Fundamental of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Author(s): Sureshchandra Benarji
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001535/1

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ANGIENT INDIAN MUSIC AND DANCE
L. D. SERIES 57
GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
PY SURES CHANDRA BANERJI EX-SECRETARY VANGIYA SANSKRIT SIKSA PARISAT CALCUTTA.
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

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2 भारतीय
-
दलपत भाई
Kropfer familie
१५०१५० भरमदाबाद
FUNDAMENTALS OF
ANCIENT INDIAN MUSIC AND DANCE
?
L. D. SERIES 57
GENERAL EDITORS
DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
BY

SURES CHANDRA BANERJI
EX-SECRETARY
VANGIYA SANSKRIT SIKṢA PARISAT
CALCUTTA.
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

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Printed by K. Bhikhalal Bhavsar, Swaminarayan Mudrana Mandir 46, Bhavsar Society, Nava Vadaj Ahmedabad-13, and published by Nagio J. Shah Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-9.
FIRST EDITION December, 1976
PRICE RUPEES 25Dolls sisad Priests 5 O'
s ir L.D. indolor

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FOREWORD
It gives me great pleasure, indeed, in publishing Dr. S. C. Banerji's monograph entitled "Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance". This is really a good introduction to the subject. It explains lucidly the essentials of ancient Indian music and dance. The introduction traces the origin and development of Indian music, and points out its salient features. Chapter I is devoted to vocal music, Chapter II to instrumental music, Chapter III to tāla and Chapter IV to dance. The work is embellished with five interesting appendices. Appendix e contains the Sanskrit text of Pañcama-sārasamhitā of Nārada, hitherto unpublished. Glossary and Biblio. graphy given at the end enhance the value of the work.
I am most thankful to Dr. S. C. Banerji, ex-secretary, Vargiya Sanskrit Śikṣā Parişad, Calcutta, for agreeing to the publication of this work in the L. D. Series. I have no doubt that the students, teachers and others interested in this subject will find this book interesting and of genuine help in understanding Indian music and dance.
L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380009. 15th December, 1976.
Nagin J. Shah - Director.

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CONTENTS
Preface Introduction
vii-viji
1-16
1 General Remarks, Meaning of Samgita-, Origin and Development of Indian music-, Works and Authors-,
Characteristics of Indian Music
Page
17
Chapter
Subject
Vocal Music (General remarks--, Gita-its definition, characteristics and types-, Merits and defects of Gitir.- Nada, Sruti, Svara, Saraņā--, Amía, Graha. Nyāsa-, Varna, Alamkāra-, Sthaya--, Grāma, Murchana-, Tāna-, Jali-, Raga-, Bhāṣā, Vibhāsā. Antarbhaşā -- Sabda, Sarira-, Characteristics of Vaggeya-kāra, Gundharva Syarādi, Characteristics of singers -, Defects of singers - , Vynda, Kutapa- 1
11
Instrumental Music
37
(General remarks-, Merits and defects of vadya-, Merits and defects of instrumentalists-, Dhatu-, Kinds of instrumental music-, Structure and material of musical instruments --, Tala, Sușira-, Ānaddha-, Ghana-, Characteristics of a mardala player , Pāta, Pancasanca, Vad yaprabandha
III
Tāla
IV
Dance [General remarks- , Nitta, Nytya- , Nịttakarana- , Cari , Marga Cari- , Desi Cäri- , Sthana- , Desi Sthanas--- , Angahära- , Recaka , Vartanā Calaka- , Nyāya-- Mandalas-, Rekha- , Qualifications of a dancer-, Merits and defects of a dancer-- Decorations of a dancer, The teacher of dance- , Dance-troupe- , Gaundali , Peranin-, Acarya-- , Audience-, Sabhāpati- , Seating arrangements in assembly-)

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73
76
APPENDICES A - Indian and Western Music B - Influence of Indian music abroad C –Influence of Tantra on music D--Non-Aryan elements in Indian music E-(i) Text of the Pañcama-samhitā belonging
to Vangiya Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta. (ii) Text of the third chapter of the Pañcama
Samhitā belonging to Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
79
81
100
107
Glossary of technical terms Bibliography
117

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PREFACE
The evolution of Samgita in India is like the course of the mighty Ganges. The Ganges flowed from the stately Himālaya, ran through hundreds of miles gathering the soil of the various regions. In its course, it has branched off into tributaries, and has been fed by smaller rivers. Ultimately it has merged with the ocean. Likewise, samgita originated in hoary antiquity, evolved through Vedic, Epic, Purānic and Classical ages. Since the time of its genesis, it was enriched by new ideas from age to age till at last it merged into what Ravindranātha described as mahāmānaver sāgar or the ocean of vast humanity. India has been the cradle of diverse cultures spread over the length and breadth of the huge sub.continent. The result is that what is called Indian music to-day is a composite art. It is difficult to distinguish between what is indigenous in Indian music and how much has been borrowed or is exotic.
It is intended, in the following pages, to present, in a succinct form, the salient features of ancient Indian music and dance. Such books as Prajñānānanda's Historical Development of Indian Music, Sambamoorthy's History of Indian Music, Ganguli's Rāgas and Rāginīs, M. Bose's Classical Indian Dancing, admirable though they are for the specialists and scholars, are too profound and detailed for the general reader. Such books as Danielou's Northern Indian Music are of regional interest, and do not deal with ancient Indian music alone. Books like N. C. Ghosh's Fundamentals of Rāga and Tāla with a new system of Notation, Peterson's On the Grāmas or Musical Scales of the Hindus deal only with particular aspects of Indian music.
There are many Sanskrit treatises on music and dance. Of these a large number of texts still lie buried in manuscripts beyond the reach of readers. The published texts are not accessible to many, because these are written in Sanskrit.

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We have made an attempt to present to the general reader a brief account of the highlights of ancient Indian music and dance as laid down in the Sanskrit treatises, particularly in Sārrgadeva's Samgita-ratnākara.
The selection of topics for this little book posed a problem. We have, however, included in it all the important topics from which the reader can form a coherent idea of the vocal and instrumental music and dance. In the beginning of this work, a rapid survey of the Sanskrit musical literature of India starting with the Vedic literature has been given.
Several interesting topics, related to Indian music, have been appended to the work. One appendix deals with the interesting points which mark the distinction of the Indian and Western systems. In another we have tried to trace the influence of our musical system abroad. In one appendix we have briefly shown how Tantra, which permeated the cultural soil of India, influenced musical speculations too. One appendix reveals how non-Aryan elements were absorbed into the Aryan culture in the domain of music.
At the end, there is a glossary of the important technical terms, followed by an up-to-date bibliography.
I shall consider my labours rewarded if this monograph whets the intellectual appetite of the readers in respect of Indian music as described in the Sanskrit treatises.
S. C. Baperji
Calcutta, New Year's Day, 1973.

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INTRODUCTION
General remarks
The utility of music and dance in human life is universally admitted. These arts, when cultivated, help the development of personality to the fullest extent. Music and dance evoke the finer feelings in us. They afford unspeakable joy to not only the performers but also to the listeners. The influence of music even on lower animals is marked. We see how even the fickle fawn is enraptured by songs, and falls an easy prey to the hunter. It is a common experience that the most veno. mous and menacing serpent is charmed by playing on flutes. Of human beings, not only the grown-ups but also children can be pacified by songs and lulled into sleep.
The usefulness of songs for the fulfilment of spiritual aspirations was recognised in hoary antiquity. The Rgveda, the earliest literary work of not only the Indians but also of Indo-Europeans inhabiting a vast area of the globe, is full of invocations and prayers to gods. These prayers have to be uttered with three accents, viz. Udātta, Anudātta and Svarita; all these accents are musical. The eighth book (mandala) of this ancient work is called pragātha (full of songs). The sacrificial rites, closely associated with the life of the Vedic Indians, were accompanied by songs without which these were believed to be incomplete. These songs constitute the SamaVeda. In the Gitā (X.22), the Lord says-vedānām sāmavedo'smi (of the Vedas, I am the Sāmaveda). According to the ancient Greeks, as a result of the movement of the heavenly bodies, there arises the Music of the Spheres; by realising this one's mind is attracted to the Divine Being, It seems as if the entire universe is praying to Almighty with charming notes. F-1

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Introduction
In many temples of India, we find Devadasis or girls dedicated to the worship of deities by dance and music. Even to-day countless devotees try to please God by Sanskrit hymns set to tunes. Jayadeva, the great Vaisnava devotee, has named his book Gitagovinda (the work in which Govinda is prayed to through songs). The Tantric Sahajiya cult has found passionate and profound expression in the songs of the Bengal Bauls. Caitanya not only unleashed a flood of emotion among the masses by means of Kirtana songs; but the Vaisnava devotees used to believe that Kirtana was a means of pleasing God. The saints of Dasanami sect, too, used to practise devotional songs. Ramaprasada, the noted devotee of Goddess Kāli, is known to have reached his spiritual goal through songs. In fact, the uncommon characteristics of his songs and their melody cause ecstatic delight to those who have even a grain of devotional fervour. Vivekananda's spiritual songs charmed even his master, Rāmakṛṣṇa. A large number of spiritual songs of Tagore testifies to the spiritual aspect of his multi-faceted personality. The 'cruel compassionate one' (nithura daradi) of Atulaprasāda, the immortal lawyer-singer of Bengal, seems to be felt by us in the ups and downs of our lives. It is interesting to note that, according to the Yajnavalkya-smṛti (Prāyaścitta—115), the knowledge of luteplaying, Śruti, Jāti and Tāla is easily conducive to salvation.
Love is one of the primal intincts of human beings. In many cases, music has not only engendered love, but also fostered it. Instances are not rare of uncouth girls having earned the love of young men simply by means of the gift of a pleasant voice. The full-throated song of the loving wife has, in many cases, enthralled her unruly husband addicted to alcoholic drink and even to other women.
Like Sanskrit Kavya, music has also superhuman rasa. We are naturally averse to such things as cause pain to our hearts. But, we love such literary compositions as depict a tragic picture; the tragic elements in literature, instead of rousing repugnance, add to its relish. Similarly, as the poet says, our

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Introduction
sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts. In fact, pain is an essential element of life. The Sāņkhya philosophy starts with the avowed object of rooting out the threefold pain—that caused by divine forces, that produced by worldly beings and that generated within ourselves-to which human beings are subjected as soon as they are born. Of the Four Noble Truths, declared by the Buddha, the first is Duhkha (pain). The wise penetrate the veil of pleasure that envelops the worldly objects; while the naive human beings are duped by the momentary pleasures of life, Those, who know the truth, aim at permanent bliss after overcoming the causes of pain. One of the strings of our psyche-lute is set to the tune of sorrow. That is why, after hearing a melancholy song or a pensive tune played on an instrument, we feel joy as it seems to be permeated with our most familiar sentiment. According to Bhavabhūti, a great Sanskrit dramatist, the one basic sentiment in us is the pathetic; it manifests itself as diverse sentiments evoked by special circumstances.
The question may arise-what is the use of knowing the musical lore of the past in this age when current musical modes have developed to a great extent and are still developing ? Our answer is this. The knowledge of an individual cannot be complete without a knowledge of his pedigree and antecedents. Similarly, the true nature of current Indian music, of which there are two broad divisions as Northern and Southern, cannot be realised without a knowledge of its precursors. It is necessary to examine how far the present musical systems have borrowed from the Śāstra and to what extent these have assimilated later elements. Apart from the usefulness of Samgita-śāstra from the historical point of view, it has other uses too. If we delve deep into the Šāstra, we shall be in a position to know how much of Indian music is indigenous and how much has been borrowed from non-Aryans and foreigners. Again, researches into the ancient lore will enable us to see if it is possible to improve the current music, Moreover, the knowledge of the Sāstra will enlighten us about

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Introduction
our rich heritage in the domain of fine arts. A comparative study of the Sastra and the history of music abroad will reveal to what extent India has influenced other countries, particularly her eastern and Far Eastern neighbours.
'Marga' is a term used now-a-days to denote classical music. For those who want to have a sound knowledge of ' 'märga. samgita', a knowledge of the Samgita-sastra is indispensable.
Indian dance has of late been very popular abroad. It is serving as a cultural link between India and foreign countries. The Sanskrit works on dance will acquaint those, who are interested in it, with the rich storehouse of knowledge enshrined in them.
Those who are interested in instrumental music will profit by a study of the Sastra. It will teach them not only the art of playing the instruments but also the scientific ways of making various instruments. They will also learn how many types of a single instrument can be made with precision.
Meaning of Samgita
The word has been derived from the root gai preceded by
sam
Gai means to sing. So, the derivative meaning of samgita is song. But, it is generally used to indicate the three fine arts called Gita (son), Vadya (instrumental music) and Nṛtta (dance). From the linguistic point of view, there has been an expansion of meaning of the word samgita. But, at present there has been a contraction of meaning. Now-a-days, samgita is commonly used to denote vocal music only. When compounded with the word yantra, as the second member of the compound it means instrumental music.
In the Samgita-damodara, gita denotes vocal and instrumental music. In this work, the term samgitaka stands for song accampanied by tāla and vadya.
Origin and Development of Indian Music
The origin of samgita is shrouded in a veil of obscurity. Among the ruins of Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000-2500 B.C.)

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Introduction
there are the flute with seven holes, mặdanga, Vīņā, Karatāla and the dancing figures of men and women. The earliest form of Indian songs is contained in the Sāmaveda. The pragātha portion of the Rgveda, full of songs, has been referred to earlier. The date of origin of the Vedic Samhita is unknown. According to the orthodox Sanskrit scholars, the Veda was revealed by the Divine Being. They think that the Vedic seer saw the Vedic mantras, but did not compose them. Among the modern scholars, the dates of the Vedic Samhitas are like nine pins set up to be bowled down again. Of them, some push the date as far back as six thousand B.C., while according to others the Veda originated in the period between 2000 and 15000 B.C. Whatever the exact time of their compo. sition, the fact remains that the Veda is the earliest literary work of the Indo-Europeans. In the Rgveda, there are accents called Udātta, Anudātta and Syarita. These are pitch accents. There is also a kampasvara arising out of the friction of two accents. The heptatonic system originated in the remote Vedic age. In the Rgveda there is mention of tānas and of the musical instruments called Nādi, Gargara, Vāņa, Viņā, etc. Some songs of the Sāmaveda are called aranyageya, while others are styled grāmageya. The latter was, perhaps, the harbinger of the Indian songs of later ages. In the Brāhmaṇas, Āranyakas, Upanişads and in some Vedārgas, there are evidences of close familiarity of the Aryans with samgita. In the Nāradiya Śikṣā, which probably dates back to pre-Buddhistic times, there is mention of the seven svaras, three gramas, twenty-one mūrchanās and forty-nine tānas. Elements of music are present in the Ya iñavalk ya-śik sā, Pāṇiniya Śikṣā and Māņdūkı Sikşā. Svaras etc. are alse mentioned in the Puspasūtra. There are countless references to vocal and instrumental music as well as dance in the Rāmāyaṇa ( present form c. 2nd-3rd century AD.), the Mahābhārata (present form c. 4th century A.D.) as well as the Purāņas. According to modern scholars, the original epic sources were the songs sung at various places by the travelling singers called Kuśilavas. Tne legendary Lava and

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Introduction.
Kusa are said to have pleased Rāma with marga-samgita. Of the Puranas, the Markandeya and the Vayu, which were probably composed or compiled in the period between the 3rd and 5th century A.D., contain information on music to a greater extent than the others. In the former, we find mention of seven svaras, grāma, rāga, mūrchana, tāna, laya etc. Besides, it mentions also the instruments called Venu, Vina, Paṇava, Mrdanga, Pataha, Dundubhi, Sankha, etc. It testifies to the vogue of dance too. Chapter twenty three of this Purana contains these matters, but not the essential principles behind them. The Vayu (Chapters 86-87) refers to seven svaras, three gramas (twenty-one mūrchanās and forty-nine tanas). In it, there is discussion also on the mutual relations of grama and murchanā, the significance of the names of murchanas etc. Besides these, it reveals its familiarily with gitālamkara, varṇa, sthana, tala, etc. Certain rägas are mentioned in the Kalikapuraṇa. Information about dance and song is present in the third section of the Visnudharmottara.
In some Tantras, certain facts about samgita are found. Of such works, the most noteworthy is the Vinatantra included in the Yamalatantra.
Dance and music are among the sixty-four kalās dealt with in the Kamsutra of Vätsyäyana (not earlier than the 4th century B.C. and later than 5th century A.D.).
In ancient Indian literature, prose, poetical and dramatic, there are numerous references to samgita and, in many cases, various instruments and the contents of songs have been referred to. For example, we may mention the Svapnavāsavadatta ascribed to Bhasa. The raga-parivahini giti (song with melody overflowing) of Hamsapadika in the Sakuntala is wellknown. In the prologue to this play, the spectators are said to have been so much enraptured by the sweet melody of the song that they were sitting like so many motionless pictures. The Stage-Manager is said to have been carried away by the melody. In the Meghadūta, samgita and the instruments Muraja, Vina etc. have been mentioned. In one verse of this kavya,

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Introduction
the close relation between dance and instrumental music has been expressed in a very charming manner. The prose romance of Bānabhatta, the drama Mrcchakațika of Sūdraka, the fable Pañcatantra etc. bear eloquent testimony to the wide prevalence of music in the then society of India.
In many Buddhist works, too, various information about dance and music, both vocaland instrumental, is found. The very names of certain Jātakes point to their authors' familiarity with music and dance; e.g. Nrtya-jātaka, Bherīvādaka-jātaka, Viņāsthuna- jātaka. The information in the Matsya-jātaka and Guptila-jātaka is clearer and comparatively more elaborate. The Jātaka stories probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd century after birth of Christ; it is difficult to ascertain precisely when they assumed the forms of books. In the Lalitavistara, which perhaps dates back to the second century A.D., we find the words gathā, gāna, urtya and the instruments Bheri, Mranga, Viņā, Venu, Vallaki etc. In the Larkāvatāra-sūtra (c. Ist century A.D.), there is mention of Viņā, the playing of lute with the bow (koņa), the seven notes, grāma, mūrchanā etc. Various kinds of information are available in the works Milindapañha, Sumangalavilā sini, etc.; there is evidence of the use of samgita in the Buddhist festivals. In a piece of Gāndhāra art, dating back to the second century A.D., and a cave painting of Ajantă of 6th century bear out that Gautama used to practise music regularly. We are told that, at a certain ancient educational centre; at least 500 śramaņas and other students used to learn music. In the three universities of Nālandā, Vikramaśīla and Odantapurī, there were separate departments for teaching the Gāndharvavidyā or sangita.
Although samgita had been undoubtedly in vogue in Iadia from very remote ages, this discipline appears to have been systematised, for the first time, in the monumental Nātya-śāstra ascribed to Bharata.
Purandara Dāsa of the 15th century was a resident in the land between the North and the South India. Having

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Introduction
acquired profound knowledge of the music of both these regions, he attempted a synthesis of the two regional systems. But, in course of time, the poinis of difference between the two became marked. In the 17th century, one Verkațamukhi revolutionised South Indian music by introducing seventy-two scales. Though, in the matter of Suddha-mela Verkata's views widely differ from those of Somanātha, Pundarīka and Rāmāmātya, yet Verkața became very popular in South India. Considerable changes were introduced into South Indian music through the compelling songs of Tyāgaraja, Shyāma Šāstri, Svatitirunel.
In the 19th century, particularly after the advent of Muhammad Reja of Patna and Mahārā jā Pratāp Singh of Jaipura, North Indian music assumed a new garb. Their works are entitled respectively Nagmat-e-Asafi and Radha. govinda-samgitasara. During the reign of Akbar and Jahangir, music of this type spread far and wide. Besides Amir Khasru and Tānsen, Gopāl Nāyek, Baiju Bāora, King Mana of Gwalior and Haridās Goswāmi were massive pillars to the mighty edifice of this kind of music.
In Northern India, besides Delhi, Gwalior, Bundi, Jaun. pur, Agra, Mathurã and Vrindāvan were noteworthy centres for the cultivation of Mārga-samgita. In greater Bengal, too, the cultivation of this music was wide and deep. In this province, samgita reached a high degree of development due to the rise of scholar-musicians and musician-saints. The role of samgita in the literature and culture of this province deserves special mention. The Caryā padas, which probably originated round about 1000 A.D. bear eloquent testimony to the fondness of music on the part of the Bengalis as well as to their spiritual aspiration through music. Another such work is the Krsnakirtana ascribed to Candidāsa. Jayadeva, the glory of Bengal, the padmā vati-caraṇa-cāraņa-cakravarti, composed his immortal Gita-govinda with a mind saturated with the Vaisnava devotional sentiment. The very names of the rāga Gauda and Vargāla bear witness to the considerable development of

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music in this region and also the genius of Bengal in the realm of music. Elements of the music of this province reached the far -off places in Central Asia called Kashgar, Kuchi, Khotan etc. through travellers, Buddhist priests and merchants. The music of such non-Aryan races as Sabaras, Pulindas, Kambo. jas, Vangas, Kirātas and Drāvidas etc. infiltrated into the musical lore of the Aryans. The music of these tribes and races has been included under Deśī (local or regional) which is used in contradistinction to Mārga. But, curiously enough, the rāgas Pulindikā, Śabarī etc. have found a place in the exalted mārga samgitā. From this, it is evident that the con. tribution of non-Aryans to the evolution of Indian music is by no means negligible. Like the vocabulary of India the musical literature of this country was also developed by borrowings from the non-Aryans. Works and authors :
That a large number of works on music and dance were composed in India is attested by the mention of earlier writers on these subjects found in the extant works. Sărrigadeva alone has mentioned (Svaragatādhyāya, verses 15-21, of Samgitu-ratnākaru ) more than 20 predecessors. The number of extant works also is not negligible. Of these, comparatively a small numer of works has been published. Of the published works, the following are noteworthy :
1. Nātya-śāstra-ascribed to sage Bharata. According to some, chapters 28–33 of this work, dealing with music, were composed by Kohala.
The date of its composition is highly controversial. It has been variously assigned by different scholars to different periods from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. Among its commentaries, Adhinavabhārati is the most wellknown and very widely read.
2. Dattilam-ascribed to Dattilācārya.
It has generally followed Bharata. The seven svaras have been mentioned by him no doubt; but, in his opinion, F-2

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Introduction
grāmas are two-sadja and madhyama. He has recognised 84 tānas. Jātirāgas (Suddha, Viksta) are 18. In this work, tāla has also been discussed.
3. Brhaddeśı-of Matarga, composed sometime between 5th and the 7th century A.D According to some, it arose sometime after the 9th century. It generally follows the Natyaśāstra. The extant work seems to be incomplete, because, in spite of the promise of a section on vādya in the concluding verse, there is no such section in it. Though admitting 22 śrutis, Matanga says that, as a matter of fact, the basic śruti is only one and the others are only its pratibhāsa or manifestation.
4. Samgita-makaranda--ascribed to Nārada who is sup. posed to have flourished in the 11 century. Many scholars think that this Nārada is different from the author of the Nāradiya Śikṣā.
5. Samgita-ratnākara-of Śārrgadeva. Date 13th century A.D. The author appears to have been the Chief Accountant of king Singhana of Deccan.
Barring the Natya-śāstra, this is the only work in which dance, vocal and instrumental music have been dealt with in considerable detail. It is regarded as a very authoritative work.
It has been commented upon by Mallinātha, Simghabhūpāla, Keśava, Hamsabhūpāla and Kumbhakarna. The commentary of Mallinātha is the most popular.
6. Samgita-samayasārı-of Pārsvadeva. Date probably 13th century A.D.
7. Samgita-dāmodara-of śubharkara. Supposed, not on conclusive evidence, to have been a Bengali author of the 15th century A.D. It contains discussions on vocal and instru. mental music, dance and drama.
8. Svaramela-kalānidhi- of Rāmāmātya who was a minister of king Rāma of Vijaynagar and descendant of Kallinātha referred to above. Date 16th century AD.

