Jaina Temples of Western India

Author(s): Harihar Singh
Publisher: P V Research Institute Varanasi
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006730/1

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JAINA TEMPLES OF WESTERN INDIA
BY
Dr. HARIHAR SINGH
P. V. RESEARCH INSTITUTE
VARANASI

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Parshvanath Vidyashram Series 26 :
JAINA TEMPLES OF WESTERN INDIA
By
Harihar Singh, M. A., Ph. D.
Lecturer, Evening College Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
IODMUMU <.
ENTIFFE
VARANASI-5
Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute
VARANASI-22 1005
1982

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Published with the financial assistance from Sheth Anandji 1 Kalyanji, Ahmedabad, and M/S. Nuchem Plastics Ltd., Faridabad.
Published by Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute
I. T. I. Road, Varanasi-221005
1982
Price : Rs. 200/
- Printers Text--Ratna Printing Works, B 21/42 A, Kamachha, Varanasi. Plates-- Laxmi Press, Saptasagar, Varanasi,

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PUBLISHER'S NOTE
I am very glad to place in the hand of readers this valuable work of Dr. Harihar Singh, which embodies the results of his thesis Jaina Temples of Western India approved for the Ph. D. degree by the Banaras Hindu University in 1976.
The P. V. Research Institute, which is an organ of Shri Sohanlaljain Vidya Prasarak Samiti, Amritsar, awards Research Fellowships to its research scholars for a period of two years, and subsequently publishes the results thereof. The primary aim of this Fellowship is to produce young scholars in the field of Jainology. Many research scholars have availed this opportunity for writing theses for their Ph. D. and D. Litt, degrees. The present work of Dr. Harihar Singh is the result of the same endeavour. The grant of Fellowship awarded to him was received from Shri S. V. Lathia of Bombay.
The Jainas have left no subject worth the name untouched. They also have immencely contributed to the art heritage of India. But unfortunately no independent and scientific research work has been done on the Jaina ternple architecture. The present work is a fine attempt in this direction, and I hope it will serve as a milestone for further researches in this field of Jainology.
As Secretary of the Samiti it is my very primary duty to record here a sense of gratitute to those who helped in bringing out this voluminous work. At the very outset I must thank the author for the great pains he took in preparing this work and also for seeing it through the press. I also thank Dr. Sagar Mal Jain, Director, P. V. Research Institute, Varanasi, and other staff members of the Institute for their kind cooperation in the publication of this work. I express my gratefulness to the Trustees, Sheth Anandji Kalyanji, Ahmedabad, for offering a grant of Rs. 15000/- and to M/S. Nuchem Plastics Ltd., Faridabad, for a grant of Rs. 20000/- (given in memory of Late Shri Shadilal Jaina, Ex-President, Shri Sohanlaljain Vidya Prasarak Samiti, Amritsar), which facilitated the publication of the work. Lastly, I express my thankfulness to Muni Shri Jambuvijayji, Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, . Ahmedabad, Shri R. D. Desai, Ahmedabad, Shri Shrenik Bhai, Ahmedabad and Shri Gulab Chand Jain, Delhi, who have been very instrumental in this publication.
Faridabad 5th August, 1982
B. N. Jain Hony. Secretary Shri Sohanlaljain Vidya
Prasarak Samiti

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PREFACE
The present thesis is a study in the architecture of the Jaina temples of Western India datable upto the 13th century A. D. Here, all the Jaina temples of Western India have not been taken up, only those of Gujarat and Abu (Rajasthan) have been discussed. The magnificent Jaina temples at Abu have achieved international renown. And it must be added that Gujarat region is also particularly rich in Jaina temple architecture. A complete study of the Jaina temples of Gujarat along with those at Abu, therefore, could easily claim to present a very representative picture of the Jaina temple architecture in Western India.
The pioneer exploratory work on the archaeological antiquities in the region of Western India was done by James Burgess and Henry Cousens. These were published as independent monographs or in various reports of the Archaeological Survey of India. The reports of these authors, though brief, are of primary importance for the study of the art and architecture of the region. They enlist all the Jaina temples of the area and are accompanied by plans and general views of these temples. Since the publication of the reports of Burgess and Cousens, no first-hand study of these monuments in any greater detail has so far been made. Their reports have served as basic material for the subsequent writers, and, in fact, they are now the only source of information for such monuments as the Jaina temples at Sarotra, Sejakpur and Ghumli, which have since disappeared. It is a fair assessment, however, that these reports, though very important, are also very brief and leave out much relevant information. It must also be added that in the History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, vol. II, James Fergusson and James Burgess have discussed the Jaina temples of India including those of the region under reference in the section entitled 'Jaina Architecture. The account of Jaina architecture in this work also is far from being complete. The authors have briefly discussed only the Jaina temples of Abu, Girnar and Shatrunjaya, the others being left without any reference.
When these savants took up their pioneering work not much had been done in the field of literature. But now the situation is changed. More and more texts have come to light containing a variety of welcome information. Ancient texts on architecture such as Samaränganasūtradhāra, Aparajitaprocha, etc., are now available in well edited form. These provide us with architectural terms in regard to the Western Indian temples. Similarly, some Jaina texts contain incidental notices which help us in fixing the dates of some of the temples. For example, the Nemināthacariu of Haribhadra informs that the rangamandapa and the seven elephants in the hastiśālā of the Vimalavasahi at Abu were built by Pșthvipäla. Similarly, the Purātana Prabandha Sangraha states that the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia was built by Pasila in V. S. 1198 (1136 A. D.).
Several other modern scholars have dealt with the Jaina temples of Gujarat, rarely in independent research papers, but often in monographs as parts of larger studies dealing with the Gujarat region. With a few exceptions, however, all these studies are of secondary and minor significance, as they derive their information mostly from the pioneering studies mentioned above. H. D. Sankalia in his book The Archaeology of Gujarat mentions only a few important temples of Abu, Girnar, Shatrunjaya, Taranga and Sarotra, and his account is largely based on the notices published by Burgess and Cousens. Similarly, Percy Brown in his Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) refers only to the well-known Jaina temples of Abu, Girnar and Shatrunjaya in brief. In his Caves and Temples of the Jainas Klaus Fischer refers to only some of the Jaina temples of the country, and his descriptions are very sketchy. In the Chaulukyas of Gujarat by A. K. Majumdar one full chapter is devoted to the art and architecture of the period, but it refers only to the Jaina temples of Girnar, Shatrunjaya, Taranga

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(vi) and Abu, the others being left without any reference. The account of these temples is also very brief. However, this is not surprising. The aim of the work being to highlight the social and cultural history of the period, a short account of the artistic achievements is given, in the words of the author, just to 'enhance the utility' of the work. S. K. Saraswati's mention of only a few Jaina temples of the region in the chapter on art and architecture in the Struggle for Empire is also brief. A book, Holy Abu, dealing with the temples of Mt, Abu, has also come out, but the interest of the author is centred on the representation of Jaina religious themes, and his book makes no contribution in the field of architecture. However, the author deserves credit for identifying certain reliefs preserved in the Vimalavasahi and Lūņavasahi. M. A. Dhaky's paper 'The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat' published in the Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihasa Parishad, No. 3, attempts at fixing the chronology of the Solanki temples of Gujarat on the basis of their characteristic features. But his treatment with regard to his professed aim should be considered brief; he mentions only a few important features. His analysis of the archaeological material and inferences thereon are also far from being convincing, for the architectural style in a certain region and during a certain period does not develop king-wise. It is a continuous process, a flowing phenomenon. In his exploitation of the material he is also neither adequately critical nor exhaustive. His chronology of the Solanki temples, therefore, is only a tentative one. In K. F. Sompura's book The Structural Temples of Gujarat one expects to find in it a detailed treatment of the Jaina temples of Gujarat, but unfortunately it is merely a compilation of the already published materials. Besides, the outlook of the author is also not critical and scientific.
Recently, two more works on Jaina art and architecture have appeared. One of these entitled Jaina Art and Architecture has been edited by A. Ghosh and published in 3 vols. by the Bhāratiya Jõānapitha, New Delhi, in 1975. The relevant chapters of this book, dealing with the Jaina temples of Gujarat, have been written by Krishna Deva and U. P. Shah, but they do not supply any new information, based as they are on the materials already published in the works of these authors or those of others. The other one is the Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture edited by U. P. Shah and M. A. Dhaky and published in the same year by the Gujarat State Committee for the Celebration of 2500 Anniversary of Bhagavān Mahāvira, Ahmedabad. Although this volume gives a detailed account about the Jaina edifices of South India, it has very brief notices about the Western Indian Jaina temples. There are only two research papers on the temples of this region. One of these, written by M. A. Dhaky, deals with the Western Indian architectural terms as contained in the Vastufas tras, while the other, written by myself, treats of the Jaina temples of Kumbharia.
Thus, it is clear that compared to the Hindu and Buddhist monuments very little work has been done on those of the Jainas. An independent work on the Jaina temples is still a desideratum. Therefore, an attempt has been made here to assemble and examine critically all the scattered information relating to the Jaina temples of Gujarat and Abu. Further, the information has been augmented by the first-hand study of the edifices during the course of several visits for field-work. The aim of the present work is to trace the gradual evolution of the temple architecture of the Jainas in the region under reference. In dealing with the development of architectural style, due note of sculpture and iconography is also taken. In the case of monumental architecture such as is the subject of our study here, it is usually found that evolutions in the course of time in the styles of architecture, sculpture and iconogaphy are not entirely isolated processes. The study of sculpture and iconography sometimes also helps in ascertaining the chronology as well as dedication of the temples. But, of the greatest importance for the chronology of the temples are the inscriptions found in the temples, actually recording the building of the structures or the consecration of the images in them, and, happily, the Jaina temples of Gujarat are very fortunate in this respect. As regards literature, it provides terminology and also helps in fixing the chronology of the temples. An appropriate use both of the inscriptional and literary evidence has been made in this regard.

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The present work is divided into six chapters. The first chapter is further divided into three parts. The first part deals with the history of Gujarat from the earliest time to the 13th century A. D., keeping in view the Jaina art relics in the country. The second part pertains to the social and economic life of the people of Gujarat with special reference to the Jainas. The third part relates to the religious background and attempts to visualize the state of Jainism, also taking note of the Jaina pantheon. The second chapter deals with the geographical context of Gujarat and also takes note of its boundaries, different geographical units, Jaina religious or holy places which witnessed Jaina religious building activity. These two chapters aim to give the historical, cultural and religious background of the temples for their proper and complete study. The next four chapters constitute the core of the work and deal with the art and architecture. The third chapter gives a detailed description of the Jaina temples built during the period. Primary for the sake of convenience the treatment is site-wise, all the temples at a particular site are dealt with at one place. But within that framework the study is chronological. The sites themselves are arranged in a type of chronological sequence, which is the sequence of the earliest temples at the sites. For instance, of two sites, at both of which the temple building activities more or less overlap in time, that site is treated earlier whose earliest temple is known to be earlier than the earliest of the other one. In the description of temples it was found convenient to describe each compartment in its entirety. Also, in the description, an appropriate use of popular technical terms preserved in the Western Indian Västusastras has been made. The fourth chapter discusses the chronology of all these Jaina temples on the basis of their characteristic features and available literary and inscriptional evidence. The fifth chapter deals with the sculptured forms and iconographic features of the divine images of the temples to the extent they help in ascertaining the chronology of the temples and tracing the evolution of their architecture. In the sixth and last chapter the evolution of the style of the Jaina temples is traced after a comparatiev study of these temples with the others of Gujarat and other parts of India. In the end a few words are said as concluding remarks.
A few words may be added here by way of help to the reader in the use of this work. The Sanskrit architectural words have been italicised and provided with diacritical marks. The system of transliteration in writing Sanskrit words and proper nouns may be understood from Kṛṣṇa and Aparajitapṛecha. The map and plans of the temples have been given in the body of the text with their respective temples, while the plates have been arranged in the chronological order at the end of the book. The plans as well as plates have been numbered serially, and in order to distinguish between them the plans have been indicated by Text Figs. so and so and the Plates merely by Figs. so and so.
The present work is an outcome of my Ph. D. thesis (B. H. U., 1976) prepared under the kind supervision of Dr. L. K. Tripathi, Reader, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, B. H. U. I express my deep sense of gratitude to him for suggesting me the subject, guiding the work to its completion, and encouraging me for its early publication. I owe a great deal to Prof. K. K. Sinha, Head, Department of A. I.H.C. and Archaeology, B. H. U., Prof. Lallanji Gopal and Prof. A. K. Narain for their valuable suggestions. I am thankful to Dr. J. N. Tiwari, Reader, Department of A.I H.C. and Archaeology, B. H. U., Dr. Deen Bandhu Pandey, Formerly Lecturer, Department of History of Arts, B. H. U., and Dr. M. N. P. Tiwari, also Lecturer in the latter department, for various kinds of help. I owe greatly to Shri J. P. Bajpai, Principal, Evening College, B. H. U., for the encouragement I received during the publication of this work. I am under deep obligation to Prof. M. L. Mehta, Formerly Director, P. V. Research Institute, Varanasi, who helped me with explanations of several passages of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Gujarati texts. I am very much indebted to Shri M. A. Dhaky, of the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, with whom I discussed some of the problems with regard to dating and terminology, and who provided me with offprints and some important references. I should acknowledge my debt to Shri R. M. Singh, Lecturer, Central Hindu School, B. H. U., for giving me the Botanical names of the Indian plants.

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I am highly obliged to Lala Harjas Rai Jain, Formerly Secretary, Shri Sohanlaljain Vidya Prasarak Samiti, Amritsar, for awarding me a Research Fellowship which facilitated the present research work and the connected field-work. I would fail in my duty if I do not thank the Trustees, Sheth Anandji Kalyanji, Ahmedabad and Sheth Anandji Parmanand, Abu, who allowed me to photograph the temples under their protection and also arranged for my accommodation during the field-work. I also express my gratefulness to Sheth Anandji Kalyanji and Messrs. Nuchem Plastics Ltd, Faridabad, but for whose financial assistance this work would not have been published. I must thank Shri B.N. Jain, Secretary, Shri Sohanlaljain Vidya Prasarak Samiti, Amritsar, who managed the rest of the fund to meet out the expenditure incurred on its publication. I am very grateful to Dr. Sagar Mal Jain, Director, Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute, Varanasi, who took keen interest in this publication and extended his full cooperation in bringing out the book. I also express my thankfulness to Shri Mohan Lal and the other staff members of the Institute, who helped me in various ways.
The bock would not have been published without the kind cooperation of Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Formerly Director, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, and Shri R. D. Desai, of Sheth Anandji Kalyanji, Ahmedabad. They not only helped me in getting the grant from Sheth Anandji Kalyanji but also supplied a good number of printing blocks. I express my gratefulness to them.
I also take this opportunity to thank Shri Lalta Mishra and Shri Jayram Singh, of the Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, B.H.U., for preparing the map and retouching the plans, and Shri D. P. Nanda, of the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, for preparing prints from my own negatives. My thanks are also due to Messrs. Annapurna Block Works, Varanasi, for preparing the blocks, and Shri G. L. Upadhyay for typing the manuscript. Lastly, I thank Shri Vinay Shankar Pandya of Ratna Printing Works, Varanasi, and the Manager, Shri Laxmi Press, Varanasi, for their prompt and kind cooperation in printing the book.
I also remember thankfully the Late Shri G. S. Telang who joined me in the trip to Gujarat and photographed most of the temples for me.
In spite of all endeavour some printing and other errors have crept in. Although most of these have been corrected in the errata, a few more might have escaped from my notice, for which I crave the indulgence of the readers.
Harihar Singh
Varanasi 1st August, 1982

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CONTENTS
Pages
xii
xiii
1-30
Preface Abbreviations Acknowledgments List of Illustrations Chapter I: Historical and Cultural Background
Political Situation :
Pre-historic and Proto-historic Period Pre-Mauryan Period Mauryan Period Indo-Greek Period Kşatrapa Period Gupta Period Maitraka-Gurjara Period Rästraküţa-Pratihära Period Caulukya Period
Vāghela Period Social and Economic Life
Religious Condition Chapter II : Geography and the Religious Sites
Kumbharia Abu Taranga Girnar Shatrunjaya Vadnagar Than Ghumli Kanthkot Bhadreshwar Sejakpur Sarotra Miani
31-43
34
1****----2002429 ****************09033
36
39
40
44-182
Chapter III : Description of Temples
Vadnagar : Adinatha Temple Than: Jaina Temple Dilwara (Abu): Vimalavasahi
Lūnavasahi Kumbharia : Mahavira Temple
Śântinātha Temple Pārsvanātha Temple Neminātha Temple Sambhavanātha Temple
108 119 127
136
144

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Girnar: Neminatha Temple Vastupälavihara
Sejakpur Jaina Temple Shatrunjaya Adinatha Temple Taranga Ajitanatha Temple Bhadreshwar Jaina Temple Sarotra Bavanadhvaja Jinälaya Ghumli: Pärsvanatha Temple Miani Jaina Temple Kanthkot Mahavira Temple
Chapter IV Characteristics and Chronology
Pre-Solanki Temples :

Solanki Temples:
(x)
Adinatha Temple at Vadnagar Jaina Temple at Than
Chapter V Sculpture and Iconography
Sculpture Iconography
Vimalavasahi at Abu
Mahavira Temple at Kumbharia Santinatha Temple at Kumbharia Parsvanatha Temple at Kumbharia Neminatha Temple at Girnar Neminatha Temple at Kumbharia Jaina Temple at Sejakpur Adinatha Temple at Shatrunjaya Ajitanatha Temple at Taranga Jaina Temple at Bhadreshwar Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra Pārsvanatha Temple at Ghumli
Lūnavasahi at Abu
Index
Errata Plates
Vastupalavihāra at Girnar
Sambhavanatha Temple at Kumbharia
Jaina Temple at Miani Mahavira Temple at Kanthkot
Chapter VI: Comparative and Evolutionary Study
Pre-Solanki Temples
Solanki Temples
Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography

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ABBREVIATIONS
AG : Archaeology of Gujarat AIK : The Age of Imperial Kanauj CA : The Classical Age CG : Chaulukyas of Gujarat CII : Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum HCIP : The History and Culture of the Indian People HA : Holy Abu JPI : Jaina Paramparano Itihasa JSSI : Jaina Sahityano Sanksipta Itihasa JTSS : Jaina Tirtha Sarva Sangraha PCH : Prabandhacintamani of Merutunga. Translated into Hindi by Dr. Hazari Prasad Dwivedi. PCG : Prabhāvakacarita of Prabhācandra. Gujarati translation. RTT : The Rashtrakātas and Their Times SBE : Sacred Books of the East SE : The Struggle for Empire

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi : Plate Figs. 14, 47 Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi : Text Figs. 2-10
Plate Figs. 66, 86, 87, 88, 97 Department of Archaeology, Government of Gujarat : Plate Figs. 1, 29, 31, 35, 38, 48, 52, 93,
95, 96, 117, 112 Shri M. A. Dhaky, Varanasi : Plate Figs. 6, 7, 9-11, 16, 27, 92, 94, 103, 107 Shri M. Sompura, Ahmedabad : Plate Figs. 74-77,79, 81 Shri N. M. Sompura, Dhrangadhra : Plate Fig. 33 Shri R. D. Desai, Ahmedabad : Plate Figs. 82-85 Shri Yashovijaya Jaina Granthamala, Bhavnagar : Plate Figs. 17,98 Dr. U. P. Shah, Baroda : Plate Figs. 12, 13, 19, 34

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Text Figs.
Page
147
1. Map of the Jaina temple sites of Western India 2. Plan of the Vimalavasahi at Abu 3. Plan of the Lünavasahi at Abu 4. Plan of the Neminātha temple at Girnar 5. Plan of the Vastupalavihāra at Girnar 6. Plan of the Jaina temple at Sejakpur 7. Plan of the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga 8. Plan of the Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar 9. Pillars of the Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra 10. Plan of the Bāvanadhvaja Jinälaya at Sarotra
172
173
Plate Figs.
1. Vadnagar : Adinātha temple, mülapräsāda, view from southwest, early 10th century A. D. 2. Than : Jaina Temple, view from northwest, circa 10th-11th centuries A. D. 3. Vadnagar : Adinātha temple, a kāyotsarga Jina, dated V. S. 1312 (1255 A. D.) 4. Abu : Vimalavasahi, gadhamandapa, north entrance porch, view from west, 3rd quarter of the
11th century A. D. 5. Abu : Vimalavasahi, south entrance porch, doorframe, 3rd quarter of the 19th century A. D. 6. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamandapa, north khattaka as seen from rangamandapa, 3rd quarter of the
11th century A. D. 7. Abu : Vimalavasahi, hastifālā, a female cauri-bearer, 1031 A. D. 8. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamandapa, a ceiling, 3rd quarter of the 11th century A. D. 9. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamandapa, a ksiptotkşipta ceiling of the padmanabha order, 3rd quarter of
the 11th century A. D. 10. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamandapa, a samatala ceiling showing kalpalata, 3rd quarter of the 11th
century A. D. 11. Abu : Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, the sabhāmandāraka ceiling in nave, circa 1150 A. D. 12. Abu : Vimalavasahi, detail of Fig. 11 showing lamās and padmašila, circa 1150 A. D. 13. Abu : Vimalavasahi, detail of Fig. 11, Vidyādevi Prajāapti represented as a bracket figure, circa
1150 A. D. 14. Abu : Vimalavasahi, detail of Fig. 11, Ambikä seated in lalitasana at the basal corner, circa
1150 A. D. 15. Abu : Vimalavasahi, a kşiptotkşipta ceiling of the padmamandāraka order, located in a bay between
the rangamand apa and devakulikās on the front side, circa 1150 A. D. 16. Abu : Vimalavasahí, the passage between the rangamandapa and desakulikās on the front side,
circa 1150 A. D.

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17. Abu : Vimalavasahi, devakulika No. 12, a samatala ceiling (A) showing life scenes of Sāntinātha,
circa 1150 A. D. 18. Abu : Vimalavasahi, devakulika No. 43, a samatala ceiling (B) showing Vidyadevi Acchuptā in
lalitasana, circa 1150 A. D. 19. Abu : Vimalavasahi, devakulika No. 39, a samatala ceiling (B) showing Vidyādevi Vajrānkusi in
lalitäsana, circa 1150 A. D. 20. Abu : Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, south portico, a samatala ceiling showing Gaja-Lakşmi in
padmasana, circa 1150 A. D. 21. Abu : Vimalavasahi, devakulika No. 46, a samatala ceiling (B) showing Nrsimha Vişnu, circa
1150 A. D. 22. Kumbharia : Mahävira temple, general view from orthwest, 1061 A. D. 23. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, mālaprāsāda and gūdhamandapa, view from southeast, 1061 A. D. 24. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, gadhamand apa, samarana, 1061 A. D. 25. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, garbhagrha, doorframe, 1061 A. D. 26. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, gâdhamandapa, northern (front) door frame, 1061 A. D. 27. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, mukhamandapa, a ksiptotksipta ceiling of the padmanabha order,
1061 A. D. 28. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, mukhamandapa, an utkşipta ceiling of the mandāraka order, 1061 A.D. 29. Kumbharia : Mahävira temple, mukhamandapa, a ksipta ceiling of the näbhicchanda order, 1061 A.D. 30. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, mukhamandapa, a ksipta ceiling of the nābhicchanda order, 1061 A.D. 31. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, rangamand apa, the sabhamandaraka ceiling in nave, 1061 A. D. 32. Kumbharia ; Mahāvira temple, rangamandapa, pillars, 1061 A. D. 33. Kumbharia : Mahävira temple, rangamandapa, Vidyadharas in the sabhāmandāraka ceiling in nave,
1061 A. D. 34. Kumbharia : Mahāvira temple, rangamandapa, west aisle, a samatala ceiling showing life scenes of
Pärávanātha and parents of Tirthankaras, 1061 A. D. 35. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, rangamandapa, east aisle, a samatala ceiling showing figures in
boxes, 1061 A. D. 36. Kumbharia: Santinātha temple, general view from southeast, circa 1081 A. D. 37. Kumbharia : Santinātha temple, mülaprāsada, detail of wall and fikhara, circa 1081 A. D. 38. Kumbharia: Santinātha temple, mukhamandapa as seen from rangumandapa, circa 1081 A. D. 39. numbharia : Sāntinātha temple, mukhamandapa, balustraded pitha, circa 1081 A. D. 40. Kumbharia: Santinātha temple, mukhamandapa, an utkşipta ceiling of the mandāraka order,
circa 1081 A. D. 41. Kumbharia : Sāntinātha temple, rangamandapa, pillars, circa 1081 A, D. 42. Kumbharia : Säntinātha temple, rafgamandapa, torana-arch, 1081 A. D. 43. Kumbharia : Santinātha temple, rangamandapa, the sabhāmandāraka ceiling in nave, circa 1081A.D. 44. Kumbharia : Santinātha temple, rangamandapa, east aisle, a samatala ceiling showing sixteen
Vidyādevis in lalitā sana and Pārsvanātha in padmāsana, 1081 A. D. 45. Kumbharia : Santinätha temple, rangamandapa, west aisle, a samatala ceiling showing Samavasa
raņa scene of an unidentified Tirthankara, circa 1081 A. D. 46. Kumbharia : Pārsvanātha temple, gâdhamandapa, northern (front) door frame, circa 1100 A. D. 47. Kumbharia : Pārsvanātha temple, güdhamandapa, Santinātha in kayotsargamudrā, dated V.S.
1176 (1119 A. D.) 48. Kumbharia : Pārsvanātha temple, rangamandapa and nālamandapa as seen from mukhamandapa,
circa 1100 A. D.

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( xv)
Parvanatha temple, rangamandapa, the sabhämandāraka ceiling in nave, circa 1100 A.D. Parsvanatha temple, rangamandapa, pillar of octagonal order, circa 1100 A. D. Parsvanatha temple, rangamandapa, pillar of square order, circa 1100 A. D. Parsvanatha temple, central devakulika on west, circa 1100 A. D. Neminatha temple and Vastupälavihāra, general view from hill top on east. Neminatha temple, mülaprāsāda and giḍhamandapa, view from northeast, 1128 A. D. Neminatha temple, güdhamaṇḍapa, samvarana from southwest, 1128 A. D.
Neminatha temple, gudhamandapa, detail of the sabhämärga ceiling in nave, 1128 A. D. Neminatha temple, outer entrance doorframe on north, 1128 A. D.
49. Kumbharia 50. Kumbharia 51. Kumbharia 52. Kumbharia 53. Girnar
54. Girnar 55. Girnar:
56. Girnar
57. Girnar
58. Girnar: Neminatha temple, devakulikäs, cloistered corridor, 1158 A. D
59. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, mulaprasada, view from southeast, 1136 A. D.
60. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, rangamandapa, pillars, 1136 A. D.
61. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, rangamandapa, the sabhämandaraka ceiling in nave, 1136 A. D. 62. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, mukhamandapa, pillars and the sloping seatback, 1136 A. D. 63. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, entrance porch and nalamanḍapa, view from north, 1136 A. D. 64. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, exterior wall of central devakulika on west, 1136 A. D.
66. Sejakpur 67. Shatrunjaya 68. Shatrunjaya: Adinatha temple, mülaprasada, detail of north wall, 1154 A. D.
65. Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, doorframe of central devakulika on west, 1136 A. D. Jaina temple, general view, 2nd quarter of the 12th century A. D. Adinatha tunk, general view from northeast.
69. Shatrunjaya
1154 A. D.
70. Shatrunjaya 71. Shatrunjaya 72. Taranga
73 Taranga
74. Taranga 75. Taranga 76. Taranga 77. Taranga 78. Taranga 79. Taranga
Adinatha temple, detail of pitha, 1154 A. D.
Adinatha temple, milaprāsāda, Varuna on jangha, 1154 A. D. Ajitanatha temple, general view from southwest, 1164 A. D. Ajitanatha temple, view from east, 1164 A. D.
Ajitanatha temple, mulaprasada, the lower balustraded wall on west, 1164 A. D. Ajitanatha temple, mulaprasada, sikhara, dancing goddess in south rathika, 1164 A. D. Ajitanätha temple, gajhamandapa, pitha and masdovara, 1164 A. D.
Ajitanatha temple, güdhamandapa, samvarana, view from southeast, 1164 A. D.
Ajitanatha temple, mülaprasada, detail of mandovara, 1164 A. D.
Ajitanatha temple, mülapräsäda, makara-pranala on north, 1164 A. D.
80. Taranga Ajitanatha temple, mukhamandapa, a sabhamandāraka ceiling, 1164 A. D.
81. Taranga Ajitanatha temple, gudhamandapa, the rabhapadmamandäraka ceiling in nave, 1164 A. D. 82. Bhadreshwar Jaina temple, general view form north, 3rd quarter of the 12th century A. D.
83. Bhadreshwar Jaina temple, mulaprasada, detail of pitha and vedibandha, 3rd quarter of the 12th century A. D.
84. Bhadreshwar: Jaina temple, Sikhara and samvarana, view from southwest, 3rd quarter of the 12th century A. D.
85. Bhadreshwar Jaina temple, mulaprāsāda, sikhara, Cakreśvari in south rathika, 3rd quarter of the 12th century A. D.
Adinatha temple, malaprasada, the balustrade enclosing bhadra-niche on north,
86. Sarotra Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya, general view from northeast, 12th-13th centuries A. D.
87. Sarotra: Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya, the main temple-complex, view from south, 12th-13th centuries A. D.

88. Ghumli: Pärsvanatha temple, Parsvanatha in kayotsargamudra, early 13th century A. D.
89. Abu: Lūņavasahi, güḍhamandapa's south porth and a part of the mukhamandapa, view from west,
1231 A. D.

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( xvi) 90. Abu : Lūnavasahi, mukhamaydapa, a ksipta ceiling of the näbhicchanda order, 1231 A. D. 91. Abu : Lünavasahi, mukhamandapa, north khattaka, 1240 A. D. 92. Abu : Lūnavasahi, the central part of mukhamandapa and the doorframe of gadhamandapa as seen
from rangamandapa, 1231 A. D. 93. Abu : Lūnavasahi, rangamandapa, plllars, 1231 A. D. 94. Abu : Lünavasahi, mukhamandapa, a ksiptotksipla ceiling of the mandaraka order, 1231 A. D. 95. Abu : Lūnavasahi, rangamandapa, the sabhā pad mamandāraka ceiling in nave, 1231 A. D. 96. View of Fig. 95 from below. 97. Abu : Lūņavasahi, mukhamandapa, a ksiptotkşipta ceiling of the palmamandäraka order, 1231 A. D. 98. Abu : Lünavasahi, rangamandapa, Vidyadharas in the sabhāpadmamandāraka ceiling in nave, 1231 A.D. 99. Abu : Lūnayasahi, south portico, a samautkşipta ceiling of the mandāraka order, 1231 A. D. 100. Abu: Lūņavasahi, mukhamandapa, a ceiling, 1231 A. D. 101. Abu : Lūņavasahi, Tangamandapa, south portico, a samatala ceiling showing birth-rite of Krsna,
1231 A. D. 102. Abu : Lüņavasahi, devakulika No. 11, a samatala ceiling (B) showing renunciation of Neminātha,
1231 A. D. 103. Abu: Lunavasahi, hastifāla, elephants, 1231 A. D. 104. Abu : Lūņavasahi, devakulika No. 10, a samarala ceiling (A) showing Cakreśvari in lalitasana
with dancing female attendants, 1231 A. D. 105. Abu : Lūņavasahi, hastišala, grilles, 1231 A. D. 106. Abu : Lūņavasahi, hastifālā, portrait sculptures of Tejapāla and his wife Anupamādevi, 1231A.D. 107. Abu : Iūnavasahi, the passage between the main entrance and the rangamandapa, 1231 A. D. 108. Girnar: Vastupälavihära, south shrine, mandovara, 1231 A. D. 109. Girnar: Vastupālavihāra, mandapa and south shrine, view from northwest, 1231 A. D. 110. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha temple, general view from southeast, 2nd quarter of the 13th
century A. D. 111. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha temple, gūdhamandapa, wall and east porch, view from south, 2nd
quarter of the 13th century A. D. 112. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha temple, gādhamandapa, northern (front) doorframe, 2nd quarter of
the 13th century A. D. 113. Miani: Jaina temple, general view from northwest, 3rd quarter of the 13th century A. D. 114. Miani: Jaina temple, güdhamand apa, door frame, 3rd quarter of the 13th century A. D. 115. Miani : Jaina temple, garbhagyha, doorframe, 3rd quarter of the 13th century A. D. 116. Miani : Jaina temple, güdhamandapa, ceiling, 3rd quarter of the 13th century A. D. 117. Kanthkot: Mahāvira temple, general view from southwest, circa 1280 A. D. 118. Kanthkot: Mahāvira temple, general view from southeast, circa 1280 A. D. 119. Kanthkot: Mahavira temple, gūdhamandapa, ceiling, circa 1280 A. D.

Page #18

CHAPTER I HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND
POLITICAL SITUATION
Pre-historic and Proto-historic Period
(IIIA) the first ceramic industry we come across is The history of Gujarat begins with the Palaeo- the Black-and-Red Ware associated with iron. The lithic man. who first appeared in Gujarat in the next Phase (Somnath III B) is characterised by the mid-Pleistocene epoch. The Early Palaeolithic Northern-Black-Polished Ware, a pottery indicative period is represented in Gujarat by a large assem
of the Mauryan expansion into Gujarat, 10 as it is blage of stone implements found at several sites generally associated with the Mauryan age. But on the banks of Sabarmati, Mahi, Orsang and
the most distinctive pottery still to come up is the Narmada.The Middle Phase tools are scarcely
Red-Polished Ware, which is found in association found in the north and central Gujarat, while their with the Sātavähana levels in the Deccan, Kşatrapa concentration in Saurashtra is well-marked. The
in Western India, and Kuşāņa and carly Gupta in Late Phase is characterised by microliths, which Northern India." have been discovered from almost all over Gujarat.
Pre-Mauryan Period Of all the microlithic sites Langhnaj is the most
According to the Purāņas, however, it were the representative one datable to 2500-2000 B. C.
Aryans, the Bhțgus and Sāryātas, who first settled The Palaeolithic Phase is followed by the in Gujarat.12 Anarta, son of Saryāti, gave his Chalcolithic Phase, which indicates the arrival of name to Gujarat, and his son Revata founded Harappans in the region in the third millenium Kušasthali (Dwarka), the capital city from where B. c. Wheeler has enumerated the following fea. the country of Anarta was ruled.18 Revata's son tures to identify a Harappan site-(i) Indus seals, Raivata Kakudmin had a daughter named Revati, (ii) Indus script, (iii) certain distinctive decorative who was married to Balarama, the elder brother of motifs on pottery, (iv) certain distinctive ceramic Krsna. Afterwards Raivata also lost his kingdom forms, (v) triangular terracotta cakes, (vi) kidney to the Yadavas.14 The Yadavas were in close shaped inlays of shell or faience, and (vii) certain alliance with the Pandavas of Indraprastha. 16 On beads notably discoidal with tubular piercing, a certain occasion when Krsna had gone to IndraFollowing these traits a number of Harappan sites prastha to attend the Rajasüya sacrifice performed have been located at Lothal, Rangpur, Desalpar, by Yudhisthira, king Salva of Saubha attacked Prabhas, Rojdi, Amra, Lakhabaval and Bhagatrav. Dwarka.16 Krsna thereupon hurried to Dwarka, Of these Lothal with straight streets and drains, proceeded against Salva and slew him.17 But the granary and platform, stands pre-eminent. From Yadavas could not long survive, for the holy Dwarka the discovery of a dockyard and a Persian Gulf seal is said to have been swallowed up by the sea. 18 at Lothal it appears that it had maritime contacts The next available evidence indicates the with the islands of Persia."
Mauryan rule in Gujarat. Next follows a culture known as Post-Harappan, Mauryan Period (circa 322-185 B. C.) which is represented by the Lustrous Red Ware.8
The real political history of Gujarat begins with Coming to the early historic period mention the Mauryas. Their rule in the province is evidently must be made of Somnath where the culture seque. known from the Junagadh inscription of Rudrada1 ce begins with the Late Phase of Lothal and Rang. man dated 150 A. D. wherein it is mentioned that pur and continues without interval upto the sixth Vaisya Puşyagupta, the viceroy of Saurashtra under century A. D. During this Phase at Somnath Candragupta, constructed the Sudarsana lake, and

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Faina Temples of Western India
that Yavana Tuşāspha, the provincial governor known. The coins of Bhūmaka have been noticed under Asoka, provided it with conduits.19 Besides, along the coast of Kathiawar and sometimes in the location of Asoka's rock edict at Girnar also Malwa, 29 and those of his successor Nahapāna shows the Mauryan sway over the province. Sam- discovered from Ajmer in the north to Nasik in the prati, the successor of Asoka, was a powerful king, south.80 From the wide provenance of their coins and his kingdom is said to have comprised among it appears that they ruled over an extensive area other provinces also Avanti and Western India.20 stretching roughly from Ajmer to Nasik. After Samprati, when the Mauryan power declined
The numismatic evidence is also corroborated towards the close of the third century B. C, we notice the advent of the Indo-Greeks into Gujarat
by the epigraphical record. The Nasik cave
inscription of the time of Nahapāna reveals that Indo-Greek Period (circa 185 B. C.-78 A. D.) Uşavadāta, the viceroy under Nahapāna, visited a Eucratides is the first Bactrian king whose coins
number of holy places like Govardhana (Nasik), have been found in Kathiawar and Gujarat. The
Prabhāsa (Somnath ), Bhțgukacha (Broach ), presence of his coins there is taken to suggest that
Sorpāraga (Sopara) and Dasapura (Mandsor).81 either he advanced into the region or it came under
Though the reference to the holy places does not the sphere of his influence.a1 But the mere presence
necessarily imply the Kşatrapa sway over them,
as the benefactions were made in ancient India of coins does not indicate his rule there, as he is
irrespective of territorial possession, yet it is said to have never crossed Jhelum or even Indus. 2 2
maintained that Malwa, Kathiawar, Gujarat, After Eucratides the Indo-Greek power passed into
northern Konkan, Maratha country and a large the hands of Menander and Apollodotus, who were
part of Rajputana fell under the sphere of Nahathe real conquerors of Gujarat. Strabo quoting
päna's influence.83 Apollodorus informs that the Greeks occupied not only Patalene (Indus Delta) but also the kingdoms Shortly after 124 A.D., which is the last known of Saraostos (Saurashtra) and Sigerdis (Sagaradvipa date of Nahapāna, the Kşaharātas were extermina
-Kutch),23 The author of the Periplus states that ted by the Andhra king Gautamiputra Satakarni. some coins, which bore Greek legend and the The latter indeed claims that he uprooted the devices of Apollodotus and Menander, were cur- entire Kșaharāta race and held his sway over many rent in Barygaza (Broach). 24 On the combined Janapadas including Suratha (Saurashtra), Kukura testimony of these evidences it is held that the (in the Gujarat-Kathiawar region), Anupa (the Indo-Greeks got possession of the Indus Delta, Mändhätā or Maheśvara region on the Narmada), Kutch, Saurashtra, part of Gujarat, i, e. Broach Aparänta (north Konkan), Akara (east Malwa) and and presumably Surat, 26 though such a conclusion Avanti (west Malwa).94 The defeat of Nahapāna is unacceptable to some on the assumption that the is also indicated from his coins in the Jogaltherbi coins of Menander and Apollodotus might have hoard, which were restruck by Satakarni. been carried to Barygaza by way of trade, 26
After the extinction of the Kşaharätas the KarThe Indo-Greek suzerainty in Gujarat did not damakas appeared on the scene and reestablished end with Menander but it continued under his son the glory of the Kşatrapas by inflicting a crushing Strato I through his general Apollodotus 11,27 as defeat upon the Andhras. In his Junagadh inscriptit is the latter's coins which were imitated by the ion Rudradaman indeed claims to have conquered Western Kşatrapas.28
Akara, Anupa, Avanti, Anarta (north Kathiawar),
Surāstra (Saurashtra), Svabhra (on the Sabarmati). Kşatrapa Period (78 A. D.-397 A, D.)
Maru (Rajputana desert), Kaccha, Sindhu (west The Bactrians in their turn gave way to the of lower Indus), Sauvira (east of lower Indus), Western Kşatrapas. There are two branches of the Kukura, Aparānta and Nişāda (west Vindhya and Kşatrapas, the Kșaharātas and the Kardamakas, Aravalli).85 Of these Surāṣtra, Kukura, Aparānta, ruling one after the other. Of the Kșaharātas Anūpa, Akara and Avanti formed parts of Gautaonly two members, Bhūmaka and Nabapāna, are miputra's empire, and their mention also in the

Page #20

Historical and Cultural Background
Junagadh inscription indicates that Rudradāman Gujarat and Kathiawar seems to have come to an conquered them either from Gautamiputra or one end in circa 467 A.D.46 However, the Maitrakas, of his immediate successors. That this is not an who succeeded the Guptas in Kathiawar, acknowempty boast is also proved by the fact that Rudra- ledged the sovereignty of Budhagupta, though they dāman himself won the title of Mahākşatrapa and were aspiring for setting up an independent kingtwice defeated Satakarni, the Lord of the Deccan, dom. 46 but did not completely destory him on account of Simultaneous with the Guptas an independent their near connection,"36
line of the Traikutakas was ruling in southern It is not known as to what happened to this Gujarat in the fifth century A.D. So far only three extensive empire during the successive reigns. But
rulers, viz. Indradatta, his son Dharasena and this is beyond doubt that the Kşatrapas continued
the latter's son Vyāghrasena, are known. Except to rule in the province until they were overthrown
for his name occurring on Dharasena's coins notby the Gupta king Candragupta II some time bet
hing is known about Indradatta. But Dharasena ween 388 and 398 A.D.37
was a powerful king, as he issued coins and perfor
med an Afvamedha sacrifice. 47 Vyäghrasena extenSo far no remains of Jaina art and architecture ded the Traikutaka dominion further south into of the region under discussion have come down to us, Konkan and continued to rule there and in southern which may be attributed to the period prior to the Guiarat upto circa 495 A.D.48 After Vyäghrasena Ksatrapas. It is the Ksatrapa period which bequeaths the Traikitaka kingdom was occupied by the for the first time the remains of Jaina monuments.
Vákāțaka king Harişena about 500 A.D.49 These include a group of about twenty monastic caves excavated at Junagadh. One of these caves
The Jaina art relics of the Gupta period are bears carving of some auspicious Jaina symbols
meagre in Gujarat. Only a few bronze sculptures like frivatsa, kalaša, svastika, bhadrāsana, minayugala,
hailing from Akota are attributable to this period, 50 etc. These symbols do not conclusively establish
Fortunately, two of these bear each an inscription, the Jaina character of these dwellings, but the which mentions the name of Jinabhadra Vacanadiscovery of a mutilated inscription of Jayada man's
cārya, who flourished in the sixth century A.D. grandson, referring to those who have attained
Two images are identifiable with Jivantasvāmi. kevalajñāna (omniscience) and conquered jarāmarana
From iconographic point of view these images are Cold age and death), indicates that at least in the very important, for the images of Jivantasvämi second century A.D. the caves were in possession
are rare. of the Jainas.88 .
Maitraka-Gurjara Period (circa 470-745 A.D.) Gupta Period (circa 400-470 A.D.)
The Maitrakas-When the Gupta empire broke The Allahabad pillar inscription reveals that up towards the close of the 5th century A.D., several the Sakas, who are identified with the Ksatrapas, 89 petty chiefs, who were formerly probably vassals were paying homage to Samudragupta. 40 A de- of the Guptas, founded their independent princi. finite evidence, however, of the Gupta sway over palities. Of these the Maitrakas of Valabhi also Gujarat and Kathiawar is met with the reign of proved to be successful and grew very powerful. Candragupta II (380-415 A.D.), when the coins During this period the old capital of Girinagara for this region were issued.41 The rule of Kumā- was abandoned, and Valabhi became the new cenragupta I (415-455 A.D.) in the province is appa- tre of administration. rently indicated by a large number of his coins The first two Maitraka rulers, Bhatāraka and found there. 43 Skandagupta is known to have his son Dharasena I, were probably the vassals of governed this province through his viceroy Parna- the Imperial Guptas, as they are termed only Senā. datta. 48 As most of the Gupta coins found in Kutch pati. The third ruler, Dronasimha (499-519 A.D.). belong to Skandagupta, the Kutch area was pro the younger brother of Dharasena, is said to have bably added to Gujarat and Kathiawar by Skanda- performed his coronation ceremony in the presence gupta.44 With Skandagupta the Gupta rule in of his overlord, probably Budhagupta.51 The next

Page #21

Faina Temples of Western India
ruler, Dhruvasena I (519-549 A.D.), the younger Valabhi kingdom at this time included the whole brother and successor of Dronasimha, seems to have of northern and central Gujarat.60 increased his power, as the Gärulak as of Dwarka
Dhruvasena II was succeeded by his son acknowledged his supremacy.52 But his Mahäsä.
Dharasena IV (641-650 A. D.), who was the most manta title clearly shows that he was still under
powerful ruler of the dynasty, as he alone among the yoke of his overlord. The Valabhi kingdom
the Valabhi rulers is termed Cakravartin. In 649 under these rulers included almost the whole of
A. D. he issued two grants from his victorious camp Kathiawar and probably northern Gujarat.
at Broach,61 a place which lay in the Gurjara Dhruvasena I was succeeded by his younger territory. Perhaps Dharasena wrested the region brother Dharapatta, and the latter by his son around Broach from the Gurjaras and included it Guhasena. Guhasena discarded all the titles of in his own dominion.62 The occupation of Broach, subordinate position and styled himself as however, was only temporary, for the Gurjaras Mahārāja.53 This indicates that the Gujarat continued to rule over that part for many years expedition of Isvaravarman, in the course of which after this, 63 he is said to have reached Raivataka, 54 is not a
After Dharasena IV Dhruvasena III (650-655 reality, or it was successfully repulsed back by the
A. D.), son of Silāditya, occupied the Maitraka Maitraka ruler. Guhasena's son and successor,
throne. He was followed by Kharagraha II (655Dharasena II (568-590 A. D.), again assumed the
658 A. D.). During the reigns of these rulers there title of Sāmanta. It appears that the Maitraka
was some internal trouble, the nature of which is power declined during this period and probably
not known. But the situation was overcome when Dharasena had to acknowledge the sovereignty of
Silāditya III ascended the Maitraka throne. Isänavarman, who was a powerful monarch of Northern India at this time.85
Siladitya III (circa 658–685 A.D.) was undoub
tedly a powerful ruler. Like Dharasena IV he Dharasena II was succeeded by his son Siladitya I
assumed the imperial titles and conquered the Dharmāditya (590-615 A. D.), who is generally
Gurjara territory, for in 676 A. D. he made some identified with Silāditya of Mo-la-po (Malwa)
land grants in the Bharukaccha-visaya.64 But soon mentioned by Hiuen Tsang. 66 He ruled over an
the Gurjaras under Dadda III retrieved the posiextensive area stretching from Ujjain to Kutch.
tion with the aid of the Cälukya king Dharāírya Silāditya I was succeeded by his younger brother Jayasimha, as the latter claims to have extermiKharagraha I (615-621 A. D.), and the latter by nated the whole army of Vajjad (Śilāditya) in the his son Dharasena III (621-627 A.D.). Not much country between Mahi and Narmada. 65 Another is known about Kharagraha. But Dharasena pro- event of his reign was an Arab raid against Gogha, bably came into conflict with Calukya Pulakesin II a port on the eastern coast of Kathiawar, which he and, as is clear from the claims of the Aihole successfully repulsed.86 prašasti, he had to submit to the Calukya ruler.57 After Siladitya III there ruled three or four
Dharasena III was succeeded by his younger Siladityas covering a period of about 85 years. It brother Dhruvasena II Bālāditya (627-641 A. D.). was probably during the time of Siladitya V that who is generally identified with Dhruvabhatta, the the Arabs invaded Valabhi. Indeed the Navsari son-in-law of Harsa referred to by Hiuen Tsang. It plates reveal that having conquered the Saindhavas, was during this period that Hiuen Tsang visited Kacchella, Saurastra, Cavotaka, Maurya, Gurjara the kingdom of Valabhi.58 The most important and other kings, the Tajikäs (Arabs) advanced as event of his reign was his conflict with Harsa. In far south as Navasärika, but their further advance the beginning he perhaps suffered a reverse, but was checked by Avanijanäsraya Pulakesirāja.67 subsequently he retrieved his position with the The Maitraka records are silent about this Arab help of the Gurjara king Dadda II. Harsa then invasion. The Gurjara records, however, reveal offered his daughter in marriage to Dhruvabhatta that king Jayabhata IV of Broach forcibly vanand the latter in turn became his ally,59 The quished in the city of Valabhi the Täjikās who
Jain Education Interational

Page #22

Historical and Cultural Background
oppressed all people. It is, therefore, probable Nandol, 34 miles east of Broach.77 Since all the that at this crisis too, as in the past, the Gurjaras Gurjara kings are termed Sämanta, they always went to the rescue of the king of Valabhi.89 ruled as feudatory chiefs, presumably of the main
Gurjara line of Rajputana or of the Cälukyas. 18 The Arabs no doubt withdrew from Kathiawar, but the Maitrakas could not rule in peace.
Dadda I (570-595 A. D.), the first ruler of the The south-western part of Kathiawar passed out of dynasty, is said to have invaded Läta, defeated Valabhi and formed a separate kingdom under the Nirihullaka, destroyed the Nāgas, and extended his Saindhavas. Besides, the gradual advance, first rule to the Vindhyas. Not much is known about of the Calukyas and later of the Pratihāras of Dadda's son and successor Jayabhata I (circa 595Avanti and the Räştrakūtas of the Deccan, must 620 A.D.), but the latter's son and successor, Dadda have caused constant menance to the Valabhi II (circa 620-645 A. D.) rendered protection kingdom, and with Siladitya VII the line of the to Dhruvabhata, the lord of Vallbhi, when he was Maitrakas became extinct some time between 766 defeated by Harsa of Kanauj. But this did not A. D. and 783 A. D.70
save the Gurjara kingdom from the greed of the
Valabhi kings, who conquered it twice; firstly, about The Kalacuris-After the end of the Vākātaka
648 A.D. by Dharasena IV, who made land grants rule in Läta in circa 520 A. D. there ruled a feudal
at Broach, a region lying in the Gurjara kingdom, chief named Sangamasimha in the region between
and secondly, about 685 A. D. when the Valabhi Tapti and Narmada with Broach as his capital city
ruler was driven out by the Calukyas. On the first in 540 A. D. Probably he owed his allegiance to
occasion Jayabhata II (645-665 A. D.), the son and the Kalacuri king Krsnarāja (circa 550-575 A. D.)
successor of Dadda II, was ruling, while on the or his father, as we learn from the wide provena
second his son and successor Dadda III (circa 665nce of his own coins and the records of his son
690 A. D.) was occupying the Gurjara throne.80 Sankaragana (circa 575-600 A.D.) and the latter's
Dadda III is said to have waged wars with the son Buddharäja that the Kalacuri empire extended
great kings of the east and west. The king of the from Malwa in the north to Maharashtra in the
west was undoubtedly the Maitraka king of south, including Broach and Baroda districts of
Valabhi,82 while that of the east is unidentified. Gujarat."! But in the beginning of the seventh century Buddharaja was defeated by Calukya Dadda III was succeeded by his son Jayabhata Mangalesa (597-610 A, D.), and the country south III (circa 690-715 A. D.), and the latter by his son of Tapti had since become a part of the Cālukya Ahirola (715-720 A. D.). Very little is known empire.T2 It has, however, been suggested that it about these rulers. But the next king, viz. Jayawas Pulakesin II who finally occupied the Kalacuri bhata IV, the son and successor of Ahirola, was a realm.73
powerful ruler. He rescued the Valabhí king, when The Gurjaras-What happened in northern Läta
the latter was attacked by the Arabs, and inflicted after the Kalacuris is not definitely known. But a
a defeat on the enemy. The Arabs were, however, little later in the region around Broach there rose
not completely vanquished, for they advanced as to power a family of the Gurjaras, who are regard
far as Navasärikā.89 With Jayabhata IV, who is
the last known king of the dynasty and whose last ed as a foreign tribe, ?4 or a feudatory branch of the
known date is 735 A. D., the line of the Gurjaras Gurjara Pratihāras of Jodhpur. From the findspots of the Gurjara inscriptions and the places
disappeared probably during the Arab raids or the mentioned therein it appears that the Gurjara prin
conquests of Dantidurga or Nagabhata.84 cipality extended from Mahi in the north to Kim in The Calukyas-Though the Calukya sovereignty the south and from the sea-coast in the west to the over Läta is already indicated in the time of borders of Malwa and Khandesh in the east. 76 Mangalesa, it was firmly established by Pulakesin II As the majority of grants were issued from Nāndi- (610-642 A. D.), as he is known to have stopped puri, that was probably the capital of the family. the southern advance of Harsa against his feudato. It has been identified by Bhagvanlal Indraji with ries of Valabhi and Broach. But the actual evidence

Page #23

Faina Temples of Western India
of the Cālukya rule over Läta is met with the reign time of the destruction of the city.99 A temple of of Vikramaditya I (655-681 A. D.), who appointed Yakși Ambika was probably built on the summit his younger brother Dharăáraya Jayasimha as of the Girnar hill.100 An inscription engraved on a the viceroy of this region with Navsari as bronze sculpture hailing from Akota also refers to its provincial capital.86 In his Nasik plates a Jaina shrine called Rathavasatikā.101 Jayasimha claims to have annihilated the whole army of Vajjada in the country between Mahi Rästrakūta-Prati hara Period (circa 745-950 and Narmada. 6 Vajjada is identified with the A.D.) Maitraka king Siladitya III of Valabhi.87 Jaya- During this period the mainland of Gujarat simha's sway over south Gujarat is also evident became the political arena between the Gurjara from two epigraphical records issued in this region Pratihāras and the Răstrakūtas, while Saurashtra by his son Yuvarāja Srāśraya Siladitya, who pre- was ruled by a number of dynasties like the Sainddeceased him.88 Jayasimha was succeeded by his havas, the Cälukyas, the Cäpas and the Varāhas. younger son Mangalarasa, and the latter by his
The Rastrakūtas and the Pratihāras-Having disyounger brother Avanijanāśraya Pulakes iraja. In
placed the Calukyas not only in the Deccan but his Navsari plates dated 740 A. D. Pulakesirāja
also in south Gujarat, the Rästrakūta king Danticlaims to have stopped the southern inroads of the
durga (circa 7 33-758 A.D.) proceeded towards the Arabs by inflicting a crushing defeat upon the north and made the Gurjara king serve as a doorintruders. After Pulakesiraja, who is the last keeper during the Hiranyagarbha ceremony he perknown king of the Gujarat branch of the Calukyas, formed at Ujjain.102 The Gurjara king is identiLata was conquered by Rästrakūta Dantidurga, fied with Pratihāra Nagabhata I, but since the who appointed Karkka II to govern this province," latter was acknowledged as the overlord by while the country to the north of Kim was ruled by Cāhamāna Bhartrivaddha of Broach in 756 A.D., a Cahamāna family, which owed to the Pratihāras the military victory of Dantidurga hardly yielded of Jalor.2
any permanent result. 108 The Maitraka-Gurjara period witnessed a Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krsna I remarkable growth in Jaina art and architecture. (circa 758-772 A.D.). He suppressed Karkka II, Numerous bronze sculptures hailing from Akota, the governor of Lata, when the latter declared his Mahudi, Lilvadeva, Vasan tagadh and Valabhi,"s independence. 104 some of which are fine pieces of Indian art, belong to this epoch. It has also produced some stone
Krşņa I was succeeded by his son Govinda II
(circa 773-780 A.D.), who was soon overthrown by sculptures carved in the rock-cut caves at Dhank.94
his brother Dhruva (circa 780-793 A.D.).105 From These images provide valuable data for the study
the reign of Dhruva started a tripartite struggle of Jaina iconography.95
between the Rāştrakūtas, the Pratihäras and the The Maitraka period has produced a large Pālas for the supremacy of power in Northern India. number of Brahmanical temples. The period is Nagabhata I was succeeded by his brother's equally rich with regard to Buddhist monasteries.® sons, Kakkuka and Devarāja, of whom nothing is But surprisingly enough, no Jaina temple of the known. But Devarāja's son Vatsarāja was a powerMaitraka age has so far come to light. From this ful ruler. He attacked Kanauj and defeated its it should not, however, be concluded that the Jaina ruler Indräyudha. Immediately Dharmapāla, the temples were not built during the period, for there Pala king of Gauda, espoused the cause of Cakraare literary references to show the existence of the
yudha, possibly a relative of Indrāyudha, but was Laina idols and temples there. The temple of Sānti- subdued by Vatsaraja. While Vatsarāja and nätha at Valabhi was in existence some time arou- Dharmapala were fighting for empire in the north. nd 610 A.D.08 Images of Candraprabha, Adinatha, Rāstrakūta Dhruva intervened in the north Indian Pārsvanatha and Mahävira were transferred from politics and inflicted a crushing defeat upon VatValabhi to safer places like Somnath etc. at the sarāja, who had to take shelter in the desert of

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Historical and Cultural Background
Rajputana. Dhruva next turned his attention against Dharmapala and defeated him somewhere between the Ganga and the Yamuna. Dhruva's expedition of Northern India, however, brought him no substantial gain, and he shortly retreated to the Deccan laden with a rich booty. In this encounter the Pratihāras suffered the most, for Dharmapala, in spite of his successive defeats, soon occupied Kanauj and held an assembly there to instal his nominee Cakräyudha, who was readily accepted by a host of rulers, 106
Dhruva, on his return from the north Indian campaign, abdicted the throne in favour of his son Govinda III (circa 793-814 A. D.) and appointed his youngest son Indra as the viceroy of Gujarat and Malwa, 107
Vatsaraja was succeeded by his son Nagabhata II, who forcibly seized the hill-forts of Anartta (north Gujarat), Malwa, etc. His campaign to Malwa and Anartta probably brought him into conflict with Rastrakuṭa Indra, the governor of Läta, as the latter claims a victory over the Gurjara king. On the other hand, Vahukadhavala, Nagabhata's Calukya feudatory of south Kathiawar, is said to have defeated the Karnātas (Rāṣṭrakūṭas). It appears that no party achieved a decisive victory. Nagabhața then made the Saindhava chiefs, ruling in western Kathiawar, and the rulers of Andhra, Kalinga and Vidarbha succumb to him. He next attacked Kanauj and occupied it by defeating Cakrayudha and his suzerain Dharmapala. In this campaign he was assisted by three of his feudatory chiefs, viz. Kakka of the Jodhpur Pratihara family, Calukya Vähukadhavala of southern Kathiawar and Guhilot Sankaragana of Dhod (near Udaipur). With these achievements Nagabhața reached the acme of his power, but he could not enjoy the fruit of his victory, as the Rāṣṭrakūtas once again appeared in the north and shattered his dreams of founding an empire. The Räṣṭrakūta king Govinda III indeed claims that he destroyed the fame of Nagabhata, overran his kingdom and proceeded upto the Himalayas. As a result of this victory Cakrayudha and Dharmapala also surrendered to him on their own accord. If we follow the order of events cited above, the defeat of Nagabhata by Govinda followed his stormy career

7
of conquest, 108 but the evidences are so complicated that they can also be arranged to show that the discomfiture of Nagabhața preceded his brilliant career and he emerged out victorious in this triangular contest.109 No doubt, Nagabhata's imperial ambitions were curbed, his power was not wholly destroyed and he continued to hold his sway over the greater part of Rajputana and Kathiawar.110 As regards Govinda's expedition of Northern India, it was merely of the digvijaya type, nevertheless Malwa and parts of Anartta were included in the Raṣṭrakūta empire and Karkka, who succeeded his father Indra in the viceroyalty of south Gujarat, was made a doorbolt to protect Malwa against the Gurjaras,111
Nagabhata II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra. During his short reign period of two-three The years the Pratihāra power only declined. situation was, however, overcome when Ramabhadra's son Bhoja (circa 836-885 A. D.) ascended
the throne.
In the Deccan Govinda III was succeeded by his young son Amoghavarșa I (circa 814-880 A.D.) whom Karkka, the viceroy of south Gujarat, acted as a regent.112 But after Karkka the relations between the two houses deteriorated; resultantly, there started a protracted war between the Räṣṭrakūta branch of Gujarat and emperor Amoghavarsa.119 This long-drawn war, however, came to an end and the Räṣṭrakutas joined their hands in order to stop the southern advance of Pratihāra Bhoja,114 who had overrun south Rajputana and the tracts round Ujjayini upto the Narmada and annexed them to the Kanauj empire.115 But Bhoja's progress was checked single-handed by Dhruva II of Lața some time before 867 A. D. 116 Bhoja, however, did not lose heart and again launched an expedition to the south; the Raṣṭrakūta king, who at this time was Krsna II (circa 878-914 A. D.), the son and successor of Amoghavarsa I, was defeated and probably he had to retreat to the south of the Narmada.117 The Rāṣṭrakūṭa records, on the other hand, reveal that Kṛṣṇa II defeated the Gurjara king at Ujjain with the assistance of Kṛṣṇaraja, who was the last ruling chief of the Gujarat branch of the Räṣṭrakūtas.118 It appears that these wars were inconclusive and profit

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8
Jaina Temples of Western India
ed neither party. Bhoja also held his sway over the whole of Kathiawar.119
Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I (circa 886-910 A. D.) during whose reign the Pratihāra power reached its zenith. He not only ably maintained the vast empire left by his father, but also extended it eastward to Paharpur in north Bengal.120 His rule in Saurashtra is evidently known from the records of his feudatory chiefs, Calukya Balavarman and his son Avanivarman II, who were ruling round Junagadh.121
Mahendrapala I was succeeded by his son Bhoja II who ruled for a very short time and was probably dethroned by his brother Mahipala I (circa 912-940).122 At the very beginning of Mahipala's reign the Răstrakūtas once more invaded Northern India, the effects of which seem to have been for the time disastrous, for the Cambay plates of Govinda IV reveal that Indra III (circa 914-916 A. D.), the son and successor of Kṛṣṇa II, attacked Ujjayini, crossed the Yamuna and captured Kanauj.128 In his north Indian campaign Indra was probably accompanied by his feudatory chief Narasimha, who is depicted in the Kanarese work Pampabharata to have "plucked from Gurjara king's arms the Goddess of victory, whom, though desirous of keeping, he had held too loosely. Mahipala fled as if struck by thunderbolt, staying neither to eat nor to rest, nor to pick himself up, while Närasimha pursuing, bathed his horses at the junction of the Ganges and established his fame."124 The Pratihāras were no doubt defeated, but the Rastrakūtas could not take full advantage of their victory because of the confusion in which they were involved after the premature death of Indra.125 This gave Mahipala an opportunity to consolidate his power. He conquered all the territories upto the Narmada, including Ujjayini and Dhārā. Kathiawar also formed a part of his empire, as his feudatory chief Capa Dharanivaräha was ruling at Wadhwan in 914 A. D. 126 Lāța, however, was still under the sway of the Räṣṭrakūtas. 127 But towards the close of Mahipala's reign the Rastra kūtas under Kṛṣṇa III (circa 939-968 A. D.) again appeared in the north and deprived the Pratihāras of all hopes of holding Kälinjara and Citrakuta. 128 It is also suggested that this incident happened in the time of Vinayakapāla, 19

After Mahipala the Pratihara power began to decline, and consequently several states, which were acknowledging the supremacy of the Pratihāras, became independent. The foremost among these was the one founded by Caulukya Malaraja at Anahilapäṭaka,180
Kṛṣṇa III was succeeded by his younger brother
Khottiga from whose reign the Rästrakūta power also began to crack. He had to fight with the Paramāras of Malwa, who ruled as feudatories under Indra III and Kṛṣṇa III but refused to avow allegiance to him.181 In the battle which was fought on the banks of the Narmada Khoṭṭiga was defeated by Paramāra Siyaka II (circa 945-972 A. D.) and the territory upto the Narmada or Tapti was annexed to the Paramara dominion. 132 Siyaka II also extended his kingdom to the west upto the Sabarmati beyond which lay the kingdom of Caulukya Malaraja, for he made the chief of Kheṭakamandala (Kaira) his ally and defeated Calukya Avanivarman Yogaraja II of Saurashtra, 189 The Paramāra sway in south Gujarat was, however, short-lived, for the Western Calukya King Tailapa II, who had overthrown his Rāṣṭakūta overlord Karkka II (the son and successor of Khoṭṭiga) in 973 A. D. and established his rule in the Deccan, invaded Lata, vanquished it, and appointed his general Barappa as the governor of this territory 134 Later Barappa became engaged in hostilities with Caulukya Mülaraja of Aṇahilapäṭaka.
Fairly a large number of temples of the Pratihāra age have been found in Central India and Rajasthan.135 Among these the Jaina temples located at Osia, Deogadh and Gyaraspur are well. known, but no Jaina temple of the Pratihāra period has been noticed in Gujarat, although Brahmanical temples have been found at Sutrapädä, Wadhwan, Than, etc. The absence of Jaina temples does not mean that they were not built, for the Prabhavakacarita reveals that Nagavaloka (Nagabhata II) built a shrine of Mahavira at Anahillapura (Aṇahilapäṭaka).136 The same work also refers to a shrine of Mahavira existing at Modhera,13
The Raṣṭraküṭas also were great patron of art and letters. Besides Brahmanical caves they excavated Jaina caves at Ellora, but a Răşṭrakūta Jaina monument is not known from our region, although

Page #26

Historical and Cultural Background
Brāhmanical temples are located at Roda and by his son Rāņaka, who had to sustain a defeat at Shamlaji, 188 The non-existence of a Rāstrakūta the hands of Pratihāra Nāgabhata II. Rāņaka had Jaina edifice in Gujarat is surprising, for there is by his two queens two sons, Krsna II and Jaika I. an inscription which records the erection of a Jaina It was Kļşņa who succeeded his father. From this temple and a Jaina monastery at Navasārikā. 189 time there started a protracted war between the Apart from this a, large number of bronze sculp. Saindhavas and the Cāpas of Vardhamānapura. tures are attributable to this period.140 At Akota Krşņa II fought a successful battle against the Capa a Jaina temple was also built in the 10th century ruler Vikramārka. Krşņa II died at an early age A. D.141 These references apparently indicate that and was succeeded by his young son Agguka II the Jaina temples certainly existed there during whom Jaika I, the step-brother of Kțşņa, served as this period, but they were destroyed during the a regent. But later Jaika deposed his nephew and course of time.
occupied the throne of Ghumli. Jaika was a The Varāhas-A king named Mahāvarāha was
powerful king and defeated the Capas of Vardha.
mānapura. After Jaika ruled Camundarāja, ruling some where in Saurashtra in the third quarter
Agguka III, Rānaka II, Agguka IV and Jaika II. of the eighth century A. D. An inscription dated
The last of these, whose known dates are 904 A. D. 812 A. D. states that he attacked Krsna I, the
and 915 A. D., was probably overthrown by the Rästrakūta king of the Deccan, but was repulsed.
Abhira chief Grāharipu of Junagadh. The SainAccording to another inscription, Krsna had to retreat along the banks of the Narmada. It appears
dhavas probably ruled as feudal chiefs under Prati
bära Nāgabhata II and his successors. 145 that the battle between Krşņa and Mahāvarāha was indecisive. Mahāvarāha seems to have been
The Saindhavas were great patrons of art. This succeeded by Jayavarāha, who was ruling in 783
is apparently indicated by such temples as those A. D. in the territories of the Sauryas near Vardha
existing at Dhrasanvel, Somkansāri (near Ghumli), mānapura (modern Wadhwan in Kathiawar).142
Sarmā, Pachtar and Prāci. 146 But unfortunately
none of these shrines belongs to Jaina sect. Even In his Harivamó a Purāna, which gives information
the available inscriptions also do not refer to any about Jayavaräha, Jinasena states that he started
Jaina monument. Probably the Saindhavas were the writing of this work in the temple of Pärava
Hindu by faith, and Jainism seems to be ineffective nātha built by Nannarāja at Vardhamānapura and
during the period in this part of the country, completed it in the Sāntinātha temple at Dostatikā148 (modern Dottadi144 between Wadhwan The Calukyas---Contemporary with the Saindhaand Girnar). This clearly indicates that there vas a line of the Calukyas was ruling near Junaexisted at least two Jaina temples in Saurashtra
gadh. The earliest known king of the line is Kalla, during this period. At present, however, none of
who was succeeded by his brother Mahalla. These
two kings flourished in the second half of the eighth these temples survives.
century A. D. Mahalla was succeeded by Kalla's The Saindhavas—In the second quarter of the
son and the latter by his son Vahukadhavala. eighth century A. D. a dynasty of the Saindhavas is About this time the Calukyas came under the sway found ruling in western Saurashtra with its capital of Pratihāra Nagabhata II whose dominion extendat Bhūtā mbilika, also known as Bhumilikā (modern ed upto western Saurashtra. As a feudatory of Bhumli or Ghumli, 25 miles north-east of Porban- Nāgabhata II Vähukadhavala defeated Dharma dar). The earliest known king of the dynasty is (Dharmapala of Gauda) and the Karnāta army Pusyadeva. It was probably during his reign, in (the Rästrakūta army. He was succeeded by his or before 739 A. D., that the Arabs invaded Sau- son Avanivarman I and the latter by his son Maharashtra. Puşyadeva was succeeded by his son Krşņa- sāmanta Balavarman, who was ruling in 893 A. D. rāja and the latter by his son Mahāsāmanta Aggu- as a vassal of Pratihāra Mahendrapāla I. He is ka I. During the reigns of these two kings the Arabs known to have won a victory over Jajjapa of the invaded Saurashtra by sea, but they were routed Hūņa-mandala to the north-west of Malwa. Balaout by the Saindhavas. Agguka I was succeeded varman was succeeded by his son Avanivarman II,

Page #27

10
Jaina Temples of Western Indła
who was ruling in 899 A. D. also as a feudatory of Vanarāja is famous for his building activity. He Mahendrapala I. He invaded the Capas of built a Jaina temple at Anahilapātaka and installed Vardhamanapura and defeated their king Dharani- in it the image of Pārsvanātha brought from Pañcavarāha, who was a feudatory of Pratihāra Mahi- sara. 152 Ninnaya, whom Vanarāja regarded as pāla I. This conflict between the feudatories of the father, erected a temple to Rşabhadeva in the same Pratihāras indicates that the latter were unable to city. 158 In the latter half of the ninth century control these outlying provinces about this time. A. D., as recorded in the Pärnatallagaccha Patļāvali, Avanivarman had to sustain a defeat at the hands king Yaśobhadra (probably a local chief ) built a of Paramăra Siyaka II in the later part of his reign. Jaina temple with 24 devakulikās at DinduāņaThe rule of the Calukyas in Saurashtra was put to pura.154 The temple was in existence even in an end by the Abhiras in the third quarter of the A.D. 1184, the date when the Kumārapālapratibodha 10th century A.D.147
was written.155 None of these temples, however,
survives today. The Capas—The Capas, also known as Cāvaļas, Cavotakas and Cäpotkațas, ruled as early as 628 Caulukya Period (circa 950-1246 A. D.) A. D. from their political centre at Bhinamäla.
The history of Gujarat during this period reSubsequently they transferred their capital from volves round a single dynasty called Caulukya, Bhinamāla to Pañcāsara in Vädiyāra, between
popularly known as Solanki. Under the Caulukyas, Gujarat and Kutch, which is identified with a small
who were great builders and connoisseurs of arts village near Radhanpur on the border of the Runn and letters, the country acquired a strong political of Kutch.148 It is probably this Cäpa family which
homogenity and witnessed the construction of a is referred to in the Navsari plates of Pulakesirāja
large number of Jaina and Hindu temples. From dated 740 A. D.149
this period the extant Jaina temples also come to There are two branches of the Capas, one ruling
light. at Vardhamānapura and the other at Anahilapāțaka. Mūlarāja (circa 941-996 A. D.), the founder of It was Vanarāja, the son of Jayasekhara of Pañcā- the Caulukya kingdom at Anahilapāțaka, was an sara, who established the glory of his family by ambitious king. He drove out the Căpa ruler founding the famous city of Anahilapāțaka. After Dharnivarāha166 from Wadhwan and occupied his him ruled Yogarāja, Ksemarāja, Akadadeva, and kingdom. He led eleven successive campaigns Bhūyadadeva. The last of these was put to death by against Lakṣa or Lākhā of Kutch but could not his own military general, Caulukya Mūlarāja, in defeat him. With the help of the chiefs of Abu, 942 A. D.160
Srimala, Māravāda and other places he then attac
ked Graharipu of Vamanasthali, who, in spite of The first known king of the Capa family of the assistance received from Lakha of Kutch, the Vardhamānapura is Vikramārka, who had to bear
Bhilla chiefs, Turuşka and a king called Sindhthe burnt of an invasion led by Pratihāra Nagabha
urāja, was taken prisoner, and Lakbā was killed ta II. He was succeeded by his son Pulakesi, who and his (Lakha's) kingdom annexed to the had two sons, Dhruvabhata and Dharanivaräha,
Caulukya empire. Once Mūlarāja was simultasucceeding one after the other. Dhruvabhata and
neously attacked by Bārappa of Lāta and Cahahis predecessors fought a number of battles with the mäna Vigraharāja II of Sapädalaksa. Under the Saindhavas of Ghumli. Dharanivarāha, who was double pressure Mularāja retired to Kanthadurga ruling as a feudatory of Pratihära Mahipala I, had (Kanthkot-Kutch) instead of offering a battle. to surrender on one occasion to the forces of Subsequently he concluded a treaty with the Calukya Avanivarman II Yogaraja. His kingdom Cāhamānas and sent his son Camundarāja against was also attacked by Caulukya Mülarāja, who drove Bārappa, who was killed in the battle.167 Mülarhim out and occupied his kingdom. In his distress aja's conquest of Lāta probably brought him into Dharanivaräha saved his life by taking shelter with conflict with Paramāra Muõja of Malwa, as the Rāştrakūta Dhavala of Hastikundi.151
latter is credited with a victory over the Gurjara

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Historical and Cultural Background
11
king, who took refuge under the Räştrakūta king temple of this period is a small Jaina temple Dhavala of Hastikundi.168 According to some located at Than. scholars, however, the defeated Gurjara king was Durlabharaja had no son to succeed him, and the Pratihära chief of Ujjain. 150 Although hence he abdicted the throne in favour of Bhima I Mūlarāja was victorious in most of his campaigns, (circa 1023-1065 A. D.), the son of Nāgarāja. Soon probably he suffered a defeat at the hands of the after his accession Bhima had to face a disastrous Kalacuri king Lakşmanaräja II.160
raid by Mahmud of Ghazni, who overran Gujarat
and robbed Somnath in 1025 A. D. Some time The empire of Mülarāja was an extensive one, stretching from Sanchor (Jodhpur) in the north to
before 1031 A. D. he had to deal with his feudatory
chief, Paramāra Dhandhuka of Abu, who had Narmada in the south, and Sabarmati in the east to Saurashtra and Kutch in the west. Mülaraja
revolted against him. For this task he deputed
Vimala, who, having been successful, was appoinwas a great builder. He built a Jaina temple called Mülarājavasahika at Anahilapātaka.161
ted Dandanāyaka of that province. Subsequently,
however, Dhandhuka was reinstated at the instance The Pattāvalis reveal that king Raghusena built a
of Vimala. Probably Dhandhuka once again reshrine to Rşabhadeva at Rāmasainyapura (near
volted, but he was suppressed and the ArbudaDeesa in north Gujarat), and the image of Candra
mandala had since become a part of the Caulukya prabha was installed therein by Sarvadevasuri in
dominion. Bhima imprisoned the Paramāra V. S. 1010 (953 A. D.), 169 The epigraphical
ruler Krşņarāja of the Bhinamäla Branch, but records also refer to the shrine of Raghusena,108
the captive was released by Cahamāna Anahilla About this time Kunkaņa built a Jaina temple at
of Nádola. Bhima also defeated Hammuka, the Candravati.164 A copper plate issued in V. S. 1033
king of Sindh. When Bhima had gone to Sindh, (976 A. D.) by Yuvarāja Cāmundaraja makes men
Paramāra Bhoja sacked Anahila pataka. After his tion of a Jaina temple at Varunasarmaka (modern
return Bhima joined hands with Kalacuri LakşmiVadsama in Mehsana district).165 The older
karna and conjointly attacked Malwa. In this portion of the Adinātha temple at Vadnagar is also
combat Bhoja died and the Paramāra armies were attributable to this period. The last one is the
routed. But soon after Jayasimha I recovered the only surviving Jaina temple of the time of
Paramära kingdom with the help of Calukya Mülarāja.
Vikramāditya VI, and the Caulukyas and the After Mülaraja his son Cāmundarāja (circa 996- Kalacuris were forced to quit the Malwa region. 169 1009 A. D.) ascended the Caulukya throne. He During the reign of Bhima the Caulukya kingdefeated Paramāra Sindhurāja, the younger brother dom grew in power and prosperity. This is attestof Muñia, but probably he lost his hold over Läta. ed by the erection of two magnificent Jaina temples, Camunda had three sons, viz. Vallabharāja, Dur- viz. the Adinātha temple at Abu and the Mahävira labharāja and Nägarāja, and was succeeded by temple at Kumbharia. The Adinātha temple was Vallabharāja, who ruled for a period of six months built by his Dandanayaka Vimala, who is also only and was succeeded by Durlabharāja (circa known to have erected a temple to Adinātha at 1009-1023 A. D.). The most important event of Arāsana, which does not exist now.170 his reign is his victory over Läta. The Lāţa ruler
Bhima was succeeded by his youngest son Karna Kirtipala was defeated and his kingdom annexed to
(circa 1065-1093 A. D.). He defeated a Mālava the Caulukya territory. He ruled the territory of
king, but later he had to suffer reverses at the almost the same size as that of Mūlarāja 100
latter's hands. He tried to measure his strength in There are some Jaina edifices which may be southern Marwad but was repulsed by Cahamăna ascribed to the reigns of these rulers. In or before Pșthvipāla of Nãdola. He attacked and killed a V. S. 1073 (1016 A. D.) a temple to Pärsvanātha Bhilla chieftain named Asă, who lived at Agāpalli. was built at Anahilapätaka.167 In Anahilapātaka modern Asaval near Ahmedabad. He married Durlabharaja built an Upāsraya for the Jainas.188 Mayanallādevi, the daughter of the Kadamba But these do not exist now. The only extant Jaina King Jayakesin of Goa, in 1070 A, D,171

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Faina Temples of Western India
Karna ably kept intact the kingdom left by his Mahoba to surrender Bhilsā to him. He was in father. He also held his control over Saurashtra, friendly relation with the Kalacuri king Gayakarna though the region round Girnar was under of Dāhala. Jayasitha also had a diplomatic Khangāra.172 Like his father Karņa also patro- relation with the Gahadavälas of Varanasi. On the nised the building activity. He made a land grant south he probably came into clash with Calukya to the temple of Sumatinätha at Takavavi in 1085 Vikramaditya VI of Kalyāņa, but whether he won A. D.173 The Vāyatavasati at Āsāpalli was built or lost the battle is uncertain. Another king defeated possibly during the early years of Karna, as it exi- by him was Sindhuraja of Sindh. He also defeated sted there before his minister Udayana went a non-Aryan Barbaraka, who was troubling the there. 174 Udayana built Udayanavihāra at Kar- sages at Siddhapura. As a result of these victories nāvati. 175 Karna's another minister named Säntū the Caulukya kingdom attained the maximum size built Santüvasatikā at Anahilapäțaka176 and Jaina extending from southern Rajputana in the north temples at Vänka and Nihāņā.177 Muñjāla, to Läta in the south, and Malwa with its capital another of Karna's ministers, erected Muñjālaysa- at Dhārā in the east to Saurashtra and Kutch in tikā some time before 1090 A. D.178 Some time the west.182 before 1082 A. D. Dohatti Setha built a Jaina
During the reign of Jayasimha the Caulukya temple at Anahilapāțaka.179 At Khambhat
kingdom reached the zenith of its power, glory and Sāgalavasahika was built some time before 1094
prosperity and naturally witnessed the construction A. D.180 A temple of Pārsvanātha was built at
of a large number of Jaina temples, some of which Dholka 181 Unfortunately none of these temples survives today. The only extant Jaina temple of
were among the grandest productions of the
Caulukya age. Jayasimha himself built Rajavihära Karna's reign is the Santinātha temple at Kum
at Anahilapāțaka.188 According to Hemacandra, 184 bharia, which is remakrble as much for its architecture as for sculpture. The mukhamandapa of the he
he erected a temple to Mahävira at Siddhapura, Vimalavasahi at Abu was also built during this which seems to be the same as Siddhavihära refe.
rred to in the Kumarapalapratibodha.185 Surrounded period.
by a row of 24 devakulikās it was a Caturmukha Karna was succeeded by his minor son Jayasi
on Jayasi. temple, and as later writers inform, it was a model mha Siddharāja (circa 1093-1143 A. D.) to whom for the renowned Dharapivihara (1440 A.D.) of Mayanalladevi, the mother of Jayasimha, served as Ranakapura (Rajasthan). 186 But these temples do a regent for some time. He was the most powerful
not exist now. Similarly a few other temples about king of the Caulukya dynasty. Probably he started which only the literary references are available his military career with the conquest of Saurashtra.
may be enumerated here. Dandanayaka Sajjana He defeated and killed its ruler Khangära and built a temple to Parávanātha at Sankheśvara in appointed Sajjana as the governor of the province. 1099 A. D.187 Nittaladevi erected a temple to He subdued Cahamäna Asārāja of Nāļola but Parávanātha at Patadi.188 The Ukeśavasati at allowed him to rule his territory as a vassal chief.
Anahilapāțaka was built some time before 1109 He defeated Cahamāna Arņorāja of Sākambhari
A.D. 189 In 1109 A.D. a temple to Pārsvanātha was and to end hostility gave his daughter in marriage
erected at Cambay by Bidada. 100 Some time before to Arnorāja. Consequently Arņorāja became his 12 A. D. Solākavasati was constructed at vassal and helped him against Paramāra Naravar- Anahilapātaka.101 In 1118 A. D. minister Udayana man of Malwa. After a potracted war he imprisoned
built a temple of Simandharasvämi at Dholka. 1° 2 Naravarman but subsequently released him. Some He also erected Udayanavihära at Cambay.108 At time before 1138 A.D. he took Naravai man's son the latter place Aliga built a temple to AdinaYalovarman prisoner and annexed Avanti to the tha.194 About 1133 A. D. Acchupavasati was Caulukya kingdom. In his Mälava campaign erected at Dholka.196 Some time before 1136 A. D. he was assisted by Asārāja of Nadola. The Srimāli Nägila built a Jaina temple at Asäpalli Paramäras of Bhinmal too acknowledged his (Ahmedabad),196 Probably the Munisuvrata temple suzerainty. He forced Candella Madanavarman of at Dholka was also built about this time, 107 As

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narrated in the Vividhatirthakalpa, the Kokāvasati number of temples built by him exceeds those was erected during this period. 108 This glorious ascribed to Jayasimha. He built Tribhuvanavihära period is represented by four extant, fine Jaina and Trivihāra at Anahilapāțaka 200 and Kumāratemples also, viz, the temples of Pārsvanātha and vihāras at Tārangā, Anahilapāțaka, Idar, Abā, Neminātha at Kumbharia, the Neminātha temple Thārāpadra, Lādola, Karkarāpuri, Jalor, Kham. at Girnar and the Jaina temple at Sejakpur. bhāta, Mandala, Dhandhukā, Sacružjaya, Pālitānā,
Jayasimha had no son, and hence was succeeded Dvipa, Prabhāsapattana and Mangalapura 201 Of by Kumārapala (circa 1143-1172 A. D.), the great these the one at Taranga alone is preserved now. grandson of Bhima's son Kşemarāja. Immediately His ministers also built shrines dedicated to Tirtafter his accession he had to fight with Cāhamāna hankaras. Minister Pythvipäla added mandapas to Arnorāja of Sakambhari, who received a severe the Adinatha temple at Abu and the Mahavira wound in the battle and concluded treaty by givi- temple at Candrāvati,202 He also built the Santiing his daughter in marriage to Kumärapāla. He nātha temple at Sayaņavādapura. 203 Minister then turned his attention towards Paramāra Vikra. Amrabhata replaced the old Sakunikāvihāra at masimha of Abu, who had contrived a treacherous Broach by a magnificent new temple.204 Minister plan to kill him while he was marching against Vägbhata replaced the old shrine of Adinātha at Arnorāja. Vikramasimha was taken prisoner and Shatrunjaya by a grand new temple, 205 the wall of his nephew Yasodhavala was enthroned at Abu which may still be seen. At the foot of the Shatrunsome time before 1145 A. D. Accompanied by jaya hill he founded the town of Vägbhatapura and Yasodhavala he then invaded Malwa, killed its built there Tribhuvanavihāra dedicated to Pārsvaruler Ballala, and annexed Malwa to the Caulukya nätha.206 Some time before 1158 A. D. the temple empire about 1150-51 A. D. Probably at this time of Santinätha was built at Anahilapätaka, 207 the Saurashtra chief Sumvara revolted, and mini- Siddhapāla, son of Sripala, built Siddhapālavasati ster Udayana lost his life in an attempt to put him at Anahilapāțaka,208 During this period was also down. He then sent another contingent to Saura. erected a temple to Parivanatha at Palanpur. 200 shtra and brought the rebellion under control. In The temple now going by the name of Jagadu at the last campaign he received substantial help from Bhadreshwar, the devakulikäs of the present NemiAlhanadeva of Nádola. Paramära Somesvara of nātha temple at Girnar, and probably the BāvanaBhinmal continued to rule his territory as a vassal. dhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra, now gone, were also Some time between 1160 and 1162 A. D. Kumāra- built in the reign of Kumārapāla. Of the extant pāla dispatched his minister Ambada with a strong Jaina temples of the time of kumärapāla, the contingent against Mallikarjuna of Konkana, who Ajitanātha temple at Taranga built by Kumarapāla was killed and whose kingdom was included in the himself and the rarigamandapa of the Vimalayasahi at realm of Gujarat. Another king defeated by him Abu built by his minister Pţthvipāla are fine pieces was the Kalacuri Gayakarna of Dahala. Victorious of Indian architecture. in all directions Kumärapäla suffered a reverse and Kumārapāla was succeeded by his son (or neplost Chitor to the Cahamānas, as his Samanta placed hew) Ajayapāla (circa 1172-1175 A. D.). He contiin control of the Chitor fort was defeated by Vigra- nued his sway over Malwa. He defeated Cahamāna harāja IV, son of Arņorāja. However, the relations Somesvara of Sākambhari and exacted tribute from between the Cahamänas and the Caulukyas returned him. The Guhilot king Sämantasimha of Medapāta to normal when Somesvara ascended the Sākam- claims to have defeated a Gurjara king, who is bhari throne some time before 1170 A. D. Kumāra- identified with Ajayapāla, but the latter did not pāla ruled over an extensive empire stretching from suffer any territorial loss.210 No Jaina temple is Chitor in the north to Tapti in the south, and Bhilsa known to have been erected during the reign of in the east to Saurashtra and Kutch in the west. 199 Ajayapāla, because he was an anti-Jaina and des
Kumärapāla is regarded to be the greatest king troyed many Jaina temples. 211 that ever ascended the throne of Gujarat. As a Ajayapāla was stabbed to death by Pratihara builder he even surpassed his predecessor, for the Vaijaladeva, and was succeeded by his young son

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Jaina Temples of Western India
Mularāja II (circa 1175-1178 A. D.), whose mother queen Naikidevi, the daughter of the Kadamba king Paramardin of Goa, acted as a regent. The most important event of his reign was the sanguinary defeat he inflicted upon the Muslim army led by Muizz-ud-din Ghūri of Ghazni. Another event of his reign was the uprising in Malwa. It seems that while he was engaged with the Muslims, Paramāra Vindhyavarman tried to regain the long lost kingdom of Malwa, but he was unsuccessful in his attempt and Malwa remained a part of the Caulukya kingdom.212 So far no Jaina temple of the reign of Mularāja has come to light.
Mūlarāja met a premature death and was succeeded by his minor younger brother Bhima II (circa 1178-1241 A. D.). At the time of latter's accession the extent of the Caulukya kingdom was practically the same as left by Kumarapala. But soon he had to deal with his provincial governors, who, taking advantage of his young age, tried to parcel out the kingdom among themselves. At this predicament the Vaghela chief Arnorāja, who had already served as a Samanta under Kumarapala, came to the rescue of the throne and saved the kingdom probably at the cost of his life. Bhima then entrusted the charge of administration to Arņoraja's son Lavaṇaprasada, who, with the assistance of his son Viradhavala and the two brother ministers, Vastupala and Tejapala, ably maintained the Caulukya kingdom. One of the earliest invaders was the Hoysala Ballala II of Darasuram, who is credited with a victory over the Gurjaras (Caulukyas) and the Mälavas (Paramaras). But still more formidable was the attack by Yadava Bhillama in which the Caulukyas probably suffered a reverse at the invader's hands. The Cahamana king Prthviraja III also attacked Gujarat, but the hostility finally ended in an alliance contracted some time before 1187 A. D. In 1193-94 A. D. Qutb-ud-din subdued Mairs and occupied Ajmer. In 1195 A. D. Bhima sent a contingent to help the Mairs against the Muslims and the Caulukya army pursued the Muslims upto Ajmer. In 1196-97 A. D. Qutb-ud-din made fresh incursions into Gujarat and sacked Anahilapäṭaka, but shortly he withdrew from Gujarat. Soon after the Muslim raid Paramāra Subhatavarman, the

son of Vindhyavarman, attacked Gujarat and occu pied Lata, but was ultimately driven out by Lavanaprasada. Some time before 1210 A. D Arjunavarman, the son of Subhatavarman, defeated one Jayasimha or Jayantasimha, who for some time had usurped the throne of Anahilapāṭaka. The Paramāra sway over Lața was precarious, and at last it passed into the hands of Cahamana Simha, Simha's nephew Sankha inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Yadavas, but later he was defeated and imprisoned by Yadava Simhana, who after some time released him, probably when Sankha accepted his sovereignty. About 1231 A. D. Simhana aided by Sankha invaded Gujarat, and when Lavanaprasada and his son Viradhavala moved to resist the Yadavas, the Caulukya feudatories of Marwad rebelled. Under these circumstances Lavaṇaprasā da concluded a treaty with Simhana, and accompa nied by Viradhavala he proceeded to Marwad and subdued the rebellions. When the Caulukya army was engaged in Marwad, Sankha attacked Cambay but was defeated by Vastupala, who had been left in charge of that city. Sankha then induced Simhana to invade Gujarat again. This time the situation was more grave than before, for the Marwad chiefs again revolted, the Paramāra king Devapala was ready to attack, and a Muslim raid was apprehended. But a set of spies succeeded in creating a breach between Sankha and Simhana after which Sankha surrendered to Viradhavala. The kings of Marwad also submitted. The Muslim invasion probably conducted by Iltutmish was repulsed. About 1237 A. D. Simhana sent another contingent to invade Gujarat, but the Yadava army was defeated and its commander Räma killed by Viradhavala's son Visaladeva. During this period Pithadeva of Pärä attacked Kutch and occupied Bhadreshwar, but after demolishing the rampart of the city he withdrew. The merchant Jagaḍū thereupon went to Lavanaprasada, who dispatched a contingent against Pithadeva. With this help Jagadu defeated Pithadeva, who shortly afterwards died. Ghughula, the ruler of Godhra, is said to have rebelled against Viradhavala, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by Tejapala. As the last known date of Bhima II is V. S. 1296 (1239 A. D.), he must have ruled at least upto this date.2
213

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During the early part of Bhima's reign the been made about the valuable services rendered by political condition of the country seems to be quite Arnorāja and his son and grandson, Lavanaprasāda unfavourable for any building activity, because self- and Viradhavala, Visaladeva, the son of Viradhavala, defence drew full attention of the state. But during was the first Vāghela chief who ascended the throne the later part of his reign the Vaghelas assisted by of Anahilapātaka in or before 1246 A. D., probably Vastupāla and Tajapāla restored the kingdom again dethroning or after the death of Tribhuvanapāla. on a strong footing and brought the peace and tran- Following the policy of his predecessors he attacked quility back in the country. This gave an oppor- Malwa and sacked the city of Dhärä. He also defetunity for erecting such stupendous temples as ated a Mewar chief, who was probably Guhilot those standing at Abu (Lūnayasahi) and Girnar Tejahsimha. But he suffered reverses at the hands (Vastupalavibāra). Two other temples, viz. the of Krsna and Mahadeva, the successors of Yadava Sambhavanātha temple at Kumbharia and the Simhana. He married a Hoysala princess, possibly Pārsvanātha temple at Ghumli, were also erected du- to avoid the Yādava menace. Of the two minister ring this period. Apart from these, there are nume- brothers, Vastupala and Tejapala, the latter was rous literary references to show that a prolific buil- alive at this time and gave his faithful services to ding activity was carried out during this period. At Visaladeva. Dholka Vastupala built a temple to Ădinātha, 214
Visaladeva was succeeded by Arjunadeva, the while at Shatrunjaya he built an Indramando pa in
son of his elder brother Pratāpamalla. In 1272 A.D. front of the Adinātha temple and temples to Nemi, Parsva, Munisuvrata and Mahāvira.218 At Girnar,
he probably suffered a defeat at the hands of Räma
candra, the grandson of Yādava Simhana. From besides the temple of Ādinātha, he built a temple to
his inscriptions it appears that his kingdom extenParsvanatha,216 Tejapāla erected a temple to
ded from Anahilapāțaka to Kutch, including the Parsvanātha at Dabhoi.217 Vastupäla-Tejapāla
whole of Kathiawar. In the north his territory built an Astāpadaprāsāda and a temple to Ādinātha
extended as far as Tdar. at Prabhāsapatana.218 Sometime before 1185 A.D. the Siddhapălavasati was erected at Anahilapa- Arjuna had two sons, Rāma and Sarangadeva. taka,219 In 1239 A. D. Sresthi Devacandra built a Rāma ruled only for a few months and was succeetemple to Ādinātha at Cărupa. 2 20
ded by Sārangadeva, who reduced in battles the po
wer of the Mālavas and the Yadavas. In his Mālava Bhima was succeeded by Tribhuvanapala whose
campaign he was assisted by one Visaladeva, who relationship with Bhima is not clear. From his inscription of 1242 A. D. he is known to have reigned
later on served him as the governor of Candravati. at Anahilapätaka. After his short reign the dynasty
He successfully repelled a Turuska invasion, which
took place during the reign of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban of Mülarāja came to an end, and the reins of power passed into the hands of the Vaghelās who ruled at
(1266-1278 A. D.). He also sent an army against Anahilapāțaka till the close of the 13th century
the Jethavas. From the provenance of his inscript
ions it appears that the kingdom of Sarangadeva A. D.
comprised the whole of central and northern GujaVaghela Period (circa 1246-1304 A. D.)
rat upto and including Abu, Kathiwar and Kutch. The earliest known king of the Vāghelā dynasty
Probably Läta also formed a part of his kingdom, is Dhavala, who married the sister of Kumārapāla's After Sārangadeva his nephew Karna, the son mother. Dhavala's son from this match was Arnorāja, of Rama, ascended the throne about 1296 AD. He who conquered Saurashtra for Kumārapāla. It was was the last Vaghela king and ruled for a very short possibly due to this achievement that he was rewar- time. In 1299 A.D. Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khān, ded with the village of Bhimapalli, which is identi. the two generals of 'Alā-ud-din, invaded Gujarat fied with Vyāghrapalli, a village ten miles south- and defeated Karna, who, having failed to cope with west of Anahilapāțaka. It was from Vyāghrapalli (the the invaders, fled to Devagiri, and his wife Kamaltiger's lair) that the dynasty derived the name of adevi was captured and admitted to the harem of Vyāghrapalliya or Vāghela. Reference has already 'Ala-ud-din. Subsequently he seems to have reocc

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Jalna Temples of Western India
upied his kingdom, perhaps when the Muslim army returned to Delhi, but lost it again and for ever in 1304 A.D.921
During the Vaghela period the power and prestige of Gujarat declined considerably, and ultimately it passed into the hands of the Muslims. But the building activity was continued. This is clearly evident from two extant Jaina temples, one existing at Kantokot and the other at Miani. As Vastupāla and Tejapāla were the greatest builders during the preceding age, so were Jagaļū of Bhadreshwar
and Pethada of Māndavagadha during this period. According to Sarvānandasūri, Jagadū built a temple to Adinātha at Dhank, a Caturviṁsati-Jinālaya at Wadhwan, a temple to Ādinātha with 52 devakulikas at Satavați, and a temple to Santinātha at Devakula near Sulaksanapura,222 Pethada is said to have erected 84 Jaina edifices at different places such as Shatrunjaya, Māndavadurga, etc.223 At Bhorola, near Deesa, Muñjāsāha built a Jaina temple in 1246 A.D.224 In 1279 A.D. Cahana built a temple to Parávanātha at Cānasmā. 22 5
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE From the discovery of a dockyard and a Persian sorts, silk, mallow-coloured cotton, silk thread, Gulf seal at Lothal it appears that the maritime long pepper, etc. 230 In trade and commerce activity between Gujarat and the islands of Persia Broach even excelled Barbaricum (in Scythia ruled existed as early as the third millenium B. C.226 by the Parthians).231 Apart from this solitary evidence, nothing is known about the economic conditions of Gujarat preceding
The Ksatrapas appear to have bestowed con
siderable attention on the agriculture of Gujarat. the Mauryan age.
This is clear from the repairing of Sudarsana lake The Mauryan period witnesses a rich condition by Rudradaman.382 Broach continued to be an in agriculture and trade. Kautilya informs that the important port about this time, as Ptolemy menpeople in Saurashtra live by agriculture, trade and tions that Broach was a great mart 233 The wielding weapons. 227 The Mauryan rulers appear Ksatranas derived enough of revenues from the to have taken steps to augment the agricultural import duties at this port. The Girnar inscription resources of the country. This is exemplified by of Rudradāman indeed makes a reference to such their construction of the Sudarsana lake at a bulka or custom duty.294 Girnar.228
The Guptas also took keen interest in the deveThe author of the Periplus (first century A. D.)
lopment of agriculture in the country. This is definitely presents a richer picture of agriculture
apparent from the reconstruction of the above menand industry when he writes that the interior parts
tioned Sudarsana lake, which had been destroyed of Barygaza (Broach) and Saurashtra produce
by a severe storm during this period. 256 The abundant corn and rice, the oil of sesamum, butter
textile industry appears to be an important industry and muslins, and the coarser fabrics which are
of Gujarat, as the Mandsor inscription of 473 A. D. manufactured from Indian cotton.229 Broach was
makes mention of a guild of silk-weavers of Lāța.238 an important port about this time. The following
Broach was an important port about this time commodities were exported and imported from this
also, 237 a fact suggestive of active participation of port--the various imports were wine, principally
Gujarat in India's overseas trade, which must have Italian, brass or copper and tin and lead, coral and
been a source of income to the people of Gujarat gold-stone or yellow-stone, cloth of all sorts, varie
and also to the country. gated sashes half a yard wide, storax, sweet clover, meliot, white glass, gold and silver specie, perfumes During his visit to the kingdom of Valabhi or unguents, instruments of music and handsome Hiuen Tsang observed that "the soil is rich and young women for concubinage; while the exports fertile and produces abundant harvests. Shrubs comprised spikenard, costus and bdellium ivory, and trees are numerous and flourishing. Flowers onyx-stones and porcelain, box-thorn, cotton of all and fruits are met with in great quantities. The

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17
soil is suitable in an special manner for winter state in the Gupta epoch or even earlier, appears to wheat."238 From Hiuen Tsang we also learn that have been well maintained during this period. 251 in the seventh century A. D. the clothing of the From the Abhidhanaratnamala we learn that Saurapeople was made of silk, muslin, calic, linen and shtra was famous for its bell-metal.252 Cambay varieties of fine wool.230 Polishing of carnelians was the sea-port whence the export and import of was an important industry during the early Mait- the country were made.258 Somesvara Pattana was raka period.240 The people of Gujarat, besides another port during the Pratihära period. 254 spinning and weaving, practised masonry, carpen- Broach, which was an all-India port since early tary and iron smelting, and prepared jewellery, times, must have been a great source of revenues brasswares and potteries.241
for the Răstrakütas of Gujarat, but its prosperity
may have been, to some extent, affected by the rise The flourishing state of trade and commerce in
of the port of Cambay and its inclusion in the Gujarat during the period is also reflected in the
Pratihāra empire.256 contemporary literature. According to the Dasavaikälikacírni, a Jaina text of the seventh century During the Caulukya period the economical A, D., Saurashtra was a centre of trade and was condition of the country was most prosperous. visited by the merchants frequently.242 In the Agriculture was well cared, and a large number of Bphatkalpabhāsya (circa sixth century A. D.) Broach cereals as well as edible vegetables and commercial is described as a centre where trade was carried both crops were produced. These include rice, wheat, by land and water.243 The same work also states pulse, sugarcane, indigo, cotton, pepper and ginger, that cloth coming from east, that is Gauda which sesamum and various fruits and vegetables. The was famous for its silken garment, to the country textile industry was greatly improved during this of Läța was sold at a higher price,244 Hiuen Tsang period, and it reached a high degree of excellence also informs that as Saurashtra was on the western by the end of the 13th century A, D, when Marco sea-route, the men all derived their livelihood from Polo visited India. According to an Egyptian the sea and engaged in commerce and exchange of traveller, the textile products of Broach was famous commodities.245 He speaks of Valabhi as a pros- under the name of Baroj or Baroji, while that of perous centre of trade and commerce and adds that Cambay was known as Kambayati. Besides, sugar, "the population is very dense; the establishments tanning, leather, perfumeries, house-building, iron rich. There are some hundred houses (families) or and metal industries were also in a very flourishing So, who possess a hundred lakhs. The rare and condition. House-building was an important industry valuable products of distant regions are here stored during the period, as all the contemporary accounts in great quantities."246 During the Maitraka univocally speak of Anahilapātaka, Cambay, Dhaperiod even private individuals possessed ships of valakka and Broach and many other cities as full of their own. 247 The Kathāsaritsägara mentions large residential buildings. The erection of many Vasudatta, a rich merchant of Valabhi, sending his large and magnificent Jaina and Hindu temples son Vidyādhara to another country in connection during the period is also indicative of the same with trade, 248 and similarly Devasena of Patali- fact. People of the country were engaged in various putra visiting Valabhi,249
callings, trades and professions. As many as thirty
trades and professions are known. The local control The Räştrakūta-Pratihära period witnessed an of three sea-ports-Cambay, Broach and Somnathadvanced state of agriculture, industry and trade. was greatly responsible for the material prosperity The early Arab writers 250 of the 9th-10th centuries of the country. Buckram, tanned leather, leather refer to fertility of the soil and rich cultivation, goods and textiles were among the chief articles both of grain and fruits. Some cities in Gujarat of export from Gujarat. Probably pepper, ginger grew mangoes, cocoa-nuts, lemons and rice in and indigo were also exported. It is not known abundance and likewise produced quantities of whether all the articles imported during the first honey. One such city also produced canes and teak century A.D. were also imported during this period. trees. The textile industry, which was in flourishing However, as Gujarat is deficient in almost all the

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Jalna Temples of Western India
metals, probably these were brought from outside. the person should follow some kind of business, Wines of better quality were also imported. Another trade or profession, which is not of an ignoble natuarticle of import was horse; this was probably due re.262 This however does not mean that a butcher or to the inferior breeding of the Indian horses. About brewer cannot be a Jaina, but he will be in a vowless trade and cominerce Marco Polo writes, "When stage of soul's evolution.263 The Jainas were, as merchants come hither (Cambay) with their wares they are now, strict vegetarians. The great wealth loaded on many ships, they bring above all gold, which they earned through trade and commerce silver, copper and tutia. They bring the products and the fact of their being strict vegetarians might of their own countries and carry those of the have considerably raised their status in the society, kingdom." He further says, “Merchants go there which was added to by their holding important (Somnath) from many lands, bringing with them posts in the royal court. The Prabandhacintamani much merchandise of different kinds. They sell states that when Udayana, the father of Vägbhata. there what they have brought with them, and take amas away the products of the kingdom.”256
a minister.264 That the status of the Jainas was
high may also be inferred from the fact that Sajjana, Gujarat maintained a brisk foreign trade about the governor of Saurashtra under Jayasimha, this time. Merchants were going and coming bet- renovated the Neminātha temple at Girnar out of ween India and the Far Eastern countries and the revenues of the province, though he was not Persia. Legends in Java preserve the memory of a authorised to do so. This pious work of Sajjana, late wave of imigration from Gujarat.257 A tradi- however, did not enrage Jayasimha, as the latter tional Gujarati verse, which may look back to our freed his governor from the repayment of the sum period, says that he who goes to Java never returns; used if, by chance, he returns, he brings back enough of The
The merchants were then an important class in money to live upon for two generations.2 58 Some of
Gujarat. Besides the business communities already the tomb-stones of the Sultans of Samudra-Pase, settled in Gujarat, the Prāgvātas and the Srimālis probably imported from Gujarat, also suggest a brisk
of Rajasthan migrated to Gujarat and spread throtrade activity between Gujarat and Sumatra." ughout the length and breadth of the country. As for the trade with the west, we learn from the These two communities have produced not only Jagadacarita that merchants like Jagadū had Indian
great tradesmen but also statesmen and generals to agents at Ardrapura (Hormus) and maintained
whom Gujarat owes quite a lot. Vimalasaha was regular trade with Persia, transporting goods in
a Prägvāta Vaisya 266 and served as Dandanāyaka their own ships.260
under Bhima I. Earlier Ninā, an ancestor of The developed economic condition of Gujarat
Vimalasäha, was held in great respect by Vanarāja, during this period is also indicated by the erection
who appointed Lahara, the son of Nină, as the
who appoin of a large number of Jaina as well as Hindu tem
commander of the state forces. 267 Vira, the father ples. In fact, such magnificent temples as those
of Vimalasäha, was a minister in the reign of Mül.
of standing at Abu, Kumbharia, Taranga, Girnar,
arāja.268 Ministers Vastupäla and Tejapäla were etc., had hardly been erected if Gujarat would not
also Prägväța.269 Udayana was a Srimali and
also have been prosperous enough to bear their cost.
served as minister under Jayasimha.270 Udayana's
sons Vägbhata and Amrabhata were ministers The institutions of rarna and jati have been a under Kumārapala.271 Sajjana, 272 the Dandanā. peculiar feature of the Indian society. Of the four yaka of Saurashtra under Jayasimha, and Jagtraditional varnas, viz. Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya adu.278 a merchant prince of Bhadreshwar, were and Sūdra, 201 the Jainas of Gujarat were mainly also Srimāli. These rich merchants were devout Vaidya, and they engaged themselves in some kind and liberal Jainas and the erection of many Jaina of business. This is also in accordance with the temples goes to their credit, e g. Vastupālavihāra Jaina fāstras, for the very first rule of the thirty-five at Girnar, Udayanavihāra (now gone) at Karnāvati, rules of conduct for a Jaina layman lays down that Vimalavasahi and Lúņavasahi at Abu, etc.

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Although many of the building undertakings to the Neminātha temple at Girnar.275 The were directly inspired by the Solanki rulers them- Mahāvira temple at Kumbharia is called the 'Araselves and by their ministers and governors, yet a sana samghacaitya',276 i. e. the temple of Jaina large number of the Jaina temples were built out Samgha at Arāsaņa. The Neminātha temple at of the donations made by the common people, Kumbharia was built by Pasila, and its mandapa Thus the devakulikās of the Vimalavasahi at Abu was added by Hānsibai.277 Likewise many Jina were built by the vyavahāris (businessmen).274 idols in the temples at Abu, Kumbharia, etc., were Thākura Sāvadeva and Jasahada added devakulikās installed from time to time by Jaina Srāvakas.
RELIGIOUS CONDITION
Gujarat is not the native place of Jainism. No Broach, and the founding of Shatrunjaya in SauJaina Tirthankara is known to have been born rashtra.287 here. Yet the association of Jainism with Gujarat
But a definite evidence of the existence of Jaiis traceable to very early times. Adinatha, the
nism in Gujarat is available only from the Kşatrapa first of the twenty-four Tirth ankaras, is said to have delivered a sermon on Mt. Shatrunjaya.2 78 At
period. The Junagadh inscription of Jayadāman's Raivataka Neminātha, the 22nd Tirthankara,
grandson, belonging to the second century A. D.,
makes mention of men who attained perfect knowrenounced the world,279 obtained omniscience, 280
ledge (kevalajñana) and were free from old age and and finally emancipated together with a large num
death (jarāmarana).288 These are technical Jaina ber of sages.281 It is not therefore surprising if terms and are indicative of Jaina dogma. The temples dedicated to these Tirthankaras were erect
inscription was found in a cave at Junagadh, and ed at these holy centres.
hence it may be suggested that the cave was in During the historical period the first wave of occupation of the Jaina monks. The Jaina Jainism seems to have passed over Gujarat in the affiliation of this as well as other caves at Junagadh fourth century B. C., when Bhadrabāhu, the head. is further indicated by the peculiar Jaina symbols of the Jaina Samgha, visited Girnar during his like svastika, bhadrâsana, minayugala, nandi pada and migration from Magadha to south.282 The Maur. kalata carved in the Bawa Pyra caves at Junayan king Samprati was a staunch Jaina. The Jaina gadh.280 These are auspicious Jaina symbols and texts speak as highly of him as the Buddhist texts are also found on the ayāgapattas of the Jaina stūpa do of Asoka. He tried to spread Jainism by every at Mathura.290 The popularity of Jainism in means in his power, working as hard for Jainism as Gujarat is also evident from the fact that simultaAkoka worked for Buddhism.283 He led even a neous with the Mathuri-vācana, which is said to Jaina congregation from Ujjain to Shatrunjaya in have taken place between A. D. 300 and 313, an the company of Acārya Suhasti with 5000 attempt to redact Jaina canons was also made by Sramaņas.284
Nägārjuna at Valabhi.201 Jainism was prevalent in Gujarat in the 1st In the Gupta period Valabhi became an imporcentury B. C. The Kalakācāryakatha indeed reveals tant centre of Jainism, for, according to unanimous that Kalaka went to Broach and taught Jaina Jaina tradition, a council of Jaina monks under the tenets to the people there. 286 The popularity of chairmanship of Devardhigani Kșamāśramaņa was Jainism is also indicated by this that Vikramā held there in V.E. 980 (454 A.D.) or 993 (467 A.D.) ditya, the originator of the Vikrama era, himself and the canonical works of the Jainas were went on a pilgrimage to the celebrated Jaina site redacted.292 According to Jarl Charpentier, this of Shatrunjaya. 286 Two other important events council under Devardhigani was held in 526 A. D. supposed to have happened about this time are the in the reign of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena. 293 defeat of the Buddhists in a great argument by the The existence of Jainism in the country is also infamous Jaina controversialist Arya Khapuţa of dicated by the Jaina bronzes of Akota.204 Two of

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Jaina Temples of Western India
20
these bronzes, one of Rṣabhanatha and the other of Jivantasvämi, are fine pieces of the Gupta art. These and other bronzes of Akota wear dhoti and
Little is known about the state of Jainism under
hence are indicative of the popularity of Svetam- the Gujarat Calukyas, but it was a popular religion
bara Jainism in the country.
The Jaina religion continued to flourish under the Maitrakas of Valabhi. In Saka Sam. 531 (609 A.D.) a copy of the Viljaval yakabhaya was prepared and presented to a Jaina temple at Valabhi,295 Another proof of the existence of Jainism in Valabhi is that Mallavädin, a great Jaina dialectician and the author of the Nayacakra, was honoured with the title of Vädin when he defeated a Buddhist monk in a religious debate at Valabhi, 296 The existence of Jaina idols at Valabhi mentioned in the Jaina Paṭṭāvalis also indicates the popularity of Jaina religion in the region. At the time of Valabhi's destruction these idols were removed from Valabhi to Śrimāla, and Gandharvavadivetāla Säntisüri protected the Jaina Samgha.297 Merutunga nar rates a miracle about the idols that disappeared from Valabhi and reached Somnath and Srimalapura on the decline of the Valabhi power. 298 Dhanesvara, the author of the Satrunjaya Mahatmya, was a contemporary and teacher of king Siladitya of Valabhi. He is said to have instructed this king "in purifying the Jaina doctrine and induced him to expel the Buddhists from the country and esta blish a number of caityas near the tirthas."299 The flourishing condition of Jainism in the region is also attested by numerous Jaina bronzes hailing from Mahudi, Lilvadeva, Vasantagadh and Valabhi and some rock-cut sculptures found at Dhank, all assignable to this period, 800
Jainism appears to be a favourite religion also during the time of the Gurjaras of Nandipuri. Two of the Gurjara kings, Jayabhata (I) and Dadda (II), are termed Vitaraga and Praśāntarāga, the titles almost exclusively applied to Jaina Tirthankaras. 301 Although it would be wrong to suppose that these kings were Jainas-for their own religion was that of Surya, the above epithets suggest that they must have been influenced by Jainism to a certain extent, or that the local Jaina community might have conferred these titles on the benevolent kings, 302 Some of the Jaina bronzes of Akota belonging to

the 6th-7th centuries A. D.303 also indicate the flourishing condition of the Jaina religion.
in Karnataka and was patronised by the early Calukya kings Vinayaditya, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya II.304 It received great impetus under the Rastrakita kings Amoghavarsa I, Krupa II, Indra III and Indra IV. Amoghavarṣa was more a Jaina than a Hindu. He accepted Jinasena as his religious preceptor and regarded himself as purified by the mere remembrance of this holy saint. Many of the feudatories and officers of the Rāṣṭrakūtas also were Jainas, 305 It was probably through the efforts of the Gujarat branch of the Rāṣṭrakūtas that Jainism spread to Lata. An inscription dated 821 A.D. refers to Senasamgha, a branch of the Mulasamgha, a Jaina temple (caityalayatana) and a (modern monastery (vasahikā) at Nagasarikā Navsari), 308 The Mülasamṁgha is the main Digambara Jaina Samgha, and Senasamgha is one of its younger branches.307 From this it appears that Digambara Jainism was prospering in this region. Many of the Jaina bronzes of Akota are also assignable to the Raṣṭrakūta period.308 Since these bronzes belong to the Svetambara school, it appears that this sect of Jainism was also prevalent in this
area.
The Gurjara Pratihāras had a liberal outlook towards Jainism. In the 'Bappabhaṭṭicarita' of the Prabhavakacarita Nagavaloka (Nagabhața II) is described to have accepted the Jaina religion. According to the same Prabandha, Nagabhața built Jaina temples at Modhera and Anahilapāṭaka, 809 and went on pilgrimages to Shatrunjaya and Girnar.810 The prosperity of Jainism during the period is also indicated by two Jaina temples located at Vardhamanapura and Dostațikā.511
Under the Capotakaṭas Jainism got great encouragement and established its firm foothold in Gujarat. Vanaraja probably turned a Jaina as he accepted Devacandrasuri as his religious preceptor.312 As a token of patronage to Jainism he built, at the instance of Silagunasuri, a temple of Pancasara Parsvanatha in his capital city,313 His zealous devotion to Jainism is manifested in that he entitled

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Historical and Cultural Background
the Caityavāsins to prevent the non-Caityavāsins of Udayana that Jayasimha defeated Khangāra and from residing in the capital. $14
thereby won the title of Cakravartin.328 Jainism saw its brightest days in the Solanki
From the reign of Jayasimha the Svetāmbara period, as it found keen royal patrons in the Solanki Jainis
Jainism seems to have been pre-eminent in Gujarat. rulers. Mūlarāja, the founder of the Caulukya
Caulukya
The Prabandhas
The Prabandhas indeed say that a debate was held dynasty, was a Saiva by faith but his fancy to in the royal court of Jayasinha in which the Jainism cannot be denied, for he allowed his crown- Digambaras headed by Kumudacandra were defeatprince Camundaraja to make a land grant to a ed by Svetāmbara Devacandrasüri, the preceptor of Jaina temple located at Varunasarmaka, 315 modern
Hemacandra, and as a result of this debate the Vadsama in the Mehsana district of Gujarat. Mü
Digambaras had to leave Gujarat,324 The prelarāja himself is known to have built a Jaina temple
dominence of the Svetāmbaras over the Digamcalled Mülarājavasahikā at Anahilapätaka. 316
baras is also reflected in their monuments and The next king, who came into close contact with
inscriptions; while those of the former abound in Jainism, was Durlabharāja. Hemacandra informs
Gujarat, the number of Digambara temples is very that being acquainted with the Jaina doctrines
small and the epigraphs are absent. 325 Durlabharaja paid his respect to the learned saints,
Jayasimha also patronised Jainism by building repudiated the ekāntavāda, and thereby obtained
temples to Tirthankaras 28 and by making pilgripurity himself.317 This statement gets further ela
mages to the holy Jaina tirthas like Girnar827 and boration from Abhayatilaka's commentary on the
Shatrunjaya.928 According to a later record belonDvyāšraya according to which Durlabharaja learnt
ging to circa 1400 A. D., he was even converted to the Jaina doctrines from Jinesvarasüri and repudi
Jainism and was induced to adorn the Jaina temples ated the Buddhist doctrine of ekāntavāda when Jines
in his kingdom and elsewhere with golden flagstaves vara exposed their futility.318 Pleased with the
and knobs and also to issue an edict prohibiting acumen of Jinesvarasuri Durlabharāja honoured
slaughtering of animals on eighty days in each him with the title of Kharatara (the very keen
year.319 But Jayasimha was not completely won one). 819
over to Jainism, for on one occasion he did not Durlabha's successor Bhima I was no doubt a allow the Jainas to hoist flags on their temples.*80 Saiva, but he had never been a hinderance in the
When Kumarapāla ascended the Caulukya way of Jainism. This is apparently indicated from
throne, Jainism saw its brightest days in Gujarat. the fact that he allowed his Dandanāyaka Vimala
In fact, he was the greatest supporter of Jainism sāha to erect a temple to Adinātha at Abu. The
in Gujarat, as he took all measures for its spread erection of this temple is a living testimony of the
e and prosperity in the country. It was due to his popularity of Jainism during the reign of Bhima.
royal patronage that Jainism occupied the preKarna is known to have conferred the title of eminent position in the State, and Gujarat became Maladhāri on the celebrated Jaina monk Abhaya- a stronghold of the Jainas. devasūri, seeing his holy dislike for cleanliness.320
Kumārapāla was a Saiva in the early days of The next landmark in the history of Jainism is his life, but later he turned a Jaina. After hearing met with the reign of Jayasimha. Like his predece- the religious injunctions from Hemacandra he ssors he was also a Saiva, but he had great respect assumed the title of Paramārhat.831 His faith in for the Jainas and Jainism. He was a friend Jainism, however, reached its consummation when of Abhayadevasüri, Kalikālasarvajaa Hemacandra, he openly promulgated certain basic principles of Hemacandra Maladhāri, Virācārya and other Jaina the Jaina doctrines. The Duyāšraya explicitly monks.321 Some of his ministers like Sāntā, Asuka, speaks of his proclamation of 'amāri', i. e, nonVägbhata, Ananda, Pythvipala, Muñjāla and slaughtering of animals. 382 This literary reference Udayana were Jaina,322 It was through the efforts to 'amāri' is also corroborated by the epigraphical

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Faina Temples of Western India
records of his feudatory chiefs. The Kiradu stone After Kumārapāla the royal patronage to inscription of A. D. 1152 states that Mahārāja Jainism seems to have ceased. According to Jaina Alhanadeva gave security to animals on the sacred tradition, Ajayapāla, the successor of Kumārapāla, day of Sivarātri and on the 8th, 11th and 14th days persecuted the Jainas and destroyed their temof both the fortnights in three cities.388 Another ples. 348 However, Jainism did not lose its footinscription of the reign of Kumārapāla records that hold in Gujarat; the generous activities of the Pūņapākşadeva ordered his subjects to refrain from merchant princes like Vastupala, Tejapāla and killing any animal on the Amavasyā, i. e. the last Jagadū were enough to compensate the loss. Among day of the dark fortnight, and on other special the merchant princes the names of Vastupala and days.984 Though the records of Kumārapāla him- Tejapāla stand pre eminent. The Jaina tradition self do not make mention of amāri', it was not a credits them with the building of a large number partial measure, for Hemacandra positively says of Jaina temples.349 The veracity of the tradition that even the Hindu gods could not be offered any is also attested by a contemporary inscription, which animal sacrifice 336 This statement of Hemacandra records that they had by the year 1219 A. D. built gets support from the later chroniclers also. The one crore temples and repaired many old ones at Prabandhas indeed say that the sacrifices were for- renowned places of pilgrimage such as Shatrunjaya bidden on the occassion of the Durgapūja.836 and Arbudīcala, and in some prosperous cities like According to the Duyasraya, even hunting and fow. Anahilapura, Bhrgupura, Stambhatirtha, Darbhaling were also stopped.337 Kumarapāla also gave vati. Devalakka and many other places.350 No up the idea of confiscating the property of a child. doubt the epigraphical record exaggerates their less man, 838 and banned drinking, gambling and deeds, it can hardly be denied that they w certain other vices like the sports of betting on builders. The temples built by them still stand to pigions and cock-fights.339
their credit at Abu and Girnar, and due to the Apart from these measures, Kumärapäla showed construction of these magnificent temples their his great zeal for Jainism by erecting Jaina temples names are pronounced with great respect to this at different places. Hemacandra credits him with day in Gujarat. Vastupāla's devotion to Jainism the building of only two Jaina temples, namely the is manifested also in that he visited holy Jaina Kumāravihāra enshrining Parávanātha at Anahila- places like Shatrunjaya and Girnar, 367 and establipātaka and the Pärávanatha temple at Devapat- shed Taina libraries (Bhandaras) at Anahilavāda, tana.840 But elsewhere Hemacandra mentions Stambhatirtha and Bhrgukaccha,352 that almost every village maintained a Jaina temple.841 Apart from making reference to the After the death of Vastupāla and Tejapāla, Kumāravihāra at Anahilapāțaka, 342 the Prabhāva Jagadu, a merchant prince of Kutch, continued kacarita reveals that Kumārapāla erected 32 small their religious activities by erecting temples to vihāras, installed an image of Neminātha in the Tirthankaras and by making pilgrimages to holy Tribhuvanavihāra, built a Jaina temple at Shatru- Jaina places.853 But his most charitable work was njaya, and finally adorned all the main places with his services to humanity during the time of a severe the Jaina caityas.343 The number of Jaina temples famine which lasted for three years (1256-58 built by Kumarapala as given by Merutunga is A.D.).354 This meritorious deed of Jagađu, in which still greater. According to Merutunga, he built he was inspired by a Jaina monk, must have eleva1440 temples distributed all over the country,344 ted the position of Jainism. Pethada was another He also built the Jholikāvihāra at Dhandhukā,345 Jaina merchant who erected temples to Jinas. 365 and restored the Säligavasahikä at Cambay.848 As stated above, of the two Jaina sects the Kumārapāla also made pilgrimages to the holy Svetāmbara Jainism has got the upper hand in Jaina sites like Shatrunjaya and Girnar.347 The Gujarat, as all the Jaina temples of our period beAjitanātha temple at Taranga built by Kumārapāla long to this sect. As Jainism does not believe in still stands intact and is indicative of high state of any creator of the universe, all the Jaina temples Jainism during this period.
are dedicated to one or the other of the 24 Tirthan.

