Studies in the Bhagavati Sutra

Author(s): J C Sikdar
Publisher: Research Institute of Prakrit Jainology & Ahimsa Mujjaffarpur
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001615/1

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505 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATISUTRA DR. JOGENDRA CHANDRA SIKDAR

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PRAKRIT JAIN INSTITUTE RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS SERIES VOLUME I General Editor DR. NATHMAL TATIA, M.A., D.Litt., DIRECTOR, RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PRAKRIT, JAINOLOGY & AHIMSA, MUZAFFARPUR (BIHAR). STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATISUTRA Vu Dr. Jogendra Chandra Sikdar, M.A., Ph.D. RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PRAKRIT, JAINOLOGY & AHIMSA, MUZAFFARPUR (BIHAR) 1964

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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Price: Rs. 18.67 Published on behalf of the Rescarch Institute of I'rakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur (Bihar) by Dr. Nathmal Tatia, M.A., D.Litt., Director. Printed in india at The Tara Printing Works, Varanasi,

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Dedicated to MY REVERED GURUS LATE DR. PRABODH CHANDRA BAGCHI, M.A., D.LITT (PARIS), Ex-Vice-Chancellor, Yisva-Bharati University (Santiniketan). And DR. HIRALAL JAIN, M.A., LL.B., D.LITT., Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, Institute of Languages and Rescarch, University of Jabalpur, Ex-Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur (Bihar).

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The Government of Bihar established the Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa at Vaishali (Muzaffarpur) in 1955 with the object, inter alia, to promote advanced studies and research in Prakrit and Jainology, and to publish works of permanent value to scholars. This Institute is one of the five others planned by this Government as a token of their homage to the tradition of learning and scholarship for which ancient Bihar was noted. Apart from the Vaishali Research Institute, four others have been established and have been doing useful work during the last twelve or thirteen years, namely, the Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning at Darbhanga, the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute at Patna, the Bihar Rashtra Bhasha Parishad for Research and Advanced Studies in Hindi at Patna, and the Nalanda Institute of Research and Post-Graduate Studies in Buddhist learning and Pali (the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara) at Nalanda (Patna). As part of this programme of rehabilitating and reorientating ancient learning and scholarship, this is the Research Volume I, which is the thesis of Dr. J. C. Sikdar, Research Scholar of the Institute, approved for the Ph.D. degree of Bihar University. The Government of Bihar hope to continue to sponsor such projects and trust that this humble service to the world of scholarship and learning would bear fruit in the fulness of time.

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GENERAL EDITOR'S NOTE The Viyahapannatti (Vyakhyaprajnapti) or the Bhagavati, as it is popularly known, is the fifth Anga of the Jaina scripture. It is encyclopaedic in contents and gives a comprehensive glimpse of the various aspects of the life and society of ancient India over a range of several centuries beginning from the 6th century B. C. One can learn from it everything about ancient Jainism-its traditions and history, dogmatics, the life and activities of Lord Mahavira and his attitude towards other sects and thinkers and his peculiar method of exposition and expression. The Bhagavati is also a veritable promptuary of legends and parables, Dr. Sikdar studied the text of the Bhagavatasutra with great care and patience under the guidance of two very eminent savantsthe late Dr. P. C. Bagcbi and Dr. H. L. Jain. His studies spread over a number of years, primarily at Visva-Bharati University and later on at our Institute. As a devoted student of Ancient Indian History and Culture, he could with ease glean data from the Ardhamagadhi text and weave them into a connected history of the various aspects of our ancient culture, political and economic conditions, social life and education. He bas also made an attempt to study the evolution of Jaina philosophical thought as embodied in the Bhagavatisutra and also the literary value of the work. The tenets of Jainism in their original character have been fully preserved in the Bhagavatisutra, and their critical study, with a special reference to the corresponding ideas and concepts of Buddhism and other contemporary schools of thought, still remains a desideratum. Brilliant researches have been made in the field of general history and culture, but the specific issues and their bearing on our history and culture still remain obscure. This is even more true in the field of tenets and dogmas. Scholars should therefore come forward to evaluate the philosophical con

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. ( viii) tents of the Bhagavatisutra and reconstruct a connected history of Jaina thought from this specific point of view. We are thankful to the author for allowing us to include the book in our Research Publication Series. Vaishali Mahavira Jayanti, April 24, 1964. NATHMAL TATIA Director Research, Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa

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PREFACE The BIS (Viyahapannati, Skt. Vyakhyaprajitapti) is one of the most important works of the Arddha-Magadhi literature of the Jaina Canon, largest in volume and encyclopaedic in its contents covering various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of dialogues between Lord Mahavira and his disciples. This work has not so far been exhaustively studied from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view, although Weber, Jacobi, Winternitz and other scholars made brief appraisal of it in course of their reviews of the Jaina canonical literature. It throws important light upon many problems of Indian History and Thought by revealing various aspects of them, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different religious systems, the Jajna tradition, nature of faith and preconditions and mythological figures before Lord Mahavira, contemporary history, cosmology, cosmography, evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought, etc. A critical study of the book was a desideratum and I have attempted in this thesis prepared for the Ph. D. degree of the Bihar University, to fulfil the want in my humble way. The thesis has been divided into eleven chapters. The first chapter deals with the position of the Bhs in the Arddha-Magadhi Canon and its relation to the other canonical works. It reveals that this text is a mine of varied contents treasured in a consolidated form, as found in all the works put together, convering all aspects of Sramana-Nirgrantha-Dharma and its philosophy. It shows that the BIS is integrally connected with the other canonical works and occupies the highest position in the Arddha-- Magadhi Canon. The second chapter treats of the authorship and date of this canonical work and makes a brief analysis of its contents, language and style. It is revealed here that in the first stage the BHS along with the other canonical works, was derived

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from the teachings of Lord Mahavira and given a shape of grantha by Sudharma-Svamin and then it was transmitted by him to Jambu-Svamin, in the second stage it was collected and fixed in the Patali putra Council and in the third stage it was codified by the Vallabhi Council as the tradition says. But the core of the contents and subject-matter of the work existed long before the time of Lord Mabavira. Its language represents the Middle-Indo-Aryan stage, so its contents and language lend support to the assignment of its date to the period beginning from the 6th Cen. B. C. to the 6th Cen. A. D. As regards the technique of its style, it originates with prose containing the thoughts and activities of various religious teachers and conveys them through the language of the people in their own natural style. The third chapter deals with the political conditions as reflected in the Bhs and reveals that there was no political unity among the different states of India under one sovereign ruler during the time of Lord Mahavira. A quadrangular struggle among the four leading states, viz. Kasi, Kosala, Vaisali, and Magadha went on and led to the two great devastating wars called Mahasilakantaka-Sangrama and Rathamusala-Sangrama for establishing their respective political and economic supremacy over North-East India. In these wars king Kunika came out successful by inflicting a crushing defeat on the confederate army of Kasi, Kosala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis led by king Cetaka of Vaisali. This chapter throws an important light upon the polity and administration by giving an idea of the political theory and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical forms of government, running side by side. The former was based on the principle of divine kingship and the latter on the social contract theory, as they are reflected in the monarchical state of Magadha, and the Republics of the Licchavis of Vaisali and of the Mallakis of Para and Kusinara. The fourth chapter treats of the social conditions as reflected in this canonical work by making a critical study of Varnas (social orders), Asramas (stages of life), social structure and family

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(xi) relations, popular belief in dreams, celebrations of birth and marriage, position of women, dresses and ornaments, art of decoration, houses and articles of furniture, sports and amusements, manners and customs. It reveals that the society was based on the traditional Varnasrama Dharma but the social order was not very rigid, as it is evidenced by the fact of the racial synthesis of various Indian tribes and foreign nationals, such as, Kiratas, Barbaras (Indian tribes), Parasis, Arabs, Simghalis, (foreign nationals), etc., in the evolution of Indian civilization. The spirit of Varnasrama Dharma illustrated itself in the system of life into stages, for spiritualism dominated in the individual, social, political, religious and secular aspects of the people's life of that period. The fifth chapter makes a study of the economic conditions as reflected in the Bhagavati Sutra by revealing that the economic structure of its society stood on agriculture, arts and crafts, labour and capital, industry, trade and commerce, roads and communications and banking business. As regards the general economic conditions of the people it is found that there was a small number of rich persons in comparison with the economic standard of those days and that of the present time. A current of poverty flowed beneath the surface of much opulence of social wealth and prosperity. The sixth chapter deals with education of that period by making discussion on the conception of education, its system, art of writing, language and literature, science and arts. It reveals that education was based on the unity of thought and action, knowledge, right attitude and right conduct. Its ideals and aims were self-control, building up of moral character, physical, mental and intellectual development, theoretical and practical knowledge in different branches of learning to make an individual capable of shouldering the responsibilities of the worldly affairs and discharging both temporal and secular duties by holding before him the goal of life-Moksa (liberation). So the system of education was academic and vocational, because a balance was maintained between the individual and secular aspects of life. This spiritual

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( xii ) background of education made itself realize that the human life and body, material enjoyment of objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world and the soul to the spiritual one. The seventh chapter treats of the existence of various leaders of thought and their philosophical and religious systems as mentioned and described in the BhS viz. Sramanx-Nirgrantha Dharma, Ajivikism, other schools and sects, such as, Kriyavadins, Akriya. vadins, Ajna navadins, Vinayavadins, Parivrajakas, Vanaprasthas, Carakas, other Tirthikas, the order of Lord Paravanatha, that of Jamali, the first schism in the Nirgrantha order led by him, deities, supernatural powers and elements, etc. It depicts a picture of ancient India of the period of this canonical work, when the habitual religion of the people was in its degrees and forms in clash and adjustment with the higher religions preached by various schools of thought, while the common people followed their traditional faiths and customs. The eighth chapter deals with the historical data found in this work and its bearing upon the history of the time the life of Lord Mahavira, his contemporary kings, clans, tribes and races. It throws fresh light upon the parentage of the Master by revealing that he was the son of Devananda, the Brahmani of Brahmanakundagrama. Lord Muhavira appears to have erected a great edifice of Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma on a solid metaphysical foundation by systematizing the fundamental principles of this religion laid down by his predecessors. The ninth chapter makes a study of cosmology, cosmography and historical geography as found and described in the BhS with the corroborative evidences of the Buddhist and Brahmanical sources of information. The tenth chapter throws an important light upon the contribution of this canonical work to the evolution of Jaina philosophical thought by dealing with Jaina Metaphysics, Psychology, Epistemology, Ethics, Logic and the doctrine of Karma and liberation as revealed herein. It gives an exposition of the

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(xiii) metaphysical principles in general and the doctrine of matter in particular, containing an idea of the atomic theory, and reveals the relation of Metaphysics with Physics by dealing with the six fundamental substances of the Universe, viz. Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akaja (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Addhasamaya (time). It shows that the metaphysical inquiry goes beyond the aspects of Physics. The section of this chapter dealing with ethics reveals that the unlimited possession of wealth and its unrestricted enjoyments have not been commended as final according to the ethical principles laid down in this canonical work, for the forces of desire and enjoyments lead man to the mad lust for wealth and consequent suffering. So it lays a great emphasis on the principle of non-possession (aparigraha). The eleventh chapter makes the estimation of the value of the BIS from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view and reveals that its value lies in the fact of its service to mankind with its thought-provoking and wisdom evoking principles of truth of life and Nature, amply and brilliantly expressed in thoughts evolved by the rational ideas of Lord Mahavira. The critical study of the Bhs was assigned to me in July, 1954 by my late revered teacher, Dr. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, the then ViceChancellor of the Vishya-Bharati University at Shantiniketan where I served as Research Scholar-cum-honorary lecturer for about three years. There I made free study of some Jaina canonical works in general and the BIS in particular. After the sudden death of Dr. Bagchi on the 19th January, 1956, naturally I could not get the proper guidance at proper time ; still I resolved myself to continue the studies in the same subject as an academic duty as assigned by him. Fortunately I got timely help from Dr. Hiralal Jajn, M, A., LL. B., D. LITT., then Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur, Bihar. It is he who kindly gave me a seat as Research scholar in the Institute in March, 1957, to continue my studies in the same subject under his mature

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( xiv j guidance. A regular scheme was drawn up with his help and guidance. Before starting the study topicwise I made a free translation of the Bhs. Then I went deep into the subject according to the scheme. In the day-to-day progress of my studies my revered teacher, Dr. H. L. Jain, guided me in dealing with the problems that arose by taking regular classes for the advancement of my work under his paternal care. I had to face the difficulty for not finding some of the necessary reference-books, journals, periodicals, etc., in the library of the Institute, as it was then newly established Research Institute and most of the reference-materials were unavailable in the market. in this connection I feel called upon to acknowledge my deepest gratitude to my Guruji, Swamin Swatmananda, Shri Ramakrishna Ashrama, Burdwan, and Dr. Dhirendra Mohan Datta, the retired Professor of Philosophy, Patna University, for their encouragement in the pursuit of my studies and researches. I refrain from the vain attempt to praise my revered teacher an guide, Dr. H. L. Jain, because my feelings of attachment. and gratitude for him are too deep for utterance. In one word only I say he has transformed my life in the field of learning with his intellectual majesty combined with his benevolent heart and able guidance. I am very grateful to my revered teacher, Dr. Nathmal Tatia, M. A. D. Litt., Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur for his act of kindness to get my Ph. D. thesis published by this Institute with great interest. I am much indebted to my dear friend and colleague, Research Scholar, Sri K. R. Chandra for his invaluable help with his intelligent suggestions and sweet company in working out my thesis. I am also thankful with gratitude to my first dear fellow brother, Sri Vimal Prakash Jain, M. A. Lecturer, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa for his arduous work in assisting me in abbreviating my thesis for publication and reading the proofs. I am also indebted to Shri Atulnath Sinha and Shri Nandkishore Prasad, Research Scholars, for preparing the Index. In this connection I remember

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( x ) also my sister, Meera with affection for giving me fresh strength and energy by her constant inspiration in my hard task to complete the thesis. I place on record my debt of gratefulness to the institute for the award of a Research Scholarship to me for the prosecution of my studies and the publication of my thesis. Malavira Jayanti JOGENDRA CHANDRA SIKDAR Friday, the 24th April, 1964.

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CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Pages 1-30 Position of the Bhagavati Sutra in the Arddha Magadhi Canon. Its inter-relation to the other canonical works. Section 1. Position of the Bhagavati Sutra in the Arddha-Magadhi Canon. ,, II. Inter-relation of the Bhagavati Sutra to the other canonical works. 31-61 CHAPTER II. Its authorship and date. Examination of the internal and external evidences, such as, linguistic and literary as well as historical. Section 1. Authorship and date of the Bhagavati | Sutra. , II. Analysis of the contents. III. Language, , IV. Style. CHAPTER III. 62-145 Political Conditions. ... Section 1. Political disunity. II. Factors of political conditions. III. Polity and Administration. IV. System of Administration. v. Structure of Government. VI. Function of Government. VII a. Administration of Justice. b. Army. c. Ethics of War. VIII. Inter-state Relation. IX. Gana-polity as revealed in the Bhagavati Sutra.

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Social Conditions. Section I. II. III. IV. "" dw 39 99 "" 23 99 .. 39 39 23 "" Economic Conditions. Section I. Agriculture. II. III. 39 Section "9 39 .. VI. VII. 99 Varna (Social order). Asrama (stage of life). Social structure and Family Relations. Dream, Pregnancy and Celebrations of Birth and Marriage. V. Position of Women as depicted in the Dresses and Ornaments, Houses and Articles of Furniture. VIII. Sports and Amusements, Manners and Customs. CHAPTER IV. IV. V. VI. ( xviii) Bhagavati Sutra. Food and Drink. II. III. IV. V. VI. CHAPTER V. ... Arts and Crafts. Labour and Capital. Trade and Commerce. Roads and Communications. General Economic Conditions. CHAPTER VI Education. 1. Conception of Education, Educational system, Art of writing, Language and Literature. Science and Arts. Biology. Astronomy and Mathematics. Military Science. Fine Arts (Architecture, Art, Painting, Music, Dance, Drama, etc.), Pages 146-267 268-326 327-387

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(xix } CHAPTER VII Pages 388-464 Various leaders of thought and their philosophical and religious systems mentioned and described in the Bhagavati Sutra. Sectian 1. Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma , II. Religious Vows and Austerities. , III. Religious Rules for the Nirgrantha Monks and Nuns. IV. Classification of the Nirgrantha Monks. V. Agara orSravaka Dharma and Asrutva Kevalin. Ajivika Sect--A brief-sketch of the life of Gosala Mankhaliputra the Ajivika leader. ,, VII. Doctrine of Ajivikism. ,, VIII. Other Schools and Sects. IX. Deities. ., X. Supernatural power of the Monks and Supernatural Elements. 465-517 CHAPTER VIII. Historical data found in the Bhagavati Sutra and its bearing upon the bistory of the time. Section 1. Life of Lord Mahayira. >> II. Kings. III. Clans. IV. Tribes and Races. CHAPTER IX ... 518-554 Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography Section 1. Cosmology. ,, II. Cosmography. ,, III. Geography-- Janapadas (States), Towns and Cities, Hills and Rivers.

