further discussion.
As the Jainas have wider meaning of the term 'Prāna' and there seems to be duplication of the terms of senses, respirations etc., the pro-canons have clarified between the senses and sense vitalities. The sense vitalities are due to destruction-cum-subsidence of conation-obscuring karma while

Page #403

Definition of Living
: 381
the senses make a different class of karma-physique making karma. Thus, the kārmic origin of the two is different. There is also a question on the three ( respiration, vocal and mental strength ) regarding their being called vitality as they do not seem to be life long. The non-completioned beings do live even without them. However, it is with respect to the completioned beings that these are included in the vitalities. Nevertheless, it is surprising that respiratory activity – an essential characteristics of livingness, seems to be denied to the non-completioned beings. How could an entity be called living without even dormant respiration such as in plant kingdom ? The state of non-attainment of body completion is non-respiratory. The other type of non-completion is called formative and it could be included in the completioned class only formally because it has a chance of full completion. Table 6 : Different Numbers of Prānas ( vitalities ) in Various
Indian systems. No. System No. of
Name Vitalities
5
1. Vedāntins 7-11
2 eyes, 2 ears, 2 nasals speech, arms, navel, pelvis,
mind 2. Nyāya
5-7
5 senses, speech, mind 3. Sārkhyas
Prāna, Vyāna, Udāna,
Samāna, Apāna 4. Jainas 10
5 senses, 3 strengths,
respiration, age 5. Ayurveda 6. Sangita 10
5 vital airs + 5 others Ratnākara 7. Sabda Kalpa- 10 or 16 ( 49 )59
druma (c) Completions or Paryāptis
The occurrence of completions is also a characteristic
12

Page #404

382 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
for the livingness. Every living being develops the above vitalities depending on its sensory development until all of them are fully functional. The living is, then, called completioned. In case of many living beings, this may not be so and they die before completions. Such beings are called non-completioned with respect to body or senses. However, the canons indicate that it takes about 48 minutes for this completion process. The quantum of livingness is also guessed by this completion process.
This gradual development has six stages. Firstly, the living or embryo ( i ) takes food for building and running life. Food causes (ii) body to develop which results in development of (iii) physical and conceptual senses depending on the class of livingness. When senses develop, (iv) respiration (v) speech and (vi) mind or brain also appear. Those living beings with mind are called fully completioned. It is assumed that all these stages start nucleating simultaneously but they develop in a sequence in about 48 minutes. These six stages are collectively known as completions or paryāptis. Dhavalā 62 mentions that these are the causes of different vitalities. It defines them as the formation or perfection of different organs or energetic mattergic aggregates of the body which has been modified as the cause of such formations. Pūjyapāda and Akalanka also give similar definition to that of Dhavalā. But later on, many authors presumed it to be an acquirement of energy for these formations. This seems to be a cause-effect formalisation,
There are six completions covering each of the above stages - (i) food, (ii) body, (iii) senses, (iv) respiration, (v) speech, (vi) mind. It is seen that these six correspond to nine of the vitalities as shown in Table 7. The vitality of age may be said to be the resultant of these completions. Like the vitalities, the lowest living ones have four completions in appearance. Higher ones show all the six as shown in Table 5. Some canons63 mention five completions by combining V and Vi state.

Page #405

Definition of Living
:
383
However, most scholars have followed the six tradition. Table 7: Completions and Vitalities No. Completions Vitalities
6 G ;ܢ
Food Body
1. Physical strength 3. Senses
2. Sense of touch 3. Sense of taste 4. Sense of smell 5. Sense of sight
6. Sense of hearing Respiration 7. Respiration Speech
8. Vocal strength Mind
9. Mental strength
10. Age Minimum occurrence 4 Minimum occurrence 4
The concept of vitalities is found in early literature in almost all Indian philosophies while the concept of completions is specific to the Jainas. It is found in Bhagavati, jivābhigama, Șaskhandāgama, Mülācāra and other later canons. Generally they are referred to as one of the disquisition doors for the living and taken as one of the physique-making karma. This, however, has a variety of respiration but no other vitalities. The following discussions will lead to the better understanding of completion and vitalities. Table 7 suggests duplication between vitalities and completions. However, they have been said to be as distinguished as two mountains64. Many vitalities are not found in non-completioned stage, they are effects of completions. Probably completions are not the basic characteristics of the living as the vitalities, the durational aspect is absent among the former. However, they could be indirect characteristics as there could be no livingness and vitalities without them. While differentiating between them, Akalanka65 suggests completions to be supra-sensual and imperceptible by sense of touch and hearing in contrast to vitalities. This suggests the

Page #406

384 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
later to be physical and functional in nature and not a form of mysterious force as suggested by Sikdar66. He has also called
completions as vital force or actual living material consisting of many substances nearing protoplasmic type causing the capacity to develop various vitalities. If both these terms are treated as unique mysterious forces, it will be difficult to explain them in current terms. Moreover, two forces for the same purpose seem to be superfluous. Secondly, this opinion has no canonical support as vital force theory is not teneable for the Jainas. Sikdar also seems to be off the track when he equates completion with a force and a nearly protoplasmic material as these two entities have different natures.
The names of completions indicate their physical nature, representing formation of various organs to perform different functions - internal and external. For example, the respiratory completion should mean development of nasal organ, heart and nervous systems. Any system requires energy, normally supplied by food intake during its digestion and metabolic transformation for working. In absence of respiratory system, the above processes will become difficult. Even the development of various systems will not be possible. Thus, completions are a physical phemomena and not supra-sensual as pointed by Akalanka. Actually, the respiratory inhaling or exhaling is perceptible in all normal and special cases. One of the nostrils is warmer than the other during the process. In a sense, they seem to be grosser than vitalities. The physicochemical or physiological processes occurring in various organs are known to generate energy to give strength and energy. Thus, completions are primary physical processes of developing body and its various organs and supplying the necessary caloric energy or force ( inherent outcome of food intake ) for different vitalities to grow and function. In other words they are primary growth of organs neceassary to develop characteristics of vitalities. This view conforms also the cause-effect relationship between the two. This view will support Sikdar's sugges

Page #407

Definition of Living 385
tion of protoplasmic (enzymic or nucleic-acidic) nature of completions though this much fineness could not be assumed during the canonical and pro-canonical periods. These terms could only be understood correctly by taking the spiritual sheaths off from their definitions. One, then, finds that Jaina scholars were keen observers of physical and functional aspects of the living.
(d) Instincts or Sañjñās
According to the Jainas, every living being has some natural instincts, trends and desires which have been called 'Sanjñās' being physical or psychical. It has various meanings - name, knowledge, desires, thinking capacity about good or bad or mind. Kārmically, Sañjñās are due to prematuration and subsidence-cum-destruction of delusion and feeling producing karmas together with knowledge and conation obscuring karmas and also due to inherent consciousness or sensitivity of many types in the living beings. Hence, there may be variations in their number and varieties. It is said that consciousness may be expressible in terms of (i) knowledge and (ii) experience. The experiencial consciousness is found in all living beings while knowledgal one is found in the higher living ones. Thus, the 'Sañjnas' here should be taken as natural or innate instincts found in all living beings.
The Digambara pro-canons and Jivābhigama mention four such basic instincts of (i) food, (ii) fear or irritablity, (iii) sex and (iv) possessions or belongings. Some substitute sleep or rest for the last one. Prajñāpanā" mentions ten such instincts which include the four above and (v) anger, (vi) pride, (vii) deceit, (viii) greed, (ix) tradition and (x) whim. Acārānga commentator Silanka points out sixteen instincts which include the ten above and (xi) pleasure, (xii) pain, (xiii) disgust, (xiv) sorrow, (xv) delusion and (xvi) religion. It is said that all these are experiential instincts. These include many psychical instincts from anger upto religion. These are not found in later literature. When one adds five cognitional

Page #408

386 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
instincts according to Niryukti, the total instincts turn out to be twenty-one. Thus, there are sixteen experimecial and five cognitive instincts. However, if Mahāprajna opinion is taken, the tradition and whim instincts represent knowledge and conations and not the conventional meanings. This will reduce the number of instincts without loosing any essence about them. Scholars believe that these instincts belong to the living beings with brain or physical and psychical mind. They also postulate that only five-sensed beings possess mind and they are the only instinctive. Other beings upto four senses, therefore, do not possess these instincts. This is not correct today and even according to Prajñāpanā, all the ten instincts are found in all the living beings though dormant in the deficientsensed beings, Commentator Ratnākara72 has referred these instincts in a different way and classified them in three types – (i) longtimed and memorical ( uterine born ones ), (ii) logistic ( 2-4 sensed beings ) and ( ili ) poly-viewing ( right faithed ones). They seem to refer to the living beings with developed mind. His statement regarding possession of these instincts by different categories of beings requires critical examination. Moreover, with reference to traditional instincts, there seems to be some ambiguity in two cases - (a) libido and sex and (b) greed and belongings. Dhavalā 73 mentions a fine difference between them and cites support for their separate inclusion. Silānka cites five types of knowledgal instincts in terms of five knowledges.24 Gommatasāra adds another discussion to the term. It points out education, action, instruction and receipt are the instincts which are the functions of mind. These may not be found in the deficient-sensed or mind-unendowed beings. This point also requires elaboration.
It should be noted that canonically, there seems to be no relation between the noun 'saññā' and adjective 'Sañiñi' as the first refers to the above instincts while the latter term refers to the living beings with mind only. Of course, mind is one of the meaning of 'sanjñi' utilised here. That is why, we

Page #409

Definition of Living :
387
have two disquisition doors of 'instincts' and 'minded or brained'. This suggests the living beings with instincts but without mind. A large number of dialogues contained in Dhavalā and Rājavārttika-275 suggest similar questions - a man would ask today - as were asked 1100 years ago. Pujyapāda also clarifies this difference in meaning of these terms because of numerous meaningness of words pointing out flaws of theoretical over-extension in meanings other than 'mindedness 76 for the term 'sañjni'. However, with current experimental verifications as pointed out by Lodha'l. the responses to the instinctiveness and mindedness of 1-sensed and deficientsensed living beings in Dhavalā and Pañcāstikāya commentary become subject to better elaboration. Pañcāstikāya commentator mentions that the living beings other than 5-sensed ones have specific types of destruction-cum-subsidential mind rather than general 8. Similarly, the quality of experiencing the sensitivity of colour etc. by deficient-sensed ones is different from that of the 5-sensed ones. In Jainism, mind has a separate existence and it is not found in 1-sensed and deficient-sensed ones as per naturally valid canons. The absence of mind in them is not contradicted by direct proof as it is imperceptible by senses. The existence of verbal knowledge in these living beings can also not prove the existence of mind as it could be found even in plants (which are devoid of mind ) and it is not only sound-originated but non-verbal also. Thus, the later scholars do feel that non-5-sensed beings have the limited functions of mind-non-verbal knowledge and functioning towards beneficiary activities and aversion towards undesirables. Akalanka has given surprising answer to this problem. He maintains that these are the spiritualised senses in non-5sensed living beings which are responsible for their activities associated with mental functions79. He feels such senses have capacities to experience pains and pleasures as found in these beings.
Lodhaľo has discussed how scientific experiments

Page #410

388 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
prove existence of physical and psychical instincts (like anger, pride, aural colouration, etc. ) in plants. Zoologists maintain that many living beings with deficient sensing ( like rotifera, chiton, sepia, polycheta, leech, pheritima, cockroach ( fig. 1, 2) have brain and head. This could explain many of their existing functions. Thus, the opinion of early scholars regarding the questions of relationship between instincts and experienciable feelings as shown above may only be partially true. It is, however, acceptable that the mind of these beings is not so developed and so big in size as that of human beings.
FRONTAL NERVE -FRONTAL GANGLION
BAAIN -MOUTH -BUCCAL CHAMBER PHARYNX -OESOPHAGUS
FRONTAL CONNECTIVE PHARYNX
--BRAIN
---GIZZAAD
4.
Set
1
tars
-RECURRENT NERVE -CORPUS CARDIACUM ---CORPUS ALLATUM
OESOPHAGUS
OBLIQUE BEPTUM STOMACH
12
.
1.113:20
-HYPOCEREBRAL
GANGLION
: A
ALHAAL
ALPACA
DESOPHAGEAL NERVE
PRETYPHZOSOLAR
INTESTINE
-VISCERAL GANGLION
INTESTINAL CAECUM
TYPHLOSOLAR INTESTINE
SEBEESSSSSSSS
-DORSAL BLOOD VESSEL LYMPH GLANDS
CROP
.
TYPHLOSOLE
-GIZZARD
-PROVENTRICULAR
GANGLION
( Figure 1, 2)
-

Page #411

Definition of Living :
389
To find the equivalent term for the word 'mana' has always been a problem. It is equated generally with current mind. However, when the question of physical and psychical mind comes in the way, it is the brain which is equated with physical mind. The psychical mind is precursor energetic source of brain functions. This equation leads to existence of psychical mind among the non-5-sensed living beings. Could it be canonically correct? The author feels it could be a better plea for this problem than assuming transformation or modification of soul into senses. How a non-material soul could do so is a deeper problem for answer.
The characteristics of instincts is merely an extension of the basic quality of sensitivity, irritability or consciousness showing its various modes of expressions. It should not be taken as any additional property of the living. The defining of the living through vitalities and completions, however, suggests the material approach for the living. Classification of the Attributes
All the attributes of the living found in canons and described above may be termed as specific in current terms. It seems that the term 'dravya' or reality was not a Jaina coin as Kundakunda and Umāsvāti have used 'Astikāya' and 'Tattva' terms for it. The dravyas become real because of their property of permanence through changes. Umāsvāti uses the term 'Dravya' at quite a late stage in chapter 5 of his TS. It could be presumed that the term 'dravya' of NV system was included in Jaina metaphysics at a later stage when this system was having a profound scholastic appeal in the world of seers. This has also been observed by Malvania specially in case of Umāsvātia'.
Reality has been elaborated with similarities (general) and dis-similarities ( specifics) by the Vaiśesikas. This has been followed by Umāsvāti. Accordingly, the general definition of reality detailed earlier applies to the living one as it has existentiality, i. e., permanence through change ( birth and

Page #412

390 : Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
decay). It has qualities and modes. It has eleven attributes of Akalanka and eight of Devasena (general). It also has eleven general natures (Svabhāvas) of Devasena which refer to the ways and forms the living one may have in general. These various classificatory attributive definitions are shown in Table 8. It is seen that Akalanka and Devasena have improved over Umāsvāti where two attributes have gone upto four commons and many more uncommons. However, one could mark the difference. While Akalanka does not have consciousness, weightlessness and space occupancy of Devasena, the latter also does not have many attributes of the earlier. It can be surmised that the earlier characteristics of existentiality has been given more concrete meanings by these authors. As is clear, the general definition involves particulate nature, space occupancy, weightlessness, sense-imperceptibility or nonmateriality as physical and consciousness as psychical characteristics of the living one. The first and last terms here seem to be quite contradictory. It is also evident that Akalanka's general definition seems to weigh more on the non-material side of the living in comparision to Devasena. If one removes the attribute of consciousness from Devasena's list, it will have purely material nature of the living.
In contrast, the specific attributes have very much in common with all the three authors each one has various forms or expressions of consciousness as liberally defined earlier. The canonical characteristics of the living in Table 2 can also be similarly classified on the basis of table 8 where they prove more extensive.
It must, however, be accepted that in contrast to Devasena, consciousness should be called as specific rather than general property. The rest of the properties are suggestive of material nature of the living. Its basic unit has all the qualities as the atom-like materials have. The single living unit is said to contain innumerable pradeśas with capacity for expansion and contraction. It has these pradeśas in an independant and

Page #413

Definition of Living :
391
real sense. They are invisible because of fineness and therefore sense-imperceptibility or non-materiality of the living in contrast with the visible part of the gross matter. It is also said that the living one is partless but even a single part is made up of innumerable space-points. These represent its approximate size or extension. The space-points of the living belong to two categories – fixed and movable82. It is said that there are eight central space-points in a single living unit which are fixed. Others are movable during expansion or contraction by extirpation or interpenetration.
It has also been pointed out that the living one always resides in a body in the world. Hence, its size or extension depends on the size of the body. This extension applies only to Jiva - the worldly living due to karmic particles associated with it. The pure living unit might be devoid of extension and therefore, a non-existent reality as Jain83 has pointed out.
The real spacepoint nature and extension of the living extends to the idea about the property of weight. Because of its extreme fineness, it must have negligible weight, empirically said to be weightless. Jain84 has indicated the inverse relationship between extension and density which is its necessary accompaniment, pointing out indirectly the low density and hence finest weight of the basic living reality. Table 8: General and Specific Definitions/properties of Living. No. Source General
Specific 1 2 1. Bhagavati 23 ( with 7 repeatitions, -
Table 2) 2. Kundakunda 17 ( Table 2) 3. Umāsvāti (a) Existentiality (a) Five thought
(permanence through activities change )

Page #414

392 :
1 2
Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
4. Akalanka
5. Devasena
3

(b) Qualities and Modes
11
( a ) Existence
Changeability Particulate nature Non-materiality
(b) Differentiality
Actorship Enjoyership
-8 (a) Existence
Non-pervasivity
Beginningless bonding
Permanance
Up-goingness
Substantiality
Particulate nature
Non-materiality
4
(b) Space occupancy Weightlessness Knowledgeability
Consciousness
(b) Upayoga/Consciousness (conation/knowledge) As in 3 above
6
Knowledge
Conation
Happiness
Energy Non-materiality
Consciousness
General nature 11 Special natures 10
Current Scientific Concepts About Living Reality
The scientists of today have mostly come to the conclusion that the first life on earth was evolved accidentally and spontaneously from complex combination of inorganic matter. Later on, it has been the rule that the living produces the living of its own species. They have now characterised the living reality with respect to its structural and functional aspects

Page #415

Definition of Living
: 393
on the basis of cell theory initiated in early nineteenth century. These characteristics are based on physical or mechanical concepts rather than the vitalist one. They are given in Table 9. These scientific concepts have no place for non-materiality, indestructibility of the living elernent. There may, however, be genetic continuity through transformability. Table 9 : Scientific Concepts About the Living. Scientific Agamic Comple- Vitalities Instincts characteristics terms tions
Food
Physical strength
Physical Strength
1. Food, nutri
Food tion metabolism 2. Cellular Pudgala body structure Astikaya (protoplasmic ) 3. Body orga- Multi
nisation pradesi 4. Birth
Jantu 5. Growth 6. Movements Jagat, Senses ( spontaneous, Hinduka induced ) Atmā,
Upakrama 7. Respiration Prāni Respiration 8. Excretion Prāni Respiration 9. Reproduc- Yoni
tion 10. Irritability Vijña, mind
Veda 11. Adaptation - 12. Death Jiva 13. Life cycle - 14. Shape/
form
Respiration – Respiration
Sex
Mental str fear ength
Age
The scientific livingness consists of cells of the size

Page #416

394 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
invisible to the eye ( 10-4-10-6cm. ) but visible under fine microscope. These cells have a very complex structure made up of few common elements. This complexity may be guessed when one finds that one of the lowest living tobacco mosaic virus has 2000 column-shaped molecules each containing 158 amino acids of 16 varieties, its core consisting of 6502 nucleotide molecules making for its genetic speciality85. It has been estimated that a normal human body consists of about 1013 cells performing various functions. These cells have an average energy of 0.06 V. They form tissues, tissues form nerves and various organs and these form the complex organism86. The scientists have not only identified the compounds in the living units, but they have also been able to prepare some of them in their laboratory. That is why they are now in a position not only to create life in laboratories, but they can also produce Gandhis, Einsteins and Natwarlals at their will from the specific genes characteristic of these types of species. They have genes banks for this purpose. These new experiments have created a stir in the minds of the east and west and they have started crying that these experiments should be prohibited. There will be chaos in the world as they directly effect their religious beliefs.
This scientific concept about the living leads to material nature of the living element suggestive of equating cells with the Jaina life element. It reminds us of the materialistic philosophers but it seems to be more accurate and fine one. It would, thus, mean that human body has not one but 1013 living units in performing and co-ordinating their functions remarkably and independantly. This concept also leads to microscopic perceptibility of the life element. But these inferences do not find support from canons as far as the pure life element is concerned. The worldly living, however, satisfies these inferences as it is material and ultra-sense-perceptible. Despite this, it must be added that the equation of the terms arbuda ( lump of mass ) and romakūpas (skin-pores ) with

Page #417

Definition of Living : 395
cells of the scientists by Sikdar is an over stretch for the cellular theory in canons (Jaina Biology, p. 28).
Formerly, the scientists presumed energies to be of non-material nature following the conservation law. Thus, the canonical pure life element could be said to be in the form of energy rather than cells. However, Jainas have always advocated energies to be material though they may be sufficiently finer than cells. The current science has also confirmed interconvertibility of matter and energy. Accordingly, the life element may be assumed to be of energetic nature whose non-materiality may be defined in terms of sense-imperceptibility. This assumption has been confirmed by scientific experiments which have shown that a newly born baby is associated with a charge of approximately 500 V of electrical energy and at death, the charge is nearly vanished, no body knows at present where does this charge go at death88. It is, however, presumed that this charge may be hoovering round the dead for sometime. This leads us to the fact that the living element is a form of fine energy particles called fine karmic particles of luminous (electrical, caloric) or karmic bodies by the Jainas. The recent telephonic talks (Spirocom) with spirits of the dead by O'neil and Meck also suggest a similar view of life element to be made up of fine light waves89. This association of fine bodies with the living makes it material. The maximum number of properties described in canons and Dhavalā90 also support this view. The computers are another example to support material generation of knowledge of the desired nature. That is why, the physical brain of man is called one of the most efficient and complex natural computer.
It must, however, be noted that whether the canonical life element is assumed as cellular or energetic, there is no interference or effect on its important properties. Both concepts can explain the effects and changes in thought activities, knowledge and energy of the living unit due to cellular denaturation, mutation or elimination. The philosophers could think a differ

Page #418

396 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
ence between the pure and worldly living. The scientists are, however, not in a position to prove this. They have only one type of living unit – the worldly one about which the philosophers have described nearly the same way as the scientists, Lodha” refers to Jivābhigama, Prajñāpanā and Bhagavati to show that about eight important characteristics of the living are included in the concept of completions and vitalities as shown in table 9. The vitality of age/duration may mean death also. The irritability may be taken as first stage of consciousness.
Despite the fact that canonical eternality of pure living does not involve birth, growth and death phenomenon, the worldly one has these characteristics of life as shown in Bhagavati. The common man also observes that there could be no new worldly living entity until it has birth through any of the processes. Besides, the canons have also described growth and death phenomenon. Summing up the contents spread over in different canons, it is found that almost all the scientifically essential characteristics of the living are traceable there and they seem to have mostly material approach. The para-psychologists and accounts of previous births did seem to give a setback to the scientists view92. However, Khushavant Singh categorically denies the correctness of these descriptions mentioning this as the cause of closure of para-psychology department of Rajasthan University in the later seventh decade of this century93
All scholars appreciate canonical contents about the definition of the living on the basis of current biological findings. It seems, however, that these contents mostly refer to externally observed facts. They keep mum over the why and how of these facts. They tell us about five bodies of gross and fine nature but there is nothing about their physical, chemical or physiological functions. They have respiration, but there seems to be nothing about the nature and composition of inhaled or exhaled gases or substances. It is said that food affects the functions,

Page #419

Definition of Living : 397
activities or emotions, but its structural causation is missing. These examples could be multiplied. It is possible to conclude that canons represent an age of physical observation and mental conceptualisation. The current age represents an era of experimentation and instrumental examination which has added many finer details to the canonical contents and some newer facts also. It has given better insight into various aspects of life.
Of course, it will have to be admitted that the observation power of the Jaina seers seems to be quite advanced over other contemporary philosophies. In most cases, their observations have been verified and supported but in some cases they have to be re-examined and retold. Though the observational process represents one of the three steps for scientific knowledge, but natural observation and the same through instruments and objected experiments makes a difference. The gap between the two must be recognised and the results will represent a measure of intellectual growth of mankind between the canonical and current age. There would have been much progress in biological field if the Jainological contents could be known to the scientific community of the world during earlier centuries.
References 1. Jinendra Varņi : Jainendra Siddhāntakośa-2, p. 307. 2. Edited Madhukara Muni: Ācārānga-1, A. P. S., Beawar,
1980, p. 364. 3. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Dasvaikālika, Jaina
Vishvabharati, Ladnun, 1976, p. 105. 4. Haribhadra Sūri : Şaddarsana-samuccaya, pp. 48-49, p.
458.
5. Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, pp. 28-30. 6. A. L. Basham : The Doctrine of Ājivikas, M. L. B.D., Delhi,
1975.

Page #420

398
7.
P. S. Jaini: The Jaina Path of Purification, California University Press, Berkeley, 1979, p. 114.
8. Dalsukha Malvaniya : Āgama Yuga kā Jaina Darśana, Sanmati Jnanapeetha, Agra, 1966, p. 211, p. 232.
S. C. Jain The Structure and Function of Soul in Jainism, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1975.
10. Kaṇāda: Vaiseṣika-Sūtra, 1969, p. 239.
11. Umāsvāti: Tattvärtha-Sūtra, Varni Granthamala, Kashi, 1949, pp. 221-224.
12. K. L. Lodha In Marudhara Kesari Felicitation Volume, Bikaner, 1970, p. 163.
13. N. L. Jain In Ballabh Centenary Commemoration Volume, Agra, 1970.
14. J. C. Sikdar In Sambodhi, Ahemedabad, 8.1.1974. 15. Pralayankara: Tirthankara, Indore, 15.10-11, 1986, p. 61. 16. Edited Madhukara Muni: Ācārānga-1, pp. 11-27. 17. (a) Edited Ghevarachandji Banthia : Bhagavati-Sūtra, p. 2839.
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
9.
(b) Bhagavati-Sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 149-150.
18. Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, p.19, pp. 22-25, p. 118, p.
61.
19. Virasena: Dhavala, J. S. S. Sangh, Sholapur, 1985, pp. 119-120.
20. Bhikhanji: Nava-Padartha, pp. 5-7.
21. J. C. Sikdar : Jabalpur University Lectures, 1975.
22. Virasena: Dhavalā, pp. 119-120.
23. Pujyapāda: Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 105, p. 115, p. 213.
24. Ibid, p. 113.
25. Bhaṭṭa Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 114.
26. Ibid, p. 111.
27. S. C. Jain: The Structure and Function of Soul in Jainism,
p.71, p. 123, p. 134.

Page #421

Definition of Living
: 399
28. Devasena : Ālāpapaddhati, Mahavirji, 1970, p. 70. 29. Uttarādhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 374. 30. Bhagavati-sūtra -1, Jaina Bhawana, Calcutta, 1973,
pp. 149-150. 31. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, p. 896, p. 905. 32. Ibid, p. 896, p. 950. 33. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, p. 114. 34. Bhagavati-sūtra-1, pp. 149-150. 35. Kundakunda : Bhāvaprābhrta, Patni Granthamala, Maroth,
1950, p. 332. 36. Mohanlal Mehta : Jaina Philosophy, Vira Shasan Sangh,
Mysore, 1951, p. 45. 37. Rājamalla : Pañcādhyāyi, Varni Granthamala, Kashi, 1950,
p. 183. 38. Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, p. 123. 39. Ibid, pp. 28-30. 40. Virasena : Dhavalā-2, p. 412, p. 415. 41. Battakera : Mülācāra-2, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1986,
p. 311. 42. Jinendra Varni : Jainendra Siddhāntakośa-3, pp. 153-154. 43. (a) īśvarakrsna : Sānkhya-kārikā, Sarasvati Govinda Math,
Kashi, 1978, p. 77.
(b) Kaņāda : Vaiseșika-sūtra, p. 239. 44. Ibid, p. 239. 45. Sankarācārya : Brahma-Sūtra Bhāsya, Govinda Math,
Kashi, 1978, p. 273, pp. 542-553. 46. Susruta : Susruta-Samhitä, Meharchand Lachhimandas,
Lahore, 1940, p. 16. 47. Giradhar Sharma Chaturvedi : Vedic Vijñāna aur Bhāratiya
Samskrti, Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad, Patna, 1972, p.8
( Introduction ). 48. Sankarācārya : Brahma-Sūtra Bhāsya, p. 273, pp. 542
553.

Page #422

400 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
49. Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga, p. 9. 50. Bhagavati-sūtra, Jaina Bhawana, Calcutta, p. 141, p. 149. 51. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśavaikālika, p. 158. 52. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 105, p. 115, p. 213. 53. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, p. 451, p. 471, p. 473,
pp. 578-579. 54. Kundakunda : Pañcāstikāya, p. 22. 55. Chaturvedi : Vedic Vijñāna Aur Bhāratiya Samskrti, p. 18
(Introduction ). 56. (a) J. C. Sikdar : Sambodhi, Ahmedabad, 8. 1. 1974.
(b) Sankarācārya : Brahma-sūtra-bhāsya, p. 123. 57. D. N. Sharma, & T. Jha : Samskrta Sabdārtha Kaustubha,
Ramnarainlal, Allahabad, 1957, p. 773. 58. Edited Gurudatta : Nyāya Darsana, Shashvat S. Parishad,
Delhi, 1980, p. 226. 59. Sabda Kalpadruma-4, p. 342. 60. Jinendra Varni : Jainendra Siddhāntakośa- 4, pp. 153-154. 61. Nemicanda Cakravarti : Gommațasāra-Jivakāņda, P. P.
Mandal, Agas, 1972, p. 76. 62. Virasena : Dhavalā, pp. 257-258, p. 313. 63. Edited Ghevarachandji Banthiya : Bhagavati-sutra, p. 558,
pp. 980-981. 64. Virasena : Dhavalā, pp. 257-258, p. 313. 65. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, p. 451, p. 471, p. 473,
pp. 578-579. 66. J. C. Sikdar : Sambodhi, Ahmedabad, 8. 1. 1974. 67. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, pp. 129-130. 68. Virasena : Dhavalā, p. 412, p. 415. 69. Jivābhigama-1, J. S. Shastroddhara Samiti, Rajkot, 1971,
pp. 57-58, p. 69. 70. Śyāma Arya : Prajñāpanā-1, A. P. S., Beawar, 1983, p.
507.

Page #423

Definition of Living
71. (a) Edited Madhukara Muni: Acārānga-1, p. 4.
(b) Acārānga, Śilānka Vṛtti, Patrānka 11.
72. (a) Deva Vācaka: Nandi-Sūtra, Edited Madhukara Muni, A. P. S., Beawar, 1982, pp. 149-150.
(b) Santi Sūriśvaraji: Jiva-Vicāra-Prakaraṇa, Jaina Siddhanta Society, Madras, 1950, p. 160.
73. Virasena: Dhavala, p. 412, p. 415.
74. Edited Madhukara Muni : Acārānga-1, p. 36.
: 401
75. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-2, pp. 680-682.
76. Edited Ghevarachandji Banthiya : Bhagavati-sūtra, p. 558, pp. 980-981.
77. Lodha In Marudhara Kesari Felicitation Volume, pp. 144173, p. 163.
78. Jinendra Varni: Jainendra Siddhāntakośa-4, 1973, p. 124. 79. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika, p. 451, p. 471, p. 473, pp. 578-579.
80. Lodha : In Marudhara Kesari Felicitation Volume, pp. 144173.
81. Malvania: Agama Yuga kā Jaina Darśana, p. 211, p. 232. 82. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavärttika-2, p. 451, p. 471, p. 473, pp. 578-579.
83. S. C. Jain: The Structure and Function of Soul in Jainism, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1975.
84. Ibid.
85. B. S. C. S. Blue Version, Molecules to Men, H. M. & Co., Boston, 1963, p. 163.

86. Best & Taylor: Physiological Basis of Medical Practice, Sc. Book Agency, Calcutta, 1970, p. 1, p. 31. 87. P. K. Jain: in Paramarśa ( Hindi ), 7.1.1985, pp. 1-10. 88. G. R. Jain: Cosmology: Old and New, p. 56. 89. Kādambini, January, 1984, pp. 162-168.

Page #424

402 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
90. Virasena : Dhavalā -1, pp. 119-120. 91. Lodha : Marudhara Kesari Felicitation Volume, pp. 144
173. 92. K. S. Rawat : Parā-manovijñāna, National Publishing
House, Delhi, 1984. 93. K. Singh : Daily Jāgarana, Rewa, 16.1.1986.

Page #425

Chapter 13 Classification and Life Cycle of
Living Beings
The general livingness has been evaluatively defined in the previous chapter. Despite the difference of opinion regarding its earliest origin, many other canonical characteristics seem to be similar to those accepted by current scientists. Of course, they have added many new dimensions and finer details of the living units. Besides the definition, the canons and post-canonical literature has a variety of classification for proper studies of the living. Though, as Mahāprajña' says, it is very difficult to trace the order of developments in various trends of classification, still one can try to assess about their different types. Six Groupings of the Living
The first book of the Jainas - Ācārānga has two classifications (1. 2,1.9) based on the primary concept of six types of living groups. Sūtrakrtānga gives three types of such groups with modifications in each with advancing sections ( 1.7, 1. 1,9. 11 ) confirming the six groupings. Dasavalkālika? maintains six groupings but the earlier section 4 follows the first Acārānga grouping while section 8 follows its second grouping. Uttarādhyayana3 follows the first Acārānga grouping with some difference assuming air and fire bodies as mobiles like Jivābhigama. In contrast to the six grouping concept, Satkhandāgama and Mūlācārau maintain seven groupings with the addition of unembodied living beings or liberated beings. All the above groupings have been summarised in Table 1. Mūlācāra mentions that the worldly living ones are of six types only as in. canons.

Page #426

404 1. Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Table 1: Six groupings of the Living Beings
No. Source
No. of
Name
Grouping
6
1. Acārānga, 1. 2
2. Acārānga, 1.9
3. Sūtrakṛtānga
4. Sūtrakṛtänga, 1. 7
5. Sūtrakṛtānga, 1. 9
6. Ibid 1. 11
7. Daśavaikā
lika, 4
8. Daśavaika
lika, 8
9. Uttara
dhyayana, 36
10. Satkhaṇḍāgama, 1. 39
11. Mūlācāra-1,
204
12. Jivābhigama

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
(Earth, water, fire, air) bodies, plants, mobiles.
(Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, (seeds, green plants, algae ), mobiles.
Rākṣasa, Yamalaukika, Asura, Gandharva, Khecara, Sthalacara. (Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, (trees, seeds, grass ), Mobiles (Incubatory, umbilical, juical, sweatal ).
(Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, (trees, seeds, grass etc. 10), ( incubatory, umbilical, un-umbilical, juical, sweatal, ground sprouts). (Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, ( grass, seeds etc. 10) mobiles. (Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, plants, mobiles.
(Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, ( grass, tree, seeds etc. ), mobiles. (Earth, water) bodies, plants, mobiles, (air, fire, intentional mobiles).
(Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, plants, mobiles, unembodied livings. (Earth, fire, water, air) bodies, plants, mobiles, liberated beings. (Earth, water, plants, air, fire) mobiles, liberated beings.

