Fundamental of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Author(s): Sureshchandra Benarji
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001535/1

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ANGIENT INDIAN MUSIC AND DANCE L. D. SERIES 57 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH PY SURES CHANDRA BANERJI EX-SECRETARY VANGIYA SANSKRIT SIKSA PARISAT CALCUTTA. L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

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2 bhAratIya - dalapata bhAI Kropfer familie 150150 bharamadAbAda FUNDAMENTALS OF ANCIENT INDIAN MUSIC AND DANCE ? L. D. SERIES 57 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH BY SURES CHANDRA BANERJI EX-SECRETARY VANGIYA SANSKRIT SIKSA PARISAT CALCUTTA. L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

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Printed by K. Bhikhalal Bhavsar, Swaminarayan Mudrana Mandir 46, Bhavsar Society, Nava Vadaj Ahmedabad-13, and published by Nagio J. Shah Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-9. FIRST EDITION December, 1976 PRICE RUPEES 25Dolls sisad Priests 5 O' s ir L.D. indolor

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FOREWORD It gives me great pleasure, indeed, in publishing Dr. S. C. Banerji's monograph entitled "Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance". This is really a good introduction to the subject. It explains lucidly the essentials of ancient Indian music and dance. The introduction traces the origin and development of Indian music, and points out its salient features. Chapter I is devoted to vocal music, Chapter II to instrumental music, Chapter III to tala and Chapter IV to dance. The work is embellished with five interesting appendices. Appendix e contains the Sanskrit text of Pancama-sarasamhita of Narada, hitherto unpublished. Glossary and Biblio. graphy given at the end enhance the value of the work. I am most thankful to Dr. S. C. Banerji, ex-secretary, Vargiya Sanskrit Siksa Parisad, Calcutta, for agreeing to the publication of this work in the L. D. Series. I have no doubt that the students, teachers and others interested in this subject will find this book interesting and of genuine help in understanding Indian music and dance. L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380009. 15th December, 1976. Nagin J. Shah - Director.

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CONTENTS Preface Introduction vii-viji 1-16 1 General Remarks, Meaning of Samgita-, Origin and Development of Indian music-, Works and Authors-, Characteristics of Indian Music Page 17 Chapter Subject Vocal Music (General remarks--, Gita-its definition, characteristics and types-, Merits and defects of Gitir.- Nada, Sruti, Svara, Sarana--, Amia, Graha. Nyasa-, Varna, Alamkara-, Sthaya--, Grama, Murchana-, Tana-, Jali-, Raga-, Bhasa, Vibhasa. Antarbhasa -- Sabda, Sarira-, Characteristics of Vaggeya-kara, Gundharva Syaradi, Characteristics of singers -, Defects of singers - , Vynda, Kutapa- 1 11 Instrumental Music 37 (General remarks-, Merits and defects of vadya-, Merits and defects of instrumentalists-, Dhatu-, Kinds of instrumental music-, Structure and material of musical instruments --, Tala, Susira-, Anaddha-, Ghana-, Characteristics of a mardala player , Pata, Pancasanca, Vad yaprabandha III Tala IV Dance [General remarks- , Nitta, Nytya- , Nittakarana- , Cari , Marga Cari- , Desi Cari- , Sthana- , Desi Sthanas--- , Angahara- , Recaka , Vartana Calaka- , Nyaya-- Mandalas-, Rekha- , Qualifications of a dancer-, Merits and defects of a dancer-- Decorations of a dancer, The teacher of dance- , Dance-troupe- , Gaundali , Peranin-, Acarya-- , Audience-, Sabhapati- , Seating arrangements in assembly-)

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71 73 76 APPENDICES A - Indian and Western Music B - Influence of Indian music abroad C -Influence of Tantra on music D--Non-Aryan elements in Indian music E-(i) Text of the Pancama-samhita belonging to Vangiya Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta. (ii) Text of the third chapter of the Pancama Samhita belonging to Asiatic Society, Calcutta. 79 81 100 107 Glossary of technical terms Bibliography 117

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PREFACE The evolution of Samgita in India is like the course of the mighty Ganges. The Ganges flowed from the stately Himalaya, ran through hundreds of miles gathering the soil of the various regions. In its course, it has branched off into tributaries, and has been fed by smaller rivers. Ultimately it has merged with the ocean. Likewise, samgita originated in hoary antiquity, evolved through Vedic, Epic, Puranic and Classical ages. Since the time of its genesis, it was enriched by new ideas from age to age till at last it merged into what Ravindranatha described as mahamanaver sagar or the ocean of vast humanity. India has been the cradle of diverse cultures spread over the length and breadth of the huge sub.continent. The result is that what is called Indian music to-day is a composite art. It is difficult to distinguish between what is indigenous in Indian music and how much has been borrowed or is exotic. It is intended, in the following pages, to present, in a succinct form, the salient features of ancient Indian music and dance. Such books as Prajnanananda's Historical Development of Indian Music, Sambamoorthy's History of Indian Music, Ganguli's Ragas and Raginis, M. Bose's Classical Indian Dancing, admirable though they are for the specialists and scholars, are too profound and detailed for the general reader. Such books as Danielou's Northern Indian Music are of regional interest, and do not deal with ancient Indian music alone. Books like N. C. Ghosh's Fundamentals of Raga and Tala with a new system of Notation, Peterson's On the Gramas or Musical Scales of the Hindus deal only with particular aspects of Indian music. There are many Sanskrit treatises on music and dance. Of these a large number of texts still lie buried in manuscripts beyond the reach of readers. The published texts are not accessible to many, because these are written in Sanskrit.

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viii We have made an attempt to present to the general reader a brief account of the highlights of ancient Indian music and dance as laid down in the Sanskrit treatises, particularly in Sarrgadeva's Samgita-ratnakara. The selection of topics for this little book posed a problem. We have, however, included in it all the important topics from which the reader can form a coherent idea of the vocal and instrumental music and dance. In the beginning of this work, a rapid survey of the Sanskrit musical literature of India starting with the Vedic literature has been given. Several interesting topics, related to Indian music, have been appended to the work. One appendix deals with the interesting points which mark the distinction of the Indian and Western systems. In another we have tried to trace the influence of our musical system abroad. In one appendix we have briefly shown how Tantra, which permeated the cultural soil of India, influenced musical speculations too. One appendix reveals how non-Aryan elements were absorbed into the Aryan culture in the domain of music. At the end, there is a glossary of the important technical terms, followed by an up-to-date bibliography. I shall consider my labours rewarded if this monograph whets the intellectual appetite of the readers in respect of Indian music as described in the Sanskrit treatises. S. C. Baperji Calcutta, New Year's Day, 1973.

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INTRODUCTION General remarks The utility of music and dance in human life is universally admitted. These arts, when cultivated, help the development of personality to the fullest extent. Music and dance evoke the finer feelings in us. They afford unspeakable joy to not only the performers but also to the listeners. The influence of music even on lower animals is marked. We see how even the fickle fawn is enraptured by songs, and falls an easy prey to the hunter. It is a common experience that the most veno. mous and menacing serpent is charmed by playing on flutes. Of human beings, not only the grown-ups but also children can be pacified by songs and lulled into sleep. The usefulness of songs for the fulfilment of spiritual aspirations was recognised in hoary antiquity. The Rgveda, the earliest literary work of not only the Indians but also of Indo-Europeans inhabiting a vast area of the globe, is full of invocations and prayers to gods. These prayers have to be uttered with three accents, viz. Udatta, Anudatta and Svarita; all these accents are musical. The eighth book (mandala) of this ancient work is called pragatha (full of songs). The sacrificial rites, closely associated with the life of the Vedic Indians, were accompanied by songs without which these were believed to be incomplete. These songs constitute the SamaVeda. In the Gita (X.22), the Lord says-vedanam samavedo'smi (of the Vedas, I am the Samaveda). According to the ancient Greeks, as a result of the movement of the heavenly bodies, there arises the Music of the Spheres; by realising this one's mind is attracted to the Divine Being, It seems as if the entire universe is praying to Almighty with charming notes. F-1

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2 Introduction In many temples of India, we find Devadasis or girls dedicated to the worship of deities by dance and music. Even to-day countless devotees try to please God by Sanskrit hymns set to tunes. Jayadeva, the great Vaisnava devotee, has named his book Gitagovinda (the work in which Govinda is prayed to through songs). The Tantric Sahajiya cult has found passionate and profound expression in the songs of the Bengal Bauls. Caitanya not only unleashed a flood of emotion among the masses by means of Kirtana songs; but the Vaisnava devotees used to believe that Kirtana was a means of pleasing God. The saints of Dasanami sect, too, used to practise devotional songs. Ramaprasada, the noted devotee of Goddess Kali, is known to have reached his spiritual goal through songs. In fact, the uncommon characteristics of his songs and their melody cause ecstatic delight to those who have even a grain of devotional fervour. Vivekananda's spiritual songs charmed even his master, Ramakrsna. A large number of spiritual songs of Tagore testifies to the spiritual aspect of his multi-faceted personality. The 'cruel compassionate one' (nithura daradi) of Atulaprasada, the immortal lawyer-singer of Bengal, seems to be felt by us in the ups and downs of our lives. It is interesting to note that, according to the Yajnavalkya-smrti (Prayascitta--115), the knowledge of luteplaying, Sruti, Jati and Tala is easily conducive to salvation. Love is one of the primal intincts of human beings. In many cases, music has not only engendered love, but also fostered it. Instances are not rare of uncouth girls having earned the love of young men simply by means of the gift of a pleasant voice. The full-throated song of the loving wife has, in many cases, enthralled her unruly husband addicted to alcoholic drink and even to other women. Like Sanskrit Kavya, music has also superhuman rasa. We are naturally averse to such things as cause pain to our hearts. But, we love such literary compositions as depict a tragic picture; the tragic elements in literature, instead of rousing repugnance, add to its relish. Similarly, as the poet says, our

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Introduction sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts. In fact, pain is an essential element of life. The Sankhya philosophy starts with the avowed object of rooting out the threefold pain--that caused by divine forces, that produced by worldly beings and that generated within ourselves-to which human beings are subjected as soon as they are born. Of the Four Noble Truths, declared by the Buddha, the first is Duhkha (pain). The wise penetrate the veil of pleasure that envelops the worldly objects; while the naive human beings are duped by the momentary pleasures of life, Those, who know the truth, aim at permanent bliss after overcoming the causes of pain. One of the strings of our psyche-lute is set to the tune of sorrow. That is why, after hearing a melancholy song or a pensive tune played on an instrument, we feel joy as it seems to be permeated with our most familiar sentiment. According to Bhavabhuti, a great Sanskrit dramatist, the one basic sentiment in us is the pathetic; it manifests itself as diverse sentiments evoked by special circumstances. The question may arise-what is the use of knowing the musical lore of the past in this age when current musical modes have developed to a great extent and are still developing ? Our answer is this. The knowledge of an individual cannot be complete without a knowledge of his pedigree and antecedents. Similarly, the true nature of current Indian music, of which there are two broad divisions as Northern and Southern, cannot be realised without a knowledge of its precursors. It is necessary to examine how far the present musical systems have borrowed from the Sastra and to what extent these have assimilated later elements. Apart from the usefulness of Samgita-sastra from the historical point of view, it has other uses too. If we delve deep into the Sastra, we shall be in a position to know how much of Indian music is indigenous and how much has been borrowed from non-Aryans and foreigners. Again, researches into the ancient lore will enable us to see if it is possible to improve the current music, Moreover, the knowledge of the Sastra will enlighten us about

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Introduction our rich heritage in the domain of fine arts. A comparative study of the Sastra and the history of music abroad will reveal to what extent India has influenced other countries, particularly her eastern and Far Eastern neighbours. 'Marga' is a term used now-a-days to denote classical music. For those who want to have a sound knowledge of ' 'marga. samgita', a knowledge of the Samgita-sastra is indispensable. Indian dance has of late been very popular abroad. It is serving as a cultural link between India and foreign countries. The Sanskrit works on dance will acquaint those, who are interested in it, with the rich storehouse of knowledge enshrined in them. Those who are interested in instrumental music will profit by a study of the Sastra. It will teach them not only the art of playing the instruments but also the scientific ways of making various instruments. They will also learn how many types of a single instrument can be made with precision. Meaning of Samgita The word has been derived from the root gai preceded by sam Gai means to sing. So, the derivative meaning of samgita is song. But, it is generally used to indicate the three fine arts called Gita (son), Vadya (instrumental music) and Nrtta (dance). From the linguistic point of view, there has been an expansion of meaning of the word samgita. But, at present there has been a contraction of meaning. Now-a-days, samgita is commonly used to denote vocal music only. When compounded with the word yantra, as the second member of the compound it means instrumental music. In the Samgita-damodara, gita denotes vocal and instrumental music. In this work, the term samgitaka stands for song accampanied by tala and vadya. Origin and Development of Indian Music The origin of samgita is shrouded in a veil of obscurity. Among the ruins of Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000-2500 B.C.)

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Introduction there are the flute with seven holes, madanga, Vina, Karatala and the dancing figures of men and women. The earliest form of Indian songs is contained in the Samaveda. The pragatha portion of the Rgveda, full of songs, has been referred to earlier. The date of origin of the Vedic Samhita is unknown. According to the orthodox Sanskrit scholars, the Veda was revealed by the Divine Being. They think that the Vedic seer saw the Vedic mantras, but did not compose them. Among the modern scholars, the dates of the Vedic Samhitas are like nine pins set up to be bowled down again. Of them, some push the date as far back as six thousand B.C., while according to others the Veda originated in the period between 2000 and 15000 B.C. Whatever the exact time of their compo. sition, the fact remains that the Veda is the earliest literary work of the Indo-Europeans. In the Rgveda, there are accents called Udatta, Anudatta and Syarita. These are pitch accents. There is also a kampasvara arising out of the friction of two accents. The heptatonic system originated in the remote Vedic age. In the Rgveda there is mention of tanas and of the musical instruments called Nadi, Gargara, Vana, Vina, etc. Some songs of the Samaveda are called aranyageya, while others are styled gramageya. The latter was, perhaps, the harbinger of the Indian songs of later ages. In the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads and in some Vedargas, there are evidences of close familiarity of the Aryans with samgita. In the Naradiya Siksa, which probably dates back to pre-Buddhistic times, there is mention of the seven svaras, three gramas, twenty-one murchanas and forty-nine tanas. Elements of music are present in the Ya inavalk ya-sik sa, Paniniya Siksa and Manduki Siksa. Svaras etc. are alse mentioned in the Puspasutra. There are countless references to vocal and instrumental music as well as dance in the Ramayana ( present form c. 2nd-3rd century AD.), the Mahabharata (present form c. 4th century A.D.) as well as the Puranas. According to modern scholars, the original epic sources were the songs sung at various places by the travelling singers called Kusilavas. Tne legendary Lava and

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6 Introduction. Kusa are said to have pleased Rama with marga-samgita. Of the Puranas, the Markandeya and the Vayu, which were probably composed or compiled in the period between the 3rd and 5th century A.D., contain information on music to a greater extent than the others. In the former, we find mention of seven svaras, grama, raga, murchana, tana, laya etc. Besides, it mentions also the instruments called Venu, Vina, Panava, Mrdanga, Pataha, Dundubhi, Sankha, etc. It testifies to the vogue of dance too. Chapter twenty three of this Purana contains these matters, but not the essential principles behind them. The Vayu (Chapters 86-87) refers to seven svaras, three gramas (twenty-one murchanas and forty-nine tanas). In it, there is discussion also on the mutual relations of grama and murchana, the significance of the names of murchanas etc. Besides these, it reveals its familiarily with gitalamkara, varna, sthana, tala, etc. Certain ragas are mentioned in the Kalikapurana. Information about dance and song is present in the third section of the Visnudharmottara. In some Tantras, certain facts about samgita are found. Of such works, the most noteworthy is the Vinatantra included in the Yamalatantra. Dance and music are among the sixty-four kalas dealt with in the Kamsutra of Vatsyayana (not earlier than the 4th century B.C. and later than 5th century A.D.). In ancient Indian literature, prose, poetical and dramatic, there are numerous references to samgita and, in many cases, various instruments and the contents of songs have been referred to. For example, we may mention the Svapnavasavadatta ascribed to Bhasa. The raga-parivahini giti (song with melody overflowing) of Hamsapadika in the Sakuntala is wellknown. In the prologue to this play, the spectators are said to have been so much enraptured by the sweet melody of the song that they were sitting like so many motionless pictures. The Stage-Manager is said to have been carried away by the melody. In the Meghaduta, samgita and the instruments Muraja, Vina etc. have been mentioned. In one verse of this kavya,

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Introduction the close relation between dance and instrumental music has been expressed in a very charming manner. The prose romance of Banabhatta, the drama Mrcchakatika of Sudraka, the fable Pancatantra etc. bear eloquent testimony to the wide prevalence of music in the then society of India. In many Buddhist works, too, various information about dance and music, both vocaland instrumental, is found. The very names of certain Jatakes point to their authors' familiarity with music and dance; e.g. Nrtya-jataka, Bherivadaka-jataka, Vinasthuna- jataka. The information in the Matsya-jataka and Guptila-jataka is clearer and comparatively more elaborate. The Jataka stories probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd century after birth of Christ; it is difficult to ascertain precisely when they assumed the forms of books. In the Lalitavistara, which perhaps dates back to the second century A.D., we find the words gatha, gana, urtya and the instruments Bheri, Mranga, Vina, Venu, Vallaki etc. In the Larkavatara-sutra (c. Ist century A.D.), there is mention of Vina, the playing of lute with the bow (kona), the seven notes, grama, murchana etc. Various kinds of information are available in the works Milindapanha, Sumangalavila sini, etc.; there is evidence of the use of samgita in the Buddhist festivals. In a piece of Gandhara art, dating back to the second century A.D., and a cave painting of Ajanta of 6th century bear out that Gautama used to practise music regularly. We are told that, at a certain ancient educational centre; at least 500 sramanas and other students used to learn music. In the three universities of Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri, there were separate departments for teaching the Gandharvavidya or sangita. Although samgita had been undoubtedly in vogue in Iadia from very remote ages, this discipline appears to have been systematised, for the first time, in the monumental Natya-sastra ascribed to Bharata. Purandara Dasa of the 15th century was a resident in the land between the North and the South India. Having

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Introduction acquired profound knowledge of the music of both these regions, he attempted a synthesis of the two regional systems. But, in course of time, the poinis of difference between the two became marked. In the 17th century, one Verkatamukhi revolutionised South Indian music by introducing seventy-two scales. Though, in the matter of Suddha-mela Verkata's views widely differ from those of Somanatha, Pundarika and Ramamatya, yet Verkata became very popular in South India. Considerable changes were introduced into South Indian music through the compelling songs of Tyagaraja, Shyama Sastri, Svatitirunel. In the 19th century, particularly after the advent of Muhammad Reja of Patna and Mahara ja Pratap Singh of Jaipura, North Indian music assumed a new garb. Their works are entitled respectively Nagmat-e-Asafi and Radha. govinda-samgitasara. During the reign of Akbar and Jahangir, music of this type spread far and wide. Besides Amir Khasru and Tansen, Gopal Nayek, Baiju Baora, King Mana of Gwalior and Haridas Goswami were massive pillars to the mighty edifice of this kind of music. In Northern India, besides Delhi, Gwalior, Bundi, Jaun. pur, Agra, Mathura and Vrindavan were noteworthy centres for the cultivation of Marga-samgita. In greater Bengal, too, the cultivation of this music was wide and deep. In this province, samgita reached a high degree of development due to the rise of scholar-musicians and musician-saints. The role of samgita in the literature and culture of this province deserves special mention. The Carya padas, which probably originated round about 1000 A.D. bear eloquent testimony to the fondness of music on the part of the Bengalis as well as to their spiritual aspiration through music. Another such work is the Krsnakirtana ascribed to Candidasa. Jayadeva, the glory of Bengal, the padma vati-carana-carana-cakravarti, composed his immortal Gita-govinda with a mind saturated with the Vaisnava devotional sentiment. The very names of the raga Gauda and Vargala bear witness to the considerable development of

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Introduction music in this region and also the genius of Bengal in the realm of music. Elements of the music of this province reached the far -off places in Central Asia called Kashgar, Kuchi, Khotan etc. through travellers, Buddhist priests and merchants. The music of such non-Aryan races as Sabaras, Pulindas, Kambo. jas, Vangas, Kiratas and Dravidas etc. infiltrated into the musical lore of the Aryans. The music of these tribes and races has been included under Desi (local or regional) which is used in contradistinction to Marga. But, curiously enough, the ragas Pulindika, Sabari etc. have found a place in the exalted marga samgita. From this, it is evident that the con. tribution of non-Aryans to the evolution of Indian music is by no means negligible. Like the vocabulary of India the musical literature of this country was also developed by borrowings from the non-Aryans. Works and authors : That a large number of works on music and dance were composed in India is attested by the mention of earlier writers on these subjects found in the extant works. Sarrigadeva alone has mentioned (Svaragatadhyaya, verses 15-21, of Samgitu-ratnakaru ) more than 20 predecessors. The number of extant works also is not negligible. Of these, comparatively a small numer of works has been published. Of the published works, the following are noteworthy : 1. Natya-sastra-ascribed to sage Bharata. According to some, chapters 28-33 of this work, dealing with music, were composed by Kohala. The date of its composition is highly controversial. It has been variously assigned by different scholars to different periods from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. Among its commentaries, Adhinavabharati is the most wellknown and very widely read. 2. Dattilam-ascribed to Dattilacarya. It has generally followed Bharata. The seven svaras have been mentioned by him no doubt; but, in his opinion, F-2

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10 Introduction gramas are two-sadja and madhyama. He has recognised 84 tanas. Jatiragas (Suddha, Viksta) are 18. In this work, tala has also been discussed. 3. Brhaddesi-of Matarga, composed sometime between 5th and the 7th century A.D According to some, it arose sometime after the 9th century. It generally follows the Natyasastra. The extant work seems to be incomplete, because, in spite of the promise of a section on vadya in the concluding verse, there is no such section in it. Though admitting 22 srutis, Matanga says that, as a matter of fact, the basic sruti is only one and the others are only its pratibhasa or manifestation. 4. Samgita-makaranda--ascribed to Narada who is sup. posed to have flourished in the 11 century. Many scholars think that this Narada is different from the author of the Naradiya Siksa. 5. Samgita-ratnakara-of Sarrgadeva. Date 13th century A.D. The author appears to have been the Chief Accountant of king Singhana of Deccan. Barring the Natya-sastra, this is the only work in which dance, vocal and instrumental music have been dealt with in considerable detail. It is regarded as a very authoritative work. It has been commented upon by Mallinatha, Simghabhupala, Kesava, Hamsabhupala and Kumbhakarna. The commentary of Mallinatha is the most popular. 6. Samgita-samayasari-of Parsvadeva. Date probably 13th century A.D. 7. Samgita-damodara-of subharkara. Supposed, not on conclusive evidence, to have been a Bengali author of the 15th century A.D. It contains discussions on vocal and instru. mental music, dance and drama. 8. Svaramela-kalanidhi- of Ramamatya who was a minister of king Rama of Vijaynagar and descendant of Kallinatha referred to above. Date 16th century AD.