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Pages 555-607 (xx) CHAPTERIX Contribution of the Bhagavati, Sutra to the evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought. Section 1. Jaina Metaphysics. >> II. Jaina Psychology. >> III. Jaina Epistemology. IV. Jaina Ethics. , V. Jaina Logic. VI. Doctrine of Karma. CHAPTER XI ... 608-626 Value of the Bhagavati Sutra from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view. Section 1. Literary value of the Work.. , II. Historical value of the Work. ... III. Philosophical value of the Work. Bibliography Index 627-638 639-658

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System of transliteration adopted in the Work a a, A a, i i, VOWELS I u U i, u, u, R , la e, ai, o, au. CONSONANTS k k, kh kh, gh gh, G n, ch ch, j j, jh jb, s fie For bio tor bor por Hor to t th d t, th, d, db, n, p, ph, by posar win bron not a S Ib, V, 156 The straight form of the diacritical mark has been used in this work to indicate the long a, i & u.

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ABBREVIATIONS A. G. I. ... Ancient Geography of India. Antagada ... Antagadadasao. Anu. Su ... Anuyogadvara Sutra. Anu. Ti Tika. Aca. Acaranga. A. I. Ancient India. A.R.A.S.I. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India. A.S.I.R. Archaeological Survey of India-Reports. Ava. Cu. ... Avasyaka Curni. Ava. Nir. ... Niryukti. Ava. Tika. ... ,, Tika. Bhs. Bhagavati Sutra. B.K.S. Book of the Kindred Sayings. BIh. Bha. ... Bihat kalpa Bhasya. C.H.I. Cambridge History of India. C. L. Carmichael Lectures. Comm. Commentary. C. I. I. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. C. A. G. I. ... Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India. Dasa Sutra ... Dasavaikalika Sutra. Dasa Curni ... ,, Curni. D. P. P. N. ... Dictionary of Pali Proper Names. Digh. N. ... Dighe-Nikaya. Digh. Comm.... Commentary. D.K.A. Dynasties of the Kali Age. E. R. E. ... Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ep. Ind. ... Epigraphia Indica. H. and F. ... Hamilton and Falconer's translation of Strabo's geography. G.O.S. Gaekwad Oriental Series. H.C. Hindu Civilization. Hari. Harivamsa (Purana). H. A. I. Hindu Administrative Institutions.

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( xxiii ) Jat Ind. Ant. ... Indian Antiquary. .. I. H. Q. ... Indian Historical Quarterly. Jambu. Su. ... Jambusutra. ... Jataka. J. Gr. S. ... Jaimini Gshya Sutra. J.A.O.S. ... Journal of the American Oriental Society. J.A.S.B. ... , ,, the Asiatic Society of Bengal. .., J.I.S.O.A. ... ,, of the Indian Society and of the Oriental Art J.R.A.S. ... Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. . T.D.L. ,, of the Department of Letters. . J.R.I. Junagadha Rock Inscription. Kalpa. Tika.... Kalpa Sutra Tika. L.A.I. Life in Ancient India. Manu. Manu-smoti. Mbh, Mahabharata. M. V. Mahavastu. Mark. Pu. Markandeya Purana. M. R. E. Minor Rock Edicts of Asoka. Narada. Narada-Smrti. Naya. Nayadhammakahao. Niraya. Nirayayaliya Sutta. Nisi. Cu. ... Nisitha Curni. N. R. Nakhsh-i-Rustam (Inscription). Ova. Su. Ovaiya Sutta. Panna. Pannavana Sutta. Panha. Tika ... Panhavagarana Tika. Peta. Comm. ... Petavatthu Commentary : Ed. by E. Hardy, P. T. S. London, 1901. P. T. S. Pali Text Society. Pkt. Prakrita. P. H. A. I. ... Political History of Ancient India Dr. H. C. Raychaudhury. Rama. Ramayana. Raya. Su. ... Rayapaseniya Suya. R. V. .. Rs-Veda,

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Skt. ( xxiv ) ... Samsksta. Su. Ti, ... Sutrakstaaga Tika. Suya. Suyagada (Sutrakstanga). S. B. E. Sacred Books of the East. S. B. M. Sramana Bhagavan Mahavira. Sumanga.Vi. ... Sumangala Vilasini. Samanna. ... Samannaphala Sutta. Tanqula..... Tandula Veyaliya. Uttara. Su. ... Uttaradhyayana Sutra. Uttara. Ti .... Uttaradhyayana Tika. Vinaya. .... Vinaya-pitaka. Vasudeva-hindi. Vayu. Vayu-Purana. ... Vivaga Suya. Vya. Bha. ... Vyavabara Bhasya. Vasu. Viv:

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FIRST CHAPTER Position of the Bhagavati Sutra in the Ardha-Magadhi Canon. Its inter-relation to the other Canonical works. FIRST SECTION Position of the BhS. in the Ardha-Magadhi Canon The BhS (Viyahapannatti, Skt. Vyakhyaprajnapti) is one of the most important works of the Ardha-Magadhi canon of the Jainas. It is largest in volume, exceeding all the volumes of the ten Angas put together and encyclopaedic in its contents covering various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of conversations between Lord Mahavira and his disciples, Goyama Indabhui and others and the members of the heterodox sects as existing during his period. The study of this work has thrown light upon many problems of Indian History and Thought, more particularly in the field of Jainology. It is the mine of informations regarding various aspects of History and Culture, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different systems of religion, political history, cosmology, cosmography, Geography and evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought which are rarely embodied in any of the Agamas in such a consolidated manner. Besides these, the BhS presents in a graphic manner a more vivid picture of the life and work of Lord Mahavira as ascetic and teacher, his relationship to his disciples and contemporaries and his dignified dynamic and divine personality than any other canonical work. It throws light upon the mytho logical figures before him, such as, Munisuvrata, Vimala, etc., Jaina traditions, and nature of faith and preconditions to those prevailing during the period of the Master. Here, side by side with the appearance of supernatural beings and the demonstration of the spiritual power of Lord Mahavira, are depicted the purely human traits as revealed in the scene of his accidental

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2 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I meeting with his former mother, Devananda, the Brahmani at the Bahusalaka Caitya in Brahmanakundagrama1. It is first necessary to make a brief survey of the contents of the other works of the Ardha-Magadhi canon in order to determine the position of the BhS among them. This canonical text traces back the origin of the Agamas at the time of the first Tirthankara, Lord Rsabhadeva, by recording that there were twenty-four Tirthankaras beginning from Lord Rsabhadeva upto Lord Varddhamana (i.e. Lord Mahavira). Of these twenty-four Tirthankaras twenty-three were the Jinantaras (i.e after the first one). During the time of the first and last eight Jinantaras there was the non-destruction (i.e. existence) of Kalika-Sruta, while at the time of the middle (or intermediate) seven Jinantaras there took place the destruction of Kalika-Ssruta (Kalikasrutasya ekadasangi. rupasya vyavacchedah) and at the period of all Jinantaras there was the destruction of Drstivada "Savvatthavi........ Vocchinne Ditthivae".5 Lord Mahavira has said: varsa the Purvagata Sruta will of my one thousand years, i.e. my "In Jambudvipa in Bharatafollow in the Avasarapini Kala upto one thousand years from time, whereas the Purvagata Sruta of the remaining Tirthankaras in the Avasarpini Kala followed upto numerable times and that of some of them continued up to innumerable times". It is further stated that Arhats are invariably 'Pravacani', while Pravacana is twelve Ganipitakas, viz. Ayara (Acaranga) Suyagada (Sutrakrtanga), Thananga (Sthananga), Samavayanga, Viyahapannatti (ie. Vyakhyaprajnapti, Bhagavati Sutra), Nayadhammakahao, Uvasagadasao, Antagada (Antakrta), Anuttarovavaiyadasao, Panhavagarana, Vivaga-suya and Ditthivaya." It is clear from these evidences that the oldest part of the canon according to the tradition as recorded in this 1 Bh8, 9, 33, 382. 6 Ib, 20, 8, 679 25 Ib, 20, 8, 678. 7 Bhs, 20, 8, 682,

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Canonical work is represented by the fourteen Purvas or the former scriptures and the twelfth Anga, Drstivada, now regarded as lost. The knowledge of those Purvas also gradually became extinct witbin one thousand years after the Master's demise. Table of the contents of the Purvas preserved in the Nandi Sutra' are as follows: (1) Uppaya (Utpadu', (2) Agga. niya (Agganiya = Agrayaniya), (3) Viriyappavaya (Viryapravada), (4) Atthinatthipparaya (Astinasipravada), (5) Nanappavaya (Jhanapravada), (0) Saccappavaya (Satya-pravada), (7) Ayappavaya (Atma pravada), (8) Kummappavaya (Karmapravada), (9) Paccakkhanappavaya (Pratyakhyana-pravada), (10) Vijjanuppavaya (Vidyanupravada), (11) Avamjhu (Avandhya), (12) Panau (Pranayuh), (13) Kiriyavisala (Kriyavisala) and (14) Logabindusara (Lokabindusara). According to the tradition they formed a vast volume of the sacred literature and the present Agamas are said to have been extracted from one single small section. It is recorded in the Bhs that Gosala Mankhaliputra, the Ajivika leader took his doctrine from the eight Mahanimittas (eight great causes) which were a portion of the Purvas (atthaviha-Puvvagaya)* (i. e. Vijjanuppavaya). So the Purvas were older than Lord Mahavira, as it is known from the fact that there are frequent references to them in this canonical work as existing even in the time of Munisuvrata" and Dharmaghosa, a disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tirthankara'. There appear to be two traditions of the Pirvas, viz. Dasapurvas (ten purvas), and C'aturdasa Purvas (fourteen Purvas) as recorded in the Dhavala (Satkhandagama) vol. 8. "Namo dasa puvviyanamo (Salutation to Dasapurvis) Namo Coddasapuyviyanan? (Salutation to Caturdasapurvis)." 1 Nandi Sutra, (S. 57). ? BhS, 15, 1, 539, 9 Dhavala Vol. VIII, p. 52. (Satkhandagama, Dr. H. L. Jain) 4 Bh8, 8, 2, 618. 5 10, 11, 11, 431. 6 Introduction to Satkhandagama-2., Dr. H.L. Jain 12, p. 54. 7 16, 13., p. 54.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I It is known from this Dhavala that the learning of the reader of the Srutas ended with the completion of the study of the tenth Purva and he received the worship of the goddesses, Rohini and other 500 Mahavidgas and Angusthaprasena and other 700 Alpavidyas. If he did not fall from the moral path out of greed, he was entitled to Jinahood. The Purvas related controversies held between Lord Mahavira and his rival teachers. The Master wanted to combat the opinions of other religious leaders belonging to heterodox sects in defence of the doctrines he professed. So there was no more necessity of these discussions after his demise. This led to the composition of the new canon and the old one was in neglect and went into oblivion. Weber thinks that "the development of the Svetambara sect had arrived at a point where the diversity of its tenets from those embodied in the Drstivada became too visible to be passed over." So the Drstivada was neglected, but Jacobi holds by contradicting this view that the Digambaras who have lost the Purvas and the Angas also, maintain that the Purvas existed even after the completion of the new canon. Of the existing Agamas the Acaranga Sutra gives an exposition of the disciplinary and monastic rules in the two Books called Srutaskandhas (Suyakkhandha). The Sutrakrtanga deals with the faith and heretical doctrines, viz. those of one hundred and eighty Kriyavadins, eighty-four Akriyavadins, sixty-seven Ajnanikas, thirty-two Vainayikavadins. It shows what the religious life should be in general and how it leads to liberation. The Sthananga Sutra treats of substance (Dravya) from different points of views (Sthanas), for example, division of time beginning from the unit of Avalika upto Sirsaprahelika, then 1 S. B. E. (Vol. xxii) Introduction. p. XLVI. see also Indian Antiguary, Vol. XVII. Sthananga Sutra-(S. 727) section-10. It can be compared with the contents of the Anguttara Nikaya of the Buddhists.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA to Utsarpina. The 'Yugam' has been placed between the year and century as intermediate gradation and the quinquennial yuga is thereby still used as a system of calculation. It makes references to seven schisms along with the names of their leaders and the centres of their origin, viz. 1 Bahuraya (Bahuruta), 2 Jrvapadesiya (Jivapradesika), 3 Avvattiya (Avyaktika), 4. Samuccheiya (Samucchedika) 5. Dokiriya (Dvikiriya), 6. Terasiya (Trairafikas), and 7. Avaddhiya Abaddhika) and the seven religious teachers of these seven schisms were Jamali, Tisagutta, Asadha, Asamitta, Gamga, Chalua and Gotthamahila, having their respective centres of origin (uppattinagaraim) in Sravasti, Ksabhapuru (Usabhapura), Siyabiya, Mithila, Ullukatira (Ullugatira) Pura, Amtarangi and Dasapura. The Samarayanga Sutra' is the fourth Anga, the first part of which gives an exposition of substance and thus supplements the preceding tbird Anga. The last part contains the extent of divisions of the separate Angas with their respective names and a summary of the twelfth Anga-Dithivaya and it furnishes some legendary data on the eminent personalities of the Nirgrantha Order, e.g. Kunthu and others and about the lunar and Naksatra, computation of time and the quinquennial yuga, eighteen kinds of script (Bambhi livi, etc.) forty-six matrikapadas, season of the lunar year and seventy-two kinds of kalas (arts of learning). The Nayadhammakahaos is composed of two books, the first consists of a series of edifying stories containing moral teachings and the second contains a number of pious legends. These two books are closely inter-related to each other. The Uvasagadasao mainly deals with the lessons concerning the Upasakas (lay disciples) like Ananda of Vanijyagrama', Saddalaputta of Polasapura, etc. Its first chapter is the most 116, (S. 587). Samavayanga. 8 Nayadhammakahao-Naya and Dhammakaha. 4 Uvasagadasao-1. 6 Uvasagadasao-7.

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STUDIES IN. THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I important, because it furnishes in a systematic way the rules of observance of a Jaina layman, while the other books only provide illustrations. The Antagada deals with the legend of pious princes, etc. who are striving after the attainment of liberation through death by inanition (Sailekhana). It refers to the sections in the fifth? and sixth Angas", Candana, Prasenajit, etc. The Anuttar ovavaiy adusao is a collection of legends of saints like the preceding one, each of whom attained the highest (anuttura) heavenly world by their meritorious acts. The Panhavagarana (the work containing questions with their replies) deals with the principles of Jaina morals in ten sections comprising two parts--the first of which treats of *Asrava' influx of karma-matter into soul which is thus attached to Karma ; the second prescribes the rules in regard to the function which enables the soul to stop (samvara) the influx of karma-matter and leads it to liberation. It also makes reference to some foreign tribes--Milikkha jati, such as Kunti, Saga, Javana, etc.'s Jupiter, the Moon, the Sun, Venus, Saturn, Rahu, Dhumaketu, Mereury, Mars, etc. The Vivaga Suya consisting of two books (ten chapters) furnishes only illustrations to the preceding work. It proves by a series of legends what recompense is prescribed for straight conduct and what punishment is laid down for the violation of moral prescription. It contains legends of good and evil deeds. Of the twelve Upangas the Uvavaiya (Aupapatikv)" Suya is divided into two parts. The first contains a sermon of Lord Mabavira on the Law in general, partly agaradharma (householders' religion) and partly anagaradharma (monastic religion) 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 2 Nayachammakahao-(The material upto the taking of vows of Goyama). * Panhavagarana-S. 4. * Vivaga suya-Duhavivaga & Suhhvivaga (Vipaka Satra). 5 Ovavaiya, S. 74-100.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SUTRA delivered in Campa which was under the rule of king Kunika, the son of Bimbhisara (Bimbisara), The second part deals with the successive rebirths and conditions of deliverance. In the central part there is the mention of heterodox sects, such as, Parivrajakas (Parivvayaga), Kanha-Parivvayaga, etc. and eight "Tattha representatives of each class from the Brahmana caste. Khalu ime attha-mahana-parivvayaga bhavamti Karakanti ya, ammada, etc." Kanne It refers to the female attendants belonging to different tribes, such as, Cilaiya (Kiratas.), etc. and alludes to eighteen unnamed desibhasa (local dialects), other sects, such as Annautthiya (Anyatirthikas), terasiya (Trairasikas), seven schismsBahuraga, Jivapadesiya, (Jiva-pradesika), Dokiriya etc. The Rayapaseniya (Rajaprasny 1) contains questions of the king, Paesi and equally furnishes some reply on the subject of re-incarnation of soul and its relation with the body. This Upanga also gives an account of the former birth of Suriabha Paesi and his future birth as Dadhapa inna and it also refers to the foreign peoples. 1 Rayapaseniya. 3 Jiva. pratipattis. 7 ya, The Jivabhigama consisting of ten sections' enumerates and classifies the diverse species of animated beings, e. g. divviha upto dasavviha and at last gives a description of the universe by furnishing some astronomical data, such as, the number of the suns, moons, stars, etc. in each of the dvipas (islandcontinents). The Pannavana Suya having thirtysix chapters (or sections) contains an ethnographic sketch according to which men are divided into two categories, viz. Arya (noble) and Mleccha i.e. barbarians and it enumerates twenty-five and a half Aryan countries." Besides, this Upanga treats of different forms, conditions of life, etc. of beings (Jivas). Lastly it mentions eighteen kinds of script, viz. Bambhi upto Polimdi. Ib., 3rd Pratipatti. Pannavana. V. 4, 7, 36 sayas. Pannavana ti| Samugghae. 5 Ib., 1, 1 (36-37). 6 Ib., 1, 37, 55a.