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karas, who are regarded as liberated souls. Among these Ṛṣabha, Nemi, Parsva and Mahavira appear to be more popular, as the temples dedicated to them are greater in number. Rarely we find temples dedicated to Ajita, Santi and Sambhava. Many of the temples of our period are surrounded by 24, 52 or 72 smaller cells called devakulikās, which are also dedicated to Tirthankaras. From the introduction of the devakulikäs the other Tirthankaras of the Jaina pantheon were also accorded due honour in one and the same temple. This facilitated the devotees to pay their obeisance to almost all the Tirthankaras at one place. The Tirthankaras in the Jaina temples are worshipped almost in the same manner as the Hindu gods and goddesses are done in the Hindu temples.
The twenty-four Tirthankaras are the main object of worship in the Jaina temples, and so they are given foremost position in the Jaina pantheon, Next in order come their attendant figures called the Sasanadevatās. Each Tirthankara has a Sasanadeva (Yakṣa) and Sasanadevi (Yaksi) of his own. They are represented either independently or attending upon the Tirthankaras. As attendant figures they are found depicted both on the threshold of the doorframe and on the stele of the Jina image. In this respect the Yaksas and Yaksis might draw at least some attention of the devotees at the time of worship. At other places they just form a part of embellishment of the temples. Among the Yaksis the images of Cakreśvari and Ambika are frequently seen, while among the Yakṣas the figures of Sarvanubhuti and Brahmaśānti are most popular. The images of the remaining Yaksas and Yaksis are occasionally noticed.
Like the Hindus and the Buddhists, the Jainas also conceived their own pantheon, which includes, besides the Tirthankaras and their Śasanadevatās, sixteen Vidyadevis, eight dikpalas, Lakṣmi, Sarasvati, Vinayaka, Naigameşin, Vidyadhara, Kinnara and Pratihāra, some of which seem to have been borrowed from the Hindu pantheon. All these divinities are found represented on the various parts of the temples and thus constitute a part of embellishment rather than an object of worship. Among these the representation of Vidyadevis is frequently noticed on the Jaina temples of our

23
region. They are shown in their individual form as well as in a set of sixteen (Fig. 44). One of the corridor ceilings in the Vimalavasahi at Abu displays four Vidyadevis along the diagonals of a square. The Vidyadevis generally occur on the wall, doorjambs, pillar-shafts, ceilings and the rathikas of the sikhara..
Laksmi and Sarasvati occupy a respectable posi tion in the Jaina pantheon. Generally they occur on the ceilings of the temples; at times they are found on the pitha of the sanctum. An image of Sarasvati has been noticed as early as the Kuşaṇa period, 356 and her images continued to make their appearance down to our period through Vasantagadh, Akota and possibly Pallu (Bikaner), 857 the last one having produced some wonderful images of Sarasvati. She has been given due respect in the Jaina temples of our region, as, apart from other places in the temples, one whole ceiling in the Vimalavasahi at Abu and the rathikas of the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga and the Sambhavanätha temple at Kumbharia are alloted to her.
Compared to Sarasvati the images of Laksmi are more commonly noticed in the Jaina temples in her individual form as well as with two of the period under discussion. She is represented elephants showering water over her. In the latter form called Gajalaksmi she appears to have drawn considerable attention of the artist, as one whole ceiling in the Vimalavasahi at Abu is alloted to her (Fig. 20).
The images of Vinayaka (Ganesa) are rarely found. So far only two images have come down to us; one of these occurs on the pitha of the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia, and the other hails from the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot. Both these are small pieces.
The eight dikpalas are represented in their correct position on the walls of the temples. In the Santinatha temple at Kumbharia and the Vimalavasahi at Abu they also occur in the ceilings.
Naigameşin, an attendant of Śakra (Indra), is known to have transferred the foetus of Mahavira from the womp of Brahmani Sunanda to that of Ksatriyāņi Trisala. This story is found depicted in the Svetambara literature only, and since all the

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24
Faina Temples of Western India
Jaina temples of Gujarat of our period belong to the Svetämbara sect, he occupies an admirable position in the Jaina pantheon there. Indeed he gained so much popularity during the period that he is found represented in the narratives of the other Tirthankaras in the Jaina temples at Kumbharia, although he is associated with the life of Tirthankara Mahävira on ly. His popularity is also demonstrated by this that he substitutes Vidyādharas in the domes of the rangamand apa of the Mahävira and the Neminātha temples at Kumbharia.
The Pratibāras are shown as door-guardians, or they occur on the pillar-shaft; while the Kinnaras and Vidyadharas (Fig. 33), the denizens of the air, adorn the ceilings.
References 1. Zeuner, F. E., Stone Age and Pleistocene Chrono
logy of Gujarat, Poona, 1950, p. 23. 2. Sankalia, H. D., Prehistory and Protohistory in
India and Pakistan, Bombay, 1962, p. 49, fig.21. 3. Indian Archaeology-A Review, 1957-58, p. 18 and
1958-59, p. 69. 4. Foote, R. B., Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric
Antiquities. Madras, 1916, pp. 135-53. See also the list of microliths classified by H. D. Sankalia in The Glory that was Gurjaradesa, pt. I, Munshi, K. M. (ed.), Bombay, 1943, pp. 34-40; Sankalia, H, D., Investigations into Prehistoric Archaeology of Gujarat, Baroda, 1946,
Chapter III. 5. Clutton-Brock, J., Excavations at Langhnaj :
1944-63, pt. II, Poona, 1965, intro. p. XVI. 6. Piggot, S. (ed.), The Dawn of Civilization,
London, 1961, p. 250. 7. Rao, S.R., "A Persian Gulf seal from Lothal”,
; Antiquity, vol. XXXVII, 1963, pp. 94-99. 8. Subbarao, B., The Personality of India, Baroda,
1958, p. 133. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid., pp. 133-34. 11. Subbarao, B., Baroda Through the Ages, Baroda,
1953, p. 56. 12. Munshi, K, M., The Early Aryans in Gujarat,
Bombay, 1941, pp. 27-28.
13. Ibid.; Bhagvanlal Indraji, Bombay Gazetteet,
vol. I, pt. I, p. 8. 14. Bhagvanlal Indraji, loc. cit. 15. Mahabharata, Eng. trans. by P. C. Roy, 2nd
edn., Calcutta, n. d., Adi Parva, sects, 221-22. 16. Ibid., Sabha Parva, sects. 13-14. 17. Ibid., Vana Parva, sect. 22. 18. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 11. 19. Sircar, D. C., Select Inscriptions, vol. I, Cal
cutta, 1942, p. 171. 20. Raychaudhuri, H. C., Political History of Anci.
ent India, 5th edn., Calcutta, 1950, p. 352. 21. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 16. 22. Tarn, W. W., The Greeks in Bactria and India,
2nd edn., Cambridge, 1951, p. 216. 23. Ibid., p. 147. 24. Mac Crindle, J. W., "Periplus of the Erythra
ean Sea", Indian Antiquary, vol. VIII, pp. 42
43. 25. Tarn, op. cit., pp. 147-50. 26. Narain, A. K., The Indo-Greeks, Oxford, 1962,
Pp. 68-69. 27. Tarn, op. cit., p. 318; Sankalia, H. D., Archaeo
logy of Gujarat (hereafter referred to as AG),
Bombay, 1941, p. 318. 28. Rapson, E. J., British Museum Catalogue of the
Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikātaka Dynasty and the "Bodhi"
Dynasty, Oxford, 1967, pp. CVIII and CXCIV. 29. AG, p. 10. 30. Sircar, D. C., in Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), The
Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, 1951, p. 180. 31. Sircar, D. C., Select Inscriptions, vol. I, pp.
160-62. 32. AG, p. 10, n. 4. 33. Sircar, in The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 181;
Raychaudhuri, H. C., op. cit., p. 485. 34. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, vol. I, pp. 196-97. 35. Ibid., p. 172. 36. Ibid., pp. 172-73. 37. Majumdar, R. C., The Classical Age (hereafter
referred to as CA), Bombay, 1954, p. 49. 38. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
reprint, Varanasi, 1971, pp. 139-41; AG, pp. 47-53.

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Historical and Cultural Background
39. Banerji, R. D., The Age of the Imperial Guptas,
Banaras, 1933, p. 24. 40. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, vol. I, p. 302. See
also Fleet, J. F., Corpus Inscriptionum Indi- carum (hereafter referred to as Cir), vol. III,
reprint, Varanasi, 1963, trans. p. 14. 41. Banerji, op. cit., p. 30. 42. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 68. 43. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, vol. I, p. 302. 44. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 47. 45. Ibid., AG, p. 11; Altekar, A. S., Catalogue of
the Gupta Gold Coins in the Bayana Hoard, Bombay, 1954, intro. pp. 36-37; Banerji,R.D., op. cit., p. 52; Raychaudhuri, H. C., op. cit.,
pp. 79-80. 46. CA, p. 30. 47. Mirashi, V. V., CII, vol. IV, pt. I, Ootaca
mund, 1955, intro. p. XLII. 48. Ibid., intro. pp. XLIII-XLIV; AG, p. 12; Al.
tekar, A. S., in Yazdani, G. (ed.), The Early History of the Deccan, pt. IV, London, 1960,
p. 187. 49. Altekar, A. S., op. cit., pp. 187-88; Burgess, J.,
Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions,
reprint, Varanasi, 1964, p. 127; AG, p. 12. 50. Shah, U. P., Akota Bronzes, Bombay, 1959, pp.
26-33. 51. CA, p. 61. Virji has, however, suggested that
the imperial ruler was Vākāțaka HarişeņaVirji, K. J., Ancient History of Saurashtra,
Bombay, p. 29. 52. Virji, K. J., op. cit., pp. 34-35. 53. Ibid., pp. 38-39. 54. CII, vol. III, trans. p. 230. 55. Virji, op. cit., pp. 43-44. 56. Ibid., p. 47; Smith, V. A., The Early History
of India, 4th edn., Oxford, 1924, pp. 243-44;
CA, p. 63. 57. Ibid., pp. 67-68. 58. CII, vol. III, intro. p. 40. 59. Tripathi, R. S., History of Kanauj, Banaras,
1959, pp. 110-11; CA, p. 104. See also Smith, V. A., op. cit., p. 345; Mookerji, R.K., Harsha,
Banaras, 1925, pp. 30-31. 60. Virji, op. cit., p. 76.
61. Acharya, G, V., Historical Inscriptions of
Gujarat, pt. I, Bombay, 1933, Nos. 72, 73. 62. Virji, op. cit., p. 78. 63. CA, p. 147. 64. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. LXII. 65. Ibid., No. 28, 11.9-13, and intro. p. LXII; CA,
pp. 148-49. 66. Virji, op. cit., p. 88. 67. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, No. 30, 11.20-24. 68. Ibid., No. 23, 11.6-7. 69. Ibid., intro. pp. LV-LVI; CA, p. 150. 70. CA, pp. 150-51. 71. AG, p. 13; CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. pp. XLVI
XLIX. 72. AG, p. 14. 73. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. L; Sircar, D. C.,
in CA, p. 196. 74. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 113. 75. CA, p. 66; Munshi, K. M., The Glory that was
Gürjaradeta, pt. III, Bombay, 1944, pp. 24-25. 76. CA, p. 66; AG, p. 16. 77. Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit. p. 113. 78. CA, p. 67. 79. Munshi, op. cit., p. 25. Cf. CII, vol. IV, pt. I,
intro. pp. LI-LII. 80. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. pp. LIII-LV. 81. Ibid., No. 21, 11.7-14. 82. Ibid., intro. p. LIV; CA, p. 156. 83. Supra, p. 4. 84. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. LVI; Munshi,
op. cit., p. 53; Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit.,
p. 117; AG, p. 17. 85. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. LX. 86. Ibid., No. 28, 11.9-13. 87. Ibid., intro. pp. LX-LXII; CA, p. 149. 88. CII, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. LXIII. 89. Ibid., intro. pp. LXIV-LXV. 90. Ibid., intro. p. LXV; Sircar, D. C., in CA, p.
248; AG, p. 20; Bhagvanlal Indraji, op. cit., p. 110; Bhandarkar, R. G., Early History of the
Dekkan, Calcutta, 1957, p. 67. 91. Altekar, A. S., The Rashtrakāgas and Their
Times (hereafter referred to as RTT), Poona,
1934, p. 40. 92. CIT, vol. IV, pt. I, intro. p. LXV; CA, pp.
162-63.

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93. Majmudar, M. R. (ed.), Historical and Cultural
Chronology of Gujarat, vol. I, Baroda, 1960, pp. 212-13; Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art,
Banaras, 1955, pp. 16-17. 94. AG, p. 53. 95. The iconography of the Jaina images at Dhank
has been fully discussed by Sankalia in AG on
pp. 166-67. 96. See Nanavati, J. M. and Dhaky, M. A., The
Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat, Artibus Asiae, Supplementum, XXVI, Switzer
land, n. d. 97. Virji, op. cit., pp. 171-75. 98. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 12. 99. Merutunga, Prabandhacintamani, Hindi trans.
by Hazari Pd. Dvivedi, (hereafter referred to as PCH), Calcutta, 1940, pp. 133-34; Jinaprabhasűri, Vividhatirthakalpa, Jinavijaya (ed.), Shantiniketan, 1934,p. 29; Tapāgacchapatļāvali, vol. 1, Kalyānavijaya (ed.), Bhavnagar, 1940, p. 85; Purātana Prabhandha Sangraha, Jinavijaya
(ed.), Calcutta, 1936, p. 83. 100. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 12. 101. Shah, U. P., Akota Bronzes, p. 39. 102. RTT, pp. 38-40. 103. Majumdar, R. C., The Age of Imperial Kanaut
(hereafter referred to as AIK), Bombay, 1955,
p. 20. 104. RTT, p. 42. 105 Ibid., p. 51. 106. Ibid. p. 55-58: Munshi, op. cit., p. 57: AIK.
p. 23. 107. Altekar, A. S., in Yazdani, G. (ed.), The Early
History of the Deccan, pt. V, London, 1960, p. 265. In his RTT Altekar has, however, suggested that Indra was later put in charge of southern
Gujarat by his brother Govinda III. 108. AIK, pp. 24-26; Munshi, op. cit., pp. 59-60;
RTT, p. 65. 109. Tripathi, R. S., History of Kanauj, Varanasi,
1937, pp. 232-35; Puri, B.N., The History of the
Gurjara Pratihāras, Bombay, 1957, pp. 44-45. 110. AIK, p. 27. 111. Munshi, op. cit., p. 63; RTT, p. 67.
112. RTT, pp. 71-73. 113. Ibid., pp. 81-82. 114. Ibid., pp. 84-85. 115. Tripathi, op. cit., p. 242; Munshi, op. cit., p. 88. 116. RTT, p. 85. 117. AIK, pp. 30-31; Tripathi, op. cit., p. 243. 118. RTT, p. 97. 119. Tripathi, op. cit., p. 245; AIK, p. 32. 120. Sharma, D., Rajasthan Through the Ages, vol. I,
Bikaner, 1966, pp. 162-63. 121. Tripathi, op. cit., pp. 250-51. 122. Ibid., p. 255. 123. RTT, pp. 101-2. 124. Ibid., p. 102. 125. RTT, p. 103; Ray, H, C., Dynastic History of
Northern India, vol. I, Calcutta, 1931, p. 581. 126. Tripathi, op. cit., pp. 264-67. 127. AG, p. 23. 128. Tripathi, op. cit., pp. 267-68; RTT, pp. 113-14. 129. Puri, B. N., op. cit., p. 91; Sharma, D., op. cit.,
pp. 190-91. 130. Tripathi, op. cit., p. 276. 131. RTT, p. 120; Ganguly, D. C. in AIK, p. 94;
Munshi, op. cit., p. 110; Ray, H. C., Dynastic History of Northern India, vol. II, Calcutta,
1936, p. 849. 132. RTT, p. 125; Ganguly, in AIK, p. 95. 133. Ganguly, loc. cit. 134. Ibid., Ray, H. C., Dynastic History of Northern
India, vol. II, p. 851; Munshi, op. cit., p. 112. 135. Krishna Deva, Temples of North India, Delhi,
1969, pp. 21-27. 136. Prabhācandra, Prabhāvakacaritra, Guiarati
trans., (hereafter referred to as PCG), Bhavna
gar, V. S. 1987, p. 164. 137. Ibid., pp. 124-25. Jinaprabhasūri, who flouris
hed in the 14th century A.D., also makes mention of a Mahāvira temple at Modhera-Vidi
dhatirthakalpa, p. 19. 138. See Shah, U.P., Sculptures from Samalaji and
Roda, Baroda, 1960. 139. Altekar, A. S., "Surat Plates of Karkkarāja
Suvarnavarşa', Epigraphia Indica, vol. XXI, pp. 134 and 144; Acharya, G. V., Historical Inscriptions of Gujarat, pt. III, Bombay, 1942,
p. 129, 11.44-45. 140. Shah, U. P., Akota Bronzes, pp. 44-62. 141. Ibid., p. 59.

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27
. III, No. Historical in
CG, pp
142. Ganguly, in AIK, p. 101. 143. Harivaniapuräņa, Pannalal Jain (ed.), Vara-
nasi, 1952, 66. 52-53. 144. Ibid., intro. p. 4. 145. Ganguly, in AIK, pp. 98-100. 146. Nanavati and Dhaky, The Maitraka and the
Saindhava Temples of Gujarat, figs, 29, 31, 32,
33 and 34. 147. Ganguly, in AIK, pp. 100-1. 148. Choudhary, G. C., Political History of Northern
India from Jaina Sources, Amritsar, 1954, pp. 200-1; Parikh, R. C. (ed.), Kavyānušāsana,
vol. II, Bombay, 1938, intro. pp. 103-110. 149. CII, vol.IV, pt. I, No. 30, 11.20-24, also intro.
p. LXIV. Cf. Choudhary, G. C., op. cit.,
p. 200. 150. Ganguly, in AIK, p. 102. 151. Ibid. 152. PCG, p. 258; PCH, p. 17. 153. Haribhadra, Nemināthacariya, vol. II, ed. by
Bhayani, H. C. and Modi, M. C., Ahmeda-
bad, 1971, vv. 3314-15. 154. Tripuți Mahārāja, Jaina Paramparāno Itihasa
(Gujarati), (hereafter referred to as JPI),
vol. II, Ahmedabad, 1960, p. 11. 155. Desai, M. D., Jaina Sahityano Samkşipta Itihasa
(Gujarati), (hereafter referred to as JSSI),
Bombay, 1933, pp. 288-89. 156. According to A. K. Majumdar, Dharaņi-
varāha was the Paramāra chief of Abu.— Chaulukyas of Gujarat (hereafter referred to as
CG), Bombay, 1956, p. 31. 157. Ganguly, in AIK, pp. 103-4. 158. Ibid., p. 104. 159. CG, pp. 30-31; Bhatia, P., The Paramaras,
Delhi, 1967, pp. 47-49. 160. Ganguly, in AIK, pp. 90 and 104; CG, p. 31.
According to Mirashi, the Gurjara king defeated by Laksamanarāja was one of the successors of Mahipāla.---CII, vol. IV, pt. I,
intro. p. LXXV. 161. PCH, p. 22. 162. Darsanavijaya(ed.), Pattāvalisamuccaya, vol. I,
Viramgam, 1933, pp. 53 and 129. 163. Shah, A, P., Jaina Tirtha Sarva Sangraha
(Gujarati), (hereafter referred to as JTSS),
vol. I, pt. I, Ahmedabad, 1953, pp. 39-40, 164. JPI, vol. II, p. 154.
165. Acharya, G. V., Historical Inscriptions of
Gujarat, pt. III, No. 136 A. 166. CG, pp. 34-41. 167. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 57; JSSI, p. 207. 168. PCG, p. 258. 169. CG, pp. 43-55; Ganguly, D. C., in R. C.
Majumdar (ed.), The Struggle for Empire (hereafter referred to as SE), Bombay, 1957,
pp. 67-68, 74-75. 170. Dhaky, M. A. & Shastri, H.P., "Ārāsaņā be
Jaina Pratimälekhoni Visesa-vācana," Svadhyāya (Gujarati), vol. VIII, No. 2, pp. 189
198. 171. CG, pp. 57-65; Ganguly, in SE, p. 75. 172. CG, p. 66. 173. JTSS, vol. I, pt. 1, p. 69. 174. PCH, p. 67. 175. Ibid., p. 68. 176. Ibid., p. 68. 177. JPI, vol. II, p. 645. 178. JSSI, p. 219. 179. Ibid., p. 218. 180. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 14; Nyāyavijaya, Jaina
Tirthono Itihasa (Gujarati), Mehsana, 1949,
p. 248. 181. Kavyānušāsana, vol. II, intro. p. 161; PCG,
pp. 260-61. 182. CG, pp. 68-83; Ganguly, in SE, pp. 75-76. 183. JPI, vol. II, pp. 571 and 673. 184. Dvyābraya, Kathavate, A. V. (ed.), Bombay,
1921, 15.16. 185. Somaprabha, Kumārapālapratibodha, Gujarati
trans., Bhavnagar, 1927, p. 21. 186. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, pp. 66-67 and vol. I,
pt. II, p. 214. 187. Jayantavijaya, Sankheśvara Mahātirtha (Guja
rati), Ujjain, V. S. 1998, pp. 75-77. 188. Taina Pustaka Prašasti Sangraha, vol. I, Jinavi
jaya (ed.), Bombay, 1943, pp. 82-83; JPI,
vol. II, pp. 500 and 690. 189. JSSI, p. 240. 190. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 14. 191. JSSI, p. 242. 192. PCG, p. 98; JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 94; JPI,
vol. II, pp. 563, 653, 691. 193. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 14. 194. Ibid. 195. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 94; JSSI, p. 252.

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Jaina Temples of Western India
196. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 94; JSSI, p. 253.
231. Chakraborti, H., Trade and Commerce in Ancient 197. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 94; JPI, vol. II, p. 682. India, Calcutta, 1966, p. 96. 198. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 77. 232. Sircar, op. cit., p. 174. 199. CG, pp. 104-19; Ganguly, in SE, pp. 76-77. 233. Ghoshal, U. N., in A Comprehensive History of 200. Somaprabha, Kumārapalapratibodha, Gujarati India, vol. II, Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (ed.), trans., pp. 148-149.
Bombay, 1957, p. 438. 201. Dhaky, M. A., "Kumärapäla ane Kumāra- 234. Sircar, op. cit., p. 173. vihāro," Pathika (Gujarati), Oct. 1973, pp.
235. Ibid., pp. 305-7, 53-67.
236. Fleet, J. F., CII, vol. III, p. 81. 202. JPI, vol. II, p. 187.
237. Chakraborti, op. cit., p. 97. 203. Ibid.
238. Beal, S., Buddhist Records of the Western World, 204. PCG, p. 328; PCH, p. 160.
vol. IV, Calcutta, 1958, pp. 452-53. 205. PCH, p. 105.
239. Watters, T., On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 206. Ibid.
vol. I, London, 1904, p. 148. 207. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 57.
240. Virji, K. J., Ancient History of Saurashtra, 208. Ibid.
p. 220. 209. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, pp. 32-33; JSSI, p. 343.
241. Ibid. Choudhary, G. C., Political History of Northern
242. Jain, J. C., Life in Ancient India as depicted in India from Jaina Sources, p. 193.
the Jaina Canons, Bombay, 1947, p. 273. 210. CG, pp. 127-31.
243. Ibid., p. 113. 211. PCH, pp. 117-19.
244. Ibid., p. 115. 212. CG, pp. 131-37.
245. Beal, op. cit., p. 459. 213. Ibid., pp. 138-67; see also Ganguly, in SE, pp.
246. Ibid., p. 457. 78-80.
247. Virji, op. cit., p. 219. 214. Arisimha, Sukslasamkirtana, Punyavijaya (ed.),
248. Somadeva, Kathäsaritsagara, vol. I, Eng. trans. Bombay, 1961, XI, 11.
by Tawny, C. H., Calcutta, 1968, p. 178. 215. Ibid., XI, 15, 16, 22.
249. Ibid., p. 261. 216. Ibid., XI. 30.
250. Ghoshal, U.N., in AIK, p. 400. 217. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 20.
251, Ibid. 218. Dhaky, M. A., "Prabhāsapāțanāṁ Präcina
252. Ibid. Jaina Mandiro," Svādhyāya(Gujarati), vol. III,
253, Ibid., p. 401. No. 3, p. 328.
254. PCH, p. 17. 219. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 58.
255. RTT, pp. 357-58. 220. Ibid., p. 45.
256. See CG, pp. 257-66. 221. CG, pp. 169-85.
257. Gopal, L., Economic Life of Northern India, 222. Jagadīcarita, Khakhkhar, M.D. (ed.), Bombay, Varanasi, 1965, p. 141. 1896, VI. 51-56.
258, Forbes, A. K., Rās Mala, London, 1878, 223. JSSI, pp. 404-5.
p. 418. 224. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 43.
259. CG, p. 268. 225. Ibid., p. 53.
260, Ibid., p. 267. See also Sarvänandasūri, Jaga226. Rao, S. R., "A persian Gulf seal from dūcarita, sarga IV.
Lothal,” Antiquity, vol. XXXVII, pp. 96-99. 261. Kautilya, Arthasāstra, I. 3.7; The Laws of Manu 227. Arthafāstra, Eng. trans. by Shamasastry, R., (Manusmali), Eng, trans, by Bühler, G., in the 4th edn., Mysore, 1951, II. 378.
SBE, vol. XXV, ed, by Max Müller, F., 228. Sircar, D. C., Select Inscriptions, vol. I, p. 171. Oxford, 1886, p. 24. 229. MacCrindle, "Periplus of the Erythraean 262. Warren, H., Jainism, Bhavnagar, 1930, p. 69.
Sea," Indian Antiquary, vol. VIII, p. 140. 263. Jaini, J., Outlines of Jainism, Cambridge, 1916, 230. Ibid., p. 143.
p. 72.

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29
264, PCH, p. 68. 265, PCG, p. 307. 266. JSSI, p. 212. 267. Jayantavijaya, Holy Abu, Eng. trans. of Abi,
vol. I, by Shah, U. P., (Hereafter referred to
as HA), Bhavanagar, 1954, p. 23. 268. Ibid., p. 24. 269. Ibid., pp. 85-86. 270. PCH, p. 68. 271. Ibid., pp. 105-06. 272. JSSI, p. 224. 273. Ibid., p. 401. 274. Somadharmagani, Upades asaptati, ed. by
Amritlal, Ahmedabad, V. S. 1998, p. 29. 275. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
p. 167. 276. Visalavijaya, Ārāsaņatirtha aparanāma Kumbhā.
riājitirtha (Gujarati), Bhavnagar, 1961, pp.
122-23, Nos. 11, 13. 277. Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, ed. by Jinavi-
jaya, Calcutta, 1936, No. 17, pp. 30-31. 278. Hemacandra, Trişaşțišalakapuruşacaritra, vol.I,
Eng. trans. by Johnson, H. M., Bhattacharya,
B. (ed.), Baroda, 1931, p. 356. 279. Ibid., vol. V, Sandesara, B. J. (ed.), Baroda,
1962, p. 262; Uttaaradhyayana, Eng. trans, by Jacobi, H., in the SBE, vol. XLV, Max
Müller, F. (ed.), Oxford, 1895, p. 115. 280. Trişaşțifalakāpuruşacaritra, vol. V, p. 265. 281. Ibid., p. 313. 282. Jain, K. P., "Sri Nirväņakşetra Girinär"
(Hindi), Jaina Antiquary, vol. V, No. 3, p. 184, 283. Stevenson, S., Heart of Jainism, London, 1915,
p. 74. 284. Jain, K. P., op. cit., p. 190; Jaina, K. C.,
Jainism in Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963, p. 8. 285. Brown, W. N., The Story of Kalaka, Washi-
ngton, 1933, pp. 60-63. 206. Gopani, A.S., “Jainism in Gujarat", Bhāra.
tiya Vidyā, vol. IX, p. 236. 287. Stevenson, op. cit., pp. 77-78; Shah, C. J.,
Uttara Hindustānamāṁ Jainadharma (Gujarati),
Bombay, 1937, p. 172. 288. Sircar, D.C., Select Inscriptions, vol. I, p. 177. 289. Burgess, op. cit., pl. XVII, fig. 3. 290. Smith, V. A., Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities
of Mathura, reprint, Varanasi, 1969, pls. VII, IX, XI.
291. Kalyäņavijaya, Vira Nirvāņa Samat aura Jaina
Kālaganana (Hindi), Jalor, V, S. 1987, p. 110; Kapadia, H, R., History of Canonical Literature
of the Jainas, Surat, 1941, pp. 61-62. 292. Jacobi, H., Gaina Sätras, pt. I, in SBE, vol.
XXII, Max Müller, F. (ed.), Oxford, 1884,
intro. p. XXXVII; JSSI, pp. 141-42. 293. Uttaradhyayanasitra, Uppsala, 1922, intro.
p. 16. 294. Shah, U. P., Akota Bronzes, pp. 26-28. 295. Jinabhadra, Vifesavaš yakabhäsya, pt. I,
Malvania, D. (ed.), Ahmedabad, 1966, preface, p. 3; Mehta, M. L., Jaina Sahitya ka Byhad Itihasa (Hindi), vol. III, Varanasi, 1967,
p. 130. 296. Virji, K. J., op. cit., p. 181. 297. Tapāgaccha Paffävali, vol. I, Kalyäņavijaya
(ed.), Bhavnagar, 1940, p. 89. 298. PCH, pp. 133-34. 299. Virji, op. cit., p. 183. 300. Majmudar, M. R. (ed.), Historical and Cultural
Chronology of Gujarat, vol. I, pp. 212-13. 301. AG, pp. 16 and 234. 302. Deo, S. B., History of Jaina Monachism, Poona,
1956, p. 110. 303. Shah, U. P., op. cit., pp. 29-40. 304. RTT, p. 310. 305. Ibid., pp. 311-12. 306. Altekar, A. S., "Surat Plates of Karkkarāja
Suvarṇavarsha," Epigraphia Indica, vol. XXI,
pp. 134 and 144. 307. Jacobi, H., in Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics, vol. VII, Hastings, J. (ed.), Edinburgh,
1914, p. 475. 308. Shah, U. P., op. cit., pp. 48-55. 309. PCG, p. 165. 310. Ibid., p. 167. 311. Jinasena, Harivansa Purana, 66. 52-53. 312. PCG, p. 258. 313. PCH, pp. 16-17. 314. PCG, pp. 257-58. 315. CG, p. 310. 316. PCH, p. 22. 317. Doyasraya, 7. 64. 318. Ibid. 319. Kharatara Gachha Pattavali Sangraha, Jinavijaya
(ed.), Calcutta, 1932, p. 3. 320. CG, p. 311.

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30
Faina Temples of Western India
32 1. Sheth, C.B., Jainism in Gujarat, Bombay, 1953,
p. 50. 322. JSSI, p. 224. 323. Jinavijaya, Gujarāta Ka Jainadharma (Hindi),
Varanasi, 1949, p. 25. 324. PCG, pp. 275-84, PCH, pp. 78-82. 325. AG, p. 238. 326. Duyasraya, 15.16. 327. Ibid., 15.63-88. 328. PCG, p. 307; PCH, pp. 77-78. 329. Bühler, G., Life of Hemacandrācārya, Calcutta,
1936, p. 23. See also Parikh, R. C., Kavyānufasana, vol. II, intro. p. 187; Sheth, C. B.,
op. cit., p. 50. 330. PCH, p. 72. 331. Ibid., p. 104. 332. Duyaf raya, 20.22-23. 333. Oza, V. G., Prakrit and Sanskrit Inscriptions.
• Bhavnagar, 1895, pp. 172-73. 334. Ibid., pp. 205.7. 335. Duyafraya, 20. 27. 336. Rājasekhara, "Hemasūriprabandha," Pra-
bandhakota, Jinavijaya (ed.), Shantiniketan, 1935, 58; Jayasińhasūri, Kumārapālacaritra, Kșāntivijaya Gaņi (ed.), Bombay, 1926,
7.609-10. 337. Doyafraya, 20.27-37. 338. Ibid., 20.89.
339. Trisasțifalakāpurusacaritra, vol. VI, Eng. trans,
by Johnson, H. M., Sandesara, B.J. (ed.),
Baroda, 1962, pp. 310 ff. 340. Duyāšraya, 20.98-99. 341. Trişastif alakāpuruşacaritra, vol. VI, p. 311. 342. PCG, pp. 321-22. 343. Ibid., pp. 325-28. 344. PCH, p. 104. 345. Ibid., p. 113. 346. Ibid., p. 111. 347. Somaprabha, "Kumārapālapratibodh," Ku.
märapālacaritrasangraha, Jinavijaya (ed.),
Bombay, 1956, II. 20-24, pp. 123-25. 348. PCH, pp. 117-19. 349. Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 79; Jinaharşagani, Vastu
palacarita, Kirtimuni (ed.), Ahmedabad, 1941, I. 44-48; Punyavijaya (ed.), Sukstasankirtana,
intro. pp. 87-88. 350. Sukstakirtikallolinyādi Vastupalaprašastisarigraha,
Punyavijaya (ed.), Bombay, 1961, p. 44. 351. Kathavate, A. V., Kirttikaumudi, intro. p. 52. 352. Sandesara, B. J., Literary Circle of Mahāmatya
Vastupala, Bombay, 1953, p. 38. 353. Tagadīcarita, VI, 10-63. 354. Ibid., VI. 68-137. 355. JSSI, pp. 404-5. 356. Smith, V. A., The Jaina Stupa and other Anti
quities of Mathura, pl. XCIX. 357. Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, figs. 32, 34,
p. 23, n. 3.

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CHAPTER II
GEOGRAPHY AND THE RELIGIOUS SITES
The province of Gujarat fills the south-western The three provinces-Ānarta, Saurashtra and portion of Western India. Among the five divisions Lāța--not only did not form one political unit, but of India called the "Five Indies” Western India they were themselves divided, throughout the first is said to have comprised Sindh and Western millenium A. D., among several petty states. But Rajputana, with Kutch and Gujarat, and a portion soon after the 10th century A. D. the territory to of the adjoining coast on the lower course of the the north of the Mahi came to be known as GurjaNarmada. The broad divisions of India as des- ramandala or Gurjarabhūmi, 14 During the 12th cribed in the early Pali texts are rather six than century A. D. the country of Gurjara mandala contifive, and Western India is named Aparanta, 2 nued to be known by this name and by a few other which is taken to represent that part of the country names such as Görjaratra, Gurjarătrā, Gurjaratri, which lay to the west of the Buddhist mid-land and Gūrijarăstra, Gurjaradharitri and Gurjaradharā.15 the north and the south respectively of Dakşiņā. Lāta and Saurashtra, however, were called Gurjapatha and Uttarapatha. On the evidence of the ratrā or Gujarat only by the end of the 13th cenMahabharata it has been pointed out that Aparānta tury or the beginning of the 14th century A. D., included practically the whole of western coast.4 when the Muslims invaded Gujarat, conquered all Aparänta is Ariake of Ptolemy, according to whom these provinces, and applied for the purpose of it extended southward from the Narmada. In the administration the term Gujarat for the whole proPeriplus of the Erythraean Sea Ariake is described vince.18 to have extended southwards from the gulf of Cambay to the north of Abhira. According to R. G.
The three traditional divisions of Gujarat also
correspond to the three natural zones. Aparta Bhandarkar, Aparānta was the northern Konkan whose capital was Sürpăraka, modern Sopara.?
more or less coincides with semi-arid loessic zone,
while Lāța corresponds to the fertile projection of In ancient days the region which is now known
the western Littoral.17 Saurashtra is formed of as Gujarat had three divisions, viz. Anarta, Saura- sheets of Deccan I ava intersected by swarms of shtra and Läta. It is hard to describe the exact
trap dykes. Most of Saurashtra lies below 600 ft., boundaries of these provinces, as they varied during
but there are two hill-masses, the Manda hills in the course of time. Anarta consisted of northern
the north and the Gir ranges in the south, which, Gujarat, stretching from Kaira to Palanpur or
linked by a narrow zone of high altitude, are eroded Vadnagar in the north, and including Dwarka in
by rivers flowing in all directions, 18 In Kutch a the west. According to Altekar, Ānarta hardly
similar plateau extends from east to west, leaving extended upto Ahmedabad in the south, while on
on all sides a narrow coastal plain drained by the west it was bounded by the Rann of Kutch, on
rivers. The climate of these three divisions exhithe north by the Abu ranges and on the east by
bits a variety of characteristics, which represent a Malwa.9 Saurashtra was the name of the whole
transition between the heavy rainfall area of the peninsula, 10 but at times it denoted only the Konkan and the arid Rajasthan. southern portion of Kathiawar, the northern part Physically Gujarat consists of two portions; one was probably included in Anarta. 11 Lata corres- of these is continental and the other is peninsular. ponded to southern Gujarat, extending from the The continental portion consisted of Anarta and south of the Mahi or at times south of the Narmada Läta, while the peninsula was called Saurashtra. upto Daman.12 Bhrgukaccha (Broach) and Nava- The whole territory is bounded on the north by the särika (Navsari) belonged to this province.18 desert of Marwad, on the north-west by the Great
Jain Education Intematonal

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32
Falna Temples of Western India
Rann of Kutch, on the west by the Arabian sea, a class of temples known as Bhūmija was built in on the south by the Deccan plateau, on the east by Malwa. It was patronised by the Paramāra rulers the gorges of the Narmada and the Tapti, and on of Malwa. It was quite popular in Maharashtra the north-east by the Mewar and Malwa plateaux. (the upper Deccan). Two instances of the Bhū
mija temples are also known from Gujarat, a 3 Although the geographical position of Gujarat
* the mainland, culturally it has isolated it from
but their scope seems to be very limited in this always been into contact with the latter, though the communication between the two was rather In the construction of temples the availability difficult. Gujarat was connected with her neigh- and the quality of building material are of pribouring countries by five ancient overland routes. mary importance. The material with which the The most important was the northern route, which Taina temples of Gujarat are built varies from connected Gujarat with Sindh and Punjab via place to place. In Gujarat, what building mateRajasthan 20 This route probably connected rial was locally available was used in their consAhmedabad with Delhi via Ajmer, passing through truction. In northern Gujarat, in the region many important cities like Mehsana, Siddhapur, around Candrāvati, white marble is most COPalanpur, Bhinmal, Jalor and Merata.21 The mmonly used. This may be clearly seen in the northern frontier of Gujarat being unbarricaded by Jaina temples at Kumbharia, Abu and Sarotra. nature, the invasions have usually been conducted White marble seems to have been quarried from from that side. Probably the earliest large scale the mines at Āräsana near Kumbharia. Arāsana, movement along this route was that of the Sakas which forms the south-western termination of the and the Hūnas. The cultural contact between Aravalli ranges, is famous for the quality of its Gujarat and Rajasthan is also evident from the marble since old days, 24 and many temple-builders fact that the temples of the two regions have many of Gujarat such as Vimalasäha, Vastupāla, Tejafeatures in common with one another.
pala and Kumārapāla used the marble of this
place.25 The Aravallis are composed of metaThe eastern routes connected Gujarat with
morphic rocks; 26 and since marble is a variety of Malwa and the Gangetic basin. One of these was
these rocks, it is found in plenty in this region. a land route, which passed through Idar, Khedbrahma, Harrol and Shamalaji and was frequently In the south the material used is sandstone of used by the Mauryas, the Guptas and the Solankis. various colour. Thus at Vadnagar the material is The other was the water-way provided by the reddish sandstone, and at Taranga it is white sandrivers Narmada and Tapti. Since the greater part stone. It is hard to say whence the reddish sandof this region lay between the forested hills of the stone was carried to Vadnagar. The white sandSatpura ranges, it is probable that it was exten- stone is a variety of the Cretaceous rocks and is sively used.
found in the nearby town of Himatnagar.27 ProThere was a north-easterly route from Sopara bably white sandstone was transported to Taranga which passed towards the north via Dohad-Ratlam from this place. pass. With this was linked up the old route from In Saurashtra different varieties of sandstone Ujjain to Broach. The main north-south route have been used. At Sajakpur it is reddish yellow, lay along the north Konkan coast and was linked
at Ghumli and Miani calcareous, at Shatrunjaya up at Sopara with two routes, one from the Gan
reddish, at Girnar (Vastupālavihära) yellow, and getic basin and the other from the Deccan. The
at Than grey. The Barda hill in western KathiaCalukya and the Rästraküța invasions seem to war is the source of calcareous sandstone, wherehave been conducted along this route 22
as Kandola hill at Than provides grey sandstone. The extant temples also throw some light on the source of yellow sandstone is not known. One the cultural contact between this part of the solitary temple, namely the Neminātha temple at country and the adjoining regions of Malwa and Girnar, is built of black basalt. The Gir ranges Deccan. Contemporary with the Gujarat temples themselves are the source of black basalt.23

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Geography and the Religious Sites
33
5.
6.
the places where Tirthankaras attained liberation; the places where the great ascetics lived and achieved liberation; the places famous for their beautiful temples or wonderful idols. 36
7.
The temples in Kutch are also built of sand- stone. The stone used in the temple at Kanthkot is of the kind known to the geologists as Kantkote Sandstone.29 The Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar is built of reddish yellow sandstone, which was possibly brought from Ratnal, a hill seventeen miles southeast of Bhuj.
It is not without reason when a temple or a group of temples is built at a place. The existence of a temple at a place probably indicates that the place was either a religious site, or it was a political centre, or it lay on the trade-routes, or it maintained temples for some other reasons. Above all, the religious factor seems to be the main cause for the celibrity of a temple-site. Almost all the religions of the world have laid great emphasis on the sacredness of certain localities. The four places in the Buddhist tradition, viz. the place where Buddha was born (Lumbini), the place where he attained enlightenment (Bodhagaya), the place where he imparted his first sermon (Saranatha), and the place where he achieved his Nirvana (Kusināra),30 are said to be sacred for the Buddhists. For Chris. tians Jerusalem has been the holiest place, and no religious community except Christians undertook in historic times several great military pilgri- mages. 31 Among the five practical duties of Islam pilgrimage to Mecca and Medinah is one. 32 In the Hindu tradition large rivers, mountains and forests have always been venerated as sacred as the abodes of gods 33 Similarly the Tainas regarded certain places to be sacred and constructed temples in honour of Tirthankaras there. These places in
Taina tradition are called tirtha or tirthaksetra. i.e. the place which shows the way as to how to cross the transmigration of life;34 in other words, it reminds us how the great personages led a virtuous life at this spot.36
The Jainas regard the following places as their tirthaksetras : 1. the places where Tirthankaras were born; 2. the places where Tirthankaras first renounced
the world and initiated a religious life; 3. the places where Tirchankaras practised great
austerities; 4. the places where Tirthankaras achieved omni-
science;
These holy places, according to the Digambaras, may be grouped into two categories, viz. siddhakşetra, the place where the Jinas or other ascetics achieved liberation, and atif ayaksetra, the place which is sacred for other reasons.37 Except for those where some one obtained Nirvana, all the tirthas come under the second category. Such a type of division of the tirthas, however, is not known to the Svetāmbaras, for the Vividhatirthakalpa, a to the Suatāmharas. for the v famous Svetāmbara text of the 14th century A. D., dome not refer does not refer to any such division, although it contains an extensive account of the Jaina tirthas located all over India.
Gujarat possesses both the types of tirthas. Of all the siddhaksetras enumerated by Hiralal Jain,38 three, viz. Shatrunjaya, Girnar and Taranga, are located in Gujarat. Except for Bihar no region of India is as rich as Gujarat in so far as the siddha. ksetras are concerned.89 The above three tirthas are far from the cities and the habitational areas; they are situated on hill tops and among the midst of forests. Being secluded from habitational areas and having a calm and cool atmosphere for meditation, they attracted much attention of the Jaina recluses from very early times, and due to the patronage of these personages they became sanctified places and in course of time there were erected temples in honour of Tirthankaras. Abu is also a religious site, and hence there were erected Jaina temples. The sites like Gbumli, Than, Bhadreshwar, Kanthkot and Vadnagar were important political centres, and hence the existence of a Jaina temple, as also of a Hindu temple, is quite likely there. Kumbharia is situated on a hill adorned picturesquely among the natural surroundings. It is not its sanctity but probably the picturesque situation which invited the attention of the builders, and with the erection of temples it became a holy Jaina site. Miani is an old village lying on the ancient trade-route, which followed the coast from Gogha to Dwarka via Somnath. Sejakpur and

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34
Faina Temples of Western India
Sarotra are two such sites which are situated very king of this region, Kumbhā by name, fled to close to the ancient trade-routes. Sejakpur lies Ārāsana and changed the name of the city to beside the Wadhwan-Sayla-Junagadh route, and Kumbharia.45 According to Triputi Mahārāja, Sarotra is situated near the Ahmedabad-Palanpur. however, Kumbharia derived its present name from Ajmer route. In old days the trade-routes were used 'kumbhāras', i, e. potters, who were inhabiting by the pilgrims, traders and conquerors alike, and there 46 the erection of Jaina temples near these routes may have been possible through the munificences of the
Ārāsana was rich in natural resources. AccorJaina merchants, who frequently visited these places ding to the Jaina tradition, here were mines of during the course of their trade.
gold and silver.47 When Ambikā became pleased
with Vimalasāha, she gave him so much wealth Now, we shall describe the importance of these
that he could build 360 temples to Pärsvanätha. 48 sites one by one.
A similar story is said about Pasila, the builder Kumbharia-It is situated about fourteen miles of the Neminātha temple there.49 It was also southeast of Abu Road and one and a half miles famous for the quality of its marble throughout from Ambaji in the Banaskantha district of Gujarat. Guiarat, as many temple-builders such as Vimala, Once the whole region from Ambaji to Kumbharia Vastupāla, Tejapāla and Kumārapāla used the was known as Arāsana, but now both the sites are
‘ärasa' (marble) of this place. 50 isolated from each other and are going by their own names, and it is not yet certain when and by
The antiquity of Ārāsaņa as a Hindu site may whom they were founded. It is equally difficult to be traced to the most remote period, as here was say who founded Arāsana and when it was offered in vicarious sacrifice the hair of the infant destroyed.
Sri Krsna, and subsequently his bride Rukmini
worshipped Ambädevi, when he bore her from In the inscriptions found in the Jaina temples at
the threatened embrace of Sigupāla.61 But to Kumbharia, Ārāsaņa is variously described as Āra
the Jainas it is known from the time of Vimalassaņa, Ārāsanā, Ārāsaņā, Ārāsaņākara, Ārāsanagara,
aba, when the latter was appointed as DandaĀrāsanākara, Ārāsana, Ārāsaņamandala and Arasaņa
nāyaka in this region. According to the Jaina (nā)kara. It is said that Ārāsana derived its present
tradition, Vimalasaha obtained much wealth from name from 'ārasa' purporting to marble, the mines
Ambāmātā and constructed here 360 temples to of which are found in abundance on the Arāsura
Paravanatha.52 Further, we are told that once mountain of Ambaji and Kumbharia.40 According
Ambika became displeased with Vimalagaha and to Dave, however, Arāsura or Ārāsaņa came to be
destroyed all except five Jaina temples. The known after an Asura (demon), who was killed by
traditional account is no doubt correct in that the cakra of Ambikā consisting of a thousand ārāsas (spokes). 41 Arāsana adopted its present name since
there are still five Jaina temples, but, surprisin
gly enough, none of the inscriptions found in the early times, 42 and it continued to be known by this name or some of its varients as late as 1618
temples at Kumbharia attributes Vimala aha to be the builder of these temples. The style of all
the five temples also indicates a date later than As regards the name of Kumbharia, Forbes has the time of Vimalasaha. However, the possibility suggested that it was founded by Ränä Kumbhā of of a Vimalavihāra at Arāsana cannot be wholly Chitor and was so called after his name.44 Rānā denied, as the later literary tredition definitely Kumbhā flourished from A.D. 1438 to 1459, where. makes mention of one such vihāra there, 53 Three as the city of Ārāsana is known by this name as inscriptions in the Kumbharia Jaina temples also late as 1618 A. D. This obviously shows that Kum- belong to the time of Vimalagaha.54 Therefore, bharia was not named after Raņā Kumbha, and it is quite likely that there existed a Jaina temple the destruction of the old city must have taken during the time of Vimalašāha. Dhaky has even place after 1618 A.D. Visālavijaya is of the opinion suggested that what is now known as the temple of that when Mewar was invaded by Akbar, some Santinātha was originally a temple of Rşabhana
A.D.43

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Geography and the Religious Sites
tha built by Vimalasaha, and that the present temple was built on an extensive scale by removing
the old one. 55
The Jaina temples at Kumbharia lie embosomed among the forest-covered hills of Ārāsura, which form the south-western termination of the Aravalli range. They are oriented on the gentle slope of a shallow river-valley. The charming situation of the site and the nearness of the quarry may have been the main factor for erecting temples there. A large number of worshippers daily visit the temples of Kumbharia during day time, but as the evening darkens the valley the doors of the temples are shut up, and except for occassional birds' cry quiet dwells there during the whole night. The temples have got so much popularity for their sanctity and artistic splendour that a pilgrim or traveller bound to Ambaji also desires to visit Kumbhariaji.
At present there is a group of six temples, all located very close to each other. Of these, five are Jaina and one is Saiva. All the five Jaina temples come under the purview of our discussion.
Abu-The celebrated Jaina site of Abu, Arbuda or Arbudacala of ancient Indian texts, is situated eighteen miles northwest of Abu Road in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan. It is one of the five most sacred hills of the Jainas. 56 It forms a part of the Aravalli range and is detached from it by a narrow valley measuring seven miles across, through which flows the river Banas. Composed of the archaean granites, schists and limestones the Abu mountain has a long narrow form, its top spreading out into a picturesque plateau nearly 4000 ft, above the sea-level, about twelve miles in length and three miles in breadth. Its highest peak, the Guru Sikhara, close to its northern end and rising 5650 ft. above the sea-level, is the highest point between the Himalayas and the Nilgiris. According to Megasthenes, and Arrian too, the sacred Arbud, which is identical with Capitalia, rises far above any other summits of the Aravalli range. 58
Sten Konow has suggested that some of the oldest hymns of the Rgueda refer to Arbuda as a stronghold of Sambara and other Dasyus, who descending the hill-top carried away the cows of the

35
Aryans. Indra is therefore invoked to tread down the great Arbuda and its lord Sambara. 59 According to the Skanda Purana, "Abu was formerly a level plain. At one place there was an unfathomable chasm. Once Nandini, the famous cow of Vasistha, fell into it. At this the sage invoked aid of Sarasvati, who filled it with water and delivered the cow. Next day the
sage requested Himalaya to fill it up. Himalaya deputed his younger son Nandivardhana, who was carried here on the back of a mighty serpent named Arbuda, and the chasm was filled by this Nandivardhana mountain. Vasistha became so much pleased with the services of Arbuda that he gave a boon to the effect that Nandivardhana mountain would henceforth be called Arbuda, and that near its peak a Nagatirtha, the place sacred to the Nagas, would be famous."60 Jinaprabhasūri also states that Abu was formerly called Nandivardhana, and later it was named Arbuda, being the habitat of the Naga Arbuda.61 The Puranic account suggests that originally Abu was largely inhabited by the Naga tribe, and that there occurred some geologi. cal upheaval. The Mahabharata indeed reveals that there was a hole through the earth in the days of yore at Abu.62 This probably refers to a chasm or cater of volcano at Abu. The possibility of volcanic eruptions at Abu is further suggested by the name Arbuda, which also means swelling, tremor, polypus or foetus. 63 The local people even today believe that Abu shakes every year.64
When Abu came to be known as a Jaina tirtha is not definitely known. The Brhatkalpabhasya (circa sixth century A. D.) refers to a sankhadi, i. e. picnic or festival, which people used to enjoy in yatra at Prabhasa or Abu.65 Jinaprabhasūri informs that Acarya Susthitasuri went on a pilgrimage to Aṣṭāpada from Arbudacala. An inscription of 1370 A. D. even says that Mahavira also visited the Abu region during his tours as a the Jaina Pattavalis, monk.67 According to Udyotanasuri went on a pilgrimage to Abu in 994 V. S. (937 A. D.).68 These references apparently show that Abu was a sacred Jaina place, and hence there were erected Jaina temples. Another reason for building activity is its attractive hill-top.
From Abu Road a straight pathway leads to the foot of the Abu mountain; and thence by a winding

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36
Faina Temples of Western India
pitch-road is arrived the plains of Abu. Here, one Vatsarāja (Prati hāra) built a shrine of the Buddhist is amazed by finding himself almost in a new goddess Tārā at this place and hence the place was world-"an island floating in air.” This table. called Tarapura. Later Vatsarāja is said to have land is walled on all sides by abrupt and lofty accepted Jaina religion and erected there a shrine cliffs, contains villages and hamlets, is ornamented to Siddhāyikā, the Yakşi of Mahävira Some time by a lake and by more than one rivulet of water, afterwards the shrine fell into the hands of the and wears a coronet of mountain peaks. One of Digambaras, who continued to hold its possession the villages here is called Dilwara or Delvādā, until they were ousted by Caulukya Kumārapāla, which lies one and a half miles away from Mt. who ordered his Dandanāyaka Abhaya to adorn it Abu and is reached from the latter place by a pitch with a temple of Ajitanātha.75 It appears that road. In the village are the world famous temples formerly Taranga was a Buddhist site, and then it of Abu. Since there were many temples in this was occupied by the Digambaras and the Svetāmarea, the place came to be known as Devakulapā- baras respectively. That Taranga was a Buddhist taka or Devalapāțaka (a region of temples),69 and site is also known from the discovery of an image it was most probably from Devalapätaka that the of the Buddhist goddess Tārā from this place. 70 present name of Deulavädä or Delvädä was derived. About the sanctity of this place Hemacandra writes At present there is a group of five Jaina temples, that "in religious merit it equals Shatrunjaya," 77 all situated very close to each other. Of these, only
Girnar-Girnar or Girinar is one of the most the Vimalavasahi and the Lunavasahi come under
sacred hills of the Jainas, lying four miles east of the survey of this work.
Junagadh, Cujarat. This is the highest hill in Taranga–Taranga is a sacred hill of the Jainas. Gujarat, rising to a height of about 3470 ft. obove It is situated 35 miles northeast of the Mehsana the sea-level. In the Junagadh inscription of district of Gujarat. Taranga is also a Railway Rudradaman Girnar is referred to as Girinagara;78 Station whence the Taranga hill lies at a distance and it has been suggested that it was from Girinaof three miles only. At present the hill is approach- gara that the present name of Girinar or Girnar ed from its foot by a paved road which passes was derived." In the Puranas Girnar is referred through scrubs and trees and opens at length in a to as Ujjayanta, Ujjanta, Udayanta, Durjayanta long basin, in the middle of which and surrounded and Vaijayanta,so while in the inscriptions it has by an extensive paved courtyard stands the temple been called Urjayat. Hiuen Tsang calls it Yuhof Ajitanātha.
chen-to (Ujjanta), 2 which, according to CunninTaranga is also called Tärāpura, Taraura,
gham, is the Pali form of the Sanskrit Ujjayanta. 83
Another name applied for Girnar is Raivata or Tārāvaranagara, Tāraṇagiri, Täragiri, Tarana
Raivataka.84 In the Junagadh inscription of Skandgadha, Tarangakaparvata, Tāranganāga, Tāranga
agupta dated 457 A. D. Raivataka and Urjayata kagiri, Tārangadha and Täranadurga.70 Among
are mentioned separately.85 This obviously indi. one hundred eight names of Shatrunjaya enumerated
cates that Raivataka and Ujjayanta were names of by Dhanesvarasūri Tärăgiri (Taranga) is one.?l As
two different hills at Girnar, but later they seem for the origin of the name of Taranga, Nyayavijaya
to have been regarded as identical names of Girnar has pointed out that in the 15th century A. D. Taranga was called Taranadurga, and it was from Täraņadurga that the term Taranagadha, then Girnar has been regarded as a sacred hill by the Tärägadha, and finally Taranga was derived."
Hindus, Buddhists and Jainas since ancient times.87 Forbes has suggested that the name of Taranga is
According to the Giranāra Mahātmya, Prabhāsaksetra derived from Taruna Mātā whose temple exists on
and its vicinty on the south sea-shore of Saurashtra the hill.73
are the holiest of all the places of Hindu sanctity, It is a siddhaksetra, as here were liberated but Girnar or Vastrapatha, as it is called, is holier Varadatta, Varānga, Sāgaradatta and three and a still by some almost infinitesimal amount,88 half crore Munis, 74 During the historical period Girnar is also included among the five most sacred
hills. 86

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Geography and the Religious Sites
37
places of the fainas. 89 The antiquity of Girnar as mountains etc., by prayers, penances, vows, gifts a laina site may be traced to the time of Neminā: and study, tenfold as much is obtained in Jaina tha, the 22nd Tirthankara, as three of his kalyana- places of pilgrimage; a hundredfold as much at the kas. viz. Diksa, Kevalajñana and Nirvana, are known chaityas of the Jambu tree; a thousandfold as much to have taken place at this place. Krsna's sons, at the eternal Dhätuki-tree, at the lovely chaityas of Sãmbakumära and Pradyumna, and the latter's Pushkaradvipa at Mt. Anjana. Yet tenfold more son Aniruddha and seventy two crore seven hund. is acquired at Nandıśvara, Kundaladri, Mänushotred Jaina Munis are also said to have obtained taraparvata; proportionately ten thousand fold more liberation here, 01 Historically, however, Girnar at the Vaibhara, Sammetadri, Vaitadhya, Meru, came to be known from the time of the Mauryan Raivata and Ashțăpada. Infinitely more, however, king Candragupta.
is obtained at once by the mere sight of Satruñ
jaya."7 Forbes states that "Satruñjaya is one of Girnar has six distinct peaks separated by deep
the most ancient and most sacred shrines of the ravines: the highest of these is dedicated to
Jaina religion. It is described as the first of places Gorakhanatha, and the remotest to Kalka. To
of pilgrimage, the bridal hall of those who would ascend these peaks there is an arrangement of steps
marry everlasting rest; like our own sacred Iona."95 cut in the living rock. After an ascent of nearly 2000 steps and covering a distance of about a mile Shatrunjaya is a siddhaksetra, as here were liberais reached the point where the shoulder of the ted three sons of Pandu and eight crore Dravida mountain terminates in a bare cliff consisting of kings. After his initiation into the Order of Nemi. gigantic masses of black and isolated granite rock. nätha, Gautamakumara obtained salvation at this On the summit of the cliff stands on different levels site.100 Pundar.ka, who was the first Ganadhara of a group of five Jaina temples of which only the Rşabhanatha, performed penances and obtained Neminātha and the Adinātha (Vastupalavihāra) emancipation at this place.101 A well-preserved temples come under the survey of the present marble image of Pundarika dated 1064 V. S. (1007 work.
A. D.) may also be seen in worship there.102 The
holy mountain of Shatrunjaya was visited by a large Shatrunjaya-Shatrunjaya, a hill lying beside the
number of accomplished sages such as Rşabhasena, town of Palitana in the Bhavnagar district, is the
and except for Neminatha all the Jinas from holiest Jaina tirtha in Gujarat. It rises to a height
Nabheya to Vardhamāna visited this place. 108 of nearly 2000 ft. above the plains. Among the five most sacred hills of the Jainas the name of Shatrun- Shatrunjaya is an isolated hill rising gently from jaya is also included. It is sacred to the memory the plains into twin summits linked together by a of Adinatha, who patronised it more than any other shallow valley. After a toilsome ascent of about place, visiting it ninety nine purvas of times before two and a half miles upon the shoulder of the his Niruāņa,94
mountain is arrived at the sight of the island-like It is known by different names. Dhanesvarasuri,
hill, which is formed of rocks of very beautiful who wrote a Māhatmya on Shatrunjaya, calls it by
colour and is adorned with numerous Jaina temples. one hundred eight names.95 In this list the names
The total flight is completed into two stages, the of Abu and Girnar are also included. This descrip
first by an ascent of about 2500 steps cut in the tion appears to be of the eulogy type, for the above
living rock and the second by an unpaved footpath. two hills are not linked but stand far apart from
At present there are more than a hundred temples each other. Jinaprabhasūri calls it by twenty-one
built into fortified walls called tunks. The northern names, five of which were forgotten during the
summit called Nava-tunk consists of nine tunks of
which the Caumukha-tunk is the most imposing course of time.
one. The valley comprises two tunks, viz. Motisäha About the sanctity of this place Dhanesvarasüri and Balabhai, and has terraces and gardens. The writes: "whatever purity may be obtained in any temples on the southern summit are going by the other artificial places of pilgrimage tours, groves, name of Dadāji or Adisvara Bhagavāna tunk. The

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Jaina Temples of Western India
Adinatha-tunk in the western end of this pinnacle is the oldest one at Shatrunjaya. It is here that the pious Jainas have concentrated their utmost attention in building and rebuilding the temple of Adinatha. As a result of several repairs the originality of this temple is almost completely obliterated. This is the only temple at Shatrunjaya which belongs to our period.
Vadnagar-It is an old city lying beside the Vadnagar Railway Station in the Mehsana district of Gujarat. It was called Camatkarapura in the Krtayuga, Anartapura in the Tretayuga, Ananda pura in the Dvaparayuga and Vṛddhanagara in the Kaliyuga.14 In the Nisitha Cürgi it is mentioned as Akkatthali (Arkasthali).15 Hiuen Tsang also makes mention of the town of O-Nan-to-pu-lo (Anandapura). 100 On the basis of the Märkandeya Purana it has been suggested that Anandapura was named after Anandesvara Śiva to whom the town was sacred.107 According to the Vadnagar Prasasti of Kumarapala, the town was named Anandapura since it was the bestower of joy during the whole four ages.108
During his visit to this town Hiuen Tsang reports that "the population is dense; the establishments rich.... There are several tens of Deva temples, and sectaries of different kinds frequent them."109 The richness of town is also indicated from the fact that it was called a sthalapattana. 110
The town was a stronghold of the Nagara Brahmanas. This is apparently known from the Vadnagar Prasasti of Kumarapala wherein it is mentioned that Kumarapala caused a rampart to be built for the protection of this "Brahmana
town."111
The literary evidence traces the association of the Jainas with this site to the time of the Maitrakas, as in 454 or 467 A.D. Dhanesvarasuri read Kalpasūtra before king Dhruvasena to console him on the death of his son.112 But the archaeological testimony represented by a temple of Ṛșabhadeva does not carry us prior to the 10th century A.D.
At present the fortified town of Vadnagar is dirty and the establishments poor. Towards the east end of the town is a large lake which is the chief

attraction of the town. Besides, there are some monuments of historical importance of which the Amthermātā temple group, the two kirtti-toranas and the temple of Hathakeśvara Mahadeva are noteworthy. The two kirtti-toranas are the masterpieces of Indian art and architecture. In the centre of the town may also be seen on old Jaina temple dedicated to Rṣabhanatha.
Than-It is situated about two and a half miles north of Than Railway Station in the Surendranagar district of Gujarat. Than derived its "present name from Sanskrit sthan 'a place', as though it were the place hallowed above all others by the residence of devout sages, by the excellence of its city and by its propinquity to famous temples such as that of Trinetresvara, now called Tarnetar, the famous temple of the Sun at Kandola, and those of
the Snake-brethren Wäsuki and Banduka.... Nor is Than famous in the local tradition only, one of the chapters of the Skanda Purana is devoted to Trinetresvara and the neighbourhood, and this chapter is vulgarly called the Than Purana or Tarnetar Mahatmya.... Here we learn that the first temple to Sun was built by Raja Mandhätä in the Satya Yuga...... Than was visited also by Kṛṣṇa and his consort Laksmi.....
Modern tradition only carries us back as far as the Babrias, who ruled here until driven out by the Paramāras, who were expelled by the Käthis, who in their turn were dispersed by Shujaat Khan, Subähdär of Gujarat, and were succeeded by Jhalas."113
Though we get ample information about Than in the Brahmanical literature, the Jaina literature is silent, and except for a ruined small Jaina temple situated on a hillock, nothing of Jaina's is known from here. When Cousens visited this place there were two Jaina temples standing very close to each other, 114 but now one of them has gone and the other is in a very ruinous condition.
Ghumli-Ghumli or Gumli, the site of ancient Bhumillikā, 115 lies 33 miles northeast of Porbandar in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. It is stituated in a valley towards the north-eastern end of the Barda hills. Bounded on the south and

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Geography and the Religious sites
39
east by the gorges of the valley and concealed from the north by a low ridge it is approached through a narrow passage only from the northwest. It is enclosed on the east, north and west by a substa- ntial rampart, the walls of which are carried up the summit of the mountain where is a fortified citadel, now entirely deserted but for wild beasts, 116
walls of which are built of massive stone blocks repaired at many places by smaller stones. On the hill stand two temples of archaeological interest, viz. the Solathamba and the Sürya temple. The Solathambā is a Jaina temple of our period. Probably it derived its present name from the number of pillars in the rangamandapa, comprising sixteen in all.
Ghumli was the seat of the Jethavas from the Bhadreshwar-It is a small village on the sea-coast, 10th to the 14th century A. D.117 Once Ghumli lying about 32 miles southwest of Gandhidham and distinguished as a capital city in the peninsula, but 21 miles from Anjar Railway Station in the Kutch now it is a wreck. However, there are some build. district of Gujarat. It is identified with Bhadravati ings, which bespeak of the grandeur of the old city. of the Mahābhārata; it was the capital city of The first and foremost among these is the Nava- Yuvanālva and here was caught the Afvamedha lakhā temple, a name indicative of the fact that horse of the Pandavas.1 26 Writing the history of the building costs nine lakhs. Among other edifices the city of Bhadravati Burgess suggests that when are to be included the Ganapati temple, Jethāni the Solanki Rajapūtas of Bhänagadha conquered Vāva, Ramapola and Vaniävasi, the last one being this region, they changed the name of the city to a Jaina temple. The Vaniāvasi is the only build- Bhadreshwar.127 Sarvånandasiri, who gives a vivid ing at Ghumli which comes under the survey of the
picture of this city, also calls it Bhadreshwar. 128 present work. Unfortunately the temple is wholly gone; only its photographic record is available. During the historical period, however, the city
of Bhadreshwar did not come into prominence until Kanthkot--It is situated 31 miles from Bhachau the time of the Solankis. Since Bhadreshwar was in the Kutch district of Gujarat. According to an important military base, Bhima built a 'fort Shah, Kanthkot probably derived its present name there. 129 When this fort was destroyed by Pithafrom Kanthadanātha, the name of a Yogi, who deva of Päradega, Jagadū built a new one. 130 lived there in the days gone by. 118 In the Pra- Apart from the military base, it was an important bandhacintamani it is referred to as Kanthadurga, 119 centre of trade and commerce. Bhadreshwar was while in the Jagadīcarita it is mentioned as Kanthā- also a sea-port, and Jagadū accumulated much nagari. 1 20 It is also taken to be the same as wealth from this port by importing and exporting Kanbhkot of the Muhammadan writings, described commodities to the distant lands.181 It was of as a dependency of Kutch.121
course the suitable economic condition of the city Kantbkot seems to be a highly protected strong
that Sola, the father of Jagadū, migrated to this hold during the Caulukya period, as Mülarāja I
place from Kanthkot.193
Place took shelter here when he was conjointly attacked The association of the Jainas with Bhadrāvati is by the kings of Sapädalaksa and Tilangadeśa, 122 traced to the Vira Nirvāṇa era 23 when Devacandra When Bhima I found it difficult to check the built a temple to Pärsvanātha in the centre of the Muslim advance, he removed his family to Kanth- city.183 But no remains of this temple exist now. kot.123 At this place also lived the ancestors of
The site of this ancient city extends to the east Jagadū,124 who were rich Srimali Vaniks of
of the present village, but most of the area has been Rajasthan. But this important military strong
dug over for building stone. What now remains hold is now deserted like anything, and instead of
are the Jaina temple, the pillars and part of the rich merchants and traders there are living poors
dome of the Siva temple of Duda, the Väva close with their huts called 'darabäras'. 125
by it, two mosques and a fragment of the temple of There is an old fort on the top of an isolated Asāpuri,134 Of these the Jaina temple alone comes rocky hill about three miles in circumference, the under the purview of the present study.

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Faina Temples of Western India
Sejakpur-It is an old village lying 14 miles southwest of Sayla Railway Station in the Surendra- nagar district of Gujarat. About the establishment of the village it is said that when the Guhil Rāja- pūtas were expelled from Kharagadha in Marwad by the Rathoras about 1240 A, D., they migrated to Saurashtra under the guidance of Sejaka, who was then their ruler and founded Sejakpur near the old village of Sahapura, 185
spires on the corridors and the flag-staffs hoisted on them it received the name of Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya. 137 At present, however, only its photographic record is available. It is surprising that James Tod, who was an earlier visitor to this place, escaped this temple.158
In old days the Junagadh-Wadhwan trade-route passed from here, and the merchants, who frequented this place, might have raised a large sum for
large sum for erecting some beautiful temples there. There are at present three temples in the village. Two of these are Hindu and one belongs to the Jaina religion. The Hindu temples called Navalakhả temple and Siva temple stand facing each other, while the Jaina temple lies on the western out- skirts of the village, about 300 ft. to the south of the Navalakhã temple. The Guhils had nothing to do with these temples, for it will be too late a date for them. The Navalakha temple, for which the name of the village is justly famous, is a grand and highly ornate edifiče, while the Jaina temple, though small yet equally ornate, is a neglected one, so much so that during recent years the temple was wholly destroyed and its building material carried away by the villagers,
Maini-It is situated on the sea-coast, about 25 miles northwest of Porbandar in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. Miani is an old village, as here are found temples of the Gop class. The site is famous for Harsaţa Mātā whose shrine is located upon upon the hill on the other side of the creek from the village. According to the local tradition, this Mata, so long as she sat perched up aloft there, looking out to the sea, lured unfortunate mariners an to shipwreck on the shore beneath, 130 Once upon a time, however, a certain individual induced her, after terrible sacrifices on his part, to come down the hill and take up her abode below, where she could not look upon the sea and where a new temple was built for her.140 From the traditional account it appears that Miani was a sea port, and the export and import of goods from this port must have been a great source of income to the people in this part of the country. The rich condition of the locality is also demonstrated not only by the existence of many small temples of the Gop class but also by the large-sized temples of the Solanki period. Of the latter group there are two temples in the village, beside the one built to Harsata Mätä. One of these is dedicated to Nilakantha Mahadeva, and the other is a Jaina temple. now deserted and weather-worn.
Sarotra-It is a small village lying one and a half miles west of Sarotra Road Railway Station in the Banaskantha district of Gujarat. It is only six miles away from Candrāvati, the capital city of the Paramāras. Candrāvati was not only a political centre but also an economic centre, for the ancient Ahmedabad-Ajmer trade-route passed from here. This might have considerably raised the material prosperity of the city and its neighbourhood. This is clearly evident from the existence of a magnificent Jaina temple at Sarotra, the site lying very close to the trade-route.
References : 1. Cunningham, A., Ancient Geography of India,
Calcutta, 1924, pp. 13-14. Vide also Varāhamihira, Brhatsamhitā, Jha, A. (ed.), Varanasi,
1959, XVI. 31. 2. Law, B, C., India as Described in the Early
Texts of Buddhism and Jainism, London, 1941,
p. 18. 3. Ibid., p. 73. 4. Altekar, A. S., "History of Important Towns
and Cities in Gujarat and Kathiawar," Indian Antiquary, Suppt. LIII, 1924, p. 2.
Hiravijayasuri, the preceptor of Akbar, once spent his rainy season here and imparted religious injunctions to the Bhillas, who afterwards became the followers of Jaina faith.186 During his visit to this place Burgess explored here a ruined Jaina temple with 52 devakulikās. From the number of
Jain Education Interational

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Geography and the Religious Sites
41
5. See Dey, N. L., The Geographical Dictionary
of Ancient and Mediaeval India, London, 1927,
p. 9. 6. Ibid.
See Law, B. C., Historical Geography of Ancient
India, Paris, 1955, p. 9. 8. Sankalia, H. D., Studies in the Historical and
Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat,
Poona, 1949, p. 9. 9. Altekar, loc. cit. 10. Ibid. 11. Sankalia, op. cit., p. 9. 12. Ibid. 13. Sircar, D. C., Studies in the Geography of Ancient
and Medieval India, Delhi, 1960, p. 106. 14. Altekar, op. cit., p. 7. 15. CG, p. 18. 16. Altekar, op. cit., pp. 7-8. 17. Subbarao, B., Personality of India, p. 21. 18. Spate, O. H. K., India and Pakistan, London,
1960, p. 598; Dikshit, K. R., Geography of
Gujarat, Delhi, 1970, p. 17. 19. Dikshit, op. cit., p. 28. 20. Majmudar, M. R., Cultural History of Gujarat,
Bombay, 1965, p. 65. 21. Motichandra, Sarthavāha (Hindi), Patna, 1953.
p. 26. 22. Majmudar, op. cit., pp. 65-66. 23. Krishna Deva, "Bhūmija Temples," in Studies
in Indian Temple Architecture, edited by Pramod
Chandra, New Delhi, 1975, pp. 109-10. 24. Meha, who flourished in the 15th century
A. D., seems to record the old tradition when he writes that marble from this place was transported to Abu and was used in the construction of the Vimalavasahi.--Präcina Tirthamala Sangraha, vol. I, Vijayadharmasūri (ed.), Bhavnagar, V. S. 1978, p. 52,
vv. 43-44. Cf. Upadetasaptati, pp. 29-30. 25. Visālavijaya, Ārāsaņatirtha aparanāma Kumbha
riäjitirtha, pp. 67-68. 26. Dikshit, op. cit., pp. 5-6, 21. See also Wadia,
D.N., Geology of India, London, 1939, p. 70;
Spate, op. cit., p. 9. 27. Dikshit, op. cit., p. 8. 28. Krishnan, M. S., Geology of India and Burma,
Madras, 1968, pp. 408-9. 29. Ibid., p. 367.
30. Buddhist Suttas, Eng. trans. by Rhys Davids
in SBE, vol. XI, Max Müller, F. (ed.),
Oxford, 1900, p. 90. 31. Kane, P. V., History of Dharmashastra, vol. IV,
Poona, 1953, p. 552. 32. The Qur'an, Eng. trans. by Palmer, E. H., in
SBE, vol. VI, Max Müller, F. (ed.), reprint,
Varanasi, 1965, p. LXXI. 33. Kane, op. cit., pp. 552-53. 34. Shastri, K. C., Jainadharma (Hindi), Mathura,
V. E. 2474, p. 321; Kalyāņavijayagani,
Prabandha Parijata (Hindi), Jalor, 1966, p. 256. 35. Jain, K. P., Jaina Tirtha aura Unaki Yatrā
(Hindi), Delhi, 1943, p. 2. 36. Sangave, V.A., Jaina Community-A Social Survey,
Bombay, 1959, p. 271. 37. Premi, N., Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa (Hindi),
Bombay, 1956, p. 422. 38. Bharatiya Sanskrlimen Tainadharma ka Yogadāna
(Hindi), Bhopal, 1962, pp. 319-20. 39. Jain, H., Jaina Itihasa ki Parva Pithika (Hindi),
Bombay, 1939, p. 116. 40. Bhandarkar, D.R., Progress Report of the Archa
cological Survey of India, Western Circle,
1905-6, p. 3. 41. Dave, K.B., Ambika, Kofeśvara ane Kumbharia
(Gujarati), Baroda, 1963, p. 37. 42. Visalavijaya, Arāsanatirtha aparanama Kumbha
riajitirtha, p. 139, No. 121. 43. Ibid., p. 43, No. 23. 44. Forbes, A. K., Ras Mala, p. 327. 45. Op. cit., p. 10. 46. JPI, vol. II, p. 299. 47. Pracina Tirthamala Sangraha, vol. I, p. 50, v. 24. 48. Forbes, Ras Mala, p. 327. 49. Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, p. 30. 50. Visālavijaya, op. cit., pp. 7, 57-68. 51. Forbes, Rās Mala, p. 323. 52. Ibid., p. 327. 53. Kharatara Gachha Pattavali Sangraha, p. 43. See
also Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 64. 54. Visälavijaya, op. cit., pp. 138-40, Nos. 121-23. 55. Dhaky, M. A., "Äräsanana be Jaina Pratima
lekhoni Višeşavācanā," Svadhyāya (Gujarati),
vol. VII, No. 2, Baroda, 1971, p 191. 56. The others are Satruñjaya, Girnar, Sammeta
Sikhara and Aștāpada.--Dey, N.L., Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 176.

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p. 13.
57. HA, pp. 2-3.
84. Sandesara, op. cit., p. 57. 58. Law, B.C., Historical Geography of Ancient India, 85. Sircar, op. cit., p. 20.
86. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 7, v. 1; 59. HA, p. 3.
Somesvara, Kirttikaumudi, 9. 37-38. 60. Ibid., pp. 3-4; Joshi, U., Purāņomām Gujarāta
87. Altekar, op. cit., p. 20. (Gujarati), Ahmedabad, 1946, p. 15.
88. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, 61. Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 16, v. 25.
p. 154. 62. Mahābhārata, Vana Parva, Sect. LXXXII. 89. Dey, op. cit., p. 176. 63. HA, p. 5.
90. Kalpasätra, Eng. trans. by Jacobi, H., in SBE, 64. Joshi, op. cit., p. 16.
vol. XXII, Max Müller, F. (ed.), pp. 277 and 65. Brhatkalpabhāsya, vol. III, Caturvijaya (ed.), 279.
Bhavnagar, 1936, pp. 883-84, gāthā 3150. 91. Johrapurkar (ed.), op. cit., p. 36, vv. I and 5. 66. Viridhatirthakalpa, p. 81, v. 10. According to 92. Tod, J., Travels in Western India, reprint,
the Jaina tradition, Susthitasūri was a disciple Delhi, 1971, pp. 381-82; see also Jain, K. P., of Arya Suhasti who was a contemporary of Śrinirvāṇakşetra Girināra" (Hindi), Jaina the Mauryan king Samprati and lived 291 Antiquary, vol. V, No. 3, p. 193. years after Mahāvira, that is in circa 236 A.D. 93. Dey, op. cit., p. 182. --HA, p. 7.
94. Cousens, H., Somanath and other Mediaeval 67. Jayantavijaya, Arbudācalapradaksina Jainalekha
Temples of Kathiawad, Calcutta, 1931, p. 74. samdoha, Ābā, vol. V, (Gujarati), Bhavnagar,
95. Weber, A., "The Satruñjaya Māhātmya," V.S. 2005, p. 17, No. 88.
Indian Antiquary, vol XXX, p. 244; Satrunjaya 68. Tapāgaccha Pattāvali, vol. I, Kalyäņavijaya
Māhātmya, Gujarati trans., p. 34. (ed.), p. 104.
96. Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 1, vv. 5-10. 69. HA, p. 15.
97. Weber, op. cit., pp. 244-45. 70. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 146; JPI, vol. II, p. 734; 98. Forbes, Rās Mala, p. 6.
Johrapurkar, V.P. (ed.), Tirthavandanasangraha, 99. Johrapurkar (ed.), op. cit., p. 36, v. 7. Sholapur, 1965, p. 146.
100. Sandesara, op. cit., p. 174. 71. Satrunjaya Mahātmya, Gujarati trans. by Kāra. 101. Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 1, v. 4.
bhāri, B. F., Surat, 1912, p. 34; Nyāyavijaya, 102. Shah, A. P., "Some Inscriptions and Images Jaina Tirthono Itihasa (Gujarati), Mehsana, on Mount Satruõjaya", Shri Mahavir Jaina 1949, pp. 192-93.
Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, pt. I, pp. 16372. Op. cit., p. 193.
64, fig. 1. 73. Ras Mala, p. 283.
103. Vividhattrthakalpa, p. 1, v. 4. See also Law, 74. Johrapurkar (ed.), op. cit., p. 36, v. 4.
B. C., Some Jaina Canonical Sutras, Bombay, 75. Kumārapālapratibodha, Gujarati trans., p. 417.
1949, p. 179. 76. Majmudar, M. R. (ed.), Historical and Cultural Chronology of Gujarat, vol. I, p. 278, pl. LXX.
104. Altekar, op. cit., p. 35.
105. Sandesara, op. cit., pp. 14-15. 77. PCG, p. 328.
106. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, 78. Sircar, D. C., Select Inscriptions, vol. I, p. 167.
vol. IV, p. 458. 79. Sandesara, B. J., Jaina Agamasahityaman Gujarāta (Gujarati), Ahmedabad, 1952, p. 66.
107. Joshi, op. cit., p. 35. 80. Joshi, op. cit., p. 49.
108. Munshi, K.M., The Glory that was Gürjaradeća, 81. Sircar, op. cit., pp. 170 and 305.
pt. III, Appendix E, p. 279. 82. Beal, S., Buddhist Records of the Western World, 109. Beal, op. cit., pp. 458-59. vol. IV, p. 4.
110. Sandesara, op. cit., p. 18. 83. Cunningham, A., Ancient Geography of India, 111. See Munshi, op. cit., Appendix E. p. 372.
112. Sandesara, op. cit., p. 18.

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113. Watson, J.W., "Sketch of Some of the Principal Places of Snake-worship in Kathiawad,
with a Brief Account of Than and the Dhandhal Tribe of Kathis," Indian Antiquary, vol. IV, reprint, Delhi, p. 193. See also Bhagavānalāla Sampatarama, Saurashtra Darsano Itihasa (Gujarati), Bombay, 1868, pp. 63-65. 114. Cousens, op. cit., p. 50.
115. Altekar, op. cit., p. 35.
Geography and the Religious Sites
116. Tod, J., Travels in Western India, reprint, Delhi, 1971, pp. 404-5; Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, pp. 178-79. 117. Burgess, op. cit., p. 178; Cousens, op. cit., p. 36. 118. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 145.
119. PCH, p. 21.
120. Sarvänandasuri, Jagaḍucarita, I. 23 and II. 28. 121. Progren Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle, 1905-6, p. 38.
122. CG, p. 28. 123. Ibid., p. 45. 124. Jagadicarita, I. 23.

125. Ibid., p. 109.
126. Vidyavijaya, "Bhadravati," Jaina Satya Prakasa (Gujarati), year 7, Nos. 1-3, p. 207.
43
127. Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, pp. 206-7. 128. Jagadicarita, Sarga II. 129. Ibid., V. 4.
130. Ibid., V. 6.
131. Vidyavijaya, op. cit., p. 209. 132. Jagadicarita, II. 28.
133. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, pp. 138-39. 134. Burgess, op. cit., p. 205.
135. Forbes, Ras Mālā, pp. 237-39; Bhagavanalala Sampatarama, op. cit., pp. 133-35; Cousens, op. cit., p. 58.
136. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 63.
137. Burgess, J., Architectural Antiquities of Northern
Gujarat, London, 1903, p. 99. 138. Tod, J., Travels in Western India, pp. 135-38. 139. Cousens, op. cit., p. 70. 140. Ibid.

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CHAPTER III
DESCRIPTION OF TEMPLES
As has been seen in Chapter I there were erected Fourthly, the Jaina temples have also suffered a large number of Jaina temples in Gujarat during from the philanthropic outlook of the Jainas. It is the period under review, but the majority of these a very common practice among the Jainas to have temples were destroyed during the course of time. a temple or sculpture built or rebuilt, for it is There were various factors responsible for the spoli- believed that by doing so they fulfil a religious ation of these temples. First of all is the natural need, which is meritorious here and hereafter. It one. When the temples once go out of worship is generally found that wherever the sculptures or there starts growing of plants which penetrating the decorative designs are effaced, they are retouchthe temples cause fissions, and consequently the ed during the repairs, and if some parts are broken monuments soon fall down and become a jumble of off they are replaced by new ones. Even the repair stone and plant. This invites the people who are is done so skilfully that sometimes it becomes very in need of masonry, and they ignoring the impor- hard to differentiate between the old and new tance of the monument carry away the building works. At some places the temples are covered materials, sometimes leaving nothing at the site. with white lime, while at some other places they This creates problems for us to locate a certain are coated with white pigment. The ceilings of monument at a certain place, which once existed some temples are painted. These produce a bewil. there. The temples which are situated near the dering effect and conceal the originality of the sea-coast have considerably suffered from environ- temples. However, in spite of the little damages ment. Owing to the salt laden waves from the caused by the Jainas their contribution to preserve ocean the temples here have become defaced. The temples is by no means less. Indeed, it is the result heavy rainfall produces moss and lichen, which also of their philanthropic attitude of preserving monudamage temples. Sometimes the terrible earth- ments that the Jaina temples are well preserved to quakes too created havoc and violently pulled down this day, retaining of course many restorations and monuments. A devastating earthquake with its alternations. For this praiseworthy work the Jainas epicentre in Kathiawad occurred at the beginning should be congratulated. of the 19th century.
Secondly, the foreign and continental invasions have considerably damaged the temples. In this respect the Muslims are to be mostly blamed. They not only destroyed the Jaina and Hindu temples alike but plundered them ruthlessly and converted them into mosques.
Thirdly, the internal disturbances have also caused damages to the Jaina temples. The Solanki king Ajayapala being a bigoted Saiva persecuted the Jainas and destroyed their temples.
ÄDINATHA TEMPLE
It consists of a milaprasada, a güḍhamandapa and a mukhamandapa, the whole standing on a jagati which is approached from the east by a flight of steps. The jagati also supports two devakulikäs facing the temple, which once probably had the

In all there are nineteen temples located at as many as thirteen sites (Text Fig. 1). For convenience the temples are described here in the chronological order, but where there are more than one temple, all the temples of that site are describ. ed at one place, putting only the earliest one in the general chronological order, while the remaining temples follow the chronological sequence at the site. Below is given a detailed description of these temples one by one.
VADNAGAR
images of Yaksa and Yakşi of Adinatha. The tem ple faces east. Of the temple, only the pitha and vedibandha are original (Fig. 1), the rest including the whole of mukhamandapa are later additions.

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ABU
SAROTRA • .
• KUMBHARIA
TARANGA
• VADNAGAR
KANTHKOT
BHADRESWAR
THAN
SEJAKPUR
MIANI
GHUMLI
GIRNAR
SATRUNJAYA
ARABIAN SE A
1. Map of Jaina temple sites of Western India

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Jalna Temples of Western India
Mülaprasada
The udumbara is a later addition. The doorframe Tryanga on plan it consists of a bhadra, pratiratha has been painted during recent years, so that all its and karna,1 the bhadra being the longest and the grandeur is vanished. pratiratha the shortest. Between the karşas and pratirathas are saliläntaras,
Gadhamandapa The pitha comprises a short jadyakumbha ador
Articulated at the frontal karya of the sanctum, ned with fine caitya-arch pattern, an antarapatra
the gudhamandapa shows intact only two rear buttand a grāsapti. The grāsapatti depicts bold and
old and resses. Its pitha and vedibandha, which are but the vigorous grasamukhas (kirttimukhas) spewing pearl
continuum of those of the sanctum, are intact only festoons tied in loops; its upper surface is treated
Treated upto the lateral entrances. Inside the gâdhamaydapa
pro like a cippikā ornamented with usual caitya-arches.
are now preserved two saparikara images in white The wedibandha consists of five members, namely
marble of kāyotsarga Jinas (Fig. 3) unearthed from khura, kumbha, kalata, antarapatra and kapota.
the nearby debris during recent years. Both these
The khura is divided into two belts, the lower showing
images are very much alike and bear an inscription diamond-shaped rosettes, and the upper being
of V. S. 1312 (1255 A. D.).2 plain. The antarapatra is decorated with stepped diamonds. The kapota shows incision of lotus Devakulikās petals on the underside and the decoration of usual caitya-arch enrichment on the upper side.
Tryanga on plan the devakulikas have old remains
in the pitha, vedibandha and jangha. The pitha is The original door of the sanctum, now preser- made up of a bhitta, a jādyakumbha decorated with ved in the subterranean cella beneath the sanctum, usual caitya-arch device and a plain fillet with is of the catussakha type, consisting of patra, tipa, cippikā above. The vedibandha consists of a khura, Tāpastambha and räpa. At the base of the patrafakha a kumbha bearing caitya-arch ornament on the stands a female figure carrying water pot. The bhadras, a kalata, an antarapatra decorated with rabatakhas bear figures of musicians and dancers. stepped diamonds and a kapota carved with caityaBelow, the stambhasakhā displays a standing female arch motif. The jarigha is plain but for the sculpfigure carrying water vessel: above, it successi- tured niches on the bhadras and a gräsapatti on the vely carries four images of two-armed lalitāsana top. Each of these niches contains an image of goddesses. The goddesses hold varadamudrā and four-armed lalitasana god or goddess framed betpitcher in their hands, but in one instance she ween two segmented circular pilasters and sure bears sword and fruit. The stambhafakha is topped mounted by a caitya-arch pediment. The image by a ribbed round capital consisting of torus and on the south wall of the southern devakulika is padma. The uttarariga continues the decorations identifiable with goddess Cakreśvari, while that on of the patrašākha and the inner räpasakha, but above the east may be identified with Ambiká. The imthem it bears a sculptural panel depicting five age on the east wall of the northern devakulika is of images of padmāsana Jinas in projecting niches and Yakşa Brahmasänti, while that on the north is four images of käyotsarga Jinas in alternate recesses. mutilated.
THAN
JAINA TEMPLE
This is a small ruined temple with the sanctum alone having survived (Fig. 2). It faces north. From the remains of a few foundation layers it appears that originally the temple had a mandapa in its front.
About 7ft. high the sanctum is square on plan and is built of hewn blocks of rectangular ashlars. Its cubical wall has no ratha-projection.
In elevation it shows pitha, vedibandha, jangha, varandika and pharisanā. The pitha consists of only two plain bhittas. The vedibandha has a khura, a
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Description of Temples
kumbha decorated with crude half diamonds, a kalaša and a kapota adorned with caitya-arch motif. The jangha consists of two registers and is plain. The varandika pertains to a ribbed eave-cornice. The pyramidal type of phātisanā roof consists of three tiers, 3 each resembling an inverted padma ornamented with rosette-marked half diamonds and caitya-arches. One of these tiers and the crowning members have gone now.
the centre by the lalatabimba which depicts a padmasana Jina in meditation.
The interior of the sanctum displays four pilasters at the four corners, supporting a ceiling on a square frame of architraves. The base of the pilasters is composed of a khura, kumbha and kalaša; their shaft is plain; and the capital has a cushion-shaped bharani surmounted by roll brackets. The architraves are plain. The ceiling is made by cutting off the corners, comprising three tiers of nine slabs, the central slab bearing a full-blown crude lotus flower having two rows of petals. In the south wall there is a small niche, now blank.
The door of the sanctum is of the single-sakha variety. The udumbara shows a square projection carved with an inverted crescent in the centre and a projecting kirttimukha spewing creepers on each side. The jamb is sharply relieved with foliate scrolls. At the base of the jamb stands a female figure carrying water jar. The uttaranga continues the scroll-work of the jamb but is interruped in
The temple was probably dedicated to Ambikā, whose image the sanctum once contained. At present this image is lying outside the sanctum and is sadly damaged.
DILWARA (ABU) VIMALAVASAHI
the bhadras. The niches contain saparikara images This temple (Text Fig. 2) is a nirandhāra-prāsāda in white marble of Jinas seated in dhyānamudra. consisting of a malaprāsada, a gädhamandapa with The varandika consists of two kapotas, each decoratlateral entrance porches, a mukhamandapa and a ed with caitya-arches. The pharsanā is composed Tangamand apa, the whole standing in an oblong of nine tiers and is surmounted on top by a fluted courtyard (128 ft. X 75 ft. inside) surrounded by bell with kalaša and bijapīraka. The bells also a row of 52 devakulikās with a colonnaded corridor. appear in the cardinal directions, but here they Outside this and in the same axis as the sanctum are accompanied by rampant lions. At the base of and its three halls is a domed balanaka facing which the pharisana are sculptured niches containing is a portrait gallery called hastišala. The temple images of padmāsana or kayotsarga Jinas. The whole faces east.
of the exterior is now plastered up with white lime.
The doorframe of the sanctum is of the dvišakha Mülaprasāda
variety. It consists of a patrašakha decorated with It is tryaniga on plan, the bhadra being the foliate scrolls and a plain stambhafakha flanked by longest and the pratiratha the shortest. An offset a band of diamonds and beads. The udumbara shows flanked by recesses separates the sanctum from the a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed gūdhamandapa.
lotus in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each
side of it and diamonds on either extremity. The In elevation it displays pitha, vedibandha, jarigha, varandika and phamsanā. The pipha consists of a
uttaranga repeats the scroll-band of the jamb and bhitta, a jādyakumbha, a karnika and a patrika under
has a seated Jina as the tutelary image. In front lined with a projected band carved with caitya
of the door is a candrafila which consists of an
ardhacandra tied on both ends with gagāraka, conch arch pattern. The vedibandha is made up of a khura,
and lotus stem and flanked in turn by a talaripaka. a kumbha decorated with half diamonds, a kalasa,
The door appears to have been restored during an antarapatra and a kapota adorned with caitya
later times, arches. The jarigha, divided into two registers by a plain fillet and surmounted by a similar fillet, is I nside the sanctum is a saparikara pañcatirthi plain but for the projecting sculptured niches on image in white marble of Adinātha seated in dhyāna.

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48
Falna Temples of Western India
mudra on a pedestal. This image is not an original The goddess holds trisala, pala, varadamudra and one but was installed during the restoration carried fruit and may be identified with Yakşi Manasi. out in 1322 A. D.' The original image is now pre- The upper register displays seven projecting niches served in Devakulika 20. In the sanctum is also placed alternating with recesses. The central niche cona statue of Hiravijaya installed in 1604 A. D.' tains an image of Pārivanātha seated in dhyana
The buffer wall between the sanctum and gudha- mudra, while the other niches bear images of fourmandapa contains two niches, each having a marble
armed lalitäsana goddesses, each accompanied by image of Jina seated in dhyānamudra.
two female attendants. The recesses contain
figures of Srävakas and Srävikäs standing with Gūdhamandapa
folded hands. In front of the door is a candrafila It is duyanga on plan with a salilantara in
which consists of an ardhacandra tied on either end between. The bhadra is plain, while the karņa with a gagāraka and a Kinnar-couple and flanked is broken into three planes. It shares its pitha
in turn by two talaräpakas. and mandodara with the sanctum and has a The lateral entrances of the gadhamaşdapa are phāṁsanā roof of the similar type as seen in the led through a porch (Fig. 4) which is approached sanctum, but the sculptured niches of which only from the courtyard by a flight of four steps cut the pediments now remain are present only in across the pitha which is but the continuum of that the cardinal directions. The whole of the exterior of the mukhamandapa.8 On each side of the stairhere also is plastered up with white lime.
way is an elephant facing towards inner side, The gūdhamandapa is entered through an ornate Square on plan each porch consists of two pillars door from the front as well as from each side. The and two pilasters supporting a domical ceiling on a front (eastern) door frame is of the satsākha variety, square frame of architraves. The pillars are of the consisting of patra decorated with lotus scrolls, rūpa, square type, with corners chamfered into three again rūpa, ripastam bha, rüpa and again ripa. The angles. The base is made up of a khura, kumbha inset lower part of the jambs is occupied by a framed figure with figures of lalitasana goddesses, kalala, antaraof four-armed standing goddess (Rohini on pro. patra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch pattern. per right and Vairotyä on proper left) accompanied The shaft is divided into four sections, viz. square. by two female cauri-bearers and a female carrying octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular. The square water vessel. Above this the rūpastambha successively section is the longest one, the circular being next bears five sculptures of four-armed lalitāsana god. in length and the remaining two having almost desses, while the rūpasakhās carry figures of female equal length. The square section carries framed attendants, four flanking each goddess. The udum- figures of four-armed standing gods and goddesses bara is divided into two registers. The lower register on the four faces. The octagonal section bears eight displays mouldings of khura, jad yakumbha, karnikā figures of four-armed lalitasana goddesses. The and gräsapatti. The upper one shows a semi-circular sixteen-sided section has sixteen figures of Srävakas projection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, standing with folded hands. The circular section a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it and a is divided into three horizontal belts, the lower sculptured niche on either extremity. The niches showing figures of Gandharvas and Vidyadharas, depict Sarvānubhuti on proper right and Ambikā the middle representing a band of chain-and-bells on proper left, both having four arms and seated in alternating with tassels and displaying four pro. lalitāsana with four female attendants. The uttaranga jecting pendants, and the upper carrying a band of is also divided into two registers. The lower regi- kirttimukhas spewing festoons, the ends of which are ster shows a ghatapallava capital with three recessed clasped below by a band of diamonds and beads. angles topping the jambs on either end, while the The capital consists of a double-course round fluted space in between them is filled with the scroll-band bharani of karnika and padma and a four-armed carried over here from the jambs and a row of double-roll bracket. Each arm of the brackets Maladharas facing the lalațabimba which represents bears carving of creepers on the side face and a four-armed lalitasana goddess mounting a lion. foliage in the fo:n of pendant on the front,
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0.0.0
0.00 0 0 0
20
2. Plan of Vimalayasahi at Abu

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50
Jalna Temples of Western India
The pilasters are five-faceted. Their base and domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of archicapital are similar to those of the pillars, but the traves. The base of the pilasters consists of a khura, bharani is unfluted here. Below, the shaft bears a kumbha decorated with convex-sided half diamonds, framed figure of four-armed standing goddess, kalafa, antarapatra and kapota. The shaft of the while above, it successively carries four figures of four pilasters consists of two parts, each showing, four-armed lalitä sana goddesses on the central facet from bottom to top, decorations of kirttimukha or and figures of female attendants on the side ones. ardhapadma in semi-circle, ghatapallava, foliate The outer face of the shaft displays a female cauri- scrolls, leaves, saw-tooth pattern, diamonds alterbearer below and Maladharas above. The shaft is nating with beads, and kirttimukha. The shaft of surmounted by a ghatapallava.
the four other pilasters is octagonal at the base, The architraves are divided into two fasciae, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top. the lower being decorated with a band of lotus The capital is made up of a double-course round scrolls issuing from the mouth of a kirttimukha bharani of karņika and padma, surmounted by kicaka, carved in the centre and the upper representing a kiritimukha or gajamunda brackets. The architraves strip of diamonds. In the centre of their underside are similar to those found in the porch. A square is carved in low relief a lotus medallion having two block from each pilaster, carved with two elephants rows of petals.
with their trunks having upraised, introduces the Of the domical ceiling in the south porch, only
dome which is completed in eleven courses, the the bottom octagonal course is original. Its inner
first being sixteen-sided and the rest, circular. The face depicts ardhapadma motif on the corner slabs
first course is adorned with diamonds. The second and geese, kirttimukhas, ardhapadma pattern or
represents ardhapadma pattern in semi-circles. The figures of elephants and horse-riders on the cardi
third is a plain padma. The fourth also is padma but nal ones, while its underside at each corner shows
contains sixteen circular pendants. The remaia vigorous kirttimukha.
ning courses are plain padmas. The ceiling slab is
carved with a full-blown lotus flower having one The domical ceiling in the north porch is com
row of petals and two rows of petal-and-buds. Each posed of seven courses, the first being octagonal
corner left at the base of the dome is boldly reliand the rest, circular. The inner face of the first
eved with a large figure of kirttimukha. course is carved with kirttimukhas, while its underside at each corner represents a bold kirttimukha. At present the gūdham andapa contains two imThe second is plain. The third is a plain padma. ages in white marble of Pārsvanätha standing in The fourth and fifth are gajatālus, each topped by kāyotsargamudra. Both were installed in 1351 A. D. a band of diamonds and beads. The sixth is a Besides, there are two sculptures of Srävakas and plain padma. The seventh pertains to twelve-foil three sculptures of Srāvikās installed in 1341 kola. The ceiling slab shows incision of three con- A. D. centric circles.
Mukhamaņdapa The doorframes of the porches (Fig. 5) are very similar to each other and correspond to the eastern
Divided into nine bays it is landed up from the door of the gūdhamandapa, but Ambikā on the udum
rangamandapa by three stairways, each comprising bara is replaced by Cakreśvari and the standing
three steps. Flanking the stairways are elephants goddesses on the lower part of the jambs of the facing towards inner side. Below each stairway is south porch depict Rohiņi and Mänasi, and those
a candrašila which consists of an ardhacandra tied of the north porch represent Vairogya and Mānasi.
on either end with Sankha and gagāraka and flanked The uttaranga in both the porches is modern.
in turn by a talarūpaka. The front three bays to The roof, now plastered up, has a corrugated
wards the rangamandapa are supported by the nave eave-cornice,
pillars of the rangamandapa. The interior of the gūdhamand apa is square; its Its pitha (cf. Fig. 4) on the lateral sides consists wall is reinforced by eight pilasters supporting a of a bhitta decorated with half diamonds, a deep
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Description of Temples
fillet carved with diamonds, a chajjika, a gräsapatti section carries sixteen figures of lalitāsana goddesses. and a narathara underlined with leaves. The The circular section is divided into three belts, the narathara depicts padmāsana Jina with worshippers, lower representing Gandharvas and Vidyadharas, Acārya with sthapana in front and Srāvakas with and the middle and the upper being similar to offerings in hands, Kinnar, Kinnari, warriors, those of the porch pillars of the gūd hamandapa. The fighting scenes, dwarfs, horse-riders, elephants with capitals are also similar to those seen in the porch drivers, milk-maid churning milk and Udadhiku- pillars of the gādhamandapa. märas. The evenness of the pitha below each pillar is broken by a five-faceted projection, which
The five-faceted pilasters also correspond to is gradually splayed out below,
those observed in the porches of the gūdhamand apa,
with this difference that here the inner face represeThe mukhamandapa consists of ten pillars and nts a big female attendant below and two male and two pilasters arranged north-south in three rows, two female attendants above. the first and second comprising four pillars each and the third (back row) pertaining to two pillars
The architraves bear similar ornamentations as and two pilasters. All the pillars of the first and we find on those of the gūdhamandapa, but the second rows are of the square order and correspond
underside medallions here depict various designs, to the porch pillars of the gūdhamandapa, but here in one variety it represents three rows of incurved the bharani is clasped by suspended foliage and is
lotus petals. In another it shows two rows of unfluted. Besides, the ornamentations of the shaft
incurved and one row of plane lotus petals. In the vary. Here the square section shows figures of
third variety it depicts musicians and dancers in
circle. In the fourth variety it displays two two or four-armed male dancers, two-armed male
circular bands of eight-foil and quatrefoil respecti. musicians, and four-armed gods, goddesses and
vely. The medallions on the four architraves Pratihāras. The octagonal section bears eight
between the mukhamandapa and the rangamandapa figures of male or female divinities, or Apsaras making dance or carrying water pot and knife. The
are of four different types: (i) it consists of two sixteen-sided section carries sixteen
rows, the outer showing pointed but incurved lotus figures of
petals and the inner having lotus petal-and-buds; dancers and musicians, two-armed lalitasana god.
(ii) it also comprises two rows, the outer depicting desses, Apsaräs, or Srāvakas. The lower belt of
lotus petal-and-buds and the inner, incurved lotus the circular section has figures of Gandharvas and
petals; (iii) it has two rows of lotus petals in low Vidyadharas, stencilled acanthus, or sixteen images
relief and a central circle marked with twine of lalitasana goddesses, while the other two carry
pattern; and (iv) it consists of three rows, the outer usual decorations. The circular section in two
representing saw-tooth pattern, and the intermepillars, however, is divided into four belts, the
diate and central ones depicting incurved lotus lowermost showing Gandharvas, the next bearing
petals. The outer face of the architraves towards stencilled acanthus, and the other two having usual
the courtyard bears a figural band representing ornamentations. Between the octagonal and sixteen
musicians, dancers, garland-bearers and two sided sections is a recessed fillet carved with step
elephants standing face to face. The band is ped diamonds or lozenges.
replaced by a lotus-scroll band near the gudhama
udapa on the the southern side and near the raigaThe two pillars of the third row, located in the
mandapa on the southern as well as northern side. northwest and southwest corners, are of the octa
The mukhamand apa is shaded towards the courtyard gonal order. Their base is composed of a khura,
by a corrugated eav e-cornice. kumbha decorated with half diamonds, kalafa, antara patra, and kapota carved with caitya-arch Each bay contains an ornate ceiling. The ceilpattern. The shaft has three sections, viz, octagonal, ing in the central bay is ksiptotksipta of the padmasixteen-sided and circular. Below, the octagonal nabha variety. It is built on a rectangular section is plain, while above, it displays eight plan, but its space is reduced to a square by figures of lalitasana goddesses. The sixteen-sided a frame of four rectangular slabs. The square is

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Faina Temples of Western India
formed by substracting a broad belt from each of the of eight-foil reverse and six-foil normal kolas, and a longer sides. This is done by placing two rectangular stamenal tube inserted in a deeply set quatrefoil slabs across the longer sides. The inner face kola and clasped by a band of dancers and musiof the frame shows figures of four-armed lalitasana cians and one row of petals. goddesses in projecting niches and rosette-marked
The ceiling in the northeast bay is of the diamonds in alternate recesses. The underside of
domical order. Square on plan it consists slabs on the two shorter sides shows three slightly
of four circular courses and a circular padmašila. projecting lümās of the serrated diamonds type.
The inner face of the first course is carved with Arranged in diagonal order each of these lümäs
a row of elephants, while its underside at the consists of two courses of eight-foil and quatrefoil
four corners depicts a Kinnara-couple with other kolas and a stamenal tube decorated with one row
Kinnaras, two elephants lustrating a lotus plant, of petals. Between these lümās are set up flat but deeply cut half limas on the sides and quarter låmäs
Gaja-Lakşmi, or two färdūlas. The second is
karnadardarikā topped by a band of diamonds and at the corners. Each of the half lämās consists of a whorl of nine-fold (5+3+1) kola, and each of the
beads. The third is decorated with figures of horse
riders. The fourth depicts a procession of warriors. quarter lümas comprises trefoil kola. The ceiling
The padmašila commences with a band of diamonds proper represents four large but slightly projecting
and beads carved on the level surface. Then it is lämās in the four corners and a larger replica of the same in the centre, one full and two half lumas of
occupied by two courses of eight-foil and six-foil the flat but deeply cut variety in each of the four
kolas, each preceded by a reverse gajatalu. Lastly cardinal points, and a quarter one of the latter
comes the stamenal tube inserted in a deeply set variety at the end the four corners. All the limās
quatrefoil kola and clasped by two rows of petals. resemble serrated diamonds and are arranged Square on plan the ceiling (Fig. 8) in the northdiagonally. Each of the four larger lämās in the west bay is domical. It consists of three circular four corners consists of two courses of eight-foil courses and a circular padmafila. The inner face larger and eight-foil smaller kolas and a stamenal of the first course represents lalitasana goddesses tube clasped by one row of petals. The central with attendant figures, while its underside at each lāmā consists of three courses of twelve-foil, eight- corner depicts an image of four-armed lalitāsana foil larger and eight-foil smaller kolas and a stam- divinity accompanied on either side by a Málaenal tube having one row of petals. Each of the dhara and a Vidyadhara. Two of these images are full lümās in the cardinal points is made up of two identifiable with Vajränkusi and the other two with courses of eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas and a Ambika and Yaksa Brahmasanti. The underside flower bud in the centre, while each of the half space between these images on two sides is filled lümās consists of a whorl of eight-fold (5+3) kola with figures of musicians and dancers. The second and a flower bud. The quarter Tämäs pertain each course consists of twelve whorls of four-fold (3+1) to a whorl of three-fold (2+1) kola.
kola carrying figures of Vidyadharas on the points The ceiling in the southeast bay is of the
and of kirttimukhas on the triangular spaces. The domical order. Square on plan it consists of four
it consists of four third pertains to six-foil kola edged with twelve-foil circular courses and a circular padmašila. The reverse kola. The circular padmašila is a unique first course carries images of lalitäsana goddesses
one. It has a perpendicular outer surface carved in niches on the inner face and a creeper meda
with male figures carrying water vessels, while its llion at each corner of the underside. The second is soffit displays an eight-foil reverse kola and a serrat. adorned with a row of geese. The third consists of ed diamond. In the diamond are set up two coursixteen-foil kola, each foil containing a stamenal ses of eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas, and a tube ornamented with one row of petals. The stamenal tube clasped by a band of dancers and fourth, edged with gajatalu, has twelve-foil kola, musicians and one row of petals. each foil here also having a stamenal tube clasped The ceiling in the southwest bay is domical. by one row of petals. The padmašila is composed Square on plan it consists of five circular courses

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53
and a circular padmašila. The inner face of the contain each a whorl of three-fold (2+1) flat but first course depicts lalitāsana goddesses with atten- deeply cut kola. On each side are also seen pieces dant figures, while its underside carries an image of creepers. of four-armed lalitasana goddess accompanied on either side by a Mālādhara and a Vidyadhara at
The ceiling(Fig. 10) in the south bay resembles on
plan to that seen in the north bay, but in structure each corner and figures of male dancers on the two
it is samatala. The inner face of the frame bears sides. The second, third and fourth contain sixteen, twelve and eight-foil kolas respectively, each foil
images of lalitäsana goddesses in projecting niches
and attendant figures in alternate recesses. The containing a stamenal tube clasped by one row of
underside of the frame on each of the two shorter petals. The fifth is a quatrefoil kola. From the
sides displays a file of three slightly projecting second course project out four brackets of Vidya
lämäs on the central axis, four flat but deeply cut dharas carrying pitchers. Each of these brackets
half lūmās in between them on the two sides and supports a bracket figure of Apsarā, the stele of
four quarter lümās of the latter variety at the four which is tenoned into the quatrefoil kola. The Apsarās are represented carrying Sarkha and fly.
corners. One of the projecting lumas is circular
in shape. This läma consists of three courses of whisk or tying their anklets. The padmašila begins with a row of lotus buds; then it is occupied by an
twelve-foil, eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas and a eight-foil kola in the form of lozenge; and lastly
stamenal tube having one row of petals; the twelve
foil kola among these resembles a lozenge. The comes a stamenal tube inserted in a deeply set quatrefoil kola and clasped by a band of dancers
other five projecting lümās resemble a serrated and musicians and two rows of petals.
diamond. Each of these limās also consists of
three courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil and quatThe ceiling (Fig. 9) in the north bay is built
refoil kolas and a stamenal tube adorned with one on a rectangular plan, but its space is reduced to
row of petals. All these Tāmās are arranged diagoa square by a frame of four rectangular slabs.
nally. Each of the half lamās consists of a whorl of This is done by the same method as we
nine-fold (5+3+1) kola, and each of the quarter have observed in the central bay. The inner face
lümās has a whorl of six-fold (3+2+1) kola, The of the frame is carved with images of lalitāsana
ceiling proper is samatala. It is elegantly relieved goddesses with attendant figures, while its unde
with a fine creeper (kal palata). Emerging from one rside on each of the two shorter sides carries five
of the sides the wishing creeper undulates upwards niches containing images of four-armed lalitäsana
in an energetic movement and forms curbs of goddesses, three of which are identifiable with
frothlike foliage bursting from the nodes. To show Cakresvari, Vajränkusi and Gaja-Lakşmi. The
it in high relief the creeper is freed from the sides ceiling proper is kşiptotkşipta of the padmanabha
by sharp cuttings. In one corner of the relief is a order. It represents four depressed lümās in the
Vidyadhara hovering with folded hands. four corners, a projecting luma in the centre and a quarter lämā at the end of the four corners, all The ceiling in the east bay is domical of the resembling serrated diamonds and arranged in sabhāmandaraka order. Square on plan it diagonal order. Each of the corner lamās consists of five circular courses and a circular padmašila. of three courses of eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular The inner face of the first course is adorned with kolas and a stamenal tube having one row of a row of elephants, while its underside at each petals. The central lüma is made up of two courses corner depicts fighting scenes. The second is of twelve-foil and eight-foil kolas and a stamenal gajatalu surmounted by a band of diamonds and tube clasped by one row of petals and inserted in beads. The third, edged with gajatalu, consists of a deeply set quatrefoil kola. The inner side of the twelve-foil kola, each alternate foil having a corner lümās being overlapped by the central lūmā, stamenal tube adorned with one row of petals. the line of foils is broken and transferred to the fourth carries figures of Gandharvas, Vidyathe sides Bv this device a continuous chain of dharas, Mālādharas and pitcher-bearers. The fifth foils is arranged all around, The quarter lūmas consists of an eight-foil kola. From the second course

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Faina Temples of Western India
project out eight bracket figures of Vidyadharas. Each of these bracket figures supports a fine bracket figure of Apsara tenoned into the topmost kola course. Accompanied by diminutive gamas the Apsaras hold knife and are represented in the dancing attitudes. The short padmašila consists of a six-foil kola edged with reverse gajatalu, and a stamenal tube adorned with a band of dancers and musicians and one row of petals.
dancers, musicians and pitcher-bearers in boxes, and a large sculpture of Pratihāra near the front. On the pedestal stand two ornate pillarettes joined by a lintel. It also has a doorframe, the jambs and lintel of which are decorated with foliate scrolls. On the lower part of each jamb stands a female figure carrying water pot. The lalața depicts a seated pitcher bearer. The doorsill shows a semicircular projection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre and a projecting kirttimukha on each side. In front of the doorsill is a candrašila which consists of an ardhacandra tied on either end with gagāraka, Sarkha and lotus stem. The wall is surmounted by a ribbed eave-cornice and a bell-roof having sculptured niches on the front face and an elephant, carved in the round and supported by the eave-cornice, at each corner. Each khattaka contains a saparikara image of Adinātha seated in dhyānamudrā.10
The outer wall between the khattakas and the gūdhamandapa door bears some reliefs containing figures of Acārya, monks, Mālādharas and Srāvakas.21
The ceiling in the west bay is domical of the sabhāmandāraka variety. Square on plan it consists of seven circular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner face of the first course depicts various reliefs-a kayotsarga Jina with Srävakas carrying pitcher, garland and other accessories for worship; an Acārya seated on sinihasana with a disciple lying down in front of him in the act of obeisance and two Säravakas standing with folded hands; and warriors carrying various weapons. The underside four corners of this course represent images of four- armed lalitāsana goddesses, two of which are identifiable with Cakreśvari and Vajrānkusi. The second is karnadardarikā surmounted by a band of geese. The third is decorated with balcony models. The fourth and fifth are gajatalus, each topped by a band of diamonds and beads. The sixth is carved with a row of geese. The seventh consists of eight whorls of four-fold (3 + 1) kola. From the third course project out eight brackets of Vidyadharas, each supporting a bracket figure of Apsara, the stele of which is tenoned into the kola course. The Apsaräs are represented either dancing or playing on some musical instrumenis. The padmašila consists of three courses of eight-foil, six-foil and quatrefoil kolas, and a stamenal tube adorned with two rows of petals. Each course is edged with reverse gajatālu.
nangamangapa
It displays an arcade of twelve pillars disposed along the four sides of the square central nave and has a large, shallow but highly ornamented domical ceiling supported on an octagonal frame of architraves put across the central pillars. The pillars rest on a platform which is slightly raised from the floor level of the courtyard.
On either side of the güdhamandapa door is an ornamental niche called khattaka (Fig. 6). Each khattaka consists along its vertical axis of pedestal, wall and spire. The pañcaratha pedestal is composed of a khura decorated with figures of dancers and musicians, a jad yakumbha, a karnika, an antarapatra adorned with fore parts of elephants, and a kapota embellished with caitya-arch pattern and underlined with leaves. The exterior wall represents figures of Maladharas,
All the pillars are of the square type, with corners chamfered into three angles. Their base and capital are similar to those seen in the pillars of the lateral porches of the gadhamand apa, but the bharani of the capital here is unfluted. The shaft has the usual four sections, viz. square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular. The square section carries framed figures of standing gods and godde sses (Saryānubhūti, Sarasvati, Yakşa, Yakşi and Vidyādevi), Maladhara, Pratihāra, Gandharva and Vidyādhara, all having four arms. The octagonal section bears eight figures of standing or lalitāsana gods or goddesses, dancing male divinities, male and female dancers, or female dancers and musicians. The sixteen-sided section, which is found

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Description of Temples
55
in case of two pillars only, carries sixteen figures which also bring the vertical pressure of the dome of dancers and musicians. The circular section is over the pillars. divided into two belts, the lower being shorter than
The ornate dome (Fig. 11), 25 ft. in diameter and the upper. The lower belt is carved with figures of Śrāvakas and Srävikäs carrying water jar, war
less than 30 ft. in height from floor to the apex, is
of the sabhapadmamandāraka class. riors, horse-riders,
A square block elephants with drivers,
from the capital of each central pillar, carved with Gandharvas and Vidyadharas, lotus scrolls, diamo
an image of four-armed lalitā sana goddess accompa. nds, or chain-and-bells alternating with tassels.
nied on each side by a male or female attendant, This section also carries four projecting pendants.
introduces the dome which is composed of eleven The upper belt is surmounted by a band of
circular courses and a long circular padmašila. The kirttimukhas spewing chains that are clasped below
inner face of the first course is decorated with a row by a band of diamonds and beads.
of elephants, while its underside at eight angles of All the nave pillars are provided with ucсhālakas,
the octagon and on the slightly projected north and which consist of only shaft and capital. The shaft
south sides is relieved with creepers. The second is is square at the base, octagonal in the middle and
karşadardarikā topped by a kirttimukha-band. The
third represents images of four-armed lalitasana circular on the top, the last section being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains that
goddesses in projecting niches and attendant figures are clasped below by a diamond-and-bead band.
in alternate recesses. The fourth is gajatalu crownThe capital is similar to the pillar-capital, with
ed by a diamond-and-bead band. The fifth depicts this difference that the brackets of the central
figures of male dancers and musicians, and warriors pillars are five-armed.
carrying weapons. The sixth is like the fourth.
The seventh is carved with figures of horse-riders. * The architraves are divided into two fasciae, The eighth and ninth consist of thirty-two-foil and the lower being decorated with lotus scrolls that twenty-eight-foil kolas respectively, each foil concome forth from the mouth of a kiritimukha carved taining a stamenal tube clasped by one row of in the centre, and the upper bearing sculptured petals. The tenth carries images of two-armed niches containing lalitāsana goddesses with atten
standing goddesses Cakresvari and Vajrašțnkhalā dant figures. The upper fascia of those forming
and figures of female cauri-bearers. The eleventh the four corners at the base of the dome, however,
is divided into two circular panels, the outer conis decorated with a strip of diamonds. In the
taining a band of geese and twelve projecting centre of their underside is carved in pleasing relief limās, and the inner having figures of male pitchera creeper medallion.
bearers and, in one instance, an image of Naiga
meşin, also carrying pitcher. Each of the twelve To bring the vertical pressure of the dome over lämās resembles a serrated diamond and consists of the pillars there are thrown torana-arches between an eight-foil reverse kola, an eight-foil normal kola, the pillars. Belonging to cusp tilaka variety the and a long stamenal tube clasped by a band of arch emerges from the mouth of a makara placed dancers and musicians and one row of petals. From over the side brackets of the pillar-capitals and the third course project out sixteen square goes upwards to meet in the centre of the underside brackets, each carrying a figure of four or medallions of the architraves, forming cusps that six-armed Vidyadhara. The Vidyadharas play end in tilakas. The cusps are punctuated with on some musical instruments and hold figures of Gandharvas, while the tilakas shelter lotuses. knife and shield. These brackets support lalitäsana goddesses with pendants underneath. The a complete set of sixteen bracket figures of Vidyä. upper side of the arch is edged with saw-tooth devis (Fig. 13), the stele of each of which is tenoned pattern, while its underside is decorated with lotus into the eighth kola course. The Vidyādevis have scrolls. Supported by the brackets of the pillar- four arms each and are represented in the standing capitals and tenoned into the brackets of the attitude, with their attributes and cognizances. 1 2 ucchālakas are struts of Salabhaõjikās and Apsarās, The padmašila (Fig. 12) consists of two courses of

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56
Faina Temples of Western India
eight-foil and six-foil kolas and a figural band bet- is surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing ween them representing horse-riders, elephants and chains that are clasped below by a band of diaa chariot drawn by human figures. Between the monds and beads. The capital is similar to that kola. courses is also placed a reverse gajatālu. From seen in the nave pillars. The pillars are provided the badmašila issues a long stamenal tube clasped with ucсhälakas, which correspond to those seen by a band of dancers and musicians and one row in the nave. Between the capitals of the pillars of petals.
and the ucchalakas are placed bracket figures of The four corners at the base of the dome carry Apsarās, now intact at some places in the north some beautiful images of iconographic interest. portico only. The squat pilasters consist of only Carved in high relief each of these images is accom
the circular section of the shaft and an usual capipanied on either side by a female cauri-bearer and tal. The spaces between the squat pilasters in each some attendant figures. The image in the south- portico is filled with sculptural panels. The central west corner is of Ambikā (Fig. 14) seated in lalita. panel depicts an image of four-armed lalitasana sana on her lion mount. The four-armed goddess goddess accompanied on either side by a Mālā. holds bunches of mango tree in her three hands and dhara, an elephant with driver, a horse-rider and a child with the fourth one.13 The image in the a kāta sheltering a lalitasana goddess, the whole northwest corner is identifiable with Yakşa Brahma being placed in a multiple cusped torana-arch. The sānti.14 The six-armed god holds umbrella and side panels contain images of six-armed dancing lotus in the upper two hands, book and abhayamudrā goddesses accompanied by a musician. The archiin the middle hands, and varadamudra and water pot traves are similar to those observed in the lateral in the lower ones. He has swan as his mount. The porches of the gūdhamaydapa, but the underside image in the southeast corner may be identified medallion in one instance is decorated with creeper, with Yakşa Kapardi or Isänendra, probably the The porticoes are shaded on the front and the rear former. 15 The ten-armed god is represented in by a corrugated eave-cornice. the dancing attitude and carries cymbal, facimudrā, ankuša, dance-pose and varadamudra in the right Each of the six bays in the north portico conhands, and dance-pose, abhayamudra, lotus, vajra tains an ornate ceiling supported on a square and cymbal in the left ones. His mount is not frame of architraves The central south bay has shown. The image in the northeast corner is pro- an extremely shallow domical ceiling consisting of bably of Sarvānubhūti. The six-armed stand-
three circular courses. three ci
The first course shows a ing god holds money-bag in the upper pair of
band of kirttimukhas on the inner face and lotus hands, goad and noose in the middle, and varada
plants on the underside corners. The second is mudrā and fruit in the lower one. His elephant
karnadardarika. The third, consisting of samatala vehicle is represented beside his right leg.
element, is boldy relieved with a sculpture of godThe rangamandaba is attached on each ofthe lateral dess Sarasvati seated in lalitäsana on a stool. The sides by a portico. Each portico consists of six bays four-armed goddess holds lotus and book in the having its roof supported on a row of four pillars upper hands, and varadaksa and pitcher in the placed east-west on the floor of the courtyard, and lower ones. Her swan cognizance is depicted below also on four squat pilasters placed right above the the pitcher. On either side of the stool is a worshipdevakul kā pillars on the one end and four nave pillars per sitting with folded hands. The top of the panel on the other. All the eight pillars of the porticoes is occupied by two hovering Vidyādharas carrying are of the octagonal order. Their base consists of a garlands. The goddess is attended upon each side bhitta, khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, by a standing male devotee. The bearded devotee kalaša, antarapatra, and kapota carved with caitya- to her right stands with folded hands and is inscriarch pattern. The shaft has three sections, the bed as Sūtradhāra Kelā, while that to her left, lower being octagonal, the middle having a sixteen- also wearing a beard, holds a measuring rod and sided section and the upper, circular. The lower is labelled as Sūtradhāra Loyaņa. Shah has suggesand middle sections are plain, while the upper one ted that Loyana was the chief architect of the
Jain Education Interational

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Description of Temples
57
rarigamandapa and Kela possibly the chief The ceiling in the northeast bay is domical. It sculptor. 16
consists of five circular courses. The first course Structurally the ceiling in the central north bay depicts a row of elephants on the inner face and a corresponds to the preceding ceiling. Like the human-couple seated in an arch of creepers issuing latter it also consists of three cirular courses. The from the mouth of a kirttimukha at each corner inner face of the first course shows saw-tooth pattern, on the underside. The second is karņadardarika. The while its underside at each corner depicts kirttimukha third, fourth and fifth are reverse padmas, each emitting voluted creepers occupied by Kinnar- decorated with lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The couples. The second is gajalālu surmounted by a soffit of the convex-sided part of the padma is carved band of diamonds and beads. The large circular with a band of diamonds and beads, while its inner slab forming the third course displays four concen- face shows a kirttimukha-band. The ceiling slab tric circles at diminishing levels, filled from outer represents eight full-blown lotus flowers encircling to inner with lotus buds with stalks, lotus scrolls a larger one having two rows of petals. The ceiling punctuated with geese, lotus petals and again is very shallow in depth. lotus petals respectively. In the centre of the slab
The ceiling in the northwest bay is similar to is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one row
the preceding one, with this difference that here of petals.
the first course depicts a row of geese on the inner The ceiling in the southeast bay is domical of
face and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underthe sabhāmandāraka variety. It consists of seven
side. circular courses and a circular padmašila. The first course depicts a row of elephants on the inner face
Like those noticed in the north portico, the six and a human-couple seated in an arch of creepers
bays in the south portico also contain ornamental issuing from the mouth of a kürttimukha at each
ceilings, each supported on a square frame of archicorner on the underside. The second is decorated
traves. The ceiling in the central north bay is a with balcony models. The third is gajatalu topped
shallow domical ceiling consisting of four circular by a band of diamonds and beads. The fourth
courses. The first course shows decoration of interdepicts fighting scenes and figures of dancers. The
secting beaded garlands on the inner face and a fifth is carved with a row of geese. The sixth,
kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The edged with gajatālu, consists of sixteen whorls of
second is padma incised with lotus petals. The four-fold (3+1) pointed kola. The seventh pertains
third is gajatālu. The fourth, consisting of samatala to sixteen whorls of seven-fold (3+3+1) pointed
element, is boldly relieved with a graceful image of kola. From the second course project out eight
Gaja-Lakşmi (Fig. 20). The four-armed goddess, who
is seated in padmasana on a pedestal supported by brackets of Vidyadharas, each supporting a bracket
stemmed lotus and water vases, holds lotus plants figure of Apsarā, the stele of which is tenoned
with elephants in the upper hands, while her lower into the sixth course. The padmašila consists of
hands are depicted in dhyānamudra. She is accomthree courses of eight-foil larger, eight-foil smaller
panied on each side by a female cauri-bearer. At and eight-pointed quatrefoil kolas; between the kolas
the top of the panel are two hovering Vidyadharas are reverse gajatālus. The quatrefoil kola is also cut
bearing garlands. out with a circular kola.
The ceiling in the southwest bay is similar to Structurally the ceiling in the central south bay the preceding one, but for the decorations of the corresponds to the preceding one and, like the first and the second courses. Here the inner face latter, consists of four circular courses. The first of the first coure displays a row of lions carved in course depicts a strip of diamonds on the inner face three-quarter profile, while its underside depicts and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. an image of standing goddess on each of the four The second is gajatalu. The third consists of karnika corners and a goose-band on the two projecting bearing incision of lotus petals below. The fourth narrow sides. The second depicts images of lalita- is divided into three concentric circular bands, the sana goddesses in niches,
outer and the intermediate bands being filled with