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11
9. Ragavibodha--of Somanātha of the 17th century A.D. The author was probably a native of Andhra. The author seems to have been actuated to compose this work by a desire to bring about the harmony of the science of music with its practice.
10. Samgita-dar panahof Damodara also called Catura Dāmodara. The author was the son of Lakşmīdhara and a musician in the court of Jahangir (or Shahjehan, according to some). Date 17th century.
11. Rāgatarargini-of Locana Pandita of the 17th century. 12. Samgitasudhā-of Govinda Dikșita of the 17th century.
13. Hrdayakautuka and Hydayaprakāśa-of Hşdayanārāyanadeva of the 17th century.
14. Samgitapārijāta-of Ahobala of the 17th century.
It was translated into Persian in the 18th century. Among the published works, it has the closest relation with the current Indian music.
15. Rāganirū paņamor Catvārimsacchatarāga-nirūpaņa-ascribed to Nārada. It is a compilation which appears to have been made by a comparatively late and unknown author.
16. Sumgitasārasamgraha--of the Bengali Ghanaśyāmadāsa or Narahari Cakravartī. Date Saka 1725 (=1803 A.D.) which is written at the end; it may be the date either of the original work or of the copy.
The Abhilasitārtha-cintāmaņi or Mānasollāsa-ascribed to the Cälukya king Someśvara, and composed in Saka era 1051 (1129 A.D.); it contains a large number of verses on vocal music and instruments.
Characteristics of Indian Music :
There is a tendency among certain scholars to point out Western influence on whatever is ancient and great in India. Some of them hold that Indian drama is, to a great extent, influenced by the Greeks. Attempts have been made to trace Western influence on Indian Astronomy. But, some Western

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Introduction
scholars themselves' have asserted that the great art of Indian music is absolutely free from Western inspiration.
We have shown, in an appendix, the basic differences between Indian and Western music. Some scholars are inclined to think that Indian music has some similarity with the music of Arabia and Persia'. There are, no doubt, some parallelisms between Indian music and that of the above two countries. But, no definite case of borrowing can be established.
Muslim influence on North Indian music is but natural. Attracted by the natural resources and the fabulous treasure of India, the Muslims carried on their predatory activities in this part of India in different periods starting from the 8th century A.D. At last, in the 12th and 13th centuries, they appeared as regional rulers in various parts of India. In course of time, they attempted to extend their imperial sway throughout this vast countary. Amir Khasru, Court poet of Sultan Alauddin, has stated, in his Persian work, that Indian music is superior to that of all other countries; by it not only human beings, but also beasts are charmed. Through the intervention of the Sultan, Khasru effected notable changes by an admixture of the elements of Persian music.
The connoisseur-kings of the Khilji dynasty introduced certain new rāgas of which the most noteworthy are saka, Turuşka-gauda and Turuşka-todi; these are mentioned in the medievel works on music. Besides Amir Khasru, Tānsen and Vilāskhān deserve honourable mention among those who acquired a high degree of proficiency in music, and made significant contribution to the evolution of Indian music under the patronge of the Muslim rulers.
In the domain of instrumenal music, the Occident is indebted to the Indian viņā, at least for the Violin and the Flute; this is admitted by an occidental scholar? himself
1 For example, G. T. Garratt, The Legacy of India, p. 325. 2. Ibid, p. 326.

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Introduction
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From the foregoing account of Indian music it is clear that the stream of music has been flowing over the soil of India from time immemorial. In Sanskrit literature, the succulent current of music has been flowing ever since the remote Vedic Age. As a river with a strong current floods the lands through which it flows and fertilises them with alluvial soil, so the mighty current of Indian music has been rushing forth with irresistable force. In its course, it has been flowing through the Vedic, Epic and Classical ages, being enriched by the influence of the religious life of the Aryan seers, the joy. ous atmosphere of the courts of Hindu rulers and the pomp and splendour of the courts of Muslim Badshahs. Ultimately it merged into the sea of vast humanity.
It is our bounden duty to preserve the true character of Indian music. Human beings sometime lose their own indivi. dual characteristics in the vortex and welter of life, and move about in the society as non-descript being far away from the upper strata of the society. We should take all possible care to see that Indian music, carrying a vast and valuable heritage, is not reduced to such a condition.
In order to preserve the true nature of Indian music, we should first of all know what its distinguishing feature is. Its chief distinctive quality is its spiritualism. Our country is a land of spiritual values, a seat of meditation for the attainment of the goal which is far beyond gross materialism. It was through Samgita that the Vedic seer, awe-struck at the unspeakable beauty and vastness of nature, expressed his feelings towards gods and goddesses. The wide use of dance, vocal and instrumental music in connection with the worship of divine beings is attested by the epics and Purānas. The flute of Kệsna, the Viņā of Sarasvati etc. symbolise the fact that Samgita is the best means of pleasing gods. In such statements as gānāt parataram nahi we find hints at the soulstirring power of songs as well as their utility in making men move along the spiritual path. The time has come when we should see that Indian music, which was born in the

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Introduction
sublime and religious environment, nursed in the holy shrines and also in the respectable royal courts, does not lose its own excellence under the impact of foreign music and in the association of vile claptrap and light music which sometimes attract people. It was due to the abuse of samgita that it was condemned as a vice in such scriptures as the Manu-samhitā; the sacredness of samgita has nowhere been denounced. The cultivation of music, in any of its aspects, did not originate as a means of diversion of a few rich people with a hedonistic outlook on life. We must bear in mind that real knowledge of music is to be acquired through sādhanā (devotion); it is a science io be mastered in a disciplined manner.
Another marked characteristic of Indian music is its close relation with universal nature. As stated above, the Vedic songs spontaneously emanated from the hearts of Vedic seers, charmed with the form and mighty magnitude of Nature. So samgita was born in the cradle of nature. The heptatonic system, on which songs are based, is also derived from the creatures of nature. We find, in the musical lore, special melodies suitable to particular periods of time like morning and evening and particular seasons like Summer, Spring etc, The people, who took music as a way of reaching the spiritual goal, used to believe that Megharā ga and Dipaka rāga could cause rainfall and conflagration respectively. It seems as though the music, that is constantly floating in the air on all sides of us. entered through the ears of the musiciandevotees and touched their inner soul.
Thanks to scientific development, the countries of the globe have come nearer to one another. One of the evil effects of this phenomenon is that, due to the impart of the culture and civilization of different lands, our minds are being distracted from our own heritage and we are fast allowing our long cherished values to sink into the morass of oblivion. The glitter and glamour of the foreign elements are apt to dazzle the eyes of young uncritical people. Most of us are unaware of the precious gems that lie hidden in the mine of Sanskrit

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literature. The old order of kings and emperors, who used to extend their fostering patronage to Indian music and musicians through centuries, is defunct. These rich people are themselves faced with the struggle for existence; they have no longer the capacity for cultivating or patronising music even though they have a strong desire to do so. I do not mean that we shall be complacent like the proverbial frog in the well by shutting the door to the wind of diverse cultures blowing from different directions; obscurantism is not our philosophy. What I mean to say is that we shall allow the wind of foreign cultures to blow into our houses; but we shall not allow ourselves to be swept off our feet.
In modern times Pandit Bhatkhande and Ustad Muhammad Nawab Ali Khan occupy an exalted position among those who have tried to analyse the characteristics of Indian music. It will not do if we take to music merely as a profession or a means of livelihood. It is necessary to delve deep into its philosophy. For this are necessary regular practice and dedication. A tendency among some modern students of music is rather disappointing. Some of them, even without the necessary training, desire to be experts within a very short time and aspire to be regarded as artists. This approach and this attitude have caused a deterioration of standards. One should remember that no siddhi (success) is possible without sādhanā ( devoted practice ). Different, however, is the case with those whose sole aim is cheap popularity or acquisition of money.
Countless treatises on Indian music still lie buried in manuscripts, and face extinction; many have already fallen victims to the ravages of time. We can place our cultural characteristics in this realm on the deserving pedastal if we can rescue these treasures from oblivion and put them into the light of day.
So far we have written about Indian music and not Hindu music. In fact, Hindu music is a misnomer. The music that

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Introduction
was evolved in India through vicissitudes of centuries cannot be designated as Hindu in the true sense of the term. As Muslim influence is natural in the music of Northern India, so also the influence of Drāvida music is probable on that of South India. The music of India is Indian music; it cannot be designated as Hindu, Muslim or Drāvida. As a matter of fact, this music is composite. In this connection, it is also to be remembered that, as pointed out above, the influence of non-Aryans on Indian music is also not negligible.

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General remarks
In the Sanskrit works on music, song has been highly extolled. It may be noted that, in the Vedic times, song constituted an essential element of the sacrificial rites used to be performed for propitiating gods. Indeed, the Sāmaveda, one of the four Vedic Samhitās including the Atharvaveda, is a collection of songs. Of the gods, Śiva is particularly stated to be delighted with songs. Brahmā has been described as engaged in singing songs. Songs enrapture the soul, and enthrals the beings. Even a little child, utterly inexperienced in the pleasures of the senses, while weeping, is appeased with songs, the music of the lullaby lulls even a very restive child to sleep. What to speak of human beings ? Even lower animals are enchanted by songs. For example, the restless deer, attracted by the charming melody of songs, becomes motionless and falls a victim to the hunter.
Of song, instrumental music and dance, the three constituents of Samgita, song has been accorded the highest place. Sārņgadeva says ( I. i. 24 ) dance follows instrumental music which, in its turn, follows songs : Gita-its definition, characteristics and types
A group of Svaras 1 (notes), which caused delight to the mind, is called gita. It is twofold according as it is gāndharva and gāna. Gāndharva is that whose tradition has 1 To be defined below.

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been eternal,” which is employed by Gandharvas, is regulated by the rules relating to graha, amśa, mārchanā, etc. and is conducive to welfare. That which is composed by a vāggeya. kāras, possessed of various characteristics and is described in connection with deći rāga etc., is gāna, delightful to people.
Songs are twofold from another point of view, viz. mārgaand desī. The former is that which was sought by gods like Brahmā, and was used by Bharata and the like before Śiva and is always conducive to welfare. That is desi which caters to the taste of the people of particular regions.
Songs are again of two kinds according as these are, or are not, set in words. Those, which consist of dhātu and other accessories, are called nibaddha (set). Those which are not so are an ibaddha (unset). Nibaddha song has three designations viz. prabandha, vastu are rūpaka. A part of prabandha is call. ed dhātu. It is fourfold-Udgrāha, melā paka, dhruva and ābhoga; these are the four constituents of the nibaddha song in order. Of these, melāpaka and ābhoga do not exist in certain cases. Wind, bile and phlegm, supporting our body, are called dhātu. Similarly, udgrāha etc. support the body of the prabandha, and, as such, are called dhātu. Dhruva is so called as it is constant in all prabandhas. Between dhruva and ābhoga occurs another dhātu which is called antara or antarā.
Prabhandhas are threefold--two-dhātu (i.e. devoid of mela paka and ābhoga), three-dhātu ( devoid of melā paka) and four-dhātu (i.e. having all parts ).
Again, prabandhas are either aniryukta or niryukta; the former is devoid of the restrictions relating to chandas (rhythm) and tāla. The latter is regulated by such restrictions.
The number of different kinds of prabandha is quite considerable,
1 That is, revealed, not composed by human beings (Kallinātha.). 2 A class of demi-gods regadrded as the the singers or musicians of
gods and said to give good and agreeable voice to girls. 3 One who composes poems and songs. 4 Derived from the root m;g (to seek).

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Merits and defects of gita. The merits of gīta are tenfold, viz., (i) Vyakta -- clearly pronounced. (ii) Pūrņa--possessed of full gamaka.1 (iii) Prasanna-clearly and easily intelligible. (iv) Sukumāra--possessed of svaras arising from the throat. (v) Alamkặta-embellished in the three places mandra,
madh ya and tāra, a (vi) Sama- of even varna(letter), laya and sthāna.3 (vii) Surakta—having harmony of the sounds produced by
the flute and throat. (viii) Ślaksna—of equal smoothness in high and low
pitches, in swift and middling layas. (ix) Vikrsta-having loud pronunciation. (x) Madhura-possessed of very graceful and charming sound. The blemishes of gita are also ten, viz., (i) Lokadusļa--condemned by people. (ii) Sāstradusța-blamed in Šāstras or treatises on music. (iii) Śrutivirodhiếopposed to Śruti. (iv) Kālavirodhi-sung at the improper time. (v) Punarukta-repeated. (vi) Kalābāhya-inartistic. (vii) Gatakrama-devoid of order. (viii) Apārthaka-devoid of sense. (ix) Grāmya-vulgar.
(x) Sandigdha-doubtful. Nāda, Śruti, Svara, Sāraņa
The term 'nāda' consists of the two consonants, na and da, with the intervening vowel ā; 'na' stands for prāņa (vital breath) and 'da' for anala (fire). So, nāda, denoting sound produced within the human body, is generated by the combination of the vital breath and fire. The process of its 1 To be defined later on. 2 The terms to be defined afterwards. 3 Do

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genesis is as follows. The soul, desiring to utter speech, activates the mind. The mind strikes the fire within the body. That fire sets the wind in motion Then, the wind, resting in the brahmagranthi,1 gradually moves upward generating sound in the navel, heart, throat, head, and it emanates through the mouth. In songs, nada is three-fold, viz. mandra (low) in the heart, madhya (medium) in the throat and tāra (loud) in the head; each successive sound is double of the preceding one. This nada is supposed to be heard (śruta) in twenty-two forms in the above three places; from 'śruta' it is called śrurti. In the heart, twenty-two arteries are supposed to be joined with the upwared artery. These are said to be in a curved manner. As the wind strikes them, twentytwo śrutis are produced; these have a gradually higher pitch.
To clarify the conception of śrut Šārrigadeva mentions (Svaragatadhyāya-11-22.) two vinas (lutes); one of them is dhruva (fixed) and the other cala (adjustable). In the latter, the strings will have to be shifted. Both of them should be exactly similar so that the nada, arising from them, becomes uniform. Each of them will have twenty-two strings. Of these strings, the first one will be set in the lowest key, and the second in a slightly higher key. The two sounds, produced in them, having no other sound in between, will be continuous or uninterrupted. Thus, the sound in each of the succeeding string will be higher than that in the preceding one. The sounds, produced in these strings, are called śruti. In the two lutes, the notes (svara) will have to be placed. Of these, sadja, consisting of four śrutis, is to be placed on the fourth string. Then, on the third string from the fifth one, rṣabha, having three śrtuis, should be placed. On the second string from the eighth will be placed gandhara having two śrutis. Next, madhyama, with four śrutis, is to be placed on the fourth string from the tenth. Then, pañcama, having four śrutis, will be placed on the fourth from the fourteenth. After that, dhaivata of three śrutis should be on the third from the
1 Name of a joint in the body.

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eighteenth. Lastly, nişāda of two śrutis should be placed on the second from the twenty-first.
In the calaviņā, the seven notes are to be brought to three strings which, in the dhruvaviņā, are situated immediately before their own places. Then, in comparison with the dhruvaviņā, the svaras in the calaviņā will be one śruti lower. By a combination of two śrutis, GA and NI of calaviņā enters RI and DHA respectively in dhruvaviņā. RI and DHA of the former enter into SA and PA of the latter. SA, MA, PA of the former enter into NI, GA, MA respectively of the latter. When the śrutis of the calavīņā are combined with those of the dhruvavīņā; their number can be clearly ascertained. There should not be further lowering of the śrutis as that would detract from their charm We have noticed above that the svaras have been lowered. This lowering (or, rending higher) of svara is technically called sāraņā 1 It is noteworthy that, in the above cases, four sāraṇās only have been recommended; this is because the constituent śrutis of a svara has the maximum number of four. It may be noted that the Śrutis are equal to one another.
That which arises immediately after śruti, is charming, has resonance, and itself causes delight to the mind of the listener is called svara. The Śrutis give rise to the seven svaras called Şadja Rşabha, Gāndhāra, Madhyama, Pañcama, Dhaivata and Nişāda represented respectively by SA, RI, GA, MA, PA, DHA and NI. The seven svaras in order have been taken respectively from the peacock, Cātaka bird, goat, Krauñca bird, cuckoo, frog and elephant.
Śrutis are said to be of five classes (jāti), viz. Diptā (brilliant), Ayatā (wide), Karuņā (pathetic), Mędu (soft) and madhyā (medium). These exist in svaras in the following manner. Sadja contains all the above classes excepting Karuņā. Rsabha has three excluding dipta and āyatā. Gāndhāra contains 1 Another meaning of Saranā has been laid down in connection with
instrumental music

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diptā and āyatā. Madhyama has mrdu and madhyā. Pañcama has all but diptā, Karuņā, āyatā, and madhyā are contained in Dhaivala. Nisāda has only diptâ and madhyā. Each of the Śruti- jātis has sub-divisions.
Svaras are two-fold--suddha (pure) and vikrta (modified) The seven, starting with sadja, are śuddha. When a svara leaves its own place or the śrutis specified for it, and assumes another place or contains other śrutis, it becomes viksta. For example, when Rsabha assumes the four śrutis of sadja, it is regarded as viksta The total number of vikặta svaras is twelve.
From the point of view of their position in a song, svaras are divied into four kinds, viz. vādi, samvādi, vivādi and anuvādi. That is called vādī which is largely pronounced in the application of jātirāgas etc. Two svaras, with eight or twevle śrutis, intervening between them, are said to be samvādi of one another. NI and Ga are vivādi ( discordant) to other svaras. The svara which follows vādi svara is called anuvādi. The svaras, excepting samvādi and vivādi, are designated as anuvādi. Vādi samvādi, vivādi and anuvādi are characterised respectively as king, minister, enemy and servant.
From the standpoint of pitch, Svaras are divided into three kinds, viz. mandra (low), madhya (medium) and tāra (loud). Amśa, Graha, Nyāsa
Svaras are divided also as Amśa, Graha and Nyāsa. That svara which manifests the charm of a song, which, being used as Graha, Nyasa etc, is found in a large measure in a song, is called amśa. Its chief characteristics are largeness of measure in use, coupled with pervasion in a rāga.
The svara, which is at the beginning of a song, is called graha. In other words, the svara, with which a song commences, is known as graha. Graha may begin a raga or its ālāpa, Generally, amśa becomes graha. Sometimes, sadja too, becomes graha.

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Nyāsa is the designation of the svara in which a Rāga culminates. In other words, it is the svara in which a rāga, being completed, rests or stops. In most cases, amśa svara or its samvā di svara becomes nyāsa. Varna, Alamkāra
The action of singing is called varņa. It is fourfold-sthāyi (constant), īrohi (ascending), avarohi (descending) and samcāri (promiscuous). The intermittent singing of the same svara is sthāyi; e.g. SA SA SA. Arohi takes place when the svaras are in an ascending order; e.g. SA RA GA. The reverse is Avarohi or descending; e.g. GA RA SA. In samcāri, there is promiscuity among the svaras whose regular order or its exact reverse is violated, e.g. SA GA RA.
A particular combination or mode of arrangement of varņas is called alamkāra. The purpose of alamkāras, which have a very large variety, is to convey knowledge about the precise nature and charm of svaras as well as to diversify the varna-combinations. Some of these alamkāras are prasannādi, prasannānta, prasannādyanta and prasannamadhya; all of these belong to sthāyi varņa. Prasanna is the name of mandra which has already been explained. Examples, Prasannādi :
SA SA SA Here the first two are mandra and the last one tāra indicated by the stroke above it. Prasannānta :
SA SA SA The first one is tāra followed by two mandras, Prasannādyanta :
SA SÅ SA The first and the last are mandra and the middle one tāra. Prasannamadhya:
SA SA SA Here the first and the last are tāra and the one intervening between them is mandra.

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Sthāya
A part of a rāga is called sthāya. According to śārnigadeva, the total number of sthāyas is 96. Of these, 10 relate to voice, instrumental sound etc; these are clearly distinguished, and are not mixed. In accordance with qualities, sthāyas are of 33 kinds. There are 20 sthāyas, having separate individual characteristics. There are 33 mixed sthāyas possessed of different qualities; these are relatively little known. (10 + 33 + 20 + 33 = 96). In fact, mixed sthāyas are endless. Gamaka, Vāga
The trembling of a svara is called gamaka; it is said to be pleasing to the mind of the listener. Śārrigadeva mentions (Prakirna 87-97) fifteen varieties of gamaka in accordance with the extent and speed of tremor, Gamaka is also called väga which, according to the commentator, belongs to the local dialect. Ālapti or Alāpa
Alapti or Alāpa denotes the action by which a rīga becomes manifest. The commentator Simhabhūpāla explains that ālāpa denotes that group of svaras which clearly manifests a rāga; this manifestation means the spreading out of a rāga, This is rāgālapti, and is used in anibaddha songs.
Another kind of ālāpa is rūpakalapti. In it, the rāga of a nibaddha song is manifested. Rūpaka is a variety of Nibaddhagana, as stated earlier. Grāma, Mūrchanã
A group of letters, which is the resort of mūrchanā, krama, tāna, varņa, alamkāral etc., is called grāma.
Grāmas are three, viz. Şadja, Gindhāra and Madhyama. of these, Gandhāra is said to be current in heaven only. şadja grāma arises when pañcama resides in its own fourth śruti. If it resides immediately before its own final śruti, we have madhyama grāma. 1 of these, the last two have been explained earlier. The other two will
be defined below.

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454
कोवा । गाधीनगर, पि ३८२०००
The ascent and descent of the seven svaras in order are called murchana. The number of murchanas in each of the two terrestrial gramas, mentioned above, is seven.
Each murchana is of seven kinds due to its commencing from the svaras beginning with the first etc. In them, after singing the final svaras, the earlier svaras are to be sung in order (krama). These murchanas are called krama. Their total number is 392.
25
Tāna :
Tana, derived from root tan-to spread out, is so called as is spreads out a raga. Tanas are twofold, śuddha and kūta; the former arises when the svaras are uttered in the regular order. When uttered by violating the order, they give rise to the latter kind of tana.
Jāti:
Jati is the designation of songs with varṇa and alamkāra etc. Matarga, in his Bṛhaddeś, clearly defines jati. Acc. to him, jati is the name of the svaras which are manifested with śruti, graha, svara (alamkāra, varna) etc. From these svaras the relish of the charm of each of the svaras or rāgas is possible. Jatis are the sources of Gandharva and Desi rāgas.
Jatis are divided into śuddha (pure) and vikṛta (modified). Under the former are included the seven named after the svaras, e.g. Sadji, Arsabhi, etc. Those are known as śuddha which have their title svara as nyasa, apanyāsa', amsa, graha, which are devoid of tāra nyāsa and which are complete. When these characteristics, excluding nyasa, are lacking, we have vikṛta jati. The number of vikṛta jatis is about 139. The relation between jati and raga is one that subsists between the generator (janaka) and the generated (janya). Before the names of ragas came into vogue, jatis were prevalent.
4
1 It is the name of that svara in which a vidari is completed. Vidari means part of a nibaddha song.

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Rāga:
It is not known precisely when the word 'raga' came to be used for the first time to denote a musical mode. The Nāradiya Sikṣā (circa 1st century A.D.) mentions rāga in connexion with gramarāga, but does not explain the term. In his Natyasastra Bharata (circa 2nd. cent. A.D.) mentions rāga, jātirāga and grāmarāga, but does not define raga.
Raga denotes such a dhvani (sound), possessed of particular svaras and varnas, as causes delight to the mind of people.
Ragus appear to be broadly divided into two classes, viz. grāma-rāga and desi rāga which may be rendered as classical and regional respectively.
Grama rāgas1 are fivefold according as they are the resorts of five kinds of songs. The five classes of grāma-rāgas are: (1) Suddha-constituted by simple and charming svaras.
(2) Bhinna-consisting of uneven and swiftly uttered svarus. It has sweet gamakas.
(3) Gaudi-compact, having gamakas in the three places of mandra, madhya, tara and possessed of sweet svaras of ohati.3
(4) Vesara-it is vegasvarā, i.e., it consists of swift svaras, and is very charming in all the varnas named sthāyt etc.
(5) Sadharani-possessed of the characteristics of the above four kinds of songs.
The above types have respectively seven, five, three, eight and seven sub-divisions thus making a total of thirty grama-rāgas.
! A grama-rāga is so called as it arises from grama which has been defined as a group of svaras which are the resort of murchana etc.
2 The names are teminine as they qualify giti which is feminine.
3 A kind of song in singing which the chin is placed on the heart; which has kampita gamaka. is possessed of very swift svaras and the sounds HA and AU. When qualifying raga, these will be called suddha, bhinna, etc.

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Śārnigadeva mentions ( Rägaviveka-16-18) twenty rāgas which are as follows:
Śrīrāga, Natta, Vargāla (2) Bhāsa. Madhyama-sädava, Raktahamsa, Kolhahāsa, Prasava, Bhairava, Dhvani, Megharāga, Sumarāga, Kāmoda (2), Amrapañcama, Kandarpa, Desa, Kaišikakakubha. Nattanārāyana.
He also mentions the following eight Uparāgas' which have been explained as generated from near grāma-rāgas.
Śakatilaka, Takkasaindhava, Kokiläpañcama, Revagupta, Pañcamasāda va, Bhāvanāpancama,
Nāgagāndhāra and Nāgapañcama. Śārnigadeva says ( Rāgaviveka-67) that now he is stating Deši rāgas. From this it appears that, according to him rāgas are divided into three classes, viz. grāma -rāgas, rāgas and desi-rāgas. In Räga-vivekādhyāya ( ii. 3), he says that some of the noted grāma-rāgas are also called desī.
Some of the well-known desi rāgas are Mālavakaisika, Todi, sādava, Hindola etc:
Of minor rāgas, (rägānga) there are eight according to ancient writers mentioned by Sārrigadeva. There are thirteen rāgāngas stated to be current in his time. Other types of ancillary rāgas, called Upānga, Kriyānga, Bhāsārga, have also been mentioned. Sārngadeva says ( Rägaviveka-ii. 19 ) that the total number of rāgas is 264.
Rāgas are divided into three classes in accordance with the number of svaras in them. These are sampūrņa having all the seven svaras. șādava containing six svaras only, audava or auduva? consisting of only five svaras; the first or şadja is, however, constantly present in it.
1 The prefix 'upa' means 'near'. 2 Derived from udu denoting stars. Stars reside in the sky which is the
fifth of the five elements (pañcabhūta). From this number audava is so called.