Page #427

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 405
These groupings indicate the following points :
(a) They maintain the classes of living as six with exception in ref. 9, 10, 11.
(b) The terms 'trasa' ( mobiles ) and 'Sthāvara' (nonmobiles ) seem to be coined later, though some references above use the term 'mobiles', some have varieties of mobile category without the term. However, there is no term 'sthāvara' (immobile ) used in these earlier groupings. Jivājivābhigamas seems to be the first to use the terms for worldly living beings.
(0) Sūtrakrtānga seems to have developed from 4 mobiles in 1. 7 to six mobiles in 1. 9 while Ācārānga mentions eight mobiles separately. This difference seems to be little disturbing to be explained. Sūtrakrtānga 1. 12 also contains another grouping of six which may be earlier than the current one,
(d) The term 'Vanaspati' ( Plants ) also seems to be a later coin as most references give names of different parts (upto 10 ) of the plants rather than plants in general.
(e) Besides reference 9 and 10, Prajñāpanā and Jivajivābhigama also mention the category of liberated beings. However, they have six varieties with reference to the worldly beings only as in Mülācāra. There is no mention of them in the first book. Does it mean that the concept of liberation and the liberated is a later one ?
It is because of these points that an accurate successive development of the six groupings concept can not be traced.
However, one can decipher the two classes of living beings out of these six. Mobile living beings form one class. The rest five form the other class of, say, immobiles. Acārānga has used the terms 'immobiles' in the end in 1. 9 only. Of course, it has used the term 'mobiles' in its groupings earlier. However, Sūtrakrtānga and canonical contents in Samavāo mention a parallel classification of living beings in these two groups. Though this tradition of mobile-immobile groups is not

Page #428

406 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
followed by Prajñāpanā?, but Jivajivābhigama and later procanons follow it. In contrast, Prajñāpanā gives sense-based classification of the worldly beings which seems to be an earlier version of Jivajivābhigama, though it classifies the mobiles on this basis leading to an indirect conclusion of other beings as one-sensed. Jaggi points out that sense-based classification of the living ones by the Jainas shows sufficient advancement over Caraka and Vaiseșikas. Of course, it cannot stand the specificity of the current binomial system of Linaus.
It must, here, be pointed out that Jivajivābhigama does not specifically mention the canonical six-fold groupings despite specific sections in D. S. V., U. T. N. in this regard. Theoretically, the grouping is termed as hylozoic concept, subject to large amount of criticism by scholars like Jacobio and Khushawanta Singh. Current science also does not support the livingness of structurally simple elements or compounds even under earth's crust like earth, water, fire, air *0. In contrast, the basic unit of livingness like protoplasm is a highly complicated structure found in plants and animals and not found in earth etc. Bhagavati and other canons have pointed out many properties of simple bodies including their dormant consciousness and pain-feeling capacity dealt elaborately by Muni Mahendra Kumar in a recent article''. He seems to believe them on the authority of the omniscients and not of scientists. He seems to support Gunaratna's contention of relationship between internal or external heat and livingness12. This logic seems to support the hylozoistic concept of Jainas. Nevertheless, much of his logistics has a confusing taste. Further, most of the details are not subject to scientific verification for characterising livingness in simple molecules or mixtures. Plants and Animals
The above two-fold classification continues to hold the field. Plants and animals have always been assumed to be living since hoary past. This is akin to current Botany and Zoology of biologists. However, one is not in a position to equate this

Page #429

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 407
with the other two-fold classification of beings with mind and without or undeveloped mind13. Botany deals with plant kingdom only while zoology may be taken to include living ones with or without canonical mind. They include from fine insects to animals and other mammals. This is a little subtle classification requiring better elaboration. Moreover, scientists find some exceptions in each class due to recent researches. Some exceptions were noted by Jaina scholars too!4. For example, a foetus in the womb which does not seem to move and a cyclone which moves fast. Such cases have been explained on the basis of karma theory in canons.
The characteristics of plants and non-plants are given in Table 2 as described in Jaina canons alongwith current points. It is clear that canonical points belong mostly to preinstrumental era. They do not include the three modern characteristics of plants : (a) occurrence of chlorophyl, (b) cellular and cellulosic structure and (c) auto-feeding habits. Similar points regarding animals are also absent. However, the sexual pro-creation and open/semi-open seeding and some other points were known to Jainas even in 10th century which are micro-scopic contributions in science. The table 2 indicates that the scientists are peeping into internal points while the canonists are mostly externalists. Table 2 : Canonical and Scientific Characteristics of Plants/
Animals.
Plants/non-mobiles Animals/mobiles
3
2
(A ) Canonical 1. Nature
( locomotion ) 2. Reproduction 3. Types 4. Ovum 5. Species
They are non-mobile They are mobile (except a few ) A-sexual
Sexual/a-sexual 18
15 Closed
Open 24 lacs
24 lacs ( excluding

Page #430

408 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
1
2
6. Form-1 7. Form-2
Macroscopic/visible Fine/gross, varied shapes 28 x 1012 Neuter
8. Families 9. Sex
hells/celestials ) Visible/invisible Gross only, fixed shapes 81.5 x 1012 Male, Female, Neuter 5-10 upto 5 with/without mind
10. Vitalities 11. Senses
1 (touch )
app. 1 million not found Non-auto-feeding Solid and fluid Not found Fast through specific parts in the body
[B] Scientific 1. Species
5 lacs 2. Cell wall Cellulosic cell wall 3. Nutrition Auto-feeding 4. Nature of food Fluid 5. Chlorophyl Found 6. Irritability Slow 7. Life processes through non-spe-
cific parts of the
body 8. Growth
Continuous throu- gh out life, mostly
vertical 9. Food storage in the form of
starch 10. Energy source Sun 11. Excretion No excretory
organs
S-shaped, lateral
In the form of glycogen Food Excretory organs
Other Classifications of the Living
Dale Rieppe like Khushavanta Singh'has pointed out Lord Mahāvira and his disciples as specialists in enumeration, compartmentalisation or classification. Accordingly, the six-fold canonical classification of living beings has many short and long

Page #431

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 409
forms ranging the classes of the living from 1 to ten, 14, 24, 32, 57, 98, 190, 380, 406, 570, etc. This has been made possible by use of clever mathematical computations. These classes are not found in canons but pro-canons like Jivajivābhigama and texts like Jivakānda ( 10th century ) and Jivavicāra-prakarana commentary ( 16th century ) do have it. We will give here the enumerated classification from different sources in Table 3.
On looking at table 3, one finds that there have been many simple and mixed bases of classification of the living. They include senses, destinities, embodiments, gender, knowledge, forms or sizes, completions, activities, movements and qualities like conation, restraint, passions, libido etc. The bases do not include life-cycles, morphological and structural similarities and successive developmental stages. However, it is also clear that the current biologists have no classification based on senses or qualities etc. per chance because of their scientifically unverifiable nature.
It is also observed that these types of classification also involve sub-classification of various living beings. Because of this, the types or classes of living beings have increased. However, it could be taken that the living beings are basically classed in three groups – mobiles, immobiles and the liberated ones. There are some discussions in literature about the liberated beings to be called as living as they have neither embodiments, nor vitalities. Dhavalā 16 points them to be living formally rather than really. In contrast, Akalanka' points out the liberated ones to be living on three counts - ( i ) occurrence of psychical vitalities like knowledge, conation etc. (ii) earlier livingness prior to liberation and (iii) conventionally just like to call an animal as cow (gau-moving ) even when it is not moving. However, they are being classed as living ones since Prajñāpanā days.
In contrast, the scientists do not agree for these salvated beings, they are beyond the sphere of their experimenta

Page #432

410

Names
:
Table 3 : Different Classes of Living Beings. No. Source
No. of Classes [A] One Class of One Type : 1. Gommațasāra (J) 1 [B] Two Classes of 19 types : 1. Jivābhigama
2 ( state) 2. Jivābhigama
2 ( movement.) 3-15. Jivābhigama 2 (13 types )
Jiva or general living.

(i) Liberated, (ii) Worldly. (i) Mobiles, (ii) immobiles. With reference to : (i) liberation, (ii) senses, (iii) body/ bodily activities, (iv) functional activities, (v) libido, (vi) passion, (vii) colourations, ( vili ) knowledge, (ix) intakes, (x) speech, ( xi ) embodiment, (xii) last-timed, ( xiii ) applied consciousness. (i) Liberated, (ii) Worldly. (i) Liberated, ( ii ) Worldly. (i) Mobiles, (ii) Immobiles. (i) Mobiles, (ii) Immobiles.
Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
16. Prajnapana
2 (state) 17. Jiva Vicāra Prakarana 2 (state) 18. Jiva Vicāra Prakarana 2 ( movement) 19. Gommatasāra Jivakāņda 2 ( movement) [C] Three Classes of Nine Types : 1. Jivābhigama
3 ( outlook )

(i) Right faithed, (ii) Worng faithed, (iii) right-cum-wrong faithed Limited, unlimited and limited-cum-non-limited duration.
2. Jivābhigama
3 ( duration )

Page #433

3. Jivābhigama
3 ( completion )

4. Jivābhigama
3 ( size ) 5. Jivābhigama -3 (mind) 6. Jivābhigama
3 ( liberatability ) 7. Jivābhigama
3 ( movement) 8. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 3 ( gender) 9. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 3 ( sense ) ID Four Classes of Six Types : 1. Jivābhigama
4 ( activity ) 2. Jivābhigama
4 ( libido ) 3. Jivābhigama
4 ( conation ) 4. Jivābhigama
4 ( restraint )
Completioned, non-completioned, completioned-cum-noncompletioned Fine, gross, non-fine-non-gross. Rational, non-rational, non-both. Liberatable, non-liberatable, non-both. Mobiles, immobiles, non-both. Males, females, Hermaphrodites. 1-sensed, deficient-sensed, All-sensed.

Active ( mentally, vocally, bodily ), Devoid of activity. Libido ( male, female, neuter ), Non-libidoed. Conation ( Visual, non-visual, clairvoyant, perfect ). Restrained, non-restrained, Mixed, non-restrained-cumnon-non-restrained. Hellish, human, sub-human, Celestial. 1-sensed, deficient-sensed, rational, non-rational.
Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings
5. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 4 ( destinities) 6. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 4 ( senses ) (E)Five Classes of Five Types : 1. Jivābhigama
5 ( destinity ) 2. Jivābhigama
5 ( passions ) 3. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 5( senses )

4 as in D-5, liberated. (Anger, puff, deceit, greed ) passioned, non-passioned. 1-5 sensed livings.
: 411

Page #434

412
:

4. Gommațasāra Jivakāņda 5 ( senses ) 1-5 sensed. 5. Prajñāpana
5 ( senses ) 1-5 sensed. [F] Six Classes of Five Types : 1 Jivābhigama
6( senses ) 1-5 sensed, sense-devoids. 2. Jivābhigama
6 ( bodies ) Gross-bodied, (transformable, ejectable, luminous, kārmic)
bodied, Dis-embodied. 3. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 6 ( embodiments ) (Earth, water, fire, air ) bodied, Plant bodied, Mobiles. 4. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 6 ( embodiments ) ( Earth, water, fire, air ) bodied, Plant bodied, Mobiles. 5. Sthānānga
6 ( knowledge) 1-5 knowledge, 6 non-knowledge. IG Seven Classes of Four Types : 1. Jivābhigama
7 ( embodiment 6 as in F-3, dis-embodied.
& movements ) 2. Şatkhandāgama 7 ( embodiment 6 as in F-3, dis-embodied.
& movements ) 3. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 7 (embodiment (Earth, water, fire, air ) bodied, Plant bodied, deficient
& movements ) sensed mobiles, all-sensed mobiles. 4. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 7 ( destinities, Hellish, male sub-human, female sub-human,male human,
gender ) female human, male celestial, female celestial. [H] Eight Classes of Four Types : 1. Jivābhigama
8 ( Destinities ) 7 as in G-4, salvated.
Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

Page #435

2. Jivābhigama
8( knowledge) (Sensory, Verbal, Clairvoyant, telepathic, perfect)
knowers, ( sensory, verbal, clairvoyant ) ignorant. 3. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 8( destinities ) (Hellish, sub-human, human, celestial ) at first and non
first moment. 4. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 8 ( senses ) (Earth, fire, water, air, plant ) bodied, deficient-sensed,
rational, non-rational. [1 ] Nine Classes of Three Types : 1. Jivābhigama
9 ( senses/des- 1-4 sensed, hellish, sub-human, human, celestial, salvated.
tinity ). 2. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 9 ( senses/ ( Earth, fire, water, air, plant) Bodied, 2-sensed, 3-4
mobility ) sensed, 5-sensed. 3. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 9 ( senses/ ( Earth, fire, water, air, plant ) Bodied, 2-sensed, 3-4
mobility ) sensed, 5-sensed. [ 1 ] Ten Classes of Five Types : 1. Jivābhigama
10 ( senses/ 9 as in 1-3, non-sensed ( Sense-devoids ).
destinity ) 2. Jivābhigama
10 ( destinity) 8 as in H-3, Salvated at first and non-first moment. 3. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 10 ( senses/mind )( Earth, fire, air, water, plant ) bodied, 2-4 sensed, rational,
non-rational. 4. Jiva-vicāra-prakarana 10 ( senses ) (1-5 sensed ) at first and non-first moment.
Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings

: 413

Page #436

414
:

5. Sthānānga 38 . 10 ( senses ) 1-sensed 5, 2, 3, 4, 5-sensed, non-sensed. [K] Eleven Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 11 ( mobility/forms ) 1-5 gross immobiles, 1-5 fine immobiles, mobiles. [L] Twelve Classes : 1. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 12 ( senses, size, 1-5 gross immobiles, 1-5 fine immobiles, deficient-sensed
mobility ) mobiles, all-sensed mobiles. IM | Thirteen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 13 ( sense, mobi- 1-5 gross immobiles, 1-5 fine immobiles, deficient-sensed
lity, mind ) mobiles rational, non-rational. IN] Fourteen Classes of Two Types : 1. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 14 ( sense! 1-5 gross immobiles, 1-5 fine immobiles, 2, 3, 4, 5 sensed
mobility ) beings. 2. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 14 ( completions ) Completioned and non-completioned ( 1-sensed gross and
fine, 2, 3, 4-sensed, 5-sensed rational, 5-sensed non
rational ). 10] Fifteen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 15 ( senses/mind ) Gross 1-sensed 5, fine 1-sensed 5, 2, 3, 4-sensed, rational
and non-rational 5-sensed. [P] Sixteen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 16 ( size, sense ) 1-8 gross and fine ( earth, fire, water, air ) bodied, 9-10
Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

Page #437

permanent/variable life general plants - gross and fine, individual bodied plants, 14. Deficient-sensed beings, 15
16. Rational, non-rational. [Q] Seventeen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 17 ( senses/size ) 1-13 as in P-1, 14-17, 2, 3, 4, 5-sensed beings. ( R ) Eighteen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 18 ( senses/mind ) 1-16 as in Q-1, 17. Rational, 18. non-rational. [S] Ninteen Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 19 ( senses/mind ) 1-12 as in P-1, 13-14. Supportive and non-supportive
plants, 15-17.2, 3, 4-sensed, 18-19. Rational and non
rational, 5-sensed. [T] Twenty-one Classes : 1. Pañca Sangraha 21 ( completions/ Completioned, non-completioned & structurally non
senses, mind ) completioned classes of beings as in N-2. [U]Twenty-four Classes of Two Types : 1. Jivābhigama Sūtra 24 ( destinities/ Hellish, human, peri-patetic, astral, empyrean, 2, 3, 4,
activities ) 5-sensed beings, 5 immobiles, 10 mansional celestials
(based on dandakas ). 2. Dhavalā 1.1
24 ( completions ) Completioned and non-completioned states of ( 1-10. gross
and fine, 5 1-sensed, 11. individual plants, 12. mobile beings ).
Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings
:

415

Page #438

416

(V] Thirty Classes : 1. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 30 ( mobility )
:
Completioned and non-completioned states of ( 1-10. gross and fine, 5 1-sensed, 11-15. mobiles ( 2, 3, 4 sensed, rational, non-rational ) 1.
[W] Thirty-two Classes of Two Types : 1. Jivābhigama
32 ( states )

1-20 ( gross and fine, completioned and non-completioned, 5 1-sensed ) 21-22. completioned and non-completioned general plants 23-28. completioned and non-completioned 2, 3, 4 sensed 29-32. completioned and non-completioned, rational and non-rational 5-sensed. 1-16. completioned and non-completioned states of gross and fine 1- sensed. 17-22. completioned and non-completioned state of gross and fine general plants, individual plants. 23-32. As in W-1.
Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
2. Pañca Sangraha
32 ( states )
[X] Thirty-four Classes : 1. Triloka Prajñapti

34 ( senses/form ) 1-16. As in W-2.
17-24. completioned and non-completioned gross and fine general plants, supportive/non-supportive individual plants.

Page #439

[Y] Thirty-six Classes :
1. Pañca Sangraha
[AA] Forty-eight Classes: 1. Pañca Sangraha
25-34, completioned and non-completioned 2, 3, 4 sensed, rational, non-rationals.
[AB] Fifty-four Classes : 1. Pañca Sangraha
36 (senses/form) 1-16. As in W-2.
[Z] Thirty-eight Classes :
1. Gommaṭasāra Jivakāṇḍa 38 ( senses/mind) 1-38. completioned and non-completioned state of 19
classes as in S-1.
17-24. completioned and non-completioned states of gross and fine permanent and variable general plants. 25-26. completioned and non-completioned individual plants.
27-36. completioned and non-completioned 2, 3, 4 sensed, rational/non-rationals.
48 (completions) 1-48. Completioned, structurally and timal noncompletioned states of gross and fine 41-sensed, gross/ fine general plants, individual plants, 2, 3, 4 sensed, rational/non-rational, 16 X 3 = 48.
54 (completions) 1-54. Completioned, structurally and timal non-comple
Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings: 417

Page #440

418

:

tioned varieties. Gross/fine forms of 4 1-sensed, gross/fine forms of permanent/variable general plants, Individual plants, 2, 3, 4 sensed, rational and non-rational, 5-sensed
18 x 3 = 54. [AC] Fifty-seven Classes : 1. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 57 ( completions, 1-57. Completioned, structurally and timal non
senses ) completioned classes of 19 varieties as in S-1. [ AD ] Ninety-eight Classes : 1. Gommațasāra Jivakānda 98 ( Sizel 1-51. Completioned, structurally and timally non
completions ) completioned | ( 1-8 ) gross/fine forms of 4 1-4 sensed,
( 9-12 ) gross/fine forms of permanent/variable general plants, (13-14) supportive/non supportive indivudal plants and ( 15-17) 2, 3, 4-sensed beings ) = 17 x 3 = 51. 52-85. 5-sensed sub-humans of lands of action-30, Subhumans of lands of enjoyments-4. 86-98. Aryan humans-3, Non-Aryan humans-3, humans of
best and worst lands of enjoyments-4, hellish -2, celestials-2. (AE ] Four-hundred Six Classes : 1. Gommatasāra Jivakānda 406 ( completions, 1-81. Completioned, non-completioned and structurally
senses, mind ) non-completioned classes of gross/fine forms of 5 1
Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

Page #441

[AF] Mathematically Computed Classes : 1. Gommaṭasāra Jivakāṇḍa
190
380
570
sensed, gross/fine forms of permanent/variable general plants, 10 Supportive/non-supportive individual plants, 2, 3, 4 sensed beings (27 x 3 = 81).
82-123, 5-sensed sub-humans uterine 12, a-sexual 18, land of enjoyments 12.
124-393. Completioned/structurally non-completioned classes of 135 celestials and hells (Mansional 10, peripatetic 8, Astral 5, Empyreans 63, Hellish 49). 394-406. Completioned/structurally non-completioned classes of uterine aryan, non-aryan, 3 types of enjoyment, lands, lands of action ( human beings ), 6 X 2 = 12, A-sexual aryan human beings.
Refer 19 classes of S-1
19 + 1 = 20, 20/2 = 10, 10 X 19 = 190.
Refer 38 classes of Z-1
38 + 2
Refer 57 classes of AC-1
57 + 3 = 60, 60/2 = 30, 30 X 19 = 570.
40, 40/2 = 20, 20 X 19
380.
Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings:
419

Page #442

420 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
tion. They classify the living ones in two broad categories - (i) plants and (ii) animals. The plants represent the class of immobile beings. The scientists do not agree to the livingness of the first four canonical immobiles ( earth, fire, water, air ). Per chance, they have been taken as living by the Jainas due to substrate-substratum relationship. This animism of Jainas reflects the influence of Vedāntins. The scientists have differentiated the plants and animals on the basis of their visible characteristics and structures which have already been tabulated earlier. On sense-based canonical classification, the plants represent 1-sensed beings. The living beings under this category are said to number about half a million by scientists.
On the other hand, the animals represent living beings with 2-5 senses. They number about a million species. The scientists have classified both the living kingdoms on the three bases :
(i) Natural System : It is based on similarities of some natural characteristics and properties like morphology, structures and genus.
(ii) Artificial System : It is based on habitat, sexual characteristics and other properties.
( ili ) Phylogenic System : It is based on phylum, internal structures and developmental similarities.
The Bentham and Hooker classification is most current for plants. It is based on natural system. Engler system is based on phylogenic system. The Linnaus system is an artificial system. He has also devised the current binomial nomenclature of plants in later half of eighteenth century.
The animals have also been classified on the basis of morphology, embryology, paleo-ontology and evolution etc. The classification of Store and Usinger is currently widely accepted 19. Both these classifications will be comparatively given in due course. It may, however, be pointed out that the Jaina taxonomy has generally a mixed character.

Page #443

Classification and Life Cycle of.Living Beings : 421
Life-cycle of Worldly Living Beings: Birth, Growth and Death All worldly living beings have a life cycle consisting of birth, growth and death phenomena. These processes are the most visible signs of life. They are not mentioned by Kundakunda ( he seems to believe in pure, immortal beings like Vedāntins), but they are described in Bhagavati and other canons and pro-canons. The birth represents the reproduction of the living followed by its growth and termination. There is sufficient material about these processes in Prākṛta literature which will be summarised here.
It has already been said that the livingness comes into existence due to the resultant growth of six completions. These are said to generate force, energy, vitality or heat for the functioning of life through metabolic change and observing its characteristics. The question is where do the first life symptoms in the worldly living arise from? This has been one of the most complex question where difference of opinion even between various philosophies and sciences still exists and no decisive answer to it, as yet, could be given except various types of intellectual thoughts.
However, the successful synthesis of living cell in 1968 and production of genes in early seventies seem to be suggestive of material birth of primary life. A partial success in creating life in laboratory is visible but this will produce man, is very doubtful. This is because laws applicable to microworld are not as well applicable to macroworld. However, there has been a large amount of work on relating the complex proteins-RNA, DNA and other compounds with knowledge, memory and diseases. By introducing specific compounds, any of the above characteristics may be suppressed, denatured and modified. Dr. Kabra has reported many cases in this connection20. Volitional changes may also be covered through these inductions. Even changes in food habits lead to modify volitions. Jaina, however, seems to cast doubt on the success of scientists in this direction21. Still, the facts coming to light have a different

Page #444

422 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
story to reveal.
The material origin of first living signs have also been the direct and indirect theory of Sānkhyas22, Vaiśeṣikas23 and even Vedāntins24 who would tell us the birth of a body (of course, with livingness characteristics ) rather than that of the living in the form of fine body (linga or sūkṣma sarira ). Cārvākas and Aristotle were also supporters of material origin of living. However, Vedāntins would console us by saying that birth and death are formal and secondary parts of the eternally living entity.
The Jainas have somewhat elaborately modified views on this point. They hold the commonsense view that the living beings have always been there as they are. They would proclaim that like begets the like and there seems to be no question of material origin of the living. Accordingly, it is not the living only, but the embodied living which takes a cellular beginning of life, the living cells being vegetatively, a-sexually or sexually transformed into a new or multicellular complex species of its own type. Partly they hold similar views like Vedāntins.
The Birth of the Living Beings
Whenever any species in the world appears in the form of new embodiment with the signs of livingness and vitalities, it is said to have taken birth. The Sankhya and Nyāya schools also define the birth as a process of combination of consciousness (Purusa, Jiva, Prāna) with the body or specific conglomeration of body, senses and intelligence. Jainas define it as having a new embodiment which is formed by assimilation of materials capable of transforming them into the body, senses etc. It is doubtful whether Pujyapāda25 means the soul as acceptor of matter for getting into a new body per chance in association with fine luminous and karmic bodies (which he has not mentioned ).
Many philosophies assume that the birth of a new species takes place by two possible mechanisms: (a) spon

Page #445

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 423
taneous generation has been the old way and (b) uterine birth is another way. The first involves the primary life from assumed non-living. The second involves living from the living one. These mechanisms may be equated to the a-sexual and sexual births in current terms.
The Sānkhyas believe in 18-elemental fine body to be born out of non-living Prakrti which gets associated with the semen and blood of the parents and creates eight types of heavenly, five types of animals ( deer, quadrupeds, birds, serpents and immobiles like plants ) and one type of human lot26, their conscious element being different whose mere presence and sight is supposed to be the power for their activities. This suggests that fine material body gets associated with the fine bodies only sexually (even in plants). This system, thus, regards uterine birth preceded by spontaneous generation of fine body. The Vaiseșikas27 also agree to the two types of births of heavenly and non-heavenly bodies in terms of ayonija (a-sexual or special type ) and yonija ( uterine ) births. They have a-sexual birth for heavenly bodies, seers, rsis and small crea-tures like moths, mosquitoes, gadflies, etc. due to merited or demerited atomic combinations. They have sexual births for mammals, birds and serpent etc. The sexual birth has two varieties : (i) umbilical (jarāyuja ) and (ii) incubatory (andaja ). The offshoots have sexual differentiation. The Vedāntins have two types of creatures : (a) mobiles and (b) non-mobiles. However, they have not specified their birth types in their earlier texts.
In contrast, the Jainas have three types of birth mechanism :(a) A-sexual or Sammūrchima, (b) Uterine or Garbhaja and (c) Special bed or Upa-pāda or Ayonija type28. The uterine birth has also been sub-classified in three forms - two of the Vaiseșikas and the third as un-umbilical one. They have exemplified all the three varieties as given in Table 4, showing birth types in three major Indian systems. This suggests the Jaina system to be advanced over others on two counts :

Page #446

424 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
(i) Special provision of birth type for hellish and heavenly bodies, thus, distinguishing them from small creature (a-sexual ) birth type.
(ii) Addition of a third variety of uterine birth for animals like lion, deers etc. indicating little finer observation power. Table 4 : Different Types of Births in Three Major Indian
Systems. System
Birth types : Examples 1. Sänkhyas 1. Spontaneous Heavenly bodies 8
followed by uterine Animals 5 birth
Humans 1 2. Vai eşikas 1. A-sexual Heavenly beings, (Ayonija )
rşis, small creatures 2. Uterine (a) Umbilical Men, animals (b) Incubatory Birds, fish, serpents
etc. 3. Jainas
1. A-sexual/ 1-4 sensed beings Spontaneous and some 5-sensed
beings 2. Uterine/Sexual (garbhaja ) (a) Umbilical Men, 5-sensed
animals (b) Non-umbilical Lion, deers (c) Incubatory Hen, parrot etc. 3. Special bed Heavenly/hellish (Upapāda ) beings
The Jaina canons suggest that the present life comes into existence through the finest luminous and karmic type of bodies. These bodies have beginningless association with the living element. It is due to this that the livingness on earth is called as beginningless. However, the current life of the living comes into existence through the process of reproductive birth.

Page #447

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 425
Bhagavati29 and other canons give a number of details about this process for human beings specially which have uterine umbilical birth as shown in Table 5. Table 5 : Details of Uterine Birth Process. No. Item
Canonical
Current Science 1. Intercourse
Destroys many
embryo cells 2. Potency period of 48 mts. – 9.6 hrs. 24-42 hrs.
cells 3. Pregnancy through 1, 2, 3, to 2-9 x 105 Indefinite but Intercourse
mostly one 4. Progenity of human 1, 2, 3, to 200-900
beings 5. Pregnancy period 1 time unit to six
of water bodies months 6. Pregnancy period 48 mts, to 8 years
of animals 7. Pregnancy period 48 mts. to 12 years App. 270 days
of humans 8. Embodiment period 48 mts. to 24 years in womb
In contrast, such details are not available for a-sexuals. However, distinctive characters are given by Pujyapāda and Akalanka30 for a-sexual and sexual births as shown in Table 6. The a-sexual birth is spontaneous and macroscopic. Its species is short-lived and normally neuter in gender. Its causes and effects are visible. In contrast, the uterine birth may be either due to sperm and ovum in the womb or by assimilation of necessary foods etc, in it. The species are microscopic, invisible, long-living and gendered. Canonically, the sexually born species represent mainly the living ones with 5-senses and mind. However, Prajñāpanā mentions their a-sexual birth also. It is now known that for human beings, the embryos grow from 5 mm, in the first week to about 350 mm. in the end and

Page #448

426 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
various developments take place from 12 weeks onwards. Bhagavati, Tandulaveyaliya 32 and other canons have pointed out many details about the period intervening between conception and birth known as pregnancy period given in Table 5. The maximum and minimum periodical limits have not been verified by the scientists. The canons also point out that there are psychic senses in the living cell at the point of conception rather than physical ones. It has an invisible fine body effected by outer environment - a fact agreed by current scientists 33. Table 6 : Characteristics of Categories of Births. No. A-sexual
Uterine
Special bed 1. Macroscopic Microscopic 2. Short lived
Long lived
Longer lived 3. Cause-effect visible/ Cause-effect invisiknown
ble/unknown 4. Neuter gender Distinct gender Distinct gender 5. Formation of body Formation of body Formation of in all directions: by fusion of sperm body by trans
and ovum in womb formable matters 6. Open vagina Open-cum-closed Closed vagina
vagina 7. Hot, cold, hot-cum- Hot, cold, hot-cum- Hot and cold cold vagina ( hot for vagina
vagina fire bodies ) 8. Wet, dry and mixed Mixed vagina Dry vagina
vagina 9. -
Conch, tortoise & -
flat shaped Vagina Types of Birth-places, their Number and Shapes
Table 6 shows that the Jaina canons have described about the types of birth-places, vaginas or wombs (yonis ) in addition to the above birth mechanism. Normally, a birth place is a container of birth species for its proper development before it appears freely. Each species has its special types of birth

Page #449

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 427
place. As many species, as many birth places. These are classified on the basis of many general conditions under which the living body is conceived and grows. The body may grow by assimilation of proper extracts or material from surroundings under suitable conditions of (a) covering, (b) climate and (c) temperature. The combination or reverses of these conditions make the total variety of birth places to be nine. The commentators of Umāsvāti's aphorism (T. S. 2. 32 ) have defined the word 'sacitta' as place with living matter34 which does not seem to suit here. It should mean climatic conditions like humid and dry or habitat.
The birth places have been referred to all kinds of living beings and one commonly knows that different plants and even animals have different types of environmental conditions for their nucleation and growth. The explaination of Pujyapāda on mixed vagina is, thus, not convincing. Secondly, cellular genesis of life assumes livingness all the times during growth of lower or higher species. The T. S. commentators also seem to be off the track when they say that semen is non-living as it contains the cells and all the genetic code for growth of the living35. Yasodharacarita does also seem anomalous when it mentions that livingness may accrue in the womb even a week after the union of sperm and ovum and that a father may become his own son36. The livingness enters the womb while concieving is another opinion for birth. This also does not sound scientific. Thus, a newer meaning of 'sacitta' or the reverse will make Jaina description little more scientific.
Though the nine-variety classification of birth places is the simplest one, the canonists would tell us the number of birth places upto 84 lacs or 8.4 million like the Vedāntins based on classification of different living species. Prajñāpanā has different numeration, though Malayavṛtti calls 'sankhyāta' as seven in many cases. This should be looked into. This means an another sense of the term 'yoni' as a form of life which has a special birth-place. This is formalisation of cause into effect.

Page #450

428 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Thus, 'yoni' does not only represent the birth-place but it also tells us about the different forms of living species. A third meaning of the term is also found in terms of cause of birth. This is, however, not generally agreed. Though the major 'yonis' are four (hellish, human, sub-human and celestials ), but their sub-classification yields 8.4 million 'yonis' shown in Table 7 alongwith the number of families ( specific species ) of different species. Table 7 : Number of Yonis and Families in Jaina Canons. No. Species
Yonis42 Families, x 1012
Mūlācāra43 PrV44 1. 1-sensed Earth-bodied 700,000
12 2. 1-sensed Water-bodied 700,000 3. 1-sensed Air-bodied 700,000 4. 1-sensed Fire-bodied 700,000 5. 1-sensed permanent 700,000
general bodied species
(plants) 6. 1-sensed variable general 700,000
bodied species ( plants ) 7. 1-sensed other plant 10,00,000
species 8. Total plant species 24,00,000 9. 2, 3, 4 sensed species 600,000 24 24 10. 5-sensed animal species 400,000 43.50 53.50 11.5-sensed human species 14,00,000 1 4 12 12. Hellish species
400,000 25 25 13. Celestial species 400,000 26 26 Total
84,00,000 199,5 197.5 It is observed that there seems to be a discrepancy in the number of families of human beings in Mülācāra? and Gommațasāra Jivakānda 38 ( one mentioning 14x1012 and the other mentioning as 12 x 1012 ), thus, the families will vary between 197.5-199.5 x 1012. Gommatasāra agrees with

Page #451

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 429
Praśnavyākarana 39. This discrepancy must be removed. However, there is another discrepancy. Despite the number of families of the living beings of the same order, there is a difference in numeration in two places in non-Digambara version. There are 12x1012 earth-bodied families and 53.5x1012 families of five-sensed animals in comparison to 22 and 43.5 x1012 families in Digambara version. This different numeration also requires clarification.
In addition to the number and types, Prajñāpanā 40 gives the shapes of the birthplaces also followed by other procanons. The birth places could be (a) conch shaped, (b) tortoise shaped and (c) bamboo leaf-like flat shaped. It is said that, great men, kings and saints are born out of tortoise-shaped birthplace, common men are born out of flat birthplace and abortive birth takes place out of conch shaped birth place. The scientificity of these shapes has to be established. Jollies, however, points out five vaginal shapes, in terms of single medium ( flat ), duplex, tri-partite, leicarnuate and simplex types with illustrations. The Growth of the Living Beings
The term birth generally refers to appear as a new embodiment. However, it is used in a wider sense here. It involves the process of conception or fertilisation followed by development of new nuclei in the new birth places upto a point of their appearance in the world. This is the first stage of growth. The second stage of growth involves the development of various parts of the physical embodiments to the full. This growth continues throughout life and ends only at death. It could be positive or negative. Both these stages are involved in the growth process here. Technically, this involves a quantitative increase in size, weight and volume at any stage.
Canons do not mention the difference between plant and animal growth. However, it is common-sense knowledge that plant growth is said to be continuous and more vertical than lateral. It is pointed out in Sūtrakrtānga that plants grow

Page #452

430
: Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
by taking and assimilating the sap from bodies of soil, water, air, fire (sun) and even other plants under favourable conditions45. This intake is caused through their outer skins from below and the sun and atmosphere from upwards. They have their intake through fine pores or hairs. They have energy intake by absorption and solution-intake by diffusion and osmosis. This all round intake causes the various completions (four in case of plants) which are instrumental in the growth of different parts of the plants. These are roots, tubers, stem, wall, sprout, branches, leaf, flower, fruits, seed and bark46. Each part has its intake by the same method through its underground roots with which every other part is connected. Bhagavati mentions the growth of plants through intakes the amount of which vary from season to season47. Gunaratna also points out similar growth process in plants alongwith many other comparable qualities of mammalians48. It is the intake which is transformed in different parts of plants in due course. Despite mention by Sikadar, canons do not seem to specify the quality of photosynthesis by plants and contribution of air in their growth. Of course, it could be inferred that the completional metabolism may supply the necessary energy for proper growth.
The growth of 1-4 sensed beings born through asexual or spontaneous mechanism is not very much detailed in canons, though quite a number of them have been said to be of uterine incubatory birth in contrast to their overall a-sexual origin50. But their growth after birth might be inferred as due to metabolisation of material intakes and consequent energy. The growth of mammals during pregnancy period has already been described in another chapter. The after-birth growth is not very much detailed. But it has been pointed that the food intake is gradually metabolised to be transformed into blood, flesh, bone, fat, marrow, semen, sense-organs etc.51 A mammalian passes into ten stages after birth. The first stage is that of a child (upto 10 yrs.). Other stages are: (ii) sportive stage, (iii) slow growth, (iv) youth or state of strength, (v)

Page #453

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 431
family breeding, (vi) adulthood, (vii) old age, (viii) contracting stage, (ix) de-sexed stage, (x) sorrowful stage. Alternatively, ten growth states are also mentioned age-wise as below :
0-10 Age of sacraments & celebrations 10-20 Age of enjoyments 31-40 Age of earning experience 41-50 Age of weakening eye-sight 51-60 Age of weakening strength 61-70 Age of de-sexing 71-80 Age of weakening knowledge 81-90 Age of bending body 91-100 Age of departure/death
These stages suggest that Jaina seers could observe things from various angles. Normally, a 100 years age was assumed for men in the world. It is clear that some of the agewise observations have to be redrafted in this century as many new points have come to be known. Sex and Other Characters of the Progenies
For a-sexuals, the canons presume a neutral sex. However, for sexuals, they postulate that the sex of the progeny depends on the quantity of male semen, the relative excess of which procreates male species. Empirically, periodicity may also be an additional factor. Despite the fact that there was no idea about the constituents of semen in canonical days, this has a crude guess about the existence of chromosomes in semen.
It can also be surmised that the progeny should have characteristics of male and female partners as canons point that some parts ( bones, hairs, etc.) are contributed by males and some (head and other parts) by females. Many volitional, intellectual and other characteristics of the progeny are said to be due to kārmic factors also which may be assumed to be transferred in the form of luminous and kārmic bodies through semen52. These bodies should contain what we call

Page #454

432 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
genes today which characterise the parents in present and which may forecast the character of the coming progeny. In this respect, canonical kārmic theory may be equated with the genes theory, both being fine material aggregates. This equation, however, could not be taken too far. Death of the Living Beings
Death is the termination of vitalities through any of the means described later. It is a natural phenomena and an unavoidable one. We can imagine the situation in the world in the absence of death of living beings. How horrible it could be until old age is reversed. Though there is no specific mention of causes of death of different types of living but the genera! causes given may be sufficient to judge the death of 1-5 sensed beings. The death may be due to physical ( mostly ) and mental causes. Times have changed and the number and variety of mental causes is increasing enormously. Concurrently, many more death-deterrants ( like bye-pass surgery, implants and transplants, medication and meditation, etc.) are also being developed so as to delay the death phenomena. There a third type of death in Jaina practices - a type of voluntary death under extreme conditions with religious sanctions creating fearlessness about death53. Many scholars charge it with an equivalence of suicide but the Jaina seers have refuted it from the very beginning. This type of fearless and carefree death is a celebrity for a true Jaina.
The causes and types (17) of death are described with necessary supplementary material in relevant chapter. Current Concepts About Birth
The biologists tell us that a new species is procreated by any of the three processessa (i) Vegetative reproduction : Budding/fission Bacillus (ii) A-sexual reproduction : Endospores, Azobactor
conidia, cyst formation (iii) Sexual reproduction : Conjugation, Mammals &
Transformation, transduction others

Page #455

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 433
These processes represent the gradual evolutionary stages of evolution. The first two processes involve the natural process of procreation among the living when no sex-signs are evolved. They occur under favourable or unfavourable conditions. Despite some difference, both of these can be merged into one-a-sexual one. This method involves procreation not involving fusion of nucleii and meosis. It occurs by cell division, fission, budding and part-heno-genesis ( for dipoloids ). This is found only in low level living ones like virus, bacteria and non-flowering plants. The sexual method procreates the new species by mixing and fusion of the nucleii internally or exter+ nally from the same ( tapeworm ) or different species ( of the same type, i.e., earthworm ) called hermaphrodites. This is found mostly in flowering plants, animals and mammals. There are, however, a large number of species in lower plants and animals which are procreated by both these, methods. The experimental verification of both types of births in many species of plants and animals is in sharp contrast with Jaina canons where mention of only a-sexual birth in plants and 1-4 sensed animals has been made55. Their birth does not involve sex in any way. Moreover, it seems that the term 'sammurchima not been very clearly defined. Should the a-sexuality of this birth be involving procreation of the first lowest form of life from the non-living materials spontaneously? If so, it goes against the Jaina theory of non-destruction of soul and cause-effectism. It must, therefore, be defined to maintain these principles. In any case, it can not mean the earlier Cārvāka or later Aristotlean view. Yuvācārya has given a better definition stating it as a way of birth with no fixed place and womb 56. It tries to clarify some points as refuting the spontaneous generation indirectly. However, looking the canonical descriptions, it seems that indirect or invisible sex should also be included in the term so that 14 sensed species of sexual procreation may be included in this class. Though this may not be correct scientifically as they would be called sexually procreated whether it may be direct

Page #456

434 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
or indirect. This canonical point requires better definition of the term 'sammūrchima'. Similarly, the canonical concept about hermaphroditic character of a-sexual living beings also requires re-examination under many scientific facts.
The canonical a-sexual birth of 1-4 sensed beings represents the first stage of livingness followed by more developed state of sexual birth. Thus, Jaina canons also believe in evolutionary process of developing level of consciousness as also mentioned by Sikadar57. The sexual procreation of scientists has direct or indirect fusion of two nucleii. The mammalian procreation is a direct sexual one. The microscopically visible procreation of many plants and lower animals is an indirect sexual one. This has been called a-sexual in canons. It suggests that canonical contents represent the visible points of observation of pre-microscopic age. However, on finer observations, later literature points out many animals of 1-4 senses to be incubatory and sexually procreated 58. The question of practical and absolutist viewpoint on this matter and to call incubatory as a-sexual is just to forestall the growth front of accurate knowledge not in tune with the examination based Jainology59. This point leads to another fact that later authors have added newer informations whether they add or contradict the earlier statements. Heredity Characters and Sex
The scientists believe that the basic progeny characters are supposed to originate and develop from many factors involving seminal and menstruation fluids (genetic source ), sensory and nervous systems, glandular secretions, bio-electric and bio-chemical changes, internal and external surroundings and emotion-carrying electromagnetic or electrostatic stimulations, They may be effective in various permutations and combinations involving mutational characters. Thus, an infinite variety of mental and emotional states and activities may originate in a species. Every living system has natural and circumstancial intakes of these factors for the resulting characters which have

Page #457

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 435
been verified by the psychologists under medium range cases61. Though the scientists agree to the cause-effect principle of karmavādins, but they may not agree to past karmas as originators of present until the term 'karma' has some reasonable conceptualisation in current terms. Material karmas (fine particles or waves) must be improvable by material medication, austeritic and intentional changes. That is why, Ohira has equated karma with any fine form of intake - physical (i.e., genes), vocal or mental. This equation may not be to the liking of karmic theoreticians, but this seems to be the best way under the current set of knowledge to forestall the dwindling effect of this theory and giving it the credit of modernity. Karma cannot be a vital force. It could only be a material force subject to scientific studies.
The sex characters have been found to develop due to chromosomal specific pairing. This is a finer structural basis than canonical relative semen-excess base.
The canons have quite impressive details about sexual reproduction, embryo growth and growth after-birth regarding human beings which have been comparatively described in chapter on medical sciences.
References
1. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakṛtānga-1 J. V. B., Ladnun, 1984, p. 473.
2. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśavaikālika, Ibid, 1976, p. 105, p. 373.
3. Uttaradhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 512-519.
4. (a) Puspadanta & Bhūtabali : Satkhanḍāgama-1, J. S. S. Sangh, Sholapur, 1985, p. 267.
4. (b) Baṭṭakera : Mūlācāra-1, Bharatiya Jnanpitha, Delhi, 1984, p. 171.
5. Jivajivābhigama, S. Shastroddhara Samiti, Rajakot, 1971, p. 48.