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Jalna Temples of Western India
diamonds and beads and having rosettes at The padmašila is also treated like the four upper intervals, and the inner band showing a quatrefoil courses, but is formed of only three strata and terkola containing a stamenal tube clasped by two minates in the centre in a stamenal tube having one rows of petals.
row of petals. The ceiling is singular in the temThe ceiling in the northwest bay is domical of
ples of Gujarat. It is unique in structure and in the mandāraka type. It consists of four circular
the treatment of the kolas, courses and a circular padmašila. The inner face of The ceiling in the southeast bay is similar to the first course is decorated with a row of lions in the preceding one, with this difference that the three-quarter profile, while its underside depicts an first course here shows a row of lions in th image of standing goddess accompanied on each
quarter profile on the inner face and a humanside by a female attendant and a Kinnar at each
couple seated in roundel formed of lotus scrolls at corner, and a goose-band on the two narrow sides. each corner on the underside. The second is padma decorated with two bands of lotus petal-and-bud motif and surmounted by a
On the front the rangamandaba is connected with kirttimukha-band. The third shows a sculptural the corridor by three bays supported on squat pilapanel representing two Ācāryas with Srävakas. sters placed right above the corridor pillars on the The fourth consists of sixteen-foil pointed kola. The one side and four nave pillars on the other (Fig. 16). padmašila consists of three courses interspersed with Each bay has a highly ornamented ceiling supportreverse gajatalus. The first has an eight-foil pointed ed on a rectangular frame of architraves. The kola, each foil containing a stamenal tube adorner ceiling in the central bay is samautksipta of the with one row of petals and bearing decoration of padmamandāraka variety. It has a rectangular lotus scrolls at the points. The second is like the panel border on all the four sides. Two of these first, but it is smaller in size and its eight points panels, one of which has slanting surface across the are filled with kirttimukhas. The third comprises a longer sides, being wider, there is formed a square quatrefoil kola accommodating a stamenal tube panel in the centre. This square panel is surrounded adorned with two rows of petals.
by another rectangular panel border. Both the
panel borders show reliefs of the fight between The ceiling in the northeast bay is similar to
Bharata and Bahubali, the two sons of Ādinātha.17 the preceding one, but here the inner face of the
But the most attractive part of the ceiling is its first course is carved with a row of horse-riders,
square panel depicting padmamandaraka element. and the third course also depicts a figure of Jina
This complex element is represented by eight prostanding in kayotsarga posture.
minently projecting lümās arranged on the four The ceiling in the south west bay is of the sides of the square and a padmašila let down in the domical variety. It consists of six circular centre. Each of the four corner lümās, resembling courses and a circular padmašila. The first course a serrated diamond, consists of two courses of eightdepicts a row of elephants on the inner face and a foil and quatrefoil kolas, and a long stamenal tube human-couple seated in an arch of creepers issuing clasped by a band of dancers and musicians and from the mouth of a kiritimukha at each corner on one row of petals. The four limas in the cardinal the underside. The second is padma decorated with points are also of the serrated diamond type, but two bands of lotus petal-and-bud ornament and being disposed in diagonal order they interrupt the topped by a kirttimukha-band. The remaining four rectangular panel border surrounding the square courses are treated as one. From the lower strata, central panel. Each of these limās consists of two that is the third course, it begins with small mono- courses of eight-foil reverse and eight-foil normal kola, and then it gradually turns into larger mono- kolas, and a stamenal tube which is similar to that kola, pointed mono-kola and finally four-fold (3+1) of the corner lumas but is inserted in a deeply pointed kola, the last ending somewhere in the fifth set quatrefoil kola. The padmašila consists of course: and from there the same goes in the reverse two courses of eight-foil (the corner foils being order. This chain of kolas is edged with gajatālus. larger than the cardinal ones) and trefoil kolas

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59
second course, edged with gajatalu, pertains to twenty-four whorls of four-fold (3+1) pointed kola. The third, similarly edged with gajatalu, has sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) pointed kola. Each of the eight lamās consists of two courses of eight-foil larger and eight-foil smaller kolas, and a stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals and inserted in a deeply set circular kola. Between the two kola courses is also visible a reverse gajatālu. The padma. fila consists of three courses, each edged with reverse gajatālu. The first is made up of eight whorls of four-fold (3+1, pointed kola. The second consists of eight-foil pointed kola. The third comprises an eight-foil pointed yet smaller kola, and a stamenal tube clasped by a band of dancers, musicians and Mālādharas and two rows of petals. The ceiling belongs to the padmamandāraka class (Fig. 15) ceiling and is one of the handsomest ceilings noticed in the Vimalavasahi. It has been highly praised for its Vima deep engraving." The fine execution of the figural and floral designs has considerably added to the glamour of the ceiling.
and has a stamenal tube similar to that seen in the lūmas. Between the two courses of the padma- fila are placed a reverse gajatalu and a karnika. The architraves enclosing the ceiling is divided into two fasciae, the lower being decorated with lotus scrolls which issue from the mouth of a kirtti- mukha carved in the centre, and the upper carrying images of lalitasana goddesses with attendant figures. In the centre of their underside is carved in low relief a lotus medallion with two rows of petals. The ceiling could have looked much better if sufficient depth had been permitted to it.18
Each of the two side ceilings is rectangular on plan, but its space is reduced to a square by the usual method of placing a frame of four rectangular slabs over the architraves. The architraves carry similar ornamentations as are found on those of the central bay, only that the lower fascia is carved with creepers. The inner face of the square frame bears different reliefs, while their underside on each of the two shorter sides represents four creeper medal lions. The reliefs in the south ceiling depict a Tina seated in dhyānamudra and Srävakas with offe- rings in their hands; another Jina with worshippers; an Ācārya giving religious injunctions to the monks and an enthroned king with soldiers on his sides; and fighting and wrestling scenes. The reliefs in the north ceiling represent an Acārya seated on sivisha sana with sthapana in front and worshipped by two Srāvakas standing and some others sitting, an enthroned king with soldiers following, cock-fight,
" and fighting scene.18 The ceiling proper consists of three diminishing circular courses, followed in turn by eight projecting tāmās encircling a padmasila. Except for the ornamentation of the first course the two ceilings in the side bays are identical in structure and ornamentation. The first course in the northern ceiling depicts a row of elephants (their fore part having been shown only) on the inner face, while its underside depicts a Nägapāía flanked on each side by a Kinnar at each of the four corners and a goose-band on the two projecting narrow sides. The inner face of the first course in the southern ceiling is adorned with a row of horseriders, while its underside depicts a human-couple seated in an arch of creepers issuing from the mouth of a kirttimukha at each corner and a goose- band on the two projecting narrow sides. The
The side bays are shaded towards the courtyard by a corrugated eave-cornice.
The courtyard is open in the northeast and southeast corners, so that the rangamandapa is highly ventilated. Devakulikas
They are approached from the courtyard by a A: flight of three steps cut across the wide platform on which they are perched. But for those in the back row, all the devakulikās are screened by a double arcade of pillars, each set of four pillars of which, with two pilasters flanking the door, forms two bays in front of each devakulika. The devakulikās, in the back row being confronted by one arcade of pillars, each set of two pillars and two pilasters here forms only one bay. The devakulikas are now marked with their respective numbers that begin from left as we enter the temple from the east.
All the devakulika pillars are of the octagonal type, and except for the four near the main entrance they are alike. Their base is composed of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya

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Jaina Temples of Western India
arch pattern. The shaft has three sections, viz. are of two varieties : (i) single-sakha type, (ii) octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular, the first being catussakha type. The udumbara of the single-fakha longer than the other two. Each of the first two doorframe is divided into two registers, the lower sections terminates on top in a band of lotus petal- showing mouldings of khura, jād yakumbha, karnika and-bud ornament, while the circular section is and at times a fillet, and the upper having a semiclasped below by a band bearing carving of flam- circular projection carved with stemmed lotus in boyant pattern in semi-circles and above by a band the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side of of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are fastened it and diamonds on either extremity. The jamb is below by a goose-band. The capital consists of a decorated with lotus scrolls and is flanked on the double-course circular short bharaṇi of karņikā and outer side by a band of lotus petals and a band of badma, and a four-armed double-roll bracket, the diamonds and beads. On the lower part of the jamb side face of each arm of which is carved with stands a female carrying water pot, or a Partihāra creepers.
accompanied on each side by a female cauri-bearer. The four pillars near the main entrance are The ultaranga continues the decoration of the jamb comparatively more ornate. The base and capital and depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudrä on of these pillars are similar to those of the other the lalafa. octagonal pillars, only that here kumbha carries
The catusfākha doorframes are divisible into images of lalitāsana goddesses in niches oversecting the kalasa. Their shaft has two sections, the lower
three categories : being octagonal and longer, and the upper, circular (1) The udumbara shows a semi-circular projection and shorter. The octagonal section is further divi
carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a ded into two belts by a kumuda, the lower being
projecting niche containing diamond on each plain and the upper carrying eight framed figures
side of it, and a sculptured niche depicting of four-armed standing male divinities. The circular Sarvānubhüti on extreme right and Ambika section is divided into three horizontal belts, the on extreme left, both having four arms and lower showing figures of Vidyadharas, the middle sitting in lalitäsana. The four jambs consist carrying a band of geese and four projecting pend. of a patrafakha decorated with foliate scrolls, ants, and the upper being surmounted by a band lotus scrolls or campaka flowers, a $akha with of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are clasped
chamfered edges, a rūpastambha, and a fakha below by a band af diamonds and beads.
with chamfered edges. The jambs are separa
ted from one another by bakulamalas. The The pilasters are five-faceted and correspond to
lower part of the jambs is occupied by an the less ornate octagonal pillars. The two pilasters
image of four-armed standing goddess near the main entrance, however, consist of seven facets and are more ornate. The base and
(Cakresvari and Sarasvati having been identicapital of these pilasters are similar to those of the
fied) accompanied on each side by two female other pilasters, but the shaft is different. Below, the
attendants, one of which towards the opening
sometimes bears a water vessel. The shaft carries a framed figure of Pratihära flanked on
rūpastambha, with cut off corneres, depicts each side by two female attendants, while above, it
five male figures with hands folded in adorasuccessively bears three images of four-armed
tion, or carrying pitcher, lotus or garland. lalitäsana goddesses on the central facet and attendant figures, six flanking each goddess, on the side
The uttaranga is divided into two registers. The facets. The shaft is topped by a ghafapallava.
lower register shows a ghafapallava capital topp
ing the jambs on either end, while the space The doors of the devakulikās are ornate. In in between them is filled with decorations of front of the door of each devakulika is a moonstone the two inner jambs. In the centre of this which consists of an ardhacandra tied on either end register is also shown the lalatabimba which with gagäraka, Sarikha and lotus stem and flanked depicts a padmasana Jina is dhyanamudra. The in turn by one or two talaripakas. The door frames upper register represents five projecting niches

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Description of Temples
61 alternating with recesses, all containing im- Each bay of the corridor contains an ornate ages of standing or lalitasana goddesses. Below ceiling supported on a square or rectangular frame
each niche is depicted a pair of geese. of architraves bearing similar ornamentations (II) It is similar to the preceding one, but the
as we find on those of the lateral porches of the goddess on the lower part of the jambs is
güdhamandapa. Generally, the rectangular space
of the ceiling is reduced to a square or nearly replaced by a Pratihära, two jambs are unchamfered, and the räpastambha is replaced
square by a frame of four rectangular slabs perby a stambhafakha which is heavily moulded
ched upon the architraves. The square is formed and shows a caitya-arch motif below and a
by substracting a broad belt from each of the
longer sides. This is done by covering the broad ghatapallava above. Besides, the upper
belts with two slabs put across the longer sides. register of the uttarariga shows five projecting
By this device the ceiling is not only raised up by niches containing diamonds. Below each
one course, but enough space niche may also be seen a pair of geese, but
is also left for
ornamentations on the inner face of the square above, it carries a pair of lions,
frame and on the underside of the two shorter (III) The udumbara is similar to No. I, but the two
sides. The ceilings, perched upon the square frame, niches flanking the central projection are
are also generally raised up by a frame of four replaced by two projecting kirttimukhas and
rectangular slabs slightly projecting out into the the images of the sculptured niches are
space of the ceiling on two or four sides. It is accompanied by female attendants, three
worth describing each ceiling separately. Where flanking on either side of each divinity. The
the devakulikās have two bays, the one adjacent to four jambs consist of patra decorated with
them is described here as 'A' of devakulika so and so, lotus scrolls, ripa, rüpastambha and rüpa. The
and the other towards the courtyard is referred to lower part of the jambs depicts similar
as 'B'. representations as are found in case of No. I. Above this the rūpastambha successively Devakulika 1A-Square on plan it is domical of depicts four images of lalitasana goddesses, the sabhamandāraka class. It consists of five cireach being accompanied by two female cular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner attendants appearing on the räpasakhās. The face of the first course is decorated with a row of uttarariga is divided into two registers. The lions, while its underside represents an image of lower register displays a ghatapallava capital four-armed lalitasana goddess at each corner and topping the jambs on either end, while the a creeper-band on the two projecting narrow sides. space in between is filled with lotus scrolls The second is padma decorated with two bands of carried up from the patrafakha and a row lotus petal-and-bud motif. The third, edged with of Maladharas facing the lalatabiria which gajatālu, consists of sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) represents a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra. pointed kola. The fourth and fifth, each edged The upper register carries seven lalitāsana with gajatālu, have twelve-foil and eight-foil kolas goddesses in projecting niches and attendant respectively. The padmašila consists of three courfigures in alternate recesses.
ses of incurved lotus petal-and-bud, lotus petal The spaces between the doorframes and the
and lotus petal-and-bud ornaments respectively, pilasters are generally filled with winding creepers.
and a small stamenal tube having one row of The same in Devakulikas 2,3,11,44,53 and 54 are petals. Be
petals. Between the courses are placed reverse replete with relief carvings containing figures of 84asacus. Śrävakas and Srävikäs carrying offerings for 1B-Square on plan it is domical of the sabhaworship.21 On the wall of Devakulika 10, to the mandāraka variety. It consists of six circular courses right of the door, are incised 120 dates of various and a circular padmašila. The inner face of the kalyanakas of 24 Jinas of this Avasarpini age. Here first course is carved with a row of lions, while its are also noticed the complexions of these Jinas.22 underside shows a creeper medallion at each corner
Jain Education Intemational

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Faina Temples of Western India
and a band of foliate scrolls on the two projecting dharas, while their triangular spaces are filled with narrow sides. The second is karpadardarika topped figures of kirttimukhas. The padmafila consists of by a goose-band. The third is decorated with bal- three courses of eight-foil pointed, six-foil pointed cony models. The fourth and fifth are gajatālus,
and eight-pointed quatrefoil kolas, each edged with each topped by a band of diamonds and beads.
reverse gajatālu. In the quatrefoil kola is inserted The sixth consists of an eight-foil kola, each foil
a stamenal tube having one row of petals. containing a stamenal tube adorned with one row of petals. From the third course project out eight
Devakulika 3A--Square on plan it is domical of brackets of Vidyadharas. Each of these brackets the sabhamandāraka variety. It consists of five cirsupports a bracket figure of Apsara, the stele of cular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner which is tenoned into the kola course. The Apsarās face of the first course is decorated with a row of are shown dancing or making music, or carrying horse-riders, while its underside depicts a creeper fly-whisk or water vessel. The padmašila consists of medallion at each corner and a goose-band on the two courses of eight-foil and six-foil kolas and a two projecting narrow sides. The second is padma stamenal tube adorned with one row of petals. decorated with two bands of lotus petal-and-bud The edges of kola are decorated with lotus scrolls. motif. The third is gajatalu decorated on top with Between the two kola courses is placed a reverse
a band of diamonds. The lourth is decorated with
a row of geese. gajatālu.
The fifth shows reliefs of fighting
scenes and figures of warriors. The padmašila Devakulika 2A-Square on plan it is domical of
consists of two courses, the first having eight whorls the sabhāmandāraka order. It consists of five circu
of four-fold (3+1) reverse kola and the second lar courses and a circular padmašila. The inner
pertaining to four whorls of four-fold(3+1) normal face of the first course is decorated with a row of
kola. In the second is also inserted a stamenal tube elephants, while its underside represents a Kinnar
clasped by two rows of petals. couple in the roundel of lotus scrolls at each corner and a goose-band on the two projecting narrow 3B-Square on plan it is domical of the sabhasides. The second is karpadardarika topped by a padmamandarava order. It consists of five circular kirttimukha-band. The third is gajatalu surmounted courses and eight projecting lämās encircling a by a band of campaka flowers and circular plaques. padmašila in the centre. The first course depicts a row The fourth is also pajatalu but is decorated with of lions on the inner face and a Kinnara-couple at entwined Nāgas. The fifth shows reliefs of fighting each corner on the underside. The second is scenes and figures of warriors. The padmašila karşadardarika topped by a kirttimukha-band. The consists of two courses of kolas, the first showing third is gajatalu surmounted by a band of campaka eight whorls of four-fold (3+1) reverse kola, and flowers and circular lambanas. The fourth again the second having six-foil normal kola and a stame- is gajatalu but is adorned with entwined Nägas. nal tube adorned with one row of petals. Between The fifth is decorated with figures of musicians and the two courses is set up a reverse gajatălu.
dancers. Each of the eight tâmās consists of two
courses, each edged with reverse gajatalu. The first 2B-Square on plan it is domical of the sabhä- course shows eight-foil pointed kola. The second has mandāraka order. It consists of five circular courses
eight-pointed quatrefoil kola and a stamenal tube and a circular padmašila. The first course depicts terminating in a six-petalled mandāraka flower. a row of horse-riders on the inner face and a The badmašila is simila
The padmašila is similar to the lümās, but it has one Kinnar-couple in a circle formed of lotus scrolls at
more course of eight-foil pointed kola edged with each corner. The second is padma decorated with
reverse gajatalu. two bands of lotus petal-and-bud motif. The third, fourth and fifth comprise sixteen, twelve and eight- Devakulika 4-Rectangular on plan it is samatala, foil kolas respectively. Each foil of the kola con- but its space is reduced to a square by a frame of tains a stamenal tube adorned with one row of four rectangular slabs perched upon the architraves. petals. The points of kolas are occupied by Vidya- The slabs show a kirttimukha-band on the inner face
Jain Education Interational

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Description of Temples
63
and decoration of creepers on the underside of Jina with worshippers, and Ācārya with disciples the two shorter sides. The square flat surface is and Srāvakas, 28 relieved with a large full-blown circular lotus
Devakulika 8A-On plan and design it is similar flower comprising three rows of petals arranged in
to the preceding ceiling. The square compartment the cyma recta form. The petals of the outer row
is divided into three concentric circles, the outer also contain buds in alternation. The four corners
and the intermediate depicting a person on simha. of the square are filled with kirttimukhas. The
sana and some men, elephants and horses, and whole is placed in a border of lotus scrolls.
the inner representing the Samavasarana scene of a Devakulikās 5-6-On plan and in structure it Jina with a Caumukha." Each of the four corners follows the preceding ceiling. The inner face of of the square is occupied by an image of four-armed the square frame is decorated with saw-tooth pat
tooth pat lalitasana goddess. Of the two rectangular compartern, while its underside on the two shorter sidestments, the one depicts a padmāsana Jina and a depicts lotus scrolls. The square flat surface is kāyotsarga Jina with worshippers, and the other divided into three concentric circles, the outer shows two monks standing and an Acärya, with being filled with lotus stalks with buds, the inter
sthapana in front, giving religious discourse which mediate with lotus scrolls and the inner with a is being heard by laymen. The frame lifting up full-blown lotus flower. The four corners of the the ceiling is inset with images of four-armed square are occupied by four kiritimukhas. The lalitasana goddesses. whole is placed in a border of creepers emerging
8B-On plan and design it follows Devakulika 7B. from the mouth of a kirttimukha carved in the
Its two rectangular compartments are decorated centre on each side.
with foliage and lotus buds, while the square Devakulika 7A-On plan and in structure it
compartment depicts mandāraka element in the
sama-utkşipta form. The latter is represented by corresponds to Devakulika 4. The inner face of the
three concentric circular bands of kolas. The square frame is decorated with a band of geese,
outer band, edged with gajatalu, has twelve-foil while its underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts a large kirttimukha spewing creepers. The
kola. The intermediate band shows eight-foil square flat surface is divided into three concentric
reverse gajatalu. The inner band, edged with circles, the outer representing intersecting beaded
gajatalu, pertains to six-foil kola and a deeply set
quatrefoil kola containing a small stamenal tube garland loops, the intermediate showing lotus petal-and-bud device and the inner containing a
clasped by one row of petals. The four corners
of the square are occupied by four kiritimukhas. full blown lotus flower. The four corners of the
The frame lifting up the ceiling depicts cameos square are occupied by four kirttimukhas emana
of Jaina monks and Srāvakas.25 ting creepers. The whole is placed in a border of creepers.
Devakulika 9A-Square on plan it is samatala. 7B-Rectangular on plan it is samatala. Its
Its square flat surface displays in three concentric
circles the pañcakalyāṇaka scene of a Jina, 26 while rectangular flat surface is divided into three com
each of its four corners depicts an image of fourpartments, the central being square and the side
armed standing goddess accompanied on each side ones, rectangular. The square compartment shows
by a male attendant and a Kinnar. The ceiling is similar ornamentations as we find in case of Deva
raised up by a square frame of four rectangular kulika 4, but here the petals are arranged in the
slabs decorated with a row of elephants. cyma reverse form, and it has an additional circle on the outer flank filled with figures of geese. The 9 B-Square on plan it is a sama-utksipta vitāna rectangular compartments are decorated with of the padmamandāraka variety. It is shown in three foliage and lotus buds. The ceiling is raised up concentric circular bands, the outer containing by a frame of four rectangular slabs placed over gajatālu, the intermediate displaying an eight-foil the architraves. The slabs show reliefs of kāyotsarga kola and the inner representing six projecting

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Falna Temples of Western India
lūmās encircling a padmašila in the centre. Square namudrā, fruit and varadamudra in the right hands, in shape each lūma consists of a quatrefoil kola cut and danda, shield, goad, vyākhyānamudrā, bow, mace, out with a circular one. The padmašila consists pitcher and abhayamudrā (?) in the left ones. She of a six-foil kola preceded by a reverse gajatālu and is surrounded on three sides by a figural band followed by a deeply set circular kola containing depicting Ganesa, Virabhadra, Bhairava and a small stamenal tube adorned with one row of Mātrkās, all having four arms and seated in lalipetals. At each corner of the square is a kirttimukha. tāsana. A small figure of seated female caur7-bearer The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four is also shown below the right leg of the goddess. rectangular slabs decorated with a row of lions.
11B-Rectangular on plan it depicts padmaman. Devakulika 10A-Rectangular on plan it is daraka element in the sama-utkşipta form. But its samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by space is reduced to a square by the usual framethe usual framework of placing four rectangular work of placing four rectangular slabs over the slabs over the architraves. The inner face of the architraves. The inner face of the frame is adorned frame is inset with images of four-armed lalitasana with a row of horse-riders, while its underside on goddesses, while its underside shows figures of four each of the two shorter sides represents three Kinnaras on the one side and two Kinnaras and
creeper medallions. The square part of the ceiling two Kinnaris on the other. The square flat surface
depicts mandāraka element in two concentric ciris relieved with life scenes of Neminātha arranged
cular bands, the outer containing eight whorls of in three concentric circular bands.27
At each At each for
four-fold (3+1) pointed kola edged on the outer corner of the square is a four-armed standing
flank with gajatālu, and the inner having sixteengoddess with two female attendants.
foil pointed kola preceded by reverse gajatalu and
followed on the lower level by a twelve-foil kola. 10B--On plan and in structure it follows the
The points of kolas in the inner circle are sadly preceding ceiling. The inner face of the square
damaged. In the centre of the ceiling is the padma frame is carved with a row of elephants, while its
element shown by five small projecting lümās, four underside on the two shorter sides depicts figures
in the four corners and one in the centre, all arranof Gandharvas in circles and of Kinnaras in petals
ged in the diagonal order. Each of these lūmās of lotus medallions. The square flat surface is
consists of a quatrefoil kola edged with reverse divided into three concentric bands, each having
gajatalu. The four corners of the square are occuthe shape of a stepped diamond. The outer band consists of gajatālu. The intermediate band depi
pied by two elephants lustrating a lotus plant or cts a whorl of five-fold (4+1) kola in each cardinal
two lions confronting warriors, while the narrow
spaces between them on the four sides are filled point and a whorl of four-fold (3+1) kola in each
with figures of dancers. corner. The inner band shows an eight-foil pointed kola cut out with a circular kola containing
Devakulika 12A-On plan and in structure it is a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals.
similar to Devakulika 10A. The inner face of the The four corners of the square represent lotus
square frame on each side displays a Jina seated in scrolls filled with elephants, geese and Kinnaras.
dhyanamudra and Srāvakas flanking him with offerDevakulika 11A-On plan and in structure itings in hands, while its underside on each of the corresponds to Devakulika 10A. The inner face two shorter sides depicts three full-blown lotus of the square frame carries a row of elephants, flowers, each comprising two rows of petals. The while its underside on the two shorter sides repre. square flat surface represents in three concentric sents images of four-armed standing goddesses. circles the pañcakal yāņakas of Säntinätha and his The square flat surface is boldly relieved with an previous birth as king Megharatha,29 At each image of sixteen-armed lalitasana goddess Rohini 28 corner of the square is represented an image of fourflanked on each side by a female cauri-bearer. She armed standing goddess with two female attencarries noose, sword, trišala, vajra, arrow, vyakhya. dants.

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65
12B-On plan it follows Devakulika 11B, but in of the square is filled with a whorl of six-fold (3+2 structure it is a sama-utkşipta vitāna of the mandāraka +1) kola and pieces of gajatalu and kola. On two order. The inner face of the square frame and its sides of the square is a narrow band carved with two undersides show similar decorations as are foliage and lotus buds. noticed in Devakulika 10B. The square part of the ceiling represents mandāraka element in three
Devakulika 14A-Square on plan it is samatala. concentric circles, the outer comprising twelve-foil Its square flat surface represents a full-blown lotus pointed kola, the intermediate having eight-foil
flower comprising three rows of petals occupied by normal kola and the inner pertaining to six-foil poin
1 poin. figure sculptures. The sixteen-petalled outer row
gure sc pares: ted kola, the first being edged with normal gajatālu
is occupied by sixteen images of four-armed lalita. and the other two with reverse gajatālu. In the
sana Vidyadevis. The petals of the intermediate centre of the central circle is inserted a stamenal
row are filled with Kinnaras and female dancers. tube having one row of petals. The four corners of
The petals of the inner row are blank, but they are the square are occupied by Kinnar-couples.
alternating with buds. At each corner of the
square is a kiritimukha. The whole is bordered by Devakulika 13A--Rectangular on plan it is a goose-band. The ceiling is raised up by a square samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by the frame of four rectangular slabs carved with a row usual framework of placing four rectangular slabs of lions whose front paws are borne by dog and over the architraves. The inner face of the square boar. frame is adorned with a row of horse-riders, while
14B-On plan and in structure it is similar to its underside on the two shorter sides carries images
the preceding ceiling. The square flat surface is of four-armed standing goddesses. The front legs divided into two square bands, disposed one within of the horses are borne by monkey, dog, man and
the other. The outer band is decorated with sixboar. The square flat surface depicts in a circle
teen-foil kola. The foils at the corners are edged eight images of four-armed standing Vidyadevis
with straight lines, and those on the sides are made interspersed with pair of devotees. At each corner
pointed. The kolas are edged on the outer flank of the square is a creeper-medallion. In the centre
with gajatalus, while on the inner side they are of the panel is represented a full-blown lotus
followed by two successive bands of twelve-foil and flower.
eight-foil kolas respectively. The inner square
resembles a Greek Cross which accommodates a 13B-On plan and in structure it follows the
quatrefoil and a deeply set circular kola; in the preceding ceiling. The inner face of the square
latter is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one frame is decorated with a row of lions whose front
row of petals. The whole is placed in a border of paws are borne by dog and boar, while its under
indented leaves. Outside the border, on two sides, side on the two shorter sides depicts sculptures of
is a band carved with foliage and lotus buds. The lalitasana goddesses. The square flat surface shows,
ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular one within the other, two stepped diamonds, each
slabs decorated with a row of horse-riders, filled with gajatālu. The line of the outer diamond at the four corners has not been indented regularly Devakulika 15A-It is rectangular on plan, but but is so displayed as to give the shape of what its space is reduced to a square by the usual framemay be called a Greek Cross. The spaces between work of placing four rectangular slabs over the the two diamonds are replete with creeper-medal architraves. The inner face of the square frame lions. The central space of the ceiling to which depicts an Acārya seated on simhasana and delivethe inner stepped diamond serves as a border is ring religious discourse in front of the caturvidhadivided into two concentric circles, the outer con- Sangha, while its underside on the two shorter sides taining twelve-foil kola, and the inner, edged with is decorated with creepers. The square part of the reverse gajatalu, having quatrefoil kola and a stame- ceiling depicts nābhicchanda element in the kşipta nal tube clasped by one row of petals. Each corner form. It is represented by eight depressed līmās,
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Faina Temples of Western India
each consisting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. blown lotus flower with incurved petals. At each From each lūma issues a stamenal tube clasped by corner of the square is an image of standing goddess. one row of petals. Each lima is set up in a Greek
Devakulika 17A-On plan and in structure it Cross, the corners of which are filled with kirtti
corresponds to Devakulika 15A. The inner face of mukhas. On the four sides of the square are seen
the square frame is decorated with a row of lions half lämās and pieces of kolas.
whose front paws are borne by dog and boar, while 15B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling, its underside on each of the two shorter sides bears but in structure is sama-utksipta of the mandāraka three images of lalitäsana goddesses. The square order. The inner face of the square frame and its part of the ceiling representing nābhicchanda element two undersides carry similar representations as are in the ksipta form depicts sixteen depressed limās in found in the preceding ceiling. The mandāraka the diagonal order. Each of these limās consists of element is shown in four concentric circular bands a quatrefoil and a circular kola, and a stamenal containing, from outer to inner, sixteen whorls of tube having one row of petals. On the four sides four-fold (3+1), twelve whorls of four-fold, eight of the square are shown half lämäs of the similar whorls of four-fold and six-foil kolas respectively. variety. In the centre of the last band is hollowed out a 17B-Rectangular on plan it is samatala, but
its space is reduced to a square by the usual frameone row of petals. The outer most band is set up
work of placing four rectangular slabs over the in normal gajatalu, while the others are edged with
architraves. The inner face of the square frame reverse gajatālus. At each corner of the square is
depicts a row of horse-riders hurling javelines; the represented an image of 'lalitasana goddess.
front legs of the horses are borne by dogs etc. The
underside of the frame on each of the two shorter Devakulika 16A-Rectangular on plan it is sama.
sides carries figures of standing goddesses. The tala but its space is reduced to a square by the usual framework of placing four rectangular slabs
square flat surface bears similar representations as
are noticed in Devakulika 10B, only that the stameover the architraves. The inner face of the square
nal tube is longer and carries, besides petals, frame is adorned with a row of horse-riders charging
a reverse gajatālu and a quatrefoil kola. javelines, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides represents three creeper medallions, The devakulikās from 18 to 22 are modern. each comprising two rows of petals, the petals of
Devakulika 23 --Square on plan it is domical of the outer row being alternated with foliage set up
the sabhāmandāraka variety. It consists of five cirin beaded garland loops. The square flat surface
cular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner depicts in three concentric circular bands the pasica
face of the first course is decorated with figures of kalJāņakas of some unidentified Jina.30 At each
musicians and dancers, while its underside carries corner of the square is an image of some standing
an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess at each goddess.
corner and a sculptural panel on the two projecting 16B-On plan and in structure it is similar to narrow sides. The four goddesses at the four corthe preceding ceiling. The inner face of the square ners are identifiable with Sarasvati, Prajāapti, frame is inset with images of lalitāsana goddesses, Vajraísnkhalā and Vairotyä. Each goddess is flanked while its underside on each of the two shorter sides on either side by a Maladhara and a Kinnara. The depicts three voluted lotus scrolls filled with sculptural panel depicts an Acārya, figures of Kinnaras. The square flat surface is divided into musicians and dancers, and a Jina with Srāvakas three concentric circular bands. The outer band bearing garlands and pitchers. The second is depicts a sixteen-petalled lotus flower occupied by karnadardarika. The third is padma decorated with sixteen images of standing goddesses (one having a two bands of lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The bull-face). The intermediate band has four images fourth represents figures of dancers, musicians and of Gaja-Lakşmi. The inner band displays a full- warriors. The fifth is decorated with a row of

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geese. The padmašila consists of three courses of courses and a circular padmašila. The inner face of twelve-foil pointed, eight-foil pointed and quatre- the first course depicts figures of dancers, while its foil kolas, each edged with reverse gajatālu. In- underside represents Gaja-Lakşmi on two corners serted into the last course is a stamenal tube adorn and fārdūlas confronting warriors on the other two. ed with one row of petals. The foils of kola are The second is padma decorated with two bands of flanked on the outer edge with lotus scrolls.
lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The third is gajatālu
surmounted by a band of diamonds and beads. The Devakulika 24-Square on plan it is domical of
fourth again is gajatālu but is adorned with figures the sabhamandāraka variety. It consists of five cir-
of entwined Nāgas. The fifth is decorated with a
of antu cular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner
row of geese. The padmašila is similar to that seen face of the first course is decorated with figures of
in Devakulika 23, only that the quatrefoil kola is
in Deu dancers and musicians, while its underside repre
made pointed. sents an image of lalitāsana goddess accompanied by Mālādharas and Kinnaras at each corner and
Devakulika 27-Square on plan it is domical of a sculptural panel depicting dancers and musicians
the sabhamandāraka mode, It consists of five circular on the two projecting narrow sides. The second is
courses and a circular padmašila. The inner face of
the first course is decorated with a row of horsepadma adorned with two bands of lotus petal-andbud motif. The third is gajatalu topped by a band
riders, while its underside represents a seated of diamonds and beads. The fourth again is
human-couple in an arch of creepers issuing from gajatālu decorated with figures of entwined Nagas.
the mouth of a kirttimukha at each corner and a The fifth shows a sculptural panel depicting an
creeper-band on the two projecting narrow sides. Acārya with disciples, wrestling scenes and figures
The second is karyadardarika. The third is padma
decorated with two bands of lotus petal-and-bud of warriors. The padmašila is similar to that noticed in the preceding ceiling, with this difference that
ornament. The fourth is gajatalu topped by a band
of diamonds and beads. The fifth is adorned with the quatrefoil kola is made pointed.
a row of geese. The padmašila consists of three Devakulika 25-Square on plan it is domical of
courses of eight-foil reverse, eight-foil pointed and the sabhāmandāraka class. It consists of four circular
quatrefoil pointed kolas, the last one being edged courses and a circular padmašila. The first depicts
with reverse gajatālu. In the quatrefoil kola is a row of elephants on the inner face and a human inserted a small stamenal tube clasped by one row couple seated in an arch of creepers issuing from
of petals. the mouth of a kirttimukha at each corner on the
Devakulika 28--Square on plan it is domical of underside. The second is karnadardarikā topped by a goose-band. The third is carved with a row of
the sabhämandāraka type. It consists of four horse-riders. The fourth represents figures of male
circular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner
face of the first course is carved with a row of lions, dancers (one having a bull face). The large padmašila
while its underside depicts a creeper medallion at consists of three courses of twelve-foil larger, twelve.
each of the four corners and a sculptural panel foil smaller and eight-foil pointed kolas, and a
containing male figures, with folded or upraised stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. Each
hands, on the two projecting narrow sides. The course of the padmašila is edged with reverse gajatalu.
second is padma decorated with two bands of lotus The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four
petal-and-bud ornament. The third is gajatālu rectangular slabs representing ardhapadma pattern
topped by a diamond-and-bead band. The fourth, on the inner face and a band of campaka flowers on
edged with gajatālu, has eight whorls of four-fold the two projecting narrow undersides. Each of
a dia. (3+1) pointed kola. The padmašila consists of three these flowers is set up in a lozenge having a dia
courses. The first is made up of eight whorls of mond-and-bead border and kiritimukhas at corners.
four-fold (3+1) reverse kola. The second is similar Devakulikā 26-Square on plan it is domical of to the first but is smaller in size. The third perthe sabhānandaraka order. It consists of five circular tains to an eight-pointed quatrefoil kola and a

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Faina Temples of Western India
small stamental tube adorned with one row of rectangular slabs bearing similar decorations as we petals.
notice in the preceding ceiling. Devakulika 29-Rectangular on plan it is samatala. The rectangular flat surface shows relief
32B-Square on plan it is an ulksipta ceiling of carvings arranged in three panels. The square
the padmaka class. The padmaka is represented by central panel displays Lord Krşņa subduing the
nine projecting tūmās disposed in three lines of snake Kaliya. The scene is disposed in a circle. At
three each. Each luma consists of a reverse gajatālu, each corner of the square is a Kinnara playing on
an eight-foil pointed kola and a reverse gajatalu some musical instrument. The two side panels are
with an open flower. Between the limās, on the rectangular. One of these depicts Krsna lying on
level surfaces, are concave-sided diamonds marked
with four-petalled flowers. The ceiling is raised the coiled body of the snake Sesa; beside him is
up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs Lakşmi waving a fan, and a servant is seen massa
depicting fighting scenes and figures of musicians ging his foot. In this panel is also shown the
and dancers on the inner face, and a band of wrestling of Krnşa and Cāņūra. The other panel foliate scrolls on the two projecting narrow underdepicts Krşņa, Balarama and friends playing with a ball.31 The ceiling is raised up by a frame of
sides. four rectangular slabs placed over the architraves.
Devakulika 33A-Square on plan it is samatala. The slabs carry images of lalitasana goddesses with
Its square flat surface shows a full-blown lotus attendant figures in projecting niches and figures
flower comprising three rows of petals occupied by of ganas in the alternate recesses.
figure sculptures, The sixteen-petalled outer row is Devakulika 30-31-Square on plan it is samatala. occupied by sixteen figures of four-armed lalitasana Its square flat surface is divided into nine square Vidyādevis. The sixteen-petalled intermediate row compartments arranged in three lines of three each. has sixteen figures of Kinnaras and Kinnaris. The The four corner compartments are occupied by the petals of the inner row are empty but alternated images of four-armed lalitāsana goddesses, one of by lotus buas. A whom may be identified with Vajrasrnkhalā. The Kinnar-couple. The whole is placed in a border other compartments are filled with lotus meda- of geese. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame llions, each having two rows of petals, the petals of four rectangular slabs carrying a row horse-riders of the outer row being alternated with buds. The charging javelines on the inner face and a band of medallions are bordered by a band of geese, the foliate scrolls on the two projecting narrow underlotus flowers filling in the corners. The ceiling is sides. raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs bearing decorations of diamonds on the inner 33B-Square on plan it is a samaksipta ceiling of face and of creepers on the two projecting narrow the mandaraka order. The mandaraka element is undersides.
shown in three concentric circles. The deeply cut
outer circle represents a band of geese on the inner Devakulika 32A-Square on plan it is samatala.
face and a Kinnara-couple at each corner on the Its square flat surface is divided into three concent underside. The intermediate circle has a sixteenric circular bands, the outer containing pipala like pointed kola set up in gajatalu. The inner circle leaves set up in beaded volutes, the intermediate displays a row of lotus petals in the cyma reverse band depicting lotus petal-and-bud device and the order; its soffit is decorated with a band of diaminner representing a quatrefoil kola. In the quatrefoil onds and beads, while in its centre is an eight-foil kola is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one row kola containing a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. At each corner of the square are voluted of petals. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame lotus scrolls with bud in the centre, and on its two of four rectangular slabs carrying a row of elephants sides is a narrow band of diamonds and beads. The on the inner face and a band of creepers on the ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four two projecting narrow undersides.

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Description of Temples Devakulika 34A-Square on plan it is a ksiptotks. mandāraka element in three concentric circles. The ipta ceiling of the padmamandāraka order. This com- sharply cut outer circle shows ardhapadma motif on posite form is represented in three concentric the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on circles. The deeply cut outer circle shows a goose- the underside. The intermediate circle represents band on the inner face and a Kinnara-couple at twelve whorls of four-fold (3+1) reverse kola folloeach corner on the underside. Edged with reverse wed by twelve whorls of four-fold normal kola. The gajatalu the intermediate circle has twelve whorls inner circle, edged with reverse gajatalu, depicts an of four-fold (3+1) kola touching the inner face of open lotus having three rows of petals, the outer the outer circle. The inner circle depicts six proje- and the central rows being incurved and the intercting small lämās encircling a larger replica of the mediate row being displayed in the cyma recta same in centre. Each of the smaller lümās consists form. of a reverse gajatālu, a six-foil pointed kola, and a deeply set circular kola containing a stamenal tube
35B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling,
but in structure it is samatala. The inner face of clasped by one row of petals. The central lama consists of two courses of six-foil pointed and quatre
the square frame is decorated with ardhapadma
device, while its underside on each of the two shorfoil kolas, and a stamenal tube of the similar type
ter sides displays three projecting lämās in the diagoas we find in case of the other lümās; its each course
nal order. Each lãma is like a serrated diamond and is edged with reverse gajatalu. The ceiling is raised
consists of three courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil and up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs
quatrefoil kolas, and a small stamenal tube terminrepresenting a käyotsarga Jina with figures of Mälä
ating in a six-petalled mandaraka flower. Between dharas, trumpeters, horse-riders and elephants on
the lamas on two sides are deeply cut half lümās of the inner face, and a band of creepers on the two
the similar variety. The square flat surface is boldly projecting narrow undersides.
relieved with an image of twenty-armed lalitäsana 34B—Square on plan it is samatala. Its square
goddess Mahāmänasi with her lion mount.84 She ho30
lds sword, lotus, arrow, trišala, danda, goad, vyakhyflal surface is divided into five concentric circular
anamudrā, snake, club and varadam udra in the right bands representing, from outer to inner, a row of
hands, and shield, club, bow, noose, vajra, abhayamgeese, ar dhapadma pattern in beaded half circles,
udrā, conch, pot, parafu and lotus in the left ones. leaves in beaded volutes, lotus petal-and-bud motif
The goddess is flanked on each side by an image of and a full-blown lotus flower having one row of
eight-armed standing male divinity holding vajra, petals. At each corner of the square are represented
goad, noose, vyakhyānamudrā, varadamudrā, vajra, creepers. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs. The inner face of the frame je
jñānamudra and an indistinct object. depicts a kayotsarga Jina accompanied by Maladh- Devakulika 36A --Rectangular on plan it is aras, pitcher-bearers and male figures with hands samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by upraised in adoration, while its two projecting na- the usual framework of placing four rectangular rrow undersides depicts a band of lotus scrolls. slabs over the architraves. The inner face and the
two undersides of the square frame are inset with Devakulika 35A-Rectangular on plan it is a images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses. The samaksipta ceiling of the mandaraka variety, but its square flat surface is divided into five concentric space is reduced to a square by the usual framework circular bands representing, from outer to inner, of placing four rectangulars labs over the architra- lotus petals, ardhapadma enrichment in beaded half ves. The inner face of the square frame depicts circles, leaves in beaded volutes, lotus petal-andkayotsarga Jinas with Srävakas carrying water- bud, and a full-blown lotus flower comprising one vessels, garlands, incense-burners and flower vases. row of petals. Each corner of the square is occuwhile its underside on each of the two shorter sides pied by an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess. represents three standing goddesses with attendant The whole is placed in a border of flamboyant figures. The square part of the ceiling represents pattern.

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Jaina Temples of Western India
36 B-On plan and in structure it is similar to Devakulika 38A-Rectangular on plan it is samathe preceding ceiling. The inner face of the tala. The rectangular space of the ceiling is slightly square frame bears images of four-armed lalitā sana narrowed by a frame of four rectangular slabs placgoddesses; while its underside on each of the two ed over the architraves. The inner face of the shorter sides is relieved with three creeper medal. rectangular frame on each side depicts a padmāsana lions. The square flat surface shows a circular Jina with Srävakas carrying offerings, while its panel in the centre; it is surrounded all around by underside on each of the two projecting sides carries two square bands, each decorated with creepers a Kinnara-couple accompanied on either side by a which emerge from the mouth of a kirttimukha carved human-couple seated in voluted lotus scrolls. The in the centre on each side, but the creeper at each rectangular flat surface of the ceiling is divided corner is replaced by a whorl of five-fold (4+1) into three compartments, the central being square pointed kola. The circular panel is deeply cut with and the side ones, rectangular. The square comtwo bands of eight-foil pointed and quatrefoil kolas; partment is divided into three concentric circular in the centre of the quatrefoil kola is inserted a bands. The outer band consists of twelve-foil kola small stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. set up in gajatālu and edged with a row of incurved Between the two kolas is a reverse gajatālu. Each lotus petals. The intermediate band, edged with of the two square bands as well as the circular reverse gajatālu, depicts a row of incurved lotus panel is edged with gajatālu.
petals. The inner band is like the intermediate
one but shows in its centre a quatrefoil kola conDevakulika 37 A-Square on plan it is a sama
taining a stamenal tube clasped by one row of utkşipta ceiling of the mandaraka order. The manda
petals. At each corner of the square are shown raka is represented in four concentric circular bands
creepers. The two rectangular compartments are comprising, from outer to inner, sixteen-foil, twelve
filled with relief carvings representing Jaina monks foil, eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas, each set up in
and Srāvakas. gajatalu. The quatrefoil kola also contains a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. At each
38B--On plan and in structure it follows the corner of the square is a kiritimukha. The ceiling preceding ceiling. The inner face of the rectanguis raised up by a square frame of four rectangular lar frame is decorated with balcony models, while slabs sculptured with figures of musicians and it underside depicts an image of goddess Ambikä on dancers.
the one side and that of Sarvānubhūti on the other.
The rectangular flat surface shows some images of 37B-Square on plan it is samatala. Its square
unidentified gods and goddesses, 38 flat surface shows three square bands disposed one within the other at equidistances. The outer square Devakulika 39A-Rectangular on plan it is a displays a slightly projecting lümā at each corner sama-utksipta ceiling of the mandāraka order. But and a Kinnar-couple on each side. Each lämā con- its space is reduced to a square by the usual framesists of a quatrefoil and a circular kola, and a small work of placing four rectangular slabs over the stamenal tube terminating in a mandāraka flower, architraves. The inner face of the square frame the whole being encircled by a band of gajatalu. displays images of lalitāsana goddesses in niches, The intermediate square depicts sixteen lotus but the central niche on each side depicts a male flowers, each having one row of incurved petals. divinity. The underside of the frame on the two Edged with gajatalu the inner square has a circular shorter sides depicts a row of campaka flowers, each belt depicting in two concentric bands an eight-foil set up in a lozenge bordered by a diamond-andpointed kola and a quatrefoil kola respectively, bead band and having kirttimikhas at corners. The each preceded by a reverse gajatālu. In the centre square part of the ceiling represents mandäraka ele. of the quatrefoil kola is a stamenal tube clasped by ment in three concentric circular bands. Set up in two rows of petals. The ceiling is raised up by a gajatālu the outer band consists of twelve-foil pointed square frame of four rectangular slabs carved with kola. The intermediate band, edged with reverse images of lalitasana goddesses.
gajatālu, has an eight-foil pointed kola. The inner,
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Description of Temples
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also edged with reverse gajatālu, comprises a quatre are Srāvaka-couples or pair of male figures, all foil kola cut out with a circular kola. In the circu- standing on lotus pedestals. The female figure to lar kola is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one the right of Nirrti is naked. In the centre of the row of petals. At each corner of the square is a panel is an octagonal slab carved with an image Kinnara-couple.
of four-armed padmāsana Gaja-Lakşmi attended
upon each side by a female cauri-bearer. Below 39B-On plan it is similar to the preceding the pedestal of the goddess are nine water vases. ceiling, but in structure it is samatala. The inner At each corner of the square is an image of fourface of the square frame on each side depicts a armed lalitāsana goddess. 35 padmāsana goddess in the centre and Maladharas on her two sides, while its underside on each of the Devakulika 41A-Square on plan it is samatala. two shorter sides is decorated with three creeper The square flat surface is relieved with a sixteenmedallions. The square flat surface is boldly relie
petalled full-blown lotus flower occupied by sixteen ved with four images of four-armed lalitāsana god
images of standing Vidyādevis, each having six desses (Vajrānkusi (Fig. 19), Cakresvari, Prajāapti
arms. In the centre is a small full-blown lotus and Vajraérkhalā)84 placed diagonally in the four
flower having one row of incurved petals. At each corners. On either side of each goddess is a male
corner of the square is a Kinnara-couple, and on attendant carrying pitcher or garland. In the its two sides is a goose-band. The ceiling is raised centre of the panel is a full-blown lotus flower up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs comprising one row of incurved petals alternating bearing images of lalitasana gods, but the god in with buds.
the central niche on each side is represented in the
. . Devakulika 40A--Rectangular on
padmasana attitude.
plan it is samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by the 41B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling,
but in structure it is a sama-utk sipta ceiling of the over the architraves. The inner face of the square badmamandāraka variety. This composite form is frame is decorated with a row of geese, while its
represented by eight slightly projecting lūmās underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts
encircling a padmafila let down in the centre. All creepers that emerge from the mouth of a kirtti
the limās are arranged diagonally. Set up in a mukha. The square flat surface is divided into
square frame each lūmā consists of an eight-foil, a four concentric circular bands. The first is filled quatrefoil and a circular kola; in the last one is with sixteen full-blown lotus flowers. The second inserted a stamenal tube terminating in a sixshows acanthus leaves in beaded semi-circles. petalled mandāraka flower. The padmašila consists of The third depicts figures of dancers. The fourth
two courses, each edged with reverse gajatalu. The (central) has a sixteen-petalled full-blown lotus
first course consists of eight whorls of four-fold flower. At each corner of the square is a lalitäsana
(3+1) pointed kola. The eight points of this course goddess flanked on each side by a Kinnar and a
overlap on the inner corners of the limās. The male pitcher-bearer,
second has six-foil kola. From the latter also issues
a long stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. 40B-On plan and in structure it is similar to
At each corner of the square is a kiritimukha spethe preceding ceiling. The inner face of the square
wing creepers. The square frame lifting up the frame on each side depicts a käyotsarga Jina with
ceiling is inset with images of four-armed lalitäsana Vidyadharas riding on peacock, horse and swan
goddesses. and carrying water jar, fruit and flywhisk, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides is Devakulika 42A-It is rectangular on plan, but carved with three creeper medallions. The square its space is reduced to a square by the usual frameflat surface shows a circular panel depicting eight work of placing four rectangular slabs over the dikpalas, all having four arms and represented in architraves. The inner face of the square frame the standing attitude. Between the dikpala images is decorated with a row of horse-riders, while its

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Jaina Temples of Western India
underside on each of the two shorter sides bears images of standing goddesses. The front legs of the horses are borne by such figures as dogs. The square part of the ceiling depicts nabhicchanda element in the sama-kşipta form. It is represented by a grid of seventeen depressed lamās arranged diagonally. Besides, there are half lumas on the four sides. Each luma consists of a quarefoil kola and a small stamenal tube terminating in an eight-petalled mandaraka flower.
42B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling, but in structure it is samatala. The inner face of the square frame is adorned with a row of lions, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts Gaja-Laksmi. The square flat surface displays, one within the other, three decorative square bands. The outer square band shows a whorl of four-fold (3+1) kola at each corner and three foils of kola on each side. The intermediate band has an eight-foil kola. The inner band represents three concentric bands of eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas. In the centre of the circular kola is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. Each of the three square bands is edged with reverse gajatālu. The whole is placed in a border of gajatālu.
Devakulika 43A-On plan it follows Devakulika 42A, but in structure it is samatala. The inner face of the square frame carries images of lalitasana goddesses, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides is decorated with three creeper medallions. The square flat surface is divided into three concentric bands, the outer and the intermediate being square and the central being circular. The outer square band consists of sixteen-foil kola, while the intermediate one pertaints to eight-foil kola. The circular central panel represents a quatrefoil kola and a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. The whole is placed in a border of foliate scrolls which are overlapped by pieces of
four-fold (3+1) kola placed on the sides of the outer square band. Outside the scroll-band border, on the two sides, is a goose-band.
43B-Rectangular on plan it is samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by the usual framework of placing four rectangular slabs over the

architraves. The inner face of the square frame shows fighting scenes and figures of Maladharas, dancers, musicians and warriors, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts three voluted lotus scrolls filled with figures of Kinnara, Maladhara and lalitasana goddess. The square flat surface is boldly relieved with an image of sixteenarmed goddess Acchuptă sitting in the lalita pose on a stool (Fig. 18). The goddess carries chain, ring, goad, noose, arrow, jakbyānamudrā, paratu and conch in the right hands, and chain, trumpet(?), danda, bow, vajra, pitcher, club and abhayamudra in the left ones. She is accompanied on each side by a female cauri-bearer. Her horse mount is represented below her left leg. Below is also seen a band of lotus scrolls that issue from the mouth of a kirttimukha carved in the centre, while above are hovering Vidyadharas showering abhiseka water on goddess or making music,
Devakulika 44A-On plan and in structure it is similar to the preceding ceiling. The inner face of the square frame is adorned with a row of horseriders, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts three cross-shaped niches containing images of lalitasana goddesses, and Kinnaras filling in at the corners. The front legs of the horses are carried by monkeys, geese, ganas and bulls. The square flat surface shows similar representations as we notice in Devakulika 36A, but at the four corners of the square are shown creepers and the border of flamboyant design is conspicuous by its absence here.
44B-On plan and in structure it corresponds to Devakulika 43B. The inner face of the square frame is decorated with a row of lions, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides repre. sents three lotus medallions, each having two rows of petals, the petals of the outer row being set up in beaded semi-circles. The square flat surface is boldly relieved with an image of sixteen-armed
goddess Sarasvati sitting in lalitasana on a stool, 36 She holds lotus, danda, noose, conch, viņā, varadamudra, abhayamudra and lotus in the right hands, and lotus, vina, some musical instrument, goad, fruit, abhayamudrā with akṣamāla, book and pitcher in the left ones. To the right of the goddess is a six-armed male dancer and to her left is a six

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Description of Temples armed male drummer. Below is a figural band and a stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. depicting goat, boar, etc., while above is a sculptural The four corners of the square are occupied by four panel depicting Gaja-Lakşmi in the centre and kirttimukhas. The ceiling is raised up by a square four male divinities in niches on her each side. frame of four rectangular slabs, each representing a Devakulika 45A-On plan it is similar to Deva.
padmāsana Jina flanked on either side by two
Mālādharas. kulika 43B, but in structure it is a kşipta ceiling of the nābhicchanda order. The inner face of the 46B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling, square frame on each side depicts a padmāsana Jina but in structure it is samatala. The square frame is flanked on either side by a goddess mounting a inset with images of lalitasana goddesses. The square peacock and a horse-rider, while its underside on flat surface depicts an image of sixteen-armed each of the two shorter sides displays figures of Nrsimha (Fig. 21) tearing the belly of Hiranyakage horse-riders, elephants with drivers and warriors. vada caught between his legs.88 Nộsimha holds The nābhicchanda element is represented by a grid of
mace and disc in his two hands; two of his hands seventeen depressed līmās disposed in diagonal
are raised over the head; while with the rest he is order. Besides, there are hall lumas on the four busy in overpowering the demon and tearing his sides. Each lūma consists of a quatrefoil and a belly. The sculpture is carved in high relief in the circular kola, and a small padmakes ara adorned with centre of a
centre of a sixteen-petalled lotus flower with buds one row of petals.
in between the petals and is placed in a square 45B-On plan and in structure it is like that compartment having a Kinnara-couple at each seen in Devakulika 43B. The inner face of the square corner. The whole is surrounded by a rectangular frame is inset with images of lalitasana goddesses, panel border showing narratives of samudramanthana while its underside on each of the two shorter sides and some other scenes. is decorated with three full and two half lotuses,
Devakulika 47A-Square on plan it is samatala. Its each comprising two rows of petals, the petals of
square flat surface is divided into three concentric the outer row in some cases being set up in interse
circular bands. The outer and the intermediate cting garland loops. The square flat surface is
bands show 56 Dik-Kumāris performing the birthboldly relieved with an image of sixteen-armed
rites of Jina carved in the central circle,89 At goddess Vairotyä'seated in'lalitāsana on a stool.37
each corner of the square is a Kinnara-couple, and She carries sanke, disc, trifūla, noose, sword, vajra
on its two sides is a goose-band. The ceiling is ghanta and varadamudra in the right hands, and
raised up by a square frame of four rectangular snake, shield, danda, lotus, vajta, snake and pitcher
slabs. Each slab depicts a kayotsarga Jina flanked in the left'ones; her other two hands rest on the
on either side by a four-armed male divinity carryhead of a Naga and a Nägin, who are depicted resp- ing pitcher
resp. ing pitcher and a Mäladhara. ectively to the right and left of the stool, with their hands in añjalimudrā. She is easily recognised by 47B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling, her snake mount shown below her seat with hands but in structure it is a ksipta vitāna of the näbhiin añjalimudra. She has a seven-hooded cobra can- cchanda order. The latter is represented by a grid opy overhead and is attended upon either side by of thirteen depressed lūmās arranged in diagonal a female cauri-bearer. Above is a row of Gandharvas
order. Besides, there are half lūmas on the four and Vidyadharas.
sides. Resembling a serrated diamond each lima Devakulika 46A-Square on plan it is a sama
consists of an eight-foil, a quatrefoil and a circular utksipta vitana of the mandaraka variety. The latter kola, and a stamenal tube adorned with one row of is represented in three concentric circular bands.
petals. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame The outer band depicts sixteen-foil reverse kola. of four rectangular slabs carved with balcony The intermediate band, edged with reverse gaja
models. tālu, pertains to twelve-foil kola. The inner band, Devakulika 48 A--Rectangular on plan it is samaalso edged with reverse gajatalu, has twelve-foil kola tala. Its rectangular flat surface is divided into three
10

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Jaina Temples of Western India
compartments, the central being square and the while its underside on the two shorter sides is side ones, rectangular. Each of the rectangular com- decorated with creepers. The square flat surface partments depicts two pairs of Kinnars. The square is divided into three concentric circular bands. compartment is divided into three concentric circu- The outer band is decorated with lotus buds and lar bands, the outer being carved with lotus scrolls, stalks. The intermediate band has decoration of and the intermediate and the inner having decora- lotus scrolls. The inner band depicts a full-blown tion of creepers. At each corner of the square is a lotus flower. The four corners of the square are karttimukha. The whole is placed in a border of filled with four kirttimukhas. The whole is placed creepers which emerge from the mouth of a kirtti- in a border of creepers. mukha carved in the centre on each side. The ceilindie ried un bu frame of four rectangular Devakulika 52A-Square on plan it is a domical ceislabs, two of which are slightly projecting into the ling of the sabhāmandāraka variety. It consists of four space of the ceiling. The inner face of the rectan circular courses and a circular padmafila. The first gular frame depicts figures of warriors, dancers and shows a band of kirttimukhas on the inner face and musicians, while its underside on the two projecting four bold kirttimukhas on the four underside corners. sides is decorated with lotus scrolls.
The second is karnadardarikā topped by a goose
band. The third is gajalalu surmounted by a band 48B-On plan and in structure it follows the
of diamonds and beads. The fourth shows relief preceding ceiling. The inner face of the rectangu
carvings of a kāyotsarga Jina with Srävakas standlar frame raising up the ceiling depicts kāgotsarga
ing beside him, and an Acarya with sthapana in Jinas with Śrävakas carrying offerings for worship,
front and Srävakas standing with folded hands. while its underside on the two projecting sides is
The padmašila consists of three courses of eight decorated with creepers. The rectangular flat
whorls of four-fold (3+1), six whorls of four-fold surface is divided into twenty compartments arran- (3+1) pointed and eight-foil pointed kolas, and a ged in four lines of five each. The compartments stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals and are filled with various relief carvings. One of these
inserted in a deeply set quatrefoil kola. The first shows a Jina. Another has an Acārya with dis
course of the padmašila is set up in normal gajatalu, ciples, 40 In the rest are figures of musicians, danc
while the other two are edged with reverse gajaers, warriors and Mālādharas. Each compartment
talus. is bordered by a band of diamonds and beads.
52B-Square on plan it is a domical ceiling of the Devakulikās 49-50-On plan and in structure it
sabhāmandāraka type. It consists of four circular courcorresponds to that seen in Devakulikā 48A. The
ses and a circular padmašila. The first course carries inner face of the rectangular frame is carved with
images of lalita sana goddesses on the inner face as saw-tooth pattern, while its underside on the
well as on the four underside corners. The second is two projecting sides is embellished with lotus
karşadardarika topped by a goose-band. The third is scrolls. The rectangular flat surface is divided
gajatālu surmounted by a band of campaka flowers like the preceding ceiling, into twenty compart
and circular lambanas. The fourth is gajatālu adornments containing a padmasana Jina, a kayotsarga
ed with entwined Nāgas. The padmašila consists Jina, an Acārya with disciples, a lalitasana image of
of five courses of twelve whorls of four-fold (3+1), goddess Ambikā, an unidentified lalitäsana goddess,
eight whorls of four-fold (3+1) pointed, eight-foil Yakşa Brahmaśānti, Mālädharas, pitcher-bearers and dancers. 41
pointed, six-foil pointed and quatrefoil kolas res
pectively, and a stamenal tube clasped by one row Devakulika 51--Rectangular on plan it is sama- of petals and inserted in a deeply set circular kola. tala, but its space is reduced to a square by the The first course of the padmašila is set up in normal usual framework of placing four rectangular slabs gajatalu, while the other four are edged with reverse over the architraves. The inner face of the square gajatālus. frame shows flamboyant pattern in semi-circles, Devakulika 53A-Same as Devakulika 52A.

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Description of Temples
,
75
53B-Same as Devakulika 52B.
The ceiling towards the entrance is built on a Devakulika 54A-Square on plan it is a domical square plan and is domical of the sabhaman däraka ceiling of the sabhāmandäraka order. It consists of five variety. It consists of five circular courses and circular courses and a circular padmašila. The inner a circular padmašila. The inner face of the first face of the first course is decorated with a row of course is adorned with a row of elephants, while elephants, while its underside shows carving of its underside carries a Kinnara-couple at each creepers at the four corners and a sculptural panel corner and a figural band representing musicians on the two projecting narrow sides. Each panel and dancers on the two projecting narrow sides. depicts a kāyotsarga Jina with worshippers carrying The second is karņadardarika topped by a kirttimukha pitcher, garland and other offerings. The second
band. The third is gajatalu surmounted by a band is padma decorated with two bands of lotus petal
of diamonds and beads. The fourth is decorated and-bud ornament. The third, fourth and fifth
with a row of geese. The fifth carries a sculptural
panel which depicts a seated Acarya with sthapanā pertain to sixteen-foil, twelve-foil and eight-foil
in front and Srävakas hearing his religious discourse. kolas respectively, each bordered by a band of lotus
The padmašila consists of three courses. The first scrolls. The padmašila is composed of three corollas
has eight whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. The of incurved lotus petals and a stamenal tube adorn
second consists of an eight-foil pointed kola. The ed with one row of petals. The first two corollas
third also consists of an eight-foil pointed kola, but are edged with reverse gajatālus.
its foils are smaller and arranged in a square. In 54B-Square on plan it is a domical ceiling of the the third course of the padmas ila are also set up a sabhapadmamandāraka order. It consists of six cir- quatrefoil and a circular kola, and a stamenal tube cular courses and eight projecting lamas encircling clasped by one row of petals. a padmašila let down in the centre. The inner face of the first course is carved with a row of lions,
Square on plan the ceiling towards the courtywhile its underside depicts an image of lalitäsana
ard is also domical of the sabhämandāraka variety. goddess at each corner and a foliate scroll-band on
It consists of six circular courses and a circular the two projecting narrow sides. The second is
padmašila. The inner face of the first course is karnadardarika topped by a goose-band. The third
decorated with a row of horse-riders, while its is adorned with balcony models. The fourth and
underside reveals creepers at the four corners and fifth are gajatālus, each topped by a band of dia
a foliate scroll-band on the two projecting narrow monds and beads. The sixth consists of an eight
sides. The second is padma decorated with two foil kola, each foil containing a stamenal tube clas
bands of lotus petal-and-bud enrichment and ped by one row of petals. From the third course
topped by a kirttimukha-band. The third is adorproject out eight brackets of Vidyadharas, each
ned with balcony models. The fourth and fifth supporting a bracket figure of Apsarā, the stele of
arelgajatalus, each topped by a band of diamonds which is tenoned into the kola course. The Apsarās
and beads. The sixth consists of eight whorls of are represented dancing, playing on some musical
four-fold (3+1) kola. From the third course pro.
ject out eight brackets of Vidyadharas, each supporinstruments, or bearing garlands; in one instance
ting a bracket figure of Apsara, the stele of waich she is naked. Each of the eight projecting lâmās
is tenoned into the kola course. The pad nafila consists of a quatrefoil and a deeply set circular
consists of two courses, each edged with reverse kola. The padmašila consists of two courses of eight
gajatālu. The first is made up of six whorls of foil and quatrefoil kolas and a stamenal tube termi.
four-fold (3+1) pointed kola. The second consists nating in a mandāraka flower. Each course of the
of an eight-pointed quatrefoil kola and a hollowed padmašila is edged with reverse gajatālu.
out circular kola. In the latter is inserted a stameThe line of devakulikas is broken at the main nal tube clasped by two rows of petals. This bay entrance, but the corridor is continued and shows also contains a toraṇa-arch which is similar to that two usual bays, each containing an ornate ceiling. seen in the nave of the rangamanda pa.
Jain Education Intemational

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Faina Temples of Western India
Both these ceilings are raised up by squat pillars. stone, is an old one. Square on plan it is domical. The spaces between these pillars are filled with It consists of five circular courses. The first is carved panels. The panels are divided into two karņadardarikā incised with lotus petals. The horizontal belts, the lower showing a row of second is gajatālu. The third, fourth and fifth elephants and the upper displaying different relief pertain to eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas carvings. The southern panel in the ceiling to respectively. From the second course project out wards the courtyard represents the story of Ardra. four brackets of Vidyadharas, each supporting a kumāra who imparted right knowledge to an bracket figure of Apsara, the stele of which is tenoelephant. At one end of this scene is Mahavira ned into the quatrefoil kola. Built of white marble standing in käyotsarga posture, and on the other is all these bracket figures seem to be added later. a man fighting with a lion.4 2 The panel on the Balanaka corresponding north side depicts two Acäryas with Śrävakas. The southern panel in the ceiling near
It was added in the 19th century and hence I the main entrance represents a Jaina monk with need not Srävakas, while the one on the corresponding north side depicts figures of horse-riders, elephants with
Hastisala drivers and pedestrians.
It is a rectangular walled structure with its At present each devakulska has an image of
f roof supported by six pillars. Above the plain padmāsana Jina worshipped as milanäyaka. Almost
plinth its wall shows mouldings of khura, kumbha all these images were installed in one or the other
decorated with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatra,
and pattika carved with ardhapadma pattern. Then of the later repairs of the temple. But the moulded
follow two horizontal belts of perforated and blind pedestal and the parikaras are mostly old pieces. Thus the inscriptions engraved on these pedestals
stone grilles with a median band carved with saw
tooth pattern. On the top of the wall is another reveal the name of the Jina who is different from
band carved with foliate scrolls. The grilles are out the image now worshipped. This is more obvious in case of Pärsvanātha whose snake-canopy is still
into various geometrical patterns such as criss
cross, diamonds, stepped diamonds, chequer pattern preserved, but the Jina with his symbol, installed
and triangles. The vertical wall above the plinth later, is quite different.43
is broken up by pillars. The base of these pillars. The devakulikās are shaded towards the courtyard square in section, consists of a khura, kumbha adorned by a corrugated eave-cornice.
with half diamonds and a kumuda; their shaft is
square at the base, octagonal in the middle and The exterior wall of each devakulika is pañcaratha.
ulika is pañcaratha. circular on the top; and their capital consists of a In elevation it shows pitha, vedibandha, jangha, double-course round bharani of karnika and padma, varandika and roof. The plpha consists of a bhitta,
surmounted by four-armed kicaka-brackets. The jad yakumbha, karņika and chadyaki. The vedibandha
wall is shaded by a corrugated eave-cornice. The comprises a khura, kumbha decorated with half
part above the cornice is alloted to a figural belt, diamonds, kalaba, anatarapatra, and kapota adorned now plastered up. with caitya-arch pattern. The jarigha, divided into two registers by a plain fillet and also topped by
a T he hastišala is entered from all the four sides. similar fillet, is plain. The varandika has two From the west it is led through the balanaka, while kapotas interspersed with a deep fillet. The roof is elsewhere it is entered through a porch, At present, composed of six receding tiers and is crowned on only the west entrance is open. Each of the side the top by a fluted bell, a kalasa and a bijapüraka. porches has a flat roof resting on two pillars. The At the base of the roof, on the central råtha, is a pillars have only two members, viz. shaft and niche cantaining an image of padmāsana Jina. capital. The shaft has four sections, viz. square,
octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular. The capital The doorframe of the main entrance is modern, consists of a double-course round bharani of karpika but the small ceiling in its front, built of black and padma, and a four-armed double-roll bracket.

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Description of Temples
The eastern porch also has a flat roof supported by plastering save for the head; probably it was on two pillars, but it is ornate. Here the pillars broken and had to be repaired. There is an attenare of the octagonal type. Their base shows moul- dant figure on the back, who once held an umbrella dings of khura, kumbha carrying an image of over the Minister. padmāsana Jina on each of the eight facets, kalaša, antarapatra and grāsapatti. The shaft is divisible
Behind this is a Samavasaraṇa scene executed in into two sections, the lower being octagonal and
white marble. Circular in shape it is composed of the upper, circular. The octagonal section is further
three fortifications shown one above the other, and divided into two horizontal belts by a kumuda; the at the top is a quadruple image of Jina seated lower belt of these is longer than the upper one.
under a miniature shrine. An inscription upon it The lower belt carries an image of four-armed of V. S. 1212 (1155 A.D.) reveals that it was a gift standing goddess on each of the eight facets, and of Min the upper one has eight images of padmāsana Jinas. caste and a follower of Nannācārya of KorantaThe circular section is divisible into four horizontal gaccha. belts, the first showing vertical flutings, the second carrying figures of Vidyadharas, the third repre
In the hastifāla are ten large elephants of white senting diamonds and beads in alternation, marble arranged east-west in three rows, the side and the fourth displaying a kirttimukha-band, The ones having four elephants each and the central capital consists of a double-course round one comprising two elephants only. The elephants bharaṇi of karņika and padma clasped by foliage, are wrought wholly in the round and are adorned and a four-armed double-roll bracket. Between with howdah, chain and bells, and trappings. the pillars is thrown a scalloped toraya-arch punc- Seven of these were installed by Prthvipala in V.S. tuated with images of padmāsana Jinas and having 1208 (1151 A. D.) and three by his son Dhanapala circular lambanas underneath. The arch issues in V.S. 1237 (1180 A.D.).48 from the mouth of a makara on färdüla inserted in the middle of the pillar-shaft and touches the Above each sculpture of the hastišala is built a underside of the architrave over the pillars. The small domical ceiling. But for two ceilings all are roof has a ribbed eave-cornice overhanging the now plastered up with lime. Made of black stone architraves. At the top of the roof is a cusped both these ceilings are alike. What is exposed of toraṇa-arch, now plastered up. This arch consists of them show two square courses and a ceiling slab. five cusps and has a tilaka and a makara facing The first square course consists of an eight-foil kola outward at either end. The tilakas shelter topped by a figural band representing warriors, padmasana Jinas. The single-fakha doorframe is Mälädharas and pitcher-bearers. The second is a decorated with foliate scrolls. At the base of the quatrefoil kola. The ceiling-slab depicts an open jamb stands a female figure carrying water pot. lotus flower having two rows of petals. The udumbara is damaged, while the uttaranga continues the decoration of the jamb. On either According to the Jaina tradition, Vimalasaha side of the door is a Pratihāra (Dvärapäla).
built this temple having spent eighteen crore fifty The whole of the exterior of the hastitala is now three lacs. white-washed. Inside the hastifala, near the western entrance,
LOŅAVASAHI is an equestrian effigy of Minister Vimalasäha The general arrangement of its plan (Text Fig. 3) wearing a crown. He is holding a pot in his right is similar to the Vimalavasahi, but the balanaka is hand, while with the left hand he is holding the absent here and the hastišala is built at the back reins of the horse he is riding on. The pot suggests of the temple removing all the devakulikās of the that he is carrying offerings for worship. Executed back row. The temple is entered from the west to in white marble the whole sculpture is now spoiled which direction it also has its orientation.

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Jaina Temples of Western India
Malaprisada
The buffer wall between the sanctum and the It is tryaniga on plan, consisting of bhadra, pra- gūdhamandapa contains two niches sheltering an tiratha and karna, the bhadra being the longest and image of Mahavira on proper right and that of the pratiratha the shortest. A recess separates the
he Sāntinātha on proper left, both being lately instal
led there. sanctum from the güdhamandapa. In elevation it shows pitha, vedibandha, jangha,
Gūdhamandapa varandika and pharisanā. The pitha consists of two I t is dvyaniga on plan consisting of bhadra and bhittas, a jād yakumbha, a karņikā, a chadyaki and a karna. It shares its pītha and mandovara with the patrika. The vedibandha pertains to a khura, kumbha, anctum and is roofed by a phansanā which is kalasa, antarapatra and kapota. Divided into two similar to that seen in the sanctum, but the crownregisters by a plain median band and also topped ing members here show a fluted bell, an amalaka, by a similar band the jangha is plain, but for the a kalaša and a bijapüraka. Its exterior here too is projecting sculptured niches on the bhadras contai- coated with white lime. ning images of Jinas seated in dhyānamudra. The varandikā is made up of a kapota and a ribbed eave
Square on plan each of the lateral porches cornice. The phansanä roof consists of eight reced
(Fig. 89) is approached from the quadrangular ing tiers and is crowned by an amalaka, candrika,
court by a flight of five steps cut across the pitha
and is enclosed by a balustrade. On the balustrade kalata and bijapüraka. The four ridges of the roof
stand two pillars and two pilasters supporting a carry ghanțas with rampant lions, each ghanta consisting of a fluted bell, an amalaka, a kalata and
domical ceiling on a square frame of architraves.
Its pitha is ornate, consisting of two bhiftas-the a bijapüraka, while at its base, in the cardinal points,
lower being plain and the upper showing carving of are images of Jinas seated in dhyānamudra. The
half diamonds-, a short karpika, a khura, a kumbha whole of the exterior of the sanctum is now coated bearing decorations of half diamonds on the body with white lime,
and foliage underlined with a sharp-edged band on The foorframe of the sanctum is of the single. the shoulder, a kalaša adorned with beaded garfakha variety decorated with foliate scrolls. On the lands and stylised rosettes, an antarapatra decorated lower part of the jamb stands a female carrying with stepped diamonds, a grāsapatti, and finally a water pot. The doorsill is divided into two registers. kapota underlined with leaves. The balustrade is The lower register carries mouldings of a jad yakum- also ornate; it consists of a mañcikā, unlike the usual bha and a karnikā. The upper one shows a semi- rājasenaka, a very short vedika, an asanapatta and a circular projection adorned with stemmed lotus kaksäsana. The mañcika is embellished with caityain the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side arch pattern and is underlined with lotus leaves. of it, and diamonds on either extremity. The door. The vedika is treated as padma sharply cut up into lintel continues the decoration of the jamb and has
tinues the decoration of the jamb and has lotus petal-and-bud motif. The asanapatta is treated a padmāsana Jina as the lalatabimba. In front of the like a mañcika decorated with caitya-window ornadoor is a moonstone which consists of an ardha- ment. The kaksāsana is divided into two horizontal candra tied on either end with gagaraka, conch and belts, the lower being shorter than the upper. The lotus stem and flanked in turn by two talaräpakas. lower belt is decorated with flamboyant pattern,
while the upper one is treated as padma decorated Inside the sanctum is a saparikara image in
with lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The pitha and black stone of Neminätha installed on a high the balustrade below the pillars have five-faceted moulded pedestal made of white marble. The projections. The central facet of these projections. saptaratha pedestal consists of two bhittas, a jad yaku- on the kumbha portion, carries a framed figure of mbha, a karnika, an antarapatra adorned with stepped Pratihära flanking the stairway on the front and diamonds, and a prominently projecting chad yaki. an image of four-armed standing goddess on each The image is a late one; it was installed probably side. The frame of these images oversects the by Pethaďa.48
kalata. The roof, now plastered up, has a corru

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3. Plan of Lūņavasahi at Abu

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gated eave-cornice, the soffit of which is adorned padma, each decorated with lotus petal-and-bud with a band of diamonds and beads. From each ornament. The circular ceiling-slab is relieved corner of the roof emerges an elephant carved with a full-blown lotus flower consisting of two wholly in the round. The elephants are vigorous rows of petals, the petals of the outer row being and have one of their front legs raised and suppor- alternated with buds. The door is of the singleted by a block of marble.
Sakha variety decorated with foliate scrolls which
issue from the raval of a Kinnar carved below. The The pillars of the south porch consist or only fakha is flanked on the outer side by a band of diatwo members, namely shaft and capital. The shaft
monds and beads. On the lower part of the falha is heptagonal in section, with cut off angles. It is stands a Pratihära accompanied on the outer side by divided into six horizontal belts, the first being the
a female caur7-bearer and on the inner side by a felongest, the second being next in length, and male carrying water jar. The doorsill is divided into the other having almost equal sizes. Each of
two registers. The lower register shows mouldings of these belts is clasped by miniature shrines. The
khura, jad yakumbha, karņika, antarapatra and fillet. shrines of the first belt contain images of Jinas
The upper one displays a semi-circular projection adseated in dhyanamudra, and those of the other belts
orned with stemmed lotus in the centre, a projecting carry diamonds. Besides, the first belt also displays
kirttimukha on each side of it,and a sculptured niche
1 mouldings of khura, kumbha decorated with half dia
on either extremity. The niche on proper right monds, kumuda, three narrow karnikas at intervals,
contains an image of four-armed lalitāsana male kapota and karşikā; the second has a kumuda and
divinity identifiable with Gomedha. The god holds three karnikās at intervals; and the fifth carries four
snakes in the upper hands, and varadamudra and projecting lambanas. The shaft is surmounted by a
fruit in the lower ones; he has eagle as his mount. band of saw-tooth motif. The capital has a double
The niche on proper left contains an image of fourcourse round bharaṇi of karnika and ridged padma, surmounted by four-armed double-roll brackets
handed lalitasana female divinity (Gauri ?). The carrying decorations of creeper on the side faces and
goddess carries snake and noose in the upper hands, drooping foliages in the form of pendants on the
and varadamudra and fruit in the lower ones; she front. The pilasters are five-faceted and, like the
has crocodile as her vāhana. Each of these images pillars, consist of shaft and capital. The lower part
is accompanied on the inner side by three male of the shaft is similar to the first belt of the pillar
attendants and on the outer side by two male atte. shaft, with this difference that here the miniature
ndants. The door-lintel continues the decorative shrines shelter diamonds. The upper portion of the
bands of the jambs and depicts a padmāsana Jina in shaft is divided into six horizontal belts, each treated
dhyānamudrā on the lalāta. In front of the door is as padma adorned with lotus petals and buds. The
a moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra tied
on either end with gagāraka, farkha and lotus stem capital corresponds to that of the pillars, but here
and flanked in turn by a talarūpaka. The ardhacandra the bharani is clasped by suspended foliage. The
is incised with scallop pattern, architraves are divided into two fasciae, the lower being decorated with lotus scrolls which come forth
The pillars of the north porch also confrom the mouth of a kiritimukha carved in the centre, sist of only shaft and capital. The shaft is divided and the upper a strip of diamonds. In the centre into three sections, viz. octagonal, sixteen-sided and of their underside is carved in low relief a lotus circular, the first being the longest and the second medallion comprising two rows of petals. The the shortest. The octagonal protion is further domical ceiling is composed of seven courses. The divided into two horizontal belts by a kumuda, the first course is octagonal and the others are circular. lower depicting on each facet a segmented pilaster The inner face of the first course is adorned with crowned by a bell type of rooflet, and the upper diamonds, while its underside depicts a kirttimukha bearing an eight-petalled half opened lotus flower at each corner and a band of creepers on the two with buds in between the petals. The sixteen-sided projected sides. The second is decorated with a section shows decoration of concave-sided flutings kiritimukha-band. The next five courses consist of below and a band of heart-shaped leaves above,
Jain Education Interational

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Description of Temples
81
The circular section is surmounted by a band of lalitäsana male divinity. He holds club and conch kirttimukhas spewing festoons, the ends of which are in the upper hands, while his lower hands are clasped below by a band of sew-tooth pattern. On mutilated; he has a snake as his cognizance. The the lower part of this section also appear four pen- niche on proper left contains an image of fourdants. The capitals are similar to those seen in the armed lalitāsana goddess. Mounted on a Garuda south porch. The pilasters here also are five-faceted. the goddess holds noose and snake in the upper The lower part of their shaft is treated like that right and left hands, her lower right hand is in the observed in the south porch, while the upper part varadamudra and the corresponding left one carries is clasped at intervals by three decorative bands, a water pot. Both the images are accompanied by the first showing half-blown lotus flower consisting attendant figures. The door-lintel is also divided of petals and buds, the second bearing ardhapadma into two registers. The lower register shows a ghatapattern, and the third carrying figures of Maladh- pallava capital topping the ripastambha on either aras. The top of the shaft shows minor mouldings end, while the space in between the capitals is filled of khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, with sculptured niches. The central niche, which is kalafa, padma, karņika and kapota. The pilaster-capi- treated as lalátabimba, contains an image of padmatals, architraves, doorframe and roof are similar to sana Jina in dhyanamudra, while the other niches those noticed in the south porch. The domical ceil- contain images of lalitasana goddesses. The upper ing, however, is differently treated. It is composed register depicts four miniature Sikharas sheltering seven courses, the first being octagonal and the rest, images of Gomukha Yaksa and three balcony circular. The inner face of the first course is models. In front of the door is a moonstone which adorned with diamonds, while its underside depicts consists of an ardhacandra tied on either end with a kirttimukha at each corner and a band of creepers gagāraka, Sarkha and lotus stem, and flanked in turn on the two sides. The second is treated like an by talarūpaka, gagäraka, Sarkha and lotus stem, arris. The next four courses consist of padma, each
The interior of the gädhamandapa is square; its carved with lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The seventh course comprises eight whorls of four-fold
wall is reinforced by eight pilasters, which are (3+1) kola. On the triangular spaces of the kola
arranged in an octagon and support a domical are found remains of eight mortices which origina.
ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The
square base of the pilasters consists of a khura decorally had pendants. The circular ceiling slab is
ted with diamonds, a kumbha carved with half diarelieved with a full-blown lotus flower having two rows of petals, the petals of the outer row being
monds, a kalaša, an antarapatra, and a kapota adorned alternated with buds.
with caitya-arch motif. Their shaft is octagonal
at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular The west door of the gūdhamandapa is of the on the top. The circular section is surmounted by trifakha variety (Fig. 92). It consists of rūpasakha, a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains that are rūbastambha and ripafakha, all having been rounded secured below by a goose-band. Their capital off by vertical flutings. The lower part of each consists of a short padma-bharani surmounted by fakha is occupied by a framed figure of four-armed roll or kicaka brackets. The architraves are similar standing goddess, while the part above is represent to those seen in the lateral porches. A square block ed with five successive niches containing images of from each pilaster, inset with lalitāsana goddess, standing goddesses. The sakhās are surmounted introduces the dome which is composed of ten by a ghatapallava. The doorsill is divided into two re- courses, the first being sixteen-sided and the rest, gisters. The lower register shows mouldings of khura, circular. The first course is carved with diamonds. jad yakumbha, karņika, antarapatra, kapota and grāsa- The second is ornamented with ardhapadma pattern. patti. The upper one displays a semi-circular pro- The remaining courses consist of padmas. But for jection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, the fourth course, which is decorated with lotus a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it, and a petal-and-but motif and sustains sixteen circular sculptured niche on either extremity. The niche pendants, all of these are plain. The circular ceilingon proper right depicts an image of four-armed slab bears a full-blown lotus flower having three
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rows of petals. The gūdhamandapa contains many (3) These are square at the base with corners Jina images and an image of Rajimati, the bride chamfered into three angles, octagonal in the of Neminātha to whom the temple is dedicated. 49
middle and circular on the top. The square
section consists of a bhitta, jad yakumbha, karnika, Mukhamandapa
padma, khura, kumbha decorated with half Rectangular on plan it consists of nine bays and diamonds, kalata and finally a series of is landed up from the rangamandapa by three stair- karņikas at intervals, and is surmounted by ways, the central having six steps and the side ones miniature fikharas. The octagonal section is comprising five steps each. Below each staircase
decorated with a khura, kumbha adorned with
half diamonds, kalafa, eight-petalled halfis a moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra tied
blown lotus flower with buds between the on either end with gagäraka, Sarkha and lotus stem.
petals, and a band of ardhapadma pattern. The The ardhacandra is adorned with scallop pattern.
circular section shows three decorative bands On either side of the central staircase is an orna
of Mälädharas, saw tooth pattern and four mental sunken niche containing an image of Pratihāra. The pañcaratha niches are decorated
projecting pendants, and diamonds, and three
mouldings of khura, kumbha decorated with half with half-blown lotuses arranged in rows.
diamonds, and kalaša. The circular section is
surmounted by a band of saw-tooth pattern. The mukhamandapa also has an ornate pitha and
The second and third decorative bands on one balustrade, which are but the continuum of those
pillar, however, are conspicuous by their of the gidhamandapa lateral porches (Fig. 89). It
absence. consists of ten pillars and two pilasters, which are disposed in the same order as we notice in case of The other four pillars are of the octagonal the Vimalavasahi. Six of these pillars, namely three variety (Fig. 92). The angles at the base of these on either side, rest on the asanapatta of the kaksā- pillars are chamfered so much so that they look sana and consist of only two members, viz, shaft almost circular. The base consists of a khura, kumbha and capital. The capitals of all the pillars are decorated with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatra, alike, consisting of a double-course round bharani and kapota underlined with leaves. The shaft is of karnika and padma, and a four-armed double-roll divided into two sections, the lower being octagobracket displaying half kirttimukhas on their side nal and the upper, circular. The octagonal section faces and drooping foliage on the front. The shafts, is further divided into two horizontal belts, the however, differ. On the basis of ornamentations lower being wider than the upper. The lower belt the shafts may be divided into three groups, each is boldly relieved with eight figures of female group comprising two pillars :
dancers, and the upper is adorned with eight images
of lalitāsana goddesses identifiable with Sarasvati (1) These are circular in section and display verti- and Laksmi. The circular section is divided into
cal flutings with chamfered angles. They are four horizontal belts by recessed fillets adorned at divided into two sections. The lower part times with lozenges or stepped diamonds. The which approximates nearly one-third of the first belt represents acanthus, the second shows total height of the shaft, is comparatively ardhapadma pattern, the third carries Malādharas wider and is surmounted by miniature fikharas.
and four projecting pendants, and the fourth bears The upper section, also crowned by miniature
a band of kirttimukhas spewing festoons, the ends of fikharas, carries four projecting pendants or a which are secured below by a band of campaka band of diamonds and beads.
flowers. The capital is similar to that of the (2) These are octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided
kaksāsana pillars. in the middle and circular on the top. The The two pilasters flanking the gūdhamanda pa circular section is surmounted by a band of door are three-faceted, but their corners are chamkirttimukhas emitting beaded strands.
fered so much so that they give almost a diagonal

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Description of Temples
Square on plan the ceiling in the northwest bay is domical of the sabhämandāraka kind. It con. sists of seven courses and a circular padmašila. The first course is octagonal and the rest are circular. The inner face of the first course is decorated with lotus scrolls, while its underside at each corner depicts a kirttimukha. The second is adorned with a band of kiritimukhas. The third is karyadardarika. The fourth consists of padma cut out with lotus
effect (Fig. 92). Their base is similar to that of the octagonal pillars, but the kumbha here shows a figure of female dancer. Below, the shaft is plain, while above, it displays a series of horizontal bands of shrine models, resembling almost a diaper work. The shaft is surmounted by a ghatapallava. The capital consists of a double-course round bharani of karnika and padma clasped by drooping foliage, and a three-armed square bracket, the front bracket of which is treated like a pendant, also clasped by drooping foliage.
The architraves are similar to those found in the porches of the gidhamandapa. The mukhamandapa is shaded on the two sides by a corrugated eavecornice, the soffit of which is adorned on the outer edge with a band of diamonds and beads.
Each of the nine bays displays a highly ornamental ceiling. Rectangular on plan the ceiling (Fig. 97) in the central bay is kşiptotkşipta of the padmamandāraka mode.50 It is composed of three rectangular courses and a square padmašila, leaving a small gap on the two shorter sides. The under- side of these courses depicts a file of projecting lümās, the first course comprising thirty, the second containing twenty-two and the third possessing fourteen lämās. Each lämă consists of an eight-foil and a quatrefoil kola, and an eight-petalled lotus flower. Between the limäs on the two sides are foils of kolas containing similar lotuses. The cor- ners of each course on the inner side are occupied by smaller lāmās, each consisting of a quatrefoil kola and an usual lotus. The inner face of the first and second courses is decorated with ardhapadma pattern. The padmašila is made up of four courses of twenty-four-foil, sixteen-foil, eightfoil and quatrefoil kolas, each edged with reverse gajatālu. In the quatrefoil kola is inserted a small stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. The gap on the two sides of the padmašila is filled with half lūmās of the quatrefoil type. The ceiling is raised up by a rectangular frame of four rectangular slabs slightly projecting into the space of the ceiling. The underside of these slabs is carved with half lotuses with stalks, while their inner face is plain and concealed from view. The ceiling is marvellous for the beautiful disposition of lümās. The square padmašila is of the singular type.
fourth but carries flowers with stalks. The sixth and seventh are similar to the fourth. The padmaSila is formed of three courses of thirty-two-foil, sixteen-foil and eight-foil kolas, and a stamenal tube clasped by three rows of petals. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs carved with ardhapadma motif. The underside of slabs on two sides is decorated with a narrow band of diamonds and beads. The beauty of this ceiling lies in that its petals and buds are so skilfully cut out from their sides that they defy even the master hands of the ivory carvers.
Square on plan the ceiling in the northeast bay is a ksibta vitāna belonging to the näbhicchanda order (Fig. 90). It displays four full lämās in the four corners, one full lima in the centre, four half lamās in the four cardinal points and four quarter lumas at the end of the four corners. Arranged in diagonal order all the lümās are deeply cut and resemble serrated diamonds. Each of the four corner lamās consists of an eight-foil, a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The central lūma, which is the biggest in the series, consists of a twelve-foil, an eight-foil and a quatrefoil kola, and a stamenal tube adorned with three rows of petals. Each of the half limas consists of a whorl of sixteen-fold (7+5+3+1) kola, while each of the quarter lämās has a whorl of nine-fold (4+3+2) kola. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs, which are slightly projecting into the space of the ceiling, The frame is treated as padma adorned with stencilled lotus petals and surmounted by a projecting band carved with lotus flowers with stalks and a goose-band. This is one of the best ceilings of the nābhicchanda variety.
The ceiling in the southwest bay is domical of the sabhapadmamandāraka variety. It is rectangular

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Faina Temples of Western India
on plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a the tips of the stalks. This is the only ceiling where framework of four rectangular slabs placed over corner slabs are wholly alloted to round figure the architraves. Two of these slabs on the shorter sculptures. sides are treated like a cavetto decorated with a row of lotus flowers with stalks and a band of lotus The ceiling in the southeast bay is ksiptotksipta petals. The two slabs on longer sides are inset with of the nâbhicchanda type. Square on plan this ceiling images of four-armed lalita sana goddesses accompa- displays in diagonal order a grid of 84 limās projecnied by female attendants. The ceiling proper isted and depressed alternately. Each of the depressed composed of six courses and a circular padmašila. Tämäs, disposed in six lines of seven each, consists of The first course is octagonal and the rest are circu- a quatrefoil and a circular kola, and an eight-petalar. The inner face of the first course on each side hled campaka flower, while each of the projected depicts six images of Jinas seated in dhyānamudrā,
lämās, arranged in seven lines of six each, pertains while each of its four corners is occupied by a to a quatrefoil kola and a reverse gajatālu terninafine image of Gaja. Lakşmi seated in padmāsana on a
ting in mandāraka flower. The lūmās on the four throne borne by elephants. The eight-armed sides are only half represented. The ceiling is goddess is flanked on each side by an elephant with raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs, upraised trunk carrying water pot; on the back of slightly projecting into the space of the ceiling. The elephants are seated two male figures, also carrying underside of the frame is carved with a band of water pot. The sculpture is carved almost diamonds and beads and a band of lotus petals. wholly in the round and projects prominently in the while its inner face is treated as a deep fillet carved space of the ceiling. The second course is adorned with diamonds. The alternate arrangement of pro. with a band of kirttimukhas. The third is padma jected and depressed lamās in this nābhicchanda ceilidecorated with lotus petal-and-bud device and ng is very attractive, producing a rhythmic effect surmounted by a band of intersecting garland loops of light and shade. with pair of geese at intervals. The fourth and fifth are karşadardarikās, each decorated with lotus
The ceiling in the west bay is domical of the sab. petals and surmounted by a row of projecting leaves.
hapadmamandāraka class. Square on plan this ceiling The sixth is a reverse padna decorated with stencilled
is composed of eight courses and a circular padma
fila. The first course is octagonal and the rest are lotus petals and stalks with flowers. Twenty-four
circular. The inner face of the first course is embein number each flower consists of a quatrefoil and
llished with lotus scrolls, while its underside dea deeply set circular kola. The padmašila is made up of four courses. The first, almost concealed from
picts a Kinnar-couple at each corner and a row of
campaka flowers on the two narrow sides. The second, view, consists of a reverse padma decorated with
which is slightly projected into the space of the twenty-four flowers, each flower comprising a
ceiling, represents geese in pair on the extrados and quatrefoil and a deeply set circular kola. The second, a band carved with flamboyant motif on the introverlapping the first, is a normal padma cut out ados. The third is karnadardar ika bearing a band of with lotus petals and stalks carrying sixteen flowers,
F%, flamboyant pattern below and lotus petals above;
flan each flower comprising a quatrefoil and a projecting it is surmounted by a row of projecting leaves. The circular kola. The third is like the second, but each of fourth shows mouldings of a padma adorned with lotus the sixteen flowers here consists of a circular kola. petals and topped by a band of leaves, an arris, a fillet The fourth, overlapping the third, again consists of and an arris. The fifth is a gajatālu carrying campaka a normal padma cut out with lotus petals and stalks flower on the top of each tooth. The sixth, set up carrying sixteen flowers, each resembling a lozenge- in gajatalu, consists of sixteen whorls of four-fold shaped quatrefoil kola. The stamenal tube inserted (3+1) kola. The seventh is similar to the sixth in the fourth course is clasped by two rows of petals. The eighth displays a row of eight projecting lamās, The ceiling is remarkable not only for the nice each comprising a quatrefoil and a circular kola arrangement of the lotus petal-and-bud ornament and a flower bud. The padmašila consists of two but also for the varieties of flowers represented on courses of an eight-foil larger and an eight-foil

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smaller kola, and a stamenal tube adorned with underside at each corner depicts a Kinnar-couple. three rows of petals and a quat refoil kola.
The second is decorated with a band of kiritimukhas.
The third is karmadardarika decorated with lotus The ceiling in the east bay is domical of the
petals and surmounted by a row of projecting sabhamandāraka order. Square on plan it is compos
leaves. The fourth consists of twenty-four.foil kola ed of six courses and a circular padmašila. The first course is octagonal and the rest are circular. The
bearing lotus flowers in the centre of the foils and
lotus buds in between them on the outer edge. The inner face of the first course is decorated with lotus
padmašila consists of six courses separated from one scrolls, while its underside depicts a Kinnar-couple
another by reverse gajatalus. The first, set up in at each corner and a row of campaka flowers on the
gajatālu, consists of sixteen whorls of four-fold two narrow sides. The second is divided into two
(3+1) kola. The second is similar to the first but bands by a recessed fillet, the lower being plain
is smaller in size. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth and the upper carrying figures of Srävakas and
consist of sixteen-foil larger, sixteen-foil smaller, Srāvikäs. The third is karşadardarika decorated
eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas respectively. In the with lotus petals and surmounted by a row of pro
centre of the last is inserted a stamenal tube clasped jecting leaves. The fourth shows mouldings of a
by two rows of petals. The most attractive part of padma surmounted by a band of leaves, an arris, a fillet and an arris. The fifth is gajatālu surmounted by
the ceiling is its padmašila which looks like crystals
of ice, 61 a band of diamonds and beads. The sixth, set up in gajatālu, has sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. Square on plan the ceiling (Fig. 100) in the south The padmašila is formed of six courses, which are bay consists of seven receding courses, the first being separated from one another by reverse gajatālus. octagonal and the rest, circular. The inner face of The first course consists of sixteen whorls of four- the first course is decorated with lotus scrolls, while fold (3+1) kola. The second is decorated with its underside depicts a kirttimukha at each corner lotus petals and stalks carrying lotus flowers. The and a row of campaka flowers on the two sides. The third has eight whorls of two-fold kola, with stalks second is carved with a band of kirttimukhas. The carrying lotus flowers. The fourth also consists of third is karnadardar ika decorated with lotus petals eight whorls of two-fold kola but is smaller in size, and surmounted by a row of projecting leaves. The The fifth has an eight-foil kola. The sixth consists fourth is a reverse padma cut out with lotus petal. of a quatrefoil kola. In the last is also inserted a and-bud device. The fifth is also a reverse padma stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals. The but represents lotus petals in pair and flowers with ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rec- stalks. On the soffit of the petals in pair are shown tangular slabs decorated with ardhapadma pattern. eight-petalled lotus flowers, while on their inner
face are represented 24 Jinas seated in dhyanamudra. The ceiling in the north bay is domical of the
The sixth is like the fourth. The seventh is a mandāraka type (Fig. 94). It is built on a slightly
reverse padma cut out with lotus petals and fourrectangular plan, but its space is reduced to a
petalled flowers with stalks. In the centre of the square by a framework of four rectangular slabs
ceiling are represented an opened lotus cut out with placed over the architraves. The inner face of the
three rows of incurved lotus petal-and-bud motif each frame depicts figures of Srävakas, while its under
and a stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals. side on two sides represents five half tämäs, each
This wonderful ceiling is one of the best examples consisting of a whorl of five-fold (3+2) pointed kola
of the lotus petal-and-bud motif. Here, this ornaand a lotus flower. The spaces between the lümās, on the level surfaces, on the inner side, are filled
ment is completely freed from its background, and
its modelling is so crisp, thin and translucent that with caitya-arch motif formed of creepers. The
it immediately catches the eyes in admiration. ceiling proper is composed of four courses and a circular padmašila. The first course is octagonal Flanking the gūdhamandapa door and placed and the rest are circular. The inner face of the against its west wall are two ornamental niches, first course is decorated with lotus scrolls, while its khattakas (Eig. 91), popularly known as the Gokh.

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Faina
Temples of Western India
alās of Devarāni (younger brother's wife) and of a khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatra, and kapota Jethāni (elder brother's wife). The corners of underlined with leaves. The kumbha of the southboth the niches have been eliminated by chamfe- east corner pillar depicts an image of four-armed ring. Each niche is divisible into three parts, lalitāsana goddess on each of the four faces, while viz. pitha, wall and spire. The pitha consists of that of the northeast corner pillar is decorated with two bhittas, a jadyakumbha, a karnika, a kapota deco- caitya-arch ornament. The shaft has three sections, rated with caitya-arch pattern and underlined namely square, octagonal and circular, the first with leaves, a grāsapatti, a gajathara representing being the longest and the second the shortest. the fore part of elephants but the two elephants in The square section carries framed figures of four. the centre, lustrating a cait ya, are in profile, and armed standing goddesses on the four faces. The finally a kapota with cogged lambanas underneath octagonal portion is divided into two horizonal The wall is chamfered and diapered with a series belts by a kumuda. The lower belt is inset with of horizontal and vertical flutings on the two sides, eight figures of lalitasana goddesses, while the while on the front is the niche containing a upper one is adorned with an eight-petalled halfsaparikara image of Jina seated in dhyānamudra. blown lotus flower having buds in between the The image in the proper right khattaka is of Santi- petals. Below, the circular section shows a decoranātha, while that in proper left one is of Sambha- tive band of saw-tooth pattern and four projecting vanātha. At the base of the wall, on each side, pendants, while above, it is clasped by a band of stands a goddess flanked on the outer side by kirttimukhas spewing festoons which are fastened female attendants. On either end of the wall is below by a sharp-edged band. The capital has a vertical band carved with lotus scrolls. The a double-course round bharani of karnika and wall is surmounted by a ribbed eave cornice. The ridged padma, surmounted by four-armed doublespire is composed of three courses of balcony models, roll brackets, the side face of each bracket of each course carrying figure sculptures on the front, which is carved with half Rörttimukha. The sculptures in the first and second courses are of Gaja-Lakşmi seated in dhyānamudra, while the
II. This group includes six pillars, viz. two image on the top course is of a male divinity, whose central pillars on the south, two central pillars on attributes are broken off. On either extremity of
the west, and two pillars in the northwest and the spire is a small standing male figure.
southwest corners. These pillars are of the hexa
gonal type with angles deeply chamfered from Rangamapdapa
base to the bharani by close vertical flutings. The
base and capital of these pillars are similar to those It consists of twelve pillars disposed along
noticed in the pillars of the first group, but here the four sides of a square platform which is the kumbha of the base is decorated with half slightly raised from the level of the courtyard
diamonds and the brackets of the capitals on the (Fig. 93). The three sides of the platform central pillars are five-armed. The fifth arm of are carved with a strip of diamonds, while the the brackets, square in shape and located towards fourth is attached to the mukhamandapa. Eight of the inner side, is decorated with diamonds and these pillars form an octagon and support a highly carries a pendant underneath. Their shaft, howe. ornate domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of ver, varies. On the basis of ornamentations the architraves.
shafts are divisible into three categories, each
comprising two pillars : The pillars of the rangamandapa may be divided into three groups :
(1) It shows vertical flutings with beveled edges
on the six facets. I. This group includes two pillars; they are located in the northeast and southeast corners. (2) It carries one male dancer and five female These pillars are of the square type with corners dancers below and six successive belts of minichamfered into three angles. Their base consists ature shrines above. The shrines of the lower

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most belt contain images of six lalitäsana fastened below by a band of diamonds and beads. goddesses, while those of the other belts The capital consists of a double-course round accommodate images of Jinas seated in dhyā bharani of karnika and ridged padma (sometimes namudra. The second belt from top also carries clasped by drooping foliage) and a four- or fivefour projecting lambanas. The shaft is surmo- armed double-roll bracket carrying half kirttimukha
unted by a band carved with drooping foliage. on the side face of its each arm. Where there are (3) Below, it displays six female dancers, while
five-armed brackets, the one on the inner side is above, it is clasped by six decorative bands of moulded. half-blown lotus flower, leaves, diamonds and
The architraves are divided into two fasciae, human-couples, ghatapallava and four project
the lower being decorated with lotus scrolls which ing lambanas, leaves, and finally miniature
emerge from the mouth of a kirttimukha represented shrines sheltering diamonds.
in the centre, and the upper carrying a strip of III. This group includes four pillars, viz. two diamonds. In the centre of their underside is central pillars on the east and two central pillars carved in low relief a lotus medallion comprising on the north. These pillars are almost round in two rows of petals. The eight square brackets section and show deep vertical flutings and angular introducing the dome above the pillars forming surfaces. The flutings are carried from the base octagon are divided into two sections, both having to the top of the shaft. The base and capital are
faceted surfaces and carrying decoration of diasimilar to those seen in the pillars of the second monds or seated human-couples. group, but here the diamonds on the kumbha are
From the side brackets of the pillar-capitals conspicuous by their absence and the padma of the
emerge toraņa-arches which meet in the centre of bharani at times is clasped by suspended foliage.
the underside of the architraves, while other brackTheir shaft, however, differs. On the basis of
ets support struts of Sālabhanjikās tenoned into the their decorations they are divisible into two cate-.
brackets of the ucchālakas. There are three kinds gories, each comprising two pillars :
of toraņa-arches : (1) It is divided into seven horizontal belts, the (i) Wave type--It consists of double-curved
first being the longest, the second being next arcs (S and inverted S) and semi-circles joined by in length, and all the others being equal in balcony models. Surmounted by udgama pediments sizes. Below, the first belt is plain, and above, and having lambanas underneath, the balcony models it is moulded and surmounted by balcony are inset with diamonds. The arch comes forth models. The second belt displays sharp-edged from the mouth of a makara supported by the pillar hands below and miniature Sikharas above. capitals, and is decorated with lotus scrolls issuing Each of the other five belts is decorated with
from the mouth of makaras represented at the joints. miniature fikharas.
The upper and lower edges of the arch are adorned (2) Clasped at regular intervals by sharp-edged with bakulamālās.
bands the shaft carries four horizontal belts (ii) Cusp-lilaka type-It is made up of cusps decorated with miniature shrines containing that end in tilakas. The cusps are decorated with diamonds. Above are also seen four project- lotus scrolls, while the tilakas contain images of ing lambanas. The shaft is surmounted by a lalitāsana goddesses and carry pendants underneath. band of saw-tooth pattern.
It also issues from the mouth of makaras supported All these pillars are provided with ucсhalakas. by the brackets of the pillar capitals. The upper
ft and capital. The shaft edge of the arch sometimes shows a goose-band. is square at the base and circular on the top. The (iii) Whorl type-It consists of a series of semicicircular section is surmounted by a band of rcular arcs springing directly from the pillar capiIkirttimukhas spewing festoons, the ends of which are tals and meeting in the centre of the architraves.