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Again, rāgas may be suddha (pure or unmixed) and Chāyālaga or sālaga (mixed); the latter being so called owing to its having the shadow or likeness of another rāga. Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Antarabhāsā
These terms were probably too well-known at the time of Garrigadeva to be defined by him. These appear to denote minor rāgas, all fancied as females, which have no independent existence are produced by main rāgas. While bhāsās are said to be born of certain rāgas vibhāṣās appear to be their minor varieties. Antarabhāsā may be that which exists between two bhāsās. For example, Kakubha rāga has six bhāsās called bhinnapañcami, kambhoji, madhyama-grāmā, ragantī, madhuri and sakamiśrā, three vibhāṣās called bhogavardhani, ābhirikā and madhukarı and one antara-bhāṣā called Salavāhanikā.
According to śārnigadeva, there are 90 bhāṣās, 20 vibhāṣās and 4 antarabhāsās.
It is interesting to note that, at least down to the time of Śāingadeva, the term rāgini did not come into vogue. The idea of six rāgas, with 36 rāgiņīs as their consorts, was a later development
Rāgas and rāgiņi have been fancied as having forms with anthropomorphic features and traits of character. It should be noted that such Dhyānas (figures to be meditated upon ) occur only in later treatises. Some of these are quoted below and translated into English. These will at once reveal the poetic fancy behind the forms conceived and the spiritual outlook of the writers on the sastra.
Śrīrāga asțādaśābdah smaracāramūrtiḥ,
dhiro lasat-pallava-karņapūraḥ, sadjādi-sevyo'runa-vastradhāri
śrirāga esa kşitipālamūrtiḥ 11 [This Śrīrāga, aged eighteen years, is handsome like Cupid, steady, shining with ear-ornaments of leaves; he is served by sadja etc, wears a scarlet cloth and looks like a king. ]

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Vasanti
(Ragini of Sriraga) sikhandivarhoccaya-baddha-cūḍā
karṇāvatamsa-kṛtaśobhnāmrā indivaraśyamatanuḥ sucitrā vasantika syadali-mañ julaśriḥ ||
[ Vasantikā, adorned by bees, exquisitely beautiful, having her body blue like the lotus, is wearing a crown of peacock's plumes and decked with ear-ornaments of mango-blossoms.]
Karṇāta rāga
kṛpaṇapanis-turagadhirūdḥo
sphurat-snigdha-rasah-prasantaḥ
mayurakaṇṭhāti-sukaṇṭha-kāntiḥ
karnaṇa-rago haritalavarṇaḥ |||

[Karṇāta rāga, sword in hand, with a complexion more radiant than the peacock's throat, is riding a horse; he is very quiet, scintillating, lovely and has the tinge of haritala (yellow orpiment). ]
Velāvali
(Ragini of Hindola-rāga) samketa-dikṣām dayite ca datvā
vitanvati bhūṣaṇaman akeṣu
29
muhuḥ smaranti smaram iṣṭadevam velavali nila-saroja-kāntiḥ ||
[Velavali, possessed of a complexion like the blue lotus, having instructed the husband about assignation, while adorning her slim limbs with ornaments, is repeatedly remembering her desired deity, Cupid.]
Bhairava
gangadharaḥ sasikala-tilakas-trinetraḥ
sarpairbhuṣita-tanur-gaja-kṛttivāsāḥ bhasvat-triśula-kara esa nṛmundḍadhari subhrambaro jayati bhairava adirāgaḥ |||

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
[ Victorious is this three-eyed First Raga, Bhairava, with the Ganges on his head, a lunar digit as the mark on his forehead, possessed of body adorned with a serpent, wearing elephant-skin, holding a trident in hand and carrying a human skull. ]
Bhairavi
(Ragini of Bhairava)
sphatika-racita-pithe ramya-kailasa-śṛnge
vikaca-kamala-patrair-arcayanti maheśam
karadhṛta-ghana-vadya pitavarṇāyatākṣi sukavibhir-iyamukta bhairavi bhairavastri u
[This wife of Bhairava, large-eyed, yellow-complexioned, holding a ghana1 instrument in hand, worrshipping with petals of lotuses in bloom, Mahadeva, seated on a crystalpedestal on the charming Kailāsa peak, is called Bhairavi by good poets.]
Śabda, Śārīra
Sabda or voice is the basis of songs. Sabda has been divided by Śarngadeva (Prakirṇaka-39-67) into four principal kinds, viz.
(i) Khāhula-arising from phlegm. If it pervades the sthanas called mandra and madhya, it is called aḍilla. (2) Nārāṇa-arising from bile. it is compact, deep and inaudible in the three places mandra madhya and tāra respectively.
(3) Bombaka-arising from wind. Having no substance within like the trunk of the Eranda tree. It is harsh, loud like the ass's bray and heavy.

(4) Miśraka-arising from the admixture of the above three. It has four varieties, viz. combination of (a) Nārāṇa-khāhula (b) Naraṭa-bombaka (c) Bombaka-khāhula and (d) mixture of these three. Each of these has sub-varieties.
1
A class of musical instruments made of metal, e.g. cymbal.

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In accordance with qualities, Sabda has been divided into fifteen kinds, viz.
(i) Mṛṣṭa-pleasing to ears.
(ii) Madhura-indestructible and unchanged in its three places mandra, madhya, tāra.
(iii) Cehala-charming, devoid of the extremes of too heavy and too light, tender and devoid of essencelessness.
(iv) Tristhana-unchanged in the three sthānas, mandra etc. (v) Sukhavaha-delightful to mind.
(vi) Pracura--ample.
(vii) Komala- Soft.
(viii) Gadha-heard after spreading due to strength. (ix) Śravaka-capable of being heard from afar. Karuna-evoking pity in the mind of the listener. (xi) Ghana-having substance within and audible from a
(x)
distance.
(xii) Snigdha-audible from a distance and devoid of roughness. (xiii) Ślakṣṇa-uninterrupted like the flow of oil.
(xiv) Raktiman-attractive.
(xv) Chaviman-bright according to experts.
31
The defects of sabda are as follows: Rūkṣa-devoid of tenderness.
(i)
(ii) Sphulita-seeming to be broken.
(iii) Nihsara-devoid of substance within.
(iv) Kakoli-raucous like the cawing of crows.
(v) Keti-pervading three sthānas, but devoid of the qualities of sweetness etc.
(vi) Keni-pervading the sthanas tāra and mandra with difficulty.
(vii) Krśa-thin or light.
(viii) Bhagna-insipid like the cry of the ass and the camel. Sabda may be produced by a person spontaneously or after practice. The capacity of sound or voice for manifesting rāgas, without practice, is called Sarira. It is so called as it is born with the sarira (body); in other words, it is congenital

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and not acquired. The qualities of śarira are pervasion, resonance, sweetness, pleasantness, gravity, softness, possession of substance within, mildness, brightness.
The defects of sārīra are : lack of resonance, pleasantness, substance and the presence of roughness, improper voice, crow-like raucousness, lightness, harshness as well as removal from the proper sthāna Characteristics of Vāggeyakāra
Vāk means Kāvya; geya means a composition which can be sung. These are called mātu and dhātu respectively. One who makes these two kinds of composition is called vāggeyakāra. Such a person may be uttama (best), madhyama (medium) and adhama (inferior). The first of them is endowed with the following qualities : proficiency in grammar, lexicons, metrics, alamkāras, rasa, bhāva, skill in regional modes of composition, e.g. pāñcāli, knowledge of a variety of languages, mastery in arts, skill in vocal and instrumental music as well
ance, charming sarira', knowledge of laya and tāla, capacity for discriminating among various modes of intopation, genius, ability to sing pleasantly, experience in desi rāgas, skill in speech before an assembly, giving up anger and spite, appreciative mind, sense of propriety, capacity for composition independently of others, insight into others' minds, knowledge of characteristics, capacity for swift composition of songs, composition of songs containing the shadow of various songs, excellence in gamakas in the three shānas, skill in various kinds of alā pa, concentration.
The vāggeyakāra of mediocre merit can compose dhātu well, but is unsatsfactory in the composition of mātu. Also of mediocre merit is one who knows both dhātu and mātu, but Jacks efficiency in prabandhas elā etc
He is inferior who can compose mātu well, but is bad at dhātu.
1 Explained earlier.

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Gåndbarva, Svarādi
One, who is conversant with mārga and desi, is called gāndharva. One, who knows only mārga, is known as Svarādi. Characteristics of Singers
Singers may be best, medium and inferior. The best singer has the following qualifications : good voice, śārira of good qualities, experienced in the start and finish of songs, versed in rāga, rāgānga, bhāsānga, kriyanga and upānga, skilled in prabandha songs, conversant with the principles of various kinds of ālāpa, effortless use of gamakas in all sthānas, controlled voice, versed in tālas and śrutis, tirelessness even after many prabandha songs, experienced in śuddha and chāyālaga rāgas as well as in the peculiarities of all kinds of intonation and in sthāyas, absence of all defects, practice in singing, pleasantness according to the tradition of vocalists, capacity for bringing about clear svaras and tālas etc., possession of deep or compact voice, unhampered speed, capacity for attracting people's minds with songs sung at a lonely place (or, capacity for speedy singing), clearly manifested rāga, possession of traditional knowledge.
The singer of the medium quality lacks some of the above merits, but is free from defects.
A singer, having defects, is said to be inferior.
Performers of vocal music are of five kinds viz. śikṣākāra (learner), anukāra (imitator), rasika (appreciator), rañjaka ( delighter ) and bhāvaka i.e, one who can turn an insipid song into one of relish, render a song devoid of emotion into one of emotion, and car sing after realising the intention of listeners. Defects of Singers
Singers of the following kinds are condemned : (i) Samdaşļa-one who sings with clenched teeth. (ii) Udghuşļa-One who sings too loudly.
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(iii) Sātkāri-one singing with repeated hissing sounds. (iv) Bhita-terrified. (v) Sarkita-apprehensive. (vi) Kampita—one who sings habitually shaking the body and
trembling the voice. (vii) Karāli-one who distorts the face alarmingly while singing. (viii) Vikala-one who sings svaras with more or less than
the usual number of śrutis. (ix) Kāki—one whose voice is raucous like that of a crow. (*) Vitāla—one departing from the proper tāla. (xi) Karabha-one singing with the shoulders raised. (xii) Udbhața---singing like a goat. An inferior singer. (xiii) Jhombaka-one whose forehead, face and neck become
sinewy while singing. (xiv) Tumbakı-one whose throat swells like a pumpkin
gourd while singing. (xv) Vakri--one who sings with the curved throat. (xvi) Prasāri-one who sings after stretching the body. (xvii) Nimilaka-one who sings with closed eyes. (xviii) Virasa-one whose song is insipid. (xix) Apasvara-singing with prohibited svaras. (xx) Avyakta-one who sings with stuttering voice and
indistinct letters. (xxi) Sthanabhrasļa--one who is unable to reach the three
sthānas called mandra, madhya and tāra. (xxii) Avyavasthita-Singing with unregulated sthānas. (xxiii) Miśraka--one who sings after mixing up śuddha and
chāyālaga rāgas. (xxiv) Anavadhānaka-inattentive to sthāya etc. According to
Simhabhūpāla, one who reverses the
sthānas. (xxv) Sānunāsika-one who sings with a nasal voice.

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35
Vịnda, Kutapa
A group of singers and instrumentalists is called vinda (orchestra). It is of three kinds, viz. best (uttama), medium (madhyama) and inferior (kanis/ha). That, in which there are four principal singers, eight chorus singers, twelve female singers, four flutists and four players on mrdaniga, is uttama. In the madhyama, the number of male and female singers is half of that in the uttama. In the kanisịha, there are one principal singer, three chorus singers, four female singers, two flutists and two players of mardala.
The group of female singers, too, is threefold. In the uttama, there are two female singers, ten chorus singers, two flutists and two players of mardala. In the madhyama, there are one principal singer, four chorus singers and one (or, according to others, four) flutists. In the kanistha, the number of female singers and instrumentalists is less than that in the madhyama or their number is arbitrary.
A vrnda, constituted by singers and instrumentalists whose number is larger than in the uttama, is called Kolahala (confused noise).
Following the principal singer, absence of dissimilarily in chorus songs, conformity with tāla and loya, mutual rectification of defects, if any, in one part, capacity for pervasion in the three sthānas beginning with mandra, similarity of voice—these are the merits of a vặnda,
A particular kind of vrnda is called kutapu. Kutapavịnda is threefold according as it relates to tata instruments, avanaddha instruments and drama.'
The first variety of kutapa is constituted by players of Viņā, Ghosavati, Citrā, vipañci, parivādini, vallaki, kābjikā jyestha, nakulosthi, kinnari, jayā, kūrmi, pināki, hastikā, śatatantrikā, audumhari, sakarņa, pauna, rāvana, hastaka, sārangi, ālapani etc. Besides, in it there will also te flutists,
1 For tata and aydnaddha, see chapter on nstrumental music.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
pāvika, pāvakāhala, copch-blower, player of such instruments as muhari, śrriga etc. 1
The second type of kutapa will be constituted as follows : the principal player of mrdanga, players of the following instruments-parava, dardura, dakkā, mandidakkā, dakkuli, pațaha, karakā, qhakkā, dhavasa, ghadasa, hudukkā, damaru, ruñjā, kudukkā, kudarā, niņsāna, trivalī, bheri, tumbakī, bombadi, paļļavādya, paļa, kamrā, jhallari, bhāņa, selluka, jayaghantā, kāmsyatālā, ghantā, kirikittaka,
The third kind of kutapa will be constituted as follows: People experienced in various kinds of abhinaya (acting) prevailing in regions Varāța, Lāța, Karņāța, Gauda, Gurjara, Konkaņa, Mahārāsțra, Andhra, Hammīra, Cola, Malaya, Mālava, Arga, Vanga, Kalinga etc., those expert in lāsya and tāndava dances, those versed in wonderful Sthānas like Alidha, those vell versed in matters relating to Mandala and the like.3
For the terms, see chapter on Instrumentatal music. 2 Ibid. 3 For Sthana, Mandala, see chapter on Dance,

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INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
General remarks
Instruments have been divided into four classes, viz. Tata, Susira, Avanaddha and Ghana. The first two are said to produce songs through śrutis, the third to impart pleasantness and the fourth is said to make songs worth while. Tata instruments are made of strings and susira has holes in it. Those which are covered with leather is called avanaddha. That which is played by striking is called ghana.
The lute is called viņā. It is twofold according as it is śrutivinā and svaravinā. Of these two, the former has been described under vocal music in connexion with Sāraņā.
In connexion with svaravīņā, śārngadeva says that, in it too, the experts can produce śrutis. The types of this viņā are ekatantri, nakula, tritantrikā, citrāviņā, vipancı, mattakokilā, ālāpiņi, kinnari, pināki and ņiḥśarkaviņā These should be so constructed that the starus are clearly heard and ample charm is produced in the minds of listeners.
Under susira are included vamśa, pāva, pāyikā, murali, madhukari, kāhalā, tundukini, cukkā, śộnga, śarkha etc.
Pațaha, mardala, hudukkā, karaļā, ghaļa, ghadasa, dhavasa, dhakkā, kudukkā, kuduvā, ruñjā, damaruka, dakkā, mandidakkā dakkuli, sellukā, jhallari, bhāņa, trivali, dundubhi, bheri, niņsāņa, tumbaki—these are included under avanaddha.
Ghanavādyas are tāla, kāmsya-tāla, ghanļā, ksudraghanţikā jayaghanļā, kamrā, śuktipatța etc.

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Vadyas are again divided into four classes, viz. śuşka, gitānuga, nṛttānuga nṛttagṛtānuga. That is suska which does not accompany song and dance. It is also called gosthi. Gitanuga, nṛttānuga and gitanṛttamuga are those which accompany respectively song, dance and both of these two.
Kamrika or kamra is the name of a bamboo stick for playing the lute. It is the modern bow. The action of the kamrika is called sarana1 which is fourfold, viz. utkṣipta, sannivista, ubhayi and kampita. That is utkṣipta in which the kamra, coming in contact with the string, moves upward and repeatedly falls down. If the saraṇā takes place immediately after touching the string, it is sannivista. If these two kinds of saraṇa are successively repeated, there is ubhay saraṇā. Kampita arises due to the trembling of the kamrika in the place of svara.
Merits and defects of Vadya
The merits are as follows :
(i) Rakta-pleasant, (ii) Virakta-vibhinna (distinct?), (iii) Madhura-sweet, (iv) Sama-even or uniform? (v) Suddhanot mixed, (vi) Kala-delicate, (vii) Ghera-possessed of substance, (viii) Sphutaprahara-with manifest sound, (ix) Subharapossessed of beautiful räga, (x) vighusta-deep.
Merits and Defects of Instrumentalists
Versed in the mode of striking with the hand and the bow of the lute, expert in vocal and instrumental music, experienced in yati, tāla, laya, pāța, pañcasañca, endowed with ten qualities of the hand, playing the instrument intended by the person concerned, versed in the principles of the sound of musical instruments, possessed of the knowledge of grahas sama etc., skilled in hiding the defects of songs, instrumental music and dance, director of graha, mokṣa, versed in the measure of songs and dance, possessing the knowledge of all
1 Another meaning of saraṇā has been set forth in connection with vocal music.
2 The five are song, instrumental music, dance, graha, mokṣa and randhra (defect?).

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39
the differences in instrumental music, possessed of rūparekha (?), skilled in udghatļana, possessed of the knowledge of the difference of all vādyas (instruments ?), versed in the increase, decline and attainment of nāda—such an instrumentalist is the best. The worst is one devoid of some or all of these merits.
The merits of blowing are as follows : charm, compactness, pleasantness, clarity, amplitude of sound, gracefulness, tenderness, resonance of nāda, pervasion of three sthānas. capacity for pleasing the listener, sweetness and attention on the part of the flutist; the last quality implies that the blowing will not be more nor less than what it should usually be.
The merits of a player of mardala are as follows : clear varņas, keeping the limbs as usual or capacity for pleasing others, experience in following the likeness of the song, expert knowledge of sweet and violent instrumental music, skill in the movement of the hands concentration, tirelessness, skill in mukhavadya, following the hudukkā player, amplitude, knowledge of yati, tāla and laya, following the song.
The defects are the reverse of the above merits.
Two, three or four mardala-players constitute a group. They will follow the mukhari or the principal player.
The following are the merits of a player of the viņā :
Expert knowledge of the principles of nāda, śruti, svara, grāma, jāti, rāga etc., graceful body, steady in seat, tireless pair of hands, fearlessness, self-restraint, presence of mind, tenderness of limbs, learning in the arts of vocal and instrumental music, concentration of mind.
The merits of a flutist are as follows :
Practice in the movement of fingers, reaching the proper place, possession of good sense of rāgas, capacity for producing sweetness in the manifestation of frāgas in an
1 The meaning is not clear,

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agreeable manner, speedy ascent and descent, skill in singing and playing instruments, revealing the proper sthāna (or, acc. to some, tāna) to singers, hiding their defects, skilfulness in respect of mārga and deši rāgas, capacity for produing rāgas in the improper sthāna as in the proper one. An expert flutist can produce various svaras in a single hole due to the intensity or otherwise of the wind, its fast and slow speed, filling or not filling, increase or decrease.
The following are the defects of a flutist :
Excess of wrong application, the reverse of the merits stated above, not reaching the intended sthāna, shaking of the head.
The faults of blowing a flute are as follows : Yamala-completing one blowing by another. Stoka---though heavy, yet unable to reach the proper sthānas. Kęśa-able to reach the proper sthāna, but too light. Skhalita --stopping at intervals.
According to others, the following are the defects of blowing: Kampita-that which emanates, with distorted svara, from
the mouth having cough. Tumbaki-sound resembiing that of the tumba (a kind of
gourd). Kāki--sound, devoid of tārasthāna, resembling the cawing
of crows. Sandasta-insufficient scanty. avyavastihta--sometimes less, sometime more than usual, harsh.
In this connexion, it may be added that the blowing of a flute may be fivefold : (i) Kampitā--the shaking of the flute attached to lips; it is
necessary for accomplishing varņa and alamkāra. (ii) Valitā -it arises due to the move noat of fingers; it is
necessary to produce samcāri varņa.
1 Gamaka or alapa in the improper place. 2 Can it mean blowing with clenched teeth ?

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(iii) Muktā-it arises when the holes are free from all fingers;
it produces a free sound. (iv) Ardhamuktā—when the holes are half-free; it produces
halting sounds. (v) Nipiditā--when all the holes are fully covered by fingers,
and the flute is filled with wind. Śārrgadeva says (Vādyādhyāya 662 ) that the merits and defects, stated in connexion with voice under vocal music, are to understood mutatis mutandis in this case also
A band of fluuists is generally said to be constituted as follows : one principal flutist and his four followers.
Dbătu
The notes, produced by particular kinds of strokes, are called dhātu. The dhātus develop the music of vīņā, cause unparalleled delight and give rise to faultless sounds. Dhātus are fourfold, viz. vistāra, karana, āviddha and vyañjana. Of these, vistāra has four varieties, karaņa five, āviddha five and vyañjana ten. The total number of dhātus, along with their divisions and subdivisions, is 34. Kinds of Instrumental music
It is of four kinds, viz. śuska, gitānuga, nýttānuga and gitanţttānuga. Vadya without gita and nịtta is called suska; it is called gosthi. The other terms are self-explanatory. Āśrāvaņā is the name of the playing of the lute without song; there are nine other kinds of lute-playing also without song,
The use of song and instrumental music, as the predominant or subservient factor, is called vịtti. It is threefold : (i) Citrā-instrumental music primary and vocal music
secondary. (ii) Vịtti- vocal music and instrumental music are of an
equal position. (iii) Dakşiņā-vocal music prominent and instrumental music
secondary.

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Gitānuga vādya is threefold : (i) Tattva—that kind of instrumental music which manifests
laya, tāla, yati, aksara, grāma, amśa etc.
pertaining to song. (ii) Anugata-it partly manifests song. As in song, so in it
also there are pause and staying at a different sthāna. But, if there in vilambita laya in song,
the instrument is skilfully played in druta laya. (iii) Ogha-in it, at the end, the instrumentalist, imitating the
song, shows the imitation of the parts of the song by skilful and continuous strokes of the hand.
Structure and material of musical instruments'
Tata
The ālāpini viņā is as follows :
The daņda ( rod ) will be eight mușțis? long, made of bamboo, hollow, circumference two angulas, free from joints etc., smooth, uniform all through, circular, fitted with a kakubha (a crooked piece of wood at the end) two angulas long and half an angula wide, half as much in thickness, facing upwards, devoid of a patrikā, having one rod fitted with a śarku (pin or peg) the space below which will be four angulas long and high at the outer side and in the middle. The turba (i.e. the round thing at the lower end) is twelve argulas in length, four angulas at the mouth and an ivory nābhis is fixed at a distance of a quarter less than two musțis below the top. The strings, made of the entrails of sheep, will be fine, smooth, even and firm. Coconut shells (karpara), tying ropes (doraka) and bridges (sārikā) are used in its construction. According to others, the rod will be made of Khadira wood and the strings of linen or silk or Kārpāsa cotton.
1 Only the principal types under each class will be described. 2 Muști means the length of the clenched palm. 3 Navel-like cavity or piece.