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8 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I The fifth and seventh Upangas, namely, Suriyapannatti and Camdapannatti contain a description of the suns, the moons etc. by giving an exposition of Jaina Astronomy. The Jambuddivapannatti, the sixth Upanga describes Jambudvipa as the habitat of men and it is interfused with many legends. It enumerates seventy-two kinds of Kalas (arts of learning). The conclusion of this work ends in its reference to the sun, the moon, stars, the extent of their vimanas, and Mars and Saturn as belonging to the lunar court. The eighth to twelfth Upangas are Nirayavaliya or Kalpika, Kappavaoansia (Kalpavatamsika), Pupphao, Pupphaculao (Puspa cuda) or Pupphaculia and Vanhidasao (Vrsnidusa). Each of them except the last one (12 ch.), having ten chapters contains legends about the after world, destiny of ten princes fallen in a battle. Thus the Nirayavaliya Sutra contains a description of hells and the future births of the ten princes, Kala and others, the step-brothers of king Kunika in the fourth hell as a result of their participation in the war called Mahasilakantaka Sangrama. Here it furnishes the historical data about this war, king Kunika and imprisonment of his father, Seniya-Bimbisara. The Kalpavatarsaka deals with the account of the ten sons of the ten princes, Kala and others, all of whom were converted to Sramana Dharma and attained their respective heavens. The Pupphiya (Puspeka) discusses the topic of the ten gods, viz. the moon, the sun and others, who paid their homage to Lord Mahavira by making their appearance to him from their celestial worlds. Thereupon the Master relates the story of their former births in which they were initiated to Sramana Dharma by Lord Parsvanatha and devoted to the study of eleven Angas, commencing with samayika. The Pupphaculao treats of ten other accounts of similar character of ten goddesses, namely, Sri, HIe, Dhrti and others. + Jombuddiva ponnatti,

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Sec. I STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 9 The Vanhidasao (Vrsnidasa) also deals with similar legends of the twelve princes of the Vanhi race (Vrsni race), such as, Nisadha (Nisadha), Mabanisadha, etc. It treats of the history of Nisadha, son of Balarama and nephew of Krsna in Baravaz (Dvaravati). In his previous birth he was said to have been devoted to the study of the eleven Angas commencing with samayika under the tutorship of Siddhattha. The ten Painnas (Prakirnakas) which form the third group of the texts of the Agamas are "melanges" small treatises of verse starting precisely with some points of discipline, ritual, or mythology. They are as follows: (1) Caisarana (Catuh Sarana), four refuges in 63 verses, namely (n) Sad-avasyaka and the Samayika which enumerates six daily observances necessary for adopting a life devoid of sin, (b) Pratikramana, the manual of confession, (c) Pratyakhyana-(renunciation) (or review of general discipline), (d) Caturvinsatistava vandanas which glorify the twenty-four Tirthankaras and pay homage to their virtues. (2) The Aura-paccakkhana (Aturapratyakhyana), composed in 70 verses with an insertion in prose after verse 10, treats of the supreme renunciation. (3) The Bhattaparinna (Bhaktaparijna) reminds the monks of the way they should prepare themselves for death. (4) Santharaga (Samstaraka) (the pallet of straw)--It gives in detail a particular point of the death ritual, preparation for the saintly death (panaitamarana). It describes the bed of grass or straw on which the dying monk should spread himself for meditating on the truth taught by the Master. (5) Tbe Tandulaveyaliya-(Tandulavaikalika), a treatise on philosophy composed in the form of dialogue between Gautama Indrabhuti and Lord Mahavira gives successively the state of foetus in the womb of the mother (dans la matrice), the birth of the child, the diverse state of existence, the rital functions and the maladies' in which a man falls. The text is partly in prose and partly in verse. Tandulnveyaliya-31 : Bala : Kidda upto Sayani ya dasana. Kaladasa. See Dasaveyaliya-v. 10.

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10 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I (6) The Candavijjhaya containing 174 verses is a work on the general discipline indicating the qualities which the teachers and disciples should have, the rules of conduct to follow in diverse circu mstances of life and at last the manner in which one should prepare himself for the holy death. (7) The Devindatthava (Devendrastayas) containing about 292 verses in Pkt. enumerates, classifies and describes different gods. (8) The Ganivijja (Gaaitavidya) is a short treatise of Astrology in 86 verses on the hours and days, constellations, planets as well as the favourable and nefast signs and on horoscope. (9) The Mahapaccakkhana (Mahapratyakhyana) is a general formula of confession and of renunciation, etc. in 142 verses. (10) Viratthava (Virastava) contains in 43 verses different names of the Jina, the hero who has vanquished all obstacles to freedom. Next come the Cheda Sutras - Books of "decision" or "statutes" the contents of which refer to the clergy and rules of conduct prescribed for them, though there is a large admixture of subsidiary matter of a legendary character, e.g., the entire Kalpa-Sutra. The first two rules according to the existing order refer to the expiation and penances (prayascitta and tapas) while the rest contain general matters refering to discipline. They are as follows : (1) Nisiha (20 books) (Nisitha, Nisedha, Nisithadhyayana). It contains rules prescribed for the monks and nuns for leading their lives according to them. (2) Mahanisiha (6 sections)-This work discusses the teachings of Gautama Indrabhuti on transgress (Salla) and punishment (Payacchitta). (3) The Vavahara (ten uddesakas or books) is the third Cheda Sutra which treats of prescriptions and interdictions for the Jaina monks and nuns. The first Uddesaka deals with-- Pariharatthapanan (parihara-paristhapana a kind of conduct) witha regard to 1, 2, 3, or 4 monks. The second with relation of two fellow monks (Sahammiya', the third with teacher and

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA ii disciples, the fourth with the mera (maryada) of the saints (Sahunam), the fifth with the mera (maryada) of Samjatis, the sixth with the mischances, the seventh with the avagrah (lordship) of kings, etc. (rajadinam), the eighth with the avagrah of co-religionists or fellow monks (Sadharmikavagrha), the ninth with Ahara (meal or food), and the tenth with abhigraha (vow). (4) The X yaradasao (or Dasasuyakkhanda -Dasasrutaskandha) is the fourth Chedasutra containing ten uddesakas They treat of regulations pertaining to the Vinya (moral training), the course of life and the discipline of the laity and monk (Sravaka and sadhu). The eighth is the Kalpa Sutra which deals with the legends of Lord Mahavira and other religious leaders and the rules of conduct for the Yatis (monks). The ninth dasao called Mohanijjatthanan contains legends and a sermon of the Master delivered in Campa under the rule of king Koniya (Kunika) on the topic 'Mohanijjatthanaim' the causes which lead to the assimilation of Mohanzya-karma into the embodied soul. The tenth dasao called Ayatitthana deals with the sermon of Lord Mahavira on the distraction of the mind of all monks and nuns except Indrabhuti and Candanbala by the splendour of king Seniya and queen Cellana during their attendance to his religious discourse, (5) The Brhatkal pa Sutra, having six uddesakas treats of ordinances for the Jaina monks and nuns in regard to that of which is proper (kappai) and that which is not, such as, restric. tions regarding food, apparatus, etc. The Nandisutra and the Anuyogadvara Sutra are the two miscellaneous works-the former consisting of three sections contains a versified list of Tirthankaras, of the Ganadharas and thirty other teachers and then in prose a theory of knowledge and a classification of the works constituting the Siddhanta. This last part is most precious document for the history of the Jaina Canon. The Anuyogadvara seems to be another redaction of the Nandisutra dealing with a theory of knowledge and a classi

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12 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. 1 fication of the canonical texts. It is in the form of questions and answers, in prose and verse mixed without having any subdivisions in chapter. of the four MulaSutras (1) the Uttaradhyayana. Sitra teaches the young monk his principal duties and furnishes him against dangers which befall an ascetic career. It is not probably composed by a single author but rather constituted of a series of tenets selected from the traditional literature and arranged according to a certain order. (2) The Avasyalca Sutra in its original text does not exist but only a versified exposition called Niryukti (Nijjutti) is incorporated into a later canon in 20 chapters. The Niryukti deals with ten oompulsory observances for the monks and contains also legendary data on the twenty-four Tirtharkaras and some informations on the discipline of Lord Mahavira as well as on the first schism. (3) The Dasavaikalika is a manual of discipline in ten chapters followed by two appendices. (4) The Pindaniryukti contains the information on the cause of hunger and the nature and kind of food to be taken. The BhS also contains all these varied contents in a consolidated form as embodied in all the above mentioned canonical works put together and touches upon every aspect of Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma and its philosophy, In agreement with the Acaranga Sutra this fifth Anga gives an exposition of the disciplinary and monastic rules," observance of vows,' samitis, (rules of conduct), guptis (selfcontrol)begging rules for the Nirgrantha monks and nuns, rules prescribed for them in regard to the acceptance and taking? food by them and other rules, such as, Laghavikar (a little quantity of article should be kept), Appiocha (a little i Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 3. ? Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 2; BLS 15, 1, 541; 18, 10, 647 etc. 3.4 lb, 2, 1, 91. 5 Ib, 1, 3, 30; 8, 6, 333 ; 15, 1, 541. 6 16, 8, 6, 333-34. ? Ib, 7, 1, 268, 69, 70 ; 14, 8, 525; 5, 6, 210.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA desire of a monk), Amuccha (non-delusion)', Akohattva (angerlessness), etc." Like the Sutrakrtanga this canonical work deals with true faith (unflinching devotion to and faith in Guru), as it is explained thus: That which is spoken by the Jinas is true without any doubt (Tameva saccam nisamkam Jinehim paveditam). He who bears it in mind practises it and returns from the other opinions to the view promulgated by the Jinas, is a true devotee and worshipper of the instructions of the Jinas (evam manam dharemane Java bhavati).* The BhS also mentions heterodox sects, such as, the Ajivikas, Vainayikas, Parivrajakas, Carakas, Vanaprasthas, 10 Tapasas," Jamali's sect, followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order, 18 other Tirthikas, etc. The BhS preaches what the religious life should be in general and how it leads one to perfection, as the heretical doctrines have so many pitfalls that one should follow the teachings of Lord Mahavira to save himself from the down fall into them.15 13 The BhS deals with the substances from different aspects16 as they are treated in the Sthananga Sutra and it gives an exposition of them like the Samavayanga Sutra and mentions the twelve Angas and twenty-four Tirthankaras by their names.17 In agreement with the Nayadhammakahao this fifth Anga contains some edifying stories containing moral teachings, e. g. 1 Bhs, 10, 2, 400. 3 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec, 3. 4 BhS, 1, 3, 31. 2 Ib, 1, 9, 74. 5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Scc. 8. 539-61. 1, BhS, 11, 25; 5, 8, 330; 15, 7 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144. 8 Ib, 14, 8, 529; 2, 1, 90 ff. 9 Ib, 1, 1, 25. 12 Ib, 9, 33, 386-7. 14 Ib, 7, 10, 305 etc. 15 Vide infra Ch, VII, Sec. 1, on various sects for all these accounts. 16 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. I. 17 Bhs, 20, 8, 672. 11, 12, 436. 10 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 11 Ib, 1, 1, 25. 13 Ib, 1, 9, 76; 9, 32, 371 etc.

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14 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I stories of Mahabala, Jamali' and others, and some pious legends, e. g. Gosala-upakhyana.3 Like the Uvasagadasao it embodies lessons for lay disciples and presrcibes some rules and observances of a Jaina layman, such as, twelve vows of a householder, etc. As in the Antagada, the BhS treats of the legends of pious men, princes and others who practised austerity to attain liberation through death by observing the vow of Samlekhana (inanition of the body to save the soul). Like the Anuttaropapatikasutra the BhS presents the biographies of saints who attained the highest celestial world by their prolonged asceticism and were born among the gods, e.g. Skandaka, a converted Nirgrantha monk was born among the gods in the Acyutakalpa as a result of his austerities and meditation. In agreement with the Panhavagarana it deals with the principles of Jaina moral teachings,' influx of Karmas (asrava) into the soul which is attached to Karma and prescribes the rules to be observed to stop it, i.e. the process of Samvara (stoppage of influx of Karma) and that of Nirjara (dissociation of Karma) which leads the soul to liberation. For example, Skandaka observed the five great vows, vinayas (moral disciplines) and other acts of austerities and meditation on soul and thus he put a stop to the influx of Karma and attained final emancipation.o Like the Vivaga Suya it proves by a series of legends the reward for the good conduct and punishment for the violation of moral prescription, as it is found in the cases of Jamali,10 Gosala Mankhaliputra,11 etc. 1 BhS, 11, 11, 429-31. 87b, 15, 1, 539 ff. 5 BhS, Skandaka 2, 1, 90 ff; Tamali-3, 1, 134; Siva. 11, 9, 417-19; Rsabhadatta-9, 33, 382: King Udayana-13, 6, 491 ff. Ib, 2, 1, 93 ff. 8 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. VI. 10 BhS, 9, 33, 386-7. 2 Ib, 9, 33, 383-81. 4 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 5. Vide infra Ch, X, Sec. IV. 9 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. I 11 Ib, 15, 1, 339 ff.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 15 In the agreement with the Upanga, Au papatika Sutra the BIS treats of the sermons of Lord Mahavira on the Law in general, the successive rebirths and conditions of liberation and deals like the Rajaprasniya Sutrawith the question of reincarnation of soul and enumerates and classifies the different species of animated beings at the same time. The BhS, makes discussion on the globe,' as it is treated in the Jivabhigama Sutra and deals with the repatriation of living beings, and ethnographic sketch according to which men are classified into two categories-Aryans and non-Aryans as mentioned in the Prajnapana Sitra. It gives an exposition of Jaina Astronomy? in brief like the Siriyapannatti and the Cari lapannatti. The Bhs describes the Jambudvi pa island inhabited by men, as it is dealt with in the Jambuddiva Pannatti and it contains some legends about the next world-destiny of soldiers fallen in the battles called Mahasilakantka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangrama.9 as such similar topics are found in the Nirayavaliya Sutta and the remaining Upangas. In agreement with the ten Prakirnakas the Bhslo treats of the subjects on moral discipline, ritual and mythologyll in brief and like the Causarana (Catuhsarana) deals with some rules and discipline, observances most essential for adopting a life devoid of sin, confession, pratyakhyana, religious disciplinel, worship of Tirhankaras and paying homage to their virtuels in short in its stray references. 1 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. VI. ? BhS, 12, 7, 458. # Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. III on Biology. 4 Vide infra Ch. IX, Sec. 1 and 2 on Cosmology and Cosmography. 5 Bhs, 12-7-458. 8 Though they are not specifically classified, the clans-- U gras, Bhogas, etc. were Aryans, where as, the Kiratas, Barbaras etc. were non-Aryans. (BhS, 9, 33, 380, 383. Vide infra Ch. VIII. Sec. 3 & 4 on class and tribes. 7 Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. 4 8 Vide infra Ch. IX Sec. 2 on Cosmography. 9 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-303. 10 Vide infra ch. VII, Sec. 2 & 3 11 BAS 5, 8, 203; 11, 11,431. ; 18, 2,618. 12 Vide infra Ch. VII. Sec. 2 & 3 13 Bhs, 1, 1, 5,

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16 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I It puts emphasis on the supreme renunciation (Vyutsarga)? and enthanasy (enthanasie) (Samlekhana) like the Aurapaccakkhana and teaches the monks in what way they should prepare themselves for the death, as it is discussed in the Bhatta. parinna. For example, the case of Skandaka as given in details regarding a particular point of the ritual of death that it describes the bed of grasses or straws on which Skandaka spread himself for meditating on the truth taught by Lord Mahavira. Next as in Tandula-Veyaliya, this canonical work explains the gradual development of the embryo of a child and its birth, different states of existence, the functions, etc., in brief. Like the Candavijjhaya, Bhs treats of the general discipline showing the qualities which should be possessed by the teachers and disciples', and the rules of conduct to follow. It states that the teachers should receive disciples with affection ; there should not be the attitude of a pratyanika (opposition or enemity) in different conditions of life and it describes the manner in which one should prepare himself for the holy death. Lastly, it enumerates the host of gods and goddessess and classi. fies and describes them in details. In agreement with the Ganivijja, the Bhs deals with a few short treatises on some aspects of Astronomy, such as, time, hours, days, etc. and contains some rules of confession, of renunciation as prescribed in the Mahapaccakkhana. It mentions the different names of Lord Mahavira, such as, Vardhamana", Nayaputta, Kasava, etc. in its stray references as they are found in the Virastava. Like the Cheda Sutras the BhS prescribes some disciplinary rules for the monks to be observed as already pointed out. i Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 2 2 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 1 on education (Medical science). 3 Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. 2. 4 Bhs 9, 33, 389; 15, 1, 555 (comm); 117, 11, 429. 5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 10 6 Bhs 20, 8, 678 ; see also 1, 1, 5 (Aigara, etc.)