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Introduction 11 9. Ragavibodha--of Somanatha of the 17th century A.D. The author was probably a native of Andhra. The author seems to have been actuated to compose this work by a desire to bring about the harmony of the science of music with its practice. 10. Samgita-dar panahof Damodara also called Catura Damodara. The author was the son of Laksmidhara and a musician in the court of Jahangir (or Shahjehan, according to some). Date 17th century. 11. Ragatarargini-of Locana Pandita of the 17th century. 12. Samgitasudha-of Govinda Diksita of the 17th century. 13. Hrdayakautuka and Hydayaprakasa-of Hsdayanarayanadeva of the 17th century. 14. Samgitaparijata-of Ahobala of the 17th century. It was translated into Persian in the 18th century. Among the published works, it has the closest relation with the current Indian music. 15. Raganiru panamor Catvarimsacchataraga-nirupana-ascribed to Narada. It is a compilation which appears to have been made by a comparatively late and unknown author. 16. Sumgitasarasamgraha--of the Bengali Ghanasyamadasa or Narahari Cakravarti. Date Saka 1725 (=1803 A.D.) which is written at the end; it may be the date either of the original work or of the copy. The Abhilasitartha-cintamani or Manasollasa-ascribed to the Calukya king Somesvara, and composed in Saka era 1051 (1129 A.D.); it contains a large number of verses on vocal music and instruments. Characteristics of Indian Music : There is a tendency among certain scholars to point out Western influence on whatever is ancient and great in India. Some of them hold that Indian drama is, to a great extent, influenced by the Greeks. Attempts have been made to trace Western influence on Indian Astronomy. But, some Western

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12 Introduction scholars themselves' have asserted that the great art of Indian music is absolutely free from Western inspiration. We have shown, in an appendix, the basic differences between Indian and Western music. Some scholars are inclined to think that Indian music has some similarity with the music of Arabia and Persia'. There are, no doubt, some parallelisms between Indian music and that of the above two countries. But, no definite case of borrowing can be established. Muslim influence on North Indian music is but natural. Attracted by the natural resources and the fabulous treasure of India, the Muslims carried on their predatory activities in this part of India in different periods starting from the 8th century A.D. At last, in the 12th and 13th centuries, they appeared as regional rulers in various parts of India. In course of time, they attempted to extend their imperial sway throughout this vast countary. Amir Khasru, Court poet of Sultan Alauddin, has stated, in his Persian work, that Indian music is superior to that of all other countries; by it not only human beings, but also beasts are charmed. Through the intervention of the Sultan, Khasru effected notable changes by an admixture of the elements of Persian music. The connoisseur-kings of the Khilji dynasty introduced certain new ragas of which the most noteworthy are saka, Turuska-gauda and Turuska-todi; these are mentioned in the medievel works on music. Besides Amir Khasru, Tansen and Vilaskhan deserve honourable mention among those who acquired a high degree of proficiency in music, and made significant contribution to the evolution of Indian music under the patronge of the Muslim rulers. In the domain of instrumenal music, the Occident is indebted to the Indian vina, at least for the Violin and the Flute; this is admitted by an occidental scholar? himself 1 For example, G. T. Garratt, The Legacy of India, p. 325. 2. Ibid, p. 326.

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Introduction 13 From the foregoing account of Indian music it is clear that the stream of music has been flowing over the soil of India from time immemorial. In Sanskrit literature, the succulent current of music has been flowing ever since the remote Vedic Age. As a river with a strong current floods the lands through which it flows and fertilises them with alluvial soil, so the mighty current of Indian music has been rushing forth with irresistable force. In its course, it has been flowing through the Vedic, Epic and Classical ages, being enriched by the influence of the religious life of the Aryan seers, the joy. ous atmosphere of the courts of Hindu rulers and the pomp and splendour of the courts of Muslim Badshahs. Ultimately it merged into the sea of vast humanity. It is our bounden duty to preserve the true character of Indian music. Human beings sometime lose their own indivi. dual characteristics in the vortex and welter of life, and move about in the society as non-descript being far away from the upper strata of the society. We should take all possible care to see that Indian music, carrying a vast and valuable heritage, is not reduced to such a condition. In order to preserve the true nature of Indian music, we should first of all know what its distinguishing feature is. Its chief distinctive quality is its spiritualism. Our country is a land of spiritual values, a seat of meditation for the attainment of the goal which is far beyond gross materialism. It was through Samgita that the Vedic seer, awe-struck at the unspeakable beauty and vastness of nature, expressed his feelings towards gods and goddesses. The wide use of dance, vocal and instrumental music in connection with the worship of divine beings is attested by the epics and Puranas. The flute of Kesna, the Vina of Sarasvati etc. symbolise the fact that Samgita is the best means of pleasing gods. In such statements as ganat parataram nahi we find hints at the soulstirring power of songs as well as their utility in making men move along the spiritual path. The time has come when we should see that Indian music, which was born in the

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14 Introduction sublime and religious environment, nursed in the holy shrines and also in the respectable royal courts, does not lose its own excellence under the impact of foreign music and in the association of vile claptrap and light music which sometimes attract people. It was due to the abuse of samgita that it was condemned as a vice in such scriptures as the Manu-samhita; the sacredness of samgita has nowhere been denounced. The cultivation of music, in any of its aspects, did not originate as a means of diversion of a few rich people with a hedonistic outlook on life. We must bear in mind that real knowledge of music is to be acquired through sadhana (devotion); it is a science io be mastered in a disciplined manner. Another marked characteristic of Indian music is its close relation with universal nature. As stated above, the Vedic songs spontaneously emanated from the hearts of Vedic seers, charmed with the form and mighty magnitude of Nature. So samgita was born in the cradle of nature. The heptatonic system, on which songs are based, is also derived from the creatures of nature. We find, in the musical lore, special melodies suitable to particular periods of time like morning and evening and particular seasons like Summer, Spring etc, The people, who took music as a way of reaching the spiritual goal, used to believe that Meghara ga and Dipaka raga could cause rainfall and conflagration respectively. It seems as though the music, that is constantly floating in the air on all sides of us. entered through the ears of the musiciandevotees and touched their inner soul. Thanks to scientific development, the countries of the globe have come nearer to one another. One of the evil effects of this phenomenon is that, due to the impart of the culture and civilization of different lands, our minds are being distracted from our own heritage and we are fast allowing our long cherished values to sink into the morass of oblivion. The glitter and glamour of the foreign elements are apt to dazzle the eyes of young uncritical people. Most of us are unaware of the precious gems that lie hidden in the mine of Sanskrit

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Introduction literature. The old order of kings and emperors, who used to extend their fostering patronage to Indian music and musicians through centuries, is defunct. These rich people are themselves faced with the struggle for existence; they have no longer the capacity for cultivating or patronising music even though they have a strong desire to do so. I do not mean that we shall be complacent like the proverbial frog in the well by shutting the door to the wind of diverse cultures blowing from different directions; obscurantism is not our philosophy. What I mean to say is that we shall allow the wind of foreign cultures to blow into our houses; but we shall not allow ourselves to be swept off our feet. In modern times Pandit Bhatkhande and Ustad Muhammad Nawab Ali Khan occupy an exalted position among those who have tried to analyse the characteristics of Indian music. It will not do if we take to music merely as a profession or a means of livelihood. It is necessary to delve deep into its philosophy. For this are necessary regular practice and dedication. A tendency among some modern students of music is rather disappointing. Some of them, even without the necessary training, desire to be experts within a very short time and aspire to be regarded as artists. This approach and this attitude have caused a deterioration of standards. One should remember that no siddhi (success) is possible without sadhana ( devoted practice ). Different, however, is the case with those whose sole aim is cheap popularity or acquisition of money. Countless treatises on Indian music still lie buried in manuscripts, and face extinction; many have already fallen victims to the ravages of time. We can place our cultural characteristics in this realm on the deserving pedastal if we can rescue these treasures from oblivion and put them into the light of day. So far we have written about Indian music and not Hindu music. In fact, Hindu music is a misnomer. The music that

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16 Introduction was evolved in India through vicissitudes of centuries cannot be designated as Hindu in the true sense of the term. As Muslim influence is natural in the music of Northern India, so also the influence of Dravida music is probable on that of South India. The music of India is Indian music; it cannot be designated as Hindu, Muslim or Dravida. As a matter of fact, this music is composite. In this connection, it is also to be remembered that, as pointed out above, the influence of non-Aryans on Indian music is also not negligible.

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VOCAL MUSIC General remarks In the Sanskrit works on music, song has been highly extolled. It may be noted that, in the Vedic times, song constituted an essential element of the sacrificial rites used to be performed for propitiating gods. Indeed, the Samaveda, one of the four Vedic Samhitas including the Atharvaveda, is a collection of songs. Of the gods, Siva is particularly stated to be delighted with songs. Brahma has been described as engaged in singing songs. Songs enrapture the soul, and enthrals the beings. Even a little child, utterly inexperienced in the pleasures of the senses, while weeping, is appeased with songs, the music of the lullaby lulls even a very restive child to sleep. What to speak of human beings ? Even lower animals are enchanted by songs. For example, the restless deer, attracted by the charming melody of songs, becomes motionless and falls a victim to the hunter. Of song, instrumental music and dance, the three constituents of Samgita, song has been accorded the highest place. Sarngadeva says ( I. i. 24 ) dance follows instrumental music which, in its turn, follows songs : Gita-its definition, characteristics and types A group of Svaras 1 (notes), which caused delight to the mind, is called gita. It is twofold according as it is gandharva and gana. Gandharva is that whose tradition has 1 To be defined below.

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13! Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance been eternal," which is employed by Gandharvas, is regulated by the rules relating to graha, amsa, marchana, etc. and is conducive to welfare. That which is composed by a vaggeya. karas, possessed of various characteristics and is described in connection with deci raga etc., is gana, delightful to people. Songs are twofold from another point of view, viz. margaand desi. The former is that which was sought by gods like Brahma, and was used by Bharata and the like before Siva and is always conducive to welfare. That is desi which caters to the taste of the people of particular regions. Songs are again of two kinds according as these are, or are not, set in words. Those, which consist of dhatu and other accessories, are called nibaddha (set). Those which are not so are an ibaddha (unset). Nibaddha song has three designations viz. prabandha, vastu are rupaka. A part of prabandha is call. ed dhatu. It is fourfold-Udgraha, mela paka, dhruva and abhoga; these are the four constituents of the nibaddha song in order. Of these, melapaka and abhoga do not exist in certain cases. Wind, bile and phlegm, supporting our body, are called dhatu. Similarly, udgraha etc. support the body of the prabandha, and, as such, are called dhatu. Dhruva is so called as it is constant in all prabandhas. Between dhruva and abhoga occurs another dhatu which is called antara or antara. Prabhandhas are threefold--two-dhatu (i.e. devoid of mela paka and abhoga), three-dhatu ( devoid of mela paka) and four-dhatu (i.e. having all parts ). Again, prabandhas are either aniryukta or niryukta; the former is devoid of the restrictions relating to chandas (rhythm) and tala. The latter is regulated by such restrictions. The number of different kinds of prabandha is quite considerable, 1 That is, revealed, not composed by human beings (Kallinatha.). 2 A class of demi-gods regadrded as the the singers or musicians of gods and said to give good and agreeable voice to girls. 3 One who composes poems and songs. 4 Derived from the root m;g (to seek).

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Vocal Music 19 Merits and defects of gita. The merits of gita are tenfold, viz., (i) Vyakta -- clearly pronounced. (ii) Purna--possessed of full gamaka.1 (iii) Prasanna-clearly and easily intelligible. (iv) Sukumara--possessed of svaras arising from the throat. (v) Alamkata-embellished in the three places mandra, madh ya and tara, a (vi) Sama- of even varna(letter), laya and sthana.3 (vii) Surakta--having harmony of the sounds produced by the flute and throat. (viii) Slaksna--of equal smoothness in high and low pitches, in swift and middling layas. (ix) Vikrsta-having loud pronunciation. (x) Madhura-possessed of very graceful and charming sound. The blemishes of gita are also ten, viz., (i) Lokadusla--condemned by people. (ii) Sastradusta-blamed in Sastras or treatises on music. (iii) Srutivirodhieopposed to Sruti. (iv) Kalavirodhi-sung at the improper time. (v) Punarukta-repeated. (vi) Kalabahya-inartistic. (vii) Gatakrama-devoid of order. (viii) Aparthaka-devoid of sense. (ix) Gramya-vulgar. (x) Sandigdha-doubtful. Nada, Sruti, Svara, Sarana The term 'nada' consists of the two consonants, na and da, with the intervening vowel a; 'na' stands for prana (vital breath) and 'da' for anala (fire). So, nada, denoting sound produced within the human body, is generated by the combination of the vital breath and fire. The process of its 1 To be defined later on. 2 The terms to be defined afterwards. 3 Do

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20 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance genesis is as follows. The soul, desiring to utter speech, activates the mind. The mind strikes the fire within the body. That fire sets the wind in motion Then, the wind, resting in the brahmagranthi,1 gradually moves upward generating sound in the navel, heart, throat, head, and it emanates through the mouth. In songs, nada is three-fold, viz. mandra (low) in the heart, madhya (medium) in the throat and tara (loud) in the head; each successive sound is double of the preceding one. This nada is supposed to be heard (sruta) in twenty-two forms in the above three places; from 'sruta' it is called srurti. In the heart, twenty-two arteries are supposed to be joined with the upwared artery. These are said to be in a curved manner. As the wind strikes them, twentytwo srutis are produced; these have a gradually higher pitch. To clarify the conception of srut Sarrigadeva mentions (Svaragatadhyaya-11-22.) two vinas (lutes); one of them is dhruva (fixed) and the other cala (adjustable). In the latter, the strings will have to be shifted. Both of them should be exactly similar so that the nada, arising from them, becomes uniform. Each of them will have twenty-two strings. Of these strings, the first one will be set in the lowest key, and the second in a slightly higher key. The two sounds, produced in them, having no other sound in between, will be continuous or uninterrupted. Thus, the sound in each of the succeeding string will be higher than that in the preceding one. The sounds, produced in these strings, are called sruti. In the two lutes, the notes (svara) will have to be placed. Of these, sadja, consisting of four srutis, is to be placed on the fourth string. Then, on the third string from the fifth one, rsabha, having three srtuis, should be placed. On the second string from the eighth will be placed gandhara having two srutis. Next, madhyama, with four srutis, is to be placed on the fourth string from the tenth. Then, pancama, having four srutis, will be placed on the fourth from the fourteenth. After that, dhaivata of three srutis should be on the third from the 1 Name of a joint in the body.

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Vocal Music 21 eighteenth. Lastly, nisada of two srutis should be placed on the second from the twenty-first. In the calavina, the seven notes are to be brought to three strings which, in the dhruvavina, are situated immediately before their own places. Then, in comparison with the dhruvavina, the svaras in the calavina will be one sruti lower. By a combination of two srutis, GA and NI of calavina enters RI and DHA respectively in dhruvavina. RI and DHA of the former enter into SA and PA of the latter. SA, MA, PA of the former enter into NI, GA, MA respectively of the latter. When the srutis of the calavina are combined with those of the dhruvavina; their number can be clearly ascertained. There should not be further lowering of the srutis as that would detract from their charm We have noticed above that the svaras have been lowered. This lowering (or, rending higher) of svara is technically called sarana 1 It is noteworthy that, in the above cases, four saranas only have been recommended; this is because the constituent srutis of a svara has the maximum number of four. It may be noted that the Srutis are equal to one another. That which arises immediately after sruti, is charming, has resonance, and itself causes delight to the mind of the listener is called svara. The Srutis give rise to the seven svaras called Sadja Rsabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Pancama, Dhaivata and Nisada represented respectively by SA, RI, GA, MA, PA, DHA and NI. The seven svaras in order have been taken respectively from the peacock, Cataka bird, goat, Kraunca bird, cuckoo, frog and elephant. Srutis are said to be of five classes (jati), viz. Dipta (brilliant), Ayata (wide), Karuna (pathetic), Medu (soft) and madhya (medium). These exist in svaras in the following manner. Sadja contains all the above classes excepting Karuna. Rsabha has three excluding dipta and ayata. Gandhara contains 1 Another meaning of Sarana has been laid down in connection with instrumental music

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance dipta and ayata. Madhyama has mrdu and madhya. Pancama has all but dipta, Karuna, ayata, and madhya are contained in Dhaivala. Nisada has only dipta and madhya. Each of the Sruti- jatis has sub-divisions. Svaras are two-fold--suddha (pure) and vikrta (modified) The seven, starting with sadja, are suddha. When a svara leaves its own place or the srutis specified for it, and assumes another place or contains other srutis, it becomes viksta. For example, when Rsabha assumes the four srutis of sadja, it is regarded as viksta The total number of vikata svaras is twelve. From the point of view of their position in a song, svaras are divied into four kinds, viz. vadi, samvadi, vivadi and anuvadi. That is called vadi which is largely pronounced in the application of jatiragas etc. Two svaras, with eight or twevle srutis, intervening between them, are said to be samvadi of one another. NI and Ga are vivadi ( discordant) to other svaras. The svara which follows vadi svara is called anuvadi. The svaras, excepting samvadi and vivadi, are designated as anuvadi. Vadi samvadi, vivadi and anuvadi are characterised respectively as king, minister, enemy and servant. From the standpoint of pitch, Svaras are divided into three kinds, viz. mandra (low), madhya (medium) and tara (loud). Amsa, Graha, Nyasa Svaras are divided also as Amsa, Graha and Nyasa. That svara which manifests the charm of a song, which, being used as Graha, Nyasa etc, is found in a large measure in a song, is called amsa. Its chief characteristics are largeness of measure in use, coupled with pervasion in a raga. The svara, which is at the beginning of a song, is called graha. In other words, the svara, with which a song commences, is known as graha. Graha may begin a raga or its alapa, Generally, amsa becomes graha. Sometimes, sadja too, becomes graha.

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Vocal Music 23 Nyasa is the designation of the svara in which a Raga culminates. In other words, it is the svara in which a raga, being completed, rests or stops. In most cases, amsa svara or its samva di svara becomes nyasa. Varna, Alamkara The action of singing is called varna. It is fourfold-sthayi (constant), irohi (ascending), avarohi (descending) and samcari (promiscuous). The intermittent singing of the same svara is sthayi; e.g. SA SA SA. Arohi takes place when the svaras are in an ascending order; e.g. SA RA GA. The reverse is Avarohi or descending; e.g. GA RA SA. In samcari, there is promiscuity among the svaras whose regular order or its exact reverse is violated, e.g. SA GA RA. A particular combination or mode of arrangement of varnas is called alamkara. The purpose of alamkaras, which have a very large variety, is to convey knowledge about the precise nature and charm of svaras as well as to diversify the varna-combinations. Some of these alamkaras are prasannadi, prasannanta, prasannadyanta and prasannamadhya; all of these belong to sthayi varna. Prasanna is the name of mandra which has already been explained. Examples, Prasannadi : SA SA SA Here the first two are mandra and the last one tara indicated by the stroke above it. Prasannanta : SA SA SA The first one is tara followed by two mandras, Prasannadyanta : SA SA SA The first and the last are mandra and the middle one tara. Prasannamadhya: SA SA SA Here the first and the last are tara and the one intervening between them is mandra. wwwsainelibrary.org

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24 Fundamentais of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Sthaya A part of a raga is called sthaya. According to sarnigadeva, the total number of sthayas is 96. Of these, 10 relate to voice, instrumental sound etc; these are clearly distinguished, and are not mixed. In accordance with qualities, sthayas are of 33 kinds. There are 20 sthayas, having separate individual characteristics. There are 33 mixed sthayas possessed of different qualities; these are relatively little known. (10 + 33 + 20 + 33 = 96). In fact, mixed sthayas are endless. Gamaka, Vaga The trembling of a svara is called gamaka; it is said to be pleasing to the mind of the listener. Sarrigadeva mentions (Prakirna 87-97) fifteen varieties of gamaka in accordance with the extent and speed of tremor, Gamaka is also called vaga which, according to the commentator, belongs to the local dialect. Alapti or Alapa Alapti or Alapa denotes the action by which a riga becomes manifest. The commentator Simhabhupala explains that alapa denotes that group of svaras which clearly manifests a raga; this manifestation means the spreading out of a raga, This is ragalapti, and is used in anibaddha songs. Another kind of alapa is rupakalapti. In it, the raga of a nibaddha song is manifested. Rupaka is a variety of Nibaddhagana, as stated earlier. Grama, Murchana A group of letters, which is the resort of murchana, krama, tana, varna, alamkaral etc., is called grama. Gramas are three, viz. Sadja, Gindhara and Madhyama. of these, Gandhara is said to be current in heaven only. sadja grama arises when pancama resides in its own fourth sruti. If it resides immediately before its own final sruti, we have madhyama grama. 1 of these, the last two have been explained earlier. The other two will be defined below.

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Vocal Music 454 kovA / gAdhInagara, pi 382000 The ascent and descent of the seven svaras in order are called murchana. The number of murchanas in each of the two terrestrial gramas, mentioned above, is seven. Each murchana is of seven kinds due to its commencing from the svaras beginning with the first etc. In them, after singing the final svaras, the earlier svaras are to be sung in order (krama). These murchanas are called krama. Their total number is 392. 25 Tana : Tana, derived from root tan-to spread out, is so called as is spreads out a raga. Tanas are twofold, suddha and kuta; the former arises when the svaras are uttered in the regular order. When uttered by violating the order, they give rise to the latter kind of tana. Jati: Jati is the designation of songs with varna and alamkara etc. Matarga, in his Brhaddes, clearly defines jati. Acc. to him, jati is the name of the svaras which are manifested with sruti, graha, svara (alamkara, varna) etc. From these svaras the relish of the charm of each of the svaras or ragas is possible. Jatis are the sources of Gandharva and Desi ragas. Jatis are divided into suddha (pure) and vikrta (modified). Under the former are included the seven named after the svaras, e.g. Sadji, Arsabhi, etc. Those are known as suddha which have their title svara as nyasa, apanyasa', amsa, graha, which are devoid of tara nyasa and which are complete. When these characteristics, excluding nyasa, are lacking, we have vikrta jati. The number of vikrta jatis is about 139. The relation between jati and raga is one that subsists between the generator (janaka) and the generated (janya). Before the names of ragas came into vogue, jatis were prevalent. 4 1 It is the name of that svara in which a vidari is completed. Vidari means part of a nibaddha song.

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26 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Raga: It is not known precisely when the word 'raga' came to be used for the first time to denote a musical mode. The Naradiya Siksa (circa 1st century A.D.) mentions raga in connexion with gramaraga, but does not explain the term. In his Natyasastra Bharata (circa 2nd. cent. A.D.) mentions raga, jatiraga and gramaraga, but does not define raga. Raga denotes such a dhvani (sound), possessed of particular svaras and varnas, as causes delight to the mind of people. Ragus appear to be broadly divided into two classes, viz. grama-raga and desi raga which may be rendered as classical and regional respectively. Grama ragas1 are fivefold according as they are the resorts of five kinds of songs. The five classes of grama-ragas are: (1) Suddha-constituted by simple and charming svaras. (2) Bhinna-consisting of uneven and swiftly uttered svarus. It has sweet gamakas. (3) Gaudi-compact, having gamakas in the three places of mandra, madhya, tara and possessed of sweet svaras of ohati.3 (4) Vesara-it is vegasvara, i.e., it consists of swift svaras, and is very charming in all the varnas named sthayt etc. (5) Sadharani-possessed of the characteristics of the above four kinds of songs. The above types have respectively seven, five, three, eight and seven sub-divisions thus making a total of thirty grama-ragas. ! A grama-raga is so called as it arises from grama which has been defined as a group of svaras which are the resort of murchana etc. 2 The names are teminine as they qualify giti which is feminine. 3 A kind of song in singing which the chin is placed on the heart; which has kampita gamaka. is possessed of very swift svaras and the sounds HA and AU. When qualifying raga, these will be called suddha, bhinna, etc.