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Instrumental Music
Still others provide that the rod, in all cases, should be made of red sandal-wood. Sarngadeva states that, in some cases, the length of the rod exceeds ten mustis.
Kinnarī viņas are of two kinds-laghvi and bṛhati. The laghvi is as follows: Danda, which is round, is three vitastis' five angulas long, five angulas wide, having many holes; the kakubha, made of saka wood, will be two and a half angulas wide and five angulas long, in its middle there will be a tortoise-shaped iron piece, half an angula less in length and breadth: the sarikā, made of a perforated piece of bone o the chest of a vulture and measuring the little finger of the hand or it may be made of iron or bell-metal. On the back of the danda, fourteen sarikas will be fixed with wax, mixed with the ashes of a burnt piece of cloth, on the fourteen places of svaras. Below the second heptad, the first särikā, a little longer than one finger, will be fixed at the place of Nisada. At intervals will be fixed sarikas of which each succeeding one will be a little bigger than the preceding one. The eighth one will be fixed three angulas apart from the preceding one. The other six sārikās will be fixed at gradually increasing intervals not exceeding four angulas. At the lower joint of the kakubha on the danda, will be fixed the first tumba. The second tumba, a little wider than the first, will be fixed between the third and the fourth sarikas, in the lower part. Into a hole, two angulas below the tip of the danda, a moving pin is to be placed: it will have a hole in its neck. One angula below it, a two-horned pin, resembling the feathered part of an arrow, one angula high, is to be made. In front of it, a little distance away, a fixed pin is to be placed. Then firmly fixing on the kakubha an iron string, smooth, round, even, strong and resembling elephant's hair, it will be drawn to the above two-horned pin, with its second end the moving pin will be surrounded. This pin will be twisted so long as the string does not become firm. By twist
1 One vitasti= 12 angulas.
2 See under alapini viņā.
43

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
ing it on the opposite side the string becomes loose. If the string is long, then, for the sake of firmness, an iron peg, put into the hole of the neck of the moving pin, will be fitted in the fixed pin.
The Brhati kinnari will be one vitasti more in length and one angula more in breadth than the laghvi; it will have three tumbas and the strings made of nerves. The third tumba is to be placed as in the ālāpini. The other characteristics of the laghvi will be present in the bịhatı too.
Susira
A flute is to be made of bamboo, Khadira wood, ivory, white or red sandalwood, iron, bell-metal, silver or gold. It will be round in shape, straight, smooth and devoid of jointknots and scars. Inside it there will be hollow as long as the flute; the hollow, equal to the little finger in width, will be uniform. From the tip of the flute a space of two, three or four angulas is to be left out. Then a hole, of the dimension of one angula, should be made fit for being blown. From the main hole another hole, called tāra, will be one angula apart. Other seven holes will be made at intervals of balf angula. The last eight holes are stated to be like bones of jujube fruits. Below the holes there will be a holeless space of two angulas. Of the above holes, the seven, producing sound, are considered to be meant for the division of svaras. The eighth one is intended to be an outlet for the wind. The wind, produced by blowing, is filled by the main hole.
The length of a flute varies from two angulas to twenty --two; the last one being called Śrutanidhi. Ānaddha
Pațaha is twofold, viz. märga and desi. The former is two and a half cubits long, six angulas in circumference, big in the middle; its right face is eleven angulas and a half, the left one ten angulas and a half. There will be an iron ring

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Instrumental Music
over the right one and, on the left, an earthen ring. The ring on the left side should be covered with a pārikā taken from a six-month-old dead calf. Then, both the rings will have seven apertures each. After this, kalaśas, made of gold etc., seven in number and four angalas long, are to be tied with strings placed in the apertures on each side. Leaving a space of four angulas from the left face, a patrikā, made of iron and having a width of three angulas is to be firmly placed round the pațaha. The two covered faces are to be tied with the thick skin, called kavala, of the outer part of the body of a calf or goat. The kavala of the right side should be perforated all around. With the strings, placed on the right face, the kalaśas are to be firmly drawn and the strings tied well in the ring. With the strings placed in the seven holes in the kavala, the kalaśas are to be encircled and fixing them in the iron ring the kalaśas are to be kept in a compact form. Outside the kalasas, at the fringe of the left ring, there will be a kacchā (waist-band) for being put around the waist (of the player).
The desi pațaha is like the above with the difference that it is a cubit and a half long and its right and left faces are seven angulas and six and a half angulas respectively, its left face is tied with uddali (i.e. the skin of the animal's groin).
Both the above kinds of pațaha are made of Khadira wood. Each of them is divided into three classes--uttama, madhyama and adhama. Those described above are uttama.
The madhyama and the adhama are respectively one-twelfth and one-sixth less.
Mardala, also called mrdařga or muraja, is made in the following manner: made of the faultless (i.e. devoid of scars and cracks etc.) wood of the citron tree, one-half argula thick, 21 angulas long left face 14 angulas, right face 13 angulas, middle part thin, one angula thick at the faces, thick and round skin at both ends, in each of the two pieces of skin 40 holes one angula apart from one another; in the

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
holes will be placed straps which will be sewn, embedded in the straps there will be pieces of potsherd touching the middle part of the instrument both over it and below, the potsherd being tied with three straps the middle part will be encircled firmly, at that place there will be a knot of two straps resembling go-mūtrika', the pieces of leather covering the faces will be firmly tied, of the two rings at the two ends, a kaccha placed in the left one should be fixed in the right and tightly drawn and made twofold, a waist-band made of cloth should be placed in the waist.
As regards the wood to be selected for the construction of the wooden instruments, the general instruction is that, when the kind of wood is not specified, it should be gathered from khadira or red sandai tice. Saingadeva says that trees belong to three species-pittalā, vātalā and sleṣmala. The first kind grows on dry land, the second on land having a little moisture and the third on a fully moist land near tanks. For the purpose of instruments, the first is the best and the second inferior, but the third is to be avoided. The pieces of wood, with the following defects, should be rejected : softness, scar, hole, joints of branches, knot and breach.
For tying the faces of percussion instruments the hide of a six-month (according to some, two-year) old calf is suitable. The straps are made of old bulls. The cow's leather to be struck should be bright like Kunda flowers, moon and snow or slightly coppery like a (new) mango-leaf and free from sinew and flesh. Before use it should be soaked in cold water for one night. The hide, with the following defects, is not fit for use having fat, with the cover of the uterus stuck to it, klinna (moist ?), pecked with the beaks of the crow, spoilt by fire and smoke, worn out.
Ghana
For the instruments made of bell-metal, the metal should
1 The criss-cross manner.
2 Described above.

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be well refined in fire. The tāla (popularly called karatāla ) will be circular in shape. Its face will be two angulas and a quarter, the inner portion one angula wide and low, the hole in the middle will be a quarter less than a guñjā, the thickness one yava, height one argula and a half. Its form will be even, smooth and beautiful so that it produces sound pleasant to the ear. Strings of borders of cloth are to be passed through the holes and tied with knots at the ends.
Characteristics of a mardala player
Mardala players are of four kinds—vādaku, mukhari, pratimuk hari and guānuga.
Vadaka is derived from vāda which means a mode of disputation. In a vāda, a person takes up his own side and refutes the view of the other side. Similarly, the vādaka takes up the playing. The mukhari is so called because other instrumentalists look up to his face for playing their instruments. He will have the following qualities : capacity for composing vādya-prabandhas, training in dance, skilled in vocal and instrumental music, surekha', concentration, indispensable to the female dancer presence on the stage. The pratimukhart lacks a few of the qualities of the mukhari. He is called gitānuga who, having set the harsh and soft letters, through nāda, mandra, madhya, tāra, follows the song in order to help the madhura through playing the instrument; this is done in both śuddha and sālaga songs. Päța, Pañcasañca, Vädyaprabandha
It is the name given to Vadyaksara, i.e. the letter-like sounds produced in an instrument. The pāļas, which arise from the different positions of the hand, rather the palm, and the strokes made by it, are called hastapāļa. Eighty-eigig hastapāļas have been stated by Śārrigadeva. DHA RA KA TA DHA RA KA TA-it is an example of hastapāļa. Different kinds of pāța, being applied to the instruments like Pațaha,
1 Of a pleasing physical posture.

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produce instrumental music of various sorts. The total number of the kinds of vādya, produced by pāța, is 500.
The shaking of the neck, elbow, thumb, wrist and the left foot is called sañca. Due to the sañca of the thumb and the wrist, the player of pațaha becomes best. By shaking the shoulders and the elbow one becomes inferior. The hudukkā player, due to the shaking of the thumb, elbow and the neck, becomes best. One becomes madhyama by shaking the wrist and the elbow. One, who is worst, plays with the shaking of the left foot.
As there are gita-prabandhas, so we have vādya-prabandhas too composed of udgräha etc. According to Śărrigadeva, there are 43 vādya-prabandhas. An example of vādya-prabundha : gad da ga thom gakkathomțem etc.

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III
TĀLA
The term 'tala' is derived from the root 'tal' which conveys the sense of pratistha (foundation, basis). Śārrigadeva tells us that it is so called because music, both vocal and instrumental, and dance are based on it. It has been defined as the time measured with the help of the measures called laghu (short), guru (long) and pluta'. A short vowel is laghu, a long one guru and a prolated vowel is called pluta. For example, a, a are laghu and guru respectively. Pluta is generally used in the following circumstances: calling from afar, singing, weeping. For instance, in u umesa (O, Umesa) the u is pluta. In the case of tāla, the time required in spelling out laghu, guru and pluta letters is meant. In this connexion, we should mention also mātrā. One mātrā is determined by the time required in pronouncing five short letters, e.g., KA, CA, TA, TA, PA. In tāla, laghu, guru etc. are ascertained by mātrās. Tāla is said to determine the measure of song, instrumental music and dance.
Tala is broadly twofold-marga (classical) and dest (regional). The action in the former is of two kinds, viz. soundless (niḥśabda) and sounded (saśabda). The former, called Kala, is fourfold :āvāpa, niṣkrāma, vikṣepa and praveśaka. The latter (i.e. sounded), also called Pāta or Kalā, is fourfold, viz. dhruva, samya, tāla and sannipata.

1 According to Panini, kalo'c hrasva-dirgha-plutaḥ (1. 2.27)-vowels requiring as much time as is required in pronouncing short u, long and prolated u are respectively called hrasva, dirgha, pluta. Hrasva and dirgha are the designations of laghu and guru respectively.

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The bending of the fingers, with the palm upturned, is called avapa. Nişkrama is the name of the stretching of the fingers with the palm turned downwards. The casting of the hand, with the fingers outstretched and the palm upturned on the right side, is called vikṣepa. The contraction of the fingers of the hand, remaining on the right side with the palm turned downwards, is called praveśa. The placing of the hand below, with the snapping of the thumb and the forefinger together, is called dhruva. The production of the clapping sound with the right hand is called samya. Such a sound, produced by the left hand, is known as tala. The production of such a sound with both the hands together is called sannipata
50
Marga, mentioned above, is fourfold, viz. dhruva, citra, vārtika and dakṣina.
As regards deśt tāla, its difference from the marga tāla appears to rest chiefly on the fact that while the former appeals to the common folk, the latter is appreciated by the experts or connoisseurs. According to the Samgitaratnākara (Tālādhyāya-237), such a tala, when accompanied by cymbals etc., becomes attractive. The author further states that such a tāla should be yathaśobha, i.e. it should not violate Sobha Kallinātha explains sobha as attractiveness caused to the appreciating mind by the similarity of time in the repetition of tālas in the part of songs.1 Another characteristic of desi tala has been stated as the determination by the measures called laghu etc. without violating sobha. In desi tāla, druta and pluta have half a matrā and three mātrās respectively.
Of desi tāla, one hundred and twenty varieties have been distinguished. Śarrigadeva says (Taladhyāya-312) that there are little known talas too. He lays down nineteen ways of ascertaining the mutual difference among the well known and little known tālas.
1 Sobhaśabdena gitavayaveṣu talavṛttinām kālasamyanibandhana sahṛdayahṛdayamgamatā.

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Tālas are again twofold-caturaśra and tryaśra. known respectively as caccatpuța and cacaputa. Satpitaputraka is a variety of tryaśra which has another one called Udghatta. Salpita putraka is also designated as Uttara and Pañcapāņi, Laya, Yati
51
The pause, intervening between talas or strokes which determine the time of matras, is called laya. Kallinatha makes the concept of laya clear. He says that if one action follows another without cessation, there is no rest or pause; so, there is no laya in such a case. For example, there is no separate laya between laghu mātrās which exist as parts of two guru mātrās. Again, there is no separate laya between laghu mātrās which form parts of pluta mātrā.
Laya is threefold-druta (swift), madhya (medium) and vilambita (delayed).
The mode of application of laya is called yati. Yati is of three kinds-sama, srotogata and gopuccha. Sama takes place when there is uniformity of laya in the beginning,. middle and end Srotogata arises when vilambita, madhya and druta layas are used respectively in the beginning, middle and end. That is gopuccha which resorts to druta, madhya and vilambita layas.1
1 There are also other varieties of each of the three kinds of yati.

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IV
DANCE
General remarks
At the outset, it should be stated that originally dance was conceived in connexion with drama. Šārrigadeva says (Nartanādhyāya-3) that Nartana is threefold, viz. Natya, Nrtya and Nṛtta. Further on he says that Nṛtta is a kind of abhinaya (acting, mimetic art). Nṛtta, as a kind of abhinaya, is performed by means of Karana1 and angabhangi (gestures and postures). The angas are six-head, hands, chest, sides, hip. feet. Some include shoulder also. The pratyangas are neck, arms, back, belly, thighs, shanks. According to some, the wrist, knees and ornamants, worn on the limbs, are also included in pratyangas. There are twelve upāngās in the head, viz. eyes, brows, eyelids, eye-balls, throat, nose, breath, lips, teeth, tongue, chin and face.
The other Upangas are heels, ankles, fingers, toes, soles of feet.
Nṛtta (dance) should be distinguished from Nṛtya (gesticulation, tableau), Śārrigadeva defines Nṛtya as that which manifests emotions or feelings by means of gestures (angikabhinaya). According to him, it is known as marga. He characterises Nṛtta as movements of limbs devoid of any imitation of any condition. Dhanañjaya, in his Dasarīрaka, brings out the distinction between the two in the following words-anyad bhāvāśrayam nṛtyam nṛttam tālalayāśrayam. It means that, while nṛtya is based on bhava (emotion, feeling), nrtta is related to tala and laya."

1 See below.
2 The terms have been explained in the foregoing chapter on Tala and Vocal music respectively.

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Nṛtta is broadly divided into two classes-Tandava and Lasya. Violent dance, taught by Tandu, the foremost among the mythical attendants of Śiva, is called Tandava. Lasya is the name of the tender graceful dance said to be taught by Parvati; it is to be performed with delicate movements of limbs, and is conducive to love.
Nṛtta again is threefold-viṣama, vikața and laghu. The dance, in which one walks over ropes etc., is called vișama. Vikata is the name of dance performed with grotesque look, dress and movements of limbs. Laghu nṛtta is that which is performed with Añcita1 and such other minor Karanas." Nṛttakarana
A graceful action of hand, foot, etc. together, which is in consonance with the Rasa concerned, is called karana or Nrttakarana. Usually, in the begining of dance, the feet are in the natural position, the hands have the Latakara pose and the body is in the Caturaśra pose. The left hand is generally kept on the chest and the right one makes such movements as are suited to each Karana. There are other features peculiar to each of the Karanas.
Karanas may be innumerable. Śarrigadeva mentions one hundred and eight as the most common and important ones.
Of the Karanas, some are standard prevailing everywhere, while others are dest in vogue in particular regions. The latter includes the various Utplutikaranas or Karanas with jumps. We state below only a few varieties under each class
as illustrations:
Samanakha-the body is in the natural position, the feet touch each other with the toes placed on the same level on the ground The hands are in the Lata pose.
1 That kind of dance in which the arm goes out from the region of the chest and returns to the chest. There are other light dancea
called by this name.
2 Defined below.
3 Infra.

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Dolāpāda--after ürdhvajānu Cârı, the Dolāpādā Cari is per
formed and the arms are kept in the Dola pose. 1 Janita - It takes place when, after Janitā Cāri, one hand
in the form of Muşțiis placed on the chest and
the other is in the Latā pose. Sakaļāsya-After Sukațāsyā Cārī, one hand and one foot are
stretched out; the other hand in the Khațakāmukha3
form is kept on the chest. Bhramara--The foot remains as in Aksiptā Cāri. At the same
time the Udvesțita* movement is made with the hand. The lower part of the spine is curved around, and the feet form svastika. The same is repeated on the other side. Simultanously the Ulbana5 gesture
is made with hands. Sūci -One foot is thrown up, bent and brought down
without touching the ground. The hand on the same side is kept, in the khațakāmukha pose, at the chest. The other hand, in the Alapadma pose, is near the head. The same is repeated on the other side.
Apakrānta
After Baddha and Apakrāntā Cāris, the two hands move in an appropriate manner. Parsvakrānta-It takes place when Parśvakrāntā cārt is
performed and the bands follow the feet.
1 Infra. 2 In it, the tips of fingers rest in a compact manner in the middle of
the palm not covered by the fingers, and the thumb remains pressed
against the middle finger. 3 Infra. 4. The straightening of the bent fingers, beginning with the forefinger, in
their respective order, along with the movement of the hand away
from the chest to the side. 5 In it, the two Alapadma hands, with quivering fingers, face the
shoulder and are stretched over the shoulders.

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55
Utpluti-karanas Añcita—Standing up in the natural position of the feet and
jumping straight upwards. Lohadı-Standing with the feet in the natural position and
twisting around the loins une jumps up and falls
obliquely. Cārī
Derived from the root car (to move) with the addition of the suffix iş, followed by the feminine affix nis, it denotes the aggregate of various graceful movements of the feet, shanks, thighs and hips performed simultaneously. Cāri, also called Vyāyāmu, has the following varieties : Cāri, Karana, Khunda and Mandala. The Cāri, which can be performed by any one foot, is called Cāri. That, in which both the feet are required, is called Karaṇa which is to be distinguished from Nrttakaraṇa. Three Karaņas make a Khanda. Three or four Khandas make a Mandala.
Carz, performed by one foot, is of two kinds; viz. Bhaumı (terrestrial, i.e. performed on the ground) and Akāśiki (aerial. i.e. performed in the air above the ground). Each of the Bhaumi and Akāśiki Cāris has sixteen varieties.
While the above are classical or standard Cāris, called Mārga, there are also regional Cāris with local characteristics, called Desi Cāris. The latter again are divided into two classes, Bhaumi and Akāśiki; the number of the former is 35, while that of the latter is 19.
We shall mention below only a few typical Cāris under each class by way of illustrations.
MĀRGA CĀRI
Bbaumi Samapādā-standing with the two feet close together, the

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Janita
Vicyavā -from the Samapada position the feet are lifted up and fore-parts are brought down on the ground. -in it one foot is in Agratalasamcara, one hand is kept at the chest in the Mustia pose and the other hand moves in a beautiful manner.
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
Šakaṭāsyā—in it the upper part of the body is held with effort, one foot in the Agratala Samcara form is stretched forward, and the chest is kept in the Udvahita form.
Ākāśiki
Alātā
toe-nails on a level, and in the Samapada1 posture.
Akṣipta in it, one foot in Kuñcita form is thrown up to the height of three spans, brought to the other side and then, crossing the shanks in Svastika, it is caused to fall on the ground on its heel.
Vidyudbhrānta-One foot touches the head which is turned back, is turned round in all directions and stretched.
-one foot is stretched backwards with its sole facing the other thigh. Then its heel is brought down to the ground on its side.
Urdhvajānu -in it one foot in the Kuñcita form is thrown up and its knee is kept on a level with the breast. The other foot is kept steady and motionless.
1
Pārsvakrāntā-in it, one Kuñcita foot is raised and brought down on the the ground by its heel.

Where Sausthava of the limbs is important, and the two feet are kept in the natural position at a distance of one span from each other. 2 Infra.
3 In it, the chest is lightly raised without shaking.

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DEŠi CĀRI Bhaumi Parāvíttatalā - the sole of the foot faces up at the back
and is stretched outwards. Ardhamandalikā-the two feet move outward rubbing the
ground and return with a circular movement to the original position slowly one after the other.
Akäsiki Vidyudbhrāntā --throwing up the foot in front and moving it
around above the forehead quickly, and
placing it on the ground. Hariņaplutā -- jumping up with foot bent and letting it fall
repeatedly.
STHĀNA
It means a static posture as distinguished from cāri which denotes a particular movement. There is one sthāna before the commencement of a cari and one after it. One starts a cārı from one posture, one stops at another.
A particular position of the motionless body is called sthāna. There are six sthānas for men, seven for women. These are standard sthānas. Besides there are 23 deśī (regional or local) sthānas. Again, there are nine sitting postures (upavis ļasthānakas ) and six reclining ones (suptasthānakas ). All together number 51 according to Śārnigadeva.
We give below a few typical examples under each class.
Postures for men Vaisakha--the two thighs are kept in the air above the ground
at a distance of three and a half spans from each. other and the feet are kept on the ground pointing obliquely outwards, also at the same distance from
each other. M-8

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Alidha -the left thigh is motionless in the air and slightly bent. The right foot is stretched forward to a distance of five spans. Both feet are oblique.
Postures for women
Gatagata- the female dancer, about to move forward, hesitates with one foot raised.
Valita -the body is slightly twisted around, the foot, in the direction in which the body is twisted, touches the ground with the little toe. The other foot touches the ground with the big toe.
Desi Sthānas
Vardhamana -the two feet are oblique with the heels touching each other.
Nandyavarta in Vardhamana above, the distance between the feet is six angulas or one vitasti (= 12 angulas).
Upavista-sthānas
Madalasa-one foot is stretched out a little, the other is placed on the seat, and the head is bent on one side. Utkata -the heels and the hips are on the same level and the feet are on the ground in the natural position.
Suptasthāna
Sama-lying down with the face turned upwards and the hands loose and free.
Nata lying down with the shanks slightly separated and the two hands resting loosely.
ANGAHARA
This term is constituted by two components, viz, angu and hara. It is explained as the movement (hāra) of angas (limbs). Some explain it as a movement pertaining to Hara (i.e. Śiva), and demonstrated by limbs (anga).
According to Sarrigadeva, the graceful movement of the limbs to the proper places, composed of groups of Mātṛkās (i.e. combination of two karanas) is called Angahāra.

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59
The number of Argahāras is infinite. Sārngadeva mentions thirty-two as important among them."
RECARA
Particular movements of the feet, hands, waist and neck are called recaka.
The continuous movement of the foot in between the heel and the tip of the toe and then outwards, involving bending and stretching, is the recaka of the foot.
A swift circular movement of the hands inward and outward alternately is the recaka of the hands.
Turning round the waist in all directions along with the vertical rotation of the toe slightly spread out, is the recaka of the waist.
Shaking and moving the neck around is recaka of the neck.
The necessary recakas are added to argahāras.
VARTANA, CĀLAKA
Vartanā denotes a particular movement of the arms. By resorting to various movements of arms, separately and collectively, and adopting the tempos druta etc., innumerable vartanās can be produced. śārrigadeva does not enumerate the vartanās of which twenty-four varieties are described by Kallinātha following Kohala.
When employed with recakas, without the loss of grace, these movements of arms, full of skilful modes, are called Calakas. Kallinātha, following Kohala, describes 50 Cālakas.
For fear of prolixity, we do not name them here. As these are connected with karanas, their definitions require the explanation of the karanas concerned. For considerations of space, we do not define them here,

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NYAYA
The movement of the body in dance for simulated protection against weapons and for the simulated discharge of weapons is called nyāya. Corresponding to the four styles (vrtti) called Bhārati, Sättvati, Arabhaļī and Kaišiki, nyāyas are fourfold, viz. Bhārata, Sättvata, Vārşaganya and Kaisika. Pravicāras are those excellent (prakrsța ) and varied (vicitra) movements and gaits meant for discharging weapons. The nyāyas are to be employed with cãris in discharging the weapons.
MANDALAS
Mandala is the name given to a particular combination of Cāris. Mandalas are divided into two kinds, bhauma (terrestrial) and ākāśika (aerial). There are ten mandalas under each class. Mandalas are employed in discharging weapons. In depicting fighi, aerial mandalas are important. It may be noted that as several cāris constitute a mandala, the omission or addition of some cāris does not mar it.
Earthly Mandalas A few instances are given below ; Bhramara
The right foot and the left foot are Janita and Spandita respectively. Then these two are respectively sakațāsya and Cāsagati. Again, the right and left feet are Bhramaru and spandita respectively Căsagata
In it, there will be cāsagati feet all through, and turning round in a circle at the end.
Aerial Mandala Krānta
In it, the right and the left feet are respectively Sūci and Apakrānta respectively. Then both the feet are Pārsvakrānta,

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the left one moving round in all directions. Then the left and right feet are respectively Sīci and Apakrānta.
Sūciyiddha
The right foot is successively Sūci and Bhramara. Then the left one is Pārśvakrānta and Apakrānta, and the right foot Sūci. Then the left foot is Apakrānta and the right Pārsvakrānta.
REKHA
It is the name of a particular position of the body, attractive to the mind and the eyes. In it, there is a harmonious combination of the various poses of the major limbs, e.g. head, eyes, hands. Qualification of a dancer
Generally women are fit for various movements in dancing. They are of three types, i.e. Mugdhā (shy), Madhyā (normal) and Pragalbhā (bold, confident). The types correspond to three stages of youthfulness. The first is the stage of adolescence in which there is eagerness for the kind of amorous pleasure in which the lips, full-grown breasts, cheeks, hips and thighs are concealed due to shyness. The second is the life of love in which the woman has heavy thighs and hips, large, hard, heaving and firm breasts. The third is the stage in which there is a maddening charm, the woman is clever in perfect amorous sports and has spontaneous amorous feelings.
Merits and defects of a dancer
The following are the merits of a dancer : beauty of limbs, perfection of form, charming full face, large eyes, red lips, beautiful teeth, conch-like neck, arms like moving creapers, slender waist, not-too-heavy hips, thighs like elephanttrunks, not too tall, crippled or fat, not having prominent veins, conspicuous charm, sweetness, courage, generosity, fair or dark complexion. The best dancer, by delicate movements,

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beautiful rhythm and correct timing, seems to manifest the sound of songs and instruments, and fully evokes the Rasa.
Decoration of a dancer
Waving loose, black, glossy and abundant hair with flower-strings on it or, straight long braid of hair decorated with a string of pearls, forehead having curly locks, a beautyspot on the forehead with musk, sandal-paste etc., eyes with collyrium; ears with cylindrical ornaments, radiant teeth, cheeks with streaks of musk; pearl-necklace round the neck; large pearl-strings decorating the breasts; gem-studded golden bangles on the fore-arm, on fingers rings set with rubies, sapphires, diamonds etc.; body smeared with sandal-paste or saffron; garments of white silk etc.; a fine jacket or short petticoat with a tight bodice.
The teacher of dance
He should have the following qualifications :
Personality, sound knowledge of dancing, knowledge of the beginning and concluding songs and instrumental music, Graha', instrumental music, tradition, beauty of sounds, sthāyasa; cleverness in the tempos Druta etc. and in tālas; capacity for composing Vădyaprabandhas, originating new styles in Samgita; skill in the art of teaching, capacity for attracting people, knowledge of the merits and defects of dancing performances.
Dance-troupe (Sampradāya)
Troupes are of three kinds, viz. Kuțila (best) Madhyama (medium) and Kanistha (smallest). The Kuțila sampradāya is constituted as follows :
1 Mukharin (leader). 1 Pratimukharin (chief assistant).
1. Explained under Vocal music. 2. Ibid.