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA As in the Nandi Sutra, the Bhs also makes reference to some Ganadharas of Lord Mahavira, such as, Goyama Indabhui, Aggibhui, Vayubhai', etc., and explains the theory of knowledge and makes classification of the Agamas into twelve Angas'. It contains the theory of Logic and also Epistemology like the Anuyogadvara. In agreement with the Mula Sutras the BhS teaches the monk or young monk some of his principal duties and provides him with the rules against dangers which may befall an ascetic career. The BhS treats of the compulsory observance of vows and rules prescribed for the monks and contains some legendary data on the twenty-four Tirthankaras in brief and Munisuvrata? and Vimala in particular and some information on the discipline of Lord Mahavira as well as the first schism led by Jamalilo as evidenced in the Avasyaka Sitra. In addition to these varied contents the BhS furnishes a good deal of information regarding the classification of the Nirgrantha monks into the categories of Pulaka, Bakusa upto Snataka" and that of the Sanyatas (self-controlled), Sumavasarana," viz. Kriyavadins, Akriyavadins, Ainanikavadins and Vainayikavadina, Yugmas,18 political, social and economic conditions education, various leaders of thought and their systems and philosophies in general and Ajivikism in particular, contemporary history, particularly the two political events-called Mahasilalantaka-Sangrama, and RathamusalaSangrama, Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography, evolution of Jaina Philosophy, Psychology, Epistemology, Ethics, logic and the Doctrine of Karma", presented in a consolidated manner. 1 Vide infra Ch. VIII, Sec. I on the topic 'Lord Mahavira as teacher'. ? Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. 3 3 Bhs, 20, 8, 678. 4 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. 5 5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 3 # Bh8, 20, 8, 678. 7 16, 18, 12, 638. 8 1b, 11, 11, 431. 9 16, 15, 1, 541 ff, ; 18, 10, 647. 10 16, 9, 33, 386-7. 11 Vide infra Ch. VII, See, I 12 Bhs, 30(1-4)824 to 828. 13 I6, 31, i, 829 to 41, 1-196, 868. 14 For details see infra Ch. III to X.

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18 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I As regards the style and language it is not merely a collection of dry clods of data on the above mentioned topics, but it also contains descriptive, explanatory and emotive styles with literary flourishes, colourful descriptions of persons and things, human emotions and traits depicted with the psycholo. gical background, humour and pun expressed in the language of the people in their own style. The Acaranga Sutra and the Sutrakrtanga may be great in regard to their style and language as they are partly composed in Arya metre, but the Bhs is the greatest of all the canonical works as the richest mine of varied contents dealing with different aspects of life and Nature. Thus the Bhs occupies the highest unique position as the treasure of knowledge and truth in the Ardha-Magadhi Canon bearing the appearance of a mosaic into which various texts have been inserted little by little and it is integrally connected with the representatives of the whole canonical works. SECOND SECTION Inter-relation of the Bhs to other canonical works : It is at once observable in regard to the growth of all the canonical works that none of them attained the development up to the present extent, quite independently of one another, as there are found in them well marked individual and comhined groups, the principles of which show their inter-relation. These groups have been brought into relation with the other groups of similar characters in course of time in later age. It appears that an author has played a part to bear especially upon the Angas and the Upangas with the aim at the unification and order of the canonical texts, as it is evidently clear from the study of many statements in reference to the redaction which contains partly the parallel references? of one text to i Bhs, 1, 2, 22.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 19 another and partially the Karikas which are placed at the beginning to serve as a general introduction or incorporated in the middle or subadded at the end." The linguistic characteristics of these redactory statements can easily be distinguished from that of the text. Many additions of secondary stories may have been incorporated into the Karikas, while some passages or sections which were extant at the time of the older commentaries may have been lost, but large interpolations have also been made into the texts. It is clear from the study of all the canonical works that they have undergone a great transformation most likely, as it is evidenced by the fact that the BhS had not yet attained the half of its present size containing 1,84,000 padas, at the time of the Samavayanga Sutra which records only 84,000 padas of the fifth Anga instead of the above number of its padas. The allusions to certain stereotyped descriptions, "the epithet ornantia' and the so-called Vannao (Varnaka) are to be assigned without doubt to the period of redaction of all the canonical texts at the Vallabhi Council. So the fifth Anga itself has suffered some losses in all probability in course of time and its form of words has equally undergone transformation to some extent. The Bhs holds a separate position in its relation to the other canonical works and commences in a characterized way. It bears one point of similarity with the Nayadhammakahao in regard to the Karikas which state the contents of what is to follow in each larger section, e. g. Gaha "Usasa khamdae vi ya 1 samugghaya 2 pudhavim 3 diya 4 anna-utthi-bhasa ya 5 Deva ya 6 Camaracamca 7 Samaya 8 khitta 9 atthikaya 10 biyasae". In the BhS the sections have the title saya (sataka) instead of Ajjhayana as it is found in the cases of the other Angas. The title 'Pannatti' of Viyahapannatti attributed to this canonical work, bearing some resemblance with those of the 1 Bh8, 2nd Sataka. Ib, 1, 1, 11; 1, 1, 14.

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20 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Suriyapannatti, the Jambuddiva Pannatti and the Candapan. natti clearly shows an inter-relation to one another. The name of the fifth Anga appears in the Samavayanga along with the other Angas as "Vivahapannattle nam Bhagavatie caurasim payasahassa padaggenam pannatta." This adjective "Bhagavati' as exclusively associated with this work is recorded only in the fourth Anga in this manner. As regards the other textual differences between the Samavayanga Sutra and the Bhs it is noticeable that the fifth Anga is arranged into Saya (sataka not 100, but 41 or including sub-saya-138) instead of Ajjhayana of the fourth Anya and Uddesakas (1925) and Sutra 8 (868). The Bhst once refers to the Samavayanga in connection with the legends of Kulakaras, Tirthankaras, Baladevas, and Vasudevas for their detailed treatment as made in the fourth Anga. Besides these, there occur frequent references in the fifth Anga to the Upanga groups of the texts, viz. Aupapatika Sutra Rapupra naga SEtra, Javabhagama Sutra, Prajiapama Sutra, Jambudvipa Prajnapti, Ayaradasao," Nandi Sutra, Anuyogadvara Sutra and Hea gaca Stra. The Bhs holds an isolated position in respect of the introductory formula of the first four Angas the Acaranga the Sutrakrtanga, the Sthananga and the Samavayanga e.g. *Suyummi' and their concluding word 'tummi bearing a point of similarity in them. The last part of the Aupapatika Sutra appears to be like a more detailed treatment of the fifth Anga in regard to its topic--births and rebirths, while Ammada, a Parivrajaka is referred to in both the works. In the Bhagavati Sutra there occurs an enumeration of female attendants belonging to some Indian tribes and foreign nations whose names are generally identical with those mentioned in the Nayadhammakahao and | Bhs, 5,5,203. * Vide, A History of Indian Literature, Vol II, p. 443, Winternitz.

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Sec. INT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 21 the Aupapatiku Sutra, e.g. many hunch-backed, Cilatikas, Barbarikas, upto Parasis. The Bhs makes references to other Tirthikas (annautthiya) and the first schism led by Jamali in the Nirgrantha order as they are also found in the first Upanga. It is to be observed in the Rajaprasniya Sutra that there occurs an exclamation of reverence addressed to 'Suya devaya Bhagavati,...... to Pannatti.' "Namo suya devayae Bhagavatie namo pannattie Bhagavaie." The Jivabhigama Sutra, the third Upanga appears to be a detailed treatment of the Bhs in reference to the astronomical topics dealing with the number of the suns, moons, stars in each of the dvipas (continent-islands). In the fifth Anga there are found many references to the Prajnapana Sutra in regard to various subjects for their detailed treatment. As regards the questions and answers couched in the style and manner of the dialogues there lies a line of difference between the Bhs and the Prajnapana Sutra that there is no connecting link in the former, where as it is found in the latter, Parallel references as found in the Bhagavati Sutra and in other Angas and Upangas :The reference to the other canonical works for the detailed treatment of the subjects of the Bhs shows that this fifth Anga was not completed before they were done, as it is evidenced by the fact of the language of allusion to them, e.g. 'Jambuddive nam bhamte Bharahevase imiseosappinie kai kulagara hottba..... eesim padisattu jaha Sama vae parivadi taha neyavva." A monotony in the conventional phrases of conversation is found in all the canonical works, e. g. Tena Kalenam tena samayenam. They echo the same words almost everywhere to convey thoughts and ideas. The general descriptive epithets and phrases expressing the effect of sorrow and joy, affection and anger or depicting the picture of a city are used in all of them 1 Rayapaseniya Sutta, 8. 5. * BRIS, 5,5,203 ; see Samavayanga, 157, 58,

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22 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I in the same words. Besides these, identical familiar similies, metaphors, and analogies drawn from gods, men, animals, physical phenomena and the daily incidents of life are found in them. The general character of the language (Ardha-Magadhi, Brahmi lipi) and phraseology used by the authors of all the canonical works are the same, for they are written on the same foundations of phrases and proverbs and the same ground of literary allusions and laid on the same plan. Thus it is found that a caitya where the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira took place was followed by a city-scene from where the people came forth to the caitya to attend the religious discourse of the Master, e. g a stream of peoples of Ksatriyakundagrama made pilgrimage to Lord Mahavira during his stay at the Bahusalaka caitya. All the canonical works refer to similar social conditions, customs and manners, dresses and ornaments, etc. Examples of parallel statements as found in the BHS and other canonical works : The BhS once makes reference to the Samavayanga Sutra in connection with the number of Kulakaras, that of Tirthankaras, etc. in the Avasarpini kala as already mentioned. "Jambuddive.........kai kulagara......... jaha Samavae......taha neyavva." There occur references in this canonical work to the Aupapatika Sutra in regard to the following topics for their detailed treatment.. (1) Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and preparation of king Kunika for this war. "Tae nam se Kunie raya......mangalajayasaddakayaloe evam jaha Uvavaie java uvagacchitta Udayim hatthirayam durudhe". "Tae nam se Kunie raya......harotthayasu kayaraiyavacche jaha Uvavaie java seyavaracamarahim, etc." 2 Ib. 7, 9, 300. 1 Bhs 5, 5, 203.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 23 (2) The pilgrimage of the people or Ksatriyakundagrama to Lord Mahavira during his stay at the Bahusalaka caitya. "Ugga, Bhoga......java Nhaya jaha Uvavaie java nigga cchamti."'1 (3) Bath and decoration of Jamali for pilgrimage to the Master, "Tae nam se Jamali......kayabalikamme jaha Uvavaie parisa vannao taha bhaniyavvam java camdanakinna gayasarire.............................. pajjuvasai." (4) Preparatory ceremony of Jamali before the leaving of the worldly life. "Klattiyakundaggamam nagaram sabbhimtara-bahiriyam .........ovalittam jaha Uvavaie java paccappinamti."3 "Ime atthatthamangalaga purao ...... punnakalasabhim garam jaba Uvavaie java gaganatalamanulihanti". "Purao a hanupuvvie sampattbiya evam ja ba Uvavaie taheva bhaniyavvam java sampatthiya."4 (5) The pilgrimage of the prince to Lord Mahavira for initiation. "Tadanamtaram ca nam bahave Ugga ...jaba Uvavaie java sampatthiya." "Pahesu bahave atthatthiya jaha Uvavaie java abhi namdamta, etc." "Tae se nam se Jamali nayanamalasahassehim picchi jjamane................ ......evam jaha Uvavaie Kunio java niggacchati etc." (6) The undertaking of asceticism by king Siva of Hastina pura and the Vanaprastha Tapasas, "Je ime Gangakule vanapattha Tavasa bbavamti tam hottiya .....viharamti jaha Uvavaie Java...viharamti." (7) Coronation ceremony of prince Sivabhadra performed by his father, king Siva of Hastinapura. 1 BLS. 9, 33, 383. 4/6, 9, 33, 385. 16, 9, 33, 383. 6 16, 9, 33, 385. 8.16, 9, 33, 385. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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24 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I "Sivabhaddam Kumaram Jaenam vijaenam badd hayemti ..................jaha Uvavaie Koniyassa Java Paramaum Palayahi." (8) The deliberation of the people of Hastinapura and the royal sage, Siva on the presence of Lord Mahavira at the Sahasramravana of this city. "Tam mahaphalam khalu......namagoyassa jaha Uvavaie java gahanayae." (9) The state of liberation of beings. "Goyama vayarosabha-narayasangha yane sijjbamti evaih jaheva Uvavaie taheva... .....parivasana:"8 (10) Ammada, the Parivrajaka and his seven hundred disciples. "Tenam kalenam.........Ammadassa parivvayagassa satta a mtevasisaya Gimhakala-samayamsi evam jala Uvavaie java arahaga."4 "Bahujane nam bharte annamannassa..... Gharasae jaha Uvavaie Ammadassa vattavvaya java dadhappainno amtam kabiti.':5 The Bhs makes mention of the Rajaprasniya Sutra several times in connection with the following subjects for their detailed discussion in the latter, viz. the description of isanavatansaka-vimana, equality of the soul of an elephant and that of a Kunthu? (insect), division of knowledge, conse. cration ceremony of Jamali,9 description of the palanquin to carry Jamali to the Bahusaluka caitya for his initiation to be conducted by Lord Mahavira,10 Saudharma-council of Sakra,'i the accounts of Sivabbadra, the son of king Siva and queen Dharini of Hastivapura, the initiation of prince Mahabala like Kesiswami, is the description of the residence of Camara i Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 Ib, 14, 8, 529. ? Ib, 7, 8, 294. 10 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. 13 |b, 11, 11, 431. ? Ib, u, 9, 418. $ 16, 14, 8, 530. $ 16, 8, 2, 318. 11 16, 10, 6, 407. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 419. 6 10, 3, 1, 144. 9 16, 9, 33, 385. 12 1b, 11, 9, 417,

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 25 canca of Asuraraja Camara as compared to a rest house! and the account of the social position of Karttikadatta of Hastinapura.' The Bhs makes reference to the Jivabhigama Sutra in relation to the topics on the number of infernal worlds, pratisthana (establishment) and Sunsthana (figure)* of Kalpaloka, Samayaksetras (human world), description of Lavanasamudra upto Lokasthitio (order of the universe), Jyotiska," Cakravala of Lavana-Sumudra. Vikurvana (transformation) of infernal beings, six kinds of Samsara-samipannaka-jivas (worldly beings),10 Yoni-Sangraha (place of birth)," duration of the state (or mode) of knowledge of all Jnanis and Ajntanis (knowers' right knowledge and wrong knowledge),12 the number of the moons upto stars in Jambidvapa,19 in Lavana--Samudra,19 in Dhataki. kchanda. Kalodadhi-Puskaravaradvina. Abhyantara-Puskararddha,' thus in all islands and seas upto Sayambhuramana,16 Antardvi pa upto those human beings as stated to be devalokaparigrahitas, the number of chief queens of the moon18 (namely, Candraprabha, Jyotsnaprabha, Arcimali, Prabhar kara), Ekarukadvipa and its location upto Suddhadantadvipale, the account of Jambidvapa island, Lavana-Samudra etc., seas and their respective shapes extent upto that of Sayambhuramana20 the number of infernal worlds and their respective sizes?, existence of beings in these hells23, living conditions and experience of infernal beings in hells24, the account of the shape of island-seas except Jyotiska-mandala upto transformation in Jiva-upapata (birth of beings) upto infinite times and Nigoda (minutest living beings); all these subjects are referred to in the Jivabhiguma Sutra for their detailed treatment. 1 Bhs, 13, 6, 490. 4 Ib, 2, 7, 115. 7 11, 3, 9, 179. 10 I1, 7, 4, 281. 19 1b, 9, 2, 363. 1b, 9.2; 363 (4). 19 Ib, 10, 34, 408. 33 16, 13, 4, 476. 25 16, 19, 6, 651. - 16, 18, 2, 618. 6 Ib, 2, 9, 117. 8 Ib, 16th P.5, 2, 183. 11 16, 7, 5, 282. 14 Ib. 9, 2, 363 (4). 17 11, 9, (30-ff)-369. 20 10, 11, 9, 418. 29 16, 13, 4, 478. 28 16, 25, 5, 749, 8 16, 2, 3, 98. 6 Ib, 3, 3, 153. 9 lb, 5, 6, 209. 12 16, 8, 2, 323. 15 1b, 9, 2, 363(4), 18 1b, 10, 5, 406. 21 11, 12, 3, 444. 24 16, 14, 3, 509.