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Each arc is made up of a whorl of nine (5+3+1) with a padma carved with lotus petal-and-bud foils; its outer edge is decorated with scallop device, the padmašilā consists of seven courses of pattern. The underside spaces at the joints are thirty-two-foil kola each and a padmakeśara clasped occupied by campaka flowers.
by two rows of petals and a band of dancers and
musicians. The padmakes ara terminates in a The domical ceiling of the rangamandapa, 19.4' flower bud. Built on the principle of coradial in diameter, is of the sabhapadmamandāraka type regression the padmašila is made up of one solid (Figs. 95-96). It is composed of ten circular courses block and looks like a cluster of lotus. This big and a circular padmašila. The inner face of the domical ceiling is the most attractive part of the first course displays a kapota decorated with a band temple. It has been highly appreciated by the of leaves and caitya-arches at intervals, a deep fillet scholars.53 Indeed, words are insufficient to give carved with diamonds, and a figural band repres a true graphic picture of this splendid ceiling, enting Srāvakas, while its underside at eight angles which is not only elegant in proportion but also depicts winding creepers. The second, slightly pro- rich in ornamentation. jected into the space of the dome, is rapapatika decorated with figures of ascetics; behind the head The four corners formed at the base of the of ascetics is a band carved with diamonds.
dome also have some interesting representations. The third is karnadardarika embellished with stenc
In the southeast corner is an image of Yakşa illed lotus petals and surmounted by a row of pro.
Brahmaśānti flanked on either side by female jecting leaves and a strip of diamonds. The fourth
attendants carrying pitcher, dhvaja and garland. is räpakantha representing seventy-two figures of
The six-armed standing god holds lotus and ladle Jinas seated in dhyānamudra. The fifth is gajatalu
in the upper pair of hands, abhayamudra and vajra underlined with a band of garland loops filled with in the middle, and varadaksa and pitcher in the plumes and carrying pair of geese on their outer
lower one. He wears a beard and has swan as his edge; it is surmounted by a strip of diamonds. The
vāhana. sixth also consists of gajatālu but is topped by a
In the northeast corner is an image of eightband of leaves and a strip of stepped diamonds.
armed standing god accompanied by similar female The seventh again is gajatālu surmounted by a band
attendants. He carries trišala, lotus and fruit in the of leaves and a strip of lozenges. The eighth consists
right hands, and spear and varadākṣa in the left of sixteen whorls of nine-foid (5+3+1) kola; its
ones, his other three hands are broken off. To the triangular spaces are occupied by kittimukhas. The
right and left of the god, near the legs, are depic. ninth displays twenty-four projecting lümās; between
ted boar and lion respectively. Executed in high the limās are placed small lotus flowers. Each lämä
relief all these figures are well modelled. consists of two courses of eight-foil larger and eightfoil smaller kolas and a stamenal tube adorned with The triangular space in the northwest corner is two rows of petals. The tenth consists of twenty- narrowed by two triangular courses. The lower four-foil kola. In the centre of each foil is respres- course consists of padma decorated with stencilled ented a small lotus flower, while between the foils lotus petals and crowned by a band of ardhapadma on the outer edge are inserted lotus buds. From
pattern. The upper one is decorated with a row the fourth course project out sixteen bracket
of campaka flowers. From the centre projects out a figures of six-armed Vidyādharas (Fig. 98 )
lūma which consists of two courses of quatrefoils playing on some musical instruments, or
placed one upon the other, and a stamenal tube carrying fly-whisk, garland, lotus and dance having one row of petals. pose. These brackets support a complete set of sixteen figures of four-armed standing Vidya- The corner in the southwest direction also devis, 62 the struts of whom are tenoned into the consists of two triangular courses, but here the eighth kola course. Each of the last three courses upper course projects over the lower. The inner is also topped by a band of leaves. Commencing face of the lower course is adorned with lotus

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89 scrolls, while its underside depicts a row of campaka The circular section is similar to that of the square flowers. The inner face of the upper course is pillars. The capital has a double-course round carved with gajatālu, while its underside is incised bharaṇi of karnika and padma, surmounted by fourwith foliate scrolls. The central space of this armed square brackets. The padma of the bharani corner is occupied by a ten-foil kola arranged in a is clasped by drooping foliage. Each arm of the triangle; in its centre is inserted a stamenal tube brackets is treated like a balcony model. adorned with two rows of petals.
(2) The four pillars on the north are included Each of the three opened porticoes attached to in this group. Their base is similar to that seen the rangamandapa on the front and the two sides in the preceding group but the bhitta at times is is supported by a row of four pillars. These twelve decorated with diamonds. The shaft is divided pillars may by divided into two groups :
into three sections, viz. octagonal, sixteen-sided and I. Square type-Of this group there are only two
circular, the first being the longest and the second pillars, viz. the central pillars in the south portico.
the shortest. The facets of the octagonal and Their base consists of a bhitta, khura, kumbha decora.
sixteen-sided sections terminate on top in lotus ted with udgama pattern, kalata, antarapatra, and
petals. The circular section displays, from bottom
to top, a broad plain belt, a narrow belt carved kapota underlined with leaves. The shaft is divided
with diamonds and carrying four projecting lambinto four sections, namely square, octagonal, six
anas, a broad plain belt, a narrow belt decorated teen-sided and circular. Below, the square section
with diamonds and beads or having plain surface, is plain, while above, it is surmounted, on the
and mouldings of fillet, karnika and kumuda. The octagonal section, by miniature Sikharas. The
capital is similar to that of the square pillars of octagonal portion is plain but for lotus petals on
the rangamandapa. the top. Below, the circular section shows a horizontal band carved with diamonds and four (3) The remaining four pillars come in this proiecting lambanas, while above, it is crowned by group. The base of these pillars consists of one or a band of kirttimukhas spewing festoons, the ends two bhittas, a khura, a kumbha decorated with caityaof which are fastened below by a band of diamonds arch ornament or having plain surface, a kalaša, and beads. The capital is similar to that noticed an antarabatra, and a kapota adorned with caityain the square pillars of the rarigamandapa. The arch device and underlined at times with leaves. corners of these pillars upto the khura of the base The shaft has four sections, viz, octagonal, sixteenare broken into five angles, while above that they sided, again sixteen-sided or circular, and circular, carry only three angles.
the first being the longest and the third the shorII. Octagonal type-The other ten pillars are test. The facets of the octagonal and sixteen-sided included in this group. On the basis of their orna- sections terminate on top in lotus petals. The third mentations they may be subdivided into three section is plain. The topmost section shows similar
decorations as we notice in case of the square groups :
pillars of group I. The capital is similar to that of (1) Two central pillars on the west fall in this
the square pillars of the rangamandapa. category. Their base consists of one or two bhittas, a khura, a kumbha decorated with half diamonds, a All these pillars are also provided with ucсhalakalata, an antarapatra, and a kapota adorned with kas. The ucchālakas and the architraves running caitya-arch ornament. The shaft is octagonal at the across them are similar to those seen in the nave of base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the rangamandapa. Each portico is divided into the top. The facets of the octagonal section six bays supported by the rangamandapa pillars on terminate on top in lotus petals. The sixteen-sided the one side and pillar-capitals placed right above section is divided into two belts by a deep fillet; the devakulikā pillars on the other, while in the the facets of the lower belt terminate in lotus middle they are supported by the pillars of the petals, while those of the upper belt are quite plain. portico itself. The space between the pillar-capitals
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in the central bay of the south portico is filled with narrow underside on two sides is decorated with a sculptural panel. The panel depicts Gaja-Lakşmi foliate scrolls. As has rightly been pointed out, it in the centre and a Kinnar-couple and a sculptured is one of the best ceilings in this temple.54 niche on each side, the whole being placed in a
The ceiling in the southeast bay consists of two multiple arch. On either end of the panel is a fine
square courses, the first projecting into the space sculpture of swan mounted by a human figure
of the ceiling and the second occupying the central carrying water pot; this figure is carved wholly in
area. The inner face of the first course is adorned the round. The spaces between the pillar-capitals
with diamonds, while its underside shows a padma in side bays of the west portico are also filled with
moulding adorned with flamboyant pattern, and sculptural panels, but here it depicts an image of
two decorative bands, one displaying lotus petalfour-armed lalitāsana goddess Ambika flanked on
and-bud ornament and the other carrying flamboeach side by female dancers and musicians. Below
yant design. The second course is samatala. It the capital is a large kirttimukha. The porticoes are
depicts a band of diamonds and beads on the north shaded on the east side by a corrugated awning,
and south sides, and then in a square edged with while elsewhere they are overshadowed by a double
gajatālu it shows, one within the other, four square curved variety of eave-cornice. The soffit of the
bands placed diagonally with the square frame. latter is adorned with fine lotus petal-and-bud
The first band displays a whorl of three-fold (the ornament. This unique eave-cornice is a fine piece
central foil being smaller than the side ones) kola of art.
at each corner and a whorl of three-fold (the cenEach bay contains an ornate ceiling supported tral foil being larger than the side ones) kola on on rectangular or square frame of architraves. each side. The second has a whorl of three-fold The six ceilings in the southern portico are as normal kola at each corner and a semi-circular kola follows:
on each side. The third consists of an eight-foil The ceiling in the northeast bay is samautksipta (the foils on the corners being smaller than those of the mandaraka variety (Fig. 99). Square on plan on the sides) kola. The central square depicts a cirit consists of two courses, the first being octagonal cular kola. The kolas are set up in steps and points; and the second, twelve-sided with flat central area. the points are indented. The ceiling is raised up The inner face of the first is decorated with dia- by a square frame of four rectangular slabs decomonds, while its underside at each corner depicts rated with saw-tooth pattern. a kirttimukha in an arch of creepers issuing from its mouth. The second, accommodated in gajatālu,
mmodated in aqiatalu. The ceiling in the north bay is built on a recrepresents mandāraka element in three concentrictangular plan, but its space is reduced to a square circles. The outer circle, overlapping the gajatalu, by a frame of four rectangular slabs placed over consists of twelve large foils of kola alternating with the architraves. The inner face of the square twelve small foils of kola. The foils are made poin- frame is carved with two bands of ardhapadma ted. The points of the larger foils, indented into motif, while its underside on each of the two shorthree angles, accommodate kirttimukhas. The inter- ter sides depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra. mediate circle is made up of twelve-foil pointed on the two sides of the Jina are Naigameşin and kola; the points here also are indented into three Sråvakas and Srävikās. The ceiling proper is angles and contain kirttimukhas, but between the domical. It consists of four courses and a central points are inserted lotus buds. The central circle pendant. The first course is octagonal and the comprises six-foil pointed kola; between the foils others are circular. The inner face of the first are lotus buds. In the centre of the central circle course is decorated with a row of geese, while its is scooped out a circular kola. Carved in high underside at each corner depicts a kirttimukha in an relief the mandāraka element is best represented arch of creepers issuing from its mouth. The other here. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame three courses consist of padmas, each carved with of four rectangular slabs. The inner face of the lotus petal-and-bud motif. The pendant represents frame is carved with ardhapadma pattern, while its an open campaka flower comprising two rows of

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petals; between the petals are also inserted small campaka flowers. From the centre of the pendant issues a small stamenal tube terminating in a campaka flower.
On plan the ceiling in the south bay follows the preceding ceiling, but in structure it is domical of the sabhämandaraka type. The inner face of the square frame is carved with a row of geese, while its underside on two sides shows relief carvings.
" The reliefs on one side debict Krsna and Gokula, and those on the other two represent a king on simha. sana, his guards and warders, stables of horses and elephants, the king's palace, etc.55 The ceiling proper is composed of six courses and a circular padmafila. The first course is octagonal and the rest are circular. The inner face of the first course is carved with diamonds, while its underside at each corner depicts a Kinnara-couple. The second is adorned with a band of kirttimukhas. The third is karnadardarika. The other three consist of padmas, each decorated with lotus petal-and-bud motif. The badmašila consists of three courses of sixteen pointed triangular, eight-foil and eight-pointed triangular kolas, and a stamenal tube clasped by three rows of petals. Between the kolas are set up reverse gajatalus.
depicts nine very slightly projecting lamās in three lines of three each. Each lima consists of a quatrefoil kola and a stamenal tube terminating in mandāraka flower, and is bordered by a band of diamonds and beads. The whole is surrounded by a line of gajatālu. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs projecting out in the space of the ceiling. The inner face of the frame is inset with projecting niches containing diamonds and is topped by a strip of leaves, while its underside is adorned with ardhapadma pattern.
The six ceilings in the northern portico are as follows:
Square on plan the ceiling in the northwest bay consists of two courses and a large circular slab. The first course is octagonal. It represents lotus scrolls on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The second, circular in form, consists of padma decorated with flamboyant pattern and surmounted by a row of projecting leaves. The circular slab is samatala having its flat surface divided up into three concentric circles. Edged with reverse gajatalu the outer circle consists of reverse padma carved with lotus petal-and-bud device. The intermediate circle is similar to the outer one, but the soffit of its convex-sided part is adorned with a band of diamonds and beads. The central circle, also edged with reverse gajatalu, represents a campaka flower set up in a border of diamonds and beads. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs adorned with a band of kiritimukhas.
The ceiling in the south west bay is kşiploksipta of the nābhicchanda order. Square on plan it depicts a grid of twenty six lūmās, projected and depressed alternately. Besides, there are half lamās on the sides. All the limās are arranged diagonally. Each lãmā consists of a quatrefoil kola and a small stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs. The frame is treated like a padma decorated with stencilled lotus petals and surmounted by a projecting band of ardhapadma pattern and a band of geese,
The ceiling in the north bay is rectangular on plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a
Square on plan the ceiling in the southwest bay is of the samatala mode (Fig. 101). It consists of two square courses. The inner face of the first is carved with a band of leaves and a band of lotus scrolls, while its underside depicts a file of sixteen fine projecting lãmās, each consisting of two rows of eight incurved petals each and a flower bud carved in the centre. The second is samatala. Freed from all the four sides by a sharp cutting it depicts scenes of the birth of Krsna. The scenes are arranged, one within the other, in four square panels gradually projecting towards the centre. 56 This is one of the finest ceilings in this temple in so far as the lämās are concerned. Ordinarily the lümās consist of foils of kola, but here their rib-contents have been eliminated, so that they look subtlier than the other lūmās in this temple.
Square on plan the ceiling in the northwest bay is a kşipta vitana of the nābhicchanda order. It
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frame of four rectangular slabs perched upon the on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner architraves. The inner face of the square frame is on the underside. The second is circular and sligadored with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside htly projected into the space of the ceiling. It on each of the two shorter sides represents four depicts a row of geese on the inner face and a band depressed limās in diagonal order, each tümā consi- of lotus petal-and-bud ornament on the underside. sting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The The circular slab is represented with a spiral of ceiling proper is domical consisting of four mono-kola. The spiral emerges from the side of courses and a circular padmašila. The first course the slab and ends in the centre in an open lotus is octagonal and the others are circular. The having two rows of petals. The spiral is edged inner face of the first course is decorated with with reverse gajatālu and a band of diamonds and a row of geese, while its underside at each corner beads. Between the foils on the outer edge are depicts a kirttimukha. The second is decorated represented tree motif. The ceiling is raised up by with a series of pendants, each set up in bunch a square frame of four rectangular slabs decorated of leaves. The third and fourth are padmas, with a kirttimukha-band. each decorated with lotus petal.and-bud motif. The padmašila consists of three courses of sixteen
The ceiling in the southeast bay is erected on a foil, twelve-foil and eight-foil kolas, and a stamenal square plan. It consists of four octagonal courses tube terminating in flower bud. Between the kola and a large circular ceiling-slab. The inner face of courses are placed reverse gajatālus.
the first course is adorned with a band of diamonds
and beads, while its underside depicts a kirttimukha The ceiling in the south bay corresponds on in an arch of creepers at each corner and a row of plan to the preceding ceiling, but in structure it
campaka flowers on the two narrow sides. The differs. The inner face of the square frame is deco
second is karnadardarikā decorated with lotus petals rated with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside
and surmounted by a row of projecting leaves. The on each of the two shorter sides shows a frieze de
third is gajatālu. It is adorned with a series of corated with a Jina figure flanked on either side by Naigameşin and Srāvakas and Srävikäs. The ceiling
pendants and carries mandāraka flowers at angles.
The fourth is like the third but carries lotus flowers proper is composed of four courses and a large
on the sides. The lower part of the top three courcircular slab covering it up on the top. The first
ses also bears a band of flamboyant pattern. The course is octagonal and the others are circular.
circular slab is divided into three concentric circuThe inner face of the first course is decorated with a strip of diamonds, while its underside at each cor
lar bands. Edged with reverse gajatālu each band
consists of sixteen-foil kola. In the centre of the ner depicts a kirttimukha. The second is a stylised
slab is a stamenal tube adorned with two rows of karnadardarika decorated on top with a row of projecting leaves, caitya-arches at intervals, and a
petals. kirttimukha-band. The third consists of padma
The six The
ceilings in the west portico are as adorned with a narrow band of lotus petals and a follows: broad band of lotus petal-and-scrolls, and surmounted by a row of projecting leaves. The fourth is
Square on plan the ceiling in the southeast bay decorated with a series of pendants, each set up in
consists of two courses and a large circular ceiling bunch of leaves. The circular slab is similar to that
slab. The first course is slab. The
octagonal. It depicts a seen in the northwest bay, with this difference that
row of geese on the inner face and a kirttimukha at here the central circle also carries an unblossomed
each corner on the underside. The second is part in the centre of the flower.
treated like a scotia and is slightly projected into
the space of the ceiling. On its projected part The ceiling in the northeast bay is square on stand thirty-two female dancers, while its undeplan. It consists of two courses and a large circu- rside is represented with a row of campaka flowers. lar slab covering the central space. The first course the flat surface of the circular slab displays a is octagonal. It displays the carving of lotus scrolls full-blown lotus flower having two rows of petals,

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the outer row containing twenty-four petals, The other three ceilings are of considerable and the inner having twelve petals. Each of dimension and belong to the samatala class. Each these petals is occupied by a handsome figure of of these ceilings is rectangular on plan and rests female dancer. The dancers are represented in directly on the architraves. The ceiling various poses af dance and are full of grace and southwest bay is relieved with 102 campaka charm. The ceiling is raised up by a square flowers arranged eastwest in six lines of seventeen frame of four rectangular slabs decorated with flowers each. The spaces between the flowers are ardhapadma pattern.
occupied by concave-sided diamonds. There is a
band of diamonds and beads on the longer north The ceiling in the east bay is domical of the and south sides. sabhāmandaraka order. It is rectangular on plan,
The ceiling in the west bay is similar to the but its space is reduced to a square by a frame of four rectangular slabs placed over the arhitraves. preceding one, but being larger in breadth it The inner face of the square frame depicts
shows eastwest eight lines of seventeen campaka flo. ardhapadma pattern in semi-circles made up of
wers each. Besides, the lines of flowers are broken lotus stem, while its underside on the two shorter
in the centre by a square panel bordered by creesides displays figures of female dancers and musi
muci pers. The panel is divided into two concentric cians. The ceiling proper is composed of three circles, the outer comprising an eight-foil kola and courses and a circular padmašila. The first course is
the inner a quatrefoil kola. In the centre of the octagonal and the others are circular. The inner
quatrefoil kola is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by face of the first course is embellished with lotus
one row of petals. The corners of the square are scrolls, while its underside at each corner depicts filled with kirti imukhas. a kirttimukha. The second is karnadardar ikā surmoun- The ceiling in the northwest bay is similar to ted by a band of projecting ardhapadma pattern. that seen in the southwest bay, but the lines of The third consists of two concentric circular campaka flowers here are broken in the centre by a bands of sixteen-foil kola each. The padmašila square panel accommodating a full-blown lotus floconsists of two courses. The first has twelve- wer having two rows petals. The corners of the pointed six-foil kola; there are kirttimukhas in square are occupied by kirttimukhas. Each petal of alternate points. The second comprises six-pointed the outer row bears a human-couple represented in trefoil kola: the points here are occupied by the dancing attitude, and each petal of the inner kirttimukhas and Kinnaras in alternation.
row depicts a female dancer or musician. From
the centre of the lotus flower projects out a small Square on plan the ceiling in the northeast bay
stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. consists of three receding courses and a circular slab. The first course is octagonal and the others are Devakulikās circular. The inner face of the first course is The devakulikās are screened by two arcade of adorned with a band of kirttimukhas; its underside pillars, forming thus two bays in front of each devaat each corner also depicts a kirttimukha. The kulika. But the devakulikās near the gūdhamaydapa second is karnadardarika decorated with lotus being recessed back are confronted by only one row petals and surmounted by a row of projecting of pillars, so that their continuous line is broken. leaves. The third has two concentric circular bands of sixteen-foil kola each. The circular slab, Except for four pillars near the main entrance edged with reverse gajat alu and having a band and four near the gādhamandapa, all the corridor of diamonds and beads on its soffit, displays a pillars are indentical in form and ornamentation large projecting lotus bud; on its tip is placed and belong to the octagonal order. Their base another bud. The ceiling is raised up by a square consists of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diaframe of four rectangular slabs carrying decora- monds, kalaša, antarapatra, and kapota decorated tion of ardhapadma motif in demi-circles formed of with caitya-arch pattern. The shaft is octagonal at lotus stem.
the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular

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on the top, the first being the longest and the last band carved with diamonds. The capital consists the shortest. The circular section is surmounted of only four-armed brackets, the side faces of which by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains that are are decorated with half kirttimukhas. The two secured below by a band of diamonds and beads. pillars towards the entrance door are also of Sometimes this section also carries four projecting the octagonal order. Their base is similar pendants. The capital has a short bharani of ribbed to that of the octagonal pillars of the corridor. padma, surmounted by four-armed roll brackets. The shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen
sided in the middle and circular on the top. The four pillars near the gâdhamandapa are of
The octagonal section depicts a lotus plant topped square type with corner chamfered into three
by a pair of geese on each facet, and is surmounted angles. The base and capital of these pillars are
on top by a band carved with caitya-arch pattern similar to those of the octagonal pillars, but here
and kirttimukhas. The sixteen-sided section is the kumbha is decorated with caitya-arch motif.
plain. The circular section is topped by a band of The shaft, however, varies. The shaft of the two
kirttimukhas spewing chains that are fastened below pillars in the north devakulikā, square in section,
by a band of diamonds and beads. The capital is divided into six horizontal belts, the lower
consists of four-armed roll brackets. most being longer than the others. These belts are separated from one another by narrow karņikās The pilasters are five-faceted. Their base is joined in the centre on each of the four faces by similar to that of the square pillars of the corridor. diamonds, and save for one they are plain. The The shaft is plain below, while above it is surmounexception being the topmost belt which carries ted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which mouldings of khura, kumbha decorated with half are fastened below by a band of diamonds and diamonds, kalaba, fillet and karnika. The shaft of beads. The capital also corresponds to that of the the two pillars in the south devakulika has four corridor pillars, but the bharani has not been ribbsections, viz. square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and ed, and at times it is clasped by leaves. circular, the first being longer than the others. The
The two pilasters near the main entrance are square section displays a plain fillet, a karnikā and ornate. Their base and capital are similar to those an udgama motif below, and caitya-arch pattern of the other pilasters, but the bharani of the capital and miniature fikharas above. The octagonal and consists of a karnikā and a padma, clasped by drooping the sixteen-sided sections are plain. The circular foliage. The lower part of the shaft is plain; then section is surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas. it shows mouldings of a kumbha and a kalaš a; and
of the four pillars (Fig. 107) near the main finally come five successive belts of padmas, each entrance, the two towards the courtyard are of the adorned with lotus petals and buds. octagonal variety, with angles chamfered into five The architraves running across the columns are deep flutings on the base and into seven flutings on similar to those found in the rangamandapa. the shaft. The base is similar to that seen in the octagonal pillars, but here the kapota is underlined
In front of the door of each devakulika is a with leaves. The shaft may be divided into two
moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra tied on
either end with gagāraka,furikha and lotus stem and sections, each being octagonal in section. The lower section, sharing one-third of the total height,
flanked in turn by a talarūpaka. The ardhacandra is is surmounted by a band of miniature fikharas.
adorned with scallop pattern. The upper section is divided into seven horizontal The doors of the devakulikās are of two varieties, belts by alternate fillets and karņikas; the topmost namely single-fakha and double-fakha. belt here also is surmounted by a band of minia- (i) The jamb of the single-fakha door is decoture fikharas. The second belt from top is an
rated with lotus scrolls. At the base of ornate one; it carries four projecting lambanas inset the jamb stands a female carrying water with diamonds, and eight images of Jinas on the
jar. The doorsill is divided into two regiseight facets. The shaft terminates on top in a
ters. The lower register shows mouldings

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of a jadyakumbha and a karnika. The upper plan. Generally the rectangular space of the ceilings register represents a semi-circular proje- is reduced to a square by a frame of four rectanction carved with stemmed lotus in the gular slabs. The square is made by putting two centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side slabs across the longer sides. The ceilings are of it, and two rows of diamonds on either generally raised up by a square or rectangular extremity. The door-lintel continues the frame of four stone slabs placed over the architdecoration of the sakha and depicts a padma- raves. By this device there is left narrow spaces sana Jina in dhyānamudrā on the lalața. for carving on the underside. The ceilings are Sometimes a band of lotus scrolls also described here in the same order as are done in appears above the lintel. In Devakulika 41 the Vimalavasahi. the female pitcher-bearer at the base of the jamb is flanked on the outer side by a Devakulika 1A-Square on plan it is composed of female cauri-bearer.
three receding courses, the first and the second being
square and the third, slightly rectangular. The (ii) There are only two instances of the doi
first consists of padma decorated with stencil-cut Sakha door. They can be seen in Devakulikās
flamboyant pattern and topped by a band of 12 and 40.
leaves. The second is also padma but is topped by The doorframe of Devakulika 40 is very similar a band of projecting ardhapadma motif and bears to the single-fakha door, but it has an additional carving of stencilled lotus petals. The third is jamb, also decorated with lotus scrolls. Besides, samatala having its flat surface boldly relieved here the central projection of the doorsill is square with an image of two-armed goddess Ambika carved with dimonds, and the female pitcher-bearer sitting in talitäsana on her lion mount. She carat the base of the jamb is flanked on the outer side ries amralumbi in her right hand, while with the by a female caur7-bearer,
left hand she holds a child in her lap, putting her The doorframe of Devakulika 12 consists of a palm on the child's head. On either side of the patrašakha decorated with foliate scrolls and a stam- goddess is represented a tree motif below which bhafakhas with corners chamfered into three angles. stands an Arādhaka (devotee) with folded hands, The stambhaf akhā is clasped at intervals by four de- The Ārādhaka to her right is male and that to her corative bands of caity-arch pattern, diamonds, left is female. The square frame raising up the lotus and saw-tooth pattern respectively, and carries ceiling depicts a band of kirttimukhas on the inner on its top portion mouldings of a kumbha carved with face and a band of foliate scrolls on the two narrow diamond and a kalafa. The doorsill is similar to undersides. that seen in the single-fakha door, but here it de.
IB-On plan and in structure it corresponds picts only one row of diamonds on the extremities.
to the preceding ceiling but is completed in two The door-lintel is divided into two registers. The stages only. The first consists of a square frame lower register displays a ghatapallava capital
bearing a band of kirttimukhas on the inner face, topping the jamb on either end, while the space in while its underside shows an alternate arrangebetween them is filled with the scroll-band carried ment of steps and points, leaving thus triangular over here from the patrafakha. On the lalafa is spaces in the cardinal points as well as in the depicted a Jina seated in dhyānamudra. The upper corners. These are so disposed as to form a register has a sculptural panel depicting nine stepped diamond or Greek Cross placed d lalita sana male figures carrying pitcher, or hands with the square frame; the central part of the held in adoration, in projecting niches and male Cross is covered up by the second stage. The attendant figures in alternate recesses; in one triangle on each side is replete with a whorl of instance there is a kayotsarga Jina instead of an eight-fold (5+3) flat but deeply cut kola and a attendant figure.
reverse gajatālu, while the triangle at each corner Each bay of the corridor has an ornate ceiling. is divided into two triangles, each filled up with The ceilings are built on a square or rectangular similar kola and gajatālu as we find in the side

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ones. Each arm of the Cross is represented with diamond filled with a quatrefoil kola and a small two whorls of kolas, each consisting of a six-fold stamenal tube clasped by one row of petals. The (5+1) kola. The second is samatala having its whole is enclosed in a border of diamonds and square flat surface divided up into four square beads. The square frame raising up the ceiling bands disposed one within the other. The first depicts ardhapadma pattern on the inner face and has twenty-eight-foil kola. The second consists of a band of lotus petal-and-bud motif on the two reverse gajatalu; there is also visible a band of narrow undersides. diamonds and beads on its soffit. The third Devakulika 3A-Square on plan this ceiling is comprises twelve-foil kola. The fourth, i. e, cent- made by cutting off the corners, comprising three ral square, is like the second but accommodates a tiers of nine slabs. The inner face of the first tier savare plaque in the centre. The square frame is decorated with a row of geese, while its under lifting up the ceiling is carved with ardhapadma side at each corner represents, in a border of diamopattern.
nds and beads, a stenciled caitya-arch formed of Devakulika 2A-Square on plan it consists of creepers. The inner face of the second tier is two square courses. The first is a square frame adorned with a strip of diamonds, while its underbearing a row of geese and a band of leaves on the
side at each corner carries stencilled caitya-arch inner face, while its underside on each side is
formed of creepers issuing from the mouth of a divided into two decorative bands, the inner show
kirttimukha. The square central portion forming ing lotus scrolls in a border of diamonds and
the third tier is cut into a quatrefoil kola, from beads, and the outer bearing lotus petal-and-bud
bud the centre of which projects out a līmā consisting ornament. On the two shorter sides of the inner
of a quatrefoil kola and a small stamenal tube band may also be seen pieces of lotus petal-and-bud
clasped by one row of petals. The ceiling is raised motif and on those of the outer band a quadrant
up by a frame of four rectangular slabs projected of kola. Its underside at each corner represents a
into the space of the ceiling. The inner face of
these slabs is decorated with ardhapadma motif, deeply cut quatrefoil kola and a reverse gajatalu,
while their underside shows a band of diamonds the whole placed in a square bordered by diamonds and beads. The second course displays
and beads on the two sides and ardhapadma pattern
on the other two. näbhicchanda element in the kşipta form. It is represented by a grid of four depressed limas, each consi- 3B-Square on plan it is completed in two sting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola, the whole stages. The first consists of a square frame treated being disposed in a border of diamonds and
as padma. It is decorated with stencilled creepers beads. The square frame lifting up the ceiling
and is topped by a band of projecting ardhapadma depicts ardhapadma pattern on the inner face as ornament and a row of geese. The second is well as on the two narrow undersides.
samatala; its square flat surface represents nābhicc2B-On plan and in structure it follows the handa element in the ksipta form. It is represented preceding ceiling. The inner face of the first course by a grid of nine slightly projecting lamās arranged is decorated with ardhapadma pattern, while its in three lines of three each. Consisting of a hollounderside displays figures of female musicians and wed out circular kola each lumā is set up, on the dancers on the sides and a campaka flower at each level surface, in a square frame bordered by leaves corner. The second displays, one within the other, and having kirttimukhas at corners. The forepart three square bands. The outer band consists of of the lämā is set up in a diagonally placed stepped twelve-foil kola, the foils in the corners being larger diamond. than those on the sides. The intermediate band Devakulikas 4-7--Square on plan it is a domical also consists of twelve-foil kola but is edged on the ceiling of the sabhämärga type. The square space is outer side by reverse gajatālu and in the corners by narrowed by a square frame of four rectangular slabs lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The central square placed over the architraves and projecting into the accommodates a diagonally disposed stepped space of the ceiling. The square frame is decorated

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ор
lozenges. The rectangular frame lifting up the ceiling is carved with a band of kirttimukhas.
9B-Rectangular on plan it is samatala. Its rectangular flat surface bears fine reliefs of a Samavasarana scene, port of Dwarka, Girnar-tirtha, etc.57 The ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs carved with ardhapadma
motif.
with gajatalu and a diamond-and-bead band interr- upted at regular intervals by circular plaques, and is topped by a band of projecting leaves. The dome is composed of eight courses, the first being octagonal and the rest, circular, The inner face of the first course depicts lotus scrolls punctuated with figures of goose, Kinnar-couple and elephant, while its underside at each corner is boldly relieved with a Kinnara-couple making dance, embracing each other, or playing on some musical instruments. From the navel of the Kinnar and Kinnari emerges creepers which fill up the space at their back. In one instance the Kinnara is represented wearing a beard. The next five courses consist of padmas, each decora- ted with lotus petal-and-bud arnament. The
lotus petal-and-bud arnament. The seventh consists of sixteen-foil kola. The eighth has an eight-foil kola; its central space in scooped out in the form of a circular kola,
Devakulika 10A-Rectangular on plan it is completed in three stages. The first consists of a rectangular frame treated as padma carved with lotus petals. The second is like the first but is topped by a Kirttimukha-band. The third is samatala; its rectangular flat surface is boldly relieved with an eight-armed image of Cakreśvari sitting in lalitāsana on a pedestal (Fig. 104). She carries ring, abhayamudrā, disc and varadamudra in the right hands, and ring, jñānamudrā, disc and mātulunga in the left ones. Her Garuda vahana is represented in the zoomorphic form below her right folded foot. The goddess is accompanied on each side by a female dancer.
Devakulika 8A-Square on plan it is an utksipta ceiling of the padmaka variety. It is represented by nine projecting lūmās arranged in three lines of three cach. Square on plan each läma consists of an eight-foil kola and a reverse gajatalu; on the tip of the last is a quatrefoil kola accommodating a circular reverse gajatālu. The inner face of the square frame lifting up the ceiling is divided into two horizontal belts, the lower showing a band of kirttimukhas and the upper the ardhapadma pattern; while its underside on the two narrow sides is decorated with a strip of lotus petals.
8B--Square on plan it is a kşiptotksipta ceiling of the nābhicchanda order. It consists of sixty-four limās projected and depressed alternately and disposed in eight lines of eight each. Each lūma consists of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The lümās on the four sides are only half represented. The inner face of the square frame raising up the ceiling is divided into two horizontal belts, the lower being decorated with ardhapadma pattern and the upper with a band of kiritimukhas.
10B-Square on plan it consists of two square courses. The first is a square frame bearing a band of diamonds and beads and mouldings of karnika and padma on the inner face, while its underside is carved with gajatālu. The second is samatala. Its square flat surface is divided into four square compartments. Bordered by a band of diamonds and beads each compartment contains four campaka flowers, each flower comprising two rows of petals. The corners of the compartments are filled with kirttimukhas
Devakulika 11A-This ceiling is very similar on plan, structure and ornamentation to that seen in Devakulika 10 A, but here the second course is surmounted by a band of ardhapadma pattern, and the goddess Cakreśvari is replaced by Sarasvati attended upon either side by a female cauri-bearer. The six-armed goddess holds þadma, cymbal and varadaksa in the right hands, and vina, cymbal and manuscript in the left ones. Her swan cognizance is shown below her right folded leg.
11B-Rectangular on plan it is a samatala ceiling (Fig. 102) bearing reliefs of Neminātha's renuncia
Devakulika 9A-Rectangular on plan it is samatala. Its rectangular flat surface is represented with thirty-five campaka flowers disposed east-west in five lines of seven each, each consisting of two corollas of petals. The corner spaces between the flowers are occupied by concave-sided carved
13

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Jaina Temples of Western India
tion.56 The rectangular frame raising up the ceiling represents a row of campaka flowers, each flower is carved with a band of kirttimukhas.
being set up in a beaded circle. Devakulika 12A-Rectangular on plan it is sama- Devakulika 14A-Rectangular on plan this ceiltala. The rectangular flat surface depicts twelve ing is of the samatala type. Its rectangular flat rectangular plaques arranged north-south in four surface shows in pleasing relief twelve volutes of lines of three each. Each plaque is set up in gajatālu stencilled lotus scrolls arranged east-West in three and resembles a padma. Each set of six plaques is lines of four each. In each volute stands a Kinnarabordered by a band of diamonds and beads. The couple; but in one instance there is an elephant. whole is surrounded by a line of gajatālu. The The whole is bordered by a band of foliate scrolls. ceiling is raised up by a frame of sur-architraves The square frame raising up the ceiling is carved divided up into two fasciae, the lower being deco- with a band of kirttimukhas. This is a singular rated with a band of kirttimukhas, and the upper ceiling representing voluted lotus scrolls. slightly projected on all sides, representing ardhapadma pattern on the inner face as well as on the
14B-Rectangular on plan this ceiling belongs
to the samatala class. Its rectangular flat surface underside.
possibly depicts the life-story of Säntinātha, 59 The 12B-This ceiling is similar to the preceding rectangular frame lifting up the ceiling is carved one, but here the plaques are smaller in size and with a band of kirttimukhas. twenty in number, arranged east-west in four lines of five each. Besides, the border of diamonds and
Devakulika 15A-Square on plan this ceiling con.
sists of two square courses. The first is a square beads is absent here, and the ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs carved with a
frame bearing decoration of leaves on the inner band of kirttimukhas.
face, while its underside represents a band of lotus
scrolls in the border of diamonds and beads on each Devakulika 13A-Square on plan it is samatala. side, and a deeply cut quatrefoil kola containing The square flat surface represents sixteen full.ope- reverse gajatālu at each corner. The second is ned lotus flowers arranged in four lines of four each, samatala: it displays, one within the other, two Each flower consists of eight petals and has a pistil square bands. The outer band carries deeply cut marked with twine pattern. The spaces left at the trefoil kola at each corner, and seven foils of semicorners of these flowers are filled with concave- circular kola on two sides and six foils of similar sided carved diamonds. The whole is placed in a kola on the other two. The inner band bears usual border of diamonds and beads. The square frame trefoil kola at each corner, and four foils of kola on lifting up the ceiling is adorned with a band of two sides and three foils of kola on the other two. kirttimukhas
The central space of the ceiling is occupied by a 13B-Square on plan it is composed of two co- projecting rectangular plaque bordered by lotus urses. The first is like a square frame decorated with petals. Placed upon the plaque is a quatrefoil kola. kolas-three-quarter circular kola with a cambaka The ceiling is raised'up by a square frame of four flower appearing at each corner, and two foils of rectangular slabs which are slightly projected on semi-circular kola with a human figure occurring two sides into the space of the ceiling. The inner on each side. The second is samatala; its square
face as well as the underside of the two projected
slabs is decorated with ardhapadma pattern. flat surface depicts deeply cut three-quarter circular kolas at the four corners and a diagonally placed 15B-Square on plan it is a kşipta ceiling of the quatrefoil kola containing a small stamenal tube näbhicchanda order. The ceiling is completed in clasped by one row of petals in the centre. The two stages. The first consists of a square frame ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular showing carving of ardhapadma pattern on the inner slabs projecting on all sides into the space of the face and a row of campaka flowers with kirttimukhas ceiling. The inner face of the slabs is decorated in between them on the underside. The second with ardhapadma pattern, while their underside represents nabhicchanda element and has its square

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flat surface divided up into four compartments by framework of four rectangular slabs placed two straight lines placed crosswise. Along these over the architraves. The inner face of the square lines are shown circular kolas, while each compart- frame is decorated with ardhapadma pattern, while ment contains a depressed lämā. Each lima consists its two undersides are represented with lotus petals. of an eight-foil and a circular kola; the four corners The ceiling proper is composed of six courses and a of the compartment are occupied by kirttimukhas. circular padmafila. The first course is octagonal The ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectan- and the others are circular. The inner face of the gular slabs. The inner face of these slabs carries a first course is decorated with a row of geese, while kirttimukha-band, while their two projected under- its underside at each corner depicts a large figure sides represents a row of campaka flowers.
of kirttimukha carved in high relief. The second is
carved with a strip of diamonds. The third and Devakulika 16A-Square on plan it is a ksipta
fourth are padmas, each adorned with lotus petal
fo ceiling of the nābhicchanda variety. It is represent
and-bud ornament. The fifth carries a series of ed by sixteen depressed lūmās arranged in four lines
circular pendants, each set up in bunch of leaves. of four each. Each lama consists of a six-foil and a
The sixth is cut out with lotus petal-and-bud ornacircular kola. The east-west dividing lines are
ment. The padmašila consists of three courses of carved with diamonds and beads. The triangular
twelve-foil, eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas respecspaces left at corners of the lamās are occupied by
tively. In the centre of the quatrefoil kola is kirttimukhas and concave-sided carved diamonds.
represented a lotus bud. The square frame lifting up the ceiling bears decoration of ardhapadma motif on the inner face and a 19B-This ceiling is located in front of Devafoliate scroll-band on the two narrow undersides. kulika 19. It is rectangular on plan, but its space
is reduced to a square by two successive courses of 16B-Square on plan it is samatala. The square flat surface is relieved with the life-story of Pärsva
four rectangular slabs each. This is done by placnätha.60 The ceiling is raised up by a square frame
ing two slabs of the shorter sides across the longer
sides. The inner face of the first course is carved of four rectangular slabs bearing decoration of
with a kirttimukha-band, while its two undersides ardhapadma pattern on the inner face and a row of
show two bands of lotus petal-and-bud ornament. campaka flowers on the two narrow undersides,
The inner face of the second course is carved with Devakulikā 17—Square on plan this ceiling is ardhapadma pattern, while its two undersides depict made by cutting off the corners, comprising three a row of campaka flowers. tiers of nine slabs. The inner face of the first tier
The ceiling proper is made by cutting off the is decorated with lotus scrolls, while the underside
corners, comprising three tiers of nine slabs. The of each triangular slab depicts a bold kirttimukha
inner face of the first tier is carved with a row of spewing creepers. The second is similar to the first,
geese, while the underside of each triangular slab but its inner face is decorated with a strip of dia.
is relieved with caitya-arch formed of creepers. The monds. The central square slab forming the third
second is similar to the first. The square slab pertier is carved with an eight-pointed quatrefoil kola
taining to the third tier is divided into two conaccommodating a circular plaque of reverse gajatālu; centric circular bands, each depicting lotus petalat each corner of the square is represented a kirlti- and-bud ornament; at each corner of the square is mukha. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame a kiritimukha. of four rectangular slabs showing carving of ardhapadma motif on the inner face and a band of leaves
Devakulika 21-Square on plan it is samatala. It
depicts thirty-six campaka flowers in six on the two narrow undersides.
lines of six
each. The spaces between the flowers are filled Devakulikās 18-20A-This ceiling, located in with concave-sided diamonds. The whole is front of Devakulika 19, is domical of the placed in a border of diamonds and beads. The sabhämandāraka order. It is built on a rectangu- ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular lar plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a slabs bearing decoration of ardhapadma on the inner

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face and a band of foliate scrolls on the two narrow undersides.
Jaina Temples of Western India
Devakulika 22A-Square on plan it is a samaksipta ceiling of the nabhicchanda order. The square flat surface represents sixteen flat but deeply cut
lūmās in four lines of four each. Each luma consists of a quatrefoil kola and a circular plaque of reverse gajatālu. All the lamās are disposed diagonally. Between the limas are inserted circular kolas. The ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs which project out on all sides into the space of the ceiling. The inner face of the frame is decorated with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside depicts a depressed lumā at each corner and a row of campaka flowers with kirttimukhas in between them on each side. Each of the corner lūmās consists of a quatrefoil and a circular kola.
22B-It is modern.
Devakulikäs 32-34A-It is a domical ceiling built on a rectangular plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a framework of four rectangular slabs placed over the architraves. The inner face of the frame is adorned with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside on two sides shows a band of foliate scrolls and a band of diamonds and beads. The ceiling proper is composed of four
erections.
The devakulikās from 23 to 29 are also modern courses and a circular ceilings slab. The first course is octagonal and the rest are circular. The inner face of the first course is carved with a strip of diamonds, while its underside at each corner depicts a kiritimukha in an arch of creepers issuing from its mouth. The second course is decorated with a band of kirttimukhas. The third and fourth consist of padmas, each decorated with lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The ceiling slab represents two concentric circular bands of sixteen-foil and eight-foil kolas and a lotus bud put in the centre.
Devakulika 30A-Square on plan it consists of two square courses. The first consists of a square frame treated as karṇadardarika. The second is samatala. Its square flat surface displays, in a border of diamonds and beads, sixteen campaka flowers disposed in four lines of four each. Between the flowers are concave-sided carved diamonds. The mid-dividing lines are adorned with diamonds and beads. The ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs, which project out on all sides into the space of the ceiling. The inner face of the frame is carved with ardhapadma device, while its underside is decorated with lotus petals.
30B-Square on plan it is samatala. Its square flat surface depicts sixty-four campaka flowers in eight lines of eight each, The ceiling is raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs carved with ardhapadma pattern.
Devakulika 31-Square on plan it is samatala. The square flat surface displays a quadrate type of Cross, with flat bars across the ends of the arms and corners formed at the junctions of the arms. Each of the four arms of the Cross is filled with a flat but deeply cut luma consisting of a quatrefoil kola and a reverse gajatālu in the shape of circular

plaque. The square central space of the Cross is occupied by a large a consisting of an eight-foil kola and a circular plaque of reverse gajatālu; the corners of the square are occupied by circular kolas. Outside the Cross at each corner is also noticed a luma of the similar type as is found in the centre of the Cross. At the end of the corners of the ceiling are seen quadrants of circular kolas. The ceiling is raised up by a padma-course carved with
lotus petals.
33B-This ceiling is located in front of Devakulika 33. Rectangular on plan it is samatala, but its space is reduced to a square by two successive courses of four rectangular slabs each. This is done by placing the slabs of the shorter sides across the longer sides. The inner face of the first course is decorated with a band of kirttimukhas, while its underside on two sides is plain. The inner face of the second course is decorated with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside on two sides depicts a band of foliate scrolls. The squars flat surface of the ceiling is divided into nine compartments, namely four in the four corners, four in the four cardinal points, and one in the centre. Each of the corner compartments represents, in a border of diamonds and beads, a stylised full-blown lotus flower comprising two rows of petals. The corners of these square compartments are filled with

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kirttimukhas. Each of the cardinal compartments petals on two sides and ardhapadma pattern on the is boldly relieved with an image of lalitāsana godd- other two. The second displays nabhicchanda eleess. Two of these are four-armed and are identi- ment, which is represented by nine depressed lümās fied with Apraticakrā and Mānavi, while the other disposed in three lines of three each. Each lima two are six-armed and are identifiable with Mänasi consists of a six-foil and a circular gajatālu and is and Gauri.61 The central compartment depicts set up in a square frame, the corners of which are a full-blown lotus flower having two rows of pet occupied by kirttimukhas. The ceiling is raised up als; the corners of this square compartment are by a frame of four rectangular slabs carrying a also filled with kirtti mukhas.
band of kirttimukhas on the inner face and a band Devakulika 35-Square on plan it consists of of foliate scrolls on the two narrow undersides. three square courses. The first is a padma adorned Devakulika 37B-Square on plan it is a samatala with lotus petals. The second is a square frame vitāna displaying twenty rectangular plaques in four carved with ardhapadma motif. The third is samatala. lines of five each, each set up in gajatalu. The Its square flat surface is boldly relieved with a square frame raising the ceiling is adorned with a sculpture of four-armed male divinity sitting in kirttimukha-band. lalitāsana. He is ringing cymbals with two hands
Devakulika 38A-This is a kşipta ceiling of the and playing vina with the other two. He is flanked
nābhicchanda order. It is built on a rectangular on each side by a female dancer playing flute or
plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a cymbals. On each side of the left leg of the god
framework of four rectangular slabs placed over is a female cauri-bearer. The ceiling is raised up
the architraves. The inner face of the square by a frame of four rectangular slabs depicting a
frame is decorated with ardhapadma pattern; while band of kirttimukhas.
its underside on two sides shows a row of five depDevakulika 36A-Rectangular on plan it is a ressed limās in diagonal setting. Each lima consksinta ceiling of the nabhicchanda order. It repres- ists of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The square ents twelve depressed lümas in three lines of four part of the ceiling containing nabhicchanda element each. Each lüma consists of a six-foil and a circu- displays, in a border of diamonds and beads, nine lar kola. Between the tūmās are inserted concave.
depressed låmäs in three lines of three each. Each of sided diamonds. The whole is surrounded by a these lämás consists of a six-foil and a circular kola. band of diamonds and beads, kirttimukhas app- The east-west dividing lines are carved with gajatalus. earing at corners, Outside the band, on the longer sides, is a band of foliate scrolls. The ceiling is
38B-On plan it follows the preceding ceiling, raised up by a frame of four rectangular slabs sho
but in structure it is a kşiptotksipta ceiling of the pawing decoration of ardhapadma pattern on the inner
dmanābha variety. It represents nine lämäs in three face and a row of campaka flowers with kärttimukhas
lines of three each. Except for the central läma, all on the two narrow undersides.
are deeply cut, each consisting of a quatrefoil and
a circular kola, and a small lotus flower inserted 36B_This is a samatala ceiling built on a recta- in its centre. The central litma is a projected one, ngular plan. The rectangular flat surface repre consisting of two courses of quatrefoil kola each; sents twenty full-blown lotus flowers in four lines the lower course is smaller than the upper one and of five each each flower comprising two rows of is diagonally placed upon the latter. From the petals. Between the flowers are placed concave- smaller anatrefoil isenes a small stamenal tube sided carved diamonds. The square frame lifting clasped by two rows of petals. The north-south up the ceiling is carved with ardhapadma pattern.
dividing lines are carved with diamonds and beads, Devakulika 37A--Square on plan this is a kşipta The inner face of the frame raising up the ceiling is ceiling of the näbhicchanda order. The ceiling is adorned with a band of kiritimukhas, while its undercompleted in two stages. The first is a square side on two sides depicts a row of campaka flowers, frame showing carving of ardhapadma pattern on Devakulika 39A-Square on plan it is a ksipta the inner face, while its underside depicts lotus ceiling of the nabhicchanda order. It consists of two
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square courses. The first is a square frame treated Devakulika 39A. The second depicts eight depresas padma. It is decorated with stencilled lotus sed lämās arranged in a diagonally set square. petals, and is surmounted by a band of projecting Each of these lamās consists of a quatrefoil and a ardhapadma pattern and a band of geese. The circular kola. In the centre of the ceiling is a second displays nābhicchanda element which is repre- square, the corners of which are broken by threesented by five depressed lämās, viz. four in the quarter circular kolas containing campaka flowers. four corners and one in the centre. Arranged in Inside the square are a deeply cut quatrefoil kola diagonal order each of these limās consists of a and a small stamenal tube terminating in campaka quatrefoil and a circular kola. Between the tümās flower. On the bordering lines of the ceiling are are inserted circular kolas. The square frame rai- seen semi-circular kolas. The ceiling is raised up sing up the ceiling is carved with a band of kirtti- by a square frame of four rectangular slabs carved mukhas.
with a band of kiritimukhas. 39B-Square on plan it is a ksipta vitana of the 41B-Square on plan it is a samaksipla ceiling näbhicchanda order. It displays sixteen depressed of the nabhicchanda variety. The näbhicchand ele. lūmās in four lines of four each, all arranged in ment is represented by circular kolas scooped out diagonal order. Each līmā consists of a quatrefoil in the surface of the ceiling. The ceiling is raised and a circular kola. Between the lämās are inserted up by a frame of four rectangular slabs carved circular kolas. The ceiling is raised up by a square with a band of kirttimukhas. frame of four rectangular slabs carved with ardha
The next three devakulikās have been built padma pattern.
during recent years by closing up the southern Devakulika 40A-This ceiling closely corresponds entrance of the temple. These devakulikäs are not to that noticed in Devakulika 37B, but the persent numbered. As regards their ceilings, the A in ceiling is rectangular on plan and the plaques are each is new, but the B is old and is described here twenty-four in number, arranged east-west in four as Devakulika I, II and III. lines of six each.
Devakulika IB-Square on plan this ceiling con40B-This is a samautksipta ceiling of the man- sists of two square courses. The first is a square daraka variety. It is built on a rectangular plan, frame treated as padna. It is decorated with lotus but its space is reduced to a square by a frame of petal-and-bud ornament and is crowned by a band four rectangular slabs carrying similar decorations of geese. The second is samatala. Its square flat as we find on those of Devakulika 38A. The square surface shows, one within the other, four square flat surface, which depicts the mandaraka element, bands. The first carries a depressed lümā at each is divided into five concentric circular bands. The corner and a scroll-band on each side. Each lamā first consists of sixteen-foil kola bearing kirttimukhas is made up of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. on the triangular spaces. The second diplays The second is like a quadrate type of Cross dissixteen-foil smaller but pointed kola carrying playing three-quarter circular kola on each arm and kirttimukhas at points. The third, edged with a trefoil kola at each corner of the square. The reverse gajatālu, pertains to sixteen-foil still smaller four arms of the Cross overlap the scroll-band of but pointed kola having kirttimukhas on the tria- the first square. The third, resembling a lozenge ngular spaces. The fourth shows an eight-foil with corners chamfered in three angles, accommopointed kola with kirttimukhas occupying the dates an eight-foil kola and is edged with reverse triangular spaces. The fifth (central) consists of gajatālu. The fourth is like the third but has a a circular kola and a stamenal tube clasped by two flower bud in the centre. The ceiling is raised up rows of petals. At each corner of the ceiling is by a frame of four rectangular slabs, which slightly represented in high relief a large figure of kirttimu- project out into the space of the ceiling. The kha spewing creepers.
inner face of the frame is adorned with ardhapadma Devakulika 41A-Square on plan it consists of pattern, while its underside is carved with half two square courses. The first is like that seen in diamonds,
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Devakulika IIB-It is built on a rectangular balcony models and is surmounted by a band of plan, but its space is reduced to a square by leaves, while its underside depicts a row of campaka a framework of four rectangular slabs placed flowers, each flower being set up in a stepped over the architraves. The inner face of the square diamond. The dome is composed of eight courses frame carries a diamond-strip, while its underside and a circular padmašila. The first course is octagonal on two sides shows five depressed lamās, each and the others are circular. The inner face of the consisting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The first course is decorated with lotus scrolls punctuaside spaces between the lümās are occupied by ted with Kinnara-couples and geese, while its concave-sided carved diamonds.
underside at each corner is boldly relieved with a
Kinnar-couple making dance or playing on some The ceiling proper consists of two courses. The
musical instruments. From their navel issue first is octagonal. It depicts lotus scrolls on the
creepers which occupy the space at their back. In inner face and a Kinnar-couple at each corner on
one case the Kinnar is represented wearing a beard. the underside. The second is circular and is
The second is karnadardarika decorated with lotus divided into four concentric circular bands. The
petals and surmounted by a band of leaves. The first consists of sixteen-foil large kola. The second,
third is adorned with balcony models. The next built on a level which is lower than that of the
five courses are padmas, each decorated with lotus preceding one, comprises twenty-four-foil small
petal-and-bud ornament. The lowermost of these, kola. The third, built on a higher level surface,
i.e. the fourth course, also sustains eight circular pertains to twelve-foil kola and is edged with
pendants. The padmašila, built on the principle of reverse gajatalu. The fourth, edged with reverse
coradial regression, is composed of four courses, gajatalu and built on a still higher level surface,
separated from one another by reverse gajatālus. consists of a six-foil kola. In the centre of the last
Each of the first three courses consists of twentyband is a flower bud.
four-foil kola, while the fourth comprises twelveDevakulika IIIB-Square on plan it consists of foil kola. The stamenal tube inserted in the last two square courses. The first is a square frame. course is clasped by three rows of petals and termiIt carries a band of leaves and a band of ardha. nates in a bud. padma pattern on the inner face, while its under Devakulika 46A-Square on plan it consists of side shows a projecting lama at each corner and a
two square courses. The first is a square frame band of lotus scrolls punctuated with Kinnara
treated as padma decorated with lotus petals. The couples on each side. Each of the four lāmas
second is samatala; its square flat surface is divided consists of a quatrefoil kola and a circular plaque
into three square bands disposed one within the of reverses gajatalu, and is set up, on the level
other. The outer band consists of a twelve-foil larger surface, in a square bordered by diamonds and kola The intermediate band consists of a twelvebeads. The underside on two sides also depicts a
foil smaller kola and is edged with reverse gajatalu. band of geese. The second is samatala. It repre
The inner band pertains to a quatrefoil kola. In sents mandāraka element into four concentric cir
the centre of the last is a hollowed out circular kola. cular bands consisting of twelve-foil, eight-foil,
" The square frame lifting up the ceiling shows a quatrefoil and circular kolas respectively. The
band of kirttimukhas on the inner face and a strip whole is placed in a lozenge, the corners of which
of lotus petals on the two narrow undersides, are occupied by four-fold (3+1) kolas. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectan.
46B-Square on plan this ceiling is composed gular slabs carved with a band of kirttimukhas.
of four square courses and a square padmašila. The
courses overlap one above the other and their Devakulikās 42-45-Square on plan this is a corners are so indented as to resemble stepped domical ceiling of the sabhāmandāraka variety. Its diamonds. The inner face of the first course is space is narrowed by a square frame of four recta- adorned with balcony models, while its underside ngular slabs projecting into the space of the ceiling. at each corner depicts three circular kolas, each set The inner face of the frame is adorned with up in a stepped diamond. The decoration of the

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inner face of the second course is similar to the first one, but its underside shows a band of lotus petaland-bud ornament on each side and a series of four usual circular kolas at each corner. The third is similar to the second. The fourth is almost a true stepped diamond, carrying a lambana formed of stepped diamond at each of four points of its soffit. The padmafila consists of two courses. The first has eight whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. The second is like a pendant consisting of stepped diamond; this resembles to some extent the Nandiévaradvipa. The square frame lifting up the ceiling is carved with a band of kirttimukhas. Nanavati and Dhaky have identified it with a kṣiptotkṣipta ceiling of the kamalodbhava order displayed in an unusual pattern and depth.62
Devakulika 47A-Rectangular on plan it is a kşipta ceiling of the nabhicchanda order. It is represented by twelve depressed lūmās arranged eastwest in four lines of three each. Each lima consists of a quatrefoil and a circular kola. The rectangular frame raising up the ceiling is carved with a band
of kirttimukhas.
47B-This is a kşipta ceiling of the nabhicchanda order. It is built on a rectangular plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a framework of four rectangular slabs placed over the architraves. The inner face of the frame is carved with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside on the two shorter sides is adorned with half diamonds. The square part of the ceiling contains nabhicchanda element which is represented by sixteen depressed lūmās arranged in four lines of four each. Each lūmā is square in shape and consists of an eight-foil and a circular kola.
Devakulika 48A-Square on plan this ceiling consists of two square courses and a rectangular padmafila. The first consists of padma decorated with stencil-cut flamboyant pattern and surmounted by a band of projecting leaves. The second is similar to the first. The padmafila consists of three courses. The first has an eighteen-foil kola. The second consists of an eight-foil kola accommodated in a lozenge and edged with reverse gajatalu. The third pertains to a lozenge-shaped quatrefoil kola cut out with an oval-shaped kola. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs carved with ardhapadma pattern,

48B-Square on plan this ceiling consists of three courses. The first is octagonal. It shows decoration of lotus scrolls on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The second, circular in shape and projecting out into the space of the ceiling, depicts a band of geese on the inner face and a band of lotus petal-and-band ornament on the underside. The third is also circular. Its circular flat surface represents mandaraka element in four concentric circular bands. Each of the first three circles consists of sixteen-foil kola, while the central circle contains a stellate (sixteenpointed) mandaraka flower. In the centre of the central circle is a stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals and inserted in a deeply set circular kola. The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of four rectangular slabs adorned with a strip of diamonds.
The passage across the corridor, near the main entrance, consists of three bays, each containing an ornate ceiling. These ceilings are not built on the
same level surface as those found in the corridor
but are raised up by pillar-capitals placed right above the corridor columns. The spaces between these capitals are filled with carved panels. Each of these ceilings is rectangular on plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a framework of four rectangular slabs placed over the architraves.
The ceiling in the bay near the court is made
up of two courses. The first consists of a square frame representing a strip of diamonds on the inner face, while its underside shows a full-blown lotus flower at each corner and a band of lotus petal-and-bud ornament on each side. The underside on two sides also depicts a band of diamonds and beads. The second is samatala. Its square flat surface displays, one within the other, three square bands. The outer band depicts a band of lotus petal-and-bud ornament on each side and a depressed luma consisting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola at each corner. The intermediate band is similar to the outer one. The inner band depicts a quatrefoil kola and a circular plaque of reverse gajatālu carrying flower bud on its tip. The inner face of the square frame raising up the ceiling is decorated with ardhapadma pattern, while its underside on two sides shows a band of lotus petals

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and a band of diamonds and beads. The carved tube clasped by two rows of petals. The four panels on the north as well as south side dipict an corners of the square are occupied by kiritimukhas. image of goddess Ambikä flanked on each side by a
The corridor is shaded towards the courtyard female cauri-bearer and dancers. The six-armed goddess is seated in talitäsana on her lion mount.
by a corrugated eave-cornice. The eave-cornice in
the porticoes attached to the rangamandapa, however, She carries amralumbi in her five arms, while with
is of the ribbed variety. Above the eaves are inthe sixth she holds the child in her lap.
serted a number of foliated gargoyles. Some The ceiling in the central bay is made by cutting devakulikās have no partition walls. In the dedaoff the corners, comprising three tiers of nine slabs. kulikās are installed the images of Jinas. Many of The inner face of the first tier is decorated with a these images are of the later date. The devakulika 19 goose-band, and the underside of each triangular also contains a stone slab representing the Asvā. slab is enriched with a large figure of kirttimukha. vabodhasamalikāvihäratirtha. The second carries a strip of diamonds on the inner
The exterior wall of each devakulika consists of face and a stencil-cut caitya-arch of creepers on the five offsets. On vertical axis it shows pitha, vediunderside of each triangular slab. The square slab handha. jarigha, varandika and roof. The pisha forming the third tier depicts a limā enclosed in a consists of a bhitta, jad yakumbha, karnika, antarapatra, lozenge. The lūma consists of a quatrefoil kola and and kapota carved with caitya-window enrichment. a circular plaque of reverse gajatalu carrying flower The vedibandha is made up of a khura, kumbha, kalasa, bud on its tip. The corners of the square slab are antarapatra and kapota. The jangha, divided into filled with stencil-cut creepers. The inner face of two registers by a plain patrika and also surmounted the square frame lifting up the ceiling is decorated by a similar battika, is plain. The varandika conwith a strip of diamonds, while its underside on sists of a kabota and a ribbed eave-cornice. The two sides depicts a figure of four-armed standing
roof is made up of receding tiers, surmounted by a goddess Vajränkusi accompanied on either side by Auted bell with kalaša and bija püraka. The whole of a female figure carrying cauri or pitcher and figures the exterior is now plastered up with white lime, of dancers and musicians.
Hastiśāla The rectangular space of the ceiling near the It is a rectangular hall with its roof supported entrance is reduced to a square by two successive on two rows of eleven pillars each and a row of square courses, unlike the usual one course. The eleven pilasters placed against its back wall. The inner face of the first is carved with ardhapadma pillars of the front row alone are well preserved. pattern, while its underside on two sides is decora- These are of the octagonal type and correspond to ted with a band of lotus petals. The second is the octagonal pillars of the devakulikās. Between similar to the first but carries two bands of lotus these pillars is fitted a screen wall of perforated petals on the underside. The ceiling proper is stone grilles (Fig. 105). The screen wall is pierced samautksipta of the mandaraka variety. It is shown by various geometrical designs such as lozenges, in six concentric circular bands. The first three stepped diamonds, triangles, squares and criss-cross are disposed on the square flat level surface, and design. A floral design consiting of four-petalled the next three, edged with reverse gajatālus, are flower is also visible in the grilles. Each grille is gradually oversailing towards the centre. The first set up in a square or rectangular box bordered by a circular band is decorated with lotus petal-and-bud band of diamonds and beads and having campaka ornament. The second consists of twenty-four-foil flowers at the four corners. Above the grilles is a kola. The third also consists of twenty-four-foil kola horizontal band decorated with foliate scrolls. The but is edged with reverse gajatalu. The next three lower part of the screen wall shows the same set of bands comprise sixteen-foil, twelve-foil and six-foil mouldings as we notice on the base of the pillars. kolas respectively. In the centre of the six-foil kola The hall is shaded towards the courtyard by a is scooped out a circular kola containing a stamenal corrugated eave-cornice,

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The hastišala has three entrances, one in the shed with half-blown lotuses. The corner and the centre and one on each side. The central entrance central rathas of the two upper storeys are similar is led through the courtyard, while the lateral en- to the karnarathas of the lower storey, only that here trances are led through the corridor. The single- is noticed only one set of vedibandha mouldings. fakha side doorways are similar to those found in The Meru is roofed by a domical ceiling consisting the devakulikās. The central doorframe, however, of seven courses. The first course is octagonal and is of the trifakha variety, consisting of patrašakha, the others are circular. The inner face of the first stambhalakha and patrafakha. The patrašakhas are course is carved with a row of geese, while its decorated with lotus scrolls which come forth from underside at each corner depicts a caitya-arch ornathe navel of a Kinnar represented below. The ment. The second is decorated with ard hapadma stambhafakha, octagonal in section, is divided into pattern. The third is treated like a torus. The six sections by karņikās. The topmost section of next four courses are padmas, each decorated with these is decorated with ghatapallava, a row of three lotus petal-and-bud device. The circular slab, lambanas, and two bells joined by an arris. The forming the seventh course and covering up the doorsill is divided into two registers. The lower dome, is incised with an open lotus having four register shows mouldings of jād yakumbha, karnika, rows of petals. antarapatra and kapota. The upper one shows a five
On two sides of the Meru tower are aligned ten faceted projecting square block in the centre and a gigantic elephants, each standing on a rectangular projecting kirttimukha on each side. The square
pedestal adorned with diamonds (Fig. 103). These block depicts stemmed lotus on the central facet,
elephants are adorned with fine tusks, trappings male figures on the accompanying facets and half
and howdahs. Each of these elephants is executed diamonds on the extreme ones. The door-lintel is
out of a single block of white marble and is a rare also divided into two registers. The lower register
piece of art. The finish is elegant and the surface continues the carving of the patrafakha and has a
shows fine polish. On the back of each elephant capital of roll brackets atop the fakhas. The side
is sitting a Srāvaka, with a Mahāvata in front and face of these brackets is carved with half kirttimukha. a parasol-bearer on his back. All these figures are On the lalata is a balcony model. The upper
mutilated and lost, and only traces remain to show register is treated like a cornice carrying kațas on that they once existed. On the pedestal of each the extremities and pair of geese in between them elephant is inscribed the name of the personage on the extrados.
who rode on it. In the central part of the hastišala is a magnifi
The back wall of the hastifala is divided into cent sa parikara image of Adinātha seated on a ten niches, each containing a group of standing navaratha moulded pedestal. In front of him is a portrait sculptures carved in high relief. Each triratha Meru tower built of white marble. The niche is perched upon a moulded pedestal consisttower is perched upon a pedestal decorated with ing of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, figure sculptures, and is divided, one above the kalaša, broad fillet carved with diamonds and padma, other, into three storeys, each having a Jina figure On the pedestal stand two ornate pillarettes in niche on each of the four faces, topped by a J
joined by a lintel. The niche is surmounted by a cornice moulding. The lower storey contains
ribbed eave-cornice and a triple udgama pediment saparikara images of kayotsarga Jinas, while the
flanked on each side by a küța and a miniature middle and upper storeys have padmasana Jinas.
Sikhara. Beginning from the north end the portrAll these images are made of black marble. The
ait sculptures are as follows: corner of each ratha of the tower is broken into Niche I 1. Ācārya Udayaprabha (pupil of Vijay. three angles. Each of the karyarathas in the lower
asenasūri) storey is decorated with two sets of vedibandha
2. Acārya Vijayasena (Teacher of Vastumouldings, a balcony model and a ghata pallava,
pāla and Tejapāla. The consecration while the central rathas of this storey are embelli
of this temple was performed by him).
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3. Maham. Candapa (great great grand- Niche IX 1. Maham. Jitasi (Jaitrasithha, son of father of Vastupāla-Tejapāla).
· Vastupāla and Lalitādevi). 4. Mahan. Cāṁpaladevi (wife of Cand
2. Maham Jetalade (wife of Jaitrasimha,. apa).
3. Maham. Jaṁmanade (second wife of
Jaitrasimha). Niche II 1. Maham. Candaprasada (son of Cand
4. Mahat. Rūpāde (third wife of Jaitrapa).
asimha). 2. Maham. Câmpaladevi (wife of Cand
It is to be noted that the elephant in front of each aprasāda).
of these niches was in memory of the male member Niche III 1. Maham. Soma (son of Candapr. of the family of Tejapäla figuring in the corresponasada).
ding niche. Thus the first elephant, according to 2. Mahań. Sitādevi (wife of Soma).
the label on the pedestal, had on it a sculpture of
Candapa, on the second rode Candaprasāda, and 3. Maham. Asana (son of Soma ?).
so on and so forth. The sequence, however, is Niche IV 1. Mahań. Asarāja (son of Soma). broken in the tenth niche noted below, since the 2. Mahan. Kumāradevi (wife of Soma). elephant had on it a sculpture of Lävanyasimha,
son of Tejapala and Anupamadevi, while the niche Niche V 1. Mahaṁ. Lūniga (son of Asarāja and
has a portrait of Suhadasimha. elder brother of Vastupäla-Tejapāla). 2. Maham. Lūnādevi (wife of Lūniga). Niche X 1. Maham. Suhadasimha (son of Teja
pāla and Suhadādevi). Niche VI 1. Maham. Mäladeva (another brother of 2. Maham. Suhadade (wife of SuhadaVastupāla-Tejapāla).
simha). 2. Maham. Līlādevi (wife of Mäladeva).
3. Maham. Salaşaņāde (second wife of 3. Maham. Pratāpadevi (second wife of
Suhadasimha). Maladeva).
All these sculptures of the Srāvakas and Srāvikäs
carry garlands of bakula flowers and wear various Niche VIII. Mahań. Vastupāla (brother of Teja
ornaments. The Srävakas also have a beard and pāla). There is a parasol over his
are accompanied by small figures of male and head. The image, as the inscription female attendants. shows, was made by Sutradhāra Varasā.
In the first niche the Acāryas are shown carry2. Mahan. Lalitādevi (wife of Vastupala). ing rajoharana in the left hand. while t 3. Maham. Vejaladevi (second wife of hand is held in jñānamudra. The Acāryas a Vastupāla).
omanied by small figures of Jaina monks represe
nted on both sides of their feet. Niche VIII 1. Mahań. Tejapāla (brother of Vastupāla and builder of this temple).
According to the Jaina tradition, Minister TejaThis sculpture was also fashioned by
pāla erected this temple at a cost of twelve crore Sūtradhāra Varasā (Fig. 106).
fifty three lacs.84 The architect of the temple 2. Maham. Anupamādevi (wife of Tej. was Sobhanadeva, who was a great artist of his apāla).
time.65
KUMBHARIA
There is a group of five Jaina temples, all built of white marble and facing the north. They are nirandhāra-prāsādas, each standing on a lofty jagati which is laid out on no specific plan but on the sloping level surfaces as the contour of the
hills naturally provides. Consequently it displays more courses on the front than at the rear (Fig. 22). The jagati is composed of hewn blocks of masonry, and its courses are so devised as to form a sort of revetment against the lateral thrust,

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The temples are still under worship and are Santinātha, whose name is recorded in the Tirthadedicated to Mahāvira, Säntinātha, Pārsvanātha, mālā referred to above. Neminātha and Sambhavanatha. The present dedication, however, seems to be incorrect, for a MAHAVIRA TEMPLE Tirthamala of 1442 A.D. attributes the dedication
On plan it consists of a malaprāsada, a gadhato Adinatha, Säntinātha, Neminätha, Pärsvanätha
mandapa having entrances on the front and on each and Mahāvira.66 There is no doubt about the num
side, a mükhamandapa, a rarigamandapa enclosed by ber of shrines, but in the dedication list the name of
eight devakulikās on each side and three niches Sambhavanātha is replaced by that of Adinatha.
instead of devakulikas on either side of its front, and It appears that the central images in some of these
a balāņaka (Fig. 22). The temple is entered throtemples were changed during later repairs, 67 with
ugh a porch from the front as well as from the out caring for the actual dedication. This was
lateral sides. The front entrance opens in the quite likely, for the central images in all these
balanaka, while the lateral entrances are coaxially temples are of the subsequent dates.
arranged with the gūdhamanda pa doors. The back According to the inscriptions hailing from these
walls of the niches and the devakulikäs upto their temples, there is hardly any doubt regarding the
termination at the lateral entrances form an dedication of the temples of Neminätha,68 Pärs
outer enclosing wall of the temple, while the vanatha69 and Mahāvira.70 The dedication of remaining part of the jagati is surrounded by a the Mahāvira and the Pārsvanātha temples is also
prākāra, ensuring hence complete seclusion and corroborated by the iconographic testimony. In providing an outer ambulatory to the shrine. the Mahavira temple this is evident from an image
Except for those appearing on the sanctum and of Siddhāyikā, the Yakși of Mahävira, facing the
the güdhamandapa, the superstructures of all the mülanayaka in the sanctum. The image is located
compartments are now plastered up with white in the centre of the architrave supporting the
lime. ceiling built just above the stairway leading to the
Mālaprasada mukhamandapa. In the Pārsvanātha temple this is apparent from the remains of a seven-hooded cobra
It is tryanga on plan, comprising bhadra, praticanopy over the milanāyaka image in the sanctum,
ratha and karna, the bhadra being the longest and from the appearence of the Näga figures, instead
the karna the shortest (Fig. 23). The karna is of the usual Vidyādharas, on the points of the
broken into three planes and is equilateral, but kolas of the gūdhamandapa dome, and from an image
the pratiratha is treated like a slender pilaster.
Between the angas are salilantaras, which are not of Padmāvati, the Yakşi of Pärsvanātha, represen
carried down to the pitha. The salilantara between ted as lalatabimba on the northern door of the
the karņa and pratiratha is reinforced by a minor gūdhamandapa. The temple of Santinātha seems to
konika, which also terminates at the pitha. be originally dedicated to Adinātha. This is clearly evident from two inscriptions found in the In elevation it shows pitha, mandovara and Sikhara. temple, which attribute the dedication to him.71 The pitha is simple, consisting of a bhitta, a jadyakThis is also supported by the iconographic evi- umbha bearing representations of caitya-arch dence. The mukhamandapa ceiling in front of the enrichment and half diamond on each bhadra, a güdhamandapa door contains an image of Cakreśvari, karnika and a patrika. The mandovara is divided the Yakşi of Adinātha, who is depicted facing the into three parts, namely vedibandha, jangha and mälanayaka in the sanctum. Besides, there are two varandika. The vedibandha is also simple, pertaining large images of Cakreśvari and Gomukha (Yaksa to a khura, a kumbha carrying decorations of half of Adinātha) depicted in one of the side bays of diamonds on the body and a narrow plain band on the rangamandapa. The temple of Sambhavanātha the shoulder, a kalaša, an antarapatra, and a kapota does not bear any inscription, but there is little embellished with caitya-arch pattern. The jangha, Scope for doubt that originally it was dedicated to divided into two resisters by a kirttimukha-band and

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also surmounted by a similar band, is plain, but stambhašakhā, and bāhyaśākha adorned with lotus for the projecting sculptured niches on the bhadras. petals. At the base of the fakhas is a kāyotsarga Crowned by a ribbed awning and a two-course Jina flanked on the inner side by a female carrying short udgama, the niches are now empty. The side water pot and on the outer side by another female faces of the niches are embellished with such devices with hands held in adoration. The udumbara shows as criss-cross, lozenge, lotus, stepped diamond and a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed chequer pattern. The varandika consists of a narrow lotus in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha spewing pattika, a karnika, a padma, an usual kapota and a creepers on each side of it, and rosette-marked ribbed eave-cornice. Pierced into the khura on the diamonds on either extremity. The uttaranga west there is a makara-praņāla. Bhandarkar is of displays a Jina figure on the lalāta as well as on opinion that the walls are all modern. 12 But this is either end, and the space between them is filled untenable, for the mouldings and their decorative with a row of Mālādharas facing the lalatabimba, elements are all old pieces.
and a sculptural panel containing six figures of
Sarasvati, Cakreśvari, Vajränkusi, Vairotyä, Separated from the wall by a recessed fillet the Ambikā and Vajrassnkhalā, each having two arms fikhara (Fig. 23) reveals a tryanga malamañjart and sitting in lalitasana. In front of the door is a marked by five bhāmi-amalakas, an uromafjari on moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra tied each of the four facades, two frigas (one big and on both ends with gagāraka Sarik ha and lotus stem one small) over each karna and one briga over each and flanked in turn by two talarūpakas decorated on pratiratha. The angas of the mālamasjari terminate the front with diamonds. at the skandha, but the bhadra offset goes beyond this and is surmounted by a human face which is
Inside the sanctum is installed an image of quite a late feature. Above the skandha the mala
Mahävira as mīlanāyaka seated in dhyanamudra.
Carved in the round the image is not the original mañjari is crowned by a griva, a large amalaka, a
one but was installed in V. S. 1675 ( 1618 A. D.) candrika, a smaller amalaka, again a candrika, a
by Vijayadevasüri, apparently replacing the old kalaba and a bijapāraka. The dhvajapataka is modern,
one. But the moulded pedestal on which the image but the dhvajādhara depicted on the south facade
stands is old, as it bears an inscription of 1118 V.S. seems to be old. The uromafjaris and the freigas
(1061 A. D.), making the dedication to are but the replica of the mālamasjari, only that
Vira
(Mahāvira). In the centre of the pedestal is depicthe frigas are crowned by only one amalaka and a kalaša, the latter in most cases having disappeared.
ted an image of four-armed lalitäsa na goddess Between the Srrigas are seen gajamundas and kātas
Cakreśvari. The sanctum also contains two small inset with rosette-marked diamonds. The whole
images of Ambikä and Sarvänubhūti, both built of of the fikhara is covered with a fine lattice of caitya
black stone. These images seem to have been kept arch device. At the base of the fikhara, in each
there subsequently cardinal point, is a rathikä containing a Jina image Gūdhamandapa sitting in dhyānamudra. He is flanked on each side by a kāyotsarga Jina. These images are framed
Articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum, between segmented circular pilasters and are the ghdhamandapa is also tryariga on plan and shares surmounted by a projected fillet and a two course its pina and mandovara with the sanctum. Like that udgama pediment. Owing to the lack of space the of the latter its karna is also broken into three northern rathika leans upon the uromalljari. The planes, but here the saliläntaras are conspicuous by rathikas on the east and the north are destroyed and their absence. It is roofed by a beautiful santvaranā their images gone now.
(Fig. 24) studed with seven rows of kafas followed
alternately by seven rows of fluted bells. At its top The doorframe of the sanctum (Fig. 25) is of is a large bell with a partly preserved kalaša, and the trisakha variety. It consists of patrafakhā deco- in the cardinal directions are comparatively smaller rated with foliate scrolls, three-faceted plain bells with rampant lions, all being sadly damaged.
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At the base of the samvarana, in each cardinal jad yakumbha, karnika and grāsapatti, the first of these point, is an ornate double-course udgama with a bell being concealed by the moonstone. The upper one in front.
displays a semi-circular projection decorated with
stemmed lotus in the contre, a projecting kiritimukha Each of the lateral entrances of the güdhaman
emanating creepers on either side of it, and a dapa is led through a square porch, which is connec
sculptured niche on either extremity. The niche ted with the outer entrance by a colonnaded corri
on proper right contains an image of four-armed dor. Ascended by a flight of three or four steps
lalitāsana Sarvānubhūti, and that on proper left cut across the pitha mouldings each porch consists
shelters Ambikā, also four-armed and sitting in of two pillars and two pilasters supporting an similar attitude. Each deity is flanked on the inner uncarved samatala ceiling on a square frame of
side by two female attendants. The uttaraniga is architraves. The pillars are of the octagonal type. also divided into two registers. The lower register Their base consists of a khura, a kumbha decorated
shows a ghatapallava capital with two recessed angles with half diamonds and a kalata. The shaft is octa
crowing the three central jambs on either end. gonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and
The space between the capitals is filled with the circular on the top, the last section being surmounted by a kirttimukha-band. The capital has a round
band of lotus scrolls carried over here from the
patrašakha and a row of Maladharas, both being fluted bharaṇi of karnikā and padma, topped by four
interrupted in the centre by the lalatabimba which armed kicaka brackets. The five-faceted pilasters
represents a four-armed image of male divinity are similar to the pillars, but their shaft is quite
standing in pratyālidha posture and carrying vajra plain and the fluted bharani has only the padma. The roof has an overhanging corrugated awning.
and arkusa in the upper two hands, and varadamudra The single-sakha door is quite plain and seems to
and fruit in the lower ones. The upper register be a later addition. But the moonstone is an old
displays a sculptural panel containing five projectone. It consists of an ardhacandra tied on both ends
ing niches alternating with recesses. The central with gagaraka and Sankha and flanked in turn by
niche probably contains an image of Indra seated a talarūpaka.
in padmasana, with the child Tirthankara. The
recess to his right represents Naigameşin carrying The front (northern door) of the güdhamand apa the child Tirthankara, while that to his left shows is very ornate (Fig. 26). It belongs to the pañca- a figure of gana carrying vajraghanța. The recess Śäkha variety, consisting of patrašakha decorated to his extreme right depicts a male figure carrying with lotus scrolls, rāpašakha, tāpastambha, tāpatakha, water jar, and that to his extreme left displays a and bāhyaśākha carved with two narrow bands of Mālādhara. The four other niches contain each a creepers and diamond-and-beads. The lower part figure of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied of the fākhās is occupied by a framed figure of by two female cauri-bearers. The goddesses may be four-armed goddess standing in tribhaiga posture. identified with Naradattā. Vajrånkusi, Rohini and She is accompanied on each side by a female cauri. Mänavi. The moonstone in front of the door is bearer; another female carrying water pot stands similar to that seen in the sanctum, but here is towards the opening. The goddess on proper right found only one talarüpaka. is Acchuptā, while that on proper left is Vairotyā. Above this the räpastambha displays three successive The interior of the gudhamandapa is square. Its niches containing figures of four-armed lalitäsana wall is reinforced by eight pilasters arranged in an goddesses, each flanked on either side by a female octagon and supporting a domical ceiling on an attendant appearing on the rupašakha. Vajrasrn- octagonal frame of architraves. The pilasters are khala, Mahämänasi and an unidentified goddess of two kinds. The two near the garbhagyha are are depicted on proper right, and an unidentified five-faceted. The base of these pilasters consists of goddess, Cakresvari and Vajränkusi appear on pro- a khura and a kumbha decorated with half diamonds. per left. The udumbara is divided into two registers. The shaft is plain. Their capital consists of a The lower register shows four mouldings of bhitta, double-course square bharaṇi of karpika and padma,
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surmounted by kicaka brackets. The remaining six ond-and-double volute pattern, a vedika and an pilasters are unfaceted. Their base and capital asanapatta. The vedika is divided into upright posts are similar to the faceted pilasters, but in one place alternating with depressed vertical slabs. Below. the bracket bears a figure of naked women rather the upright posts are plain; above, they are decorthan that of kicaka. Their shaft has three sections, ated with kirttimukha, lunate containing lotus or namely square at the base, octagonal in the middle twine pattern, ghatapallava and volute device. The and circular on the top. The architraves are duichadya asanapatta surmounted by a rooflet prouncarved. The domical ceiling is of the sabhämärga jects boldly over each post, and it recedes with a class and emerges from each pilaster from a square kirttimukha over each slab. Each balustrade also bracket sculptured with a figure of Jina, Acarya, displays two projecting niches on the vedika portion. Gandharva or the like. It is composed of seven Each niche is crowned on the asanapatta proper by circular courses. The first is karnadardarikā deco- an udgama, and below, on the rajasenaka portion, it rated with lotus petals and surmounted by a band carries another smaller udgama flanked by two elepof diamonds and beads. The second is adorned hants with upraised trunk, or a Gandharva flanwith a band of kirttimukhas; it also carries eight king it on the one side and a parrot on the other. projecting brackets of Vidyadharas bearing gar- The niches contain images of four-armed lalitasana lands. The third is padma incised with lotus petals goddesses, of whom Ambika and Sarasvati could and surmounted by a band of diamonds and beads. be identified. The fourth and the fifth are gajatalus, each surmounted by a band of diamonds and beads and a In all there are eight pillars, viz. two in the band of lotus petals. The sixth is an eight-foil fore part of the central projecting bay, four in a kola. The seventh is a quatrefoil kola scooped row running east-West, and one each in the southout with a circular kola. The eight-foil kola carries east and southwest corners. Besides, there are two remains of eight mortices which originally pro- ornamented pilasters flanking the gadhamandapa bably contained tenons of bracket figures emerging door. The two pillars in the central projecting from the Vidyadhara brackets. The four corners bay are of the square order, with corners chamleft at the base of the dome are uncarved.
fered into three angles. Their base consists of a
khura bearing udgama pattern on the four faces, There are two large saparikara images of kayots- a kumbha carrying images of lalitasana goddesses on arga Jinas placed against the south wall. The the body and the carving of foliage on the shoulder, image on proper right is of Säntinātha, and that a kalasa incised with rosettes, an antarapatra, on proper left is of Ajitanatha, both bearing an and a kapota carved with caitya-arch device. The inscription of 1118 V. S. (1061 A. D.).
shaft has four sections, viz. square, octagonal,
sixteen-sided and circular, the first being the lonMukhamaņdapa
gest and the third the shortest. The square section It consists of four bays, three extending east- carries framed figures of four-armed standing west across the axial line and one, also across the Vidyādevis on the four faces and is surmounted by axial line, projecting into the rarigamandapa. It is a ghatapallava motif. The octagonal section depilanded up from the rarigamandapa by a flight of five cts eight figures of four-armed latitasana goddesses. steps cut across the pitha of the central projecting The sixteen-sided section bears sixteen figures of bay. Below the stairway is a moonstone of the same two-armed lalitasana goddesses. The circular type as we find in front of the northern door of section is divided into two halves, the lower showthe gūdhamandapa. Its moulded pitha consists of ing four lambanas and chain-and-bells alternated two bhittas, a jad yakumbha, a karnika, an antarapatra, by indented leaves, and the upper a band of Ganda chadyaki decorated with caitya-arch ornament, harvas and a band of kirttimukhas emitting chains and a grāsapari. The pitha of the central project- that are secured below by a band of diamonds and ing bay is treated like a balustrade, which consists beads. The capital displays a double-course round of a plain bhita, a rājasenata decorated with diam- bharani of karrika and padma, crowned by five-armed
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Jalna Temples of Western India
double-roll brackets, the side face of each arm of traves carries images of four-armed lalitasana godwhich is adorned with half kirttimukha.
desses with figures of Gandharvas and Vidyadharas
in between them on the three sides, while the The remaining six pillars are of the octagonal
fourth side, i. e. north side, depicts a four-armed type. Their base consists of a khura, a kumbha decorated with half diamonds, a kalaša, an antarapatra and a
lalitasana image of Siddhāyikā facing the shrine in
the centre and lalitasana female figures carrying kapota adorned with caitya-arch pattern. The shaft
water pot on her each side. is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle
The underside of the
sur-architraves on the two shorter sides is embelliand circular on the top. The circular section is
shed with lotus scrolls filled with Kinnara, elephant, clasped by three decorative bands. The first
goose and monkey. The ceiling proper displays shows hovering male figures, men and women, and
four projecting lamās in the four corners and one pair of monkeys with a common head, or geese,
similar lüma in the centre, a half depressed lūmä on elephants and pair of usual monkeys, or cow, boar,
each side and a quarter Lama at each end of the lion and hovering male figures. On some pillars
corner. All the lümās resemble serrated diamonds of this belt may also be seen four lambanas. The
and are arranged diagonally. The central projectthird displays kirttimukhas spewing chains. The
ing lima is the biggest in the series, consisting of capital is similar to that of the square pillars.
three courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil larger and The two pilasters are five-faceted. Their base eight-foil smaller kolas, the last one being diagoand capital are similar to those seen in the octago- nally placed upon the one just above. In its centre nal pillars of the mukhamandapa itself. The central is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by one row facet of the shaft bears a framed figure of female of petals. Each of the four corner projecting lamās musician below and three successive niches contai- is composed of three courses of eight-foil kola each ning figures of male dancers above, while the side and an usual stamenal tube. Each of the half limās facets are embellished with bakulamālās and lotus consists of two courses of five-foil and trefoil kolas. petals.
The quarter lümās are indicated by two foils of
kolas. The edges of the kolas are incised with lotus The architraves running across these columns
petals. This is one of the finest ceilings of its kind are divided into two fasciae, the lower being orna
in India. mented with creepers that issue from the mouth of a kirttimukha represented in the centre, and the The ceiling near the gūdhamandapa door is a upper showing lambanas and volute pattern. In the kşipta one belonging to the näbhicchanda order centre of their underside is carved in low relief a (Fig. 29). Square on plan it is also raised up by a lotus medallion having two rows of petals. The square frame of sur-architraves. The sur-architraves two fasciae in the ceiling just above the stairway, are divided into two horizontal belts, the lower however, vary in ornamentation. Here the lower being treated as karnadardarikā, and the belt shows lotus scrolls punctuated with geese, and upper showing male and female pitcher-bearers the upper carries figures of Gandharvas (dancing with Gandharvas and Mälādharas. The ceiling or making music) and Mälädharas on the three proper displays a fine arrangement of nine depressides, while the fourth, i. e. south side, shows ob- sed lāmās, namely four full lämās in the four corjects of fourteen dreams seen by the Jina mother ners, one full lūma in the centre and a quarter lima during conception.
at each end of the corner. All the limäs resemble
serrated diamonds and are arranged along the two Each bay of the mukhamandapa possesses a beauti- diagonals of the square. The quarter lamäs consist ful ceiling. The ceiling just above the stairway is each of three-fold (2+1) kola, while each of the reksiptotksipta of the padmanabha variety Fig. 27). It maining lämās is made up of three courses of eightis slightly rectangular on plan and is raised up by foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas. The square frame a square frame of sur-architraves. The square of the central lāmā overlaps on the quarter part of frame is made by putting two sur-architraves across the corner limās and the foils of kolas of these the longer sides. The inner face of the sur-archi- places have been transferred to the sides, so that
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there is formed a continuous chain of kolas all along the three sides of a square, dividing thus its around. The corner of the central lama and the entire area in a square central nave and the side side space between the corner lämās are filled with aisles. Six of these pillars on each side, together pieces of creepers issuing from the mouth of kirtti- with two pillars of the mukhamandapa form mukhas. This considerably enhances the beauty of an octagon and support a shallow but beautithe ceiling. Like the preceding ceiling the edges fully wrought domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of the kolas here also are decorated with lotus of architraves. Eight of these pillars are of the petals. This is one of the handsomest ceilings of octagonal type, while the other two are of the the nābhicchanda order.
square order. The ceilings in the southeast and southwest
The two square pillars, forming the octagon on corners are alike. Rectangular on plan they are
the north side, have their corners chamfered into ksipta vitāna of the nābhicchanda order (Fig. 30). Each
three angles. Each of these pillars consists of four ceiling is composed of three receding courses, the first
components, viz. pedestal, base, shaft and capital. being octagonal and the others, circular. The inner
The pedestal is made up of a bhitta, jad yakumbha, face of the octagonal course is relieved with figures
karyika, antarapatra and a plain patrika. The base conof a kāyotsarga Jina, Ācāryas, Gandharvas, Vidya
sists of a khura, kumbha carrying a niched lalitasana dharas and elephants with upraised trunks, while
goddess on each of the four faces, kalaša, antarapatra, it underside depicts a kirttimukha at each corner
and kapota adorned with caitya-arch pattern. Like and a frieze on each of its shorter sides. The frieze
the shaft of the square pillars of the mukhamandapa, represents a procession of warriors on the one side,
the shaft of these pillars also is divided into four a lalitäsana goddess with worshippers, Sārdalas and
sections. The square section carries framed figuwarriors on the other. The second is an eight-foil
res of two or four-armed male dancers, musicians kola, carrying kirttimukhas on the triangular spaces
and Pratihāras on the four faces. The octagonal and Vidyadharas on the points; the edges of kola
section bears eight figures of two-armed female are carved with lotus petals. The third is a qua
dancers. The sixteen-sided section is plain. The trefoil kola bearing similar decorations as we find
circular section is divided into three horizontal in the preceding course. The ceiling is closed up
belts. The lower belt is plain. The middle belt shows on the top by a circular kola.
four projecting lambanas and decoration of chainPlaced against the wall of the gūdhamandapa and and-bells alternating with tassels. The upper one, flanking its northern door are two khattakas, now which is equal to the size of the two combined, empty, except for the parikara carrying an inscri
carries a band of kirttimukhas spewing pearl chains ption of 1091 A.D. The triratha pedestal of each that are secured below by a band of diamonds and khattaka consists of a khura, kumbha decorated with beads. The capital has a double-course round half diamonds, kalata and padma. The wall is plain bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by fiveand is crowned by a ribbed awning and a double- armed double-roll brackets bearing a figure of course ud gama. In front of each khattaka is a scall- Kinnar on the side face of each arm. oped toraņa-arch thrown between the pillars of the side bays. The arch issues from the mouth of a
The octagonal pillars (Fig. 32) are similar to makara treated as an impost inserted into the pillar the square ones, but here the kumbha of the octagoand meets in the centre of the underside of the nal base is decorated with half diamonds, and the architrave. It is punctuated with a row of Gand
shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the harvas and carries pendants at the points of cusps
middle and circular on the top, the last section, and lotus scrolls in between on the lower edge and
edge and separated from the one below by a kumuda, alone saw-tooth pattern on the upper.
showing carvings which include, in addition to
those seen on the square pillars, a band of GandhaRangamapdapa
rvas. Besides, the corner pillars are crowned by The rangamand apa, laid out on the floor of the four-armed brackets, the side face of each arm of jagati, consists of ten tall, ornate pillars disposed which is adorned with half kirttimukha or creeper,
15

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Faina Temples of Western India
The architraves are divided into two fasciae. The four and twenty whorls of seven-fold (3+3+1) kolas lower fascia depicts lotus scrolls, which are punctu- respectively. From the third course project out ated with geese and which emanate from the mouth sixteen bracket figures, fourteen being occupied by of a kirttimukha represented in the middle. The upper four-armed Vidyadharas (Fig. 33) and two by one is decorated with rosette-marked diamonds. Naigameşins. Vidyadharas hold knife, lotus, pitThe scroll-band near the mukhamanda pa is replaced cher and musical instrument and are represented by a figural band displaying a lalitasana goddess in postures typical of the medieval period; this is accompanied on each side by a row of Gandharvas apparently indicated by the bending of their leg at and Vidyadharas. In the centre of their underside the back like a ploughshare. The goat-faced Naiis represented a fine lotus medallion with two rows gamesin, located near the mukhamanda pa and repre. of incurved petals. But the architraves in the four sented in similar posture, hold pitcher in the two corners formed at the base of the dome are plain, upper hands and fly-whisk and lotus in the lower except for a kirttimukha in the middle of the lower ones. Each of these brackets supports a square belt and a lotus medallion carved in low relief on block adorned with diamonds. The large padmašila the underside.
consists of four courses of twenty, twelve, eight and Between the central pair of pillars on each side
quatrefoil kolas. Between the kolas are visible was originally thrown a torana-arch. This is evident
reverse gajatalus. In the quatrefoil is inserted a from slots left in the centre of the underside of the
stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals. In
each corner of the dome is a large, fine figure of architraves. Fortunately, one such arch is intact
kirltimukha carved in high relief in a border of on the east side. Belonging to the cusp-tilaka variety it emerges from a circular impost inserted
creepers. in the pillar shaft and meets in the centre of the The two bays located on two sides of the central underside of the architrave. Its each cusp issues projecting bay of the mukhamandapa contain beautifrom the mouth of a makara and ends in a tilaka. ful utkşipla ceiling of the mandāraka variety (Fig. The cusps are adorned with a row Gandharvas, and 28). They are identical in structure as well as in their upper surface is edged with saw-tooth pattern. ornamentation. Built on a rectangular plan each The tilakas shelter lalitāsana goddesses with attend. ceiling is composed of two courses and a big lumā ant figures on both sides and carry circular or padmafila hanging down in the centre. The first pendants below and bells above. On the upper course is formed by an octogonal course set up in a edge are also seen Mälādharas,
square in the centre and a rectangular panel on The domical ceiling (Fig. 31) is of the sabhāma- each side. The inner face of the octagon is decor. ndāruka order. It emerges from a square block ated with lotus scrolls filled with figures of geese, placed over each pillar forming octagon and sculp- while the underside four corners of the square are tured with a lalitāsana goddess flanked on each side adorned with kirttimukhas. The underside two panels, by a female attendant. The dome is composed of in one ceiling, depict two elephants facing each eight circular courses and a circular padmašila. The other in the centre, two warriors on their two sides inner face of the first course is decorated with a and a horse-rider on either extremity; while in the band of kirttimukhas, while its projected underside other they represent some unidentified narratives, on the north and south depicts creepers. The second The second is circular adorned with gajatalu. The is karnadardarika surmounted by a strip of diamonds.
lūmā consists, from top to bottom, of reverse gajatalu, The third is inset with figures of lalitasana goddes eight-foil kola, reverse gajatālu, and quatrefoil kola ses, but in each cardinal point is represented Gaja edged with leaves. In the centre of the quatrefoil Lakşini. The fourth is gajatālu surmounted by a kola is inserted a stamenal tube clasped by two band of diamonds and beads and a band of lotus rows of petals. The architraves enclosing the petals. The fifth consists of thirthy-two-foil kola ceiling show on their two fasciae rosette-marked carrying figures of Vidyadharas on the points and diamonds, but the lower fascia near the stairway of kirttimukhas on the triangular spaces. The sixth, depicts a procession of warriors and an Acărya with seventh and eighth display twenty-eight, twenty. disciples. At times a kiritimukha also appears in

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Description of Temples
115
the centre of the lower fascia. The underside of the architraves shows lotus medallions, which are similar to those seen in the mukhamandapa.
Each of the side aisles of the rangamandapa is covered with seven samatala ceilings, each supported on a rectangular frame of architraves placed across the pillars of the targamandapa and the mukhamand apa on the one side and squat pilasters placed right above the corridor pillars of the devakulikas on the other. The architraves are similar to those seen at the basal corners of the dome. The ceilings are skilfully relieved with various narratives selected from Jaina mythology, figures in boxes, and images of gods and goddesses. Beginning from the southern end the seven ceilings in the west aisle represent the following scenes : 1. Parents of 24 Tirthankaras of the past and
future ages. 2. Parents of 24 Tirthańkaras of the present Avasa
rpiņi. Pancakalyāṇaka events (Cyavana, Janma, Diksa, Kevalajñana and Nirvana) and other incidents of the life of Tirthankara Pärsvanātha
(Fig. 34). 3. Pafcakalyāyaka scenes of Tirthankara Santinātha
and Tirthankara Neminātha. A circular depre
sssion in the centre. 4. A procession scene with figures of Gajarāja,
Atinandana, Vidyadhara, etc. In the centre of the ceiling are five sculptured niches, each cont. aining a figure of four-armed lalitäsana goddess carrying lotuses in the upper hands, and varadamudrä and fruit in the lower ones. They may
be identified with Lakşmi. 5. This ceiling is similar to the preceding one, but
here the central niche is replaced by a circular depression. Besides, one niche depicts Yakşa Mātanga (?) standing in tribhanga posture, in
stead of goddess Lakşmi. 6. Pañcakalyāņakas of Tirthankara Mahāvira; the
story of Candanabāla and her severe penance; Candakausika as a poisonous serpent and his being killed by ants; and some other events con
nected with the life of Mahāvira. 7. Pañcakalyanaka events of Tirthānkara Rşabha
deva. In the centre of the ceiling is a circular
depression. On one side of the depression are Kali, Vairotyä and Lakşmi, and on the other side are Gomukha, Ambikā and Yaksa Brahma. sänti, all having four arms and sitting in Lalitasana.
Starting from the southern end the seven ceilings in the east aisle show the following representations : 1. In one scene is seen an Acarya preaching in
front of the monks and the caturvidhasamgha. At the other place he is shown with sthapana in front. In another scene he is seated on a pedestal and a disciple is lying down in his front in the act of obeisance. The central space of the ceiling is occupied by six human-couples,
the male wearing a beard. 2. In square or rectangular boxes are shown cauri
bearers, elephants with drivers, musicians and human-couples, but in one instance we find an image of four-armed lalitasana goddess Sarasvati and in another, that of Lakşmi. The boxes are edged with lotus petals and are set up in border of diamonds and beads. At the four corners the border is interrupted by concavesided lozenges edged with beads. In each quarter of the lozenge is depicted a lotus flower. The figures in boxes are stationed on
pedestals carved with lotus stem. 3. In one panel are represented cauri-bearers.
female carrying water vessel, male standing with folded hands, female standing with one of her hands raised in adoration, and trumpeters. On one side of these are depicted three images of Lakşmi, each having four arms and sitting in lalita sana; while on the other we find a fourarmed lalita sana image of Ambika accompanied by Sarvänubhūti. Another panel depicts an Acārya preaching in front of the caturvidhasamgha; at the other place he is delivering religious discourse to the monks. In the centre of the ceiling are shown five human-couples, the male having a beard.
4-6. Figures in boxes (Fig. 35). They depict horse.
riders, elephants with drivers, pitcher-bearers, dancers and musicians. The fourth and fifth ceilings show, in addition, figures of cauri-bearers and seven male dancers in a circle.

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Faina Temples of Western India
7. In one panel are shown female carrying water ted by four-armed roll brackets. The five-faceted
pot, elephant, kāyotsarga Jina, and male with pilasters are similar to the pillars. Each bay confolded hands or carrying fly whisk. In another tains a ceiling made by cutting off the corners, panel is an Ācārya seated on a chair and a pupil comprising three tiers of nine slabs. The entral paying homage to him; another Acārya is slab in some ceilings depicts an open crude lotus depicted worshipping a sthapanā, in which act having two rows of petals. The architraves encloshe is followed by the monks and the caturvidha- ing the ceilings are divided into two fasciae and are samgha. In the centre of the ceiling are three plain, but for a crude lotus medallion carved in low human-couples and two images of four-armed relief in the centre of their underside and occasionlalitasana goddesses identifiable with Vajränkusi ally a kirttimukha in the centre of the lower fascia. and Mānavi.
The corridor in surmounted towards the rangaThe nave of the rangamandapa towards the north
mandapa by an overhanging corrugated eave-cornice is connected with balāņaka by three bays, each hav
and a kapota. Supported by the pierced round ing a ceiling resting on a square frame of architra
braces placed right above the corridor pillars ves. Of these the two side ceilings are uncarved and
there are squat pilasters carrying the architraves of belong to the samatala class, but the upper fascia the side aisle of the rangamandapa. These squat of the architraves is decorated with a strip of dia- pilasters are square at the base; then they change monds. The central ceiling, raised up by a square
into an octagonal and a round section; and finally frame of sur-architraves, is made by cutting off the they are crowned by a capital which is similar to corners, possessing three tiers of nine slabs. The
that seen in the corridor pillars. The sapces between central slab depicts a full-blown lotus flower having
these pilasters are filled with horizontal slabs detwo rows of petals. The architraves are divided corated with a band of rosette-marked diamonds into two fasciae, the lower showing creepers that and a bat
fasciae. the lower showing creepers that and a band of saw-tooth pattern, issue from the mouth of a kirttimukha represented
In front of the door of each devakulikā is a moonin the centre, and the upper the diamonds. The
stone which corresponds to that seen in the northern sur-architraves are divided into three horizontal
door of the güdhamandapa, with this difference that belts, the lower carrying ardhapadma pattern, the the decoration of diamonds on the talarūpaka is middle bearing diamonds alternating with lesenes
absent here. The door is of the single-fakha variety, on the north and south sides and lozenges in border
decorated with alternate rosette-marked diamonds of diamonds and beads on the east and west sides, and beads and flanked on the outer side by a strip and the upper showing saw-tooth pattern.
of lotus petals. On the lower part of the jamb Devakulikás :
stands a female carrying water pot in her upraised
hand, her other hand being in katyavalambita-pose. Arranged on the outer flank of the jagati, the
The udumbara shows in a square an inverted cresdevakulikās and the niches rest on a platform which has almost the same floor level as we find in case of
cent having foliage on both ends in the centre and
a small lotus medallion on its either side. The the sanctum and its two adjoining mandapas. They
uttaranga continues the decoration of the jamb and are approached from the targamandapa by a flight
depicts a padmasana Jina in dhyānamudrä on the of three steps cut all around the platform and are
lalata. confronted by a colonnaded corridor having one arcade of pillars. Each pair of two pillars and two The two devakulikās from the southern end, east pilasters (flanking the doors) form a square bay in wing, however, are ornate. Their door is of the front of each devakulika. The pillars are simple and dvitakha variety. It consists of a patrafakha decorated belong to the octagonal order. Their base consists of with foliate scrolls and flanked on the outer side by a khura, a kumbha decorated with half diamonds, and a band carved with lotus petals, and a fākha having a karnika; the shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen- the usual carving of diamonds and beads. The sided in the middle and circular on the top; and the udumbara shows rosette-marked diamonds on the capital has a short round bharani of padma surmoun- square central part as well as on the two sides.

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Description of Temples
117
The female pitcher-bearer is flanked on the outer disposed along the four sides of the square and side by a male standing with folded hands. The carries a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame uttaranga continues the decorative designs of the of architraves. The pillars are of the octagonal jambs and depicts an usual padmāsana Jina on the type. Their base consists of a khura, kumbha decoLalata. The shaft of the five-faceted pilasters rated with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatra, and Alanking the door carries a standing male figure kabota carved with caitya-arch ornament. The below and a kirttimukha-band above. Projecting shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the from the sixteen-sided section of the shaft of the middle and circular on the top, the last section octagonal pillars is a kicaka-bracket, which is being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing intact in one instance only.
chains that are fastened below by a band of dia
monds and beads. The capital consists of a doubleEach of the six niches stands on a moulded
course round bharani of karnikā and padma, surpedestal, which consists of a jād yakumbha, karnika, mounted by four or five-armed double-roll brackets. antarapatra and padma. On the pedestal are statio
The architraves, divided into two fasciae, are plain, ned two segmented circular pilasters joined by a but for a lotus medallion in the centre of their lintel. The niche is crowned by a ribbed eave- underside and a kirttimukha in the centre of the cornice and an udgama pediment.
lower fascia. The domical ceiling is composed of The devakulikās and the niches are dedicated to ten
ten circular courses. circular courses. T
The first is adorned with Tirthankaras, the images of whom have mostly
diamonds. The second is karnadardarika carved disappeared. Some of these images were brought with lotus petals. The remaining eight courses from Danta and installed during recent years. 74 consist of padmas, each incised with lotus petals. In some only pedestal and parikara now remain. The circular apical stone is relieved with an open Some of the pedestals bear inscriptions that are lotus flower having three rows of petals and sustai. dated later than the date of the temple. This ning a crude stamenal tube clasped by two rows of indicates that these images were subsequently kept petals. The four corners at the base of the dome there.
show each a bold kirttimukha set up in a border of
lotus scrolls. The grilles are pierced by different The exterior wall (Fig. 22) of each devakulika as
geometrical designs such as cross, square, diamond, well as niche shows five offsets. The devakulikās
svastika, four or eight-petalled flower, etc. The and the niches are separated from one another by balanaka is over-shadowed by a corrugated eaverecesses. Horizontally, they are divided into three
cornice. component parts, viz. vedibandha, jangha and vara
At present there is a stone slab representing the ndika. The vedibandha shows mouldings of khura,
Asvävabodha samalikāvihäratirtha. The panel origikumbha decorated with half diamonds, kalata, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with
nally belongs to the Neminātha temple at this site.
caitya-arch pattern. The junghā, divided into two registers by
Half of this panel may still be seen on the south
wall of the sanctum of the Neminātha temple. The a plain median band and also topped by a similar
panel is securely dated to 1281 A. D. by an inscriband, is plain. The varandika consists of an usual
ption engraved upon it. A similar panel may also kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice. The fifth devakulika from the southern end is surmounted by a fikhara
be seen in the Lūņavasahi at Abu.75 "The balanaka
also preserves a stone plaque representing the which is now plastered up with lime.
mothers of 24 Jinas. This panel appears to be Balāņaka
quite a late one. Bhandarkar suggests that the It is a square pillared mandapa partly jutting
balanaka is a modern work, 78 but it is so integrated
balanak out from the outer enclosing wall of the temple
that it seems to be a part and parcel of the original (Fig. 22). It rests on the same floor level as do temple. the devakulikās, and is enclosed towards the exterior Porches by a wall made up of perforated stone grilles set The northern porch is approached by a double between the pillars. It consists of twelve pillars flight of steps, each having five steps. The first

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Jaina Temples of Western India
leads from the ground to a platform on which it is is absent, and it is ascended by only one flight of perched, and the second, accommodated in the steps comprising nine treads. Besides, the antaraporch itself, leads to the balanaka. Square on plan patra of the pitha is wider and decorated with the porch rests on a moulded pitha, which consists diamonds; the base of the pillars and pilasters is of a bhitta, khura, kumbha decorated with half dia- made up of only a khura, kumbha decorated with half monds, kalaša, antarapatra, kapota adorned with diamonds, and kalata; the bharani is unfluted and caitya-arch device, and padma. On the pitha stand the brackets are carried by kicakas and kirttimukhas; two pillars and two pilasters supporting a ceiling the moonstone is absent, probably it has been remon a square frame of architraves. The pillars are oved during later times; the architraves carry lotus of the octagonal type and correspond to those seen medallions in the centre of their underside, each in the balayaka, but the kirttimukhas in the band having one row of petals and a pistil; the udumbara surmounting the shaft do not spew chains, and the shows stemmed lotus with geese on the central capital has a fluted bharaṇi and a four-armed projection, but the diamonds on its two sides are kicaka bracket. The five-faceted pilasters are absent; and the lalața depicts a four-armed lalitāsimilar to the pillars, but the kalasa of the base is sana image of Laksmi. replaced by a karņikā. The architraves are quite plain. The ceiling is made by cutting off the cor- The eastern porch, similar on plan to the other ners, comprising three tiers of nine stones. The porches, rests on a wide platform which fills up the central stone depicts an open lotus having two space between this temple and the Paravanatha rows of petals. The lotus is set up in a square temple situated beside it on the east. The pilasters bordered by lotus scrolls and having kirttimukhas at and ceiling are similar to those seen in the western the four corners. Tbe porch is shaded by an over- porch, but here the circular section of the shaft hanging corrugated eave-cornice. From each corner carries one more band of kirttimukhas, and the bracof the roof and supported by the eave-cornice emer- kets of the columns carry only kicakas. The door ges an elephant carved wholly in the round.
is of the trišakha type, consisting of patrašakha
carved with creepers, stambhasakha, and bähyafakha From the remains of an impost on one pillar decorated with lotus petals. The stambhafakha is and the slot left in the centre of the underside of
octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle the architrave it appears that originally there was
and circular on the top, the last section bearing a torașa-arch thrown between the pillars.
four decorative bands of scrolls, diamonds alternaThe door leading to the balanaka is of the ted by beads, beaded garlands, and kirttimukhas. single-Sākhā variety. It is decorated with foliate The stambhasākha is flanked on each side by a scrolls and is flanked on the outer side by a band bakulamala. The lower part of the fākhas is occuof lotus petals. At the base of the jamb stands a pied by a standing female figure with her hands female carrying water pot. The udumbara shows a hanging on the sides; she is accompanied on the semi-circular projection carved with stemmed lotus outer side by a female attendant and on the inner in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side side by another female carrying conch-shell. The of it, and rosette-marked diamonds on either extre- udumbara shows a semi-circular projection carved mity. The uttarariga continues the decoration of with stemmed lotus filled with geese in the centre the jamb and depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyāna- and a small lotus medallion on its either side. The mudrā on the lalaţa. In front of the door is a moon jambs are surmounted on the uttaranga proper by stone which consists of an ardhacandra tied on a round capital consisting of karpika and padma. The either end with Sarkha and gagäraka. Below the space between the capitals is filled with the creeperstairway can be seen a similar moonstone resting band carried over here from the patrafakha and a on the platform.
band of Maladharas, both being interrupted in the
centre by two hovering figures carrying a miniature The western porch is similar on plan and in shrine. The overdoor depicts a figure of padmasana design to the northern one, but here the platform Jina in dhyanamudra in the centre as well as on

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Description of Temples
either end, and the space in between them is filled with niched lalitisans goddesses alternating with images of kayotsarga Jinas. The execution of the entire door is crude. It stands apart from the other doors of the temple and appears to be added
later.
The corridor between the lateral doors of the gudhamandapa and the outer entrances is covered with samatala vitanas, and its roof towards the court or southern side has a corrugated eave-cornice. Two of the ceilings located near the eastern entrance are relieved with an open lotus flower having three rows of petals and a pistil. The flower is set up in a border of diamomds and beads and is flanked on the two sides by a foliate scroll-band. The other ceilings are uncarved. Near the western entrance is a stone slab depicting the mothers of 24 Tirthankaras. A similar panel has already been noticed in the balaṇaka.
Near the eastern entrance of the temple is laid out a small chapel with a samvaraṇā roof. It is entered from all the four sides, but the eastern entrance has been closed now. The southern entrance is approached through a porch which has similar pillars, pilasters and ceiling as are noticed in the western porch. In fornt of the door is a moonstone which is similar to that seen in the devakulikäs. The doors are like that found in the
northern porch, but the jamb here is also flanked by a band of diamonds and beads, and the lalața bimba depicts an image of Cakreśvari. The samva rana is composed of seven successive tiers of kitas and is surmounted on the top by a fluted bell with kalata and bijapuraka. At the base of the samvarana, in each cardinal point, is a double-course udgama pediment. Inside the chapel is a solid structure in yellow marble of Samavasarana scene. Circular in shape and consisting of three fortifications shown one above the other, it rests on a moulded pedestal and is surmounted by a quadruple (the images of Jinas having disappeared) placed under a miniat ure shrine. Outside the eastern enternace of this chapel is a beautiful loose torana bearing an inscription of 1166 A. D.
There are some modern cells built against the western wall of the prakara. These are now used as godown,

119
SANTINĀTHA TEMPLE
Situated to the north of the Mahavira temple, the temple of Santinatha is a complete Caturviṁsati Jinalaya. The plan and the general arrangement of this temple are similar to the Mahavira temple, but here the balaṇaka is absent, and the niches on the front of the rangamandapa are eight in number and they are screened by a double arcade of pillars. Mūlaprāsāda
It is tryanga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the bhadra being the longest and the pratiratha the shortest. The pitha consists of a bhiṭṭa, jaḍyakumbha, karnika and paṭṭikā. The vedibandha comprises khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch ornament. The jangha, divided into two registers by a plain band and also surmounted by a similar band, is plain, except for sculptured niches containing images of dhyanamudra on the bhadras. padmasana Jinas in The varaṇḍikā consists of two kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice. The mandovara has considerably suffered from restoration and the bhadra niches containing Jinas are all modern.
There is a praṇāla pierced into the khura on the east side, but the pranala member has disappeared.
The fikhara (Figs. 36-37), rising from a prahāra made up of a recessed fillet and a padma, reveals a tryanga malamanjari marked by seven bhumi-ōmalakas, an uromañjarī and a rathika along each bhadra, one triga over each pratiratha, and two Srigas (one big and one small) over each karna. The angas of the mulamanjari terminate at the skandha which is indicated by a plain band, but the bhadras extend to the griva which is crowned by a large amalaka clasped by fillet, a candrika, a smaller amalaka, a kalasa and a bijapuraka. The dhvajapatākā is modern but the dhvajadhara seems to be old. The uromajaris are but the replica of the mūlamañjarī, but they are divided only into five stages of bhūmiamalakas. The frigas are also similar to the mulamanjari, but they are marked by five bhimi-amalakas and bear only one amalaka as their crowning member. Between the frigas are placed gajamundas. The entire Sikhara is covered by a fret-work of complicated caitya-arch pattern. The rathikās, Blanked on each side by an incipient balcony model

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Jaina Temples of Western India
and surmounted by an udgama, contain images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses accompanied on either side by a male cauri-bearer. The goddess in the eastern rathika is Cakreśvari, while that in the eastern rathika is Ambika. The objects held by the goddess in the southern rathika are mutilated, and hence she could not be identified. The northern rathika is empty.
The door of the sanctum has a moonstone in its front, which consists of an ardhacandra tied at both ends with gagaraka, fankha and lotus stem. The single-fakha doorframe consists of patrasakha bearing incision of creepers and surrounded by a strip of lotus petals and a band of diamonds and beads. At the lower part of the jambs stand the river goddesses, Ganga on proper right and Yamuna on proper left, both carrying a water jar. This is a rare representation in the Jaina temples of Gujarat. The udumbara shows a square projection depicting stemmed lotus in an inverted crescent in the centre, a female carrying water pot and a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it, and two females with one of their hands raised in adoration on either extre
mity. The uttaranga continues the decoration of the Sakha and depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyāna
mudra on the lalata.
Inside the sanctum is installed an image of Santinatha sitting in dhyanamudra on a short pedes tal supported by another high pedestal. The image, carved in the round, appears to be a late one, and the short pedestal seems to be originally placed in the Mahavira temple and brought here by mistake during repairs of the temple. This is apparently known from an inscription of V. S. 13-4 engraved upon the pedestal, which attributes it to the temple of Mahavira, 77 The high pedestal showing mouldings of bhiṭṭa, jad yakumbha, dado, padma and fillet appears to be original.
Gudhamanḍapa
Articulated at the frontal karṇa of the mulaprāsada it is duyanga on plan, comprising bhadra and karna. It shares its pitha and mandovara with the mülaprāsāda, and has a samvaraṇā roof studed with six rows of bells and surmounted on top by a large bell with kalasa and bijapuraka. All the bells are unfluted, and their workmanship is very poor.

Square on plan each of the lateral porches is landed up by a flight of three steps. The western porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters supporting a ceiling on a square frame of architraves. The pillars are of the octagonal type. Their base is composed of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, and kalafa; the shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top; and the capital has a doublecourse round bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by four-armed brackets carried by kīcakas. The five-faceted pilasters are similar to the pillars, but the bharani shows only the padma and the brackets are of the roll type. Made by cutting off the corners the ceiling consists of three tiers of nine slabs, the central slab being relieved with an open lotus comprising two rows of petals, a circle filled with twine pattern, and a pistil. The architraves are plain. The roof, now plastered up, has a corrugated cave-cornice overhanging the architraves. The single-fakha door is decorated with foliate scrolls and is flanked on the outer side by a band of lotus petals. On the lower part of the jamb stands a female carrying water pot. The udumbara shows a round projection carved with stemmed lotus filled with geese in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha
on each side of it, and diamonds on either extremity. The uttaranga continues the decorations of the fäkha and depicts a two-armed lalitäsana male figure playing vina on the lalata. In front of the door is a moonstone consisting of an ardhacandra. tied at both ends with gagāraka, sankha and lotus
stem.
The eastern porch is similar to the western one, but here the brackets of the pilasters carry kicakas, the circular section of the pillar-shaft has a projecting bracket shaped into an elephant facing to wards inner side, and the lalaṭabimba depicts a flute-player.
The northern door is ornate. It is of the duiśākha variety. The inner fakha carries lotus scrolls punctuated with elephant, goose, dancer, etc., and is flanked on the outer side by a band of lotus petals and a band of diamonds and beads. The outer fakha is decorated with creepers. At the base of the fakhas stands a female carrying water pot; she is flanked on the outer side by a male figure,

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The udumbara is divided into two registers, the lower being plain and the upper showing a band lower showing mouldings of khura, jād yakumbha and of diamonds and beads-, a minor karnika, fillet, karņika, and the upper a semi-circular projection jadyakumbha, kurnikā, antarapatra decorated with carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a projec- diamonds, chadyaki teeming with caitya-arch pattern, ting kiritimukha on each side of it, and a sculptur- and grāsapatti. The front (northern face) of the ed niche on either extremity. The niches depict a pitha, however, is treated like an ornamental balusfour-armed lalitasana image of Sarvănubhūti on trade (Fig. 39). It consists of a bhitta, a rājasenaka proper right and of Ambikā on proper left, both decorated with diamond-and-double volute pattern, being accompanied on the inner side by a female a vedikä and an asanapatta. The vedika is divided incaur7-bearer and a flute-player. The uttaranga to upright posts alternating with depressed vertical continues the decorative bands of the sākhās and slabs. Below, the posts are plain, while above, they depicts a padmasana Jina in dhyanamudra on the show a kirttimukha, goose, dancer, lion or creeper lalāļa. Above the uttaranga is a relief panel con- in roundel, a ghatapallava, and volute pattern. The taining eight auspicious Jaina symbols called asta- slabs show foliate scrolls, lotus scrolls or creepers. marigalaka. The astamangalaka is a rare depiction The dvichadya asanabatta with a bell rooflet projects in the Taina temples of our period. In front of the boldly over each post, and it recedes with a kirttidoor is a moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra mukha over each slab. The balustrade on each side tied at both ends with gagāraka, farkha and lotus of the staircase carries two projecting sculptured stem and flanked in turn by a talarūpaka.
niches on the vedikā. Each niche is surmounted on
the asanapata proper by an udgama; and below it The interior of the gūdhamandapa is square and
on the rājasenaka is another smaller udgama flanked shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pilasters,
by two elephants carrying male pitcher-bearers on supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame
their back. The niches contain images of fourof architraves. The base of the pilasters consists of a
armed lalitāsana gods and goddesses. The two bhitta and a kumuda; their shaft is square at the
niches on proper right shelter Sarvänubhati and base, octagonal in the middle and circular on the
Acchupta, but the objects held by the god and the top; and their capital has a short round bharani of
goddess on proper left are mutilated, and hence padma, surmounted by roll-brackets. The archi
their identification could not be possible. traves are plain. The domical ceiling, commenced from each pilaster by a square block inset with
The mukhamandapa consists of ten ornate pillars, rosette-marked diamond, is composed of six circu
eight running east-west in two lines of four each, lar courses. The first four are padmas, each orna
and one each placed in the southeast and southmented with lotus petals and surmounted by a band
west corners. Besides, there are two ornamental of diamonds and beads. The fifth is an eight-foil
pilasters flanking the gadhamandapa door and dis. kola carrying kirttimukhas on the triangular spaces.
posed in alignment with the corner pillars. The The sixth is a quatrefoil kola, also carrying kirtti
four pillars in the front row are of the square order mukhas on the triangular spaces. The dome is
with corners chamfered into three angles. Their closed up by a circular kola. The four corners at
base consists of a khura, kumbha carrying images the base of the dome are plain.
of four-armed lalitäsana goddesses in niches, kalasa,
antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch Mukhamandapa
pattern. The shaft has four sections, viz. square, Rectangular on plan it is divided into six bays octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular. The square and is landed up from the rangamandapa by a flight section is the longest one, the circular is next in of five steps cut into the central bay towards the length, and the sixteen-sided is the shortest one. Tangamandapa (Fig. 38). Below the stair is a moon- The square section of the shaft carries framed stone of the same kind as we find in the northern figures of four-armed standing Vidyādevis on the door of the gadhamand apa. The pitha on the two four faces. The octagonal section bears eight lateral sides carries mouldings of two bhittas-the figures of four-armed lalitasana goddesses. The
16

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Faina Temples of Western India
sixteen-sided section has sixteen figures of four- hala, Kali and Prajñapti. The shaft is surmounted armed lalita sana goddesses on the two central pillars by a ghatapallava. and a band of Gandharvas on the extreme ones.
The architraves running across the columns are diThe circular section is divided into two halves, the
vided into two fasciae. The lower fascia displays lotus lower showing four projecting pendants and deco
scrolls punctuated with geese and issuing from the rations of chain-and-bells alternating with tassels, and the upper bearing a band of kirttimukhas
mouth of a kirttimukha represented in the middle. emitting chains that are clasped below by a band
The upper one is decorated with diamonds. In the of rosette-marked diamonds and beads. The capi
centre of the underside of the architrave is carved in
low relief a lotus medallion comprising two rows tal has a double-course round bharani of karnikā and
of petals. From the slots left in the centre of the padma, surmounted by four or five-armed double
medallions of the architraves placed across the roll brackets, the side face of each bracket of which
front row of pillars it appears that originally there is carved with creepers.
were toraņa-arches thrown between the pillars. The remaining six pillars are of the octagonal
Each bay contains an ornate ceiling. The ceilitype. Their base and capital carry similar moul
ngs in the south west and southeast corners are dings and decorative elements as are noticed in the
alike. Square on plan it is a small domical ceiling square pillars, with this difference that the kumbha
consisting of four circular courses and a short padmaof the base shows half diamonds on each of its
fila. The first course represents kirttimukhas on the eight facets. The shaft is octagonal at the base, inner face and a Kinnara-couple with creepers sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top.
issuing form their navel at each corner on The circular section displays four projecting
the underside. The second is karņadardarika. The lambanas below and is surmounted above by a band
third and fourth consist of an eight-foil larger kola of kirttimukhas spewing chains that are clasped
and an eight-foil smaller kola respectively, having below by a band of rosette-marked diamonds and
kirttimukhas on their triangular spaces. The padmabeads. The two pillars near the gūdhamandapa door
Sila consists of a reverse gajatalu, an eight-pointed carry two additional belts above the sixteen-sided
quatrefoil kola and a stamenal tube clasped by two section. The lower of these belts shows eight
rows of petals. The ceiling is raised up by a square figures of four-armed lalitasana goddesses, and the
frame of four rectangular slabs. The slabs are upper has four or eight figures of four-armed
divided into two horizontal belts, the lower showlalita sana Sarvānubhūti, but the lambanas in one
ing balcony medels and the upper bearing ardhapinstance are conspicuous by their absence.
adma enrichment in pearl festoons, with pair of
geese flanking the loops. The five-faceted pilasters have similar base and 6 capital as we find in case of the square pillars, but the ceilings in the northeast and northwest corhere the antarapatra and the kapota of the base ners are also similar to each other. Rectangular are absent and the side face of the brackets bears a on plan each ceiling consists of three circular Kinnara. Below, the shaft is occupied by a framed courses and a circular padmašila. The inner face figure of four-armed standing goddess accompanied of the first course is decorated with intersecting on each side by a female cauri-bearer and a female garland loops, while its underside represents two carrying water pot. The goddesses on proper elephants lustrating a lotus plant at each corner right and left are identifiable with Acchupta and and five warriors occupying the spaces between Vairotyā respectively. Above, the shaft displays them on the two shorter sides. The second is three successive niches containing images of four- karnadardarikā. The third is gajatālu surmounted armed talitasana goddesses, each being attended by a band of diamonds and beads. The padmašila upon either side by two female cauri-bearers. The begins with a reverse gajatalu; then it is occupied goddesses on proper right are identifiable with by an eight-foil pointed kola; and finally comes a Mahäkāli, Vajränkusi and Mahămānasi, and those reverse gajatālu sustaining a stamenal tube clasped on proper left may be identified with Vajraspnk- by four rows of petals. The stemenal tube in one

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123
ceiling has disappeared. The ceiling is raised up anging ribbed eave-cornice, the intrados of which by a rectanglar frame of sur-architraves decorated depicts three lotus medallions, each comprising with lotus scrolls carrying figures of human-couple, two rows of petals and enclosed in a square bordKinnara-couple, Gandharva, elephant, makara, pairered by diamonds and beads. Both the khattakas of geese, and man seated on makara.
are now empty The ceiling just above the stairway is square on
Rasgamandapa plan. It is an utkşipta ceiling of the mandāraka It consists of eight ornate pillars disposed along order (Fig. 40). It consists of three circular courses the three sides of the square central nave (Fig. 41), and a large pendant or padmašila. The inner face while its fourth side (rear side) is shared by the of the first course is decorated with cam paka flowers, mukhamandapa. Six of these pillars, namely two while its underside on the four corners carries central pillars on each side, along with the middle images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses identifi- pair of pillars of the mukhamaydapa, form an octaable with Rohini, Sarasvati, Gakreśvari and gon and support the domical ceiling on an octagVairotyā,78 each flanked on either side by a onal frame of architraves. Two central pillars on Kinnar. The second is karnadardarikā. The third the north are of the square variety and correspond is decorated with geese. The padmašila consists of to the square pillars of the mukhamandapa, but here four courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil, six-foil and the shaft carries a band of lotus scrolls, punctuated quatrefoil pointed kolas, and a flower bud appearing with geese, above the sixteen-sided section. Besides, on its tip. The first of these courses is set up in the framed figures at the base of the shaft depict normal gajatālu, while the others are edged with two or four-armed male dancers and musicians, reverse gajatalus. The ceiling is raised up by a and the sixteen-sided section is plain. The remasquare frame of sur-architraves inset with project- ining six pillars are of the octagonal type and ing sculptured niches alternated by recesses. The correspond to the octagonal pillars of the mukhamaniches contain figures of female dancers and musi- adapa, but here the lambanas on the round section cians, while the recesses depict male dancers and of the shaft are conspicuous by their absence and musicians.
the side faces of the brackets are plain. The ceiling near the gūdhamandapa door is simi- All the rangamandapa pillars have four-armed lar in structure and ornamentation to the preced- brackets, and to give an additional height to the ing one, but it is shorter and slightly rectangular on roof they are provided with uccalakas. The uccplan and shows on the underside of the first course alakas have a square base. Their shaft consists of four images of four-armed lalitasana dikpalas, viz. a short octagonal section and a long circular sectAgni, Kubera, Yama and Nirrti, on the four corners. tion, the latter being surmounted by a band of and a frieze representing Maladharas, musicians kiritimukhas spewing chains that are clasped below and dancers in the spaces between them on the two by a band of diamons and beads. Their capital shorter sides.
consists of a double-course round bharani of karnika
and padma, surmounted by four-armed double-roll There are two ornamented khattakas flanking the door of the gūdhamandapa. Each of them stands
The architraves supporting the dome are simion a pancaratha pedestal decorated with mouldings
lar to those seen in the mukhamandapa, with this of bhitta, jadyakumbha, karnika, antarapatra adorned
difference that here the lower fascia shows creepers. with diamonds, and kapota embellished with caitya
But the architraves enclosing the four corners at the arch ornament, and is crowned by a bell roof with rathika on front containing an image of four-armed
base of the dome are plain, but for a kirttimukha carlalitāsana goddess Vajränkusi accompained on each
ved in the centre of the lower belt and a lotus meda
llion represented in the centre of their underside. side by a female pitcher-bearer. On the pedestal of each khattaka are placed two ornate pillaretes There is a beautiful torama-arch (Fig. 42) joined on the top by a lintel supporting an overh- between the central pair of pillars on the west side.

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pers. In order to maintain the circularity of the dome there are formed projections on the north and south, the soffit of which is elegantly carved with winding creepers.
Belonging to the cusp-tilaka variety it springs from the side brackets of the lower capital and meets in in the centre of the underside of the architrave. Each cusp of the arch issues from the mouth of a makara and ends in a tilaka. The cusps are bedecked with figures of Gandharvas, while the lilakas are inset with images of four-armed Lalitasana goddesses. The underside of the cusps is decorated with lotus stalks and bakulamala, and their upper surface displays a line of geese and Mäladharas at intervals. From the slots left in the centre of the underside of the architrave it appears that origin. ally the torana.arches were also thrown between the central pair of pillars on the east and west sides.
As is noticed in the Mahavira temple, each of the side aisles of the rangamand apa is covered by seven samatala ceilings, each supported on a rectangular frame of architraves placed over the pillars. The architraves, divided into two fasciae, are plain, but for a kiritimukha appearing in the centre of the lower fascia and a lotus medallion carved in low relief in the centre of their underside, Barring the uncarved southernmost ceiling in each aisle, all the ceilings are relieved with various narratives selected from Jaina mythology, figures in boxes, and images of gods and goddesses.
Beginning from the southern end the six ceilings in the west aisle represent the following scenes : 1. Twenty-four male figures sitting in latita sana.
The legends engraved upon them include the names of Sudarsana, Sanatkumāra, Draviďarāja, etc.
2. Pancakalyanakas and other episodes of Tirthan
kara Neminātha. A large circular depression in the centre.
3. Samavasarana and other incidents of some un
identified Jina (Fig. 45).
Each of the eight square blocks introducing the dome is inset with an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied by two female attendants, one on each side. The domical ceiling (Fig. 43) belonging to the sabhämandāraka variety consists of eight circular courses and a circular padmašila. The first depicts images of four-armed lalitāsana goddesses in projecting niches and rosette-marked diamonds in alternate recesses. The second is karnadardarikā surmounted by a band of diamonds. The third is decorated with rosette-marked diamonds. The fourth is gujatālu surmounted by a band of diamonds and beads. The fifth and the sixth consist of twenty-eight-foil and twenty-four- foil kolas respectively. The seventh has twenty whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. The eighth com. prises sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. The kolas in all the four courses bear figures of Vidyadharas on the points. From the third and fourth courses project out sixteen bracket figures of four. armed Vidyadharas holding lotuses, musical instruments and pitchers. Each of these brackets supports a square block inset with an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied on each side by a female attendant. The padmašila displays three courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil and quatre- foil kolas with reverse gajatālus in between. In the quatrefoil kola, edged with leaves, is inserted a long stamenal tube clasped by a band of dancers and musicians and carrying an unblossomed part on its tip. At each corner of the dome is a large kirttimukha shown in high relief in a border of cree
4. Paficakalyanakas and other anecdotes related to
the life of Tirthankara Mahāvira. The Säsandevatās of Mahāvira, Mātanga and Siddhāyikā, are also represented.
5. Pafcakalyānakas of Tirthankara Santina tha.
Megharatha is depicted as weighing his body against the pegion for saving the latter's life.
6. Pancakalyanakas of Tirthankara Adinātha. The
fight between Bharata and Bahubali, the sons of Adinātha. In the centre of the ceiling are carved in high relief two large, four-armed, lalitasana images of Gomukha and Cakresvari, the Sāsanadevatās of Adinātha. Gomukha is attended upon either side by a bull-faced male cauri-bearer, while Cakreśvari is accompanied on each side by a female cauri bearer.