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2 players of the percussion instrument called Avaja. 2 players of the percussion instrument called Addāvaja. 2 players of the percussion instrument called Karaļā. 32 players of the drum called Mardala.
cymbal players. 8 playing bell-metal cymbals. 2 playing the wind instrument called Kahala. 2 flutists. 2 main singers. 8 other singers. 2 main female singers, one of whom is a dancer. 8 other female singers.
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The troupe, having half the above strength, is madhyama; less than the latter is called Kanistha.
Closely following the Mukharin, his tempo (laya) making up the deficiencies, observing the timing (tāla )--these are the merits of a troupe, the lack of any of these merits constitutes a defect.
GAUNDALI Gaundali is the designation of a kind of female dancer. Hence the dance, performed by her, is also called Gaundali. This mode of dance is called Gaundali-paddhati as distinguished from Suddha-padihati. Gaundali is devoid of vigorous instrumental compositions and songs like Elā, accompanied by vocal Salagasīda compositions like Dhruva. The dancer dances with gentler movements of the limbs, using the Lāsyāngas. She herself sings, and plays on the Trivali instrument. Some reject this instrument as the wearing of the Trivalt on the shoulder is not decent for a girl. If this dancer does not sing, she is called Mükagaunduli.
Her dress is to be that of the region called Karņāļaka. This mode of dance is called deśrpaddhati,

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PERANIN
A kind of dancer is called Peranin He will be as follows:
Body smeared with white powder such as ash, shaved head with a tuft of hair, wearing a number of shining anklet bells tied to the sharks, good voice, expert in the arts of timing and tempo, attracting the mind of the audience. The dance of a Peranin has five elements, viz. (i) Gharghara -special training in the sounding of anklet
bells. (ii) Visama -it denotes Utplutikaraņas (Karaņas with
jumps). (iii) Bhāvāśraya-imitation of ludicrous things for comic
effect. (iv) Kavicāra description of the hero of high character. (v) Gita --Salaga songs prescribed for the Gaundali.
ĀCĀRYA
The Ācārya will be as follows :
Versed in the theory and practice of dance, vocal and instrumental music, eloquent in speech, handsome in appearance and dress, expert in eulogy in a pleasing manner, humorous in assemblies, expert in playing musical instruments.
AUDIENCE The people, gathering in the hall of dance, should be as follows:
Possessed of moderate views, attention, eloquence, skill in Nyāya, discrimination between right and wrong types of dance, modesty; versed in Rasas and Bhāvas, three kinds of Samgita, critical of those who talk in. correctly, clever, free from jealousy, possessed of hearts overflowing with Rasa.

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Dance
SABHĀPATI The President of the assembly should be as follows :
Of an amorous disposition, generous, honourable, discriminating between dancers, rich, appreciative of even slight merit, interesied in entertainments, eloquent, free from jealousy, clever in jokes, intelligent, dignified, skilled in arts, well-versed in Sastras, desirous of fame, pleasanttongued, capable of understanding others' minds, judicious, possessed of good memory, versed in the three branches of Samgita, charitably disposed, possessed of all instruments, the knowledge of the distinction between Mārga and Desi, capable of distinguishing deficiencies and excesses, learned, bold, impartial, having command over attendants, capable of aesthetic appreciation, full of Rasa, truthful, highborn, having a gracious face, steady in affection, grateful, kind, virtuous, afraid of sins, friendly to scholars.
SEATING ARRANGEMENTS IN ASSEMBLY The President should occupy the lion-seat. To his left will be members of the harem and to his right the chieftains. Behind the chieftains should be the treasurer. Near them will sit scholars versed in worldly and Vedic lore, with them should be poets of aesthetic taste, clever in various styles. In the centre of scholars will remain honoured physicians and astrologers. On the right is the Council of Ministers along with Chiefs of the army. Men and women of aesthetic taste should sit around the members of the harem and in front of the king Behind the king will stand beautiful young girls carrying chowries and making a jingling sound of the bangles. On the left of the king, in front, will sit composers of songs, story-tellers, bards, scholars and flatterers. Around them will the attendants of the king. There should be some clever men holding canes. The bodyguards of the king should stand on all sides with weapons in hands.
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Poses of hands
Various poses of different limbs (anga ) and sub-limbs (pratyanga) have been prescribed. Some of hese are applicable in dance, while others are used in acting ( abhinaya ) It is not possible, within the limited space of this little book, to describe all of them. We, therefore, confine ourselves to a description of the hand-poses alone. Among these again, we shall describe only a few prominent ones.
Some of the roses are prescijbed for the single hand, while others are to te made with both the hands togeiher.
Poses of the single hand Patāka
In it, the thumb is bent, touches the root of the forefinger; the palm and fingers are outstictched and the fingers are pressed against one another. Arāla
In it, each finger, beginning with the forefirger, is se parated from the next with increasing inte vals, and is higher and higher and slightly bent, while the forefinger is curved like bow and the thumb bent. Padmakośa
In it. the thumb and the other fingers are bent like a bow, separated from each other with tips not attached to one another. Musţi
In it, the tips of fingers remain compact in the middle of the palm, not covered (by the fingers ), and the thumb is pressed against the middle finger. Sikhara
It takes place when the thumb of the Musţi pose is turned upwards. Kapittha
In it, the tip of the forefinger of Sikhara touches the tip of the thumb.

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Hamsapaksa
In it, the three fingers, beginning with the forefinger of patāka, are slightly bent at the roots. Khaủakāmukha
In it, the ring finger and the little finger of the kapittha pose are thrown upwards, separated and bent.
Poses of the Samyukta (combined) hands
Kapota
In it, the two hands are joined at their bases, tips and sides. Svastika
In it, the two hands, with one wrist placed over the other, face upwards at the left side of the body. Dolu
In it, the two hands in the Patāka, pose hang down with relaxed shoulders and loose fingers.
Makara
In it, the hands, in the form of Patāka, face downwards and are placed one upon another, with the thumbs stretched upwards.
The above poses of the hand are to be used in Abhinaya.
The following are some of the poses employed in Nịtta (dance). Caturaśra
In it, two Khaļakāmukha hands, in the same level with elbows and shoulders, face forward in front of the chest at à distance of eight inches from it. Svastika
It takes place when there is Svastika with two Hamsapaksa hands not touching each other.

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Arālakhatakamukha
In it, two hands in Patāka are crossed in Svastika and then swung inwards and outwards. Then forming the Padmakośa pose, facing upwards, they are again caused to swing inward and outward alternately. Then the left hand assumes the Arāla pose facing upward and the right the Khaļakāmukha facing downward forming Caturaśra.
Recita
It is the name of the two hands stretched out with palms upward.
Latākara
It takes place when the two Patāka hands, stretched crosswise, are caused to swing. Varadābhaya
In it, the right and left hands in the Arāla pose assume the Varada (giving boon) and Abhaya ( granting
protection against fear) poses next to the corresponding hip. Alapadma
In it, two Alapallava hands, near the chest, are made to approach the shoulders with the Udvestita movement and then stretched out.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A
INDIAN AND WESTERN MUSIC
Now-a-days there is a tendency to westernise Indian music at least to some extent. Before introducing western methods and spirit, we must understand the basic difference between the two systems.
The fundamental difference between the two systems is that, while Indian music rests on melody, Wes ern music is founded on harmony. In an Indian song, the successive concordant notes produce a definite rāga The harniony of the west is dependent upon the concord of different notes related to one another. The melody in India has a uniform unchanged mood: time and tune make a homogeneous unit. In Indian music, the balance is effected by time-variations and grace. In western music mood is used to articulate the balance of the whole piece'. In India, the prominent notes and the mutual relation of the individual notes are fixed by long tradition. In the west, the principal notes are made by the transient impulse of the harmony; in it what maiters is a group of notes and not the individual ones. In India, melody depends upon the relation of fixed notes which vary in accordancc with the rāga; it has no concern with development through notes suggesting harmony. In the west, melodies centre around notes harmonically connected with the tonic. Consequently, imitation at different stages, though common in western music, is very rare in the Indian system. In India gamakas (tremor of the notes) are deliberate as these are considered to add to the grace of songs. In the west, these are accidental embellishments. The use of microtones distinguishes Indian music from the western. In Indian songs, conformity with the

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classical standards is all-important; in it accuracy and skill are treated as more important than the quality of the tone. The tune, melody and rhythm are all with which it is concerned. In western music, the quality of the voice and the charm are important factors.
Another feature which distinguishes Indian music from the western is that wbile the former develops a single emotion, the latter frequently changes the moods. There is a fundamental difference between the systems of rhythm in the music of India and Europe. “The highly developed tāla or rhythinic system, with its avoidance of strict metre and its development by the use of an accumulating combination of beat sub divisions, has no parallel in western music On the other hand, the Indian system has no exact counterpart to the tone of the tempered system, except for the keynote, of western music.” 1
There cannot be a more fitting finale to this topic than the following quotation from Rabindranaib Tagore who, in his inimitable language, brings out the distinction between the aims underlying the two systems of music :
“Our music draws the listener away beyond the limits of everyday human joys and sorrows. and takes us to that lonely region of renunciation which lies at the root of the universe, while European music leads us to a variegated dance through the endless rise and fall of human grief and joy.”
1. See D. P. Singhal : India and World Civilisation, I, p. 222.

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APPENDIX
B
INFLUENCE OF INDIAN MUSIC ABROAD
That there was brisk contact of India not only with her Asian neighbours, but also with such far-off regions as Egypt, Greece etc. is borne out by historical evidence. This contact was established through maritime trade, religious activities, especially the propagation of Buddhism, political domination and military invasions.
In the domain of music, there are some points of similarity between the Indian system and that in vogue in certain other countries. While, in some cases, this might be accidental coincidence or parallel development, in others the influence of India is a historical fact.
The accounts of India, left by the Chinese travellers, Fa-hien, Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing, bear eloquent testimony to cultural intercourse between our country and China. It was probably in the Gupta age (320 A.D. to the first half of the seventh century) that there was a diffusion of Indian culture in the countries of the middle and east Asia, particularly in China. Kuchi in Central Asia was then a centre of the cultiva. tion of Indian music. There is evidence of the prevalence of our music in Kashgarh and Khotan too. It is probable tbat the Indian artists of Kuchi carried this art to China. It found an honoured place even in the royal courts of China. In 581 A.D., at the invitation of the then Chinese Emperor, many Indian .musicians went to that country. An Indian artist, named Sujīva, adorned the royal court of China in the period between 560 and 578 A.D. An expert Viņā-player, he used
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to train the music-lovers of China in the modes of Indian rāgas. It appears that the Chinese used to cultivate Indian music down to the 9th-10th centuries. Ancient Chinese manuscripts testify to their familiarity with the seven svaras, grāmas, mārchanās etc. of the Indian system of music. According to some, the musical notes of China have been modelled on those of India. It is significant that at least three Chinese notes correspond to the three svaras called Sadja, Rşabha and Pañcama. In the sixth century, Korea was also a seat of Indian music. From China and Korea it travelled to Japan. Indian colonies in Champa or Kambuja may have played a part in the transmission of Indian music to Japan. According to an ancient Japanese tradition, two chief types of music, called Bodhisattva and Bairo, were imported from China to Japan by an Indian Brahmin named. Bodhi. Bodhisattva is evidently an Indian appellation. Bairo seems to have been derived from the Indian rāga Bhairava which is still called Bhairo in Hindi.
of the Far Eastern countries-Java, Bali, Sumatra and Cambodia looked upon our music with respect, and actively cultivated it.
Some songs of Tibet, particularly those of the devotional character, appear to have elements in imitation of the Sāman songs.
According to some scholars, the musical instruments like the harp, which resemble the Indian viņā, were borrowed from India by such ancient lands as Greece, Egypt, Alexandria etc.
There are certain striking parallelisms between the Indian and Greek systems of music. For example, the two earliest scales of Greece, called Mixolydic and Doric, have resemblance with early Indian scales. Pythagoras' scheme of cycle of the fifth and cycle of the fourth in musical system correspond to the sadja-pañcuma and sadja-madhyama bhavas of the Natyaśāstra. Though mere likeness of the two systems is no evidence of one borrowing from the other, yet the probability of

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Influence of Indian music abroad
Indian: influence on Greece cannot be ruled out. It should be borne in mind that Indian music, dating back to the Rgvedic period, is definitely older than the Greek. In this connexion, it deserves notice that some ancient Greek writers claim that the greater part of their music was borrowed from Asia. Strabo, among others, shares their view. Alexander's biographer, Arrian, knew of the Indians' love of music since early times. Aristotle's description of a lyre reminds one of the Indian ekatantri viņā. Curt Sachs thinks that the South Indian drum tambattam was known in Babylonia by the name of timbutu. According to him, the South Indian Kinnari was King David's Kinnor
The Arab writer, Jahiz, informs us that Indian music was popular in the Abbasid court. He records an Indian musical instrument, called kankalah, containing a string stretched on a pumpkin. It appears to be the kingar made with two gourds. Another source records a book on Indian tunes and melodies. Some technical terms of Arabian music appear to have been borrowed from Persia and India. The Arabic maqam iqa appears to be Persian rendering of Indian melodic rhythmic system. Yehudi Menuhin is certain that some element of Indian music became the mainstay of Arabic music.

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APPENDIX
INFLUENCE OF TANTRA ON MUSIC
In certain works on music, we find mention of nādis (artery, vein), cakras (circles) etc. within the body in connexion with the genesis of nāda, śruti, svara etc. We briefly state below what Śărrigadeva says about these things. It may be added that the human body, regarded as a microcosm, has been the subject of vigorous dicussion in the Tantra. In fact, an important way of Tantric meditation is to look inward and to awaken the kulakundalini, the vital life-force fancied as a serpent coiling at the bottom of the upper part of the body.
CAKRA The following cakras are supposed to be within the human body:
Ādhāra---in between the anus and the penis. Supposed
to have four petals. Svadhisthāna-in the region of the navel. 10 petals. Anähata--in the heart. 12 petals. Visuddhi--in the throat. 16 petals. Lalanā--in the forehead. 12 petals Ājñā - in between the brows. 3 petals. Manas--above the ā isā-cakra. 6 petals. Soma---above the manas. 16 petals. Sudhādhara---in the Brahmarandhra, an aperture in
the crown of the head through which the soul is
said to escape at the time of death. 1000 petals. The Visuddhi-cakra is said to be the resort of the svaras sadja etc. śārnigadeva holds that tire soul, residing in the eighth and some other petals, desires; success in music. By the

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77
sixth and some other petals of it songs etc. are spoilt. Resort to eight petals, begining with the eighth, causes success in songs etc. Its sixteenth petal is their destroyer. The tenth and and eleventh petals of Lalanā give success. The first and some other petals of it are destroyers. The soul in Brahmarandhra seems to be satisfied being drenched in ambrosia, and accomplishes the best kind of songs etc. The soul, in other petals and cakras, never achieves perfect success in songs etc.
Sārngadeva says that two angulas above Adhāra-cakra and two angulas below the genital organ there is a cakra called dehumadhya measuring one angula. In it there is a slender flame of fire. At a distance of nine angulas from it there is the body-root four angulas in height and width; it is called Brahmagranthi. In it there is nābhicakra with twelve petals. There the soul travels like a spider in the cobweb.
NĀDIS Nādis are said to be infinite. Of them, the important are :
Suşumņā, idā, pirgalā, kuhū, sarasvati, gāndhāri, hastijihvā, văruni, yaśasvini, viúvodarā, śamkhinī, pūşā, payasvinī.
VÄYU The following ten kinds of wind are supposed to exist within the body :
Prana, apāna, vyāna, samāna, udāna, nāga, kūrma, krkara, devadatta and dhanañjaya.
Of these, the chief is prāņa. Remaining below the navel it moves about in the mouth, nostrils and heart. It is the source of inhalation, exhalation, cough etc. Apāna is the source of sound; it remains in the anus, penis, hips, thighs and belly.
According to Śārngacieva, the soul climbing the prāņa-vāyu, ascends up to Brahmarandhra through Susumņā and descends.
Nāda is twofold-anāhata (non-struck) and ähata (struck). Anāhata, which is changeless and inaudible, is only a subject of meditation in the way taught by the spiritual guide. It is devoid of delightfulness to people. Āhata, pleasant to people

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though śruti etc., is the source of Śruti and the like, and expands songs; it is everchanging.
In the heart, twenty-two nāļis are supposed to be joined with the upward artery. These exist in an oblique manner. As a result of wind striking against them, twenty-two śrutis come into being; these śrutis are of a gradually higher pitch. Similarly, twenty-two śrutis are admitted in the throat and the head.
The use of mudrās or positions of hands etc. in connexion with samgita, particularly with dance, seems to testify to
Tāntric influence. The idea of mudrās, as symbolising feelings. moods, sentiment etc., probably originated in the Vedic period. In Vedic rituals, various poses of hands were adopted by the singer of Sāmans. The mudrās, however, along with mystical diagrams called mandala and yantra, were highly developed in connexion with Tāntric rites. It may be that, with the diffusion of Tantric rites, the mudrās came to be included in larger number in the works on music.
Śiva and Śakti are the two fundamental principles of the Tāntric philosophy. In the musical lore, too, there is a tradition that Rāgas and Rägiņis, which form the basis of vocal music, emanated respectively from Śiva and Śakti. According to one tradition, one rāga emanated from each mouth of Siva, and one rāga from the mouth of Pārvati.

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APPENDIX
D'
NON-ARYAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN MUSIC
Indian culture is a composite one comprising heterogeneous elements. Through ages it has assimilated many things not only from the various strands of culture spread over the vast sub-continent. The rites and rituals of the Aryans, their Šāstras and arts reveal their indebtedness to non-Aryan tribes. India has been a target of foreign invasions ever since the early times. Hordes of Sakas, Hunas, Parthians, Muslims etc. and people of various European countries invaded this land and sometimes settled here in large number and became naturalised. After the invasion of Alexandar. (c. 326 B.C.), there was a brisk cultural exchange between Greece and India. Greek principalities were established in parts of this country. Besides invasions for political and military ends, there was intercourse among the Indians and the foreigners, particularly with the peoples of the different countries of Asia. Thus, there was ample scope of fusion of culture, at least in some fields, among the Indians and her neighbours, far and near. The diverse fabrics of different lands and of various races and tribes of India were woven into the complex and colourful texture of this land.
In the realm of music, we find elements derived from non-Aryan sources and foreign lands. We shall briefly deal with these elements. The names of certain Rāgas and Raginis clearly indicate their origin among the non-Aryan tribes inhabiting the different regions of India. Saka, Pulindi, Abhiri, Šāberikā and Bhairava appear to have been derived respectively from Śakas, Pulindas, Ābhiras, Šabaras and Bhairavas. Mālava ( along with its derivatives Mālayasri, Mālavakausika

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etc.), Andhri and Gurjari probably owe their origin to the tribes known as Mālavas, Andhras and Gurjaras. The name Velāvali is probably derived from vela-ūlli, a Dravidian word. Todi, derived from Tuddi, Aśāvarī and Dhannāsikā have no meaning in Sanskrit; these appear to have originated from foreign sources. The names Chevātī, Kaccoli and Geranji are clearly non-Aryan. Kamboji, Khâmbāja or Khāmācı was probably imported from Kambuja which may have been the region
his name situated in the north-west of India or it may refer to Cambodia in the Far East, Matanga, in his Bșhaddesi, thinks Kambojí to be non-Aryan; opinions, however, differ on this point. The names Turuska-todi, Turuska-gauda indicate a mixture of Turkish elements with the Indian. The name Boļša is taken by some to have been deri ved from Bhoțța or Bhoța which refers to Tibet. Bhammāņa, according to some, hints at its Armenian origin; of commercial contacts of the Armenians with India there is ample evidence. Takka-rāga is considered by some to be a contribution of the non-Aryan Takka race.
Some of the authors of' Sanskrit works on music were aware of the foreign elements of the rāgas. For instance, in his Bịhaddesi, Matanga says 'samkirņā ca matā nityam jñeyā vaideśasanbhavā'-it is mixed and originated in a foreign land

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APPENDIX
E'
(I) Pañcamasāra-samhitā Ascribed to Nārada To Nārada the following works on music are ascribed : (i) Nārdiyā Śikṣā”, (ii) Samgita-makaranda, (iii) Catvāriņsacchata-rāga-nirūpana or Raganirūpaņas, (iv) Pañcama-sāra-samhitā or Pañcama-samhitā.
The last one has not yet been printed. Svāmī Prajñānānanda, in his Bengali work Samgita O Samsksti, mentions a manuscript of this work (No. 5040) belonging to Asiatic society, Calcutta. Since then another MS, has been found in Bangiya Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta (No. 716) The Asiatic Society MS., entitled Pañcamasamhitā, contains only the third chapter called Raganirnaya. The other one contains four chapters. It is difficult to say whether or not it represents the complete work. At the end, it contains the chapter-colophon only, but does not indicate that the work is concluded. It is dated Śaka 1700 (=1778 AD). The third chapter of this MS. shows considerable divergence from the Asiatic Socity MS. The text, presented here, is based on the fuller MS. of the Bangiya Sāhitya Parişat. The divergences in the third chapter, contained in the Asiatic Society MS., will be clear on comparison of the two texts; the text of the Society MS. has been transcribed in Appendix E (2). The variants are considerable in number and striking in nature. This leads us to the conclusion that the two MSS. either represent distinct manuscript traditions or there were interpolations in any one of them. 1 (i) Benares ed., 1893 (with comm. by Bhattaśobhākara)
(ii) Calcutta ed., 1890. 2 Ed. GOS, No. XVI, Baroda, 1920. 3 Ed. Aryabhūşaņa Press, 1836.
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The fuller MS. is full of corrupt readings; portions of it are illegible Yet, the text is presented here with the idea that the scholars can see what this hitherto unpublished text, associated with the name of Narada, contains.
A re'sume' of the contents, based on the imperfect text, is set forth below. The first chapter, incomplete in the beginning, traces the origin of music to Bharata etc. Rambhā is credited with the authorship of the Samguasamhita. The origin of dance in heaven is mentioned. Bharata is also said to have made a Samhita which gained currency on earth. Bharata and others are said to have created a Nata (dancer) named Bhadra who entertained all in heaven, on earth as well as in the nether world He was followed by Subhadra, Atibhadra and Virabhadra. His immediate successor cannot be ascertained from the corrupt text He is said to have excelled even his father in merits. The son of Virabhadra is said to have put all musicians to shame. Virabhadra's son acquired fame which spread far and wide. His sons and grandsons also became extremely famous as Natas. Some of them settled in Dvārakā, some in the East while others resorted to the North and the South. Those who settled in the East were mostly proficient in various Śāstras and were the best. They used to sing beautiful songs, dance superbly and described various Sastras and Kavyas. The Natas, who are self restrained and faithful to their own profession, are protected by the Brahmins versed in the Vedas as well as by the people in general.
Chapter II opens with an eulogy of Natya (dramatic art); it has been said to be conducive to the four ends of human life. This is followed by praise of songs. One who sings a song, be it out of greed for money, for pleasure or on the spur of the moment, lives in the company of God for thousand years.
A Nayaka (hero) is high-born, handsome, possessed of the spirit of sacrifice, successful, endowed with good look, merits, youth and enthusiasm and learned. Vadya follows gita, laya follows vadya. All this accords with the desire of the Nayaka.