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26 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I The Bhs once makes mention of the Jambuddiva Pannatti in reference to the account of the globe for its detailed description. "Evam Jambuddivapannatti bhaniyavva java evameva ..., coddasa-salila saya sahassa-bhavamtiti mak khaya'?. There occurs the maximum number of allusions in this canonical work to the Pannavana Sutta than to any other U pangas in regard to the following subjects for their treatment in details, viz. the breathing and food of infernal beings, the particles of matter of Asurakumara, Lesya, Antakriyapadu', eight Karma-prakrtise, Utpada-viraha of infernal beings in hells", Samuighata-Samudghata (expansion of soul,', Indriyas (senseorgans,deg, Bhasapadu (speech or language):, Sthana (section) of gods", dwelling places of enjoyment of Asurakumaras", lesyapadu upto knowledge's, Lesyanari anya-anyam.parinamam (Transformation of condition of soul)?. Next the Bhs makes reference to the Prajnapana Sutra in regard to the following topics on food of beings, Jhani, Ajnani and Jhanyajnani and their comparative numbers, many kinds of SanIchyata-pivita plants (having numberable germs of life) and many kinds of one-seeded and many-seeded plants", seven infernal worlds and Isat pragbhara and caramadi18, (last or not last), Kriyas (actions)19, Prayogagati (movement of action) upto Vihayagatzo, Avagahana (extension), Sansthana (figure) and Audarika-sarira-prayogabandha (binding of karma by physical action) of beings'l, Avagahana (extension) upto manusya-aharaka. sarira-prayogabandha, Ekendriya-taija8a-sarira-prayoyabandha, such 1 Bh8, 9, 1, 362. i Ib, 1, 1, 9. 9 1b, 1, 1, 15. 4 16, 1, 2, 22. 5 10, 1, 2, 24, 16, (23 pada of panna), 1,4,58. I6, 1, 10, 82; see Panna-vyut kramti kapada. 16, 2, 2, 97; see pannavana, Samudghatapada. 9 16, 2, 4, 99 (see 1st uddesaka of pannavana). 10 lb, 2, 6, 114 (see Bhasapada of pannavana). 11 16, 2, 7. 115 (see Sthanapada of pannavana). 12 Ib, 3, 2, 142. 13 16, 4, 9, 174 (see 3rd uddesaka of pannavana). 14 16, 4, 10, 175 (see 4th uddesaka of Pannavana). 15 16, 6, 2, 232. 16 16, 8, 2, 323. 17 16, 8, 3, 324. 18 16, 8, 3, 326. 19 I6, 8, 4, 327. 24 16, 8, 7, 338, 21 I6, 8, 9, 348. 22 I6, 8. 9, 349,

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA as, Avagahana-Samsthana (extension and figure) upto Anuttaropapatika upto bandha (bondage), kinds of Audarikasarira (gross physical body), Yoni (birth-place), Vedana (feeling) and its kinds upto the experience of pain or pleasure or pain-cumpleasure by infernal beings', Bhiksupratima (a kind of vow), birth of plant-bodied beings upto Isan, food of beings born in Utpala, food of plant-bodied beings, udvarttan (death) of Utpala (water-lily) and its rebirth, the duration of gods", Bhavadevas upto the death of Asurakumaras1o, birth of Bhavyadravyadeva from the different states of existence upto the Anuttaropapattika", the birth of Bhavanavasi gods", Paricarana (movement), Anantarahara and Nirvartana (binding of karma) of infernal beings13, six chadmasthika-smudghatas-upto Aharakasomudghata1, and eight Karma-prakrtis 15. Then the Bhs alludes to the Prajnapana Sutra in reference to the following subjects for their detailed treatment, viz. food of infernal beings, Jivaparinama and Ajivaparinama (transformation of beings and non-beings)17, such as, (1) Indriyaparinama, etc. (2) Bandhaparinama, (3) Gatiparinama, etc., rebirth of Gosala as Godha-Nakula (allegator and mongoose) upto four footed animal, upto insect of cow-dung many times, feeling (experience) of eight Karma-prakrtis, Upayoga (consciousness)11 1 BhS, 8, 9, 350. 2 lb, 10, 1, 395 See the whole Avagahana samsthana). 8 Ib, 10, 2, 397 (see the whole Yonipada of Pannavana). 1 Ib, 10, 2, 398. (See the whole vedanapada of Pannavana). Ib, 10, 2, 399. (See Bhiksu pratima). 6 Bhs, 11, 1, 409 (See Vyutkrantika pada of Pannavana). Ib, 11, 1, 409. (Tharaka uddesaka of Pannavana). 8 Ib, 11, 1, 409. (See Vyutkrantika pada of Pannavana). 916, 11, 11, 427 (Sthitipada of Pannavana). 10 Ib, 12, 9, 495 (See Vytkrantika-pada of Pannavana). 11 Ib, 12, 9, 462 ( 12 Ib, 13, 3, 473 ( 13 Ib, 13, 3, 474 (Pannavana-34.) 14 Ib, 13, 10, 499. 15 Ib, 13, 8, 497 (Bandhasthiti 18 Ib, 13, 5, 488 (Panna, 28, 1). 18 Ib, 15, 1, 560. 20 Ib, 16, 3, 571 (Panna), do uddesaka of pannavana). 17 Ib, 14, 4, 514 (Panna, 13). 19 Ib, 15, 1, 566. 21 Ib, 16, 7, 583 (Panna). 27

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28 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I Avadhi (transcendental knowledge)', the power of a chadmas to perceive the division of dissociated karma-matters." Kusayas (passions), six lesyas (conditions of soul)," lesyas", the absorption of food by the earth-bodied beings having infinite parts, birth of the earth-bodied beings and others, the death of earth-bodied beings, and the birth, duration and death of the fire bodied beings'. The Bhs next deals with the plant's life with reference to the Prajslapana Sutra in regard to the birth of different species of plants, such as, sali, brihi (a kind of rice), wheat, barley etc., Vintaki (brinjal), etc.". pusaphali Kalingi, tumbi, trapuri, etc. and balunki, etc.", receiving of food-matter by beings upto sometimes five directions, substance having one and two parts received by beings upto asthita (non-constant) substances without succession", the account of smallness and muchness of infernal beings upto gods and the perfect ones (siddhas) with paticagati-samasa's, five kinds of body-Audarika upto Karmana, paryaya (modes)", the birth of Ksudraka-krtayugma infernal beings from the different states of existence18, that of Ksudrakatryoja-infernal beings, that of Kronalesya-lesudraka-krtayugmainfernal beings, that of Dhumra-upto-Adhahsaptama-krsnalesya-ksudraka-kertayugma-infernal beingslthe udvarttana (death) of Ksudraka-Krtayugma-infernal beings", Svasthana (own place or section) of the gross-earth bodied beings in eight prthivis upto that of fine plant-bodied beings a3, the former place of birth of one sensed i Bhs, 16, 10, 589. ? 16, 18, 3, 620 (Panna). 3 16, 18, 4, 625. 4 Ib, 19, 1, 649. 6 Ib, 1, 650 (Garbhoddesaka of Pannavana). 6 Bh8, 19,1, 651 ; (Aharoidesaka-Pannavana--1). 7 1b, 19, 1, 651 ; (V yutkrantikapada-Pannavana). 8 Ib, do 9 lb, do 10 16, 21, 1, 688. do 11 16, 22, 4, 692 12 Ib, 22, 6, 692. 16, 25, 2, 723 ; (Tharaka-uddesaka of Pannavana). 14 16, 25, 2, 723; (Bhasapada of Pannavana). 15 16, 25, 2, 733; 16 16, 25, 4, 738 ; (the whole farirapada of Pannavana). 17 10, 25, 5, 746; (Par yayapada of Pannavana). 18.19, Ib, 31, (1.8) 829. 20 16, 31, 2, 830. 21 16, 31, 2,830. 22 Ib, 32, 1, 842. 23 16, 34, 1, 851,

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Sec STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 29 beings, that of the earth bodied beings, the existence of the life, samudghata, (expansion of soul), Svasthana (own place or state) of those developed gross, and undeveloped and fine earth-bodied beings, the former place of birth (or state of existence), of krtayugma-two-sensed beings, the birth of Krtayugma beings', that of Rasiyugma-krtayuyma-beings upto the Vaimanikas. The Bhs tbrice makes mention of the Nandi Sutra in connection with the following topics for their detailed treatment, viz. theory of knowledge and the knowing power of the Jhanis (knowers of right knowledge) thus : sam jinam annaniehim micchaditthiehim jaha Namdie java catlari Veda Saigovamga"i se samasao cauvvihe pannatte, tamjaha-davvao 4 ............... java bhavao davyao nam ohinani ruvidavvaim janai pasai jaba Namdie java bhavao."? "Se samasao cauvvile pannatte, tamjaha.davvao 4, davvao nam ujjumati anamte anamtapadesie jaba Namdie java bhavao."8 In this fifth Anga there occur two references to the Anuyoyadvara in regard to the subjects-Pramana (valid knowledge) and its classification, the state of soul and its divisions for their further discussion. "Pamane cauvvihe pannatte, tam jaha.paccakkhe anumane ovamme agame, jaha Anuyogadare taha neyavvam pamanam java tena param no attagame no anamtara. game paramparagaine."'9 "Chavvihe bhave pannatte.Udaie uvasamie java sannivaie, udaie bhave duvihe pannatte, tamjaha, udaie udayanipphanne ya evam eenam abhilavenam jaha Anuyogadare 1 Bhs, 34, 1, 851. : Ib, 34, 2, 852 (Sthana pada of pannavana). 8 16, 40, (1), 866 (Vyutkrantika pada of pannavana). 4 10, 41, 1, 867 ( Do 6 16, 41, (2), 867 (Vyat. kr. pada). 8 16, 8, 2, 318. 7 1b, 8, 2, 322. $ 16, 8, 2, 322. 9 1b, 5. 4, 193.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA channamam taheva niravasesam bhaniyavvam java se tam sa nuivaie bhave." The Bhs only once makes mention of the Avasyaka Sutra in connection with the request of Jamali for permission of his parents to undertake the state of houselessness. "Khalu jaya Niggamthe pavayane sacce anuttare kevale jaha Avassae java savvadukkhanama mtam karemti." All these evidences clearly show that the fifth Anga is closely inter-related to the other Angas and Upangas in regard to its varied contents, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different systems of religion, contemporary history, Cosmology, Cosmography, Geography evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought, Language, style, etc., as they are laid on a common plan. Bhs, 17, 1, 594 * 16, 9, 33, 384.

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SECOND CHAPTER Authorship and date of the Bhs. Examination of its internal and external evidences, such as, linguistic and literary as well as historical. FIRST SECTION Authorship and date of the BhS: As already discussed in the first section of the first chapter, the Bhs, stands as the fifth Anga in the list of the twelve Gani pitakas (Angas) which form the oldest part of the seven divisions of the Agamas as settled in the Vallabhi Council (Vallahhi-vacana). In regard to their authorship and date, the Jain tradition says that after the demise of Lord Mahavira, Gautama Indrabhuti and Sudharman Swamin became the heads of the Nirgrantha order in succession and continued the line without disturbance in the organization. It was Sudharman Swamin who transmitted the sacred instructions of the Agamas to sambu Swamin, as it is learnt from the fact of the mention of his name in the beginning of this canonical work as its author.1 The tradition as recorded in the Sthaviravali Carita' avers that some two centuries after the demise of the Master a terrible famine lasting for twelve years took place in Magadha at the time of Candragupta Maurya and consequently half the community accompanied by the king under the headship of Bhadrabahu moved off near the sea in between 299-296 B.C., while the other portion remained in Magadha. The Magadhan community under the presidency of Sthulabhadra called a council of monks in Pataliputra early in the third century B. C. This council collected and fixed the canon of the Jaina sacred literature comprising eleven Angas 1 Bhs, See the beginning Gatha of invocation. In regard to the succession the Svetambara tradition does not include the name of Gautama Indrabhuti as the Pontiff. ? Sthaviravali Carita, Ninth Sarga 55, 59,

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32 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II and fourteen Purvas (which were included in Ditthivao) in the absence of Bhadrabahu. They were not committed to writing but were still preserved in the memories of the monks till eight centuries later in the year 980 or 993 A. V. they were reduced to writing. On his return with his followers Bhadrabahu found the change in the Nirgrantha order that the Magadhan monks put on clothes, so the difference of opinions. about the religious rules arose between the two groups of ascetics. But there was no immediate schism at once till the final separation took place in 79 or 82 A.D. according to the Digamburas and the Swetambaras1 respectively. The canons collected and fixed by the council of Pataliputra were in an unsatisfactory state. So the redaction of them was made in the council of Valabhi under the presidency of Devarddhi Ganin-the Ksamasramata in 980 A.V. (or 9)3) corresponding to 454 A. D. (or 467 A. D.), as the date is incorporated in the Kalpa Sutra." The council seems to have been connected in some way with a public recitation of the Jina carita -the life of Lord Mahavira before Dhruvasena of Anandapura. It is known that Dhruvasena of Valabhi succe. eded to the throne in 525 A.D., so the date of the council of Valabhi was the beginning of the sixth century A .D. when the canon was written down; since then there was no interpolation in the sacred texts. According to other tradition the redaction of the canon was effected thirteen years after in 993 A.V. at the hands of a council in Mathura under the presidency of Skandilacarya." The Digambara tradition says that the only surviving pieces of the original Jaina Canon of the twelve Angas are preserved in the works-Kamma-Pahuda and Kasaya-Pahuda popularly known as Dhavala and Jayidhavala Siddhantas from the names of their commentaries respectively. It is stated in 1 Uvasaga-dasao-Dr. Hornle, p. ix. 2 Kalpa Sutra (Jacobi) S. B. E. 5th Lec., p. 269. 3 Comm. on Yogasnstra, p. 207.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 33 the introductory part of Dhavalal that the teachings of Lord Mahavira were arranged into twelve Angas by his disciple Gautama Indrabhuti and they were transmitted from preceptor to disciple by the verbal recitation till gradually they fell successively into oblivion. Only some portions of them were known to Dharasena who passed time by practising austerities in the Chandra Gupha of Girinagara in the land of Saurastra (modern Kathiawar). Having felt the necessity of preserving the knowledge, he taught to two sages, who later become celebrated as Puspadanta and Bhutabali, portions of the fifth Anga:Viahapanaitti and of the twelfth Anga Ditthivada. These fragmentary works were subsequently committed to writing in Sutra form by these two famous disciples of Dharasena ; the former composed the first 177 Sutras and the latter reduced the rest to writing, the total number of sutras being 6000. This was done soon after Lohacarya, who was the last of the Sruta-jnanis and lived upto 683 years after the Nirvana of Lord Mahavira, which took place according to the statement of the commentator, Virasena, 605 years before the beginning of the Saka era." To continue the Svetambara tradition Devarddhi Ganin arranged the canons in order with the help of scholars after a collection of available MSS. and took down from the mouth of the theologicians such texts as had no MSS. Many copies were made to supply the seminaries. So his edition of the Siddhantas is only a redaction of the sacred texts which existed before his time in nearly the same form, although there might have been some interpolations made by the redactors. But much of it is genuinely old, even though a disparity is found in it, as it has undergone change with the march of time. From this tradition it may be said with a tolerable certainty that the Viyahapannatti, as it now exists, was also committed to writing in the same council along with the other canonical works. Introduction to Sarkhandagama, p.1, Dr. H.L.Jain, M.A.,LL.B., D. Litt. ? Saskhandugama, Vol. 1 Introduction, p. 13 ff. 8 Cf. Jacobi, Kalpa Sutra, p. 30