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Vocal Music Sarnigadeva mentions ( Ragaviveka-16-18) twenty ragas which are as follows: Sriraga, Natta, Vargala (2) Bhasa. Madhyama-sadava, Raktahamsa, Kolhahasa, Prasava, Bhairava, Dhvani, Megharaga, Sumaraga, Kamoda (2), Amrapancama, Kandarpa, Desa, Kaisikakakubha. Nattanarayana. He also mentions the following eight Uparagas' which have been explained as generated from near grama-ragas. Sakatilaka, Takkasaindhava, Kokilapancama, Revagupta, Pancamasada va, Bhavanapancama, Nagagandhara and Nagapancama. Sarnigadeva says ( Ragaviveka-67) that now he is stating Desi ragas. From this it appears that, according to him ragas are divided into three classes, viz. grama -ragas, ragas and desi-ragas. In Raga-vivekadhyaya ( ii. 3), he says that some of the noted grama-ragas are also called desi. Some of the well-known desi ragas are Malavakaisika, Todi, sadava, Hindola etc: Of minor ragas, (raganga) there are eight according to ancient writers mentioned by Sarrigadeva. There are thirteen ragangas stated to be current in his time. Other types of ancillary ragas, called Upanga, Kriyanga, Bhasarga, have also been mentioned. Sarngadeva says ( Ragaviveka-ii. 19 ) that the total number of ragas is 264. Ragas are divided into three classes in accordance with the number of svaras in them. These are sampurna having all the seven svaras. sadava containing six svaras only, audava or auduva? consisting of only five svaras; the first or sadja is, however, constantly present in it. 1 The prefix 'upa' means 'near'. 2 Derived from udu denoting stars. Stars reside in the sky which is the fifth of the five elements (pancabhuta). From this number audava is so called.

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28 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Again, ragas may be suddha (pure or unmixed) and Chayalaga or salaga (mixed); the latter being so called owing to its having the shadow or likeness of another raga. Bhasa, Vibhasa, Antarabhasa These terms were probably too well-known at the time of Garrigadeva to be defined by him. These appear to denote minor ragas, all fancied as females, which have no independent existence are produced by main ragas. While bhasas are said to be born of certain ragas vibhasas appear to be their minor varieties. Antarabhasa may be that which exists between two bhasas. For example, Kakubha raga has six bhasas called bhinnapancami, kambhoji, madhyama-grama, raganti, madhuri and sakamisra, three vibhasas called bhogavardhani, abhirika and madhukari and one antara-bhasa called Salavahanika. According to sarnigadeva, there are 90 bhasas, 20 vibhasas and 4 antarabhasas. It is interesting to note that, at least down to the time of Saingadeva, the term ragini did not come into vogue. The idea of six ragas, with 36 raginis as their consorts, was a later development Ragas and ragini have been fancied as having forms with anthropomorphic features and traits of character. It should be noted that such Dhyanas (figures to be meditated upon ) occur only in later treatises. Some of these are quoted below and translated into English. These will at once reveal the poetic fancy behind the forms conceived and the spiritual outlook of the writers on the sastra. Sriraga astadasabdah smaracaramurtih, dhiro lasat-pallava-karnapurah, sadjadi-sevyo'runa-vastradhari sriraga esa ksitipalamurtih 11 [This Sriraga, aged eighteen years, is handsome like Cupid, steady, shining with ear-ornaments of leaves; he is served by sadja etc, wears a scarlet cloth and looks like a king. ]

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Vocal Music Vasanti (Ragini of Sriraga) sikhandivarhoccaya-baddha-cuda karnavatamsa-krtasobhnamra indivarasyamatanuh sucitra vasantika syadali-man julasrih || [ Vasantika, adorned by bees, exquisitely beautiful, having her body blue like the lotus, is wearing a crown of peacock's plumes and decked with ear-ornaments of mango-blossoms.] Karnata raga krpanapanis-turagadhirudho sphurat-snigdha-rasah-prasantah mayurakanthati-sukantha-kantih karnana-rago haritalavarnah ||| [Karnata raga, sword in hand, with a complexion more radiant than the peacock's throat, is riding a horse; he is very quiet, scintillating, lovely and has the tinge of haritala (yellow orpiment). ] Velavali (Ragini of Hindola-raga) samketa-diksam dayite ca datva vitanvati bhusanaman akesu 29 muhuh smaranti smaram istadevam velavali nila-saroja-kantih || [Velavali, possessed of a complexion like the blue lotus, having instructed the husband about assignation, while adorning her slim limbs with ornaments, is repeatedly remembering her desired deity, Cupid.] Bhairava gangadharah sasikala-tilakas-trinetrah sarpairbhusita-tanur-gaja-krttivasah bhasvat-trisula-kara esa nrmunddadhari subhrambaro jayati bhairava adiragah |||

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20 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance [ Victorious is this three-eyed First Raga, Bhairava, with the Ganges on his head, a lunar digit as the mark on his forehead, possessed of body adorned with a serpent, wearing elephant-skin, holding a trident in hand and carrying a human skull. ] Bhairavi (Ragini of Bhairava) sphatika-racita-pithe ramya-kailasa-srnge vikaca-kamala-patrair-arcayanti mahesam karadhrta-ghana-vadya pitavarnayataksi sukavibhir-iyamukta bhairavi bhairavastri u [This wife of Bhairava, large-eyed, yellow-complexioned, holding a ghana1 instrument in hand, worrshipping with petals of lotuses in bloom, Mahadeva, seated on a crystalpedestal on the charming Kailasa peak, is called Bhairavi by good poets.] Sabda, Sarira Sabda or voice is the basis of songs. Sabda has been divided by Sarngadeva (Prakirnaka-39-67) into four principal kinds, viz. (i) Khahula-arising from phlegm. If it pervades the sthanas called mandra and madhya, it is called adilla. (2) Narana-arising from bile. it is compact, deep and inaudible in the three places mandra madhya and tara respectively. (3) Bombaka-arising from wind. Having no substance within like the trunk of the Eranda tree. It is harsh, loud like the ass's bray and heavy. (4) Misraka-arising from the admixture of the above three. It has four varieties, viz. combination of (a) Narana-khahula (b) Narata-bombaka (c) Bombaka-khahula and (d) mixture of these three. Each of these has sub-varieties. 1 A class of musical instruments made of metal, e.g. cymbal.

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Vocal Music In accordance with qualities, Sabda has been divided into fifteen kinds, viz. (i) Mrsta-pleasing to ears. (ii) Madhura-indestructible and unchanged in its three places mandra, madhya, tara. (iii) Cehala-charming, devoid of the extremes of too heavy and too light, tender and devoid of essencelessness. (iv) Tristhana-unchanged in the three sthanas, mandra etc. (v) Sukhavaha-delightful to mind. (vi) Pracura--ample. (vii) Komala- Soft. (viii) Gadha-heard after spreading due to strength. (ix) Sravaka-capable of being heard from afar. Karuna-evoking pity in the mind of the listener. (xi) Ghana-having substance within and audible from a (x) distance. (xii) Snigdha-audible from a distance and devoid of roughness. (xiii) Slaksna-uninterrupted like the flow of oil. (xiv) Raktiman-attractive. (xv) Chaviman-bright according to experts. 31 The defects of sabda are as follows: Ruksa-devoid of tenderness. (i) (ii) Sphulita-seeming to be broken. (iii) Nihsara-devoid of substance within. (iv) Kakoli-raucous like the cawing of crows. (v) Keti-pervading three sthanas, but devoid of the qualities of sweetness etc. (vi) Keni-pervading the sthanas tara and mandra with difficulty. (vii) Krsa-thin or light. (viii) Bhagna-insipid like the cry of the ass and the camel. Sabda may be produced by a person spontaneously or after practice. The capacity of sound or voice for manifesting ragas, without practice, is called Sarira. It is so called as it is born with the sarira (body); in other words, it is congenital

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32 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance and not acquired. The qualities of sarira are pervasion, resonance, sweetness, pleasantness, gravity, softness, possession of substance within, mildness, brightness. The defects of sarira are : lack of resonance, pleasantness, substance and the presence of roughness, improper voice, crow-like raucousness, lightness, harshness as well as removal from the proper sthana Characteristics of Vaggeyakara Vak means Kavya; geya means a composition which can be sung. These are called matu and dhatu respectively. One who makes these two kinds of composition is called vaggeyakara. Such a person may be uttama (best), madhyama (medium) and adhama (inferior). The first of them is endowed with the following qualities : proficiency in grammar, lexicons, metrics, alamkaras, rasa, bhava, skill in regional modes of composition, e.g. pancali, knowledge of a variety of languages, mastery in arts, skill in vocal and instrumental music as well ance, charming sarira', knowledge of laya and tala, capacity for discriminating among various modes of intopation, genius, ability to sing pleasantly, experience in desi ragas, skill in speech before an assembly, giving up anger and spite, appreciative mind, sense of propriety, capacity for composition independently of others, insight into others' minds, knowledge of characteristics, capacity for swift composition of songs, composition of songs containing the shadow of various songs, excellence in gamakas in the three shanas, skill in various kinds of ala pa, concentration. The vaggeyakara of mediocre merit can compose dhatu well, but is unsatsfactory in the composition of matu. Also of mediocre merit is one who knows both dhatu and matu, but Jacks efficiency in prabandhas ela etc He is inferior who can compose matu well, but is bad at dhatu. 1 Explained earlier. www.

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Vocal Masic Gandbarva, Svaradi One, who is conversant with marga and desi, is called gandharva. One, who knows only marga, is known as Svaradi. Characteristics of Singers Singers may be best, medium and inferior. The best singer has the following qualifications : good voice, sarira of good qualities, experienced in the start and finish of songs, versed in raga, raganga, bhasanga, kriyanga and upanga, skilled in prabandha songs, conversant with the principles of various kinds of alapa, effortless use of gamakas in all sthanas, controlled voice, versed in talas and srutis, tirelessness even after many prabandha songs, experienced in suddha and chayalaga ragas as well as in the peculiarities of all kinds of intonation and in sthayas, absence of all defects, practice in singing, pleasantness according to the tradition of vocalists, capacity for bringing about clear svaras and talas etc., possession of deep or compact voice, unhampered speed, capacity for attracting people's minds with songs sung at a lonely place (or, capacity for speedy singing), clearly manifested raga, possession of traditional knowledge. The singer of the medium quality lacks some of the above merits, but is free from defects. A singer, having defects, is said to be inferior. Performers of vocal music are of five kinds viz. siksakara (learner), anukara (imitator), rasika (appreciator), ranjaka ( delighter ) and bhavaka i.e, one who can turn an insipid song into one of relish, render a song devoid of emotion into one of emotion, and car sing after realising the intention of listeners. Defects of Singers Singers of the following kinds are condemned : (i) Samdasla-one who sings with clenched teeth. (ii) Udghusla-One who sings too loudly. 5

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34 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance (iii) Satkari-one singing with repeated hissing sounds. (iv) Bhita-terrified. (v) Sarkita-apprehensive. (vi) Kampita--one who sings habitually shaking the body and trembling the voice. (vii) Karali-one who distorts the face alarmingly while singing. (viii) Vikala-one who sings svaras with more or less than the usual number of srutis. (ix) Kaki--one whose voice is raucous like that of a crow. (*) Vitala--one departing from the proper tala. (xi) Karabha-one singing with the shoulders raised. (xii) Udbhata---singing like a goat. An inferior singer. (xiii) Jhombaka-one whose forehead, face and neck become sinewy while singing. (xiv) Tumbaki-one whose throat swells like a pumpkin gourd while singing. (xv) Vakri--one who sings with the curved throat. (xvi) Prasari-one who sings after stretching the body. (xvii) Nimilaka-one who sings with closed eyes. (xviii) Virasa-one whose song is insipid. (xix) Apasvara-singing with prohibited svaras. (xx) Avyakta-one who sings with stuttering voice and indistinct letters. (xxi) Sthanabhrasla--one who is unable to reach the three sthanas called mandra, madhya and tara. (xxii) Avyavasthita-Singing with unregulated sthanas. (xxiii) Misraka--one who sings after mixing up suddha and chayalaga ragas. (xxiv) Anavadhanaka-inattentive to sthaya etc. According to Simhabhupala, one who reverses the sthanas. (xxv) Sanunasika-one who sings with a nasal voice.

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Vocal Music 35 Vinda, Kutapa A group of singers and instrumentalists is called vinda (orchestra). It is of three kinds, viz. best (uttama), medium (madhyama) and inferior (kanis/ha). That, in which there are four principal singers, eight chorus singers, twelve female singers, four flutists and four players on mrdaniga, is uttama. In the madhyama, the number of male and female singers is half of that in the uttama. In the kanisiha, there are one principal singer, three chorus singers, four female singers, two flutists and two players of mardala. The group of female singers, too, is threefold. In the uttama, there are two female singers, ten chorus singers, two flutists and two players of mardala. In the madhyama, there are one principal singer, four chorus singers and one (or, according to others, four) flutists. In the kanistha, the number of female singers and instrumentalists is less than that in the madhyama or their number is arbitrary. A vrnda, constituted by singers and instrumentalists whose number is larger than in the uttama, is called Kolahala (confused noise). Following the principal singer, absence of dissimilarily in chorus songs, conformity with tala and loya, mutual rectification of defects, if any, in one part, capacity for pervasion in the three sthanas beginning with mandra, similarity of voice--these are the merits of a vanda, A particular kind of vrnda is called kutapu. Kutapavinda is threefold according as it relates to tata instruments, avanaddha instruments and drama.' The first variety of kutapa is constituted by players of Vina, Ghosavati, Citra, vipanci, parivadini, vallaki, kabjika jyestha, nakulosthi, kinnari, jaya, kurmi, pinaki, hastika, satatantrika, audumhari, sakarna, pauna, ravana, hastaka, sarangi, alapani etc. Besides, in it there will also te flutists, 1 For tata and aydnaddha, see chapter on nstrumental music.

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36 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance pavika, pavakahala, copch-blower, player of such instruments as muhari, srriga etc. 1 The second type of kutapa will be constituted as follows : the principal player of mrdanga, players of the following instruments-parava, dardura, dakka, mandidakka, dakkuli, pataha, karaka, qhakka, dhavasa, ghadasa, hudukka, damaru, runja, kudukka, kudara, ninsana, trivali, bheri, tumbaki, bombadi, pallavadya, pala, kamra, jhallari, bhana, selluka, jayaghanta, kamsyatala, ghanta, kirikittaka, The third kind of kutapa will be constituted as follows: People experienced in various kinds of abhinaya (acting) prevailing in regions Varata, Lata, Karnata, Gauda, Gurjara, Konkana, Maharastra, Andhra, Hammira, Cola, Malaya, Malava, Arga, Vanga, Kalinga etc., those expert in lasya and tandava dances, those versed in wonderful Sthanas like Alidha, those vell versed in matters relating to Mandala and the like.3 For the terms, see chapter on Instrumentatal music. 2 Ibid. 3 For Sthana, Mandala, see chapter on Dance,

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INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC General remarks Instruments have been divided into four classes, viz. Tata, Susira, Avanaddha and Ghana. The first two are said to produce songs through srutis, the third to impart pleasantness and the fourth is said to make songs worth while. Tata instruments are made of strings and susira has holes in it. Those which are covered with leather is called avanaddha. That which is played by striking is called ghana. The lute is called vina. It is twofold according as it is srutivina and svaravina. Of these two, the former has been described under vocal music in connexion with Sarana. In connexion with svaravina, sarngadeva says that, in it too, the experts can produce srutis. The types of this vina are ekatantri, nakula, tritantrika, citravina, vipanci, mattakokila, alapini, kinnari, pinaki and nihsarkavina These should be so constructed that the starus are clearly heard and ample charm is produced in the minds of listeners. Under susira are included vamsa, pava, payika, murali, madhukari, kahala, tundukini, cukka, songa, sarkha etc. Pataha, mardala, hudukka, karala, ghala, ghadasa, dhavasa, dhakka, kudukka, kuduva, runja, damaruka, dakka, mandidakka dakkuli, selluka, jhallari, bhana, trivali, dundubhi, bheri, ninsana, tumbaki--these are included under avanaddha. Ghanavadyas are tala, kamsya-tala, ghanla, ksudraghantika jayaghanla, kamra, suktipatta etc.

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38 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Vadyas are again divided into four classes, viz. suska, gitanuga, nrttanuga nrttagrtanuga. That is suska which does not accompany song and dance. It is also called gosthi. Gitanuga, nrttanuga and gitanrttamuga are those which accompany respectively song, dance and both of these two. Kamrika or kamra is the name of a bamboo stick for playing the lute. It is the modern bow. The action of the kamrika is called sarana1 which is fourfold, viz. utksipta, sannivista, ubhayi and kampita. That is utksipta in which the kamra, coming in contact with the string, moves upward and repeatedly falls down. If the sarana takes place immediately after touching the string, it is sannivista. If these two kinds of sarana are successively repeated, there is ubhay sarana. Kampita arises due to the trembling of the kamrika in the place of svara. Merits and defects of Vadya The merits are as follows : (i) Rakta-pleasant, (ii) Virakta-vibhinna (distinct?), (iii) Madhura-sweet, (iv) Sama-even or uniform? (v) Suddhanot mixed, (vi) Kala-delicate, (vii) Ghera-possessed of substance, (viii) Sphutaprahara-with manifest sound, (ix) Subharapossessed of beautiful raga, (x) vighusta-deep. Merits and Defects of Instrumentalists Versed in the mode of striking with the hand and the bow of the lute, expert in vocal and instrumental music, experienced in yati, tala, laya, pata, pancasanca, endowed with ten qualities of the hand, playing the instrument intended by the person concerned, versed in the principles of the sound of musical instruments, possessed of the knowledge of grahas sama etc., skilled in hiding the defects of songs, instrumental music and dance, director of graha, moksa, versed in the measure of songs and dance, possessing the knowledge of all 1 Another meaning of sarana has been set forth in connection with vocal music. 2 The five are song, instrumental music, dance, graha, moksa and randhra (defect?).

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Instrumental Music 39 the differences in instrumental music, possessed of ruparekha (?), skilled in udghatlana, possessed of the knowledge of the difference of all vadyas (instruments ?), versed in the increase, decline and attainment of nada--such an instrumentalist is the best. The worst is one devoid of some or all of these merits. The merits of blowing are as follows : charm, compactness, pleasantness, clarity, amplitude of sound, gracefulness, tenderness, resonance of nada, pervasion of three sthanas. capacity for pleasing the listener, sweetness and attention on the part of the flutist; the last quality implies that the blowing will not be more nor less than what it should usually be. The merits of a player of mardala are as follows : clear varnas, keeping the limbs as usual or capacity for pleasing others, experience in following the likeness of the song, expert knowledge of sweet and violent instrumental music, skill in the movement of the hands concentration, tirelessness, skill in mukhavadya, following the hudukka player, amplitude, knowledge of yati, tala and laya, following the song. The defects are the reverse of the above merits. Two, three or four mardala-players constitute a group. They will follow the mukhari or the principal player. The following are the merits of a player of the vina : Expert knowledge of the principles of nada, sruti, svara, grama, jati, raga etc., graceful body, steady in seat, tireless pair of hands, fearlessness, self-restraint, presence of mind, tenderness of limbs, learning in the arts of vocal and instrumental music, concentration of mind. The merits of a flutist are as follows : Practice in the movement of fingers, reaching the proper place, possession of good sense of ragas, capacity for producing sweetness in the manifestation of fragas in an 1 The meaning is not clear,

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance agreeable manner, speedy ascent and descent, skill in singing and playing instruments, revealing the proper sthana (or, acc. to some, tana) to singers, hiding their defects, skilfulness in respect of marga and desi ragas, capacity for produing ragas in the improper sthana as in the proper one. An expert flutist can produce various svaras in a single hole due to the intensity or otherwise of the wind, its fast and slow speed, filling or not filling, increase or decrease. The following are the defects of a flutist : Excess of wrong application, the reverse of the merits stated above, not reaching the intended sthana, shaking of the head. The faults of blowing a flute are as follows : Yamala-completing one blowing by another. Stoka---though heavy, yet unable to reach the proper sthanas. Kesa-able to reach the proper sthana, but too light. Skhalita --stopping at intervals. According to others, the following are the defects of blowing: Kampita-that which emanates, with distorted svara, from the mouth having cough. Tumbaki-sound resembiing that of the tumba (a kind of gourd). Kaki--sound, devoid of tarasthana, resembling the cawing of crows. Sandasta-insufficient scanty. avyavastihta--sometimes less, sometime more than usual, harsh. In this connexion, it may be added that the blowing of a flute may be fivefold : (i) Kampita--the shaking of the flute attached to lips; it is necessary for accomplishing varna and alamkara. (ii) Valita -it arises due to the move noat of fingers; it is necessary to produce samcari varna. 1 Gamaka or alapa in the improper place. 2 Can it mean blowing with clenched teeth ?

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Instrumental Music (iii) Mukta-it arises when the holes are free from all fingers; it produces a free sound. (iv) Ardhamukta--when the holes are half-free; it produces halting sounds. (v) Nipidita--when all the holes are fully covered by fingers, and the flute is filled with wind. Sarrgadeva says (Vadyadhyaya 662 ) that the merits and defects, stated in connexion with voice under vocal music, are to understood mutatis mutandis in this case also A band of fluuists is generally said to be constituted as follows : one principal flutist and his four followers. Dbatu The notes, produced by particular kinds of strokes, are called dhatu. The dhatus develop the music of vina, cause unparalleled delight and give rise to faultless sounds. Dhatus are fourfold, viz. vistara, karana, aviddha and vyanjana. Of these, vistara has four varieties, karana five, aviddha five and vyanjana ten. The total number of dhatus, along with their divisions and subdivisions, is 34. Kinds of Instrumental music It is of four kinds, viz. suska, gitanuga, nyttanuga and gitantttanuga. Vadya without gita and nitta is called suska; it is called gosthi. The other terms are self-explanatory. Asravana is the name of the playing of the lute without song; there are nine other kinds of lute-playing also without song, The use of song and instrumental music, as the predominant or subservient factor, is called vitti. It is threefold : (i) Citra-instrumental music primary and vocal music secondary. (ii) Vitti- vocal music and instrumental music are of an equal position. (iii) Daksina-vocal music prominent and instrumental music secondary.