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Appendix E
.
Nyt va is said to be the combination of dhātu and mātrā. Dhatu consists in nāda, which is its essential element. Mātrā consists of a number of letters. The wind, called Prāņa, goes up to Brahmarandhra." Then through the mouth it emanates as nāda.
He is a true singer who sings clearly, with purity in accordance with the Šāstra, with a sweet voice and is free from the eight faults. The faults are : curved throat, swollen throat, closing of the eyes, shutting the mouth, eyes turned up, eyes turned downward, shaking of the head and bending of ihe body
This is followed by the qualifications of the player of the mrdanga, the dancer, the Vidūşaka and the Nāyikā (heroine).
Abhinaya (acting) is defined as the imitation of a condition. It is fourfold : āngika (done with gestures and postures ), vācika (vocal) āhārya (done with costumes) and sättvika. The last o!e is eightfold-sweat, horripilation, hoarseness of voice, trembling body, faded complexion, tears, stupefaction or motionlessness, pralaya (fainting, loss of conciousness).
One, who is not pleased with a charming song, is said to be a human beast.
Samgita consits in gita (song), vādya (instrumental music) and nrtya (dance). The dance of males is called Tāndava, while that of females is designated as lāsya. Instruments are fourfold--(i) Tata--e.g. viņā etc.
(ii) Susira-e.g. vamsi etc. (iii) Anaddha-covered with leather.
(iv) Ghana-bell, cymbal etc. These four classes belong respectively to gods, Gandharvas, Räksasa and human beings. In all kinds of instruments Goddess Sarasvati herself lives of the four classes, murāja (tabour) is į An aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is
supposed to escape on its leaving the body.

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the chief; all other instruments become charming in the association of it.
The third chapter, called Rāganirņaya, holds that rāgas are six while rāginis are thirty-six. The six rāgas areMälava, Mallāra, śii, Vasanta, Hindola and Karņāța. As a general rule, it is provided that these rāgas should be sung after ten dandas at night. Meghamallāra can be sung at any time. The proper time for Vasanta is from Śrīpañcamīl up to the time when Hari goes to sleep.2 No restriction as to time need be observed on the stage and at the command of the king.
The song of a particular rāga should be followed by that of its wife; but the wife of another must be avoided. In this matter also, there is no harm if the king orders otherwise.
The 15 rāgiņis, called Vibhāsā, Lalitā, Kāmodā, Pathamañjarī, Rāmakeli, Rāmakīrī, Veloyāri, Gurjarī, Deśakārī, Subhagā, Pañcami, Gatā (?). Tudi, Bhairavi, Kaumārī, are to be sung in the morning. Varādi, Māyūrī. Kodā, Vairāgi, Dhāpusi, Velāvali, Mārāțhi—these 7 should be sung at noon. Gāndhārī, Dipikā, Kalyāni, Pūravī, Asvavări, Kānadā, Gaurī, Kedārā, Pāhidā, Mādhavi, Mālasī, Lāțī, Bhūpāli, Sinduļā—these fourteen are to be sung in the evening.
The rāgiņis, belonging to the respective rāgas, are stated below: Mālava-Dhānusi, Mālasī, Rāmakiri, Sinduļā,
Asvavări, Bhairavi. Mallāra--Velāvali, Pūravī, lānaďā, Mădhavi,
Kodā, Kedārikā. Śri--Gāndhāri. Subhagā, Gauri, Kaumārikā,
Veloyāri, Vairāgi. Vasanta–Tuļi, Pañcami, Lalitā, Pathamañjari,
Gurjarī, Vibhāṣā.
1
Te fifth lunar mansion of the bright half in the nionth of Māgha, also called Vasant-pancami. On this day Goddess Sarasvati is worshipped. The eleventh day of the bright half of the month of Asådha when Vişnu is supposed to lie down to enjoy four months' repose.
2

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85
Hindola---Mayuri, Dipika, Desakāri, Pāhidā.
Vārāļi, Mārāțhí. Karņāta-Năţikā Bhūpālī, Rāmakeli, Kāmodī, Kalyāṇī,
Gatā (?). Next follow the dhyānas (figures to be medidated upon) of the different rāgas and rāgiņīs. These are in various metres and couched in elegant language which reveal the poetic gifts of the author.
The above account is based on the manuscript belonging to the Bangiya Sahitya Parişat. The other manuscript appears to represent a shorter version. It omits many of the preliminary verses. After two introductory verses, both of which are absent in the Sahitya Parisat MS., it sets forth the names of rāgas followed by those of the rāginis. The other noteworthy divergences between the two manuscripts are set forth below.
For Sinduďā of the Parişat MS., the Society Ms. reads Sindhujā, Aśvart of the formeris Āśoārı of the latter. Kaumārikā of the former corresponds to Kumārikā of the latter.
Among the rāgiņis, to be sung in the morning, the first is Vibhāṣā in the Parişat MS., while it is Ahiri in the other one; the latter name does not occur in the Parişat MS. Among the rāgas to be sung at noon, the Mãyūrī of the Parisat MS.
laced by Madhavi in the Society MS. Ragini Dhānusi of the former corresponds to Dhànasi of the latter.
As regards the time appropriate for singing the rāgas, while the Parişat MS. provides the night after leaving the first ten daņdas, the Society MS. ordains two periods, viz. within ten dandas of pradosa (nightfall). In connexion with the rāga Meghamallāra, the Parişat MS reads sarvāsu sarvadā; the Society MS. reads, evidently with more aptness, varsāsu for sarvāsu. As regards the period suitable for Vasanta rāga, the Parisat MS. ordains the time from Śripañcamí up to the śayana of Hari. The Society MS, extends the limit up to the time of Durgapūjā.

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"The dhyānas of the rāgas and rāgiņrs, occurring in the two MSS, reveal considerable divergences, not only verbal but also material.
The fourth chapter deals with Tālas, and traces their genesis in heaven. One hundred and one Tālas are said to have been iptroduced on the earth. This portion of the MS is extremely corrupt so that it is not possible to make out a coherent account of its contents. It can be gathered that, by means of laghu, guru, pluta etc., different Tālas have been described. The names of Tālas, which can be gathered from this portion, are as follows: ekatāla, yatitala, şatpadī, vişamasandhi, rūpaka, astakatāla, apūrvakalā haragaurī, jhampaka, yamaka, daśakusi, kundasekhara, vastütāla, sarvamanohara.
The name of Nārada, with which the work is associated, appears to give a stamp of antiquity to it. But, an examination of its contents leads to a contrary conclusion.
The use of the term rāgiņi is a pointer to its later origin. This word has not been used in early works on music. Even such a late work as the Samgita-ratnākara of Sārngadeva (13th. cent. A.D.) divides rāgas into three classes, viz. Bhāsā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāśā; this work does rot mention the term “răgini'. The Samgita-makaranda (c. 11th cent. A.D.); ascribed to Nārada, is, perhaps, the earliest work to classify rāgas as male, female and neuter; even this work does not use the word rāgiņi.
The number of rāgiņis as 36 is another proof against the antiquity of the work.
The above facts, together with the language, style and contents of the work, tend to indicate that it was a populai compendium composed by a late writer who fathered it on Nārada in order to impart a halo of authority and antiquity to it.
It is difficult to determine the provenance of this work. It is, however, significant that, in the first chapter, the artists

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Appendix E
of the eastern region (pracyah have been highly praised. Still more significant is what seems to be Radha contained in the verse following the one in which the word 'pracya' occurs. The actors of this place have been stated to be the best (uttama). Rāḍha or Radha was the name of the portion of West Bengal on the western bank of the Bhagirathi, and extended in the south up to Damodara and, probably to the Rūpanārāyaṇa river. In an ancient work, it comprised also the northern part of the Ganges. The praise of the eastern people, particularly of those inhabiting Radha, seems to indicate that the author was a Bengali. The fact that both the manuscripts of the work, discovered hitherto, are in the Bengali script, appears to lend countenance to this assumption. In this connexion, it may be pointed out that, in the Asiatic Society MS., the period appropriate for Vasant-raga has been stated to extend from Sripañcami up to the time of Durga-mahotsava. Durga-pūjā, in this name, is a great festival in Bengal, Bihar and Assam. This accords well with the praise of the men of the east (pracyah), especially of Radha. The mention of the tāla Daśakuś, which is definitely known to have originated in Bengal, seems to point to Bengal the origin of the work.
The divergences between the Pañcamasamhita on the one hand and the Naradiya Sikṣā and the Samgitamakaranda on the other are too many to warrant the assumption of the common authorship of these three works. The divergences will be clear even to a superficial reader. So, we do not take up their detailed discussion here.

संगीतम्
ततः सङ्गीतकं कृत्वा ग्रन्थं सर्वे पृथक् पृथक् । आनन्दयन् देवराजं शिष्यास्ते भरतादयः || रम्भया रचिता ततः स्वर्गे सङ्गीतसंहिता ।
प्रचकार
प्रचकार च
Zazzazn
तया...... नाटयानुष्ठान......॥ पाताले हुहुस्ता ... संहिताम् । संहिता भूतले स्थिता ॥
87

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88
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance संहितानां प्रचाराय... ..भरतादयः । भदं नाम नटं चक्रुस्ततो ध्यान(?)प्रभावतः ।। अव्याहतगतिः स्वगे पाताले च तथा भुवि । अनुष्ठानेन गीतानां ततः सर्वानतोषयत् ।। सुभद्रश्चातिभद्रश्च वीरभद्रस्ततः परं । भद्र...विश्वभद्रो
भद्र...॥ तस्य पुत्रः सुभद्रोऽभूत्पितुरप्यधिको गुणैः । येनेयं पृथिवी सर्वा धन्येति मन्यते जगत् ॥ अतिभद्रस्ततो जज्ञे सर्वभद्रतरो गुणैः । सर्वशास्त्रानुसारेण सर्वतो...रअनम् ॥ पुत्रोऽतिभद्रस्य च वीरभद्रो । बभूव
यस्तुम्बुरुतुल्यगीतिः ।। दिव्येन गानेन महेशतोषं । विधाय सोऽवाप गणाधिपत्यम् ।। वीरभद्रतनयो भद्रपाणिविश्वविश्रुतकीर्तिः । भूतं भव्यं भवेत्सर्व हस्तेन कुरुते समक्षम् ॥ सुरवरभुजगानां मोहनं यस्य गीतम् । मुनिगण....लजित विश्वमासोत् ॥ जलनिधिहदमध्यादुत्थितः पद्मराजां । जगति विदितकीर्तिः..... ।। आसीत्तु तनयो भद्रकर्मा शास्त्रविचक्षणः । इतिहासप्रबन्धेन मुनीनामपि सस्ततः ।। तस्य पुत्राश्च पौत्राश्च बभूवुः चरमोज्ज्वलाः । वसुश्च नटवंशोऽयमेवं......तथा ।। द्वारकामाश्रिताः केचि....पुरेस्थिताः । केचित्प्राच्यामुदीच्यां च दक्षिणस्यां तथावरे ।। जितेन्द्रियाः सदाचाचारास्ते नटाः पुनरुत्तमाः। प्राच्यां प्रायेण गुणिनो नानाशास्त्रविचक्षण ।। राढायां(?) संस्थिता ये च ते नटाः पुनरुत्तमाः। ये गायन्ति सुगीतानि नृत्यन्ति च विचक्षणाः ।। नानाशास्त्रं च काव्यं च वर्ण्यन्ते कथयन्ति च । रञ्जयन्ति समाः सर्वास्ते नटाः पुनरुत्तमाः ॥ पारंपायेंण विदितो नटवंशो महागुणः । स्वगे मर्त्य च पाताले सङ्गीत...॥ ये नटाः पुण्यकर्माणः स्ववृत्तिस्था जितेन्द्रियाः । गुप्तास्ते श्रोत्रियैः सर्वैविप्रैर्जनसमुच्चयैः ।। इति श्रीनारदकृतपञ्चमसारसंहितायां प्रथमोऽध्यायः ।

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देवर्षिक्षितिपालपूर्वरचितानालोक्य धर्मादिना तद्भावाश्रितभूमिकाभिनयने स्यादर्थसिद्धिः पुरा । संगीतादृतचित्तवृत्ति......भवत्यङ्गना ...श्रीयुतशंकरेण कथितं नाट्यं चतुर्वर्गदम् ॥ यो वित्तलोभेन सुखेन वापि हठेन वा गायति गीतमात्रम् । स वर्तते वर्षसहरूमीशपुरोगमः सर्वगणाग्रणीशः ।। त्यागी कृती कुलीनः सुश्रीको रूपयौवनोत्साही । ....नुरक्तो लोको भवति विदग्धोऽत्र नायको गुणवान्।। गीतस्यानुगतं वाद्य वाद्यस्यानुगतो लयः । चित्तवृत्ति यकस्य सर्वमेवानुगच्छति ।। धातुमात्रासमायोगो नृत्यमित्यभिधीयते । तत्र नादात्मको धातुर्मात्रा त्वक्षरसंचयः ।। ऊर्ध्वगो हृदयस्थानान्मारुतः प्राणसंज्ञकः । ब्रह्मरन्ध्रात्पतन् वक्त्रान्नाद आविर्भवत्यसौ ।। व्यक्तं शुद्ध यथाशास्त्रं दोषाष्टकविवर्जितम । सुकण्ठं ध्वनिना नित्यं यो गायति स गायनः ।। तिर्यगुत्फुल्लगलता . चक्षुराननमीलनम् । ऊर्ध्वाधोदशिर कम्पः प्रहूवता गानदूषणम् ॥ अदीर्घ ...गुरि तीक्ष्णबुद्धिः परिस्फुर... पाणिः
सद्विबुधः श्री वेष्टः सुसद्विद्वान् कथितो मृदङ्गः। ...क्षमावान् शरणी...पटुतरो मञ्जु सङ्गीतशास्त्रे कुशलो रसज्ञः पात्रोत्तमोऽयं किल नृत्यशास्त्रे ॥ कुसुमवसन्तोऽद्य विधुकर्मवपुर्वेशभाषाथैः । हास्यकरकलहरुचिर्विदूषकः कथितो जनः ॥ पत्रावलीचित्रविलासलीला
विभूषणश्रीमन्मदैकवेशा । लावण्यभाराभिनयप्रवीणा
सा नायिका संकथिता कवीन्द्रैः ।।
M-12

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भवेदभिनयोऽवस्थानुकारः स चतुर्विधः । आङ्गिको वाचिकचैवमाहार्य : सात्त्विकस्तथा ॥ स्तम्भः स्वेदोऽथ रोमाञ्चः स्वरभङ्गश्च वेपथुः । वैवर्ण्यमश्रुप्रलयमित्यष्टौ सात्त्विका मताः ॥ संगीतकेन रम्येण सुखं यस्य न चेतसि । मनुष्य पशुरुक्तोऽय विषयैरेव वञ्चितः ॥
गीतं वाद्यं च नृत्य नृत्यं ताण्डवं प्राहुः
च त्रिभिः संगीतकं विदुः । स्त्रीनृत्यं लास्यमुच्यते ॥
ततं सुषिरमानद्धं घनं वाद्यं चतुर्विधम् । ततं वीणादिकं वाद्यं वंश्यादि सुषिरं
मतम् ॥
घनम् ।
चर्मावनद्धमानद्ध कांस्यतालादिकं तं वाद्यं तु देवानां गन्धर्वाणां तु सौषिरम् । आनद्ध राक्षसानां तु मानवानां घनं विदुः ॥ निजावतारो गोविन्दः सर्वमेवातारयत् क्षितौ । चतुर्विधेषु वाद्येषु स्वयं वसति भारती | एतेषां .. • भोक्ता स्वयम् । चतुर्विधेषु वाद्येषु प्रधानं मुरजो मतः । यस्य संयोगवाद्यमासाद्य सर्व वाद्य सुशोभनम् ॥
नारायणः
1
मृदङ्गः पद्मिनीपुत्रो... दावणे निवसेन्नित्य मृडानी सह शंकरः ॥
रचितस्ता
गणेशस्ताक्षरे ब्रह्मा धीवर्णे निवसेत् स्वयम् । .. बणे निवसेद्विष्णुर्दाक्षरे रुद्रसंस्थितिः ।।
इति श्रीनारदकृत पश्चमसारसंहितायां द्वितीयोऽध्यायः ।

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श्रीवृन्दावनचन्द्रस्य
सङ्गीतकविलासिनः ।
गोप्यः षोडशसाहस्रसंख्या...गताः ॥ संगीतवाद्यं मुरली स्वयं कृष्णो निषेवते । विभूव गोपीषु सेवेयं हरिलीलया || गोपीभिर्गातुमारब्धमेकैकं प्रियसन्निधौ । तेन जातानि रागाणां सहस्राणि च षोडश ॥ मेरोरुत्तरतः पूर्वे पश्चिमे दक्षिणे तथा । समुद्रकच्छे ये देशास्तवामीषां प्रचारणा ।। भारतो यश्च भूभागः पारम्पर्योपदेशतः । रागाः षडथ रागिण्यः षट्त्रिंशत्ख्यातिमागता || हातेनादिवर्णैस्तु शनैः शनैः ।
आ
प्रथमे रङ्गलीलायां गोयन्ते गानकोविदैः ॥ हावर्णे तु गणाध्यक्षो रीवर्णे केशवः स्वयम् । तेणे संस्थितो ब्रह्मा नावर्णे च शिवः स्वयम् ॥ मालवगेन्द्रस्ततो मल्लारसंज्ञकः । श्रीरागस्तस्य पश्चात्तु वसन्तस्तदनन्तरम् ॥ हिन्दोचाथ कर्णाट एते रागाः प्रकीर्तिताः । पुरुषा वस्त्रभूषाढ्या रागाः षट् मालवादयः ॥ दशदण्डात्परं रात्रौ सर्वेषां गानमीरितम् । मेघमल्लाररागस्य गानं सर्वासु सर्वदा || श्रीपञ्चमीं समासाद्य यावत्स्यात्शयनं हरेः । तावद्वसन्तरागस्य गानमुक्तं मनीषिभिः ।। सर्वेषामिह रागाणां रागिणीनां च सर्वशः । रङ्गभूमौ नृपाज्ञायां कालदोषो न विद्यते ॥ राग चेदापेत्पूर्व तत्पत्नीस्तदनन्तरम् । नान्यपत्नी प्रगातव्या नृपाज्ञायां न दूषणम् ॥
अथ रागिण्यः
विभाषा ललिता चैव कामोदा पठमञ्जरी । रामकेली रामकीरी वेलोयारी च गुर्जरी ॥ देशकारी च सुभगा पञ्चमी च गता तुडी । भैरवी चापि कौमारी रागिण्यो दश पञ्च च ॥ एताः पूर्वाह्नकाले तु गीयन्ते रागकोविदैः । वाराडी मायूरी कोडा वैरागी चापि धानुषी ॥

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वेलावली माहराटी सप्तैते(ताः) रागयोषितः । गेया मध्याह्नकाले तु यथा भरतभाषितम् ।। गान्धारी दीपिका चैव कल्याणी पूरवी तथा । अश्ववारी कानडा च गौरी केदारपाहिडा ।। माधवी मालसी लाटी भूपाली सिन्दुडी तथा । सायाह्न रागिणीश्चैताः प्रगायन्ति चतुर्दश ।। अथ रागस्य रागिण्यः धानुषी मालसी रामकिरी च सिन्दुडा तथा । अश्ववारी भैरवी च मालवस्य प्रियास्त्विमाः ॥ बेलावली पूरवी च कानडा माधवी तथा । कोडा केदारिका चैव मल्लारस्य प्रिया इमाः ॥ गान्धारी चैव सुभगा गौरी कौमारिका तथा । वेलोयारो च वैरागी श्रीरागस्य प्रियास्त्विमाः ।। तुडी च पञ्चमी चैव ललिता पठमअरो । गुर्जरी च विभाषा च वसन्तस्य प्रिया इमाः ॥ मायूरी दीपिका चैव देशकारी च पाहिडा । बाराडी माहराटी च एता हिन्दोलयोषितः ।। नाटिका चाथ भूपाली रामकेली गता(?) तथा । कामोदी चापि कल्याणी कर्णाटस्य प्रिया इमाः ।।
अथ रागध्यानम् नितम्बिनीचुम्बितवक्त्रपद्मः
शुकद्युतिः कुण्डलवानप्रमत्तः । सङ्गीतशाला पविशन्प्रदोषे
मालाधरो मालवरागराजः ।। नीलोत्पलं कर्ण युगे वहन्ती
श्यामा सुकेशी कृशमध्यभागा । ईषत्सहासाम्बुजवक्त्ररम्या
सा धानुषी पद्मसुचारुनेत्रा ॥ करे विधूताम्बुजयुग्मरम्या
इतस्ततश्चारु विलोकयन्ती । कण्ठे स्फुरन्मौक्तिकरत्नहारा
सा मालसी संकथिता विचित्रा ।।

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Appendix E
प्रतप्तचामीकरचारुवर्णा कर्णावतंसं कमलं वहन्तो । पौष्पं धनुः पुष्पभसन् दधाना चन्द्रानना रामकिरी प्रदिष्टा । सदिन्द्रनीलतिरम्बुजाक्षी प्रवाश्यन्ती कविलय(१)यन्त्रम् । विचित्ररत्नाभरणा सुकेशी सा सिन्छुडा कान्तसमीपसंस्था ।। जयाप्रसूनश्रुतिरिन्दुवक्त्रा शुकं च पद्म च करयोर्दधाना । क्षौमांशुकाच्छादितगात्रयष्टिमहाविदग्धा कथिताश्ववारी ।। सरोरुहैः शंकरमर्चयन्ती तालप्रयोगप्रतिबन्धगीति गौरीतनु भैरविका सतोयम् ।। विद्वान् सुशीलोऽति...
...धार्मिकशीलयुक्तः । कामातुरः पिङ्गलनेत्रयुग्मो मल्लाररागः कुसुमप्रियश्च ।। संकेतितोत्फुल्ललतानिकुञ्ज कृतस्थितिः कान्तसमागमोय । वेलावली चम्पकमाल्यमौलिविचित्रवेशाभरणा निरुक्ता । रहः स्वकान्तक्रियमाणपत्रावलों वहन्ती कुचकुम्भयुगे(ग्मे)। दूर्वादलश्यामतनुः सकामा पुरातनैः सा पूरवी निरुक्ता ॥ अशोकवृक्षस्य तले निपण्णा वियोगिनीवाष्पकणाश्चिताक्षी । निभूषणाङ्गी जटिलैकबेणी सा कानडा हेमलतेव तम्बो ।

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94

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
.गले दधाना
दयितस्य बाला ।
प्रसूनमालां गौरी स्वकान्ताननचुम्बितास्य सा सुन्दरी माविकानि कुजे ॥
सत्कच्छपीं वादयतः स्वभर्तुस्तालान् समभ्यस्यते संमुखेन । सदैव तालारहिता च बाला कोडा
करालस्तनयुग्मरम्या ॥
स्नात्वा समुत्तीर्णवती सुदेहा केशाप्रनिस्यन्दितवारिबिन्दुः
निष्पीडयन्ती स्तिमितांशुकान्तं केदारिका
व्यक्तपयोधरश्रीः ॥
लीलाविहारेण वनान्तरेषु चिन्वन् प्रसूनानि वधूसहायः ।
विलासवेशोदितव्यक्तमूर्तिः
श्रीराग एष
कथितः पृथिव्याम् ॥
प्राणबन्धोः धानाम् ।
सन्ध्याकाले वेश्मनि स्कन्धे वीणां वादयतीं
श्री गान्धारी गन्धमाल्यानि धत्ते ||
निजको विदसंसदि ।
रसपदार्थविवेचन कौतुकं विदधती सुकवितामृतभावने तत्परा भगवती सुभगा समुदीरिता ।
पुष्पोद्याने सार्धमालीकलापैः क्रीडन्तीयं कौकिलकाकलीभिः ।
श्यामा सद्गुणग्रामसीमा गौरी गौर...
अट्टालिकायां स्फुटकौमुदीभिः प्रकाशितायां
II
रजनीविहारैः ।
द्यताय कान्तेन समं वसन्ती कौमारिका
कामकलां
वहन्ती ॥