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34 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. II Thus there are found three stages of the development of the BKS and the other canonical works, first, they were derived from the teachings of Lord Mahavira and given a shape of Grantha by the composition of Sudharman Swamin and then they were transmitted by him to Jambu Swamin ; in the second stage they were collected and fixed in the Pasaliputra Council and in the third stage they were codified by the Vallabliz council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gaoin as the tradition says. Origin and development of the BhS: It appears from the traditions as embodied in the BAS itself that the core of its ideas of philosophy and thoughts of the previous Tirthankaras existed long before the time of Lord Mahavira in association with the other Aryas, but they generally refer to the Purvas as the original scriptures. As regards the tradition there may be the truth that the core of its contents and subject-matter existed in the distant past and came down to the time of the Master, for its form is so much associated with the time and place, occasion, history and performance that the entire environment appears to be post-Mahavira. The mention of king Seniya and queen Cellana of Rajagrha," king Kuniya of Campa', the president-king of Vaisali, king Udayana of Kausambis, king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira" and king Siva of Ilastinapura', that of the Non-Aryans, foreign peoples, like the Aratis, Singhalas, Parasis, etc., the record of the first schism led by Jamali? and the legend of Gosala Mankhaliputra(r)--all these facts support the above contention that they have been incorporated into this canonical work later on. As already pointed out in the first chapter the evidence of the Samavayanga shows that the Viyaha-Pannatti had not yet attained half of its present size at the time of the former, as there is the mention of 84,000 padas in this work instead of 1,84,000 padas as recorded in the latter. Besides, the tradition expressly acknowledges the additions of certain portions called Vivaha Culah (appendices) to the fifth Anga. i bhs, 1.1, 4. 2 Ib, 7, 9, 300. 3 16, 12, 2. 441. 4:10, 13, 6, 491. 5 1b, 11, 9, 417. 61b, 9, 33, 380. ? 16, 9, 33, 386-7. 8 16, 15, 1, 539-61.

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35 Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA It has been observed in the first and second sections of the first chapter that the BhS stands as the fifth Anga in original form. But so far as the text is concerned, the chronological order has not been maintained except in one case of the Samavayanga Sutru, for parallel references occur in the works of the Upanga group', viz. Aupapatika Sutra, Rajaprasniya Sutra, Jivabhigama Sutra, Jambudvipa Prajslapti and Prairapana Sutra and even in the two miscellaneous texts-- Nandi Sutra and Anuyogadvara Sutra and also in the Avasyaka Sutra. Thus it is apparently clear that the BKS was not complet. ed before they were codified, as it is evidenced by the fact of the forms of the words and sentences of its reference to those texts. The study of certain stereotyped descriptions, the epithet ornantia, the so-called *Vannao' (Varnaka) as already mentioned in the first chapter reveals that the Bhs had undergone a complete transformation till it attained its present size, having suffered loss of forms of words. but gained an additon of new contents to it with the march of time. Date of the BhS: The internal evidences of the Bhs as already mentioned show that the core of the contents of the subject-matter of this canonical work, according to the tradition recorded in it, existed along with the other Angas during a period anterior to that of Lord Mahayira, but the entire environment of it is post-Mahaviran. So a truly synthetic view should be formed to determine its date by taking into consideration all the internal and external evidences as far as possible. The date of the complete Bhs as it stands to-day, cannot be assigned to a period later than the beginning of the sixth century A. D. on the basis of the historical data. But one may look back to the period of the sixth century B. C. on the same i Vide Supra Ch. I, Sec, 2.

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36 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Ii ground of its internal historical evidences that with the exception of the portions incorporated later on, the parts of the records of the pilgrimage of king Seniya-Bimbisara and queen Cellana? to Lord Mahavira, king Kunika, two wars, viz. Mahasila. kantaku Sangrama' and Rathamusala Sangrama", fought between the Magadhan king and the Vaisalian confederation of nine Mallakiss, nine Licchavis, Kasc, Kosala and their eighteen Ganarajas (republican chiefs) led by the president-king Ceta ka, king Udayana of Kausambz'. king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira and Mahasena" (of Avanta ?) were definitely finished as early as by this time, i. e. the 6th century B. C. Mahavira refers to the existence of the followers of Lord Parsvunatha's order, Munisuvrataand Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tirthankara whose religious activities were known and remembered by him. But there is nothing to show from the historical events, time, place, etc, as recorded in the BhS except the specific statements that the date of this canonical work can be pushed back to a period before the sixth century B. C. Further, the record of the corpus of the Brahmanical literature in the Bhs such as, the four Vedas, Itihasa, etc., prescribed as the courses of study shows the delimitation of the date of its origin along with the other canonical texts. It is also recorded in the Kalpa Sutralo that even Lord Mahavira was taught these prescribed courses of study in his boyhood, but not the twelve Angus, etc. of the Nirgrantha order. The use of the title Anga' to signify the oldest works of the canon suggests the same period of the BLS along with the other Angas as that of the Vedic Angas and Upangas as evidenced in this canonical text. 1 BhS, 1, 1, 4. 16, 7, 9, 300. 4 10, 12, 2, 441. 6 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec, 8. 8 10, 11, 11, 431. 10 Kalpa Satra 1st lecture, S.B.E., p. 221, 816, 7, 9, 301. 11, 13, 6, 491. 7 Bhs, 18, 2, 618. * Ib, 2, 1, 90.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA "Riuvveda......caunham vedanam samgovamganarh sarahassanam sarae." Moreover, it should be taken into account that the title Upanga' has been attributed to the second group of the Jaina canon as arranged in the Vallabhi Council. The references occurring in the BhS to some Indian Non-Aryan peoples (tribes) and foreign nationals, such as, Cilatikas (Kiratas), Barbarikas (Barbara), Isiganikas, Dravidis (Dravida), Lhasiyas (Lhasikas), Lausiyas (Lausikas), Pulindis (Pulinda), Pukkhalis (Puskala), Sabaris (Sabara), etc., and (foreign peoples), like Jonhikas, Palhavikas, Arabis, Singhalis, Murundis and Parasis and others, leads one to assign the date of this canonical text with a tolerable certainty to a period extending from the sixth century B. C. up to the sixth century A. D. during which they might have been recorded in it as evidenced by the facts of their social relation and racial synthesis. The mention of the Persian female attendants in this list clearly shows the synchronism of the BhS with the period of the Achamenid Persion rule in North-West-India and that of Lord Mahavira in the sixth century B.C., while the reference to the Jonhiyas (Yavanas), Valhikas (Bactrians), Murundas (Sakas), Palhavikas (Parthians), reveals the marked stages of the development of this canoncial work, as the successive periods of the advents of the Greeks, Bactrian Greeks, Sakas and Parthians fall in the fourth, second & 135 B.C.'s and the first century A.D. respectively. 37 The ancient Indo-Ceylonese relation goes back to the period of Vijaya Simha and Asoka and the latest evidence of the epigraphic records of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta points to this relation again established during the Gupta rule. 1 Kalpa-Sutra, 2, 1, 91. 3 Vide infra Ch. VIII Sec. 4. Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. 2 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. * Ib.

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38 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. If The mention of the Arabis forms another sheet anchor which has not yet been found in any earliest literature of India except in the Greek topographical account the Periplus of the Erythraen Sea"" and the Nausari grant of Avanijnasraya, the governor of Pulakesi II. This evidence of the Periplus indicates a period far anterior to that of the first century A. D. before their actual advent to India and establishment of their rule in Sindhu in the sixth and seventh centuries A, D. respectively. The references to the Arabs thus point to an ante Islamic period in which Arabia and India were closely related by commercial bonds, as it is fully justified by the mention of the Arabian female attendants with their national costumes for the first time in the Bhs. The commercial relation of the Arabs with the Western coast of India in the first century A. D. is corroborated by the peri plus of the Erythraean sea. The reference to 'Oinarsuya' (Cinamsuka), Chinese silken cloth in this canonical text suggests the Indo-Chinese trade-relation which probably began in the first century A. D. or long before that time. The evidences of the astronomical and astrological conception--the sun, the moon, the planets, etc, and the absence of any allusion to the zodiac, showing no trace of Greek Astronomy in the Bhs should be taken into consideration to determine its date. The Naks:utras and the Vedic quinquennial Yuga still were current during the period of this work. All these facts point to a date of this fifth Anga anterior to the Greek period at least for this part of the text. All these historical data lead one to the conclusion that the core of the contents and subject-matter of the Bhs existed long before the time of Lord Mahavira and it was developed with the passage of time till it attained the final shape of its present size in writing along with the other can onical works in the beginning of the sixth century A. D, at the Vallabhi Council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gamin, the Ksamasramana. 1 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Schoff L. No. 36, p. 36. ? See the section on tribes and races in the eighth chapter. 3 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. .

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Sec. 117 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 39 SECOND SECTION Analysis of the contents : The name of the fifth Anya is Viyahapannatti and this work is variously designated by the titles-Bhagavati Viyahapannatti, Bhagavati, l'iahapunnattii, Vivahapannatti and Pannatti'. In each case was added to it the epithet Bhagavati' which indicated reverence for it (iyam ca Bhagavatityapi pujyatvenabhidbiyate) and later on it became the title of the whole work. Sri Abhayadeva Suris has given ten different meanings of the title "Viahapannatti' in his commentary and equated it with the following Skt. words, viz., Vyakhyaprajfapti, V'yakhya. prajapti, Vitahapra lapti, Vuahaprajapt, Vivadhapphapi and Vivadhaprajnapti. Arrangement of the work :- . The fifth Anga is arranged into Satakas, Udde sakas and Sutras successively. The word "Sac (Sata or Sataka) used in the beginning of the second Sutaki suggests 'hundred', but there are found no proprieties in the present arrangement of this work. One is not able to explain its exact meaning because the extant forms have lost their significance. According to Sri Abhayadeva Suri this word "Sai' denotes Adhyayana (chapter) (Sate granthantaraparibhasaya adhyayane). In the commentary on the Samavayang Sutra he, while interpreting the statement "Vivahapannattie ekasitiin mahajummasaya pannatta'? makes it more clear that Adhyayana is called by the word "Sata'. "Vyakhyaprajna pa tyamekasitirmahayugmasatani prajnaptani, iha ca "Sata sabdenadhyayananyucyan te, tain krtayugmadi laksmanarasivisesavicararupani atrantaradhyayanasvabhavani tadayagamavaga myaniti". i Samavayanga S, 81. ? Antagadadasao (vagga VI para-2); Vivaga Suya (Suyakkhandha, 1, ajjhayana 2). 3 Bhs, (Comm.) p. 1 a. 4 Vide Schubring. Die Lehre Der Jainas, 1953, p. 63. * Bhs, (Comm.), P. 17--2. * Bhs., (Comm.), p. 5. ? Samavayanga, S. 81. $ 16, (Comm.) pp. 886-89 a.

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40 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II Uddesaka means division of chapter. "Adhyayanarthadesabhidhayino adhyayanavibhagah, uddisyante upadbanavidhina sisyasyacaryena yatha etavantamadhyayanabhagamadhisvetyevamuddesasta evoddesakah." The word "Sutra' (Sutta) means the abbreviated form of the original Sulta of the Vedas, but here in the fifth Anga it has lost the old significance, because it contains the subject matter in an explanatory detailed form. Extent of the work : According to Sri Abhayadeva Suri the BhS's consists of 10,000 Uddesakas, 36,000 questions and 2,88,000 Pramanu-padas, while the Samavayanga and Nandi Sitra* furnish the number of padas as 84,000 and 1,44,000 respectively. At end of the MSS. of the BhS it is clearly mentioned that it contains 138 Satakas including the sub-Sutarras, 1925 Uddesakas 1,84,000 Padas. "Succae Bhagavatie atthatisam satam (138) satanain, Uudesaganam culasiti.saya sa hassa padanam, Pavaravarananadamsihim.........Pannatta etthamamgamsi". As regards the number of Padas and Uddesukas the statement of this canonical work fully agrees with the actual state of the extent of the text with the exception of a slight variation in the number of Uddesakas as there are found only 1923 Uddesakas instead of 1925 in their specific mention in the Vidhi prapa. So the BhS, as it stands to-day in the published form after its arrangeinent, contains 41 Satakas, 1923, Uddesakas and 868 Sutras. The great difference in regard to the extent of the Bhs, i. e. 1,84,000 Padas in contrast with the number of padas given by the Samavayanga Sutra and the Nandi Sutra may be explained by the fact that this canonical work did not attain 1 Bhs, (Comm.), p. 5. ? Ib, (Comm),1, 1, 2. 8 Samavayanga, 140. 4 Nandi Sutra, 49. 5 Bh8, End of MSS. 6 Vidhiprapa (v); Vide Indian Antiqnary vol. XIX.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 41 its present extent at the time of these two texts when the fifth Anga had 84,000 and 1,44,000 Padas respectively. Definition of Padas : It is not clenrly explained in the commentary on the Bhs by Sri Abhayadeva Suri what is meant by 'Pada.' In this respect the Gommatasara' gives an explicit definition of the term *Pada' that one letter (knowledge), getting increased upto numerable letters one by one letter forms the scriptural knowledge called 'Padu' (foot). "Eyakkharadu-uvarim egegena-kkharena vaddhamto / Samkhejje khalu uddhe padanamam hodi sudananam //''S The total number of letters (Varna- Aksara' of a Pada (foot) is 1634, 83, 07, 888 (sixteen hundred thirty-four crores, eightythree lakhs and seven thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight. "Solasasayacautisa Koai tiyasidilakkhayam ceva / Sattasabassalkhasaya atbasidi ya padavanna" //*. In the commentary on the Gommafasara 'Pada' has been divided into three kinds, viz., (1) Arthapada denoting foot, a union of letters which communicate some idea as "bring fire" (Agnim anaya), (2) Pramana.pada (measure-foot), a fixed number of letters or syllables used "for a particular kind of combination in prose or poetry, e. g. "I bow to Lord Mahavira" (Namah. Sri.Varddhamanaya). Here the foot comprises letters ; constituting a fourth part of the verse of the metre called Anustupa and (3) Maddhyama pada (middle foot) consisting of 163+, 63, 07, 888 letters as mentioned above. The contents of the different Angas or parts of the scriptural knowledge in verse (gatha) 350 and which follows''. "Baruttarasa yakodi-tesidi taha ya homti lakkhanam/ Atthavannasahassa pasceva padani Anganam"ell. lb. 1 Bhs (Comm.), 1, 1, 2. : Gommatasara (Jivakanqla), p. 194, v. 335, J. L. Jaini. Ib v, 336, p. 195, J. L. Jaini. 5 1b, Comm. 336, p. 195. * Ib, 350, p. 199,

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II "The total number of the middle feet in the Angas is one hundred twelve crores, eighty-three lakhs, fifty-eight thousands and five (112,83,580.05)". The Bhs, was gradually developed and it attained its present extent of 15,750 granthagra, 1,84,000 Padas, as it is evidenced by the fact of the reference to the Mahayugmas just before the number of 84,000 (eighty four thousand) Padas of this canonical work as mentioned in the Samavayanga Sutra and also evidenced by the different proportions of the single Satakas, giving the impression of comprising later additions. Thus it is found that the Satakas--the first to eight, twelfth to fourteenth and eighteenth to twentieth consist of ten Uddesakas each; the ninth and tenth of thirty-four Uddesaka: each, the eleventh of twelve Uddesakas, the fifteenth without Uddesaka, the sixteenth of fourteen Uddesakas, the seventeenth of seventeen Uddesakas, the twenty-first of eighty Uddesakas (i.e. 8 vaggas having ten Uddesakus each), the twenty-second of sixty (i.e. 6 vaggas containing ten Uddesakas each), the twenty. third of fifty (5 vaggas with ten Uddesakus each), the twentyfourth of twenty-four Uddesakas, the twenty-fifth of twelve, the twenty-sixth to thirtieth of eleven each, the thirty-first and thirty-second of twenty-eight each, the thirty-third and thirtyfourth of one hundred and twenty-four each, the thirty-fifth to thirty-ninth of one hundred and thirty-two, the fortieth of two hundred and thirty-one and the forty-first of one hundred and ninety-six Uddesakas respectively. This canonical work gives a "detailed exposition of the doctrine of Sramana Dharma leading to Beautitude and it is the most important of all the sacred religious texts of the Jainas containing 36,000 questionsin forty-one Satalcas most of which are put in the mouth of Gautama Indrabhuti and the rest in those of other followers of Lord Mahavira, like Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti and others, those of the followers of Lord Parsvana. tha's order, like Gangeya, Kalasavesiyaputta, those of the other 1 BKS, (Comm.) 1, 1, 2,