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42 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Gitanuga vadya is threefold : (i) Tattva--that kind of instrumental music which manifests laya, tala, yati, aksara, grama, amsa etc. pertaining to song. (ii) Anugata-it partly manifests song. As in song, so in it also there are pause and staying at a different sthana. But, if there in vilambita laya in song, the instrument is skilfully played in druta laya. (iii) Ogha-in it, at the end, the instrumentalist, imitating the song, shows the imitation of the parts of the song by skilful and continuous strokes of the hand. Structure and material of musical instruments' Tata The alapini vina is as follows : The danda ( rod ) will be eight mustis? long, made of bamboo, hollow, circumference two angulas, free from joints etc., smooth, uniform all through, circular, fitted with a kakubha (a crooked piece of wood at the end) two angulas long and half an angula wide, half as much in thickness, facing upwards, devoid of a patrika, having one rod fitted with a sarku (pin or peg) the space below which will be four angulas long and high at the outer side and in the middle. The turba (i.e. the round thing at the lower end) is twelve argulas in length, four angulas at the mouth and an ivory nabhis is fixed at a distance of a quarter less than two mustis below the top. The strings, made of the entrails of sheep, will be fine, smooth, even and firm. Coconut shells (karpara), tying ropes (doraka) and bridges (sarika) are used in its construction. According to others, the rod will be made of Khadira wood and the strings of linen or silk or Karpasa cotton. 1 Only the principal types under each class will be described. 2 Musti means the length of the clenched palm. 3 Navel-like cavity or piece.

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Instrumental Music Still others provide that the rod, in all cases, should be made of red sandal-wood. Sarngadeva states that, in some cases, the length of the rod exceeds ten mustis. Kinnari vinas are of two kinds-laghvi and brhati. The laghvi is as follows: Danda, which is round, is three vitastis' five angulas long, five angulas wide, having many holes; the kakubha, made of saka wood, will be two and a half angulas wide and five angulas long, in its middle there will be a tortoise-shaped iron piece, half an angula less in length and breadth: the sarika, made of a perforated piece of bone o the chest of a vulture and measuring the little finger of the hand or it may be made of iron or bell-metal. On the back of the danda, fourteen sarikas will be fixed with wax, mixed with the ashes of a burnt piece of cloth, on the fourteen places of svaras. Below the second heptad, the first sarika, a little longer than one finger, will be fixed at the place of Nisada. At intervals will be fixed sarikas of which each succeeding one will be a little bigger than the preceding one. The eighth one will be fixed three angulas apart from the preceding one. The other six sarikas will be fixed at gradually increasing intervals not exceeding four angulas. At the lower joint of the kakubha on the danda, will be fixed the first tumba. The second tumba, a little wider than the first, will be fixed between the third and the fourth sarikas, in the lower part. Into a hole, two angulas below the tip of the danda, a moving pin is to be placed: it will have a hole in its neck. One angula below it, a two-horned pin, resembling the feathered part of an arrow, one angula high, is to be made. In front of it, a little distance away, a fixed pin is to be placed. Then firmly fixing on the kakubha an iron string, smooth, round, even, strong and resembling elephant's hair, it will be drawn to the above two-horned pin, with its second end the moving pin will be surrounded. This pin will be twisted so long as the string does not become firm. By twist 1 One vitasti= 12 angulas. 2 See under alapini vina. 43

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance ing it on the opposite side the string becomes loose. If the string is long, then, for the sake of firmness, an iron peg, put into the hole of the neck of the moving pin, will be fitted in the fixed pin. The Brhati kinnari will be one vitasti more in length and one angula more in breadth than the laghvi; it will have three tumbas and the strings made of nerves. The third tumba is to be placed as in the alapini. The other characteristics of the laghvi will be present in the bihati too. Susira A flute is to be made of bamboo, Khadira wood, ivory, white or red sandalwood, iron, bell-metal, silver or gold. It will be round in shape, straight, smooth and devoid of jointknots and scars. Inside it there will be hollow as long as the flute; the hollow, equal to the little finger in width, will be uniform. From the tip of the flute a space of two, three or four angulas is to be left out. Then a hole, of the dimension of one angula, should be made fit for being blown. From the main hole another hole, called tara, will be one angula apart. Other seven holes will be made at intervals of balf angula. The last eight holes are stated to be like bones of jujube fruits. Below the holes there will be a holeless space of two angulas. Of the above holes, the seven, producing sound, are considered to be meant for the division of svaras. The eighth one is intended to be an outlet for the wind. The wind, produced by blowing, is filled by the main hole. The length of a flute varies from two angulas to twenty --two; the last one being called Srutanidhi. Anaddha Pataha is twofold, viz. marga and desi. The former is two and a half cubits long, six angulas in circumference, big in the middle; its right face is eleven angulas and a half, the left one ten angulas and a half. There will be an iron ring

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Instrumental Music over the right one and, on the left, an earthen ring. The ring on the left side should be covered with a parika taken from a six-month-old dead calf. Then, both the rings will have seven apertures each. After this, kalasas, made of gold etc., seven in number and four angalas long, are to be tied with strings placed in the apertures on each side. Leaving a space of four angulas from the left face, a patrika, made of iron and having a width of three angulas is to be firmly placed round the pataha. The two covered faces are to be tied with the thick skin, called kavala, of the outer part of the body of a calf or goat. The kavala of the right side should be perforated all around. With the strings, placed on the right face, the kalasas are to be firmly drawn and the strings tied well in the ring. With the strings placed in the seven holes in the kavala, the kalasas are to be encircled and fixing them in the iron ring the kalasas are to be kept in a compact form. Outside the kalasas, at the fringe of the left ring, there will be a kaccha (waist-band) for being put around the waist (of the player). The desi pataha is like the above with the difference that it is a cubit and a half long and its right and left faces are seven angulas and six and a half angulas respectively, its left face is tied with uddali (i.e. the skin of the animal's groin). Both the above kinds of pataha are made of Khadira wood. Each of them is divided into three classes--uttama, madhyama and adhama. Those described above are uttama. The madhyama and the adhama are respectively one-twelfth and one-sixth less. Mardala, also called mrdarga or muraja, is made in the following manner: made of the faultless (i.e. devoid of scars and cracks etc.) wood of the citron tree, one-half argula thick, 21 angulas long left face 14 angulas, right face 13 angulas, middle part thin, one angula thick at the faces, thick and round skin at both ends, in each of the two pieces of skin 40 holes one angula apart from one another; in the

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46 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance holes will be placed straps which will be sewn, embedded in the straps there will be pieces of potsherd touching the middle part of the instrument both over it and below, the potsherd being tied with three straps the middle part will be encircled firmly, at that place there will be a knot of two straps resembling go-mutrika', the pieces of leather covering the faces will be firmly tied, of the two rings at the two ends, a kaccha placed in the left one should be fixed in the right and tightly drawn and made twofold, a waist-band made of cloth should be placed in the waist. As regards the wood to be selected for the construction of the wooden instruments, the general instruction is that, when the kind of wood is not specified, it should be gathered from khadira or red sandai tice. Saingadeva says that trees belong to three species-pittala, vatala and slesmala. The first kind grows on dry land, the second on land having a little moisture and the third on a fully moist land near tanks. For the purpose of instruments, the first is the best and the second inferior, but the third is to be avoided. The pieces of wood, with the following defects, should be rejected : softness, scar, hole, joints of branches, knot and breach. For tying the faces of percussion instruments the hide of a six-month (according to some, two-year) old calf is suitable. The straps are made of old bulls. The cow's leather to be struck should be bright like Kunda flowers, moon and snow or slightly coppery like a (new) mango-leaf and free from sinew and flesh. Before use it should be soaked in cold water for one night. The hide, with the following defects, is not fit for use having fat, with the cover of the uterus stuck to it, klinna (moist ?), pecked with the beaks of the crow, spoilt by fire and smoke, worn out. Ghana For the instruments made of bell-metal, the metal should 1 The criss-cross manner. 2 Described above.

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Instrumental Music be well refined in fire. The tala (popularly called karatala ) will be circular in shape. Its face will be two angulas and a quarter, the inner portion one angula wide and low, the hole in the middle will be a quarter less than a gunja, the thickness one yava, height one argula and a half. Its form will be even, smooth and beautiful so that it produces sound pleasant to the ear. Strings of borders of cloth are to be passed through the holes and tied with knots at the ends. Characteristics of a mardala player Mardala players are of four kinds--vadaku, mukhari, pratimuk hari and guanuga. Vadaka is derived from vada which means a mode of disputation. In a vada, a person takes up his own side and refutes the view of the other side. Similarly, the vadaka takes up the playing. The mukhari is so called because other instrumentalists look up to his face for playing their instruments. He will have the following qualities : capacity for composing vadya-prabandhas, training in dance, skilled in vocal and instrumental music, surekha', concentration, indispensable to the female dancer presence on the stage. The pratimukhart lacks a few of the qualities of the mukhari. He is called gitanuga who, having set the harsh and soft letters, through nada, mandra, madhya, tara, follows the song in order to help the madhura through playing the instrument; this is done in both suddha and salaga songs. Pata, Pancasanca, Vadyaprabandha It is the name given to Vadyaksara, i.e. the letter-like sounds produced in an instrument. The palas, which arise from the different positions of the hand, rather the palm, and the strokes made by it, are called hastapala. Eighty-eigig hastapalas have been stated by Sarrigadeva. DHA RA KA TA DHA RA KA TA-it is an example of hastapala. Different kinds of pata, being applied to the instruments like Pataha, 1 Of a pleasing physical posture.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance produce instrumental music of various sorts. The total number of the kinds of vadya, produced by pata, is 500. The shaking of the neck, elbow, thumb, wrist and the left foot is called sanca. Due to the sanca of the thumb and the wrist, the player of pataha becomes best. By shaking the shoulders and the elbow one becomes inferior. The hudukka player, due to the shaking of the thumb, elbow and the neck, becomes best. One becomes madhyama by shaking the wrist and the elbow. One, who is worst, plays with the shaking of the left foot. As there are gita-prabandhas, so we have vadya-prabandhas too composed of udgraha etc. According to Sarrigadeva, there are 43 vadya-prabandhas. An example of vadya-prabundha : gad da ga thom gakkathomtem etc.

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III TALA The term 'tala' is derived from the root 'tal' which conveys the sense of pratistha (foundation, basis). Sarrigadeva tells us that it is so called because music, both vocal and instrumental, and dance are based on it. It has been defined as the time measured with the help of the measures called laghu (short), guru (long) and pluta'. A short vowel is laghu, a long one guru and a prolated vowel is called pluta. For example, a, a are laghu and guru respectively. Pluta is generally used in the following circumstances: calling from afar, singing, weeping. For instance, in u umesa (O, Umesa) the u is pluta. In the case of tala, the time required in spelling out laghu, guru and pluta letters is meant. In this connexion, we should mention also matra. One matra is determined by the time required in pronouncing five short letters, e.g., KA, CA, TA, TA, PA. In tala, laghu, guru etc. are ascertained by matras. Tala is said to determine the measure of song, instrumental music and dance. Tala is broadly twofold-marga (classical) and dest (regional). The action in the former is of two kinds, viz. soundless (nihsabda) and sounded (sasabda). The former, called Kala, is fourfold :avapa, niskrama, viksepa and pravesaka. The latter (i.e. sounded), also called Pata or Kala, is fourfold, viz. dhruva, samya, tala and sannipata. 1 According to Panini, kalo'c hrasva-dirgha-plutah (1. 2.27)-vowels requiring as much time as is required in pronouncing short u, long and prolated u are respectively called hrasva, dirgha, pluta. Hrasva and dirgha are the designations of laghu and guru respectively.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance The bending of the fingers, with the palm upturned, is called avapa. Niskrama is the name of the stretching of the fingers with the palm turned downwards. The casting of the hand, with the fingers outstretched and the palm upturned on the right side, is called viksepa. The contraction of the fingers of the hand, remaining on the right side with the palm turned downwards, is called pravesa. The placing of the hand below, with the snapping of the thumb and the forefinger together, is called dhruva. The production of the clapping sound with the right hand is called samya. Such a sound, produced by the left hand, is known as tala. The production of such a sound with both the hands together is called sannipata 50 Marga, mentioned above, is fourfold, viz. dhruva, citra, vartika and daksina. As regards dest tala, its difference from the marga tala appears to rest chiefly on the fact that while the former appeals to the common folk, the latter is appreciated by the experts or connoisseurs. According to the Samgitaratnakara (Taladhyaya-237), such a tala, when accompanied by cymbals etc., becomes attractive. The author further states that such a tala should be yathasobha, i.e. it should not violate Sobha Kallinatha explains sobha as attractiveness caused to the appreciating mind by the similarity of time in the repetition of talas in the part of songs.1 Another characteristic of desi tala has been stated as the determination by the measures called laghu etc. without violating sobha. In desi tala, druta and pluta have half a matra and three matras respectively. Of desi tala, one hundred and twenty varieties have been distinguished. Sarrigadeva says (Taladhyaya-312) that there are little known talas too. He lays down nineteen ways of ascertaining the mutual difference among the well known and little known talas. 1 Sobhasabdena gitavayavesu talavrttinam kalasamyanibandhana sahrdayahrdayamgamata.

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Tala Talas are again twofold-caturasra and tryasra. known respectively as caccatputa and cacaputa. Satpitaputraka is a variety of tryasra which has another one called Udghatta. Salpita putraka is also designated as Uttara and Pancapani, Laya, Yati 51 The pause, intervening between talas or strokes which determine the time of matras, is called laya. Kallinatha makes the concept of laya clear. He says that if one action follows another without cessation, there is no rest or pause; so, there is no laya in such a case. For example, there is no separate laya between laghu matras which exist as parts of two guru matras. Again, there is no separate laya between laghu matras which form parts of pluta matra. Laya is threefold-druta (swift), madhya (medium) and vilambita (delayed). The mode of application of laya is called yati. Yati is of three kinds-sama, srotogata and gopuccha. Sama takes place when there is uniformity of laya in the beginning,. middle and end Srotogata arises when vilambita, madhya and druta layas are used respectively in the beginning, middle and end. That is gopuccha which resorts to druta, madhya and vilambita layas.1 1 There are also other varieties of each of the three kinds of yati.

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IV DANCE General remarks At the outset, it should be stated that originally dance was conceived in connexion with drama. Sarrigadeva says (Nartanadhyaya-3) that Nartana is threefold, viz. Natya, Nrtya and Nrtta. Further on he says that Nrtta is a kind of abhinaya (acting, mimetic art). Nrtta, as a kind of abhinaya, is performed by means of Karana1 and angabhangi (gestures and postures). The angas are six-head, hands, chest, sides, hip. feet. Some include shoulder also. The pratyangas are neck, arms, back, belly, thighs, shanks. According to some, the wrist, knees and ornamants, worn on the limbs, are also included in pratyangas. There are twelve upangas in the head, viz. eyes, brows, eyelids, eye-balls, throat, nose, breath, lips, teeth, tongue, chin and face. The other Upangas are heels, ankles, fingers, toes, soles of feet. Nrtta (dance) should be distinguished from Nrtya (gesticulation, tableau), Sarrigadeva defines Nrtya as that which manifests emotions or feelings by means of gestures (angikabhinaya). According to him, it is known as marga. He characterises Nrtta as movements of limbs devoid of any imitation of any condition. Dhananjaya, in his Dasariraka, brings out the distinction between the two in the following words-anyad bhavasrayam nrtyam nrttam talalayasrayam. It means that, while nrtya is based on bhava (emotion, feeling), nrtta is related to tala and laya." 1 See below. 2 The terms have been explained in the foregoing chapter on Tala and Vocal music respectively.

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Dance Nrtta is broadly divided into two classes-Tandava and Lasya. Violent dance, taught by Tandu, the foremost among the mythical attendants of Siva, is called Tandava. Lasya is the name of the tender graceful dance said to be taught by Parvati; it is to be performed with delicate movements of limbs, and is conducive to love. Nrtta again is threefold-visama, vikata and laghu. The dance, in which one walks over ropes etc., is called visama. Vikata is the name of dance performed with grotesque look, dress and movements of limbs. Laghu nrtta is that which is performed with Ancita1 and such other minor Karanas." Nrttakarana A graceful action of hand, foot, etc. together, which is in consonance with the Rasa concerned, is called karana or Nrttakarana. Usually, in the begining of dance, the feet are in the natural position, the hands have the Latakara pose and the body is in the Caturasra pose. The left hand is generally kept on the chest and the right one makes such movements as are suited to each Karana. There are other features peculiar to each of the Karanas. Karanas may be innumerable. Sarrigadeva mentions one hundred and eight as the most common and important ones. Of the Karanas, some are standard prevailing everywhere, while others are dest in vogue in particular regions. The latter includes the various Utplutikaranas or Karanas with jumps. We state below only a few varieties under each class as illustrations: Samanakha-the body is in the natural position, the feet touch each other with the toes placed on the same level on the ground The hands are in the Lata pose. 1 That kind of dance in which the arm goes out from the region of the chest and returns to the chest. There are other light dancea called by this name. 2 Defined below. 3 Infra.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Dolapada--after urdhvajanu Cari, the Dolapada Cari is per formed and the arms are kept in the Dola pose. 1 Janita - It takes place when, after Janita Cari, one hand in the form of Mustiis placed on the chest and the other is in the Lata pose. Sakalasya-After Sukatasya Cari, one hand and one foot are stretched out; the other hand in the Khatakamukha3 form is kept on the chest. Bhramara--The foot remains as in Aksipta Cari. At the same time the Udvestita* movement is made with the hand. The lower part of the spine is curved around, and the feet form svastika. The same is repeated on the other side. Simultanously the Ulbana5 gesture is made with hands. Suci -One foot is thrown up, bent and brought down without touching the ground. The hand on the same side is kept, in the khatakamukha pose, at the chest. The other hand, in the Alapadma pose, is near the head. The same is repeated on the other side. Apakranta After Baddha and Apakranta Caris, the two hands move in an appropriate manner. Parsvakranta-It takes place when Parsvakranta cart is performed and the bands follow the feet. 1 Infra. 2 In it, the tips of fingers rest in a compact manner in the middle of the palm not covered by the fingers, and the thumb remains pressed against the middle finger. 3 Infra. 4. The straightening of the bent fingers, beginning with the forefinger, in their respective order, along with the movement of the hand away from the chest to the side. 5 In it, the two Alapadma hands, with quivering fingers, face the shoulder and are stretched over the shoulders.

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Dance 55 Utpluti-karanas Ancita--Standing up in the natural position of the feet and jumping straight upwards. Lohadi-Standing with the feet in the natural position and twisting around the loins une jumps up and falls obliquely. Cari Derived from the root car (to move) with the addition of the suffix is, followed by the feminine affix nis, it denotes the aggregate of various graceful movements of the feet, shanks, thighs and hips performed simultaneously. Cari, also called Vyayamu, has the following varieties : Cari, Karana, Khunda and Mandala. The Cari, which can be performed by any one foot, is called Cari. That, in which both the feet are required, is called Karana which is to be distinguished from Nrttakarana. Three Karanas make a Khanda. Three or four Khandas make a Mandala. Carz, performed by one foot, is of two kinds; viz. Bhaumi (terrestrial, i.e. performed on the ground) and Akasiki (aerial. i.e. performed in the air above the ground). Each of the Bhaumi and Akasiki Caris has sixteen varieties. While the above are classical or standard Caris, called Marga, there are also regional Caris with local characteristics, called Desi Caris. The latter again are divided into two classes, Bhaumi and Akasiki; the number of the former is 35, while that of the latter is 19. We shall mention below only a few typical Caris under each class by way of illustrations. MARGA CARI Bbaumi Samapada-standing with the two feet close together, the

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56 Janita Vicyava -from the Samapada position the feet are lifted up and fore-parts are brought down on the ground. -in it one foot is in Agratalasamcara, one hand is kept at the chest in the Mustia pose and the other hand moves in a beautiful manner. Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Sakatasya--in it the upper part of the body is held with effort, one foot in the Agratala Samcara form is stretched forward, and the chest is kept in the Udvahita form. Akasiki Alata toe-nails on a level, and in the Samapada1 posture. Aksipta in it, one foot in Kuncita form is thrown up to the height of three spans, brought to the other side and then, crossing the shanks in Svastika, it is caused to fall on the ground on its heel. Vidyudbhranta-One foot touches the head which is turned back, is turned round in all directions and stretched. -one foot is stretched backwards with its sole facing the other thigh. Then its heel is brought down to the ground on its side. Urdhvajanu -in it one foot in the Kuncita form is thrown up and its knee is kept on a level with the breast. The other foot is kept steady and motionless. 1 Parsvakranta-in it, one Kuncita foot is raised and brought down on the the ground by its heel. Where Sausthava of the limbs is important, and the two feet are kept in the natural position at a distance of one span from each other. 2 Infra. 3 In it, the chest is lightly raised without shaking.

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Dance 57 DESi CARI Bhaumi Paravittatala - the sole of the foot faces up at the back and is stretched outwards. Ardhamandalika-the two feet move outward rubbing the ground and return with a circular movement to the original position slowly one after the other. Akasiki Vidyudbhranta --throwing up the foot in front and moving it around above the forehead quickly, and placing it on the ground. Harinapluta -- jumping up with foot bent and letting it fall repeatedly. STHANA It means a static posture as distinguished from cari which denotes a particular movement. There is one sthana before the commencement of a cari and one after it. One starts a cari from one posture, one stops at another. A particular position of the motionless body is called sthana. There are six sthanas for men, seven for women. These are standard sthanas. Besides there are 23 desi (regional or local) sthanas. Again, there are nine sitting postures (upavis lasthanakas ) and six reclining ones (suptasthanakas ). All together number 51 according to Sarnigadeva. We give below a few typical examples under each class. Postures for men Vaisakha--the two thighs are kept in the air above the ground at a distance of three and a half spans from each. other and the feet are kept on the ground pointing obliquely outwards, also at the same distance from each other. M-8

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58 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Alidha -the left thigh is motionless in the air and slightly bent. The right foot is stretched forward to a distance of five spans. Both feet are oblique. Postures for women Gatagata- the female dancer, about to move forward, hesitates with one foot raised. Valita -the body is slightly twisted around, the foot, in the direction in which the body is twisted, touches the ground with the little toe. The other foot touches the ground with the big toe. Desi Sthanas Vardhamana -the two feet are oblique with the heels touching each other. Nandyavarta in Vardhamana above, the distance between the feet is six angulas or one vitasti (= 12 angulas). Upavista-sthanas Madalasa-one foot is stretched out a little, the other is placed on the seat, and the head is bent on one side. Utkata -the heels and the hips are on the same level and the feet are on the ground in the natural position. Suptasthana Sama-lying down with the face turned upwards and the hands loose and free. Nata lying down with the shanks slightly separated and the two hands resting loosely. ANGAHARA This term is constituted by two components, viz, angu and hara. It is explained as the movement (hara) of angas (limbs). Some explain it as a movement pertaining to Hara (i.e. Siva), and demonstrated by limbs (anga). According to Sarrigadeva, the graceful movement of the limbs to the proper places, composed of groups of Matrkas (i.e. combination of two karanas) is called Angahara.