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Commencing from the southern end the six Devakulika ceilings in the east aisle depict the following
The pillars of the devakulikās are of the octagoscenes :
nal variety. Their base consists of a khura, a kumbha 1. Pancakalyānakas of Tirthankara Pärsvanatha.
decorated with half diamonds, and a karnika. The Parents of twenty-four Tirthankaras.
shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the 2. This ceiling is divided into three panels. The middle and circular on the top. The capital has
side ones are rectangular, representing female a short round bharani of padma, surmounted by figures carrying fly-whisk, pitcher, or hands just four-armed roll-brackets. The five-faceted pilasters raised in adoration. The central panel is square correspond to the pillars, but the capital at some and is divided into three concentric circles. The places carries kicaka brackets. Two of the pillars outer circle betrays a sixteen-petalled lotus near the northern entrance also carry kicaka flower occupied by a complete set of sixteen brackets, and their shaft is surmounted by a kirttifigures of four-armed lalitasana Vidyadevis (fig. mukha-band. Each bay of the corridor contains a 44); the middle circle contains male figures ceiling made by cutting off the corners. Each ceiling carrying water pot; and the central circle depicts is made up of three tiers of nine stones, the central a saparikara image of Tirthankara Pārsvanatha stone being relieved with a full-blown lotus flower sitting in padmāsana with hands held in dhya- consisting of two rows of petals and a central small namudra. The Tirthankara image is displayed circle marked with twine pattern. Occasionally the against the background of a full-blown lotus lotus is set up in a square bordered by lotus flower with incurved petals alternating with scrolls. The architraves supporting the ceilings are buds. At each corner of the square are two plain. elephants facing each other.
The corridor is surmounted towards the ranga3. This ceiling shows three rectangular panels mandaba by an overhanging corrugated eave-cornice
disposed one within the other. The outer panel and a kabota. Supported by the kapota and the contains male figures making dance or carrying
pierced round braces placed right above the water pot, or hands just raised in adoration or
corridor pillars are squat pilasters supporting the held in añjalimudra. The middle panel depicts ceilings of the aisles of the rangamand apa. These an Ācārya preaching in front of the caturvidha
squat pilasters have a square base; their shaft is sangha; at another place he is delivering religi
octagonal below and circular above; and their ous injunctions to the monks and Srāvakas. The
capitals are similar to those seen in the corridor central panel has four human-couples, the male
pillars. The space between these pilasters is filled wearing a beard.
with horizontal slabs adorned with a band of 4. Male dancer, musician, cauri-bearer, Mālā rosette-marked diamonds and a band of saw-tooth dhara, pitcher-bearer and elephant in boxes.
pattern. In the centre of the ceiling are two small
The doorframe of the devakulikās is of the singleimages of four-armed lalitasana Gomukha and Sarasvati.
Sakha variety decorated with scrolls or a band of 5. It is similar to No. 3, but here is found only one
diamonds and beads. The Sakha in each case is Ācārya, and the two of the human-couples are
flanked on the outer side by a strip of lotus petals. replaced by lalitäsana goddesses.
On the lower part of the fakhā stands a female
carrying water jar; she is accompanied on the outer 6. In boxes are represented elephants with drivers,
side by a male standing with folded hands. The horse-riders, male dancers and musicians, and
udumbara shows in a square an inverted crescent males carrying pitcher or hands just raised in
having foliage on both ends in the centre and a adoration.
small lotus medallion on its each side. The uttaranga On the north, the space between the nave and continues the decorations of the fakha but is interthe corridor is covered by three uncarved samatala rupted in the centre by the lalátabimba which ceilings.
depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra. In front

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of the door of each devakulika is a moonstone which goddesses, Yamuna on proper right and Ganga on consists of an ardhacandra tied at both ends with proper left, both bearing a water pot. The udumgagaraka and Janikha.
bara has a semi-circular projection, now damaged, Each of the eight niches stands on a moulded
in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side
of it, and diamonds on either extremity. The pedestal which consists of a khura, kumbha decorated
uttaranga continued the decorations of the sakha and with half diamonds, antarapatra and padma. Its
depicts a padmasana Jina in dhyānamudrā on the wall on the front shows two segmented circular
lalata. In front of the door is a moonstone which pilasters joined above by a lintel. It is surmoun
consists of an ardhacandra tied at both ends with ted by a ribbed eave-cornice and an udgama.
gagäraka and Sankha. A similar moonstone is also The devakulikās and the niches are dedicated to found below the stair resting on the platform. Tirthankaras, the images of whom are mostly gone. The roof of the porch, now plastered up, is shaded All these images were installed not at one time but by a corrugated eave-cornice. from time to time, as the inscriptions engraved
The eastern porch is completely gone and its upon their pedestals vary in dates.
doorway closed now. Its door frame is similar to that A niche of recent date is also built towards the seen in the northern porch, but the well preserved southern end of the corridor.
central projection of the doorsill here is carved
with stemmed lotus, and instead of river goddesses The exterior walls of the devakulikās and the
here are female pitcher-bearers on the lower por niches are similar to those found in the Mahavira
tion of the jamb. temple.
The western porch is similar on plan and design Porches
to the northern one, but it differs in matter of The northern porch is approached from the details. After an ascent of four steps is reached a ground by a double flight of steps, each comprising wide platform whence a flight of six steps, accomfive steps. The first flight leads to a platform on modated in the porch itself, leads to the door. The which stands the porch, and the second accommo- moulded pedestal evinces the same set of mouldings dated in the porch itself leads to the door. Square upto the antarapatra, but above that it has a kapota, on plan the porch rests on a moulded pedestal a fillet carved with diamonds, and a grāsapatti. which consists of a bhitta, khura, kumbha decorated The pillars and pilasters are of the same type, but with half diamonds, kalata, antarapatra and padma, their base shows only a kumbha decorated with half On the pedestal stand two pillars and two pilasters diamonds, and a kalaš a; the circular section of the supporting an uncarved samatala ceiling on a square shaft is surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas frame of plain architraves. The pillars are of the spewing chains that are secured below by a band octagonal variety. Their base consists of a khura. of diamonds and beads; and the capital displays a kumbha adorned with half diamonds, kalasa, antara- short round bharani of padma, topped by roll bracpatra, and kapota enriched with caitya-arch ornament. kets. The outer face of the architraves is plain, The shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in while their inner face shows two horizontal decothe middle, and circular on the top, the last section rative bands, the lower displaying lotus scrolls being surmounted by a körttimukha-band. The which emerge from the mouth of a kirttimukha capital has a double-course round bharani of karnika depicted in the centre, and the upper representing a and padma, surmounted by four-armed brackets strip of diamonds. In the centre of the underside of carried by kicakas. The five-faceted pilasters are the architraves is represented in low relief a lotus similar to the pillars, but the antarapatra and the medallion having two rows of petals. The ceiling kapota are absent in the base, and the shaft is plain. is domical consisting of four courses, the first being The single-fākha door is decorated with foliate octagonal and the rest, circular. The inner face of scrolls and is surrounded by a band of lotus petals. the octagonal course depicts ardha padma enrichment On the lower part of the Sakha stand the river in beaded demi-circles, while its underside at each

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Description of Temples
corner is carved with a kirttimukha. The next three courses are padma, each showing incision of lotus petals. The circular slab covering up the dome depicts a full-blown lotus flower comprising two rows of petals The soffit of the corrugated eavecornice shading the porch is adorned with a band of diamonds and beads. The moonstone in front of the door consists of an ardhacandra tied at both ends with gagaraka, fankha and lotus stem, and flanked in turn by a talarupaka. The doorframe is similar to that observed in the eastern porch, with this difference that here the lalata has a four-armed lalitasana image of Laksmi.
In the southeast corner of the court is an independent chapel sheltering a four-faced Aṣṭāpada mount placed on a pañcaratha high pedestal. The chapel has entrances on all the four sides, those on the east and west being entered through a porch. The pedestal carries a series of six mouldings, viz. two bhittas, a jaḍyakumbha, a karṇikā, an antarapatra carved with diamonds, and a kapota. The corners of the pedestal are chamfered so much so that they give almost a diagonal effect. Horizontally, the mount is divided into five zones. The first has a fortified wall with the gateway guarded by two Pratihāras in each cardinal point. The second shows on each of the four faces three images of Jinas in the centre and two figures of Śravakas or Śrävikä and cauri-bearer on each side. The third is similar to the preceding one, but it displays a row of Śravakas below, the usual Śravakas are conspicuous by their absence. The fourth displays three piles of mountains arranged one above the other. The fifth has a square block with a quadruple of Jina seated in dhyanamudra; he is attended upon either side by a cauri-bearer. Fortunately, it bears an inscription of V. S. 1266 (1209 A. D.). Near the western entrance is a modern room for godown.
PĀRSVANATHA TEMPLE
The temple of Parsvanatha is slightly larger than the temples of Mahavira and Santinatha. On plan it closely follows the Mahavira temple, but in place of balaṇaka it has a nalamaṇḍapa built over a porch and a stairway leading from the latter to the rangamandapa. Besides, it has nine deva

127
kulikäs on each of the lateral sides; the six niches on the front are converted into devakulikās; and the lateral entrance is to be found only on the west. Bhandarkar has suggested that an entrance also existed on the east, 79 but now no trace of the door is found there.
Mulaprāsāda
It is tryanga on plan, consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the bhadra being the longest and the pratiratha the shortest.
The pitha of the sanctum consists of a bhitṭṭa, jad yakumbha, karnika and paṭṭikā. The vedibandha is composed of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, kalasa, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch device. The jangha, divided into two registers by a plain fillet and also topped by a similar fillet, is plain, except for projecting sculptured niches on the bhadras. The niches are surmounted by very short udgamas and are empty now. The varandika has an usual kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice, the soffit of which is decorated with a band of diamonds and beads. The entire wall has considerably suffered from restoration.
The whole of the fikhara is a modern erection.
The door of the sanctum is of the duifakha
variety, consisting of a patrasakha decorated with foliate scrolls and a fakha carved with rosette-marked diamonds and beads. Each fakha is flanked on the outer side by a strip of lotus petals. The udumbara shows a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it, and rosette-marked diamonds on either extremity. The uttaranga continues the decorative bands of the jambs but is interrupted in the centre by the lalatabimba which represents a padmasana Jina in dhyanamadrā,
Inside the sanctum is installed a saparikara image of Parsvanatha seated in dhyanamudra on a moulded pedestal. The image is a late one; this is indicated by an inscription of V.S.16.. carved upon its cushion. The moulded pedestal, however, seems to be old. It carries mouldings of bhiṭṭa, jādyakumbha, karṇikā, antarapatra and fillet,

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Faina Temples of Western India
Gúdhamandapa
and a row of Mālädharas facing the lalatabimba Articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum which represents Yakşi Padmavati sitting in lalitāit is dvyanga on plan and shares its pitha and mand- sana and holding vajta and bell in the two upper ovara with the sanctum. The superstructure is now hands and pitcher in the two lower ones. The upper plastered up. It has entrances on the north and one displays five images of four-armed lalitasana the west. The western entrance is led through goddesses in projecting niches and figures of dana porch which rests on two pillars and two pilasters cers and musicians in alternate recesses. The godand which is approached from the court by a flight desses from left to right may be identified with of four steps.
Naradattā, Vajränkusi, Vairotyä, Rohiņi and
Mahaivāla. The niches are surmounted by udgamas The western door is of the single-fakha variety,
and the recesses are topped by kirttimukhas. The decorated with foliate scrolls. On the lower part of
overdoor depicts fourteen objects of dream seen by the Sakha stands a female carrying water vessel. The
the Jina mother during conception. In front of udumbara is damaged and the moonstone removed the door is a moonstone which consists of an ardha. now. The uttaranga continues the decoration of the
candra tied on either end with gagäraka, Sarikha and fakha and depicts an image of lalitasana goddess on lotus stem, and flanked in turn by a talarípaka the lalața.
bearing decoration of diamonds on the front face. The northern door is very ornate (Fig. 46). It The interior of the gūdhamandapa is square. Its is of the pañcafākha variety, consisting of patrafākhā wall is reinforced by eight pilasters, wbich support adorned with lotus scrolls, räpasākha, rūpastambha, a carved domical ceiling of the sabhāmārga type rūbatakha. and bāhyafakha decorated with a band on an octagonal frame of architraves. The pilastof diamonds and beads. Below, the fathas carry a ers have a square base displaying mouldings of framed figure of four-armed standing goddess khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, and flanked on each side by a female cauri-bearer; a kalaša; their shaft is square at the base, octagonal female carrying water pot also stands towards the in the middle and circular on the top; and their opening. The goddess on proper right is Acchuptă, capital has a short round bharași of padma, surmowhile that on proper left is Vairotyä. Above, the unted by roll brackets. The architraves are plain, Tāpastambha carries three successive niches, each but for a lotus medallion in the centre of their containing a figure of four-armed lalitäsana goddess, underside. A square block from each pilaster, while the rupasākhās bear figures of female attenda- carved with diamonds, introduces the dome which nts, two flanking each goddess. The images of god- is composed of seven circular courses. The first is desses are badly damaged. The udumbara is divided karşadardarika incised with lotus petals. The second into two registers. The lower register shows mould- is decorated with rosette-marked dimonds. The dings of khura, jad yakumbha, karnika and a narrow third, fourth and fifth are gajatalus. The sixth grāsapatti. The upper one has a semi-circular pro- consists of an eight-foil kola bearing figures of jecction carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, Nägas on the points. The seventh is a quatrefoil a projecting kiritimukha on each side of it, and a kola. The apical stone covering the dome is marsculptured niche on either extremity. Each niche ked with a circular kola. From the second course contains an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess project out seven bracket (originally eight) figures flanked by a female attendant on the outer side of four-armed Vidyadharas. The four corners at and by a female and a male attendant on the inner the base of the dome are uncarved. There are side. The niche figures are sadly damaged. The utta- two large saparikara images of kāyotsarga Jinas ranga is also divided into two registers. The lower placed against its south wall. The image on proregister displays a ghatapallava capital with two re- per right is of Ajitanätha, and that on proper left cessed angles topping the jambs on either extre- is of Śäntinātha (Fig. 47), both inscribed in V. S. mity, and the space in between them is filled with 1176 (1119 A. D.). An image of Pärávanātha the lotus scroll band carried up from the patrafakha seated in dhyānamudrā on a moulded pedestal is also
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placed against the east wall. This image seems to avi appearing on the one piliar, and Sarasvati ), be subsequently installed there.
Rohiņi, Vairotyä and Cakreśvari on the other).
The octagonal section bears eight figures of fourMukhamandapa
armed lalitāsana goddesses. The sixteen-sided porThe mukhamandaba, divided into four bays, is tion is inset with sixteen figures of four-armed similar on plan and design to that seen in the lalitāsana goddesses. The circular section is divided Mabävira temple. It is landed up from the ranga. into two belts, the lower carrying four projecting mandaba by a flight of five steps cut in the central lambanas and decorations of chain-and-bells alterprojecting bay. Below the stairway is a moonstone nating with tassels, and the upper being surmounof the similar kind as we find in front of the nor- ted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which thern door of the gadhamandapa. The pitha consists are secured below by a band of diamonds and of two bhittas-the lower being plain and the upper beads. The capital has a double-course round carrying decorations of half diamonds and a band bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by fiveof diamonds and beads-, a jadyakumbha, a karnika, armed double-roll brackets, the side face of each a narrow antara patra adorned with diamonds, a bracket of which is carved with half kiritimukha. chadyaki, and a grāsapatti. The pitha of the central projecting bay is treated like a balustrade which The other six pillars are of the octagonal type. consists of a bhitta, a rajasenaka decorated with The base and capital of these pillars are very diamond-and-double volute pattern, a vedikā and an similar to those seen in the square pillars, but here āsanapatta. The vedika is divided into upright posts the kumbha of the base is decorated with half diamoalternating with depressed vertical slabs. Below, nds and the side face of the brackets (each being the posts are plain, while above, each post depicts a four-armed) is plain. The shaft is octagonal at kirttimukha, makara or lotus in roundel,a ghatapallava, the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular and the volute pattern. Each slab is adorned with on the top. The last section carries four projecting foliate scrolls, lotus scrolls or creepers. The dvi- lambanas in the from of impost below, while above chadya āsanapatta, surmounted by bell rooflet, pro- it is surmounted by a band of kiritimukhas spewing jects boldly over each post, and it recedes with a chains which are clasped below by a band of diakirttimukha over each slab, On each balustrade, on monds and beads, the vedikā portion, there are two projecting sculptured niches surmounted on the asanapata portion
The five-faceted two pilasters flanking the gadhaby an udgama. Below each niche, on the räjasenaka,
mandapa door are ornate. Their base and capital is a smaller udgama flanked by two elephants bear
are similar to those of the octagonal pillars, but ing pitcher-bearers on their back. The niches on
here the side face of the brackets is decorated with the east shelter Sarvänubhūti and an unidentified
goose or Kinnara. The central facet of the shaft
goose goddess, both having four arms and seated in
displays a framed figure of four armed standing lalitāsana, while those on the west contain each an
goddess below, while above it shows three succes
go image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess holding
sive niches containing images of four-armed paša, aikufa, varadamudra and fruit,
lalitäsana goddesses, all being sadly damaged. The
side facets depict a bakulamala and a band of lotus Of the eight pillars, the two in the central pro
petals respectively. The shaft terminates at the jecting bay are of the square type (Fig. 48), with
top in a ghatapallava. corners chamfered into three angles. Their base consists of a khura, kumbha carrying figures of four- The architraves laid across the central bays are armed lalitasana goddesses in niches, kalaša, antarap- divided into two fasciae, the lower showing creepers atra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch device. or lotus scrolls that come forth from the mouth of The shaft has four sections, viz. square, octagonal, a kiritimukha represented in the centre and the sixteen-sided and circular. The square section upper the diamonds, while in the centre of their carries framed figures of four armed standing godd- underside is carved in low relief a lotus medallion esses (Vajränkusi, Cakreśvari, Vairoty and Man- comprising two rows of petals. The architraves in

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Faina Temples of Western India
other bays, also divided into two fasciae, are plain, octagonal type (Fig 50) and correspond to the but for a kürttimukha in the centre of the lower octagonal pillars of the mukhamandapa, but here fascia and an usual lotus medallion on the under they have a pedestal support as we notice in case side.
of the square pillars, and the imposts of the pillar
shaft are conspicuous by their absence. The two khattakas flanking the door of the gūdha. mandapa are ornate. Each stands on a pancaratha All the ten pillars are provided with uccalakas. moulded pedestal consisting of a bhitta, jadyakumbha, The uccalakas have a square base; their shaft is karnika, antara patra decorated with diamonds, and
octagonal below and circular above, the latter bekapota carved with caitya-arch ornament, and is ing surmounted by a band of kiritimukhas emitting surmounted by a ribbed awning and a multiple chains that are secured below by a band of dia. torana-arch pediment. In the centre of the pedi- monds and beads; and their capital has a doublement is depicted an image of four-armed lalita sana course round bharani of karnika and padma, surgoddess flanked on both sides by attendant figures. mounted by four or five-armed double-roll brackets. Both the khattakas are blank now..
The architraves running across the nave pillars Between the pillars of the central projecting bay are divided into two fasciae, the lower being plain, is a torana-arch of the cusp-tilaka variety (Fig. 48). but for a kirttimukha carved in the centre of the It emerges from the projecting lambanas inserted lower fascin, and the upper, in those forming the into the pillar shaft and meets in the centre of the octagon, bearing a strip of diamonds. In the centre underside of the architrave. Each cusp of the arch of their underside is carved in low relief a lotus issues from the mouth of a makara and ends in medallion having two rows of petals. The lower tilaka. The cusps are punctuated with figures of fascia of the architrave across the mukhamandapa Gandharvas, while the tilakas are inset with images pillars forming the octagon, however, carries images of lalitasana goddesses. The upper side of the arch of four-armed lalitasana goddesses alternating with is carved with saw-tooth pattern, while the lower rosette-marked diamonds. one is decorated with lotus stalks.
Originally, there were torama-arches between the The ceilings are flat and uncarved, probably
nd uncarved, probably central pair of pillars on each side. This is evident their carvings were destroyed.
from slots left in the centre of the underside of the
architraves. Rangamaņdapa
The nava (Fig 48) and the side aisles of the The domical ceiling (Fig. 49) is of the sabhamanTarigamanda pa are disposed in the same way as we daraka variety, consisting of nine circular courses find them in the Mahavira temple. Of the ten and a circular padmašila. The first is decorated with pillars, the two central ones on the north are of the a band of kirttimukhas. The second is karnadardarika square order (Fig. 51), with corners chamfered into surmounted by a strip of diamonds. The third five angles. The pillars consist of four parts, namely is decorated with rosette-marked diamonds. The pedestal, base, shaft and capital. The pedestal fourth is pajatalu surmounted by a band of dia. below the base consists of a bhitta, jädyakumbha, monds and beads and a band of lotus petals. The karpika, antarapatra and paffika. Their base, shaft fifth displays a figural band depicting Jina mother and capital are similar to those seen in the square lying on a cot with the child Tirthankara; on her pillars of the mukhamaqdapa, with this difference either side stand Srävakas and Srāvikās in great that framed figures at the base of the shaft include delight. The sixth is like the fourth. The seventh, four-armed male dancer and Pratihära. Besides, eighth and ninth consist each of sixteen whorls of the front face of the brackets shows mortices four-fold (3+1) kola, carrying figures of Vidyadharas which were originally devised for receiving on the points. The padmašila is composed of tenons of the brackets, pow disappeared, emerging four courses. The first consists of sixteen-foil twofrom the circular imposts inserted into the fold kola followed by reverse gajatālu. The second pillar shaft, The eight other pillars are of the comprises an eight-foil kola, also followed by reverse

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gajatalu. The third and fourth are each a quatre- ceiling supported on a square frame of architraves. foil kola edged with leaves. The stamenal tube The domical ceilings in the east wing, including inserted in the quatrefoil kola is clasped by two the three on the north side, consist each of four rows of petals. From the third course project out courses, the first being octagonal and the rest, sixteen bracket figures of four-armed Vidyadharas circular. The inner face of the octagonal course carrying lotus, musical instruments and knife. The is decorated with a strip of diamonds, while its seventh course shows remains of sixteen mortices underside at each corner is plain. Each of the cir. which originally received tenons of brackets, now cular courses consists of padma incised with lotus lost, emerging from the Vidyadhara brackets. At
petals. The central circular stone covering the each corner of the dome is carved in high relief a
dome is relieved with a full-blown lotus flower large kirtttmukha.
having two rows of petals and a central pistil The two ceilings flanking the central projecting marked with small circles and rosettes. bay of the mukhamandapa are samatala and un
Compared to the almost plain ceilings in the carved.
east wing the domical ceilings in the west wing are The side aisles of the rangamandapa have seven ornate. Each ceiling here also consists of four bays each. Six of these, rectangular on plan, are
courses but has a small pendant instead of lotus. samatala and plain, possibly their carvings were Beginning from the southern end the various ceidestroyed during later times, while the one towards lings are as follows: the northern end is domical. This domical ceiling 1. The first course is octagonal and the other is composed of seven courses, the first being octa
three are circular. The inner face of the gonal and the others, circular. The octagonal
octagonal course depicts a Jina figure flanked course is plain. The second is decorated with a strip
by Maladharas, musicians, dancers, horseof diamonds. The remaining five courses consist of
riders, Gandharvas, camels, lions and eleppadmas, each incised with lotus petals. The circular
hants, while its underside at each corner apical slab covering the dome is relieved with an
depicts a kirttimukha. The second is karnaopen lotus comprising two rows of petals. The
dardarikā. The third and fourth consist each architraves supporting the ceilings are similar to
of an eight-foil kola, carrying kirttimukhas those found in the nave, but here the decoration on
on the triangular spaces. Figures of Vidyad. the upper fascia is conspicuous by its absence. The
haras on the points of the third kola course space between the nave and the nālamandapa is
are also seen. The pendant consists of a covered by three uncarved samatala ceilings.
circular plaque of reverse gajatālu and a Devakolika
stamenal tube clasped by two rows of petals.
Same as the preceding one, but the underside But for the central devakulika in either wing, all are of alike form. The pillars are of the octagonal
of the first course has projections on the two
sides decorated with foliate scrolls, and its type and correspond to the octagonal pillars of the
inner face depicts an Acärya giving religious mukhamandapa, but the lambanas on the circular section of the shaft are absent here, and the side face of
injunctions to the caturvidhasamgha and a Jina each bracket is adorned with half kirttimukha. The five
with worshippers. faceted pilasters are similar to the pillars. The archi- 3. All the four courses are circular. The inner traves are divided into two fasciae, the lower show
face of the first course is decorated with a ing lotus scrolls which issue from the mouth of a band of kirttimukhas, while it underside shows kirttimukha represented in the centre, and the upper a Kinnar-couple at each corner and a creeperthe diamonds. In the centre of their underside is band on the two projecting narrow sides. carved in low relief a lotus medallion comprising The second is padma decorated with two bands two rows of petals and a central circle marked with of lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The third twine pattern. Each bay contains a domical consists of gajatalu. The fourth comprises an

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5.
eight-foil kola. The pendant consists of a ing water pot also stands towards the opening. The reverse gajatālu followed by six-foil pointed udumbara is divided into two registers. The lower kola, and a reverse gajatālu with stamenal register shows mouldings of khura, jadyakumbha and tube, now lost.
karnika, and the upper displays a semi-circular pro4. Structurally, it is similar to No. 1. The inner jection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a
face of the first course is decorated with projecting kiritimukha on each side of it, and a ardhapadma device, while its underside at each sculptured niche containing an image of fourcorner displays an open lotus having two rows
armed lalitäsana goddess with attendant figures on of petals and a Kinnar flanking it on either either extremity. The uttaranga continues the side. The second, third and fourth consist of
decorations of the fakha and depicts an image of sixteen-foil, twelve-foil and eight-foil kolas
four-armed lalitäsana goddess on the lalața. In respectively. Its pendant is similar to that
front of each door is a moonstone which is similar seen in No. 3.
to that seen in front of the northern door of the
gūdhamandapa, but here the front face of the talariThis ceiling is located in front of the central baka does not represent diamonds. The moonstone devakulikā and hence is described in connection is, however, destroyed in all the devekulikās of the with that devakulikā.80
east wing. This ceiling is similar to No. 4, but its pendant is like that found in No. 3. The stame
The exterior wall of each devakulika displays nal tube, which is preserved here, is embelli
five offsets. The devakulikās are separated from shed with an eight-pointed quatrefoil kola
one another by salilantaras. Above the jagati, and one row of petals.
which terminates in a kapota, the elevation of deva
kulikäs shows pitha, vedibandha, jangha and varandika. 7. Same as No. 3.
The pitha consists of a bhitra, jadyakumbha, karnika, 8. Same as No. 1, but the Maladharas on the antarapatra and gräsapaffi. The vedibandha compri
firsts course are conspicuous by their absence. Ses a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, 9&10. It is similar to No. 3, but the inner face of
kalala, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya
arch ornament. the first course carries figures of Gandharvas,
The jarigha, divided into two and its underside at each corner shows two
registers by a band carved with saw-tooth pattern
and topped by a kirttimukha-band, is plain. The elephants lustrating a lotus plant,
varandika pertains to an usual kapota and a ribbed It is similar to No. 2, but the inner face of eave-cornice. Above the eave-cornice is a parapet, the first course displays a band of geese. The
now plastered up with lime. pendant, however, consists of a reverse gajatālu followed by an eight-pointed quatrefoil The central devakulika in either wing, i. e. the kola, and a stamenal tube clasped by two rows fifth dedakulika from the southern end, is larger of petals.
than the other devakulikās and displays a highly 12. It is similar to No. 3, but the underside of the
ornate exterior and interior. The exterior wall of first course depicts a kiritimukha at each cor.
eastern devakulika is tryaniga on plan, consisting of ner, while its inner face bears figures of bhadra, pratiratha and karna. Its pitha and mandovara Gandharvas. The stamenal tube, which is
evince the same set of mouldings as we find in case
evince the same set intact here, is clasped by two rows of petals.
of the other devakulikās, but it being larger in di
mension the mouldings are not in the same alignThe door of the devakulikās is of the single-sakha ment. Unlike the plain jarigha of the other devavariety. It consists of patrašakha decorated with kulikās, it is embellished here with figure sculptures. foliate scrolls and flanked on the outer side by a On the bhadra is stationed an image of four-armed band of diamands and beads. The lower part of standing goddess Vajränkusi; she is accompanied on the fakha is occupied by a Pratihära flanked on each side by a female cauri-bearer appearing on each side by a female cauri-bearer; a female carry the pratiratha. On the karnas stand dikpālas,
11.

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Indra to the right and fśāna to the left of the goddess. The return side of the karna is occupied by a female dancer or musician. The devakulika is crowned by a Sikhara which is now plastered up with lime.
Compared to the exterior, its interior is more ornate. The two pillars are of the square type, with corners chamfered into three angles, and resemble the square pillars of the mukhamandapa. Their base consists of a khura, kumbha carrying images of four-armed lalita sana goddesses in niches, kalaša and kapota. The shaft has four sections, viz. square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular. The square section carries framed figures of four-armed standing goddesses (Sarasvati, Vairotyā, Rohini and Cakresvari on the one pillar, and Sarasvati, Vairotyä, Rohini and Vajränkusi on the other). The octagonal section bears eight figures of four-armed lalitäsana goddesses. The sixteen-sided section carries sixteen figures of female dancers and musicians. The circular section is divided into two belts, the lower showing four projecting circular pendants and ornamentations of chain-and-bells alternating with tassels, and the upper displaying a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains that are secured below by a band of diamonds and beads. The capital is similar to that of the other devakulikā pillars. The base and capital of the five-faceted pilasters flanking the door are similar to the pillars, but the shaft is diff. erently treated. Below, it shows a framed figure of Pratihära flanked on each side by a female attendant. Above, its central facet displays three successive niches containing images of four-armed standing goddesses, each flanked on either side by a female attendant standing on the accompanying facets, while the extreme facets are decorated with lotus scrolls. The shaft is topped by a ghatapallava. The domical ceiling is composed of four courses, the first being octagonal and the others, circular. The inner face of the octagonal course is decorated with a band of kiritimukhas, while its underside at each corner depicts a full-blown lotus flower set up in a circular border of lotus stalks and flanked on each side by a Kinnara. The other three courses consist of hadmas, each decorated with two bands of lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The circular slab closing up the dome is relieved with a full-blown lotus
flower comprising three rows of petals. The door is of the pañcafakha variety, consisting of patrafakha decorated with lotus scrolls, rūpasākha, räpastambha, rūpasakha, and bāhyaśākha carved with a band of creepers and a band of diamonds and beads. The lower part of the fakhas is occupied by a framed figure of four-armed standing goddess (Rohini on proper right and Mahāmānasi on proper left) accompanied on each side by a female cauri-bearer; a female carrying water-pot also stands towards the opening. Above this the räpastambha displays three successive niches containing images of fourarmed lalitāsana goddesses - Mānasi, Vajrassnkhalā and Vajränkusi on proper right, and Mānasi, Vajrănkusi and Vairotyä on proper left. The rūpašakhas display six figures of female attendants, two flanking each goddess of the rūpastambha. The udunbara is divided into two registers. The lower register shows mouldings of khura, jad yakumbha, karņika and grāsapaffi. The upper one displays a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed lotus, punctuated with human figures and elephants, in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it, and a sculptured niche containing an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied on each sidy by two female attendants on either extremity. The uttaranga is also divided into two registers. The lower register shows a ghatapallava capital with two recessed angles topping the jambs on either end, while the space in between the capitals is filled with the lotus scroll-band carried up from the patrafakha and a row of Mälädharas facing the lalaFabiria which represents Lakşmi seated in dhyanamudrä. The upper register carries five projecting sculptured niches alternating with recesses. The niches contain images of four-armed lalitäsana goddesses identifiable, from left to right, with Cakresy ari. Kali. Mahäkäli, Vajränkusi and Lakşmi (?), each flanked on either si each flanked on either side by a female attendant; while the recesses, surmounted by kirttimukhas, represent images of four-armed standing goddesses. The overdoor depicts fourteen auspicious objects seen in dream by the Jina mother during concept ion. The whole or part of this devakulikā is a later addition. This is apparently indicated by an inscription of V. S. 1315 (1258 A. D.) engraved upon the uttaranga. Though the inscription is worn out, this much is clear that the devakulika was built in such and such date.
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Jaina Temples of Western India
The central devakulika in the west wing (Fig. 52) shows a tr yanga mülamasjari marked by five bhūmiis very similar to the eastern one and appears to amalakas, two uromafijaris along each bhadra, a briga have been built by the same architect who built over each pratiratha and two frigas over each karņa. the other one. But the moonstone is intact here The offsets of the malamañjari terminate at the and corresponds to that seen in the other devakulikās, skandha and are crowned above the grīvā by a large with this difference that here are two talarüpakas on āmalaka, a candrika, a smaller amalaka, a kalaša and either side. Apart from this, its domical ceiling a bijapüraka. The dhvajādhara is also visible on the is eloborately carved, and the side facets of the pila- west facade. All the śrrigas and uromasjaris are but sters are adorned with bakulamalas and foliate scro- the replica of the mālamasjari, but the frigas are Ils. Its ornate ceiling is composed of six courses crowned by one amalaka only and the lower uromaand a circular padmašila. The first course is octa- fjaris are crowned by amalaka, candrikā, kalaša and gonal and the rest are circular. The inner face of bijapūraka. Between the frågas are shown gajamuthe octagonal course is decorated with lotus scrolls das. At the base of the Sikhara, in the cardinal punctuated with geese and elephants, while its direction, is a rathika flanked on each side by a underside at each corner depicts an image of four- balcony model and crowned by a double-course armed lalitasana goddess flanked on either side by udgama. The rathika contains an image of foura Kinnar. The goddesses may be identified with armed Lalitasana goddess Lakşmi. The entire Sarasvati, Cakresvari, Vairogya and Rohini. The Sikhara is enmeshed with a fret of caitya-arches. second is karpadardarika. The third is decorated
The corridor is crowned towards the rangamawith rosette-marked diamonds. The fourth and
ud apa by a ribbed eave-cornice which overhangs fifth are gajatālus. The sixth consists of an eight
the architraves. On the eave-cornice, right above foil kola. From the third course project out eight
the corridor pillars, are the brackets of the pillarsquare brackets, six occupied by four-armed Vidya.
capitals supporting the ceilings of the side aisles dharas and two by Naigameşins. Originally, these
of the rangamandapa. These brackets are similar to brackets supported eight bracket figures athwarted
those seen in the corridor pillars. The space betagainst the gajatālu courses. This is clearly evident
ween these brackets is filled with horizontal plain from eight slots left in the kola course. The padma
slabs. Sila is composed of two courses; between them is placed a reverse gajatālu. The first course consists of an All the devakulikäs are dedicated to Tirthaneight-foil pointed kola. The second has an eight- karas, the enshrined images of whom are mostly pointed quatrefoil kola. The stamenal tube, inse- gone. In some only parikara or pedestal or both rted in the second course, is clasped by a band of now remain. Some of the pedestals bear inscripmusicians and dancers and one row of petals, and tions which range in date from 1104-1219 A.D. terminates in a flower bud. The diamond-strip of This indicates that the images were installed from the architraves supporting the ceiling is replaced time to time. here by a frieze which displays figures of four
As is found in case of three aforesaid temples, armed lalitasana goddesses in projecting niches and
the passage between the lateral door of the gūdhaattendant figures in alternate recesses. Like that noticed in the central devakulika of the east wing,
mandapa and the outer entrance is covered by a
pillared corridor. The bay near the western the jangha here also carries figure sculptures. On
entrance and the one adjacent to it have carved the bhadra is a four-armed standing image of Cakr
domical ceilings, while the other bays have uncaresvari flanked on each side by a female cauri-bearer
ved samatala ceilings. The architraves supporting occupying the pratiratha. On the karşas stand dik
these ceilings show similar decorations as we find palas, Varuņa to the right and Nirrti to the left of the goddess. A female attendant is also seen on
on those of the devakulikās, the return side of the karna. The Sikhara, which is The domical ceiling near the western entrance well preserved here, rises from a prahāra carrying is rectangular on plan, but its space is reduced to mouldings of a recessed fillet and a padma, and a square by a frame of four rectangular slabs. The

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inner face of the square frame is decorated with the centre of their underside. Each of the four ardhapadma motif, while its underside on each of bays contains an uncarved samatala ceiling. The the two shorter sides is relieved with three full- door of the porch is of the single-fakha variety. It is blown lotus flowers, each comprising two rows of decorated with foliate scrolls and is flanked on the petals. The shallow dome is composed of two outer side by a band of lotus petals. At the base circular courses and a small circular pendant. The of the fakha stands a female carrying pitcher. The first consists of padma decorated with two bands of udumbara shows a semi-circular plain projection in lotus petal-and-bud ornament, while its underside the centre, a projecting kiritimukha on each side of at each corner is carved with a kiritimukha. The it, and diamonds on either extremity. The uttaranga second is gajatalu. The circular pendant consists of continues the decoration of the fakha and displays six-foil kola preceded by reverse gajatalu; its stame- an image of padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra on the nal tube is gone now.
lalața. In front of the door is a candrafila which
consists of an ardhacandra tied on each end with The other domical ceiling is only slightly recta
gagāraka and flanked in turn by a talarüpaka. To ngular on plan. It is composed of four circular
ward off water the porch is crowned by an overcourses and a circular pendant. The inner face of
hanging corrugated awning and a kapota. the first course is decorated with a band of klittimukhas, while its underside depicts two ele- The western porch is square on plan and is phants lustrating a lotus plant at each corner and a landed up by a double flight of steps. The first frieze on each of the two shorter sides. The frieze
e consisting of four steps leads to a platform on which
consisti depicts a kayotsarga Jina with musicians and the porch is perched, and the second comprising dancers, and Srāvakas carrying pitcher. The second
seven steps accommodated in the porch itself leads is karnadardarika. The third is gajalalu. The fourth
to the doorway. Resting on a moulded pisha the consists of an eight-foil kola. The pendant is similar
porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters to that found in the preceding ceiling.
supporting a ceiling on a square frame of architra
ves. The pitha consists of a bhitra, khura, kumbha Porches
decorated with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatra, The northern porch is divided into four bays, kabota decorated with caitya-arch motif, projected three running east-west across the axial line and
fillet decorated with diamonds, karạika and padma, one placed in the mid-front. It rests on a low
The pillars and pilasters are similar to those seen
T terrace which is approached from the ground by
ound by in the devakulikās. The architraves and doorway a flight of seven steps. The terrace is composed are similar to those found in the northern porch, of hewn blocks of masonry and has a padma as
with this difference that here the lalața depicts an stylobate. On the terrace stand six pillars
image of goddess Lakşmi sitting in lalitasana. The and four pilasters supporting four ceilings, each
ceiling is made by cutting off the corners, compriperched on a square frame of architraves. All
sing three tiers of nine slabs, the central slab being the pillars are of the octagonal class. Their base
relieved with a full-blown lotus flower consisting of consits of a khura, kumbha decorated with half dia
two rows of petals and a central circle marked with monds, and kalaba; the shaft is octagonal at the twine pattern. Its roof, now plastered up, has a base. sixteen-sided in the middle and circular corrugated eave-cornice overhanging the archion the top, the last section being surmounted by
traves, a kirttimukha-band; and the capital has a short round bharani of padma, surmounted by four- Nalamandapa armed double-roll brackets. The four pilasters, The nālamandapa (Fig. 48), built right above the two having five facets and two having three facets, northern porch and a stairway consisting of seven are similar to the pillars. The architraves are steps, is a square pillared mandapa with a square divided into two fasciae and are plain, but for a projecting bay towards the north end. It is laid kirttimukha in the centre of the lower fascia and a out on a floor higher than the corridor of the devacrude lotus medallion having two rows of petals in kulikās and is approachable from the corridor by
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two small steps. On the exterior it is enclosed by a balustrade which consists of a rajasenaka, vedikā, asanapaṭṭa and kakṣāsana. The rajasenaka is decorated with diamond-and-double volute pattern. The vedikä is divided into upright posts alternating with depressed vertical slabs. Below, the posts are plain, while above they are decorated with ghatapallava, scrolls and volute pattern. The slabs show ornamentations of elongated half diamonds, flamboyant pattern, scrolls or full diamonds. The asanapata is adorned with diamonds. The kakṣāsana is divided into three horizontal belts. The lower belt is incised with flamboyant pattern. The middle belt shows figures of lion, Kinnar-couple, pair of geese, mithunacouple, Maladhara, musician, peacock, monkey, kirttimukha, elephant, goose and Aditi in roundels framed by segmented pilasters. The upper belt is decorated with foliate scrolls. In the interior the balustrade is found only on the southern side. Here it consists of only two members, namely asanapaṭṭa and kakṣāsana, bearing similar decorations. Its roof, now plastered up, is supported on eight dwarf pillars placed, at angles, on the asanapaṭṭa of the balustrade, four massive pillars disposed along the southern side, and two pilasters flanking the devakulikās. The nalamanḍapa is shaded on the exterior by a corrugated eave-cornice.
Jaina Temples of Western India
Eight of the nalamanḍapa columns are arranged in an octagon, supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The kakṣāsana pillars have a square base; their shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top, the last section being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains that are secured below by a band of diamonds and beads; and their capital consists of a short round bharani of padma surmounted by four-armed double-roll brackets. The four other pillars and two pilasters are similar to those noticed in the devakulikäs, but four of these, namely two pilasters and two pillars on the extremities, are provided with uccalakas which correspond to those seen in the rangamaṇḍapa. The architraves are similar to those noticed in the northern porch. The domical ceiling, commenced from each angle of the octagon by a square block carved with diamonds, is composed of nine circular courses and a short padmašila. The first course is decorated with a strip of diamonds, while the

others consist of padmas, each showing incision of lotus petals. The padmafila consists of two courses, each edged with reverse gajatälu. The first is decorated with two rows of lotus petal-and-bud design and the second pertains to a quatrefoil kola with a small stamenal tube. Each of the four corners at the base of the dome is boldly relieved with two elephants lustrating a lotus plant.
There is a modern room for godown built against the präkara beyond the western entrance. A recently built niche may also be seen towards the southern end of the eastern devakulikās.
NEMINĀTHA TEMPLE
The temple of Neminatha is the largest and most elaborate temple at Kumbharia. The general arrangement of its plan is similar to that of the Parsvanatha temple, comprising thus a milaprasada, a güḍhamandapa, a mukhamandapa, a ranga. mandapa with ten devakulikas on the front and eight devakulikäs on each side, and a nalamanḍapa. The engress to the temple is obtained only from the north through a partly rebuilt square porch.
Malaprasada
It is tryanga on plan, consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the bhadra being broken into seven planes, and the karna and the pratiratha into five planes that are reduced to three above the pitha (Fig. 59). Between the angas are salilāntaras. The saliläntaras between the karna and pratiratha are reinforced by konikäs which are not carried
down to the pitha. The frontal karna and pratiratha
are transmuted in a buffer wall which separates the giḍhamaṇḍapa from the mulaprāsāda.
In elevation (Fig. 59) it shows five divisions, namely pitha, vedibandha, jangha, varaṇḍika and fikhara. The pitha consists of a jaḍyakumbha, karṇikā, antarapatra, chadyaki carved with caitya-arch pattern, grasapaṭṭi, gajathara and narathara; its bhiṭṭa mouldings appear to have been embeded in the courtyard during subsequent flooring. In the gajathara the front part of elephants is generally depicted, but on the bhadras two larger elephants are shown in profile, lustrating a lotus plant. Rarely the elephants are shown in three-quarter profile. At corners of some angas are seen färdulas instead of

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elephants. The narathara displays representations Above each Apsarā figure is seated an amorous of dancers and musicians, warriors and fighters, couple. The udgama member also appears on the man chasing a lion or boar, duel fighting, mithuna konikas. scene, man fighting with a lion, and an Acārya with disciples. The narathara on each bhadra depi
The janghā on each bhadra displays a projecting cts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra; he is flanked sculptured niche topped by a ribbed eave-cornice on each side by a Maladhara and a male cauri. and an ornamental pediment, but the enshrined bearer. The Tina on east bhadra may be identified image in each is missing. The side face of each with Supäršavanätha as he is canopied overhead by niche, on the front, carries a figure of female cauria five-hooded cobra.
bearer below and a seated amorous-couple above,
while it represents an elongated half diamond The vedibandha consists of a khura, a kumbha inset incised with flamboyant pattern on the rear. The with sculptured niches, the pedestal of which goes female cauri-bearer on the west face of the south down in the khura, a kalata, an antarapatra adorned bhadra, however, is replaced by a male attendant. with diamonds, and a kapota decorated with udgama The pediment of the south niche depicts the relief pattern. The kumbha niches contain images of of the Asvävabodhatirtha; it most probably forms Yaksis, Vidyadevis, Sarasvati, Lakşmi and in one a part of the Samalikāvihāratirtha panel, now precase Ganesa, all having four arms and sitting in served in the balanaka of the Mahāvira temple. the lalita-pose. There is a fine makara-praņāla pie- The semi-circular pediments of the east niche rced into the khura on the east.
depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra in the
centre and a flute-player or viņā-vadaka, makara with The jangha, supported by a mañcika carrying
open mouth, and kāta on each side. The Jina lambanas (circular pendants) underneath and deco
wears a keyüra and an yajñopavita, and is canopied ration of caitya-arch ornament on the front face,
overhead by a chatra. The prabhamandala shows an carries images of dikpalas on the karnarathas and of Vidyadevis on the pratirathas. Framed between
elephant with trunk having upraised in adoration
on each side and figures of trumpeters following it two segmented circular pilasters and crowned by a two-course stepped udgama with monkeys seated
above. The eave of the niche bears figures of geese on the flanks, each image is four-armed and stands
in pair on the extrados. The pediment of the in an elegant tribhriga on a console carved with
west niche is formed by multiple torana-arch issuing
from the mouth of a makara carved on each side. lotus leaves. The pilasters are surmounted by square capitals clasped by drooping foliage; and
In the centre of the pediment is a lalitāsana goddess their upper half on the outer flank is clasped by a
fianked on each side by a female attendant, gana, rampant vyala (or fardala) on elephant and a makara.
kata and makara. The two makaras face the opposit All the jangha images are executed almost in the
directions. The eave-cornice here also carries round and show grace and charm. Beginning from
geese in pair on the extrados. The mañcika supportthe northeastern end and running clockwise the
ing these niches is decorated with a kirttimukha. jarigha images are identifiable with Kubera, Isāna, Vai- band. rotyä, Acchuptā, Mānavi, Mahājvālā, Indra, Agni,
The ud gama of the jargha terminates at its apex Vajrāńkusi, Vajrasțnkhala, Cakreśvari, Naradattă,
in a deep fillet carved with kirttimukhas, and is Yama, Nițrti, Kali, Mahākāli, Gauri, Gāndhāri,
followed in its turn by a round bharani clasped by Varuņa and Vāyu. In the salilantaras of the jangha
drooping foliage. The bharaṇi appears only on the are charming figures of Apsarās representing
karyas and pratirathas; on the koņikās and bhadras
karane ar various dance poses or playing on some musical
it is replaced by a narapattika. The varandika coninstruments. In two instances, however, she is
sists of an usual kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice, shown as securing her lower garment which is being
now plastered up with white lime. carried down by a diminutive gana rode on her thigh; in two other instances she is striping her
The whole of the Sikhara, built of bricks and lower garment, apparently to show her nudity. coated with plaster, is quite a late erection.
18

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Jaina Temples of Western India
The door of the sanctum is modern. Flanking showing chain-and-bells alternated by tassels, and the door there are two life-size images, in kāyotsarga the upper a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains posture, of Ādinātha of 1257 A. D. Inside the that are clasped below by a band of rosette-marked sanctum is installed a colossal image of Neminātha diamonds and beads. The capital has a doubleseated in dhyānamudra on a high pedestal. The course round bharani of karnika and padma, surimage is a late one. This is apparently indicated mounted by four-armed double-roll brackets, the by an inscription of 1618 A. D. engraved upon the side face of each arm of which is adorned with half cushion.
kirttimukha. On one of these pillars in an inscrip
tion recording that this pillar was caused to be Güdhamandapa
built by Asapäla in V. S. 1310 (1253 A. D.). It The whole of the gūdhamanda pa is a modern appears that at least some of the mukhamandaba erection. Constructed of bricks and coated with pillars were replaced by the new ones of exactly plaster it has been finished off to creamy polished the same form and design. surface like marble. It has entrance only on the
All the four pilasters consist of five facets, north. Its doorframe appears to have been added
Their base and capital are similar to the pillars. later. This is evident from an inscription of 1585
The central facet of the shaft carries a framed A. D. engraved upon it. Inside the gūdhamandapa
figure of four-armed standing goddess below, and are some images of iconographic interest. These
three successive niches containing images of fourinclude two colossuses of Pārsvanātha and Supär
armed lalitäsana goddesses above, while the side svanatha of A. D. 1157 and a panel with 170 seated
facets are occupied by female attendant figures, Jina figures of A. D. 1253. The colossal images
two flanking on either side of each goddess. The with their parikara are shown in käyotsarga posture.
shaft terminates at the top in a ghatapallava. Mukhamaņdapa
The architraves running across these columns Divided into ten bays it is landed up from the are divided into two fasciae, the lower showing Tangamandapa by three staircases, each comprising lotus scrolls which issue from the mouth of a kirtti. five steps. Below the mid-staircase is a moonstone mukha carved in the centre, and the upper bearing which consists of an ardhacandra tied on each end a strip of diamonds. In the centre of their underwith gagāraka, fasikha and lotus stem and flanked in side is carved in low relief a lotus medallion comturn by a talarūpaka. The pitha is plain and devoid prising two rows of petals and a central circle of mouldings. The mukhamandapa consists of eight marked with rosette or twine pattern. pillars and four pilasters arranged east-west in
of the ten ceilings the two on either extremity three lines of four each. The pillars (Fig. 62) are
are square on plan and are supported on the outer of the square type, with corners chamfered into
side by the rangamandapa pillars. Each of these three angles. Their base consists of a khura, kumbha
four ceilings is made by cutting off the corners, bearing images of four-armed lalitāsana goddesses
possessing three tiers of nine slabs, the central slab in niches on the four faces, kalaša, antarapatra, and
being relieved with a full-blown lotus flower comkapota resembling a pattikā decorated with caityaarch design. The shaft is divided into four usual
prising two rows of petals. sections. The first is square carrying framed The two ceilings located right above the side stairfigures of four- or six-armed male and female dan- cases are domical raised over a square base. Each cers and musicians, and four-armed standing of these ceilings consists of four courses and a short female divinities including Yakşis, Vidyādevis and circular padmafila. The first course is octagonal Sarasvati. The second is octagonal bearing eight and the others are circular. The inner face of the images of four-armed lalitāsana goddesses. The octagonal course is adorned with a band of kirttithird is sixteen-sided and is inset with sixteen mukhas or a strip of diamonds, while its underside images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses. The at each corner depicts a kirttimukha. The second fourth is circular divided into two belts, the lower is karșadardarika incised with lotus petals, The

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third and fourth are gajatālus, each surmounted by a band of diamonds and beads. The padmašila consists of an eight-foil kola edged with reverse gajatālu and a circular plaque, also edged with reverse gajatālu. The stamenal tube is gone now.
The ceiling just abve the mid-staircase is domi- cal belonging to the sabhamandaraka order. It is rectangular on plan, but its space is reduced to a square by a frame of four rectangular slabs placed over the architraves. The inner face of the square frame is decorated with intersecting garland loops, while its underside on each of the two shorter sides depicts three full-blown lotus flowers, each having two rows of petals. Each flower is set up in a square bordered by diamonds and beads, geese in pair filling in at the corners. In addition to this the underside also displays a frieze on the outer extremity of the shorter sides, representing horse-riders, elephants with drivers, musicians and dancers. The dome consists of four courses-the first being octagonal and the others, circular-and a circular padmašila. The inner face of the octagonal course depicts a row of geese, while its underside at each corner displays two elephants lustrating a lotus plant. The second is karņadardarika incised with lotus petals, The third is gajatālu surmounted by a strip of diamonds. The fourth consists of eight whorls of three-fold kola. The padmašila consists of three courses of eight-foil larger, eight-foil smaller and eight-pointed quatrefoil kolas. Between the kolas are set up reverse gajatālus. The stamenal tube, inserted in the last course and clasped by one row of petals, is damaged now.
The remaining two ceilings are similar to each other. Built on a square plan each ceiling consists of four courses and a short circular padmašila. The first is octagonal; it displays lotus scrolls or ardhapadma pattern on the inner face and kirttimukha on the underside corners. The other three courses are circular, each consisting of padma decorated with lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The padmašila consists of two courses, the first having an eightfoil kola and the second an eight-pointed quatrefoil kola, each preceded by reverse gajatālu. The stame. nal tube inserted in the second course is clasped by two rows of petals. The quatrefoil kola course and the stamenal tube have disappeared in one ceiling.
The two khattakas flanking the gâdhamandapa door are empty. In one, however, the parikara may be seen. The pedestal of cach khattaka is pañcaratha and shows mouldings of bhitta, kumuda, khura, kumbha carrying decorations of diamonds on the body and foliage on the shoulder, and two kapotas, each decorated with caitya-arch enrichment. On the pedestal stand two moulded pillaretes joined on the top by a lintel. The khattak as are surmounted by a ribbed eave-cornice and a triple udgama.
Built against the wall of the gådhamandapa and located in the extreme bay on the west is a newly constructed chapel of Ambika, while in the corresponding east bay is a Nandiśvaradvipa panel dated A. D. 1266. The mukhamandapa is now enclosed on the east by a screen wall made up of blind grilles. Against the screen wall are stationed five images of kāyotsarga Jinas and one image of padmāsana Jina. On the west the mukhamandapa is enclosed by a plain balustrade. The screen wall and the balustrade seem to be a later addition.
The ceiling near the gūdhamanda pa door is very similar in structure and ornamentation to the preceding one, but here the inner face of the square frame is carved with a row geese and the underside frieze is conspicuous by its absence. In contrast to the preceding ceiling the inner face of the octago. nal course in the present ceiling is decorated with a strip of diamonds, while its underside corners carry Kinnara-couples. Besides, the padmašila displays only one course of eight-foil kola, and the stamenal tube is longer and clasped by three rows of petals.
Rangamandapa
It is a two-storeyed structure displaying a forest of twenty pillars (Fig. 60). Eight of these pillars are disposed in the nave in the same manner as we find in the Säntinātha temple, and six run northsouth in each of the side aisles. The upper storey is indicated by a balustraded wall perched upon the nave architraves over the pillars and carried as far as the gâdhamandapa door on the one end and the nālamandapa on the other. The space between the

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dome and the balustrade is open, so that the interior of the rangamandapa has become highly ventilated.
The eight pillars in the nave are of the square variety, with corners chamfered into five angles, and correspond to the pillars of the mukhamandapa, but these are taller and massive and are supported by a moulded pedestal which consists of a bhitta, jad yakumbha, karnika, antarapatra and pattika. Besides, the framed figures at the base of the shaft represent four- or six-armed male dancers, musicians and Pratihāras. Six of the aisles pillars flanking on the two sides of the nave are also of the square type, with corners chamfered into five angles, but compared to the nave pillars these bear very little carvings. The pedestal, base and capital of these pillars are similar to those seen in the nave pillars, but here the sculptured niches on the kumbha are replaced by half diamonds. As regards the shaft, it is square at the base, surmounted by a square block decorated with caitya-arch motif, and sixteensided and circular above, the last section being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas emitting chains which are secured below by a band of diamonds and beads. The other six pillars of the aisles flank on two sides of the mukhamandapa and belong to the octagonal order. These pillars carry similar mouldings and decorations as are noticed in the square pillars of the aisle, with this difference that here the square part is shaped into an octagonal one.

The nave is covered by a carved domical ceiling raised up by uccalakas placed directly over the capitals of the pillars forming the octagon on the one hand and on the asanapaṭṭa of the kakṣāsana at the corners on the other. The uccalakas consist of two members, namely shaft and capital. The shaft is square at the base, octagonal in the middle and circular on the top, the last section being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are clasped below by a band of diamonds and beads. The capital consists of a double-course round bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by four or five-armed double roll brackets carrying representation of half kirttimukhas on their side faces. The architraves running across the uccalakas are divided into two fasciae. The lower depicts lotus scrolls issuing from the mouth of a kirtlimukha carved in the centre, and the upper is inset with sculptured niches containing images of four-armed lalitäsana goddesses accompanied by attendant figures. In the centre of their underside is carved in low relief a lotus medallion having two rows of petals and a central circle. On the architraves, on the outer side, overhangs a corrugated eavecornice.
The architraves running across these pillars are similar to those found in the mukhamandapa, but the upper fascia of those in the nave is decorated with sculptured niches containing images of fourarmed lalitasana goddesses, padmasana Jina in dhyanamudra and kayotsarga Jina, with male attendants, gagas and Kinnaras in between. The slanting seat-back of the balustrade placed over the nave architraves consists of an asanapaṭṭa and a kakṣāsana. The asanapaṭṭa is adorned with kirttimukhas. The kakṣāsana is divided into three horizontal belts. The lower is incised with flamboyant pattern; the middle shows lotus flower, kirttimukha, Mālädhara, elephant, human head like sun, peacock, goose, monkey, devotee, stepped diamond, pair of fishes, tiger, twine pattern and two conjoint monkeys in roundels framed by segmented pilasters; and the upper is relieved with foliate scrolls.
andaraka type, consisting of nine circular courses The domical ceiling (Fig. 61) is of the sabhamis decorated with ardhapadma motif. The second and an equisite circular padmašila. The first course is karyadardarika surmounted by a kirttimukha-band. The third displays four-armed lalitäsana goddesses in projecting niches and attendant figures in alternate recesses; the niche in each cardinal direction, however, depicts Gaja-Laksmi. The fourth is gajatālu surmounted by two decorative bands, one showing diamonds and beads and the other, lotus petals. The fifth represents the Cyavana-kalyāṇaka scene of some Jina, eight auspicious Jaina symbols, and an Acarya with sthapana in front and deliverring religious discourse to the Śravakas. The sixth is like the fourth. The seventh, eighth and ninth consist each of sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola, diminishing in size as they go up. The topmost kola course carries figures of Vidyadharas on the points. From the third course project out sixteen square brackets. Fourteen of these brackets are occupied by four-armed Vidyadharas and two are carried by four-armed Naigameşin, the latter being

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located near the mukhamandapa. The eight square Devakulika blocks introducing the dome are inset with images The platform on which the devakulikās rest runs of four-armed lalitāsana goddesses. The padmašila, all around the courtyard and is landed up from the built on the principle of co-radial regression, con- courtyard by a flight of three steps cut all around. sists of seven courses. Each of the first three cou- From the platform two small steps lead to the doors rses consists of sixteen whorls of trefoil kola, and of the devakulikās. The two central devakulikās are each of the next three courses pertains to sixteen- larger in dimension and are reached from the foil kola. The last course has an eight-foil kola. rangamandapa by two steps only, for their floor is At the tip of the padmašila is inserted a hooked bar lower than that of the other devakulikās. The devaof iron, which seems to be a later addition. Each kulikās are screened by one arcade of pillars on the corner at th base of the dome depicts a large figure north side and by a double arcade of pillars on the of Kirttimukha carved in alto-relievo. The entire
east and the west. The pillars are of the octagonal
east and the west. The pillars ara e ceiling is painted now, so that its originality is type and correspond to the octagonal pillars of the considerably marred.
aisles of the rarigamandapa, with this difference that
the pedestal is absent here. Two terminal pillars A small but ornate domical ceiling may also be
near the nalamandapa, however, are of the square seen on the north side of the nave, built right
type and resemble the square pillars of the aisles above the opening. It is rectangular on plan, but of the rangamandapa, but the pedestal here too is its space is reduced to a square by a frame of four
absent. The five-faceted absent. The
pilasters have similar rectangular slabs placed over the architraves. The base and capital as we find in the pillars, but the inner face of the square frame is decorated with
side brackets of the capital are square, decorated intersecting garland loops, while the underside of
with diamonds. The shaft, however, is comparatively the slabs on each of the two shorter sides is decor- ornate. The lower part of the shaft here too is ated with four full-blown lotus flowers, each set up plain, but the part above depicts flamboyant in a square bordered by a diamond-and-bead band pattern in beaded semi-circle (in one instance the and having geese in pair at corners. The dome flamboyant device is replaced by a pair of monkeys), proper consists of four courses and a circular ghatapallava, foliate scrolls, half-blown lotus, ardhapadmašila. The first course is octagonal and the padma in beaded demi-circle, and finally a körttimuothers are circular. The inner face of the octagonal kha spewing chains that are clasped below by a course is decorated with a row of geese, while its band of diamonds and beads. The architraves are underside at each corner displays two elephants similar to those seen in the mukhamandapa. Each lustrating a lotus plant. The second is karmadarda. bay contains an uncarved samatala ceiling. rika. The third is gajatalu. The fourth consists of eight whorls of trefoil kola. The padmašila consists
The door of each devakulika, excepting that of of one row of petals, an eight-foil kola and a
the two central devakulikās, is of the dvišakha varibijapūraka.
ety, consisting of a patrašakha decorated with foliate
scrolls and bakulamala, and a fakha carved with Except for one near the mukhamandapa, west creepers. The lower part of the sākhas is occupied wing, all the other ceilings of the rangamandapa are by a framed figure of four-armed standing goddess samatala and uncarved. The carved samatala ceiling flanked on each side by a female attendant; a represents in bas-relief an oval-shaped full-blown female carrying water pot also stands towards the lotus flower flanked on two sides by a scroll-band opening. The udumbara displays a semi-circular and a diamond-strip. On two sides of the flower projection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, are two kirttimukhas.
a projecting kirttimukha on each side of it, and a
niche containing an image of four-armed lalitäsana The bay near the central devakulika (the 5th Sarvānubhūti on extreme right and Ambikā on ex. from the southern end) also has domical ceiling, treme left, both carved in shallow relief and accomnow plastered up with lime.
panied by two female attendants. The uttaraniga

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continues the decorative bands of the fakhas and depicts a padmasana Jina in dhyānamudrā on the lalata. In front of the door is a moonstone which consists of an ardhacandra tied on both ends with gagāraka, fankha and lotus stem, and flanked in turn by a talar paka. The moonstone is preserved in some devakulikas only. The devakulikäs have no partition walls and the enshrined images are gone now, but the moulded pedestal, which runs without break from one end to the other, is well preserved. The pedestal in each devakulika is saptaratha and carries mouldings of bhiṭṭa decorated with intersecting garlands and foliage, jadyakumbha, karnika, anturapatra, and padma underlined with leaves.
The exterior wall of each of these devakulikas is tryanga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna. The devakulikäs are separated from one another by saliläntaras. In elevation it is divided into vedibandha, jangha and varaṇḍika. The vedibandha consists of a bhitta decorated with diamonds, khura, kumbha embellished with half diamonds or sculptured niches containing images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses, kalasa, antarapatra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch pattern. The jangha, divided into two registers by a band of ardhapadma motif and topped by a kirttimukha-band or a band of intersecting garland loops, is plain. The varandika displays an usual kapota and a ribbed eave. cornice. Over the eave-cornice is a parapet with battlements, all modern and now plastered up.
The southernmost devakulika in the west wing is crowned by a fikhara which is in a good state of preservation. It rises from a prahara consisting of a recessed fillet and a padma. The composition of fikhara reveals a tryanga milamañjarī marked by five bhumiamalakas, two uromañjarīs and a rathika along each bhadra, a friga over each pratiratha, and two śrigas over each karya. The angas of the mulamanjari terminate at the skandha and are crowned above it by a large amalaka clasped by fillet, a candrika, a smaller amalaka, a kalaśa and a bijapuraka. There is a dhvajadhara on the west facade. All the frigas and uromañjarīs are but the replica of the mulamanjari, only that the frigas have only one amalaka as their crowning member. There are gajamundas between the frigas. The entire fikhara is enmesh

ed with caitya-arches.
The rathika, flanked by balcony models and surmounted by double-course udgama, contains an image of four-armed lalitasana goddess accompanied on each side by a female cauri-bearer.
The pillars of the two central devakulikās are similar to those of the other devakulikäs, but below the base these have two bhittas. Their pilasters are like the pillars. Unlike the samatala ceilings, here is found a domical ceiling consisting of four courses, the lowermost being octagonal and plain, and the other three being circular and incised with lotus petals. The circular ceiling slab is relieved with an open lotus comprising two rows of petals. The doorframe is of the catuffakha variety decorated with foliate scrolls, lotus scrolls, creepers and lotus scrolls respectively. fae lower part of the Sakha is occupied by a framed figure of four-armed standing goddess flanked on each side by a female attendant; a female bearing pitcher also stands towards the opening. The two goddesses in the east devakulikä may be identified with Cakreśvari, while those in the west are identifiable with Rohini and Vairotya (Fig. 65). The udumbara and moonstone are similar to those found in the other devakulikās, but the niches are projected and the images therein are flanked on the ianer side by two female attendants. The uttaranga is modern. Inside the east devakulikä is installed on a high moulded pedestal a colossal saparikara image of Adinatha seated in dhyanamudra. The image is a late one. This is securely dated by an inscription of 1618 A. D. engraved upon it. In the west devakulika is a colossal image of Pārávanätha seated in dhyanamudra, with a seven-hooded cobra canopy overhead. This image also appears to be of subsequent date.
The exterior wall of the central devakulika in the west wing (Fig. 64) is also tryanga on plan and carry the same set of mouldings as we find in the other devakulikäs, but here the mouldings are not in the same alignment, the jangha is rich in orname. ntation, and below the varandika is a square bharani clasped by foliage. The jangha is supported by a mañcikā decorated with caitya-arch ornament. The mañcika on the bhadra, however, carries a kirttimukhaband. On the bhadra is stationed an image of four

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armed lalitasana goddess Prajāapti. To her right, pattern. The slabs are decorated with half diamonds, on the pratiratha and the karņa, are Mahākāli and elongated half diamonds, creepers, kirttimukhas, dikpala Varuna, and to her left are Käli and dikpala female carrying water pot, and kayotsarga Jina. Nissti, all having four arms and represented in the The asanapatta and kaksāsana are similar to those standing attitude. The goddesses are surmounted seen in the rangamandapa. A balustrade consisting by udgamas oversecting a kirttimukha-band which is of similar asana patta and kaksäsana may also be also carried on the karņa. Above the kirttimukha- seen on its southern end. band comes a narrow fillet and then follows comparatively larger udgama oversecting another Divided into seven bays the nalamandapa con. kirttimukha-band. The devakulika is crowned by a sists of eight pillars and four pilasters. The pillars Sikhara, now plastered up, but the rathika at its base run north-south in two lines of four each. Four of is exposed and shows an image of four-armed stan
these pillars rest on the kaksāsana placed right above ding goddess Cakreśvari. There is a makara.praņāla the porch. Of the four pilasters, two are located pierced into the khura on the north end.
near the door of the devakulikās and two rest on
the kakşāsana. Across these columns run architraThe exterior wall of the central devakulika on
ves which are spanned on the same level as those the east is similar to that of the west devakulika, placed across the rangamand apa pillars. On the but here the jangha is devoid of statuary and car. architraves, on the outer side, overhangs a corruries on its top a band of intersecting garland loops. gated eave-cornice. The roof of the northern
most bay is raised up by a set of four dwarf pillars Porch
placed on the kaksāsana pillars. The kaksāsana It is approached from the ground by a double pillars and the dwarf pillars are similar to the flight of steps, each comprising four steps. Square uccălakas of the rangamandapa. Two pillars of the on plan it is enclosed by a balustrade which con nälamandapa near the southern end are of the square sists of rajasenaka, vedika, asana patta and kaksāsana, order and correspond to the square pillars of the all devoid of carvings (Fig. 63). On the asanapatta mukhamandapa, but here the framed figures at the stand two pillars and two pilasters supporting a base of the shaft include only four-armed male ceiling on a square frame of plain architraves. The dancers and musicians. Two intermediate pillars ceiling is made by cutting off the corners, compri- are like the octagonal pillars of the devakulikās. sing three tiers of nine plain slabs. The door is The pilasters are similar to those seen in the modern. The porch is overshadowed by a corru- devakulikās, but the two kaksāsana pilasters do not gated awning over which is placed a kapota.
have the base, and their capital has square brac
kets carved with diamonds. The architraves are Nalamaņdapa
similar to those noticed in the mukhamandapa. On Built over the entrance porch and a stair of the front of the northernmost bay is thrown a five steps leading from the porch to the floor of beautiful torana-arch of the cusp-tilaka variety, the rangamandapa, the nälamandapa is a square pilla- emerging from the side brackets of the kaksāsana red mandaba. if the bay right above the porch is pillar-capitals and meeting in the centre of the excluded. It is laid out on a floor higher than the architrave across the dwarf pillars. The roof of corridor of the devakulikās and is approached from this bay is provided with a corrugated eave-cornice the latter by only one step.
followed above by subsequently built battlements. On the exterior (Fig. 63) it is enclosed by a Of the seven bays the two on either side have balustrade which consists of rajasenaka, vedikā, uncarved samatala ceilings, while the other three, asanapatta and kaksasana. The rājasenaka is decora- running north-south from one end to the ted with diamond-and-double volute pattern. The have domical ceilings. The domical ceiling in vedika is divided into upright posts alternating with the northern bay, i. e, the one built over the porch, depressed slabs, Below, the post is plain, and above, is square on plan and consists of seven plain courit depicts ghatapallava, foliate scrolls and volute ses, the lowermost being octagonal and the others,

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Jaina Temples of Western India
circular. The apical circular slab covering the identified) on the bhadras and karņas, and the repredome, however, is relieved with an open lotus sentation of half diamonds on the pratirathas. comprising two rows of petals, and sustains a Each of the bhadra goddesses is flanked on either small stamenal tube. The intermediate domical side by a dancer or musician. The jarigha, supported ceiling is rectangular on plan, but its space is by a mañcika having lambanas underneath, is reduced to a square by a frame of four plain divided into two registers by a plain median band rectangular slabs placed over the architraves. and is plain. On each bhadra, however, is a The dome, built on a square base, consists of four projecting sculptured niche surmounted in the courses, the lower most being octagonal and the varandika portion by a double-course udgama. But other three being circular of the padma type. All for the parikara the niches are empty. The varathe courses are devoid of carvings. The circular slab ndika consists of a narrow fillet, an usual mañcika, covering the dome is carved with a full-blown an usual kapota, and a ribbed eave-cornice bearing lotus flower having two rows of petals. Recently a diamond-and-bead band on the soffit. it has been painted. The domical ceiling on the southern end is similar to the preceding ceiling,
There is a makara-pranāla pierced into the
khura on the east. but the rectangular slabs forming the square frame depict intersecting garlands and foliage on the The Sikhara (Fig. 110) rises from a brahāra inner face and three full-blown lotus flowers, each which consists of a recessed fillet carved with diahaving two rows of petals, on the underside of the monds, and a kapota. The composition of the two shorter sides.
$ ikhara reveals a tryaniga malamañjari marked by
seven bhâmi-āmalakas, two uromañjaris and a rathika SAMBHAVANATHA TEMPLE
along each bhadra, two śrrigas (one large and one
small) over each pratiratha, a friga and a tilaka It is situated to the west of the Neminātha over each karna, and a pratyanga flanking on either temple. On plan it consists of a malapaāsāda, a side of the upper uromanjari. The argas of the gūdhamandapa with lateral entrance porches, and a milamajari terminate at the skandha which is carved Tangamandapa, the whole being surrounded by a with diamonds, but the bhadra offsets extend to the präkära having projections against the lateral griva which is crowned by a large ämalaka clasped porches of the gūdhamandapa (Fig. 110). The by a diamond-and-bead band, a candrikā, a smaller temple is entered only from the north through a amalaka, a kalaša and a bija piraka. The dhvajabataka lately erected porch landed up from the ground
is modern, but the dhvajadhara seems to be old. by a flight of ten steps.
The uromasjaris are similar to the malamasjari,
but the diamond-and-bead band is conspicuous Malaprāsada
by its absence on the large amalaka and the It is tryanga on plan, consisting of bhadra, prati.
lower uromañjari is divided only into five stages ratha and karna, each broken into three planes, but
of bhümi-amalakas. All the frågas and pratyavigas the bhadra displays five planes in the pitha. Bet
also have three angas and are crowed by two ween the karşas and pratirathas are saliläntaras that
amalakas. Between the sprigas are represented
gajamuşdas.
The frontal karya are not extended to the pitha.
The tilakas shelter images of fourand pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer wall which
armed standing goddesses. The rathikas are su. separates the gūdhamandapa from the sanctum.
pported by a pañcaratha pedestal carved with half
lotuses and are flanked on two sides by balcony The pitha is simple, comprising bhitta, jadya- models. Each rathika shelters an image of fourkumbha, karnikā and pattika. The vedibandha con armed goddess attended upon either side by a sists of a khura, khumbha, kalaša, antarapatra, and female cauri-bearer. The goddess stands crosskapota decorated with udgama pattern. The kumbha legged on a console carved with lotus plant and is carries images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses canopied overhead by a hood and a double-course (Cakreśvari, Jvālāmālini and Vajrāňkusi being udgama. The goddess in the east rathika is Vajrāv

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kusi, while those in the south and west rathika are Each of the lateral porches (Fig. 111) is approaCakresvari and Sarasvati respectively. Except for ched from the court by a flight of three steps the frigas the entire Sikhara shows a fretwork of cut across the pitha mouldings. Square on plan minute caitya-arch motif.
each proch consists of two pillars and two pila
sters and is covered by a domical ceiling supporOn the northern facade of the Sikhara is a blind ted on a square frame of architraves. The balconied window lodged over the buffer wall. The pillars are of the octagonal type. Their base window has a phasana roof crowned by a fluted consists of a bhitta, khura, kumbha decorated with bell, a kalata and a bijapäraka. The phānisanā also half diamonds, kalaša, antara patra and kapota. The supports a lion which springs from the uroman jari. shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the
middle and circular on the top, the last section beThe doorframe of the sanctum is of the dvifakha
ing surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing variety, consisting of patrašakha and stambhašākha. chains which are secured below by a band of diaThe batrafākha is decorated with foliate scrolls and monds and beads. The capital has a double course carries a female pitcher-bearer on the lower part, round bharani of karnikā and padma, surmounted while the stambhafakha is plain. The udumbara shows by four-armed double-roll brackets bearing the a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed representation of half kurttimukha on the side lotus in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on face of each bracket. The pilasters are five-faceeach side of it, and a sculptured niche shelter- ted and have similar base and capital as are noing Sarvānubhüti on extreme right and Ambikā ticed in the pillars, but here the bhitta of the base on extreme left, both having four arms and is carved with diamonds. The lower part of the sitting in lalitasana. The uttaranga continues shaft is plain, while above, it displays flamboyant the decorative bands of the fakhas and depicts pattern in beaded half circles, ghatapallava, foliate a padmasana Jina in dhyanamudra on the lalāta. scrolls, half blown lotus, ardhapadma motif, and In front of the door is a moonstone which con- lastly kirttimukhas spewing chains which are secured sists of an ardhacandra tied at both ends with below by a band of diamonds and beads. The gagāraka Sankha and lotus stem and flanked in turn architraves are divided into two fasciae. The lower by a talarüpaka. Inside the sanctum is an image fascia is decorated with lotus scrolls emerging from of Sambhavanātha carved in the round and seated the mouth of a kiritimukha represented in the centre, in dhyanamudrā on a moulded pedestal. The im- and the upper is carved with a strip of diamonds. age seems to be a later one but the pedestal is old. In the centre of their underside is carved in very The pedestal consists of three bhittas, a jadyakumbha, shallow relief a medallion consisting of three cona karnika. an antarapatra decorated with diamonds, centric circles. The ceiling is composed of five and a kabota. In the centre of the pedestal is de- courses, the first being octagonal and the others. picted an image of Lakşmi.
circular. The inner face of the octagonal course is
decorated with a row of geese, while its underside The buffer wall, in the interior, contains two at each corner is plain. The next three courses are sunk niches. But for the parikara nothing now
padmas, each decorated with lotus petals. The fifth remains in the east niche, while that on the west
is in the form of ceiling-slab relieved with a fullshelters a couple of Srävaka and Srävikā standing how
blown lotus flower comprising two rows of petals. with folded hands. Probably they are the donors
The ceiling is raised up by a square frame of surof this temple.
architraves decorated with ardhapadma pattern.
The roof, now plastered up, has a corrugated Gūdhamaņdapa
awning overhanging the architraves. The door
and the moonstone are similar to those seen in the It is duyanga on plan, consisting of bhadra and
sanctum. karya, each broken into three planes. It shares its pitha and mandovara with the sanctum, but the The northern doorframe is ornate (Fig. 112.) superstructure is now plastered up with lime, It is of the trifakha variety, consisting of patrafakha,
19
Jain Education Intematonal

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stambhasākha and bāhyaśākha. The patrašākha is Rangamandapa decorated with foliate scrolls. The stambhašākha, The rangamandapa, square on plan, rests on a pitha with cut off corners, bears similar decorations as which is but a continuum of that of the malaprāsāda. we notice on the pilasters of the lateral porches. It is landed up from the north side of the court by but is flanked on each side by a bakulamala. The a flight of four steps cut across the pitha mouldings. bāhyas ākha is plain. The lower part of the Sakhas It displays a forest of ten pillars disposed along its is occupied by a framed figure of Pratibāra accom- three sides and two pilasters flanking the door of panied on each side by two female attendants, one the gūdhamandapa. Of these columns, six pillars of which towards the opening carries a cauri. The and two pilasters are arranged in an octagon, udumbara is similar to that seen in the sanctum, supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal but the images in the niches are flankad on both frame of architraves. The pillars are similar to sides by cauri-bearers. The uttaranga continues the those seen in the lateral porches of the gâdhamadecoration of the patrašakha and depicts a padma- ndapa. The architraves are plain. The five-faceted sana Jina in dhyānamudrā on the lalāta. The over- pilasters are ornate. Their base consists of a khura door shows a row of nine miniature fikharas, six of decorated with diamonds, kumbha carved with half which contain images of lalitāsana goddesses. diamonds, kalata, antarapatra, and kapota embellish
ed with caitya-arch ornament. Below, the shaft Internally, the gūdhamandapa is square having
shows a framed image of four-armed standing its wall reinforced by eight pilasters. The pilasters
goddess accompanied on each side by a female are arranged in an octagon and support a domical
cauri-bearer. The goddess on proper right is ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The
Cakreśvari, while the goddess on proper left could pilasters are very similar to the pillars of the lateral
not be identified as her vāhana and the objects held porches, but the circular section of the shaft
by her are mutilated. Above, the shaft displays is plain here. The architraves are also similar
three successive niches, each containing an image to those found in the porches, but their underside
of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied on shows a lotus medallion. The domical ceiling is
either side by a female attendant. The niches are composed of seven circular courses. The first
surmounted by tri-arch pediments with pair of course is decorated with a strip of diamonds. The
geese. The shaft terminates at the top in a next five are padmas, each incised with lotus petals.
ghatapallava. The capital has a double-course square The seventh, closing up the dome, has flat surface relieved with an open lotus having two corollas of
bharaṇi of kar Ņika and padma, topped by double
roll brackets carrying half kirttimukhas on their petals. The four corners at the base of the dome
side faces. The dome is composed of eleven are plain,
circular courses. The first depicts ardhapadma in The interior wall of the gūdhamandapa contains semi-circles. The next nine courses consist of twelve sunk niches, each topped by an udgama, but padmas and are plain. The topmost course is the images installed therein are gone now. In relieved with an open lotus comprising two rows some may be seen vestiges of parikara. The pari- of petals and a flower bud. The four corners at kara in two niches is canopied by a seven-hooded the base of the dome are plain. The roof of the cobra, indicating that originally these contained rangamaşdapa, now plastered up, has a corrugated images of Parávanātha.
eave-cornice.
GIRNAR NEMINĀTHA TEMPLE
porches, and a rectangular hall terminating This is a sāndhāra-prāsāda standing in an oblong at the west end in a balcony window which courtyard measuring 190 ft. by 130 ft. It consists almost overhangs the nearly perpendicular scarp of a malaprāsāda enclosed by an inner pradaksiņā. of the hill (Text. Fig. 4; Fig. 53). The temple patha, a gūdhamandapa with lateral entrance complex is surrounded by a row of seventy one

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4. Plan of the Neminātha temple at Girnar

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devakulikās with a colonnaded corridor in front. As The composition of each bhadra above the regards the orientation, the temple faces west. The pitha is different. Here it shows a balconied winprincipal entrance was originally on the east side dow, the component parts of which are carried up of the courtyard, but it has now been closed, and to the varandika. The vertical wall of the balcony the one used is from the Khangar's Mehal on the consists of rajas enaka,vedika,asanapatta and kaksäsana. south side of the court. An opening is also found the portion up to the asanapatta is divided into on the north side of the court. The side entrances five offsets, three on the front and one on each side. on the north and south are coaxially arranged with Each offset is broken into three planes. Between the gūdhamanda pa doors.
the offsets are recesses, and the recesses in the raja
senaka portion show diamonds framed by pilasters. The temple has considerably suffered from
The asanapatta with an udgama and two bells restoration. In the court are some small shrines
(rooflets) boldly projects over each offset, while it standing independently or built against the wall
recedes with two kirttimukhas and a bell over each of the present temple. These small shrines are
recess. The asanapatta is clasped on either end by very late erections and have marred the beauty of
a drooping foliage. The kaksāsana is divided into the temple. The floor of the court has been raised
three horizontal belts, all being plain. On the up by a layer of stone masonry, so that some of the
asanapatta of the kaksāsana, at the two corners, are pitha mouldings of the temple and the lower step of
placed two squat pillars which support a corrugathe devakulikäs are now concealed from view. In
ted eave-cornice overhanging the architrave across spite of the work of vandalism the temple retains
the pillars. The pillars consist of only shaft and its original character.
capital. The sbaft is square at the base, octagonal
in the middle and circular on the top. The capiMülaprāsada
tal has a double course round bnarani of karnika and It is tryaniga on plan, consisting of bhadra, prati
padma, surmounted by four-armed roll brackets. ratha and karya, each broken into three planes.
The space between these pillars is filled with perThe karya and pratiratha are not only equilateral but
forated stone grilles through which diffused light they also have the same proportions. Between the
enters the inner pradaksinapatha. angas are saliläntaras. The faliläntaras between the
Pierced into the rājasenaka, on the north side, karyas and pratirathas contain kopikäs which are
is a makara-praņāla. not carried down to the pitha.
The sikhara, separated from the eave-cornice of Its elevational (Fig. 54) scheme displays pitha, the mandovara by a recessed fillet, displays a tryanga vedibandha. jangha, varandika and Sikhara. The pitha malamañjari marked by nine bhūmi-āmalakas, three consists of two bhittas, a jād yakumbha, a karņika, a uromañjaris—the lower showing five bhūmi-āmalakas, chadyaki carved with caitya-arch motif, and a plain and the middle and upper carrying seven bkūnipattika. The v dibandha pertains to khura, Rumbha amalakas-and a rathikä along each bhadra, a small bearing carving of half diamonds incised with flam- briga on either flank of the rathika, two Sprigas over boyant pattern, kalaša, antara patra, and kapota em- each pratiratha, and three frigas over each karpa. bellished with udgama pattern. The jarigha, divided Between the sprigas of the karmas and pratirathas into two registers by a plain paffika and also sur. are placed nastassigas and gajamundas. The gajamumounted by a similar pattikā, is plain. The janghā ndas are also seen on the flanks of the other frigas. is supported by a marcika and is crowned on each The angas of the milamajari terminate at the central plane by a two-course stepped pediment skandha, but the bhadra extends to the grivä which is bearing squated monkeys at the corners of the crowned by a large amalaka, a candrika, a smaller angas and the koạikäs. The pediment oversects on amalaka, a kalaga and a bijapäraka. The dhuajapataka the top a plain fillet. Above this comes a projected
is modern, but the dhvajadhara seems to be old. fillet decorated with rosette-marked diamonds. The All the uromafjarts and Srigas are of the tryaniga varandika consists of a kapota and a ribbed eave- type and have similar crowning members as we find cornice.
in case of the malamafiljari (Fig. 54).

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149
Flanked by two balcony models and surmounted slabs, and a sculptured niche on either end. The by a triple udgama, each rathika contains a figure niches depict Sarvānubhūti on proper right and of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied on Ambika on proper left, both having four arms and either side by a female cauri-bearer. The goddess seated in lalitasana. Each of these images is accomin the south rathika is Vairotyä. She holds snake panied by two female cauri-bearers. The uttaranga and shield in the upper right and left hands, while is divided into two registers. The lower register her lower two hands are in the bhūmisparsamudrā; displays a ghata pallava capital crowning the sākhas her snake cognizance is shown below the seat on either end, while the space in between them is The goddess in the the east rathika is Cakresvari filled with the band of lotus-scroll carried up from rode on Garuda. She carries discs in her upper the patrašakha, and a row of Maladharas facing the hands, her lower right hand is in the abhayamudra lalațabimba which represents a padmasana Jina in and the corresponding left one holds a Saikha. The dhyānamudra. The upper register depicts five goddess in the north rathika may be identified with projecting sculptured niches containing images of Mānasi. She bears lotuses in her upper hands, four-armed lalitāsana goddesses accompanied by varadamudra in the lower right hand and a water female attendants. A similar doorframe may also pot in the corresponding left one. She has swan be seen in the northern entrance of this temple as her cognizance. In the lower right corner of (Fig. 57). the goddess is a devotee with folded hands. On the top of each rathika is a lion seated on his haun
The ambulatory around the garbhagyha is coverches. The lion in the south ratkika has disappeared.
ed by three courses of gajatālus. The two pillars Above the balcony model and flanking the udgama
supporting these courses on each bhadra are of the are tilakas sheltering lalitasana goddesses with
square type. Their base and shaft are now plasattendant figures.
tered up with a thick coat of white lime, and
the capital which is exposed to view has a doubleThe front facade of the fikhara shows only one course round bharayi of karnika and padma, topped uromanijari, the others have been replaced by a blind by four-armed roll brackets. The architraves window surmounted by a triple stepped pediment. across these pillars are plain. The antarabkıtti of The lower course of the pediment is crowned by the garbhagsha, now entirely coated with lime, has an elephant seated on his hind legs. The next an emptied sculptured niche on each facade. Each course carries three lions seated on their haunches; of these niches consists of two moulded pillaretes one of these lions faces front, while the other two joined by a lintel bearing an image of padmāsana face to the sides. The crowning member of the Jina in dhyānamudrä on the lalața. The niche is top course is missing; at the base of this course, on crowned by a ribbed eave-cornice and an elegant either side, can be seen a sculptured niche contai- udgama pediment. ning an image of standing goddess with attendant
Inside the garbhagrha is installed a large image figures.
in black stone of Neminātha seated in dhyanamudra. The door of the sanctum is of the pañcasakha His cognizance, $arikha, is engraved on the cushion type. It consists of patrašakha decorated with lotus placed on the pedestal. scrolls, rāpasakha, rafastambha, räpasākha, and bähyafakha carved with lotus petals. The lower part Gudhamandapa of the fakkās is occupied by a Pratihära flanked on
Articulated diagonally at the frontal pratiratha each side by a female cauri-bearer. Above this of the milaprāsāda, the güdhamandapa is also tryaniga the räpastambha carries four successive niches contai- on plan. It shares its pitha and mandovara mouldings ning images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses, with the mülaprāsada and is roofed by a sanaraņā while the ripasakhas display figures of female (Fig. 55). The samvaraṇa rises from a mañcika and attendants, two flanking each goddess of the is composed of twelve rows of ghantās followed rūpastambha. The udumbara shows a semi-circular alternately by twelve rows of kāțas. On the top is projection in the centre, now covered with marble a large ghanta, and on the four ridges are compa

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Faina Temples of Western India
ratively smaller ghanțās. Each ghanga is topped by seems to be a later one. In front of this door is a kalata and a bijapāraka. At the base of the samva- also noticed a torana-arch between the pillars. This taņā, in each cardinal direction, is a rathika contain- arch is similar to the one just described, but here ing a four-armed standing goddess flanked on either the figure of Jina is lustrated by two elephants. side by two female cauri-bearers and a male atten- Besides, it bears figures of monkeys on the upper dant. The goddess in the north rathika is Vajran. edge. kusi. She holds vajra and ankuta in her upper hands, and varad amudrā and fruit in the lower ones;
The interior of the gūdhamandapa measures she has elephant as her vāhana. In absence of cog.
across from door to door 41 ft. 7 inches by 44 ft. 7 nizance the goddess in the south rathika is unidenti.
inches. Its roof is supported by twenty-two square fied. She carries lotuses in her upper hands, and
pillars, now coated with white lime, while its floor varadamudra and fruit in the lower ones. The rathika
is paved with beautifully tesselated marble. Eight in the west direction is completely destroyed.
of these pillars are arranged in an octagon, dividFlanking the rathikās are kūtas bearing images of
ing thus the entire area of the gūdhamandapa into standing or seated goddesses identifiable with Am
a central nave and the surrounding aisle. The bika, Cakreśvari, Vajraspökhala, etc.
pillars of the nave support a carved domical
ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The Rectangular on plan each of the lateral entrance pillars have a square base; their shaft is square at porches is approached from the courtyard by a the base, octagonal in the middle and circular on flight of four steps. It consists of two pillars and the top; and the capital consists of a double-course two pilasters and has a plain samatala ceiling sup- round bharaṇi of karnikā and padma, surmounted by ported on a rectangular frame of architraves. The four or five-armed makara and roll brackets. The porches are shaded by a corrugated eave-cornice. pillars forming octagon are provided with uccalaThe pillars, pilasters and doorsill are now covered kas, which have a square base, a circular shaft and with marble slabs, but the capital of the columns an usual capital, but here the makara brackets are is exposed, displaying a double-course round bharani replaced by roll brackets. The architraves are of karnikā and padma, and a four-armed double-roll divided into two fasciae. The lower fascia depicts bracket. Between the pillars, on the front side, is creepers that issue from the mouth of a kiritimukha thrown a seven-cusped torașa-arch which issues carved in the centre. The upper one has two ornafrom the mouth of a projecting makara inserted into mental bands, the lower showing lambanas and the middle of the pillar shaft and meets in the lotus petals, and the upper displaying diamonds in centre of the underside of the architrave. In the volutes. In the centre of their underside is carved centre of the arch is a figure of Jina seated in dhy in low relief a medallion consisting of three conānamudra; he is flanked on each side by Gandharvas centric circles. From the side brackets of the and Vidyadharas. The remaining part of the arch pillar capitals, which are treated as makara-heads, shows a row of musicians, dancers, horse-riders, emerge usual cusped torana-arches meeting in the elephants and monkeys; the arch in one instance centre of the architrave (Fig. 56). The other bracalso shows bullock-cart. From each cusp of the kets of the pillar capitals support struts of Apsarās arch hangs down a circular pendant. Compared and färdalas. tenoned into the brackets of the 10 that in the south porch, the arch in the north uccālakas. The Apsarās are shown in handsome porch is poor in workmanship. The single-fākha poses of dance; at times they are represented door is adorned with lotus scrolls and is flanked on
as securing her lower garment which is being the outer side by a band of lotus petals. At the carried down by a diminutive gaña rode on her base of the fakhā stands a female carrying water thigh. Being coated with white lime the beauty
of these figures are considerably marred. Apart from the lateral entrances, the gadhaman- The domical ceiling belongs to the sabhämärga dapa also has an entrance on the west side led order (Fig. 56). It commences from each column through the rectangular hall. But this doorframe forming octagon by a square block carved
pot,

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151
with an image of four-armed lalitäsana goddess coated with white lime. Each bay of the devakulikās accompanied on each side by a female cauri-bearer. has an uncarved ceiling supported on a square The dome is composed of nine circular courses. frame of plain architraves. The ceiling is made The first is karnadardarika surmounted by a kirtti- by cutting off the corners, comprising three tiers of mukha-band. The second depicts figures of dancers, nine slabs. Each devakulika enshrines an image of horse-riders and elephants with drivers. The third, Jina seated in dhyānamudra. These Jina images fourth and fifth are gajatalus, each topped by three are built of white marble. The devakulikās are decorative bands of diamonds and beads, leaves, overshadowed towards the court by an overhanging and lotus petals. The sixth, seventh, eighth and corrugated eave-cornice. The exterior walls of the ninth consist of sixteen-foil, twelve-foil, eight-foil devakulikās have also been plastered up. and quatrefoil kolas respectively. The kolas carry figures of Vidyadharas on the points and of kirtti- VASTUPALAVIHARA mukhas on the triangular spaces, while their edges It consists of three shrines, each leading out of are adorned with lotus petals. The kola in the sixth one of the sides of a square central hall, while the course, however, depicts lotus petals on the trian- fourth side provides entrance to the temple from gular spaces and diamonds and beads on the edges. the west (Text Fig. 5; Fig. 53). Compared to the The keystone is treated like a circular kola. From
Neminātha temple described above, this temple the second course project out sixteen brackets
has more suffered in the hands of renovators, who carried by four-armed Vidyadharas playing on out of zeal to restore and beautify it have so some musical instruments or carrying lotuses and inadvertently repaired it that all its architectural knife. Each of these brackets supports a strut of and sculptural peculiarities have vanished. Exterof charming Apsarā figure, the stele of which is nally, the domes have been coated with broken tenoned into the lower most kola course. The China wares, while their other parts are whitewashed surrounding aisle is also covered by two gajatālu or coated with white lime. The interior of the courses.
temple, particularly the ceilings, is painted in Rectangular Hall
hideous colours, whereas the pillars have been
encased with marble slabs or coated with white It measures about 38 ft. by 21 ft. It houses two
lime. raised platforms covered with slabs of a closegrained yellowish stone bearing representations of East Shrine feet in pair, probably of the Ganadharas. The hall,
Measuring 53 ft. by 29.6 ft, this shrine consists now completely whitewashed, seems to be a later
of two chambers, viz. a sanctum and a pillared creation, probably removing the mukhamandapa.82
hall. The sanctum is Iryaniga on plan, consisting Devakulikā
of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, each broken into Standing on a wide platform the devakulikās are five planes upto the pitha and into three planes approached from the court by a flight of three above that. The karya and pratiratha are equilasteps cut across the platform. They are screened
teral and have the same proportions, while the by a double arcade of pillars in the east wing and
bhadra, which is only slightly projected, is almost in the west end of the north wing, and by one
double the size of these. Between the argas are arcade of pillars on the remaining sides (Fig. 58).
salilāntaras. The salilāntaras between the karnas The floor of the open corridor is paved with tesse- and pratirathas are reinforced with komikās. lated marble. The pillars of the devakulikās have a In elevation the sanctum displays pitha, vedibasquare base consisting of a khura, a kumbha decorated ndha, jangha, varandika and fikhara. The pitha conwith half diamonds, and a kalasa. Their shaft is sists of two bhittas, a jādyakumbha, a karņika, a chasquare at the base, octagonal in the middle and dyaki underlined with leaves, a grāsapatti, and a circular on the top; and the capital has a short deep fillet carved with diamonds. The vedibandha bharaṇi of padma, surmounted by four-armed roll comprises khura, kumbha carrying sculptured niches brackets. The pilasters and the doors are now on the body and foliage on the shoulder, kalat a

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decorated with beaded garlands and rosettes, mounted by pediments the rathikas contain sculo antara patra, and kapota adorned with caitya-arch ptures of lalitäsana goddesses with attendant figures. pattern and underlined with leaves. The jangha, Since the whole of the exterior is now plastered up supported by a mañcikā underlined with leaves and with lime, it is very hard to give a detailed descricarrying lambanas underneath, bears figure sculp- ption of each and every part. tures. The jarigha sculptures are crowned by udgamas which oversect on top a kirttimukha-band. The door of the sanctum is of the catustakha Above the udgama comes a round bharani clasped variety, consisting of patrašakha, hansafakha, stambhaby drooping foliage. The varandikā consists of two Sakha and hansas akha. The säkhās are separated
from one another by bakulamalas. The patrašakha kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice.
is decorated with lotus scrolls with their root below. The bhadra above the pitha is treated differently. The hamsašākhas carry figures of geese at intervals. Here, it shows a projecting niche enclosed by a The stambhašākha, with cut off corners, is segmented, balustrade and surmounted by a corrugated awning carrying geese in pair on the front facet. At the and a sculptured pediment. The niches are empty lower part of the stambhafakha is represented a now. Vertically, the balustrade is divided into framed figure of four-armed standing goddess. The five offsets, three on the front and one on each udumbara is divided into two registers. The lower side. Between the offsets are placed recesses. register shows mouldings of bhitta, jadyakumbha, Horizontally, the balustrade consists of a fillet, a karnikā and pattika. The upper register displays a rājasenaka, a vedika, an asana patta and a kaksāsana. semi-circulas projection carved with stemmed lotus The fillet is decorated with ardhapadma motif. The in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each side rājasenaka is decorated with udgama and diamond- of it, and a sculptured niche containing an image and-double volute pattern. The vedikā carries of Yaksa on extreme right and of Yakși on extreme figure sculptures on the offsets, and creepers left. The uttaranga is also divided into two registers. and scrolls in the recesses. The asana patta with The lower register shows a ghatapallava capital with udpama and bells projects boldly over each three recessed angles topping the fakhas on either sculpture, while it recedes with kirttimukhas over end, while the space in between them is filled with the recesses. The kakşasana is divided into three the decorative bands carried over here from the horizontal belts, the lower being decorated with patrašakha and the inner hansašākha. On the lalata flamboyant pattern, the middle with medallions is represented a figure of Jina seated in dhyanamudra. framed by segmented pilasters, and the upper with The upper register depicts five lalita sana goddesses foliate scrolls.
in projecting niches and diamonds in alternate
recesses. The part of the lower register below each The Sikhara rises without a prahāra. Its com-
niche is projected like cornice carrying geese in pair
ni position reveals a tryanga mālamasjari marked by on its extrados nine bhūmi-āmalakas, three uromasijaris and a rathika along each bhadra, two śrågas over each karna and
Originally, the shrine was dedicated to Adinātha, pratiratha, and a pratyanga leaning upon either side
but at present a black stone image of Parsvanatha
etween the frigas of is worshipped as mälanāyaka.3 In the east wall the bottom row are placed tilakas. The angas of of the shrine is a niche containing an image of the malamasjari terminate at the skandha which is Mallinatha." carved with diamonds, but the bhadra goes to the Articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum, grivā which is crowned by a large amalaka, a candrika the hall is a square pillared mandapa having projeca smaller amalaka, a kalaša and a bijapuraka. The tions on the lateral sides. It shares its pitha with top of the bhadra is occupied by a human face the sanctum and is enclosed by a short balustrade. which is quite a late feature. The Srigas, uromanija. The balustrade consists of rājasenaka, vedika and ris and pratyarigas are also of the tryunga type and asanapatia. The vedika is divided into upright posts carry similar crowning members as we get in the alternating with offsets. The offsets carry figure malamañjari. Flanked by balcony models and sur sculptures or rosettes. On the asanapata are placed

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5. Plan of Vastupālavihära at Girnar
20

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Jaina Temples of Western India
square pillars which support on architraves a corrugated eave-cornice and a series of doublecurved eave-cornices. Between the eave-cornices intervene various decorative belts, bharani with drooping foliage, and sculptural forms. The mandapa is roofed by a samvarana which, in the interior, is supported by ten octagonal type of pillars, eight of which form an octagon. The pillars resting on the asanapaṭṭa have a square base; their shaft is octagonal below and circular above, the latter being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are fastened below by a band of diamonds and beads; and the capital has a doublecourse round bharani of karnika and padma, topped by four-armed double-roll brackets. The wall above the balustrade is now closed, but originally it was either open or encased with perforated stone grilles.
Central Hall
This is a square pillared maṇḍapa having its roof supported by twelve pillars. The pillars are so disposed as to form a square nave in the centre and an aisle on its each side. Ten of these pillars are of the octagonal type, and two belong to the square order. There is no partition wall between this mandapa and the one in front of the eastern shrine. On the west it is enclosed by a balustraded wall which is similar to that seen in the mandapa of the eastern shrine, but here the asanapatta is adorned with kiritimukhas and bells. Besides, the offsets of the vedikā here carry only diamond-shaped rosettes. It has a domical roof over the nave, while at each corner it is roofed by a samvaraṇā.
The engress to this maṇḍapa is obtained from the west through a porch (Fig. 109) which is landed up by a flight of four steps cut across its basement, which consists of a khura, kumbha decorated with half diamonds, kalasa, antarapatra, and kapota adorned wi h caitya-arch pattern and underlined with leaves. Rectangular on plan the porch consists of two pillars and two pilassers and has a ceiling supported on a rectangular frame of architraves. Its door as well as other parts are coated with white lime. It is shaded by a corrugated eave-cornice. Since the porch does not possess its independent roof, the samvarana of the mandapa is extended over it with a

gable end on the front. The gable displays a sculpture of lalitasana goddess Cakresvari with attendant figures and some other divine figures. These sculptures are placed in a five-cusped arch which issues from the mouth of a makara represented on either end.
North and South Shrines
Each of these shrines is in the form of a pillared mandapa, the central area of which is almost filled with a monument of solid masonry. The monument on the north has a square base and is called Aṣṭāpada, the fabled mountain Meru or Sumeru, while that on the south is circular on plan and is named Sammeta Šikhara, that is Mt. Parávanatha in Bihar. Measuring about 386 ft. from door to door, each shrine is entered from all the four sides; three of these on the outer sides are led through a porch, while the fourth is obtained from the central hall. Their duyanga plan displays bhadra and karna, each anga being broken into several planes. The pitha and mandovara (Fig. 108) are like those seen in the east shrine, but the bhadra in the south shrine is enclosed above the pitha by a short balustrade. This balustrade consists of a rājasenaka, a vedikā and an asanpaṭṭa. The rajasenaka is decorated with diamond-and-double volute pattern. The vedika is divided into upright posts alternating with depressed slabs and carries sculptured niches at ends of the corners. The asanapaṭṭa is plain. On the asanapaṭṭa are put up pillars which support on architraves an overhanging corrugated eavecornice. The pillars consist of only shaft and capital. The shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen
sided in the middle and circular on the top, the last one being surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are secured below by a band of diamonds and beads. The capital has a doublecourse round bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by doube-roll brackets. The side face of each bracket is carved with a half kirttimukha. Like the other mandapas, the wall here also is now closed up. The wall obove the eave-cornice on the bhadra and the karna is further carried up, but it is repaired beyond recognition.
Articulated at the bhadra each porch is rectangular on plan and is approached by a flight of

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three or four steps cut across the pitha. Enclosed Internally, the roof of the north shrine is by a short balustrade the porch consists of two supported on sixteen octagonal pillars, while that pillars and two pilasters resting on the balustrade of the south shrine rests on twelve pillars. These and has a ceiling supported on a rectangular frame pillars are arranged almost in a circle. The most of architraves. It is shaded by two eave-cornices remarkable structures in these shrines are the and is surmounted by a bell-roof bearing sculptu- mountains, each rising in four tiers of diminishing red niches at its base. The lower eave-cornice is width, almost to the roof, and crowned by a quadof the corrugated type, while the upper one belongs ruple image of Jinas with a canopy overhead. To to the ribbed variety. Between the eave-cornices can reach the upper tiers for worshipping the Jinas be seen a kapota and a fillet carved with diamonds. there is an arrangement of stairs. The mountain The balustrade and the pillars are similar to those as well as the pillar in the north shrine is wholly noticed in the south shrine, but the pillar-shaft covered with white lime. But the same in the has in addition a square section at the base. The south shrine is well preserved. Here, the first tier, pilasters are five-faceted. Their capital corres- the circularity of which is broken by semi-circular ponds to the pillars, but the shaft is ornate and projections, consists of a bhitta type of moulding displays, from bottom to top, mouldings of khura, decorated with diamonds, and four decorative kumbha, kalaba, a broad belt decorated with scrolls, bands, each carved with lotus petals, but the topa deep fillet adorned with diamonds, a plain fillet, most band on the circular projected portion depicts kumbha, kalaša and lastly ghatapallava. The archi- sculptures of lalitasana goddesses instead of lotus traves are plain but for a lotus medallion carved in petals. The second tier has two bhittas, two low relief in the centre of their underside.
kumbhas-the lower being adorned with half diamonds, and the upper being plain-, a minor kapota decorated with caitya-arch enrichment, two bands
of lotus petals, a band carved with lotus scrolls and The ceiling of the porch is rectangular on plan,
underlined with leaves, and a band embellished but its space is reduced to a square by a frame of
with tree motif and underlined with a band of four rectangular slabs placed over the anchitraves.
diamonds. The third tier is similar to the second The inner face of the frame is adorned with dia
but shows semi-circular projection in each cardinal monds, while the underside of slabs on the two shorter sides is decorated with three full and two
point. The fourth tier consists of a khura, kumbha half lotuses, each comprising three rows of petals.
decorated with half diamonds, kalaša, kapota deco
rated with caitya-arch pattern, a band carved with The side spaces between the lotuses are occupied
diamonds, a band adorned with lotus scrolls and by concave-sided half diamonds incised with flam- underlined with leaves, a deep fillet, and lastly a boyant pattern. The ceiling proper consists of three hand carved with tree motif and underlined with a courses, the first being octagonal and the others,
strip of diamonds. circular. The first depicts a row of geese on the inner face, and a large kirtti mukha at each corner
The interior pillars in the south shrine are also on the underside. The second is karnadardarikā sur well preserved. The base of these octagonal pillars mounted by a row of annulets. The third is a consists of a khura, kumbha, kalaba, antarapatra, and large circular slab having its flat surface relieved kapota adorned with caitya-arch motif. The shaft is with a full-blown lotus flower having three rows of divided into three sections, the lower being octagopetals and a central pistil. The door is similar to nal, the middle showing a sixteen-sided section, and that seen in the sanctum of the east shrine, but the upper having a circular section. The first two here is a Pratihāra at the base of the stambhafakha. sections are plain, while the circular section is crowBesides, the figures of geese in pair are conspicuous ned by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains by their absence, and the patrašākha in some porches that are held in position below by a band of dia. is decorated with foliate scrolls. On the overdoor of monds and beads. The shaft is surmounted by the porches are six inscriptions, all dated in V. S. two capitals. The lower capital consists of a 1288 (1231 A. D.).
double-course round bharani of karņikā and padma,

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surmounted by four-armed square brackets inset The living rock on the front of the temple is with diamonds. The bharani of the upper capital is moulded in accordance with the plan of the shrines. similar to the lower one, but the brackets are of Jinaprabhasūri informs that the two brothers, the double-roll type, bearing decoration of half Vastupāla and Tejapāla, spent twelve crores and kirttimukhas on their side faces.
eighty lacs at Girnar,85
SEJAKPUR
JAINA TEMPLE
This is a small ruined temple consisting of a mülapräsada, a gādhamandapa and a mukhamandapa. At present, nothing remains at the site, all our information is based on the report of Cousens who has published the general view (Fig. 66) and plan (Text Fig. 6) of the temple.88
kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice. The jarigha on each bhadra carries a sculptured niche crowned by an udgama pediment. The fikhara is of the multiturreted class, enmeshed entirely with a lattice of caitya-arches. At the base of the Sikhara, in the cardinal directions, are rathikas containing figure sculptures and flanked by ornate balcony models. Remains of tilakas can also be seen.
The interior of the garbhagyha is square with corners broken into three angles. On the lateral sides are niches.
Malaprasada
It is tryaniga on plan, consisting of bhadra, prati- Tatha and karna, the latter two being broken into five planes upto the pitha and into three planes above that, while the bhadra is broken into seven and five planes respectively. Between the angas are salilantaras, and the salilāntaras between the karņas and pratirathas are reinforced with minor konikas which are not carried down to the pitha. The karya and pratiratha are not only equilateral but they also have the same proportion, while the bhadra is comparatively wider. The frontal karna and pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer wall which separates the gūdhamandapa from the mulaprāsada.
Gudhamapdapa
It is caturanga on plan, consisting of bhadra, nandika, pratiratha and karna. The karna and bhadra, almost equal in width, are broken into eleven planes, while the pratiratha and nandika are broken into three planes. It shares its pitha and mandovara with the milaprasada; the part above the wall is gone.
The interior shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pillars attached at the angles of the wall. These form a square nave with a projecting angle at each corner; to this a long aisle is added on each side. By this device the inter-columniation between the corner pillars is less than that on the sides. The pillars are of the octagonal type. The pillars and the architraves are elaborately carved.
In elevation it is divided into pitha, vedibandha, jangha, varandika and Sikhara. The pitha consists of two bhittas-the lower being plain and the upper showing decoration of half diamonds, a jādyakumbha bearing incision of lotus leaves, a karnika and a grāsapatti. The vedibandha pertains to khura, kumbha bearing figure sculptures on the body and foliage on the shoulder, kalata carved with beaded garland and rosette design, antara patra and kapota. The jangha, supported by a mancika, carries figure scul- ptures. The jangha sculptures are framed between segmented circular pilasters and are surmounted above by udgama pediments. Above the jangha comes a recessed fillet followed by bharani clasped by drooping foliage. The varandika consists of two
Mukhamapdapa
It is rectangular on plan and is divided probably into six bays. The pitha mouldings and their ornamentations are but the continuum of those of the malaprasada. The pillars belong to the square type and are richly carved. On each side of the gadhamandapa door is a khattaka facing front and placed against the gūdhamandapa wall.

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20 ft.
6. Plan of the Jaina temple at Sejakpur

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Faina Temples of Western India
SHATRUNJAYA ADINĀTHA TEMPLE
clasped by drooping foliage. The varandika con
sists of two kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice. It consists of a malaprāsāda and a gūdhamandapa and faces east (Fig. 67). The temple has under. The composition of each bhadra above the pitha gone repairs and alternations so many times that is treated differently. Here, it shows a projecting all its originality is vanished. The authorship of sculptured niche enclosed by a balustrade (Fig. 69). the present temple may be attributed to Vāgbhata, The balustrade pertains to rājasenaka, vedika, asanathe minister under Kumarapala, who carried out patta and kaksäsana. The räjasenaka is decorated its restoration in V. S. 1211 (1154 A. D.), spending with diamond-and-double volute pattern. The one crore and sixty lacs.87 Of the temple of Văg- vedika is divided into upright posts alternating bhata, only the wall now remains; this too has been with depressed slabs. Each post is decorated with retouched during recent years. Its pitha has been kirttimukha, ghatapallava, scroll, and an ornament embeded in the ground during subsequent flooring. consisting of diamond and foliage, while the slab is
adorned with flamboyant pattern, foliate scrolls, Malaprasada
creepers or half diamonds. The dvichadya asanaIt is tryanga on plan, consisting of bhadra, prati
patta with bells projects boldly over each post, Tatha and karna, the bhadra being broken into five while it recedes with a kirttimukha over each slab. planes and the other two into three planes each. The kaksāsana is divided into three horizontal Between the angas are salilantaras, and the salilan
belts. The lower belt is decorated with flamboyant taras between the karnas and pratirathas are rein- pattern; the middle shows goose, kirttimukha, etc., forced with koņikās. The karya and pratiratha are in roundels framed by segmented pilasters; and not only equilateral but they also have the same the upper is adorned with foliate scrolls. The proportion. The frontal karya and pratiratha are remaining part of the niche is later built. transmuted in a buffer wall which separates the Gadhamandana gūdhamandapa from the sanctum.
It is also tryanga on plan and continues the wall When I visited the temple, a few courses of the mouldings and the decorative elements of the pitha were exposed; they comprised a plain bhitta, sanctum, but here the upper three mouldings of a jādyakumbha incised with lotus leaves, and a thevedibandha are underlined with leaves, the karnika (Fig. 70). The vedibandha consists of a khura, dikpalas are replaced by the images of standing kumbha adorned with half diamonds, kalata, goddesses, and the jarghā figures are also shown in antarapatra, kapota embellished with caitya-arch the lalita-pose. It has three doors, the northern of motif, mañcikä also decorated with caitya-arch patt
which is of the saptašākha variety. The lower part ern, and ratnapatřikā (Fig. 68). The jangha carries
of the jambs, which is alone intact, is occupied by framed figures of four-armed standing dikpalas
a figure of standing goddess flanked on both sides (Fig. 71) on the karnas and of Vidyādevis on the by female cauri-bearers and attendant figures. pratirathas, while the koņikas bear figures of Apsarās The temple is surrounded on all sides by many and Jaina ascetics. All these sculptures are sadly small shrines built from time to time. In one of damaged. The janghā images are topped by these shrines is a marble image of Pundarikasvāmi udgama pediments carrying squated monkeys on installed in V. S. 1064 (1007 A.D.).88 In another the sides. Above the udgama comes a grāsapatti shrine is an effigy of Sresthi Nārāyana with an followed in its turn by a square fluted bharani inscription of V. S. 1131 (1074 A. D.). 8 9
TARANGA AJITANATHA TEMPLE
the centre of an oblong courtyard which is approaThis is a sāndhara-prāsāda consisting of a mälaprä- chable from the east by a stairway(Text Fig. 7; Fig. sāda, a gūdhamandapa with lateral entrance porches, 72). The temple faces east. This is the loftiest and a mukhamandapa, the whole being placed in Jaina temple of Gujarat of the period under review.

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7. Plan of the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga

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Jalna Temples of Western India
It measures 150 ft. long, 100 ft. wide and 117 ft. But the central plane of the kumbha on the karnas high. The temple is a double-storeyed structure, and pratirathas bears sculptured niches containing the lower storey is to be seen but from within, while images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses. The the upper one is a secret storey concealed from view upper three mouldings of the vedibandha are underand the ingress to it is obtained from the gūdhama- lined with leaves. ndapa by an uncomfortable wooden ladder. The
Pierced into the karnika, antarapatra and grāsatemple has considerably suffered in the hands of
patti, on the north, is a large but beautiful makarathe renovators. On its wall is an inscription of
praņāla (Fig. 79). 1585 A. D. recording a restoration made during the time of Akbar. During recent years the entire
The jangha is divided into two registers, the temple has been retouched.
lower being higher than the upper. Supported by
a narapatřikā and underlined with leaves, the lower Malaprasada
jarigha bears images of four-armed standing dikpalas It is caluranga on plan, consisting of bhadra, on the karnas and of eight-armed dancing Yaksis nandika, pratiratha and karna, each of the latter two and Vidyadevis on the pratirathas and the nandikās angas being broken into seven planes which are (Fig. 78). Standing on a console carved with lotus reduced to five above the pitha. The karya and
stem, each image is framed between two segmented pratiratha are not only equilateral but they also
circular pilasters topped by dhatūra foliage capitals have the same proportion. Between the angas are
and is canopied by a double-course udgama pediment salilāntaras. The salilantaras between the karnas and
bearing figures of squated monkeys on the corners. pratirathas are reinforced with koņikas which gradu
The upper half of each pilaster is clasped on the ally become diminished in the pitha. The frontal outer flank by a siṁhavyāla with an elephant below karna and pratiratha of the sanctum and the rear and a makara above. These deities are represented karna of the gūdhamandapa are transmuted in a wide on the foremost plane of the jangha, while the rear buffer wall which separates the sanctum from the
planes are occupied by charming figures of Apsarās, güdhamandapa.
two flanking each deity. The Apsaräs also appear
on the two faces of the koņikās. The Apsarās are In elevation it displays pitha, mandovara and shown in gayful dancing poses, sometimes carrying dikhara. The bitha consists of two bhittas--the lower a knife. In two instances she is completely naked. showing flamboyant motif in semi circles, and in another instance she is depicted as securing her the upper the ardhapadma pattern-, a minor lower garment which is being carried down by a kumuda, a plain patika, a jadyakumbha, a karnika, monkey rode on her thigh. Above the Apsarās are a narrow antarabatra decorated with stepped diamo- shown seated amorous-couples, followed above by nds, a chadyaki ornamented with caitya-arch device, kāšas sheltering lalitasana goddesses with attendant
kūtas sheltering lalitasan and a grāsapatti.
figures. The udgama oversects on top a deep fillet The mandovara is divided into three parts, viz.
carved with lotus scrolls. The narapaffika supporvedibandha, jangha and varandika. The vedibandha
ting the jarigha depicts figures of dancers and consists of a khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatra deco
musicians, warriors and fighters, horse-riders, elerated with stepped diamonds, kapota carved with
phants with drivers, Acărya with disciples, lions, ud gama pattern, mancikä embellished with caitya
man fighting with lion, duel scenes, goddesses, arch pattern, and a patrika carved with rosette
padmasana Jinaslustrated by elephants, and marked diamonds. The khura is divided into two
mithuna scenes. horizontal belts, the lower being plain, and the The upper jangha is supported by a marcika upper showing carving of lotus scrolls on all except which resembles the one seen in the vedibandha, the central plane of the karna and pratiratha, as here but here it carries lambanas underneath. It disit depicts udgama pattern. The body of the kumbha plays images of Yakşas and dikpalas on the karnas is decorated with half diamonds, while the shoulder and of Yaksis and Vidyadevis on the pratirathas, all is adorned with a band of diamonds and beads. having four arms and represented in the standing

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attitude. These images stand on the central plane, udgama, boldly projects over each offset, while it while the side planes are occupied by large, elonga- recedes with a kirttimukha over each recess. The ted half diamonds incised with flamboyant device. kaksāsana is divided into three horizontal belts. The Similar diamonds are also represented on the lower belt is decorated with flamboyant pattern. konikās, salilantaras and nandikās, but here they are the middle belt displays sculptural panels atop full and hollowed out. Each of the janghā images, the ratha part of the vedikā, containing musicians, like those of the lower janghā, is framed between dancers and mithuna-couples, while the spaces in two segmented circular pilasters and is surmounted between them are filled with conjoint monkeys, by a double-course udgama pediment. The udgama human head, Aditi, hag, kirttimukha, creeper, oversects a deep fillet carved with a band of monkeys, full-blown lotus flower and makara in kirttimukhas.
roundels framed by segmented pilasters. The
upper belt is relieved with foliate scrolls. On the Above the upper jangha comes a square fluted
āsanapatta, at angles, stand eight pillars, two of bharani clasped by drooping foliage.
which are placed in the interior, and hence are not The varandika is divided into two sections, each visible from the outside. Across these pillars run comprising a kapota which is similar to that found architraves on which is placed an overhanging in the vedibandha, a fillet decorated with lotus scrolls, corrugated eave-cornice followed above by a kapota. and a ribbed eave-cornice, the soffit of which on the The soffit of the eave-cornice is decorated on the outer edge is decorated with a band of diamonds outer edge with a band of diamonds and beads. and beads. The varandika carries, on the corners From the kapota, at corners, emerge elephants carof the angas and konikas, figures of Vidyadharas ved in the round and standing on a pedestal which carved in the round and carrying knife. Most of is supported by the eave-cornice. Between the these figures have disappeared.
pillars are fitted perforated stone grilles in boxes
having border of diamonds and beads. The grilles Each bhadra above the pitha is treated differently.
are pierced by various geometrical patterns such as Here it displays two balconied windows one above squares, triangles, lozenges, etc. Through these the other. The lower balcony (Fig. 74), which is grilles diffused light enters the inner ambulatory. longer than the upper one, is enclosed by a triratha The pillars resting on the āsanapatta are of the balustraded wall. The vertical wall of the central octagonal variety, consisting of only two members, ratha is further divided into three offsets, each viz. shaft and capital. The shaft has three sections, broken into five planes. Between the offsets are set The lower section is octagonal with its facets up recesses. Horizontally, the balustraded wall is terminating on top in leaves; the middle section is divided into five parts, viz. a broad fillet, rājasenaka, sixteen-sided, surmounted by a band of lotus vedika, asana pasta and kaksāsana. The fillet is de- petals; and the upper one is circular, clasped by corated with rosette-marked diamonds. The three decorative bands of intersecting garland loops raiasenaka is embellished with diamond-and-double and foliage, rosette-marked diamonds and beads, volute pattern. The vedika carries framed figures and kirttimukhas alternating with tassels. The of four-armed standing gods and goddesses on the circular section of the shaft in some pillars also central planes of the offsets, while the side planes carries projecting pendants. The capital has a show, from bottom to top, representations of flam- double-course round fluted bharani of karnika and boyant enrichment, twine pattern, human head padma, sur mounted by four-armed double-roll like sun, lotus flower, goose, creeper, scrolls, körtti- brackets, the side face of each arm of which is mukha, makara, seated male or snake in demi-circle, carved with half kirttimukha. At times the side rollghatapallava, triangular leaves, foliate scrolls, dia- brackets are replaced by square brackets carved monds alternating with beads, and foliate scrolls, with diamonds. The architraves are divided into the last two bands being clasped by drooping foli- two fasciae, the lower showing foliate scrolls that age. The recesses between the offsets of the vedika issue from the mouth of a kiritimukha carved in the are decorated with foliate scrolls or meandering centre, and the upper displaying intersecting garcreepers. The asanapatta, with bell rooflets and land loops and foliage, while in the centre of their

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underside is carved in low relief a lotus medallion having two rows of petals.
The balcony, in the interior, has a carved samatala ceiling supported on a rectangular frame of architraves. The ceiling is raised up by a frame of sur-architraves which are carved with rosettemarked diamonds. The ceiling is divided into three panels, the central being square and the sides ones, rectangular. Each of the side panels is relieved with three full-blown lotus flowers, each comprising two rows of petals. The central panel depicts a stylised lotus comprising two rows of petals-the outer having petals of blue lotus, and the inner, those of red lotus-and a quatrefoil accommodat- ing an open lotus in each foil as well as in the centre. The corners of the square panel are occupied by kirttimukhas.
The upper balcony is very similar to the lower one. It is enclosed by a short balustrade which consists of rājasenaka, vedika, asanapatta and kaksā. sana. The rājasenaka and kaksāsana are similar to those seen in the lower balcony, but the vedika is divided into upright posts alternating with recessed slabs. The posts carry representations as we find on the side planes of the offsets of the lower balcony, while the slabs are decorated with foliate scrolls or creepers. The vedika also carries five projecting sculptured niches, three appearing on the front and two on the sides. Each of these niches contains an image of four-armed lalitāsana goddess, capped on the asanapata proper by an udgama, while below each niche, on the rājasenaka, is a smaller niche containing an image of standing goddess. On the asanapatta, at corners, are placed two squat pillars supporting similar architraves, eave-cornice and kapota as we find in the lower balcony. The perforated stone grilles fitted between the pillars, through which diffused light enters the interior of the upper storey, are also pierced by geometrical patterns. The pillars have only two members, viz. shaft and capital, both being similar to those of the lower balcony, with this difference that the shaft has only the circular section. The balcony is crowned by a bell roof, the front facade of which carries a sculptured niche supported by a saptaratha
e supported by a saptaratha pedestal and flanked on each side by a balcony model. The pedestal represents a Jina seated in
dhyānamudra in the centre and musicians and dancers flanking him on the two sides. The niche contains an image of lalitāsana goddess accompanied on each side by a female attendant. On either side of the niche are tilaka and kita. The tilaka shelters a standing goddess with attendant figures, while the kata is inset with rosette-marked diamonds.
The Sikhara (Fig. 72) is the most complicated one. It rises above the eave-cornice of the mandovara from a pranata vara from a prahāra which consists of a recessed fillet, a karrika and a maicika. The mafcika is similar to that seen in the vedibandha, only that the lambanas are absent here. The composition of the Sikhara displays a caturariga malamafjari marked by eleven bhümi-āmalakas; four uromafjaris and a rathika along each bhadra; a minor friga, tilaka and balcony model flanking on each side of the rathika; three tilakas and a balcony model over each nandika and konika; three frigas over each karna and pratiratha; and a pratyanga atop koạika and leaning upon the uppermost uromañjari. The angas of the mālamasjari terminate at the skandha which is indicated by a band carved with diamonds, but the bhadra offset extends to the griva which is crowned by a large āmalaka clasped by a band of diamonds, a candrika, a smaller amalaka, a kalafa and a bijapäraka. A dhuajadhara is depicted below the skandha on the west facade of the Sikhara; he is shown carrying the dhvajabataka which is of recent date. Supported by the skandha and topping the karna and the accompanying buttresses are sculptures of Jaina Munis, carved in the round and seated on stool in the lalita posture. One of the hands of the Munis is in the jñānamudra, and the other is held in the bhimispartamudra. The uppermost uromafiljari is similar to the malamasjari but is divided only into nine stages of bhūmi-amalakas. The other uromanljaris and the bratyaigas are also similar to the malamanjari, but these are of the tryanga type and are marked by seven bhiimi-ämalakas. The tilakas are inset with images of four-armed standing goddesses accompanied by female attendants. The frågas on the karnas and pratirathas are but the replica in some total of the whole Sikhara. The frigas of the upper row are flanked on their two sides by seated amorous-couples, while those of the middle and lower rows are flanked by sculptured niches containing

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images of standing goddesses with attendant figures. pradaksināpatha, near the balconied window, is a Each rathikā contains an image of eight-armed samatala ceiling which is similar to that seen in the dancing goddess flanked on each side by two female balcony, but the lotus in the central square panel attendants and a balcony model, and canopied in the ceiling near the north balcony has petals of overhead by a triple udgama. The goddess in the red lotus in both the corollas and the underside north rathika is identified with Sarasvati,91 while lotus medallion of the architraves enclosing the those in the west and the south rathikas (Fig. 75) ceiling consists of three rows of petals and a central are unidentified. The whole of the Sikhara is car- circle marked by twine pattern. The garbhagyha ved with a lattice of fine but minute and compli- is about 18.6 ft, square and has a recessed bench on cated caitya-arches.
each side as well as along the back wall. Its plan
is derived from two parallelograms 18.3 ft. by 13.4 The front facade of the Sikhara possesses only ft laid crosswise so as to leave at each corner an one uromañjari, the others being replaced by a fuka
angle projecting inwards about 2.5 ft. on each side. nasa lodged over the buffer wall, which continues
On the north wall, near the western end, are two the bottom row of śrågas of the Sikhara. At the top dikbalas. Agni and Isäna, while on the corresponding of these frrigas is a platform on which rests the south wall is dikpala Kubera. The garbhagrha door Sukanäsa. Between the Srigas, on the top, are sculp- is concealed from view by usual piers and arches. tured niches bearing images of four-armed lalitäsana
Inside the garbhagyha, on the principal bench, is goddesses, while on the platform itself are to be installed a colossal image in white marble of Ajitaseen the sculptures of the Jaina Munis, which are nātha seated in dhyanamudra. The image is not an similar to those seen on the skandha of the Sikhara. original one, but was consecrated in A. D. 1422 by The Sukanäsa is formed by a series of three graded one Govinda. probably after its spoliation by the balconied windows, each surmounted by a bell roof Muslims. 02 On the two sides of this image and and a rampant lion with his front paws borne by placed against the north and south walls are two elephant; the lion has disappeared in the lower images in white marble of kāyotsarga Jinas of 1297 window. The upper and the middle windows are A. D. These images do not belong to this temple blind, whereas the lower one is open, through which but were brought from a nearby village called diffused light enters the interior of the upper storey. Salamkot.98 The garbhagrha also contains two small The front and the side faces of the upper window images of Ajitanátha, one of 1247 A. D. and the carry images of Lalitasana goddesses, whose attri. other of 1248 A. D.94 Besides, there are a few butes are mutilated. The middle window consists
more images of Jinas, some of which were probably of three compartments, one located in the front and consecrated by Vijayasenasūri (1556-1614 A. D.)." one placed at right angle on each of the return sides of the front one. The side compartments are Gūdhamapdapa also crowned by rampant lions with their front paws carried by elephants, the lion on the southern
Articulated diagonally with the malaprāsāda, compartment has gone now. On the facade of
the gūdhamandapa is also caturanga on plan and these compartments can be seen the images of god.
follows in the vertical sequence of its pitha and desses. The lower window carries a female cauri
mandovar a mouldings those of the malaprāsada, but bearer and an image of goddess on each side of the
the dikpalas harbouring on the karmas of the lower opening on the front, and a goddess accompanied
jangha are replaced by eight-armed dancing by a female caur7-bearer on each side. All the
Yakşas, and the divinities of the upper jangha are goddesses have eight arms and are represented in
represented in the lalita-pose (Fig. 76). The bottom the dancing attitude. Three of these goddesses are
row of Srigas of the māla präsada is continued here, identifiable with Naradattā, Käli and Mahājvālā.
but one of the two tilakas over the konikas and the
nandikas is replaced by two balcony models, and The garbhagrha is enclosed by a pradaksiņāpatha, the frigas are flanked on their upper half by ramthe passage of which has been narrowed by reinfor- pant simha-vyalas. The vertical part of the gadhamcing piers and arches during restorations. In the andapa terminates, at the apex of these frigas, in a

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ribbed eave-cornice whence rises the samvaranā of surmounted by a band of chequer pattern and the gädhamandapa (Fig. 77). The samvaraņā is com- terminated on top in lotus petals. The upper posed of nineteen horizontal tiers, receding as they one is circular and is clasped on the upper half by ascend and topped at the apex by a large ghanta three decorative bands representing garland loops which consists of a cogged bell, an amalaka, a kalasa and foliage, rosette-marked diamonds and beads, and a bija pāraka. The horizontal line of each tier and kiritimukhas alternating with tassels respectively. is studed with alternate large and small ghantas, The capital has a double-course round fluted bharani each being a replica of the main ghanga. The ghanţās of karņika and padma, surmounted by four-armed in the cardinal directions, however, gradually double-roll brackets, the side face of each bracket become larger at their ascent and are crowned of which is carved with half kirttimukha. The by rampant lions who at some places have architraves are divided into three fasciae. The disappeared. This type of gradation of the lower one is decorated with foliate scrolls issuing cardinal ghanțas is singular in the temples of Guja- from the mouth of a kiritimukha carved in the rat. The bottom line of the samvaramā is studed centre. The intermediate fascia is carved with with kūtas alternating with balcony models. The intersecting garlands and foliage. The upper one kūtas shelter lalitasana goddesses on their two faces. bears decoration of rosette-marked diamonds. In In the interior the roof is strengthened by wooden the centre of their underside is carved in low relief cross bars. The original wall of the gadhamandapa a lotus medallion having two rows of petals. The above the mukhamandapa and on each side entrance samatala ceiling is relieved with sixteen full-blown porch is destroyed, and a later one is erected in its lotus flowers disposed in four lines of four each. place to accommodate an open arched entrance of Each flower consists of two corollas of petals and the Muhammadan style.
is set up in a square bordered by a band of dia
monds and beads and having kirttimukhas at the Attached to the bhadra projections of the gūdha- four corners. On two sides of the ceiling is a foliate mandapa, the two lateral entrance porches are alike. scroll-band. The ceiling is raised up by a square They are landed up from the courtyard by a flight of frame of sur-architraves jutting out in the space of eleven steps cut across the pitha mouldings. Square the ceiling. The inner face of the sur-architraves on plan each parch rests on two tall, massive pillars is decorated with a row of geese, while their underand has a carved samatala ceiling supported on side depicts a band of lotus scrolls. architraves spanned across the pillars and the doorjambs, the architrave across the door-jambs being The door of each porch is of the saptafakha conspicuous by it absence. Its roof, now damaged, variety, consisting of a patrašakha decorated with has a corrugated eave-cornice, the soffit of which foliate scrolls, a Sakha decorated with diamonds on the outer edge is decorated with a band of dia-
and beads, again a sakha decorated with diamonds
and beads again a takl monds and beads. From each corner of the roof and beads, a stambhašakha, a Sakha decorated with and supported by the eave-cornice emerges an ele- diamonds and beads, again a fakha decorated with phant carved in the round. The pillars of the porch diamonds and beads, and a fakha consisting of are of the octagonal type. The base of these pillars karņika and padma carved with lotus petals. The consists of a khura, a kumbha representing convex- Sakhās are separated from one another by bakulasided half diamonds stencilled with flamboyant malās. The lower part of the five-faceted stambhapattern on the body and a jewelled band on the sakha is occupied by a Pratihāra, while the upper shoulder, a kalaša, an antarapatra decorated with part is clasped at intervals by four decorative stepped diamonds, a kapota carved with caitya-arch bands of Māladharas, geese, flamboyant pattern in pattern, and a grāsapatti. The shaft has three semi-circles, and diamonds. The top of the stambhasections, the lower being longer than the upper, Sakhā shows mouldings of a kumbha, a kalaša, an and the upper being longer than the middle. The antarapatra, two karnikas and a fillet, all clasped lower section is octagonal, terminating on top together by a large diamond. The stambhašakha is in leaves. The middle section is sixteen-sided, surmounted by a square capital which consists of a

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karnika, three padmas, and a figural band of musicians and dancers. The udumbara shows a semicircular projection, now covered with marble slabs, in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha of recent date on each side of it, and a sculptured niche on either extremity. The two niches in the southern porch depict Yakşa Brahmasanti on proper right and a Yaksi on proper left, and those in the northern porch represent only the images of Yaksis, all
having four arms and sitting in the lalita-pose. The uttaranga continues the decorations of the first three Sakhas but is surmounted by a projecting cornice, the intrados of which shows incision of lotus petals
and a band of diamonds and beads on its outer
edge. On the lalața is depicted a padmasana Jina in dhyanamudra. The overdoor displays nine projecting niches containing images of four-armed standing goddesses.
The interior arrangement of the guḍhamandapa as explained by Burgess is as follows: "if we place, one across the other, two parallelograms each of whose dimensions are three and two and divide longer side of each into three-then eight corners and these points of division give sixteen points of support to the roof. In this case the parallelograms are 39'.9" by 24'.6" and the distance between the middle pillars on each flank of the octagon is 12.3" and between its corners 8',8" from centre to

centre. The outer corners of the parallelograms are all occupied by attached pillars except the two towards the shrine and behind them are four others symmetrically arranged, with an arch inserted between the middle pair. Close behind the last stand other four connecting the screen that shuts off the shrine."96
The eastern door of the gudhamandapa is partly concealed by two later built piers connected by an arch of the Muhammadan style. What is exposed of it shows a patrasakha decorated with foliate scrolls, a haṁsaśākhā and a stambhatakha. The stambhalakha has three facets, one on the front and one on each side. The inner facet of the stambha-nted fakha bears an image of kayotsarga Jina below and five successive niches containing images of lalitasana goddesses above. Below, on the front facet, is represented a standing goddess, now mutilated, and above are seen five lalitäsana goddesses. On either extremity of the udumbara is a sculptured niche containing an image of four-armed lalitasana goddess. The uttaranga repeats the decorations of the patraSakha and the hamsasakha and is surmounted by a projecting cornice of the similar variety as we find in the lateral porches. The overdoor depicts five lalitásana goddesses in niches.
165
In total there are eighteen free standing pillars. Ten of these stand in the antarala and eight are arranged in an octagon, dividing thus the entire area of the gudhamandapa in the central nave and the surrounding aisle. All these pillars are of the octagonal type and correspond to those noticed in the lateral porches, but here the chequer-band on sixteen-sided section of the shaft is absent and the side brackets of the capital are formed of makara
heads.
The eight nave pillars are provided with uccalakas, which consist of only two members, namely shaft and capital. The shaft is circular and carries similar decorative bands as we find on that of the lateral porches. The capital has a double-course round fluted bharani of karnika and padma, surmou
by four-armed double-roll brackets bearing figures of half kirttimukhas on their side faces. Emerging from and supported by the capitals surmounting the pillars proper are the charming bracket figures of Apsaras tenoned into the capitals of the uccalakas. The Apsaras are represented carrying knife, beating drums, securing their lower garment, making dance, or looking in mirror. Between the side brackets are inserted later built
arches.
The nave is covered by a carved domical ceiling (Fig. 81) supported on an octagonal frame of architraves put across the pillars. The architraves are divided into three fasciae, the lower showing representation of foliate scrolls which issue from the mouth of a kirttimukha carved in the centre, the intermediate fascia depicting intersecting garland loops and foliage, and the upper representing rosettemarked diamonds. In the centre of their underside is carved in bas-relief a lotus medallion. The domical ceiling is of the sabhapadmamandāraka order and is composed of ten courses and a circular short padmafila. The lowermost course is sixteen-sided and the rest are circular. The first course is decorated

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Faina Temples of Western India
with ardhapadma motif; it is supported at each angle The first of these six vitana courses is octagonal, de. of the octagon by a square bracket inset with an corated with a row of Kinnaras. The second is siximage of four-armed lalitāsana goddess accompanied teen-sided, adorned with lotus scrolls. The third is by female attendants. The second is karmadardar- circular and is treated as karşadardarika surmounted ika surmounted by a kirttimukha-band. The third by a kirttimukha-band. The fourth is also circular is carved with chequer pattern and sustains at but is carved with rosette-marked diamonds. The intervals sixteen bracket figures carried by four fifth and the sixth again are circular, each pertainarmed Vidyadharas playing on some musical inst- ing to gajatalu which is like that seen in the dome. ruments. The fourth, fifth and sixth are gajatālus, each topped by a band of lotus petals and a dia. The dome of the gūdhamandapa in the upper mond-and-bead band. The seventh, eighth and storey is now plastered up with white lime. ninth are kolas, each consisting of sixteen whorls of four-fold (3+1) kola. The kolas gradually dim.
Mukhamandapa inish in size in the succeeding courses. The tenth Rectangular on plan this open mandapa displays sixteen small projecting lumäs, each perta- measures 38 ft. by 23 ft. and is approached from ining to a quatrefoil kola. Supported by the Vidya- the east side of the courtyard by three staircases, dhara brackets and placed against the gajatālu each comprising six steps (Fig. 73). The central courses are sixteen bracket figures of Apsarās, staircase is wider than the side ones. Divided tenoned into the lowermostkola course. The into six bays the mukhamandapa consists of ten padmašila consists of two courses of sixteen-foil pillars, eight running north-south in two lines pointed kola each and a modern stamenal tube with of four each, and one each placed in the southchandelier.
west and northwest corners. The bay near the
güdhamand apa door is supported by the gadhamaydapa The attached pillars, in three quarter profile, door-jambs. are similar to the other pillars of the gūdhamandapa. Between these pillars are placed niches, the pedes. The mukhamandapa shares its pitha with the tal of which consists of two bhiffas-the lower sho
gādhamand apa. The pillars, about 18.6 ft. in height, wing decoration of diamonds and the upper dis
are similar to those seen in the lateral porches playing ardhapadma motif-, a khura decorated with
of the gadhamandapa, but the chequer pattern udgama pattern, a kumbha carrying niched lalitasana
on the shaft is absent here. The pillars in the goddesses flanked by musicians and dancers on the central bays are reinforced by later built piers body and indented foliage on the shoulder, a kalafa connected with arches. The architraves running decorated with beaded garlands and rosettes, an ant- across the pillars are also similar to those found in arapatra and a kapota. Mostly, the niches are empty; the lateral porches of the gūdhamaydapa. As in some the images of Jinas and Acaryas are kept.
aryas are kept. regards the ceilings, three in the front bays are These niches seem to be later built, for an inscri- of the samatala class, and three in the rear bays ption hailing from Abu tells us that Minister Vast.
are domical. upāla built a niche with the image of Adinātha in the gūdhamaydapa of this temple. The colour to The two samatala ceilings in the side bays, i, e. this is also lent by the white marble of which they in the northeast and southeast corners, are alike. are built, because the temple itself is constructed Square on plan each of these ceilings is relieved of white sandstone. The ceiling of the surround with nine full-blown lotus flowers disposed in ing aisle is covered by six vitäna courses supported three lines of three each. Each flower is set up in by architraves placed across the attached pillars. a square bordered by a diamond-and-bead band These architraves are similar to the other architraves and having kirttimukhas at corners. The ceiling is of the güdhamandapa, but their lower and intermed- raised up by a square frame of sur-architraves, iate fasciae are also carried over the front brackets the side face of which is decorated with a row of the capitals, following the contour of the latter. of geese.