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Tirthikas, those of the Parivrajakas, like Skandaka, Poggala Ammada, that of Siva, the Vanaprastha tapasa (forest recluse), those of the householders, like Sudarsana and Somila of Vanijyagrama, the Sramanopasaka, Pinglaka and the Sramano pazika Jayanti and those of Gosala Maakhaliputra and his followers, The first twenty Satakas constitute the essential part of the Bhs and deal with the varied subjects in irregular order, having no trace of recognizable connecting link among these Salakas in reference to the activity and teachings of Lord Mabavira in the form of conversations with his disciples, Gautama Indrabhuti and others on various occasions at different places. In this connection the Master mentions a large number of legends in support of his doctrine to give a clear and concise exposition of his doctrine. The rest consisting of the twenty-first Sataka and following up to the forty-first is a sort of supplementary to the first part: containing one-twenty Satakas. The second part consists of short treatises, independent of each other, in which the question of living beings, their species and their varied conditions are treated without reference to any legend. Each Sataka of this part bears harmonious contents, but many of the Satakus are co-related with one another, as it is evidenced by the fact that the twenty-first to the twenty-third deal with the plant's life, the twenty-fourth to the thirtieth with different conditions of living beings,-the twenty-fourth with their origin (birth), the twenty-fifth with their lesya (conditions of soul), etc., the twenty-sixth with the binding of Karma (Karmabandha), the twenty-seventh with their process of action karmakarana kriya etc., the twenty-eighth with their sinful acts (papakarma), the twenty-ninth with their Karmaprasthapanadi, the thirtieth with the four Samavasaranas (assemblies or schools) and the thirty-first to the fortyfirst with their states during the four Yugmas (rasis = numbers)', viz. Kitayugma, Tryoja, Diaparayugma and Kalyoja. 1 Dhavala-Tika-Samanvitah; Satlchandagaman. Parisista, p. 43, (Index). Pustak-16

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44 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. It The Samavayanga Sutra records the contents of the BhS. in brief as given below: "Viyahenam sasamaya Viahijjamti parasamayasasamaya parasamaya-Jiva via 3 loge viahijjaivivahenam, nana-vihasuranarimda-raya-risi-vivihasamsaiapucchiyanam, jinenamvittharenam, bhasiyanamdavva-guna-khetta-kala pajjava-padesa-parinamajahacchitthiyabhava-anuga mamkkhevanaya-ppamanasuniuno vakkama-vivihappagarapagada-payasiyanam; logalogapayasiyanam samsarasa mudda-rumda-uttarana-samatthanam"Suravaisampujiyanam, bhaviyajana-payahiyayabhinamdiyanam tamaraya-vidhamsananam, sudittha divabhuya-ihamati-buddhi-vaddhananam, Chattisasa hassa manunayanam vagarananam damsanao suyattha-bahu-viha-ppagara"1 The study of the contents of the BS shows that the scenes of the religious discourses of Lord Mahavira and other leaders of thought are laid out in Rajagrha (Gunasilakacaitya), Sravasti (Kosthaka caitya), Kayangala (Chatrapalasaku caitya), Tungika (Puspavati caitya), Moya (Nandana Caitya), Campa (Purnabhadra Caitya), Mithila (Manabhadra Caitya), Vanijyagrama (Ditipalasaka Caitya), Brahmanakundagrama (Bahusalaka Caitya), Hastinapura (Sahasramravana grove), Alabhika (Sankhavana caitya), Kausambi (Chandravatarana caitya), Vitibhaya (Mrgavana), Kampilyapura, Mendikagrama Salakostha ka-caitya), Ullukatira (Ekajambuka-caitya), and Visakha (Bahu putrikacaitya). Of these places Rajagrha was the most important centre of the religious activities of the Master where he appeared more than sixty times and expounded the Law in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical problems raised by Gautama Indrabhuti and others. It is revealed that out of 868 Sutras, one sutra deals with the questions of Roha to Lord Mahavira, one with those of Kalasavesiyaputta to the disciples of Lord Mahavira, one with 1 Samavayanga Sutra--140,

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45 Sec. If] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA those of Pingalaka to Skandaka, a parivrajaka of Sravasti, five with those of Skandaka to Lord Mahavira, one with those of the Sramanopasakas of Tungika to the Kaliyaputta and other Sthaviras of Lord Parsvanatha's order, two with those of Agni. bhuti to the Master, one with those of Vayubhuti to Lord Mahavira, two with the combined questions of Vayubhuti and Agnibhuti to the Master, one with those of some Schaviras to him with those of some Schaviras to him about the liberation of Atimukta Kumara-Sramana, one with the questions of Nirgranthiputra to Naradaputra and vice versa, and that of Naradaputra to Lord Mahavira, one with those of the followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order to the Master about the topic night and day, one with those of other Tirthikas to Gautama Indrabhuti and Lord Mahavira respectively about the doctrine of Pancastikaya, two with those of other Tirthikas to the Sthaviras of the Master about the observance of religious rules, nine with those of Gangeya, a follower of Lord Parsvanatha': order to Lord Mahavira on different topics, three with the question of initiation and undertaking of asceticism of Rsabbadatta and Devananda to the Master: three with that of Jamali, one with that of Jamali and his five hundred followers at the Kosthaka Caitya on the new doctrine of Karma born in his mind, one with the debate between Jamali and Lord Mahavira, one with the question of Samahastin to Gautama Indrabhuti and the Master respectively; two with those of many Sthaviras of Rajagrha to Lord Mahavira about the number of queens of Camara, etc., two with the account of asceticism of the Vanaprastha, tapasa Siva and his conversion by the Master to Sramana Dharma ; nine with the questions of Sudarsana to Lord Mahavira on time, his former life, and his undertaking of asceticism, two with those of the Sramanopasalas of Alabhika to Rsibhadraputra and to the Master, one with the question of initiation of Poggala, a Parivrajaka of Aldhika to Lord Mahavira, two with the observance of Pausadhavrata as proposed by Sankha Sresthi, a Sravaka of Sravastz to his fellow brethern and his question to the Master, etc., three with the pilgrimage of Jayanti of Kausambi of her question to Lord Mahavira and initiation by him to asceticism

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46 stubies IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA [Ch. II of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira to the Master, one with the account of the leaving of his son, Abhijit Kumara for Campa and his political refuge in the court of king Kunika, eighteen Sitras of the 15th Sataka with the accounts of the life and teachings of Gosala Mankhaliputra, his spiritual duel with Lord Mahavira, his defeat and death in Sravasti, one with that of the suffering of the Master from bilious fever in Mendhikagrama and his cure, three with the questions of Makandikaputra to Lord Mahavira on the topic of bondage, etc., one with the questions of other Tirthikas to Madruka of Rajagrha a disciple of the Master on the doctrine of Astikaya, one with the dispute between other Tirthikas of Rajaglha and Gautama Indrabhuti over the question of observance of religious vows and rules and two with the questions of Somila, a proud Brahmana of Vanijyagrama to Lord Mahavira on religious and philosophical problems. The remaining Sutras of this cano. nical work treat of the questions raised by Gautama Indrabhuti. the first disciple of the Master on various subjects. THIRD SECTION Language of the BhS : Language of the Bhs, is called Arddha-Magadhi which is stated to be the language of the gods and human beings in this canonical work. Lord Mahavira preached his doctrines of religion and philosophy to the people in this language, as it is clearly mentioned in the Samavayanga Sutra, so that the common men could follow the message of his holy teachings without any difficulty. . Bhagavam ca nam Addha-Magahie Bhasae dhammamaikkhai." The evidence of the Samavayanga Sutra is also corroborated by the Aupapatika Sutra in which it is stated that the Master spoke to king Kunika in this language. 1 Bhs, 5. 4. 191. ? Samavayanga p. 60.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA "Tae nam Samane Bhagavam Mahavire Kunigassa ranno Bimbhisara puttassa Addha-Maga hae Bhasae bhasai sa vi ya nam Addha-Magaha Bhasa tesim savvesim ariyamanariyanam appano samasae parinamenam parina mai." According to this instruction his contemporary Ganadhara Sri Sudharman Swamin composed all the Sutra-Granthas in Ardlha-Magadhi. "Attham bhasai ariba, suttam gamthamti ganahara niunam": As already discussed in the first section of this chapter the Siddhantas were not committed to writing at the time of Sudharman Swamin, but they were preserved in memory by the recital study from preceptor to pupil. At the Palaliputra council under the headship of Sthul bhadra they were collected and compiled but were not given the form in writing. It was at the Vallabhi Council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gamin-the Ksamasramana they were again collected, redacted and reduced to writing in the beginaing of the six century A. D. So the language of the Bhs and other canonical works is to be traced in Magadha in Eastern India. It is observable that the language of this fifth Anga is not uniform as the tendency of modernizing it was stopped by Devarddhi Ganin. There is the absence of self-persistent orthography of Jain Prakrta probably due to the effect of gradual entrance of the Vernacular in which the canonical texts were recited mostly and the spellings represent the original stratum; the most modern are representing the form immediately pending the redaction ; it is near Pali than to Prakrta of Hala, etc., e.g. bhuta-bhuya ; udaga-udaya, waya; lobha-loha. It was provided with a good deal of peculiarities which form the characteristics of Magadhi dialect e. g. the ending of the nominative in e, samane,' nayare, etc. 1 Aupapatika Sutra; vide Paia Sadda Mahannavo, p. 19. * Ava Syaka Niryukti, vide Paia Sadda Mahannavo, p. 19. Bhs, 1, 1,5. Ib, 1-1.5.

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48 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II The core of the language of the BhS and other canonical works is old, having its birth in Eastesn India, although the texts were codified in that dialect in Western India after 800 years transmission by the word of mouth from preceptor to pupil. This is that they were preserved still in memory from generation to generation in original form in correct pronunciation. In this redaction a care was certainly taken by the Vallabhi Council to retain a part of the old grammatical form, as it is particularly evidenced in the ending of the Nom. Sing. Masc. of the 1st declension in e, not o. But a change in the original form of the language of the BhS and other sacred texts took place, as they were reduced to writing in that form which was taken by the language of the time and place of redaction for the comprehension and realization of the common people including the fools and knaves. "Balastrimandamurkhanam nrnam caritrakanksinam".1 "Anugrahartham tattvajnaih siddhanta Prakrtah krtah." This influence of an inevitable change in the spoken dialect after a lapse of time on the language of the Bhs and other canonical works existing in the form of recitation was possible, as their purpose was at least to make them understandable to the people of that period. Besides, there can be the main reason of the change in the language that after about 200 years of the demise of Lord Mahavira during the reign of Candragupta Maurya, Magadha was visited by a terrible famine lasting for twelve years when some monks of the Nirgrnutha order under the headship of Bhadrabahu moved off to the part near the sea in the south. "Itasca tasmin duskale karale Kalaratrivat | Nirvahartham sadhu-samgha-stiram niramd heryayau" (55). Since that time the cause of inability of Parislana (study) of the Sutra-Granthas is attributed to the fact that they were forgotten. 1 Dasavaikalika Tika of Haribhadra Suri & Kavyanusasana of Hemachandra. Sthaviravali-Carita, Sarga, 9.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA "Agunyamanam tu tada sadhunam vismrtam Srutam / Anabhyasanato nasyatyadhitam dhimatamapi" (56) ||. After the famine was over they were compiled to eleven Angas but were not committed to writing at the Pataliputra Council. "Sangho-atha Pataliputre duskalante akhilo amilat/ Yadangadhyayanoddesadyasid yasya tadadade" (57)|| "Tatascaikadasangani Sri sangho amelayat tada/ Drstivadanimittam ca tasthau kincid vicintayan (58)// 49 Owing to these causes there appears to be a change in the language of the Bhs along with the other Sutra-Granthas, which differs from that of the original Arddha-Magadhi and agrees in some that of the so-called Jaina respect with Maharastri. It is possible that those monks who went to the south during the famine returned and joined the Pataliputra council in the compilation-work with the local influence of Maharastri Prakrta. After about eight hundred years of this ecclesiastical assembly the Vallabhi Council made further collection, compilation and codification of the sacred texts and committed them to writing by the monks, having carried the influence of different local dialects of Prakrta language due to their travellings in various parts of the country. So, there are found distinguishing marks of difference in the language of the BhS. According to Jacobis the language of the Agamas is Jain Maharastri, while Dr. Pischel' holds by refuting his arguments with substantial evidences that it is Arddha-Magadhi in prose and poetry coming down from generation to generation in later times. Dr. Woolner is of opinion that there is found in the canonical works a little part of Arddha-Magadhi and in 1 Sthaviravali-Carita, Sarga, 9. v. (56). 2 Sthaviravali Carita, vv. 57-58. Kalpa Sutra, p. 17 Dr. Jacobi. 4 Introduction to comparative Grammar of the Prakrit language, Dr. Pischel., p. 16 ff. 5 Introduction to Prakrit Grammar, Dr. Woolner, 7

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50 50 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II the major portion there occurs Maharastri; while Dr. Manmohan Ghoshhas tried to show in the introduction to his book Karpuramanjari' that the so-called Maharastri is at its foundation a later form of Saurasenz which was carried to the south where it gathered some words and forms of the local Prakrta and thus it was used in literature there in course of time. The language of the Bhs shows that it cannot be that Arddha-Magadhi, the language in which Lord Mahavira preached his Law to the people, for it bears the characteristics of the Middle Indo-Aryan stages of language. It may be called later Arddha-Magadhi. It is influenced by the early Middle-Indo. Aryan stage of language (600 B. C.-200 A. D.) in which the intervocal consonants are not lost but assimilated, e. g. appa (1, 2, 21) = al pa, sappa (15, 1, 547)=sarpa and a simplification of the grammatical structure is noticeable. In the language of this canonical work there is found also a tendency to drop the intervocal consonants, e.g. nayare (1, 1, 4)= nagara, etc., which indicate the Middle-Middle (200-600 A. D.) and later Middle-Indo-Aryan (600-1000 A.D.) stages. The grammatical structure of its language is old and simple and its phonetics are much influenced by the Middle-Indo-Aryan stages, particularly the Middle-Middle-IndoAryan stage, for the language has undergone changes with the march of time. The analysis of all these facts leads to the conclusion that the language of the BKS represents the MiddleMiddle-Indo-Aryan stage. So the contents and language of the BIS lend support to the assignment of its date to the period beginning from the sixth century B. C. to the sixth Century A. D. FOURTH SECTION Style of the Bhs : The style of a work is the voice of words uttered by its author, producing an effect on the feelings of the readers 1 Rarpuramanjari-Dr. M. M. Ghosh, p. 48.

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51 Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA by its action working upon their conscious minds. It may be both personal and impersonal. According to the different subject matters in writing the style of an author changes; it is descriptive when he tells something and describes a person or a thing; it is explanatory when he explains something or interpiets the underlying causes of the occurrence of a thing or an event or studies and examines some subject or persuades one to think in the light of his own thought; and it is emotive when he rouses emotions in his readers' minds and makes them happy or sorrowful or angry, etc. It is this style of a work which evokes a corresponding mood in the readers' minds by presenting its contents and treating of its subject-maiter in a clear and concise manner. The Vedic literature begins with the metre of poetry in composing its verses, revealing prayers and hymns addressed to the powers of Nature deified thus: "Risen in magestic blaze Lo! the universe's eye Vast and wondrous host of rays Shineth brightly in the sky." etc.? The BhS as one of the Angas of the Agamic literature originates with prose containing thoughts and activities of various religious teachers. It is not the classical Sankrit prose, exhibiting its rich style, but it is the prose to convey the thoughts and ideas of the religious leaders through the language of the people among whom they moved. So the style of this canonical work is the style of the people, which distinguishes itself from that of the Vedic literature. Here the purpose is to teach religion to the general mass in a natural style but not in an artificial one of the Vedic verses where one is to memorize hymns of prayers. The style of the Bhs used by its author in presentation of its different contents and in dealing with its subject-matter is of varied character, as it appears from its massiveness and 1 Hymns of the Rgveda, p. 12, Vide translation by C, Manning.