Page #458

436
6.
7.
8.
9.
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Edited Madhukara Muni: Acārānga-1, A. P. S., Beawar, 1980, p. 28.
Shyama Arya : Prajñāpanā-1, Ibid, 1983, p. 36, p. 43, p. 47, pp. 70-72 etc.
O. P. Jaggi: Prācina Bhārata ke Vaijñānika aur unaki Upalabdhiyāna, Atmaram & Sons, Delhi, 1971, p. 186. (a) A. Chakravarti: in Pañcāstikāya-sāra, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1975, p. XVII.
(b) Khushavanta Singh: View of India, I. B. H. Publishing House, Delhi, 1982, p. 54.
(c) Svāmi Prabhavananda: Spiritual Heritage of India, Ramakrishna Matha, Madras-4, 1973, p. 155.
10. N. L. Jain: Grha Vijñāna Rasayana, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1985, pp. 199-377.
11. Muni Mahendra Kumar : Tulasi Prajñā, 14. 2. 1988, p. 1. 12. Haribhadra Suri Şad-Darśana-Samuccaya, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1971, p. 240.
13. Umāsvāti: Tattvārtha Sūtra, Varni Granthamala, Kashi, 1949, p. 90, p. 102.
14. Bhaṭṭa Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, pp. 126-127.
15. Khushavanta Singh: View of India, p. 54.
16. Jinendra Varṇi : Jainendra Siddhānta Kosa-2, p. 334.
17. Bhatta Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 25.
18. Y. D. Tyagi : College Botany ( Hindi ), Arun Prakashan, Gwalior, 1991, pp. 431-442.
19. R. N. Singh & A. K. Bansal : Zoology (Hindi), Yugabodha Prakashan, Raipur, p.155.
20. Dr. Kabra: Ravivāra, 9. 32, April, 1986, p. 44. 21. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 59. 22. Īśvarakṛṣṇa : Sāṁkhyakārikā, p. 94.
23. Prasastapāda: Prasastapāda Bhāṣya, p. 82. 24. (a) Śankarācārya : Brahma-Sūtra-Śānkara-Bhāṣya, 1972,
p. 495.

Page #459

Classification and Life Cycle of Living Beings : 437
24. (b) Divānacanda : Darsana-Sangraha, U. P. Publications,
Lucknow, 1958, p. 220. Generally the conceived body is taken to be non-living by religionists and philosophers. There is, therefore, a problem to explain the livingness during embrgo or zygote stage. The Vedics believed that when a worldly being dies, the winds coming out of the dead move to transitional realms wherefrom they come to the earth through rains, get absorbed by plants eaten by males. Their semen, thus, has the livingness passing to the females through intercourse. The Buddhas presume the potential or rebirth linking consciousness of the dead arises at the precise moment of conception. The Jainas seem to have better face. They hold that the living one has a bonded life-span Karma and destinity during his third or last part of current life and as soon as he dies, his subtle Kārmic-luminous body moves to the requisite place of conception within 1-3 samayas. The transmigrating entity does not require much time to decide his next fate. - O'Flaherty : Karma and Rebirth in Indian Tradition,
MLBD, Delhi, 1983, p. 221, p. 229. 25. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 134. 26. iśvarakrsna : Sānkhyakārikā, p. 76, p. 104. 27. Kaņāda : Vaiseșika Sūtra, pp. 288-289 28. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, pp. 134-135. 29. Bhagavati -1, Jaina Bhavana, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 185-187. 30. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, pp. 134-135. 31. Shyāma Arya :Prajñāpanặ-1, pp. 80-90. 32. Tandulaveyaliya; S. Hitakarani Sansthan, Bikaner, 1949,
pp. 6-16 33. Bhagavati-1, Jaina Bhavana, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 185-187. 34. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, pp. 134-135. 35. Ibid, pp. 134-135. 36. Jinendra Varni : Jainendra Siddhānta kośa-2, p. 334. 37. Battakera : Mūlācāra, pp. 186-190.

Page #460

438 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
38. Nemichanda Chakravarti : Gommatasāra-Jivakānda, P. P.
Mandal, Agas, 1972, p. 74. 39. Edited Madhukara Muni : Prasnavyākarana, A. P. S.,
Beawar, 1983, p. 44. 40. Shyāma Arya : Prajñāpanā-1, p. 36, p. 43, p. 47, pp. 70
72, etc. 41. Malcom Jollie : Chordate Morphology, East-West, Delhi,
1968, pp. 186-190. 42, Battakera, Mūlācāra, pp. 186-190. 43. Ibid, pp. 186-190. 44. Edited Madhukara Muni : Praśnavyākarana, p. 44. 45. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrtānga-2, Jaina
Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, p. 104. 46. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, p. 657, p. 943. 47. Edited Madhukara Muni : Bhagwati-3, pp.1130-1132. 48. Haribhadra Sūri : Şaddarsana-samuccaya, p. 240. 49. J. C. Sikdar : Jabalpur University Lectures, 1975. 50. Bhadrabāhu : Kalpa-sūtra, Agama Shodha Sansthan,
Sibana, 1968, p. 343. 51. Tandulaveyaliya, pp. 6-16. 52. Bhagavati-7, Jaina Bhavana, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 185-187. 53. Pūjyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 273. 54. (a) Tyāgi : College Botani, pp. 431-442.
(b) Singh & Bansal : Zoology, p. 155. 55. Pujyapāda : Sarvārtha-siddhi, p. 136. 56. Muni Nathamala : Jaina Darsana : Manana aur Mimāmsā,
Adarsha Sahitya Sangh, Churu, 1973. 57. J. C. Sikdar : Jabalpur University Lectures, 1975. 58. Bhadrabāhu : Kalpa-sūtra, p. 343. 59. Muni Nandighoshavijaya : Tirtharkara, 1987, p. 63. 60. N. L. Jain : Jaina Journal, Calcutta, 1988, p. 133. 61. J. P. Sharma : Sāmānya Manovijñāna, L. N. Agrawal, Agra,
1984, p. 95.

Page #461

Chapter 14 Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons
Plant kingdom forms the first variety of the worldly living in the middle portion of the Jaina universe. The plants represent the low level 1-sensed immobile or sessile living beings out of their two classes. They form about 38.6% of the total birth places and 14.2% of the total families of the living world. They include green grass, trees, creepers, shrubs, herbs, clusters, etc. All types of dry, wet, cut or uncut plants are called botanical species. They are primary products of the living world supporting higher life. They are called 'taru' or safeguard for calamities and 'pādapa' or growing through base or root actions. Amara Muni' has pointed out that plant kingdom has been important from :( a ) individual ( foods and medicines ), (b) social ( environments ), (c) non-violence ( vegetarianism ) and (d) livelihood point of view. The trees have been associated with many attainments of the past great men ( like attaining perfect knowledge under sāla, bața or Bodhi trees ) and their sermonisation in gardens. Many names are associated with trees like Jambū-island, Dhātakikhanda island, and Asoka tree as special glorification of Jaina lords. It is said that people planting trees earn names. The afforestation festival has been a noted affair in the past.
Jaina scholars have studied plants and other living beings from two angles :( a ) physical and (b) moral. The religious literature describes them mainly on the basis of their ethical values. Nevertheless, it contains sufficient description in physical terms about them. A large amount of details are found regarding the available plants, their classification and identification. They have been described under disquisition doors of many types. Table 1 gives some canonical informa

Page #462

440 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
tions under different disquisition doors? for the two main classes of plants. Only useful informations have been selected here. They have been described under senses, body, size, shapes, sex, activity, food, vitalities, completions, species, dwelling places, birth-places etc. together with many volitional aspects. This indicates the wide scope of studies Jaina scholars have made on plants. These descriptions, however, indicate that they have been concentrated on some specifically observable points in canonical periods. One does not find material regarding cellular structure, physiological metabolism, ecology, etc. which form the base of modern botany. Table 1 : Description Under Disquisition Doors : Plant King
dom*.
No. Disquisition
Door
Fine Plants
General Plants
Individual Plants
1. Naming/definition -
Common- Single
bodied soul bodied-soul 2. Numeration Infinite
12 ( infinite ) 30 ( innum
erable) 3. Fineness
10-15 cm 10-15 cm 4. Position/station Everywhere 21 places 21 places
in the world 5. Direction
to North, South, East, West → 6. Life-span
Innumerable 48 mts. to 10,000 years
cycles of time 7. Body 8. Modifications
Infinite
Infinite 9. Shape
Irregular Irregular Irregular 10. Bone-joints 6 th.
6 th.
6 th. 11. Sex
Neuter Neuter Neuter 12. Intake
Substantive, Locational, Timal and
Modal by touch only. 13. Respiration Occurs Occurs Occurs
3

Page #463

Botanical Contents in Prakrta Canons : 441
5
4
3
3
14. Colours 15. Instincts 16. Speech
Indistinct, Non-speaking. 17. Senses 18. Completions 19. Vitalities 20. Birth
A-sexual, Spontaneous 21. Birth-places Covered, All climates and Temperature 22. Species
14 lacs 10 lacs 23. Extrications
( Samudghāta ) ( Vedanā, Kasāya, Maranặntika ) 24. Destinity
Sub-human, Bi-departure, Bi-arrival 25. Ownership Self
Self
Self 26. Mind
t Dormant and Primitive Mind → 27. Vision/Conation + Non-occular Vision -- 28. Families
28 X 1012 29. Colouration 3
3
3.4 30. Passions 31. Activity ( Yoga) Bodily Bodily Bodily 32. Appl. Conscious- 6 Determinate and Indeterminate →
ness ( Upayoga ) 33. Feeling ( Pain/ Yes Yes Yes
Pleasure 34. Kārmic Bondage, 117
117 Sub-species 35. Attachment Yes
Yes 36. Restraint
Non-restrained 37. Spiritual Stages First
First
First 38. Liberatability Yes, through human destinity 39. Knowledges Wrong, Sensory and Verbal 40. Faith
Perverse Faith - 41. Size/Accomodation - 10-15 cm.-1000 Y - * Data collected from Karmagrantha, Prajñāpanā, Jivābhigama and
J. S. K. etc.

117
Yes

Page #464

442 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Livingness of Plants
Many philosophies do not agree the plants to be living, but the Jainas have been animistic from the very beginning. Chāndogya Upanişad also declared livingness of all types of immobiles even fire and water like the Jainas. Aristotle also pointed out semi-developed life in them. However, the Jainas have given observational points in support of their livingness. Ācārānga, Sūtrakrtānga“, Mūlācāras and other canons have pointed out that plants are living because
(i-ii ) They are born. They grow young and old.
(iii-iv ) They get diseased and destroyed. They get faded/dry when cut.
( -vi) They are healed, they get healthy when medically treated.
( vii-viii ) They have desire for food. They have longings for pregnant women.
( ix-x) They have many modifications. They undergo metabolic changes.
( ix-xii) Some of them contract when touched. Some sleep in night and awaken in day.
(xiii-xiv) They have dormant consciousness. They have feelings of pain and pleasure when cut or grown like human beings.
( XV-XVI ) They approach towards others through medium. Their bodies are temporary.
(xvii-xviii) They procreate similar species. They flower when treated by mouthwash of women and beaten by their feet.
( xix ) The roots of some plants move towards wealth or treasure.
Mülācāra points cut that the livingness of plants is confirmed cannonically as above, inferentially and by direct observations. They have added some more points in this regard. They are like human beings with respect to their living

Page #465

Botanical Contents in Prāksta Canons : 443
ness (and hence one should be non-violent towards them ). Of course, one must agree that their livingness is not so evident as in men but it is highly evident with respect to other immobiles. Besides livingness, other plant characteristics have been tabulated earlier. Classification of Plants
Greek, Roman and Chinese scholars did classify plants from their utilitarian point of view in the form of shrubs, herbs and trees. The botanists of today do not recognise it as scientific. Looking to the number and variety of plants, their classification is most essential for their proper study. The basis of this has been similar properties, size, shape and structure etc. The scientific study of plants started only during later half of the 17th century and developments in physics and chemistry contributed towards their swift study. C. Linnaus of Sweden has been credited for current classification and binomial nomenclature of the plant kingdom.
Plants have been classified naturally on the basis of shapes of their leaves, environment, evolutionary similarities and chemical constituents. The utilitarian classification is supposed to be an artificial one. The botanists have gone a little deeper in classifying plants on the basis of their birth types or species and phylogenic basis. Though no system seems to be fullproof, however, a good amount of simplification has been done.
Jaina scholars have classified plants on the natural basis, birth and birth-place basis. Ācārānga and Sūtrakrtānga do not have any specific classification, but the earlier mentions fungi, green plants and seeds while the latter points out many varieties. However, Sūtrakrtānga - 2 mentions five types of plants ( trees, grasses, green vegetables, cereals and algae ) sub-classified in 12 varieties on the basis of earth and water as their birth places'. Dasavalikālika describes eight types of plants depending on their types of growth, i. e., plants growing from : (i) roots ( ginger, tumeric, etc. ), ( ii ) shoots ( rose,

Page #466

444 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
flower, etc.), (iii) knots (sugarcane), (iv) stems ( palāśa etc.), (v) Seeds (wheats, etc. ), (vi) bulbs (onions etc. ), (vii) climbers and (viii) self-growth. The eighth type is the traditional type based on supposedly vital force or spontaneous generation theory. Gommaṭasāra mentions only seven such types excluding 7. If we leave this one, all others are sexually growing. The botanists also say the same that plants belong to two categories: (a) non-flowering or a-sexual and (ii) flowering or sexual. The Jaina classification, thus, suggests how much similarity one observes between canonical and botanical plant classification. It might be true that in initial stages, Jaina scholars might be taking all the plants growing a-sexually, but later they must have observed their sexual growth in many cases. Basunandi1o has clearly surmised this by stating plants to be of two types on the same basis: (i) sexually born out of seeds and (ii) a-sexually born. Moreover, Mūlācāra points out sexual and a-sexual births for many of the plant classes. Physically, Jaina scholars have adopted another way of classifying plants a little more fundamentally leading to the above conclusion. It is based on some finer qualities of plants - the livingness content. Thus, plants belong to two types according to Prajñāpanā and Jivajivābhigama11: (i) fine and (ii) gross. The fine plants are found all over the world and they have a single variety. They may have spherical, flat or other shapes. The gross plants have two varieties: (i) general, bodied and (ii) individual bodied. Bhagavati12 classifies them in three varieties (numerable, innumerable and infinite bodied) which could be condensed into the above two classes merging the the first two in one class. In contrast to Svetambara versions, the Digambaras point out the fine variety of general bodied plants only. Of course, they agree to the simple grossness of individual bodied plants even in T. P.13. Similarly, Uttaradhyayana points out that individual bodied plants are completioned only while the general bodied ones may be of both types14. In contrast, Dhavala mentions individual bodied

Page #467

Botanical Contents in Prākṛta Canons : 445
plants also to be of both types 15. Thus, there seems to be some difference between the Digambara and non-Digambara versions and also in different Svetambara canons regarding sub-classification of general and individual bodied plants with respect to fineness and completions. The Digambaras start their classification with general and individual plants while the Śvetāmbaras start with fine and gross variety. The difference has not been clarified by later commentators also. These points are shown below:
Plant
Category
1. Digambara (i) Gross and procanons 16 fine
General
Individual bodied plants bodied plants
(ii) Permanent Completioned/ & temporary
2. Svetāmbara Gross form
version17

only Gross & Fine
(Bhagavati)
Non-completioned
―――
Fine plants
only
Completioned Completioned/ Non-completioned.
( visible/non-visible)
This two-fold plant classification is in sharp contrast with that of the four-fold one of Atharva-veda which mentions plants as: (i) flowering, (ii) budding, (iii) fruity and (iv) nonfruity. However, these could be reduced to two by condensing (i) & (iii) and (ii) & (iv) which will be nearly equivalent to the two classes of the Jainas18.
Fine
The general bodied plants are called 'nigotas' or 'nigodas' which means plants supporting many other plants or living beings. They are said to be multiple bodied, every embodiment being a living one. While Bhagavati classifies the nigotas in two forms fine and gross, other canons do not sub-classify them in this way. However, the Digambara canons sub-classify them differently in terms of: (i) permanent and (ii) temporary19. The permanent ones do not mutate while the others may move for higher levels of life. Ratnakara 20 has given

Page #468

446
: Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
different names to these two classes, of course, with similar meanings. Though there is no gross and fine forms in Digambaras, but they mention fme plants as well as fine nigotas ( general bodied plants ). But Dhavalā points out that this different and contradictory mention could be solved only by the omniscients.21 Thus, plants and 'nigotas' may be same or different. However, we will presume 'nigotas' as general bodied plants of fine and gross forms. The fine form has been equated as micro-organisms found everywhere in the world, it is also stated that the supporting individual bodied plants may also be called fine or gross 'nigotas' on the basis of substratumsubstrate relationship.
Prajnāpanā and other pro-canons define the general and individual plants with many characteristics as tabulated in Table 2.22
The general bodied plants are those species from which individual bodied plants are developed. Actually, the cells of these later plants are quite complex and they are produced by fusion or division of general plant cells. Thus, the general plants ( or their cells) are the first primitive living organisms on earth. Canonically, general plants are those where many living elements are found in a common embodiment23. It is said that grow and die together. They take their food and respiration together. The canons presume the general plants to grow asexually or self-growing. The fine general plants are normally invisible and normally all-space pervading. The non-violent Jainas are asked "How do they call themselves non-violent in this micro-cosmically living world ?" The Jainas declare, "The question of violence is more of internal nature rather than physical"24. Sāntisūriśvaraji25 says that there is no harm done to fine general plants as they are elastic and non-collisible due to extra fineness of their bodies. However, it must be admitted that their reproduction, fineness, invisibility and their capacity to produce individual plants prove their basic nature to be of unicellular type class of today.

Page #469

Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 447
Table 2 : Characteristics of General and Individual Bodied
Plants.
General bodied plants Individual bodied plants 1. They go asunder together. Properties 1-5 are individua
lised. 2. They take the form together. 3. They take the food together. 4. They inhale/exhale together. 5. They have common holdings. 6. They have a common elem- They have seperated element
ent of livingness like hot of livingness in different parts iron/gold mass.
behaving as one like the adhesively stuck mustard or
sweet seasame cakes. 7. The veins, joints, knots of Veins, joints, knots etc. are
the plants are not clearly clearly visible.
visible. 8. When cut, it is divided in When cut, it is divided in two two equal parts.
unequal parts/piths. 9. When cut, no threads are When cut, threads are seen in seen in inner parts.
inner parts. 10. They grow again even when It may not grow again
cut and dried under favour- when cut and dried under able conditions.
favourable conditions. 11. Their bark is thicker than their bark is thinner than inner part.
inner part. 12. Individual plants are deve
loped out of these plants. 13. Generally flowers are gene- Generally, other parts except ral bodied.
flowers are individual bodied. 14. Their number is infinite. Their number is innumerable.
Physically, general bodied plants have hidden veins, joints and knots. They are equally divisible and threadless when divided. They are soft and they can grow even when cut. These

Page #470

448 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
plants are called infinite-bodied (ananta kāyika ) as there is active living element in each individual part of the plant which represents individual living cells present in each part. Bulbous vegetation (plants growing under ground), sprouts, tendril leaf buds, wood fungus, moss, mushrooms, ginger, carrot, algae, and the like are general plants. The canons have given about sixty three names of general plants in different texts shown in Table 3. These names are mostly given as found in texts as their equivalents are not easily available. While these names are given, it must be noted that in the early stage of growth from seed or otherwise, a plant remains non-supporting individual bodied upto about 48 minutes and then it becomes general bodied for a good length of time until signs of individual characteristics appear26. The later texts presume that it is very difficult to judge about the general or individual bodiedness of many plants. However, one could decide about it by closely observing the characteristics at any time.
The characteristics of individual plants are just opposite to those of the general plants. However, they have been subclassified in two categories: (i) supporting and (ii) nonsupporting ones27. The supporting individual bodied plants are those which are substratum of many general plants. The nonsupporting ones are those which do not support other plants. They support themselves. They may be autotrophs.
All of them are gross bodied, though at nucleation stage, they might be microscopic. The livingness in these plants may be dormant or active. The actively living individual plants can give birth to a new species. During the stage of growth, every growing part of the plant is in an actively living stage. The life existing in its different parts is said to be fully completioned depending on the level of life. All the macroscopic plants come under this category.
The dormant-life plants behave differently. They dry when they are cut. It is presumed that every plant's life is dormant in its first stage of growth. It seems that this distinction

Page #471

Table 3 : Names of General Plants in Different Texts. No. Bhagavati, 23 Jivābhigama, 22 UTA, 22 Prajñāpanā, 63 Jiva-vicāra, 32
Mūlācāra, 18 Lati-samnitā, 14
1
Potato Radish Ginger Turmeric Horse-eared plant Singhakarņi
Potato Potato Radish Radish Ginger
Ginger Turmeric Turmeric Horse- Horse-eared eared pl. plant Singhakarņi Singhakarņi
Potato Radish Ginger Turmeric
Bulbous roots Sprouts Bark Soft leaf Stem
1. Potato 2. Radish 3. Ginger 4. Turmeric, gr. 5. Horse-eared
plant 6. Singhakarņi
( Bulbous ) 7. Musundi
( lined root) 8. Kittikā 9. Bajrakanda
Potato Radish Ginger Soft leaf
Fruits

Musundi
Musundi
Musundi
Flowers
Kittikā Bajrakanda
Kittikā Bajrakanda
Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 449
Bajrakanda
Bajrakanda
10. Krşnakanda Krsnakanda 11. Sūranakanda Sūranakanda 12. Khullada Khullada 13. Hirili
Hirili 14. Sirii
Sirli
Clusters Collections (gulma ) Creepers Grasses Knots Leaves
aivāla (moss)
Krsmakanda Krsmakanda Krsmakanda Sūranakanda Sūranakanda Sūranakanda —
Khullada Khullada Hirili Siri
Knots

Page #472

1
15. Sir-sirli
16. Chiria
17. Kṣiravidālikā
18. Motha
19. Rihini
20. Thiruga 21. Huthihu
22. Sihandi
23. Mudgaparni
24.
25.
26.
27. -
28. 29.
30.
2
Sir-sirli
Kṣirikā
Kṣiravidālikā
Motha
Kṛmirāśi
Lohi Snuhi-thuer
Stibhū
3
Sir-sirli
Lohi
Snuhi
Garlic
Onion
Kandalikanda
4
Kṣiravidāli
Motha
Mudgaparni Krmirāśi
Lohini
Snuhi-flower
5
Green Motha
Garlic
Onion
Pānaka (Aq. Plant)
Kavaka
7
(Mushroom) Kuhn (Fun
gus, molds)
Kinva (enzymes)
Avaka
Arabi
Ratālū
Flowers
(mustard)
Candiraka
Jamikanda
Udumbaras
Gvārapāṭhā
Gr. Vegetables
450
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons

Page #473

2

3 Kandali Kustuvaka Javaikanda Kuhaka
34.
35.
36.
37.
Avaka Panaka Saivāla (moss) — Mihuttu Hastabhaga - Šitundi
40. -
CIIIIIIIIIIIIIII||||||

II||||||||||||||!!!!
16 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!!
41.
Ruru
42
I!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
43. — 44.
Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 451
45.
Kandurika Jaru Kambu Karnot-kata Madhuka Balaki Madhsringi Niruha Sarpasugandha
46. -
47. - 48.
49.
0.

Page #474

OOOJOON.8.8.88788
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
69. 70.
1
-
4
Chinnauruha
Vijruh
Padha
Mrgavaluńki
Madhura-rasa
Rajapatri
Padma Mathari
Danti
Chandi
Kitti
Māṣaparni
Jivita
Renuka
Kākoli Kṣirakākoli
Bhrgi Nakhi
Hangalaki
Palluka
5
6
452 Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons

Page #475

T
4

I
73.
74.
75.
IIII||
Krsnaprakula Hada Hartanuka Loyani Grass roots Bulb roots Bambooroots Srigataka Cluster Rasabheda
76.
intiiiiiiiiiiiii

||||||||||
84.
||||IIIIII
Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 453
Girikarņikā Satāvari Vela Amrta Vela Suar valli Theg Vegetable Pallanka Veg. Bathua Veg. Lūni Veg. Gulencha Vansakareli
-
86.

Page #476

90.
91.
92.
93. 94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
2
Table 3 A: Number of General Plants in Texts.
23
1. Bhagavati 2. Jivābhigama
3. UTA
4. Prajñāpanā
5. Jiva-vicāra-prakaraṇa
6. Mūlācāra
7. Lati Samhitā
22282
22 ( Some Differ)
63
4
32
18
14
5
Carrots
Kunvara
Mushrooms
Leaf buds
Raw tamarind
Kharsani
Thora
Billai
Green Kachuro Sprouts, Pulses Bulbous roots
6
7
454 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons

Page #477

Botanical Contents in Präkṛta Canons : 455
refers to the development from unicellular to multi-cellular stage in current terms. This is known by the fact that the body of such a plant is about 10-15 cm in the beginning. Bigger the plants, larger will be the size and number of cells or lives in them with similar capacities. As multi-cellular life develops, every plant will contain a number of dormant life species in proportion to its body.
Table 2 suggests that individual plants should have clear veins, joints and knots. They should be unequally divisible and threads should be seen there. It should not grow when cut and its barks should be thicker. In contrast to other canons, Dhavala and Gommaṭasāra have defined the supporting individual plants in a similar way as the fine and gross general plants28. This creates a confusion about the distinction between the two which could be avoided by assuming the statements as reflecting the formalisation of substrate in the substratum as individual bodied plants support the life of parasitic general plants.
The Jaina scholars had a keen observation power and they could identify the various plants in this category available in their period. Digambara pro-canons generally do not contain specific lists of individual plants. However, Gommaṭasāra (Jivakāṇḍa )29 mentions their five classes: grasses, tendrils, bulbous roots, small and big trees. In contrast, Prajñāpanā30 and other texts classify them in 12 phylums with many species under each phylum. The twelve phylums are given in Table 4. Out of these, the trees are further sub-classified in two varieties: (i) those yielding single seeded fruits and (ii) those yielding multiseeded fruits. All the twelve categories have a total of 339 plants which when added to the fore-told general plants make the total species of plants well above 450. The details of individual bodied plants are given in Table 4. There might appear some duplication but it may be unavoidable. However, it is clear that this classification is not utilitarian and represents some other similarities specially macroscopic shape. It is said that

Page #478

Table 4 Classification of Individual Bodied Plants.
No. Class
1. Agaricus ( Kuhana ) Cryptogam
2. Water-growing
3. Grasses (tra)
plants (Jalaruha) phanerogams
4. Circular Bark
Botanical
Category
2
trees (Balaya)
5. Knotty plants { parvaka )
Monocots
Cryptogam/ 28
Monocots
Number Names
Monocots
3
10
21
17
22
4
Aya, kaya, kuhana, kunaka, sapha, Dravyahallika, sajja, chatrauka, vanśinakhita, kuraya.
Udaka, avaka, panaka, shevala, hadha, kalambuka, kasheruka, kacchha, bhani, utpala, padma, kumuda, nalina, subhaga, saugandhika, pundarika, mahāpuṇḍarika, śatapatra, sahasrapatra, kalhara, kokanada, aravinda, tamarasa, visa-mṛṇāla, puskara, sthalaja puşkara, visa.
Settika, bhantiya, hotrika, kusa, darbha, podaila, arjuna, āṣāḍhaka, rohitāmśa, bhūsa, castorplant, kuruvinda, karkara, bibhanga, madhuratṛṇa, kṣuraka, parvaka, śukaveda, kṣiratuṣa, suntha, śuktika.
Tāda, tamāla, takkali, jotli, sali, sālkalalyana, sarala, jatipatra, ketki, kadali, charmavriksa, bhojapatra, asafoetida, clove tree, bettlenut, palm/date tree, coconut tree.
Sugarcane, Ikṣuvatika, virana, ikkada, bhamasa, sara, vetra, timira, śataparva, nala, bamboo, venu, kanaka, karkavamsa, charyavamsa, kutaka, vimaka, kandaveņu, kalyanaka, udaka, śuntha, vella.
456 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons

Page #479

1
Trees-one seeded ( vṛkşa
7. Trees-multi
seeded
9.
8. Harvesting plants (Oṣadhi)
3
mono/dicot 32
2
Dicots
33
Mono/Dicots 26
Clusters ( gucchā) Dicots
53
4
Neem, mango, jambolans, jangali mango, teak-wood, ankola, pilu, selu, sallaki, mochaki, black tulasi, bakula, palāśa, karañja, putrañjiva, soap-berry, baheḍā, haritaka, bhallātaka, dhātaki, umbebharikā, priyāla, śimśpā, khirni, plakṣa, aśana, punnāga, nāgavriksa, śriparni, aśoka, pūtika, naktamāla.
Agasthika, tinduka, kapittha, āmrātaka, mātulinga, vilva, āmalaka, phanasa, pomegrenate, pippala, umbara, bata, banyan, nandi, pippali, śatari, plakṣa, kakodumbari, devadāli, tilaka, mustard, sataparṇa, dadhiparṇa, dhava, sandalwood, arjuna, kadamba, kuṭaja, nipa, kustumbari, lakuca, chatraugha, lodhra. Šāli, brihi, wheat, barley, urada, masura, tila, mūnga, māṣa, niṣpāva, kulattha, ali-sandaka, satin, palimath, linseed, kusumbha, kodrava, kangu, ralaka, varsyamaka, koddaśa, hemp, mustard, radish seed, varatta, Java-Java.
Brinjala, sallaki, thunḍaki, kacchuri, rūpini, jasumana, āḍhaki, nili, tulasi, mātulinga, kustumbharikā, long, pepper, alasi, kakamāci, paṭolā, kandali, vuchu, vikurva, bathua, berries, patrapura, sitapuraka, javāsaka, nirgundi, arka, tuavari, attaki, talaputta, hemp, pāna, kāsamadraka, āghrātaka, śyāma ( priyangu ), sidmarda, karmards, aḍūsā, karira, airavana, mahiṭṭha, jaulaga, malaga, parili,
Botanical Contents in Prakrta Canons : 457

Page #480

2
3

dicots -
25
10. Flower plants
( gulmas, shrubs/ bushes )
458 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Dicots
28
11. Green vegetables
( Harita )
4 gajamarini, kuracakrikā, bhandi, jāvaki, ketaki, ganja, patta, dāsi, ankolla, vilvi. Seritaka, jasmine, korantaka, bandhuivaka, mogra shrub, pitika, pāna, kanera, kubjaka, sinduvara, jāti, moghrā, jūhi, mallikā, vasanti, campaka, vastula, kastula, śevala, mrigadantikā, granthi, navanitika, kunda, mahājāti, jiti. Ajaruha, vodana, haritaki, bathuā, tanduleyaka, marjaraka, pallaka, vilvi, pāti, dakpippali, cabbage, svastika, brāhmi, radish, mustard, āmlā, sāketa, jivaśāka, tulasi, black tulasi, faneyaka, coraka, bhujnaka, āryaka, damanaka, maruchaka, śatapuspi, indivara, poraka. Puspaphali, kalingi, gourd. cucumber, ahośātaki, pando kangulatā, karkotaki, kāravellaki, subhaga, kuvadha, vaguli, pāpavalli, devadali, anantamūla, atimukta-latā, betel-leaf creeper, jațāmāmsi, sunflower creeper, sanghatta, sumanasa, jasumana, kuvindavalli, āmlā, mridvikā, ambavalli, kşiravidāli, jivanti, govali, pani, māśavalli, gañjavalli, vatthani, girikarnikā, māluki, ajjanikā, dadhikāmuka, käkali, moghra creeper, arkabondi, kandakika, bhalli, gopali, śaśavindu, sasivi. Padmalatā, Nāgalatā, Aśokalatā, Campakalatā, Mango creeper, Vanalatā, Mogara/vasanti latā, madhavi creeper, kundalatā, śyāmalatā.