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Dance 59 The number of Argaharas is infinite. Sarngadeva mentions thirty-two as important among them." RECARA Particular movements of the feet, hands, waist and neck are called recaka. The continuous movement of the foot in between the heel and the tip of the toe and then outwards, involving bending and stretching, is the recaka of the foot. A swift circular movement of the hands inward and outward alternately is the recaka of the hands. Turning round the waist in all directions along with the vertical rotation of the toe slightly spread out, is the recaka of the waist. Shaking and moving the neck around is recaka of the neck. The necessary recakas are added to argaharas. VARTANA, CALAKA Vartana denotes a particular movement of the arms. By resorting to various movements of arms, separately and collectively, and adopting the tempos druta etc., innumerable vartanas can be produced. sarrigadeva does not enumerate the vartanas of which twenty-four varieties are described by Kallinatha following Kohala. When employed with recakas, without the loss of grace, these movements of arms, full of skilful modes, are called Calakas. Kallinatha, following Kohala, describes 50 Calakas. For fear of prolixity, we do not name them here. As these are connected with karanas, their definitions require the explanation of the karanas concerned. For considerations of space, we do not define them here,

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance NYAYA The movement of the body in dance for simulated protection against weapons and for the simulated discharge of weapons is called nyaya. Corresponding to the four styles (vrtti) called Bharati, Sattvati, Arabhali and Kaisiki, nyayas are fourfold, viz. Bharata, Sattvata, Varsaganya and Kaisika. Pravicaras are those excellent (prakrsta ) and varied (vicitra) movements and gaits meant for discharging weapons. The nyayas are to be employed with caris in discharging the weapons. MANDALAS Mandala is the name given to a particular combination of Caris. Mandalas are divided into two kinds, bhauma (terrestrial) and akasika (aerial). There are ten mandalas under each class. Mandalas are employed in discharging weapons. In depicting fighi, aerial mandalas are important. It may be noted that as several caris constitute a mandala, the omission or addition of some caris does not mar it. Earthly Mandalas A few instances are given below ; Bhramara The right foot and the left foot are Janita and Spandita respectively. Then these two are respectively sakatasya and Casagati. Again, the right and left feet are Bhramaru and spandita respectively Casagata In it, there will be casagati feet all through, and turning round in a circle at the end. Aerial Mandala Kranta In it, the right and the left feet are respectively Suci and Apakranta respectively. Then both the feet are Parsvakranta,

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Dance the left one moving round in all directions. Then the left and right feet are respectively Sici and Apakranta. Suciyiddha The right foot is successively Suci and Bhramara. Then the left one is Parsvakranta and Apakranta, and the right foot Suci. Then the left foot is Apakranta and the right Parsvakranta. REKHA It is the name of a particular position of the body, attractive to the mind and the eyes. In it, there is a harmonious combination of the various poses of the major limbs, e.g. head, eyes, hands. Qualification of a dancer Generally women are fit for various movements in dancing. They are of three types, i.e. Mugdha (shy), Madhya (normal) and Pragalbha (bold, confident). The types correspond to three stages of youthfulness. The first is the stage of adolescence in which there is eagerness for the kind of amorous pleasure in which the lips, full-grown breasts, cheeks, hips and thighs are concealed due to shyness. The second is the life of love in which the woman has heavy thighs and hips, large, hard, heaving and firm breasts. The third is the stage in which there is a maddening charm, the woman is clever in perfect amorous sports and has spontaneous amorous feelings. Merits and defects of a dancer The following are the merits of a dancer : beauty of limbs, perfection of form, charming full face, large eyes, red lips, beautiful teeth, conch-like neck, arms like moving creapers, slender waist, not-too-heavy hips, thighs like elephanttrunks, not too tall, crippled or fat, not having prominent veins, conspicuous charm, sweetness, courage, generosity, fair or dark complexion. The best dancer, by delicate movements,

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance beautiful rhythm and correct timing, seems to manifest the sound of songs and instruments, and fully evokes the Rasa. Decoration of a dancer Waving loose, black, glossy and abundant hair with flower-strings on it or, straight long braid of hair decorated with a string of pearls, forehead having curly locks, a beautyspot on the forehead with musk, sandal-paste etc., eyes with collyrium; ears with cylindrical ornaments, radiant teeth, cheeks with streaks of musk; pearl-necklace round the neck; large pearl-strings decorating the breasts; gem-studded golden bangles on the fore-arm, on fingers rings set with rubies, sapphires, diamonds etc.; body smeared with sandal-paste or saffron; garments of white silk etc.; a fine jacket or short petticoat with a tight bodice. The teacher of dance He should have the following qualifications : Personality, sound knowledge of dancing, knowledge of the beginning and concluding songs and instrumental music, Graha', instrumental music, tradition, beauty of sounds, sthayasa; cleverness in the tempos Druta etc. and in talas; capacity for composing Vadyaprabandhas, originating new styles in Samgita; skill in the art of teaching, capacity for attracting people, knowledge of the merits and defects of dancing performances. Dance-troupe (Sampradaya) Troupes are of three kinds, viz. Kutila (best) Madhyama (medium) and Kanistha (smallest). The Kutila sampradaya is constituted as follows : 1 Mukharin (leader). 1 Pratimukharin (chief assistant). 1. Explained under Vocal music. 2. Ibid.

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Dance 2 players of the percussion instrument called Avaja. 2 players of the percussion instrument called Addavaja. 2 players of the percussion instrument called Karala. 32 players of the drum called Mardala. cymbal players. 8 playing bell-metal cymbals. 2 playing the wind instrument called Kahala. 2 flutists. 2 main singers. 8 other singers. 2 main female singers, one of whom is a dancer. 8 other female singers. 74 The troupe, having half the above strength, is madhyama; less than the latter is called Kanistha. Closely following the Mukharin, his tempo (laya) making up the deficiencies, observing the timing (tala )--these are the merits of a troupe, the lack of any of these merits constitutes a defect. GAUNDALI Gaundali is the designation of a kind of female dancer. Hence the dance, performed by her, is also called Gaundali. This mode of dance is called Gaundali-paddhati as distinguished from Suddha-padihati. Gaundali is devoid of vigorous instrumental compositions and songs like Ela, accompanied by vocal Salagasida compositions like Dhruva. The dancer dances with gentler movements of the limbs, using the Lasyangas. She herself sings, and plays on the Trivali instrument. Some reject this instrument as the wearing of the Trivalt on the shoulder is not decent for a girl. If this dancer does not sing, she is called Mukagaunduli. Her dress is to be that of the region called Karnalaka. This mode of dance is called desrpaddhati,

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64 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance PERANIN A kind of dancer is called Peranin He will be as follows: Body smeared with white powder such as ash, shaved head with a tuft of hair, wearing a number of shining anklet bells tied to the sharks, good voice, expert in the arts of timing and tempo, attracting the mind of the audience. The dance of a Peranin has five elements, viz. (i) Gharghara -special training in the sounding of anklet bells. (ii) Visama -it denotes Utplutikaranas (Karanas with jumps). (iii) Bhavasraya-imitation of ludicrous things for comic effect. (iv) Kavicara description of the hero of high character. (v) Gita --Salaga songs prescribed for the Gaundali. ACARYA The Acarya will be as follows : Versed in the theory and practice of dance, vocal and instrumental music, eloquent in speech, handsome in appearance and dress, expert in eulogy in a pleasing manner, humorous in assemblies, expert in playing musical instruments. AUDIENCE The people, gathering in the hall of dance, should be as follows: Possessed of moderate views, attention, eloquence, skill in Nyaya, discrimination between right and wrong types of dance, modesty; versed in Rasas and Bhavas, three kinds of Samgita, critical of those who talk in. correctly, clever, free from jealousy, possessed of hearts overflowing with Rasa.

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65 Dance SABHAPATI The President of the assembly should be as follows : Of an amorous disposition, generous, honourable, discriminating between dancers, rich, appreciative of even slight merit, interesied in entertainments, eloquent, free from jealousy, clever in jokes, intelligent, dignified, skilled in arts, well-versed in Sastras, desirous of fame, pleasanttongued, capable of understanding others' minds, judicious, possessed of good memory, versed in the three branches of Samgita, charitably disposed, possessed of all instruments, the knowledge of the distinction between Marga and Desi, capable of distinguishing deficiencies and excesses, learned, bold, impartial, having command over attendants, capable of aesthetic appreciation, full of Rasa, truthful, highborn, having a gracious face, steady in affection, grateful, kind, virtuous, afraid of sins, friendly to scholars. SEATING ARRANGEMENTS IN ASSEMBLY The President should occupy the lion-seat. To his left will be members of the harem and to his right the chieftains. Behind the chieftains should be the treasurer. Near them will sit scholars versed in worldly and Vedic lore, with them should be poets of aesthetic taste, clever in various styles. In the centre of scholars will remain honoured physicians and astrologers. On the right is the Council of Ministers along with Chiefs of the army. Men and women of aesthetic taste should sit around the members of the harem and in front of the king Behind the king will stand beautiful young girls carrying chowries and making a jingling sound of the bangles. On the left of the king, in front, will sit composers of songs, story-tellers, bards, scholars and flatterers. Around them will the attendants of the king. There should be some clever men holding canes. The bodyguards of the king should stand on all sides with weapons in hands. M -9

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66 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Poses of hands Various poses of different limbs (anga ) and sub-limbs (pratyanga) have been prescribed. Some of hese are applicable in dance, while others are used in acting ( abhinaya ) It is not possible, within the limited space of this little book, to describe all of them. We, therefore, confine ourselves to a description of the hand-poses alone. Among these again, we shall describe only a few prominent ones. Some of the roses are prescijbed for the single hand, while others are to te made with both the hands togeiher. Poses of the single hand Pataka In it, the thumb is bent, touches the root of the forefinger; the palm and fingers are outstictched and the fingers are pressed against one another. Arala In it, each finger, beginning with the forefirger, is se parated from the next with increasing inte vals, and is higher and higher and slightly bent, while the forefinger is curved like bow and the thumb bent. Padmakosa In it. the thumb and the other fingers are bent like a bow, separated from each other with tips not attached to one another. Musti In it, the tips of fingers remain compact in the middle of the palm, not covered (by the fingers ), and the thumb is pressed against the middle finger. Sikhara It takes place when the thumb of the Musti pose is turned upwards. Kapittha In it, the tip of the forefinger of Sikhara touches the tip of the thumb. www.

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Dance Hamsapaksa In it, the three fingers, beginning with the forefinger of pataka, are slightly bent at the roots. Khauakamukha In it, the ring finger and the little finger of the kapittha pose are thrown upwards, separated and bent. Poses of the Samyukta (combined) hands Kapota In it, the two hands are joined at their bases, tips and sides. Svastika In it, the two hands, with one wrist placed over the other, face upwards at the left side of the body. Dolu In it, the two hands in the Pataka, pose hang down with relaxed shoulders and loose fingers. Makara In it, the hands, in the form of Pataka, face downwards and are placed one upon another, with the thumbs stretched upwards. The above poses of the hand are to be used in Abhinaya. The following are some of the poses employed in Nitta (dance). Caturasra In it, two Khalakamukha hands, in the same level with elbows and shoulders, face forward in front of the chest at a distance of eight inches from it. Svastika It takes place when there is Svastika with two Hamsapaksa hands not touching each other.

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68 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Aralakhatakamukha In it, two hands in Pataka are crossed in Svastika and then swung inwards and outwards. Then forming the Padmakosa pose, facing upwards, they are again caused to swing inward and outward alternately. Then the left hand assumes the Arala pose facing upward and the right the Khalakamukha facing downward forming Caturasra. Recita It is the name of the two hands stretched out with palms upward. Latakara It takes place when the two Pataka hands, stretched crosswise, are caused to swing. Varadabhaya In it, the right and left hands in the Arala pose assume the Varada (giving boon) and Abhaya ( granting protection against fear) poses next to the corresponding hip. Alapadma In it, two Alapallava hands, near the chest, are made to approach the shoulders with the Udvestita movement and then stretched out.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A INDIAN AND WESTERN MUSIC Now-a-days there is a tendency to westernise Indian music at least to some extent. Before introducing western methods and spirit, we must understand the basic difference between the two systems. The fundamental difference between the two systems is that, while Indian music rests on melody, Wes ern music is founded on harmony. In an Indian song, the successive concordant notes produce a definite raga The harniony of the west is dependent upon the concord of different notes related to one another. The melody in India has a uniform unchanged mood: time and tune make a homogeneous unit. In Indian music, the balance is effected by time-variations and grace. In western music mood is used to articulate the balance of the whole piece'. In India, the prominent notes and the mutual relation of the individual notes are fixed by long tradition. In the west, the principal notes are made by the transient impulse of the harmony; in it what maiters is a group of notes and not the individual ones. In India, melody depends upon the relation of fixed notes which vary in accordancc with the raga; it has no concern with development through notes suggesting harmony. In the west, melodies centre around notes harmonically connected with the tonic. Consequently, imitation at different stages, though common in western music, is very rare in the Indian system. In India gamakas (tremor of the notes) are deliberate as these are considered to add to the grace of songs. In the west, these are accidental embellishments. The use of microtones distinguishes Indian music from the western. In Indian songs, conformity with the

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72 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance classical standards is all-important; in it accuracy and skill are treated as more important than the quality of the tone. The tune, melody and rhythm are all with which it is concerned. In western music, the quality of the voice and the charm are important factors. Another feature which distinguishes Indian music from the western is that wbile the former develops a single emotion, the latter frequently changes the moods. There is a fundamental difference between the systems of rhythm in the music of India and Europe. "The highly developed tala or rhythinic system, with its avoidance of strict metre and its development by the use of an accumulating combination of beat sub divisions, has no parallel in western music On the other hand, the Indian system has no exact counterpart to the tone of the tempered system, except for the keynote, of western music." 1 There cannot be a more fitting finale to this topic than the following quotation from Rabindranaib Tagore who, in his inimitable language, brings out the distinction between the aims underlying the two systems of music : "Our music draws the listener away beyond the limits of everyday human joys and sorrows. and takes us to that lonely region of renunciation which lies at the root of the universe, while European music leads us to a variegated dance through the endless rise and fall of human grief and joy." 1. See D. P. Singhal : India and World Civilisation, I, p. 222.

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APPENDIX B INFLUENCE OF INDIAN MUSIC ABROAD That there was brisk contact of India not only with her Asian neighbours, but also with such far-off regions as Egypt, Greece etc. is borne out by historical evidence. This contact was established through maritime trade, religious activities, especially the propagation of Buddhism, political domination and military invasions. In the domain of music, there are some points of similarity between the Indian system and that in vogue in certain other countries. While, in some cases, this might be accidental coincidence or parallel development, in others the influence of India is a historical fact. The accounts of India, left by the Chinese travellers, Fa-hien, Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing, bear eloquent testimony to cultural intercourse between our country and China. It was probably in the Gupta age (320 A.D. to the first half of the seventh century) that there was a diffusion of Indian culture in the countries of the middle and east Asia, particularly in China. Kuchi in Central Asia was then a centre of the cultiva. tion of Indian music. There is evidence of the prevalence of our music in Kashgarh and Khotan too. It is probable tbat the Indian artists of Kuchi carried this art to China. It found an honoured place even in the royal courts of China. In 581 A.D., at the invitation of the then Chinese Emperor, many Indian .musicians went to that country. An Indian artist, named Sujiva, adorned the royal court of China in the period between 560 and 578 A.D. An expert Vina-player, he used M-10

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance to train the music-lovers of China in the modes of Indian ragas. It appears that the Chinese used to cultivate Indian music down to the 9th-10th centuries. Ancient Chinese manuscripts testify to their familiarity with the seven svaras, gramas, marchanas etc. of the Indian system of music. According to some, the musical notes of China have been modelled on those of India. It is significant that at least three Chinese notes correspond to the three svaras called Sadja, Rsabha and Pancama. In the sixth century, Korea was also a seat of Indian music. From China and Korea it travelled to Japan. Indian colonies in Champa or Kambuja may have played a part in the transmission of Indian music to Japan. According to an ancient Japanese tradition, two chief types of music, called Bodhisattva and Bairo, were imported from China to Japan by an Indian Brahmin named. Bodhi. Bodhisattva is evidently an Indian appellation. Bairo seems to have been derived from the Indian raga Bhairava which is still called Bhairo in Hindi. of the Far Eastern countries-Java, Bali, Sumatra and Cambodia looked upon our music with respect, and actively cultivated it. Some songs of Tibet, particularly those of the devotional character, appear to have elements in imitation of the Saman songs. According to some scholars, the musical instruments like the harp, which resemble the Indian vina, were borrowed from India by such ancient lands as Greece, Egypt, Alexandria etc. There are certain striking parallelisms between the Indian and Greek systems of music. For example, the two earliest scales of Greece, called Mixolydic and Doric, have resemblance with early Indian scales. Pythagoras' scheme of cycle of the fifth and cycle of the fourth in musical system correspond to the sadja-pancuma and sadja-madhyama bhavas of the Natyasastra. Though mere likeness of the two systems is no evidence of one borrowing from the other, yet the probability of

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Influence of Indian music abroad Indian: influence on Greece cannot be ruled out. It should be borne in mind that Indian music, dating back to the Rgvedic period, is definitely older than the Greek. In this connexion, it deserves notice that some ancient Greek writers claim that the greater part of their music was borrowed from Asia. Strabo, among others, shares their view. Alexander's biographer, Arrian, knew of the Indians' love of music since early times. Aristotle's description of a lyre reminds one of the Indian ekatantri vina. Curt Sachs thinks that the South Indian drum tambattam was known in Babylonia by the name of timbutu. According to him, the South Indian Kinnari was King David's Kinnor The Arab writer, Jahiz, informs us that Indian music was popular in the Abbasid court. He records an Indian musical instrument, called kankalah, containing a string stretched on a pumpkin. It appears to be the kingar made with two gourds. Another source records a book on Indian tunes and melodies. Some technical terms of Arabian music appear to have been borrowed from Persia and India. The Arabic maqam iqa appears to be Persian rendering of Indian melodic rhythmic system. Yehudi Menuhin is certain that some element of Indian music became the mainstay of Arabic music.

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APPENDIX INFLUENCE OF TANTRA ON MUSIC In certain works on music, we find mention of nadis (artery, vein), cakras (circles) etc. within the body in connexion with the genesis of nada, sruti, svara etc. We briefly state below what Sarrigadeva says about these things. It may be added that the human body, regarded as a microcosm, has been the subject of vigorous dicussion in the Tantra. In fact, an important way of Tantric meditation is to look inward and to awaken the kulakundalini, the vital life-force fancied as a serpent coiling at the bottom of the upper part of the body. CAKRA The following cakras are supposed to be within the human body: Adhara---in between the anus and the penis. Supposed to have four petals. Svadhisthana-in the region of the navel. 10 petals. Anahata--in the heart. 12 petals. Visuddhi--in the throat. 16 petals. Lalana--in the forehead. 12 petals Ajna - in between the brows. 3 petals. Manas--above the a isa-cakra. 6 petals. Soma---above the manas. 16 petals. Sudhadhara---in the Brahmarandhra, an aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is said to escape at the time of death. 1000 petals. The Visuddhi-cakra is said to be the resort of the svaras sadja etc. sarnigadeva holds that tire soul, residing in the eighth and some other petals, desires; success in music. By the

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Influence of Tantra on music 77 sixth and some other petals of it songs etc. are spoilt. Resort to eight petals, begining with the eighth, causes success in songs etc. Its sixteenth petal is their destroyer. The tenth and and eleventh petals of Lalana give success. The first and some other petals of it are destroyers. The soul in Brahmarandhra seems to be satisfied being drenched in ambrosia, and accomplishes the best kind of songs etc. The soul, in other petals and cakras, never achieves perfect success in songs etc. Sarngadeva says that two angulas above Adhara-cakra and two angulas below the genital organ there is a cakra called dehumadhya measuring one angula. In it there is a slender flame of fire. At a distance of nine angulas from it there is the body-root four angulas in height and width; it is called Brahmagranthi. In it there is nabhicakra with twelve petals. There the soul travels like a spider in the cobweb. NADIS Nadis are said to be infinite. Of them, the important are : Susumna, ida, pirgala, kuhu, sarasvati, gandhari, hastijihva, varuni, yasasvini, viuvodara, samkhini, pusa, payasvini. VAYU The following ten kinds of wind are supposed to exist within the body : Prana, apana, vyana, samana, udana, naga, kurma, krkara, devadatta and dhananjaya. Of these, the chief is prana. Remaining below the navel it moves about in the mouth, nostrils and heart. It is the source of inhalation, exhalation, cough etc. Apana is the source of sound; it remains in the anus, penis, hips, thighs and belly. According to Sarngacieva, the soul climbing the prana-vayu, ascends up to Brahmarandhra through Susumna and descends. Nada is twofold-anahata (non-struck) and ahata (struck). Anahata, which is changeless and inaudible, is only a subject of meditation in the way taught by the spiritual guide. It is devoid of delightfulness to people. Ahata, pleasant to people

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78 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance though sruti etc., is the source of Sruti and the like, and expands songs; it is everchanging. In the heart, twenty-two nalis are supposed to be joined with the upward artery. These exist in an oblique manner. As a result of wind striking against them, twenty-two srutis come into being; these srutis are of a gradually higher pitch. Similarly, twenty-two srutis are admitted in the throat and the head. The use of mudras or positions of hands etc. in connexion with samgita, particularly with dance, seems to testify to Tantric influence. The idea of mudras, as symbolising feelings. moods, sentiment etc., probably originated in the Vedic period. In Vedic rituals, various poses of hands were adopted by the singer of Samans. The mudras, however, along with mystical diagrams called mandala and yantra, were highly developed in connexion with Tantric rites. It may be that, with the diffusion of Tantric rites, the mudras came to be included in larger number in the works on music. Siva and Sakti are the two fundamental principles of the Tantric philosophy. In the musical lore, too, there is a tradition that Ragas and Raginis, which form the basis of vocal music, emanated respectively from Siva and Sakti. According to one tradition, one raga emanated from each mouth of Siva, and one raga from the mouth of Parvati.