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167
The samatala ceiling in the central bay is recta- The ribs of the gajatalus in the third course are ngular on plan and is completed in two stages, the alternated by lotus petals. The padmašila is comfirst having wider space on the two shorter sides. posed of four courses of sixteen-foil, eight-foil larger, The inner face of the first is carved with a row of eight-foil smaller and quatrefoil kolas, and a padmageese, while its underside depicts a band of lotus kefara clasped by two rows of petals. The ceiling scrolls issuing from the navel of a Kinnara-couple is raised up by a square frame of rectangular slabs carved in the centre on each side, and a band oversailing the architraves. The inner face of these carved with lotus petal-and-bud ornament on each slabs is decorated with ardhapadma motif, while of the two shorter sides. The second is relieved
their underside reveals sixteen full-blown lotus with twelve lotus flowers arranged north-south in
south in flowers, each comprising two rows of petals. The three lines of four each; the flowers are similar to concave-sided triangular spaces between the lotuses those seen in the preceding ceiling. On the two are filled with kirttimukhas. shorter sides of this course is also carved a band of lotus scrolls.
On either side of the gūdhamandapa door is a
khattaka built of white marble, but the enshrined The two domical ceilings in the southwest and image in each is missing. Square on plan it consists northwest corners are similar to each other and of pedestal, wall and superstructure. The triratha belong to the sabhāmandāraka order. Each ceiling, pedestal consists of a jadyakumbha, a karnika, a pattika built on a square base, is composed of five courses carved with diamonds, and a kapota underlined and a circular padmašila. The lowermost course is with leaves. The wall with recessed niche is plain. octagonal and the others are circular. The inner On the front of the wall and supported by the face of the octagonal course is decorated with lotus pedestal are two moulded pillaretes joined by a scrolls, while its underside at each corner displays lintel. The jamb flanking the niche is carved with an open lotus having two rows of petals. The foliate scrolls which are also carried over the second is karnadardarika surmounted by a kirtti- lintel. The wall is surmounted by a ribbed eavemukha-band. The third is gajatalu. The fourth cornice and a bell-roof, the latter showing three depicts an Ācārva with disciples. The fifth consists rows of bells. These khattakas are later additions. of sixteen-foil kola. The padmašila consists of three This is indicated not only by the building matecourses of eight-foil larger, eight-foil smaller and rial of which they are built, but also by two quatrefoil kolas, and a stamenal tube clasped by inscription of 1227 A. D. found therein. From two rows of petals.
these inscriptions we learn that these khattakas
were built by Minister Luniga and Vastupäla The domical ceiling in front of the gādhamandapa for their own spiritual merit, and the images door is also of the sabhämandaraka type (Fig. 80). of Ādinātha and Neminātha in them were Square on plan it consists of four courses and a installed by Vijayasenasūri of Nagendragaccha,98 circular padmašila. The lowermost course is octa- probably when the original images were destrogonal and the others are circular. The inner face yed by the Muslim invaders. of the octagonal course is relieved with human figures carrying water pot, while its underside at The mukhamaydapa is shaded by a corrugated each corner depicts an image of four-armed lalita- eave-cornice, the soffit of which is carved on the sana goddess attended upon either side by a female outer edge by a band of diamonds and beads. Over cauri-bearer and a Kinnara. The second is karṇadar- the eave-cornice is a roll moulding in which are darika decorated with lotus petal-and-bud device inserted four water spouts, two located on the front and surmounted by a kirttimukha-band. The third and one placed on each side. From each corner and fourth are gajatālus, each topped by a band of the roof and supported by the eaves emerges a of lotus petals and a band of diamonds and beads, walking elephant carved wholly in the round.

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BHADRESHWAR JAINA TEMPLE
kumbha, a karnika, a chadyaki underlined with leaves, It stands in an oblong courtyard about 48 ft. by a gräsapatti, a gajathara and a ratnapattika. In the 85 ft. inside, around which runs a row of about 44 gajathara the fore part of elephants is generally (originally 48) devakulikäs with a colonnaded corri- shown; the elephants are rarely shown in profile. dor in front. It consists of a milaprāsāda, a půdhama. The vedibandha comprises khura carved with udgama ndapa, a mukhamandapa, a rangamandapa and a nalama- pattern, kumbha bearing sculptured niches on the ndapa, the last compartment partly projecting out body and stencilled foliage on the shoulder, kalaba and built over a stairway which is landed up from decorated with beaded garlands and rosettes, the ground through a porch and opens in the ranga- antarapatra embellished with stepped diamonds, mand apa. The temple-complex is reared upon a and kapota adorned with caitya-arch ornament and jagati which is reached only from the north to underlined with leaves. The kumbha niches, the which direction the temple also faces (Text Fig. 8: pedestal of which goes down in the khura, contain Fig. 82).
images of lalitasana goddesses accompanied on
both sides by female attendants. The jangha is decoThe temple has been restored and altered so rated with figure sculptures which are all modern. often that all its original character has vanished. The jangha is supported by a mañcika which is like During recent years the entire temple has been the kapota but carries lambanas underneath. Above coated with white pigment, so that it is very hard the jangha comes a square bharani clasped by droopto decide which part of the temple is old and ing foliage; the bharani in its turn is followed by which one is new. The pillars, architraves and an usual kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice. ceilings having been coated with white lime and
The Sikhara (Fig. 84) rises from a prahāra which painted with variegated colours, the interior looks very odd. Besides, the rear half of the court is
consists of a kapota, an antarapatra and a square
bharaṇi, all corresponding to those seen on the wall covered with iron grilles. Four of the devakulikās
The composition of the Sikhara reveals a mūlain the front row are quite recent.99
mañjari marked by seven bhimi-āmalakas, three
uromajaris and a rathikā along each bhadra, Müla prāsāda
a Srriga and a tilaka along each pratiratha, It is tryaniga on plan consisting of bhadra, prati- two frigas along each karya, and a pratyanga ratha and karva, each broken into five planes, but flanking on either side of the uppermost uromanthe two latter buttresses show only three planes jari. The angas of the milamasjari terminate on above the pitha. Between the argas are salilantaras. top in a skandha marked by diamonds. Above The saliläntaras between the karnas and pratirathas the skandha comes the griva and then follow the are reinforced with konikās which are not carried crowning members of the fikhara consisting of a down to the pitha. The karna and pratiratha are large amalaka, a candrika, a smaller amalaka, a kalasa equilateral and have the same proportion, while and a bijapäraka. The rathikas, flanked by ornate the bhadra is almost double their width. The fron- balcony models and crowned by udgama pediments, tal karna and pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer contain images of four-armed lalitasana goddesses wall, which separates the endhamandaba from the accompanied by female cauri-bearers. The goddess malaprāsāda.
in the south rathika is identifiable with Cakreśvari
(Fig. 85). The tilakas also shelter the images of In elevation (Figs. 83-84) it is divided into five four-armed lalitāsana goddesses with attendant figucomponents, viz. pitha, vedibandha, jarighā, varandika res, The other turrets of the fikhara are but the and fikhara. The pitha consists of three bhittas-the replica of the malamanjari. lower is now covered with marble slabs; the middle Inside the garbhagrha are three Jina images, all is adorned with indented leaves, and the upper is built of white marble and seated in dhyānamudrā. decorated with a strip of diamonds-, a jadya- The central image is of Mahāvira bearing the date
Jain Education Interational

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QI
8. Plan of the Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar

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Faina Temples of Western India
622 carved upon it, which probably stands for V.S. position below by a band of diamonds and beads 1622. On his right is Pārsvanātha and on his left the capital consists of a double-course ribbed is Šantinātha, both bearing the date V. S. 1230 bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by four(1173 A.D.).100 Besides, there are two saparikara armed brackets carried by kicakas. The pilasters images of kāyotsarga Jinas; probably they were subs- correspond to the pillars, but two of them are equently installed there, otherwise James Burgess faceted. The architraves and ceilings are coated would have certainly reported about them,
with lime; the ceiling located in front of the
gadhamandapa door has now been painted. The Gūdhamaņdapa
painted ceiling is domical, consisting of five Of this mandapa, only the two rear buttresses courses, the first being octagonal and the others, are intact. One of these is broken into five planes, circular. The inner face of the first course is while the other carries five planes upto the pitha adorned with a band of leaves and a band of and three planes above that. It shares its pitha diamonds, while its underside at each corner and mandovara with the sanctum and is surmounted depicts a kirttimukha carved in high relief. The by a sanaraņā (Fig. 84) studed with seven rows of second is padma carved with lotus petals and ghantās. The mālaghanga and the ghanţās on the surmounted by a diamond-strip. The third consists four ridges are larger in size. The mülaghanța con- of karnadardarika decorated with lotus petals. The sists of an inverted flat bowl, a candrika, an amalaka, fourth is gajatalu. The fifth is padma decorated with a kalata and a bijapuraka, while each of the other lotus petals. The circular ceiling-slab is divided ghanțas comprises only an inverted flat bowl and into four concentric circular bands, depicting, from an amalaka. The interior of the gūdhamandapa outer to inner, flamboyant pattern, lotus buds, shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pilasters lotus petals and a lotus flower respectively. On supporting a domical ceiling, now covered with either side of the gūdhamandapa door is a khattaka iron grilles.
containing an image of Jina seated in dhyānamudra. Mukhamandapa
Rangamaņdapa Rectangular on plan it is divided into three The rangamandapa, together with the mukhamabays. It is landed up from the rangamandapa byndapa, is connected on the three sides with the three staircases, each comprising four steps. The corridor, and is roofed from the front line of the court central staircase is wider than the side ones. In by three domes supported by pillars. The pillars101 total there are eight pillars and four pilasters, are of the octagonal type and consist of four which are arranged in pair in the central bay. members, viz. pedestal, base, shaft and capital. The The pillars are of the octagonal variety. Their pedestal consists of three bhittas—the first being base is now wholly covered with a thick coat of plain, and the second and third being decorated white lime. The shaft may broadly be divided with diamonds and idented leaves respectively, a into two sections, the lower being octagonal and jad yakumbha, a kumuda, and a fillet carved with foli. the upper, circular. The octagonal section is ate scrolls. The base is made up of a khura, a kumbha further divided into two horizontal belts by a decorated with half diamonds, and a kalaba. The shaft kumuda, the lower being longer than the upper. is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle The lower belt carries eight standing female and circular on the top. The first two sections are figures; this belt on the two central pillars, plain, while the circular section is ornate. The however, is replaced by a square one bearing circular section is divided into two halves by a framed figures of four-armed standing goddesses. band carved with diamonds and carries four proThe upper belt carries eight figures of lalitasana jecting pendants. The lower portion is clasped by goddesses. The circular section is clasped by a band of kirttimukhas spewing chains which are four decorative bands representing acanthus, secured below by a band of diamonds and beads. Mālādharas, geese and kārttimukhas respectively. The upper section is clasped by a band of kirttiThe kirttimukhas spew chains which are held in mukhas alternating with tassels. The capital has a

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double course round ribbed bharapi of karnika and padma, topped by four-armed convoluted brackets. The interior being plastered up with lime, nothing more can be said about this mandapa.
Devakulika
The devakulikās are landed up from the court by a flight of four steps cut across the platform on which they are perched, but those at the back are reached by three independent staircases. They are screened by one arcade of pillars, forming thus one bay in front of each devakulika. But at the back they have double arcade of pillars, so that two bays are formed in front of each devakulika. Their doors are simple, and many of them are alike. One of these, which Burgess regarded as a fair type, 102 is of the dvifakha variety, consisting of patrafakha decorated with foliate scrolls and a
Sakha carved with diamonds and beads. At the lower part of the patrašakha stands a female carrying water pot. The uttaranga continues the decorations of the sakhas and depicts a diamond on the lalata. The udumbara shows a square projection carved with foliage in the centre, a diamond on each side of it, and foliage and diamond on either extremity. Inside the devakulikās are installed images of Jinas, mostly dated in the 14th-15th centuries A. D.
The exterior walls of the devakulikäs show or nate mouldings. The devakulikās are surmounted by multi-turreted fikharas. Nalamapdapa
This square mandapa rests on the same floor level as do the devakulikās. It is also roofed by a dome.
SAROTRA
BĀVANADHVAJA JINALAYA
Its elevation displays pitha, vedibandha, jangha, This temple consists of a mülaprafada, a gūdhama.
oma
varanduka
varandika and Sikhura. The pitha is embeded in ndapa and a rangamandapa, the whole standing in a
debris. The vedibandha consists of a khura, a kumbha rectangular court, round which runs a row of fifty.
carrying figure sculptures on the body and foliage two devakulikās with a colonnaded corridor in on the shoulder, a kalata decorated with beaded front (Text Fig. 10; Fig. 86). The temple-complex
garlands and rosettes, an antarapatra carved with rests on a high jagati, which is reached from the no
diainond and double volute pattern, and a kapota. rth through a porch landed up from the ground by The jangha, supported by a maficika, carries framed a flight of nine steps. The temple faces north. The figures of standing gods and goddesses, each surtemple no more exists now: all our information is mounted by an udgama. The figures on the karyas based upon the report of Burgess, 103 The temple appear to be those of the dikpalas. Above the has also suffered from restorations, and when Burgess udgama comes a round bharani clasped by drooping visited the temple it was in ruinous condition.
foliage. The varandika consists of a kapota and a From the number of spires on the devakulikās, on
ribbed eave-cornice. The jangha on the bhadra has which there were flag-staves when the temple was
a sunken niche. There is a praņāla on the west. in use, it has received the name of Bävanadhvaja.
The sikhara, which is built of bricks and is plaster
ed up, seems to have been rebuilt. Mülaprasada
The interior of the sanctum is square with an It is tryanga on plan consisting of bhadra, prati- angle projecting inwards at each corner. In front ratha and karna, each of the latter two argas being of the door is a moonstone which consists of an broken into three planes and the bhadra carrying ardhacandra tied on either and with gagaraka, five planes. The karna and pratiratha are not only farkha and lotus stem and flanked in turn by a talaequilateral but they also have the same proportion. räpaka. It is hard to say to whom the shrine was Between the angas are salilantaras. The frontal dedicated as the image of the mülanäyaka had been karna and pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer wall removed from the sanctum. But from an inscripwhich separates the gūdhamand apa from the müla- tion of Sam. 1689 it appears that the temple was prāsāda (Fig. 87),
dedicated to Mahavira, 104
Jain Education Intematonal

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9. Pillars of the Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra

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10. Plan of the Bavanadhvaja Jinālaya at Sarotra
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174
Faina Temples of Western India
Güdhamapdapa
ets bearing half kiritimukhas on their side faces. It is also tryanga on plan and repeats the mand
The architraves are divided into two fasciae, the ovara mouldings of the milaprašāda. It is entered only lower showing lotus scrolls and the upper a strip from the mukhamandapa. In front of the door is an of diamonds. usual moonstone. The interior shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pillars attached to the
It is built on a square platform which is slightly angles of the walls. The intercolumniation between the corner pillars is less than that in the side ones.
raised from the level of the court. The front half
of the court, like the temples at Kumbharia, is On the lateral sides of the gūdhamand apa were niches. The third pillar from
roofed by means of architraves put cross the pillars
left illustrated by Burgess appears to belong to this mandapa (Text
of the rarigamaņdapa and the corridor. It consists Fig. 9). It is of the square type, with corners
of eight pillars disposed along the three sides of broken into three angles. Its base consists of a khura,
the square platform, while the fourth side is shared kumbha carrying standing human figures, kalata,
by the mukhamandapa. The rangamaydapa is roofed antarapalra, and kapota decorated with caitya-arch
by a dome supported on an octagonal frame of pattern. The shaft has three sections, viz. square,
architraves placed over the pillars. octagonal and circular. The square section carries The pillars of the rangamandapa are of the standing framed figures. The octagonal section octagonal type. Their base has three bhitas, a bears eight images of lalitasana goddesses. The kumbha decorated with half diamonds, a kalasa, circular section is clasped, from bottom to top, by an antarapatra, and a kapota decorated with caitya. four decorative bands consisting respectively of arch pattern. The shaft is octagonal at the base, acanthus, Mälädbaras, geese, and kirttimukhas sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the spewing chains which are secured below by a band top, the last section is surmounted by a band of of dimonds and beads. The capital consists of a kirttimukhas. The capital has a double-course round double-course round bharani of karyika and padma, bharani of karnika and padma, surmounted by lour surmounted by roll brackets. The side face of each armed brackets borne by kicakas. The pillars are bracket is adorned with half kirttimukha.
provided with uccalakas which consist of only
two members, viz. shaft and capital. The shaft is Mukhamandapa
circular and crowned by a band of kiritimukhas Square on plan it is divided into nine bays and spewing chains which are secured below by a band is landed up from the rangamandapa by three stair- of diamonds and beads. The capital is like that cases, each comprising four steps. The mid stair- seen in the octagonal pillars of the mukhamandapa. case is wider than the side ones. Below the stair can be seen a moonstone. On either side of the gūdhamaqdapa door is a khattaka. In total They are landed up from the court by a flight there are fourteen pillars and two pilasters, dis- of three steps cut across the platform running all posed in four lines of four each. The pillars are of around and are screened in the front by one arcade the octagonal type. Their base comprises a khura, a of pillars. The walls of the devakulikās around the kumbha carrying figures of lalitasana divinities, and corridor are built of bricks, while on the outside a kapota, The shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen- moulded bricks are used for the lines of horizontal sided in the middle and circular on the top. The mouldings. The pillars, roofs, doorfram last section is clasped, from bottom to top, by three pedestals of the images are all of white marble, decorative bands consisting respectively of say- Burgess has not illustrated the pillars of the corritooth pattern, kiritimukhas spewing chains which dors. During my visit I found some pillars in the are held in position below by a band of diamonds the house of a nearby villageman. The pillars and beads, and caitya-window ornament. The seem to be originally kept in the corridors. Built capital has a double-course round bharaṇi of karnika of white marble these pillars are of the octagonal and padma, surmounted by four-armed roll brack- kind. Their base consists of a khura, a kumbha decor

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Description of Temples
175
ated with half diamonds, and a kalasa. The shaft had been dedicated. On the door-lintels of many is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle devakulikās are short inscriptions which range in and circular at the top. The circular section is date from V. S. 1656 to 1690 and indicate that the clasped on the top by a band of kirttimukhas spe- temple was extensively repaired during this wing chains which are secured below by a band of period. diamonds and beads. The capital consists of four
Entrance Porch armed roll brackets.
Square on plan it is enclosed by a balustrade In the village I also found a doorframe of white
which consists of a rājasenaka, a vedika, an asanapatta marble which is now preserved in a temple. This
and a kaksāsana, all having been profusely decorated. doorframe seems to be originally kept in one of
On the asana pasta stand two pillars and two pilasters, the devakulikās. It is of the single-fakha type and
supporting the roof with an overhanging corrugated is carved with foliate scrolls. At the base of the
eave-cornice (Text Fig. 9). The pillars consist of Sākha stands a female carrying water pot. The
two members, viz. shaft and capital. The shaft semi-circular projection of the udumbara is dama
has two sections, the lower being square and ged, but the projecting kirttimukhas on its sides
shorter, and the upper being octagonal and longer. could be seen. The uttaranga continues the deco
The square section displays a band of creepers ration of the fākha but depicts a figure of Jina
below and a ghatapallava motif above. The octagoseated in dhyānamudra on the lalata. Burgess has
nal section is clasped by seven decorative bands also noticed Jina figures on the lalata of the deva
representing, from bottom to top, lotus petals, kulika.
leaves, saw-tooth pattern, diamond-and-beads,
kirttimukhas alternating with tassels, and a stylised Except for two devakulikas flanking the main entrance, all the devakulikās had no partition walls ghařapallava. The capital has a short round bharani and were probably dedicated to the Jinas. The two of padma, topped by four-armed roll brackets. devakulikās flanking the entrance, however, were wa- The inner wall of the vedikā carries images of led off from the rest and were probably alloted to lalita sana divinities. In front of the entrance door the Yakşa and Yakși of the Jina to whom the temple is a moonstone.
GHUMLI
PĀRSVANATHA TEMPLE
Among the stones I found an image of PärsvaThis Jaina temple is completely destroyed; no
nätha carved in a hard yellowish stone of great remains of the temple now exist at the site. Burgess specific gravity; it is about 4 feet high
little damaged."105 The image reproduced here gives the following information about this temple :
(Fig. 88) stands in kāyotsarga posture on a triratha "A little to the east of this is the Vaniävasi-the ruin of an old Jaina temple, of which only a few pedestal and wears a dhoti and an uşnisa. The dhoti
reaches to the ankles in folds and is wrapped round pillars of the Mandapa and three of the small cells
the waiste in three rings. The rings are held in that surround it now remain-scarcely sufficient, without turning over a large portion of the fallen
position by three fillets, the ends of which fall on stones, to determine the plan and dimensions.
the thighs. From the centre hangs down a wavy
katisätra which is extended beyond the knees. The The pillars are plain, but the capitals have folds of the dhoti are indicated by light incisions. the same whimsical variety of sculpture as those of Below, to the right and left of the Jina are two the Nayalakha temple. The doors of the little male attendants, while above are two Maladharas shrines of the Bamti or Court have been elaborately and two sculptured niches, one of which is broken carved in sandstone, but are mostly ruined,
off.

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Jaina Temples of Western India
MIANI
JAINA TEMPLE
It consists of a malepräsida, a gūḍhamaṣṇape, a mukhamandapa and a rangamanḍapa, the last compartment has gone now, but for a few pillars and architraves (Fig. 113). The temple faces north. The temple is in the ruinous condition and is consider. ably weather-worn.
Malaprāsāda
It is tryanga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, each anga being broken into three planes. The karna is equilateral; the pratiratha has the same width as the karna but is projected only half of its width; and the bhadra is the widest buttress having projection equal to that of the pratiratha. The frontal karna and pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer wall which separates the gudhamandapa from the sanctum. Between the karnas and pratirathas are salilāntaras.
In elevation it displays pitha, vedibandha, jangha, varaṇḍikā and fikhara. The pitha consists of a bhitta, a jad yakumbha, a kumuda and a paṭṭika, the last one be ing adorned with diamonds. The vedibandha pertains
to a khura carved with diamonds, a kumbha adorned with concave-sided half diamonds bearing incision of flamboyant pattern, a kalata, and a kapota decorated with caitya-arch enrichment and underlined with leaves. The jangha is supported by a mañcikā. Divided into two registers by a plain pattika and also topped by a similar pattika, the jangha is plain, except for projecting sculptured niches on the bhadras. The niches, surmounted by udgamas, are empty now. Above the jangha comes a square bharay clasped by foliage. The saradika consists of a kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice.
The fikhara, rising abruptly above the eave cornice, displays a tryanga malamanjari marked by six bhumi-amalakas, two uromañjarīs and a rathika along each bhadra, two frigas over each karna, and one friga over each pratiratha. The mulamanjari is crowned above the griva by an amalaka and a candrika, the other crowning members have disappeared. The uromañjaris and the frigas are similar to the mulamañjari, with this difference that these are divided into five stages of bhimi-amalakas,

Each rathika contains a large diamond and is surmounted by an udgama. On either side of the rathika is a niche also containing diamond. Between the frigas are placed gajamundas. The whole of the Sikhara is enmeshed with a lattice of minute caitya-arches.
The door of the sanctum (Fig. 115) is of the tritakha variety, consisting of a patrafakha carved with foliate scrolls, a stambhalakha flanked on each side by a bakulamālā, and a bahyasakha decorated with lotus petals. At the base of each fäkhā stands a female figure carrying water pot. The stambhasakha is divided into four sections, viz. square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular, the last one being clasp. ed by two decorative bands of diamonds and beads. The top of the stambhasakha shows mouldings of a kumuda and a ribbed padma. The udumbara shows a semi-circular projection carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a projecting kirttimukha on each Ambikä on proper right and an unidentified side of it, and a sculptured niche containing goddess on proper left, both having four arms and seated in lalitasana with female attendants. The uttaranga is divided into two registers. The lower register displays a round capital of karnika and padma topping the stambhafakha on either end, while the space between them is filled with the scroll-band and the bakulamālā carried over here from the fakhas. On the lalața is a Jina seated in dhyanamudra. The upper register is treated like a
cornice.
The enshrined image in the sanctum is missing
now.
Godhamandapa
It is also tryanga on plan and shares its pitha and mandovara with the mulaprasada. The superstructure has disappeared. It is entered from the north through the mukhamandapa. Its doorframe (Fig. 114) is of the trifakha variety, consisting of a patrasakha decorated with lotus scrolls, a stambhaśakha flanked on the inner side by two bands of bakula flowers and on the outer side by one row of bakula flowers and one band of bead-and-reel motif, and a plain bahyasakha. The stambhalakha is treated like a segmented circular pilaster bearing sculp

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Description of Temples
177
tures of musicians and dancers. The lower part of sixth consists of an eight-foil kola with mukuli in the sakhas is occupied by a framed figure of Prati- the centre of each foil. The edges of kolas are hāra flanked on either side by a female cauri-bea- adorned with lotus petals. The apical stone is rer. The udumbara is like that seen in the sanctum, gone. From the second course project out eight but the niches depict Ambikä on proper right and bracket figures of four-armed Vidyadharas playing Sarvānubhūti on proper left. The uttaranga is on some musical instruments. From the remains of divided into two registers. The lower register shows eight mortices in the kola course it appears that a double-course round capital of karņika and padma, originally these supported eight bracket figures. topping the stambhafakha on either end. The space
In the east wall of the gädhamandapa is an empty between the capitals is filled with the lotus scroll
khattaka. band carried over this member from the patralakha, and a row of Maladharas facing the lalafabinsba Mukhamandapa which depicts a padmāsana Jina in dhyānamudra. The upper register is like a cornice with geese in
Rectangular on plan this compartment is landed
up from the rangamandapa by a flight of three pair on its extrados.
steps. It also shares its pitha with the mālaprāsāda. The interior of the gūdhamand apa is square Divided into three bays it consists of six pilasters having its wall reinforced by eight pilasters arran- and two pillars arranged east-west in two lines of ged in an octagon and supporting a carved domical
four each. The pillars are of the square type. Their
four n an octagonal frame of architraves. Two base consists of a khura, a kumbha decorated with of these pilasters have a square base made up of half diamonds, and a kalasa. The shaft has four a khura, a kumbha decorated with half diamonds and
sections, viz. square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and a kalata. Their shaft has four sections, viz. square,
circular, the first being the longest and the last
circular. the first be octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular, the first being the shortest. The capital consists of a doublethe longest and the last the shortest. The capital has
course round bharani of karnika and padma, sur
conrea a double-course round bharaṇi of karpika and padma mounted by four-armed brackets carried by (almost like a cushion), surmounted by kicaka kicakas. The pilasters are like the pillars, but the brackets. The other six pilasters have similar base kicaka-brackets are replaced by roll brackets and and capital as we find in the above two pilasters, the circular section of the shaft is clasped by a but the shaft-corners on the two-third upper kirttimukha-band. The architraves are divided portion are broken into two angles. The archit into two fasciae, the lower showing foliate scrolls raves are divided into two fasciae, the lower which issue from the mouth of a kirttimukha carved showing foliate scrolls which issue from the mouth in the centre, and the upper being plain. In the of a kirttimukha carved in the centre, and the upper centre of their underside is carved in low relief a having representation of saw-tooth pattern. In lotus medallion comprising two rows of petals. the centre of their underside is carved in low Square on plan each bay has a ceiling made by relief a lotus medallion having one row of petals cutting off the corners, comprising three tiers of and a central circle.
nine stones. The central stone is divided into two The domical ceiling, which is introduced above concentric circles, the central circle accommodaeach pilaster of the octagon by a square stone ting an open lotus. block adorned with diamonds, is composed of six
Rangamapdapa circular courses (Fig. 116). The first in karşadadarika surmounted by a kiritimukha-band. The From what now remains of the rangamandaba it second depicts images of lalitāsana goddesses appears that originally it consisted of eight pillars alternating with Kinnaras. The third, fourth disposed along the three sides of a square nave, and fifth consist of gajatālus, each surmounted by while its fourth side was shared by the mukhama. four decorative bands of diamond-and-bead, lotus dapa. Six central pillars of the rangamandapa petal, diamond, aud lotus petal respectively. The along with two pillars of the mukhamandapa formed
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Jaina Temples of Western India
an octagon and supported the dome on an octa-ndapa, but the kirttimukha-band on the circular gonal frame of architraves. The pillars and section of the shaft is absent here and the brackets architraves are similar to those seen in the mukhama- of the capitals carry kicaka as well as kirttimukha.
178
KANTHKOT
MAHAVIRA TEMPLE
It consists of a mulaprāsāda, a gūḍhamaṇḍapa and a rangamanḍapa. Originally, the rangamandapa had three porches, two of which on the lateral sides have now disappeared. The temple faces north. The whole temple is much weather-worn and is but a wreck; its eastern wall has even fallen down (Figs. 117-118).
Malaprāsāda
It is tryanga on plan, the bhadra comprising seven planes, and the karna and the pratiratha having five planes each. The karna and pratiratha are not only equilateral but they also have the same proportion. Between the angas are saliläntaras. The saliläntaras between the kargas and pratirathas are reinforced with konikas which do not run in the pitha. The frontal karya and pratiratha are transmuted in a buffer wall which separates the gudha mandapa from the sanctum.
In elevation it is divided into five components, namely piha, sedibandha, jaghi, arayika and Sikhara. The pitha consists of two bhiṭṭas-the lower being plain and the upper being decorated with a strip of diamonds-, a jāḍyakumbha,a karṇikā,an antarapatra decorated with stepped diamonds, a grasapaṭṭi, a gajathara and a narathara. The vedibandha pertains to a khura, a kumbha carrying sculptures of lalitäsana goddesses such as Ambika, Cakreśvari, etc., on the body and indented foliage on the shoulder, a kalafa decorated with beaded garlands and resettes, an antarapatra embellished with diamond-and-double volute pattern, and a kapota bearing udgama pattern on the upper edge and leaves on the lower. Supported by a mañcikā bearing representations of caitya-arches and kirttimukhas on the upper half and lambanas and leaves on the lower half, the jangha carries framed figures of standing gods and goddesses, all now badly damaged. The images on the karnas appear to be those of the dikpalas. The jangha on each bhadra bears a projecting sculptured niche

containing an image of Jina seated in dhyanamudra. The niche on west has alone survived. Outside the niche on each flank is a female attendant and behind her is an elongated half diamond. The jangha sculptures are surmounted by udgama pediments bearing figures of squated monkeys on the sides. The udgama in its turn is followed by a deep fillet carved with kirttimukhas and by a round fluted bharani clasped by drooping foliage. The sarapika consists of a kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice.
The fikhara has gone, but from the fragments strewn there it appears that it was of the multiturreted type and was enmeshed with a lattice of caitya-arches. Its rathika at the base were flanked by ornate balcony models. One rathika shelters an image of four-armed lalitasana goddess carrying lotuses in her upper two hands and a pitcher and is flanked on each side by a female cauri-bearer. an indistinct object in the lower ones. The goddess
to that of the gudhamandapa, is dilapidated and its The doorframe of the sanctum, which is similar ornamentations abraded. On each side of the door
is an emptied niche. Though the image of Mahāvira in the sanctum is missing, there are inscriptions which attribute the dedication to Mahavira.106 Gadhamandapa
It is also tryanga on plan and shares its pitha and mandovara with the sanctum, but here the bharant is replaced by a narathara which depicts horse-riders, elephants with drivers, warriors and fighters. The west bhadra-niche here contains an image of Ambikä seated in lalitäsana on her lion mount. Of the four-armed goddess three hands are broken off, but the fourth holding a child in her lap is preserved. It is roofed by a samvaraṇā which is completely gone, Above the wall the samvarana is introduced by a kirttimukha-band; on the bhadra an additional but similar band introduces the roof,

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Description of Temples
179
The doorframe of the gūdhamandapa is of the sapta- centre of their underside is carved in low relief a Sakha variety, consisting of patrafakha decorated with lotus medallion. A square stone block from each creepers, rūpasākha, again rüpašākha, rūpastambha, pilaster, carved with diamonds, introduces the rūpasakha, again tüpafakha, and bahyas akha a dorned dome (Fig. 119) which consists of seven circular with lotus petals. The lower part of the Sākhas is courses. The first is karşadardarika topped by a occupied by a framed figure (probably Pratibāra) kirttimukha-band. The second represents figures accompanied by female attendants. Above this the of dancers, musicians, geese, warriors, etc. The Tāpastambha carries four successive niches contain- next three consist of gajatalus, each topped by a ing images of lalitäsana goddesses, and the rīpaša. band of diamonds and beads and a band of lotus khas display fernale attendant figures, four flanking Detals. The remaining two courses consist of eighteach goddess. The uttaranga is divided into two foil and quatrefoil kolas respectively. The edges of registers. The lower register displays a ghatapallava the kolas are adorned with lotus petals and flamboycapital with three recessed angles topping the ant pattern. The triangular spaces in the quatrefoil fakhas on either end, while the space in between kola are filled with kirttimukhas. From the second them is filled with the creeper band carried over course project out eight bracket figures of fourhere from the patrafakha and a row of Mäladharas armed Vidyadharas, each of which originally supfacing the lalatabiria which depicts a Jina seated ported a bracket figure tenoned into the lower kola in dhyanamudra. The upper register represents
course. This is clearly indicated by eight mortices five sculptured niches containing images of four- left in the sixth kola course. The ceiling-slab is armed lalitā sana goddesses with attendant figures.
gone now. The udumbara is also divided into two registers. The lower register shows mouldings of bhitta,
Rangamandapa jadyakumbha, karpika, antarapatra adorned with jewels, and fillet decorated with flamboyant motif.
It also shares its pitha with the sanctum, but The upper register displays a semi-circular projec- the gajathara is absent here. When
the gajathara is absent here. When entire it had tion carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a nine bays exclusive of three porches, but now only projecting kiritimukha on each side of it, and a four of them are intact. The pillars supporting sculptured niche containing an image of four-armed these bays are of the square order. Th
these bays are of the square order. Their base consilalitasana divinity on either end. The niches depict stsofa khura, a kumbha decorated with half diamonds, Sarvānubhūti on proper right and Ambikä on
and a kalaša. The shaft has only three sections, viz. proper left, both accompanied by female atten- square, octagonal and circular, all being plain, dants.
The capital has a double-course round bharani of
karņika and padma, topped by four-armed roll The interior of the gadhamandapa is square brackets. The architraves are similar to those having its wall reinforced by eight pilasters arran- noticed in the endhamandapa. All the four bays ged in an octagon and supporting a domical and the north porch have carved domical ceilings. ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The pilasters with corners broken into two angles have T he ceilings located in front of the gūdhaman. a square moulded base made up of bhitta, kumbha daba door and in the central bay are alike, each carved with half diamonds, and kuinuda. Their consisting of six courses, the first being octagonal shaft is square below, octagonal in the middle and and the rest, circular. The first course depicts circular above. On the lower section of the two flamboyant pattern in semi-circles on the inner face pilasters stands a male figure with folded hands, and a kirttimukha in the border of rosette-marked Their capital has a double-course square bharani of diamonds at each corner on the underside. The kargika and padma, surmounted by roll brackets. second is karyadardarika surmounted by a kirtti. The architraves are divided into two fasciae, the mukha-band. The third and fourth are made up of lower showing foliate scrolls which emerge from gajatālus, each topped by a band of diamonds and the mouth of a kirttimukha carved in the centre, beads and a band of letus petals, while their edges and the upper bearing saw-tooth pattern. In the below are adorned with flamboyant motif. The

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fifth and sixth consist of eight-foil and quatrefoil kolas respectively. The triangular spaces of the kolas are occupied by kirttimukhas. The ceilingslab has gone now.
Jaina Temples of Western India
The ceilings in the north porch and in a bay in the east wing are similar to the preceding one, but here is found only one course of kola.
References
1. The tryanga plan always shows these three buttresses. When it is doyanga, it consists of bhadra and karna. In either case the bhadra is always the biggest member.
2. For details see my article, "Two Kausaggiyas from Vadnagar," Jaina Journal, vol. VI, No. 2, pp. 79-80.
3. Cousens, H., Somanatha and Other Mediaeval Temples in Kathiawad, pl. XLIII.
4. Ibid., p. 51.
5. Dhaky, M. A., "Vimalavasahini Keṭalika Samasyão," Svadhyaya (Gujarati), vol.I X, No. 3, p. 356.
6. Ibid., pp. 356-57.
7. Jayantavijaya, HA, p. 36.
8. See pp. 50-51.
9. HA, pp. 36-38.
10. Ibid., p. 39.
11. Ibid., pp. 54-55, bhavas 1 and 2.
12. Shah, U. P., "Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas," Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol. XV, pp. 114-77.
13. HA, p. 55, bhāva 5c.
14. Shah, U. P., in HA, p. 56, n. 1.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., p. 55, n. 2.
17. HA, pp. 56-61, bhāva 6.
18. Nanavati, J. M. and Dhaky, M. A., Ceilings
in the Temples of Gujarat, p. 75, No. 52.
19. HA, p. 61, bhāvas 7 and 8.
20. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 75. 21. HA, p. 63, bhäva 11.
22. Ibid., pp. 69-70, bhāva 17.
23. Ibid., pp. 64-65, bhävas 12-12a. 24. Ibid., p. 65, bhāva 13.

The remaining ceiling is located in a bay in the east wing. It consists of four courses, the first being octagonal and the rest, circular. The octagonal course bears usual decorations. The other three courses consist of padmas, each decorated with lotus petals. The ceiling-slab is relieved with a full-blown lotus flower set up in a border of foliate scrolls.
25. Ibid., pp. 65-66, bhava 14. 26. Ibid., pp. 66-67, bhava 15. 27. Ibid., p. 69, bhāva 16. 28. Cf. Ibid., p. 70, bhava 18. 29. Ibid., pp. 70-71, bhäva 19. 30. Ibid., p. 71, bhäva 20.
31. Ibid., pp. 71-75, bhava 21.
32. Ibid., p. 75, bhava 25, n. 2.
33. Ibid., p. 75, bhāva 27.
34. For details see Shah, U.P., Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol. XV, pp. 125-33.
35. HA, p. 76, bhāva 29.
36. Shah, U. P., in HA, p. 76, n. 2.
37. Ibid.
38. HA, p. 77, bhāva 36.
39. Ibid., pp. 77-78, bhāva 37.
40. Ibid., p. 78, bhāva 38.
41. Cf. Ibid., p. 78, bhāva 39.
42. Ibid., pp. 62-63, bhāva 10.
43. Shah, U. P., in HA, p. 38, n. 1. For the complete list of images installed in the devakulikäs see Jayantavijaya, HA, pp. 39-51.
44. HA, pp. 82-83.
45. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Präcina Jaina Lekhasamdoha, Ābu, vol. II, No. 229.
46. HA, pp. 78-82.
47. Ibid., p. 28, n. 2.
48. Ibid., p. 96.
49. Ibid., pp. 96-97.
50. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 83, No. 77. 51. Ibid., p. 82, No. 75.
52. For details of their iconography see Shah, U. P., "Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas," Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol. XV, pp. 114-177.

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191
53. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., pp. 85-86,
Nos. 84-85. 54. Ibid., p. 75, No. 50. 55. HA, pp. 118-20, bhāva 13. 56. Ibid., p. 118, bhāva 12 57. Ibid., p. 121, bhāva 19. 58. Ibid., p. 122, bhāva 22. 59. Ibid., pp. 122-23, bhāva 23. 60. Ibid., pp. 123-25, bhāva 24. 61. For details see Shah, U.P., Journal of the Indian
Society of Oriental Art, vol. XV, pp. 134, 148,
155, 164. 62. Op. cit., p. 76, No. 56. 63. For details of images installed in the devakuli-
kas see HA, pp. 98-107 and 112-15. 64. Ibid., p. 91, n. 1. 65. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 16, v. 56.
See also Jinaharsagani, Vastupalacarita, p. 119; Somadharmagani, Upadel asaptati, p. 30.
Prācina Tirthamala Sangraha, vol. I, p. 50. 67. An extensive restoration of these temples was
made in the sixteenth century A. D. - Kalyāņavijaya (ed.), Tapāgaccha Pattāvali,
vol. I, p. 244. 68. Visalavijaya, Arāsaņatirtha aparanāma Kum
bhāriājitirtha, Nos. 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16,
19, 21, 40, 43, 51 and 56. 69. Ibid., No. 88. 70. Ibid., Nos. 77 and 149. An inscription of
1061 A. D. engraved upon the pedestal of the sanctum image also makes the dedication
to Vira, i. e. Mahävira. 71. Ibid., Nos. 26 and 30. In the revised reading
of an inscription found in the Aştāpada cell of this temple, Dhaky has read Nābheyaprāsāda, a name also indicative of Adinatha (Rşabhanātha).-Dhaky, M. A. "Ārāsanana Be Jaina Pratimälekhoni Veseşavácana,"
Svadhyāya (Gujarati), vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 191. 72. Bhandarkar, D. R., Progress Report of the
Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle,
1906, p. 42. 73. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 73, No. 43. 74. Viśālavijaya, op. cit., p. 37, n. 1. 75. HA, pp. 100 ff. 76. Bhandarkar, D. R., loc. cit.
77. Dhaky has suggested that this pedestal belon
ged to one of the devakulikäs of the Mahavira temple.-Dhaky, M. A., "Ārāsaņanā Be Jaina Pratimälekhoni Visesavācanā," Svadhyāya (Gujarati), vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 195,
n. 22. 78. Nanavati and Dhaky, op. cit., p. 74, No. 48. 79. Bhandarkar, D. R., op. cit., p. 43. 80. See p. 134. 81. See p. 117. 82. Dhaky, M. A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, p. 55. 83. JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 126. 84. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
p. 169. 85. Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 79. 86. Cousens, H., Somanatha and Other Mediaeval
Temples in Kathiawad, pls. LXIV and LXVIII. 87. PCH, p. 105; Kumarapalacaritrasangraha,
Jinavijaya (ed.), pp. 25-27. The Vividhatirthakalpa of Jinaprabhasüri (p. 3, v. 69) and the Upades asaptati of Somadharmagani (p. 27, v. 32) reveal that the amount spent in its
construction is three crore and three lacs. 88. Shah, A. P., "Some Inscriptions and Images
on Mount Satruõjaya," Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, pt. I, pp. 163
64, Fig. 1. 89. Ibid., pp. 164-65, Fig. 2. 90. Kirste, J., "Inscriptions from Northern
Gujarat," Epigraphia Indica, vol. II, pp. 33-34. 91. Shah, U. P., "Iconography of the Jaina God
dess Sarasvati," Journal of the University of
Bombay, vol. X, pt. II, p. 10. 92. Nyāyavijaya, Jaina Titthono Itihasa (Gujarati),
pp. 197-99; JSSI, p. 454; JTSS, vol. I, pt. I,
p. 149. 93. Jayantavijaya, "Prācina Lekha Sangraha,"
Jaina Satya Prakāfa (Gujarati), vol. I, pt. II,
pp. 66-67. 94. Ibid., p. 65. 95. Darsanavijaya, Patļāvali Samuccaya, vol. I,
Viramgam, 1933, pp. 81-82. 96. Burgess, J., Architectural Antiquities of Northern
Gujarat, p. 115.

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Faina Temples of Western India
97. Sukstakirtikallolinyādi Vastupalaprašastisangraha,
Punyavijaya (ed.), p. 68. 98. Jayantavijaya, op. cit., pp. 67-68. 99. Cf. the plan reproduced here as Text Fig.
8 on page 169 from Burgess, J., Antiquities
of Kathiawad and Kachh, pl. LVIII. 100. Ibid., p. 208; Khakhkhar, M.D., in the Jagadicarita, p. 110; JTSS, vol. I, pt. I, p. 140.
. 101. For illustration see Burgess, J., Antiquities of
Kathiawad and Kachh, pl. LX, Fig. 1. 102. Ibid., pl. LXI.
103. Burgess, J., Architectural Antiquities of Northern
Gujarat, pp. 99.101, pls. X, LXXVII
LXXIX. 104. Kirste, J., “Inscriptions from Northern
Gujarat," Epigraphia Indica, vol. II, p. 31. 105. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
pp. 181-82. 106 106. Bhandarkar, D. R., Progress Report of the
Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle, 1906, p. 38.

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CHAPTER IV
CHARACTERISTICS AND CHRONOLOGY AND CHRONOLOGY
On the basis of a comparative study of various architectural designs, the style and modelling of sculptures, and the development of the decorative motifs and iconographic features, coupled with
This group is represented by two temples, viz. the Adinatha temple at Vadnagar and the Jaina temple at Than. Both these are small structures built on a simple plan displaying only a sanctum and a mandapa. Their pitha and vedibandha mouldings are bold and simple and carry very little ornamentation. Their jangha is plain, but for the sculptured niches which are preserved only in the devakulikās of the Adinatha temple. Except for the doorframe, their interior is also plain. All these characteristics distinguish the temples of this group from those of the later one and place them in the same category as the Surya and the Śiva temples at Kotai (Kutch) and the Munibāvā temple at Than. Although these temples are characterised by a simple plan and design and have a plain exterior and interior, they reveal some such traits as the tryanga sanctum, sculptured niches on the jangha and the devakulikās, which become the essential elements of the Solanki Jaina temples of Gujarat. The pyramidal superstructure, which has survived only in the Jaina temple at Than, is also a characteristic of the Jaina temples of Abu. Chronologically, the Adinatha temple precedes the Jaina temple at Than. ĀDINĀTHA TEMPLE AT VADNAGAR

PRE-SOLANKI TEMPLES
Judging the form of kirttimukhas on the grasapatti and the capital of the ripastambha, Dhaky dates the older portion of the temple to the late 10th century A.D. and the remaining portion to the 13th century A.D. As regards the date of the older portion, it may be pointed out that there are certain features which do not favour the above
literary and inscriptional evidences, the Jai na temples of Gujarat of the period under review may broadly be divided into two groups, namely PreSolanki and Solanki.
dating. The bold and vigorous kirttimukhas on the grasapatti (Fig. 1) are comparable with those appearing on the Raṇakadevi temple at Wadhwan and the Ambikä temple at Jagat (circa 925 A. D.). The capital of the ripastambha also corresponds to that of the Rāṇakadevi temple. The jaḍyakumbha is similar to that of the Śiva and the Surya temples at Kotai, the latter attributable to Lakhā who was a contemporary of Muūlarāja I (941-998 A.D.). The antarapatra and kapota are exactly similar to those found in the Trinetresvara temple at Than. The rosettes of the khura moulding of the vedibandha are reminiscent of those seen on the rajasenaka of the Lakṣmaṇa temple at Khajuraho (circa 950 A.D.). The representation of two-armed goddesses on the ripastambha is also an old feature. From these it appears that the temple was built during the early part of the 10th century. The absence of kumuda on the pitha is a strong negative evidence to show that the temple was built earlier than the Surya temple at Kotai and the Ambika temple at Jagat.
Dhaky's dating of the other portions is also not tenable. Sompura ascribes them to the 12th century A. D. Commenting on the observations of Dhaky he writes that the temple was renovated in the 13th century A. D. In support of his argument he cites the testimony of an inscription which, according to him, bears the aforesaid date and is engraved on the kumbha of the pitha of the temple at its southwest corner. But Sompura is not correct. There is no such record on the pitha of the temple. He has wrongly associated the aforesaid inscription with this temple. Stylistically, these portions very closely resemble those of the Hatha

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Jalna Temples of Western India
keśvara Mahadeva temple at the same site which is separating the spire from the wall, and the projecta 16th century erection.
ing kirttimukhas on the doorsill, which do not at
all favour the above datings. These elements are JAINA TEMPLE AT THAN
conspicuous by their absence on the temples of the On the basis of the great blocks of which the Pre-Solanki period, but they are invariably found temple is constructed, the mouldings and the style on the temples of the Solanki period. In fact, the of roof Cousens places it in the same period as the temple appears to be an example of the transitional small Vaisnava temple there, which he dates in the phase as these elements are only in the nascent 7th-8th centuries A.D. He also compares this stage. As regards its roof, it resembles to some temple with that of Patiani Devi near Bharhut, extent the Maitraka temples of Saurashtra,' but which, according to Cunningham, was originally a the representation of caitya-window and diamond Jaina temple of the time of the Guptas. Follow- corresponds to those seen on the jadyakumbha of the ing Cousens, Shah remarks that the door carvings Mahāvira temple at Kumbharia (1061 A. D.). of this temple suggest a date in the post-Gupta Thus the temple was built either during the closing period.5 Saraswati has put this temple in the same years of the 10th century A. D., as the features class as that at Gop, and chronologically places it enumerated above were yet to appear on the slightly later than that. It is probably its pyrami- Munibāvā temple which is assigned in the last dal spire (Fig. 2) which induced him to assign it quarter of the 10th century A. D.,8 or in the beginsuch an early date. But the temple reveals certain ning of the 11th century when these elements begin features such as bold and crude half diamond to appear on the Vimalavasahi at Abu, which is on the kumbha, a heavy ribbed eave-cornice precisely dated to 1031 AD.
SOLANKI TEMPLES
This group includes seventeen temples located and those in which they are attached diagonally. throughout the length and breadth of the country. The Ajitanātha temple at Taranga (Text Fig. 7 on In contrast to the temples of the earlier group, these page 159) and the Neminātha temple at Girnar are characterised by an elaborate plan and design (Text Fig. 4 on page 147) are the examples of the and have ornate exterior and interior. With the latter type, and the rest, those of the former (cf. exception of the Vastupalavihära at Girnar, which Text Fig. 6 on page 157). In both the types the sides has an exceptional purpose and plan, each of these are indented at regular intervals by numerous protemples consists of a mülaprāsāda, a gädhamandapa, jections and recesses in the form of angles, which and a mukhamanda pa or rangamandapa or both. In are carried up to the final unity of the spire. the larger temples a series of about twenty-four, fifty-two or seventy two devakulikās are added. Like the plan the elevation also reveals distincSometimes the larger temples also introduce an tive features. The temples are normally laid out on inner ambulatory round the sanctum, to which are the ground as has naturally been provided, but the added balconied windows on the rear and the late temples at Kumbharia stand on a lofty jagati. In ral sides. This makes the temple a sāndhāra-prāsāda.
both the cases the temples are generally enclosed In some temples a balanaka or nalamandapa is built by a prakara. The pitha supporting the malaprasada, in the fornt. In the Vimalavasahi and the Lūna. gadhamand apa and mukhamande pa carries a series of vasahi at Abu a hastitala is also erected. In one ornamental mouldings, the sequence of which is solitary instance, namely the Ajitanätha temple at fixed by a common tradition. The vedibandha of Taranga, the temple is double-storeyed.
the mandovara also carries a series of ornamental
mouldings fixed by tradition; its jangha is decorIn the arrangement of plan of the mālaprāsāda ated with one horizontal band (in one temple, viz. and the gūdhamandapa these temples resolve them the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, there are two selves into two groups, those in which the two com- bands) of sculptures of exquisite grace and charm; partments are united as to form a parallelogram, and the varandika has one or two mouldings with a
Jain Education Interational

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Characteristics and Chronology
185
fine ribbed eave-cornice. The niches in the cardi- tectural movement, differing only in matter of nal points of the jangha are of superior workman- details. It appears that the guilds working at ship. Side by side, temples with a plain exterior different places follow a common canon on archiwere also erected. These temples also carry all the tecture throughout the region. On a comparative essential elements of the pitha and mandovara. The study of these traits it is found that the Vimalafikhara, wherever preserved, has mumerous subsid- vasahi at Abu with its mālaprāsāda, gādhamandapa jary turrets of varying sizes, clustered to the main and hastifala, all built of dark stone and datable fikhara at different heights. The buttresses of the to 1031 A. D., stands at the outset of the Solanki fikhara terminate at the skandha, but the cardinal Jaina tamples, and the Mahāvira temple at Kanthones in the developed temples go to the neck which kot (circa 1280 A. D.) at the end of the series. is crowned by a large amalaka, a candrika, a smaller Endowed with many individual features these āmalaka, a kalaša and a bljapūraka. The entire temples indeed represent the two extremes of the fikhara is adorned with a lattice ornament of the temples of this group. Thus, while the plastic caitya-arches, which are pristine in the earlier modelling of the sculptures in the Vimalavasah temples of this group and become complicated is sensuous, that of the Mahavira temple shows later. The gūdhamandapa is roofed by a bell-type decadence. Again, the pillars and the minor of superstructure, which is an essential element of ceilings preserved in the hastif ala of the Vimala. the Solanki Jaina temples.
vasahi are ornate, those in the Mahāvira temple
are tantalizingly plain. The Vimalavasahi, Compared to the exterior the interior of these
therefore, stands at the beginning of the temples of Jaina temples is more arnamental. In the interior
this group and the Mahāvira temple at its end. the artists have concentrated their attention in
In between these are to be placed the other beautifying the rangamandapa and the mukhamandapa.
temples, seven of which are precisely dated on the The interior of the gadhamandapa, particularly the basis of inscriptional and literary evidences, viz. domical ceiling, is richly carved. In the Vimala
the Mahävira temple at Kumbharia dated to 1061, vasahi and the Lūnavasahi at Abu and the Parávan
the Neminātha temple at Girnar dated to 1128 atha temple at Kumbharia the corridor of the and its devakulikās dated to 1158, the Neminātha devakulikās is also decorated. The rarigamandapa temple at Kumbharia dated to 1136, the Adinātha shows an octagonal arrangement of ornate pillars temple at Shatrunjaya dated to 1154, the AjitaSupporting an exquisitely carved domical ceiling nätba temple at Taranga dated to 1164, the of considerable size. From the centre of the dome Lūnayasahi at Abu dated to 1231 and the Vastuhange down a large, beautiful pendant cut out of palavihära at Girnar dated to 1232 A. D. The one solid block. A remarkable feature of the dome is chronology of the remaining Jaina temples may that it is elaborately decorated and carries sixteen be fixed by a comparative study of the various bracket figures of Vidyadevis or Apsarās supported characteristics of these temples and those of the by sixteen bracket figures of hovering Vidyadharas. dated Jaina as well as Brahmanical temples of the The mukhamanda pa is divided into three, six, nine region. or ten bays and has elaborately carved pitha, pillars pilasters and ceilings. The front door of the
Below is given a chronological narrative of all gadhamandapa and the two niches flanking it are the temples of this group on the basis of their also very ornate. The pillars, dome with its characteristic features and the available inscriptiopendant, minor ceilings, doors and the niches show nal and literary evidences. a gradual development of the style.
VIMALAVASAHI AT ABU An analysis of the various architectural designs, The Vimalavasahi is the earliest Jaina temple the from of sculptures, the iconographic features of this group. The date of this world famous and the decorative motifs shows that all the Jaina temple has been very controversial since long. temples of this group essentially belong to a This is because the temple has been repaired more cognate style and are manifestations of one archi- than once. Although we do not have the temple
24

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Jalna Temples of Western India
prošasti, nor is there any contemporary literary elephants in the hastišala were built by Pộthvipāla, reference about it, yet the construction of the the minister under Kumārapāla (circa 1143-1172 temple is generally attributed to Vimalasāha, after A. D.). In this regard the credit again goes to whose name it was called Vimalavasahikā, Vimala- Parikh, who, on the basis of the Prasasti of the syavasahikā, Vimalavasahi, Vimalavasatikātirtha Nemināthacariya, an Apabhramsa work written by and Vimalavasati.' All our information about the Haribhadrasūri, the kulaguru of Pșthvipāla, suggeVimalavasahi is supplied by the later inscriptions sted that the mandaba and the seven elephants were and the literary tradition. The first reference about built by Prthvipāla, the grandson of Nedha, the it is noticed in an inscription of V. S. 1201 (1144 elder brother of Vimalasāha,20 Shah has found A, D.) found in Derakulika 10, which tells us that two similar references in the Prašastis of the CandraVimalatha built at this place a magnificent (Tina) prabhacarita and the Mallina thacarita, both written temple.10 An inscription of V. S. 1202 (1145 A.D.) in Prakrit by the same author (Haribhadrasuri).21 in Devakulika 5 clearly refers to the shrine as
Let us now examine the archaeological evidence Vimalavasatikātirtha.11 Fortunately, an inscription
which is also of immence importance to ascertain of V.S. 1378 (1321 A.D.), the purpose of which is to
the date of this temple. In the construction of this record the restoration of this temple during that
temple two types of building material have been year by Lalla and Vijada, records an earlier
used, viz. the mülaprāsāda, the gūdhamandaba and the tradition that this temple was built in V. S. 1088
hastišala are built of dark stone, and the rest, that (1031 A. D.) by Vimala, who had been appointed
of white marble. From the building material itself, Dandanayaka at Arbuda by Bhimad eva (1).12
from This date is also found in the Prabandhas. 19
two inscriptions recording the restoration The
in V. S. 1206 and V. S. 1378 respectively, 22 and same date is also given in the Vividhatirthakalpa
from numerous images installed from time to time it and the Paffävalis. 14 All these references prove
appears that the whole temple does not belong to beyond doubt that the Ādinātha temple at Abu,
the time of Vimalasäha. In fact, if we compare the popularly known as Vimalayasahi, was built by
various parts of the Vimalavasahi, as it now stands, Vimalasāha in 1031 A. D.
with those of the other contemporary temples, Now the question arises whether the temple in we shall find that it were only the dark stone parts its entirety belongs to the time of Vimalasaha. Of which belonged to the time of Vimalasaha. Thus, course, there are scholars who believe that the the disposition of the buttresses of the mūlabrāsāda temple as it now stands is the result of one man's corresponds to that of the Sun temple at Modhera enterprise, namely Vimalasäha.16 Cousens, how- (1026 A. D.). The capitals of the pilasters of the ever, suggested that the sanctum and the closed güdhamandapa and the pillars, minor ceilings and hall were in existence long before Vimala's time, sculptures of the hastifāla are strikingly similar to and Vimala added to it the marble halls and corri- those noticed in the gūdhamandapa of the Sun temple dors. 16 A similar view is also held by Saraswati."" at Modhera. Its pharsana has much likeness to But there are good grounds to believe that at least such contemporary temples as the Ambikā and the rangamandapa was built in the 12th century A.D. Brahmä temples at Khedabrahma, Brahmänimātā On the testimony of the Purātana Prabandha Sangraha temple at Kämanigama near Siddhapur and Parikh first pointed out that the rangamandapa of Kumārimātā temple at Abu.29 The bold karnika the Vimalavasahi was erected by Cahila, the son of of the pitha, the crude depiction of half diamond Vimalasāha.18 According to Somadharmagani, on the kumbha of the vedibandha, and the presence of the mandapa was built by Vimala's brother Vahila, petal-and-bud ornament in the lotus flower rather probably a mistake for Cahila, and its devakulikäs than on the courses of the dome of the gadhamandapa were added by the merchants.18 But it is very are also such traits which date these compartments doubtful if Vimala ever had a son. It is also very in the early eleventh century A. D. The smooth hard to say if the rangamand apa was built by Căbila, and thinner limbs and better proportion of the for we have a definite contemporary literary evide- sculptures like the dvārapālas and the female cauri. nce to suggest that the rangamandapa and the seven bearer (Fig. 7) of the hastifāla and the Jina panel

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Characteristics and Chronology
187
in the bhadra-niche of the mālaprāsada are also in dicative of a similar date. An inscription of V. S. 1212 carved on the Samavasarana panel of the hastišala also records that the hastišala was built by Minister Vimala, 24 Therefore we have little scope for doubt that the malaprāsāda, gūdhamandapa and hastišala were erected by Vimalasäha.
The small domical ceiling in front of the main entrance also belongs to the time of Vimalasaha. This is apparently indicated from the dark stone material of which it is made and the bold form of the kola and gajatālu.
The white marble structures also were not built at one time. On a comparative study of various architectural features and sculptural forms we find that the mukhamandapa and the lateral entrance porches of the gūdhamandapa were built earlier than the rangamandapa and the devakulikās. Though all these compartments are made of white marble, show much similarities in ornamentation and are well integrated, they greatly differ in details. Thus, while the pillar-shaft of the rangamandapa shows five ornamental bands, those of the mukhamandapa carry six or seven bands. Again, the sculptures on the square section of the pillar-shaft of the mukha. mandapa are both two-armed and four-armed, all those in the rangamandapa are four-armed. While the bharani of the pillar-capital of the lateral porches are fluted and the brackets of those of the mukha. mandapa are clasped by suspended foliage, both these in the rangamandapa are plain. Besides, the ornamentations like incurved petals, petal-andbuds, dancers, etc., appearing on the underside medallions of the architraves of the mukhamandapa are conspicuous by their absence on those of the rangamandapa and the devakulikas; in their place we find creeper and lotus medallions. The padma- nabha elements as displayed in the mukhamandapa ceilings (Fig. 9) are altogether absent in those of the rangamandapa and the devakulikās. Again, the kola and gajatalu in the mukhamandapa ceilings are carved in high relief. The mukhamandapa ceilings also do not bear such ornamental bands as those consisting of horses, horse-riders, lions, elephants, lotus petal-and-bud, etc., although these are fre- quently represented in the ceilings of the ranga. mandapa and the devakulikās. Therefore it appears
that all these compartments were not built at one time. Comparing the mukhamandapa pillars (Fig. 6) with those of the dancing hall of the Sun temple at Modhera, the figures of dancers on the underside medallions of its architraves with those noticed in the Tapeśvara temple at Nadlai (early 11th century A. D.), and the nābhicchanda and padmanabha elements (cf. Figs. 9 and 27, 29) of its ceilings with those found in the mukhamandapa of the Mahävira temple at Kumbharia (1061 A. D.), Dhaky rightly dates the mukhamandapa and the lateral entrance porches of the gadhamandapa to the third quarter of the 11th century A. D. and attributes their authorship to Cahila whom he has identified, on the basis of an inscription in Devakulika 11, with the younger brother of Vimalasäha.45 To substantiate the statement of Dhaky we may add here a few other features. The incurved petals of the underside medallions of the mukhamandapa architraves are quite analogous to those seen in the rangamand apa of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia. Like those seen in the mukhamandapa of the Vimalavasahi, many dancers on the square section of the pillarshaft in the rangamand apa of the Mahävira and the śāntinātha temples at Kumbharia are also having two arms. Lastly, the design of creeper in a mukhamandapa ceiling (Fig. 10) of the Vimalavasahi closely agrees with that noticed on the soffit of the dome of the rarigamand apa of the Santinātha temple at Kumbharia (circa 1082 A. D.). The new mandapa was built probably removing the old one, which, as pointed out by Dhaky, was made of dark stone and comprised only six bays.26
In the chronological sequence the mukhamand apa and the lateral entrance porches (Figs. 4-5) come in between the Mahāvira and the Sāntinātha temples at Kumbharia. The reasons to place it later than the Mahāvira temple may be enumerated here. Firstly, the acanthus on the pillar-shaft is a developed one, and it is carved in more pleasing relief than that found in the Mahävira temple. Secondly, the lümās in the padmanabha type of ceilings are shorter and lack in depth; this is indicative of a device whereby samakşipta and samautkşipta ceilings of the padmamandāraka (Fig. 15) varieties were built in the rangamandapa and the devakulikās of the Vimalavasahi. Thirdly, the fine and independent nabhicchanda elements as we find

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Faina Temples of Western India in the Mahävira temple and in such earlier temples tion of the work of Ppthvipäla is observable in an as the Sun temple at Modhera and the Mahāvira inscription of V.S. 1206 (1149 A. D.) found in temple at Ghanerao (circa 954 A. D.) are not Devakulika 14,31 wherein Pệthvipāla is mentioned noticed in the present temple. Fourthly, the under- to have restored this temple. That the rangamandapa side medallions of the architraves show more varie- is a later addition is also known from the fact that ties in the incurved petals, whereas in the Mahā when the temple was being repaired during recent vira temple there is only one variety. Lastly, the years, there were found dark stone structures pitha, pillars, pilasters, doors and khattakas are more below the white marble pillars;32 this indicates elaborately carved in the Vimalavasahi. Likewise, that originally the temple of Vimalasäha had a the absence of such features as pointed kola, deve- rangamandapa and Pythvipă la added the new loped ardhapadma motif, Kinnar-couples at the cor- manda pa by removing the old one, which had proners of the ceilings and intersecting garland-loopbably by that time decayed. From all these eviornament, all of which are frequently shown in the dences it seems certain that the rangamandapa was later temples, suggests a date not later than the added by Pythvipāla latest by 1150 A. D., the date Santinātha temple, as the latter carries all these when he restored this temple. representations.
As regards the date of the remaining compart- Prthvipāla also built three staircases and three ments, it has been proved above on the unimpea- ceilings of the mukhamanda pa located near the chable literary evidence that at least the rangaman- rangamandapa. The arrangement of three staircases dapa and seven elephants in the hastišala were built in the mukhamandapa is quite a late feature as it is by Prthvipäla. This is also supported by the not found in the Mahāvira, the Säntinātha and the archaeological testimony. After comparing the style Pärsvanātha temples at Kumbharia; and in the of sculptures of the rangamandapa and the devakuli- Neminātha temple at Kumbharia (1136 A, D.), kās with that of those appearing on the outer walls
where it is found, it is in a very undeveloped stage. of the Jaina temples at Jalor and Taranga, built Another indication of their being late is that the by Kumarapala, Shah has concluded that the elephants flanking the staircases are like those in Tangamandapa of the Vimalavasahi was either re- the hastifala. Moreover, the ceilings have much built or newly added by Pệthvipäla in circa 1204- more similarities with those of the rangamandapa 06 V.S. (1148-1150 A. D.).27 Of course, while and the devakulikäs than those found in the mukha. the sculptures (Fig. 7) of the time of Vimalasāha mandapa. Indeed, the panels of horse-riders and are free and better proportioned, those of the time elephants and the representations of creeper me. of Kumārapāla (Figs. 13, 14, 18-21) are slender and dallions and Kinnar-couples at the corners of the heavily loaded with ornaments. From the archi- ceilings are not met with in the mukhamandapa, tectural point of view, too, the pillars, ceilings and although these are popularly shown in the rangatheir ornamentations are indicative of this period.28 mandapa and the devakulikās. Another indication This is also corroborated by the inscriptional of their being late is that the architraves towards evidence. A ceiling in the north portico of the the courtyard do not continue the narathara of the Tangamandapa contains a large image of Goddess mukhamannapa, but instead show a band of lotus Sarasvati accompanied by two artists inscribed as scrolls. Sūtradhāra Kela and Sūtradhāra Loyana, who are rightly identified by Shah with the chief architect If these three bays were built by Pộthvipala, then and sculptor of the rangamanda pa respectively.29 what was the position of the mukhamandapa during Dhaky has also found the names of these artists the time of Vimalasäha and later ? Dhaky rightly alongwith those of their father and three other points out that it was a chacoki (six bays), and artist-brothers in an inscription of 1202 V. S. (1145 Pythvipāla converted it into navacoki (nine bays) A. D.) in Devakulika 5, the purpose of which is to by adding three more bays, 3 because by the 11th record the installation of the Kunthunātha image century A. D. the mukhamandapa of the Jaina in the Vimalavasahikātirtha.30 Another indica- temples of Gujarat had only six bays.

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The inscriptions record that Pșthvipāla also were the chief architect and sculptor of the installed seven of the ten elephants in the hastifāla rangamandapa, and they probably installed the image in 1147 A. D.84 These inscriptions are engraved of Kunthunatha in this cell as a token of love to on the elephants themselves. Two elephants were the faith of their patron, for they themselves were installed by Dhanapāla, the son of Pșthvipāla, in probably Vaişņava. Three inscriptions, one in 1220 A. D. 35 and the remainder perhaps by some Devakulika 34 and two in Devakulika 45, all dated relative of Dhanapāla.36
in 1245 V.S. (1188 A.D.),42 even mention the Pșthvipāla did not stop this philanthropic act
names of the persons who constructed these three
devakulikās. The remaining inscriptions only here itself, but extended it by building some of the devakulikās; many others, however, were built by
record the consecrating date and the name of the
persons who installed the image. Six of these his relatives and other Jaina Srävakas. This can
images were installed by Dhanapala, the son of be very well ascertained from an analysis of the
Pșthvipala, in 1188 A. D.,48 which is the latest inscriptions (39 in all) recorded on the images of the devakulikās.87 Five of these inscriptions are
known date of the devakulikā images, and in which
date the majority of images were also consecrated. anterior to the time of Ppthvipala,38 This may
Thus it appears that the devakulikās were built suggest that the construction of the devakulikäs
between 1143 A. D., the date recorded on an image started prior to the time of Pythvipäla. Did then
(this is also the time when Kumārapäla ascended they exist in the form of Caturvimsati Jinālaya, if
the Caulukya throne), and 1188 A. D., the date not the Bāvana Jinālaya, in the time of Vimala
after which the images were not installed. säha ? It is hard to say anything definitely, for none of these inscriptions belongs to the time of Lastly, we come to the balāņaka. It is quite a Vimalasäha. Further, the floral and geometrical late erection, as it was not in existence at the time designs on the pillars and pilasters, all of which are when Hiravijaya visited this shrine in 1582 A. D. alike in form and design, the heavily ornamented This can be inferred from the Hirasaubhagyakävya doors, and the form and ornamentation of the which describes the visit of Hiravijaya. The text ceilings, the latter having considerable likeness to indeed refers to a flight of steps at the entrance of those of tangamandapa, also hardly suggest an the temple and makes no mention of the earlier date. However, if the dark stone ceiling balanaka. 44 near the main entrance is in situ, the possibility of
MAHĀVIRA TEMPLE AT KUMBHARIA their existence cannot be wholly ruled out. Dhaky, on the other hand, has remarked that originally This temple is securely dated by an inscription the five images bearing these inscriptions were engraved upon the pedestal of the principal image somewhere in the malaprāsāda, güdhamandapa and of the sanctum, replaced in V. S. 1675 (1618 A.D.) mukhamandapa, and they were transferred here when by a new one.45 The inscription runs: "Om Prthvipala carried out its restoration. 30
Samvat 1118 phälguna sudi 9 some ärāsaņābhidhaAlthough none of the devakulika inscriptions
nasthāne tirthadhipasya Virasya pratima..............
rajye kāritā........, 46 i. e. 'on monday, the 9th day refers to Pșthvipāla as their builder, an inscription
of the bright half of Phālguna, in Samvat 1118 of 1144 A. D. in Devakulika 10 says that Dasaratha,
(1061 A.D.), at a place known as Ārāsaņa, the the cousin of Pșthvipāla, installed the image of Neminātha in this cell with the consent of the
image of Vira (Mahāvira), to the memory of whom latter.40 This is an indirect reference to suggest
the place is sacred, was consecrated.... that since the devakulikās were built by Ppthvipa la, This date also fits in well with the architectuDasaratha had to take permission of the latter to ral and sculptural peculiarities of the temple. On instal the image. Another reference is found in an plan and elevation the exterior and interior of its inscription of 1145 A. D. preserved in Devakulika sanctum and güdhamandapa generally resemble the 5 wherein the names of Sūtradhäras like Kelā and temple of Vimalasāha at Abu, but instead of a Loyaņa occur.41 As we have seen above, these phänsana these are roofed by a fikhara and a san

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varaṇā respectively. Further, the domical ceiling (Fig. 28)place it anterior to the Santinātha temple. of the güdhamandapa carries eight bracket figures of Another proof of this period is that the ghata pallava Vidyadharas. These novel features in the Maha- capitals (Fig. 26) topping the jambs of the northern vira temple, which become an essential element of door of the gūdhamandapa are conventionalised, the later Taina temples, anticipate the Säntinātha although the same in the Sun temple at Modhera temple at Kumbharia, with which it has closest are represented in their perfect form. The Mabā. affinity. The sculptures of this temple also appro- vira temple, therefore, stands midway between the ximate those of the Vimalavasahi, but the angu- Vimalavasahi at Abu and the Säntirātha temple lar modelling of their limbs pionts towards a late at Kumbharia, and the date 1061 A. D. assigned date. The beautiful sanwaraņā (Fig. 24) and the to it befits well with the style of the temple, fine lattice ornament of the caitya-gavaksas (Fig. 23) on the Sikhara, the latter of course reminiscent of SANTINATHA TEMPLE AT KUMBHARIA those seen on the small shrines near the tank of the Stylistically, the Santinātha temple appears to be Sun temple at Modhera, are also indicative of this a close successor of the Mahavira temple at Kumbhadate.
ria. The plan and the general arrangement of the
two temples are exactly similar, but the Santinatha The interior of the temple also bears some pecu
cu- temple does not possess the balayaka, and the devakliar features. The devakulikās, which occur in gre
ulikās are 24 in number, although the niche type of ater number in this temple, are only 22 in number, devakulikās is continued. The pitha and mandovara six of them even in the form of niches, although of the sanctum and the gñdhamaydapa of these temtheir number should be at least 24, as we get in a
ples are similar to each other, but the Sikhara (Fig. little later built temple of Säntinätha at Kumbha
36) in the Santinātha temple is neither squat nor ria. Again, they are tantalizingly plain. The
heavy, and the rathikas at the base of the Sikhara are rangamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of
flanked by balcony model, a feature commonly ornate pillars and a profusely carved domical met with in the later temples. Again, the amalaka ceiling with a large pendant (Fig. 31). Such an
is clasped by a fillet, and the caitya-arches forming arrangement of the rarigamandapa almost becomes
the lattice ornament of the Sikhara are oval-shaped, in all the later Jaina temples of Gujarat. losing thus the circular pristine form. But the pillars are not provided by an attic system (Fig. 32), a practice very common in the later The pitha, pillars and ceilings of the mukhamaJaina as well as Brähmanical temples; even the ndapa (Figs. 38-40) also show kinship to those of Šantinātha temple at Kumbharia, which is the the Mahavira ternple but are somewhat improved closest successor of this temple, does not lack this in the present temple. Here, the pitha is more characteristic. Further proofs of the above date ornate; as against the two-armed figures, here are are furnished by the narrative scenes (Fig. 24) dis- noticed four-armed figures on the sixteen-sided played in the side bays of the rarigamandapa. Here section of the pillar-shaft; the chain-and-bell ornaeach scene is carved in very pleasing relief. The ment on the pillar-shaft is independently shown,
of the reliefs are bold and easily recognize and instead of acanthus we find chain-and-bells able, for the scenes have not been complicated by alternating with tassels, an ornament which bethe accessory figures. The ornamental pitha, pillars comes very popular in the later temples; and the and ceilings of the mukhamandapa bear resemblance mandāraka element in the ceiling is correctly repreto those of the Sāntinātha temple there, but the sented by making pointed kolas (l'ig. 40). Further, two-armed figures on the sixteen-sided section of the ceilings bear some such characteristics as true the pillar-shaft, the composit depiction of acanthus ardhapadma motif, intersecting garland loops and and chain-and-bell on the round section of the shaft, Kinnar-couples at basal corners, which also estabthe plain and undeveloped khattakas, the fine nabhi- lish its posterity to the Mahavira temple, as these cchand (Figs. 29-30) and padmanabha (Fig. 27) eleme- features are noticed for the first time in this temple nts in the ceilings, and the round mandāraka ceiling and are frequently shown in the later temples. A
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band of balcony models in the ceiling is also indic- same manner as we find in the Mahavira temple, ative of a later date. The two khattakas of the but in ornamentation they differ considerably. The nukhamandapa are more ornate and bear affinity to pillars resemble those found in the Säntinātha those seen in the Vimalavasahi at Abu, as these also temple, but here they have a pedestal support and have a pañcaratha moulded pedestal and are surmo- the dancers on the square section of the shaft are unted by a bell-roof.
all four-armed (Figs. 50-51). These two characteris
tics are also shared by the Neminātha temple. The The disposition and decoration of the pillars
Tarigamandapa dome of the Pārsvanātha temple also and the ornamentation of the domical ceiling of
resembles that of the Neminātha temple in having the rangamandapa also resemble those found in the
two courses of gajatalus interspersed with a figural Mahāvira temple, but here the pillars are relati
band and in the treatment of the kolas arranged on vely more stout and ornate, and they are provided
the principle of co-radial regression (cf. Figs. 49 and with uccalakas (Fig. 41), a feature so commonly 61). The pitha of the mukhamaydapa is more ornamenmet with in the later temples. Besides, the accessory tal than that seen in the earlier shrines, and the two figures in the narratives (Fig. 45) increase in khattakas are crowned by a multiple cusped torananumber, making the scene somewhat complica arch with a lalitasana goddess in the centre, a feature ted. Compared to the devakulikās of the Mahāvira hitherto absent but seen on the bhadra-niches of the temple, the devakulikās of this temple are more Neminätha temple here itself and in the porticoes ornamental, as the lower part of the door-jambs in of the rangamandaba of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. all the devakulikäs is occupied here by a female As regards the devakulikas, they are still 24 in pitcher bearer and a male attendent. From the number, but they are all of the cell-type and comforegoing discussion it is therefore apparent that paratively more ornate than those found in the notwithstanding the close kinship to the Mahavira earlier temples. The central devakulikā (Fig. 52) temple, this temple shows some advancement and on each side is highly ornamental; this is a charachence posterior in date than the latter. If the teristic also noticed in the Neminätha temple. A Mahāvira temple was built in 1061 A. D., the remarkable feature of this temple is that some of Šantinátha temple may have been built about two the ceilings in the devakulikās are decorated with decades later in circa 1081 A. D. Colour to this is lotus petal-and-bud ornament; this is a decorative also lent by numerous inscriptions hailing from motif which appears for the first time in this temthis temple and recording this date; five of these ple and becomes a popular representation in the inscriptions are engraved even on the cornices of the later temples. The Pärsvanatha temple, therefore, devakulikās. 47
may have been built later than the Mahavira and
the Sāntinātha temples but earlier than the NemiPĀRSVANATHA TEMPLE AT KUMBHARIA
nātha temple, and may plausibly be assigned to
circa 1100 A. D. This date is also supported by On plan and in design it comes midway between
inscriptions found in this temple, which record the the Mabăvira and the Sāntinatha temples on the
dedication of images in the temple. The earliest one hand and the Neminātha temple (1136 A. D.),
of these inscriptions is dated in Sam. 1161 (1104 also at Kumbharia, on the other. The general
A. D.);48 the temple, however, may have been built arrangement of its plan is very similar to that of the Mahavira temple, but the presence of nalaman
a little earlier than this date. dapa in place of balanaka brings it closer to the
NEMINĀTHA TEMPLE AT GIRNAR Neminātha temple which also contains this compartment. The pitha and mandovara of its sanctum From the Raivatagirikalpa we learn that the and güdhamandapa bear resemblance to those of the temple of Neminätha at Girnar was built by earlier two temples, but the domical ceiling of the Sajjana, the Dandanayaka of Saurashtra under gūdhamandapa contains three courses of gajatālus Jayasimha Siddharāja, in V.S. 1185 (1128 A.D.). 4° and hence looks perfect. The pillars in the mukha. Similar story is also narrated in the Revantagirimandapa and the rangamand apa are disposed in the rāsu,50 The Prabandhas also credit Sajjana as the

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Jalna Temples of Western India
builder of this temple, 51 But only the main com- 11. The gajatalus of the ceiling (Fig. 56) are toppplex of the temple, viz. malaprāsāda and mandapas ed by more than one ornamental band. may be attributed to Sajjana, as we learn from the inscriptions found in this temple that all the deva
These features, some of which first make their kulikās were added by Thākura Sāvadeva and Jasa- appearence in this temple and some show advancehada in the memory of Thakura Salavāhana, on ment on those seen in the earlier temples, not only the 8th day of the bright half of Caitra, in V. S. furnish us with an evidence to date it later than 1215 (1158 A. D.) 52
the Pārsvanātha temple at Kumbharia, but also
establish its propinquity to the Neminātha temple The literary evidence is also supported by the
at Kumbharia (circa 1136 A. D.). This is clear in architectural and sculptural peculiarities of the
the latter temple by the presence of mañcika below temple, which may be enumerated hereasunder:
the jangha and by the appearence of a wider buffer 1. All the buttresses of the malapräsāda and the wall between the sanctum and the closed hall as
gūdhamandapa (Fig. 54) are broken into planes. the coupling here is made at the frontal pratiratha, The karna and pratiratha of the malaprāsāda and by their absence in the Pärsvanātha temple. are not only equilateral but they also have The sculptures of the temple also show closest the same proportion.
resemblance to those of the Neminātha temple 3. The articulation of the gūdhamandapa is made
at Kumbharia. This is clearly reflected from at the frontal pratiratha of the malaprāsāda;
the grace and handsome poses of the Apsarā earlier this coupling has been made at the
figures appearing in the gūdhamandapa dome of the frontal karņa.
present temple and on the wall of the malaprāsāda
of the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia. The 4. Between the angas are koņikās.
architecture and sculpture of the two temples no 5. The kapota of the vedibandha is decorated with
doubt bring closer to each other, but the Neminaudgama pattern.
tha temple at Kumbharia reveals some other 6. The janghā has a mañcikā support.
features such as circular pendants below the 7. The rathikās at the base of the Sikhara are mañcika, bharaṇi above the jangha, and padmašila flanked by tilakas and ornate balcony models. built on the principle of coradial regression (Fig.
61), which place it earlier than that at Kumbharia. With the appearence of more subsidiary
Thus the date 1128 A. D. preserved in the literary turrets the Sikhara proceeds towards its
sources stands justified to this temple. perfection, 9. All the ghanţās of the samvaraņā roof of the gūdhamandapa are crowned by kalata and bija- NE
NEMINĀTHA TEMPLE AT KUMBHARIA pāraka (Fig. 55).
According to the Ārāsaniyanemicaityaprabandha, 10. The brackets of the pillar-capitals in the this temple was built by Pasila and its mandapa was
gūdhamandapa are made up of makara-heads added by Hänsi Bai, and the consecration ceremony with open mouth (Fig. 56). This is a feature of the temple was performed by Devasūri in V. S. also found in the Ajitanätha temple at 1193 (1136 A. D.).53 The Pattavalis also inform Taranga built during the time of Kumāra. that the image of Neminātha at Ārāsana was inpāla. The Ajitanātha temple also owes the stalled by Devasūri, who flourished from 1077 diagonal arrangement of the plan of its gadha- A. D. to 1169 A. D.54 Two images in the temple. mandaba to this temple. The two temples however, are dated in 1134 A. D. It is, therefore, also show resemblance in the sculptures of the not unlikely if the temple was built in or before Sardalas found depicted on the wall of the 1134 A. D., but not before 1126 A. D., the date of gūdhamandapa of the Ajitanātha temple and in the Rajavibāra at Anahilapātaka, for it was after the dome of the gūdhamandapa of the Nemi- visiting the Rajavihāra that Päsila built this temple nātha temple.
at Ārāsaņa.66

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The architecture and sculpture of the temple 8. The platform on which the devakulikās rest runs also agree with the above date. On plan it bears all around the courtyard, but the dev akulikās the closest affinity to the Pārsvanātha temple at still cover only half of the court. However, the same site, but in architectural and sculptural once the platform was built, it was but the next details it closely follows the Neminātha temple at step to erect devakulikas all around. Girnar. Thus, the general arrangement of the bụttresses of its sanctum (Fig. 59) is similar to that JAINA TEMPLE AT SEJAKPUR of the Neminātha temple at Girnar, but here the The arrangement and disposition of the buttrebuttresses show five to seven planes. The two sses of its sanctum (Text Fig. 6 on page 157; temples also agree in showing a mañcika below the Fig. 66) are very similar to those of the Neminātha jangha, with this difference that here it carries temple at Kumbharia, but in architectural and circular pendants underneath. Further, the ornamental details it shows some advancement on gūdhamandapa in these temples is articulated at the the latter and appears to be a contemporary of the frontal pratiratha of the sanctum so that there is Rudramahālaya at Siddhapur built by Jayasimha left wider space between the sanctum and the Siddharāja in circa 1140 A.D.57 Thus, while the gūdhamandapa. This is done by transmuting the shoulder of the kumbha of the vedibandha and the frontal karna and pratiratha of the sanctum into a kalaša, also of the vedibandha, in the Neminātha buffer wall. The pratiratha being shorter in width, temple are plain, the same in the present temple the buffer wall in the Neminatha temple at Girnar are decorated with foliage and beaded garland-andis narrow, while the same in the Neminätha temple rosette design respectively. These ornaments are at Kumbharia is wider and developed. Lastly, not seen in the earlier temples, although they are the sculptures of Apsaras in the two temples show frequently shown in the later temples; the small proximity in modelling, poses and drapery, but the shrines in the Rudramahalaya also bear these reprefigures in the present temple show a better propor. sentations. Unlike the two-course varandika in the tion. From these it is clear that this temple is a Neminātha temple, it has a triple varaydika consiclose successor of the Neminätha temple at Girnar, sting of two kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice. The and the date 1136 A. D. provided by the literary architraves of its güdhamandapa are as ornamental tradition is in accordance with the architectural as those seen in the nave of the rangamandaba of the and sculptural peculiarities.
Neminātha temple, but the pillars, which show
decoration on the upper half only, bear a gooseThis temple also reveals some other features
band on the shaft, an ornament also seen on the which help us in ascertaining the chronology of the
pillars of the Rudramahālaya. The goose-band later temples.
is conspicuous by its absence in the earlier shrines, 1. The bhadra-niches of the sanctum are deeply
but it becomes a popular motif of the shaft in the
later temples. The balcony models flanking the set.
rathikās at the base of the Sikhara also bear resem2. Above the jargha occurs a new moulding called
blance to those found in the small shrines of the bharani decorated with drooping foliage.
Rudramahālaya. The general plan and the archi3. The pilasters become highly ornamented.
tectural and sculptural peculiarities of this temple 4. The images are both four-armed and six-armed. also establish its contemporaneity with the Nava5. The mukhamandapa is landed up by three stair.
lakha temple at the same site, which is also dated cases.
about this time, 58 From the above discussion it 6. The kumbha of the khattaka-pedestal shows re
is apparent that this temple was built probably presentation of foliage on its shoulder; this is
in the second quarter of the 12th century A.D. an ornament which becomes a popular depiction ADINĀTHA TEMPLE AT SHATRUNJAYA of the kumbha of the vedibandha.
The literary tradition informs that Minister 7. The padmašila begins to appear in co-radial Vägbhaţa caused the wooden shrine of Adinātha regression (Fig. 61).
at Shatrunjaya to be replaced by a stone temple in 25
Jain Education Interational

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Faina Temples of Western India
V.S. 1211 (1154 A.D.).59 According to the Prabha- 1221 (1164 A.D.).81 That the temple was built vakacarita, however, the temple was restored by about this time may also be inferred from the fact Vāgbhata in V. S. 1213 (1156 A.D.) and its conse that the Prabandhas attribute its construction to cration was performed by Hemacandra.co
Caulukya Kumārapāla (circa 1143-1172 A.D.).62 Architecturally, this temple bears closest resem- Burgess has suggested that the Sikhara of this blance to the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga built temple is of the usual style of the Gujarat temples by Kumärapäla in 1164 A.D. The importance of and belongs to the 16th or a later century88 this temple lies in that it probably anticipates the
Sankalia opines that the temple does not retain
Santalia nince that the to Ajitanātha temple which is the grandest Jaina much of the
much of the Caulukyan remains, except perhaps temple of our age. This may be clearly seen from the plan of the temple, 04 He further suggests the following features :
that the Sikhara is not an old one, for the photo1. Both these temples are erected on a grand plan graph published by Burgess does not show the and appears to be a royal erection.
caitya-window ornament clearly; mere shape is not 2. Unlike the earlier temples it displays seven
a sure guide.85 Saraswati, however, points out members in the vedibandha of the sanctum, the
that the temple, in spite of the restoration carried additional member being the ratnapattika placed
out in the time of Akbar, seems to have retained above the mañcika (Fig. 68); this moulding is
its original form and design to a very great
extent.66 In fact, Saraswati is justified in his also noticed at the same position in the Ajitanātha temple but is followed by a narapafika.
statement, for the temple retains its original
character. The reason why the earlier authorities 3. The two temples also agree in having a square
ascribed it a later date is that the entire Sikhara had fluted bharaṇi clasped by drooping foliage above
been covered with a thick coat of white lime during the jangha of the sanctum, although the genera
subsequent restoration. But now it is exposed to lly accepted form of the bharaṇi during the
view and shows the lattice ornament of caitya-winperiod is the round one.
dow (Fig. 72), which, as rightly pointed by Dhaky, 67 4. The bhadra niches of the sanctum are enclosed is of the usual 12th century type.
by a carved balustrade (Fig. 69); the bhadras in the Ajitanātha temple, however, carry balconied
On plan and in design it is very similar to the window enclosed by more ornate balustrade. Neminātha temple at Girnar (cf. Text Figs. 4 on 5. Like the Ajitanātha temple it also has a sapta.
page 147 and Text Fig. 7 on page 159), but it is loftier
in conception and more elaborate in decoration. fakha door frame in the gūdhamandapa.
Thus, like the Neminātha temple, it is a sandhara6. Its wall sculptures also approximate to those prāsāda consisting of a mālaprāsada, a gìdhamandapa
seen in the Ajitanātha temple, but they still arranged diagonally to the malaprāsāda, and show poise and are not as angular as those
a mukhamandapa. Its mālaprāsāda resembles the found in the latter temple (cf. Figs. 71 and 78). Neminātha temple in the general arrangement of
These features. some of which occur for the the buttresses, but here the konikas are prominent first time in this temple and some show change and and gradually diminish in the pitha, and the advancement on the earlier temples, apparently balustrade of the balconied window on the bhadras indicate that this temple is the precursor in plan is elaborately carved. The two temples also agree in and ornamentation of the Ajitanātha temple at showing almost the same set of mouldings in the Taranga, and the date 1154 or 1156 A.D. provided pitha and mandovara of the sanctum, but the Ajitaby the literary tradition fits in well with the archi- nätha temple displays some minor mouldings in the tectural and sculptural peculiarities.
pitha and two additional ones in the mandovara,
namely a ratnapattikā on the top of the vedibandha AJITANATHA TEMPLE AT TARANGA
and a square fluted bharaṇi clasped by drooping From the Viravanšavali we learn that the image foliage above the jangha--these two mouldings bring of Ajitanätha at Taranga was consecrated in V.S. it closer to the Adinātha temple at Shatrunjaya,

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Characteristics and Chronology
195
to which the Ajitanātha temple largely owes in (rangamandapa and devakulikās), none of the earlier style and ornamentation. Further, the kumbha of temples is characterised by eight-armed images. the vedibandha bear a diamond-and-bead band on They have slender body and squarish faces and its shoulder, a feature also seen in the temple of wear more than one necklaces, a series of beaded Somanätha Phase III at Somnath built by Kumā. girdles, and a broad kațisätra; these characteristics rapāla in 1169 A. D. Its fikhara is the most are typical of the sculptures of this period. developed one, for, besides frrigas and urahirigas on the Sikhara of the Neminätha, this one shows
From the foregoing pages it is thus clear that pratyangas, tilakas and balcony models. The min- the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga was built later ute caitya-arches forming the lattice ornament of
than the Neminätha temple at Girnar; and its the Sikhara are also indicative of a later date (cf.
various characteristic features bring it closer to Figs. 72). The buffer wall in the Neminātha tem
the Vimalavasahi at Abu (rarigamandapa), Adinātha ple is lodged over by a blind window, while in
temple at Shatrunjaya and the temple of Somana
tha Phase III at Somnath, all built during the the Ajitanatha temple this takes the form of Sukanāsā which is also noticeable in the later built temple
reign of Kumārapāla. And therefore the date of Sambhavanātha at Kumbharia. While the
1164 A. D. mentioned in the Viravamśävali is quite samvarana of the gūdhamandapa in the Neminātha
befitting the architectural and sculptural peculi
arities of the temple, temple is adorned with kātas and ghanţās, the same in the present temple shows only the ghantās, each JAINA TEMPLE AT BHADRESHWAR crowned by a kalaša and a bija pāraka (cf. Figs. 55
According to the current tradition, this temple and 77). Unlike the pañcafakha door in the Nemi
was built by Jagadušāha of Bhadreshwar, 98 who nātha temple, here is found saptašākha door. One
flourished in the middle of the 13th century A.D. of the doorjambs is treated as harisafakha, and the
But the Jagadīcarita of Sarvānandasuri tells us that overdoor carries a cornice; these are late features
Jagadu adorned this temple with the followings :) and are found in the Vastupālavihāra at Girnar (1232 A. D.).
1. He adorned the temple with gold pitcher and
staff. The dome (cf. Figs. 56 and 81) of its gūdhama
2. He built three devakulikās of white marble udapa also shows kinship to the Neminātha temple
and a beautiful Aștāpada. at Girnar in having makara-brackets on the pillarcapitals supporting the dome, three successive
3. He installed 170 marble images of Jinas. gajatalus, and sixteen bracket figures of Apsaras 4. He covered the image of Pärsvanatha with athwarted the ceiling courses, but it shows some gold. advancement on that of the Neminātha temple.
Thus, it is clear that this temple was already Thus, while the kolas in the Neminātha temple are in existence and Jagadū made only some additions disposed on the principle of harmonial regression,
10m, to it. Dhaky has suggested that the old portions here they are arranged in co-radial regression, a
of this temple belongs to the phase of maturity characteristic also shared by the Neminātha temple
(early 10th century A.D.), 10 but he does not say at Kumbharia (circa 1136 A. D.). Again, unlike
what are the old portions. As we shall see just the beautiful and perfect Apsarā figures in the
now there is nothing of this period. Neminātha temple at Kumbharia, here they are slender. A remarkable feature of the dome is that it
It is a full-fledged Jaina temple resembling on carries sixteen lāmās, a characteristic also found in
plan (Text Fig. 8 on page 169) and in design the the rangamandapa dome of the Vimalavasahi at Abu
Jaina temples at Kumbharia and Abu. Thus, it rebuilt about 1150 A. D.
veals all the essential elements of plan we get in the The sculptures of the temple are also indicative Pärsvanātha and the Neminātha temples at Kumof a later date. The images are both four-armed bharia, but shows advancement on both in the deand eight-armed. Except for the Vimalavasahi coration of the pitha and mandovara of the sanctum

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Faina Temples of Western India
(Fig. 83) and in the treatment of the pillars. Jaina temples (Text Fig. 10 on page 173). StylisticaAnother remarkable thing is that unlike the lly also it bears closest affinity to the Jaina temple at Kumbharia temples it is enclosed all around by Bhadreshwar in the arrangement of the devakulikās, a series of 48 devakulikās confronted with a colonna in the decoration of the vedibandha of the sanctum, ded corridor, a feature quite unknown before the and in the design and ornamentation of the pillars mid-12th century A. D. The presence of (Text Fig. 9 on page 172). The antarapatra of its devakulikās all around the temple may also be seen vedibandha is adorned with diamond-and-double in the Vimalayasahi at Abu and the Neminātha volute pattern, an ornament also appearing on this temple at Girnar, but here they are more evolved, moulding in the Somanätha temple Phase III at as, unlike these temples, the exterior of the devakuli. Somnath. The kaksāsana pillars of its entrance kās in the present temple displays ornamental porch also resemble those found in the Somanatha mouldings, sculptured walls and multi-turreted Phase III, but here they are more evolved. Its Sikharas. The only other temple characterised by ornamental type of pillars as well as the kakşāsana such devakulikas is the Bävanadhvaja Jinälaya at pillars are elegant, and they do not show any inSarotra, which was built slightly later than this dication of decline we get in the Harsadmātā temple. The presence of three bhittas in the temple and the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple (1204 plinth, the decoration of the top bhitta by foliage, A. D.), both situated at Miani. The temple also the occurrance of ratnapattikā below the jād yakum. resembles the Lūņavasahi in the general arrangebha, and the decoration of kumbha by indented ment of plan, in the form and ornamentation of foliage and of kalaša by beaded garlands and the pillars and doors of the devakulikās, in showing fine rosettes establish its contemporaneity with a band of saw-tooth pattern on the pillar-shaft, in the Somanatha temple Phase III (1168 A.D.) at displaying an ornate balustrade enclosing the enSomnath, as these traits are also seen in the trance porch (in case of Lūņavasahi such balustrade latter temple, and therefore it is assignable to occurs in the lateral porches of the gūdhamandapa), the third quarter of the 12th century A.D. The and in having no partition walls in the devakulikās, arrangement of three straircases in the mukhamand- but in details it varies and has not yet reached the apa, the occurrence of goose-band on the pillars, the full maturity of the Lūņavasahi. From these the form of sculptures, and the minute caitya-arches it appears that since the temple is more evolved forming the lattice ornament of the Sikhara are than the Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar and has features also indicative of this period. Colour to many things in common with the Lūņavasahi at this is also lent by numerous inscriptions hailing Abu, it was built probably in the late 12th century from this temple, which range in date from 1166. or beginning of the 13th century A. D. 1178 A.D.
PĀRSVANĀTHA TEMPLE AT GHUMLI BĀVANADHVAJA JINĀLAYA AT SAROTRA
Stylistically, this temple bears kinship to the Comparing the style of this temple with the better known Navalakhā temple at the same place. other Jaina and non-Jaina temples Sankalia dates This is apparently indicated from the fact that the it in the 13th-14th centuries A. D.1 On stylistic brackets of the pillar-capitals have the same whimconsiderations Dhaky places it after the Lunava- sical variety of sculptures as those of the Navalakhä sahi,72 which was erected in 1231 A. D. But as temple.79 Some of these sculptures such as we shall see just now, both these datings are unten- kicaka, kirttimukha, etc., may also show resemblance able. On plan it closely resembles the Jaina tem- to those of the Bävanadhvaja Jinālaya at Sarotra. ple at Bhadreshwar and the Vimalavasahi at Abu, Since the Navalakha temple is assigned to the beconsisting thus of a malaprāsāda, a gūdhamaydapa, ginning of the 13th century A. D.,74 this temple a mukhamandapa of nine bays, a rarigamandapa and a may also belong to the same period. This is also range of 52 devakulikās, but is entered through a attested by the physiognomy, the arrangement and porch enclosed by an ornamental balustrade, a style of dhoti and the parikara of the Pārsvanātha characteristic not found in these as well as earlier image (Fig. 88) in this temple, which are compara

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Characteristics and Chronology
197
Pes.
3
ble to those of the kāyotsarga Jina images found tradition also credits Vastupäla to have erected intact in the Meru tower of the hastitāla of the this temple. 81 Lūņavasahi at Abu.
SAMBHAVANATHA TEMPLE AT LŪŅAVASAHI AT ABU
KUMBHARIA According to the temple-prasasti, this temple
It shows closest kinship to the Lūņavasahi at was built by Tejapala for the spiritual merits of Abu. This is evident from the following features his wife Anupamadevi and his son Lavanyasimha,
asimaa, appearing on theses temples: and its consecration was performed by Vijayasenasūri of Nagendragaccha on Sunday, the third Phāl. 1. The prakāra has projections against the lateral guna Vadi of V.S. 1287,75 corresponding to Sun- entrance porches of the gūdhamandapa (Fig. day, the third March of 1231 A.D.16 The Prasasti 110). This is a feature neither found earlier reveals that at the time of consecration the temple nor later. was complete in its entirety, viz. sanctum with its 2. The overdoor of the gädhamandapa door is mandapas, hastitala and devakulikās. But an analysis adorned with miniature Sikharas (Fig. 112). of inscriptions found in the devakulikäs clearly
This is a characteristic found only on these shows that the devakulikās were incomplete and two temples. were erected by Tejapāla as well as by other
There are portrait sculptures of the donors. Srävakas between 1230 and 1236 A. D.71 Similarly,
In point of similarity among these sculptures the two khattakas in the trika (mukhamaşdapa) were
it may be pointed out that the male figures built by Tejapāla for the spiritual welfare of his
in both the temples wear a beard. second wife Suhadädevi in V. S. 1297 (1240
The door-jambs and pilasters are orname. A.D.).18
nted so much so that they look like a diaper VASTUPALAVIHĀRA AT GIRNAR
work. The temple is precisely dated on the basis of 5. The poses, slender form, and thin and anguinscriptions engraved on its doorways. Six in
lar modelling of the sculptures are alike. number all of these inscriptions inform that Vast
From the above characteristics we may, thereupāla built this temple for the increase of merits
fore, deduce that it is akin to the Lūņavasahi in of his own and his wives Lalitädevi and Sokhu on
architecture, sculpture and ornamentation, and, Phälgun Sudi 10, V. S. 1288 (1231 A. D.). A like the latter, is assignable to the second quarter stone slab behind the temple bears another inscri- of the 13th century A. D. This is also corroboraption which describes the temple thus : "In V. S. ted by the perfact rendering of the Sikhara and the 1288 (A. D. 1231) in the month of Asvina, dark minute and complicated form of caitya-arches forfortnight, 15th day, Monday, the great minister ming its lattice ornament (l'ig. 110). Vastupala built, for his own good, a temple of Adinatha of Saruñjaya adorned with another JAINA TEMPLE AT MIANI temple of the prosperous Kapardi Yaksha at the About the date of this temple Cousens opines back. In front of this, to the north-west, he built, that is was designed by the same architect who did for the good of his dutiful and illustrious wife the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple (1204 A. D.) Lalitā Devi, a temple of Sammetasikhara adorned standing nearby.8% Of course, the representation with images of) 20 Jinas. So also to the south of convex-sided half diamond on the kumbha of the (of this) he constructed, for the good of another vedibandha, the square bharani above the jangha and illustrious wife Sokhu, an Aştāpadaprāsāda ador. the lattice of caitya-arches over the fikhara associate ned with images of) 24 Jinas."80 Although there its contemporaneity with the Nilakantha Mahadeva is difference of few months between the two inscri- temple, but, at the same time, the temple reveals ptions, they are unanimous in that the temple was certain othe features which do not favour the above built in V. S. 1288 by Vastupala. The literary dating. Thus, while the anigas of the fryaniga sanctum

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Faina Temples of Western-India
in the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple are broken into five or seven planes, the same in this temple are having only three planes. Unlike the elaborate and ornamental pitha of the sanctum in the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple, the pitha in this temple is simple and shows atop it a fillet carved with diamonds, a moulding noticed in the same place in the Vastup- alavihāra at Girnar. In contrast to the ornate and sculptured jangha in the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple, it has a featureless jangha, and its bhadraniches are crowned by short udgamas and hence show a decline. While the rathikas in the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple contain figure sculptures and are flanked by fine balcony models, the same in the present temple depict large diamonds and are flanked by niches, also containing diamonds. Lastly, unlike the ornate pillars in the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple, the pillars (Fig. 113) in this temple are quite plain. From the above discussion it is clear that in spite of some similarities the two temples stand quite apart from each other in architecture as well as in ornamentation, and it would not be justified to say that this temple was built by the same architect who designed the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple, for he (architect) is not expected to produce two kinds of work at one place and time.
pilasters of the mand apa of this temple reveal that the temple was built by Amradeva's four sons, viz. Lakhu, Sohi, Soda and Pasila, who, on the evidence of the Jagadücarita, are identifiable with the uncles of the celebrated Jagadūsaha of Bhadreshwar.83 One of these inscriptions bears the date 1340, and another 132, though the reading of these dates is not certain. 84 Burgess reads one of these dates as 133 and suggests that the temple was built about 1280 A.D.85 Burgess' reading is also endo. rced by Bhandarkar.88
This is also attested by the following features of the temple : 1. The upper fascia of the architraves is deco
rated with saw-tooth pattern instead of the usual diamonds. This ornament is typical of this period and may be seen in the contempo
rary Madhav Vāv at Wadhwan.87 2. The short and widely spaced ribs of the gajatalus
(Fig. 119) look unpleasent and hence mark a
decline. 3. The pillars (Fig. 118) are not only plain but
they also do not carry the usual four sections on the shaft; this definitely shows a decline in the
style. 4. The kalafa of the vedibandha of the sanctum (Fig.
117) is overburdened with beaded garlandand-rosette design; such richness of the kalas a becomes a dominant characteristic of the temp
les of the subsequent centuries. 5. The ossification of the figure sculptures, which
was to become a distinguishing feature of the subsequent temples, may be clearly noticed.
Therefore the date 1280 A.D. assigned to it seems to be quite plausible.
Architecturally, it also differs from its immediate predecessor and marks a decline on that. In point of kinship it closely resembles the latest Jaina temple of our period, viz. the Mahāvira temple at Kanthkot, in the treatment of the pillars, in the ornamentation of the architraves, and in the design and ornamentation of the domical ceiling of the gūdhamandapa (cf. Figs. 116 and 119). The temple, however, still retains some old features such as the four-fold division of the pillar-shaft, the brackets of the capitals carrying kicaka, kirttimukha, etc., the bakulamalas set up between the jarbs, and the projected cornice over the door-lintel (Figs. 114-115), all of which suggest a date slightly earlier than the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot. Since the latter is datable to 1280 A.D., this one may reasonably be assigned to the third quarter of the 13th century A. D.
References 1. Dhaky, M, A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, p. 22. 2. Sompura, K. F., The Structural Temples of
Gujarat, Ahmedabad, 1968, p. 150. 3. Cousens, H., Somanatha and Other Mediaeval
Temples in Kathiawad, pp. 50-51. 4. Cunningham, A., Report of the Archaeological
Survey of India, vol. IX, reprint, Varanasi,
MAHAVIRA TEMPLE AT KANTHKOT
The inscriptions engraved on the pillars and
P. 31, pl. vol. IX, repte Archaeological

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Characteristics and Chronology
199
5. Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, p. 18. 6. Saraswati, S. K., in SE, p. 585. 7. Nanavati, J. M. and Dhaky, M. A., Maitraka
and Saindhava Temples of Gujarat, p. 29. 8. Krishna Deva, Temples of North India, p. 44. 9. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasa
moha, Āba, vol. II, Nos. 34, 62, 84, 92, 192. 10. Ibid., No. 51, v. 7. 11. Ibid., No. 34. 12. Ibid., No. 1, vv. 7-11; Kielhorn, F., "Mt. Abu
Vimala Temple Inscription of (Vikrama) Samvat 1378," Epigraphia India, vol. IX,
p. 148. 13. Rajasekhara, Prabandhakoša, p. 121; Jinavijaya
(ed.), Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, p. 51; Ratnamandiragani, Upadešatarangini, p. 112; Somadharmagani, Upadeśasaptati, p. 29; Jinaharşagani, Vastupālacarita, p. 117. See also Jayantavijaya, "Vimalavasahină Pratişthāpaka Kona," Jaina Satya Prakasa (Guja.
rati), vol. IV, pp. 439.45. 14. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 16;
Jinavijaya, Kharatara Gachha Pattavali Sangraha,
Calcutta, 1932, p. 21. 15. Fergussion, J., History of Indian and Eastern
Architecture, vol. II, reprint, Delhi, 1967, pp. 36-40; Sankalia, H. D., AG, pp. 107-8; Jayantavijaya, Aba (Gujarati), vol. I, Ujjain, 1933, pp. 28-30; Bhandarkar, D. R, "Some Temples on Mt. Abu," Rupam, No. 3, Calcutta, 1920, pp. 11-21; Brown, P., Indian Architecture, (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), Bombay, 1956, pp. 146, 148-49; Majumdar, A. K., CG, pp.
384-86. 16 Cousens. H... Progress Report of the Archaeologi-
cal Survey of India, Western Circle, 1901, p. 5. 17. Saraswati, S. K., in SE, pp. 580-86. 18. Parikh, R. C., in Kāoyānušāsana, vol. II, intro.
p. CXLIX. 19. U padeśasaptati, p. 29. 20. Parikh, R. C., loc. cit.; Dalala, C, D., 4 Des
criptive Catalogue of Manuscripts in the Jaina Bhandars at Pattan, vol. I, Baroda, 1937, pp. 255-56; Haribhadra, Nemināhacariya, vol. II, ed. by Bhayani, H. C. and Modi, M. C.,
Ahmedabad, 1971, v. 3328. 21. Shah, U. P., in HA, intro. p. V. 22. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasan
doha, Ābā, vol. II, Nos. 1 and 72.
23. Dhaky, M., "Vimalavasahini Ketalika Sama
syão," Svādhyāya, Book 9, No. 3, p. 355. 24. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasam
doha, Abi, vol. II, No. 229. 25. Dhaky, op. cit., pp. 357-60. 26. Ibid., pp. 360-62. 27. Shah, U. P., in HA, intro. pp. I-IV. 28. Dhaky, op. cit., p. 361. 29. Shah, U. P., in HA, intro. p. III. 30. Dhaky, op. cit., p. 363; Jayantavijaya, Arbuda
Prācina Jaina Lekhasamdoha, Aba, vol. II,
No. 34. 31. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Pracina Jaina Lekhasan
doha, Ābū, vol. II, No. 72. 32. Dhaky, op. cit., p. 361. 33. Ibid., pp. 360 and 362. 34. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasam
doha, Abā, vol. II, No. 233. 35. Ibid. 36. HA, p. 81. 37. Dhaky has given a complete list of these in
scriptions.--Op. cit., pp. 364-65. 38. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasan
doha, vol. II, Nos, 63 dt. 1119 V. S., 68 dt. 1131 V. S., 74 dt. 1143 V. S., 80 dt. 1186
V. S. and 114 dt. 1187 V. S. 39. Dhaky, op. cit., pp. 362-63. 40. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācina Jaina Lekhasar
doha, Abu, vol. II, No. 51. 41. Ibid., No. 34. 42. Ibid., Nos. 121, 150 and 151. 43. Ibid., Nos. 97, 98, 100, 103, 104 and 106. 44. See HA, P. 82. 45. Visalavijaya, 'Arāsaņatirtha aparanāma Kum
bhariajitirtha, p. 43, No. 1. 46. Ibid.; Dhaky, M., "Ārāsaņanā Be Jaina Prati
mälekhoni Viseşavācanã," Svādhyāya, Book
8, No. 2, p. 190. 47. Visālavijayā, op. cit., pp. 142-43. 48. Ibid., pp. 128-29. 49. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 9. 50. Sukstakirtikallolinyādi Vastupalaprašastisangraha,
Punyavijaya (ed.), pp. 100-01, vv. 8-10. 51. PCG, p. 307; PCH, p. 77; Jinavijaya (ed.),
Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, p. 34, No. 22; Jinharşagani, Vastupālacarita, Kirtimuni (ed.), p. 98.

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77.
52. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
p. 167. 53. Jinavijaya (ed.), Purātana Prabandha Sangraha,
pp. 30-31. 54. Dharmasägara, Tapägaccha Pattāvali, vol. I,
p. 118. 55. Visalavijaya, op. cit., pp. 84-85, Nos. 1 and 2. 56. Jinavijaya (ed.), Purātana Prabandha Sangraha,
p 30. 57. Dhaky, M. A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, p. 45. 58. Ibid., pp. 53-54. See also Sankalia, H. D.,
AG, pp. 105-06; Krishna Deva, Temples of
North India, p. 47. 59. PCH, p. 105; Jinavijaya (ed.), Kumārapala
caritrasarigraha, Bombay, 1956, pp. 25-27. 60. PCG, p. 325. 61. Nyāyavijaya, Jaina Tirthono Itihasa, p. 195,
note. I am very much indebted to Mr. Dhaky
for this valuable information. 62. Somaprabha, Kumārapälapratibodha, Gujarati
trans., p. 417; PCG, pp. 312-28; Jinavijaya (ed.), Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, p. 47;
Ratnamandiragani, Upades atarangini, p. 5. 63. Burgess, I.. Architectural Antiquities of Northern
Gujarat, pp. 115-16. 64. AG, p. 112. 65. Ibid., p. 113, n. 6. 66. Saraswati, S. K., in SE, p. 597. 67. Dhaky, M. A., The Chronology of the Solanki
ki temples of Gujarat, p. 59. 68. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
pp. 206-07. 69. Jagadīcarita, VI. 42-46. 70. Dhaky, M. A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, pp. 72-78. 71. AG, p. 112. 72. Dhaky, M.A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, p. 68. 73. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
p. 181. 74. Krishna Deva, Temples of North India, p. 48.
75. Sukrtakirtikallolinyādi Vastupālaprašastisang
raha, Punyavijaya (ed.). pp. 59-68, Nos. 64 and 65; Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Prācīna Jaina Lekhasamdoha, Abā, vol. II, No. 250 and 251; Oza, V. G., Prakrit and Sanskrit Inscriptions,
pp. 174-84, No. II and pp. 218-24, No. XIII. 76. Lüder, H., "Some Inscriptions at the Temple
of Neminātha on Mt. Abu," Epigraphia Indica, vol. VIII, pp. 200-08. Jayantavijaya, Arbuda Präcina Jaina Lekhasandoha, Abi, vol. II, Nos. 265, 269-72, 274-77,
289, 292, 295, 296, 298, 302, 304, 307, 313. 78. Ibid., Nos. 261 and 262. 79. Burgess, J., List of the Antiquarian Remains of
the Bombay Presidency, Bombay, 1885, pp. 283-300; Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, pp. 170-73; Cousens, H., Revised Lists of Antiquarian Remains in the Bombay Presidency, Bombay, 1897, p. 315; Sukstakirtikallolinyādi Vastupalaprašastisangraha, Punyavijaya (ed.), pp. 44-58, Nos. 38-43; Acharya, G. V., Historical Inscriptions of Gujarat, pp. 14-41,
Nos. 1-6. 80. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh.
p. 173. 81. Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 10;
Jinaharşagani, Vastupalacarita, p. 101; Präcina
Tirthamālā Sangraha, vol. I, p. 35, vv. 12-13. 82. Cousens, H., Somanatha and Other Mediaeval
Temples of Kathiawad, pp. 69-70. 83. Khakhkhar, D. P., Architectural and Archaeo
logical Remains in the Province of Kachh, Bombay,
1879, pp. 64-65 84. Ibid. 85. Burgess, J., Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh,
p. 215. 86. Bhandarkar, D. R., Progress Report of the
Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle,
1905.06, p. 38. 87. Cousens, H., Somanatha and Other Mediaeval
Temples of Kathiawad, pl. LVII.

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CHAPTER V SCULPTURE AND ICONOGRAPHY
The Jaina temples of Western India are rich in sculptures and decorative patterns, parti- cularly in the interior. In iconography also the images of the Jaina temples are rich. Here, how- ever, we do not aim at describing the sculptural
forms and iconographic features at great length but only to the extent they help us in ascertaining the chronology of the temples and in tracing the evolution of their architecture.
SCULPTURE The sculptures of the Jaina temples of our temples, is that they often do not belong to the region may be divided into eight broad categories. original temples but were installed from time to The first category includes the sculptures of the time, mostly during subsequent restorations. Jinas to whom the temples are dedicated. Besides
The second category consists of narratives (Figs. those worshipped in the sanctum, mandapas and devakulikās, they occur on the lalata of the door. 17, 21, 34, 45, 101, 102) which include pañcakalyān. lintel, on the ceilings, and rarely on the Sikhara and
akas (five auspicious events in the life of a Tirthanpillars. Executed completely in the round or high
kara, viz. Cyavana-descent from heaven, Janma-birth, or medium relief they are seated in padmāsana with
Diksa-initiation into monkhood, Kevalajñāna-attainthe body erect and the hands held in dhyānamudra
ment of right or perfect knowledge, and Nirvana(Fig. 6). In the standing attitude they are always
death) of the Jinas, their upasargas and bhavantaras represented in the kāyot sarga posture (Figs. 3, 47,
(life scenes), parents of 24 past, present and future
Jinas, Ācārya with disciples, Acāryas giving religious 88). Except for a diaphanous dhoti and an uşnisa,
discourse in front of the Caturvidhasamgha, Giranā. or beaded girdles, urujalaka and kațisätra, which are
ratirthavatāra, birth of Krşņa, story of Ardrakuconspicuous only in the standing attitude, their body
māra, fight between Bharata and Bahubali, Krsna is bare. The representation of drapery is in agree
subduing the snake Kāliya, Samudramanthana ment with the Svetämbara tradition, as the Digam.
scene, Krsna in Gokula, etc. The narratives are bara images are always made sky-clad. They generally
found only in the temples at Kumbharia and Abu. have a parasol over the head and a parikara decora.
In the beginning the scenes are carved in high relief, ted with attendant figures, cauri-bearers, eleph
and the figures therein show poise and movement, ants, makara, trumpeters and Mälädharas. Sometimes
To facilitate the visitors the scenes are provided the parikara displays figures of subsidiary Jinas,
with appropriate legends in the Mahavira and the and according to the number of Jina figures appea
Säntinātha temples at Kumbharia. But as the ring on it, it is called tritirthi, pañcatirthi, covisi
time goes on, the reliefs become shallow, the sculptand so on of such and such Jina. In case of Pärs.
ures show stiffness and the accessory figures incryanātha the parasol is formed of snake-hood. From
ease in number; the legends are minimised and at the aesthetic point of view the Jina images are the
last given up. least attractive sculptures of the Jaina pantheon, and except for the parikara we notice little differences The third category comprises images of gods in their form. Almost all the Jina images have squa- and goddesses, including Yaksas and Yaksis (Figs. rish facial features, columnlike limbs and langurous 14,85,104) of the Jinas, Vidyādevis (Figs. 13,18, appearence of form, and hence are of little importance 19,44), dikpalas (Fig. 71), Pratihāras, Vināyaka, to trace the evolution of the temple-style. Another Sarasvati and Lakşmi (Fig. 20). These images drawback of the Jina images, now preserved in the are found on the pitha, mandovara, śikhara, door
, including
85,104)
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frame, pillars, pilasters and ceilings. In the corridor ceilings of the Vimalavasahi at Abu are also seen the images of Mātrkas with Ganesa and Virabhadra, and the Nțsinhāvatāra of Vişnu (Fig. 21), and on the doorjambs of the Santinātha temple at Kumbharia appear the river goddesses Ganga and Yamunā. These sculptures are carved almost in the round or high or medium relief and are easily distinguishable from the ordinary human figures by their respective cognizances and attribu- tes. Their divine character is also reflected in that they generally have more than two arms and are seated in badmāsana or lalitäsana. While standing they are shown in the dvi-bhanga, tri-bhanga or ati.bhasiga attitude. At many places they are depicted in the dancing attitude (Fig. 75). They wear karaṇdamukuta (sometimes Cakreśvari is shown wearing a kiritamukuța), circular earrings, multi- stranded beaded garlands, armlets, wristlets, beaded girdles secured by fillets, katisitra, urujalaka and anklets. Sometimes they put on a scarf which passes on the shoulder and is held by the arms. The scarf forms a fold scross the thigh. At times the girdle is decorated with scrolls, and in its centre, below the navel, appears a kiritimu- kha spewing the katisätra. While standing they often wear a long garland which resembles the vaijayanti worn by Vişnu. The goddesses also wear necklaces with urasitra and a kucabandha. The images ere generally framed between two segmented circular pilasters crowned by an udgama or arch pediment. The arch pediment is plain or carved with flamboyant pattern. Sometimes the arch is formed of lotus scrolls issuing from the mouth of a kiritimukha. The upper half of the pilasters is flanked on the outer side by a sinhavyala on elephant and a makara. The images of Vidyadevis have also been employed as bracket figures in the big domical ceiling of the rargamaydapa of the Vimalavasahi and the Lünavasahi at Abu. The stelae of these bracket figures are composed of boughs. All these images strictly follow the iconographic scriptures and hence look very formal.
The fourth category consists of Apsarās (Figs. 56. 81). They are executed in the round or high or medium relief and account for the finest sculp- tures that adorn the Jaina temples of Gujarat. They occur on the walls, pillars and ceilings.
On the walls they are represented as independent figures on the koņikās and the salilantaras and as attendant figures flanking the gods and goddesses. In the ceilings they are depicted as bracket figures leaning upon the stelae of boughs, On the pillars they are independently shown in the usual frame. They wear the same sort of dress and ornaments as are noticed in case of the goddesses, but the karandamukuta and the long garland are conspicuous by their absence. The hair is dressed and bedecked with jewels; at times it is done in a bun. The Apsarās are invariably shown as handsome damsels, with grace and charm. As celestial damsels they are depicted in various poses of dance. Apart from the dancing poses, they are represented as disrobing their lower garments to emphasize nudity, carrying lotus, knife, pitcher, etc., looking into mirror, tying anklets, touching breasts, or playing on some musical instruments. From their heavy buttocks, slim waist, prominent breasts and coquetting appearence it appears that the sculptors have taken great care in their execution. But compared to the Apsarās of Khajuraho and Bhuvanesvara, these are inferior, and the charm and glamour which are so characteristic of those places are lacking here.
The fifth category pertains to Vidyadharas (Figs. 33, 98), Kinnaras and Naigameşin. Vidyā. dharas are represented like human beings, while the other two are composite figures. Naigameşin has the body of a human being and the face of a goat. According to the Svetämbara tradition, he transferred the embryo of Mahavira from the womb of Brähmani Devanandā to that of Ksatriyāņi Trisala. As regards the Kinnaras, their lower half is like a bird, while the upper half corresponds to human being. From the navel of the Kinnaras issue floriated creepers which form their tail. All the sculptures of this group are worked out wholly in the round or high relief and occur on the ceilings. The figures of Vidyadharas also occur on the pillars and door-lintel. In the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga Vidyadharas also appear on the eave-cornices of the walls. In the ceilings the Vidyadharas and Naigameşin are represented as bracket figures, whereas the Kinnaras occur on the basal corners of the domical ceilings and on the frame and courses of the other ceilings. The Vidyā.