12. Creepers ( Valli)
Dicots
45
13. Climbers ( Latā )
Dicots
10

Page #481

the roots, bulbs, stem, bark, branches, new leaves and flowers are general bodied while leaves and fruits are individual bodied. Botanical Classification: Non-flowering & Flowering Plants31
Modern botany clsssifies the plants in two basic categories of: (i) chryptogams (non-flowering and non-seeding) and (ii) phanerogams (flowering and seeding) with many subclasses under each class shown as under :
Table 5
Botanical Classification,32,33
(1) Non-flowering plants
(a) Thallophyta Algae, fungii, bacteria, lichen
(b) Bryophyta Mosses, liver- (b) Angiosperms
(i) Monocots (ii) Dicots
wort
(c) Pteridophyta ferns
Botanical Contents in Prākṛta Canons : 459
(2) Flowering plants
(a) Gymnosperms

conifers
The sub-classification of these basic categories have been undergoing many additions from time to time so that the number of phylums have increased. It has led to more specificity and fineness in sub-classifications. The non-flowering plants include various varieties of algae, fungii, bacteria, moss, ferns, etc. which are the various stages of lowly developing primitive plants. They may be unicellular and not highly multicellular and generally non-specific. Prajñāpanā and Mūlācāra include these varieties in their general bodied plants, but they also involve higher plants to a larger extent which are flowering too specially the roots, tubers and bulbous plants.
mostly cereals fruity/other plants.
Botanically, higher plants are flowering plants classified under two groups monocots and dicots referring to seeds in the kernel. They might be equated with the individual category of the Jainas. But here also, one finds many anomalies as below:
(i) They include grass, algae and fungii etc. under water growing plants category and umbrella type vegetation

Page #482

460 : Scientific Contents in Prākta Canons
under agaricus category. These are mostly non-flowering plants.
(ii) These plants do not include higher plants like bulbs, roots, tubers which are included in general plant category.
(iii) It is only the trees which are classified under one/ multi seeded varieties. However, Table 4 indicates that almost all flowering plants could be single or multi-seeded. Thus, all individual plants should be grouped under these two subclasses.
(iv) The list of single seeded class of trees contains many dicots. Thus, it seems to be a mixed list.
Thus, we find that despite the basic varieties being the same in canons and botany, their details show sufficient anomalies requiring clarificatory concordance. Under the circumstances, the two-fold classification of the Jainas cannot be equated with the botanical one. Their basis seems to be different altogether. However, inclusion of water growing and agaricus plants under both categories suggest that Jainas have not only taken environmental classification into account but they have also indicated the sexual and a-sexual nature of these species which is botanically correct too.
Modern botany has studied about half a million species of plants by now and approximately 5000 new species are searched out every year. On the canonical basis, they represent only about 20% of the total plant species. Though, it could not be said how many more species could be searched out by the botanists of today with the help of modern devices and equipments, nevertheless, it is doubtful that they could go upto 24 lacs of species in present century. Similar will be the case of the families of plants. It seems that these numbers have been given to indicate the extensiveness of the plant kingdom.
Dhavalā 34 has mentioned a gāthā of Pañca-sangraha indicating that sensations of all types are experienced by the

Page #483

Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 461
plants though their sense of touch only. This means that sensations of other senses are also experienced by plants. This fact was not easily explainable until Sir J. C. Bose experimentally verified many sensations experienced by plants. J. B. S. Haldane has gone still further by stating that every plant or its cells possess existence of all five types of sensations. They may be non-existent physically or they may not be fully developed in lower plants. Currently, the botanists are examining various sensations in plants. Sun-flower, Chuimui and many other plants are natural examples. Melodious sounds and high sun has definite effects on plants. It therefore seems that botanists have been able to confirm about multiple sensations in plants as mentioned in Panca-sangraha. Baxter's35 experiments are further confirmation to this effect. It is therefore worth thinking whether canons tell us about the physically visible senses only or whether they might reflect upon their psychical senses too. Other Properties of Plants
As pointed out earlier, Table 1 contains many additional informations about plants in canons in the form of disquisition doors. The plants have normally sub-human destinity but they can have two onward transits. The plants have three bodies, gross, fine luminous and kārmic ones. The gross body may contain upto ten major parts which have been identified. They may have irregular shapes and varying sizes. They have the weakest sixth bone joint system. They have only bodily activity and non-occular vision. They have respirations and intakes of food from all directions. They have indistinct speech ( nonspeaking ). They have 4 vitalities, completions and instincts. They may have dormant mental consciousness. Many more physical informations are available in addition. Besides this, there are some volitional or psychic qualities of plants mentioned. They may have wrong faith and sensory and verbal knowledge. They have attachment and aversion and no restraint. They stand at the first spiritual stage which may be

Page #484

462 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
mutated. They have passions and aural colouration of first three types. They have karmic body bondage with feelings of pain and pleasure. Their life-span is varying between a minimum of 48 mts. to 10,000 yrs. with fine plants to have a very large life span. Numerically, botanists do agree that the number of fine or general plants is far more than gross plants. Of course, this is also true that fine plants have not been studied in as great a detail as the gross plants.
The respirations in plants have been detailed in Bhagavati which mentions that it could be substantive, all-regional, all-timal and all-statal. However, the word respiration seems to have a wider sense in canons. It represents food in general for plants. Scientifically, it represents generally nasal gaseous intakes (outer skin of plants serves this purpose). This is confirmed in plants today by carbon dioxide cycle occurring continuously where carbon dioxide is intaken and oxygen is released in atmosphere. This cycle is very important for human life.
Canons have pointed out that though there is only the first sense in plants physically, but they may have all the senses psychically. Canonically, they have a-sexual reproduction only while the botanists verify their sexual birth also.
The above summary of botanical contents in canons suggest that they are comparatively not as much as in case of animals and human beings. However, many canons have mentioned names of many trees in kingly gardens and forests to show their large variety. Moreover, it can be surmised that the Jainas had developed many basic concepts about structure and classification of plants much earlier than the botanists. The scientifically verifiable canonical livingness in plants is not only factual but suggests for a non-violent and equalitarian morality among humans. The practice of this concept is one of the major solutions for the environmental problems of the day where not only avoidable destruction of plants has become a sin, but their plantations are being declared as a sacred duty also.

Page #485

Botanical Contents in Prākrta Canons : 463
A comparison of canonical and botanical contents of plant kingdom suggests a gulf of difference in many respects. A more vigorous effort is necessary to limelight the detailed canonical contents. Some terminological equivalence will, also, have to be postulated before making exact statements. This requires deeper dive into canons and their commentaries. This may result in some more correspondence and clarifications. However, it can easily be said that current botany has many finer and additional elements over the canonical contents. It is the historical perspective which will help us in proper analysis and discussion about canonical contents.
3.
References 1. Amar Muni : Amara Bhārati, Rajagir, 1989. 2. See chapter Four of this book.
Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, A. P. S., Beawar,
1980, p. 36, p. 113. 4. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakstānga-1, Jain
Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, p. 184. 5. Battakera : Mulācāra-1, p. 184. 6. Y. D. Tyāgi : College Botany, p. 431. 7. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrtānga-1, Jain
Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1986, p. 179. 8. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśavaikālika, p. 106. 9. Nemichanda Chakravarti : Gommatasāra Jivakānda, p.113. 10. Battakera : Mulācāra-1, p.179. 11. Edited Madhukara Muni : Prajñāpanā-1, A. P. S., Beawar,
1983, p. 47. 12. Edited Ghevara Chandaji Banthiya : Bhagavati-Sūtra, p.
1368. 13. Yati Vrsabha : Triloka Prajñapti-2, J. S. S. Sangh,
Sholapur, 1951, p. 596. 14. Uttarādhyayana, S. T. Mahāsabhā, Calcutta, 1967, pp.
516-517.

Page #486

464 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
15. Satyaprakash : Vaijñāika Vikāsa ki Bhāratiya Paramparā, Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad, Patna, 1954, p. 245. 16. Jinendra Varṇi : Jainendra Siddhānta Kośa-3, pp. 183-191. 17. ( ) Jivajivābhigama-1, S. Shastroddharaka Samiti, Rajakot, 1971, p. 152.
(b) Edited Ghevara Chandaji Banthiya : Bhagavati-Sūtra, p. 3342.
18. Vaijñānika Vikāsa Ki Bhāratiya Paramparā, p. 245. 19. Bhaṭṭa Akalanka: Rājavārttika-1, p. 143.
20. Sāntisūriśvaraji : Jiva-Vicāra-Prakaraṇa, Jain Siddhanta Society, Madras, 1950, p. 36.
21. Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa-3, pp. 183-191.
22. Edited Madhukara Muni: Prajñāpanā-1, p. 47.
23. Nemichanda : Gommaṭasāra, p. 115.
24. Pandita Asādhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmṛta, Jaina Vijay Press, Surat, 1940, p.131.
25. Sāntisūriśvaraji : Jiva-Vicāra-Prakaraṇa, p. 62.
26. Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa-3, p. 188.
27. Svāmi Kumāra : Kārtikeyānuprekṣā, P. P. Mandal, Agas, 1974, p. 65.
28. Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa-3, pp. 183-191.
29. Nemichanda : Gommaṭasāra, p. 113.
30. Edited Madhukara Muni: Prajñāpanā-1, p. 47.
31. Y. D. Tyagi : Vanaspati Vijñāna, Shubham Prakashan, Bhopal, 1990, p. 163.
32. Ibid, p. 163.
33. R. N. Kapil : Basic Biology-1, N. C. E. R. T., Delhi, 1985, pp. 53-54.
34. Satya Prakash : Vaijñānika Vikāsa Ki Bharatiya Paramparā, p. 245.
35. Edited Nemichanda Jain Tirthankara, Jain Biology, Number, 15, 10-11, 1986.

Page #487

Chapter 15
Zoological Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Modern zoology deals with animal kingdom including human beings. They form the second and more important variety of living beings in the middle portion of the Jaina universe. Canonically, there is difference between animals and human beings-representing two separate destinities. There are two specific terms used in canons. The animals and plants belong to the class of transverse movers or non-movers called 'tiryak' or 'tiryañcas' having 1-5 senses with or without mind. The human beings, on the other hand, belong to the class of erect or transverse movers called mobiles or 'trasas' having 2-5 senses with or without mind. Thus, we have,
(i) Tiryañcas or
1-5 sensed excluding human beings transverse moving (and hellish & celestials ) : pure and family mixed1
family
(ii) Trasa or mobile 2-5 sensed beings including human family (and hellish & celestials ). Generally, current zoology will include all the mobile family of living one, and 2-5 sensed animals of tiryañca family. Thus, while canons differentiate between animals and human beings, the zoological sciences do not as they presume evolutionary concept of development for different species. The hellish and celestial are also mobile but they will not be discussed here because of limitations of scientific methods.
Canonically, the mobile beings are defined as those which have slow or fast translocational movements for food and shelter, experience of pain, pleasure, fear etc. and activity towards self-protection from 15 types of pains2. They contain a minimum of two senses. They may have mind or brain also. The karma theory presumes they are born in this destinity due

Page #488

466 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
to mobile physique-making karma irrespective of their movements or organs. They may also be defined on the basis of their birth types. They may be procreating sexually or asexually. They have a different mode of growth and they depend on others for their food. They reside in the mobile tunnel of the universe.
As with plants, sufficient physical description is available in canons regarding zoological kingdom with respect to available species, their classification and identification. They have been described under many disquisition doors as shown in Table 13. Only useful informations have been given here under various aspective studies reflecting their wide variety. However, it is seen these are mostly observable points of preinstrumental age. One does not find many aspective details of current zoology which deal with about twelve branches like anatomy, embryology, cytology ( cell study ), histology (tissue study ), genetics and evolution etc. Jivajivābhigama“, Jivakānda and other procanons describe them under taxonomy, morphology, senses, vitalities, body, libido, evolutionary completions, anatomy and physiology ( food, instincts etc. ). Many other disquisition doors include psychic, inner or volitional aspects like passion, spiritual stages, colourations, activities, knowledge, applied consciousness, etc. These qualities are subject to mental speculations and experience. Because of the moral emphasis of religion, much stress has been given to these later qualities while others like cytology, genetics etc. are hardly mentioned in canonical literature. Jaina Taxonomy for Mobile Beings
The mobile beings are classified in many ways which are based on motion, senses, external structural similarity like forms, etc., habitat, birth-types and other factors. This forms a mixed natural-cum-artificial classification ( Table 2 ). Sikadar suggests that Jaina classification is sufficiently advanced over vedic period. The sense-based classification is, however, widely described in canons and procanons. It is observed that there

Page #489

Table 1: Description under Disquisition Doors, Mobile Kingdom*. No. Disquisition Doors
2-sensed
3-sensed
1. Naming
2. Numeration
3. Accomodation/Size (Min.)
4. Acco./Size (Maximum)
5. Fineness
6. Life-span (Minimum) 7. Life-span (Maximum)
8. Body types 9. Modifications
10. Shapes
11. Bone Joints
12. Sex
13. Intake (Food etc.)
2
Mobiles
Oblique Moving
39
1/A A
12 Y
Gross
48 minutes
12 years
Mobiles
3
Infinite
Irregular
6 th
Neuter
55
1/A,A
3 Kośa
Gross
48 minutes
49 days
3
Infinite
Irregular
6 th
Neuter
4-$ensed
Mobiles
45
1/A A 4 Koša
Gross
48 minutes
6 months
Infinite
Irregular
6 th
Neuter
6 Directions
5-sensed
animals
5
Mobiles
72,000 years
84,000 years
3 (2)
1/A_A
2-9 K-1000 Y 3 Kośa
Gross
Gross
48 minutes
48 minutes
3P
3 Palyas (p)
3/4
5-sensed
humans
6
Human
Infinite
Irregular
6 th
Neuter, 3
2 (10, 3) 1/AA
5
Infinite
6
Zoological Contents in Prākṛta Canons : 467

Page #490

1
14. Intake (Types)
15. Respiration
16. Colours
17. Instincts
18. Speech
19. Completions
20. Vitalities
21. Birth
22. Birth place
23. Birth-place (Number)
24. Families
25. Extrications
26. Destinity 27. Ownership
28. Mind
29. Conation
30. Colourations
31. Passions
32. Activity
2
3
Yes
54
55
4
Self
First 3
3
3
Yes
42
5 6
S
Non-verbal
7
S
- Open, all Climates, Temperatures
2 lacs
2 lacs
2 lacs
7 X 1012
8X 1012
9 X 1012
Last 3
Last 3
Last 3
4
Self
- Non-occular
First 3
42
4
3
Yes
5
4
5
LO
4
Self
First 3
42
2
LO
5
3
Yes
5
4
→Verbal, 5, 6
9
U, S
→ Mixed
6
3
Yes
3,5
4
Self
Yes/No
2, 3
4,6
4
2, 3
4, 10
Non-verbal
5,6
10
U, S
Mixed
4 lacs
14 lacs
43.5/53.5 X 1012 14/12 X 1012
7
4,5#
Self
Yes
4
6, 7*
4,5#
3, 4#
468 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons

Page #491

3

7-8
Yes
↑ 7 or Z
5
4
5 33. Applied Consciousness 2
2 2
2 34. Feelings ( Pain etc.) Physical Physical Physical 35. Kārmic Bondage 7-8
7-8 7-8
7-8 36. Attachment Yes Yes
Yes
Yes 37. Restraint, R
Non-R Non-R Non-R R-cum-non-R R, NR 38. Spiritual Stages 5
14 39. Liberatability Yes, Through human destinity —
Yes 40. Knowledge
- First Two
32, 3 41. Faith
- Right/Reverse - 42. Feeling Bonding
3
3
7-8 43. Form
Visible Visible Visible Visible
Visible 44. Senses
4 5,6
5, 6* 45. Spatial location Part of Upper, Middle, Lower, Universe, 22 Watery
places. Data Collected from Karmagrantha, Prajñāpanā, Jivajivābhigama, J. S. K. etc. Y = Yojana; K = Kośa, N = Neuter; S = A-sexual. ( Sammurchima ), # = Șatkhandāgama.
p

Zoological Contents in Prakrta Canons: 469

Page #492

Table 2 : Canonical Classification of Mobile beings.

3
completioned, Non-completioned. Sexual, A-sexual. Deficient-sensed, All-sensed. Physical motioned, Psychical motioned With mind, Without mind
[A] Two Classes of Five Types 1. Sūtrakrtānga-1 Completion based 2. Sūtrakrtānga-1 Birth Based 3. Mūlācāra
Sense Based 4. T. S, bhāşya Motion Based 5. Tattvārtha Vārttika Mind Based [B] Three Classes of Mobile Beings 1. Daśavaikālika 2. Uttarādhyayana Form/Motion 3. Jivajivābhigama [C] Four Classes of Two Types 1. Jivajivābhigama Sense Based 2. Gommațasāra Completions
Jivakāņda [D] Eight Classes of Mobile Beings 1. Ācārānga 1 Origin/Birth 2. Dasavaikālika /
470 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

Air bod
Air bodied, Fire bodied, gross bodied
2, 3, 4, 5-sensed General, completioned males and females, noncompletioned.

Incubatory, umbilical, non-umbilical, sweat-born, fluid-born, sprouting, A-sexual, special bed ( hellish & celestials )

Page #493

2

3 [E] Fifteen Classes of Mobiles 1. Gommațasāra Completions Completioned, structural and timal non-completioned ( 2, 3, Jivakānda
4-sensed, 5-sensed rational, 5-sensed non-rational )-5 X 3 [F] Ten Classes of Mobile Beings 1. Triloka Prajñapti-2 Sense/Completion Completioned, Non-completioned ( 2, 3, 4 sensed ) + 5-sen
sed with/without mind and completioned & non-completioned [G] Thirty Classes of Mobiles 1. Gommatasāra Senses, Completions, 15 as in (E) X (Uterine + A-sexual ) Jivakānda
birth [H] Forty-eight classes 1. Gommațasāra Sense/Completions, (2, 3, 4 sensed ) X 3 types of completions as in E = 9, Jivakānda birth
Uterine animals action land = 18, A-sexual animals action land = 12, Enjoyment land animals = 4, Aryan human
beings = 3, Non-Aryan humans = 2. [1] Two Classes of Current Zoology Inner/outer structure
(i) Invertebrate and (ii) Vertebrate Embryology Evolutionary stage
2. Protozoa, Metazoa
Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 471

Page #494

472 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
is structural difference between 2-4 sensed and most fivesensed beings. The later are generally vertebrates while the earlier ones are invertebrates. Thus, despite no mention about it in canons, this has seeds of modern zoological taxonomy. Table 2 gives different types of classifications of mobiles in canons based on many factors. It is seen that the classes are not as numerous as the living beings in general. The mobile classes vary between 2 and 48. However, it is observed that sense-based classes have been further subclassified according to different available species as shown in Table 3 onwards. It is clear that this canonical classification is neither binomial nor international as the names are in Samskrta or local language. However, this should not be taken as a defect, as these concepts are post-eighteenth century developments. Table 3 : Sense-based Sub-classification of Mobile Beings. Source 2-sen- 3-sen- 4-sen- 5-sen- 5-sensed sed sed sed sed
Tiryañcas Humans 1. Uttarādhya- 14 16 26 3
yana 2. Prajnapana 29 41 38 3( 2 ) 2 ( 10, 3 ) 3. Jivajivābhi- 29 41 38 2 (3) 2 ( 10,3)
gama 4. Pañca 7 8 9 8
sangraha 5. Jiva-Vicāra- 11 18 10 3
Prakarana 6. Șat-khan- - - - -
2 dāgama/TP
It is seen from Table 3 that there is difference in mobile sub-classes in different texts either partially or wholly. However, Prajñāpanā gives the largest number of species in every subclass with Jivajivābhigama nearly following it. The Digambara procanons lag behind in the classes of 2-4 sensed mobiles

Page #495

and five sensed animals exept for representative examples. Of course, T. S. and later commentaries give some details about human classification'.
Zoological Contents in Prākṛta Canons : 473
Table 4, 5, 6 give names of 2, 3, 4-sensed beings in a consolidated way. There are about 40 2-sensed, 55 3-sensed and 50 4-sensed mobiles listed in canons. However, about 25% names are familiar today in current terms, others have to be identified. All these animals are deficient sensed and form invertebrate class of zoology. There seems to be some duplication in names (like scorpion, spider, red water insects etc.) suggestive of either different varieties of them or uncertainty about their senses.
Table 4: Two-sensed Beings in Jaina Canons.
1. Intestinal worms
3. Thread worms
5. Needle mouthed worms
7. Deadbody worms
9. Timber worms
11. Red water insects
13. Sea louse
15. Small conch
17. Ghulla conch 19. Pearls 21. Sukti
23. Small cowrie
25. Nandyayavarta
27. Leech

2. Tape worms
4. Cowdung/Cowhair worms 6. Flute mouthed worms
8.
Snakelike worms
10. Saliva insects
12. White ants
14. Conch 16. Śambūka conch
18. Khulla conch
20. Mother pearls
22. Cowrie
24. Dvidhävarta
26. Ekatävarta
28. Saumangalaka
30. Jalomuka
32. Jaggery germs 34.Anullaka
29. Gojalaka
31. Nupura
33. Kalukavas
35. Candanaka ( spl. cowrie ) 36. Skandha
37. Śuktisampuṭa
38. Palloya
39. Arista etc.

Page #496

474 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Table 5 : Three Sensed Beings in Jaina Canons. 1. Kunthu insects
2. Bugs 3. Black ants
4. Red water insects 5. Centipedes
6. Louse 7. Motha
8. Grass-eater insects 9. Wood-eater insects 10. Leaf-eater insects 11. Cotton insects
12. Cucumber insects 13. Maluka
14. Trna-vrataka 15. Patra vontaka
16. Phala vrntaka 17. Flower vontaka
18. Tenduran majika 19. Hillika
20. Jhillika 21. Jhingura (cockroach ) 22. Kingrita 23. Bāhuka
24.Laghuka 25. Subhaga
26. Sauvastika 27. Sukavrnta
28. Indrakāyika 29. Turutumbaka
30.Kusthulavalaka 31. Ralahala
32. Pisuka ( flea ) 33. Satapadika
34. Hasti-sunda 35. Aupāyika
36. Rohinika 37. Utkalika
38. Utkata 39. Indragopa
40. Ass-shaped insect (Uttinga ) 41. Nityika ( dancing insect) 42.Illika ( grain insect ) 43. Ghrta-illika ( butter insect ) 44. Savaya (crab louse ) 45. Go-kita (cow-ear insect ) 46. Gardabhaka ( faecal/dungal
germs ) 47. Dhanyakita ( paddy 48. Gopālaka illika ( rice insects )
insects ) 49. Spider
50. Scorpion 51. Tinduka
52. Uddansana 53, Vija vrntika
54. Satāvari 55. Centipedes, different types Table 6 : Four Sensed Beings in Jaina Canons. 1. Scorpion
2. Cattle bug 3. Spider
4. Drone 5. Flies
6. Mosquitoes

Page #497

7. She-bees 9. Honey bees
11. Butterfly
13.Andhika
15. Cattle bug 17. Kukkuha 19. Śingirada
21. Lohita Patra
23. Haridrapatra
25. Citrapakşa 27. Ohañjalika
29. Gambhira
31.Akşiroda
33. Sāranga (black bee)
35. Dola
37. Jarula
39. Patra-vṛścika
41. Jala-vṛścika
43. Kanaka
45. Tantavaka
47. Nicaka
49.Akşila
51. Pisuka (Flea)
Zoological Contents in Prākṛta Canons :
8. Locusts
10. Knats/gadfly 12. Grasshopper
14. Pattiya
16. Kukkuda
18. Nandavarta
20. Kṛṣṇa-patra
22. Nila Patra
24. Śuklapatra
(i) A-sexual

26. Vicitrapakṣa
28. Jalacarika
30. Nonika 32.Akşivedha
34. Nevāra
36. Bharili
38. Totta
40. Chana-vṛscika ( cow-dung
scorpion)
42. Priyangala
44. Gomaya kita ( faecal insects)
46. Māgadha
48. Motha (Dāmsa) 50. Jalakāri
Table 7 gives details of 5-sensed animals where also Prajñāpanā and Jivajivābhigama hold the sway. There are 177 types of animals sub-classified under various heads. They form the vartebrate class of zoology. All these animals are all-sensed mobiles with mind.
475
Table 7: Five-sensed Tiryañcas ( animals) in Jaina canons based on Jivajivābhigama and Prajñāpanā.
5-sensed animals
(ii) Sexual

Page #498

476 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
(ii) Sexual
(i) Water moving (ii) Land moving (iii) sky moving (a) Fish 23 (a) 4-footed
(a) Skinwinged 8 (b) Tortoise 2 (0) 1-hoofed 8 (b) Bristle W 38 (c) Grāna 5 (ii) 2-hoofed 16 (c) Vitata - (d) Crocodiles 5 (iii) Gandipada 5 (d) Samudga - (e) Siśumāra 1 (iv) Nailed footed 13 36 - 42
46 (b) Creepers (i) Arms moving 14 (ii) Breast moving 39
Total = 53 Grand Total
36 + 95 + 46 = 177 Table 8 gives details about 5-sensed human beings for which some description is found in Digambara canons which have been marked by '*' in the Table. They belong to the chordata class of zoology. However, there seems to be difference between human classification among the two versions of the Jainas. Satkhandāgama has two different varieties : pure and mixed human beings based on spiritual stages. In contrast, Kundakunda has two varieties - born in land of action and enjoymento. Bhagavati Ārādhanā commentatorio mentions four varieties -- two of Kundakunda and (iii) born in inner isiands and (iv) a-sexuals. These seem to be akin to Prajñāpanā. There is no mention of Aryan and non-Aryan varieties in these texts. But Prajñāpanā" and Jivajivābhigama start the classification of human beings into Aryan and nonAryans at the third stage while T. S.12 starts the same at the first stage. Moreover, there is also difference in the sub-classification of Aryans and non-Aryans as below:

Page #499

Zoological Contents in Prāksta Canons : 477
Table 8: Five Sensed Human Beings in Jaina Canons.
Human Beings
(11) Sexual
(1) A-sexual*
10
(i) Faeces (ii) Urine (iii) Cough (iv) Mucus (v) Vomitting (vi) Bile (vii) Pus (iii) Blood (ix) Semen (x) Seminal
fluid
(i) Inner (ii) Action (iii) Non-action islanders 28 landers 15 landers 30 Born in Born in
Born in 1. Ekoruka Bharata
Hemvata 2. Abhasika regions 5 regions 5 3. Vaiśanika Airāvat Hari 4. Narigilika regions 5 regions 5 5. Hay-karna Mahāvideha Ramyak 6. Gokarna regions 5 regions 5 7. Śaskuli K.
Devakuru 8. Gajakarņa
regions 5 9. Ādarśamukha
Uttarakuru 5 10. Ayomukha
Hairanyavat 5 11. Gomukha 12. Mendhmukha 13. Aśvamukha 14. Hastimukha 15. Simhamukha 16. Vyāghramukha 17. Aśvakarna 18. Harikarna 19. Akarna 20. Karnapravarna 21. Ulkāmukha 22. Meghamukha 23. Vidyunmukha 24. Vidyuddanta
* PRJN mentions dead 25. Ghanadanta
body, Copulation, Vill26. Laśtadanta
age/town sewers in 27. Gudhadanta
addition.

Page #500

478 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Thadanta
Aryans
Non-Aryans 56
(i) Prodigied (ii) Non-prodigied 6(S), 8 ( Dig* ) 9(S), 5 ( Dig* ) 1. Enlightened 1. Born in regions* 25.5 1. Shakas 2. Univ. monarchs 2. Born in castes* 6 2. Yavanas 3. Baldevas
3. Born in families 6 3. Pulinda 4. Vasudevas
4. Professionals 7, 3* 4. Shabara 5. Vidyadharas 5. Artisans
20 5. Chilata 6. Charanas* (kriyā) 2 6. Language speakers 186. Gonda 7. Knowledge* 18 7. Knowledge gainers 57. Sinhala 8. Transformation* 8 8. Vision gainers* 2, 10* 8. Andhra 9. Austerity* 7 9. Conduct
9. Parasy 10. Power* 3 practicers* 2,2 91 10. Vālhika 11. Medication* 8
11. Kokanaka 12. Desires ( Rasa* ) 6
12. Lhāsika 13. Regional* 2
13. Khasika 14. Kaikaya 15. Malayāli
16. Mälava GRAND TOTAL :
17-56. etc. (i) 6 + 91 + 56 = 153 X ( completioned/non-completioned, mind/without mind
612 (ii) 30 X 4 ( Non-action landers )
120 (iii) 28 X 4 ( Inner Islanders )
112 (iv) A-sexuals
10
854* (i) The prodigy-based Aryans have been subclassified altogether differently in eight subclasses in comparison to * For Digambaras, we have ( 54+46+56+21 ) x 4 = 708 Adding 10 a-sexuals + 24 inner islanders = 34
742
54

Page #501

Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 479
Prajñāpanā ( except Cāraṇa and Vidyādhara which form part of the movement in different space and non-space mediums),
(ii) The non-prodigied ones have also five classes in comparison to nine of Prajñāpanā.
(iii) The non-Aryan sub-classification has two varieties by Akalanka — inner islanders and action landers. Though there is no mention of number of inner islanders but the four repre-sentative names there suggest Prajñāpanā names. The chara-cteristics of inner islanders are also similar but there are only 21 there in place of 28. However, 24 inner islands have been pointed out and food, residence and age of theirs have been mentioned which is not found in Prajñāpanā etc.
(iv) The inner islanders are non-aryans as per Akalanka'?
(v) There is no mention of human beings in lands of non-action or enjoyment.
(vi) On the basis of human classes being taken with respect to their character of (i) completion and non-completion and (ii) mind or no mind, it can be calculated that the nonDigambara version has 854 varieties of human beings in comparison to 742 varieties of Digambaras assuming nonspecified varieties to be equal to non-Digambaras.
(vii) Kārtikeyānupreksā has mixed up the above and suggests four types of human beings - Aryans, non-Aryans, action landers and non-action landers. Thus, Digambara canons seem to have a somewhat ambiguous state of human classification4.
( viii ) Gommatasāra Jivakānda classifies humans in nine varieties with respect to their states of completions as below's:
(a) Completioned, structural and timal noncompletioned humans in Aryan lands
3 (b) Completioned and structural noncompletioned in non-Aryan, enjoyment and action lands
2x3 =

Page #502

480: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Zoological Classification (a) Non-chordata Class
Currently, zoology classifies animals and human beings into two broad classes of non-chordata and chordata ( or invertebrate and vertebrate). Though this classification stands now modified since 1975, but it suffices us for our comparative discussions here. The non-chordata class does not have notochord in comparison to chordata class. This includes primary protozoic animals, worms and insects generally canonical 2-4 sensed ones (Table 9). It could be divided in nine subclasses. The chordata class has diversified classification but we will include only eight subclasses under this head as shown in Table 9. This includes generally 5-sensed canonical class of animals and human beings.
Table 9: Zoological Classification of Animal Kingdom. 16
A. Non-chordata Class
B. Chordata Class
1. Protozoa
1. Cyclostomata Jawless fish 2. Placodermi Jawed fish
2. Coelentrata
3. Platihelminthes Tapeworm 3. Chondrich
Shark
thyes
4. Oesteichthyes Rohita fish
5. Amphibia
4. Askihelminthes Round
worms
Snails,
conch
Worms
Insects
5. Mollusca
6. Annelida
7. Arthropoda
8. Eschino
dermata
9. Porifera
Ameoba Hydra

6. Reptilia
7. Aves
Spiny/soft 8. Mammalia
marine animals
Sycon
Frog
In the non-chordata class, we have protozoan amoeba as the first primitive animal which is unicellular and simplest form of mobile beings17. Though it does neither have nervous, nor sensory, nor brain system, but it has sensitivity towards touch, taste, light and other factors. It is invisible and a-sexually

Snake, lizard
Birds
Men, bigger animals

Page #503

Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 481
procreated by fission, sporulation, conjugation and regeneration. It is generally water-surface born animal. They are mostly parasitic and have many types-some being pathogenic too. It is said that genetically, amoeba is immortal as it transfers it hereditary characters to its progenies. The second higher category of water-born animals is a visible hydra class (water serpents ) which is multicellular. It has at least sensory cells but no brain. It has sexual, a-sexual and regenerative reproduction, i.e., it represents species with start of sex characteristics. These two 'classes are not found in canons. However, tapeworms, round worms and other worms are found in canons which form different zoological phyla rather than a single twosensed phylum. Similar is the case of other canonical classes which involve different phyla as shown in Table 10 for some popular animals. Table 10 : Canonical and Scientific Senses in Some Typical
2-4 sensed Animals,
No. Name
Kingdom
Sexuality
Cano- Scien- Brain nical tific senses senses 3 4 5
6
1 1. Ameoba
2 Protozoa
All Pri- x mitive sensations
A-sexual
yes
4+1 (pri )
A-sexual bi-sexual Uni-sex
yes
2. Hydra Coelen
trata 3. Tapewormi Annelida
worms 4. Conch Mollusca 5. Pearls
2 6. Cowrie 7. Leech Annelida 8. Jaggery Arthropoda 2
worms
oor oor or

Page #504

482 : Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons
2
yes
Uni-sex
w w w w WN
oor 7 or 07.01
: : :
: : : : :
: :
w w
or or
: :
: :
:
3
:
5
9. Insects Arthropoda 10. Insects, spl. 11. Ants 12. Bug 13. Louse 14. Cockroach
(Jhingura ) 15. Illi 16. Cow-dung
Insects 17. Grass/wood/
leaf-eater/insects 18. Centipede 19. Red water
Insect 20. Scorpion 21. Spider 22. Fly 23. Butterfly 24. Fleas 25. Drone 26. Locusts 27. Bees 28. Mosquitoes
:
:
w w
on or
: :
:
:
:
: :
:
3/4
:
: :
:
:
AAAAAAA w w
07 or or or ororoor or
: :
: : : : : : : : :
:
:
: :
: : :
Some observational inferences could be drawn from the table based on discussion with a noted zoologist Dr. Saxena and related literature as below:
(i) The zoological classification is based on gradually developing animal species from water-born to land-born ones. This is partly confirmed from canons also when Prajñāpanā points out 22 watery places for location of 2-4 sensed beings 18.
(ii) Almost all the animals ( worms, insects ) of canonical 2-4 senses have 5 senses, in some case not fully developed

Page #505

Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 483
but in most cases specific cells functioning.
(ili ) Barring few cases, all animals have brain or mind which makes them even canonically 5-sensed.
(iv) Barring few species, all 2-4-sensed animals are either bi-sexual or uni-sexuals.
(v) Most of the animals are sexually pro-creative.
( vi ) The canonical 2-sensed class is zoologically a mixed one in comparison to 3/4 sensed class.
The above points are in direct contrast with canonical descriptions. They have been possible due to internal structural studies during microscopic and electron microscopic age. It seems that criteria of canonical classification must have been visible observable sense rather than microscopically observable organs. It is because of this that the zoological classification is an advance over the canonical one. But what strikes canonically most is that all 2-4 sensed creature-group is as the zoologists group them today and all of them come under non-chordata class not mentioned in canons specifically as stated earlier. (b) Chordata Class
The chordata class mostly consists of five sensed animals and men. The hearing sense in animals in many cases is internal. It is external too. Their head or brain, and other sensory-organs are developed and they get akin to men. They are canonically classified according to habitat -- water moving, land moving and sky moving. The water moving ones can be included in protochordata and 1-4 classes of eu-chordata (i.e. fish, crocodiles etc. ). The amphibia is a class of animals which live both — on land and water. Frog is the most common example. This has been and is one of the most common animals for experimental studies. The logicians were using it as a tool for their discussions on many issues. It has been included in the tortoise class. The sky moving birds of all types have been included in the class of aves. The land moving class is included in reptiles and mammals. All these are obliquely

Page #506

484 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
moving and, hence, called Tiryañcas. Prajñāpanā 19 classifies the water-moving ones in five major classes, the skymoving in four major classes ( the last two not found in human region ) and landmoving in two major classes as shown in Table 7. Their number of species mentioned in canons seem to be sufficiently limited in comparison to those of zoologists of today. However, there is similarity in both the classifications with respect to gradual developmental base from water to land animals. The human beings are at the top in both the cases. Moreover, as with non-chordata, the canonical classification here too seems to contain some discrepancies such as tortoise and crocodiles are reptiles or arms moving. Rats are mammals rather than reptiles. The birth types mentioned also come in contrast such as rabbit is oviparous rather placental. The zoologists seem to have finer observations which might not have been possible for canonists because of their principles of non-violence. This is a point where this benevolent principle may be held responsible for not obtaining finer knowledge about the living substances.
According to zoologists, men and apes form the primate order of the same subclass of their mammals while canonically men form a separate class by themselves. This is one more difference between canons and zoologists. But this point may be overlooked as man has a special position in whole of the animal kingdom in that (a) it is the highest developed species, (b) it has a languagical speech and ingenious brain and (c) it is subject to religious performance and salvation. There is no mention of apes and chimpanzees in canons which are akin to men in many respects. Per chance, they were not found in India in canonical days. This and other facts suggest that Jaina seers have classified the animal kingdom according to what was observable in canonical times. They held an idea that the world is full of smaller living beings but they have been taken to be 1-sensed under plant kingdom while they are now proved to be at least two sensed beings like protozoa, amoeba.

Page #507

Zoological Contents in Prākṛta Canons : 485
Secondly, it has been proved that taste and smell senses are co-occuring, hence these beings should be at least 3-sensed. These beings had a period when biologists were doubtful about their place. It is very late that they could find place in animal kingdom.
Zoology does not classify human beings as the Jaina canons do. Table 8 suggests that they are classified in two ways according to their birth types a-sexual and sexual. Canons exemplify a-sexuals born in ten places like pus, dead body, filthy places and the like. They are very small in size. Their maximum life time is 48 minutes. This is subject to verification. It is now known that they may be 2-3 sensed canonically rather than five-sensed. Though the term innumerable is not clearly definable, the biologists estimate their sizes to be varying between 10-10-5cm. Of course, zoologically they may be five sensed ones of invertebrate class and not of human family. The postulate about their being human seems to be cause-effect formalisation.
The sexual human beings have been classified on the basis of their residences and qualities as shown in Table 8 about which discussions have already been done. It is shown that Aryans live in 25% regions or countries while non-aryans live in 56 regions. Accordingly, a good part of India seems to be non-aryan. This description seems to be more important for the geography of those days. This residence-wise classification does not seem to contain any zoological basis as no basic difference between the men of different places could be traced. But this classification also suggests about its external and visual character. And it seems to be getting much behind zoological times.
Other Properties about the Mobiles
As pointed out earlier, table1 contains many additional descriptions about the mobiles found in canons in the form of investigation points. At the inception of their worldly life, they

Page #508

486 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
may have any of the four destinities or transit points - hellish, celestials, sub-human and human. Though the scientists deal with the present, still they are working to look into the problem of transit itself and nothing definite could be said on this point as yet. Of course, the destinities of humans and animals are realities in the world. These have been described both — physi-cally and psychically in canons. The transits, some say, are more of a psychological nature than real so that beings may follow right path while living in the world.
The mobile beings have 3-5 types of bodies - some gross and some fine. Their gross bodies contain eight major parts in five-sensed beings : 2 arms, 2 legs, buttock, back, chest and head. These parts could have many sub-parts-32 pointed out in Ācārānga 20 and mini-parts. These bodies have different shapes and sizes. They have bones and bone joints. The gross bodies have many layers. These are subject to vanish while fine bodies continue in the coming generations.
There are five types of mobiles with respect to senses as already said — 2,3,4 sensed, 5-sensed non-rational, 5sensed rationals. Out of which the completioned human population has been said to be 8 X 1028.19 However, this number seems to be discrepant when one learns the total population of the completioned and non-completioned humans in the world is a fractional multiple of Jagaśreņi whose value is roughly 1020-1021 as per calculations of Jain22 and Munishri23. How 1028 could be substracted from this number to calculate the population of non-completioned humans ? Thus, either of these two values should be out of tune and they should be looked into to make them concordant.
There is a further discrepancy in this canonical population when it is compared with the current statistics of about 4.2X109 out of which canons point out 3/4 to be women24 in contrast with overall world average of roughly 51 : 49. Per chance, this statement is with reference to psychical attitudes rather than physical forms. Because of discrepancy in the total

Page #509

Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 487
population of human beings, the population of 5-sensed tiryañcas and total tiryancas can not be calculated in the absence of numericality of total living beings either in T. P., G. J. or T. S. : Total Tiryañcas = Total living beings-humans-hellish-celestials
? - 10 - 1020 – 1040 = ?
Besides, the total number of families of mobiles has been mentioned to be 79 - 89 X 1012 and species to be about 2.4 X 106. All these numerical statements require current verification as only about a maximum of 10% species have been studied by zoologists of today.
The sense content of mobiles has been said to be not only physical but psychical also so that even in the absece or loss of, say, ear or eye, the animals have capacity to experience various aensations ascribed to different sense-organs. The sensing capacity of senses has also been reported in terms of distances as shown in Table 11 alongwith their shape and
size.
Table 11: Sensing Capacity of Senses in Living Beings.25
5-NR
No. Type of
Sensing Capacity of Senses Beings 1 2 3 4 5-R 1. 1-sensed 400D -- -- -- 2. 2-sensed 800D 640 3. 3-sensed 1600D 128D 100D 4. 4-sensed 3200D 256D 200D 2954Y — 5. 5-sensed Non-*
rational 164000512D 400D 5908Y -- 6. 5-sensed
rational 9 9 94 47263Y12Y 7. Shapes Varied Weed- Seasa- Masūra Barley
ing mum grain Tube
hook flower 8. Size
1.5 X 10-18 for all
8000D

Page #510

488 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
The sense of touch has varied shapes while the sense of taste is flat like small weeding hook, that of smell like flower of seasamum, that of sight ( eye) like masura cereal and that of the ear like a barley tube. In the table, the size of the senses have been said to be 1017th (innumerableth ) part of a ghanāngula ( 0.68 cm.). The length equivalent to Dhanusa, D is app. 92 cms. and ayojana, Y is app. 13.28 km. (8 miles). These sensing capacities have to be substantiated by modern technics.
The mobiles have developed and underdeveloped sexual characters. The deficient-sensed are said to be neuter while 5-sensed ones have all the genders.
The mobiles have three types of activities physical, vocal and mental. The vocal activity could be expressed through language with or without letters. The rational mobiles have nine types of languages described in Jivakända 26. However, 2-5 sensed non-rationals have only non-lettered vocal activity. The five-sensed have two types of mind Physical and Psychical. The physical mind is assumed to be like an eightpetalled flower and locatad at the point of heart. This view reflects nearly all Indian Philosophies. The scientists have to concur upon this fact.
―――――
The colourations represent volitional character. They indicate the growing purity of mind. They also have two varieties physical and psychical. Both colourations vary between 1-6 (from black to white ). The deficient-sensed mobiles have the first three or four while the completioned rationals have all the six. These colourations have been confirmed by aural colours under Chirilian Photography28.