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APPENDIX D' NON-ARYAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN MUSIC Indian culture is a composite one comprising heterogeneous elements. Through ages it has assimilated many things not only from the various strands of culture spread over the vast sub-continent. The rites and rituals of the Aryans, their Sastras and arts reveal their indebtedness to non-Aryan tribes. India has been a target of foreign invasions ever since the early times. Hordes of Sakas, Hunas, Parthians, Muslims etc. and people of various European countries invaded this land and sometimes settled here in large number and became naturalised. After the invasion of Alexandar. (c. 326 B.C.), there was a brisk cultural exchange between Greece and India. Greek principalities were established in parts of this country. Besides invasions for political and military ends, there was intercourse among the Indians and the foreigners, particularly with the peoples of the different countries of Asia. Thus, there was ample scope of fusion of culture, at least in some fields, among the Indians and her neighbours, far and near. The diverse fabrics of different lands and of various races and tribes of India were woven into the complex and colourful texture of this land. In the realm of music, we find elements derived from non-Aryan sources and foreign lands. We shall briefly deal with these elements. The names of certain Ragas and Raginis clearly indicate their origin among the non-Aryan tribes inhabiting the different regions of India. Saka, Pulindi, Abhiri, Saberika and Bhairava appear to have been derived respectively from Sakas, Pulindas, Abhiras, Sabaras and Bhairavas. Malava ( along with its derivatives Malayasri, Malavakausika

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80 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance etc.), Andhri and Gurjari probably owe their origin to the tribes known as Malavas, Andhras and Gurjaras. The name Velavali is probably derived from vela-ulli, a Dravidian word. Todi, derived from Tuddi, Asavari and Dhannasika have no meaning in Sanskrit; these appear to have originated from foreign sources. The names Chevati, Kaccoli and Geranji are clearly non-Aryan. Kamboji, Khambaja or Khamaci was probably imported from Kambuja which may have been the region his name situated in the north-west of India or it may refer to Cambodia in the Far East, Matanga, in his Bshaddesi, thinks Kamboji to be non-Aryan; opinions, however, differ on this point. The names Turuska-todi, Turuska-gauda indicate a mixture of Turkish elements with the Indian. The name Bolsa is taken by some to have been deri ved from Bhotta or Bhota which refers to Tibet. Bhammana, according to some, hints at its Armenian origin; of commercial contacts of the Armenians with India there is ample evidence. Takka-raga is considered by some to be a contribution of the non-Aryan Takka race. Some of the authors of' Sanskrit works on music were aware of the foreign elements of the ragas. For instance, in his Bihaddesi, Matanga says 'samkirna ca mata nityam jneya vaidesasanbhava'-it is mixed and originated in a foreign land

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APPENDIX E' (I) Pancamasara-samhita Ascribed to Narada To Narada the following works on music are ascribed : (i) Nardiya Siksa", (ii) Samgita-makaranda, (iii) Catvarinsacchata-raga-nirupana or Raganirupanas, (iv) Pancama-sara-samhita or Pancama-samhita. The last one has not yet been printed. Svami Prajnanananda, in his Bengali work Samgita O Samsksti, mentions a manuscript of this work (No. 5040) belonging to Asiatic society, Calcutta. Since then another MS, has been found in Bangiya Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta (No. 716) The Asiatic Society MS., entitled Pancamasamhita, contains only the third chapter called Raganirnaya. The other one contains four chapters. It is difficult to say whether or not it represents the complete work. At the end, it contains the chapter-colophon only, but does not indicate that the work is concluded. It is dated Saka 1700 (=1778 AD). The third chapter of this MS. shows considerable divergence from the Asiatic Socity MS. The text, presented here, is based on the fuller MS. of the Bangiya Sahitya Parisat. The divergences in the third chapter, contained in the Asiatic Society MS., will be clear on comparison of the two texts; the text of the Society MS. has been transcribed in Appendix E (2). The variants are considerable in number and striking in nature. This leads us to the conclusion that the two MSS. either represent distinct manuscript traditions or there were interpolations in any one of them. 1 (i) Benares ed., 1893 (with comm. by Bhattasobhakara) (ii) Calcutta ed., 1890. 2 Ed. GOS, No. XVI, Baroda, 1920. 3 Ed. Aryabhusana Press, 1836. M-11

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82 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance The fuller MS. is full of corrupt readings; portions of it are illegible Yet, the text is presented here with the idea that the scholars can see what this hitherto unpublished text, associated with the name of Narada, contains. A re'sume' of the contents, based on the imperfect text, is set forth below. The first chapter, incomplete in the beginning, traces the origin of music to Bharata etc. Rambha is credited with the authorship of the Samguasamhita. The origin of dance in heaven is mentioned. Bharata is also said to have made a Samhita which gained currency on earth. Bharata and others are said to have created a Nata (dancer) named Bhadra who entertained all in heaven, on earth as well as in the nether world He was followed by Subhadra, Atibhadra and Virabhadra. His immediate successor cannot be ascertained from the corrupt text He is said to have excelled even his father in merits. The son of Virabhadra is said to have put all musicians to shame. Virabhadra's son acquired fame which spread far and wide. His sons and grandsons also became extremely famous as Natas. Some of them settled in Dvaraka, some in the East while others resorted to the North and the South. Those who settled in the East were mostly proficient in various Sastras and were the best. They used to sing beautiful songs, dance superbly and described various Sastras and Kavyas. The Natas, who are self restrained and faithful to their own profession, are protected by the Brahmins versed in the Vedas as well as by the people in general. Chapter II opens with an eulogy of Natya (dramatic art); it has been said to be conducive to the four ends of human life. This is followed by praise of songs. One who sings a song, be it out of greed for money, for pleasure or on the spur of the moment, lives in the company of God for thousand years. A Nayaka (hero) is high-born, handsome, possessed of the spirit of sacrifice, successful, endowed with good look, merits, youth and enthusiasm and learned. Vadya follows gita, laya follows vadya. All this accords with the desire of the Nayaka.

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Appendix E . Nyt va is said to be the combination of dhatu and matra. Dhatu consists in nada, which is its essential element. Matra consists of a number of letters. The wind, called Prana, goes up to Brahmarandhra." Then through the mouth it emanates as nada. He is a true singer who sings clearly, with purity in accordance with the Sastra, with a sweet voice and is free from the eight faults. The faults are : curved throat, swollen throat, closing of the eyes, shutting the mouth, eyes turned up, eyes turned downward, shaking of the head and bending of ihe body This is followed by the qualifications of the player of the mrdanga, the dancer, the Vidusaka and the Nayika (heroine). Abhinaya (acting) is defined as the imitation of a condition. It is fourfold : angika (done with gestures and postures ), vacika (vocal) aharya (done with costumes) and sattvika. The last o!e is eightfold-sweat, horripilation, hoarseness of voice, trembling body, faded complexion, tears, stupefaction or motionlessness, pralaya (fainting, loss of conciousness). One, who is not pleased with a charming song, is said to be a human beast. Samgita consits in gita (song), vadya (instrumental music) and nrtya (dance). The dance of males is called Tandava, while that of females is designated as lasya. Instruments are fourfold--(i) Tata--e.g. vina etc. (ii) Susira-e.g. vamsi etc. (iii) Anaddha-covered with leather. (iv) Ghana-bell, cymbal etc. These four classes belong respectively to gods, Gandharvas, Raksasa and human beings. In all kinds of instruments Goddess Sarasvati herself lives of the four classes, muraja (tabour) is i An aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is supposed to escape on its leaving the body.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance the chief; all other instruments become charming in the association of it. The third chapter, called Raganirnaya, holds that ragas are six while raginis are thirty-six. The six ragas areMalava, Mallara, sii, Vasanta, Hindola and Karnata. As a general rule, it is provided that these ragas should be sung after ten dandas at night. Meghamallara can be sung at any time. The proper time for Vasanta is from Sripancamil up to the time when Hari goes to sleep.2 No restriction as to time need be observed on the stage and at the command of the king. The song of a particular raga should be followed by that of its wife; but the wife of another must be avoided. In this matter also, there is no harm if the king orders otherwise. The 15 raginis, called Vibhasa, Lalita, Kamoda, Pathamanjari, Ramakeli, Ramakiri, Veloyari, Gurjari, Desakari, Subhaga, Pancami, Gata (?). Tudi, Bhairavi, Kaumari, are to be sung in the morning. Varadi, Mayuri. Koda, Vairagi, Dhapusi, Velavali, Marathi--these 7 should be sung at noon. Gandhari, Dipika, Kalyani, Puravi, Asvavari, Kanada, Gauri, Kedara, Pahida, Madhavi, Malasi, Lati, Bhupali, Sindula--these fourteen are to be sung in the evening. The raginis, belonging to the respective ragas, are stated below: Malava-Dhanusi, Malasi, Ramakiri, Sindula, Asvavari, Bhairavi. Mallara--Velavali, Puravi, lanada, Madhavi, Koda, Kedarika. Sri--Gandhari. Subhaga, Gauri, Kaumarika, Veloyari, Vairagi. Vasanta-Tuli, Pancami, Lalita, Pathamanjari, Gurjari, Vibhasa. 1 Te fifth lunar mansion of the bright half in the nionth of Magha, also called Vasant-pancami. On this day Goddess Sarasvati is worshipped. The eleventh day of the bright half of the month of Asadha when Visnu is supposed to lie down to enjoy four months' repose. 2

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Appendix E 85 Hindola---Mayuri, Dipika, Desakari, Pahida. Varali, Marathi. Karnata-Natika Bhupali, Ramakeli, Kamodi, Kalyani, Gata (?). Next follow the dhyanas (figures to be medidated upon) of the different ragas and raginis. These are in various metres and couched in elegant language which reveal the poetic gifts of the author. The above account is based on the manuscript belonging to the Bangiya Sahitya Parisat. The other manuscript appears to represent a shorter version. It omits many of the preliminary verses. After two introductory verses, both of which are absent in the Sahitya Parisat MS., it sets forth the names of ragas followed by those of the raginis. The other noteworthy divergences between the two manuscripts are set forth below. For Sinduda of the Parisat MS., the Society Ms. reads Sindhuja, Asvart of the formeris Asoari of the latter. Kaumarika of the former corresponds to Kumarika of the latter. Among the raginis, to be sung in the morning, the first is Vibhasa in the Parisat MS., while it is Ahiri in the other one; the latter name does not occur in the Parisat MS. Among the ragas to be sung at noon, the Mayuri of the Parisat MS. laced by Madhavi in the Society MS. Ragini Dhanusi of the former corresponds to Dhanasi of the latter. As regards the time appropriate for singing the ragas, while the Parisat MS. provides the night after leaving the first ten dandas, the Society MS. ordains two periods, viz. within ten dandas of pradosa (nightfall). In connexion with the raga Meghamallara, the Parisat MS reads sarvasu sarvada; the Society MS. reads, evidently with more aptness, varsasu for sarvasu. As regards the period suitable for Vasanta raga, the Parisat MS. ordains the time from Sripancami up to the sayana of Hari. The Society MS, extends the limit up to the time of Durgapuja.

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86 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance "The dhyanas of the ragas and raginrs, occurring in the two MSS, reveal considerable divergences, not only verbal but also material. The fourth chapter deals with Talas, and traces their genesis in heaven. One hundred and one Talas are said to have been iptroduced on the earth. This portion of the MS is extremely corrupt so that it is not possible to make out a coherent account of its contents. It can be gathered that, by means of laghu, guru, pluta etc., different Talas have been described. The names of Talas, which can be gathered from this portion, are as follows: ekatala, yatitala, satpadi, visamasandhi, rupaka, astakatala, apurvakala haragauri, jhampaka, yamaka, dasakusi, kundasekhara, vastutala, sarvamanohara. The name of Narada, with which the work is associated, appears to give a stamp of antiquity to it. But, an examination of its contents leads to a contrary conclusion. The use of the term ragini is a pointer to its later origin. This word has not been used in early works on music. Even such a late work as the Samgita-ratnakara of Sarngadeva (13th. cent. A.D.) divides ragas into three classes, viz. Bhasa, Vibhasa and Antarabhasa; this work does rot mention the term "ragini'. The Samgita-makaranda (c. 11th cent. A.D.); ascribed to Narada, is, perhaps, the earliest work to classify ragas as male, female and neuter; even this work does not use the word ragini. The number of raginis as 36 is another proof against the antiquity of the work. The above facts, together with the language, style and contents of the work, tend to indicate that it was a populai compendium composed by a late writer who fathered it on Narada in order to impart a halo of authority and antiquity to it. It is difficult to determine the provenance of this work. It is, however, significant that, in the first chapter, the artists

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Appendix E of the eastern region (pracyah have been highly praised. Still more significant is what seems to be Radha contained in the verse following the one in which the word 'pracya' occurs. The actors of this place have been stated to be the best (uttama). Radha or Radha was the name of the portion of West Bengal on the western bank of the Bhagirathi, and extended in the south up to Damodara and, probably to the Rupanarayana river. In an ancient work, it comprised also the northern part of the Ganges. The praise of the eastern people, particularly of those inhabiting Radha, seems to indicate that the author was a Bengali. The fact that both the manuscripts of the work, discovered hitherto, are in the Bengali script, appears to lend countenance to this assumption. In this connexion, it may be pointed out that, in the Asiatic Society MS., the period appropriate for Vasant-raga has been stated to extend from Sripancami up to the time of Durga-mahotsava. Durga-puja, in this name, is a great festival in Bengal, Bihar and Assam. This accords well with the praise of the men of the east (pracyah), especially of Radha. The mention of the tala Dasakus, which is definitely known to have originated in Bengal, seems to point to Bengal the origin of the work. The divergences between the Pancamasamhita on the one hand and the Naradiya Siksa and the Samgitamakaranda on the other are too many to warrant the assumption of the common authorship of these three works. The divergences will be clear even to a superficial reader. So, we do not take up their detailed discussion here. saMgItam tataH saGgItakaM kRtvA granthaM sarve pRthak pRthak / Anandayan devarAjaM ziSyAste bharatAdayaH || rambhayA racitA tataH svarge saGgItasaMhitA / pracakAra pracakAra ca Zazzazn tayA...... naattyaanusstthaan......|| pAtAle huhustA ... saMhitAm / saMhitA bhUtale sthitA // 87

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88 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance saMhitAnAM pracArAya... ..bharatAdayaH / bhadaM nAma naTaM cakrustato dhyAna(?)prabhAvataH / / avyAhatagatiH svage pAtAle ca tathA bhuvi / anuSThAnena gItAnAM tataH sarvAnatoSayat / / subhadrazcAtibhadrazca vIrabhadrastataH paraM / bhadra...vizvabhadro bhdr...|| tasya putraH subhadro'bhUtpiturapyadhiko guNaiH / yeneyaM pRthivI sarvA dhanyeti manyate jagat // atibhadrastato jajJe sarvabhadrataro guNaiH / sarvazAstrAnusAreNa sarvato...raanam // putro'tibhadrasya ca vIrabhadro / babhUva yastumburutulyagItiH / / divyena gAnena mahezatoSaM / vidhAya so'vApa gaNAdhipatyam / / vIrabhadratanayo bhadrapANivizvavizrutakIrtiH / bhUtaM bhavyaM bhavetsarva hastena kurute samakSam // suravarabhujagAnAM mohanaM yasya gItam / munigaNa....lajita vizvamAsot // jalanidhihadamadhyAdutthitaH padmarAjAM / jagati viditakIrtiH..... / / AsIttu tanayo bhadrakarmA zAstravicakSaNaH / itihAsaprabandhena munInAmapi sastataH / / tasya putrAzca pautrAzca babhUvuH caramojjvalAH / vasuzca naTavaMzo'yamevaM......tathA / / dvArakAmAzritAH keci....puresthitAH / kecitprAcyAmudIcyAM ca dakSiNasyAM tathAvare / / jitendriyAH sadAcAcArAste naTAH punruttmaaH| prAcyAM prAyeNa guNino nAnAzAstravicakSaNa / / rADhAyAM(?) saMsthitA ye ca te naTAH punruttmaaH| ye gAyanti sugItAni nRtyanti ca vicakSaNAH / / nAnAzAstraM ca kAvyaM ca varNyante kathayanti ca / raJjayanti samAH sarvAste naTAH punaruttamAH // pAraMpAyeMNa vidito naTavaMzo mahAguNaH / svage martya ca pAtAle snggiit...|| ye naTAH puNyakarmANaH svavRttisthA jitendriyAH / guptAste zrotriyaiH sarvaiviprairjanasamuccayaiH / / iti zrInAradakRtapaJcamasArasaMhitAyAM prathamo'dhyAyaH /

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Appendix E devarSikSitipAlapUrvaracitAnAlokya dharmAdinA tadbhAvAzritabhUmikAbhinayane syAdarthasiddhiH purA / saMgItAdRtacittavRtti......bhavatyaGganA ...zrIyutazaMkareNa kathitaM nATyaM caturvargadam // yo vittalobhena sukhena vApi haThena vA gAyati gItamAtram / sa vartate varSasaharUmIzapurogamaH sarvagaNAgraNIzaH / / tyAgI kRtI kulInaH suzrIko rUpayauvanotsAhI / ....nurakto loko bhavati vidagdho'tra nAyako gunnvaan|| gItasyAnugataM vAdya vAdyasyAnugato layaH / cittavRtti yakasya sarvamevAnugacchati / / dhAtumAtrAsamAyogo nRtyamityabhidhIyate / tatra nAdAtmako dhAturmAtrA tvakSarasaMcayaH / / Urdhvago hRdayasthAnAnmArutaH prANasaMjJakaH / brahmarandhrAtpatan vaktrAnnAda Avirbhavatyasau / / vyaktaM zuddha yathAzAstraM doSASTakavivarjitama / sukaNThaM dhvaninA nityaM yo gAyati sa gAyanaH / / tiryagutphullagalatA . cakSurAnanamIlanam / UrdhvAdhodazira kampaH prahUvatA gAnadUSaNam // adIrgha ...guri tIkSNabuddhiH parisphura... pANiH sadvibudhaH zrI veSTaH susadvidvAn kathito mRdnggH| ...kSamAvAn zaraNI...paTutaro maJju saGgItazAstre kuzalo rasajJaH pAtrottamo'yaM kila nRtyazAstre // kusumavasanto'dya vidhukarmavapurvezabhASAthaiH / hAsyakarakalaharucirvidUSakaH kathito janaH // patrAvalIcitravilAsalIlA vibhUSaNazrImanmadaikavezA / lAvaNyabhArAbhinayapravINA sA nAyikA saMkathitA kavIndraiH / / M-12

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90 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance bhavedabhinayo'vasthAnukAraH sa caturvidhaH / AGgiko vAcikacaivamAhArya : sAttvikastathA // stambhaH svedo'tha romAJcaH svarabhaGgazca vepathuH / vaivarNyamazrupralayamityaSTau sAttvikA matAH // saMgItakena ramyeNa sukhaM yasya na cetasi / manuSya pazurukto'ya viSayaireva vaJcitaH // gItaM vAdyaM ca nRtya nRtyaM tANDavaM prAhuH ca tribhiH saMgItakaM viduH / strInRtyaM lAsyamucyate // tataM suSiramAnaddhaM ghanaM vAdyaM caturvidham / tataM vINAdikaM vAdyaM vaMzyAdi suSiraM matam // ghanam / carmAvanaddhamAnaddha kAMsyatAlAdikaM taM vAdyaM tu devAnAM gandharvANAM tu sauSiram / Anaddha rAkSasAnAM tu mAnavAnAM ghanaM viduH // nijAvatAro govindaH sarvamevAtArayat kSitau / caturvidheSu vAdyeSu svayaM vasati bhAratI | eteSAM .. * bhoktA svayam / caturvidheSu vAdyeSu pradhAnaM murajo mataH / yasya saMyogavAdyamAsAdya sarva vAdya suzobhanam // nArAyaNaH 1 mRdaGgaH padminIputro... dAvaNe nivasennitya mRDAnI saha zaMkaraH // racitastA gaNezastAkSare brahmA dhIvarNe nivaset svayam / .. baNe nivasedviSNurdAkSare rudrasaMsthitiH / / iti zrInAradakRta pazcamasArasaMhitAyAM dvitIyo'dhyAyaH /

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Appendix E zrIvRndAvanacandrasya saGgItakavilAsinaH / gopyaH SoDazasAhasrasaMkhyA...gatAH // saMgItavAdyaM muralI svayaM kRSNo niSevate / vibhUva gopISu seveyaM harilIlayA || gopIbhirgAtumArabdhamekaikaM priyasannidhau / tena jAtAni rAgANAM sahasrANi ca SoDaza // meroruttarataH pUrve pazcime dakSiNe tathA / samudrakacche ye dezAstavAmISAM pracAraNA / / bhArato yazca bhUbhAgaH pAramparyopadezataH / rAgAH SaDatha rAgiNyaH SaTtriMzatkhyAtimAgatA || hAtenAdivarNaistu zanaiH zanaiH / A prathame raGgalIlAyAM goyante gAnakovidaiH // hAvarNe tu gaNAdhyakSo rIvarNe kezavaH svayam / teNe saMsthito brahmA nAvarNe ca zivaH svayam // mAlavagendrastato mallArasaMjJakaH / zrIrAgastasya pazcAttu vasantastadanantaram // hindocAtha karNATa ete rAgAH prakIrtitAH / puruSA vastrabhUSADhyA rAgAH SaT mAlavAdayaH // dazadaNDAtparaM rAtrau sarveSAM gAnamIritam / meghamallArarAgasya gAnaM sarvAsu sarvadA || zrIpaJcamIM samAsAdya yAvatsyAtzayanaM hareH / tAvadvasantarAgasya gAnamuktaM manISibhiH / / sarveSAmiha rAgANAM rAgiNInAM ca sarvazaH / raGgabhUmau nRpAjJAyAM kAladoSo na vidyate // rAga cedApetpUrva tatpatnIstadanantaram / nAnyapatnI pragAtavyA nRpAjJAyAM na dUSaNam // atha rAgiNyaH vibhASA lalitA caiva kAmodA paThamaJjarI / rAmakelI rAmakIrI veloyArI ca gurjarI // dezakArI ca subhagA paJcamI ca gatA tuDI / bhairavI cApi kaumArI rAgiNyo daza paJca ca // etAH pUrvAhnakAle tu gIyante rAgakovidaiH / vArADI mAyUrI koDA vairAgI cApi dhAnuSI //

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance velAvalI mAharATI saptaite(tAH) rAgayoSitaH / geyA madhyAhnakAle tu yathA bharatabhASitam / / gAndhArI dIpikA caiva kalyANI pUravI tathA / azvavArI kAnaDA ca gaurI kedArapAhiDA / / mAdhavI mAlasI lATI bhUpAlI sinduDI tathA / sAyAhna rAgiNIzcaitAH pragAyanti caturdaza / / atha rAgasya rAgiNyaH dhAnuSI mAlasI rAmakirI ca sinduDA tathA / azvavArI bhairavI ca mAlavasya priyAstvimAH // belAvalI pUravI ca kAnaDA mAdhavI tathA / koDA kedArikA caiva mallArasya priyA imAH // gAndhArI caiva subhagA gaurI kaumArikA tathA / veloyAro ca vairAgI zrIrAgasya priyAstvimAH / / tuDI ca paJcamI caiva lalitA paThamaaro / gurjarI ca vibhASA ca vasantasya priyA imAH // mAyUrI dIpikA caiva dezakArI ca pAhiDA / bArADI mAharATI ca etA hindolayoSitaH / / nATikA cAtha bhUpAlI rAmakelI gatA(?) tathA / kAmodI cApi kalyANI karNATasya priyA imAH / / atha rAgadhyAnam nitambinIcumbitavaktrapadmaH zukadyutiH kuNDalavAnapramattaH / saGgItazAlA pavizanpradoSe mAlAdharo mAlavarAgarAjaH / / nIlotpalaM karNa yuge vahantI zyAmA sukezI kRzamadhyabhAgA / ISatsahAsAmbujavaktraramyA sA dhAnuSI padmasucArunetrA // kare vidhUtAmbujayugmaramyA itastatazcAru vilokayantI / kaNThe sphuranmauktikaratnahArA sA mAlasI saMkathitA vicitrA / /

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Appendix E prataptacAmIkaracAruvarNA karNAvataMsaM kamalaM vahanto / pauSpaM dhanuH puSpabhasan dadhAnA candrAnanA rAmakirI pradiSTA / sadindranIlatirambujAkSI pravAzyantI kavilaya(1)yantram / vicitraratnAbharaNA sukezI sA sinchuDA kAntasamIpasaMsthA / / jayAprasUnazrutirinduvaktrA zukaM ca padma ca karayordadhAnA / kSaumAMzukAcchAditagAtrayaSTimahAvidagdhA kathitAzvavArI / / saroruhaiH zaMkaramarcayantI tAlaprayogapratibandhagIti gaurItanu bhairavikA satoyam / / vidvAn suzIlo'ti... ...dhArmikazIlayuktaH / kAmAturaH piGgalanetrayugmo mallArarAgaH kusumapriyazca / / saMketitotphullalatAnikuJja kRtasthitiH kAntasamAgamoya / velAvalI campakamAlyamaulivicitravezAbharaNA niruktA / rahaH svakAntakriyamANapatrAvaloM vahantI kuckumbhyuge(gme)| dUrvAdalazyAmatanuH sakAmA purAtanaiH sA pUravI niruktA // azokavRkSasya tale nipaNNA viyoginIvASpakaNAzcitAkSI / nibhUSaNAGgI jaTilaikabeNI sA kAnaDA hemalateva tambo /