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dharas and Kinnaras are also shown on the beard and moustache, beaded garlands, bracelets stelae of the gods and goddesses. These figures and armlets. The lower garment consists of a short wear almost similar dress and ornaments as dhoti reaching upto the knees and gathered in the we get in case of the Apsarās, but the Kinnaras centre below the navel; the end of the dhoti hangs have the bare body. As denizens of the down between the legs. But for an uttariya which air they are always shown as hovering in the is thrown round the shoulders and held by the sky. The hovering posture of Vidyadharas and arms, the upper half of the body is left bare. The Naigameşin is indicated by bending one of their legs long narrow forehead bears an urna and the hair is at the back like a ploughshare. Their fluttering well dressed. The garment while riding on horse scarves also show movement and flight. They or elephant consists of crown like headdress, a long carry garlands, lotus, pitcher, fly-whisk and knife, or tight-fitting coat, an uttariya and pointed slipper. play on some musical instruments. The Kinnaras,
The women put on a kucabandha and an upper however, are generally shown in couples embracing
garment which seems like a modern odhani, covereach other or playing on some musical instruments. All the figures have the appearance of young
ing part of the lower garment, back and head upto boys, and on aesthetic plane they approximate
the forehead. The lower garment seems to be a the Apsarā figures.
dhoti whose folds are tastefully arranged in parallel
rows; it is wrapped round the waist and gathered The sixth category includes secular sculptures in the centre below the navel, and its end which comprise miscellaneous themes pertaining to reaches to the ankles. As regards ornaments, they musicians and dancers, attendant figures and cauri- wear circular earrings, two or three necklaces, bearers (Figs. 7, 18, 20), fighting scenes, procession wristlets, bangles, anklets, and an urņa on the foreof warriors, king and his retinue, Jaina Munis, head. One of the necklaces consists of coins; teacher and disciples, mithuna scenes and amorous
rous another type shows a long three-stranded necklace couples, milk churning scene, etc. The amorous
of pearls. couples are represented right above the Apsarā figures on the walls of the Neminātha temple at
The Svetämbara Jaina monks wear a colapataka Kumbharia and the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga,
and a shawl stretched transversely across the chest, and on the ceilings of the Jaina temples at Abu. and carry an ogho. In aesthetic quality the amorous couples also
All these portrait sculptures are very poor in approximate the Apsară figures. The dancers and
workmanship. Compared to the other images musicians, occurring on the pillar-shafts and ceilings,
they are stocky and stiffened. Their facial features are also handsome sculptures. The various reliefs
are similar to one another, and unless there is a of this group are found on the narathara and the
legend it is very hard to make any distinction betceilings, and on aesthetic plane they correspond to ween them. the narrative scenes referred to above.
The seventh category comprises the sculptures This category also includes the portrait sculp- of animals and birds, which include, besides the tures of the Srävakas, Srävikās and Acāryas. The figures of kirttimukhas, nägas and vyālas, those of eleportrait sculptures (Fig. 106) are found only in the phants, horses, lions, geese, makaras, etc. These Vimalavasahi and the Lüņavasahi at Abu and in sculptures have been employed to beautify the the Sambhavanātha temple at Kumbharia. These temples. The kirttimukha, the face of glory, is a sculptures are the effigies of the donors of the very popular depiction in the Jaina temples of temples and their relatives and religious preceptors. Gujarat. Executed in high or medium relief the Carved wholly in the round or high relief they are körttimukhas in all the instances show the head of represented in the standing attitude, or riding on a lion with the mouth spewing creepers. The face elephant or horse. From these sculptures we can is a stylized one; it has goggle eyes and horns on have an idea about the dress and ornaments worn the head. The kirttimukhas are shown in their inby the people of those days. The men wore a long dividual form as well as in bands. In the latter

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case they are alternating with tassels formed of they appear on the four ridges (Fig. 77). Carved beaded chains issuing from the mouth of the wholly in the round they are depicted here as sitting kirttimukhas themselves. The kirttimukhas also serve on their hind legs. an architectural purpose when they are employed
The elephants occur in rows on the priha and as bracket figures on the pillar-capitals. Some
ceiling. Here their profile and front parts are sculptures of the kirttimukhas are of great artistic
shown in high relief. When the elephants appear merits; mention may be made here of those found
at the basal corners of the ceiling, two elephants at the basal corners of the rangamandapa dome in
are depicted as lustrating a lotus plant. On the the Jaina temples at Kumbharia.
fikhara their front part is depicted in the recesses. The Sārdālas or vyālas are fabulous beasts repre. When they occur at the corners of the roof they sented as horned lions. Executed in the round or are carved wholly in the round and are represented very high relief they are generally shown at the in the walking attitude. The elephants in the hastisouter flank of the pilasters of the parikara. Here ala of the Vimalavasahi and Lūņavasahi at Abu are they are represented in small sizes. In the Nemi. executed of huge blocks of marble. These elephants, nātha temple at Girnar they are portrayed as particularly those in the Länavasahi (Fig. 103), are bracket figures in the dome of the gūdhamandapa heavily loaded with ornaments, are well polished, (Fig. 56), and in the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga and are rare pieces of art. In the Vimalavasahi at they appear on the walls of the gâdhamandapa. In Abu the elephants are also seen on either side of both these temples the $ārdalas are shown in large the stairways leading to the mukhamandapa and sizes. The fārdālas are also seen in a corridor gidhamandapa. ceiling of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. The Sārdūlas are
The animal sculptures in the form of kirttimukhas popularly depicted in the Jaina temples of Gujarat,
are seen as early as the Adinātha temple at Vadbut they did not acquire as much popularity as we
nagar. Subsequently, they gained much popularity, notice in case of the kiritimukhas.
as all the Jaina temples of the period preceding The nāgas have the body of a snake and the face the mid-12th century A. D. contain animal sculptuof a human being. They occur only on the ceilings res. The Vimalavasahi at Abu is the last Jaina of the Pārsvanatha temple at Kumbharia and the temple to show the largest number of animal figures Vimalavasahi at Abu. In the Pärávanātha temple and the maximum varieties in their forms. Aftertheir tiny figures are seen on the points of the kolas wards they decrease in number, and by the time of the gūdhamandapa dome, while in the Vimalava- of the Lūnavasahi at Abu they are mostly replaced sahi they are depicted in coils in one of the ceilings by the geometrical and vegetal patterns. Subseof the east portico of the rangamandapa. Their latter quently, they are rarely seen; this can be very well form got much popularity during later times, e. g. observed in the Jaina temple at Miani and the in the Jaina temple at Ränakapura (Rajasthan). Mahävira temple at Kanthkot. The makaras with floriated tails occur on the
The eighth and last category consists of floral, arches, brackets and parikara; geese in rows oppear
vegetal and geometrical designs. These comprise on the pillars and ceilings; lions are shown on the
scrolls, creepers (Fig. 10), lozenges (diamonds), and ceilings and the samvaranā; and elephants occur on
flowers of lotus, campaka and mandāraka. These also the pitha, Sikhara, roof, ceiling and in the hastiśālā. The makaras fulfil an architectural purpose when
add to the sculptural wealth of the Jaina temples of
our region. In the earlier temples these patterns they are employed as bracket figures on the pillarcapitals. The whole block of the praņāla is always
appear in bold and pleasing relief, but with the treated as a figure of makara with open mouth
lapse of time they become minute and artificial. (Fig. 79). Elsewhere the makara is depicted as a
Another notable thing about them is that in the
earlier temples such as the Vimalavasahi at Abu, decorative figure.
they do not compete the figure sculptures in The lions occur in rows in the ceilings; here they number and variety, but in the later temples such are generally shown in profile. On the sankuaraņā as the Lūnavasahi at Abu they get the upper hand

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and substitute even the figure sculptures. In the kați sātra is very thin. The legs of the dancers are Lūnavasahi these patterns show the maximum fashioned like a bow, and at many places the varieties and reached their perfectness.
lower part of the body is represented in three
quarter view. The vigour is shown by throwing The sculptural art of the Jaina temples of Gujarat
the body forward. An important feature of these begins when the style has almost become conventio
sculptures is that the pilasters of the frame are nalised. The plasticity of rounded form, which
generally topped by circular capitals, and the was the chief characteristic of the Classical art, is
foliage capital which becomes very conspicuous replaced by sharp edges and pointed angles, with
during later times is rarely met with. emphasis on vertical, horizontal and diagonal. The curves of the limbs and body that had so long been
During the 12th century A. D. which roughly convex turn into concave. The sculptures are now coincides with the reigns of Siddharaja and Kumafashioned in accordance with difinite artistic norms rapala, particularly the latter, the tendency of and iconographic standards. The whole process making squarish faces, long pointed noses, big long becomes mechanical, and the artists seem to be just eyes, prominent chin and linear forms is started. the sculptors or architects working for the devotees This shows decline in sculptural quality. The who happened to be their patrons, for they have no decline is also evident from the weak rendering of scope for delineating their inner experience. These limbs. The sculptures are now overburdened with features are more felt from the late 10th century jewels and ornaments. On the whole the appearA. D., for the kirttimukhas (Fig. 1) in the gräsapattience is rigid. The images appear to be fashioned of the Adinatha temple at Vadnagar are still vigo. according to the lan
according to the laksanas and lañchanas, with strict rous and amply reveal the Classical flavour. But adherence to iconographic scriptures. as the time goes on the sculptures become more
The sculptures of the period of Siddharaja and more rigid and reveal a petrified plastic move
(early 12th century), however, are elegant in proment.
portions and stand in ease. This is evident from The sculptures of the early 11th century are full the wall sculptures of the Neminätha temple at of life, although emphasis on angularity is stressed.
Kumbharia (Fig. 59). But still noteworthy are They do not aim at the heaviness of limbs as we
the Apsarās represented on the walls of this temple, find during later times. This is clearly reflected in
The bracket figures of Apsarās (Fig. 56) in the an exquisitely carved figure of female cauri-bearer
dome of the gūdhamandapa of the Neminätha
ac found in the hastifala of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. temple at Girnar, however, are not very different The sculpture (Fig. 7), originally constituting a from the conventional Näyikās and resemble on bracket of the torana-pillar, is made of white marble aesthetic plane the Vidyādevis represented as and is now preserved in the office of Sheth Anandji bracket figures in the rangamandapa dome of the Kalyanji Pedhi, Ahmedabad.
Vimalavasahi at Abu.
The sculptures of the Kumārapala phase are From about the mid-11th century a decline in elongated and slender. Generally, they wear a the quality of sculptures sets in. This is apparen- series of beaded girdles, a broad, flattened kafisātra tly indicated from the bracket figures of Vidya- of beads and jewels, more than one necklace with dharas found in the dome of the rangamandapa of urasūtra, and a long three-stranded beaded garland. the Mahavira (Fig. 33) and the Santinätha temples Even the Apsaras have also suffered from these at Kumbharia, and from the figures of goddesses traits. Take for instance the Nțsimhävatära of Vişnu and dancers appearing on the pillars and ceilings (Fig. 21) carved in a corridor ceiling of the Vimalaof these two temples and the mukhamandapa of the vasahi at Abu. Here the body of Nộsimha is Vimalavasahi at Abu. Owing to the angular thrown forward in an attitude of utmost vigour, modelling and the concave assent of the back, the but due to the concave rendering of the back, this movement of the plastic body is stiffened here. pose has no artistic reality. Similar instances can They wear suitable dress and ornaments but the be seen on the walls of the Adinātha temple at

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Jaina Temples of Western India
Shatrunjaya (Fig. 71) and the Ajitanātha temple In the pre-Solanki Jaina temples such as the at Taranga (Figs. 74-76, 78, 81). Although the Adinātha temple at Vadnagar, the caitya-arch is sculptures of this period do not show the poise and circular in shape and resembles the caitya-window balance we notice in the Neminātha temple at of the Western Indian caves, although with the Kumbharia, they are not as slender as those noticed presence of two volute like flourishes on its sides in the Lūnavasahi at Abu.
the stylisation in its form has started. In the
Solanki Jaina temples the caitya-arch becomes During the early 13th century the sculptures of
complicated. Its circular form turns into an ovalthe Taina temples of Gujarat reached their matu- shaped trefoil arch, and sometimes a diamond is rity. They are given almost a metallic finish also put in it. In the early temples of the Solanki (Figs. 95, 98, 104). At times the sculptures are
period the caitya-arches are bold and carved in provided with landscape (Fig. 104). In physiog. pleasing relief. This may be seen in the lattice nomy, however, they show further decline. They
ornament of the Sikhara of the Mahävira temple are tall with tapering legs, and their arms are thin
at Kumbharia (Fig. 23). But as the time goes and slender. Monotony prevails everywhere. The on the caityu-arches become minute and compliimages are nothing but an object of worship or cated, and their circular from becomes oval-shaped embellishment The wall-sculptures (Fig. 108)
and elongated and looks unpleasant. of the Vastupālavihāra at Girnar, and the largesized images in the corridor ceilings and the sixteen Lotus petal-and-bud
evis (Fig. 95) in the rangamandapa dome of This ornament consists of pointed lotus petals the Länavasahi at Abu can be cited here as examples alternating with stalks carrying buds. It is de. of this phase.
picted on the ceilings in the single as well as double In the latter half of the 13th century the sculp.
band. In the latter case the lower band is always
smaller than the upper one. This motif occurs tural peculiarities of the Solanki period are conti
for the first time on the ceiling slab of the gadhanued to some extent, but they are in a degenerate state. This is clearly observed in the sculptures of mandapa dome of the Vimalavasahi at Abu, Here the goddesses appearing on the doorjambs of the
it forms the corollas of a full-blown lotus flower.
The motif also makes its appearence on the under. Jaina temple at Miani (Figs. 114-115), and in the bracket figures of Vidyadharas (Fig. 119) in the
side lotus medallions of the architraves of the
mukhamandapa of this temple. But as an ornament gūdhamandapa dome of this temple and the
of the ceiling courses it first occurs on the corridor Mahavira temple at Kanthkot.
ceilings of the Pārsvanātha temple at Kumbharia. Apart from the sculptures, there are certain Here one full course is treated as padma (cyma decorative motifs which appear from time to time recta) adorned with two bands of this ornament. and give us ample evidence to trace the evolution Subsequently, it is noticed in the Neminātha temple of the style.
at Kumbharia, Vimalavasahi (rangamandapa and
corridors) at Abu, the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga Caitya-arch
(Fig. 80), and the Lūņavasahi at Abu (Fig. 100). This is a very common representation in the In the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia more Jaina temples of Gujarat. The motif seems to be space is alloted to this motif, as it occurs in single derived from the Western Indian caves where it is band on three padma courses of the two ceilings. In carved in the form of a caitya-window. In the caves the Vimalavasahi at Abu it is frequently shown in it fulfils an architectural need, but here it is used double band on the padma courses. Here it occurs as a purely decorative motif. It is depicted in not only in the cyma recta form but also in the its individual as well as collective form. In its cyma reverse order. Though the motif is occasioindividual form it is noticed on the pitha mould- nally seen in the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, ings and the pillars, while in the collective form it shows advancement on the earlier temples in it occurs on the pediments and the Sikhara.
that it is represented both in the single and double

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bands, and appears even on the karnadardarika and the ornament is in an undeveloped form, as the the rectangular slabs enclosing the ceiling.
lotuses here are set up in semi-circles instead of The motif sees its brightest days in the Lúņa.
garland loops. Its complete form occurs for the
first time in the mukhamandapa ceilings of the vasahi at Abu. This is evident not only from its
Säntinātha temple at Kumbharia, frequent occurrences on the ceiling courses and
Later it is
noticed in the corridor ceilings of the Pārsvanatha the kaksāsana portion but also from the fact that it
temple and in the rangamandapa dome of the Nemiis carved with its minutest details. Another remar
nătha temple (Fig. 61), both located at Kumbharia. kable thing is that here the buds have now blosso
In the latter temple it also occurs on the walls of med. Further, the petals and buds are freed from
the devakulikās. their sides by sharp cuttings (Fig. 100).
The motif is also found in the
gādhamandapa dome of the Ajitanātha temple at Diamond and double Volute
Taranga and the corridor ceilings of the VimalaThis motif consists of diamonds alternating with vasahi at Abu. In all these temples the motif is pilasters. The diamond is plain or incised with occasionally seen. In the Lünavasahi at Abu it rosette. The pilaster shows an oval-shaped circle often occurs on the ceilings. Although its usual form filled at interval with five horizontal bands, the is continued here, it is sometimes projected from central being carved with diamonds and beads and the level surfaces, and the lotuses are represented the others being plain. Outside the circle, at the with stalks. Afterwards the ornament seems to four corners, are volute like foliage joined below have gone out of vogue, as it is not seen in the as well as above by a straight horizontal line touch- Jaina temple at Miani and the Mahāvira temple ing the circle.
at Kanthkot. The ornament occurs on the antarapatra of the Chain-and-bell dibandha as early as the temples at Roda and as This ornament consists of chain-and-bells alternalate as the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot. The ting with tassels and is underlined with a horizontal earliest Taina temple to bear this motif is the band adorned with leaves. It is an embellishment Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, but here it is of the pillar-shaft and occurs from about the midfound on the rājasenaka of the balustraded pitha of 11th to the mid-12th century A. D. It was an the mukhamandapa. As an ornament of the rājasenaka lar ornament of the temples of Northern Gujarat it essentially occurs without change in its design in only. Thus it appears on the pillars of all except the the śāntinātha (Fig. 39), the Pārsvanātha and the Sambhavanātha temple at Kumbharia and the Neminātha temples at Kumbharia, the Neminātha Vimalavasahi at Abu. In the earlier temples like the temple at Girnar, the Adinātha temple at Shatrun.
Mahāvira (Fig. 32), the Säntinātha (Fig. 38) and the jaya, and the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, all Pārsvanatha (Fig. 51) temples at Kumbharia and built during the 11th-12th centuries A. D. In the the Vimalavasahi (its mukhamandaba) at Abu (Fire 13th century, however, it could not remain as an the ornament is tastefully carved in pleasing relief essential device of the rājasenaka, as it is not found while in the later temples such as the Nami in the Lūnavasahi at Abu; at the same time it is temple at Kumbharia (Figs. 60, 62) it is not only found depicted in the Vastupalavihāra at Girnar, shorter in breadth but also lacks in relief. In the
Vimalavasahi at Abu, which is the last temple to Ardhapadma
represent this motif, its scope becomes very limited, It consists of full-blown half lotus flowers set
as it is depicted only on the two pillars of the up in beaded garland loops having lotus buds
tangamandapa. as pendants. The ornament closely resembles the festoons. This is an ornament of the ceiling. Balcony Model It is already seen in the gūdhamandapa dome of the It consists of a vertical balustraded wall and Vimalayasahi at Abu and in a small ceiling between a slanting seat-back. It is found in rows in the the balanaka and the rangamandapa of the Mahāvira ceiling courses. Like the chain-and-bell motif. it temple at Kumbharia. But in both these temples also occurs on the Jaina temples of Northern

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Gujarat, viz. the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbharia Vimalavasahi at Abu, but here it is ornate. In the and the Viralavasahi and the Lūnavasahi at Abu. Lūņavasahi at Abu it is ornate but schematised. It is represented on the mukhamandapa ceilings of Here the model is indented into facets and underthe Santinātha temple and the Vimalavasahi. In lined with a band of leaves. In this temple it is both these instances, particularly in the Sāntinātha frequently shown on the courses of the ceiling. The temple, the model is bold and simple and has very popularity of the motif in the Lūnavasahi is also limited scope. The motif also occurs on a ceiling indicated by its being depicted in bigger forms on of the north portico of the rangamandapa of the the rectangular slabs enclosing the ceiling.
ICONOGRAPHY The images of the Jaina temples consist of stone, for he is known to have been of dark compltwenty-four Jinas (Tirthankaras) and their Yakşis, exion. Such images are preserved in the sanctum sixteen Vidyadevis, eight dikpalas, Sarasvati, of the Lūnavasahi at Abu and the Neminātha Laksmi. Vidyadharas, Naigameşin, Vināyaka, temple at Girnar. Similarly, some of the Kinnaras, mätskās, Pratihäras, and the river godde. goddesses are identifiable by their respective sses Ganga and Yamunā. Besides, we notice the attributes. This is because the attribute or representation of fourteen objects (elephant with attributes they hold is a must in their representfour tusks. bull, lion, Goddess Sri, garland of ation. Thus, Cakresvari holds discs, Vajränkusi flowers, Moon, Sun, banner, full-vase, lake full thunderbolt and goad, Vajrasrnkhala chains, of lotuses etc., ocean of milk, celestial car, jewel Ambikā mangoes and child, Vairotyä snake, Mahaheap and smokeless fire) seen in dream by the ivālā firepot, and Mahakali bell. But it is very Jina mother during conception, eight auspicious hard to make distinction between the images of symbols called astamangalaka (svastika, Srivatsa, Vidyādevis and Yaksis, for the Vidyadevis not nandyavarta, varddhamanaka, bhadrāsana, kalafa, only adopt the names of the Yaksis but also their dar pana and matsya), Samavasarana, Nandi
iconographic features. This is clearly seen in the évaradvipa, and the mountains Sumeru and Astā- images of Cakresvari Yaksi and Apraticakrā pada. In a corridor ceiling of the Vimalavasahi
Vidyadevi. However, when the Yakşis are repreat Abu Nrsimha is represented killing the demon
sented attending upon their respective Jinas, Hiranyakasyapa, and in another Krşņa is depicted
their identification becomes easier. Similar is the subduing the snake Kaliya; both these are
case of the Yaksa images. Except for Sarvānubhūti, purely Brahmanical representations, and their
Gomukha, Brahmaśānti and Matanga, no Yaksa occurrence in the Jaina temple probably indicates
could be identified with a degree of certainty. that the sculptor was so much devoted to his
Below is given an account of only such images faith (Vaişnava) that he could not dispense this
or representations which help us some way or the ternple with some of the Vaişņava themes,
other in tracing the evolution of the style of the The images of the Jaina temples do not show laina temples. uniformity in their attributes. Unless they bear their respective mounts it is very hard to identify
Vidyādevis them. This may be clearly seen in the images
They are the goddesses of learning. They figure of the Jinas. their Yaksis, and Vidyādevis. The both on the exterior and the interior of the temples images of Adinātha and Pärsvanatha, however, and are amongst the most popular depiction of the may be easily identified by the mere presence of Jaina pantheon. Their names, according to the locks of hair on the shoulder and a cobra-canopy Svetämbara tradition, are as follows: Rohini, Prajā over the head of these Jinas respectively, as apti, Vajrasțnkhalā, Vajránkusi, Apraticakrā, Narathese are their special characteristics. Sometimes datta, Kali, Mahäkāli, Gauri, Gandhari, Mahaivālā. the images of Neminātha are also recognizable by Mānavi, Vairotyā, Acchuptā, Mānasi and Mahathe material of which they are made, viz. dark manasi. Generally, the Vidyādevis are represented

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in their individual forms; at some places they are graphy of Vairotyä and Manavi. The standing shown in a set of four, eight or sixteen.
figure of Vairotyā on the pilaster flanking the front
doorframe of the gūdhamandapa is still represented The goddesses on the rūpas tambha of the sanctum
with her bull cognizance, but elsewhere in the doorframe of the Adinātha temple at Vadnagar are
temple her snake vähana also comes to view. With most probably the Vidyadevis, as the räpastambha
Mānavi boughs of tree are seen as well. Apart in the later temples is always alloted to them.
from the individual images of the Vidyādevis, this Here, all the images possess only two arms, one of
temple also possesses a set of sixteen Vidyadevis in them bearing a pitcher and the other shown in
a ceiling of the side aisle of the raigamandapa (Fig. varadamudra. In one instance, however, the goddess
44). Seated in lalitāsana they are all four-armed is shown carrying sword and fruit. All these images
and represented without their cognizances. From are depicted without their vāhanas, so that their
the absence of vahanas one may doubt in their being identification could not be possible. The absence
Vidyadevis, but their number and distinctive of the vahanas apparently indicates that their icono
attributes leave no scope for such doubts. This is graphy was quite in a formative state.
the earliest representation of a complete set of In the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, which sixteen Vidyadevis in the Jaina temples of Gujarat. is the next temple to represent Vidyādevis, they T he four-armed Vidyadevis with their distinctoften appear on the pillars and pilasters of the ive attributes and vahanas are also seen on the mukhamaydapa, the doorframe of the gidhamandapa, pillars, pilasters, doorframes and ceilings of the and the ceilings of the side aisles of the rangamand- mukhamandapa and the güdhamandapa of the Vimalaapa. Here is noticed a marked development in vasahi at Abu, and on the pitha and pillars of the their iconography, as all the goddesses have four
ses have four mukhamandapa, doorframe of the gūdhamandapa and arms and carry their respective attributes. Their the pillars, pilasters, doorframes and ceilings of the vähanas also make their appearence. Thus, we devakulikās of the Pärsvanātha temple at Kumbhafind eagle with Apraticakrā, peacock with Prajña.
ria. In the Pārsvanatha temple they also appear pti, man with Mahakali, alligator with Gauri,
on the exterior walls of the central devakulikās. horse with Acchuptā, swan with Mänasi, elephant
The image of Vairotyā on the gūdhamandapa doorwith Vajrănkusi, lotus with Mānavi, cow with
jamb of the Pārsvanātha temple too has bull as her Rohini, lion with Mahājvāla, lotus with Kali,
cognizance, but her images on the pillars show bull with Vairotyä, and buffalo with Naradatta.
snake. In no case, in the Vimalavasahi, she is Although the lotus cognizance of Vajraírňkhala is
represented with her bull vahana. broken off, she may be easily identified by her chain attribute. Owing to the mutilated condition The Neminātha temple at Kumbharia is the of the images, the remaining two Mahavidyās, viz. first Jaina temple of our region which carries largeGāndhāri and Mahämänasi, could not be identified. sized images of four-armed standing Vidyādevis on By the time this temple was built, the iconographic the jarigha of the sanctum and small-sized images of norms of the Mahavidyās seem to be almost establ- lalitäsana Vidyadevis on the kumbha of its vedib. ished. But the bull cognizance with Vairotyā is andha. Besides, they occur on the pillars and remarkable, for it is snake which is most commonly pilasters of the mukhamandapa, the doorframes of represented as her vāhana in the later temples. the devakulikās and the exterios walls of the cenLikewise, Mānavi holds lotuses instead of boughs tral devakulika in the west wing. Here, imporof tree.
tance is given only to their large-sized images
occurring on the sanctum, elsewhere they are In the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbharia where generally shown without their cognizances. There they occur on the pitha, pillars, pilasters and are twelve Mahāvidyās on the jarghā of the sancceilings of the mukhamandapa, on the ceilings of the tum; with their cognizances they are as follows: side aisles of the rangamandapa and in the rathikas Vairotyā (snake), Acchuptā (horse), Manavi (lotus), of the Sikhara, we notice some change in the icono- Mahājvālā (lion), Vajrāňkusi (elephant), Vajra.

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&țnkbalā (lotus), Apraticakra (man), Naradatta two janghās of the mandovara and on the Sukanäsā. (buffalo), Kali (lotus), Mahakali (man), Gauri Represented with their respective attributes and (buffalo) and Gandhari (goat). Buffalo is the vāhana cognizances the Vidyadevis in the present temple of Naradatta; its representation with Gauri is really show advancement on all those appearing in the surprising, for her own vāhana is alligator. In the earlier temples in two respects. Firstly, they are set of sixteen Vidyadevis in the rangamandapa domi- represented not only in the standing and lalitasana cal ceiling of the Vimalavasahi at Abu also buffalo attitudes but also in the dancing postures. Seconis depicted as the vāhand of Gauri. Mänavi heredly, the images of Vidyādevis on the lower jangha too holds boughs of tree.
are all eight-armed; previously, in the Neminätha
temple at Kumbharia they are only four-armed, In the Vimalavasahi (its corridor and rarigamandapa) at Abu and the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, In the temples of the early 13th century the both built during the reign of Kumārapāla, we multi-armed images of the Vidyadevis are rarely notice some advancement in the iconographic qua- found. In the Lūņavasahi at Abu where they lities of the Vidyädevis. This is reflected not only occur on the pitha of the gidhamandapa and mukha. by their multi-armed images but also by their fre- mandapa, in the dome of the rangamandapa and on quent occurrances in a set of sixteen. In the ranga- the ceilings of the corridors, there are only three manda pa dome of the Vimalavasahi sixteen Vidyā- such images. One of these is eight-armed, and devis with their respective attributes and mounts from her swan mount she is identifiable with are represented as bracket figures (Figs. 11, 13). Mānasi. The other two are six-armed each and In addition to this, there are four more sets of may be identified with Gauri and Mänasi by their sixteen Vidyädevis in the corridor ceilings of this makara and swan cognizances respectively. This temple. In two of these sets they are seated in temple also has a complete set of four-armed lalitäsana and have four arms; in one they also have standing images of sixteen Mahavidyās in the dome four hands but are represented in the standing of the rarigamandapa (Figs. 95-96). Carved as bracattitude; and in the remaining set they are shown ket figures they carry almost the same set of in the standing attitude and have six arms each. attributes and cognizances as we find in the What is noteworthy in these sets is that they are rangamandapa dome of the Vimalavasahi at the same not carrying their mounts, probably because they site. In the other contemporary temples, viz, the have got much popularity by this time and hence Vastupälavihāra at Girnar and the Sambhavanātha the artists need not represent them. In a corridor temple at Kumbharia, the Vidyādevis have only ceiling eight standing Vidyādevis are also shown four arms and are found in a small number. In without their cognizances, but in another four all these temples the pillars are not represented images of four-armed lalitäsana Vidyadevis with with the figures of Vidyadevis, although they are their vāhanas are depicted along the two diagonals frequently noticed in the earlier temples such as and are identifiable with Vajränkusi (elephant), the Vimalavasahi at Abu and the Jaina temples Apraticakrā (eagle), Prajñapti (peacock) and Vajra- at Kumbharia. sțnkhala (lotus). The popularity of Vidyadevis in this temple is also evident from the fact that four of During the late 13th century their multi-armed the corridor ceilings are wholly alloted to them. images go out of vogue, and the four-armed images Three of these are sixteen-armed each and are too are rarely met with. This may satisfactorily identifiable with Rohini, Acchuptā (Fig. 18) and be seen in the Jaina temple at Miani wherein they Vairotyā from their bull, horse and snake mounts occur only in the figural band of the gūdhamandapa respectively, while the fourth is a twenty-armed dome. In the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot, image of Mahämänasi represented with her lion however, they appear on the kumbha of the vedimount. All these multi-armed images are sitting bandha, the rathikäs of the Sikhara, the jangha and in the lalita-pose.
the doorframe, but the pillars and ceilings which In the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga the Vidya. have so far been profusely decorated with them, devis occur on the kumbha of the vedibandha, on the do not carry the images of Vidyadevis.

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Dikpalas
central devakulikās. Thus, Isäna with his bull mount The dikpalas or Loka palas, the guardians of the appears on the northeast, Indra with elephant on quarters, are eight in number. The Jaina dikpalas the east, Nirrti with dog on the southwest, and are similar to the Brähmanical ones and bear Varuņa with makara on the west. Here, some advsimilar names as we find in the Brahmanical ancement is noticed in the image of Nirrti. Among pantheon, viz. Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Varuna, his attributes the kapala is also included, and owing Väyu, Iśāna and Kubera. They are noticed on the to his nakedness he looks terrific. walls of the Pärsvanātha and the Neminätha temples at Kumbharia, the Jaina temple at Sejak
The Neminätha temple at Kumbharia is the pur, the Adinatha temple at Shatrunjaya, the first Jaina temple where the four-armed standing Ajitanatha temple at Taranga, the Bavanadhvaja
dikpalas figure in pairs in their correct positions on Jinalaya at Sarotra, the Vastupālavihära at Girnar the karpas of the sanctum. Thus, we find Kubera and the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot. They also and Isäna on the northeast, Indra and Agni on the occur on the ceilings of the Santinātha temple at
southeast, Yama and Nirrti on the southwest, and Kumbharia and the Vimalavasahi at Abu. Un.
Varuna and Vāyu on the northwest. They are fortunately, the dikpalas are intact only in the mounting elephant, bull, elephant, ram, buffalo, temples of Kumbharia, Abu and Taranga.
dog, alligator and deer respectively. In the icono.
graphic features also we get some change and adva. They are already noticed on the walls of the cement. Nirrti wears a sarpa-mukuta, which is invsanctum of the Brāhmanical temples at Kotai in ariably noticed with his images in the later temples, Kutch, Here, they possess only two arms and are and his damari attribute is now given up. Besides represented with their respective vähanas. Sub- dog a male figure is also represented as his vāhana. sequently, in the Munibāvä temple at Than and on the janghā of the sanctum he is naked, while on the Sun temple at Modhera, particularly the the wall of a devakulika he is represented as wearing latter, they are all four-armed, carry their respe- a garment, the latter being a characteristic of his ctive vāhanas, and are represented on the facade of images in the later temples. Yama is seen carrying the walls. The earliest Jaina temple to show the a kukkuta. Isäna wears a jatāmukufa, which beimages of dikpalas is the Säntinātha temple at comes an essential adornment of his headdress Kumbharia where the four dikpalas are seen at the later. basal corners of a domical ceilings of the mukhamandapa. Seated in lalitasana they are four-armed
In the Vimalavasahi at Abu the eight dikpalas and are identifiable with Agni, Kubera, Yama and
are carved in the standing attitude in a corridor Nirpti by their ram, elephant, buffalo and dog
ceiling. Here they are four-armed and figure in vāhanas respectively. From the iconographic point
in their correct order, that is from Indra to Isana, of view the images of Yama and Nirrti alone are
with their distinctive attributes and vahanas. What noteworthy. Yama holds lotus, book, varadaksa
is remarkable here is that Yama holds a pen and
is remarkabı and pitcher in his four hands, but the kukkuta and Väyu carries banners; these attributes with these pen which are very common with him in the later dikpalas, if they were at all present in the Nemi. temples are conspicuous by their absence. As nātha temple at Kumbharia, are now gone. regards Nippti he carries damarü, shield, sword and
The four-armed eight standing dikpālas in pairs varadaksa, but the kapāla which is commonly noticed with him in the later temples is wanting here.
also appear in their correct position on the karnas
of the sanctum of the Ajitanātha temple at TaraBesides, he does not look ferocious as he wears
nga and the Adinātha temple at Shatrunjaya (Fig. only the jațāmukuta and beard.
71). But for a slight variation in the depiction of The next Jaina temple to bear dikpala images their attributes there is nothing of note in the is the Parávanātha temple at Kumbharia. Here the dikpala images of these temples. It appears that four-armed dikpalas are represented in the standing by this time the iconography of the dikpalas was attitude in their correct positions on the walls of the completely standardized.

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Vidyadharas
The Vidyadharas, the denizens of the air, got much popularity in the Jaina temples of our region. Except for those depicted as bracket figures in the domical ceilings, the images of Vidyadharas are of little importance for iconographic study. Their images in the ceilings, too, do not show much iconographic peculiarities. In the ceilings they are four, eight, twelve or sixteen in number; their number depends upon the size of the dome and the choise of the sculptor.
The earliest representation of Vidyadharas as bracket figures is found in the rangamandapa of the Munibävä temple at than. Here, they are eight in number and have four arms. The earliest Jaina temple to represent Vidyadharas is the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia where they occur in the dome of the rangamanḍapa (Fig. 33). Here their number increases to sixteen, although two are occupied by Naigameşin. They possess four hands and carry lotus, pitcher, knife and musical instruments. Naigameșins, however, hold pitcher in the upper pair of hands, and lotus and fly-whisk in the lower one. In the Santinatha and the Pärivanatha temples at Kumbharia all the sixteen brackets in the rangamandapa dome are occupied by four-armed Vidyadharas carrying similar attributes as we find in case of the Mahavira temple at the same site. In the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia the practice of the Mahavira temple of replacing two of the sixteen Vidyadharas by the images of Naigameşin is revived, but among their attributes the garland is also included. The fourarmed sixteen Vidyadharas with usual symbols are also seen in the gudhamandapa dome of the Neminatha temple at Girnar, but here each Vidyadhara plays on some musical instrument.
In the Vimalavasahi at Abu a marked development takes place in the iconography of Vidyadharas. Here they are having four as well as six arms. Among their attributes the shield is also incorporated. These characteristics can be well seen in the sixteen bracket figures of Vidyadharas in the rangamandapa dome. In the minor ceilings of this temple itself and in the gudhamandapa dome of the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga, however, they still possess four arms. A notable feature of

Vidyadharas in the latter temple is that the knife, which has so far been a popular attribute, is now given up.
Iconographically, the images of Vidyadharas reached their maturity in the Lunavasahi at Abu. Here, all the sixteen figures of Vidyadharas in the rangamanḍapa dome are six-armed (Fig. 98). Among their attributes the fly-whisk is also included. formerly, the fly-whisk is borne only by Naigameşin. In one instance the Vidyadhara is shown wearing a crown. This is quite a rare feature.
The eight Vidyadharas in the gaḍhamandapa dome of the Jaina temple at Miani and the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot are only four-armed, and they do not show any novel feature.
Narratives
These consist of various scenes of which the pañcakalyāṇakas and the life scenes of the Tirthankaras give us some useful data. The narratives are carved in relief in the ceilings of the Jaina temples at Kumbharia and Abu only. They first occur in the rectangular flat ceilings of the side aisles of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia. Here the pañcakalyaṇakas of the Jinas, their bhavantaras (previous life scenes), and the life scenes before the attainment of the Tirthankarahood are predominantly shown. This can be well imagined from the fact that all the popular Jinas, viz. Adinatha, Santinātha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, have been given due importance in these ceilings. The scenes are arranged in rectangles within rectangles. The kalyaṇakas and life scenes of Śantinatha and Neminatha, however, are displayed in a stepped diamond. The five kalyanakas in the present temple are depicted in the following manner :
The Cyavana-kalyanaka is shown by the representation of the mother of Jina lying on a cot. Beside her are shown fourteen auspicious objects seen in dream by her when the Jina descends into her womb from the heaven. In the Janma-kalyaṇaka Indra is represented sitting with Jina in his lap, who is being bathed by pure waters. In the Diksä-kalyaṇaka the Jina is represented plucking out his hair and performing hard austerities in the kayo tsarga posture. The Jääna-kalyanaka is indicated by anarrangement of a Samavasaraṇa. The

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Sculpture and Iconography
213 Nirvana kalyanaka+ is denoted by an image of like the war between Bharata and Bahubali, the Jina seated in dhyānamudra in the centre of the story of Ardrakumāra, Krşņa subduing the snake Samavasarana.
Kaliya, the Samavasaraņa of Adinatha, Samudra
manthana, etc. An important feature of the narIn the Mahavira temple the kalyäņakas as well ratives is that, excepting one narrative, namely the as the life scenes of the Jinas are very clearly shown war between Bharata and Bahubali, carved in the with appropriate details (Fig. 34). The accessory front portico ceiling of the rangamandapa, the legfigures being less in number, each scene is easily ends below scenes are conspicuous by their absence. recognizable. An important feature of the Janma- This clearly indicates that by this time the scenes kalyanaka is that Naigameşin, the gaṇa of Indra, is have got much popularity, and hence the artists only occasionally seen carrying the child Tirtha- need not label them. nkara for performing the birth-rite. To facilitate the visitors the artists have also given appropriate The Lüņavasahi at Abu is the last Jaina temple legends below each scene.
pertaining to narratives. Like those seen in the
Vimalavasahi, the narratives here also are engraved In the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbharia, which in the ceilings of the corridor and rangamandapa. is the next temple to show the narratives, the pra- The narratives in the present temple show a marked ctice of the Mahävira temple is closely followed in change and development. The pascakalyanaka scenes depicting the pañcakalyāņakas and the life scenes of wholly go out of vogue; in their place we find the the aforesaid five Jinas in the side aisles of the representation of the auspicious events such as tangamandapa. But here the accessory figures in- the renunciation of Neminātha (Fig. 102), the crease in number, so that the scenes become some origin of Hasti-Kalikund-tirtha connected with what complicated (Fig. 45), and Naigameşin ap- the life of Pärávanätha, birth-rites of Krşņa pears in the Janma-kalyāṇka of almost each (Fig. 101), Krşņa in Gokula, Samavasarana Tirthankara.
scene, etc. In no case the legends below scenes
are engraved. The accessory figures increase in The Vimalavasahi at Abu is the next Jaina
number and are very tiny, so that the whole temple which bears the narratives. Here the narratives occur on the ceilings of the corridor and
scene becomes very complicated. We also find dirangamandapa. There are only three ceilings depi
fferences in the arrangement of the scenes. Pre
viously they are displayed in concentric circles or cting the pañcakalyānaka scenes. One of these de
in rectangles within ractangles, but here they are picts the pañcakalyanaka of Sāntinātha (Fig. 17),
arrayed in squares within squares or in parallel while the other two are unidentified. All these are
rectangular panels. In the latter case the contilocated in the corridor; and the scenes are arranged in concentric circles. Another ceiling of the
nuity of the scenes breaks off, and hence the
arrangement looks odd. corridor depicts in three concentric circles the life scenes of Neminätha and his two kalyāṇakas, viz. Diksā and Kevalajñana. In all these panels the References kalyanakas are only briefly shown, and the bhavan- 1. Shah, U. P.. "Iconography of the Sixteen taras rarely make their appearence. This is pro
Jaina Mahāvidyās," Journal of the Indian bably because the aim of the artist now was to depict
Society of Oriental Art, vol. XV, p. 119. the individual events of the Jaina mythology rather than the kalyānakas and the bhavāntaras. This
See also Bhattacharya, B. C., The Jaina is apparently indicated from the life scene of
Iconography, second edn., Delhi, 1974, pp.
124-32. Neminatha, wherein the central panel is wholly alloted to his water-sport scene, while the two sur- 2. For details see my article entitled "Sixteen rounding panels depict various scenes which ulti- Vidyadevis as depicted in the Jaina Temples mately led him to get initiated in to monkhood, at Kumbharia," published in Sramana, Besides, there are ceilings which depict the scenes Varanasi, 1977, year 28, No. 5, pp. 25-32.

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Faina Temples of Western India
3. For the eight dikpalas appearing in the Jaina
temples at Kumbharia see my article published in Sramana, year 28, No. 1, pp. 28-31. In the Western Indian paintings the Nirvāṇakalyāṇaka is indicated by another Jina image seated in dhyanamudra (Brown, W. N., A Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature
Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasätra, Washington, 1934, Fig. 1), for the Jina of the Samavasa. raņa forms a part of the Jñana-kalyānaka. But perhaps to avoid repitition the artist in the present reliefs has not shown another Jina figure for denoting the Nirvana-kalyanaka.

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CHAPTER VI COMPARATIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY STUDY
The Jaina temples of Western India form one the Jaina temples of Rajasthan. Even its earliest of the richest and most prolific developments of the remains hail froin that region, viz. the Mabāvira Northern Indian temple-architecture. The majo- temple at Osia. It is, therefore, not unlikely if the rity of Jaina temples of our period were built du- Gujarati architect derived this element from the ring the period which roughly coincides with the adjoining regions of Rajasthan. sake of Somnath by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025.26
As regards the devakulikās, their antecedents A.D. and the occupation of Gujarat by Allauddin of
may be seen in the Indrasabha at Ellora. But here Delhi in 1299 A. D. During this period it became
are found niches containing Jina images, arranged a powerful kingdom under the Solankis and acqu
at intervals around a pillared hall. In the Kailasa. ired the maximum size. The economic condition
nätha temple at Kāăci the sculptured niches are of the country was a flourishing one. The Jaina
arranged around an open courtyard, and in the community largely contributed to its economic
Vaikuntha Perumāla at the same site a cloistered growth. The state of Svetāmbara Jainism was
corridor is also added. But it is hard to say if the very high; it found keen royal patrons in the Sol.
devakulikās of the Jaina temples of Gujarat have ankis. With the efforts of Hemacandra it occupied
their derivation in these temples. It is equally even the status of state religion. Under these fav
difficult to say if the devakulikās were adopted from ourable conditions there were erected quite a large
the Yogini temples of Central India. According number of Jaina temples of which sixteen stand to
to the literary accounts, however, they were already this day in various states of preservation. There
in existence in Gujarat in the late ninth or early are three such temples of which only the photogra
tenth century A. D., as we learn from the Pattavalis phic record is available. All these temples provide
that king Yasobhadra, a local chief, built a Jaina us sufficient data for tracing the evolution of the
temple with 24 devakulikās at Dhimduānpura. style of these Jaina temples.
The actual instances are also available from the Before we trace the evolution of the style of early tenth century, as they are present in the Adithese Jaina temples it would not be out of place to nātha temple at Vadnagar. The Mahavira teme have a glimpse of the contemporary Jaina temples at Varman (Rajasthan) displays the earliest archa. built at Osia, Varman, Ghanerav, Pali, Sewadi, eological remains of 24 devakulikās. Nadlai, Nadol and Sadri in Rajasthan, Gyaraspur
The Jaina temples of Gujarat are also charactand Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, and Sravan
erised by some individual features. They have a belgol, Kambadhalli, Humcha, Lakkundi, Jinana
balanaka or nalamandapa in front of the temple and thapur and Halebid in Karnatak.4 Side by side,
a haftisala in the front or the back. But these comthere were built numerous Brähmanical temples
partments are present in a few temples only; perabout this time. A prolific building activity took
haps they were not very much in vogue. place in Orissa. The essential elements of plan, viz. sanctum
As regards the orientation of the temples, the and mandapa-closed or open or of both the types, Brähmanical temples of Gujarat and the outside are also present in all these contemporary temples, regions generally face the east, while the Taina but the compartments like mukhamandapa and deva temples of Gujarat face all except the south kulikās are essentially Jaina elements found in the direction. Taina temples of Gujarat, as they are also dedica The Jaina temple of this region always has a ted to the linas. The mukhamandapa is also found in pascaratha (tryanga) sanctum with three-fold divis

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sion of the walls. The medieval temples of Orissa, The Khajuraho temples are analogous to the on the other hand, generally show a pañcaratha san- Gujarat ones in the general plan and composition ctum with five-fold division of the walls. Unlike of the sanctum and mandapa (closed hall), and in the curvilinear Sikhara clustered round with subsi- the division of the elevation into a moulded diary turrets of the Jaina temples of Gujarat, the adhisthana, sculptured jangha and fikhara, clustered Sikhara of the Orissan temples is unencumbered by round with ariga-Sikharas. But in Khajuraho the subsidiary turrets and shows a vertical outline with jangha displays two or three bands of sculpa pronunced curve only near the top. Though the tures instead of one, and the pillars and four principal compartments of the Orissan temp- ceilings of the mandapas are less ornate. The les, viz. rekhadeul, jagamohana, natamandapa and domical ceiling in Khajuraho being developed bhogamandaba, are combinedly disposed in one axial from a square base is shorter and less ornate. line, they are not as integrated as the various com- While the mandapa in Khajuraho is crowned by partments are done in the Gujarat Jaina temples. a pyramidal superstructure, the same in Gujarat As against the astylar and featureless gloomy mand. has a bell-roof. In the form and decoration of apa of the Orissan temples, the Jaina temple of our the toraja-arches also the Khajuraho temples region has a highly ventilated peristylar maydapa, cannot compete those in Gujarat. An interesting with ornate pillars and ceilings.
feature of the Khajuraho temples is that they
stand on a high jagati which elevates the structure The Western Calukya and Hoysala temples of
from is environs and provides an open promenade Karnataka show striking similarities in having
and ambulatory round the temple. This also gave a vimāna (sanctum), a navaranga (closed hall)
an opportunity for better delineation of the exterior and a mukhamandapa (open hall), but in details
than the interior. The Jaina temples of Gujarat, they vary considerably. The pitha mouldings
on the other hand, stand in an enclosure wall, and wall decorations of the Karnataka temples
so that they are more ornate from inside than are quite different from those of the Gujarat Jaina
outside. temples. Instead of a square and curvilinear Sikhara, the Karnataka temples possess circular fikhara with straight outline. The plan of the While the early temples of Rajasthan resemble gimana of the Hoysala temples is unique in that it those of Khajuraho, the later ones bear closest is star-shaped. The $ukanāšā which is an essential affinity to the Gujarat temples in the disposition element of the Karnataka and Khajuraho temples of plan and elevation of the sanctum and the is conspicuous by its absence in all except the mandapas, and in the interior arrangement of their Ajitanātha temple at Taranga. The navarangı ornate pillars and ceilings. Similarly, the Brābmadisplays nine bays, the central bay of which nical temples of Gujarat are not very different generally possesses an ornate domical ceiling with from the Jaina temples in the general plan and the a pendant, supported on four leath-turned pillars. composition of exterior and interior. But the But for the mukhamaụdapa, the mandapas in the rangamandapa in the Brahmanical temples of GujarGujarat Jaina temples, on the other hand, at is enclosed by a short balustraded wall, while show an octagonal arrangement of eight pillars or the same in the Jaina temple is either open or pilasters carrying a large and highly ornamented enclosed by a range of devakulikäs. Another domical ceiling with an exquisite pendant or feature worth noticing is that the ghata ballava padmašila. The leath-turned pillars having a pillars, so characteristics of the Gujarat and square plain base, a broad square abacus topped by Rajasthan temples, are not found in the Taina four-armed brackets, and a smoothly rounded shaft temples of Gujarat. Besides, the latter temples do adorned with a series of bulges and curved necks, not have a detached kirtti-torana, although it is found beadings, etc., have no pretension in comparision in the temples of Gujarat and Rajasthan, e.. to the richly carved pillars of the Gujarat temples. the Mahävira temple at Osia, the Sun temple In the ornamentation of the ceilings also the temples at Modhera, the Rudramahālaya at Siddhapur. of Gujarat excel those in Karnataka.
etc.

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217
As regards the early temples of Gujarat located Devi temple at Gyaraspur. These temples bear at Roda, Than, Wadhwan, Kerakot, Kotai, etc. much kinship to the Adinātha temple at Vadnathey are characterised by a tryaniga sanctum with gar, with which the evolution of the style of the three-fold division of the wall and a latina or multi- present survey begins. turreted Sikhara, and a closed hall roofed by a pyramidal superstructure. In the multi-turreted The progress of style of the Jaina temples of sikhara the rathikās are crowned by tall pediments Gujarat may be seen in two stages, viz. Preof caitya-arches, a feature also seen in the Mālā Solanki and Solanki,
PRE-SOLANKI TEMPLES There are only two examples of this group. The other temple is the one located at Than The earlier of these is the Adinātha temple at (Fig. 2). It is a very small structure having a Vadnagar (Fig. 1). It is characterised by a simple square sanctum with featureless wall. Its pitha plan showing a tryanga sanctum, a gādhamandapa, is very low and lacks even the important mouldand two devakulikās facing the temple. The cou- ings like jāļyakumbha, kumuda and grāsapatti. The pling between the first two compartments is made vedibandha mouldings, only four in number, here at the frontal karna, leaving thus very narrow space too are bold and simple, but the kumbha is decoraat the junction. The angas show only slight ted with half diamonds, an ornament which beprojections and vary in proportion from one ano- comes an essential element of this member in the ther. Due to the absence of kumuda the pitha is Solanki temples. The wall is shaded by a ribbed low. The mouldings of the pitha and vedibandha eave-cornice. This is an architectural device (five in number) are bold and simple. The kirtti- which becomes a must of the temples of the later mukhas of the grāsapatti are vigorous and amply group. Its pyramidal superstructure is simple. reveal the Classical flavour. The decoration of The two projecting kirttimukhas on the doorsill also khura by rosettes is singular in the Pre-Solanki are invariably noticed in the temples of the temples of Gujarat. The caitya-arch motif, where- Solanki period, but unlike the round projection ver present, is circular in shape, and in spite of in the centre of the sill, it has a square one with some stylization made by adding two volute like an inverted crescent, a characteristic found with flourishes it is still reminiscent of the caitya-win- slight variation on this part of the devakulikā doordow of the Western Indian caves. The icono- frame of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia. graphy of Vidyādevis on the sanctum doorframe Some of these features such as crude half diamonds is in a formative stage as all of them possess only on the kumbha, heavy ribbed eave-cornice atop the two arms and are represented without cognizances. wall, and bold kiritimukhas on the doorsill are in a From the presence of two devakulikās it appears nascent stage. The absence of these features in that the idea of adorning temples with devakulikās the preceding temple and their presence in develohad started. The sculptured niches on the wall ped form in the Solanki temples suggest that the of the devakulikās are not projected; they also lack style was changing from the simpler to the finer in depth. The above analysis thus puts it among and elaborated one. the early temples of Gujarat and at the outset of the Jaina series.
SOLANKI TEMPLES From the second quarter of the eleventh century During this period Gujarat came into close contact A.D. there were built elaborate and highly orna- with Rajasthan which had some beautiful temples mented temples. This was due most probably to at Osia, Ghanerav, Jagat, Chotan, Badoli, Kiradu, the territorial expansion of the Solanki power. etc. These temples of Rajasthan, having fused
28
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Faina Temples of Western India
with the indigenous style of Gujarat, ultimately two octagonal pillars are profusely carved, although resulted in a synthetic style, which is designated the common practice is to adorn the square ones, as Solanki style.
It possesses both the scalloped and the cusp-lilaka
types of torana-arches. The ribbed eave-cornice The earliest Taina temple of this group is the shading the porch is fine. The sculptures of the Vimalayasabi at Abu built in 1031 AD. Although female cauri-bearer (Fig. 7) and Dvärapalas are the greater part of the temple belongs to a later testefully carved. The perforated stone-grilles for period, the sanctum, güdhamand apz and hastatala, which Gujarat is justly famous adorn the walls of all built of dark stone, are original. The angas of the hastišala. The small ceilings in the hastifāla the ti yanga sanctum still have only slight project and in front of the main entrance show only ions and vary in proportion. The coupling bet nābhicchanda elements. The ribs of the kolas and ween the sanctum and the gūdhamandaba is made at gajatālus are heavy and bear foliage on their points. the frontal pratiratha, as the karna is left intact. This provides more space at the junction of these Built about thirty years later the Mahavira two compartments. Its pitha is simple but per- temple at Kumbharia shows some change and fectly done. The jad yakumbha is larger and well advancement. It stands on a lofty jagati (Fig. 22) splayed out, and is followed by a karņikā, a moulding which is a special characteristic of the Jaina temhitherto absent but found without exception in all ples of Kumbharia. Unlike the ornate jagati at the temples of this group. The vedibandha con- Khajuraho it is plain here. Although the angas of sisting of five usual mouldings is also simple, but the tryanga sanctum (Fig. 23) vary in proportion, it is not as plain as pisha, for its kumbha is decora- they are given sufficient width (projection) by ted with half diamonds and the kapota is adorned putting up saliläntaras in between them. The with caitya-arches. Divided into two registers the salilantara between the karņa and pratiratha also conwall is plain, but for the projecting sculptured tains a minor kopika. The karya is now broken into niches on the bhadras. This becomes a common three planes. The coupling between the sanctum feature of the plain walls of the later temples of and gadhamandapa here again is done at the frontal this group. The bhadra-niches are invariably karya. The jādyakumbha of the simple pitha is noticed on the ornamental walls also. The pyra- decorated with caitya-arch and half diamond, midal superstructure over the sanctum as well as though the most favourable ornament of this gūdhamaydapa is more ornate than that at Than, member is lotus leaves. The kumbha of the simple as it displays ghantäs on the ridges and sculptured vedibandha carries a narrow plain band on its shoulniches at the base in the cardinal points. The der, which turns into a jewelled band in many a interior of the grdhamaydapa displays an octagonal later temple. Its plain jangha is remarkable in two arrangement of eight pilasters supporting a domi- respects: the median band is decorated with kirttical ceiling. This type of arrangement of the in- mukhas, and the side of the projecting sculptured terior is invariably noticed in the succeeding niches on the bhadras carries a diaper work. The temples. The pilasters and architraves are very varandikā contains a fine ribbed eave-cornice which ornamental, but the dome is plain. The ornaments is similar to that seen in the hastiśālā of the Vimaof the architraves consisting of lotus scrolls and lavasahi at Abu. The Sikhara with one row of diamonds get much popularity in the later temples. urahtrigas and two rows of frigas and having its On one course of the dome appears an ardhapadma mülamasljari marked by five stages of bhimipattern which is represented in a very simple form. amalakas looks somewhat squat. The Sikhara is The lotus in the ceiling slab of the gūdhamandapa crowned by two amalakas; this is also a characdome consists of petal-and-bud motif. Here the teristic of the Central Indian temples. The rathikäs, motif forms the corolla of the lotus, but subseque. at the base of the Sikhara, are unique in showing ntly it is represented as an independent enrichment the images of kayotsarga Jinas, as the same in all on the ceiling courses. The eastern porch of the the later temples shelter goddesses. The trefoil hastišala reveals some important features. The caitya-arches forming the lattice ornament of the
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Comparative and Evolutionary Study
219
śikhara are carved in pleasing relief. The trifakha those seen in the hastišala of the Vimalavasahi at doorframe of the sanctum (Fig. 25) displays all Abu. The shaft of the square pillars, which are the essential elements of this period, but in cont only two in number, carries an ornamental band rast to the ornate doorsill and lintel, the stambha. consisting of chain-and-bell and indented foliage. fakhā of the door-jambs is plain and carries on its Here the chain-and-bells are alternating with lower part the images of the kāyotsarga Jinas rather foliage rather than tassels, although the latter are than those of the goddesses or Pratihāras.
most commonly noticed in the later temples; this
ornament may be seen in the rangamandapa pillars On plan and in elevation the gädhamandapa
of this temple itsell. follows the sanctum but is roofed by a samvarana,
The indented foliage are also
represented as an independent device in the later which shows a fine arrangement of fluted ghantäs and kūtas (Fig. 24). Its highly ornamented
temples, but there it takes the shape of acanthus.
The ornamental bands of the circular section of pañcasākha doorframe is an ideal example of the door of the Solanki period (Fig. 26). Some of the door
the shaft are conjested. The octagonal pillars also frame images are of iconographic interest also, Sar
are tastefully carved and show some ornamental vānubhūti, the Jaina Kubera, and Ambikä, the
bands on the upper part of the shaft. The two Yakși of 22nd Jina, are represented on the door
pilasters flanking the door frame are highly ornasill of this as well as many other temples of this
mented. The two khattakas having a triratha
moulded pedestal and a double-course ud gama group irrespective of the cult images. The idea of
pediment are simple, but the scalloped type of depicting them as attendant figures was probably derived from the Akota bronzes, but unlike the
torawa-arches in their front are ornate and excel
those found in the hastišala of the Vimalavasahi at two-armed Akota images these are having four
Abu. The architraves do not show uniformity in arms. The representation of Acchupta with horse
ornamentations. Among their ornaments is found and Vairotyä with bull mount on the lower part
a bell-and-volute pattern, which got much more of the jambs is a peculiar feature of this and the
popularity in the Brāhmanical temples than in the other two succeeding temples at Kumbharia,
Jaina temples, as, apart from this, it is noticed Vairotyä with bull vāhana also appears in one of
only in the Neminātha temple at Girnar. The six the devakulikäs of the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia. The door-lintel depicts a row of Mālā.
ceilings, including the two in the rear aisle of the dbaras, which becomes a common characteristic of
rargamandapa, are not only beautifully carved but are the later temples. The lintel also depicts the birth
also characterised by some new features. Besides the rite of the Jina, which is a rare representation at
nābhicchanda mode (Figs. 29-30) they show mandathis place. Except for the domical ceiling, the
Taka (Fig. 28) and padmanabha (Fig. 27) elements,
the latter being a mixed variety of the padmaka interior of the gadhamandapa is of on interest. The dome is perfectly done, as it reveals two courses
and nābhicchanda. In the nabicchanda ceiling itself
some novelty is seen. Unlike the näbhicchanda of gajatālu. The ribs of kola and gajalalu are perfectly done. The dome carries eight brackets
ceiling of the Mahāvira temple at Ghanerav of Vidyādharas. This is the earliest reference to
(Rajasthan) and the Sun temple at Modhera, Vidyadharas in the Jaina temples of Gujarat.
where the lūmās are separately rendered in a
rectangular frame, the limās in the present temple The mukhamandapa consists of four bays and is are combinedly represented in a square frame. The landed up from the raigamandapa by a single images of Vidyādevis on the pillars and doorframes flight of steps. Its pitha is ornate. Here the grāsa are all four-armed and bear their distinctive patti is underlined with a chadyaki, a minor moul- attributes and cognizances. But the goddesses on ding not found in the Adinātha temple at Vadna. the sixteen-sided section of the pillar-shaft are only gar. The pitha accommodating the stairway is two-armed. It appears that by this time the iconotreated like a balustrade. a feature encountered graphy of Vidyādevis was not fully settled, for with the Jaina temples at Kumbharia only. The Vairotyā has bull instead of snake as her mount and pillars, eight in number, are more ornate than Mānavi holds lotuses rather than boughs of tree.

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Faina Temples of Western India
The rangamandapa is an open peristylar hall laid and do not run at the back of the court. The idea out on the floor which is lower than that of the of constructing devakulikäs also was not fully materother compartments. It shows an octagonal ialised, as instead of devakulikās there are niches on arrangement of pillars supporting a carved domical the front side; their number also is only twentyceiling. Such a disposition of the rangamandapa two, although it should have been twenty-four. becomes universal in the later temples. Its ten Generally, the devakulikās have a single-fakhā doorpillars consist of pedestal, base, shaft and capital, frame, decorated with diamonds and beads and and are tall and taparing, but they do not carry carrying a female pitcher-bearer at the base of the the uccälakas, so that they look somewhat squat. jamb. But two of the devakulikās have a dvišakha They are of both the square end octagonal types doorframe, and the female pitcher-bearer at the (Fig. 32), but the square pillars are only two in base of the jambs is accompanied by a male number. Compared to the pillars of the mukhamandapa attendant. The additional jamb is decorated with these are of the inferior variety. However, the foliate scrolls. The corridor lacks in height, so that two-armed male dancers on the shaft of the square there are placed squat pilasters right above the pillars show movement, and the chain-and-bell pillars in order to maintain the height of the side pattern is nicely done. The architraves show uni- aisles. Below these pilasters is a corrugated eaveformity in ornaments, viz. diamonds and lotus cornice which does not serve any architectural scrolls, and their underside lotus medallions consi- purpose in the interior. sting of two rows of incurved petals are carved in
This temple also possesses a featureless enclosed high relief. The cusp-tilaka type of toraņa-arch
balāņaka, which is rarely found in the Jaina as (Fig. 32), which has been devised to bring verti
well as Brāhmanical temples of Gujarat. Its enclocal pressure of the dome over the pillars, is supe.
sing wall consists of perforated stone grilles cut rior to that seen in the hastifāla of the Vimalaya
into geometrical and floral patterns. Compared to sahi at Abu. Consisting of eight courses the domi
the grilles in the hastišala of the Vimalavasahi at cal ceiling (Fig. 31) is shallow and displays two
Abu these are of the inferior variety. A remarkable unusual features, namely the grāsapatti below karna
feature of the balayaka is that it is well integrated dardarika, and only one course of gajatalu instead
with the devakulikäs (Fig. 22). of the usual two or three. The kolas are arranged in harmonial regression and consist of both the mono Further progress of the style may be seen in the and the whorl type, the latter showing as many mukhamand apa and the lateral entrance porches of the as seven folds. This is the first Jaina temple of güdhamandapa of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. Here the our region which carries sixteen angelic brackets bitha (Fig. 4) is more ornate and carries a narathara in the dome. All these bracket figures (Fig. 33) are above the gräsapatti. The square pillars are as four-armed and carry lotus, pitcher, knife, musical
ornate as those seen in the Mahavira temple at instruments, etc. The padmašila is somewhat Kumbharia, but here the shaft is sober and its heavy, and its kolas are disposed in harmonial ornaments varied. The square section of the shaft regression.
carries not only the images of four-armed goddesses, This temple begins to represent narratives (Fig. but also the images of four-armed Pratihäras and 34) selected from Jaina mythology and figures in Yakşas, and two-armed male dancers and musicians. boxes (Fig.35) in the side aisles of the rangamandapa. The figures of dancers and musicians bear close Carved in pleasing relief the narratives conspicuou- resemblance to those occurring on the square pillars sly show the pancakalyanakas and the life scenes of of the rangamandapa of the Mahavira and the Säntithe Jinas. Each scene is carved with appropriate nãtha temples at Kumbharia. The ornamental details. In the birth kalyanaka Naigameşin is occ- bands of the circular section of the shaft, consisting asionally seen. For intelligibility the scenes have of three or four bands, are not congested, and the been labelled.
indented foliage here take the form of acanthus. The devakulikäs with a colonnaded corridor The octagonal pillars, only two in number, are having one arcade of pillars are plain and simple more ornate and carry the same decorative bands

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Comparative and Evolutionary Study
as are found on the square pillars. The five-faceted pilasters (Fig. 5) are taller and adorned with the images of goddesses. The architraves invariably depict a band of lotus scrolls and a strip of diamonds, but their underside lotus medallions depict various designs. There are as many as eight varieties in the medallions. One of these consists of incurved petals. This variety can also be seen in the rangamandapa of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, but unlike the two rows of petals in the latter, the present temple shows three rows of petals. The ceilings also show some novel features. The independent nabhic chanda elements of the Kumbharia-type are left behind; instead, the padmanabha elements (Fig. 9) are given importance. The lumas of the padmanabha ceilings, no doubt, are of the serrated diamond type, but they lack in depth and looks almost flat. This is a device of the samakṣipta and samautkṣipta ceilings of the padmamandāraka mode, which gets much popularity in the later tamples. The sabhamandāraka type of ceilings begins to appear in the smaller bays. The stamenal tube of the padmašila is clasped by a band of dancers and musicians as well. The kolas are also represented in the reverse order. The ceilings begin to represent balcony models and figures of geese on the courses and images of gods and goddesses at the basal corners. The two khattakas now have a pancaratha ornate pedestal and wall and are crowned by a bell-roof. All the three doorframes of the gūḍhamaṇḍapa are of the saffakha variety (Fig. 5), and instead of Acchupta here is found Rohini on the lower part of the jambs. With Vairotyä her snake mount also comes to view.
are
The Santinatha temple of Kumbharia marks the next landmark in the evolution of the style. The pitha and mandovara of its tryanga sanctum quite plain. Its fikhara rises from a prahara and is accentuated, as its mulamanjari is marked by seven bhimi-amalakas (Fig. 36). The lower amalaka of its crowning members is clasped by a fillet. The rathikas at the base of the sikhara contain images of lalitasana goddesses and are flanked for the first time by crude balcony models. The lattice ornament of the fikhara shows decadance as the caityaarches are elongated and oval-shaped (Fig. 37). The single-fakha doorfrome of the sanctum is of its own

221
kind. The creepers on the jambs are engraved in very shallow relief. The lower part of the jambs is occupied by river goddesses, Ganga on proper right and Yamuna on proper left. The representation of river goddesses is singular in the Jaina temples of Gujarat. The central projection of the udumbara is square depicting stemmed lotus in an inverted crescent. Besides kirttimukhas the udumbara also displays female figures carrying water pot.
On plan the guḍhamandapa does not follow the sanctum, as it consists of only two angas. In this respect it also digresses from the Mahavira temple at this site. Compared to the beautiful samvarana in the latter temple, the samvarana in this temple is very poor in workmanship and is studed with unfluted ghantas. Its door frames reveal some individual features. The northern doorframe consists of only two jambs; this is because the jambs on their outer flank are accompanied by the pilasters of the mukhamandapa. Consequently, the pilasters also serve as jambs. This can also be imagined from the fact that Acchuptă and Vairotyä, who occupy jambs in the Mahavira and the Pärsvanatha temples at Kumbharia, are depicted here on these pilasters. The overdoor depicts aṣṭamangalaka; this is a rare depiction in the Jaina temples of our region. The lalata of the single-fakha doorframe of the lateral entrance porches depicts a male musician rather than the usual Jina image. The big domical lacks even the important mouldings like karṇadarceiling of the gudhamanḍapa is very shallow and darika and gajatālu.
The mukhamandapa (Fig. 38) is divided into six bays. Its pitha is as ornate as that seen in the Vimalavasahi at Abu, but the narathara is absent here and the whole of its front side is treated like an ornate balus trade (Fig. 39), which is a special characteristic of the Jaina temples of Kumbharia. There are only five ornamental bands on the shaft of the square pillars, which become almost standardised hereafter. The goddesses on the sixteensided section are all four-armed now. The decoration of the shaft of the octagonal pillars by ornamental bands is also minimised. The five-faceted pilasters, khattakas and architraves are more or less similar to those seen in the Vimalavasahi at Abu, but the underside lotus medallions of the architra

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ves show uniformity, although they lose the variety The two main entrance porches also reveal a and delicacy we find at the latter place. The few important features. The doorframe of the mukhanandapa ceilings, all belonging to the mandā- northern porch carries images of the river goddesraka class, display true mandāraka form, as the ses Ganga and Yamunā at the base of the jambs, cusps of the kolas are made pointed (Fig. 40). The but unlike those in the sanctum, here Yamuna is ceilings represent for the first time true ardhapadma represented on proper right and Gangā on proper pattern, Kinnara-couples at corners, and interse- left. The ardhapadma in the ceiling of the western cting garland loops. Vidyadevi Mänavi now carries porch is carved in the old fashion and hence does boughs of tree. Among the four dikpāla images not look as handsome as that seen in the mukhaappearing on one of the ceilings, the image of Nirrti mandapa. The lalata of the doorframe in the is undeveloped, for he does not carry his popular western porch depicts an image of Lakşmi instead kapāla attribute.
of Jina, a feature also found in the western enThe pillars (Fig. 41) of the raneamandaba are trance porch of the Pārsvanātha temple at this provided with ucсālakas, but due to the absence of site, pedestal below the base they still lack in height.
The story of the architectural development is Like that of the Mahāvira temple at this place the
carried forward by the Pārsvanatha and the Nemirangamandapa dome is still shallow, but the stame
nātha temples at Kumbharia and by the main nal tube of the padmašila is longer (Fig. 43). The
temple-complex of the Neminätha temple at narratives (Fig. 45) and figures in boxes in the side
Girnar. The gadhamandapa and the rangamandapa aisles of the rangamandapa are continued, but the
of these temples are spacious, and their domical accessory figures being increased the scenes become
ceilings are perfectly done. The devakulikās are somewhat complicated. Some change in the de
all of the cell-type, but they still cover only half of piction of Janma-kalyānaka is also found. In the
the court. Mahavira temple Naigameşin is occasionally seen
The smaller ceilings begin to represent
the lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The sculptures carrying the child Tirthankara to perform the
wear suitable dress and ornaments and are elegant. birth-rite, but here he is present in the birth cere.
The Kumbharia temples also possess a nalamandapa mony of almost each Tirthankara. One of the ceil
in the scheme of the plan, ings in the side aisles depicts a panel of sixteen Vidyadevis. This is the earliest representation of a complete set of sixteen Vidyādevis (Fig. 44).
The earliest among these is the Pårsvanātha
temple. The plan and the vertical disposition of moThe devakulikās are now twenty-four in number.
uldings of its sanctum and closed hall are not very The niche-type devakulikās are continued on the front side, but they are screened by a double arcade of
different from those seen in the Säntinātha temple
there, but the domical ceiling of the güdhamaydapa pillars, a feature which becomes more prominent later. Made by cutting off the corners the ceilings
is perfectly done, as it contains three courses of of the devakulikās also show some change and ad
gajatālus. In this respect it also shows advancement vancement. The ceiling slab in each bay is relieved
on that of the Mahāvira temple at this site, which with a full-blown lotus flower, while the same in
possesses only two gajatālu courses. The points of the Mahävira temple is occasionally seen. Besides, the kolas in one course of the dome are occuthe lotus shows a central circle marked with twine pied by Nāgas, who rarely occur on the ceilings pattern, and at times it is set up in a border of lotus of the Jaina temples of Gujarat. The pañca
olls. Although the door frame of all the davaku- Sakha doorframe of the gūdhamandapa (Fig. 46) is likās is of the single-fakhā variety, it bears the deco- very similar to that of the Mahāvira temple, but ration of diamond-and-beads as well as lotus here both the niches of the doorsill are alloted to scrolls. Another noteworthy feature is that the the goddesses, and the lalatabimba is occupied by female pitcher-bearer at the base of the jamb of Padmavati, the Yakşi of Paravanatha to whom the each devakulika is accompanied by a male temple is dedicated. Besides, its overdoor depicts attendant.
fourteen auspicious objects seen in dream by the

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Jina mother during conception; these representati temples. The two central devakulikās are highly ons are found on the door of this temple only. ornamental. The only other temple to possess this
feature is the Neminātha temple at this site. The The mukhamandapa is disposed in the same
dikpalas on the exterior walls of the two central manner as we find in the Mahavira temple there,
devakulikās are correctly represented with their resbut in ornamental details it closely follows the
pective attributes and vāhanas. The corridor is Säntinātha temple, with this difference that some
elevated, so that only pillar-capitals are placed to of the ornamental bands on the shaft of the octa
maintain the height of the side aisles. The corridor gonal pillars go out of vogue. The mukhamandapa
is shaded by a ribbed eave-cornice rather than the is also characterised by an individual feature, i.e.
corrugated one. This is the first Jaina temple to the two khattakas are crowned by a multiple toran2
introduce a nálamandapa. arches instead of the bell-roof or udgama pediment.
The Neminātha temple at Girnar follows next, The rangamandapa is spacious and proportionate.
which is a sandhāra-prasada with a diagonally disposThe pillars (Figs. 50-51) are stout and provided
ed güdhmandapa, a feature peculiar to the temples of with pedestal and uccälakas. The corners of the
Gujarat (Text Fig. 4 on page 147). The tryanga square pillars are chamfered into five angles, unlike
sanctum evinces a marked development in the disthe usual three, and the male dancers on the square
position of the buttresses (Fig. 54). The karna section of the shaft are all four-armed. Its dome
and pratiratha are not only equilateral but also (Fig. 49) is composed of nine courses, three of
have the same proportion. The frontal karna and which consecutively display gajatālu, a figural
pratirat ha are transmuted in a buffer wall, and the band, and gajatālu. By the introduction of more
coupling is made at the pratiratha, so that there is than one course of gajatalus the old defect of
found wider space between the sanctum and the shallowness has been eliminated. To reinforce the
closed hall. To reinforce the wall there are dome there were also placed sixteen bracket figures,
placed konikäs between the above two buttresses, now lost. The arrangement of kolas in co-radial
The wall and Sikhara are severely plain; regression begins to appear, but this is not found in
this is quite unusual during this period. the padmašila.
The wall also looks squat and disproportionate. Though the devakulikās are still twenty-four in This is because the pitha displays only a few moulnumber, the niche-type devakulikās are now conver- dings and the jangha is shorter, in spite of the fact ted into cells proper, so that there is found sym- that the latter has a maicika support, a moulding metry in the devakulikās. In ornamentation also hitherto absent. The kapota of the vedibandha is they show some advancement. The octagonal pillars now decorated with udgama pattern, unlike the are ornate and correspond to those found in the usual caitya-arch device. The Sikhara, however, mukhamandapa. The pilasters are like the pillars. The looks perfect. It is clustered by three rows of architraves are also ornate and bear two ornamen. Srigas and urah rrigas, and its 'milamunjari is divided tal bands of lotus scrolls and diamonds; these deco. into nine stages of bhimi-āmalakas. Now the rathirative bands do not appear even on all those found kās at the base of the Sikhara are flanked by ornate in the mukhamandapa and the rarigamandapa of this balcony models and crowned by triple udgama, temple. The doorframe is still of the single-fakhă unlike the double seen in the Mahävira temple at variety, but it has an ornate udumbara and the lower Kumbharia. part of its jambs is occupied by a Pratihära accom panied by two female cauri-bearers and a female The tryanga gadhamandapa repeats the pitha and carrying water vessel. The lalata of the door is mandovara mouldings of the sanctum, so that it also occupied by a lalitāsana goddess instead ef the usual looks disproportionate. But its samvaraņā roof Jina image. The ceilings, particularly those in the (Fig. 55) is elegant and shows advancement in that west wing, are also ornate. They depict for the first all its ghanţās are surmounted by kalaša and bijapitime the lotus petal-and-bud motif in the cyma raka. The interior of the gūdhamandapa is spacious, recta form, which gets much popularity in the later but due to squat lateral porches it is gloomy. The

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Jaina Temples of Western India
pillars are stout but featureless, while the dome is proportionate and well carved (Fig. 56. The six teen bracket figures of Apsaras, which are intact to this day in the dome, show poise but resemble the Nayikās rather than the heavenly dancers. From the side brackets of the pillar-capitals, which are treated as makara-heads, emerge fine scalloped torana-arches, while the other brackets support struts of Apsaras and färdülas We have already seen the importance of toraṇa-arches in the dome of the Kumbharia temples, but here the architect has gone a step further by adding figure-struts. This experiment of bringing vertical pressure of the dome over the pillars has served an useful architectural purpose in the later temples as well. The carving of bells in lotus petals and diamonds in volutes on the architraves supporting the dome is fine and corresponds to that seen in the contemporary Navalakha temple at Sejakpur and the Rudramahalaya at Siddhapur.
The Girnar temple is followed by the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia. Its tryanga sanctum closely follows the scheme of plan of the Neminatha temple at Girnar, but as against the latter it has a proportionate and highly ornamented wall (Fig. 59). To give more height to the pitha it displays, above the grasapaṭṭi, the mouldings of gajathara and narathara. Both these mouldings are not new during this period, as they have already made their appearence in the Sun temple at Modhera. The narathara may also be seen in the mukhamandapa of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. Now the Rumbha of the vedibandha is inset with sculptured niches, and the mañcika carries circular pendants in conjugation with the pillaretes of the parikara of the jangha sculptures. The jangha bears four-armed images of dikpalas on the karnas and of Vidyadevis on the pratirathas. Carved almost in the round these images are elegant in proportion and developed in iconography, The eight dikpälas with their respective attributes and vāhanas are correctly represented in pairs on the karnas. The Vidyadevis are also represented with their respective ayudhas and vahanas and hence are easily recognisable. The faliläntaras of the jangha have also been occupied by the figure sculptures consisting of Apsaras and amorous couples. Compared to the Apsaras of the Neminatha temple

at Girnar, these show a better proportion and are represented in various attitudes and poses of dance. The bhadra-niches topped by toraṇa-arches are deeply set. Above the jangha occurs for the first time a round bharani clasped by drooping foliage.
The mukhamandapa consists of ten bays and is landed up from the ragamandapa by three stairways, of which the side ones are not properly made, as they lack even the moonstone and their steps are shorter. Its plain pitha is in utter contrast to the ornate one noticed in the other Jaina temples of the region. All the pillars (Fig. 62) are square and ornate and show advancement on the earlier temples in that the sculptures of the square
section of the shaft are both four and six-armed. But, at the same time, they show decadance in the chain-and-bell pattern carved on the round section of the shaft, for it is shallow in relief and narrow in breadth. The five-faceted pilasters are of the same variety as those seen in the mukhamandapa of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. The underside lotus medallions of the architraves are also shallow in relief and look unpleasant. As regards ceilings, they are inferior to those found in the earlier temples, but they show two notable features: firstly, their soffit begins to represent full-blown big lotus flowers, and secondly, the lotus petal-and-bud ornament has got more popularity. The two khattakas have the usual five-faceted moulded pedestal, but they are crowned by a triple udgama unlike the double in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, and the shoulder of the kumbha of their pitha is decorated with foliage, an ornament frequently shown on this member of the pitha in the later temples.
The rangamanḍapa is very spacious as we find one row of pillars in the side aisles also. This type of arrangement of the pillars in the side aisles of the rangamanḍapa is also noticed in more developed temples such as those located at Abu. All the pillars (Fig. 60) of the nave are of the square variety and resemble those seen in the Parsvanatha temple there, only that here the male dancers and musicians on the square section of the shaft are both four- and six-armed and the chain-andbell pattern shows a decline. The dome of the nave closely corresponds to that seen in the

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4.
The
Pārsvanatha temple at the same site, but here 1. The shoulder of the kumbha of the vedibandha it is more evolved, as the kolas in the padmašila is generally decorated with foliage, and also are arranged in coradial regression the kalaša, also of the vedibandha, with beaded (Fig. 61).
garland-and-rosette design.
2. A fillet type of moulding, carved with a In the arrangement of devakulikās also we find
strip of diamonds, is sometimes seen in the some advancement. The platform on which they
pitha or the vedibandha. rest is extended round the back of the court, and
3. The bhadra-niches at times are enclosed by a it was but the next step to adorn this portion
balustrade. also with devakulikās. Although their number increases to twenty-six, they do not go beyond
The Sikhara is clustered round by subsidiary the güdhamandapa. A notable peculiarity of the turrets and reaches its maturity. devakulikās is that they do not have the partition 5. The kūtas are discarded in the samvaraņā. walls. a practice also found in some of the later 6. The mukhamandaba is landed up from the temples. In the east and west wings they are rarigamanda pa by three well-arranged stairways. screened by a double arcade of pillars, but the
7. The pillar-shaft is decorated with a gooseold practice of disposing one arcade of pillars is
band; and the chain-and-bell pattern is occacontinued here in the north wing. The eave
sionally seen. cornice and the squat pilasters in the corridor
8. The devakulikās, wherever present, run all have been eliminated by putting taller pillars to
around the courtyard. maintain the height of the side aisles of the rangamandapa. The five-faceted pilasters are more
9. A large number of composite ceilings come to ornate, as their shaft is decorated with figural
view. as well as floral patterns. The dooframes of all 10. The sculptures are taller and overburdened the devakulikās are of the dvišakha variety. Unlike with ornaments, and the angular modelling the Pratihāra image in the Pārsvanätha temple, deteriorates their form. the lower part of the jambs here is occupied by 11. Side by side four-armed images, the multia goddess with attendant figures. The doorsill
armed images also make their appearence. in each devakulika depicts Sarvānubhūti on proper right and Ambikā on proper left, but all these
The earliest of these Jaina temples is the one images are carved in very shallow relief. The located at Sejakpur. Consisting of a sanctum,a güdhacentral devakulikäs in the side wings are compara
mandapa and a mukhamandapa and possessing an elabotively more ornate(Figs. 64-65), but being built on rately carved interior and exterior, this temple is a a lower floor level they are asymmetrical. The
small gem of the Jaina temple architecture (Text devakulikās are approached from the rangamandapa Fig. 6 on page 157; Fig. 66). Its tryaniga sanctum by a double flight of steps, a feature neither found
reveals all the elements of plan we get in the earlier nor later.
Neminātha temple at Kumbharia. The mouldings
of the pitha and vedibandha are highly ornate and Further development of the style is traceable carefully chiselled out. The richness of the carving is through the Jaina temple at Sejakpur, the clearly indicated by this that the jadyakumbha is Tangamandapa and devakulikās of the Vimalavasahi decorated with bad mapatra. This is the first Jaina at Abu, the Adinātha temple at Shatrunjaya, temple to bear the carving of foliage on the shoulder the devakulikās of the Neminātha temple at Girnar, of the kumbha and of beaded garland-and-rosette the Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, the Jaina design on the kalasa of the vedibandha. The jangha temple at Bhadreshwar, the Bāvanadhvaja bears the usual figure sculptures, but the varandika Jinālaya at Sarotra and the Parsvanātha temple consists of two kapotas instead of the usual one. The at Ghumli. These temples evince a marked gâdhamandapa is of the exceptional plan and design. development in the following features :
It consists of four proliferations, of which the karna
29

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Jaina Temples of Western India
uccalakas, and carry very little ornamentation. The ceilings are elaborately carved; they depict certain novel features such as a row of lions, mandaraka element in the samautk sipta and ksiptotks ipta forms, and lotus petal-and-bud motif in the cyma reverse order. The ceilings of the padmamandaraka variety also make their appearence. Sometimes the entire bay is alloted to an inage of goddess, Sarasvati or Lakşmi (Fig. 20).
and bhadra are almost equal in dimension; this gives a pleasing effect to the plan of this mandapa. Among the ornaments of the pillars the goose-band is also included.
The Vimalavasahi at Abu has a highly ornammented rangamandapa and devakulikās, and no Jaina temple except the Lunavasahi at the same site can compete it in the embellishment of these compartments. The tangamanda pa is very spacious, as, besides a row of pillars in each of the lateral sides, the pillars in the square central nave are disposed on all the four sides. The rangamandapa has also been made highly ventilated by uncovering the space in the front two corners (Fig. 16). In doing so the nave had to be slightly raised from the level of the courtyard, so that rain water could not spread all over. The nave, however, looks squat, because the pillars Jack in height (Fig. 6). All the nave pillars are ornate and belong to the square type. The chain-and-bell pattern is found on the shaft of two pillars only; after this it goes out of fashion. The architraves are equally ornate and bear on their underside creeper medallions instead of the usual lotus medallions. The cusp-lilaka type of torama-arches and the bracket figures of Apsarās and Salabhañjikās not only relieve the vertical pressure of the dome but also enhance the beauty of the nave. Compared to the large dome its padmašila is shorter and looks quite unpleasant (Figs 11-12). The dome also reveals many other important features. Its courses display for the first time a row of elephants and a row of horses riders. This is the first Jaina temple to possess smaller lämās in the ceilings. The iconography of the sixteen Vidyadharas is more developed as they are having four as well as six arms. The
ix arme the Vidyadevis are given considerable importance as all the sixteen brackets in the dome are alloted to them. The corners of the dome are filled with the images of gods and goddesses, while the same in the earlier temples are occupied by bold kirttimu- khas. Three well arranged stairways are made to approach the mukhamandapa from the rangamandapa.
The Vimalavasahi is the earliest intact Jaina temple where devakulikās run all around the courtyard. Fifty-four in number they have a double arcade of pillars on all except the back side. The goose-band seems to be a popular ornament of the P pillars, as all the corridor pillars bear this oroament. The five-faceted pilasters are like the pillars but the two near the main entrance are more ornate and evince as many as seven facets which are maximum so far seen. Generally, the doorframes are of the catussakha variety; previously such doorframes are noticed only in the two central devakulikās of the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia. The stambhafakha at some places is moulded and chamfered like a diaper work. Sometimes the projecting kiritimukhas on the doorsill are replaced by projecting niches containing diamonds; this is an individual characteristic of this temple. The ceilings of the corridor are ornate and varied. Except for the ceilings in front of Devakulikas 3 and 52, no two ceilings are identical. They show a large number of composite ceilings. The sabhapadmamandāraka ceilings are found even in the smaller bays. Apart from the samautks ipta and kşiptotksipla forms of the mandāraka ceilings in the rangamandapa porticoes, here occur samaksipla and samatala forms of the mandaraka ceilings as well. The badmaka and padmamandaraka ceilings in the samautksipta and ksiptotksipta forms are also seen. The nabhicchanda ceilings consist of small limas. The figural and floral devices are given almost equal importance in the decoration of the ceilings. Many varieties in the lotus flower are seen. The ribs of the gajatalu and kola become thinner now. The gajatalus at times show entwined Nāgas; this embellishment is noticed in this temple only. Two samatala ceilings also depict figures in boxes; this is the last Jaina temple to bear this representation. In
The rangamandapa porticoes towards the devakuli- kās are supported by squat pilasters, a practice also seen in the early temples at Kumbharia. The pillars of the porticoes are taller and provided with

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the narratives the pañcakalyanakas are only briefly secondly, the buffer wall consists of the frontal karna shown (Fig. 17); instead, some auspicious events and pratiratha of the sanctum and the rear karņa such as war between Bharata and Bahubali, of the gadhamandapa, so that it has become unplea. Nșsimhāvatāra of Vişnu (Fig. 21), Kaliyadamana santly long. The pitha is shorter in comparision scene, etc., are predominantly shown. Except for to the high wall, as it lacks the complete the scene depicting the fight between Bharata set of mouldings. The vedibandha carries all and Bāhubali in one of the front bays of the ranga- the seven mouldings of the Adinātha temple at mandapa, the legends below the narratives go out of Shatrunjaya, but is more ornate than that in vogue. The Vidyādevis in a set of sixteen also the latter. Being a two-storeyed building occur in the corridor ceilings. Besides four and the wall consists of two janghäs, the lower six-armed images, here are found eight, ten (ranga being higher than the upper one. The lower mandapa), sixteen and twenty-armed images jargha carries the usual four-armed dikpala images (Fig. 18), the last being the maximum in the Jaina in their correct position on the karmas and the temples of Gujarat. Though the images are rich figures of Apsarās on the salilantaras and konikās, in iconography, they are weak in sculptural quality. but it shows eight-armed dancing goddesses on the Their angular modelling, excess jewellery and other buttresses. The lower jangha is supported by slender form almost give a petrified effect (Figs. a narapatika, which is very rare on this part of 18-21).
the wall. Unlike the lower janghā, the upper one The elephants of
has a mancika support and carries large, elongated, the hastitala are stocky and wear very little jewellery.
carved half diamonds on the side planes and hollo
wed out similar but full diamonds on the konikās, The Adinātha temple at Shatrunjaya is a grand salilāntaras and nandikās. Similar half diamonds edifice with a tryaniga sanctum and a gūdhamandapa. may also be seen in the Neminätha temple at It shows all the characteristics of the developed Kumbharia and the Adinātha temple at Shatruntemples. The jad yakumbha of its pitha is decora- jaya, but the representation of full diamonds is a ted with lotus leaves (Fig. 70), an ornament also special characteristic of this temple. The square found on this member in the Jaina temple at fluted bharani above the jangha lacks in relief and Sejakpur. The vedibandha consists of seven courses, is unpleasant. The eave-cornice also consists of the additional moulding being the ratnapattika two varandikās, each comprising a kapota, a fillet above the mancika (Fig. 68). The bhadra-niches carved with lotus scrolls, and a ribbed awning. are enclosed by a balustrade, a feature hitherto un- What is noteworthy here is that it consists of only known. The salilantaras of the jangha bear figures cne kapota instead of the usual two. A remarkable of ascetics besides those of the Apsarās. Above feature of the eave-cornice is that it carries on its the jarghā occurs a square bharani unlike the usual extrados the images of Vidyādharas carved in the round one. The gadhamandapa doorframe is of the round. Like the two janghās, the bhadra above the saptašākha variety; this is maximum in the Jaina pitha also carries two balconies, each consisting of temples of Gujarat.
four traditional component parts (rajasenaka, vedikā, The devakulikās (Fig. 58) in the Neminätha
āsanapatta and kaksā sana), except that the longer
lower balcony has in addition a broad fillet adortemple at Girnar are severely plain. They are of
ned with rosette-marked diamonds. But these no interest, except that their number has increased
balconies excel all those seen in the earlier temples to seventy-two, which is the maximum in the entire
in showing sculptures of gods and goddesses, musiJaina series.
cians and dancers, mithuna scenes, etc. From the The Ajitanatha temple at Taranga (Fig. 72) is architectural point of view the lower balcony is the loftiest Jaina temple of our period. It is a sān- very wide, and while the stone grilles that shut dhāra-prasada consisting of only a sanctum, a gūdha- them are beautifully carved, they allow very diffumandapa and a mukhamandapa. The plan of its catu- sed light to pass into the inner ambulatory. Tanga sanctum reveals two unusual features ; firstly. The fikhara (Fig. 72) is elegant and reaches its the koņikās gradually diminish in the pitha; maturity. Besides frrigas and urahirigas it shows

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Faina Temples of Western India
pratyangas, tilakas and balcony models. The rekha the large dome its padmašila and sixteen lūmās are of the mālamasjari is divided into eleven stages of smaller in size. The sixteen bracket figures of bhimi-āmalakas. The rathikäs contain images of Apsarās are not as loaded with ornaments as we eight-armed standing goddesses and are crowned notice them on the wall sculptures and hence look by triple udgama. The caitya-arches forming the handsome. One course of the dome represents lattice ornament of the fikhara are fine but minute. chequer pattern, which is quite rare, The Sikhara is also characterised by some individual features. Firstly, the recesses between the brigas The mukhamandapa consists of only six bays, are filled with sculptures of goddesses and amorous
This is surprising if we observe the grand scheme couples rather than the gajamundas. Secondly, of plan of the other two compartinents. It shares the skandha supports the sculptures of Jaina Munis its pipha with the sanctum and gādhamandapa carved in the round. Thirdly, the bigger frigas
without any innovation, a feature hitherto absent. are but the replica in some total of the whole
The pillars (Fig. 73) and architraves are exactly sikhara. Fourthly, it has a Sukanāsä lodged over
similar to those seen in the gūdhamandapa. In the the buffer wall.
ceilings, belonging to the samatala and sabhamanda
raka (Fig. 80) varieties, the figural representations Like the Neminātha temple at Girnar, its calura
are minimised and the floral designs predominate. niga gūdhamand apa is diagonally articulated to the sanctum (Text Fig. 7 on page 159). Its wall not The Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar is a full-fleonly repeats the mouldings and the decorative dged Jaina temple consisting of a sanctum, a gādhascheme of the sanctum but also continues the mandapa, a mukhamandapa, a rangamandapa, a nalamabottom row of frigas above which comes the ndapa, and a range of forty-eight devakulikās surrosamvaraņā roof. The samparaņā (Fig. 77) is composed unding the whole complex. The pitha of its tryanga of bells only, which are tantalizingly small for its sanctum (Fig. 83) is a developed one, as it displays size. The bells in the cardinal directions, i.e. three bhiffas and all those mouldings we find in the four ridges, gradually become larger at their as. Neminātha temple at Kumbharia, Only that here cent; such a progression in the size of bells is, as the grāsapatti is underlined with carved leaves rightly suggested by Dhaky, far from satisfactory and the narathara is replaced by a ratnapattika. from the aesthetic point of view. The pillars of
The vedibandha shows six popular mouldings
which resemble those seen in the Jaina temple at its lateral entrance porches as well as those in the interior are all of the octagonal type and carry very
Sejakpur. The Sikhara (Fig. 84) reveals all the little ornamentation. They are, in fact, too tall
subsidiary turrets indicative of this phase. There to look nice, especially those that support the
is nothing remarkable in the gūdhamandapa. The dome. The architraves are divided into three
mukhamandapa consists of only three bays. Its fasciae of ornamental bands, unlike the usual two,
pillars are ornate and belong to the octagonal but this is rare. The big lotuses that adorn the
type; they bear a goose-band which is very common ceilings are frequently shown, but their form has
in the temples of this phase. The rarigamandapa, become stereotyped. The saptafakha door frames of
which has been very attractive in the earlier temthe lateral porches do not depict Sarvänubhūti
ples, is of little interest. The devakulikäs are more and Ambikä on the doorsill but some other Yakşa
evolved, as they have ornate walls and are crowned and Yakşi, and their lintel is canopied by a cornice
by Sikharas (Fig. 82). A remarkable feature of the
devakulikas is that in the back row they are approwhich becomes a common characteristic of the later temples. The eastern doorframe of the
ached from the court by three stairways and are güdhamand apa also possesses a hansafakha, a jamb
screened, like many earlier temples, by a double
arcade of pillars. Another thing worth noticing noticed for the first time in this temple and shared
is that the lalata of the doorframes depicts diamond by the later temples. The dome (Fig. 81) of the
rather than the Jina figure. gadhamandapa is of the developed class, as it contains three courses of gajatalus and its kolas are The Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra is also arranged in coradial regression, but compared to an evolved Jaina temple. The arrangement of its

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229
plan is much like the Vimalavasahi and the Lūņa- shrine models, saw-tooth pattern, half-blown lotus vasahi at Abu, but the construction of an ornate flowers, flutings, kirttimukhas spewing jewelled porch is its own characteristic. The wall (Fig. 87) festoons, ardhapadma, leaves, Maladharas, and of its tryanga sanctum and güdhamaydapa carries minor mouldings of kumbha, kalaba and karnika. all the ornate mouldings and a sculptured jangha The trifakha western doorframe also resembles a which the developed temples of this phase possess. diaper work, as its jambs are rounded off by
The pillars (Text Fig. 9 on page 172) of the gūdha- vertical flutings. A peculiar feature of the door mand apa are very ornate. The mukhamandapa is is that its lintel represents miniature Sikharas and divided into nine bays; its octagonal pillars are balcony models. The moonstone is an ornate one, ornate and show two new decorative bands, one as the ardhacandra is incised with scallop pattern. consisting of saw-tooth pattern and the other, that of caitya-arch, both being frequently represented on Divided into nine bays the mukhamandapa is the pillars of the most developed temple, Lūnava. second to none in the treatment of the pillars, sahi at Abu. The pillars of the rangamandapa are pilasters, ceilings and the two khattakas (Fig. 91). of the octagonal type and carry very little orname. The six kaksāsana pillars are as ornate as those ntations. Fifty two in number the devakulikas (see found in the lateral porches of the gudhamandapa, Fig. 86), partly built of baked bricks and partly of but they cannot compete the four octagonal pillars white marble, show symmetry in having one arcade in the central bay, as they are more elaborate in resof pillars all around. The use of moulded bricks on pect of the figure sculptures, specially eight female the exterior wall is remarkable. Like those in the dancers occurring on the base of the shaft. An imJaina temple at Bhadreshwar, all the devakulikās here portant feature of these as well as many other also are crowned by Sikharas. An interesting pillars in this temple is that their angles are feature of the devakulikās is that they do not have deeply chamfered, so that they look almost circuthe partition walls.
lar. The three-faceted pilasters bear very little Little is known about the architecture of the ornamentation, but their facets are so chamfered Pārsvanatha temple at Ghumli.
as to give a diagonal effect. The two khattakas are
most gorgeous and appear as if moulded out of The style of Jaina temples reached its maturity
wax. The nine ceilings depicting nabhicchanda, in the Lūņavasahi at Abu, which is the most
mandāraka (Fig. 94) and sabhämärga elements, or splendid achievement of our period and a rare
the composit forms of the sabhāmandāraka, sabhacreation of human mind. The tryaniga sanctum and badmamandāraka and padmamandāraka (Fig. 97), are the doyanga gädhamandapa, with a plain wall and
matchless in beauty. There are two types of the a phasana roof, require no comment, but the nābhicchanda ceiling. In one variety the lamās are lateral porches (Fig. 89) and the western door bigger in size, resemble the serrated diamonds, and (Fig. 92) of the güdhamanda pa are very interesting. are arranged in diagonal order (Fig. 90). Similar The porches have an exquisitely carved pitha; they disposition of the limãs with sufficient depth may are enclosed by an ornate balustrade which is be seen in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia (Fig. treated like a half-blown lotus flower, a feature 29) and the Vimalavasahi at Abu (Fig. 9), but here not known earlier but, at the same time, the depth has been minimised in order to dispose present in the contemporary Dhaboi gate. the lümās almost in a samatala plane, which is so way. Both these members are also extend- characteristic of the nabhicchanda ceiling in this ed into the mukhamaņdapa and are unparallel temple. In the other variety smaller limās are in beauty. The highly ornamented kaksāsana arranged in a grid, and being projected and deprespillars and pilasters show novelty in their form and sed alternately they produce a rhythmic effect of ornamentation. Unlike the figural decorations in light and shade. The arrangement of limās in a the earlier temples, the columns here predominan- grid is also noticed in the corridor ceilings of the tly show floral and geometrical patterns and are Vimalayasahi at Abu, but being disposed in one finished off like a diaper work. The ornaments of plane they cannot match these ceilings. In the the shaft of these columns consist of miniature domical ceilings belonging to the sabhāmārga, sa

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23C
Faina Temples of Western India bhāmandāraka and sabhapadmamandaraka varieties the continued here in two corners, but the other two floral and vegetal designs predominate. The lotus are occupied by lūmas which are very commonly petal-and-bud pattern, which frequently occurs in represented in this temple. both the cyma recta and cyma reverse forms (Fig. In contrast to the highly ornate nave pillars, 100), is most tastefully represented. Indeed, the the pillars of the porticoes attached to the rangampetals are so minutely carved that their veins are andaba carry very little ornamentation, but there also visible. Besides, they are stencilled and show is no difference in the ornamentation of the uccalsufficient depth cast by deep shadows between the akas. The front side of the porticoes is shaded by petals and stalks. The buds issuing from stalks a double-curved eave-cornice of unpretended aro now blossomed. The flower buds in the centre beauty. Its intrados is decorated with lotus petalof the kolas and the lāmās are also blossomed. The and-bud device, which is so minutely carved that ribs of kolas and gajatalus are treated like lotus it resembles an ivory work. All the ceilings of the stem. The campaka flowers are also used in the orna- Porticoes are testefully carved, but they cannot mentation of the ceilings. The lotuses in the ardha- compete those found in the mukhamandapa. Howepadma pattern are also shown with stalks. The ver, some of the best mandāraka forms (Fig. 99) are padmamandāraka eeiling reveals two unusual fea- available here. Some of the samatala ceilings are tures, viz. the lāmās are large in number, and the wholly alloted to the campaka flowers. This apppadmašila in some cases is a square one.
arently indicates the popularity of floral design in
this temple. In the small domical ceilings also Compared to the squar nave of the Vimala- the circular lambanas make their appearence. vasahi at this place, the same in the present temple Besides lotus petal-and-bud device, the padma cou. is elevated by disposing taller pillars (Fig. 93), rse is also decorated with flamboyant pattern. In which are much like the mukhamandapo and the all these ceilings the floral designs such as lotus porch pillars. The platform on which the pillars Detal-and-bud, ardhapadma, lotus scrolls and campastand shows, unlike the Vimalavasahi, representa- ka flowers no doubt predominate, but the figural tion of diamonds on the sides. Besides the
forms consisting of geese and kirttimukhas are not cusp-tilaka type of torama-arches, it has two more of secon
of secondary importance. varieties, namely the whorl type and the wave type. The architraves supporting the dome Forty-eight in number the devakulikās near the over the pillars is adorned with a strip of minute lateral porches of the güdhamandapa are recessed diamonds. Composed of ten heavily ornamented back, so that there is found only one arcade of pillars circular courses and an ornate padmašila the domi. (Text Fig. 3 on page 79). This is quite a novel cal ceiling (Figs. 95-96) is a work of sculpture feature in the arrangement of the devakulikās. The rather than architecture. The kolas consist of nine pillars and pilasters carry very little ornamentatiwhorls which are maximum so far seen. The ons, but those near the main entrance are highly twenty-four projecting lämās are most tastefully ornamental and resemble on aesthetic plane those rendered. The iconography of the sixteen Vidyadh- found in the lateral porches of the güdhamandapa. aras (Fig. 98) supporting sixteen Vidyadevis is most The doorframes are simple and lack in variety. developed, as all of them are possessing six arms. The ceilings are well carved. They show some new All these sculptures are superb in execution and varieties in the nābhicchanda order. Besides the are given almost a metallic finish. The padmašila quatrefoil lūmās seen in grid in the mukhamandapa is built on the principle of coradial regression and and the rangamandapa porticoes, here are found sees its apogee. Made of one solid block its petals circular, six-foil and eight-foil lämäs of various are so thin and translucent that they immediately sizes and arranged in differnt settings. The corricatch the eyes of the onlookers. The visitors also dor possesses maximum ceilings of the näbhicchanda do not move on without utterring a word of veriety. So many varieties in the nabhicchanda appreciation. The convention of depicting multi-order are found neither earlier nor later. The armed gods at the basal corners of the dome ispadmaka and mandaraka ceilings do not show any

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Comparative and Evolutionary study
novelty. The ceilings made by cutting off the corners are also seen, but unlike the plain earlier ones, these are very ornamental. The lotus scrolls serve here not merely as a decorative motif, but the ceiling in Devakulika 14A is wholly alloted to this ornament. One of the handsomest ceilings of the padmamandaraka variety is also seen in the corridor in Devakulika 46B. The balcony models, wherever present, are very ornate. Among the ornamentations the floral, vegetal and geometrical patterns predominate. The kolas are seen in various complicated settings such as stepped diamonds, triangles with indented points, quadrate type of Crosses, etc. Some ceilings show rectangular plaques in grid. This type of ceilings is found in this temple only.
In the narratives occurring on the ceilings of the corridor and the porticoes of the rangamandapa, the pañcakalyaṇakas go out of yogue; instead, the auspicious events such as Renunciation of Neminatha (Fig. 102), Samavasaraṇa scene, Birth of Kṛṣṇa (Fig. 101), Kṛṣṇa in Gokula, etc., are given importance. In the scenes the accessory figures are quite large in number and look tiny. This makes the scenes not only complicated but also unpleasant. In no case the legend is engraved. In the arrangement of the narratives also some change is noticed. Earlier they have been arranged in concentric circular bands or rectangular panel borders disposed one within the other, but here they are often shown in parallel rectangular panels. Although the continuity of the panels are broken off, they are convenient to look at.
The tradition of making large-sized images of goddesses as seen in the corridor ceilings of the Vimalavasahi at Abu is continued, but here they have only two, four, six or eight arms (Fig. 104). This is the last Jaina temple to depict multi-armed images. In sculptural quality, however, they show some advancement, for the sculptures are given almost a metallic finish. Sometimes the images are provided with landscape, a feature not found earlier.
The hastitala is carefully worked out. The grilles of the screen wall are of the finest variety (Fig. 105). The elephants (Fig. 103) are most powerful and heavily loaded with ornaments. They are well modelled and bear a lustrous

polish. The hastifala possesses the largest number of portrait sculptures.
231
The Vastupalavihāra at Girnar is also a magnificent temple of this period. While the Lunavasahi was built by Tejapäla, this temple was erected by his elder brother Vastupala. It is a triple shrine with well-arranged plan, but the architects, as has rightly been pointed out by Percy Brown, have failed to produce an appearance of height, so that the general effect of the elevation is low and flattened (Figs. 53 and 109). However, the wall and sikhara of the eastern shrine are well proportioned and have no little
architectural merit. The three shrines have an ornate exterior and interior, all now covered with lime. But wherever they are exposed, they show features of the developed and ornate temples. This can be very clearly observed in the diamondband of the pitha, in the ornamented kumbha and kalafa of the vedibandha, in the balustraded wall of the bhadra-niches, in the triple varandika of the mandovara, in the subsidiary turrets and the accentuation of the fikhara, in the schematised lotus medallions of the ceilings, and in the hamsasakha and the corniced lintel of the catuffakha doorframe, with this exception that the pillars and the balustraded walls are tantalizingly plain.
The remaining three temples mark a decline in the Jaina temple-architecture. This was due most probably to the fact that after Bhima II the power and prestige of the country only declined, and at last it passed into the hands of the Muslims. The country was now constantly engaged in war with different powers, and consequently its economic resources were utilised in the defence of the country rather than in the philanthropic activity. The royal patronage to Jainism was also lost. Under these circumstance naturally there were erected small and simple temples. This is clearly reflected from the following features of these temples:
1.
2.
3.
They are devoid of devakulikäs.
The pillars are simple and plain.
The caitya-arches forming the lattice ornament of the Sikhara become very minute and complicated.

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Jaina Temples of Western India
4. The ceilings lack in varieties and ornamenta- The rathikās as well as the flanking niches contain
tions. The ribs of the gajatālu are shorter and diamonds rather than the images of goddesses. The widely spaced.
caitya-arches forming the lattice ornament of the 5. The sculptures become slender and lifeless. Sikhara are carved in very shallow relief. T
frame of the sanctum is no doubt ornate, but the The Sambhavanatha temple at Kumbharia is a stambhafakha being treated as pillar-shaft looks unsmall temple comprising only a sanctum, a gūdha- pleasant (Fig. 115). The sculptures of the jambs mandapa and a raigamandapa, the whole being surrou- are also very ugly. The trifakha doorframe of the nded by a prākāra. Although it has some features gadhamaydapa (Fig. 114) is more ornate than that in common with the Lünavasahi at Abu, its simple noticed in the sanctum but depicts Sarvänubhüti plan and elevation, and the little ornamentation and Ambika in the reverse order on the doorsill. noticed here and there mark a definite decline in the The doorframe carries a band of bead-and-real style of the temple-architecture. Its tryaniga sanctum motif, which is a rare representation in the Jaina and duyariga gadhamandapa have a simple and plain temples of Gujarat The domical ceiling (Fig. 116) wall, and lack even the koņikās between the angas of the gūdhamandapa is undoubtedly perfect and and the bharani above the jangha (Fig. 111), which well-carved, but the ribs of the gajatalus being are so conspicuous in the earlier temples. The Sikhara shorter and widely spaced are not good looking. The (Fig. 110) of the sanctum carrying two rows of architraves supporting the dome show saw-tooth frigas and urahisigas and minor turrets like pratya. pattern, which is a popular motif of this period. rigas, tilakas and balcony models is perfect, but the The mukhamandapa and the rangamanda pa, which minute and complicated caitya-arches forming its have always been the hub of the main artistic lattice ornament look quite unpleasant. All the activity, possess plain square pillars and ceilings pillars are simple and belong to the octagonal and are unattractive. The mukhamanda pa has only type and the ceilings are domical and plain three bays, and the khattakas, which are an essenHowever, the trišākha (Fig. 112) northern doorf- tial part of this mandapa, are conspicuous by rame of the gūdhamandapa and the pilasters flanking their absence. it and those in the lateral porches are tastefully carved and are by no means inferior to those seen in The Mahāvira temple at Kanthkot is the last the earlier temples. The temple is also characterised Jaina temple of the present survey. It consists by two individual features: (1) the inner wall of of only three compartments, viz. sanctum, gidhathe güdhamandapa contains many small sculptured mandapa and raigamandapa. Unlike the two pre. niches; (ii) the rangamandapa shares its pitha with ceding temples of this phase, the Iryanga sanctum the sanctum and gūdhamandapa and hence rests (Figs. 117-18) and gudhamandapa of this temple on the same floor level as do the other compart- carry all the essential elements of plan and ele. ments, although it is usually disposed on a lower
vation which a developed and ornate Jaina temple floor level
possesses. Its ceilings (Fig. 119) and saptašākha
doorframe too are elaborately carved. But the The Jaina temple at Miani (Fig. 113) shows five features enumerated obove only let the style
in the style and is erected in a very go far off. In addition to these, there are some haphazard manner. The tryanga sanctum and other features which are also indicative of the gūdhamandapa here too do not have the konikās, and same fact. The first and foremost among these is their angas display only slight projections. The that the kalata of the vedibandha is over-burdened pitha is very low and contains torus instead of the with beaded garland-and-rosette design. This usual karpikā. The mandovara is quite plain; its becomes a dominant feature of this member in the bhadra-niches are small and are crowned by very temples of the subsequent centuries. Secondly, the short udgamas. The Sikhara is squat and heavy. varandika consists of only two members. Thirdly. The rathikas at the base of the Sikhara are flanked the shaft of the pillars, which are all of the plain by small niches instead of the usual balcony models. square type, lacks even the sixteen-sided section.
Jain Education Interational

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Comparative and Evolutionary Study
233
References 1. Dhaky, M.A., "Some Early Jaina Temples
in Western India," Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, pt. I, pp. 290
347. 2. Krishna Deva, "Māla Devi Temple at
Gyraspur,” Ibid., pp. 260-69. Krishna Deva, "The Temples of Khajuraho in Central India," Ancient India, No. 15,
pp. 43-65. 4. Klaus Fischer, Caves and Temples of the Jainas,
Aliganj, 1955, pp. 20-26. 5. JPI, vol II, p. 11. 6. Dhaky, M.A., The Chronology of the Solanki
Temples of Gujarat, p. 37.
4.
See also, Dhaky, M.A., "Kiradu and the Maru-Gurjara Style of Temple Architecture," Bulletin of the American Academy of Benares, vol. I, Varanasi, 1967, pp. 35-45; Dhaky, M.A., "The Genesis and Development of Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture," Studies in Indian Temple Architecture, Varanasi, 1975, pp. 114-65. Dhaky, M.A., The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat, p. 60. Ibid., p. 59. Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), pp. 164-65.
7.
8. 9.

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CONCLUSION
In the foregoing pages I have made as far as I can a detailed survey of the Jaina temples of Western India and traced their evolution. Here I intend to say something by way of sequel.
All the Jaina temples of our region during the period under review were built in the Solanki period. During this period Gujarat became a strong political unit of Western India and acquired the maximum size. Economically, the country
was rich and the merchant Jaina community largely contributed to its economic growth. The Jainas also were very influential both at the court and in the public. A great many people were Jaina. The Svetambara Jainism had acquired the status of state religion. It also found keen royal patrons
in the Solankis. The influence of Digambara Jainism was negligible in this part of the country, as all the Jaina temples built during the period belong to the Svetämbara sect. Under these circumstances, therefore, there were erected numerous and magnificent Svetambara temples, all belonging to a cognate and concerted style, differing only in matter of details. Some of these such as those standing at Abu are so splendid that they are counted among the wonders of the architectural and sculptural fields.
Fergusson has discussed the Jaina edifices under such heading as the "Jaina Architecture."1 But this type of sectarian nomenclature is not correct. Stylistically, the Jaina temples of Gujarat show a regional development of the Northern Indian temple architecture. From the present survey it is fairly clear that the plan and elevation and the decorative scheme of the main complex of the Jaina temples, viz. sanctum and closed hall, are not different from the contemporary Brahmanical temples of the same region, which are also a regional variation of the same development. It is only the mukhamandapa and the surrounding devakulikās that distinguish the Jaina temples from the Brähmanical temples. Although these compartments are exclusively found in the Jaina temples, they do not change the style of the architecture but rather

fulfil the Jaina needs. The importance of the mukhamandapa lies in that the architect has given due respect to at least two other Tirthankaras whose images have been installed in the two khattakas, especially built for this very purpose. This open and highly ornamented mandapa, located in front of the gudhamandapa whence the gloomy interior part of the temple starts, has attracted much attention of the artists. Indeed, most of the beautiful pillars
and ceilings are put up here. Similarly, with the construction of devakulikäs, the images of many other Tirthankaras also have been installed in one and the same temple. Besides, being confronted with a cloistered corridor the devakulikäs provide a covered the architect not only fulfilled a religious need but ambulatory round the temple. By this scheme also found ample space for carving. Indeed, it is the corridor which displays the maximum varieties of ceilings in the temples at Abu.
Architectonically, the Jaina temples of Gujarat are weak in construction. Consequently, they are generally shorn of their fikharas, and their pillared mandapas have collapsed. This is because the various compartments are not as compact and integrated as those found in the temples of Khajuraho in Central India. Another reason of their being weak is that the Sutradhara of the period was more a sculptor than an architect. Besides, the mandapas are roofed by large-sized domes which are too heavy to be borne by the walls and pillars.
It is said that the Jainas have fancy for white marble. This may be true in case of the Jina images installed in the temples. But in the construction of temples what building material was locally or easily available had been used. This is why the temples near about Candravati only are made of white marble, for this material is found in plenty in the mines at Candravati, Ārāsaṇa, etc.
The images of the Jaina temples are very rich for iconographic study, but they greatly lack in sculptural quality. The decline in execution is

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Conclusion
235
the result of the angular modelling from which the in their delineation and spared no pains in making sculptures of Western India have suffered more them handsome and intelligible. Like the than those in other parts of the country. It appe- ceilings the pillars also are varied and ornate ars that after the Classical flavour had gone, the and have considerably enhanced the beauty of "medieval" trend dominated the scene. In such the interior. Reference may be made here about an environment the artist found little scope to the square pillars disposed in the rangamandapa and delineate his genius, rather he just executed them the mukhamand apa of the temples at Kumbharia and as an object of worship or an embellishment of Abu. From the wealth of carvings, however, one the temple. This is clearly reflected in the port- must not suppose that all this work is overought, rait sculptures of the Jaina temples at Abu. Altho- "but it is rather one of those cases where exubeugh the portrait sculptures are very ugly in rence is beauty." appearence, they provide us valuable information about the dress and ornaments worn by the people
Compared to those in Northern Gujarat, the of those days.
Jaina temples in other parts of the region are less
ornate. It appears that the guilds working in this The Jaina temples show a great many varieties
area, that is the region around Candravati, which in the pillars and ceilings. In fact, it were the
was the capital city of the Paramāras, were more ceilings for which the Jaina temples of Gujarat
competent in building activity. Another possible are justly famous. Such ornate and beautiful
cause of their being ornate may be the building ceilings were built neither earlier nor later, not
material, namely white marble, which is more only in Gujarat but also in the other parts of the
tractable for chiselling and which has been abundcountry. The domical ceilings of the güdhamaydapa
antly used in the temples of this region. and the rangamandapa, particularly the one located in the latter compartment, are splendid. At the very The Jaina temples of Gujarat largely contribute first sight it amazes the onlooker and fixes his eyes to the temple architecture of Western India in in admiration. So far as the näbhicchanda, mandā- particular and Indian temple architecture in generaka, padmaka and Sabhämärga, or their mixed
ral. Of course, the study of the Indian temple varieties, are concerned, the Jaina temples show
architecture would be incomplete without referring as many varieties of these ceilings as to be hardly
to the Jaina temples of Gujarat. These Jaina temnoticed in the Brahmanical temples of Gujarat or ples glorify not only Gujarat but the country as a in any other temples of the country. While whole with such wonderful temples as those standspeaking of ceilings, it is necessary to make men
ing at Abu, Kumbharia, Taranga, Girnar, etc., tion of the samatala (flat) ceilings. These are and bespeak of the grandeur of the Jainas and relieved with various narratives selected from
Jainism.
Jain Jaina mythology. At some places they bear representation of the vegetal world, while at the
References other they depict figures in boxes. These ceilings
1. Fergusson, J., History of Indian and Eastern are exclusively found in the Jaina temples of Architecture, vol. II, Book V. Kumbharia and Abu and are a lithic version of 2. Coomarswamy, A. K., History of Indian and the Jaina paintings of Western India. Indeed, Indonesian Art, reprint, New York, 1965, the artist appears to have taken special interest p. 112.

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Page #254

GLOSSARY
abhayamudra : A hand-pose granting fearlessness, with hand raised, palm forward, and fingures
upward. Ācārya : A religious preceptor. adhisthāna : The basement of the sanctum or mandapa. aksamala : A rosary. amalaka : A crowning member of the spire consisting of a cogged disc. amralumbi : The bunch of mango tree. anga : A buttress. anga-Sikhara : The subsidiary Sikhara. añjalimudra : A gesture of worship in which the palms join each other near the chest. arkuša: A goad. antarabhitti : The inner wall. antarala : A vestibule. antarapatra : A moulding consisting of recessed fillet. Apsara : A heavenly damsel. Arādhaka : A worshipper. ardhacandra: A crescent-shaped motif in the moonstone. ardhapadma : An ornamental motif consisting of half lotus flower, often set up in lunette bordered
by beads. asanapatta : A seat slab. aştamangalaka : The eight auspicious Jaina symbols, viz. svastika (swastika), Srivatsa (a diamond like
sign), nandyāvarta (a variant of swastika), vardhamānaka (powder flask), bhadrâsana (throne),
kalaša (a full-vase), dar pana (mirror), and matsya (fish). Aastăpada : A mountain where Adinātha is said to have attained his Nirvana and where his son
Bharata erected a temple with the images of 24 Jinas. In art it is represented as a fourfaced solid structure; it is square on plan, rises in four or five tiers of diminishing width,
and is surmounted by a quadruple of Jina. Aştāpadaprāsāda : A four-faced shrine containing an Aştāpada. Asura : A demon. ati-bhanga : A multi-flexed body. ayagapatta : A decorative stone slab. bahyas ākha : The outermost moulding of a doorframe. bakula : Mimusops elengi. bakulamālā : A string of bakula flowers, often used in the decoration of a moulding of the doorframe. balānaka : A hall at the entrance of the temple. Bāvanadhvaja Jinälaya : A Jaina temple surrounded by a row of 52 devakulikās adorned with 52
flagstaves. bhadra : The central buttress or projection of a temple wall. bhadrâsana: A throne. bharani : A pillar-capital consisting of an arris and a cyma recta; also used as a moulding of the
wall above the udgama, but here it is clasped by drooping foliage. bhavāntara : The previous life scenes of a Tirthankara. bhitta : A plinth; the lowermost moulding of the pitha.

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bhogamaņdapa: The refectory hall in Orissan temples. bhāmi-amalaka : A small amalaka-shaped member placed at regular intervals on the corners of the
fikhara, demarcating the several bhūmis (storeys). bhimispartamudra : A hand-pose touching the earth. bijapāraka : A citron. caitya: A sanctuary. caitya-arch: An arched ornamental motif with cavity in the centre, sometimes filled with diamonds. caitya-gaväksa : Same as caitya-arch, cakra : A disc. campaka : Michelia champaca. candrašila : A moonstone in front of the doorway, resembling a festoon. candrika : An inverted flat bowl. caturanga: A wall surface endowed with four angas (projections), viz. bhadra, nandika, pratiratha
and karpa. caturmukha : A four-faced temple. caturvidhasamgha : The four-fold division of the Jaina samgha (congregation) consisting of monk, nun,
layman and laywoman. Caturvimsati Jinālaya: A Jaina temple surrounded by a row of 24 devakulikās. catutsakha: A doorframe consisting of four mouldings. Caumukha : A four-faced image or shrine. cauri : A fly-whisk. chacoki : An open hall (mukhamandapa) containing six bays. chadyaki : A minor inverted cyma recta. chajjikā : Same as chädyaki. chatra : A parasol. cippika : A minor inverted cyma recta. colapatta: A garment worn by the Svetämbara Jaina monks. coli ; A bodice. covisi : A decorative panel containing images of 24 Jinas, damarü : A small double-headed drum. danda : A staff; a long stick carried by Jaina monks while walking. dar paņa: A mirror. Dasyu : A demon. devakulikās : A row of shrine cells around the Jaina temple. dhatira : Datura alba. dhoti : The lower garment consisting of a piece of cloth wrapped round the legs. dhvaja : A staff. dhvajadhara : The dhvaja-bearer. dhvaja pataka: A flag-staff. dvi-bhanga : A posture in which the body is flexed twice. dhyānamudra : A gesture of meditation in which the hands are held in the lap, one above the other,
with the palms turned upward. Dik-Kumāri : A maiden of the quarter, dikpala : A regent of either of the eight directions. Dvārapāla: A door guardian. dvichadya : A two-tiered awning like hood member. dvišakha : A doorframe consisting of two mouldings. duyanga: A wall surface endowed with two arigas (projections), viz. bhadra and karna.