-
All the mobiles have instincts, natural tendencies or desires for food, sex, possessions or sleep and fear or power. These may be experiencial or knowledgal. Acārāṇga and Prajñāpanā tell us about 10-16 experiencial and five knowledgal instincts. The ten varieties include instincts of four passions, tradition and whims besides the four above. The 16 varieties

Page #511

Zoological Contents in Prākṣta Canons : 489
involve the ten above and feeling for pain, pleasure, sorrow, attachment and aversion and religion. The knowledgal instincts are the five types of knowledges. Thus, out of 21, the deficientsensed mobiles may have a maximum of 17 ( only two knowledges and no religion ). The completioned and rational mobiles may have all the instincts. These require the existence of different levels of mind for expressions.
Alternatively, there is a second set of instincts mostly to be found in rational beings — education, activity, instructions, recitation 30
Table 1 shows that different mobile beings have gradually increasing number of vitalities depending on their senses. They range between 5-10.
The Jaina seers have dealt with the current minimum and maximum life-spans of mobile beings. Though nothing could be said about the minimum life-span of less than 48 minutes, but maximum life-span seems to decrease from 12 years to six months as the senses grow from 2-4. However, the trend is changed drastically in the 5-sensed completioned animlas and human beings. Their maximum life-span increases to 3-palyas (pit-based large units )21. This requires some positive verification from current scientists. However, it seems there is not very much work on life-spans of mobile species in biological sciences. The sizes of mobiles have also a minimum and maximum. The minimum seems to be too small to be measurable - about 10-16 to 10-18 cni., the maximum also varies between 10 km. to 13000 km (in case of water moving 5-sensed mobiles )32. The maximum size of men is said to be 10 km. The body height of the first Tirthankara — Lord Rşbhadeva is said to be 500D (equivalent to 2.80 km.) which seems sufficiently less in comparison to the above maximum. However, the possibility of such maximum heights of mobile beings is worth investigative verification. Exceptional examples of fossil age animals do not lend high support to such heights.

Page #512

490 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
The birth and birth-places have also been described in canons. They have been mentioned before. There are 2.4 million species of mobile beings under sexual and a-sexual birth. The canons describe three types of shapes of the vagina while the scientists would tell us five types of shapes in the form of : (i) single meridian ( flat ), duplex ( rats ), bipartite ( frog ), bi-cornuate ( cat, horse) and (v) simplex (human )393.
Besides the above physical aspects, many psychical aspects have also been mentioned in canons. Passions, colourations, faith, vision, attachment, restraint, liberatability, kārmic bonding, spiritual stages, applied consciousness and many others have been described qualitatively for mobile beings under different levels. These aspects have sufficient details as their qualitative control induces the living beings to move on a path of salvation which is the main aim of religion. Comparing these details with plant kingdom, it would be observed that animal kingdom has higher capacities, activities and volitional possiblities.
A summary of canonical and zoological contents regarding the mobile beings is given in Table 12 which shows the comparative current position. It shows a gulf of difference in many respects. The quantitative aspects are also differing by a factor of 1010. Table 12 : Canonical and Zoological Concepts Regarding
Animal World.
No. Concepts
Canonical
Zoological
3
1. Ways of Study 2. Taxonomy 3. Development
20-40
12 ( No repetition ) See Table 2 See Table 10 Through comple- Simultaneous apptions/vitalities deve- earance of parts loping gradually and then gradual
development

Page #513

1
4. Life Energy
5. Transits
6. Senses
7. Bodies
8. Sight
9. Gender
10. Reproduction
11. Number of Phyla
12. Birth places/ species
13. Population of animals
18. Life-span
Zoological Contents in Prakṛta Canons : 491

2
3
10 Types of Vita- Life Energy accepted as one.
lities.
4
2, 3, 4 & 5 senses
( mind only in 5sensed ).
2 (No care for hell and heaven ). Invertebrates: 2-4 senses with brain Vertebrates: 5 sense with brain.. Gross body with many fine subparts.
3 gross+2 fine
4-sensed by eyes Eyes, Mind and only, 5-sensed: 4 Instruments. ways.
2, 3, 4-sensed : All sexuals may Neuter, 5-sensed : have any of 3 3 genders lenders
2, 3, 4-sensed : All sexuals but a a sexuals, 5-sensed: few. Uterine/A-sexual,
79-89 X 1012
8.4 million
14. Population of men
15. Population of Women
16. Activities (Physical) 4 17. Size/Height
8 X 1028
1028
75% of men
4.2 X 109
Little over 50%
Acceptable
10-18 cm.-10,000 Minimum and maxi
km.
48 minutes to 3 palyas
mum limits not
certain.
Not certain about these limits.

Page #514

492 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
2
19. Shapes of Vagina 3 20. Volitional qualities Many studied 21. Structural details External 22. Classification External similari-
ties, qualities.
Details not available Internal, finer External/Internal qualities.
Jain34 has shown that the Jaina Yojana should be taken as equal to 6664 kms. ( app. 4000 miles ) leading to a value of innumerable as a number high above 1017. If calculations are done on this basis, many more astronomical quantitative statements may be obtained in comparison to current values. These differences can not be ignored on literary grounds as a quality of language to depict excessively. They must be rationalised to be reasonably intelligible.
Under these circumstances, it is very difficult to make any comments except to suggest that the situation regarding canonical contents about the world of mobiles needs deeper studies and clarification to trace out the cause of these differences. The present scientific mind has been going very touchy about religion because of the discrepancies being discovered due to newer scientific investigation. This situation can be rationalised, at present, by assuming that the canonical contents belong to an ancient or medieval pre-instrumental and not too rigorous mathematical era when similar postulates are found in many parts of the world. It must, however, be admitted that the Jaina details are comparatively ahead of the times they represent. And as such, they form one of the milestones in the history of science. They should not form part of integrated religion which makes these details as a matter of faith rather than intellectual and experimental observations.
Reference 1. Virasena : Dhavalā-1, J. S. S. Sangha, Sholapur, 1986, p.
226.

Page #515

Zoological Contents in Prākrta Canons : 493
2. (a) Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, A. P. S.,
Beawar, 1980, p. 29. (b) Edited Madhukara Muni : Praśnavyākaraṇa, 1983, p. 41.
(c) Jivajivābhigama-1, p. 49. 3. See chapter 4 of this book. 4. Jivajivābhigama-1, p. 187. 5. J. C. Sikadar : Animal Kingdom, Jabalpur University Lec
tures, 1975. (a) Uttarādhyayana, S. T. Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1967, p. 522-534. (b ) Edited Madhukara Muni : Prajñāpanā-1, A. P. S., Beawar, 1983, pp. 69-103. (c) Jivajivābhigama-1, p. 187. (d) Virasena : Dhavalā -1, pp. 242-249. (e) Sāntisūriśvaraji : Jiva-Vicāra-Prakarana, Jaina Siddhanta Society, Madras, 1950, pp. 66-69. (f) Yativrsabha : Triloka Prajñapti -2, J. S. S. Sangh,
Sholapur, 1951, pp. 596-597 7. Umāsvāti : Tattvārtha-Sūtra, Varni Granthamala, Kasi,
1949, pp. 162-163. 8. Virasena : Dhavalā -1, p. 232. 9. Kundakunda : Niyama-sāra, p. 9. 10. Śivārya : Bhagavati Ārādhanā -1, J. S. S. Sangh, Sholapur,
1978, p. 482. 11. Edited Madhukara Muni : Prajñāpanā -1, pp. 69-103. 12. Umāsvāti : Tattvārtha-Sūtra, pp. 162-163. 13. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, p. 204. 14. Svāmi Kumāra : Kārttikeyānuprekṣā, P. P. Mandal, Agas,
1974, p. 70. 15. Nemichand Chakravarti : Gommatasāra Jivakānda, p. 57. 16. R. N. Singh, & A. K. Bansal : Jantu Vijñāna, Yugabodha
Prakashana, Raipur, 1989, p. 155.

Page #516

494 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
17. Ibid; pp. 237-414. 18. Edited Madhukara Muni : Prajñāpanā-1, p. 133. 19. Ibid, p. 133. 20. Edited Madhukara Muni: Ācārānga-1, A. P. S. Beawar,
1980, pp. 11-12. 21. (a) Nemichand Chakravarti : Gommatasāra Jivakānda,
p. 96.
(b) Yativrşabha : Triloka Prajñapti-2, p. 96. 22. G. R. Jain : Cosmology, Old and New, p. 92. 23. Muni Mahendra Kumāra : Visva Prahelikā, Jaina Vishva
bharati, Ladnun, 1970, p. 235. 24. Nemichand Chakravarti : Gommatasāra Jivakānda, p. 96. 25. Battakera : Mūlācāra-2, pp. 241-247. 26. Gommațasāra Jivakānda, pp. 129-131. 27. Ibid, pp. 129-131. 28. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Ābhā Mandala, Tulasi Adhyatma
Nidam, Ladnun, 1986, p.13, p. 41. 29. (a) Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, p. 4.
(b) Ācārānga, Silānka Vrtti, Patrāňka 11. (c) Śyama Arya : Prajñāpanā, Edited Madhukara Muni,
A. P. S. Beawar, 1983, p. 507. 30. Gommatasāra Jivakānda, p. 293. 31. Jivajivābhigama-1, S. Sastroddhara Samiti, Rajakot, 1971,
pp. 144-150. 32. Ibid, pp. 133-139. 33. Malcohm Jollie : Chordate Morphology, East-West, Delhi,
1968, pp. 322-323. 34. G. R. Jain : S. C. Divākara Felicitation Volume, Rewa,
1976, pp. 3-4.

Page #517

Section Five
Food and Medical Sciences
Foods and medicines are essential to sustain and maintain life. They are also necessary for religious performance and moving towards spiritual development through austerities. The Jaina seers have dealt with these subjects and their descriptions are very interesting and useful. This section has two chapters:
(i) Food sciences and
(ii) Medical sciences.
They deal with the canonical contents on these topics. Though there is great similarity in material inferences regarding object and functions of food and medicines with respect to the current times, however, the approach to physical descriptions have some basic differences which allow us to gauge the gradual fineness attained in these fields over the canonical periods.

Page #518

Page #519

Chapter 16 Food Sciences
No living unit in the world can sustain itself without food which could be solid, liquid ( drinks ), gas ( air ) or energy (solar ). The Jaina canons contain a good amount of description about different aspects of food science starting from their very first book of Acārānga. As Jainism is initiated with ascetic bias, the early books contain details about ascetic foods and rules regarding preparation and diets. However, it is only the common house-holds that move on to ascetic stage. Hence the rules may apply to them also, though not with that much restrictions. The early books of Ācārānga, Daśavaikālika, Mulācāra, Bhagavati Arādhanā etc. contain mostly ascetic rules while Upāsakadašā, Caritraprābhrta', Tattvārtha-sūtra? ( 18 aphorisms ), Ratnakarandasrāvakācāras have given householders' rules about their food and behaviour. Later, Jinasena (Adipurāna ), Somadeva (Upāsakādhyayana, 10th century ) Amrtacandra ( Puruśārtha-siddhupāya ), Amitagati -2 (Amitagati-śrāvakācāra, 11th century ), Basunandi, Padmanandi ( 11th century ), Aśādhara ( 12-13th century ), Daulata Rama Kasalivala (18th century ), Acārya Kunthusāgara ( 20th century ) and others have written about householders' food and behaviour. It seems that later Jaina scholars felt the importance of common-men as protectors of prestige and importance of ascetics. It is, therefore, highly praiseworthy that the ācāryas took care of common men and directed them towards their good code of conduct including food. Definition of Food
Food is necessary for existence and longevity of every living being. There are generally two types of living beings - self-sustaining and parasitic. The first ones produce their own

Page #520

498 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
food while the latter ones feed on others. Plants come mostly under the first category while all other beings under the second category. The canons contain materials about foods for both of these categories. Before one could describe, one must have an idea about the term food itself.
The canons have associated this term with many other ones. These are such as food – variform (Ahāra vargana ), food completions (Ahāra paryāpti ), food renunciation (Ahāra pratyākhyāna ), food affliction (Ahāra parišana ), food donation (Ahāra dāna ) instinct ( Ahāra Sanjñā ) and ejectable body (Ānāraka sarira ). These terms represent various normal and religious aspects of food. However, these terms do not indicate about the definition of food.
Normally, the individuality of man is the resultant of many factors like tradition, trait, environment, psychology, society, genetics and food etc. The food is one of the most important of them. There are some maxims, "As you eat, so your mind" or "As you drink, so you speak". These represent the effects of food on our mind and body. These maxims are related with time and place and they are psychologically very importants. The religiously held kārmic theory states that the food causes to develop body, its shape, its different parts, joints, bindings and other physical forms. The food is also intaken when there is more than one-instant transitional motion
The food is called 'Ahāra'- a word composed from two words - Ā (from environment or all sides ) and Hāra (intake ). This means the materials which are intaken from all types of surroundings. Pujyapāda and Akalanka' define food as intake of material aggregates causing the build up of gross bodies and their functional energies. Thus, all physical materials intaken through diets are called food. Besides, the Jainas postulate that many activities and volitions like knowledge, sight and quasi-karmas like laughter, sorrow, fear, hatred, desires, sexfeeling etc. are also mattergic by nature. They are also intaken

Page #521

from surroundings. Their intake should also be called food. Thus, the definition of food is more generalised than the scientific one. It includes the emotional elements as well besides physical intakes. That is why the Jaina scholars have postulated its psychological effects too alongwith physical effects since early canonical periods. In contrast, these effects have been co-related with food by scientists in late last century.
Need for Food
Food Sciences : 499
Jaina scholars have described their observations to indicate the need for food. Uttaradhyayana tells us that the body becomes weak, the bones, joints etc. become clearly observable and sometimes sound while walking and its work capacity is reduced in absence of food. The author of Mulacara 10 suggests the need for food on two counts: (a) physical and (b) spiritual or psychological. Essentially, the spiritual object is served only through physical objects. It is said, "The body is the first means to follow religion" These are given in Table 1 alongwith scientific points for the need of food. Āśādhara11 suggests its need for maintaining the body. Sthänānga 12 tells us that food leads to beauty, happiness, nutrition, strength and catalysation for various activities. The strength represents disease-resistence and lustre of the body. Svāmikumāra13 assumes thirst and apetite as natural diseases which are satisfied by food. He feels that food leads to maintain the vital fluids in the body and to practice and study the canons. Kundakunda14 also agrees that it is the food which converts into flesh and blood etc.
11
It is, thus, clear that the canonical objects of food are the same as we feel daily. Expressed in modern language15, one can say that the body has two functions - general and specific. The general functions are respiration, digestion, excretion etc. while the specific actions are growth, livelihood, work, reading, writing, performing austerities etc.
The food scientists have postulated three additional objects of food based on cellular structure and mechanism of

Page #522

500 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
the living body as also tabulated in Table 1. These objects are not generally found in canons directly.
Table 1 Canonical and Scientific Objects of Food
(a) Canonical
(b) Scientific
(i) Physical
1. Food increase strength (energy) of the body.
2.
It increases the longevity. 2. It supports the maintainance, repair and procreation of body cells.
3. It supports resistance to diseases in the body by body mechanism.
4. It balances and controls body mechanism.
3.
4.
5.
It gives activity (work capacity ).
It makes life enjoyable.
It increases the lustre of the body.
1. Food supports the basic and specific activities of the body.
6. The natural desire of apatite is satisfied.
7. All the vital fluids remain working.
8. It also serves as medicine. (ii) Spiritual/Psychological 9. It leads to serve others. 10. It supports the austerities and meditation.
11. It is the means for the end object of spiritual development (salvation).
12. It is necessary for religious performances.
13. It makes one easy to learn
knowledge of the inner and outer.

Page #523

Food Sciences : 501
The scientists suggest that food is required for development, repairs and pro-creation besides maintainance of the body. This fact is clear from the changes which take place when one change from foetus to a child, young, adult and old and experiences the vitality with quality foods while sick.
The twentieth century scientists found that nothing could be done without energy. The above body functions are not without exceptions. Thus, this is easily guessed that the different constituents of the foods supply the necessary energy for body functions. This becomes possible through biochemical, physiological and chemical changes during metabolic processes of foods. It is now known that a normal man needs about 2000 calories per day. Thus, our food must supply this needed energy during its metabolism. Accordingly, scientists would define food as intake of such solid or fluid materials which could supply the necessary energy to the body. This scientific definition is a detailed form of canonical one which has quantitative aspects also besides qualitative one.
It must be noted here that the term Ahāra includes food materials as well as diets. Not all material could be dietary. Classification of Foods
Jaina canons classify foods on two bases : (a) constituents of diet and (b) method of intake by the body. The first type of classification is given in Table 2. It indicates that primarily, there are four constitutents of foods. There is some difference in the names and meaning of some of them (Aśāna, khādya, Bhaksya, Pāna, Peya ). It seems there were only two components of food in early days - (a) solid ( bhakta, bhojana ) and (b) fluids (pāna ). They are denoted as Bhaktapana or Pāna-bhojana. It is to be seen when and how the change of position of the two words took place 16.
Prajñāpanā" indicates three classes of foods : ( 1 ) living ( earth, water etc. ), (ii) non-living ( minerals etc.) and (iii) mixed. This suggests that four or six classes of foods are a

Page #524

Table 2 : Constituentwise Classification of Foods.

UTN
PRJN
DSV
MR-1
MR-2
RKSR
1. Solids 2. Fluids 3. —
Living Solids Non-living Fluids Mixed Raw/dry
fruits Tasty
Solids Fluids Raw/dry fruits Tasty
Solids Fluids - Raw/dry Raw/dry fruits/sweets fruits fruits/sweets mums - Tasty
SGD AGDT Examples Solids Solids Cooked rice etc.
Fluids Water, Milk. Raw/dry Raw/dry Sweets, dry fruits/sweets fruits fruits Tasty Tasty Spices, cloves
etc. Starchy sols
502 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons

sweets/de--- natured fluids Licks Licks
Potables
Potables
Potables
Pudding, Sauce
Chatni, etc. - Drinks massag- Oil massaging ing/annoints
3
.
4
4
6
4
4

Page #525

· Food Sciences : 503
later development. Mehta'' has suggested to include plant products and medicines also as foods on the basis of Avasyaka-sūtra. However, these could only be casual foods rather than regular foods. In these categories, the terms Ašana, Khādya, Bhaksya, should be taken as synonymous. However, differentiation could be made. The solid components in the cooked form could be aśana or bhakşya while the raw fruits or fat-cooked solids could be 'khădya'. Nevertheless, a good clarity in the meaning of these terms is required. Similarly, the terms 'Pāna' and 'Peya' should also be clearly differentiated. The early books19 classify potables in three forms – Pāna ( alcohols ), Pāniya / water etc.) and Pānaka (fruit juices etc.). When the meaning of Pāna changed into non-alcoholic liquids, has to be looked into. Asādharao has included massaging also in foods exemplifying it by oil massaging. This means some intake of oil particles in the body. The term 'khādya' here includes the term 'aśana' also and 'peya' should be taken to mean 'pāna' also. The term 'lepa' seems to be little off here until it means massaging type, Vrhatkalpa Bhāşya indicates three types of foods for ascetics which point out an ascetic diet devoid of fats and tastes. However, the terms 'massaging or lepa' could be taken as a form of medication and in general, they could be included in the term 'tasty matter' (Svādya ).
The source of six classes in Mulācāra 21 with some duplicity requires a search. Despite changes in names and meanings, the canonical four classes of foods still hold ground. It is surprising that Aśādhara, authoring two books, gives the classes differently in them. In one, he nearly follows Samantabhadra, while in other, he follows Mulācāra. Does this mean different classes for the ascetics and the house-holders ? The modern scholars have to critically examine this point. However, it is clear that these classes have developed from two to four in due course of time.
The detailed description about solid class of foods is not generally available. These foods pacify the hunger. The solid

Page #526

504 : Scientific Contents in Präkṛta Canons
cereals or grains may be included in this category. The early literature22 mentions 24 varieties of grains though Śrutasāgara Sūri of later period mentions only 7 or 18 varieties23. Currently, sugarcane and corriandar are not taken as grains because of their different structure. Fortunately, Śrutasāgara does also not mention them. Table 3 (a & b) gives this list on a comparative basis.
Table 3 a Different Types of Grains and Potables.
Daśavaikālika Niṣithacurni
Śrutasägara
1
[A] Carbohydrate Cereals
Wheat
1.
Wheat
2. Sāli Rice
2
Sāli Rice
Brihi Rice
3. Brihi Rice 4. Saṣṭika Rice
Śastika Rice
5. Barley
Barley
6. Kodrava Grain Kodrava Grain
Kangu Rice
7.
8. Kangini
9. Ralaka
10.

Ralaka
[B] Proteinous Cereals or Pulses
11. Mūnga
12. Urada
13. Black Gram
14. Arahara
15. Lobia (Cow
pea)
16. Peas (Mutter ) Peas
17. Masūra
Masūra
18. Motha (Lentil)
19. Nispava 20. Kulthi
Mūnga
Urada
Black Gram
Arahara
Cow pea
Bhatavanāsa Kulthi
3
Wheat Šāli Rice
---
Barley
Mūnga
Urada
Gram
Arahara
T

4
Wheat Sali Rice
Barley
Kodrava
Kangu Rice
Ralaka
Jvāra (matha
vainava)
Münga
Urada
Gram
Arahara
Cow pea
Masūra Makuṣṭha
Kulthi (Batar)

Page #527

Food Sciences : 505
Beans Vana Mūnga
Tila
1 2
3 21. Anuka beans Anuka beans - 22.
Kaloya beans [C] Fatty Cereals 23. Tila
Tila 24. Linseed Linseed 25. - 26. Tripuda Tripuda [D] Miscelleneous 27. Sugar Cane Sugar Cane 28. Corriander Corriander
Mustard
Table 3b : Potables ( Pānakas ). SGDT
BA
Peyas
1. Ghana ( Curd etc.) Lemon Juice Pāna ( Alcohols ) 2. Fluids ( Tarala ) Fruit Juice Pānaka (Fruit Juice ) 3. Licky (Lepi ) Lepi ( Curd ) Pāniya ( Water ) 4. Non-licky
Alepi 5. Sa-siktha
Sa-siktha ( milk ) 6. A-siktha
A-siktha Similarly, though Ācāranga 24 gives a list of 21 potables, this seems to have been overlooked. Muni Nathamala mentions three varieties of potables out of which Āsādhara25 selects 'Pānaka' as a general term. He classifies them in six varieties much similar to Bhagavati Arādhanā 26. These include normally all types of potables. The Vrata-vidhāna-sangraha counts fermented or denatured liquids separately but it could be included in pānaka itself??. The potables are said to enliven the activity of vital fluids in the body. The discussion on other categories will be made at appropriate places. Classification of Foods on Methods of Intake
Bhagavati and Prajñāpanā 28 mention three classes of food based on methods of intake : (i) absorbable ( energy,

Page #528

506 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
oja-hara ), (ii) diffusible ( through hairs, roma-hara ) and (iji ) morsel ( kavalāhāra ). In contrast, Virasena29 has given six types of foods on this basis : (i) absorbable, (ii) morsel, (iii) Kārmic intake, (iv) Quasi-kārmic intake, (v) Mental/emotional intake and ( vi ) intake by covering or massaging. The last one may be a form of diffusible intake. It is also said there that the living beings under transitional movements, salvateds, extricating soul-points ( samudghāta-gata ) and omniscients with and without activity stage do not have any intake. Lodha3o does not seem to be right when he translates absorbable food as a process of assimilation. The term means a process similar to digestion starting after the intake. The term, oja-āhāra ( intake of, say, solar energy ) should mean intake by absorption which could occur on outer or inner surface. The surfacial absorption of solar heat or air by our body or plants is an example of this process. That is why, Mahāprajña31 has called this class as energy intake.
The roma-āhāra ( intake through soft skin hairs ) may be called the process of diffusion or osmosis. It always occurs in plants and body cells. Intake by skin and touch consists of the same process, involving hairlines. It also occurs during foetus development. It is a constant intake. It is invisible to the eye, but now it could be verified by experiments on plants. Virasena's massaging may also partially involve this process.
The 'kavalāhāra' (morsel, mouthful or swallowed-up) is the intake of solids or liquids by mouth.
All these three classes of foods are common to all living beings (except 1-sensed ). The feeds-in-actuality class of Sūtrakrtānga involves these three types of intakes.
However, when the Jaina ācāryas observed effects of emotions and commotions on living beings, they included the different karmas, quasi karmas and pshychic volitions among the class of foods. It is surprising that these ettects were observed qualitatively in India in early centuries. In reality, all these three types are forms of fine energies of different nature.

Page #529

Food Sciences : 507
These could be intaken from inner and outer environment resulting in corresponding effects. Thus, the last three intakes of Virasena represent the specific materials rather than methods. One could, therefore, agree to the three categories of foods on the intake basis. This classification is not specifically found in current food science books, though the methods are mentioned in appropriate places there.
Sthānānga 32 mentions a third method of foods based on the method of cooking. It consists of four types : (i) Fried, (ii) Cooked, (iii) Natural, fruits etc. and (iv) Fermented. These types are self-explanatory.
Sūtrakrtānga 33 has an altogether different and intellectual way of food classification based on positing technic. Accoordingly, there are five types : Positing by name, representation, substance, region and actuality. Out of these, the first two are just literary. In the third, mention of six types of food substances have been made : (i) Earth-bodied food Salts and minerals Solids (ii) Water-bodied food Water, juices and Fluids
other fluids (iii) Fire-bodied food Absorption of solar Oja-āhāra
heat etc. (iv) Air-bodied food Intake of air, absorptio
nal, nasal, morsel. (v) Plant-bodied food Intake of plants/plant
products (vi) Mobile-bodied food Intake of living beings
in any form. All these types may be living, non-living or mixed. This is a mixed classification consisting of intakes and constituents. It might be older also.
The regional food is a general specific food available and intaken by people in different regions. Rice in south, mustard oil and Sattū in Bihar, Maize in Mewar etc. are examples. This type may include many of the six foods.

Page #530

508 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
The actuality-based foods are specific food substances of interest based on colour, taste, smell and method of cooking. These foods are intaken by absorption, diffusion and swallowing.
In contrast to what has been said earlier, Sūtrakrtānga mentions that the absorption of food through luminous and kārmic body takes place during the undeveloped state of the living. This means that absorption is the first stage of food intake at the nucleation of life. However, it may not seem correct as has been said earlier. The Cūrņi and Vrtti of Sūtrakrtānga have better meanings for this intake which is a form of oja-āhāra. Diffusion method is applicable through skin and touch and is continuous. The morsel food is intaken through tongue and taste. The oja-āhāra is intaken through sense of smell, sight and hearing. There seems to be some difference in the meaning of these terms, though not substantial, in the opinions of authors of Vrtti and Cūrni of Sūtrakrtānga. 34
The Sthānānga and Sūtrakrtänga classifications have never been popular and, therefore, constituent and intake based classifications have been followed by later scholars. Scientific Analysis of Constituent-wise Classification
The modern scientists35 agree to six main constituents of foods as shown in Table 4. Table 4 : Scientific Food Constituents. Name Examples
Energy 1. Carbohydrates Wheat, Rice, Oats 4 cal./gm. 2. Fatty Cereals Tila, Mustard, etc. 9 cal./gm. 3. Proteins
Mūnga, Urada, gram 4 cal/gm. 4. Minerals
Vegetables, Fruits 5. Vitamins/Hormones Carrots, Anvala etc. 6. Water
Purified/filtered.
-
They classify the natural food materials on the basis of their main constituents, though they contain other useful

Page #531

Food Sciences : 509
ones in small amounts. The microconstituents control the digestibility, side effects and energy metabolism of the main food material.
If we study the canonical material on this basis, we find different constituents representing specific food group as below : Asana
solid food materials. Pāna
liquid food materials. Khādya dry/raw fruits, sweets. Svādya savoury materials of resistence
increasing nature. In canonical days, it was not possible to classify foods on the basis of their chemical analysis. Hence they could classify on the basis of their states (the concept about gaseous state was only dormant ).
In the first canonical category of 7/18/24 varieties, one finds the materials composing the first three categories of the scientists. Taking 'pāna' as liquid foods, it includes water, fruit juices, milk, curd, sour waters, raisin water and other such materials. This class also consists of materials included in all the scientific classes. Scum of rice ( gruel ), raisin water etc. belong mainly to carbohydrate class, Curd is proteinous; fruit juices belong to mineral/vitamin category. The liquid foods maintain the physiological transport and balance in the system. The scientists classify liquids also on the basis of their main constituents except water. The liquid foods contain two other scientific categories besides the first two ones.
The examples given under khādya category (Table 2) indicate that it consists of mainly raw/dry fruits and foods made from mixtures of scientific classes 1-3. The examples of canonical category 4 could include categories 4-5 of the scientists.
The comparative description indicates that canonical constituentwise classification is very general. It looks, however,

Page #532

510 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
sufficiently mixed and vague with respect to the current view. It has to be expressed in a better way. Nevertheless, the canonical categories indicate that they include all the foods containing components under scientific classes. Madhu Sen36 seems to be right to suggest that theoretically all the scientific constituents are indirectly included in foods of the canonical periods.
One must, however, point out that the canonical examples under categories suggest an interesting fact. They do not contain vegetables in general. It is not clear what category they could be included in. The canons, nevertheless, discuss the conditions under which they could be eaten. Time of Eating
Kundakunda37 and Āsādhara38 tell us that one should take foods for physical and psychical health depending upon time, place, emotions, digestion capacity and availability of food materials. This is as much applicable to house-holds as to the ascetics. Nisithacūrni39 tells us that there is difference in habits and traditions regarding food in different regions of the same country. The three humours are specifically coordinated in the body under different places and times. These facts limit the intake of different constituents in foods. The different seasons also effect the nature and quality of food. It is said that rough food should be taken in spring, cold natured or endothermic foods should be taken in summer and rainy season and hot oily food should be taken in cold season. Ugraditya4° goes still further to divide even the different part of the day in different ( six ) seasons suggesting to eat accordingly.
Bhagavati Arādhanā41 also indicates the effect of regional tradition and seasons on the time and quantity of food intaken. The food itself should be psychologically catalysing and emotionally satisfying. This depends upon the purity of food material and method of cooking. The mendicant feels satisfaction by taking even boiled, non-oiled but pure food devoid of 46 defects due to materials, preparation and the

Page #533

Food Sciences : 511
cook. The households, however, have to take food under most trying conditions in contrast.
Ugraditya42 suggests, on medical grounds that the time for taking food should be taken as that when :
(i) Excretions have taken place normally. (ii) Body may be feeling light and happy.
(iii) Apatite is being felt and hunger-fire has started kindling.
(iv) Heart is healthy and three humours are in equilibrium.
(v) Excretory vital airs have passed normally.
Sthānānga 43 mentions food instinct arises due to : (i) emptiness of stomach, (ii) fruition of hunger-feeling karma, ( ili ) interest and (iv) thinking about foods. Nemicandra Cakravarti has stated the time for taking food as that when one feels psychological feeling for hunger, pre-mature fruition of painful feeling karma and interest and action on seeing foods. Asadhara44 suggests the time for taking food should be taken between 45 minutes after the sunrise and 45 minutes before the sunset for common man. In contrast, Mūlācāra 45 suggests the time of about the middle of ten hours between 75 minutes after sunrise and 75 minutes before the sunset for the ascetics (i, e., roughly about at noon ). The best people take meals once a day while the better ones may take meals twice a day. The night-eating is not permitted in Jainas. This means a common man spends about half his life in fastng. Night-eating is prohibited for Jainas for proper health, intelligence, nonviolence and protection of life of other beings. This practice is said to be one of the signs of being a Jaina.
According to Mūlācāra and Uttarādhyayana 46, the times of meals is roughly noon or third part of the day. It seems quite alright in the country of agriculturists. However, currently, the time for first meals lasts upto the noon only. Mahāprajña47 opines that actual time for meals should depend upon the time of cooking which varies from place to place. This concept of

Page #534

512 : Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
time for meals and the interval between two meals stands scientifically supported today.
Quantity of Food
How much one should eat? This does not find mention in the canons with reference to the house-holders. However, Bhagavati-sutra, BA, Mūlācāra, AGDT and other texts mention it for the mendicants. The maximum quantity has been mentioned as 32 mouthfuls (kavala, grasa) for male mendicants and 28 for nuns48. Aupapātika-sūtra 49 mentions that one handful (Grāsa) unit of food is equivalent to the weight of an egg of a common hen. In contrast, Basunandi has said in Mūlācāravrtti 50 that it is equal to 1000 rice grains. The assumption of egg as a unit suggests its common use in canonical days. Later, it must have been proscribed on non-violence ground and rice grains might have been taken as unit. The rice grains have not been specified. However, it would be proper to assume them to be unbroken grains of uncooked rice.
Generally, the weight of a normal egg varies between 50-60 g. Accordingly, the maximum weight of daily diet of a male mendicant is equivalent to 50 x 32 =1600 g. while it is 50 x 28 =1400 g. for nuns. This calculation may surprise the twentieth century man, but it should be taken as normal in the days of foot-walkers and agriculturists. In contrast, medium rice grains weigh about 12-15 g. On this basis, the weight of food for males is 32 x 15 = 480 g. and for females is 28 x 15-420 g. This unit, therefore, does not seem to be realistic. This unit requires modification. Could the cooked rice grains be taken as unit for handfuls? These grains have about three times the weight of uncooked rice. Per chance, this manipulation also does not lead us to reality. Tandulaveyaliya1 fortunately solves the problem reasonably when it assumes a mouthful unit as equal to 2000 full rice grains of specified types.
Almost all canons agree on 32/28 mouthfuls of food per day. But the definitions of this unit vary. This is the amount of food for a single meal for a mono-mealing mendicant. It

Page #535

Food Sciences : 513
could also be the amount for a bi-mealing household too. Normally, it should have a higher amount. In the days of four meals-a-day, it could mean a full day's diet. The balanced diet concept suggests an amount varying between 1250-1500 g. However, the canonical meals include water also which is not taken into account in current dietics.
Tandulaveyaliya 52 is a specific miscelleny which has given a calculation about how much a man can eat in his one hundred years of assumed life. On the basis of 32 handfuls of 2000 rice grain-equivalent each meal, the above canon gives the following amount for hundred years ( Table 5 ). The current equivalents are given on the basis of 1 Prastha = 0.8 kg. The back calculations give column 5 and 6 in the table 5. A column of current dietary statistics as per Indian Council of Medical Research, 1980 is also given for comparative purposes53. This column suggests the current modified pattern of diets. It is clear that diets in canonical days must have been poor in vegetables as they are not mentioned in this miscelleny too. Secondly, the canonical diets must be heavy because of their high fatty contents. Table 5 : Amount of Foods Eaten by Man in 100 years, No. Item
Amount Current Diet/Day ICMR, Consu- Equivalent 1980
med (App.) 1. Rice ( Carbohy- 22.5 576 1600 g. 450 g. drates
Vah Quintals 2. Pulse ( Mūnga, 5.5 14 38.4 g. 40 g. Proteins )
Kumbha Quintals 3. Oils & Ghee 3.0 76.80 210.0 g 45 g. ( Fats )
Vah Quintals 4. Salt
2250 1.8 4.9 g. -
Prastha Quintals 5. Milk & Vegetables -
250 g. The canons indicate about the divisions of food compo