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94 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance .gale dadhAnA dayitasya bAlA / prasUnamAlAM gaurI svakAntAnanacumbitAsya sA sundarI mAvikAni kuje // satkacchapIM vAdayataH svabhartustAlAn samabhyasyate saMmukhena / sadaiva tAlArahitA ca bAlA koDA karAlastanayugmaramyA // snAtvA samuttIrNavatI sudehA kezApranisyanditavAribinduH niSpIDayantI stimitAMzukAntaM kedArikA vyaktapayodharazrIH // lIlAvihAreNa vanAntareSu cinvan prasUnAni vadhUsahAyaH / vilAsavezoditavyaktamUrtiH zrIrAga eSa kathitaH pRthivyAm // prANabandhoH dhAnAm / sandhyAkAle vezmani skandhe vINAM vAdayatIM zrI gAndhArI gandhamAlyAni dhatte || nijako vidasaMsadi / rasapadArthavivecana kautukaM vidadhatI sukavitAmRtabhAvane tatparA bhagavatI subhagA samudIritA / puSpodyAne sArdhamAlIkalApaiH krIDantIyaM kaukilakAkalIbhiH / zyAmA sadguNagrAmasImA gaurI gaura... aTTAlikAyAM sphuTakaumudIbhiH prakAzitAyAM II rajanIvihAraiH / dyatAya kAntena samaM vasantI kaumArikA kAmakalAM vahantI //

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Appendix E gaurIpadAmbhoruhamarcayantI sA gandhAra zrImatI ratnasAnoH / nAnAdravyopAyanairbhaktibhAvai veloyArI kathyate laliteyam // utrAsayantI dhammillaM.. * prANabandhunA / mAlatIkusumasragbhirvairAgI rAgiNI smRtA // cUtAGkureNaiva kRtAvataMso vighUrNamAnAruNanetrapadmaH pItAmbaraH kAJcanacArudeho vasantarAgo sunRtyamAnApi suzIlayuktA muktAlatA kalpitahArayaSTiH cUtAGkuraM pANiyuge vahantI yuvatipriyazca // javAruNAGgI kathitA ca tUDI // saMgItagoSThISu gariSThabhAgaM samAzritA gAyanasaMpradAyaiH / paJcamavedavidyA // kharvA kvanannUpurapAdayugmA sA paJcamI uSasi kezasusaMyamamAtmano vidadhatI zayanotthitavatyasau / sakhIkalApaiH parihAsalIlayA kvacitsamasyAM paripUrayantI / patraM masIM satkalamaM vahantI maJjuktizIlA paThamaJjarIyam // karNotpalAlambimadhuvratAnAM zRNvantI maJjulakUjitAni / kAntAntikaM gantumanAH pradoSe sA gurjarIvezakalAvitAGgI // 95

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance adhyApayantI nijaziSyavRndaM saMgItazAstrANi vivecanAbhiH / manoharAhAralatAbhirAmA samA samastabhASAkuzalA vibhASA // lIlAvilAsena patan pRthivyAmutthApitastatkSaNamAlivRndaiH / .... ...gItarasairvidagdhAn hindolarAgaH kathito rasajJaiH // mayUrakekAzravaNollasantI mayUrikA vokSya mudaM vahantI mayUrakarNAbharaNaM dadhAnA mAyUrikA saMkathitA guNIndraiH // pradoSakAle gRhadehalISu pradIpahastAruNagAtravastrA sImantasindUravirAjamAnA ... ...kila dIpikeyam / sArdha sakhIbhirvijane vasantI vicitravakSojanakhakSatAGgI / nirIkSamANA maNidarpageSu sA dezakArI kathitA munIndraiH / / bharturdadhAnA caraNAravinda niSedhayantI paradezayAnam / prakAmadAmpatyasukhena mugdhA sA pAhiDA saMkathitA kavIndraiH // karNe dadhAnA...puSpaguccha suvRttavakSojamanohasaGgI / smerAnanA bhAvavilelanetrA gaurAGgayaSTiH kathitA varADI / / utpannamAtre prathamAparAdhe manaH punaH...... RjusvabhAvA niyataM rudantI sA mAhATI haThakeliruSTA / /

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Appendix E 97 kRpANapANisturagAdhirUDho mayUrakaNThopamakaNThakAntiH / sphuracchitoSNISadharaH prayAti karNATarAgo hariNaM vihantum // ciraM naTantI zubharaGgamadhye ..........nikhilaM zramAmbhaH / sugItatAleSa kRtAvamAnA nATI sunA (zA?) TI paridhAnazIlA // svanAyakaM puSpalatAdhirUDhaM samunmukhI taM samudIkSamANA / prasAramANA kusumAni zazvad bhUpAlikA sA kathitA sudhIbhiH // adhyApayantI zukazArazArIH zrIrAmarAmeti suvezalakSmIH / bAmastanAdhaskhalitAMzukazrIH zrIrAmakeliH kathitA vidagdhaiH / / vizeSavaidagdhyavatI samastakalAvilAsena vimohayantI / bRhannitambA paripuSTadehA ........pralambastanabhArabhavyA // bharnA samaM pathi susaMbhASayantI payovihAreNa saroruhANi / vicinvatI saurabhamodamAnA kAmodarAgiNyuditA munIndraiH // ...............naTaparizrameNa ......... ....... ...... kalyANI kalaya hastahelanaM prasthApitakiMkarIkalApam // iti nAradakRtapaJcamasArasaMhitAyAM raagnirnnystRtiiyo'dhyaayH| 17

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Danc atha tAlAdhyAyaH tAlasya mAnaM niyamena ghAte tAlAzca zrRNvantu guNapracArAH / bhadraH subhadrazca tathAtibhadro ninAdatAlAn divi......... vIrabhadro bhadrapANibhadra ......mAnitaH / ekonazatatAlAste pAtAle sthApanaM mudA / / ekAdhikazatAMstAlAn vizvabhadro mahItale / guNinAmupakArAya sarvatraiva pracArayet / / pazcime dakSiNe caiva laMkAyAM siMhale tthaa| aSTottarazataM svarge pazcime paJcamaM tathA / / dakSiNe paJca laMkAyAM sapta saptazca siNhle| pUrve paJca samAdeyaM uttare paJcamaM tathA // pUrvabhAge cottare ca krameNaiva vibhAgitam / pracaranti ca......... dhruvam // tad yathAekatAlastu viSama ......... SaTpadIstadanantaram vikhyAtaM viSamaH sandhirUpakaM premavardhanam / haragaurI ca jJampakam / / yamakaM dazakuzI caiva kundazekharameva ca / ... ... ...dAsagItaM. .. ... ... // ete tAlAH prakIrtitA / vAdyAzcatasrastu...... pUraNake ca vAdyam // kalAdvayaH syAdatha... pUrvAkSaraM syAd guru / na pUraNe nApi ca ghAtinISu / / zIghra gururghAte plutaH syAllaghurekaghAtaH / virAmayuktA drutameva ghAto niyamo niruktaH / / na pUraNaM nApi ca ghAtinISu / zIghraM gururghAte... plutaH syAllaghuraghAtaH / / virAmayuktA drutameva ghAto niyamo niruktaH / pratyakSare virAmazcetsarvatAlAdisaMbhavaH / / tato

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Appendix E ekatAlaH sa kathito devai... udAhRtaH / yatitAlo yadA yadA susthaH dhRto gIto guNIzvaraiH / / tathA dharaNanAmaiva prasiddhA guNasaMsadi / plutastrimAtrikaH devataH syAtpade pade // AdimadhyAvasAne tu kilAsaH sa ucyate / drutatrayaM laghuzcaikastAle ..... nAmani / / caturdu tAni ca laghurbhaved viSamatAlake / drutadvaya .. plutazcettAlazca SaTpadI tathA / Adau cAnte laghudvayaM gururmadhye yadA bhavet / tadA viSamasandhiH syAttAlo bhavati sammataH / / guruH syAdAdimadhyAnte sa tAlo rUpakaH smRtaH / yadi cASTakatAlo'pi kalAdhikyaM vilakSyate // pade pade tadA tAla: syAdapUrvakalA dhruvam / dutadvayaM laghuzcaiko gururlaghuyugaM tathA / haragaurIti tAlaH syAd dvitayaM plutamizraNAt / gurupluto bhavedyatra sa tAlo jhampakaH smRtaH // gurutrayaM laghudvayaM tataH plutagururlaghuH / caraNe caraNe jheyaM sa tAlo yamako bhavet / / dratadvayaM laghudvaya pluto laghu... bhavet / caraNe caraNe jJeya sa tAlo dazakuzI bhavet // gurudvaya laghuplutagurustataH plutagururlaghuH / caraNe caraNepyevaM sa tAla: kundazekharaH / / Adau gururlaghudvayaM caraNe caraNe bhavet / yatitAlaH sa kathito nRtyabhUmau guNIzvaraiH // Adau gurulaghuzcAtha caraNe caraNe bhavet / gAyakAnAM manohArI vasutAlastadA bhavet // ......tAlaH sarvamanoharaH // iti saMgItazAstrayojanAtipramANataH...zivaloke mahIyate / iti zrInAradakRtapaJcamasaMhitAyAM caturtho'dhyAyaH /

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100 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance (II) paJcamasaMhitAyAM rAganirNayaH tAzabdenocyate gaurI nAzabdenocyate haraH / tAneti zabdahuMkArAt prokto'pyanye zanaiH zanaiH / / tattatkAlaM suvijJAya dampatyorgAyanaM budhaH / etayonimAtreNa trailokyaM vazamAnayet / / atra rAgAHmAlavazcaiva mallAraH zrIrAgazca vasantakaH / hindolazcAtha karNATa ete rAgAH SaDIritAH // eteSAM striyaHdhAnasI mAlasI caiva rAmakirI ca sindhujA / AzoArI bhairavI ca mAlavasya priyA imAH / / velAvalI ca pUravI kAnaDA mAyUrI tathA / kor3A kedArikA cApi mallArasya priyA imAH // gAndhArI ca tathA gaurI subhagA ca kumArikA / veloyArI ca vairAgI zrIrAgasya priyA imAH / / tuDI ca paJcamI caiva lalitA paTamaJjarI / gurjarI ca vibhASA ca vasantasya priyA imAH / / mAdhavI devikA caiva dezakArI ca pAhiDA / vaDarI! mArahATI ca etA hindolayoSitaH / / nATikA cAtha bhUpAlI...... rAmakelikA / kAmodA cAtha kalyANI karNATasya priyA imAH / / samayAnukrameNa boddhavyamAhirI lalitA caiva kAmodA paTamaarI / rAmakelI rAmakirI veloyArI ca gurjarI / / dezakArI ca subhagA paJcamI ca gatA tuDI / bhairavI caiva kaumArI rAgiNyo daza paJcama / / etAH pUrvAhnakAle tu gIyante gAyakairbudhaiH / vaDArI mAdhavI... vairAgI cApi dhAnasI / /

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Appendix E 1JI velAvalI mArahATI saptaitA rAgayoSitaH / geyA madhyAhnakAle tu yathA bharatabhASitam // gAndhArI dIpikA caiva kalyANI pUravI tathA / AzoyArI kAnaDA ca gaurI kedArapAhiDA / mAdhavI mAlasI lATI bhUpAlI sindhujA tathA / sAyAhUne rAgiNIzcaitAH pragAyanti caturdaza // puruSA vastrabhUSAdyA rAgAH SaNmAlavAdayaH / pradoSAd dazadaNDAntargayA gAnasya rItayaH / / dazadaNDAt paraM rAtrau sarveSAM gAnamIritam / meghamallArarAgasya gAnaM varSAsu sarvadA // zrIpaJcamIsamArabhya yAvada durgAmahotsavaH / tAvad vasantarAgasya gAnamuktaM manoSibhiH / / sarveSAmiha rAgANAM rAgiNInAM ca sarvazaH / raGgabhUmau nRpAjJAyAM kAladoSo na vidyate // rAgaM caivAlapet pUrva tatpatnI tadanantaram / nAnyapatnyaH pragAtavyA nRpAjJAyAM na dUSaNam // rAgAH SaDatha rAgiNyaH SaDindriyazcAruvigrahaH / AgatA brahmasadasi brahmANa samupAsate / / atha rAgadhyAnamAhanitambinIcumbitavaktrapadmaH zukadyutiH sadguNavAnapramattaH / saMgItazAstrAnurata. pradoSe mAlAdharo mAlava eSa rAgaH / / nIlotpalaM karNayuge vahantI zyAmA sukezI kRzamadhyabhAgA / ISatsahAsAmbujavaktraramyA sA dhonasI padmasucArunetrA / / kare vidhUtAmbujayugmaramyA itastatazcAru. vilokayantI / kaNThe sphuranmauktikaratnahArA sA mAlaso saMkathitA vicitrA /

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102. Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance prataptacAmIkaracAruvarNA karNAvataMsaM kamala vahantI / pauSpaM dhanuH puSpavasane dadhAnA candrAnanA rAmakiro pratiSThA // sadindranIladyutipaGkajAkSI pravAdayantI kapinAsayantram / vicitraratnAbharaNA sukezI sA sindhujA kAntasamIpasaMsthA / javAprasanadyutivaktrarekhA sunIlapamaM karayordadhAnA / kSaumAMzukAcchAditagAtrayaSTi mehAvidagdhA kathitAzoyArI / / candraprabhA cArumRgIva netrA vidyAdharI nRtyakalAM vhntii| pikasvarAtIva manoharantI sA bhairavI devI zriyaM dadAtu / / vihArazIlo'pi ca nIladeho gabhIravAkyaH paramo vidagdhaH / kAmAturaH piGgalanetrayugmo mallArarAgaH kuzalaM karotu / / saMketitasphUrtilatAnikunje kRtasthitiH kAntasamAgamAya / velAklI yugmakamAlyamaulI kAlA vicitrAbharaNAnuraktA // ...vahantI kucakumbhayugme / dUrvAdalazyAmatanuH sakAmA prANAdhikA sA pUravI pratiSThA // azokavRkSasya tale niSaNNA viyoginI vASpAkulAzcitAkSI / vibhUSitAGgI kalitaikavezA sA kAnaDA hemalatAtitanvI / /

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Appendix E 103 taDitaprabhAlolavizAlanetrA vaktraM ca nItA pramadA svakAntam / cucumbamAnA priyavAdinI ca mayUrikA mAdhavikA nikumje // pranartitA lAsyakalAvilAsApavitradehA kuTilekSaNA ca / kAntasya vAme varakAminI sA koDAvihAre'pi sutiSThatIva / / snigdhA manohArI gajendragAmino kedArikA vRttapayodharazrIH / / lIno vihAreNa vanAntarAle cinvan prasUnAni vadhUsahAyaH / vilAsavitto dyutidivyamUrtiH zrIrAga eSa kathitaH pRthivyAm / / sugItanRtyAnuratA dinAnte kAntasya skandhe praNidhAya pANim / vINAM dadhAnA vicitritAGgI gAndhArikA gandhavinodinI ca // prasannavaktrA zivabhAvinI sA pragAyatI vApi pikaprabhASA / zyAmA rasazA kila devIrUpA gaurI gabhIrA vidhinopadiSTAH / / nAnArasapadArthAni vicinvantIha kautukam / kavitAbhAvasaMbhogA bhAratI subhagA matA / / mukhyA prahRSTA sphuTakaumudIbhivirAjamAnA svilaasveshaa| kaumArikA kAmakalAM vahantI gaurI padAmbhoruhamarcayantI / /

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Fundamentals of Ancjent Indian Music and Dance valIdharA kaJculikAM vahantI lAvaNya.... vinodinI ratnakalApahArA veloyArI pItanicoladhAriNI // manasvinI mAnavatA prabhAvinI niHzvAsayuktA sthirdRssttisnigdhaa| vairAgiNI rAgayutA pradiSTo vidagdharUpaiH kila devi rUpaiH / / cUtAGkureNaiva kRtAvataMso vighUrNamAnAruNanetrapadmaH / pItAmbaraH kAJcanacArudeho vasantarAgo yuvatIpriyazca / / sunRtyamAnAtisuzIlayuktA muktAlatAkampitahArayaSTiH / / cUtAGkuraM karNayuge vahantI gauDI natAGgI tuDIriteyam / / saMgItavidyAvizAradA ca vihArabhAvA varakAminIyam / pradIptabhASA surasA sudhAGgA zrIpaJcamI paJcamadevavidyA / / tamasi kezava yasya saMcaraM karoti lIlAvatIbhAvadhIrA / candrAnanA lohitanetrapadmA saMpUjitA caturva... lalitAvanIH / zikhAkalA: parivezazIlA kvacit samasyAM paripUrayantI / ) patraM... satkamalaM vahantI majUktizIlApi ca maJjarIyam / / karNAtpala...... suhRdbatI manjUlakUjitAni / kAntAntikaM gantumanAH pradoSe / sA gurjarI nRtyakalAzcitAGgI /

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Appendix E adhyApayantI nijaziSyavRndaM saMgItazAstrANi vivecanAbhiH / manoharA hAralatAbhirAmA samastabhAsA dazanA vibhaasaa|| lIlAvilAsena.. pRthivyAmutthApitastapriyakAminIbhiH / udghoSayan gItaraso vidagdhAn hindolarAgaH kathito rasajJaiH // mayUrakekAravalolakAnti mayUrikA bIkSya madaM vahantI / mayUravRndaiH samanRtyamAnA sA mAdhavI saMkathitA guNajJaiH // pradoSakAle gRhadehaloSu pradopahastAruNacAruvatrA / somantisindUravirAjamAnI suraktamAlyA kila dIpakeyam / / sArdha sakhIbhirnirjane (vijane) vasantI vicitravakSojanakhakSatAni / nirIkSamANA maNidarpaNeSu sA dezakArI kathitA munibhiH / / bharturdadhAnA caraNAravindam / vizeSayantI paradezakAlam / priyAnurAgA'tikAtarAkSI sA pAhiDA saMkathitA kavIndraiH / ......zrukulAkulAkSI malinacInA dharaNoM luThantI / priyAnurAgaM satataM smarantI kRzAGgayaSTiH kathitA varADo // utpannamAtre prathamAparAdhe mAnaM punaH kartumanA cireNa / .........vA nibhRtaM rudantI M-14 .

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106 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance kRpANapANisturagAdhirUDho mayUrakaNThopamakaNThakAntiH / karNATarAgo... ciraM naTantI suraraGgamadhye vicitraraGgAbharaNA sumadhyA / uttrAsitA .. bhUpAlikA sA kathitA kavibhiH // 11 1 zrIrAmanAmeti satataM japantI pUjAratA puSpacayaiH. AnandarUpA kA dehA zrIrAmakeliH kathitA vidagdhaiH // vizeSavaidagdhyavatI samasta kalAvilAsena vimohayantI / bRhad nitambakRzamadhyabhAgA pInastanI sA kathitA pratiSThA / / priyeSu sArdhaM sarasi prakAmaM payovihAreNa saroruhANi / vicinvatI saurabhamodamAnA kAmodarAgI kathitA guNajJaiH // sA tANDave nRtyavizeSazIlA lAvaNyalIlA vanitAtanuzrIH / nUpura keyUrakiNakiGkinIgaNa kasyAnurAgI parivAdayantI || iti nAradakRtapaJcamasaMhitAyAM rAganirNayo nAma tRtIyo'dhyAyaH / *

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GLOSSARY (In Devanagari alphabetical order ) In this Glossary are included not only the important and technical terms, used in this work, but also such other terms as are necessary even for a cursory study of the Samgitasastra. The chapter on dance is elaborate, and contains numerous technical terms. Of these, we have selected here only the broad ones, particularly those which convey more meanings than one in different contexts. The figures in bold types indicate page numbers of this work, 35 Angahara : N 790, 797 etc. Anubandha : V 127, 148 etc. 58, 54 A kind of dhatu (q.v.). Graceful posture at appro Anubhava : N 1390-91. priate place. Particular movements of the Anghritadita : N 1007-8 eye, eyebrow, facial expresA kind of Desi cari of the sion etc. indicating love etc.; aerial type. it is one of the constitutents Ancita : N 312-4, 340, 594-95. 757 of Rasa. Anuvadi : S iii. 48, 59 etc.. 22 (i) A posture of the hand. Name of the svara which (ii A posture of the feet. makes the samvadi svara (iii) A kind of Nittakarana. clearer. So called as it follows (iv) A kind of Utplutikarana. the samvadi. In the heptatonic Anibaddha : P 4. 18, 24 system, the third svara from A kind of song. In it there the radi is called anuvadi. is no word. It is called alapa For example, if SA is vadi or alapti (q.v.). Ga becomes anuvadi. The following abbreviations have been used here to indicate the chapters of the Samgita-ratnakara, noted against them.-The figures against these abbreviations refer to the number of verse in the Adyar edition of the Samgitaratnakara : N-Nartanadhyaya R-Ragavivekadhyaya T-Taladhyaya P-Prabandhadhyaya $-Svaragatadhyaya V-Vadyadhyaya, PK-Prakirnakadhyaya

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108 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Apaviddha : N 339, 595-97, 845447 (i) A kind of angahara (q.v.). (ii) A particular posture of the arms. (iii) A kind of nsttakarana. Ardbacandra: N 117-19. V 68,86 (i) A posture of the single hand in dance. (ii) Name of a manual action or pose in vadya, Ardbarecita : N 237, 628-29 (i) A pose of the hand in dance. (ii) A kind of Nittakarana. Alata : N 615-16, 1199-1202 (i) A kind of aerial mandala (q.v.). (ii) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.) Alata : N 950-51, 1009 (i) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari of the Desi class. Avanaddha : V 4, 6, (Also Anaddha); 35, 37, 44 A type of musical instruments; these are covered with leather, Amsa : S vii, 34, T 62 According to some, another name of Vadi svara. According to others, the svara in which the full form of a raga is divided. Adilla : PK 40 A particular kind of voice in a song. Khahula (q.v.), extending over the sthanas mandra, Madhya, is so called. Adgika : N 20 Acting by means of gestures and postures. Abhoga : PK 8, 9. T 233; 18 (i) A kind of dhatu (q,v.). Foot of a song containing the bhanita of that song. (ii) Name of an accessory of the Samagana. Arabhati : N 1112, 1117-18 A kind of dramatic art; a particular mode of dance. Aroha : V 200, 222, etc. (Also Arohi); 23 Ascent of svaras, e.g. SA, RA, GA, etc. Alapti : PK 189; 24, 32, 3?, 40 (f.n.), Also called alapa. It denotes the process by which the form of a raga is manifested without meaningful word and tala. Alapini : V 10 A kind of svaravina. Avarta : N 673-74, 1154-57 (i) A kind of terrestrial mandala (q.v.). (ii) A type of Nattakarang (q.v.). Avaroha : V 200, 255 etc. (Also Avarohi); 23 Descent of svaras, e.g. NA DHA, PA etc. Avabittha : N 208-9, 1963-65, (i) A posture of the hands joined together. (ii) Sthana (q.v.) for females.