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Appendix E

गौरीपदाम्भोरुहमर्चयन्ती
सा
गन्धार श्रीमती रत्नसानोः ।
नानाद्रव्योपायनैर्भक्तिभावै
वेलोयारी कथ्यते ललितेयम् ॥
उत्रासयन्ती धम्मिल्लं.. • प्राणबन्धुना । मालतीकुसुमस्रग्भिर्वैरागी रागिणी स्मृता ॥
चूताङ्कुरेणैव कृतावतंसो विघूर्णमानारुणनेत्रपद्मः पीताम्बरः काञ्चनचारुदेहो वसन्तरागो
सुनृत्यमानापि सुशीलयुक्ता मुक्तालता कल्पितहारयष्टिः
चूताङ्कुरं पाणियुगे वहन्ती
युवतिप्रियश्च ॥
जवारुणाङ्गी कथिता च तूडी ॥
संगीतगोष्ठीषु गरिष्ठभागं समाश्रिता
गायनसंप्रदायैः ।
पञ्चमवेदविद्या ॥
खर्वा क्वनन्नूपुरपादयुग्मा सा पञ्चमी
उषसि केशसुसंयममात्मनो विदधती शयनोत्थितवत्यसौ ।
सखीकलापैः परिहासलीलया क्वचित्समस्यां परिपूरयन्ती । पत्रं मसीं सत्कलमं वहन्ती मञ्जुक्तिशीला पठमञ्जरीयम् ॥ कर्णोत्पलालम्बिमधुव्रतानां शृण्वन्ती मञ्जुलकूजितानि । कान्तान्तिकं गन्तुमनाः प्रदोषे सा गुर्जरीवेशकलाविताङ्गी ॥

95

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अध्यापयन्ती निजशिष्यवृन्दं संगीतशास्त्राणि विवेचनाभिः । मनोहराहारलताभिरामा समा समस्तभाषाकुशला विभाषा ॥ लीलाविलासेन पतन् पृथिव्यामुत्थापितस्तत्क्षणमालिवृन्दैः । .... ...गीतरसैर्विदग्धान् हिन्दोलरागः कथितो रसज्ञैः ॥ मयूरकेकाश्रवणोल्लसन्ती मयूरिका वोक्ष्य मुदं वहन्ती मयूरकर्णाभरणं दधाना मायूरिका संकथिता गुणीन्द्रैः ॥ प्रदोषकाले गृहदेहलीषु प्रदीपहस्तारुणगात्रवस्त्रा सीमन्तसिन्दूरविराजमाना ... ...किल दीपिकेयम् । सार्ध सखीभिर्विजने वसन्ती विचित्रवक्षोजनखक्षताङ्गी । निरीक्षमाणा मणिदर्पगेषु सा देशकारी कथिता मुनीन्द्रैः ।। भर्तुर्दधाना चरणारविन्द निषेधयन्ती परदेशयानम् । प्रकामदाम्पत्यसुखेन मुग्धा सा पाहिडा संकथिता कवीन्द्रैः ॥ कर्णे दधाना...पुष्पगुच्छ सुवृत्तवक्षोजमनोहसङ्गी । स्मेरानना भावविलेलनेत्रा गौराङ्गयष्टिः कथिता वराडी ।। उत्पन्नमात्रे प्रथमापराधे मनः पुनः...... ऋजुस्वभावा नियतं रुदन्ती सा माहाटी हठकेलिरुष्टा ।।

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Appendix E
97
कृपाणपाणिस्तुरगाधिरूढो मयूरकण्ठोपमकण्ठकान्तिः । स्फुरच्छितोष्णीषधरः प्रयाति कर्णाटरागो हरिणं विहन्तुम् ॥ चिरं नटन्ती शुभरङ्गमध्ये
..........निखिलं श्रमाम्भः । सुगीततालेष
कृतावमाना नाटी सुना (शा?) टी परिधानशीला ॥
स्वनायकं पुष्पलताधिरूढं समुन्मुखी तं समुदीक्षमाणा । प्रसारमाणा कुसुमानि शश्वद् भूपालिका सा कथिता सुधीभिः ॥ अध्यापयन्ती शुकशारशारीः श्रीरामरामेति सुवेशलक्ष्मीः । बामस्तनाधस्खलितांशुकश्रीः श्रीरामकेलिः कथिता विदग्धैः ।। विशेषवैदग्ध्यवती समस्तकलाविलासेन विमोहयन्ती । बृहन्नितम्बा परिपुष्टदेहा
........प्रलम्बस्तनभारभव्या ॥ भर्ना समं पथि सुसंभाषयन्ती पयोविहारेण सरोरुहाणि । विचिन्वती सौरभमोदमाना कामोदरागिण्युदिता मुनीन्द्रैः ॥ ...............नटपरिश्रमेण ......... ....... ...... कल्याणी कलय हस्तहेलनं प्रस्थापितकिंकरीकलापम् ॥
इति नारदकृतपञ्चमसारसंहितायां रागनिर्णयस्तृतीयोऽध्यायः।
१७

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Danc
अथ तालाध्यायः
तालस्य मानं नियमेन घाते तालाश्च श्रृण्वन्तु गुणप्रचाराः । भद्रः सुभद्रश्च तथातिभद्रो निनादतालान् दिवि......... वीरभद्रो भद्रपाणिभद्र ......मानितः । एकोनशततालास्ते पाताले स्थापनं मुदा ।। एकाधिकशतांस्तालान् विश्वभद्रो महीतले । गुणिनामुपकाराय सर्वत्रैव प्रचारयेत् ।। पश्चिमे दक्षिणे चैव लंकायां सिंहले तथा। अष्टोत्तरशतं स्वर्गे पश्चिमे पञ्चमं तथा ।। दक्षिणे पञ्च लंकायां सप्त सप्तश्च सिंहले। पूर्वे पञ्च समादेयं उत्तरे पञ्चमं तथा ॥ पूर्वभागे चोत्तरे च क्रमेणैव विभागितम् । प्रचरन्ति च......... ध्रुवम् ॥ तद् यथाएकतालस्तु विषम ......... षट्पदीस्तदनन्तरम् विख्यातं विषमः सन्धिरूपकं प्रेमवर्धनम् ।
हरगौरी च ज्ञम्पकम् ।। यमकं दशकुशी चैव कुन्दशेखरमेव च । ... ... ...दासगीतं. .. ... ... ॥ एते तालाः प्रकीर्तिता । वाद्याश्चतस्रस्तु...... पूरणके च वाद्यम् ॥ कलाद्वयः स्यादथ... पूर्वाक्षरं स्याद् गुरु । न पूरणे नापि च घातिनीषु ।। शीघ्र गुरुर्घाते प्लुतः स्याल्लघुरेकघातः । विरामयुक्ता द्रुतमेव घातो नियमो निरुक्तः ।। न पूरणं नापि च घातिनीषु । शीघ्रं गुरुर्घाते... प्लुतः स्याल्लघुरघातः ।। विरामयुक्ता द्रुतमेव घातो नियमो निरुक्तः । प्रत्यक्षरे विरामश्चेत्सर्वतालादिसंभवः ।।
ततो

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Appendix E
एकतालः स कथितो देवै... उदाहृतः । यतितालो यदा यदा सुस्थः धृतो गीतो गुणीश्वरैः ।। तथा धरणनामैव प्रसिद्धा गुणसंसदि । प्लुतस्त्रिमात्रिकः देवतः स्यात्पदे पदे ॥ आदिमध्यावसाने तु किलासः स उच्यते । द्रुतत्रयं लघुश्चैकस्ताले ..... नामनि ।। चतुर्दु तानि च लघुर्भवेद् विषमतालके । द्रुतद्वय .. प्लुतश्चेत्तालश्च षट्पदी तथा । आदौ चान्ते लघुद्वयं गुरुर्मध्ये यदा भवेत् । तदा विषमसन्धिः स्यात्तालो भवति सम्मतः ।। गुरुः स्यादादिमध्यान्ते स तालो रूपकः स्मृतः । यदि चाष्टकतालोऽपि कलाधिक्यं विलक्ष्यते ॥ पदे पदे तदा ताल: स्यादपूर्वकला ध्रुवम् । दुतद्वयं लघुश्चैको गुरुर्लघुयुगं तथा । हरगौरीति तालः स्याद् द्वितयं प्लुतमिश्रणात् । गुरुप्लुतो भवेद्यत्र स तालो झम्पकः स्मृतः ॥ गुरुत्रयं लघुद्वयं ततः प्लुतगुरुर्लघुः । चरणे चरणे झेयं स तालो यमको भवेत् ।। द्रतद्वयं लघुद्वय प्लुतो लघु... भवेत् । चरणे चरणे ज्ञेय स तालो दशकुशी भवेत् ॥ गुरुद्वय लघुप्लुतगुरुस्ततः प्लुतगुरुर्लघुः । चरणे चरणेप्येवं स ताल: कुन्दशेखरः ।। आदौ गुरुर्लघुद्वयं चरणे चरणे भवेत् । यतितालः स कथितो नृत्यभूमौ गुणीश्वरैः ॥ आदौ गुरुलघुश्चाथ चरणे चरणे भवेत् । गायकानां मनोहारी वसुतालस्तदा भवेत् ॥
......तालः सर्वमनोहरः ॥ इति संगीतशास्त्रयोजनातिप्रमाणतः...शिवलोके महीयते । इति श्रीनारदकृतपञ्चमसंहितायां चतुर्थोऽध्यायः ।

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100
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
(II)
पञ्चमसंहितायां रागनिर्णयः
ताशब्देनोच्यते गौरी नाशब्देनोच्यते हरः । तानेति शब्दहुंकारात् प्रोक्तोऽप्यन्ये शनैः शनैः ।। तत्तत्कालं सुविज्ञाय दम्पत्योर्गायनं बुधः । एतयोनिमात्रेण त्रैलोक्यं वशमानयेत् ।।
अत्र रागाःमालवश्चैव मल्लारः श्रीरागश्च वसन्तकः । हिन्दोलश्चाथ कर्णाट एते रागाः षडीरिताः ॥
एतेषां स्त्रियःधानसी मालसी चैव रामकिरी च सिन्धुजा । आशोआरी भैरवी च मालवस्य प्रिया इमाः ।। वेलावली च पूरवी कानडा मायूरी तथा । कोड़ा केदारिका चापि मल्लारस्य प्रिया इमाः ॥ गान्धारी च तथा गौरी सुभगा च कुमारिका । वेलोयारी च वैरागी श्रीरागस्य प्रिया इमाः ।। तुडी च पञ्चमी चैव ललिता पटमञ्जरी । गुर्जरी च विभाषा च वसन्तस्य प्रिया इमाः ।। माधवी देविका चैव देशकारी च पाहिडा । वडरी! मारहाटी च एता हिन्दोलयोषितः ।। नाटिका चाथ भूपाली...... रामकेलिका । कामोदा चाथ कल्याणी कर्णाटस्य प्रिया इमाः ।। समयानुक्रमेण बोद्धव्यम्आहिरी ललिता चैव कामोदा पटमअरी । रामकेली रामकिरी वेलोयारी च गुर्जरी ।। देशकारी च सुभगा पञ्चमी च गता तुडी । भैरवी चैव कौमारी रागिण्यो दश पञ्चम ।। एताः पूर्वाह्नकाले तु गीयन्ते गायकैर्बुधैः । वडारी माधवी... वैरागी चापि धानसी ।।

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Appendix E
1JI
वेलावली मारहाटी सप्तैता रागयोषितः । गेया मध्याह्नकाले तु यथा भरतभाषितम् ॥ गान्धारी दीपिका चैव कल्याणी पूरवी तथा । आशोयारी कानडा च गौरी केदारपाहिडा । माधवी मालसी लाटी भूपाली सिन्धुजा तथा । सायाहूने रागिणीश्चैताः प्रगायन्ति चतुर्दश ॥ पुरुषा वस्त्रभूषाद्या रागाः षण्मालवादयः । प्रदोषाद् दशदण्डान्तर्गया गानस्य रीतयः ।। दशदण्डात् परं रात्रौ सर्वेषां गानमीरितम् । मेघमल्लाररागस्य गानं वर्षासु सर्वदा ॥ श्रीपञ्चमीसमारभ्य यावद दुर्गामहोत्सवः । तावद् वसन्तरागस्य गानमुक्तं मनोषिभिः ।। सर्वेषामिह रागाणां रागिणीनां च सर्वशः । रङ्गभूमौ नृपाज्ञायां कालदोषो न विद्यते ॥ रागं चैवालपेत् पूर्व तत्पत्नी तदनन्तरम् । नान्यपत्न्यः प्रगातव्या नृपाज्ञायां न दूषणम् ॥ रागाः षडथ रागिण्यः षडिन्द्रियश्चारुविग्रहः । आगता ब्रह्मसदसि ब्रह्माण समुपासते ।।
अथ रागध्यानमाहनितम्बिनीचुम्बितवक्त्रपद्मः शुकद्युतिः सद्गुणवानप्रमत्तः । संगीतशास्त्रानुरत. प्रदोषे मालाधरो मालव एष रागः ।। नीलोत्पलं कर्णयुगे वहन्ती श्यामा सुकेशी कृशमध्यभागा । ईषत्सहासाम्बुजवक्त्ररम्या सा धोनसी पद्मसुचारुनेत्रा ।। करे विधूताम्बुजयुग्मरम्या इतस्ततश्चारु. विलोकयन्ती । कण्ठे स्फुरन्मौक्तिकरत्नहारा सा मालसो संकथिता विचित्रा ।

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102.
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
प्रतप्तचामीकरचारुवर्णा कर्णावतंसं कमल वहन्ती । पौष्पं धनुः पुष्पवसने दधाना चन्द्रानना रामकिरो प्रतिष्ठा ॥ सदिन्द्रनीलद्युतिपङ्कजाक्षी प्रवादयन्ती कपिनासयन्त्रम् । विचित्ररत्नाभरणा सुकेशी सा सिन्धुजा कान्तसमीपसंस्था । जवाप्रसनद्युतिवक्त्ररेखा सुनीलपमं करयोर्दधाना । क्षौमांशुकाच्छादितगात्रयष्टि मेहाविदग्धा कथिताशोयारी ।। चन्द्रप्रभा चारुमृगीव नेत्रा विद्याधरी नृत्यकलां वहन्ती। पिकस्वरातीव मनोहरन्ती सा भैरवी देवी श्रियं ददातु ।। विहारशीलोऽपि च नीलदेहो गभीरवाक्यः परमो विदग्धः । कामातुरः पिङ्गलनेत्रयुग्मो मल्लाररागः कुशलं करोतु ।। संकेतितस्फूर्तिलतानिकुन्जे कृतस्थितिः कान्तसमागमाय । वेलाक्ली युग्मकमाल्यमौली काला विचित्राभरणानुरक्ता ॥
...वहन्ती कुचकुम्भयुग्मे । दूर्वादलश्यामतनुः सकामा प्राणाधिका सा पूरवी प्रतिष्ठा ॥ अशोकवृक्षस्य तले निषण्णा वियोगिनी वाष्पाकुलाश्चिताक्षी । विभूषिताङ्गी कलितैकवेशा सा कानडा हेमलतातितन्वी ।।

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Appendix E
103
तडितप्रभालोलविशालनेत्रा वक्त्रं च नीता प्रमदा स्वकान्तम् । चुचुम्बमाना प्रियवादिनी च मयूरिका माधविका निकुम्जे ॥ प्रनर्तिता लास्यकलाविलासापवित्रदेहा कुटिलेक्षणा च । कान्तस्य वामे वरकामिनी सा कोडाविहारेऽपि सुतिष्ठतीव ।।
स्निग्धा मनोहारी गजेन्द्रगामिनो केदारिका वृत्तपयोधरश्रीः ।। लीनो विहारेण वनान्तराले चिन्वन् प्रसूनानि वधूसहायः । विलासवित्तो द्युतिदिव्यमूर्तिः श्रीराग एष कथितः पृथिव्याम् ।। सुगीतनृत्यानुरता दिनान्ते कान्तस्य स्कन्धे प्रणिधाय पाणिम् । वीणां दधाना विचित्रिताङ्गी गान्धारिका गन्धविनोदिनी च ॥ प्रसन्नवक्त्रा शिवभाविनी सा प्रगायती वापि पिकप्रभाषा । श्यामा रसशा किल देवीरूपा गौरी गभीरा विधिनोपदिष्टाः ।। नानारसपदार्थानि विचिन्वन्तीह कौतुकम् । कविताभावसंभोगा भारती सुभगा मता ।। मुख्या प्रहृष्टा स्फुटकौमुदीभिविराजमाना सविलासवेशा। कौमारिका कामकलां वहन्ती गौरी पदाम्भोरुहमर्चयन्ती ।।

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Fundamentals of Ancjent Indian Music and Dance
वलीधरा कञ्चुलिकां वहन्ती लावण्य.... विनोदिनी रत्नकलापहारा वेलोयारी पीतनिचोलधारिणी ॥ मनस्विनी मानवता प्रभाविनी निःश्वासयुक्ता स्थिरदृष्टिस्निग्धा। वैरागिणी रागयुता प्रदिष्टो विदग्धरूपैः किल देवि रूपैः ।। चूताङ्कुरेणैव कृतावतंसो विघूर्णमानारुणनेत्रपद्मः । पीताम्बरः काञ्चनचारुदेहो वसन्तरागो युवतीप्रियश्च ।। सुनृत्यमानातिसुशीलयुक्ता मुक्तालताकम्पितहारयष्टिः ।। चूताङ्कुरं कर्णयुगे वहन्ती गौडी नताङ्गी तुडीरितेयम् ।। संगीतविद्याविशारदा च विहारभावा वरकामिनीयम् । प्रदीप्तभाषा सुरसा सुधाङ्गा श्रीपञ्चमी पञ्चमदेवविद्या ।। तमसि केशव यस्य संचरं करोति लीलावतीभावधीरा । चन्द्रानना लोहितनेत्रपद्मा संपूजिता चतुर्व... ललितावनीः । शिखाकला: परिवेशशीला क्वचित् समस्यां परिपूरयन्ती । ) पत्रं... सत्कमलं वहन्ती मजूक्तिशीलापि च मञ्जरीयम् ।। कर्णात्पल...... सुहृद्बती मन्जूलकूजितानि । कान्तान्तिकं गन्तुमनाः प्रदोषे । सा गुर्जरी नृत्यकलाश्चिताङ्गी ।

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Appendix E
अध्यापयन्ती निजशिष्यवृन्दं संगीतशास्त्राणि विवेचनाभिः । मनोहरा हारलताभिरामा समस्तभासा दशना विभासा॥ लीलाविलासेन.. पृथिव्यामुत्थापितस्तप्रियकामिनीभिः । उद्घोषयन् गीतरसो विदग्धान् हिन्दोलरागः कथितो रसज्ञैः ॥ मयूरकेकारवलोलकान्ति मयूरिका बीक्ष्य मदं वहन्ती । मयूरवृन्दैः समनृत्यमाना सा माधवी संकथिता गुणज्ञैः ॥ प्रदोषकाले गृहदेहलोषु प्रदोपहस्तारुणचारुवत्रा । सोमन्तिसिन्दूरविराजमानी सुरक्तमाल्या किल दीपकेयम् ।। सार्ध सखीभिर्निर्जने (विजने) वसन्ती विचित्रवक्षोजनखक्षतानि । निरीक्षमाणा मणिदर्पणेषु सा देशकारी कथिता मुनिभिः ।। भर्तुर्दधाना चरणारविन्दम् । विशेषयन्ती परदेशकालम् । प्रियानुरागाऽतिकातराक्षी सा पाहिडा संकथिता कवीन्द्रैः । ......श्रुकुलाकुलाक्षी मलिनचीना धरणों लुठन्ती । प्रियानुरागं सततं स्मरन्ती कृशाङ्गयष्टिः कथिता वराडो ॥ उत्पन्नमात्रे प्रथमापराधे मानं पुनः कर्तुमना चिरेण । .........वा निभृतं रुदन्ती
M-14
.

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106

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
कृपाणपाणिस्तुरगाधिरूढो मयूरकण्ठोपमकण्ठकान्तिः ।
कर्णाटरागो... चिरं नटन्ती सुररङ्गमध्ये विचित्ररङ्गाभरणा सुमध्या । उत्त्रासिता ..
भूपालिका सा कथिता कविभिः ॥
11
1
श्रीरामनामेति सततं जपन्ती पूजारता पुष्पचयैः. आनन्दरूपा का देहा श्रीरामकेलिः कथिता विदग्धैः ॥ विशेषवैदग्ध्यवती समस्त कलाविलासेन विमोहयन्ती । बृहद् नितम्बकृशमध्यभागा पीनस्तनी सा कथिता प्रतिष्ठा ।। प्रियेषु सार्धं सरसि प्रकामं पयोविहारेण सरोरुहाणि । विचिन्वती सौरभमोदमाना कामोदरागी कथिता गुणज्ञैः ॥ सा ताण्डवे नृत्यविशेषशीला लावण्यलीला वनितातनुश्रीः । नूपुर केयूरकिणकिङ्किनीगण कस्यानुरागी परिवादयन्ती ||
इति नारदकृतपञ्चमसंहितायां रागनिर्णयो नाम तृतीयोऽध्यायः ।
*

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GLOSSARY (In Devanāgari alphabetical order )
In this Glossary are included not only the important and technical terms, used in this work, but also such other terms as are necessary even for a cursory study of the Samgitaśāstra. The chapter on dance is elaborate, and contains numerous technical terms. Of these, we have selected here only the broad ones, particularly those which convey more meanings than one in different contexts. The figures in bold types indicate page numbers of this work,
35
Angahāra : N 790, 797 etc.
Anubandha : V 127, 148 etc. 58, 54
A kind of dhatu (q.v.). Graceful posture at appro
Anubhāva : N 1390-91. priate place.
Particular movements of the Anghritādita : N 1007-8
eye, eyebrow, facial expresA kind of Desi cāri of the
sion etc. indicating love etc.; aerial type.
it is one of the constitutents Añcita : N 312-4, 340, 594-95. 757
of Rasa.
Anuvādı : S iii. 48, 59 etc.. 22 (i) A posture of the hand.
Name of the svara which (ii A posture of the feet.
makes the samvadi svara (iii) A kind of Nịttakarana.
clearer. So called as it follows (iv) A kind of Utplutikarana.
the samvadi. In the heptatonic Anibaddha : P 4. 18, 24
system, the third svara from A kind of song. In it there
the radi is called anuvadi. is no word. It is called alapa
For example, if SA is vadi or alapti (q.v.).
Ga becomes anuvadi. The following abbreviations have been used here to indicate the chapters of the Samgita-ratnakara, noted against them.-The figures against these abbreviations refer to the number of verse in the Adyar edition of the Samgitaratnakara : N-Nartanādhyāya R-Rāgavivekādhyāya T-Taladhyāya P-Prabandhādhyāya $-Svaragatādhyāya V-Vadyādhyaya, PK-Prakırņakādhyāya

Page #117

108
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
Apaviddha : N 339, 595-97,
845447 (i) A kind of angahara
(q.v.). (ii) A particular posture
of the arms. (iii) A kind of nșttakarana. Ardbacandra: N 117-19. V 68,86 (i) A posture of the single
hand in dance. (ii) Name of a manual action
or pose in vadya, Ardbarecita : N 237, 628-29 (i) A pose of the hand in
dance. (ii) A kind of Nittakarana. Alāta : N 615–16, 1199-1202 (i) A kind of aerial mandala
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of nșttakarana
(q.v.) Alāta : N 950-51, 1009 (i) A kind of aerial cari
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari of
the Deši class. Avanaddha : V 4, 6, (Also Ānaddha); 35, 37, 44
A type of musical instruments; these are covered with leather,
Amsa : S vii, 34, T 62
According to some, another name of Vadi svara. According to others, the svara in which the full form of a
rāga is divided. Adilla : PK 40
A particular kind of voice in a song. Khahula (q.v.), extending over the sthanas
mandra, Madhya, is so called. Ādgika : N 20
Acting by means of gestures
and postures. Ābhoga : PK 8, 9. T 233; 18 (i) A kind of dhatu (q,v.).
Foot of a song containing the bhanita of that
song. (ii) Name of an accessory
of the Samagāna. Ārabhati : N 1112, 1117-18
A kind of dramatic art; a
particular mode of dance. Aroha : V 200, 222, etc. (Also
Arohi); 23 Ascent of svaras, e.g. SA, RA,
GA, etc. Alapti : PK 189; 24, 32, 3?, 40
(f.n.), Also called alapa. It denotes the process by which the form of a raga is manifested without meaningful word
and tala. Alapini : V 10
A kind of svaraviņā. Āvarta : N 673-74, 1154-57 (i) A kind of terrestrial
mandala (q.v.). (ii) A type of Nattakarang
(q.v.).
Avaroha : V 200, 255 etc. (Also
Avarohi); 23 Descent of svaras, e.g. NA
DHA, PA etc. Avabittha : N 208–9, 1963–65, (i) A posture of the hands
joined together. (ii) Sthana (q.v.) for females.