Page #536

514 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
nents. Mūlācāra 54 suggests four parts of the stomach. Two parts should be filled with solid foods, one part to be filled with liquid or watery foods and one part should be kept empty for proper air or humoral transports. This means a fourth part of the diets should be liquids. This will maintain good health and ensure easy and normal physiological actions. Nemicandra Sūri55 divides the stomach in six parts. Ugraditya does not mention the amount of food but he also has some divisions. He suggests eating of oily and sweet foods in the first stage, salty and acidic materials in the second stage, juices of all types in the third stage and the meals should be finished with liquid foods. The normal meals should have pulses, rice, cooked materials, vinegar, butter, mild and warm/cold water. One must drink water in the end. This also suggests that one should eat about half of the apatite.
The canons indicate that high nutritious foods, halfcooked and green foods cause stomach-ache, rheumatism and dull intelligence56.
The above division of food constituents do not seem to fit in the current food science concepts. They also do not seem to include the concept of balanced diet. That is why most mendicants suffer from many deficiencies of nutrition and their body does not kindle from the fire of austerities and performances. Though theoretically this fact does not have any importance, still it has a high value on practical counts.
Eatables and Non-eatables
The Jaina scholars have discussed criteria about the eatability of different foods. Acārānga mentions four criteria of intake57.
(i) The materials must be raw.
(ii)The material must not be uncooked or half-cooked. (iii) They must be heated, treated or pasteurised and
dis-infected.
(iv) The materials should not have less eatable and more non-eatable parts. Various types of non-eatables are also

Page #537

Food Sciences : 515
mentioned in this canon. They fall under 17 categories. They are : (i) lotus roots, (ii) powder of long pepper, ginger and chillies, (iii) hanging fruits like mangoes, (iv) sprouts of fruits and trees, (v) powder of five udumbara tree fruits, (vi) waterborn vegetables, ( vii ) vegetables born from different parts of the plants, ( viii ) denatured sugarcane etc. (ix ) garlic and its parts, (x) plant seed-foods, (xi) half-cooked leafy vegetables, rotten oilcakes, denatured milk-products, ( xii) soft fruits of wood apple etc., (xiii) fruits of specific trees like Asthika, (xiv) different parts of sugarcanes, (xv) green beans and peas, ( xvi ) multi-seeded or stony fruits ( watermelon, cucumber, custard apple, papaya, lemon, pomegranate etc. ) and ( xvii ) thorny fruits like pineapple, jackfruit, etc.
The list of materials above do not pass the criteria of eatability either partly or wholly. These criteria have been included directly or indirectly by Samantabhadra, Pujyapāda, Akalanka, Bhāskaranandi, Aśādhara, Sāstri and others in their attempt to theorise the basic issues involved in non-eatability of different food substances. They are based not only on nonviolent approach but many popular ideas also. Man being a parasitic animal, these bases require independant discussions.
Table 6 summarises the issues where seven categories could be somewhat condensed to fewer numbers 58. However, the literature mentions 22 types of foods as non-eatable under the above criteria. This number got fixed by about thirteenth century. Before that, categories were mentioned, not the fixed number. Sādhvi Manjulā59 mentions that they have been first given in Dharma-sangraha. Later on, many authors have pointed them out. Table 7 gives the list from three sources. Each list seems to have some addition or subtraction despite maintaining the number. It seems many names have been added from time to time and that is why there is some duplication in names and categories. Later on, many authors have pointed them out. For example, the category of denatured materials could include alcohols, butter and some fermented mixed

Page #538

516 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
eatables like Dani-badā, etc. The multi-seeded materials could include brinjal also. These 22 non-eatables could now be classified under four major heads as shown in Table 7 where many more new non-eatables may be included. These should be scientifically evaluated under the newer knowledge. This is also an age of multi-constituent food materials which also require consideration regarding their eatability. Table 6: Canonical Basis of Non-eatability. Basis Cause
Examples 1. Destruction /io- Involves violence 5 udumbara fruits,
lence of mobile of more develo- denatured materials or more than 1 - ped living beings. honey, di-sectionsensed living beings.
als. Violence of mobile Flesh, night-eating
beings. 2. Violence towards Violence towards Roots/tubers,
non-mobile living general/individual multi-seeded fruits, beings. plants.
raw fruits, sprouts 3. Drunkenness/ Mental Imbalance, Alcohols, addicting laziness. madness,idleness. compds/drugs/
products 4. Popular Opposi- Bad smell, low Onion, Garlic, etc tion
quality mentality 5. Small eatable with Violence to plants Sugarcane, waterlarge non-eatable.
mellon, wood apple
etc. 6. Undesirability/Dis- Personal preferen- Unfiltered water, ease carrying ces
Bulbous roots quality
(many ) etc. 7. Rawness/Uncook- All plants are livingedness,uncutness at the begnning.
There is a large amount of traditional and intellectual discussion about the eatability of roots, tubers or rhizomes. . Religionists point out that they create an unpious mentality and

Page #539

60
hence should not be eaten. They have a general plant nature consisting of many living cells. The so-called non-violence approach lends support to them. However, the early canons like Mūlācāra 6o and Acārānga have indirectly pointed out their eatability on the condition of their de-livening process by cooking, heating, cutting, ripening etc. All canonical scholars are agreed to their non-eatability on raw basis. Jain, RK61 has supported this point on health grounds. When these materials came under complete non-eatability status-is worth looking into. In addition, Jaina scholars of later date have pointed time limits for eating certain denatured materials62. Time limits of cereal powders, curd and milk, ghee and many other food materials have also been pointed out. This is scientifically correct. A critical examination regarding non-eatables is necessary63
Table 7: Twenty-two non-eatables from Three Sources.
Dharma-sangraha Jiva-vicara 64
Kryākośa (DR)65 3
1
(a) Fermented/Denatured
1. Alcohols
2
Alcohols
Butter
(b) Preserved Materials 5. Pickles, Jams,
Jellies etc.
11. Flesh/meat
12. Honey
13. General plants
2. Butter
3. Denatured liquids Denatured liquids Fermented fluids
4.
Di-sectables
Di-sectables,
Gholabada

Food Sciences : 517
Pickles etc.
(c) Violence to mobile/non-mobile beings 6-10. Five Udumbara Five Udumbara
fruits
fruits
Flesh/meat
Honey General plants
Alcohols
Butter

Pickles etc.
Five Udumbara
fruits.
Flesh/meat
Honey
General plants

Page #540

518 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
1
14. Multi-seeded
plants 15. Brinjal
16. Unknown fruits
17. Low quality fruits
(d) Miscelleneous
18. Poisons
19. Ice
20. Hailstorms
21. Earth-salts
22.
23. Night eating
-
4.
1
1. Radish
2. Ginger
3. Pumpkin
Lotus root
2

Multi-seeded
plants
Brinjal
Unknown fruits
Low quality fruits
Poisons
Ice
Hailstorms
Raw Earth Salts
Unbaked Salts Night eating
Dishes in Canonical Periods
66
Though one does not find the methods of cooking various items of food value in canons, but they mention many eatables like fruits, vegetables, flowers, sweetmeats etc. Dasavaikälika one of the earliest secondary Jaina canons mentions many such items which give us an idea about what the ascetics and common people did eat those days. They are given in Table 8. The items also represent the commonly available food materials.
Table 8 Different Food Items Mentioned in Daśavaikālika.
Vegetables
Sweetmeats
3
Multi-seeded
plants
Brinjal
Unknown fruits
Low quality fruits
Poisons
Ice
Hailstorms
Night eating
2
Thin cake of seasame/
sugar
Molasses
Fried sweetcake (Puā)
Fruits
3

Sugercane
Tinduka
Woodapple
(Bilva)
Pulverised parched gram- Plums wheat-barley powder (sattū)

Page #541

1
5. Palsa root
6. Lotus stalk
(padmanāla)
7. Red lotus
stalk (kumuda)
8. Mustard stalk Oil
9. Blue lotus
stalk
10. Oil cakes
11. Raw radish
12. Special leaf (sannira)
13. Special leaf
(Poi Veg. )
14. Garlic
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

2
3
Fried plum powder/sattu- Beluka fruit
ghee
Barley/Urada flour
Rice/parched rice flour
Ghee
Food Sciences
Rasālü sweet
Honey
Partly fermented juices
Cooked rice
Fried thick cake of
Flour/sugar (khajja )
Nima fruit
Thick cake of seasame/ Śriparni
jaggery
Powders of plum-fruits
seeds
Poha or Murru
Kaintha

M 519
Belleric Myra
bolan
Citron fruit
Priyala fruits
Water chestnut
Partly fermented washings Bamboo fruit
Per chance Acārānga-2 has many additions to the list suggesting its later composition than DSV. The list of eatable seems to be very small in comparison to the modern days of natural, modified, synthetic and fast foods. Moreover, the contraction of the current world of human beings as a family has made the number of eatables to be virtually innumerable. It has become necessary to sort out their eatability authentically. Samani Kusumaprajñā et. al. have dealt with this point exhaustively.67
Pineapple
Asthika fruit
Mangoes
Bananas
Coconuts
Palms

Page #542

520 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
Nature of Foods: Vegetarian Diets
It is clear from the list of non-eatables that the Jaina canons have prescribed vegetarian food substances to be intaken. Normally, these materials may either be dried plants or plant products. Currently, vegetarians are classified as lactovegetarian, vegan and ovo-vegetarian ones. The Jainas have an ideal of being vegans. However, most Jainas are lactovegetarians from the very beginning. In early days, vegetarian diets were charged with insufficient nutritiveness by scientists. But now, researches have shown that these can form fully nutritive meals. More and more western people are taking to vegetarian diets now because of their non-violent, environmental and health effects. Many dangerous diseases have been found to be absent among vegetarians. Their pious nature and longevity is another factor. Some so-called deficiencies have been removed by supplementing these diets with soya/ groundnut powders. This system of diets is now gaining prominence in the west on a large scale. Vegetarianism is another characteristic sign of the Jainas.
Foods Taken by Living Beings Other than Human Beings Bhagavati and Sutrakṛtānga 6 have mentioned about
foods intaken by living beings other than human beings. It is pointed out that plants have constant intake from all directions wherein are involved the diffusion of essential salts, water, air and solar heat which are metabolised to give the different parts of the plants gradually. The heterotrophic plants have somewhat different intakes as they survive and grow on others. It is stated that the intake is absorbed, assimilated and transformed in useful form for the plants. There seems to be no excretory wastage in plants as in foetus developments. All intakes are transformed into useful parts of the plants. They generally have oja-āhāra and diffusional intakes.69
The more developed beings having more than one sense of touch also have intakes from all directions intermittently. They have diffusional and morsel eating. The first one

Page #543

Food Sciences : 521
is without remnant while the other one is partly absorbed and transformed into body and its sustaining energy. The rest is excreted. The transformation of intake in different beings depends on the senses they might have. These beings have intakes through their sense-organs also which are developed from their primary intakes.O
There is no mention of specific foods for higher beings but it is mentioned for plants that they take their intake in the form of essences ( salts, water, air, calories, etc. ) from earth, water, air and other types of bodies. Different terms used in canons in this connection have high similarity with current botanical concepts in a qualitative way. Summary of various disquisition doors regarding foods is talulated in Table 9 which gives many more self-explanatory details too.
References 1. Kundakunda : Aștpāhuda (Caritraprābhrta ), D. Jain Sans
than, Mahaviraji, 1967, pp. 69-77. 2. Umāsvāti : Tattvārtha-sūtra, Varni Granthamala, Kashi,
1949, pp. 337-358. Samantabhadra : Ratnakaranda Śrāvakācāra, P. Pustaka
mala, Jabalpur, 1938. 4. Dr. Sagarmal Jain : Śrāvaka Dharma ki Prāsangikatā,
Parshvanatha Vidyashrama Shodha Sansthan, Varanasi
5, 1983, p. 1. 5. Edited Nemichand Jain : Tirthankara ( Monthly ), Indore,
January, 1987. 6. Bhatta, Akalanka : Rājavārttika-2, Bharatiya Jnanapith,
Kashi, 1957, p. 576. 7. Rājavārttika-1, 1953, p. 140. 8. Räjavārttika-2, p. 565. 9. Uttarādhyayana, Sanmati Jnanapith, Agra, 1972, p.17. 10. Battakera : Mūlacāra, pp. 369-371. 11. Pandita Āsādhara : Anāgāra Dharmāmặta, Bharatiya
Jnanapith, Delhi, 1977, p. 495.

Page #544

Table 9 : Summary of Disquisition Doors about Foods. No. Disquisition Hellish
Celestials
Sub-Humans
Humans
2
3
4
Yes
Yes
1. Food instinct 2. Nature of food
Inanimate matter
Inanimate
Yes Animate, inanimate, mixed matter
Yes Animate, Inanimate, mixed matter
matter
3. Period for Food
Desires (a) Natu- incessant ral/Unconscious
scious 48 minutes
522 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
48 minutes-3 days

Solids, Fluids, Raw/ dry fruits, Tasty spices
4. Quality of Foods 1. Cold, 2. Icecold, ( 4 in each case ) 3. Temperature
burning like charcoal, 4. Permanent burning
like chaff fire 5. Food material 4-touch/8-touch
contacted matter Substantive, regional,
timal, physical, statal 6. Partial/wholly intake Entirety
2-9 days- 48 minutes-2 days 33000 yrs. Cherishable .1. Eatable like heron Colour, Taste, bird, 2. Hole-living Touch, Smell animal, 3. Hated ani
mal flesh, 4. Painful
like son's flesh -
As in hellish
As in hellish
As in hellish

Entirety
Entirety
Entirety

Page #545

7. How much trans-
formation/assimi- lation ?
8. Transformation 9. Take-in and touch
10. Use of Intake

11. Transformation of
food
4
5 Innumerable parts intake assimilated, many more parts excreted unassimilated Undesirable forms Desirable forms Desirable forms Desirable forms Take uncountless, countless portions, touch-infinite portions. All Intake is accepted as food in the form of 1-5 in the form of in the form of differing All sense organs sensed bodies 1-5 sensed number of sense-organs
bodies according to senses. Bodies of 1-5 senses Bodies of 1-5 Depending on senses Depending on senses.
senses Absorption and Absorption, Absorption, Diffusion Absorption, Diffusion, Diffusion
Diffusion, Men- for 1-sensed (b)3 Morsel
tal cherishing types for others Six Stages — (i) Transformation/Separation, (ii )-( ii) Anabolism, Catabolism, (iv) Fructification or formations of body components, (v) Emotional or Psychological feeling, (vi) Exhaustion or excretion.
12. Food Intake
13. Intake type
Food Sciences : 523

14. Fate of Food
( Metabolic processes )

Page #546

524: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
12. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Thānam, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1982, p. 678.
13. Svāmi Kumāra Kartikeyanuprekṣā, Raichand Ashram, Agas, 1978, p. 264.
14. Kundakunda: Samayasāra, C. J. Publishing House, Lucknow, 1930, p. 109.
15. R. L. Pike & Pyrytil Brown: Nutrition, Wiley-Eastern, Delhi, 1970, Ch. 2-4.
16. Uttaradhyayana, Sanmati Jnanapith, Agra, 1972, p. 157. 17. Edited Madhukara Muni: Prajñāpanā-3, A. P. S., Beawar, 1986, p. 103.
18. Mohanlal Mehta : Jaina Acara, Parshvanath Vidyashram, Varanasi, 1966, p. 166.
19. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Daśavaikālika: Ek Samikṣā-tmaka Adhyayana, S. T. Jain Mahasabha, Calcutta-1, 1967, p. 207.
20. Pandita Aśādhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmṛta, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Delhi, 1981.
21. Baṭṭakera : Mūlācāra-1, p. 361 and Mūlācāra-2, p. 65. 22. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Daśavaikālika: Ek Samikṣā-tmaka Adhyayana, p. 176.
23. Śrutasāgara Sūri : Tattvārtha Vṛtti, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1949, p. 251.
24. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Acārānga-2, pp. 76-79. 25. Pandita Aśädhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmṛta, p. 333.
26. Śivārya : Bhagavati Ārādhanā, J. S. Sangha, Sholapur, 1976, p. 418.
27. Pandita Aśādhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmṛta, p. 333.
28. Kanhaiyalal Lodha Marudhara Kesari Abhinandana Grantha, 1968, pp. 137-157.
29. Virasena: Dhavala-1, S. L. Trust, Amaraoti, 1939, p. 409. 30. Kanhaiyalal Lodha Marudhara Kesari Abhinandana Grantha, pp. 137-157.

Page #547

Food Sciences : 525
31. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Kisane Kahā Mana Cañcala Hai,
Tulasi Adhyatma Needam, Ladnun, 1985, p. 127. 32. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, p. 364. 33. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrtānga-2, Jain
Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1986, pp. 176-177. 34. Ibid, p. 179. 35. Ibid, p.179. 36. Madhu Sen : A Cultural Study of Nişitha Cūrņi, Parshva
nath Vidyashram, Kashi, 1975, p. 125. 37. Kundakunda : Pravacana-sāra, Patni Granthamala,
Maroth, 1956, p. 281. 38. Pandita Āsādhara : Anāgāra Dharmāmrta, p. 409. 39. Madhu Sen : A Cultural Study of Nişitha Cūrni, p. 125. 40. Ugraditya : Kalyanakāraka, Sakharam Nemichand Grantha
mala, Sholapur, 1940, pp. 55-56. 41. Sivārya : Bhagavati Ārādhanā, p. 607. 42. Ugraditya : Kalyanakāraka, pp. 55-56. 43. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Thāṇam, p. 461. 44. Pandita Āsādhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmrta, pp. 169-170. 45. Battakera : Mūlācāra, p. 37. 46. Uttarādhyayana, Adarsh Sahitya Sangh, Churu, 1967, p.
351. 47. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Dasavaikālika, Jain Vishva
Bharati, Ladnun, 1974, p. 195. 48. Tandulaveyaliya, S. Sadhumargi Sansthan, Bikaner, 1949,
p. 42. 49. Aupapātika Sūtra, A. P. S., Beawar, 1982, pp. 47-52. 50. Battakera : Mūlācāra, p. 286. 51. Tandulaveyaliya, S. Sadhumargi Sansthan, Bikaner, 1949,
p. 47. 52. Ibid, p. 47. 53. Madhu A. Jain :J. M. L. Shastri Sadhuvada Granth, Rewa,
1988, p. 283.

Page #548

526 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
54. Battakera : Mūlācāra, p. 368. 55. Nemichanda Sūri : Pravacanasāroddhāra; L. D. P.
Sansthana, Bombay, 1922, p. 252. 56. Svāmi Kumāra : Kārtikeyānuprekşā, p. 264. 57. Edited Madhukara Muni : Acāränga-2, p. 88. 58. Pt. Jagmohanalal Shastri : Śrāvaka-dharma-pradipa ( Trans
lated ), Varni Shodha Sansthan, Kashi, 1980, p. 107. 59. Sādhvi Manjulā : Anusandhāna Patrikā-9, 1975, p. 53. 60. Battakera : Mülācāra, p. 68. 61. R. K. Jain : J. M. L. Šāstri Sādhuvāda Grantha, Rewa,
1989, p. 287. 62. Pandita Āśādhara : Sāgāra Dharmāmrta, p. 127. 63. N. L. Jain : Jaina Šāstron Main Bhakşya-Abhakşya Vicāra,
Tulasi Prajñā, 16. 2. 3, 1990, pp. 20-34, pp. 24-37. 64, śānti Sūri : Jiva-vicāra-prakarana, Jaina Mission Society,
Madras, 1950, p. 57. 65. Pandita Daulataram : Jaina Kryākośa, Jinavani Karyalaya,
Calcutta, 1927. 66. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Daśavaikalikā, pp. 206
210. 67. Samani Kusuma Prajna et. al. : Tulasi Prajñā, 9. 7-9, 1983,
p. 18 & 9. 10-12, 1984, p. 13. 68. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sūtrakrtānga-2, p. 183. 69. Bhagavati Sūtra, Jaina Bhavana, Calcutta-1, 1973, pp. 17
21.

Page #549

Chapter 17
Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons
Religion is a way of life involving a code of conduct leading to the best of physical and spiritual happiness of individual and society. It leads to increase in pleasure and reduce the pains. Sthānānga1 mentions ten types of pleasures involving attainments and controls. They include health and longevity at the top. These are experienced by reducing ten types of pains2 due to food, shelter, clothes and diseases of physical, mental, natural, supernatural and accidental nature. It seems the Jaina preceptors did have the idea of proper health as the basis for attaining the four objectives (religion, riches, desires and salvation) in the world. They had in mind that sound mind develops only in sound body. That is why, all the monks were formerly required to learn the science of vital airs or living and attainment of healthy and lustrous body was taken as one of their characteristics.
The Jainas have developed a science of life or Prāṇāvāya (Prāṇāyu) with the description of quatrained eightfold system3. This formed the earliest canon on medical science adopted by Jainas. Though this is not extant now, its contents have been described in other canons. This now forms only one section (12th) of pre-canonical texts under 12th primary canon the Dṛṣṭivāda or canon of apologies and worldly-cumsuper-worldly learnings, though this canon is also now extant. However, the studies of this or other canons was limited to the monks only wherein they were not required to practice it publicly to free them from attendant botherations. The times changed and this science became the science for general people and earned the name of skilled learning. That is why, the ash-thread-therapists (bhutikarma ), physicans and physio

Page #550

528 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
therapists ( specialising in nerves and vital airs) have been included in nine types of skilled persons. It is mentioned that the kings had always physicians with them in peace and war. A large number of physicians, surgeons and veterinarians are mentioned in different canonical stories. It is also noteworthy to learn that the traditional 72 learnings for men and 64 skills for women include many medical skills and practices. The basic importance of this skill can also be inferred from the fact that the religious principles of gem-trio of the Jainas have been also associated with pacification or purification of three defects of the body – right faith pacifying the bile defect, right knowledge pacifying the air (rhenum) defect and the right conduct pacifying the phelgmic defects. It is due to this attitude that a large number of practices have been included in different vows and penances in religious scriptures for spiritual development.
The term 'Vaidya' or 'Vaidyaka' denoting a physician or science of physicians indicates that this branch of learning was taken to be all-skill branch where Vedic ( spiritual ) and physical ailments were taken into account'. This also suggests the paramount importance of the Prānāvāya skill. Though formerly a normal scripture, this has been classified as a demerited, worldly or black scripture by spiritualists per chance later because it leads to longevity in the world. This designation requires reconsideration.
The term 'Prāņāvāya' means the science of life and longevity. It is not known whether the scholars defining about the contents of this science were familiar with the details of eight-fold indigenous system ( as it includes demonology and toxicology ), but it seems that they had an idea of a different eight-fold Ayurvedic system which requires a probe. That is why Akalanka had defined it as a treatise of eight-fold Ayurvedic system together with demonology, toxicology and yogic system. A later commentator, Virasena seems to have improved this definition in Jayadhavalā stating that it deals with

Page #551

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 529
different vital airs, strengths and physiological functions". The traditional Jaina canons also support this definition. This will involve anatomy and physiology also. That is why, these topics are found scattered in Jaina canons like Bhagavati and others''. Moreover, there were hospitals based on this system in towns like today's Rajagir built by rich persons and the state with necessary facilities for treating the patients12.
There are some specific points regarding this system which give strong Jainistic impressions on it. Jainism is based on gross and fine non-violence. Any process or practice involving violence is, therefore, practically disregarded by canonical Jaina physicians. That is why, the noted physician Dhanvantari ( not the originator of Ayurveda ) has been shown to attain hellish life afterwards13. Thus, the Jaina system mostly avoids the direct use of meat, honey or alcohol in medical prescriptions. It is because of this principle that the dead body dissection has been termed as demerited act. This resulted in poor knowledge in anatomical and surgical fields without any developments. This principle has led to use medicines of vegetable and mineral origin only. The treatment of some diseases and wounds in canons testify this fact. The development of medication by different forms of flowers and their extracts is another example14. Even in ninth century, Ugraditya wrote his Prāṇāvāya treatise on this basis alone.'5 However, when large number of metals ( i. e., mercury ) and minerals were known, a system of mastered and synthetic medicines was developed. All chemical practices were also developed. Later authoritativeness in the system led to conservative attitude which marred the progress of this indigenous system. It is pleasing to note that 20th century has made it little progressive under competitive compulsions. Origin of Prānāvāya System
It is observed that almost all prominent Indian systems presume their origin through their supreme lords or their incarnations. Ayurveda system originated from Dhanvantari

Page #552

530 : Scientific Contents in Prākşta Canons
an incarnation in Vaisnava system, from Nakulisa - an incarnation in Saiva system and from medical preceptor Buddha in Buddhist system. Similarly, the canonical branch of Prānāvāya may be assumed to have been originated from the first JinaRşabhadeva of the present Jaina era which has been passed on to us through the last Jinas - Pārsvanātha and Mahāvira and their disciples. Nişithacūrni, however, mentions Dhanvantari to be the originator 16. This seems to be a non-traditional view and suggests interpolation.
The memorical loss of original canonical instructions of medical science of the Jainas has caused unprecedented disadvantage to this system historically. However, a good number of informative facts and figures are found scattered in almost all canons on the basis of which a study could be coordinated to learn about the state of medical sciences in the canonical period. It may be added that the terms - Prānāyāya or Pranäyu should be taken as equivalent to the term Ayurveda which has the same object and methodology, though it is a matter of research which term or system preceded the other. But as things stand, the Jainas used their term until eighth century A. D. and later began using latter term. Thus, currently one may take these terms as synonymous.
Kalyānakāraka – a treatise of 8-9th century mentions names of large number of predecessors authoring Prāņāvāya books whose works are unfortunately not available today". These would have been highly valuable to study the gradual development of medical concepts and practices during different periods. Shah 18 and Bhatanagar19 have mentioned about more than 100 books with their authors during later period between 1200-1950 A. D. to show that the indigenous science of medicines has always been a lively learning among the Jainas. However, the description here will cover a limited period of canons and their commentaries. Units under Medical Establishment
Per chance, Sthānānga 20 is the first book mentioning

Page #553

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 531
about four basic units of ancient medical system. They are (i) the physician, (ii) patients, (iii) nurses and the (iv) medicines (the term used for this is Auṣadha which previously meant herbal and plant-based medicines. Later, minerals and prepared medicines have also been included in this term ). Besides preparations, administration of medicines to patients is also included here. A fifth unit of community and preventive medicine was added to these four suggesting public health consciousness of Jaina scholars more than two thousand years ago21. Ugraditya also confirms these basic units and defines them. They are also the basic units of medical establishment today. This suggests the continuity of structural and external similarity of medical learning during the past and present.
(i) Physician: The word should be taken as to mean the indigenous medical specialist and practitioner of ancient times. There is a large amount of ignorance about the quality and quantity of physicians of that period. This does not seem justified. They became masters of their trade by learning under suitable monks in seminaries and monasteries associated with the Jainas besides their hereditary education. The teachermonks were called Kalacāryas or skill-preceptors. The medical scientists of that time were practically creative and theoretically intelligent. They cultivated these qualities as there were no detractions during their learnings in their places like today. The most recent trend in education is also moving in the so-called backward direction in this regard. The physicians of those days worked privately and as civil servants also. They treated the public, individual and even none or both. They were highly proficient in the eight-fold system of medicine current those days22,

-
(ii) Patients: Though the canons do not contain description about the patients in general; however, Ugraditya tells us that the patients should have confidence and faith in the physician approved by the state. The physicians, on the other hand, should first examine the patient by methods of (i) seeing

Page #554

532 : Scientific Contents in Prākļta Canons
(ii) questioning, (iii) touching and (iv) diagnosing about their nature of disease and then treat them accordingly23. The Āyurvedic system mentions eight points of patient's examination, i.e., sight, touch, facial nature, voice, tongue, faeces, urine and nature of pulse and its rate etc. It has to be investigated whether pulse examination got current in Ugraditya's time as he has not mentioned this important aspect of patient's examination.
( ili ) Nurses : Nursing is as necessary for patients as the doctor. Ugraditya points out that the nurse must be strongwilled to serve others. She should be smiling, skilful, kind and patient to the patients and must be able to bear the inconveniences from both sides. However, it is not mentioned whether they should be males or females only. It seems both sexes could have occupation of nurses.
(iv) Medicines : It has been said that the canonical age medicines were normally non-violent, herbal, vegetable, mineral, their decoctions, extracts and mixtures. A good medicine is defined as that which is prepared by genuine methods and is disease-curing in small amounts. A nurse must be wellversed in preparing and administration of medicines. Of course, besides medicines, nature cure and demonic cure methods are also included in medicines of canonical times. Topics Under Medical Learning24
Many canons have indicated the following eight subjects to be taught for physicians during their training with some variance in their Samskrta names and their order :
(i) Paediatrics (Kaumārbhrtya, Bālaraksā ) (ii) Surgery and Midwifery (Salya ) (iii) Ear, Nose, Throat and Eye treatment ( Śālakya ) (iv) Internal and External Medicines (Kāya-cikitsā ) (v) Toxicology (Agada or Jangala )
(vi) Demonology and Ash-thread Therapy (Bhutavidyā, Bhūtikarma )
(vii) Geriatrics or Longevity ( Rasāyana )

Page #555

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 533
( viii) Aphrodisiacology or Rejuvenation ( vājikarana, Kșāra-tantra ).
These topics seem to be quite few and their scopes should also be quite incomplete with respect to twentieth century development of mechanical, electrical, electronical and penetrating rays appliances besides more accurate knowledge about the internal and external systems and their mechanisms in the body. Still, they could not be discarded off hand as they contain the seeds for all later developments. Moreover, the general Indian villager is still being cured by this system in majority. Though anatomy and physiology do not find mention here, but they seem to be included in surgery and other related branches. Diseases and their Causes
The disease, in general, is a disturbance in human physical and/or psychological system. This may be natural or accidental, temporary, chronic or fatal. It always causes pain and undesirability. The external causes of pain are nine as per Sthānānga 25 : Overeating, improper posture or food, oversleeping, over-walking, constipation, urinal-obstruction, oversex and adverse food. These causes result in four types of internal. elemental or humoural changes named as disturbances in ( i ) rhenum ( air ), (ii) bile substances, (iii) phelgmic substances and (iv) in the mixture of these three26. This canonical statement differs from three defect-based Ayurvedic system. The medical diseases are, therefore, classified on the basis of these causes. B. A.27 and Ugraditya also support these three principle system in contrast to the canonical one, which seems to be more accurate. However, Ugraditya has classified the diseases under two common-sense heads : (i) significant numbering eight and (ii) non-significant including demonology and toxicology numbering forty-five, representing the acuteness of the diseases. Religiously, he also points out that the primary cause of disease is former kārmic accumulation. Others have pointed out the possession by demons in addition. The current

Page #556

534 : Scientific Contents in Präkrta Canons
allopathic system does not classify diseases on this basis. It is based on various systems working in the body like nervous, bone and joints, endocrine, excretory, digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and genetic, infectious and psychological disorders28. This suggests that the current medical practice has gone on specificity rather than Ayurvedic generalism. Diseases Taught
Canons mention large number of diseases as observed during those days and for which treatment was done. With the exception of Rayanasāra ( 10 diseases ) and Bhagavati ( 12 diseases ), most other canons have 16 or more diseases. Some later texts have constancy in number with many names differing. Jivajivābhigama goes for 36 diseases. B. A. has an alarming number of 5, 68, 99, 584 for disease mentioning that there are 96 diseases in the eyes alone29. Moreover, Kundakunda has to say a little differently that 1.65cm. (1 angula ) of body may have 96 diseases 30. This gives, on calculation, the total internal and external length of the body as 9.78 kms. and total volume of body as approximately one cubic meter if the body density is taken roughly to be one. This, if corrected for the size of the eye as 4.5 cms., still seems to be 3.62 km. equivalent to still an imaginary quantity. However, if we overlook this calculation of B. A., we find that the total number of diseases goes upto more than five dozen as shown in Table 1. This suggests that the number of disease have been gradually increasing in different canonical periods leading to the guess of their later and later compositions. The subclassification of fever, different types of community diseases, inclusion of infections, measles, ringworm, heart pain and psychological diseases in later texts also suggest a gradual development towards finer approach in medical learning. This list also points out that nearly all types of general diseases were existing in canonical days as are existing today with the exception of assumed demonal diseases which seem to be more psychological in current views. Currently, the number and complexity

Page #557

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 535
of diseases have gone enormous. Table 1 : Names of Diseases in Jaina Canons. 1. Goiter (Gandamāla ) 2. Leprosy (Kuştha, 18 types ) 3. Tuberculosis (Rājayakşmā ) 4. Epilepsy (Apasmāra )
Blindness or 1-eyedness (Kannika ) 6. Stiffness in parts (Stimitatva ) 7. Lameness (Kunitva ) 8. Hump-backedness (Kubjitva ) 9. Fatness or Dropsy (Udari ) 10. Dumbness (Mūkatā ) 11. Swelling (Sotha ) 12. Over-apatite (Bhasmaka ) 13. Trembling (Kampana Vāta ) 14. Dis-ablement (Prşta-sarpi ) 15. Elephantitis (Slipada ) 16. Diabetes (Madhumeha ) 17. Infectious/Contact Diseases ( Sparsa Roga ) 18. Fatal Diseases (Ātarki Roga ) 19. Asthma (Svāsa ) 20. Cough & Whooping Cough (Kāsa ) 21. Fever ( Jvara ) 22. Inflammatory Fever (Dāha-jvara ) 23. Intestinal/belly ache (Kukşiśūla ) 24. Fistula (Bhagandara ) 25. Piles (Arsa ) 26. Paralysis (Dhanurgraha ) 27. Flatulence, gastric (Udara Vāta ) 28. Indigestion (Ajirņa ) 29. Headache, Head cholic (Mastakaśūla ) 30. Eye-Colic (Aksi-vedana ). 33. Itching and scabbies (Kandū ) 34. Apatite Loss (Aruci ) 35. Uterus Colic ( Yoniśūla )

Page #558

536 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
36. Genetic Disease (Kula-roga ) 37. Community Disease (Grāma-roga ) 38. City Disease (Nagara-roga ) 39. Commissionery Disease (Mandala Roga ) 40. Nasal Disease ( Nāsikā Vedanā ) 41. Dental Disease (Danta Vedanā ) 42. Nails Disease (Nakha Vedanā ) 43. Measles 44. Demonal Disease ( Indragraha ) 45. Demonal (Skandagraha ) 46. Demonal (Kumāragraha ) 47. Demonal (Bhūtagraha ) 48. Demonal, Demigod ( Yakşagraha ) 49. Demonal (Nāgagraha ) 50. Psychological/Emotional Disease (Udvega graha ) 51. Intermittent Fever (Ekānta jvara ) 52. 2-day intermittant fever (Caturāhnika jvara ) 53. 3-day intermittant fever ( Tryāhnika jvara ) 54. 4-day intermittant fever (Caturāhnika jvara ) 55. Heart Pain (Hrdayaśāla ) 56. Ribs Pain (Pārsvasūla ) 57. Ringworm (Dadru ) 58. Billous Fever (Pitta Jvara ) 59. Dysentry (Atisāra ) 60. Typhoid ( Sannipāta ) 61. Nausea ( Balguli ) 62. Rheumatism (Vātaka ) 63. Pimples ( Viskumbha ) 64. Wormy Leprosy (Krmi Kustha ) Medical and Surgical Practices
The Jaina Prānāvāya system mentions various medical and surgical practices with not very much details about them. However, the contemporary and later literature mentions quite a lot about them. The various types of medications have been classified by Ugraditya under four heads :

Page #559

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 537
(i) Causticisation, (ii) Branding, ( ili ) Medicinal substances and (iv) Surgery.
The different practices could be classified under these heads. However, a better classification would be based on the nature of medication under current terms : (i) physical, (ii) surgical, (iii) medicinal and (iv) psychological processes. They are described below. It must be noted that all the physical processes have some type of medical action on the diseased
part.
(i) Physical Methods
1. Rubbibg with oil 2. Rubbing with powder 3. Oil drinks
4. Vomitting 5. Purging with drugs 6. Medicated bath 7. Syringing bladder 8. Oil enema 9. Bathing hair with oil 10. Nourishing with oils 11. Nourishing with cooked 12. Use of hairy/hairless oils
leather 13. Wrapping with fur or 14. Sweating
leather 15. Massaging
16. Special anointing 17. Pressing/sneezing 18. Sun-bath 19. Water bath
20. Mud/earth poultice 21. Leeching
22. Administration of medi
cines (bark, rhizomes,
bitter and juicy extracts) 23. Making herbal tablets 24. Preparing special
medicines 25. Preparing mixtures of 26. Medical fumitigation/ medicines
incensing .27. Making decoctions and 28. Causticisations
multiple digestions 29. Leaf and ground leaf poultice (ii) Surgical 1. Opening veins or
2. Cutting. acupuncture

Page #560

538 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
3. Fine cutting
4. Thorn pricking 5. Branding
6. Post-surgery care 7. Scraping
The number of these processes has increassed from 4 in S. K. and 5 in Acārānga to more than 30 in total. It is clear that there are about 29 medical practices and seven surgical ones. This suggests medical treatment to be more prevalent. Ugraditya mentions sixty such practices - a notable development over the canonical period. Most of these are used today with a little better fineness. Different Types of Medicines
The medicines mentioned in the canons belong to the ten categories :
(a) Different parts of medicinal plants, (b ) Extracts or decoctions of plants, (c) Minerals and metal-formed compounds, (d) Dried plants or their parts, (e) Mixtures of varying number of constituents, (f) Medicinally smoking compounds of varied nature, (g) Spirituous decoctions and extracts.
(h) Skins of animals (ram, hyena, tiger ) with or without hairs ( for flatullence, paralysis and leprosy64),
(i) Urines ( for snake bites ); rice powder and honey ( for fistula ),
(j) Specially prepared oils ( for massaging or annointing)
The medicines are supposed to be effective only when given in proper quantity and for stipulated time. It seems that the last category above contains small amounts of alcohols but it is presumed to be harmful or un-usable in practice. Moreover, the canons do not make any reference to mercury except in Prajñāpanā and Jivajivābhigama 32 which are taken as later compositions. This means that medical use of mercury is a post-canonical phenomena.
The canons mention evil spirits and demigods. It seems