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Glossary 109 Asravana : V 179, 186 etc. Playing of the vina without the accompaniment of songs. Udgraha : P 7; V 944, 946 etc. Name of the first dhatu as a part of prabandha. With it a song is commenced. Udghattita : N 331 740 (i) To stand with a parti cular position of the feet. (ii) A kind of Notiakarana (q.v.). (ii) A kind of angahara. Uparaga : R i. 15. 27 Sub-raga, so-called because it arises from near gramaraga (q.v.). Upa-ragas are eight. Sakatilaka, T'akka-saindhava, Kokila, pancama, Revagupta, Pancanisidava. Bhavanapancama. Nagagandhara, Nagapancama. Urdhvajanu : N 627-27, 949-50 (i) A kind of Ntitakarana (q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.). Ekala : PK 23 Solo singer. Oha! : R 5 A kind of song. When the chin is placed on the heart, it arises with the sounds HA and AU along with mandra and highly druta svaras accompanied by gamaka called Kampita. Avapa : 17 Aharya : N20 Acting by means of costumes. Auduva ; R 24, P 362 etc. 27 A raga consisting of five svaras of which sadja is constant. Derived from the word Udu meaning star. A star is found in the sky which is the fifth of the five elements (bhuta). So, auduva indicates the number 5. Kamrika : V 62 Bow for playing the lute. Karana : N 548-49, 899 52, 53, 54, 59 (f.n.) (i) Simultanious and grace ful action of hands, feet etc. in consonance with the Rasa concerned. (ii) A kind of Cari (q.v.). Karihasta : N 248-54, 710-11 (i) A kind of the posture of hands in dance. (ii) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.) Kala : T. 6 6, 49 Action in margatala. It is twofold, silent and sounded; the later is also called pata. Kutatana : S IV. 32, 33 etc. Spreading out of the Svaras contrary to the usual order; e.g. SA, GA, MA, PA etc. Krapta : N 655-57 1097-98, 1180-82 (i) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.), (ii) A kind of sitting posture (iii) A type of aerial mandala, 50 A kind pf Kala (q.v.). In it, the fingers of the upturned palm are contracted.

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110 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Khahula : PK 40 30 A kind of voice used in songs. It arises from phlegm, and is tender, sweet and soft. Gamaka : PK 87, R 144 etc. 24, 26, 32, 38, 49 (f.n.) Term indicating the trembling of the voice. It is of 15 kinds. Gandharva : PK 12 17, 25, 3. One who is versed in marga and desi songs. Gita : Si. 21-24, P. 1-4 etc. 17, 19, 64. Song; it means a group of Svaras which delight the heart. Gaudi : R 4 A kind of song. It is compact, pervades the three sthanas called mandra, madhya and tara, accompanied by gamaka and cantains sweet svaras as in Ohati. Gaundali : N 1273-77 63, 64 Designation of a class of female dancers. Graha : S vii. 2, 4, 31; R 33, 90 etc. 18, 22, 25, 38, 62 (i) T 50 According to Bharata, another name of amsa (q.v). The svara from which a raga commences. (ii) Commencement of a tala. Grama : S iv. 1. 109, 172 etc. 5, 6, 7, 24, 25, 39 Denotes svaras which are the resort of marchana, krama, tala, varna, alunkara and jati. According to Sarngadeva, it is twofoldsad jagrama and Madhyama grama. Gramaraga : Ri. 2, 3, 14 etc. 26, 27 Being the resort of five kinds of songs, gramaraga is five fold. Gharghara : N 1304-6 Sounding of anklets by a class of dancers called Peranin. Ghana : V 4; 6 etc. 3), 37, 46 Musical instruments made of metals and sounded by strokes, e.g. bell. Caturasra : N 216-17, 1030-40, 1080 (i) A pose of hands in dance. (ii) A sthana (q.v.) for males (iii) A kind of desi sthana (q.v.). Cari V 897 S5 Simultaneous graceful move. ments of feet, thighs, shanks and waist in dance. It may be aerial, desi aerial, terrestrial and desi terrestrial. Chayalaga ; PK 16, 37, 311 etc. 28, 33, 61 (Salaga) A kind of raga, also called Salaga. It is a raga which is mixed with the semblance (chaya--lit. shadow) of another raga,

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Glossary Jati : Sv. I, vii. I etc. 2. 10, 2, 26, 9 Song with arna and alamkara. It is twofold, Suddha and Viksta. Dandapada : N 956-66, 1006-7 (i) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi aerial cari. Desi : Si. 22, 24, etc. T 4. 18, 25, 33, 4, 49, 50, 55, 57, 58, 65 That song, instrumental music or dance which causes delight to the people of different regions in accordance with their taste. A kind of tala. Desi raga : R ii. 2 Name of same grama=ragas etc. Dhatu : P 7, 125 etc. 18, 32, 41 An acccessory of prabandha. Tata : V 4, 7 etc. 35, 37, 42 The class of musical instru ments which are stringed. Tana : S 427, 428 etc. 5, 6, 10, 24, 25, 40 Name of Suddha Murchana. It is twofold-Suddhatana and Kututana. The number of tanas, with auduva and sadava, is 84. Tara : S iii. 39 20, 23 Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the head. Tala : P 13. T 3, 9, N 889 etc. 2, 4, 18, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 63 (i) Name of an accessory of Prabandha. (ii) Time measured with laghu, guru etc. (iii) A kind of Kala (q.v.). Dandapaksa : N 257-58, 636-37 (i) A pose of hands in dance. (ii) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.). Dandapada : N 704-5, 1177-80 (i) A kind of aerial mandala (q.v.). (ii) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.). Dhruva : P 7, 317 etc. T 9 18, 49, 50, 65 (i) A kind of prabandha. (ii) A kind of dhatu (q.v.). (iii) A kind of Kala (q.v). Nagabandha ; N 767. 1093 (i) A kind of ut plutikarana (q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi sthana (q.v.). Nada : S iii. 1, 2, 2, 6, 11 etc. PK 130 V 50, 103 etc. 19, 20, 139 Sound manifested by the combination of fire and vital breath (prana) within the body.

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i12 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Narata : PK 41 30 A Kind of sound arising from bile. Nikuttaka : N 603-6, 873-75 (i) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.). (ii) A kind of angahara (q.v.). Nitamba : N 238-39, 714-15 (i) A pose of hands in dance. (li) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.). Nibaddha : P 4 18, 24 A kind of song. It consists of meaningful words in a composition. Contra Anibaddha. Niskrama : T7 50 A kind of Kala (q.v.). Nstta : N 3, 4, 14, 78, 35 etc. 4, 52, 53, 67 Movements of the body devoid of acting. Pata : P 13, 257. V 828 etc. 38, 47, 48 An accessory of prabandha, The sound syllables of Vad ya, e.g. DHI GI DHIG. Pata : T6 See Kala. Perani : N 130-3 64 A dancer dressed in a particular manner and possessed of certain qualities. Prabandha : P 6, 12, 20, 21, V 952, 1261 etc. 18, 33 A kind of nibaddha song. It is broadly divided in so three kinds-dvidhatu, tridhatu, and caturdhatu. Again, it is divided into two kinds, nir yukta and anir yukta. It is further divided into three kinds-Sudastha. alisamsraya and viprakirna. Vadya, too, has prabandhas, eg. Metapaka etc. Pravesa : T 8 A kind of Kala (q.v.). Prastara : T 314, 317 etc. Spreading out. The method of arranging the seven svaras in a manner other than the natural order. In it the svaras are shown in different Kalas; along with it the syllabes of the song are shown. For example, NI NI NI NI SA DHA NI NI TAM SU RA VAM DI TA Bombaka : PK 41 30 A kind of sound. Notya : N 3, 4, 14, 27 etc. 7, 52 That which manifests a feeling or emotion through angika abhinaya (q.v.). Nyasa : R 21, 28 etc. T 62, 73 etc. 22, 23, 25 Name of that svara in which a song or raga ends. Paravrtta : N 873-75, 1084 i) A kind of angahara(q v.). (ii) A kind of desi sthana (q.v.).

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Glossary 113 Bharati vrtti : N 1114 A particular mode of speech of actors. Bhramara : N 167-69, 641-42, 817-18, 1149-51 54, 60, 61 (i) A kind of angahara (q.v.) (ii) A kind of mandala (q.v.) (iii) A kind of nfttakarana (q.v.) (iv) A particular pose of the single hand in dance. Mandala : N 899, 901, 1046-48, 1142-18 36, 55, 60 (i) A kind of cari (q.v.). (ii) A particular sthana for males. Madhya : S iii 39 20, 35 Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the throat, Mandra : S iii 39 20, 35 Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the heart, Mtu : PK 2 Murchana : S iv. 1, 9, 12, 13, 18, etc. V 67, 96 5, 6, 7, 18, 24, 25, 26 (f.n.) (i) The ascent and descent of svaras in due order. (ii) A particular action of the hand in playing musical instruments. Yati : 146 38, 39, 51 Mode of application of laya (q.v.): temporary pauses. Yamala : PK 23 A duet singer. Raga : R 2, 18 etc. PK 14, P 362 V 399, 400 etc. 6, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 39 A group of svaras, which causes delight to the mind of the people.. Ragalapti : PK 190 Same as Ragalapa (q.v.). Ragalapa : R ij. 24. Manifestation or spreading out of a raga. Rupakalapti PK : 197. 18, 24 A kind of ragalapa. Laya : T 44 6, 32, 35, 38 39, 51, 52, 63 Pause after an action, Time intervening between two matras. Lalita ; N 278-84, 634, 1202-5 (i) A kind of mandala. (ii) A particular pose of hands in dance. (iii) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.). M atical co Poetical composition. Marga : S i. 22. PK 1, 12 24d. T4, 10 N 27 6, 8, 9, 33, 40, 49, 50, 52, 55, 65 (i) A kind of samgita which was sought or found by guds Brahma etc. and applied by sages Bharata etc. before Siva. (ii) A kind of tala. (iii) A kind raga. (iv) A kind of dance M-15

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114 Fuodamentals of Ancieat indian Music and Dance Vidyudbhranta : N 684, 85, 837-39 (i) A kind of angahara (q.v.). (ii) A kind of nsitak arana (q.v.). Vidyud ihranta : N 957, 1001-2 (i) kind of aerial cari (q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari of the desi class. Vibhasa : R i. 23 ff. 28 Varna : S vi. 1. P 24, 181 etc. V 172 etc. 6, 23, 24, 25, 39 (i) The act of singing. (ii) A kind of prabandha (4.v.). (iii) A kind of tala (q.v.). Vardhamana : N 214-1, 1074 (i) A particular pose of joined hands in dance. (ii) A kind of desi sthana. Valita : N 280-82, 635-36, 58 170-71. (i) A pose of hands in dance, (ii) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.). (iii) A particular sthana for females. Vaga : PK 97 24 Another name of gamaku. Vaggeyakaraka : PK 2 18, 32 One who composes Kavya and songs. Vacika : N 20 Acting by means of speech, Vadi : S iii. 47, 48, 50, V 216 etc. 22 That svara which reveals the true from of a raga. Vidari : V 120. T 75-77. That which rends, cuts. It is twofold----gitavidari and padavidari. For example, Lalii alavangalata / parisilana. ......samire-here each part is a gitavidari. If a vidari is complete on the amsasvara of a raga or in its samvadi or anuvadi svara or in nyasa svara, then it is called padaviduri. Minor raga. Vivadi : S iii. 47, 51 etc. 22 The svara which detracis from the charm of a raga. Vivitta : N 677-78 A kind of usttakarana (q.v.) Viskambha : N 737-39, 847-59 (i) A kind of nrttakarana (q.v) (ii) A kind of angahara (q.v.). Vonda : PK 203 35 A band of vocalists and instrumentalists. Vrndagayana : PK 23 A singer in Vrnda. Vesara : R6 A kind of song. Vaisakharecita : N 657-58, 812-14 57 (i) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.). (ii) A kind of angaharna (q.v.). Vaisnava : N 1031-34, 1089 (i) A particular sthana for males. (ii) A kind of desi sthana. Samya : T 9. 49, 50 A kind of Kala.

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Glossary Sarira : PK 82 30, 31, 32 The capacity of a singer's voice for manifesting a raga without practice. Sruti : S iii. 8, 9, 10 etc. 2, 10, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 37, 39 Name of the 22 sounds existing in the heptatonic system. All these are Sruia (head); hence these are called sruti. Sadava : R 9 etc. A raga consisting of six svaras. Satpita putraka : T 26 Sattvika : N 20 Acting by means of external manifestations of feelings or emotions, e.g. perspiration, trembling of the body etc. Sarana : S iii. 19 ff. 19, 21, 38 Movement. Raising or lowering of a svara. Salaga : See Chayalaga. Susira : V 4, 5 etc. 37, 44 The class of musical instru. ments which have holes. Suci: N 698-9 (Nstta-karana) N 951-52, 1014 54, 60 (i) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi aerial cari. Sucividdha : N 700-701, 808-9, 11 86-88 51 61 A kind of tala. Sancari : S vi. I 23 * A kind of varna. It arises from the admixture of the sthayi, arohi and avarohi Varnas. Samvadi : S ii. 47, 49, 50 etc. V 123. T 74. 22, 23 The svara which supports a raga whose form has been manifested by the Vadi svara. Samapada : N 1041-43, 1077 (i) A particular sthana for males. (ii) A kind of desi sthana (q.v.). Samapada : N 917-18 55, 56 A kind of terrestrial cari (q.v.). Sambhranta : N 736-37, 883-86 (i) A kind of nfttakarana (q.v.). (1) A kind of ungahara(q.v.). (i) A kind of angahara (q.v.). (ii) A kind of mandala (q.v.). (iii) A kind of nittakarana (q.v.), Sucimukha : N 147-51, 232-35 (i) A pose of the single hand in dance. (ii) A pose of joined hands in dance. Stana : P 15. S iii. 39 6, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 57, 58 Place where a svara arises. It is threefold, viz. mandra, madhya and tara. Sthaya: PK 97. 24, 33 Part of a raga.

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116 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance in the Svaradi : PK 13 33 One who is versed marga song alone, Svastika : N 192-94, 1073-74. 592-93, Sthayi : S vi. If. 23 A kind of varna. The intermittent use of the same svara in a song. Svara : T iii. 25, 28 stc. P 12, 15 etc. 5, 6, 9, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 33, 39, 40 A tender sound which is resonant, follows srutis, and independently of other causes, itself causes delight to the mind of the listener. (i) A pose of joined bands jn dance. (ii) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.), (iii) A particular desi sthana. Svastikarecita : N 600-3, 886-888 (i) A kind of nsttakarana (q.v.), (ii) A kind of ungahara (q.v.),

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY SANSKRIT TEXTS (Names of authors in Devanagari alphabetical order) Agnipurana-Chaps. 337-41. Ahobala Samgita-parijata, ed. K. Vedantavagisa, Calcutta, 1935; Hathras, 1941: (With Bengali translation), Calcutta, 1959. Kavicakravarti: See Jagadekamalla. Kasinatha Apatulasi Samgitas udhakara, 1917. Kumbha or Kumbhakarna: Samgitaraja, ed. P. Sarma, Pt. I, Varanasi, 1963. Ghansyamadasa: Samgitasarasamgraha, ed. Prajnanananda, Calcutta, 1956. Jagadekamalla Samgitacudamani, Baroda, 1958. Dattilam Ed. Sambasiva Sastri, Trivandrum, 1930. Damodara Samgitadarpana, Hathras, 1950. Nandikesvara: Abhinayadorpana, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, 1943. Narahari Cakravarti: Same as Ghanasyamadasa above. Nanyabhumipala Bharatabhasyam. Narada Samgitamakaranda, ed. Telang, Baroda, 1920. Naradi Siksa Benares, 1893; ed. S. Samasrami, Calcutta. Parsvadeva Samgitasamayasara, Trivandrum, 1925. Bharata Natyasastra, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, I, 1967, II, 1961. Matanga Brhaddesi, ed. S. Sastri, Trivandrum, 1928. Markande yapurana: Chap. I, VV. 34-36: Chap. XXIII. Ramamatya: Svaramelakalanidhi, ed. M. S. R. Ayar, Annamalainagar, 1932. Vayupurana-Chaps. 86-87. Visnusarma (pen-name of Visnunarayana Bhatkhande): Abhinavaragamahjari, : Visnudharmottarapurana-Section III. Sarngadeva Samgitaratnakara, I (Ch. i), Madras, 1943. II (Chs. ii-iv), Do, 1959. III (Chs. v-vi), Do, 1951. IV (Ch. viii), Do, 1953. Subhankara Samgitadamodara, ed. G. Sastri and G. G. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta, 1960, 1921. Srinivasa Ragatattvavibodha. Somanatha Pandita Ragavibodha, ed. S. Sastri, Madras, 1945. Somesvara: Abhilasitarthacintamani or Manasollasa, III, Baroda, 1961.

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118 Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance ENGLISH WORKS ( In English alphabetical order ) Agrawala, V. K. Tradition and Trends in Indian Music. Bagchi, P. C. : India and China, New York. Bandyopadhyay, S. : The Music of India. Bhatkhande, V. N. : Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India. Bombay, 1934. Boatwright, H. : Indian Classical Music and the Western Listener. Bose, M. : Classical Indian Dancing, Calcutta, 1970. Clemento, F. : Introduction to the Study of Indian Music, London, 1913. Coomaraswamy, A. K. & Duggirala : The Mirror of Gesture, 1970. Danileou, A. : Northern Indian Music, 1949. Deval, K. R. : The Hindu Musical Scale and the Twenty-two Srutis, Poona, 1910. Engle, c. : The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, 1865. Felber, E. : The Indian Music of the Vedic and the Classical Period, Vienna, 1912. Fox Strangways, A, H. : (i) Thh Music of Hindusthan. (ii) The Hindu Scale; Leipzig, 1907-8. French, P. T. Catalogue of Indian Musical Instruments. Ganguli, 0. C.: Ragas and Raginis, Baroda, 1948. Garratt, G. T. : The Legacy of India, Oxford, 1938. Ghosh, N. : Fundamentals of Raga and Tala with u New System of Notation, Bombay, 1968 Holroyde, P. : Indian Music, London, Jairazbhoy, K. A. : The Rags of North Indian Music, London, 1971. Jones, W. : Ou the Musical Modes of the Hindus. Keskar, B. V. : Indian Music, Problems and Prospects, Bombay, 1967. Naidu, B. V. N. and others : Tandavalak sanam or the Fundumentals of Ancient Hindu Dancing, 1971. Peterson, J. D. : On the Gramas or Musical Scales of ihe Hindus. Pingle, B. A. : Indian Music, 1938. Popley, H. A. : The Music of India, Culcutta, 1921, Prajnanananda : Historicul Development of Indian Music, Calcutta. Raja, C. K. : Samgitaratnakara, Eng. trs, (Chap. 1), Madras, 1945. Raja, K. K. and Burnier : Do, Eng. trs. ( Chap. VIT), Brah navidya, (Adyar Library Bulletin ), XXII), 1959, Madras. Ram, V. B. : Glimpses of Indian Music. Rao and Sastri : A Monograph on Bharata's Natyasastra. Rao, T. V. S. ; Studies in Indian Music.

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Select Bibliography 119 Rosenthal, E. : The Story of Indian Music and its Instruments, London 1928 (Reprint, Delhi, 1971). Roy Choudhury, H. K : The Musicians of India Sambamoorthy, P. : History of Indian Music. Sanyal, A. N. : Ragas and Raginis. Simon, R. : The Musical Compositions of Somanatha, Leipzig, 1904. Sinha, P. : An Approach to the Study of Indian Music, Calcutta, 1970. Subbarao, B. : Raganidhi, Vol I. Swarup, B. : Theory of Indian Music. Tagore, S. N. : Six Principal Ragas of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1877. Tagore, S. M. : Indian Music by Various Authors, Vols. l-1l (2nd., 1882). Short Natices of Hindu Musical Instruments. Calcutta, 1912. Seven Principal Musical Notes of the Hindus with their Presiding Deities, Culcutta, 1882. Hindu Music, Calcutta, 1975. The Musical Scales of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1884. Vatsyayana K. : Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, 1969. Verma, K. M : Seven Words in Bharata. Natya, Nitta and Nitya, White, E. Appreciating Indian Music. Williard, N. A. : A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan, Calcutta, 1834. Wilson, A, C.: A Short Account of the Hindu System of Music, London, 1904. Wood, A. : The Physics of Music, 1945. BENGALI, HINDI, MARATHI (In the spelling of the titles, we have followed the mode of pronunciation.) Names of authors are in Devanagari alphabetical order.) A. Sanyal : Pracin Bharater Samgitcinta, Visvavidyasamgraha. K. Gosvami : Samgitsar, 2nd ed., 1879. D. Mukhopadhyay : Sur 0 Samgati. P. Chaudhuri and Indira Devi Chaudhurani : Hindu Samgit, Visvavidya samgraha Prajnanananda : Samgit 0 Sumskiti, I, Calcutta, 1953. Do, Latter part, Calcutta, 1956. B. K. Roychaudhuri (Birendrakishore ) : Rag O rup, Darjeeling. The Hindusthani Samgite Tansener sthan, Calcutta, 1946 B. S. B. K. Roychaudhuri : Bharatiya Samgitakosa, Calcutta, 1932 B. S. V. Bhatkhande : Hindusthani Samgitapaddhati (Marathi ), I, 1910, II, III, 1914, IVth part, 1932. Murari Gupta : Samgit-prakasika. Radhamohan Sen : Samgita-taranga, Calcutta,

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.20 Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance Ramsevak Misra: Talaprakasa (Hindi). S. M. Tagore Yantrakosa, 1875. S. C. Bandyopadhyay Bharater Jnan Vijnan, I, Calcutta, 1366 BS. (Chapter on music) H. N. Mukhopadhyay Samgite Parivartan, 1931. ARTICLES Quite a number of papers, on different aspects of music and dancing, has been published in various journals. Among such periodicals, the following are important : Journal of Music Academy, Madras, III, IV, V, IX XIV, XIX, XXIII, XXIV. (Articles by Agrawala, Aiyar, Felber, Ganguli, Halugur, Rao) Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Articles by Fox-Strangways and Aiyar) 1935, 1936. Uttaramantra (Journal), Vol. I 1940 (P. C. Bagchi). Sanskrit Research, 1916 (K, B. Deval) Indian Culture, IV, 1939 (P. C. Dharma) The Hindoostan, 1940 (O. C. Ganguli) Journal of University of Bombay, XVIII, 1949 (Sankarana and Chaitanya Deva) The Indian Music Journal, Vols. I, 11, 1212-13 (H. P. K. Rao) Also see (i) U.S.I.C. Centre News, Almora, 1942, 1943 (Agrawala and O. C. Ganguli). (ii) Year-Book of Oriental Art and Culture, London, 1925. (A. K. Coomaraswamy) JOURNALS Of journals, exclusively dealing with music, the following noteworthy : HINDI Samgita, Samgitakaryalaya, Hathras, U. P. Samgitakalavihara, Poona Gandharva Mahavidyalaya. An important magazine is published also from Samgita-Nataka-Akademi, Delhi. Surachanda, Calcutta. Visvavina, Calcutta. BENGALI are

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