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Glossary
109
Aśravaņā : V 179, 186 etc.
Playing of the viņa without
the accompaniment of songs. Udgraha : P 7; V 944, 946 etc.
Name of the first dhatu as a part of prabandha. With it a
song is commenced. Udghattita : N 331 740 (i) To stand with a parti
cular position of the feet. (ii) A kind of Nộtiakarana
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of angahara. Uparāga : R i. 15. 27 Sub-raga, so-called because it arises from near gramarāga (q.v.). Upa-rāgas are eight. Sakatilaka, T'akka-saindhava, Kokila, pañcama, Revagupta, Pancanişidava. Bhavanapañcama.
Nagagāndhāra, Nagapañcama. Urdhvajanu : N 627-27, 949-50 (i) A kind of Nțitakarana
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari
(q.v.). Ekala : PK 23
Solo singer. Ohā! : R 5
A kind of song. When the chin is placed on the heart, it arises with the sounds HA and AU along with mandra and highly druta svaras accompanied by gamaka
called Kampita. Āvāpa : 17
Ahārya : N20
Acting by means of costumes. Auduva ; R 24, P 362 etc. 27
A rāga consisting of five svaras of which sadja is constant. Derived from the word Udu meaning star. A star is found in the sky which is the fifth of the five elements (bhuta). So, auduva
indicates the number 5. Kamrikā : V 62
Bow for playing the lute. Karana : N 548-49, 899 52, 53, 54, 59 (f.n.) (i) Simultanious and grace
ful action of hands, feet etc. in consonance with
the Rasa concerned. (ii) A kind of Cari (q.v.). Karihasta : N 248-54, 710-11 (i) A kind of the posture
of hands in dance. (ii) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.) Kala : T. 6
6, 49
Action in märgatala. It is twofold, silent and sounded;
the later is also called pāta. Kütatāna : S IV. 32, 33 etc.
Spreading out of the Svaras contrary to the usual order;
e.g. SA, GA, MA, PA etc. Krāpta : N 655-57 1097-98,
1180-82 (i) A kind of nịttakarana
(q.v.), (ii) A kind of sitting posture (iii) A type of aerial mandala,
50
A kind pf Kala (q.v.). In it, the fingers of the upturned palm are contracted.

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110
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
Khahula : PK 40 30
A kind of voice used in songs. It arises from phlegm, and is tender, sweet and
soft. Gamaka : PK 87, R 144 etc. 24, 26, 32, 38, 49 (f.n.)
Term indicating the trembling of the voice. It is of 15
kinds. Gāndharva : PK 12 17, 25, 3.
One who is versed in marga
and desi songs. Gita : Si. 21-24, P. 1-4 etc. 17, 19, 64.
Song; it means a group of
Svaras which delight the heart. Gaudi : R 4
A kind of song. It is compact, pervades the three sthanas called mandra, madhya and tāra, accompanied by gamaka and cantains sweet svaras as
in Ohati. Gaundali : N 1273-77 63, 64
Designation of a class of
female dancers. Graha : S vii. 2, 4, 31; R 33,
90 etc. 18, 22, 25, 38, 62 (i) T 50
According to Bharata, another name of amsa (q.v). The svara from which a
raga commences. (ii) Commencement of a tala.
Grāma : S iv. 1. 109, 172 etc. 5, 6, 7, 24, 25, 39
Denotes svaras which are the resort of marchana, krama, tala, varna, alunkāra and jati. According to Sārngadeva, it is twofoldsad jagrama and Madhyama
grāma. Grāmarāga : Ri. 2, 3, 14 etc. 26, 27
Being the resort of five kinds of songs, grāmaraga is five
fold. Gharghara : N 1304-6
Sounding of anklets by a class of dancers called
Peranin. Ghana : V 4; 6 etc. 3), 37, 46 Musical instruments made of metals and sounded by
strokes, e.g. bell. Caturasra : N 216-17, 1030-40,
1080 (i) A pose of hands in
dance. (ii) A sthāna (q.v.) for males (iii) A kind of desi sthāna
(q.v.). Cāri V 897
S5
Simultaneous graceful move. ments of feet, thighs, shanks and waist in dance. It may be aerial, desi aerial, terrestrial
and desi terrestrial. Chāyālaga ; PK 16, 37, 311 etc. 28, 33, 61 (Salaga)
A kind of rāga, also called Salaga. It is a rāga which is mixed with the semblance (chāyā--lit. shadow) of another rāga,

Page #120

Glossary
Jāti : Sv. I, vii. I etc. 2. 10, 2, 26, 9
Song with arna and alamkāra. It is twofold, Suddha and Viksta.
Dandapadā : N 956-66, 1006-7 (i) A kind of aerial cari
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi aerial cari.
Desi : Si. 22, 24, etc. T 4.
18, 25, 33, 4, 49, 50, 55, 57, 58, 65
That song, instrumental music or dance which causes delight to the people of different regions in accordance with their taste. A kind of tala.
Deši rāga : R ii. 2
Name of same gräma=rāgas
etc.
Dhấtu : P 7, 125 etc. 18, 32, 41
An acccessory of prabandha.
Tata : V 4, 7 etc. 35, 37, 42
The class of musical instru
ments which are stringed. Tāna : S 427, 428 etc. 5, 6, 10, 24, 25, 40
Name of Suddha Murchana. It is twofold-Suddhatāna and Kütutana. The number of tānas, with auduva and
şādava, is 84. Tāra : S iii. 39 20, 23
Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the
head. Tala : P 13. T 3, 9, N 889 etc.
2, 4, 18, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 63 (i) Name of an accessory
of Prabandha. (ii) Time measured with
laghu, guru etc. (iii) A kind of Kala (q.v.). Dandapaksa : N 257-58, 636-37 (i) A pose of hands in
dance. (ii) A kind of nịttakarana
(q.v.). Dandapāda : N 704-5, 1177-80 (i) A kind of aerial mandala
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of nịttakarana
(q.v.).
Dhruva : P 7, 317 etc. T 9
18, 49, 50, 65 (i) A kind of prabandha. (ii) A kind of dhatu (q.v.). (iii) A kind of Kala (q.v).
Nāgabandha ; N 767. 1093 (i) A kind of ut plutikarana
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi sthana
(q.v.). Nada : S iii. 1, 2, 2, 6, 11 etc.
PK 130
V 50, 103 etc. 19, 20, 139
Sound manifested by the combination of fire and vital breath (präna) within the body.

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i12
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
Nārāta : PK 41 30
A Kind of sound arising
from bile. Nikuttakā : N 603-6, 873–75 (i) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of angahara (q.v.). Nitamba : N 238-39, 714-15
(i) A pose of hands in dance. (li) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.). Nibaddha : P 4 18, 24
A kind of song. It consists of meaningful words in a composition. Contra Anibaddha.
Niskrama : T7 50
A kind of Kalā (q.v.). Nștta : N 3, 4, 14, 78, 35 etc. 4, 52, 53, 67 Movements of the body devoid of acting.
Pata : P 13, 257. V 828 etc. 38, 47, 48
An accessory of prabandha, The sound syllables of Vad ya,
e.g. DHI GI DHIG. Pata : T6
See Kala. Peranı : N 130-3 64
A dancer dressed in a particular manner and possessed
of certain qualities. Prabandha : P 6, 12, 20, 21,
V 952, 1261 etc. 18, 33
A kind of nibaddha song. It is broadly divided in so three kinds-dvidhatu, tridhatu, and caturdhatu. Again, it is divided into two kinds, nir yukta and anir yukta. It is further divided into three kinds-Sudastha. alisamśraya and viprakirna. Vadya, too, has prabandhas, eg. Metapaka
etc. Pravesa : T 8
A kind of Kala (q.v.). Prastāra : T 314, 317 etc.
Spreading out. The method of arranging the seven svaras in a manner other than the natural order. In it the svaras are shown in different Kalās; along with it the syllabes of the song are shown. For example, NI NI NI NI SA DHA NI NI
TAM SU RA VAM DI TA Bombaka : PK 41 30
A kind of sound.
Nộtya : N 3, 4, 14, 27 etc. 7, 52
That which manifests a feeling or emotion through
āngika abhinaya (q.v.). Nyasa : R 21, 28 etc. T 62, 73 etc. 22, 23, 25
Name of that svara in which
a song or rāga ends. Parāvrtta : N 873-75, 1084
i) A kind of angahāra(q v.). (ii) A kind of desi sthana
(q.v.).

Page #122

Glossary
113
Bhāratí vrtti : N 1114
A particular mode of speech
of actors. Bhramara : N 167-69, 641-42,
817–18, 1149-51 54, 60, 61
(i) A kind of angahara (q.v.) (ii) A kind of mandala (q.v.) (iii) A kind of nfttakarana
(q.v.) (iv) A particular pose of the
single hand in dance. Mandala : N 899, 901, 1046-48,
1142-18 36, 55, 60
(i) A kind of cari (q.v.). (ii) A particular sthana for
males. Madhya : S iii 39 20, 35
Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the
throat, Mandra : S iii 39 20, 35
Name of a place (sthana) where sound arises. It is the
heart, Mtu : PK 2
Mūrchana : S iv. 1, 9, 12, 13,
18, etc. V 67, 96 5, 6, 7, 18, 24, 25, 26 (f.n.) (i) The ascent and descent
of svaras in due order. (ii) A particular action of
the hand in playing
musical instruments. Yati : 146 38, 39, 51 Mode of application of laya
(q.v.): temporary pauses. Yamala : PK 23
A duet singer. Rāga : R 2, 18 etc.
PK 14, P 362
V 399, 400 etc. 6, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 39
A group of svaras, which causes delight to the mind
of the people.. Rāgālapti : PK 190
Same as Rāgālāpa (q.v.). Rāgālāpa : R ij. 24.
Manifestation or spreading
out of a rāga. Rūpakālapti PK : 197. 18, 24
A kind of rāgalapa. Laya : T 44 6, 32, 35, 38 39, 51, 52, 63
Pause after an action, Time intervening between two
mātrās. Lalita ; N 278-84, 634, 1202-5
(i) A kind of mandala. (ii) A particular pose of
hands in dance. (iii) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.).
M
atical co
Poetical composition. Mārga : S i. 22. PK 1, 12 24d.
T4, 10 N 27 6, 8, 9, 33, 40, 49, 50, 52, 55, 65 (i) A kind of samgita which
was sought or found by guds Brahma etc. and applied by sages Bharata
etc. before Siva. (ii) A kind of tala. (iii) A kind rāga.
(iv) A kind of dance M-15

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114
Fuodamentals of Ancieat indian Music and Dance
Vidyudbhrānta : N 684, 85,
837–39 (i) A kind of angahara (q.v.). (ii) A kind of nsitak arana
(q.v.). Vidyud ihrāntā : N 957, 1001-2
(i) kind of aerial câri (q.v.). (ii) A kind of aerial cari of
the desi class. Vibhāsā : R i. 23 ff.
28
Varna : S vi. 1. P 24, 181 etc.
V 172 etc. 6, 23, 24, 25, 39
(i) The act of singing. (ii) A kind of prabandha
(4.v.). (iii) A kind of tala (q.v.). Vardhamāna : N 214–1, 1074 (i) A particular pose of
joined hands in dance. (ii) A kind of desi sthana. Valita : N 280-82, 635–36, 58 170-71.
(i) A pose of hands in dance, (ii) A kind of nịttakarana
(q.v.). (iii) A particular sthana for
females. Vāga : PK 97 24
Another name of gamaku. Vāggeyakāraka : PK 2 18, 32
One who composes Kävya
and songs. Vācika : N 20
Acting by means of speech, Vadı : S iii. 47, 48, 50,
V 216 etc. 22
That svara which reveals the
true from of a rāga. Vidāri : V 120. T 75-77.
That which rends, cuts. It is twofold----gitavidāri and padavidari. For example, Lalii alavangalata / parisilana. ......samire-here each part is a gitavidari. If a vidāri is complete on the amśasvara of a rāga or in its samvādi or anuvadi svara or in nyāsa svara, then it is called padaviduri.
Minor rāga. Vivadı : S iii. 47, 51 etc. 22
The svara which detracis
from the charm of a raga. Vivịtta : N 677-78
A kind of usttakarana (q.v.) Viskambha : N 737-39, 847-59 (i) A kind of nrttakarana
(q.v) (ii) A kind of angahāra (q.v.). Vợnda : PK 203
35
A band of vocalists and
instrumentalists. Vrndagāyana : PK 23
A singer in Vrnda. Vesara : R6
A kind of song. Vaisakharecita : N 657-58, 812-14
57
(i) A kind of nịttakarana (q.v.).
(ii) A kind of angahārna (q.v.). Vaisnava : N 1031-34, 1089 (i) A particular sthana for
males. (ii) A kind of deši sthana. Samya : T 9. 49, 50
A kind of Kala.

Page #124

Glossary
Śārīra : PK 82 30, 31, 32
The capacity of a singer's voice for manifesting a raga
without practice. Sruti : S iii. 8, 9, 10 etc.
2, 10, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 37, 39
Name of the 22 sounds existing in the heptatonic system. All these are Sruia (head);
hence these are called sruti. Šādava : R 9 etc.
A rāga consisting of six
svaras. Satpitā putraka : T 26
Sättvika : N 20
Acting by means of external manifestations of feelings or emotions, e.g. perspiration,
trembling of the body etc. Säranā : S iii. 19 ff. 19, 21, 38 Movement. Raising or
lowering of a svara. Sālaga : See Chayalaga. Sușira : V 4, 5 etc. 37, 44
The class of musical instru.
ments which have holes. Sūcı: N 698-9 (Nștta-karana)
N 951-52, 1014 54, 60 (i) A kind of aerial cari
(q.v.). (ii) A kind of desi aerial cari. Sūcividdha : N 700-701, 808-9,
11 86-88
51
61
A kind of tala. Sancāri : S vi. I 23 · A kind of varna. It arises
from the admixture of the sthāyi, ārohi and avarohi
Varnas. Samvādı : S ii. 47, 49, 50 etc.
V 123. T 74. 22, 23
The svara which supports a rāga whose form has been manifested by the Vadi
svara. Samapäda : N 1041-43, 1077 (i) A particular sthana for
males. (ii) A kind of desi sthana
(q.v.). Samapādā : N 917-18 55, 56
A kind of terrestrial cari (q.v.). Sambhrānta : N 736-37, 883-86 (i) A kind of nfttakarana
(q.v.). (1) A kind of ungahāra(q.v.).
(i) A kind of angahāra (q.v.). (ii) A kind of mandala (q.v.). (iii) A kind of nịttakarana
(q.v.), Sūcīmukha : N 147-51, 232-35 (i) A pose of the single
hand in dance. (ii) A pose of joined hands
in dance. Stāna : P 15. S iii. 39 6, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 57, 58
Place where a svara arises. It is threefold, viz. mandra,
madhya and tāra. Sthāya: PK 97. 24, 33
Part of a rāga.

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116
Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance
in the
Svaradi : PK 13 33
One who is versed
mārga song alone, Svastika : N 192-94,
1073-74.
592-93,
Sthayı : S vi. If. 23
A kind of varna. The intermittent use of the same svara
in a song. Svara : T iii. 25, 28 stc.
P 12, 15 etc. 5, 6, 9, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 33, 39, 40
A tender sound which is resonant, follows śrutis, and independently of other causes, itself causes delight to the mind of the listener.
(i) A pose of joined bands
jn dance. (ii) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.), (iii) A particular desi sthāna. Svastikarecita : N 600-3, 886-888 (i) A kind of nsttakarana
(q.v.), (ii) A kind of ungahāra (q.v.),

Page #126

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
SANSKRIT TEXTS
(Names of authors in Devanagari alphabetical order)
Agnipurana-Chaps. 337-41.
Ahobala Samgita-parijata, ed. K. Vedantavagisa, Calcutta, 1935; Hathras, 1941: (With Bengali translation), Calcutta, 1959.
Kavicakravarti: See Jagadekamalla.
Kasinatha Apatulasi Samgitas udhakara, 1917.
Kumbha or Kumbhakarna: Samgitaraja, ed. P. Sarma, Pt. I, Varanasi, 1963. Ghanśyamadāsa: Samgitasarasamgraha, ed. Prajnanananda, Calcutta, 1956. Jagadekamalla Samgitacuḍamani, Baroda, 1958.
Dattilam Ed. Sambasiva Sastri, Trivandrum, 1930.
Damodara Samgitadarpana, Hathras, 1950.
Nandikeśvara: Abhinayadorpaṇa, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, 1943. Narahari Cakravarti: Same as Ghanaśyamadasa above. Nānyabhūmipāla Bharatabhāṣyam.
Narada Samgitamakaranda, ed. Telang, Baroda, 1920. Naradi Sikṣa Benares, 1893; ed. S. Samaśrami, Calcutta. Pārsvadeva Samgitasamayasara, Trivandrum, 1925.
Bharata Natyasastra, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, I, 1967, II, 1961.
Matanga Bṛhaddesi, ed. S. Sastri, Trivandrum, 1928. Markande yapurana: Chap. I, VV. 34-36: Chap. XXIII.
Rāmāmatya: Svaramelakalanidhi, ed. M. S. R. Ayar, Annamalainagar, 1932. Vayupurāṇa-Chaps. 86-87.
Viṣṇuśarmā (pen-name of Visnunarayana Bhatkhande): Abhinavaragamaħjari,
:

Vişṇudharmottarapuraṇa-Section III.
Śarngadeva Samgitaratnakara, I (Ch. i), Madras, 1943.
II (Chs. ii-iv), Do, 1959.
III (Chs. v-vi), Do, 1951. IV (Ch. viii), Do, 1953.
Subhankara Samgitadamodara, ed. G. Sastri and G. G. Mukhopadhyaya,
Calcutta, 1960,
1921.
Śrinivasa Ragatattvavibodha.
Somanatha Pandita Ragavibodha, ed. S. Sastri, Madras, 1945. Somesvara: Abhilaşitarthacintamani or Mānasollasa, III, Baroda, 1961.

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Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance
ENGLISH WORKS ( In English alphabetical order )
Agrawala, V. K. Tradition and Trends in Indian Music. Bagchi, P. C. : India and China, New York. Bandyopadhyay, S. : The Music of India. Bhatkhande, V. N. : Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India.
Bombay, 1934. Boatwright, H. : Indian Classical Music and the Western Listener. Bose, M. : Classical Indian Dancing, Calcutta, 1970. Clemento, F. : Introduction to the Study of Indian Music, London, 1913. Coomaraswamy, A. K. & Duggirala : The Mirror of Gesture, 1970. Danileou, A. : Northern Indian Music, 1949. Deval, K. R. : The Hindu Musical Scale and the Twenty-two Śrutis, Poona,
1910. Engle, c. : The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, 1865. Felber, E. : The Indian Music of the Vedic and the Classical Period, Vienna,
1912. Fox Strangways, A, H. : (i) Thh Music of Hindusthan.
(ii) The Hindu Scale; Leipzig, 1907-8. French, P. T. Catalogue of Indian Musical Instruments. Ganguli, 0. C.: Rägas and Raginis, Baroda, 1948. Garratt, G. T. : The Legacy of India, Oxford, 1938. Ghosh, N. : Fundamentals of Raga and Tala with u New System of Notation,
Bombay, 1968 Holroyde, P. : Indian Music, London, Jairazbhoy, K. A. : The Rags of North Indian Music, London, 1971. Jones, W. : Ou the Musical Modes of the Hindus. Keskar, B. V. : Indian Music, Problems and Prospects, Bombay, 1967. Naidu, B. V. N. and others : Tandavalak şanam or the Fundumentals of
Ancient Hindu Dancing, 1971. Peterson, J. D. : On the Grāmas or Musical Scales of ihe Hindus. Pingle, B. A. : Indian Music, 1938. Popley, H. A. : The Music of India, Culcutta, 1921, Prajnanananda : Historicul Development of Indian Music, Calcutta. Raja, C. K. : Samgitaratnakara, Eng. trs, (Chap. 1), Madras, 1945. Raja, K. K. and Burnier : Do, Eng. trs. ( Chap. VIT), Brah navidya, (Adyar
Library Bulletin ), XXII), 1959, Madras. Ram, V. B. : Glimpses of Indian Music. Rao and Sastri : A Monograph on Bharata's Natyaśāstra. Rao, T. V. S. ; Studies in Indian Music.

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119
Rosenthal, E. : The Story of Indian Music and its Instruments, London
1928 (Reprint, Delhi, 1971). Roy Choudhury, H. K : The Musicians of India Sambamoorthy, P. : History of Indian Music. Sanyal, A. N. : Ragas and Raginis. Simon, R. : The Musical Compositions of Somanatha, Leipzig, 1904. Sinha, P. : An Approach to the Study of Indian Music, Calcutta, 1970. Subbarao, B. : Raganidhi, Vol I. Swarup, B. : Theory of Indian Music. Tagore, S. N. : Six Principal Rāgas of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1877. Tagore, S. M. : Indian Music by Various Authors, Vols. l-1l (2nd., 1882).
Short Natices of Hindu Musical Instruments. Calcutta, 1912. Seven Principal Musical Notes of the Hindus with their Presiding Deities, Culcutta, 1882. Hindu Music, Calcutta, 1975.
The Musical Scales of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1884. Vatsyayana K. : Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, 1969. Verma, K. M : Seven Words in Bharata.
Natya, Nitta and Nitya, White, E. Appreciating Indian Music. Williard, N. A. : A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan, Calcutta, 1834. Wilson, A, C.: A Short Account of the Hindu System of Music, London,
1904. Wood, A. : The Physics of Music, 1945.
BENGALI, HINDI, MARATHI
(In the spelling of the titles, we have followed the mode of pronunciation.) Names of authors are in Devanāgari alphabetical order.) A. Sanyal : Prācin Bhārater Samgitcinta, Visvavidyāsamgraha. K. Gosvami : Samgitsār, 2nd ed., 1879. D. Mukhopadhyay : Sur 0 Samgati. P. Chaudhuri and Indira Devi Chaudhurani : Hindu Samgit, Visvavidya
samgraha Prajnanananda : Samgit 0 Sumskīti, I, Calcutta, 1953.
Do, Latter part, Calcutta, 1956. B. K. Roychaudhuri (Birendrakishore ) : Rag O rüp, Darjeeling. The
Hindusthani Samgite Tansener sthan, Calcutta, 1946 B. S. B. K. Roychaudhuri : Bharatiya Samgitakoşa, Calcutta, 1932 B. S. V. Bhatkhande : Hindusthani Samgitapaddhati (Marathi ), I, 1910, II, III,
1914, IVth part, 1932. Murari Gupta : Samgit-prakāśikā. Radhamohan Sen : Samgita-taranga, Calcutta,

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Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance
Ramsevak Misra: Talaprakāśa (Hindi). S. M. Tagore Yantrakosa, 1875. S. C. Bandyopadhyay
Bharater Jñan Vijñan, I, Calcutta, 1366 BS. (Chapter on music)
H. N. Mukhopadhyay Samgite Parivartan, 1931.
ARTICLES
Quite a number of papers, on different aspects of music and dancing, has been published in various journals. Among such periodicals, the following are important :
Journal of Music Academy, Madras, III, IV, V, IX XIV, XIX, XXIII,
XXIV. (Articles by Agrawala, Aiyar, Felber, Ganguli, Halugur, Rao) Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Articles by Fox-Strangways and Aiyar) 1935, 1936.
Uttaramantra (Journal), Vol. I 1940 (P. C. Bagchi). Sanskrit Research, 1916 (K, B. Deval)
Indian Culture, IV, 1939 (P. C. Dharma)
The Hindoostan, 1940 (O. C. Ganguli)
Journal of University of Bombay, XVIII, 1949 (Sankarana and Chaitanya Deva)
The Indian Music Journal, Vols. I, 11, 1212-13 (H. P. K. Rao) Also see (i) U.S.I.C. Centre News, Almora, 1942, 1943 (Agrawala and O. C. Ganguli).
(ii) Year-Book of Oriental Art and Culture, London, 1925. (A. K. Coomaraswamy)
JOURNALS
Of journals, exclusively dealing with music, the following noteworthy :

HINDI
Samgita, Samgitakaryalaya, Hathras, U. P.
Samgitakalavihara, Poona Gāndharva Mahavidyalaya.
An important magazine is published also from Samgita-Nataka-Akademi, Delhi.
Surachanda, Calcutta. Viśvavina, Calcutta.
BENGALI
are

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