Page #561

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 539
that demonology was one of the important learnings of those days. It is also a section of Ayurveda and Prāņāvāya. The demonical diseases are defined as those which are incurable by any type of medical treatment. They are supposed to be caused by eighteen different types of demigods32. The irreligious, deceitful and lonely people do suffer from these diseases. These could be treated by re-directing and strengthening the inner energy by incantational, meditational and austere practices. Per chance, the general and mastered medicines are not effective in such cases. The medical practitioner of canoni cal age was, thus, required to be proficient in demonology also. Currently, these are treated as psychological depressions and meditation etc. are taken as means to improve them. Anatomical Descriptions
Acārānga 33 gives names of 32 parts of human body and nine forms of excretions in comparişion to twenty in case of Dhanna monk34. There are no details about them, however, as to their structure and shapes etc. But canons like B. A., T. V. give us some anatomical details of human body as shown in Table 2 and 3. It contains some internal details too. It is said that in many cases, women have lesser number of parts. The comparative tables suggest that there is a good amount of similarity between Prānāvāya system and Ayurveda. But the details of Prānāvāya are more varied and quantitative. One can discern differences in number and weight in most cases between the old and current medical systems. However, it is surprising that datas either lack or are not easily available in current system in many cases, reported in canons. Here, the weight calculations have been given on the basis of
1 Pala = 4 Tolas = 46 gms. 1 Añjali = 4 Palas = 16 Tolas = 184 gms. 1 Prastha = 4 Añjalj = 16 Palas = 64 Tolas ~ 800gms. ~ 0.80 Kg.
The author hopes that scholars will be encouraged to express the qualititative contents in current units of length

Page #562

540 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
(cms.) and weights (gms. ). This will make better comparative evaluation.
Table 2 Anatomical Parts in Human Body: Numerical Data. Med. Sc.
No. Name
TV BA KK
300/360 206
210
900
700
500
24
16
4
1. Bones
2. Joints
3. Tendons
Nerves/Veins
4.
5. Muscles
6. Atreries
7.
Large Veins
8. Fleshal Sinews
(Māmsa-rajju)
9. Skin
10. Defecation Points
11. Vital Spots (Marmasthala )
12. Houmours
13. Anuses
3. Spleen
4. Brain
5. Semen
6. Blood
7. Faeces
300
300 300
300 300 300
900
900 900
700
700
700
500
500
500
24
16
2

III
107
-
16
2
7
TV
2
7
107
3
9 (men) 9
11 (women)
7
20
32
5
7
7
107
39
14. Liver Parts
15. Nails/Fingers
16. Teeth
17. Airs
Table 3 Quantitative Details about Anatomical Statements.*
No. Name
BA
Medical Sc.
1
3
1. Large Intestines
16
2. Liver
1
1
20
32
5
AY
10 11 1 50 1 1 1 1
39

7
107
221
20
519
32
Ay
4
16
1
1
184 g 184 g 1400 g
184 g
1.70 kg 1.70kg - 1.7-3.4kg.
20
32
**
5
1.5 m (length)
1.2-1.8 g
150-200 g
5 ml. ( app.)
4-5 Itres.
200 g

Page #563

1
8. Urine
9.
10. Ribs
11. Heart
12. Tongue
Eyeballs
13. Soft hairs
14. Fat
15. Bile liquids
16. Cough
17. Stomach
18. Bone marrow
**
Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons
90 g
18
1.15 kg
205 g
12 cms
350 lacs
450 cms

3
4
0.80kg
-
205 g
BA and KK details differ in ratio of 3 1.
Physiology
80 lacs552 g
552 g
552 g
1
5
1.5 kg
:
24 0.2-0.35 kg
541
Physiologically, the eatables have been classified by their rhenum, bilous and phelgmic nature. Their digestions produced different effects in the system in terms of their exothermic, endothermic or mixed type of biochemical actions in the stomach. It is said that the food when chewed and mixed with saliva gets mixed up with bile in stomach and gets bitter. On further digestion, this produces primary fluids in the body which are converted into blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow and semen in order. These fluids are also utilised by the embryo for its nourishing at different stages.
There is good description about foods and nutrition in different canons which has been detailed in the relevant chapter to which the reader is referred to.
Obstetrics and Gynaecology: Procreation and Pregnancy Current obstetrics and gynaecology deals with diseases related with females specially and their procreative systems. Nature has provided the method of procreation to continue the species and the world. This branch is included in Salya system of Prāṇāvāya. It is said in canons that the 5-sensed mammals

Page #564

542 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
generally procreate sexually in contrast to the deficient-sensed ones. There is, therefore, little details about the procreation of these beings. However, sufficient details are available for procreation of mammals specially human beings. It is said that they are nucleated by mixing of semen and blood in the uterus where they grow by maternal intakes and are born with placenta in due course. Some striking statements are also there in this connection many of which need current verification. They are given below :
(a) An embryo can remain in the womb during a period varying between 48 minutes and 24 years36.
(b) The semen in uterus remains active for a time varying between 48 minutes and 12 x 48 = 9.5 hours. The scientists would tell this time between 24-72 hours37.
(c) An embryo in the womb may be procreated by a minimum of one, two or three upto a maximum of 200-900 mammals. This statement seems to be based on '( b )'. This suggests a coitus of 0.64 minute per mammal38.
(d) A female can be a progeny of 2-9 lac procreations in one copulation. This is dependant on the number of sperms in male semen and efficiency of producing eggs by the females. This should be taken as a statement regarding potentiality rather than actuality. However, innumerable number of embryoes are destroyed during collisive intercourse.
( e ) Kundakunda says that there are innumerable micro-organisms in the vagina, breast, chest, navel and shoulder joints of women. Nothing has been said about males in this regard39.
(f) It is said that the (i) bones, (ii) bone marrow and (iii) nails, beard, soft and normal hairs of the embryo are formed with paternal contributions while (i) head, (ii) flesh and (iii) blood are contributed maternally. Rest of the parts of the embryo are formed from blood and semen. These parts last unto the end of the physical body40. Different limbs are given in Table 2. The modern medical sciences talk about chro

Page #565

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 543
mosomal contributions for embryo rather than limbal contributions.
(g) The developing embryo lies on the back, sides or mango-like curved postures in the womb. His activities and emotions correspond with that of his mother. He comes out of womb with his legs or head. His nature depends on auspicity or otherwise of his accumulated Karmas also. While coming out of the womb, the child weeps creating pains to his motheri.
(n) The embryo has only psychical senses, luminous and kārmic body at first. It does have neither physical senses nor body in gross. Its first intake is the emulsion made up of mothers blood and fathers semen. Later on, it intakes biochemical liquids, fludis or elixir produced from digestion process of mother's intake. This intake from all sides is later gradually transformed into various organs. Due to this the developing embryo does not have different types of excretions. Still later, it takes the elixir produced from mother's intake through a sprouted tissue“2.
(i) Different narratives in the canons indicate that the foetus is effected by physical and mental environment and thoughts of the mother. Her psychology effects the nature of the would-be child“. Modern scientists have confirmed this canonical opinion through experimental technics. Moreover, the nature and composition of semen and ovarious egg also effect the developmental characteristics of the foetus. The equation of completions with chromosomes does not seem proper as while one is said to be a form of energy, the other is a series of chemically complex compounds. The science of dreaming and prognosticism has also been related to pregnancy results as narrated in narratives of Kalpasūtra, Bhagavati and Antakrita.
(i ) There is mention of longings of pregnant women in the third or fourth month of gestations. These involve peculiar desires like artificial clouds, demon worship, eating of ones own husband's flesh etc. It is said that if longings are not satisfied,

Page #566

544 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
it effects the proper physical and mental formation of the foetus 44,
(k) jñātādharmakathā and other canons mention about the proper foods and drinks to be intaken by pregnant ladies. They should be nourishing and according to seasons avoiding extremes of tastes and constituents injurious to health. It is stated that mother's food also effects the foetus 336
Besides these statements, the canons like B. A. and T. V. describe about the process of development of embryo during pregnancy. Table 4 gives a comparative statement about it in canonical, Ayurvedic and modern science. It suggests that the old descriptions are somewhat different and comparatively elementary with respect to medical sciences. Though the first month development seems to be similar, but later development differs to a large extent. Sex determination of the foetus is a third month phenomena now. The height and weight measurements of embryo and foetus vary between 104cm. to about 50 cms. and 104g to about 3.0 kg. While canons describe a foetus having only flesh and limbs in 2-3 months, medical science finds even heart, brain and sex signs during this period. Pregnancy longing is said to occur in varying ( 3rd or 4th ) months. The canonical conceivability age is also a matter of dispute for the westerners.
The present Ayurvedic system is utilising some of these facts into their new forms. Canons and old literature should, therefore, be taken as historical records of the existing knowledge and growth of knowledge should be taken as an esatablished fact. The statement of authentication of canonical descriptions should, hence, be taken not in literal sense but in the sense of reverence to the venerables.
(1) The position and shape of uterus canonically described externally is nearly as per current ideas as shown earlier.
(m) Sthānānga 45 and other canons have discribed the conditions under which there could be conception or no conception with or without copulation. Similarly, methods of annihi

Page #567

Table 4 : Development of Embryo and Foetus in Different Systems. No.
T. V.
B. A./K. K.
Medicinal Science
2
3
1. Conceivability Age 55 years F
75 years M 2. First Week Multicellular 3. Second Week Monula 4. Third Week Blastula 5. Fourth Week Shaped fleshly
mass 6. First 10 days 7. Second 10 days 8. Third 10 days
|||

|||
9. First Month
35 gm
Multicellular Monula Blackened mass Compaction of mass
Multicellular Multicellular Monula, blasMonula
tula by cell division 0.85 g Fleshy bubble Fleshy, solidifying Shaping like human, heart blastula, muscles brain, sex-signs, indistinct
heart, 3.75 cms. Solidification 5 limbs distinct, Muscles, Nerves, Bones,
sublimbs indistinct Fingers, Longing, 149,9 cms
Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 545
10. Second Month
Squared solid fleshy mass
11. Third Month

Page #568

1
12. Fourth Month
13. Fifth Month
14. Sixth Month
15. Seventh Month
16. Eighth Month
17. Ninth Month
Tenth Month
18. Total delivery time
19. Conceivability
20. Number of lives in womb
2
Longing (VS) Swelling in body
Limbs, Sublimbs
grow
Bile and Blood
Nerves, Arteries,
Completeness of foetus
277.5 days
Maximum 9.5
hrs after coitus
2-9 lacs
3
Fleshy shape
Limbs form
Limbs/Sublimbs
grow
Skin, Nails, Hairs
Movements
Nourishment, Delivery
4
Developed limbs,
sublimbs, head, heart, longing
Brain, mind active
Intelligence
All limbs/Sub
limbs grow
Movement/Vitality
Nourishment,
Delivery
280 days
5
5 limbs, sublimbs, distinct sex longing, 16.5 cm,
100 g
Limbs, Sublimbs, hairs,
movements, excretion, 300 g, 25.5 cms.
Full development, skin, hairs, 32 cms, 650 gms. fat. Increase in size, action, breathing, 38 cms, 1kg Growth, 43 cms, 1.8 kg.
Critical growth delivery, 46
cms, 2.5 kg.
240-280 days
24-72 hours after coitus
546 Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons

Page #569

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 547.
lation or translocation of embryo/foetus have also been described.
The conception could occur naturally by copulation or introduction of male semen into uterus by different methods mentioned in Sthānanga :
(i) The ejaculated male groundlaid semen may be attracted towards the vagina of a female when she has her hidden vagina open over it.
( ii) The introduction of semen particles in vagina through wearing the semenlaid clothes of men.
(iii) The introduction of semen particles in vagina because of strong desire for issues.
(iv) The introduction of semen particles in vagina while bathing in river, ponds or public places.
(v) The introduction of semen particles by others into the vagina of women out of these five methods, only the fifth has been gaining ground on scientific lines. This, however, has become a reality, sometimes even in the absence of women vagina. The ancient niyoga method could be exemplified by this process. Artificial insemination of animals is a common practice to improve the breed. Test tube babies of today are another example where the embryo is developed by external combination and then its introduction into the uterus of original or different female to avoid conception and birth pangs. Laboratory genetics is also a recent pointer. The Ayurvedic system mentions of pregnancy through women copulation or by dreaming during menses alone 46
The canons do not seem to give confirmed examples of such uncopulated births except in the case of mother of Kesikumāra in the second category4?. All the first four categories are just accidental and not normal. Their mention gives us idea of keen thinking and observation power of our seers. The canons, however, mention the transfer of foetus of Mahāvira through the miracle of a demigod from one uterus to another

Page #570

548 1. Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
per chance a third method of pregnancy48. Moreover, this is a case of transfer of foetus rather than conception. The mention of non-sexual method of human conception seems to be the influence of Hindu mythology where many such cases are described. However, there are no such cases through human skill in canons.
There is only one canon which mentions that there may not be any conception even when there is sexual copulation. Fifteen conditions have been described which are self-explanatory in this regard49. A woman may not conceive when
(i) she may not be properly young.
(ii) she may have gone aged.
(iii) she may be barren.
(iv) she may be having disease.
(v) she may be bereaved.
(vi) she may be always in menses.
(vii) she may always be without menses.
(viii) she may not conceive due to weakness in uterus. (ix) she may have approached menopause.
(x) she may have un-natural sex or oversex.
(xi) she may have undercopulation.
(xii) she may have destruction of semen sperms. (xiii) she may have weakness in bilous blood. (xiv) she may have demigodal effect.
( xv) she may have absence of Karmic accumulation useful for reproduction.
Most of these causes are still assumed as possible reasons for non-conception. However, the structural deficiency and quantitative compositional issues are also, now, involved in the process.
It seems strange that while on the one hand, pregnancy is described as a fortunate blessedness of a female life, there have always been some physical, mental or circumstantial compulsions when this was taken to be undesirable. A a result, methods of abortion or mis-carriage have also been in vogue.

Page #571

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 549
The canons describe four methods :
(i) Cutting the foetus to pieces. (ii) Dis-solution of the embryo. (iii) Foeticide. (iv) Abortion.50
Various oily, alkaline, bitter and astringent medicines and drinks were used for the purpose besides manual and surgical steps. The abortion was a socially condemnable practice in early days. However, time has changed and the last quarter of twentieth century has a message of encouraging abortion for family planning and unrestricted physical enjoyment. This point may be taken against religion but that is the issue with which twentieth century is completing itself. Geriatrics and Aphrodisiacology
These branches of medical sciences were very popular in canonical days. This could be judged by the ancient tonic named 'Cyavanaprāśa' made by the Rși for vigorous youthfulness. In fact, everybody wishes to live longer and enjoy maximum in the world. Like many allopathic tonics of today, there were many ayurvedic tonics in the past to keep men away from diseases. Canons mention about multi-component extracts obtained by multiple decoctions and formulations which were utilised for the two purposes. Later, many synthetic compounds and their mixtures were developed and mastered under this branch. Kalyāṇakārakas gives many such prescriptions in this direction. Current medical science has recently started these branches to improve the internal anatomy of ageing and rejuvenation. Man, now, can hope to be better longlived than before. Toxicology
This branch deals with three types of poisons or toxic substances of botanical, zoological and synthetic origin. Sthānānga 52 mentions that poison may be effective due to (i) biting as by serpents, rats, insects and other animals (ii) eating

Page #572

550 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
a poisonous material and (iii) sight and touch. It effects flesh, bone-marrow and blood too. It seems that serpents, scorpions etc. were very common in canonical age of village culture. That is why a good amount of description about them and treatment of their bites is found in canons. Urine drinking, earth poultice, blood extracting, sucking and branding the bitten points and drinking gold water were the normal treatments40. Use of concentrated amulet and occult arts were also in vogue. These were practiced even in eighth century. Ugraditya had added much more to this branch. Now-a-days, different chemical compounds of toxic nature have been prepared. Insecticides, pesticides, wormicides and the like are also toxic to human beings though not to such an extent as to small creatures. They do not find mention in canons. Besides, many more poisonous creatures have been observed and their toxicity points and components together with a variety of medication have been added. Surgery
The diseases under surgery are mostly accidental. Examples of abscess, cuts, wounds, goitre, fistula, piles and internal thorns are found in different canons. They were treated through various surgical practices and medications as mentioned earlier. The medical practitioner was supposed to carry all his practicing equipments with him all the times. One could form an idea about the progress of surgery when one listens to bye-pass, heart and other transplantation surgeries of today. They were not known or per chance not necessary in canonical ages. Death and After
Medication is meant to delay the death as much as one can. The livingness is defined as an activity or energy due to ( i-V) five senses, ( vi-viii ) speech, mind and body, ( ix ) respiration and (x) life-span. These are knwon as 'Prānas' or vitalities. The living one is 'Prāni' because of them54. Death denotes loss of Prāņa or devitalisation at the destruction of

Page #573

specific life-span karma. This karma refers to either this birth or the other births with same form and destinity. The medical sciences refer to the current birth alone. The death is as natural a phenomena as the birth. These two are the two banks of the ocean of world. The birth process has been described quite in detail. No such details are available for death process. However, there is mention of causes and classification of death in canons. People enjoy birth but feel fear for and sorry at death. The religion teaches us to welcome death like birth with proper preparedness.
Causes of Death
Many canons refer to causes of death some in detail and some in brief. Sthānanga says there are seven causes of death. Kundakunda and Sivārya have 14-16 causes. They seem to be mostly extension and elaboration of Sthanānga. However, death by rope trap, cutting tongue, demigodal inflictions or immoral acts indicate these practices in those times. These causes are shown in Table 5. It is surprising why. Sivārya does not mention fear and sorrow as the causes of death. They are psychological causes. The difference in Kundakunda and Sivārya lists require further studies. These causes lead to shortening or cutting the life-span.
Table 5 Causes of Death in Different Canons55.
Sthānānga
Kundakunda
Sivārya 3
1
Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 551
2
1. Fear, Sorrow etc. 1. Fear
2. Sorrow
2. Instrumental

--
3. Weapons 1. Weapons 4. Fire or overheat 2. Fire/overheat
5. Overcold
3. Overcold
6. Bloodflow
4. Smoke
5. Taking out tongue
6. Rope trap

Page #574

552 : Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
1 2
3 3. Over-eating 7. Overeating 7. Overeating/no
or no-eating eating
8. Unnatural foods
9. Thirst 4. Severe pains 8. Severe pains 5. External causes 9. Drowning in 10. Drowning in
water
water 10. Fall from 11. Fall from mounts
mounts 11. Fall from tree 12. Fall from tree 6. Touch
12. Poisons, 13. Poisons etc.
snakebites etc. 7. Respiratory 13. Respiratory 14. Respiratory obstructions
obstructions obstructions 14. Demigodai 15. Overmeditation -
16. Immoral acts These causes do not include death by trance or voluntary ritual. As these also do not include accidents due to many transport mediums, it seems certain that the modern transport mediums were absent during canonical days. But these could be included in death by external causes. Failure of body parts like heart, kidney etc., is also not here which is very prevalent now-a-days. Here weapons may include bombs also. Kinds of Death
Basically, death has two varieties -(i) natural, timely or normal and (ii) unnatural, untimely or accidental. It is very difficult to define natural death except that it occurs when the life-span karma for the current birth is destroyed. There are very few varieties of living beings which might have natural death. Most have other form of death due to causes described above. The canons, however, indicate two types of death - (i) death of a fool, ignorant and (ii) death of a prudent. They

Page #575

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 553
have many classes under each head in canons as shown in Table 6. They may vary from five to seventeen with different names, order and sometimes meanings. It is seen that Bhagavati classification is a mixed one having many causes in addition to types. The other classifications give either qualification or condition of the dying person. It is said that death of a prudent is better than that of the fool. The BA has classified prudents in four varieties and the fools in five classes. Alternatively, BA has five types of deaths which seems simplification of seventeen types. Table 6: Kinds of Death in Canons. Bhagavati56 Samavão 57
B. A.58 2
3
1
(1) Death of Fool 1. By starvation By starvation By non-restraint 2. By over-sense 2. By over-sense 2. By over-sense submission submission
submission 3. By inner thorns 3. By inner thorns 3. By inner thorns 4. By condemning 4. Condemning 4. Condemning same birth same birth
birth 5. Due to hanging 5. Due to hanging 5. Due to hanging 6. Due to piercing 6. Due to piercing 6. Due to piercing by wild animals by wild animals by wild animals 7. Due to fall from - mountains 8. Due to fall from - tree 9. Due to drowning - in water 10. Due to entering - in fire 11. Due to taking - poisons

Page #576

554 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
2
12. Due to hurt by - weapons
7. Extreme death 7. Extreme death 8. Limiting death 8. Limiting death 9. Wavelike death 9. Wavelike death
10. Beginning-end
death (11) Death of Prudent 13. Unserved re- 10. Death of a fool 11. Death of a fool nunciated death by 11. Death of Prudent 12. Death of Prudent lying steadfast like 12. Unserved re- 13. As under col. 1 a tree
nunciated death by 14. By rejecting lying steadfast like gradual food intake a tree
13. As in column 1 14. As in column 1 14. Self-served re- 15. As in column 2 nunciated death 15. Death of pru- 16. As in column 2 dent-cum-fool 16. Non-omniscient death 17. Omniscient 17. As in column 2
death Whatever may be the cause or type of death, the canons suggest a devotional, religious and pious mind at the time of death for better rebirth. The canons do not mention any methods by which life-span could be increased except that religious and merited activities could mutate things for the better. Dhavalā says that a person could destinate himself either at the last one-third of current life-span or in the last 48 minutes of his current life59. The medical science is groping deep into the science of ageing and trying to increase the life-span as much as possible. Keeping at lower temperatures, undereating by 10%61, reducing neurological defects, supplementation of

Page #577

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 555
essential chemicals and biochemicals, implantation and transplantation of body parts and creating psychologically satisfying conditions and purer environment are some of the methods used today. 62 This has resulted in increasing the average lifespan of Indians from 27 to 57 yrs. after independance. The deterministic kārmic theory of the Jainas has taken a dynamic form in physical sense even in twentieth century. The medical science is moving the way to attain immortality in this visible world because it has learnt about the immortality of primary basic cell of life. The After Life
The Jaina canons point out the existence of four destinities for the living beings - human, sub-human, hellish and celestial. It is presumed that every living being is reborn in any one of these after his death in current life. The omniscients and liberated ones are exceptions. They do not have rebirth. When one dies, the inner of the living associated with caloric and kārmic bodies moves up for one, two, three or four instants of time in straight or curved line and assumes his destined place for the next birth, of course leaving his gross body what we call as dead. Most of the Indian philosophies b rebirth. However, parapsychologists are not unanimous about it. They feel it a question of faith and self-experience rather than actuality. However, the concept of rebirth has proved to be one of the important psychological tool for men to satisfy their optimism about the better future. Conclusion
The above description shows that there are large number of contents on different aspects of contemporary medical science - called Prānāvāya or Ayurveda. It suggests that theoretically, they have every point of current medical learning. However, looking to the contents, the quality may not be very perfect. It has more visual, empirical and external nature. It does not contain internal structure, mechanism and components responsible for curing the normal or deficiency diseases.

Page #578

556 : Scientific Contents in Prāksta Canons
Also, the contents do not have sufficient accuracy in quantitative aspects. However, all these above contents reflect the varied interests of Jaina scholarly seers and the state of medical learning of their age. By comparative studies of canonical and current knowledge, one could guess the advance made by men in this branch of learning during the intervening generations.
ܣ_ G G
References 1. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, Jaina Vishva
Bharati, Ladnun, 1976, p. 850, pp. 920-921. 2. Kundakunda : Aştapāhuda, Digambara Jaina Sansthana,
Mahavirji, 1967, p. 216. (a) R. P. Bhatnagar : Jaina Āyurveda kā Itihāsa, Surya Prakashan, Udaipur, 1984, p. 10. (b) Bhatta, Akalanka : Tattvārthavārttika, BJ. 1953, p.
77. 4. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, p. 855.
ibid, p. 855. Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Avacetana Mana Se Samparka,
J. V. B., Ladnun, 1984, p. 83. 7. Ugraditya : Kalyānakāraka ( Intro.), Sakharama Grantha
mala, Sholapur, 1940. 8. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, p. 855. 9. Bhatta Akalanka : Rājavārttika-1, p. 77. 10. Virasena : Jayadhavalā -1, Jaina Sangh, Mathura, 1978,
p. 133. 11. (a) Sivārya : Bhagavati Ārādhanā-1, J. S. Si Sangh,
Sholapur, 1978, p. 543. (b) Tandulaveyaliya, Hitakarini Sanstha, Bikaner, 1949, pp. 50-70. (c) Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka, pp. 30-32, p. 527, p.
561, p. 573. 12. Edited Madhukara Muni : jñātādharmakathā, A. P. S.,
Beawar, 1981, p. 344. 13. Edited Madhukara Muni: Vipākasūtra, A. P. S., Beawar,
1982, p. 83.

Page #579

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 557
14. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka ( Intro. ), p. 38. 15. Ibid, p. 6. 16. R. P. Bhatnagar : Jaina Ayurveda kā Itihāsa, p. 26. 17. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka ( Intro. ). 18. Ambalal P. Shah : Jaina Sāhitya kā Vrhat Itihāsa, P. V. R.
1., Varanasi, 1969, p. 226. 19. R. P. Bhatnagar : Jaina Ayurveda kā Itihāsa, p. 38, p. 181. 20. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, p. 850, pp.
920-921. 21. Jivajivābhigama-1, Jaina Shastroddhara Samiti, Rajakot,
1973, p. 669. 22. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, pp. 441-442. 23. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka ( Intro. ). 24. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, p. 799. 25. Ibid, p. 850, pp. 920-921. 26. Ibid, pp. 441-442. 27. Sivārya : Bhagavati Arādhanā, p. 554. 28. S. Davidson & J. Mcleod : The Principles and Practice of
Medicine, E. L. B. S., Edinburgh, 1972, 29. Śivārya : Bhagavati Ārādhanā, p. 553. 30. Kundakunda : Astapāhuda, p. 244. 31. (a) śyāma Arya : Prajñāpanā-1, Edited Madhukara Muni,
A. P. S. Beawar, 1983, p. 39. (b) Jivajivābhigama-1, Jaina Shastroddhara Samiti,
Rajakot, 1973, p. 131. 32. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka ( Intro. ). 33. Edited Madhukara Muni : Ācārānga-1, J. V. B. Ladnun,
1980, p. 12. 34. Anuttaropapātika Sūtra, J. V. B., 1982, pp. 30-37. 35. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Aupapātika Sūtra, pp. 134
135. 36. Bhagavati Sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1973, p. 106,
p. 112, p. 186, etc.

Page #580

558 : Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
37. Ibid, p. 112, p. 186.
38. Ibid, p. 112, p. 186.
39. Kundakunda : Aṣṭapāhuḍa, p. 112.
40. Bhagavati Sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, 1973, pp, 108-109.
41. Ibid, p. 106, p. 112, p. 186 etc.
42. (a) Ibid, p. 106, p. 112, p. 186.
(b) Tandulaveyaliya, Hitakarini Sanstha, Bikaner, 1949, pp. 50-70.
43. Edited Madhukara Muni: Vipāka-sūtra, A. P. S., Beawar, 1981, pp. 21-22.
44. Edited Madhukara Muni: Jñātādharma-kathā, p. 43. 45. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Sthānāṁga, p. 576, p. 578, p. 628, p. 679, p. 734.
46. Maharsi Suśruta: Suśruta Samhita-2, M.Laxman Das, Lahore, 1940, p. 91.
47. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānāṁga, pp. 576-578, p. 628, p. 679, p. 734.
48. (a) Edted Madhukara Muni : Acārānga-2, Beawar, 1980, p. 366.
(b) Edited Acārya Bhadrabāhu : Kalpasūtra, Edited Devendra Muni Shastri, Shri Amara Jaina Agama Shodha Sansthan, 1968, pp. 56-74.
49. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānānga, pp. 576-578, p. 628, p. 679, p. 734.
50. Edited A. S. Gopani & V. J. Chokasi: Niryavalia, Gurjar Grantha Ratna Karyalaya, Ahmedabad, 1934, p. 20.
51. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka, pp. 91-96.
52. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña : Sthānāṁga, pp. 576-578, p. 679, p. 734.
53. Ugraditya : Kalyāṇakāraka, pp. 496-520.
54. Bhagavati-sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1973, p. 149. 55. (a) Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Sthānānga, pp. 576578, p. 679, p. 734.

Page #581

Medical Sciences in Jaina Canons : 559
(b) Kundakunda : Aṣṭapāhuḍa, p. 244. (c) Śivārya : Bhagavati Āradhanā, p. 49, p. 54. 56. Bhagavati-sūtra-1, Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 163
164.
57. Edited Yuvācārya Mahāprajña: Samavão, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, 1984, p. 99.
58. Śivarya : Bhagavati Āradhanā, p. 49, p. 54.
59. Jinendra Varṇi : Jainendra Siddhānta Kośa-1, p. 260. 60. Kempffert Waldemar Science: Today and Tomorrow, Dennis Dobson, London, 1947, p. 181.
61. Jone E. Brody: New York Times, C-1 section, April 17, 1990.
62. Proceddings International Conference on Gerontology, Delhi, Dec. 1988.
63. Umāsvāmi : Tattvārtha-Sūtra, Varni Jaina Granthamala, Kashi, 1949, p. 106.

Page #582

Page #583

Word Index A-light-a-heavy, 166
--- manifestations, 202 A-sexuals, 425, 430, 431, 433, — methods of formation, 470, 475
197 Abandhya-pūrva/Kalyāņa pra- -- physical/chemical chavāda, 45
nges in, 217 Abhidhāna-Rājendra-kośa, 46
-- taijasa, 214 Absolute cognition, 135
Agnikāyika, 297 Absorption, 430
Agrāyaniya Pūrva, 42, 44 Abstract sciences, 87, 100 Agriculture, 87, 100 Accomodation/Size, 467 Aguru-laghutva, 159, 227, 232 Actions,
Air, 121 - exo, – endo or mixed Aitihya,30 type, 541
Ajiva, 153 Activity, 121
Ajña, 30 Addhā-samaya, 121
Akalanka, 32, 33, 34, 178, 201, Adhigama, 123
332, 354, 373, 382, 387 Adrsta, 151, 152
Alchemy/Kanaka-saptati, 84 -- motion of, 151, 152 Algae, 404
— sub-classification of, 162 Allopathic system, 534 After-birth growth, 435
Amar Muni, 33 After-life, 555
Ameoba, 480, 481 Ages of living beings, 291 Amphibia, 483 Aggregates, 163, 181, 182, 183, Amrtacandra, 150 184, 185
Anātmabhūta/separable, 144 Aggregations, 148, 193
Anatomical Parts, 540 air or gaseous, 212
- quantitative details, 540 - conditions of formation, Anatomical descriptions, 539 200
Anatomy and Physiology, 529, ---- fire, 214
533 --- functions, 201
Anga, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42,

Page #584

562 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
43, 46, 47, 48, 55, 56, 57, Area and volume units, 280 58, 61, 65, 118
Areas of Measurements, 248 Angabāhya, 38, 42, 51
Arithmatic, 78 Animal,
Asana, 509 2-5 sensed, 465
Ash-thread therapist, 527 Animal sciences, 85
Aspectology, 122 Animals, 406, 407, 420, 424, Association, 177 427, 433
Asti-nāsit Pravāda Pūrva, 44 - five types, 423
Astikāya, 121, 144 - kingdom, 465, 484 Astrology, 78, 82, 84 Animism, 420
Astronomy, 78, 83, 84 Antakrddaśā, 49, 59, 98
Atharva-veda, 445 Antakrta, 543
Atomic aggregates, 62, 196 Aņu, 181, 222, 226
Atomic bonding, 178 Anuttaropapātika, 47, 49, 59, 98 Atomic energy, 62 Anuyoga, 42, 43, 50, 51, 57, 71, - rules for, 238 123
Atoms, 62, 180, 181 Anuyogadvāra, 30
— absolute, 240 – sutra, 30, 35, 38, 39, 40, — aspective types, 240 41, 53, 78, 80, 81, 86, 87, - bonding capacity, 233, 122, 125, 127, 131, 239, 235 351
--- chronological order, 225 Apes, 484
- comparative properties, Aphorism, 30
228 AphrodisiacologyNājikaraņa, -- definition, 231 Apparent
--- equivalence, 227 - time units, 284
- fine, 227, 240 Applied Sciences, 77, 84
fusion process, 230 Applied consciousness, 410
historical perspective, Archaic, 22
224 - prākṣta, 19
--- infra, 225 Archery, 78, 85
---- Jaina theory of, 224 Architecture, 85
- phenomenal, 240 Ardha-māgadhi, 4, 21, 33, 46
- properties, Bonding, 233, Artha, 142
235

Page #585

Word Index : 563
--- properties, conservation, Agama, 28, 29, 31, 75, 76 233, 235
Ahāra, 498, 501 - properties, dynamic, 233 -- kaval/morsel --- real, 227, 240
:--- oja, 506, 508 - varieties, 233, 239
----roma/Loma -- tanmātrika-infra, 231 Ājivaka, 40, 54, 55, 57, 65, 69, ---- motion in, 234
70, 71 — speeds, 235
Ajñānuvāda Pūrva, 42 — 4-touch, 227
Akāśagata, 50 Atonements, 29
Apta, 31 Attained, 31, 33
- vacana, 30 Attribute of motion, 175
Aryarakṣita, 29, 126 Attribute of smell, 168
Atma-pravāda, 44 Attributes, 145, 148
Ātmabhūta/non-separable, 144 general, 146
Āturpratyākhyāna, 53 -- specific, 148 145, 148 Āvaśyaka Cūrni, 115 Aupapātika, 51, 154, 512 Āvasyaka Niryukti, 79, 80, 85, 98 Aura (.Tejoleśyā), 298
Āvaśyaka Sūtra, 503 Auşadha, 531
Āvaśyaka Sūtra/Āvaśyaka, 35, Authors of Canons, 33
52 Auto-feeding, habit, 407
Ayurveda, 63, 87, 100, 101 Auto-tropism, 448
Ayurvedic generalism, 534 Avadhi, 135
Ayurvedic system, 528, 529,530, Avagraha, 136
532, 533, 539, 544, 547, Avāya, 136
555 Aves, 483
Āyurvedic tonics, 549 Avestā, 31 Avisamvādi, 28
Bacteria, 433 Ayas-kānta, 357, 358
Bausfield, 375 Ayonija ( a-sexual ), 423 Bhagavadgitā, 154 Ācārānga, 35, 37, 47, 49, 353, Bhagavati, 29, 36, 37, 70, 71,75,
365, 366, 368, 369, 376, 76, 80, 86, 118, 119, 121, 385, 403, 404, 405, 442, 122, 123, 124, 126, 131, 443, 470, 497, 505, 514, 132, 135, 144, 157, 158, 519, 538, 539
174, 176, 178, 179, 181,

Page #586

564
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
200, 202, 231, 236, 254, 276, 297, 302, 312, 313, 329, 332, 368, 369, 373, 375, 383, 385, 396, 406, 421, 425, 430, 444, 445, 462, 505, 512, 534, 543 Bhagavati-Ārādhanā, 66, 67,
476, 497, 505, 510 Bhakta-parijñā, 53 Bhāva (mode),126 Bheda/division, 177
Bhokta/enjoyer, 146
Bhukti-karma, 527
Bibhāva, 149
Bible, 31
Binomial System, 406
Biological Sciences, 84, 100
Biologist, 406
Biology, 62, 67, 77, 78
Birth, 420, 426
a-sexual, 423, 425, 434
combination of conscio
usness, 422
conditions, 427
conglomeration of sen
ses, etc. 422
current concepts, 432, 440
sammurchima, 423, 433,
434
sexual, 423, 425, 435 spontaneous generation, 423, 430
special bed, 423 uterine, 423

Birth-places
-bamboo leaf/flat shaped,
429
conch-shaped, 429 duplex, 429, 490
leicarnuate, 429, 490
-nine variety, 427 simplex, 429, 490
- single medium, 429, 490 tortoise-shaped, 429 tripartite, 429, 490 type of, 426
Bodies, 185
ejectable, 185
gross, 185
karmic, 185
luminous/caloric, 185,
422, 424, 431, 508 - transformable, 185
-
Body, 121
Body-functions,
energy for, 501
- general and specific, 499 Bondage, 154
Bonding in matter, 178 Bonds, 177
Botanical contents, 439 Botany, 62, 406, 407 Branches of Learning, 75 Buddha, 142
C
Candra-vedhyaka, 53 Candra-prajñapti, 50, 52
Canonical language, 19 Canonical mind, 407