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gagāraka : An ornamental motif on either end of the ardhacandra of the moonstone. gajamunda : The fore part of an elephant; the elephant trunk. gajatalu: Literally, elephant's palate; in architecture, a coffered course in a ceiling decorated with
rafters. gajathara : A moulding of the pitha decorated with figures of elephants. gana: A grotesque, dwarfed figure. Ganadhara : The chief disciple of a Jina. Gandharva : A heavenly musician. garbhagyha: The sanctum sanctorum. ghantā : Literally, a bell; in architecture, the member used in the decoration of the samvaraņā roof,
often consisting of an inverted bowl, an amalaka, a kalafa and a bijapi aka. ghatapallava : An ornamental motif consisting of a pot with overflowing foliage, often used as a
capital of the doorjambs. grasamukha : Same as kirttimukha grāsapatti: A moulding of the pitha decorated with figures of kirttimukhas. griva : Literally, neck; in architecture, the member, circular in section, intervening between the
skandha and the amalaka of the Sikhara. gūdhamandapa: The closed hall in front of the sanctum. hamsafakha: A moulding of the doorframe decorated with figures of geese. hartisala: A hall containing the effigies of elephants carrying the figures of royal dignitaries,
generally the temple-builder and his relatives, indramaydapa: Probably the rangamanda pa where figures of Indra are portrayed dancing or
otherwise. jadyakumbha : A moulding of the pitha consisting of an inverted cyma recta. jagamohana : The porch hall in front of the sanctum of the Orissa n temples, covered with a
Pyramidal roof. jagati: A terrace or platform. jangha : Literally, thigh; in architecture, the wall proper between the vedibandha and the varandika. jațāmukuta : A headdress consisting of locks of hair. jñānamudra : A hand-pose in which the tips of the middle finger and the thumb are joined together
and held near the heart, with palm of the hand turned towards the heart. kaksāsana : A sloping seat-back, kalata : Literally, a pitcher; in architecture, it is applied to the torus moulding of the vedibandha. kalpalata : The wishing creeper. kalyanaka : See pañcakalyānaka. kamalodbhava: A composite ceiling consisting of padmaka and mandaraka elements. kapāla: A bowl made out of a human skull. kapota : Literally, a pigeon; in architecture, a composite cornice moulding consisting of a cyma
recta and an inverted cyma recta, often decorated with caitya-arches. karand amukuta : A conical crown with bulging, horizontal sections, resembling a basket. karya : The corner buttress of a temple wall. karşadardarika: A moulding of the ceiling consisting of cyma reverse with arris. karparatha : Same as karya. karyikā : An arris. kațisätra : An ornament consisting of a string or chain hanging between the legs. katyavalambita: A standing posture in which the hand is shown resting on the waiste. kayotsarga : A standing posture in which the body is held erect and the two hands hang at the sides,
Il till alla

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kevalajñāna : Omniscience. keyūra : An armlet. khattaka: A deep sculptured niche in the mukhamandapa. khura : The lowermost moulding of the vedibandha consisting of a plain horizontal band. kicaka : An atlantes bracket figure. Kinnara/Kinnari: A semi-divine being, half human and half bird. kiritamukuta : A tall, cylindrical crown. kirittimukha : A leonine head with bulging eyes and flat nose. kirttitorana: A free standing portal. kola : Literally, pig's tusk; in architecture, a cusped course in a ceiling decorated with rafters. konikā: A buttress half the size of nandikā and lying between the karna and praliratha. kşipta : A ceiling where the courses recede in. ksiptotksipta : A composite ceiling consisting of ksipta and utksipla elements, kucabandha : A breast-band. kukkuta : A cock. kumbha: A pot moulding above the khura of the vedibandha having perpendicular sides and curved
shoulder. kumuda : An astragal, kūta: A miniature shrine, square throughout. laksana: A distinctive mark. lalata : The central projecting part of the uttaranga. lalatabimba : The tutelary image on the uttaranga. lalitasana: A seated posture in which one leg is tucked on the seat, the other, with knee bent, resting
on the ground. lambana : A circular pendant. lanchana : A distinctive sign. latina: A type of Sikhara lacking the subsidiary Sikharas. läma: A decorative motif of the ceiling consisting of a pendant, or kola courses disposed, like a
nābhicchanda ceiling, in diminishing concentric rings; in the latter form it looks like a
depressed lūma. makara : An alligator or crocodile. makara-praņāla : A water spout projecting from the wall and shaped into a figure of makara. Maladhara : An angelic being carrying garland. mancika: A kapota type of moulding supporting the jargha. mandapa: A hall. mandāraka : Calotropis gigantea; in architecture, a ceiling consisting of padmašila. mandovara : The cubical portion of the temple wall. mätska : The Mother goddess. matulunga : A citron. Meru: A mountain shown, one above the other, in storeys, each having a four-faced Jina image. minayugala: A pair of fish. mithuna : An amorous couple or scene. mukhamandapa: A colonnaded vestibule between the gūdhamandapa and the rangamandapa; also called
trika or coki-mandapa. mukuli: A floral bud found in the centre of the kolas and the lāmās, and at the tip of the padma
kefara and the padmašila. malaghanta: The main bell atop the sandaraya roof,

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mālamaijari : The main Sikhara. malanäyaka : The main deity in the sanctum. malaprāsāda: Sanctum. nābhicchanda : Literally, concentric; in architecture, it is a ksipta ceiling consisting of kolas. nābhimandāraka : A composite ceiling consisting of nābhicchanda and mandāraka elements, Nāga: A snake. Nägapäsa: A serpentine noose. Nägina : A female serpent. nālamandapa: A hall built over the jagat i-stairway leading to the temple from the front. nandika : A buttress half the size of the pratiratha; it intervenes between the bhadra and the
pratiratha. nandipada: A taurine motif. Nandisvaradvipa : A stone plaque with 52 miniature shrines arranged in four groups of thirteen each. nandyāvarta: A variant of swastika. narapattika: A flat moulding decorated with human figures. narathara : Same as narapattikā. nastalţiiga : The corner section of a small fikhara whose edge (kona) and amalaka alone are visible. nafamandapa: The dancing hall in Orissan temples. navacoky : An open hall (mukhamandapa) containing nine bays. navarajga: A mandapa with nine bays, characteristic of the Calukyan temples and their derivatives. navaratha: A surface endowed with nine offsets as in a temple wall or pedestal. Nāyikā : A damsel. nirandhara-prāsāda: The sanctum without an inner ambulatory. Nirvāṇa : Liberation from all bondage. odhani: A piece of cloth covering part of the lower garment, back, and head up to the fore head. ogho : Same as rajoharaṇa. badma : Literally, lotus; in architecture, a cyma moulding, often decorated with lotus petals. padmaka : A ceiling where the lāmās, often eight in number, are prominently shown. padmakes ara: The stamenal tube inserted into the limä or padmašila. padmamandaraka : A composite ceiling consisting of padmaka and mandāraka elements. padmanabha: A composite ceiling con isting of padmaka and nabhicchanda elements. padmapatra : The lotus scroll. padmāsana: A seated posture with both legs crossed, feet resting on the thighs. padmašila : The central lotus pendant of ceiling. bacakalyanaka: Five auspicious events in the life of a Jina, viz. Cyavana (descent from heaven).
Janma birth), Diksa (initiation into monkhood), Jiāna (attainment of right knowledge),
and Moksa (or Nirvāṇa-death). paflcaratha: A surface endowed with five offsets as in a temple wall or pedestal. pañcafakha: A doorframe consisting of five mouldings. parafu : A battle-axe. parikara : An ornamental frame of an image. paba: A noose. pataka : A flag or banner, patrafakha: A moulding of the doorframe decorated with scrolls. paffika: A moulding consisting of a plain horizontal band. phänsana: The stepped pyramidal roof. pipala : Ficus religiosa. 31
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Jaina Temples of Western India
pitha : The basement; the member between the ground and the vedibandha. prabhamandala: A halo. prahāra : The base of the Sikhara comprising two or three mouldings. prakāra : An enclosure wall around the temple. praņāla: A gargoyle like spout to discharge water. Prasasti : An eulogy. Pratihāra : A guardian. pratiratha: A buttress between the bhadra and the karna. pratyalidha: A mode of standing sideways in which the left knee is thrown to the front and the leg
retracted, while the right leg is diagonally stretched behind. protyanga: A miniature Sikhara half the size of the uromasjari; it is a companion of the uppermost
uromafjari. rājasenaka : A deep fillet, generally decorated with diamond-and-double volute pattern; it is the
lowermost rnoulding of a balustraded wall. rajoharana : A broom for removing dust particles, insects, etc., used by the Jaina monks and nuns. rangamandapa: An open hall in front of the mukhamandapa (rarely güdhamandapa); it is a hall for
theatrical performances. ratha: A buttress. rathika : A framed sculptured panel at the base of the Sikhara. ratnapattika: A moulding of the wall decorated with diamonds. rekha : The curvature of the Sikhara. rekhadeul : The sanctum with curvilinear spire in Orissan temples. rūpakantha : A figural belt in the ceiling decorated with seated and niched figures of goddesses. It
also carries bracket figures of Vidyadharas. rūpapattika: A figural belt in the ceiling decorated with various sculptures. Tāpatakha: A moulding of the door frame adorned with human figures. täpastambha : A shaft type moulding of the doorframe bearing figures of goddesses in niches. sabhamandāraka : A composite ceiling consisting of sabhāmārga and mandāraka elements. sabhā mārga : A ceiling specially built in the sabhamandapa (rangamandapa) consisting of such courses
as padma, karnadardarika, rūpakantha, kola, gajatälı, etc. sabhābadmamandāraka : A composite ceiling consisting of sabhā mārga, padmaka and mandāraka elements. fakha: A moulding of the doorframe. Śalabhañjikā : A female bracket figure leaning upon boughs of tree. salilāntara : A vertical recess between the buttresses of the wall and fikhara to drain rain water. samaksipta : A composite ceiling consisting of samatala and kşipta elements. samatala: A ceiling having plain or ornate flat surface. samautkşipta : A composite ceiling consisting of samatala and utksipta elements. Samavasarana : A congregation hall built by celestial beings, where gods, men and animals
assemble to listen the discourse of a Tirthankara. In art, a circular fortified structure
surmounted by a quadruple of Jina. samvaranā : A bell-roof. sāndhāra-prasada : The sanctum with an inner ambulatory. farikha: A conch. sa parikara : An image having a parikara. saptaratha: A surface endowed with seven rathas as in a temple wall or pedestal, saptafākha : A doorframe consisting of seven bands or mouldings, $ardila: A mythical animal with leonine features,
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Glossary
sarpamukuta: A snake canopy.
sattakha: A doorframe consisting of six mouldings. Sikhara The superstructure of the milaprāsāda. simhasana: A throne.
:
simhavyala: A vyala with the head of a lion.
skandha Literally, shoulder; in architecture, it denotes the top of the truncated fikhara on which rest its crowning members such as grīvā, āmalaka, etc. Śrävaka A layman.
Sravika: A laywoman.
Srivatsa: An auspicious sign, often decorating the chest of a Tirthankara.
friga A miniature fikhara.
stambhalakha: A moulding of the doorframe in the form of a pilaster.
sthāpanā: A crossed wooden book-stand used as a symbol for the teacher.
sūcīmudrā: A hand-pose in which the forefinger points downwards, the hand being held down and
the fingures being bent inwards.
Sukanäsā: An antefix jutting out from the fikhara and placed just above the antarāla.
talarupaka A rectangular flat slab on either flank of the moonstone. tilaka: A miniature shrine containing an image of god or goddess.
torana A portal.
torana-arch: An ornamental arch thrown between two upright posts.
tribhanga: A posture in which the body is flexed thrice.
trika: See mukhamandapa.
triratha: The surface of a temple wall or pedestal endowed with three rathas.
trifakha: A doorframe consisting of three mouldings.
trifula: A trident.
tri-tirthi: A panel with figures of three Jinas.
tryanga: A wall surface endowed with three angas, viz. bhadra, pratiratha and karṇa.
tunk: A fortified enclosing wall containing Jaina shrines.
uccalaka: Attic.
udgama: A pediment decorated with caitya-arch enrichment; also used as a decorative motif. udumbara: A doorsill.
upatraya: A monastery.
upsarga: The life scenes of a Tirthankara before the attainment of Tirthankarahood. urahasriga: A half Sikhara or friga leaning against the 'chest' (uras) of the main sikhara. urasutra: An ornament consisting of a string or chain falling between the breasts. urga: A small, circular protuberance seen on the forehead of the Jina.
uromanjari: Same as urahiṛiga.
urujälaka: An ornament suspended in loops over the thighs.
uşnişa: A headdress consisting of curls and having a cranial protuberance on the head. utkşipta: A ceiling in which the various courses proceed forth so as to project out. uttaranga: A door-lintel.
uttariya: A shawl-like garment worn across the upper part of the body.
vahana: Literally, a mount; in art a distinctive sign or cognizance.
vaijayanti: A long garland worn by divine figures.
vajra: A thunderbolt.
vajraghanta: A thunderbolt with bell.
varadaksa: A boon-giving posture with rosary.

243

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varadamudra: A boon-giving posture, with hand lowered, palm forward and fingures pointing down
wards. varandika : An eave-cornice; the member between the jangha and the Sikhara. vardhamanaka : A powder flask. vasahi or vasati : A temple. vedibandha: Podium; the member between the pitha and the jargha, generally consisting of five
mouldings, viz, khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatra and kapota. vedika : The blind balustrade. Vidyadhara : An angelic being, human in form and without wings. vihara : A monastery. vimāna : The sanctum in the Calukyan temples. viņa: A lute. viņāvadaka : A lute-player. vitāna : A ceiling. vyakhyānamudra : A gesture in which the tips of the thumb and the forefinger touch each other so as
to form a circle, the other finguces being kept open; the palm of the hand is raised up near
the breast, facing front. vyala: A mythical composite animal of leonine form. yajilopavita: A sacred thread worn across the shoulder.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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39
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ور
""
33
""
33
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"3
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23
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INDEX
(A=Attribute; M-Mount) Abhaya, 36
Ajitanātha temple at Taranga, 13, 22, 23, 36, 158, Abhayadevasūri, 21
184, 185, 192, 194, 195, 202-04, 206, 207, 210-12, abhayamudrā, 56, 64, 69, 72, 88, 97, 149
316, 225, 227 Abhayatilaka, 21
Ajmer, 2, 14, 32, 40 Abhidhānaratnamala, 17
Akadadeva, 10 Abhira, 9, 10, 31
Akara, 2 abhiseka water, 72
Akbar, 34, 40, 160, 194 Abu, 10-13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 27n, 32, 33, 35-37, Akkatthali, 38
41n, 47, 117, 183-86, 189-91, 195-97, 201-13, 218- Akota, 3, 6, 9, 19, 20, 23, 219 21, 224-26, 229, 232, 234, 235
akşamāla, 72 Abu range, 31
Alā-ud-din, 15, 215 Abu Road, 34, 35
Alhaṇadeva, 13, 22 acanthus, 51, 71, 82, 170, 174, 187, 190, 219, 220 Aliga, 12 Åcārya, 51, 54, 58, 59, 63, 65-67, 74-76, 106, 107, Allahabad, 3
112-16, 125, 131, 137, 140, 160, 166, 201, 203 Acchuptă, 72,110,121, 122, 128, 137, 208-10, 219,221 Altekar, A. S., 26, 31 Acchuptavasati at Dholka, 12
amalaka, 78, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 152, 162, adhisthāna, 216
164, 168, 170, 176, 185, 190, 218, 221 Adinatha, 6, 19, 37, 44, 47, 54, 58, 106, 108, 124, amāri, 21
138, 142, 152, 166, 167, 181n, 208, 212, 213 Ambada, 13 Adinatha temples at
Ambadevi, 34 Abu, 11, 13, 21, 186
Ambaji, 34, 35 Cambay, 12
Ambāmātā, 34 Cärûpa, 15
Ambikā, 6, 23, 34, 46, 47, 50, 52, 56, 60, 70, 74, Dhank, 16
90, 95, 105, 109, 110, 112, 115, 120, 121, 139, Dholka, 15
141, 145, 149, 150, 1.6-79, 208, 219, 225, 228, Girnar, 37
232 Prabhāsapātana, 15
Ambikā temples at Satavati, 16
Girnar, 6 Shatrunjaya, 13, 38, 158, 185, 193-95, 197, Jagat, 183 205-07, 211, 225, 227
Khedabrahma, 186 Vadnagar, 11, 44, 183, 204-06, 209, 215, 217, 219 Amoghavarşa I, 7, 20 Adinātha tunk, 38
amorous couple, 137, 160, 162, 203, 228 Adisvara Bhagavāna tunk, 37
Amra, 1 Aditi, 136, 161
Amrabhata, 13, 18 Agguka I-IV, 9
Amradeva, 198 Agni, 123, 137, 163, 211
amralumbi, 95, 105 Ahirola, 5
Amtheramätă temple at Vadnagar, 38 Ahmedabad, 11, 12, 31, 32, 40 205
Anahilapätaka, 8, 10-15, 17, 21, 192 Aihole, 4
Anahilapura, 22 Ajayapāla, 13, 22, 44
Anahilavāda, 22 Ajita, 23
Anahilla, 11 Ajitanatha, 112, 128, 163, 194
Aşahillapura, 8

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254
Faina Temples of Western India
Ananda, 21
Arāsura mountain, 34 Anandapura, 38
Aravalli, 2, 32, 35 Anandesvara Siva, 38
Arbuda, 35, 186 Anarta, 1, 2, 31
Arbudācala, 22, 25 Anartapura, 38
Arbudamandala, 11 Anartta, 7
arch, cusped, 154 Andhra, 2,7
arch, Muhammadan, 165, 166 anga, 108, 109, 119, 136, 142, 144, 148, 151, 152, arch pediment, 202
154, 156, 158, 160-62, 168, 171, 178, 192, 197, ardhacandra, 47, 48, 50, 54, 60, 78, 80-82 , 94, 109, 217, 218, 221, 232
110, 118, 120, 121, 126-28, 135, 138, 142, 145, aniga-fikhara, 216
171, 229 Aniruddha, 37
ardhapadma motif, 50, 67, 69, 76, 81-83, 85, 88, 90afjalimudra, 73, 125
93, 95-106, 116, 122, 126, 132, 135, 139-42, 145, Anjana mountain, 37
146, 152, 160, 166, 167, 188, 190, 218, 222, 229, Anjar, 39
230 anklet, 202
Ardrakumāra, 76, 201, 213 anikusa (A) (see also goad), 56, 110, 129, 150
Ardrapura, 18 annulet, 155
Ariake, 31, antarabhitti, 149
Arjunadeva, 15 antarāla, 165
Arjunavarman, 14 antarapatra, 46-48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 59, 76-78, 80, 81,
86, 89, 93, 105, 106, 108, 112, 113, 117-19, 121- armlet, 202, 203 23, 127, 129, 130, 132, 135-38, 140, 142, 145, Arnorāja (Cahamäna), 12, 13 146, 148, 152, 154-56, 158, 160, 164, 168, 171, Arnorāja (Väghelā), 14, 15 174, 178, 179, 183, 196, 207
Arrian, 35 Anupa, 2
arris, 81, 84, 85, 106 Anupamādevi, 107, 197
arrow (A), 64, 69, 72 Aparānta, 2, 31
Aryan, 1, 35 Apollodorus, 2
Asă, 11 Apollodotus, 2
Asaņa, 107 Apollodotus II, 2
āsanapatta, 78, 82, 112, 121, 129, 136, 140, 143, 148, Apraticakrā, 101, 208-10
152, 154, 158, 161, 162, 175, 227 Apsarā, 51, 53-57, 62, 75, 76, 137, 150, 151, 158, Asapāla, 138
165, 166, 185, 192, 193, 195, 202, 203, 205, 224, Ašāpalli, 11, 12 225, 227, 228
Asāpuri temple, 39 Arab, 5, 6, 9, 17
Asarāja, 12 Arabian Sea, 32
Abārāja, 107 Aradhaka, 95
Asaval, 11 Arāsaņa, 11, 19, 32, 192, 234
ascetics, 88, 227 Åräsaņā, 34
Asoka, 2, 19 Arāsana, 34
astamangalaka (see also eight auspicious faina Arāsanā, 34
symbols), 121, 208, 221 Arāsanagara, 34
Aştäpada, 35, 37, 4!n, 127, 154, 18ln, 195, 208 Aräsaņa (nā) kara, 34
Astapadaprāsāda, 15, 197 Aräsanākara, 34
Asuka, 21 Arāsanamandala, 34
Asura, 34 Ārāsaņiyanemicaityaprabandha, 192
Afvamedha, 3, 39 Arāsura, 35
Asvävabodhasamalikäviharatirtha, 105, 117

Page #272

Index
255
Asvāvabodhatirtha, 137 ati-bhanga, 202 Atinandana, 115 atif agaksetra, 33 attendant figures, 81, 130, 134, 149, 152, 154, 158,
160, 168, 179, 201-03. attic, 190 Avanijanāsraya Pulakesirāja, 6 Avanivarman I, 9 Avanivarman II, 8-10 Avanti, 2,5 Avasar, ini, 61, 115 awning, corrugated (see also eave-cornice), 90, 135,
45, 152 awning, ribbed (see also eave-cornice), 109, 113,
130, 227 āyāgapatta, 19
Bäbriās, 38 Bactrian, 2 Badoli, 217 Bahubali 58, 124, 201, 213, 227 bahyaśākha, 109, 110, 118,128,133,146, 149,176, 179 bakula flower, 176 bakulamala, 60, 112, 118, 124, 129, 134, 141, 146,
152, 164 Balabhāi-tunk, 37 balāņaka, 47, 76, 77, 108, 116-19, 127, 137, 184, 189
91, 207, 215, 220 Balarama, 1 Balavarman, 8, 9 balcony, 148, 161-63, 227 balcony model, 57, 62, 70, 73,75,81,89, 103, 106,119,
122, 134, 142, 144, 149, 152, 156, 162-64, 168, 178, 190-93, 195, 198, 207, 221, 223, 228, 229,
231, 232 balcony window, 145, 146, 148, 161, 163, 184, 194 Ballāla (Málava), 13 Ballala II (Hoysala), 14 balustrade, 111, 121, 129, 136, 139, 143, 152, 154,
155, 161, 162, 175,216,219,221, 225, 227, 229,231 Bäinti, 175 Banaskantha, 34, 40 Banas river, 35 Banduka, 38 bangle, 203 banner, 208 harter (A), 211
Bārappa, 8, 10 Barbaraka, 12 Barbaricum, 16 Barda hill, 32, 38 Baroda, 5 Baroj, 17 Baroji, 17 Barygaza, 2, 16 Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya at Sarotra, 13, 40, 171, 196,
211, 225, 228 Bävana Jinalaya, 189 Bawa Pyra, 19 bead-and-reel motif, 176 232 bell, 47, 76, 78, 105, 106, 109, 114, 119-21, 128,
145, 148, 152, 154,158, 161,164, 167, 208, 224,228 bell-and-volute motif, 219 bell-roof (see also samvarana), 54, 123, 155, 162,
163, 167, 191, 216, 221, 223 bell rooflet, 111, 121 129 Bengal, 8 Bhachau, 39 bhadra, 46-48, 78, 108, 109, 119, 120, 132, 134, 136,
137, 142, 144, 145, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154,156, 158, 160-62, 164, 168, 171, 176, 178, 180n, 194, 218,
226, 227 bhadra-niche, 187, 191, 193, 194, 198, 218, 224, 225,
227, 231, 232 bhadrāsana, 3, 19, 208 Bhadravati, 39 Bhadreshwar, 13, 14, 16, 18, 33, 39, 168, 195, 196,
198, 225, 228, 229 Bhagatrav, 1 Bhagvanlal Indraji, 5 Bhairava, 64 Bhānagadha, 39 Bhandāra, 22 Bhandarkar, D. R., 117, 127, 198 Bhandarkar, R G., 31 bharani, 47, 48, 50, 51, 54, 60, 76, 77, 80-83, 86, 87,
89, 94, 110, 112, 113, 116-18, 120-23, 125, 126, 128-30, 135-38, 140, 142, 145, 146, 148, 150-52, 154-56, 58, 161, 164, 165, 168, 170, 171, 174-79,
187, 192-94, 197, 2-4, 227, 232 Bharata, 58, 124, 201, 213, 227 Bharhut, 184 Bhartrivaddha, 6 Bhataraka, 3 bhavāntara, 201, 212, 213
Jain Education Intematonal

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256
Jaina Temples of Western India
Bhavnagar, 37 Bhilla, 10, 11, 40 Bhillama, 14 Bhilsā, 12, 13 Bhima I, 11, 13, 18, 21, 39 Bhima II, 14, 15, 231 Bhimadeva I, 186 Bhimapalli, 15 Bhinamāla, 10, 11 Bhinmal, 12, 32 bhifta, 46, 47, 50, 56, 76, 78, 82, 86, 89, 105, 108,
110, 112, 113, 118-21, 123, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132, 135, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 148, 151, 152, 155, 156, 158, 160, 166, 168, 170, 174, 176, 178,
179, 196, 228 bhogamandapa, 216 Bhoja, 7, 8,11 Bhoja II, 8 Bhorola, 16 Bhrgu, 1 Bhrgukaccha, 2, 22, 31 Bhrgupura, 22 Bhuj, 33 Bhūmaka, 2 bhümi-amalaka, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 152,
162, 168, 176, 218, 221, 223, 228 Bhúmija, 32 Bhūmilikā, 9 Bhūmillika, 38 bhamisparsamudra, 149, 162 Bhumli, 9 Bhūtāmbilikā, 38 Bhuvanesvara, 202 Bhūyadadeva. 10 Bidada, 12 Bihar, 33, 154 bija pāraka, 47, 76, 78, 105, 109, 119, 120, 34, 141,
142, 144, 145, 148, 159, 152, 162, 164, 168, 170,
185, 192, 223 Bikaner, 23 bird, 202, 203 Birth-kalyāṇaka (see also Janma-kaljāņaka), 220 Birth-rite of Jina, 219 Birth-rite of Krsna, 231 Black-and-Red Ware, I boar, 65, 66, 73, 117, 137 Bodhagaya, 33 book (A), 56, 72, 211
bough, 202 boughs of tree (A), 209, 210, 219 bow (A), 64, 69, 72, 205 Brāhmaṇa, 18 Brahmani, 202 Brāhmanical dikpala, 211 Brahmanical pantheon, 21: Brahmanical representations, 208 Brāhmanical Temple, 6, 8, 9, 185, 190, 215, 216,
219, 220, 234, 235 Brāhmanical temple at Kotai, 211 Brahmānimātā temple at Kāmaņigāma, 186 Brahmaśānti, 23, 46, 52, 56, 74, 88, 115, 165, 208 Brahmă temple at khedabrahmā, 186 Bshatkalpabhasya, 17, 35 Broach, 2, 5, 6, 13, 16, 17, 19, 31, 32 Buddha, 33 Buddharāja, 5 Buddhism, 19 Buddhist, 19, 23, 33, 36 Buddhist goddess, 36 Buddhist monastery, 6 Budhagupta, 3 buffalo (M), 209 bull, 72 bull (M), 209-11, 219 bullock-cart, 150 bunch of mango tree (A) (see also amralumbi), 56 Burgess, J., 39, 40, 165, 170, 174, 175, 194, 198 Cahamāna, 6, 10-14 Cāhana, 16 Cahila, 186, 187 caitya, 20, 22, 37, 86 caitya-arch/caitya-gavaksa/caitya-window, 46-48, 51,
54, 56, 59, 61, 76, 78, 86-89, 92-96, 99, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 117-19, 121, 123, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132, 134, 135-37, 139, 140, 142, 145, 146, 148, 152, 154-56, 153, 160, 163, 164, 168, 174, 176, 178, 184, 185, 190, 194-97, 206, 217,
218, 221, 223, 228, 231, 232 caityalāyatana, 20 caityavāsina, 21 cakra (A), 34 Gakravartin, 21 Cakrāyudha, 6, 7 Cakreśvari, 23, 46, 50, 53, 55, 60, 71, 97, 108-10,
119, 120, 123, 124, 129,133,134, 137, 142-46, 150, 154, 168, 178, 202, 208
Jain Education Interational

Page #274

Calukya, 4-11, 20, 32
Camatkarapura, 38
Cambay, 8, 12, 14, 17, 18, 22, 31
camel, 131
campaks, 60, 62, 67, 70, 74, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89-93, 96
103, 105, 123, 204, 230
Campaladevi, 107 Camundaraja, 9-11, 21 Căṇasmā, 16
Candakausika, 115
Candanabālā, 115 Candapa, 107 Candaprasada, 107
Candella, 12
Candragupta (Maurya), 1, 37
Candragupta II (Gupta), 3 Candraprabha, 6, 11 Candraprabhacarita, 186
Cânăra, 68 Căpa, 6, 8-10
Capitalia, 35
Căpotkața, 10, 20 Cărūpa, 15
caturadge, 156, 160, 162, 163, 227, 228
Caturmukha temple, 12
caturvilhasangka, 65, 115, 116, 125, 131, 201
Caturviṁsati Jinālaya, 119, 189
Caturviṁsati Jinalaya at Wadhwan, 16
catuffäkka, 46, 60, 142, 152, 226, 231 Caulukya, 8, 10-14, 17, 21, 36, 39, 189, 194 Caumukha (Jina image), 63
cippika, 46
Citrakūta, 8
Classical, 205, 217, 235
closed hall, see gudhamaṇḍapa club (A), 69, 72, 81
candrafila (see also moonstone), 47, 48, 50, 54, 60, cobra, 73, 137, 142, 146
78, 80-82, 135
cobra-canopy, 208
Candravati, 11, 13, 15, 32, 40, 234, 235
coin, 20
candrika, 78, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 152, 162,
168, 170, 176, 185
Index
Cavada, 10
cavetto, 84 Căvoṭaka, 10
celestial car, 208
Central India, 215, 234
Central Indian temple, 218 chacoki, 188
33

chadyaki chajjka, 76, 78,112, 121, 129, 136, 148, 151, 160, 168, 219
chain (A), 72, 208, 209 chain-and-bell motif, 48, 55, 77, 112, 113, 121, 129,
133, 138, 190, 207, 219, 220, 224-26 chandelier, 166
chatra (see also parasol), 137
chequer pattern, 109, 164-66, 228 child, 56, 95, 105, 110, 208 Child Tirthankara, 130, 222 China Ware, 151
Chitor, 217
Christian, 33
colapattaka, 203
conch (A) (see also fankha), 69, 72, 81, 118 Cousens, H., 38, 156, 184, 186
covisi, 201
cow, 112
cow (M), 209
Caumukha-zunk, 37
cauri (see also fly-whisk), 146
caurl bearer, 50, 55, 57, 60, 64, 71-79, 80, 115, 127, cymbal (A), 56, 97, 101
146, 201, 203
creeper, 47, 48, 53, 55-61, 63, 65, 67-72, 74, 75, 80, 81, 85, 88, 90, 92, 93, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 109, 110, 112-14, 116, 118, 120-14, 129, 131, 133, 141-43, 150, 152, 158, 161, 162, 175, 179, 187, 202-04, 221
creeper medallion, 52, 55, 59, 61, 62, 64-67, 70-72,
188, 226
crescent, 47, 116, 120, 125, 217 crocodile (M), 30
Cross, 95, 96, 100, 102, 117, 231
257
crown, 203, 212 Cunningham, A., 36, 184
Cyazana-kalapake (see also Birth-kalyāyaka), 140,212
Dabhoi, 15, 229
Dādāji tunk, 37
Dadda I, 5
Dadda II, 4, 5, 20 Dadda III, 5
dado, 120 Dahala, 12, 13

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258
Jaina Temples of Western India
Dakşiņāpatha, 31 Daman, 31 damari, 211 damsel (see also Apsarā), 202 dance-pose, 56, 88 dancer, 46, 58, 59, 62, 66-68, 70-72, 75, 77, 88, 105,
115, 120, 121, 123, 124, 128, 131, 134, 135, 137, 139, 144, 150, 151, 160-62, 165, 166, 177, 179,
187, 191, 203, 205, 220, 224, 227 dancing hall, 187 danda (A), 69, 72, 73 Dandanayaka, 186, 191 Danta, 117 Dantidurga, 5, 6 Dārāsuram, 14 Darbhāvati, 22 dar paņa (see also mirror), 208 Dasapura, 2 Dasaratha, 189 Dašavaikälikacūrni, 17 Dasyu, 35 Dave, K. B., 34 Deccan, 1,5-9, 32 Deccan Lava, 31 Deccan Plateau, 32 deer (M), 211 Deesa, 11, 16 Delhi, 16, 32, 215 Delvādā, 36 Desalpar, 1 Deulavādā, 36 Devacandra, 15, 39 Devacandrasūri, 20, 21 Devagiri, 15 Devakula, 16 Devakulapāțaka, 36 devakulikā, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 23, 40, 44. 46-48. 56.
59-77, 89, 93-106, 108, 114, 116, 117, 119, 125-27, 131, 132, 134-36, 141-43, 148, 151, 167, 171. 174. 175, 180n, 181n, 183-93, 195-97, 201, 207, 209,
211, 215-17, 219, 220, 222, 223, 225-31, 234 Devalakka, 22 Devalapätaka, 36 Devananda, 502 Devapäla, 14 Devapattana, 22 Devaraja, 6 Devarāni, 86
Devardhigani Kşmājramaņa, 19 Devasena, 17 Devasūri, 192 Deva temple, 38 devotee, 95, 145, 149 Dhaky, M. A., 34, 104, 181n, 183, 187-89, 194-96,
199, 200, 228 Dhanapāla, 77, 189 Dhandhuka, 11, 77 Dhandhukā, 13, 22 Dhanesvara, 20 Dhanesvarasūri, 36 38 Dhank, 6, 16, 20 Dhārā, 8, 12, 15 Dharanivaräha, 8, 10, 27n Dharanivihāra at Ränakapura, 12 Dharapatta, 4 Dharasena (Traikūţaka), 3 Dharasena I (Maitraka), 3 Dharasena II-III, 4 Dharasena IV, 5 Dharăsraya Jayasimha, 6 Dharmapāla, 6, 7,9 Dhätuki tree, 37 dhatira foliage, 160 Dhavala, 10, 11, 15 Dhavalakka, 17 Dhimduāņapura, 215 Dhoda, 7 Dholka, 12, 15 dhoti, 20, 175, 196, 201, 203 Dhrāsanvel, 9 Dhruva(Rāstrakūta), 6, 7 Dhruva II (Rästrakuța king of Lāța), 7 Dhruvabhata, 5, 10 Dhruvasena, 19, 38 Dhruvasena I-III, 4 dhuaja, 88 dhvajadhara, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 162 dhvajapataka, 109, 119, 144, 148, 162 dhyānamudrā, 47, 43, 54, 57, 59, 60, 61, 64, 78, 80,
81, 84-88, 90, 95, 109, 116, 118-21, 125-28, 133, 135, 137, 138, 140, 142, 145, 146, 149-52, 162,
163, 165, 168, 170, 170, 175-79, 201, 213, 214n diamond, 47, 50, 51, 55, 60, 61, 68, 78, 80-82, 84,
86-91, 93-95, 98-101, 103, 105, 106, 109, 114, 116-18, 120, 122, 126-30, 132, 135-37, 139, 14245, 151, 152, 155, 156, 161-62, 164,167, 171, 176,

Page #276

drum, 165
177, 179, 184, 198, 204, 207, 218, 220, 223, 224, Dronasimha, 3, 4 226, 228, 230, 232 diamond-and-bead band, 50, 52, 53, 55-57, 60-62, 67, 68, 70, 74, 75, 77,80, 82-85,87, 89-94, 96-101, 103-05, 110, 112-23, 125-30, 132, 133, 136, 139. 41, 144, 145, 151, 154, 155, 160, 161, 164-67,170, 171, 174-77, 179, 195, 220, 222 diamond-and-double volute pattern, 112, 121, 129, 136, 143, 152, 154, 158, 161, 171, 178, 196, 207 diamond-and-foliage/leave, 158, 170 diamond band/strip, 50, 55, 57, 62, 68, 80, 86-88, 92, 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 105, 114, 116, 126, 130, 131, 134, 136, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 155, 162, 168, 170, 178, 221, 225, 230, 231 diamond, elongated, 161, 178 diamond, half, 47, 50, 51, 56, 59, 76, 78, 80-82, 86, 89, 93, 94, 102, 104, 106, 110, 112, 113, 116-18, 120, 122, 125-29, 132, 135, 136, 138, 140, 142-46, 151, 154-56, 158, 160, 164, 170, 174-77, 179,181, 197, 217, 218, 227 diamond in volute, 150 diamond, rosette marked, 52, 113, 116, 121, 124, 125, 127, 130, 134, 138, 148, 160-62, 164-66, 179, 227
diamond, stepped, 46, 51, 64, 65, 78, 82, 88, 93, 96, 103-05, 109, 140, 148, 160, 164, 168, 178, 212, 231 diaper work, 218, 226, 229
Digambara, 20, 21, 33, 36, 201, 234 digvijaya, 37
Index
Dik-Kumāris, 73
dikpala, 23, 71, 123, 132, 134, 137, 142, 158, 160, 163, 171, 178, 201, 208, 211, 214n, 222-24, 227 Dika, 115, 201
Diksa-kalyanaka, 37, 212, 213
Dilwara, 36, 47
Dinduanapura, 10
disc (A), 73, 97, 149 dog, 65, 66, 72 dog (M), 211
Dohad-Ratlam pass, 32 Dohatti Setha, 12
door-lintel (see also uttaranga), 78, 80, 81, 95, 106 doorsill (see also udumbara), 78, 94, 95, 106, 126
Dostatikā, 9, 20
Dottadi, 9
double-sakhā (see also dvišakha), 94
Dravida, 37 Dravidaraja, 124

duel-fighting scene, 137, 160 Durgāpūjā, 22 Durjayanta, 36 Durlabharaja, 11, 21
Dväparayuga, 38
Dvarapala, 77, 186, 218 dvi-bhanga, 202
drichadya, 112, 121, 129, 158 Dvipa, 13
dviśākha (see also double-fākhā), 47, 95, 116, 120, 127, 141, 145, 171, 220, 225
doyanga, 120, 128, 145, 154, 180n, 229, 232
Duyaraya, 21, 22
dwarf, 51
Dwarka, 1, 4, 34, 97
eagle (M), 80, 209, 210 earring, 202
259
eave-cornice, corrugated (see also awning), 50, 51, 56, 59, 76, 80, 83, 105, 110, 116, 120, 125-27, 136, 140, 143, 146, 148, 150, 154, 155, 161, 164, 167, 175, 220, 223
eave-cornice, double curved, 90, 230
eave-cornice, ribbed (see also awning), 47, 54, 77, 78, 86, 105, 109, 117, 119, 123, 126, 127, 132, 134, 137, 139, 142, 144, 148, 149, 152, 155, 156, 158, 161, 164, 167, 168,171,178,184, 185, 193,217, 218, 223
Eight auspicious Jaina symbols (see also affamanga. laka), 140 ekantavāda, 21
elephant, 54, 64, 69, 77, 80, 84, 97, 107, 112 14,
116, 118, 120-23, 125, 129, 131-34, 136, 137, 140, 141, 149, 150, 160, 161, 163, 164, 167, 168, 188, 189, 201-04, 227, 231
elephant band/row, 52, 53, 55, 57-59, 62-64, 67, 75, 76, 187, 226
elephant with driver, 51, 55, 56, 73, 76, 115, 125, 139, 151, 160, 178
Ellora, 8, 212
Eucratides, 2
female attendant, 48, 50, 51, 55, 58, 60, 61, 64, 84,
86, 88, 107, 110, 114, 118, 124, 128, 133, 134, 137, 138, 141, 142, 146, 149, 162, 163, 166, 168, 176, 178, 179

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260
Jaina Temples of Western India
female carrying fly-whisk, 125
Forbes, A. K., 34, 36, 37 female carrying water jar/pitcher/pot/vessel, see fourteen objects seen in dream by Jina mother, female pitcher-bearer
112, 129, 133, 208, 212, 222 female cauri bearer, 55-57, 64, 71, 73, 80, 95, fruit (A), 46, 56, 64, 71, 72, 80, 88, 110, 115, 129,
97, 101, 105, 110, 121, 122, 124, 128, 132-34, 158, 209 137, 142, 144, 158, 163, 167, 168, 177, 178, 186, full-vase, 208 205, 18, 223
gable, 154 female dancer, 54, 65, 82, 83, 86, 87, 89, 92, 93, 97, gagaraka, 47, 48, 50, 54, 60, 79, 80-82, 94, 109, 110, 101, 113, 123, 133, 138, 229
118, 120, 121, 126-28, 135, 138, 142, 145, 171 female musician, 54, 89, 93, 96, 112, 123, 133, 138 Gahaļavāla, 12 female pitcher bearer, 46-48, 54, 60, 77, 78, 80, 94, Gaja-Lakşini, 23, 52, 53, 57, 66,67, 71-73,84, 86, 90,
105, 109, 110, 112, 115-18, 120, 126, 128, 132, 114, 134, 140, 142, 144 133, 135, 141.43. 145. 150, 171, 175, 176. 191. gajamunda, 50, 109, 119, 148, 176, 228 220-23
Gajarāja, 115 Fergusson, J., 234
gajatālu, 50, 52-54, 57-59, 61-75, 83-85, 88-92, festoon, 48, 81, 82, 86, 87, 122, 207, 229
95-105, 112, 114, 122-24, 128, 130-32, 134-36, fighter, 137, 160, 178
139-41, 149, 151, 166, 167, 170, 177, 179, 187, fighting scene, 51, 53, 57, 59, 62, 68, 72, 76, 203
191, 192, 195, 198, 218-23, 226, 228, 230, 232 figures in boxes or compartments, 74, 115, 125, 220, pajathara, 86. 136, 168, 178, 179, 224 222, 226
gana, 54, 68, 72, 110, 137, 140, 150, 213 fillet, 46, 47, 51, 61, 76, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 94,
Ganadhara, 37, 151 106. 109. 119-21. 126, 127, 134, 135, 137, 142-44, Ganapati temple at Ghumli, 39 148, 151, 152, 155, 156, 160-62, 164, 170, 175, Gāndbāri, 137, 208-10 178, 179, 190, 198, 202, 225, 227
Gandharva, 48, 51, 53-55, 64, 73, 112-14, 121, 123, fire pot, 208
124, 130-42, 150 fishes, pair of (see also minayugala), 140
Gandharvavadivetāla Säntisüri, 20 Five Indies, 31
Gandhidham, 39 flamboyant pattern, 60, 69, 72,74, 78, 84, 90-92, 95, Ganeša. 23. 64, 137. 202
104, 136, 137, 140, 141, 145, 148, 155, 158, 160, Ganga, 7, 120, 126, 202, 208, 221 222 161, 164, 170, 176, 179, 202, 230
Ganges, 8 flat ceiling (see also samatala), 130
Gangetic basin, 32 flower bud, 52, 88, 123, 134, 146
garbhagyha, 110, 149, 156, 163, 168 flower vase, 69
gargoyle, 105 flute (A), 101
garland (A), 56, 57, 60, 69, 71, 75, 88,112,118, 152, flute-player, 120, 121, 137
156, 202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 212 fly-whisk (A) (see also cauri), 52, 62, 71, 88, 114, garland-and-foliage, 164 116, 203, 212
garland-and rosette, 78, 166, 168, 171, 178, 193, foliage, 48, 51, 77, 78, 80, 82, 83, 87, 94, 112, 116, 196, 198, 225, 232
125, 137, 139, 142, 148, 151, 152, 154, 156, 158, garland-bearer (see also Mäladhara), 51 161, 166, 168, 171, 176, 178, 187, 193, 194, 196, Garuda (M), 81, 97, 149 218, 224, 225
Gārulaka, 4 foliage and lotus bud, 63, 65
Gauda, 6, 9, 17 foliage in beaded garland, 66
Gauri, 80, 101, 137, 208, 209 foliage, indented, 178, 219, 220
Gautamakumära, 37 foliate scroll, 47, 50, 54, 60, 62, 68, 72, 75-78, 80, Gautamiputra Satakarni, 2, 3
89, 90, 95, 98-101, 105, 109, 118-21, 126-29, 131, Gayakarņa, 12, 13 132, 134-36, 140-43, 145, 146, 155, 158, 161, 162, geometrical patterns, 105, 117, 161, 220 164, 165, 167, 170, 175-77, 179, 180, 220 Ghanerao, 188, 215, 217, 219
Jain Education Intematonal

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Index
ghagra, 78, 149, 150, 164, 170, 192, 195, 218, 219, Greek, 2 221, 223
ghatapallava, 48, 50, 60, 61, 81, 82, 87, 95, 106, 110, 112, 121, 122, 128, 129, 133, 136, 138, 141, 113, 145, 146, 149, 152, 155,158,161,175,179, 190,216 Ghazni, 11, 14, 215
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, 15
Ghughul, 14
Ghumli, 9, 10, 15, 32, 33, 38, 39, 175, 196, 225,229 Giranära Mahatmya 36 Giranäratirthavatāra, 201
girdle, 195, 201, 202, 205 Girinagara, 3, 36 Girinar, 36
Girnar, 2, 6, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18-22, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41n, 146, 156, 184, 185, 191, 193-98, 204-08, 210-12, 219, 222-25, 227, 228, 231, 235
Girnar-tirtha, 97
Gir range, 31, 32
Goa, 11, 14
goad (A) (see also asikufa), 56, 64, 69, 72, 208
goat, 73, 202
goat (M), 210
Godhra, 14
Gogha, 33
Gokhala, 85
Gokula, 91, 201, 213
Gornedha, 80
Gomukha, 81, 108, 115, 124, 208
goose, 57, 60, 63, 64, 84, 94, 97, 103, 106, 112, 114, 118, 120-24, 129, 134, 136, 137, 139-41, 146, 152, 155, 158, 161, 164, 170, 174, 177, 179, 203, 204, 221, 230 goose-band/row, 52, 54, 55, 57-63,65, 67-69, 71-75, 81, 90-92, 96, 102-05, 132, 139, 141, 145, 155, 164, 166, 167, 193, 196, 225, 226, 228
Gop, 40, 184
Gorakhanatha, 37
Govardhan, 2
Govinda, 163
Govinda II, 6
Govinda III, 7, 26n
Govinda IV, 8
Graharipu, 9, 10
grasamukha (see also kirtimukha), 46
grasapatti, 46, 48, 51, 77, 78, 81, 86, 110, 112, 121,
126, 128, 129, 132, 133, 136, 151, 156, 158, 160, 164, 168, 178, 183, 205, 217, 219, 220, 224, 228

Greek Cross, 65, 66, 95
grilles, 105, 148, 161, 162, 170, 218, 220, 231 grīva, 109, 119, 134, 144, 148, 152, 162, 168, 176 güdhamandapa, 44, 46-48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 61, 78, 81-83,
85, 93, 94, 108-10, 112, 113, 116, 119-23, 12830, 134, 136, 138, 139, 144-46, 149, 150, 156, 158, 160, 163-68, 171, 176-79, 184-87, 189-97, 203, 205-07, 209, 210, 212, 216-23, 225, 227-29, 232, 234, 235
Guhasena, 4 Guhil, 40
Guhilot, 7, 13, 15
Gujarat, 1-7, 9-11, 13, 16-21, 26n, 32-34, 36-40, 44, 58, 120, 164, 183, 188, 190, 202-07, 209, 215-23, 227, 232, 234, 235
Gujarati architect, 215
Gujarat Jaina temples, 216
Gujarat temples, 194 Gumli, 38
Gupta, 1, 3, 16, 17, 32, 184
Gupta art, 20
Gurjara, 3-5, 7, 11, 13, 14, 20, 27n
Gürjarabhami, 31
Gürjaradhara, 31. Gürjaradharitri, 31
Gurjaramandala, 31 Gurjara Pratihāra, 5, 20 Gürjaratră, 31
Gurjarätrā, 31 Gürjaratri, 31 Gerijarastra, 31 Guru Sikhara, 35
Gyaraspur, 8, 215, 217
hag, 161
Halebid, 215
Hammuka, 11
hamsafakha, 152, 165, 195, 228, 231
Hänsibäi, 19, 192
Harappan, 1
Haribhadrasuri, 186
261
Harisena, 3, 25n
Harivansa Puraṇa, 9 Harrol, 32
Harsa, 4, 5
Harṣadmätä temple at Miani, 196

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262
Jalna Temples of Western India
Indramandapa, 15 Indraprastha, 1 Indrasabhā at Ellora, 215 Indrāyudha, 6 Indus, 1, 2 Indus Delta, 2 intersecting garland, 57, 63, 73, 84, 122, 139,
141-43, 188, 190, 222 intersecting garland and foliage, 142, 144, 161,
164, 165 Iona, 37 Isäna, 133, 137, 163, 211 Ibānendra, 56 Islam, 33 Isvaravarman, 4 Italian, 16
Harsata Mata, 40 Hasti-Kalikund-tirtha, 213 Hastikundi, 10, 11 hastifālā, 47, 76, 77, 105, 106, 184-89, 197, 204,
205, 215, 218-20, 227, 231 Hathakelvara Mahadeva temple at Vadnagar, 38,
183, 184 Hemacandra (Kalikālasarvajña), 12, 21, 22, 36,
194, 215 Hemacandra Maladhāri, 21 Himalaya, 7, 35 Himatnagar, 32 Hindu, 9, 20, 23, 33, 34, 36, 40 Hindu god, 22, 23 Hindu temple, 10, 17, 18, 23, 33, 40, 44 Hiranyagarbha, 6 Hiranyakaśyapa, 73, 208 Hirasaubhagyakarya, 189 Hiravijaya, 48, 149 Hiravijayasūri, 40 Hiuen Tsang, 4, 16, 17, 36, 38 Hormus, 18 horse, 77, 203 horse (M), 77, 209, 210, 219 horse-band, 187 horse-rider, 51, 55, 56, 69, 73, 76, 114, 115, 125,
131, 139, 150, 151, 160, 178, 188 horse-rider band/row, 58, 59, 62, 64-68, 71, 72, 75,
187, 226 Hoysala, 14, 15 Hoysala temples, 216 human-couple, 57-59, 67, 70, 87,93, 115,116,123,125 Humcha, 215 Húna, 32 Hūnamandala, 9
jādyakumbha, 46-48, 54, 60, 76, 78, 80, 82, 86, 95,
105, 106, 108, 110, 112, 113, 117, 119-21, 123, 127-30, 132, 133, 136, 140, 142, 144, 145, 148, 151, 152, 156, 158, 160, 167,168,170, 176,178, 179,
183, 184, 196, 217, 218, 225, 227 Jagadū, 13, 14, 16, 22, 39 Jagadūcarita, 18, 39, 195, 198 Jagadūsäha, 195, 198 jagamohana, 216 Jagat, 183, 217 jagati, 44, 107, 108, 113, 116, 132, 168, 171, 184,
216, 218 Jaika I-II, 9 Jaina, 11, 20, 23, 33, 34, 36-39, 44, 234, 235 Jaina art, 3 Jaina ascetic/monk/Muni, 37, 63, 70, 76, 158, 162,
163, 203, 228 Jaina bronzes at Akota, 19 Jaina caitya, 22 Jaina community, 215 Jaina dikpala, 211 Jaina idols/images, 6, 26n Jaina monastery, 9 Jaina mythology, 115, 124, 220, 235 Jaina pantheon, 23, 24, 201 Jaina Srāvaka, 189 Jaina stūpa at Mathura, 19 Jaina temples at
Abu, 183, 235 Akota, 9 Anahilapātaka, 10, 12, 20
Idar, 13, 15, 32 Iltutmish, 14 incense-burner, 69 India, 1, 4, 6-8, 16-18, 31, 33 Indian architecture, 13 Indian cotton, 16 Indian temple architecture, 235 Indo-Greek, 2 Indra, 23, 26, 110, 133, 137, 211-13 Indra III, 8, 20 Indra IV, 20 Indradatta, 3
Jain Education Interational

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Index
263
Āsāpalli, 12 Bhadreshwar, 39, 168, 195, 196, 225, 228, 229 Bhorola, 16 Candrăvati, 11 Deogadh, 8 Ghumli, 39 Gyaraspur, 8 Jalor, 188 Kanthkot, 16, 39 Kumbharia, 24, 35 Miani, 16, 176, 197, 204, 206, 207, 210, 212, 232 Modhera, 20 Nihānā, 12 Osia, 8 Sejakpur, 13, 40, 193, 211, 225, 226, 228 Taranga, 188 Than, 11, 38, 46, 183, 184 Valabhi, 20 Vänkā, 12
Varunasarmaka, 11, 21 Jain, Hiralal, 33 Jainism, 9, 19-21, 40, 231, 235 Jaitrasimha, 107 Jajjapa, 9 Jalor, 6, 13, 32, 188 Jambu tree, 37 Jarmanade, 107 Janapada, 2 jangha, 46, 47, 76, 78, 105, 108, 117, 119, 127, 132,
134, 136, 137, 142-44, 48, 151, 152, 156, 158, 160, 161, 163, 168, 171, 176, 178, 183-85, 192
95, 197, 198, 209-11, 216, 223, 225, 227, 229, 232 Janma, 115, 201 Janma-kalyānaka (see also birth-kalyanaka), 212,
213, 222 jarämarana, 3, 19 Jarl Charpentier, 19 Jasahada, 19, 192 jatāmukuta, 211 jāti, 18 Java, 18 Jayabhata I, 5, 20 Jayabhata II-IV, 5 Jayadāman, 3, 19 Jayakesin, 11 Jayantasimha, 14 Jayasekhara, 10 Jayasimha Cālukya), 6
Jayasimha (Caulukya), 12-14, 18, 21, 191, 193 Jayasimha I (Paramāra), 11 Jayavaräha, 9 Jerusalem, 33 Jetalade, 107 Jethāni, 86 Jethāni Vāv at Ghumli, 39 Jethavā, 15, 39 jewel, 179 jewel heap, 208 jewelled band, 164, 218 Jhāla, 38 Jhelum, 2 Jholikāvihāra at Dhandhukā, 22 Jina, 13, 19, 20, 22, 24, 33, 37, 46-48, 51, 54, 59-61,
63, 64, 66, 69-71, 73-78, 80-82, 84-88, 90, 92, 94, 95, 105, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 115-21, 124-26, 131, 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145, 146, 149-52, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 175-79, 186, 201, 208, 212, 213, 218-20, 222,
228, 234 Jinabhadra Vācapācārya, 3 Jina images, 195, 197, 214n, 215, 221, 223, 234 Jina mother, 112, 128, 130, 133, 208, 212, 223 Jinanāthapura, 215 Jina panel, 186 Jinaprabhasūri, 26n, 35, 37, 156, 181n Jina quadruple, 119, 127, 155 Jinasena, 9, 20 Tinesvara sūri, 21 Jitasi, 107 Jivantasyāmi. 3. 20 Jñana-kalyāņaka, 212, 214n jñanamudra, 69, 97, 107, 162 Jodhpur, 5, 7, 11 Jogalthembi, 2 Junagadh, 1, 3, 8, 9, 19, 34, 36, 38, 40 Jvälämālini, 144
Kaccha, 2 Kadamba, 11, 14 Kailasanātha temple at Kāñci, 215 Kaira, 8, 31 Kakka, 7 Kakkuka, 6 kaksāsana, 78, 82, 136, 140, 143, 148, 152, 158, 161,
162, 175, 196, 207, 227, 229 Kalacuri, 5, 11-13

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264
Kälaka, 19
Kalakäärakatha, 19
kalasa, 3, 19, 46-48, 50, 51, 56, 59, 60, 76-78,81, 82, 86, 89, 93-95, 105, 106, 108, 110, 112, 113, 117-21, 126-29, 132-35, 137, 138, 142, 145, 146, 148, 150-52, 154-56, 158, 160, 162, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171, 174-79, 185, 192, 193, 195, 196, 198, 208, 223, 225, 229, 231, 232 Kali, 115, 122, 133, 137, 143, 163, 208, 209
Kalinga, 7
Kalinjara, 8
Kaliya, 68, 201, 208, 213
Kaliyadamana scene, 227
Kaliyuga, 38
Kalka, 37
Kalla, 9
kalpalata, 53
Kalparitra, 38
Kalyāṇa, 12
kalyanaka, 37, 61, 212, 213 Kamaladevi, 15
kamalodbhava, 104
Kamaṇīgāma, 186
Kambadhalli, 215 Kambayati, 17
Kanauj, 5-8
KaBei, 215
Kandola hill, 32,
Kanthadanatha, 39
Kanthadurga, 10, 39 Kanthanagari, 39
Kanthkot, 10, 16, 23, 33, 39, 178, 185, 198, 204,
207, 210-12, 232
Jaina Temples of Western India
Karna (Vaghela), 15
karna, 46, 48, 108, 109, 119, 120, 128, 132-34, 136, 137, 142-45, 148, 151, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 163, 168, 171, 176, 178, 180n, 192, 193, 211, 217, 223-25, 227 karṇadardarika, 52, 54-57, 62, 66, 67, 74-76, 83-85, 88, 91-93, 100, 103, 112, 114, 117, 122-24, 128, 130, 131, 134, 135, 138-41, 151, 155, 166, 167, 170, 177, 179, 207, 220, 221
Kantkote sandstone, 33
kapala (A), 211, 222
Kapardi, 56, 197
kapota, 46-48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 59, 76, 78, 80, 81, 86, 89, 93, 94, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 116-19, 121-23, 125-27, 129, 130, 132,133, 135, 137, 138, 142, 143, 145, 146, 148, 152, 154-56, 158, 16062, 164, 166-68, 171, 174, 176, 178, 183, 192, 193, 218, 223, 225, 227
karaṇḍamukuta, 202
Kardamaka, 2
Karkarapuri, 13
Karkka, 7
Karkka II, 6, 8
Karna (Caulukya), 11, 12, 21

karṇaratha, 106 Karnǎța, 7, 9
Karnatak, 215
Karnataka, 20, 216
Karnataka temples, 216
Karnavati, 12, 18
karnika, 47, 48, 50, 54, 57, 59, 60, 76-78, 80-83, 86, 87, 89, 94, 95, 97, 105, 106, 108-10, 112, 113, 116 23, 125-30, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144-46. 148, 150-52, 154-56, 158, 160-62, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174, 176-79, 186, 218, 229, 232
Kathasaritsägara, 17
Kathi, 38
Kathiawad, 44
Kathiawar, 2, 3, 5, 7-9, 15, 31, 32
kaṭisutra, 175, 195, 201, 202, 205
katyavalambita-pose, 116 Kautilya, 16
kayotsarga, 46, 47, 50, 54, 58, 63, 69, 71, 3-76, 95, 106, 109, 112, 113, 116, 119, 128, 135, 138-40, 143, 163, 165, 170, 175, 197, 201, 212, 218, 219
Kela, 56, 57, 188, 189
Kerakot, 217
kevalajine, 3, 19, 115, 201 Kevalajñana-kalyaṇaka, 37, 213 keyūra, 137
Khajuraho, 183, 202, 215, 216, 218, 234 Khajuraho temples, 216
Khambhat, 12, 13
Khandesh, 5
Khangara, 12, 21 Khangar's Mehal, 148 Khaputa, 19 Kharagadha, 40 Kharagraha I, 4 Kharatara, 21

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khattaka, 54, 85, 86, 113, 123, 139, 156, 167, 170, 174, 177, 188, 190, 191, 193, 197, 219, 221, 223, 224, 229, 232, 234 Khedbrahma, 32, 186 Kheṭakamandala, 8
Index
Khottiga, 8
khura, 46-48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 59, 60, 76-78, 80-82, 86, 89, 93, 94, 105, 108-10, 112, 113, 116-21, 125-29, 132, 133, 135, 137-39, 142, 145, 146, 148, 151, 154-56, 158, 160, 166, 168, 170, 171, 174, 176-79, 183, 217
Kim, 5, 6
Kinaara, 23, 24, 50, 52, 57-59, 62-72, 74, 93, 97, 106, 112, 113, 122, 123, 129, 132-34, 140, 166, 167, 177, 202, 203 Kinnara-couple, 48, 73, 75, 84, 85, 90, 91, 97, 98, 103, 122, 123, 131, 136, 139, 167, 188, 190, 222 Kinnari, 51, 64, 68, 97
Kiradu, 22, 217
kicaka, 50, 76, 81, 110, 111, 117, 118, 120, 125, 126, Kṣatriya, 18
170, 174, 177, 178, 196
Ksatriyani, 202
Ksenaraja, 10, 13
kripta, 65, 66, 73, 83, 91, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 112, 113
kriptotkipta, 51, 53, 69, 83, 84, 91, 97, 101, 104, 112, 226
kiriṭamukuta, 202 Kirtipäla, 11
kirttimukha (see also gräsamukha), 46-48, 50, 52, 5559, 61-67, 69-71, 73-75, 77, 78, 80-88, 90-94, 96102, 104, 105, 109, 110, 112-14, 116-18, 120-24, 126-33, 135-38, 140, 141, 143, 145, 148, 150-52, 154, 155, 158, 161, 162, 164-67, 170, 174-80, 183, 184, 196, 202-05, 217, 218, 221, 226, 229, 230 kirttimukha-band, 57, 58, 89, 91-95, 97-104, 108, 110, 112-14, 117, 118, 121, 123, 125, 129-33, 135, 136, 138, 140, 142, 145, 151, 152, 154, 161, 166, 167, 170, 171, 174, 175, 178, 179
kirttimukha, half, 86, 94, 106, 112, 130, 131, 138, 140, 145, 146, 154, 156, 161, 164, 165, 174 kirtti-torana, 38, 216
knife (A), 51, 54, 55, 114, 131, 151, 161, 165, 202, 203, 212, 220
Kokāvasati, 13
kola, 50, 52-54, 57-59, 61-75, 77, 81, 83-85, 88-93, 95105, 108, 112-14, 121-24, 128, 130-32, 134-36, 139-41, 151, 166, 167, 177, 179, 180, 187, 190, 195, 204, 218-23, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231 kuyikā, 108, 136, 137, 148, 151, 156, 158, 160-63,
168, 178, 192, 194, 202, 218, 223, 227, 232 Konkan, 2, 3, 31, 32
Konkana, 13
Koranṭagaccha, 77
34

Kotai, 183, 211, 217
Krsna (Lord), 1, 34, 37, 38, 68, 91, 201, 208, 213 Krsa (Yadava), 15
Kra I (Rastrakūṭa), 6, 9
Krsna II, 7-9, 20 Kṛṣṇa III, 8
Kṛṣṇa in Gokula, 201, 213, 231 Kreparaja, 5, 7, 9, 11 Krtayuga, 38 Kṣaharāta, 2
Kṣatrapa, 1-3, 16, 19
265
Kubera, 123, 137, 163, 211, 219 kucabandha, 202, 203
kukkuja (A), 211 Kukura, 2 Kumaradevi, 107 Kumaragupta I, 3
Kumarapala, 13-15, 18, 21, 22, 32, 34, 36, 38, 158, 186, 188, 192, 194, 205, 210 Kumarapalapratibodha, 10, 12 Kumāravihāras at
Abu, 13
Apahilapataka, 13, 22 Dhandhuka, 13 Dvipa, 13. Idar, 13
Jalor, 131
Karkarapuri, 13 Khambhata, 13 Läḍola, 13
Mandala, 19 Mangalapura, 13 Palitană, 13
Prabhasapattana, 13 Satru jaya, 13
Täranga, 13 Thäräpadra, 13
Kumārimātā temple at Abu, 186
kumbha, 34, 46-48, 50, 51, 56, 59, 60, 76-78, 80-83, 86, 87, 89, 93-95, 105, 108, 110, 112, 113, 116-22, 125-29, 132, 133, 135, 137-40, 142, 144-46, 151,

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266
Jaina Temples of Western India
154-56, 158, 160, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171, 174, 176-79, 183, 184, 186, 193, 195-97, 209, 210,217,
218, 224, 225, 229, 231 Kumbharia, 11-13, 15, 18, 19, 23, 24, 32-35, 107,
174, 184, 185, 187-93, 195.97, 201-14, 214n, 217.
22, 224-29, 232, 235 kumuda, 67, 76, 77, 80, 86, 89, 113, 121, 139, 160,
170, 176, 179, 183, 217 Kumudacandra, 21 Kundaladri, 37 Kunkana, 11 Kunthunātha, 188, 189 Kuşāna, 1, 23 Kusasthali, 1 Kusināra, 33 kāta, 56, 106, 109, 119, 137, 149, 150, 160, 162, 164,
195, 219, 225 Kutch, 2-4, 10-15, 22, 31, 33, 39, 183, 211
ladle (A), 88 Lädola, 13 Lahara, 18 lake, full of lotuses, 208 Lākhā, 10 Lakhabaval, 1 Lākhu, 198 Lakkundi, 215 Laksa, 10 Laksamanarāja II, 11, 27n Laksamana temple at Khajuraho, 183 laksana, 205 Lakşmi, 23, 38, 68, 82, 115, 118, 127, 133-35, 137,
145, 201, 208, 222, 226 Lakşmikarņa, 11 lalata, 54, 60, 80, 106, 109, 116-18, 120, 126, 127,
132, 135, 142, 145, 146, 152, 165, 171, 175, 176,
201, 221-23, 228 lalafabimba, 47, 48, 60, 61, 78, 81, 109, 110, 119,
120, 125, 127, 128, 133, 149, 177, 179, 222 Lalitādevi, 107, 197 lalita-pose, 148, 162 lalitāsana, 46, 48, 50-57, 59-62, 64-75, 80-82, 85-
87, 90, 95, 97, 101, 105, 109, 110, 112-16, 118- 25, 127-30, 132-35, 137, 138, 140-46, 149, 152, 154, 155, 160, 162-65, 170, 174-78, 191, 202, 209
11, 221, 223 Lalla, 186
lambana, 62, 74, 77, 80, 86, 87, 89, 94, 104, 106, 112,
113, 122, 123, 129-31, 137, 144, 150, 152, 160,
162, 168, 178, 230 lañchana, 205 Langhnaj, 1 Lāța, 5-8, 10-12, 14-16, 20, 31 latina, 217 Lavaņaprasāda, 14, 15 Lāvanyasimha, 107, 197 leaves, 50, 51, 65, 69, 82, 84-89, 91, 92, 94-99, 103,
104, 112, 114, 124, 131, 142, 151, 152, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 170, 175, 176, 178,
208, 229 Liladevi, 107 Lilvadeva, 6, 20 lion, 47, 64, 78, 109, 112, 121, 131, 136, 149, 160,
163, 164, 178, 203, 204, 208 lion (M), 56, 69, 95, 105, 209, 210 lion band/row, 57, 58, 61, 62, 64-67, 72,75,187, 226 locks of hair, 208 Lothal, 1, 16 lotus, 95, 109, 114, 115, 129, 131, 132, 141, 144,
162, 163, 177, 178, 202-04, 218, 228, 230 lotus (A), 55, 56, 60, 69, 72, 73, 88, 131, 149-51,
209-12, 219, 220 lotus bud, 65, 68, 87, 88, 90, 93, 99, 100, 170 lotus bud-band, 53 lotus buds with stalks, 57, 63, 74 lotus flower, 47, 50, 57, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73,
74, 77, 80-83, 85-88, 92, 93, 98, 100, 101, 101, 106, 115-19, 125, 127, 131, 133, 135, 138-42, 144, 145, 155, 161, 162, 164, 166, 167, 170, 180,
186, 206, 207, 222, 224, 226, 229 lotus leaves, 78, 137, 156, 158, 218, 227 lotus medallion, 50, 51, 59, 64, 68, 72, 80, 87, 112,
114-18, 122-26, 128-31, 135, 138, 140, 146, 155,
162-65, 177, 179, 187, 206, 221, 224, 226 lotus petal, 46, 57, 60, 61, 68-70, 83-85, 88, 89, 91
93, 95, 97-105, 109, 112-18, 120, 121, 125, 12731, 135, 138-40, 142, 145, 146, 149-51, 155, 161,
164, 166, 167, 170, 175-77, 179, 180, 224 lotus petal-and-bud motif, 51, 57, 58, 60-63, 66-69,
71, 75, 78, 80, 81, 83-85, 88, 90-92, 9 99, 100, 102-06, 131, 133, 135, 136, 139, 167,
186, 187, 191, 207, 218, 222-21, 226, 230 lotus petal and scroll, 92 lotus petal and stalk with flower, 84, 85
90

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Index
267
lotus petal, incurved, 114, 187, 188
Mahavira temples at lotus plant, 56, 94, 122, 132, 135, 136, 139,141, 144, Aşahillapura,8 204
Candravati, 13 lotus plants (A), 57
Ghanerao, 188, 219 lotus scrolls, 48, 50, 51, 55, 57-63, 67-69, 74, 75, 80, Kanth kot, 23, 178,185, 198, 204,207, 210-12,232
83-88, 91-99, 103, 104, 106, 110, 112-14, 117, Kumbharia, 11, 19, 24,108,119, 120,124, 126,127, 118, 121-23, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 129, 130, 137, 181n, 184, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 138-40, 142, 145, 149, 150, 152, 155, 160, 161, 201, 205-07, 209, 212, 213, 217, 218, 220-24, 164, 166, 167, 174, 176, 177, 188, 202, 218, 220- 229 23, 227, 230, 231
Modhera, 8, 26n lotus scroll, voluted, 66, 70, 98
Osia, 215, 216 lotus stem, 47, 48, 54, 57, 60, 78, 80, 81, 93-95, 106,
Shatrunjaya, 15 109, 110, 115, 118, 120, 121, 126-28, 132, 133, Siddhapura, 12 138, 141, 142, 145, 152, 160, 171, 176, 179, Varman, 212 221, 230
Mahendrapala I, 8-10 lotus with stalk, 83, 84, 124, 130, 133
Maheśvara, 2 Loyana, 56, 188, 189
Mahi, 1, 5, 6, 31 lozenge, 51, 53, 67, 70, 82, 88, 97, 102-05, 109, 115, Mahipala I, 8, 10, 27n 116, 161, 204
Mahmud, 11, 215 Lama, 52-54, 58, 59, 62, 64-66, 68-73, 75, 83, 84, 88, Mahoba, 12
91, 92, 96, 97, 99-105, 112-14, 166, 187, 195,219, Mahudi, 6, 20 221, 226, 228-30
Mairs, 14 Lumbini, 33
Maitraka, 3-6, 17, 19, 20, 38 Lūņādevi, 107
Maitraka temples of Saurashtra, 184 Lüņavasahi at Abu, 15, 18, 36, 77, 117, 184, 185, Majumdar, A. K., 27n
196, 197, 202-08, 210, 212, 213, 226, 229, 231,232 makara, 55, 77, 87, 113, 1 3, 124, 129, 130, 137, 150, Lūniga, 107, 167
154, 160, 161, 165, 192, 201-03, 224 Lustrous Red Ware, I
makara (M), 211
makara-bracket, 195 mace (A), 64, 73
makara-praņāla, 109, 137, 143, 144, 158, 160 Madanavarman, 12
Māladeva, 107 Madhav Vāv at Wadhwan, 198
Mālādevi temple at Gyaraspur, 217 Madhya Pradesh, 215
Mālādhara, 48, 50, 52-54, 56, 59, 61, 66, 67, 69, Magadh, 19
71-74, 77, 81, 82, 109, 110, 112, 114, 118, 123, Mahābhārata, 31, 35, 39
128, 131, 132, 136, 137, 140, 149, 164, 170, 174, Mahādeva, 15
175, 177, 179, 201, 219, 229 Mahājvala, 128, 137, 163, 208, 209
Mälava, 12, 14, 15 Mahäkāli, 122, 133, 137, 143, 208, 209
male attendant, 5, 55, 71, 80, 95, 107, 128, 137, 140, Mahākşatrapa, 3
150, 175, 191, 220, 222 Mahalla, 9
male carrying water jar / pitcher / pot, see rnale Mahämänasi, 69, 110, 122, 133, 208-10
pitcher-bearer Maharashtra, 5, 32
male caur 7-bearer, 120, 137 Māhātmya, 37
male cauri-bearer, bull-faced, 124 Mahāvarāha, 9
male dancer, 51, 54, 67, 86, 112, 115, 123, 125, Mahāvata, 106
130, 138, 140, 143, 220, 223, 224 Mahavidyā, 209, 210
male drummer, 73 Mahavira, 6, 23, 24, 35, 36, 76, 78, 108, 109, 115, male musician, 51, 123, 125, 138, 140, 143, 220, 124, 168, 171, 178, 181n, 189, 202, 212
221, 224

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268
Faina Temples of Western India
male pitcher-bearer, 55, 60, 71, 84, 95, 110, 112, Mayaņallādevi, 11, 12 121-23, 125
measuring rod, 56 Mallavädin, 20
Mecca, 33 Mallikarjuna, 13
medallion, 51, 187, 188 Mallinätha, 152
Medapāța, 13 Mallināthacarita, 186
Medinah, 33 Malwa, 2, 4, 5, 7-15, 31, 32
Megasthenes, 35 Malwa Plateau, 32
Megharatha, 64, 124 man (M), 209, 210
Meha, 4ln Mānasi, 48, 50, 133, 149, 208, 209, 210
Mehsana, 11, 21, 32, 36, 39 Mānavi, 101, 110, 116, 129, 137, 208, 209, 219, 222 Menander, 2 mañcika, 78, 137, 144, 148, 149, 152, 156, 158, 160, Merata, 32 162, 168, 171, 176, 178, 192-94, 223, 224, 227
Meru, 37, 106, 154, 197 Manda hills, 31
Merutunga, 20, 22 Mandala, 13
Mewar, 15, 34 mandapa, 3, 19, 46, 116, 117, 135, 143, 152, 154,
Mewar Plateau, 32 166, 170, 171, 174, 175, 183, 186, 192, 197, 198,
Miani, 16, 32, 33, 40, 176, 196, 197, 204, 206, 207 201, 215, 225, 232, 234
210, 212 mandāraka, 58, 62-66, 68-70, 72, 73, 75, 84, 85, 90,
milk-maid, 5 102-05, 114, 123, 190, 204, 219, 222, 226, 229,
minayugala (see also fishes), 3, 19 230, 235
miniature shrine (see also shrine model), 77, 86, 87, mandaraka flower, 62, 69, 70-72, 91
118, 119 Māņdavadurga, 16
miniature fikhara, 80-82, 87, 89, 94, 106, 146, 229 Māndavagadha, 16
Mirashi, V. V., 27n Māndhātā, 2, 38
mirror (see also darpana), 165, 202 mandovara, 48, 78, 108, 109, 120, 128, 132, 145,
mithuna-couple, 136, 161 148, 149, 154, 156, 160, 162, 163, 170, 174, 176,
mithuna-scene, 137, 160, 203, 227 178, 184, 185, 190, 191, 194, 195, 201, 210, 221, Modhera, 8, 26n, 186-88, 190, 21, 216, 219, 224 223, 231, 232
Mo-la-po, 4 Mandsor, 2, 16
money bag (A), 56 man fighting a lion, 76
monk, 54, 63, 115, 116, 125 Mangalapura, 13
monkey, 65, 72, 112, 136, 137, 140, 141, 148, 150, Mangalarasa, 6
158, 160, 161, 178 mangoes (A), 208
Moon, 208 manuscript (A), 97
moonstone (see also candrafila), 94, 109, 110, 112, Manushottara parvata, 37
116, 118-21, 127-29, 132, 134, 138, 142, 145, 171, Marakandeya Pārāņa, 38
174, 175, 224, 229 Maratha, 2
Motisäha-tunk, 37 Märavada, 10
Muhammadan, 39, 164, 165 Marco Polo, 17, 18
Muizzuddin Ghūri, 14 Maru, 2
mukhamandapa, 44, 47, 48, 50-52, 83, 86, 108, 112Marwad, 11, 14, 31, 40
15, 121, 123, 129-32, 136, 138-41, 143, 151, 156, Matanga, 115, 124, 208
158, 164, 166-68, 170, 174, 176-78, 184, 185, Mathura, 19
187-91, 193, 194, 196, 197, 204-11, 215, 216, 219. Mathuri-vācana, 19
30, 232, 234, 235 Matşkās, 64, 202, 208
mukuli, 177 matsya, 208
mülaghanță, 170 matulunga (A), 97
mülamasjari, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 152, 162, Mauryan, 1, 2, 19, 32, 37
168, 176, 218, 221, 223, 228
Jain Education Intematonal

Page #286

milanayaka, 76, 108, 109, 152, 171
malaprasada (see also sanctum), 44, 47, 78, 108, 120, 127, 136, 144, 146, 148, 149, 156, 158, 160, 163, 168, 171, 174, 176-78, 184-87, 189, 192, 194, 196 Mülarāja (I), 8, 10, 18, 21, 39, 183 Malaraja II, 14
Malarajavasshika at Aṇahilapataka, 11, 21 Molasamgha, 20
Muni, 36
Munibävä temple at than, 183, 184, 211, 212 Munisuvrata temples at
Dholka, 12
Shatrunjaya, 15
Muñja, 10, 11
Muñjala, 12, 21
Muñjalavasatika, 12
Muñjasaha, 16
musical instruments, 55, 88, 97, 103, 114, 131, 124, 137, 151, 166, 177, 202, 203, 212, 220 musicians, 46, 58, 59, 62, 66-68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 88, 105, 115, 123, 124, 128, 131, 134-37, 139, 144, 150, 160-62, 165, 166, 177, 179, 203, 220, 227 Muslim, 14, 16, 31, 39, 44, 163, 167, 231
Nābheya, 37
Näbheyaprāsāda, 181n
näbhicchanda, 65, 66, 72, 73, 83, 84, 91, 96-102, 104, 112, 113, 187, 190, 218, 219, 221, 229, 230, 235 Nadlai, 187, 215
Index
Nagaraja, 11
Nägasärikä, 20
Nagatirtha, 35
Naga tribe, 35
Nägävaloka, 8, 20
Nagendragaccha, 167, 197
Nagila, 12
Nägina, 73
Nahapana, 2
Naigameşin, 23, 55, 90, 92, 110, 114, 134, 140, 202,
203, 212, 213, 220
Na kidevi, 14

nalamandapa, 127, 131, 135, 136, 139, 141, 143, 168,
184, 191, 215, 222, 223, 228 Nanavati, 104
nandika, 156, 160 63, 227 Nandini, 35
nandipada, 19
Nandipuri, 5, 20 Nandisvara, 37
Nandivaradvipa, 104, 139, 200
Nandivardhan, 35
Nadola, 11-13, 215
Naga, 5, 35, 62, 67, 73, 74,108,128,203,204, 222,226 navaratha, 106
Nagabhata I, 5, 6
Nagabhata II, 7-10, 201
Nägapāsa, 59
Nagara Brahmana, 38
Nandol, 5
nandyävarta, 208
Nannācārya, 77 Nannarāja, 9
Naradatta, 128, 137, 163, 208-10
marapaffika, 137, 160, 194, 227 Narasimha, 8
narathara, 51, 136, 137, 178, 188, 221, 224, 228 Naravarman, 12
Narayana, 158
Narmada, 1, 2, 5-9, 11, 31, 32
narrative scenes, 114, 115, 190, 191, 201, 212, 213, 220, 222, 227, 231, 235 Nasik, 2, 6 naṣṭaśṛnga, 148
nāṭamaṇḍapa, 216 navacoki, 188
Navalakha temples at Ghumli, 39, 175, 196 Sejakpur, 40, 193, 224 navaranga, 216
Navasärikā, 5, 9, 31
Nava-tunk, 37
Navsari, 6, 10, 20, 31
Nayacakra, 20
269
Nayikā, 205, 224 Nedha, 186
Nemi, 23
Neminatha, 19, 22, 37, 78, 108, 115, 124, 138, 149,
167, 189, 192, 208, 212, 213
Neminathacariya, 186
Neminatha, life scene, 64
Neminatha's renunciation, 97, 213, 231
Neminatha temples at
Girnar, 13, 18, 19, 32, 37, 146, 151, 184, 185, 191, 193-96, 204, 205, 208, 212, 219, 222-25, 227, 228

Page #287

270
Kumbharia, 13, 23, 24,34,108, 117, 136, 185, 188, 191-93, 195, 203, 205, 207, 209-12, 219, 222-28 Shatrunjaya, 15
Nihaça, 12
Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Miani, 40, 196-98 Nilgiri, 35 Nina, 18
Ninnaya, 10
mirandhara-prasada, 47, 107
Nirihullaka, 5
Nirṛti, 71, 123, 134, 137, 143, 211, 222 Nirsaga, 33, 37, 115, 201
Niroaga-kalyāyaka, 37, 213, 214
Nişāda, 2
Nifitha Cürgi, 38
Nittaladevi, 12
noose (A) (see also pāśa), 56, 64, 69, 72, 73, 80, 81 Northern-Black-Polished Ware, 1
Jaina Temples of Western India
Northern Gujarat, 207, 235
Northern Indian temple architecture, 215, 234
Nrsimha Vişņu, 73, 205, 208
Nrsimhävatära of Visņu, 202, 205, 227
Nusrat Khan, 15
Nyayavijaya, 36
Ocean of milk, 208 odhani, 203 ogho, 203
O-Nan-to-pu-lo, 30 Orissa, 215
Orsang, 1
Osavala, 77 Osia, 8, 215-17
Pachtar, 9 padma, 47, 48, 50, 57, 58, 60-62, 64, 66, 67, 75-78, 80-92, 94-104, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116-23, 125-31, 133-36, 138, 140, 142, 144-46, 148, 150, 151, 154, 155, 161, 164, 165, 170, 171, 174-77, 179, 180, 206, 230
padmaka, 68, 97, 219, 226, 230, 235
padmaketara, see stamenal tube
226, 229-31
padmanabha, 51, 53, 101, 112, 187, 190, 192, 219, 221
padmapatra, 225
padmasana, 46, 47, 51, 57, 60-62, 70, 71, 73, 74, 7678, 80, 81, 84, 90, 95, 106, 110, 116-21, 125-27,

135, 137, 139, 140, 142, 145, 146, 149, 160, 165, 177, 201, 202 padmafila, 52-59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 71, 74, 75, 8385, 88, 91-93, 99, 103, 104, 114, 122, 124, 130, 134, 138-41, 165-67, 193, 216, 220-23, 225, 226, 228, 230 Padmavati, 128, 222 Paharpur, 8
Pāla, 6
Palanpur, 13, 31, 32
Pali, 215
Pälitānā, 13, 37 Pallu, 23 Pampabharata, 8
palakalapaka, 63, 64, 66, 115, 124, 125, 201, 212,
213, 220, 227, 231
pasaratha, 54, 82, 123, 127, 129, 139, 144, 191,
215, 216, 221
pacalakha, 110, 128, 133, 149, 195, 219, 222 Pañcăsara, 10
Pañcasara Pärsvanatha, 20
pañcatirthi, 47, 201
Päṇḍava, 1, 39
Pāṇḍu, 37
Pārā, 14
Paradeśa, 39
Paramāra, 8, 10-14, 27n, 32, 38, 40, 235
Paramardin, 14
Paramarhat, 21
parasol (see also chatra), 107, 201
padmamandaraka, 58, 59, 63, 69, 71, 83, 187, 221, Parivanstha, life story, 99
Pärévanatha Mt., 154 Pärsvanatha temples at Anahilapataka, 11 Bhadreshwar, 39 Cambay, 12
parasol-bearer, 106
parafu (A), 69, 72
Parents of 24 Tirthankaras, 125
parikara, 76, 113, 117, 134, 138, 139, 144-45, 196, 201, 204, 224 Parikha, R.C., 186 Parnadatta, 3 parrot, 112 Pāréva, 23
Pärávanätha, 6, 10, 13, 22, 48, 50, 76, 108, 115, 125, 127, 128, 138, 142, 146, 152, 170, 175, 195, 196, 201, 208, 212, 213, 222

Page #288

Cāṇasmā, 16
Dabhoi, 15
Devapattana, 22
Dholka, 12
Ghumli, 15, 175, 196, 225, 229 Kumbharia, 13, 34, 108, 118, 127, 136, 185, 188, 191-93, 204, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 221, 222, 224, 225
Patadi, 12 Sankhelvara, 12
Shatrunjaya, 15
Vardhamanapura, 9
Parthian, 16
pala (A) (see also noose), 48, 129
Pasila, 19, 34, 192, 198
Patalene, 2 Pataliputra, 17
Patiani Devi temple at Bharhut, 184 patrasakha, 46-48, 60, 61, 95, 106, 109, 110, 116, 118, 120, 127, 128, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 149, 152, 155, 164, 165, 171, 176, 177, 179 Paṭṭavali, 11, 20, 35, 186, 192, 215 pattika, 47, 76, 78, 80, 105, 108, 109, 113, 119, 127, 130, 138, 140, 144, 148, 152, 160, 167, 176
peacock, 136, 140
peacock (M), 71, 73, 209, 210
pen (A), 211
Index
pendant, 48, 50, 55, 80, 81-83, 86, 87, 90-92, 94, 99, 103, 104, 113, 114, 123, 132, 133, 135, 150,
161, 170, 185, 190, 192, 193, 207, 216, 224
Percy Brown, 231
Periplus, 2, 16
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 31
Persia, 1, 16
Persian Gulf, 1, 16
Pethaḍa, 16, 22, 78
phamsana, 46-48, 78, 145, 186, 189, 229
pilaster, 3-facetd, 135, 229
pilaster, 5-faceted, 50, 51, 60, 110, 112, 116-18, 120, 122, 125, 126, 129, 131, 133, 135, 141, 145, 155, 221, 224-26,
pillar, heptagonal, 80 pillar, hexagonal, 86
pillar, octagonal, 51, 56, 59, 60, 77, 93, 94, 112, 113, 116-18, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 129-31, 135, 141, 143, 145, 154, 156, 161, 164, 165, 170, 174, 218-21, 223, 228, 229, 232
pillar, round, 87

pillar, square, 48, 51, 54, 76, 86, 89, 94, 112, 113, 121, 122, 129, 130, 140, 141, 143, 150, 154, 156, 174, 177, 179, 218-21, 223, 224, 226 pipala, 68
pitcher, 114, 124, 128, 178, 195, 202, 203 pitcher (A), 46, 53, 55, 56, 64, 71-73, 75, 193, 209, 211, 212, 220
pitcher-bearer, 53, 54, 74, 77, 114, 129
pitha, 23, 44, 46-48, 50, 51, 76, 78, 82, 86, 105, 10810, 112, 118-121, 128, 129, 132, 135, 136, 138, 144-46, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154-56, 158, 160, 161, 166, 168, 170, 171, 176-79, 183-86, 188, 190, 191, 194, 195, 198, 201, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210,21621, 223-25, 227-29, 231, 232
Pithadeva, 14, 39
plaque, circular, 62, 96, 99, 131, 139
plaque, rectangular, 98, 101, 102, 230 plaque, square, 96 ploughshare, 203 Porbandar, 9, 38, 40
porch, 47, 48, 50, 51, 54, 61, 76, 78, 81-83, 108, 110,
271
117-20, 126-28, 135, 143-46, 150, 154, 155, 158, 164, 165, 168, 171, 178-80, 187, 196, 197, 218, 220, 222, 223, 228-30, 232
portico, 56, 89-92, 204, 213, 230 portrait sculpture, 197, 203, 231 pot (A), 69
Prabandha, 21, 22, 186, 191, 194 Prabandhacintamani, 18, 39
prabhamandala, 137
Prabhas, 1
Prabhāsa, 2, 35
Prabhasakṣetra, 36
Prabhasapataṇa, 15
Prabhasapattana, 13
Prabhavakacarita, 8, 20, 22, 194
Präci, 9
pradaksiyapatha, 146, 148, 163. Pradyumna, 37
Prägvăța, 18
prahāra, 119, 134, 142, 144, 152, 162, 168, 221 Prajñapti, 66, 71, 122, 143, 208-10
frākāra, 108, 119, 136, 144, 184, 197, 232 pranala, 119, 171, 204 Prasantaraga, 20
Prafasti, 4, 186, 197 Pratapadevi, 107 Pratapamalla, 15

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272
Jaina Temples of Western India
Pratihāra, 23, 24, 51, 54, 60, 61, 77, 78, 80, 82,
113, 127, 130, 133, 140, 146, 149, 155, 177, 179,
201, 208, 219, 220, 223, 225 Pratihāra (Gurjara), 5-11, 13, 17, 36 pratiratha, 46-78, 108, 109, 119, 132, 134, 136, 137,
142-44, 148, 149, 151, 152, 156, 158, 160, 162,
168, 171, 176, 178, 192, 193, 223, 224, 227 pratyalidha, 110 pratyanga, 144, 162, 168, 195, 228, 232 Pre-Solanki, 183, 184, 206, 217 Pșthvipāla, 11, 13, 21, 77, 188, 189 Ppthviraja III, 14 Ptolemy, 16, 31 Pulakesi, 10 Pulakesin II, 4, 5 Pulakesirāja, 6, 10 Pūņapākşadeva, 22 Pundarika, 37 Pundarikasvāmi, 158 Punjab, 32 Purāna, 1, 36 Purātana Prabandha Sangraha, 186 Purnatallagaccha Patļāvali, 10 Pushkaradvipa, 37 Puşyadeva, 9 Puşyagupta, 1
Rămacandra, 15 Rāmapola at Ghumli, 39 Rāmasainyapura, 11 Rānaka, 9 Rāņaka II, 9 Rāņakadevi temple at Wadhwan, 183 Rāņakapura, 12 Rāṇā Kumbhā, 34 rangamandapa, 13, 24, 39, 47, 50, 54, 56-59, 75, 82,
86, 88, 89, 94, 105, 108, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123-25, 127, 129-31, 134,136, 138,140,141,143, 144, 146, 168, 170, 171, 174, 175-79, 184.90, 193, 196, 202, 204-10, 212, 213, 216, 219-31,
235 Rangpur, 1 Rann of Kutch, 31, 32 Răstrakūta, 5-11, 17, 20, 32 ratha, 76, 106, 161 Rathavasahika, 6 rathika, 23, 109, 119, 120, 123, 134, 142-44, 148-50,
152, 156, 162, 163, 168, 176, 178, 190, 192, 193,
198, 209, 210, 217, 221, 223, 228, 232 Rāthora, 40 Ratlam, 32 Ratnal hill, 23 ratna paffika, 158, 168, 194, 196, 227 Red-Polished Ware, 1 rekha, 228 rekhādeul, 216 Revantagirirāsu, 191 Revata, 1 Revati, 1 Rgueda, 35 ring (A), 62, 97 river goddess, 202, 208, 221, 222 Roda, 9, 217 Rohini, 48, 50, 110, 123, 128, 129, 133, 134, 142,
208-10, 221 Rojdi, 1 roll moulding, 167 rosette, 53, 109, 112, 131, 138, 151, 152, 156, 183
207, 217 rosette, diamond-shaped, 46, 154 Rsabha, 23 Rşabhadeva Rşabhanātha (see also Ādinātha), 10
20, 37, 115, 18ln Rşabhadeva temples at
Rāmasainyapura, 11
Qutb-ud-din, 14
Radhanpura, 10 Raghusena, 11 Raivata, 36, 37 Raivatagirikalpa, 191 Raivațaka, 4, 19, 36 Raivata Kakudmin, 1 Rajapūta, 39, 40 rājasenaka, 78, 112, 121, 129, 136, 143, 148, 152,
154, 158, 161, 162, 175, 183, 207, 227 Rajasthan, 8, 12, 18, 31, 32, 35, 39, 204, 215-17,
219 Rajasthan temples, 216 Rājasiya, 1 Rājavihāra at Anahilapāțaka, 12, 19: Rājimati, 82 rajoharaṇa, 107 Rajputana, 2, 5, 7, 12, 31 ram (M), 211 Rāma, 14, 15 Ramabhadra, 7

Page #290

Vadnagar, 38
Rṣabhanatha temple at Kumbharia, 34
Rṣabbasena, 37
Rudradaman, 1-3, 16, 36
Rudramahalaya at Siddhapur, 193, 216, 224
Rukmini, 34
Runn of Kutch, 10 Rūpāde, 107
rupakaṇṭha, 88
rūpapafrika, 88
rupafakha, 46, 48, 61, 81, 110, 128, 133, 149, 179 rupastambha, 16, 48, 60, 61, 81, 110, 128, 133, 149, 179, 183, 209
Sabarmati, 1, 2, 8, 11
sabhamandāraka, 53, 54, 57, 61, 62, 66, 67, 74, 75, 83, 85, 88, 91, 93, 99, 103, 104, 114, 124, 130, 139, 140, 16, 221, 229, 230
sabhämärga, 96, 112, 128, 150, 229, 235 sabhäpadmamandaraka, 55, 62, 75, 83, 84, 165, 226,
229, 230
Sadri, 215
Sägalavasahika at Khambhat, 12
Sägaradatta, 36
Sagaradvipa, 2 Śahapura, 40
Saindhava, 5-7, 9, 10
Saiva, 21, 44
Saiva temple, 35
Sajjana, 12, 18, 191, 192
Saka, 3, 32
Sakambhari, 12, 13
fakha, 60, 81, 95, 106, 110, 116, 120, 125-28, 132, 133, 141, 142, 145, 146, 149, 150, 152, 164, 165, 171, 174, 176, 177, 179
Sakra, 23
Sakunikavihāra at Broach, 13
Salabbaäjika, 55, 87, 226
Saligavasahika at Cambay, 22
Index
Salva, 1
samskipta, 68, 69, 72, 100, 187, 221, 226
Samalikävihāratirtha, 137
Samantasimha, 13
35

samatala (see also flat), 53, 57, 62-66, 68-74, 90, 91, 93, 95-104, 110, 115, 119, 124-26, 131, 134, 135, 141-43, 150, 162-64, 166, 167, 226, 229, 230, 235 samskipta, 58, 63-66, 70, 71, 73, 90, 102, 105, 187, 226
Samavasarana, 63, 77, 97, 119, 124, 187, 208, 212,
213, 214, 231 Sambakumāra, 37 Sambara, 35
Sambhava, 23
Sambhavanatha, 86, 108, 145
Sambhavanatha temple at Kumbharia, 15, 23,
108, 144, 195, 197, 203, 207, 210, 232 Sammetadri, 37
Sammeta Šikhara, 41n, 154, 197 Samprati, 2, 19
Samudragupta, 3
Samudramanthana, 73, 201, 213
273
saliläntara, 46, 48, 108, 109, 132, 136, 137, 142, 144,
148, 151, 156, 158, 160, 161, 168, 171, 175, 178, Santinatha, 64, 78, 86, 108, 112, 115, 120, 124, 128,
170, 212, 213
202, 218, 224, 227
Santinatha, life story, 98
Samudra-Pase, 18
samvarana, 109, 110, 119, 120, 149, 150, 154, 164, 178, 189, 190, 192, 195, 204, 219, 221, 223, 225, 228
Sanatkumara, 124 Sanchor, 11
sanctum (see also mülaprāsāda), 46-48, 78, 108, 110, 116, 117, 120, 127, 128, 138, 145, 146, 151, 152, 155, 158, 160, 170, 171, 176-79, 184, 186, 189-95, 197, 198, 201, 208, 209, 211, 215, 217-19, 221-25, 227, 229, 232
sandhara-prāsāda, 146, 158, 184, 194, 223, 227 Sangamasimha, 5
Sankalia, 194, 196 Sankaragana, 5, 7 Sankha, 14
Sankha (see also conch), 50, 53, 54, 60, 76, 80-82, 94, 109, 110, 118, 120, 121, 126-28, 142, 145, 171 Sankha (A), 149
Sankha (M), 149 sankhadi, 35 Śanti, 23
Santinatha temples at
Anahilapataka, 13 Devakula, 16 Dostaṭikā, 9

Page #291

274
Jaina Temples of Western India
Kumbharia, 12, 23, 34, 108, 119, 127, 139, 187,
188, 190, 191, 201, 202, 205, 207-09, 211-13,
220-23 Sāyanavādapura, 13
Valabhi, 6 Sāntů, 12, 21 Santüv? satikā at Anahilapātaka, 12 Sapādalaksa, 10, 39 saparikara, 47, 78, 106, 112, 125, 127, 128, 170 saptaratha, 142, 162 Saptašākha, 158, 164, 179, 194, 195, 227, 228, 232 Säranātha, 23 Sărangadeva, 15 Saraostos, 2 Sarasvati, 23, 35, 54, 56, 60, 66, 72. 82, 97. 109.
112, 115, 123, 129, 133, 134, 137, 138, 145, 163,
104, 186, 188, 194, 201, 208, 226 $ardūla, 52, 67, 77, 136, 137, 150, 152, 204, 224 Sarma, 9 Sarotra, 13, 32, 34, 40, 171, 196, 211, 225, 228 sarpamukuta, 11 Sarvadevasūri, 11 Sarvānandasūri, 16, 39, 195 Sarvānubhūti, 23, 48, 54, 56, 60, 70, 109, 110, 115,
121, 122, 129, 141, 145, 149, 177, 179, 219, 225,
228, 232 Sāryāta, 1 Sāryāti, 1 Sasa nadeva, 23 Sasanadevatā, 23, 124 Sasanadevi, 23 Satakarņi, 3 Sātavāhana, 1 Satavati, 16 Satpura range, 32 Satruñjaya (see also Shatrunjaya), 13, 19, 37, 41n Satrunjaya Māhatmya, 20 saťšākha, 48, 221 Satya Yuga, 38 Saubha, 1 Saurashtra, 1,2,6, 8-13, 15-19, 31, 32, 36, 40,184,191 Saurya, 9 Sauvira, 2 Sāvadeva, 19 saw-tuoth pattern, 50, 51, 55, 57, 63, 74, 76, 80-82,
86, 87, 90, 95, 113, 114, 116, 125, 130, 132, 174,
175, 177, 179, 196, 198, 229 Sayla, 34, 40
Sāyaṇavādapura, 13 scallop pattern, 80, 82, 88, 94, 229 scarf, 202, 203 scotia, 92 scroll, 118, 125, 136, 141, 152,155, 158,161, 202,204 Scythia, 16 Sejaka, 40 Sejakpura, 13, 32-34, 40, 156, 193, 211, 224, 225,
227, 228 Senāpati, 3 Senasamgha, 20 Seșa, 68 Sewadi, 215 Shah, U. P., 56, 184, 186, 188 Shamlaji, 9, 32 Shatrunjaya (see also Satruõjaya), 13, 15, 16,20-22,
32, 33, 36-38, 158, 185, 193-95, 197, 206, 207,
211, 225, 227 shield (A), 55, 64, 69, 73, 14, 211 shrine model (see also miniature shrine), 83, 229 siddhaksetra, 33, 36, 37 Siddha pāla, 13 Siddhapälavasati at Anahilapätaka, 13, 15 Siddhapur, 12, 32, 186, 193, 216, 224 Siddharāja (see also Jayasimha, Caulukya), 205 Siddhavihāra, 12 Siddhāyikā, 108, 112, 124 Siddhāyikā shrine at Taranga, 36 Sigerdis, 2 fikhara, 23, 81, 82, 108, 109, 117, 119, 127, 133, 134,
136, 137, 142-45, 148, 149, 151, 152, 156, 160, 162, 163, 168, 171, 176, 178, 185, 189, 190, 192-97, 201, 204, 206, 209, 210, 216-19,221, 225,
227-29, 231, 232, 234 Siladitya, 20 Siladitya I, 4 Siladitya III, 4, 6 Silāditya VII, 5 Silagunasūri, 20 Simandharasvāmi temple at Dholka, 12 Simha, 14 Simhana, 14, 15 simhāsana, 51, 59, 63, 65, 91 simhavyāla, 160, 163, 202 Sindh, 11, 12, 31, 32 Sindhu, 2 Sindhurāja, 10-12 single-sakha, 47, 60, 77, 78, 80, 94, 95, 106, 110,116,
120, 125, 1.6, 128, 132 135, 150, 175, 220-23

Page #292

Sirohi, 35 Sisupala, 34 Sitadevi, 107 Sivaratri, 22
Siva temples at Duda, 39 Kotai, 183 Sejak pur, 40
Siyaka II, 8, 10 Skandagupta, 3, 36
Skanda Purana, 35, 38
skandha, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 148, 152, 162, 163,
168, 185, 228
smokeless fire, 208
snake, 161, 208, 213
snake (A), 69, 73, 80, 149
snake (M), 73, 81, 149, 209, 210, 219, 221
snakehood, 201
Index
Solathambā, 39 Soma, 107
Somadharmagani, 181n, 186
Somanatha temple at Somnath, 195, 196
Some vara, 13
Somesvara Pattan, 17
Somkansări, 9
Somnath, 1, 2, 6, 11, 17, 18, 20, 33, 195, 196, 215
Sompura, 183
Sopara, 2, 31, 32
Sopäraga, 2
Spear (A), 88 Śramana, 19
sthalapattana, 38
sthapana, 51, 59, 63, 74, 75, 115, 113, 140, Strabo, 2
Strato I, 2
Sobhanadeva, 107
stylobate, 135 Subhaṭavarman, 14
Soda, 198
fucimudra, 56
Sohi, 198
Sudarsana, 124
Sokhu, 197
Sola, 39
Sudarsana lake, 16 Südra, 18 Suhadade, 107
Solākavasati at Aṇahilapāṭaka, 12 Solanki, 10, 19, 21, 32, 39, 40, 44, 183, 206, 215, Suhadadevi, 107, 197
217, 219, 234
Solanki temples, 184, 206, 217
Subaqasimha, 107 Suhasti, 19, 42n
Sujat Khan, 38
fukanäsä, 16, 195, 210, 216, 228
Srasraya Siladitya, 6
Sravaka, 48, 50, 51, 54, 55, 58,61,63, 64, 66, 69-71, 74-76, 85, 88, 90, 92, 106, 107, 125, 127, 130,
135, 140, 145, 197, 203
Śrimāla, 10, 20 Śrimālapura, 20 Srimali, 12, 18, 39 Śripala, 13
Srivatsa, 3, 208

friga, 109, 119, 134, 142, 144, 145, 148, 152, 162, 163, 168, 176, 195, 218, 223, 227, 228, 232 stambhalakha, 46, 61, 95, 106, 109, 118, 145, 117, 152, 155, 164, 165, 176, 177, 219, 226, 232 Stambhatirtha, 22
stamenal tube, 52-56, 58, 59, 61-75, 83, 84, 88, 9192, 96, 98, 101-03, 105, 112, 114, 117, 122, 124, 131, 132, 134-36, 139, 144, 166, 167, 221, 222 Sten Konow, 35
Sulaksanapura, 16
fulka, 16
Sultan, 18
Sumatinatha temlpe at Takavavi, 12
Sumatra, 18
Sumeru, 154, 208
Sumvara, 13
Sun, 140, 208
Sunanda, 23
Sun temples at Kandola, 38
Modhera, 186-88, 190, 211, 216, 219, 224 Suparivanatha, 137, 138
Suraṣṭra, 2
Surat, 2
Sravanbelgol, 215
Suratha, 2
Śrävikä, 48, 50, 55, 61, 85,90,92,107, 127,145, 203 Surendranagar, 38, 40
Śresthi, 158 Śri, 208
Sürpäraka, 31 Sürya, 20
275

Page #293

276
Jaina Temples of Western India
Sürya teinples at
Kanthkot, 39
Kotai, 183 Susthitasūri, 35, 41n Sūtradhāra, 56, 107, 234 Sūtrapada, 8 Svabbra, 2 svastika, 3, 19, 117, 208 Svetā nbara, 20-22, 24, 33, 36,201,202, 208,215,234 Svetāmbara literature, 23 Svetāmbara monks, 203 Svetāmbara temples, 234 swan (M), 56, 71, 88, 90, 97, 149, 209, 210 sword (A), 46, 64, 69, 73, 209, 211 Tailapa II, 8 Tākavavi, 12 talarūpaka, 47, 48, 50, 60, 78, 80, 81, 94, 109, 110,
116, 121, 127, 128, 132,134, 135,138,142,145,171 Tapeśvara temple at Nadlai, 187 Tapti, 5, 8, 13, 32 Tarā, 36 Tāragadha, 36 Täragiri, 36 Tārāgiri, 36 Tāraṇadurga, 36 Tāranagadha, 36 Taranagiri, 36 Taranga, 13, 18, 22, 23, 32, 33, 36, 158, 184, 185,
188, 192, 194, 202, 204, 206, 207, 210-12, 216,
225, 227, 235 Tarangadha, 36 Tārangagiri, 36 Tarangakaparvata, 36 Tāranganāga, 36 Täräpura, 56 Taraura, 36 Tārāvaranagara, 36 Tarnetar, 38 Tarnetar Mahātmya, 38 Taruna Mata, 36 tassel, 48, 55, 113, 122, 129, 161, 164, 170, 175,
190, 201, 207, 219 Tejahsimha, 15 Tejapāla, 14-16, 18, 22, 32, 34, 106, 156, 197, 231 temple-prasasti, 185, 186, 197 Thakura Sāla vāhana, 192 Thākura Sāvadeva, 19, 192 Than, 8, 11, 32, 33, 38,46,183, 184,211,212,217, 218 Thān Purana, 38
Thārāpadra, 13 thunderbolt (A) (see also vajra), 208 tiger, 140 tilaka, 55, 77, 87, 114, 124, 130, 143, 144, 149, 152,
156, 162, 163, 168, 192, 195, 228, 232 Tilangadesa, 39 tirtha, 20, 21, 33, 35 tirthaksetra, 33 Tirthamālā, 108 Tirthankara, see Jina Tod, James, 40 toraņa, 119 torana-arch, 55, 56, 75, 87, 113, 114, 118, 122-24,
129, 130, 137, 143, 150, 191, 216, 218-20, 223,
224, 226, 230 toraņa-pillar, 205 torus, 46, 106, 232 Traikūțaka tree motif, 92, 95, 155 trefoil arch, 206, 218 Tretāyuga, 38 tribhanga, 110, 115, 137, 202 Tribhuvana pāla, 15 Tribhuvanavihāra at Anahilapāțaka, 13, 22 triha, 197 Trinetresvara, 38 Trinetreśvara temple at Than, 183 Tripuți Mahārāja, 34 triratha, 106, 113, 161, 167, 175, 219 trifakha, 81, 106, 109, 118, 145, 176, 219, 229, 232 Trisala, 23, 202 trišala (A), 48, 64, 69, 73, 88 tritirthi, 201 Trivihāra at Anahilapātaka, 13 trumpet (A), 72 trumpeter, 69, 115, 137, 201 tryanga, 46, 47, 78, 108, 109, 119, 127, 132, 134,
136, 142, 144, 148, 149, 151, 152, 156, 158, 162, 168, 171, 174, 176, 178, 180n, 193, 197, 215, 217,
218, 221, 223-25, 227-29 tunk, 37 Turuşka, 10, 15 Tuşāspha, 2 twine pattern, 51, 98, 112, 120, 125, 131, 135, 138,
140, 161, 163, 222
uccalaka, 55, 56, 87, 89, 123, 130, 136, 140, 150,
165, 174, 191, 220, 222, 223, 226, 230 Udadhikumāra, 51 Udaipur, 7 Udayana, 12, 13, 18, 21

Page #294

Index
277
Udayanavihāras at
Cambay, 12
Karnāvati, 12, 18 Udayanta, 36 Udayaprabha, 106 udgama, 87, 89, 94, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 117,
119-21, 126-29, 134, 137, 139, 142-44, 146, 148, 149, 152, 156, 158, 160-63, 166, 168, 171, 176,
178, 192, 198, 202, 219, 223, 224, 228, 232 udumbara, 46-48, 50, 60, 61, 109, 110, 116, 118, 120,
121, 125, 126, 128, 132, 133, 135, 141, 142, 145,
146, 149, 152,165, 171, 175-77, 179, 221, 223 Ujjain, 4, 6, 7, 11, 19, 32 Ujjanta, 36 Ujjayanta, 36 Ujjayini, 7, 8 Ukeśavasati at Anahilapātaka, 12 Ulugh Khan, 15 umbrella (A), 56 Upaded asaplati, 18ln Upāóraya, 11 upsarga, 201 urahfråga (see also uromañjari), 195,218,223,227, 232 urasätra, 202, 205 Urjayat, 36 urnā, 203 uromañjari (see also urahafsriga), 109, 119, 134, 142,
144, 145, 148, 149, 152, 162, 163, 168, 176 urujālaka, 201, 202 Uşavadāta, 2 usnisa, 175, 201 utksipla, 68, 97, 114, 123 uttarariga, 46-48, 50, 60, 61, 77, 109, 110, 116-18,
120, 121, 125-28, 132, 133, 135, 141, 142, 145,
146, 149, 152, 165, 171, 175-77 Uttarā patha, 31 uttariya, 203 Vādiyāra, 10 Vadnagar, 11, 31-33, 38, 44, 183, 204-06, 209, 215,
217, 219 Vadnagar Prasasti, 38 Vadsama, 11, 21 Vägbhata, 13, 18, 21, 158, 193, 194 Vägbhatapura, 13 Väghela, 14-16 vāhana, 81, 97, 146, 150, 209-11, 219, 223, 224 Vähila, 186 Vahukadhavala, 7,9 Vaibhāra, 37 Vaijaladeva, 13 Vaijayanta, 36
vaijayanti, 202 Vaikuntha Perumāla ternple at Kāñci, 215 Vairotya, 48, 50, 66, 73, 109, 110, 115, 122, 123, 128,
129, 133, 134, 137, 142, 149, 208, 209, 219, 221 Vaişņava, 189, 208 Vaişnava temple, 184 Vaisya, 18 Vaisya Puşyagupta, 1 Vaitadhya, 37 Vajjada, 6 vajra (A) (see also thunderbolt), 56, 64, 69, 72, 73,
88, 110, 128, 150 vajraghanța, 73, 110 Vajränkusi, 52-54, 71, 105, 109, 110, 116, 122, 123,
128, 129, 132, 133, 137, 144, 150, 208-10 Vajrainkhala, 55, 66, 68, 71, 109 110, 122, 133,
137, 150, 208-10 Vakāțaka, 3, 5, 25n Valabhi, 3-6, 16, 17, 20 Vallabharāja, 11 Vamanasthati, 10 Vanarāja, 10, 18, 20 Vaniāvasi at Ghumli, 39, 175 Vānkā, 12 varadaksa, 56, 88, 97, 211 varadamudra, 46, 48, 56, 64, 69, 72, 73, 80, 81, 97,
110, 115, 129, 149, 150, 209 Varadatta, 36 Varāha, 6,9 Varanasi, 12 varandika, 46, 47, 76, 78, 105, 108, 109, 117, 119,
127, 132, 136, 137, 142, 144, 148, 151, 152, 156, 158, 160, 161, 168, 171, 176, 178, 184, 193, 218,
225, 231, 232 Varänga, 36 Varasă, 107 varddhamanaka, 208 Vardhamāna, 37 Vardhamānapura, 9, 10, 20 Varman, 215 varna, 18 Varuna, 134, 137, 143, 211 Varunasarmaka, 11, 21
vasahikā, 20
Vasan tagadh, 6, 20, 23 Vasistha, 35 Vastrāpatha, 36 Vastupala, 14-16, 18, 22, 32, 34, 106, 107, 156, 166,
167, 197, 231 Vastupālavihāra at Girnar, 15, 18, 32, 37, 151,
184, 185, 195, 197, 198, 206, 207, 210, 211, 231 Vasudatta, 17

Page #295

278
Faina Temples of Western India
24132, 1367.183, 184,27, 231, 23252, 154,
Virācārya, 21 Viradhavala, 14, 15 Viravan avali, 194, 195 Virji, K.J., 25n Visaladeva, 14, 15 Visālavijaya, 34 Višeşāvaš yakabhāsya, 20 Vişnu, 202, 205, 227 vitāna, 63, 65, 91, 101, 102, 113, 166
Vitarāga, 20 Vividhatirthakalpa, 13, 33, 181n, 186 volute pattern, 112, 121, 129, 136, 143 Vțddhanagara, 38 Vyāghrapalli, 15 Vyāghrapalliya, 15 Vyāghrasena, 3 vyakhyānamudra, 64, 69, 72 vyāla, 137, 203, 204 vyavahārin, 19
Vatsarāja, 6, 7, 36 Vāyatavasati at Āsāpalli, 12 Vāyu, 137,211 vedibandha, 44, 46, 47, 76, 78, 105, 106, 108, 117,
119, 127, 132, 136, 137, 142, 148, 151, 156, 160-62, 168, 171, 176, 178, 183, 184, 186, 192-98, 207,
209, 210, 217, 218, 223-25, 227, 231, 232 vedikā, 78, 112, 121, 129, 136, 143, 148, 152, 154,
158, 161, 162, 175, 227 Vejaladevi, 107 Vidarbha, 7 Vidyadevi, 23, 54, 55, 65, 68, 71, 88, 112, 121, 125,
137, 138,158, 160, 185,201, 202, 205, 206,208-10,
217, 219, 222, 224, 226, 227, 230 Vidyadhara, 17, 23, 24, 48, 51-57, 60, 62, 71-73,
75-77, 88, 108, 112-15, 124, 128, 130, 131, 134, 140, 150, 151, 161, 166, 177, 179, 185, 190, 202,
203, 205, 206, 212, 219, 226, 227, 230 Vigraharaja II, 10 Vigraharāja IV, 13 vihara 22 Vijada, 186 Vijayadevasüri, 109 Vijayāditya, 20 Vijayasenasūri, 106, 163, 167, 197 Vikramāditya, 19 Vikramaditya I (Cālukya), 6 Vikramaditya II, 20 Vikramaditya VI, 11, 12 Vikramárka, 9, 10 Vikramasimha, 13 Vimala, 11 Vimalasāha, 18, 21, 32, 34, 35, 77, 186-89 Vimalasyavasahika at Abu, 186 Vimalavasahi at Abu, 12, 13, 18, 19, 23, 36, 4In,
47, 59, 77, 82, 95,184-9i, 195, 196,202-13,218-21,
224-26, 229-31 Vimalavasah ikā at Abu, 186 Vimalavasahikātirtha at Abu, 188 Vimalavasati at Abu, 186 Vimalavasatikātirtha at Abu, 186 Vimalavibāra at Arāsaņa, 34 vimāna, 216 viņa (A), 72, 97, 101, 120 viņāvādaka, 137 Vinayaditya, 20 Vinayaka, 23, 201 Vināyakapāla, 8 Vindhya, 2,5 Vindhyavarman, 14 Vira, 18, 109, 181n, 189 Virabhadra, 64, 202
Wadhwan, 8-10, 16, 34, 40, 183, 198, 217 warrior, 51, 52, 54, 55, 62, 66, 67,72-74,77, 113, 114,
122, 137, 160, 178, 179, 203 Wasuki, 38 water jar/pot/vessel (A), 51, 56, 62, 71, 81, 120, 149 Western Călukya, 8 Western Calukya temples, 216 Western India, 201, 215, 234, 235 Western Indian cave, 206, 217 Western Kşatrapa, 2 Wheeler, M., 1 worshipper, 113, 131 wrestling scene, 67 wristlet, 202, 203 Yadava, 1, 14, 15 yajño pavita, 137 Yakşa, 23, 44, 46, 52, 54, 56, 74, 81, 88, 115, 152,
160, 163, 165, 201, 208, 220, 228 Yaksha, 197 Yaksi, 6, 23, 36, 44, 48, 54, 108, 128, 137, 138, 152,
160, 165, 201, 208, 219, 222, 228 Yama, 123, 137, 211 Yamuna, 7, 8, 120, 126, 202, 208, 221, 222 Yasobhadra, 10, 215 Yagodhavala, 13 Yasovarman, 12 Yavana, 2 Yogarāja, 10 Yogini temple, 215 Yudhisthira, 1 Yuhchen-to 36 Yuvanāśva, 39

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temples muthamandapa
Caturviṁśati
images
mukhamaṇḍapa Satrunjaya
16
11
209
II 39 215 II 24 216 II 19 219 I 35 221 1 21 223 I
11
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224 I 9 229 I 39 230 I 16
230 I 19 232 II 14
block
bell rooflet
lambana. The
second shows diamonds and
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pillars, i. e. two pillars on
central pillars on
holds
43 other
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is exquisite
follows a com
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Page #297

PLATES

Page #298

2. Than: Jaina
temple, view from northwest

1. Vadnagar: Adinatha
temple, malaprasada southwest facade

Page #299

3. Vadnagar: Adinatha temple, gahamas Japa, Jina

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4. Abu: Vimalavasahi, gadhamelapa, north porch from west
5. Abu: Vimalavasahi, gahamas lapa, south porcb, doorframe

Page #300

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6. Abu : Vimalavasabi, mukhamandapa, north khattaka as seen from rangamandapa

Page #301

7. Abu : Vimalavasabi, hastišala, female cauri-bearer
8. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamandapa, ceiling
9. Abu : Vimalavasabi, mukhaman lapa, padmanabha ceiling

Page #302

10. Abu : Vimalavasahi, mukhamar !apa, samatala ceiling showing kalpalata
Jain Education Intemational

Page #303

11. Abu : Vimalavasahi, rangaman lapa, sabhapadmamandaraka ceiling in central nave
12. Detail of Fig. 11, lūmās and padmašila 13. Detail of Fig. 11, Vidyadevi Prajñapti as bracket figure 1 4. Detail of Fig. 11, Ambika at basal corner

Page #304

Page #305

13. Abu: Vimalavasabi, padmamandaraka ceiling in a bay between rangaman lapa and devakulikas on front side

Page #306

GOYGOS SACOV
16. Abu : Vimalavasahí, the passage between rangamcndapa and devakulikas on front side

Page #307

17. Abu: Vimalavasabi, devakulika 12, samatala ceiling (A) showing life scenes of Santinatha
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18. Abu: Vimalavasabi, devakulika 43, samatala ceiling (B) showing Vidyadevi Acchupta

Page #308

19. Abu: Vimalavasahi, devakulika 39, samatala ceiling (B) showing Vidyadevi Vajrakust

20. Abu: Vimalavasahi, rangamanḍapa, south portico, samatala ceiling showing Gaja-Laksmi
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21. Abu: Vimalavasahi, devakulika 46, samatala ceiling (B) showing Nrsimha Vispu

Page #309

T

22. Kumbharia: Mahavira temple, general view from northwest
23. Kumbharia: Mahavira temple, malaprasada, view from southeast

Page #310

24. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, güdhamandapa, samvarana
2
25. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, garbhagrha, doorframe
26. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, gūdhamandapa,
front doorframe

Page #311

27. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, mukhamcn lapa, padmanabha ceiling
28. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple,
rangamcn lapa, rear aisle, mandaraka ceiling

Page #312

29. Kumbharia : Mahāvīra
temple, mukhamandapa, nabhicchanda ceiling
30. Kumbharia : Mahavira
temple, mukhamcn lapa, nabhicchanda ceiling
See
Jain Education Intematonal

Page #313

TUIN IV
31. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple, rangamandapa, sabhamandaraka ceiling in central nave

Page #314

32. Kumbharia : Mabavira
temple, rangamandapa, pillars
33. Kumbharia : Mahavira temple,
rangemendapa, Vidyadharas in sabhamandaraka ceiling

Page #315

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Page #317

36. Kumbharia : Šantinātha temple, general view from southeast
37. Kumbharia : Santinātba
temple, malaprasada, detail of wall and sikhara

Page #318

38. Kumbharia : Santinatha temple, mukhaman lapa

Page #319

39. Kumbharia : Santinatha temple, mukhamandapa, balustraded pitha
40. Kumbharia : Šantinatha temple, mukhamandapa, mandaraka
ceiling

Page #320

41. Kumbharia : santinatha temple, rangamandapa, pillars
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42. Kumbharia : santinatha temple, rangamandapa, tor anz.arch

Page #321

43. Kumbharia : Santinatha temple,
rangaman lapa, sabhamandaraka ceiling in central nave
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44. Kumbharia : śāntinātba
temple, rangamcndapa, east aisle, samatala ceiling showing sixteen Vidyad. evis and Parsvanatha

Page #322

45. Kumbharia : Šantinātha temple, rangamandapa, west aisle, samatala ceiling showing Samavasarāņa
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46. Kumbharia : Parsvanatha temple, gadhaman dapa, north doorframe
47. Kumbharia : Parsvanatha temple,
gūdhamandapa, śāntinātha

Page #323

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48. Kumbharia : Pärsvanatha temple, ranagamandapa and nalamandapa, view from mukhamandapa

Page #324

50
49. Kumbharia : Parsvanatha temple, rangamandapa,
sabhamandaraka ceiling in central nave 50. Kumbharia : Parsvanatha temple, rangamandapa,
octagonal pillar 51. Kumbharia : Parsvagātha temple, rangamandapa,
square pillar
51
Jain Education Interational

Page #325

CON
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52. Kumbharia: Tarśvanatha temple, central devakulika on west
53. Girnar: Vastupalavihara and Neminatha temple, general view from bill top on east

Page #326

54. Girnar: Neminātha temple,
mūlaprasada and gūdhaman lapa, view from northeast
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55. Girnar : Neminātha
temple, gūdhamamlapa, samvarana from southwest
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Page #327

56. Girnar: Neminatha
temple, gūdhamandapa, detail of sabhamarga ceiling
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57. Girnar: Neminātha
temple, outer entrance doorframe on north

Page #328

58. Girnar: Neminātha temple, devakulika corridor
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59. Kumbharia : Neminātha temple, mülaprāsāda, view from southeast

Page #329

60. Kumbharia : Neminātha temple,rangamandapa, pillars

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61. Kumbharia : Neminātha temple, rangamandapa, sabhamandaraka ceiling in central nave

Page #331

62. Kumbharia : Neminatha temple, mukhamandapa, pillars and balustraded wall

Page #332

64. Kumbharia : Neminatha temple, exterior wall
of central devakulika on west
63. Kumbharia : Neminātha temple, entrance porch
and nalamandapa, front view
65. Kumbharia : Neminatha
temple, doorframe of central devakulika on west

Page #333

66. Sejak pur : Jaina temple, general view
67. Shatrunjaya : Adinātha tunk, general view from northeast

Page #334

23
69. Shatrunjaya : Adinātha temple, mülaprasada,
balustrade enclosing bhadra niche og north
8. Shatrunjaya : Adinatha temple, malaprāsāda, detail of orth wall
70. Shatrunjaya : Adinatha temple, detail of picha
71. Shatrunjaya : Adinatha temple, malaprasada,
Varuņa on jangha

Page #335

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72. Taranga : Ajitanatha temple, general view from southwest
73. Taranga: Ajitanatha
temple, front-view

Page #336

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Page #337

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Page #338

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76. Taranga: Ajitanstha temple, gs/haman lapa, piha and mastovara

Page #339

LOLOLIGION CLIO
77. Taranga: Ajitanatha temple, gadhamandapa, samvarana, southeast view

Page #340

78. Taranga: Ajitanatha
temple, malaprasada, detail of wall
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79. Taranga : Ajitanatha temple, mülaprasada, makara-pranala on north

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80. Taranga: Ajitanstha temple, mukhamaņlapa, sabhamandaraka ceiling
81. Taranga: Ajitanstha temple, gahaman lapa, sabhapadmamandaraka ceiling

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82. Bhadreshwar : Jaina temple, front view
WALA
83. Bhadreshwar : Jaina temple, malaprasada, detail
of pitha and. vedibandha
WS

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84. Bhadreshwar: Jaina temple, sikhara and samvarana from southwest

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85. Bhadreshwar: Jaina temple, mal iprasada, sikhara, Cakreśvart in south rathika

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86. Sarotra: Bavanadhvaja Jinalaya, general view from northeast
87. Sarotra: Bavanadhvaja Jinalaya, view of main temple-complex from south

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88. Ghumli : Parsvanatha temple, Parsvanatha
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89. Abu : Lūņavasahi, gūdhamandapa, south porch and a part
of mukhamandapa from west
90. Abu : Lūnavasabi, mukhaman lapa, nābhicchanda
ceiling 91. Abu : Lünavasahi, mukhaman dapa, north khattaka

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92. Abu : Lūọavasahi, central part of mukhamandapa and doorframe of gūdhamandapa as seen from rangamandapa

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93. Abu : Lūņavasahī, rangaman lapa, pillars

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94. Abu : Lūnavasahi, mukhamandapa, mandaraka ceiling

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95. Abu: Lünavasahi, rakgamas lapa, sabhapadmamandaraka ceiling in central nave

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96. View of Fig. 95 from below

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97. Abu : Lūnavasahi, mukhamandapa, padmamandaraka ceiling
Jain Education interational
** For Private & Personal use only

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99. Abu : Lüqavasahi, rangaman lapa, south portico,
mandaraka ceiling
98. Abu : Lünavasahi, rangamandapa, Vidyadharas in
sabhapadmamandaraka ceiling in nave
100. Abu : Lūnavasahi, mukhamandapa, ceiling
101. Abu: Lüqavasahi, rangaman !apa, south portico,
samatala ceiling showing birth-rite of Krspa

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102. Abu: Lunavasahi, devakulika 11, samatala ceiling (B) showing renunciation of Neminatha
103. Abu: Lupavasaht, hastilala, elephants
Jain Education Intemational
104, Abu: Lüpavasahs, devakulika 10, samatala ceiling (A) showing Cakrelvart with attendant figures

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105. Abu: Lūnavasabi, hastišala, grilles
106. Abu : Lūnavasahi, hastišala,
portrait sculptures of Tejapala and his wife Anupamadevi

Jain Education Intemational

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107. Abu : Lūnavasahi, the passage between main entrance and rangaman lapa

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108. Girnar : Vastupalavihara, south shrine, mandovara

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109. Girnar: Vastupalavihara, mandapa and south shrine, view from northwest
110. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha temple, general view from southeast

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111. Kumbharia : Sambhavanatha
temple, gudhamandapa, east porch from south
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112. Kumbharia :
Sambhavanatha temple, gūdhaman dapa, doorframe

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113. Miani : Jaina temple, general view from northwest
1992
114 Miani : Jaina temple, gudhamandapa, doorframe
115. Miani: Jaina temple, garbhagyha, doorframe

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116. Miani : Jaina temple, gu Thamandapa, ceiling
117. Kanthkot: Mahāyira temple, general view from southwest

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118. Kanthkot: Mahavira temple, general view from southeast
119. Kanthkot: Mahavira temple, gahamandapa, ceiling

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