Page #587

Word Index : 565
Canons, 32 Canons-like 33 Canonical Techniques of Objec
tive Studies, 121 Carbohydrate cereals, 504, 508 Căritraprābhrta, 497 Cārvāka, 142, 422, 433 Catalysts, metallic, 201 Caturvimśati-stava, 48 Catuśśarana, 35, 53 Cause-effect relations, 383 Celestial, 411, 412, 413, 415,
465 Cell theory, 393 Cell wall, 408 Cellular/cellulosic structure, 407 Characteristics, of Plant/Anim-
als, 407 Chāndogya Upanişad, 442 Cheda-sūtra, 35, 41, 42, 52 Chemical Sciences, 84 Chemistry, 62, 67, 78, 88, 142 Chief desciples, 33 Chlorophyl, 407, 408 Chordata, 480, 483
- proto, 483
--- eu-, 483 Chromosomal contribution,543 Chromosomal pairing, 435 Chromosomes, 431 Civil and Architectural Enginee
ring, 78 Clairvoyance, 135 Classification,
-- computed, 419
of Jaina canons, 36 - of languages, 5 --- of living beings, 403 - other, 408 — sense-based, 406 --- trends, 403
- two-fold, 406, 407 Classification system, 420
- artificial, 420 - natural, 420 -natural-cum-artificial, 466 - phylogenic 420
- sense-based, 466 Cognition, 121, 135 Cognitive Process for Objective
Studies, 135 Colour, 162, 323
- attributes, 169,
--- varieties, 170 162, 323 Colouration, 121, 410 Comparative Evaluation of World
ly Learnings, 116 Completioned, 411, 414, 415,
416, 419, 445 -- structural, 417, 418
- timal, 417, 418 Completions, 381, 409, 411,
414, 417, 418, 421, 430, 440, 449 --- physical, 384
----- Supra-sensual, 384 Conation, 121, 411 Consciousness, 121, 372 — combination with body,
422

Page #588

566
: Scientific Contents in Prakṛta Canons
dormant, 406
experiencial, 385
functional, 375 knowledgal, 385
level of, 434
- meaning, 376 Consecutive properties, 176 Constituent-wise classification,
scientific analysis of, 508 Constitution of gross matter, 224 Contents of Physics,
Heat and light, 297 Sound, Electrictly and Magnetism, 328
Cosmography, 56 Cosmology, 63
Councils,
Mäthuri, 249
Balabhi, 249
Culika-sūtra/Cūlikā, 41, 43, 50,
51, 59, 60
Cupidology, 84
Current Classification of Learning
Arts, 100 Cytology, 446
D
D. N. A., 421
Dahi-baḍā, 516
Dance, 78
Darkness, 312 Darśana, 136 Daśavaikālika, 35, 42, 48, 52, 62, 71, 353, 365, 368, 403, 404, 443, 470, 497, 518 Daśāśruta/Daśā, 35, 42, 52

Death, 420, 432
and after, 550
causes of, 551
deterrants, 432
kinds of, 552
voluntary, 432 Deficient-sensed, 411, 412, 413,
414, 415, 470, 541
Definition of Non-living Reality, 157
Deluding karma, 66 Demerited scripture, 528 Demerited act, 529
Demonology, 528, 533, 539
Description of Canons, 42 Destinities, 409, 411, 412, 413, 465
Destruction of karma, 148
Devasena, 147, 160, 374 Development of Prakṛta, 13 Devendra-stava, 53.
Dhanusa, D, 488
Dharma-sangraha, 515 Dharmaprajñapti, 42
Dhavala, 48, 79, 124, 355, 368,
369, 375, 382, 387, 395, 409, 444, 446, 450, 460, 554
Dhāraṇā, 136
Dietetics, 63
Different terms, 266
- for various units
Different types of grains and pot
ables, 504 Diffusion, 430

Page #589

: Word Index : 567
Digambara Pro-canonical litera- Earth-quakes, 82 ture, 63
Eatables/Non-eatables, 514 Dis-embodied, 412
Einstein's equation, 159 Diseases,
Ejectable body, 498 --- causes, 533
Elasticity, 152, 167 - demonal, 534, 539 Electricity, 62, 353 -- names of, 535
--- corpuscular nature, 354 ---- non-significant, 539
Electricity and Magnetism, 353 -- significant, 533
Embodiment period, 425 - taught, 534
Embodiments, 409, 410, 412, Dishes in Canonical Periods, 518
422, 429, 445 Disquisition doors, 42, 122, 123, Embryo, 425, 542, 543 126, 127, 132, 133, 134
Embryology, 420, 466 Disquisition doors (plants), 440,
- development, 545 461
— growth, 534 ---- about food, 522
Engineering and Technology, 87 -- mobile kingdom, 467
Engineering science, 78 Dissociation, 177
Engineering/Architecture, 101 Dixit, 34
Ether, negative, 156 Dormant consciousness, 406
Ether, positive, 156 Drama, 78, 85
Evolution, 420 Dravyas, 124, 142, 144, 145,
Excretion, 408 150, 153, 155, 156
--- nine forms, 539 Dravyatva, 161 Drawing/painting, 78 .
Existentiality as reality, 149 Dreamology, 83 Drstivāda, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 47, Faculty of,
48, 50, 51, 57, 59, 60, 61, - Abstract science, 102, 65, 527
112 Duration, 410
- Agriculture, 114 Dvādaśānga Ganipițaka, 37
- Ayurveda, 103, 114 Dvipasāgaraprajñapti, 50
- Biological sciences, 103, E
112 Earth, 121, 125
Canonical and Religious - fine, gross, 121, 125, 208
Studies, 110

Page #590

568 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
--
-
— Engineering, 104, 112 -- Home Science, 104, 113 — Humanities, 101, 111 -- Life Sciences, 112 — Military Science, 115 — Miscellany, 115 - Prognostics, 104 - Prognostics and Surpri
sings Arts, 124
Sports/Games, 104, 114 - Supernatural/Surprising
Arts, 105 - Technology, 104
- Vedic Studies 101 Faith, 121 Families, plants, 408
- animals, 408 Family of Indo-European Langu
ages, 10 Faraday, 358 Fatty cereals, 505, 508 Fine, 411
- and Practical Arts, 85
- arts, 78
- insects, 407 Fire-bodied substance, 297 Fire, various types, 215 Five stages of sensory-know
ledge, 136 Five-sensed animals, 475 Fixed and movable space-points
• of the living, 391 Food,
- absorbable, 505 -----actuality based, 507,508
affliction, 498 - amounts in 100 years,
513 canonical/scientific obje
cts, 500 classification, 501 classification on methods of intake, 505 completion, 498 constituent-wise classi
fication, 502 - definition of, 497
diffusible, 506 -- donation, 498
earth bodied etc. 507 eatables/non-eatables, 514 for other than human be
ings, 520 — instinct, 498, 510 — morsel, 506 — nature of, 520 — need for, 499 - physical effects, 499, 500 --- psychological, effects,
499, 500 — quantity, 512 -- renunciation, 498 --- spiritual effects, 499, 500 — variform. 498
- sciences, 496 Foods and Nutrition, 63 Forms of Literary Prākta, 16 Four-dimensional world, 157 Four-sensed mobiles, 474

Page #591

Word Index : 569
H
na
Ganadharas, 33
Haribhadra, 332 Ganividyā, 53
Heat, 62, 300 Gem-trio, 528
— classification, 303 Gender, 411, 412
- corpuscular, 302 General Plants, 414, 417
nature, 301 — permanent, 414, 417,
- origin of, 297 418
various forms, 303 -- variable, 414, 417, 418
Heavenly beings, 424 Genes, 432
— eight types, 423 --- theory, 432
Heavens, 121 Genetic code, 427
Hellish, 411,412, 413, 415, 424, Genetics, 466
465 Geology, 82
Hells, 121 Geriatrics/aphrodisiacology, 549 Hemacandra, 357 Gommatasāra, Jivakānda, 182, Heredity characters, 434
410, 411, 412, 413, 414, Hermaphrodites.411. 434 416, 417, 418, 419, 428,
Histology, 466 444, 455, 471, 479
History, 84 Grammar, 77, 82, 86
Home Science, 87, 100 Grantha, 30, 33
Human, 411,412, 413, 415, 424 Grass, 404
--- classification, 473 Grass ( Kavala ), 512
Human beings, Gravimetric, 164, 166
— a-sexual, 485 Gravitation, 151, 156
- aryan/non-aryan, 476 Gross, 411, 412
five sensed, 477 Ground sprouts, 404
- sexual, 488 Groupings, 405
Human body, — size 405 405
32 parts, 539 Growth, 420, 429
Humanities, 87, 100 — after birth, 430
— and Performing Arts, 63, -- plant and animal, 429
77, 83 Gunasthānas, 123, 124, 126 Humours, 510 Guru Grantha Sāhiba, 31 Hylozic concept, 406
---

Page #592

570
:
Scientific Contents in Prākṣta Canons
Images, two types, 315 Immobile, 405, 409, 410, 411,
414, 415, 423, 439 Incubatory, 404, 470 Indigenous system, 529 Individual-bodied plants, 414,
415, 417 Indo-Aryan language, 11 Influx, 154 Innumerable time, 289
– units, 314 Inscriptional Prākļts, 20 Instinct, 121
- by covering/massaging,
506, ---- diffusible, 506 --- emotional, 499, 506 --- karmic, 506 ---- physical, 499
-- quasi-karmic, 506 Instincts/Sanjñās, 385
--- cognition, 386 -- experiencial, 385
-- psychical, 385 Instrumental music, 78 Intakes, 410, 430, 435, 514 - natural and circumstan
cial, 434 Intentional mobiles, 404 Invertebrate, 417, 472 Investigations, 126 Thā/Speculation, 136
Jagaśreņi, 280 Jaina Canons, 28 Jaina Taxonomy, 420, 466 Jaina Theory of Atoms, 224 Jaina Theory of Skandhas, 193 Jainology, 434 Jalagata, 50 Jambūdvipa, 52 Jambūdvipa-paņņatti, 50, 52,
98, 106 Jayadhavalā, 54, 528 Jina-vacana, 29 Jinabhadra, 32 Jita-Kalpa, 35, 53 Jiva, 153, 410 Jiva-vicāra-prakarana, 409, 410,
41.1, 412, 413, 472 Jivakānda, G., 409, 411,412,
413, 416, 466, 470 Jivābhigama, 35, 52, 71, 122,
131, 383, 385, 396, 404, 405, 406, 410, 411, 412, 413, 416, 444, 466, 470,
472, 475, 476, 534, 538 Jñana-pravāda-pūrva, 42 jñānas, 32 jñātādharmakathā, 47, 49, 58,
98, 105, 544 Juical, 404
к Kalā, 132 Kalā/šilpa, 88 Kalācāryas, 531 Kalpa-sutra, 543 Kalpa-sūtra Vrtti, 101
J. D. Prajñapti-vrtti, 106

Page #593

Word Index: 571
Kumbha, 513 Kundakunda, 33, 42, 125, 158,
181, 231, 332, 367, 369,
373, 376, 389 Kuvalayamālā, 101
Kalpa/Vyavahāra, 42, 48 Kalpyākalpya, 48 Kalyāna-kāraka, 530, 549 Kalyānapravāda/Abandhyapūr
va, 45 Karma, 435
-- destruction, 148 — influx, 176
- subsidence, 148 Karma-grantha-V, 185 Karma-theory, 123 Karmapravāda Pūrva, 42, 45 Karmas, 59, 69, 121, 123, 147,
148 Karmavādina, 435 Kartā/actor, 146 Kaşāyapāhuda, 42, 66 Kathopanişad, 76, 77 Kautilyan Economics, 83 Kavala, 512 Kārmic accumulation, 533, 543 Karmic intake, 506 Kārmic theory, 432, 465, 498 Kārtikeyānupreksā, 479 Kevala, 135 Khādya, 509 Khushwant Singh, 396 Knolwledge, 412, 413
— clairvoyant, 413 — perfect, 413 — sensory, 413 - telepathic, 413
--verbal, 413 Kriti karma, 48 Kriyāviśāla pūrva, 45
Lalitavistara, 88 Lands of actions, 418 Lands of enjoyment, 418 Language,
- agglutinative, 7 - analytic, 6 - characteristics, 2
classification, ? family of Indo-European,
10 -- incorporating, 6 - inflecting, 6 -- non-incorporating, 6
- synthetic, 6 Larger time units, 286, 287 Law of conservation, 235 Learnings, 75
— non-canonical, --- non-sacred, 85, 87 - perverse, --- psychological, 81 -- sacred, - super-worldly, 118
-- worldly, 83, 111 Learnings, Arts and Sciences, 89 Legendary stories, 82 Length units,
= larger, 280 — smaller, 275

Page #594

572 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Lexicology, 77, 82 Liberatability, 415 Liberated, 59 Liberated beings, 403, 404, 405,
409, 410 . Liberation, concept of, 405 Libido, 409, 410, 411 Life,
- cellular genesis, 427 Life cycle, 403, 421 Life sciences, 87 Light, 62, 308
- cold and hot, 308 - corpuscular nature, 309 - currents, concept, 311 -- darkness, 312 --- denoted by many terms,
308 --- nature, 308 -- shadows and images,
313 Linga Śarira, 422 Linguistic Composition of Digam
bara Literature, 67 Linguistical period, 36 Linguistics, 2, 71, 77, 82 Lisk, 271 Literary Prākrtas, 18 Living, 59, 62, 142, 147, 154, 409
--- animistic, 365 --- attributive definition, 368 - characteristics of, 375 - classes of, 405 - classification of, 389 --- definition of, 365
- denotation, 367 - embodied, 422
eternal entity, 422 families of, 428 general, 410 general/specific defini
tions, 391 --- inanimistic, 365 -- material origin of, 421,
422
origin of, 365 - proof for the existence of,
368 - six groupings, of, 403,
405 scientific concepts, 392,
393 six types of, 403 structural/functional as
pects, 392 --- species, 426 - units, 405
-- worldly, 368 Living beings, ---- self-sustaining and para
sitic, 497 Livingness, 403, 421, 424, 427,
448 -- and heat, 406 — context, 444 -- Definition, 403
---- Unit of, 403 Lodha, 368, 387, 396 Loka-Vindusāra, 45 Lokākāśa, 234

Page #595

Longings of pregnant women,
543
Luminous body, 216
M
Madhyamika, 142 Magadhan, 256
Magnetisation, 358
Magnetism, 62, 357
Magnitude and size of canons,
54
Mahā-pratyākhyāna, 53
Mahakalpa, 48
Mahāniṣitha, 35, 62
Mahāpundarika, 48
Mahārāṣtri, 67
Mahāvira, 137
Malvania, D., 34
Mammalians, 430
Mammals, 407, 430, 433, 483,
484, 542
Manaḥ-paryaya, 135
Marana-samādhi, 53
Mastered/Synthetic medicines,
529
Maternal contribution, 542
Mathematics, 86, 63
――
worldly, 63
Mathura council, 249
Mati, 135
super-worldly, 86
Mattergic, 498
Mattergy, 122, 154, 155, 156, 158, 172, 176
-
23 classes of, 182
3 classes of, 181

Word Index : 573
4 classes of, 182 530 classes of, 185 6 classes of, 182 classification of, 179 definitions of, 157 functions of, 179
- general properties of, 161 one or two varieties of, 180
special attributes of, 161
Mārgaṇās, 124, 126, 132 Māyāgata, 50
Measurable materials, 248 dharimā (weightable) ganima (countable) meya (measurable) paricchedya (estimat
able)
Measure of length,
Measurement units,
-
avamāna, 263
canonical liquid mea
sures, 262
current units, 268
kalingan, 256
liquid, 262
magadhan, 256
māna and avamāna, 256 numeration/countable,
266
of weight and volumes, 255
unmāna/pratimāna, 263 Volume measures, 263

Page #596

574 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
Measures,
— synthetic, - A.D.S. Classification, 251 Medium of — abstract, 254
--- accommodation, 154 abstract/bhāvamāna,
- change, 154 252
- motion, 121, 122, 154, Akalanka classification,
155, 156, 157 253
--rest, 121, 122, 154, 155, -- concept of, 249
156, 157 --- length/kşetramāna, 252 Mehta, 150 - matter and mass/dravya- Meterology, 77, 82, 83 māna, 252
Micro-organisms, 201 - māna,
Micro/macro non-violence, 11 — paraworldly, 253
Middle Indo-Aryan period, 15 - standpoint/Nayamāna, Military Science, 78, 85, 87, 88, 252
116 —- time/Kālamāna, 252 Mind, 413, 414, 418, 465 -- useful informations, 256
- physical, 386 - worldly, 253
- psychical, 386 Medical Establishment.
Minerals, 508 Medical Sciences, 78, 83, 527 Mobile beings, 480 Medical and Surgical practices, --- canconical and zoologi536
cal, 490 - causticisation, 537
- cannonical classification, - physical methods, 537
490 --- Surgical methods, 537
- other properties, 485 Medical learning topics, 532
- sense-based classificaMedicine, 63
tion, Medicines, 531, 532
--- Zoological classification, — administration, 538
480 --- different types of, Mobile family, 465 -- herbal,
Mobile physique-making karma, - mastered,
466 - mineral,
Mobile tunnel, 466 -- plant based,
Mobiles, 62, 404, 405, 409, 410, - prepared,
411, 414, 415, 423, 455,

Page #597

Word Index: 575
472
N --- all-sensed, 412
Names of general plants, 449 -- deficient sensed, 412 Nandi-Sūtra, 35, 38, 39, 40, 40, --- infectional, 404
41, 71, 78, 79 Modes, 176
Nandi-Sutra-Vrtti, 51 Modifications, 403
Nandi-cūrņi, 46 Modifications of Attributes, 176 Natural effects, 164, 166 Molecules, 62, 187
Nāya-Kumāra-cariu, 118 — formation of, 230, 233 Neo-āgamic, 33 Mono-mealing mendicant, 512 Neo-canons, 33 Morphological/Structural Similar- Nigotas/Nigodas, 163, 184, 445, ity, 409
446 Motion,
- permanent and tempo
rary, 445 - collision,
Niksepa, 123 complex,
Nirayāvalikā, 52 directional,
Nirgrantha pravacana, 36 - elastic/non elastic, 234
Niruktis, 35 - linear
Nişitha, 35, 52 -- simple,
Nisithacūrņi, 510, 530 — spinning,
Niyamasāra, 122, 124, 125, 131, --- transformatory,
137, 182 - translatory,
Niyoga, 547 vibratory,
Niti-Sāra, 81, 85 Mūlācāra, 38, 65, 66, 67, 78,
Non-absolutist, 2 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, Non-eatables, 22, 517 131, 132, 135, 383, 403,
- fermented, 404, 405, 428, 442, 444,
- miscelleneous, 459, 470, 497, 499, 503,
— preserved, 511, 512, 514
— violence to Müląsūtras, 40, 52
Non-chordata class, 480, 483 Multicellular, 481
Non-completioned, 411, 445, Munishri, 159, 170, 232, 235, 470 271
— structural, 417, 418, 471, Museology, 77, 82
479

Page #598

576
: Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
timal, 417, 418, 471, 479 Non-contactility of eye, 319 Sc. explanation, 320 Non-Jaina Philosophy, 83 Non-living 58, 59, 62, 142, 147,
148, 154, 156
Non-mobile, 62
Non-mobiles, 405, 423
Non-plants, 407
Non-rational, 413, 414, 415, 417
Non-sacred, 78, 85
Non-umbilical 470
Non-violence, 58
―
- micro and macro, 2
Nucleus, 197
Nutrition, 408
Nyasa, 123
Nyāya, 422
O
Obstetrics & gynaecology, 541
Oersted, 358
Ogha-niryukti, 52
Oja-āhāra, 506
Olfactory, coefficients, 168
Ommiscience 121
Omniscients 33, 34, 69, 406
Osmosis, 430 0
Organ of knowledge, 32
Origin of languages, 4 Origin of speech, 5
P
Pada, madhyama, 54, 55, 56, 57 Padarthas, IV, 142, 143, 144, 153
Padmarajaiyā, 150

Pain (15 types),
Pain (10 types), 527 Paiśāci, 21
cūlikā, 21
Paleo-ontology, 420
Palmistry, 83
Pañca-Sangraha, 416, 418, 418,
461, 472
Pañcāstikāya, 150, 156, 182,
357, 358, 387
Paramāņu/atom, 181, 227
canonical, 227
equivalence of, 227 size of, 227
Parental contribution, 542 Parikarma, 50, 51, 59, 60 Pariņāma, 176
Parispanda, 178 Part-heno-genesis, 433 Paryapti/completion, 124 Paryāya, 126, 145, 146, 176 Passions, 66, 409, 410, 411 Pādapa, 439
families, 460
phylums, 455
sensations, 460
Pākṣika-sutra, 52
Pāna, 509
Pāramitas, 59
Period of composition of canons/
pro-canons, 68
Permanence, 146, 149 Phelgmic defects, 528 Philological Origin of Samskṛta,
12

Page #599

Word Index
:
577
Philosophy, 83
-- Ājivika, 83 ----- Buddha, 83, 155, 156, 162, 164, 165, 167, 169, 172, 173, 186 - Cārvāka, 83 - Mimāmsā, 84 - Nyāya, 84, 142, 155 — Parivrājaka, 75, 77 - Pātañjala, 83 - Puśyadaivat, 83 - Sānkhya, 77, 83, 134,
142, 155, 156 — Şasti-tantra, 75, 84 - Vaiseșika, 83, 142, 150,
151, 153, 155, 156, 161, 162, 164, 165,
167, 169, 170, 186 Phonetics, 3 Physical atoms, 121 Physical canons, 33 Physical education, 87 Physics, 62, 67, 78 Physio-therapist, 528 Physiological functions, 529 Physiology, 541 Pinda-niryukti, 52 Pinda-buddhi, 62 Pindaişaņā, 42, 162 Plant Kingdom, 62 Plants, 404, 406, 420, 427, 430,
498 - and animals, 406 - bodied, 412 - budding, 445
- characteristics, 407, 447 — classification ( botani
cal ), 459 - classification ( canoni
cal), 439, 443, 456 - colouration,
completion, 441 - extrications, 441 - flowering/sexual, 433,
444, 445, 459, 517 -- fruity/non-fruity, 445
general (bodied ), 416,
444, 446,447, 459,517 - green, 404 — indentification, 439
individual bodied, 415,
416, 444, 448, 455, 460 - infinite-bodied/ananta
kāyika, 447 - instincts, 441 - intake, 440 - kingdom, 62, 407, 439,
490 -- knowledge/conation, 441 --- livingness, 442 - metabolic changes, 442 -- multi-cellular, 455, 459 - nigotas/nigodas, 445 - non-flowering/a-sexual,
433, 444, 459 — non-supportive, 415,
417, 418, 448 - other properties, 460 — respiration, 440, 462 -- sex, 440

Page #600

578 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
- supportive, 415, 417,
-- bhāsā, 2 418, 448
-- canons, 28 - unicellular, 455, 459
---- language, 1, 12 Plato, 4
- primary/native, 14 Pleasures ( ten types), 527
-- literary form, 15 Potables, 505
Prānāvāya/Prānāyu, 45, 63, 527, Prabhāchandra, 332, 357
528, 529, 530, 536, 539, Practical Arts for Women, 105
541, 555 Praināpana, 32, 35, 52, 71, 122, --- origin of, 529
124, 126, 131, 132, 134, Prāni, 550 181, 185, 351, 353, 396, Pre-canons, 42 405, 406, 409, 410, 413, Pregnancy, 425, 430, 541 425, 427, 429, 444, 446, Primany canons, 34, 46 455, 459, 472, 475, 476, Primary texts, 38, 40, 41 478, 479, 482, 484, 501, Pro-canons, 33, 34 538
Procreation, 434, 501, 541 Prakirnakas, 41, 53
--- mammalian, 465 Prakrti, 231, 423
-- sexual, 434 Pralayankara, 368
Prognostics, Science, 81, 82, 84, Pramāņa, 32, 248
87, 101, 115 Prameya, 155
of bloodfall, 83 Prameya-ratna-manjuşā, 106
- of dusttall, 83 Prameyatva, 146
- of hairfall, 83 Prarūpanā, 30
- of meatfall, 83 Prasamarati prakaraṇa, 367 Proteins, 508 Prasna-vyākarana, 35, 47, 49, Proteinous cereals, 504
59, 60, 79, 85, 105, 429 Protoplasm, 406 Prastha, 513
Pudgala, 154, 158 Prathamānuyoga, 50, 60
Pūjyapāda, 42, 126, 174, 352, Pratyākhyāna-pravāda, 42, 45 354, 373, 382, 387 Pravacana, 30
Pulses, 504 Sāra, 150
Pundarika, 48 Prābhrta traya, 66, 67
Pūrva, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 46,54, Prābhrts, 43
57, 58, 60, 65, 68 Prākrta, 1, 12
Pūrvagata, 37, 50, 51, 60

Page #601

Qualities in Jaina and Vaiseṣika Philosophy, 151
Quantity of food, 512
Quasi-canonical, 39
Quasi-karmas, 498 Quasi-kärmic, 177, 180
intake, 506
Quintals, 513
R. N. A. 421
Rajju, 280
Rational, 413, 414, 415, 417 Ratnakaranda-Śrāvakācāra, 497
Rayana-sara, 534
Rajapraśniya, 51, 71, 135
Rājavārtika, 32, 387
Rāmapuria, 233, 331
Rṣibhāṣita, 35
Realities, 66, 121
R
Reals, 121
Reproduction, 432
a-sexual, 432
sexual, 432
vegetative,
Reptiles, 483
Restraint, 411
Right-cum-wrong faithed, 410 Right-faithed, 410
Rūpa,158, 172, 174
Rūpi, 158, 172, 174, 232

Sanstäraka, 53
Sankhyāta, 427
- classification of, 148, 149 Sāmāyika (Ācārānga) 36, 38, 48
division of, 154
Sankhyas, 231, 422, 423
nature of, 148, 149
Science of
-sub-classification of, 155
Sacitta, 427
Sacred, 78
Salvated beings, 409, 412, 413
Salvation, 154
-
Word Index : 579
capacity, 121
Samavão, 36, 38, 47, 49, 58, 80,
81, 82
Samavāyānga, 35, 47, 78, 79,
86, 98, 118, 119
vṛtti, 51
S
Samaya-sāra, 69 Samskāra, 154
Samsthāna, 174
Sanghata (aggregate), 132
Sat, 153
Satyabhakta, 33, 34
Satyapravāda, Pūrva, 42
acquisition of super
powers, 81, 85
bodily marks, 83
82
divination, 83
food, 62
glow of horizons, 83 Incantation, 85 insects, 62
- limbal movement, 83 magic and Jugglery, 85 natural/public calamity,

Page #602

580
1. Scientific Contents in Prākṛta Canons
notes of animals, 83 notes of birds, 82
speech, 62
supernatural acquisition,
85, 86, 87
Scriptology, 83 Scripture, 32
Sculpture, 78
Secondary facts, 38, 41
Secondary/supplementary can
―
ons, 48 Seeds, 404
Seeing objects, 317
Sense-devoids, 413 Sense-perceptibility, 147, 148,
153, 158, 161, 163, 187 Senses, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 440
canonical and scientific, 481
- physical, 426
- psychic, 426
-sensing capacity, 487 Seven groupings, 403 Seventy-two learnings, 528 Sex and other characters, 431
Sex characters, 435
Sexual birth, 431, 475
incubatory, 423
non-umbilical, 423, 424 umbilical, 423
Sexual reproduction, 435
Shadows, 313
change in size, 315

Shape, 162
Shedding, 154
Siddhanta, 30
Siddhasena Diväkara, 32
attribute of, 172
varieties, 173
Sikdar, J. C., 367
Simple Harmonic Motion, 350
Single crystals, 174
Six groupings, 403
Sixty-four Arts, 528
Sixty-four arts for women, 106 faculty-wise classification, 111
----
Skandha, 155, 180, 181, 182, 187, 193,
classification, 196
description of, 204
deśa, 181, 196 pradeśa, 181, 197
Skill preceptors, 531
Skilled persons- nine types, 528 Smaller time units, 283 Smell, 121, 163
―
- varieties of, 168 Snigdha and Rukṣa, 166 Soul, 121
Sound, 62, 121, 329
classification of, 330,
331, 332, 350
effects of, 329
generation of, 345 Indian Schools of Thought, 335
- logistics on, 335

Page #603

Word Index : 581
-- music saptat, 351, 352 - nature of, 332, 345 - propagation of sounds,
347
--- quality of, 349 -- Scientific theory of, 345 --- supporting-non-support
ing logistics, 341 - velocity, 348 Space, 121 Species, 426, 427 Specification, 174 Sperm and Ovum, 427 Spontaneous generation, 366 Sports and games, 101 Spiritual stages, 123, 126 Stages after birth, 430 Sthaviras, 38, 405 Sthānānga, 35, 36, 37, 38, 47,
49, 50, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 88, 119, 154, 161, 163, 351, 353, 354, 375 412, 499, 507, 508, 511, 527, 530, 533, 544, 547.
549, 551 Stoppage, 154 Sub-humans, 411, 412, 415 Substance, 58 Substrate-substratum relation
ship, 420 Supernatural/surprising arts, 101 Surface/Surfacial effect, 164, 165 Surgery, 550 Sükşma-linga-sarira, 422 Sūtra Anuyogadvāra, 351
Sūtrakrtānga, 29, 35, 36, 37, 49,
58, 76, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 88, 98, 403, 404, 405, 429, 442, 443, 470, 506, 507, 508
- vrtti/cūrņi, 508 Sūryaprajñapti, 52 Svādya, 509 Sweatal/Sweat born, 404, 470 Syadvāda, IV Saiva-system, 530 Salya-system, 541 Śariri ( embodied ), 178 Śāsana, 30 Sāstra, 30, 88 Šaurseni, 68 Siva-tattva-ratnākara, 106 silānka, 376, 385 Sruta, 30, 33, 50, 51, 60
--- extra-ordinary, 29 -- perverse, 29 - right, 28, 29, 32, 36, 37,
39, 40, 41, 42, 55, 75,
76, 135 — superworldly, 39 — worldly, 29, 39
---- wrong, 29, 39 Sruta-dharma/Sthavira-dharma,
36 Śrutakevali, 36 Sruti, 28 Şaq-jiva-nikāya, 62 Şafkhandāgama, 38, 39, 42, 66,
67, 122, 123, 124, 125, 131, 132, 182, 237, 238, 309,

Page #604

582 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
334, 383, 403, 404, 412, 476
T
Table of number of subjects, 117 Tactile attributes, 162, 163 Tactile properties, 160 Taijasa,
— body, 163, 216, 297 --- kāyika, 297
— non-receivable, 183 Tandula-veyaliya, 53, 368, 426,
513 Tanmātrās, 225 Taru, 439 Taste, 162
- varieties, 162 Tastes attributes, 167 Tattvartha, - sūtra, 71, 122, 124, 131;
142, 144, 154, 354,
367, 497 - sūtra-bhāşya, 30, 470
— vārttika, 470 Tattvas, 142, 144 Technology, 100 Telepathic, 413 Telepathy, 135 Textiles & Fabrics, 85 Thermal effects, 163, 165 Three-sensed beings, 474 Time of eating, 510 Time units,
-- apparent, 283
cause of difference in, 292
- ideal, 283 — innumerable, 289
miscellaneous, 291 - numerable, 283 -- useful time units, 292,
293 Tiryak sāmānya, 146 Tiryak/Tiryañcas, 465, 484 Tirthankara, 56, 58, 60, 61 Touch, 162 Toxicology, 84, 528, 533, 549 Transitional Prākặta, 20 Transitional motion, 498 Transverse movers, 465 Trasa, 405, 465 Triloka prajñapti, 416, 471 Tripitakas, 32, 35 Two-sensed beings, 473 Typical conceptual and physical modifications, 111
U Umāsvāti, 32, 42, 125, 147, 149,
150, 157, 158, 174, 176,
202, 367, 373, 376, 389 Umblical, 404, 423, 425, 470
--- details of, 425 - un-umblical, 404, 423,
425 Un-umblical, encubatory, 423,
430, 434 Unembodied, 404 Unicellular, 480 Unit cell, 174 Units under medical establish
ments, 530

Page #605

Word index : 583
- establishments,
Vedānga, 75, 87 - Medicines, 532
Vedāntins, 142, 150, 422, 423, --- Nurses, 532
427 -- Patients, 531
Vedas, 31 - Physician, 531
Vedic studies, 75 Unmāna, 248
Vedic supplements, 75 Upadeśa, 30
Vegetarian diets, 520 Upānga, 40, 48, 57, 75, 87 Velocity, 152, 167 Upāsakadaśa, 47, 49, 59, 60. Vertebrate, 471, 472 497
VIBGYOR, 173 Upayoga, 111, 124
Vidhimārgaprapā, 40 Urdhvatā sāmānya, 146
Vidyānandi, 332 Uterine birth, 423
Vidyānupravāda, 45, 115 Utpādapūrya, 44
Vijaya Muni, 30 Uttarādhyayana, 48, 52, 71, 78, Vimānas, 59
85, 79, 80, 138, 142, 144, Vipāka-sūtra, 47, 49, 55, 59 150, 154, 158, 174, 179, Virasena, 126 354, 375, 403, 404, 444, Virus, 433 470, 472, 499, 511
Viryapravāda, 44
Viscosity, 167 Vaginas, 426
Višesa, 126 Vah, 513
Višeşāvaśyakabhāsya, 30 Vaidya/vaidyaka, 528
Vitalities, 376, 408, 432 Vaiseșikas, 406, 422, 423
-- among living beings, 378 Vaisnava system, 530
-- physical, 377 Vanaspati, 405
- psychical, 377 Vargaņā/Grouping, 163, 182, Vitamins/hormones, 508 183, 333
Viveka-cūdāmaņi, 69 Varieties of taste, 168
Vocal music, 78 Variform, 182, 185, 333
Volitional activity, 148, 373, 375 - classification, 183
Volitional changes, 421 Vastuttva, 161
Vrata-vidhāna sangraha, 505 Vācanā, 30
Vratas, IV Vākya-śuddhi, 62
Vrhatkalpa, 35, 52 Vedanā, 155
Vyākhyāprajñapti, 35, 47, 50, 58,
V

Page #606

584 : Scientific Contents in Prākrta Canons
60 Vyatireka, 145 Vyavahāra, 35, 52
W Water, 508
--- alcohols, 209 --- born animals, 481 --- Class, 209 - general, 209
--- medicinal, 209 Weight calculations, 539 Weights and Measures, 247
— length and time units,
270 - mass and volume units,
247 Welfare, 78 Wombs, 426, 433 Worldly beings, 403, 410, 421,
439 Worldly-learnings, 83, 86, 111 Worldly/black scripture, 528 Wrong faithed, 410
Yoni birth place, 427, 428 Yonija/sexual birth, 423
Z Zoological Kingdom, 466
-- attachement, 468 -- classification/identifica
tion, 480 --- colouration, 468, 488 - completions, 468 - destinity, 468 -- disquisition doors, 466 -extrication, 468 ---- families, 468
instincts, 468, 489 — intake, 467 - karmic bonding, 490 --- knowledge/conation, 468 --- liberatability, 468 --- passions, 468 - respiration, 468 - sex, 467 --- size, 489 — species, 490 - spiritual stages, 466
- vitalities, 468, 489 Zoological contents, 465 Zoologists, 388 Zoology, 62, 406
-
439
Yāpaniya, 65 Yogic system, 528 Yojana, 488, 492

Page #607

About the Author
Born in Chhatarpur district of M. P. (India) and educated at Kodarma and Varanasi upto Shastri and Acharya in Jainism and M.Sc. in Chemistry, Dr. N. L. Jain did his Ph. D. in U. K. and post-doctoral training in U. S. A. He served as Lecturer and Professor
in M. P. State Service
retiring in 1988. He has since been project investigator, U. G. C. and National Science Academy, Delhi based at Rewa, M. P.
Jainteducation International
'Religion and Science' has been his most interesting subjects. He feels Jaina system has highest trend and content of scientificity which should be well promoted. He has presented large number of papers in national and international seminars with about four scores of published papers and books. He holds 'Lal' and 'Children Literature' awards for his literary activities. He attended Assembly of World Religions (1989), Parliament of World Religions (1993), International History of Science Congress in Germany & Spain and International Anti-vivi-section Conference in London. He has lectured in Jaina centres of U. S. A. and U. K. He has developed a uniform Jaina Glossary through Jaina International, Ahmedabad. Currently, he is involved not only in authoring original books on scientificity of Jainism but also in translating advanced Jaina pro-canons in English besides sending Jaina literature (worth Rs. 1,25,000.00) abroad through various agencies. He is actively associated with Theosophical Society and Jaina Kendra, Rewa (M. P. ).

Page #608
OUR IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS 1. A Cultural Study of the Dr. Madhu Sen Rs. 60.00 Nisithacurni 2. An Early History of Orissa Dr. Amar Chand Rs. 60.00 Mittal 3. An Introduction to Jaina Dr. Sagarmal Jain Rs. 40.00 Sadhana 4. Aspects of Jainology (Vol. I-V) Rs. 1100.00 Complete Set 5. Concept of Matter in Jaina Dr. J. C. Sikdar Rs. 150.00 Philosophy 6. Concept of Pancasila in Indian Dr. Kamala Jain Rs. 50.00 Thought 7. Doctoral Dissertations in Jaina Eds. Dr. S. M. Jain Rs. 40.00 and Buddhist Studies & Dr. A. P. Singh 8. Doctrine of Karman in Jaina H. V. Glasenapp Rs. 70.00 Philosophy 9. Jaina Epistemology 1. C. Shastri Rs. 150.00 10. Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence Prof. S. B. Deo Rs. 50.00 11. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy Dr. Ramjee Singh Rs. 100.00 and Religion 12. Jaina Temples of Western India Dr. Harihar Singh Rs. 200.00 13. Jaina Theory of Reality Dr. J. C. Sikdar Rs. 150.00 14. Jainism : The Oldest Living Dr. Jyoti Prasad Rs. 40.00 Religion Jain 15. Lord Mahavira Dr. Bool Chand Rs. 40.00 16. Political History of Northern Dr. Gulab Chand Rs. 80.00 India from Jaina Sources Chaudhari 17. Rsibhasita : A Study Dr. Sagarmal Jain Rs. 30.00 18. Studies in Jaina Philosophy Dr. Nathmal Tatia Rs. 100.00 19. The Path of Arhat T. U. Mehta Rs. 100.00 PARSVANATHA VIDYAPITHA, VARANASI.