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52 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. It ponderosity manifested in the continual repititions and cons. tantly stereotyped descriptions and forms of incorporations of materials into it, eg. "Namo Bambhie Livie"'). "Namo suyassa,"9 "Vannao"3. "Samane Bhagavam Mahavire aigare titthagare purisuttame, etc." The precautions taken by Devarddhi Ganin could not Save the text from insertions, interpolations, abbreviations, and omissions in spite of his best efforts by dividing this cano. nical work into Satakas, Uddesakas and Sutras successively. Its references to the parallel passages occurring in other sacred texts have frequently been made to abbreviate its volume by avoiding the continual repetitions of its contents with the connecting word 'Java'. Thus it has lessened descriptions ; besides there is a little variation in its forms made by alternating questions and answers without long continuation. The monotony of the sermons has thus been relieved by this deliberate interposition of dialogues and also by the presentation of its varied contents. When the style of the Bhs is judged with an objective view, it is found that it has served its purpose in full by embodying the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira in the form of conversations in the spoken language, as it explains "speech is the carrier of thought" (Mannamiti oharini bhasa). It contains some literary flourishes in the form of numerous legends. parables, similes, metaphors, analogies, descriptions of persons and things, emotive prose, etc. faithfully transmitted from generation to generation and the manner of expression of the author to preach the holy teachings of Lord Mohavira to the people. This method of explaining and interpreting the religious and philosophical doctrines made them easy, comprehensible and intelligible to the general mass for a clear conception and understanding and realization of the truth underlying them. The Master moved among all classes of people of the society, preaching his Law for their enlightenment, i Bhs, 1, 1, 2. 5 I6, 2, 6. 113. 16, 1, 1, 3. 3 16, 1, 1, 4. - 16, 1, 1, 5.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA so he took particular care to make his sermons understandable to them by drawing on the familiar incidents occurring in their day-to-day lives. For example, as a weak decrepit old man, being struck on the head with a blow received from a very strong young man feels pain, so an earthbodied being also. getting struck experiences more pain than that'. As the glances of spectators cannot create any trouble nor cause disease nor dismemberment of the body of a dancer performing dance-drama in a theatre hall and vice versa, so the beings existing in the Universe do not create trouble to one another. In one passage' the separate existence of individual beings in the space of the Universe has been brought to light according to the doctrine of plurality of souls. 53 Here the object of the explanatory style in prose is to explain and interpret the fundamental principles of life which govern the occurrence of things in a purest form of scientific impersonal voiceless description in order to bring out the truth. The author makes study of truth and reality with the purpose of attaining the absolute truth with devotion according to his scheme. He searches out and gets a line of meaning in things as satisfying his inquisitive mind. Here the style of expression is scientific, but the topic of study is philosophic dealing with the concept of beings and space of the Universe. So the voice of words spoken by him is impersonally logical with a stress laid on the facts of reality. Legends: The auther of the BhS has utilized many legends to present the account of the predecessors of Lord Mahavira and also of some contemporary monks who attained Sramanahood and liberation by practising the acts of severe austerities and meditation. In these legends the following come in the lime lightMunisuvrata, Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala1, 1 Bhs, 19. 3, 654. 81b, 18, 2, 618. 2 Ib, 11, 10, 422. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 431.

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54 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. It the thirteenth Tirthankara, the followers of Lord Parsvanath's order', those of Jamali, the Vanaprastha tapasa (forest recluse), Siva, the royal sage of Hastinapura3, the three parivrajakas, namely, Skandaka', Poggala, and Ammada, and Gosala Mankhaliputra,' the Ajivika leader. The whole fifteenth Sataka has been devoted to the legend of Gosala, his life and teachings, and the Ajivika sect. This account is presented in the form of an epilogue emerged out of the conversations between Gautama Indrabhuti and the Master. These legends throw light upon the religious conditions of the period and give a graphic account of the life and activities of various sects and their systems of thought and reveal the existence of some obscure cults with unsympathetic criticism. The way of presentation of the picture of religious firmament has brought to light the half-known and unknown life of these sects with a historical background. The author of the BhS has also used some fictitious narratives to deduce some specific moral, e. g. the story of some merchants of Sravasti and their fate as narrated by Gosala Mankhaliputra to Ananda, a disciple of Lord Mahavira to warn him against his (the Master) act of vilification of the Ajivika leader by disclosing his life's account. As one good merchant among them was spared of his life by a wounded poisonous snake for the act of his moral advice given to his fellow-traders not to break the last mound out of greediness for more wealth, so Ananda also was allowed to return with safety from the attack of the spiritual power of wounded and wrathful Gosala Mankhaliputra, staying like that poisonous snake struck on the head by the other covetous merchants and to report this warning of destruction to the Master, if he indulged in the act of inciting the Ajivika leader again in this manner". In the story of the four merchants the aim of the author is to move or to instruct the readers by his narrative style backed by reason. He has told this story of adventure, 1.6 Vide infra Ch. VIII, Section on other sects. 7 BhS, 15, 1, 539. 8.9 Ib, 15, 1, 547.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 55 furnished vividly with the details of incidents by bringing out speed, suspense and visibility in its cumualtive effect imposed by its own atmosphere. A distinct and separate impact is made by each sentence used by him. Here a continuity of the voice having up and down pitch is kept in an unbroken link of description of successive collective images or ideas each of which is made to merge into the next. The author creates a kind of sense-atmosphere in which he makes his readers appreciate his statement by shaking their attention with receptivity of mind. He uses clear-cut words with a voice very keen like a man, observing every thing caught up in his mind in the action of the moment and thus he makes the final impression on them with the last statement which still rings in the ear, though he has stopped talking. Here the quality of style is simple narrative but the telling of the story is objective with regard to the description of things neatly arranged to make a cumulative effect in unslacking sentences. Because the author is treating of a great problem - the spiritual power and the way of life without using apostrophes and making any attempt to impress the effect of fact by explaining it with particulars or by uttering an even or a raised voice or by making a sudden halt or by shaking the readers' minds into attention. Simile and Metaphor : The BhS makes frequent use of many similes and metaphors to expound the philosophical doctrines. simile and metaphor are almost identical, but metaphor is only a compressed simile; it makes a deeper impact on the mind by its vividness than simile does. Some examples of simile and metaphor are given below : The author explains non-eternality of human life by the familiar similes thus-it is non-eternal like the evening colour of the sky, like the water bubble, etc. upto like the sparkling of lightning, it is inconstant." i Bh8, 9, 33, 384.

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56 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II It is explained by metaphor that "human body is the house of suffering, place of hundreds of diseases, the standing bones like wood covered with veins, nerves, etc, the house of oldness, fesh, decay and it has the nature of fall and destruction.' In these examples of similes and metaphors the author keeps up the familiar voice by making precision in the words and forms of phrases in each nicely balanced sentence. Here he appeals to the intellect of the readers, working upon the feelings of their responsive minds completely merged in his personality. Analogy : He has used many familiar analogies also to explain the abstruse doctrines of philosophy for their clear understanding and realization. For example, an enclosure of he-goats (ayavaya). compared to the Universe is applied to expound the principle of origination and decay of beings in the space. Just as in one large enclosure of 100 he.goats kept and reared by some person every point of space of it, having the size of an atom gets within six months touched with their excrement, urine upto hoofs, or nails, etc., so also in this extensive Universe there is no point of space having the size of an atom where this soul was not born or did not die. Description of people :-- The inner reactions of man are closely related to his physical being. The author of the Bls professedly makes use of literary flourishes in the description of persons. things, scenes and action, besides for explanatory or illustrative purposes. The physical condition of a houseless monk named Skandaka as a result of his practice of severe austerities and meditation is compared with that of a bullock-cart loaded with wood, etc., so it, being hot and dry, if drawn by any body, moves or stops with a cracking sound, just like that Skandaka moves, and stops with sound. Like the fire covered with ashes, his body becomes very glowing by the beauty of his spiritual fire. 1 BKS, 9, 33, 384. ? 16, 12, 7, 457. $ 16, 2, 1, 93.

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 57 Here the purpose of the author is to explore a complicated structure of human body without an attempt to present an image of man but at the same time to reveal the inner emotions without applying any psychological method. He aims at the truth by depicting the person with the psychological background of knowledge without using terms. Here his style is like that of a keen anatomist, displaying the physical structure of the man, with a creative mind of a discoverer of new things which give pleasure to both the readers and himself. The author depicts youth and physical beauty of a young lady with a brilliant touch of a masterly hand of an artist, as she appears to be vivacious with the rhythm of her life. Thus it is described that during the pilgrimage of Jamali to Lord Mahavira for undertaking asceticism there stood behind the prince in the palanquin one excellent young lady (courtesan) dressed in charming costumes, like the abode of sexual passion or expert in sexual union, endowed with beauty, youth, bud of luxury or loveliness, unblossmed flower of lustre, having beautiful breasts and holding a garland of koranta flowers, shining like silver, lotus, jasmine and the moon, and a white umbrella.? Further, two pictures-one of youth and the other of old are presented by depicting the two stages of human life. As an old man is unable to cut a knotty trunk of wood with a blunt axe by making sound, just like that the effects of sinful acts of infernal beings do not come to an end', while as a strong young man fells a large straight trunk of a Samali tree with a sharp axe without making sound, so the gross karmi-matter of the Sramana-Nirgranthas quickly gets an. nihilated.' In these passages the author creates the images of persons with great agility and carries the readers' minds with his, without allowing the images to disappear. He applies his mental faculty to paint the physical being out of fresh stuff with bold sentences and firm ending. i Bhs. 9, 33, 385. * 15, 16, 4, 573.

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58 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. II Description of things : There are two classes of description of things, viz. scientific and imaginative, the first depends on the statement of facts to create human pleasure, while the aim of the other is to generate atmosphere in every physical object which is made the starting point of an idea with a springy rhythm. The following examples will throw some light upon the descriptive style on things used by the author of the Bhs. In presenting graphic account of the bed-chamber of queen Prabhavati of Hastinapural it is depicted thus, that it was decorated with pictures from inside and having been whitened, rubbed, and smoothened from outside, variegated upper part (roof) and intensely shining lower part (floor), (having) darkness dispelled by jewels and pearls (studded there) and many equally divided parts. It was furnished with the presents of flowers, having five colours, juice, fragrance, and it was made beautiful by the production of fragrant smell of black agaru, best perfume, olibannum and incense endowed with pleasant odour and elegant smell. In this passage the author has created an atmosphere by this way of description of things and produced an effect by bringing inanimate (or non-living) things to life and by presen. ting the objects to the readers with a rhythm. Similarly a description of the vision of a lion in dream beheld by this queen Prabhavati is made in a very colourful style thus : She woke up from her sleep, having beheld the vision of a lion, having a beautiful and worth seeing breast, very white like a silver necklace, milk ocean, moonlight and particles of water and silver mountain, having firm charming fore-arms and round thick well-set excellent sharp teeth, smiling mouth like an adorned best lotus, delicate, measured splendid charming lips like the leaf of a red lotus and soft, and very tender palate tongue, having eyes like the heated best gold existing in a pot (for making liquid), rolling like the wheel to the right, round and pure like the lightning, (having) large thick i Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

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59 Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA thigh (or shank), a fully developed broad shoulder adorned with soft, shining, fine, auspicious-marking manes, a tail raised, well built and well grown flapping to and fro, a sportive gaping mouth having the shape of the moon, and open nails, descending from the sky and entering her own mouth. This imaginative description of the lion releases the imagination of the readers by creating a state of mind to play over its physical being, from one side of the object, grasping all the while the connecting link outside it. Here this style of the author sketches the image of the lion out of his own experience to make the readers see it with their imaginative eyes. Besides these specimens of the descriptive style, the art of depicting gods and goddesses endowed with their splendour and power and their celestial houses as revealed in the BhS' makes a union of heaven and earth with their respective inmates. All these evidences clearly show the aesthetic sense of its author, as it is reflected in its literary flourishes explaining and interpreting the doctrines of life and Nature with a brilliant touch of an artistic hand, when occasions and incidents demanded it in this encyclopaedic work, mainly dealing with religion and philosophy. The author of the BhS uses the emotive style, the purest form of which treats of ideas by applying words containing suggestions of moving events or things in rousing emotions of its readers. He paints human traits, especially mother's heart, joy and sorrow with the softness of touch of Nature as manifested in and through his artistic hand thus: On the recognition of her former son in Mahavira at the Bahusalaka Caitya Devananda stood gazing steadfastly at him without winking her eyes out of overwhelming motherly affection and joy. Then milk from her breast gushed forth through her Jacket, with her eyes filled with tears, her arms swelled besides her bangles, jacket stretched, the hairs of her body stood erect as when a Kadamba flower 1 Bhs, 2, 8, 116.

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60 Studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. II unfolds itself in response to a shower of rain ; thus she gazed at the Master without averting her eyes.? In one passage the author presents a specimen of pathos of human heart by expressing sorrow of the mother of Jamali caused by the thoughts of the pangs of his separation with a brilliant touch of the style of climax and anticlimax, when the prince requested for the permission of his parents to undertake the state of houselessness. Having heard the undesirable, unpleasing and hitherto unheard words of her son that he desired to take to asceticism, she began to perspire (svedagata), became pale, swooned and at once fell down on the floor." Then she was quickly brought to consciousness by her female attendants, having sprinkled pure cold water on her face and fanned her body with a palm-leaf fan. Thus being consoled by them, she, crying and lamenting told Jamali "You are son, our only one son, etc." Here the aim of the author is to rouse emotions which are not at present in the readers' minds by the art of his style. Humour : In the nature of the subject-matter of the Bhs, dealing with the serious problems of religion and philosophy, the use of humour is not expected. Nevertheless, this sentiment is not totally absent, as it is evidenced in the following passage. At the Dutipalasaka Caitya Somila, a proud Brahmana of Vanijyagrama asked Lord Mahavira an ambiguous question whether 'Kulatthas' are eatable or uneatable to the Sramana. Nirgrunthas. The Master replied that there were two kinds of Kulatthas, viz. Stri-lculatthas and Dhanya-kulatthas (pulses, etc.). The Stri-kulatthas are of three classes, viz. Kulakanyaka (familydaughters), Kulabad hus (family-daughters in-law) and Kulamata: (family-mothers) ; they are unfit for food of the SramanaNirgranthus ; while the Dhanyakulatthas (pulses) may be taken by them on certain conditions. ? 16, 9, 33, 382. 16, 9, 33, 384. 16, 18, 10, 647.

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Sec. IV STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 61 All these examples of different styles used by the author of the Bhs reveal that he presented the contents and dealt with the subject-matters of this encyclopaedic work in the language of the people in their own style by utilizing rich literary flourishes whenever demanded by the occasion to explain and interpret the doctrines of religion and philosophy so that they would be comprehensible, understandable and realizable to the common man.

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THIRD CHAPTER Political conditions as reflected in the BhS. FIRST SECTION Political Disunity It appears from the Bhs that there was no politioal unity of India under one paramount power during the period of Lord Mahavira. Then India (Bharatavarsa) was divided into a large number of independent monarchical and non-monarchical states, as this political condition is reflected in the list of sixteen great states (Solasa Mahajana padas)' mentioned in the Bhs. They are as follows :- Anga, Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha (Riksa)), Vaccha (Vatsa), Koocha (Kaccha= Kautsa), Padha (Pandya), Ladha (Radha = West Bengal), Vajja (Vajji=Videha), Moli (Malla= Pava and Kusinara), Kasc, Kosala, Avaha (not yet correctly identified), and Sunbhuttara (Sumhottara)". At the beginning of the 6th century B. C. the same political condition is reflected in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya in which the following sixteen great states (Solasa Mahajanapadas)* of considerable extent and power are mentioned, viz. Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (Vriji), Malla, Cetiya (Cedi), Varsa (Vatsa), Kuru, Paficala, Maccha (Matsya = Jaipur), Sirasena (Mathura), Assaka (Asmaka), Avantz, Gandhara and Kamboja. 1 Bhs, 15. 1, 554 (Fifteenth Sataka First Uddesaka). See also Uvasagadasao, Appendix II, Dr. Hoernle; refer also to Die Kosmographie Der Inder', 225, W. Kirfel. . Sumbhuttara is identified with the modern districts of Midnapore and Baukura in West Bengal. See Markandeya Purana, p. 357. 9 P. T. S. 1. 213; IV, 252, 256, 260. The Mahavastri (1. 34) presents a similar list but drops Gandhara and Kamboja and puts Sibi and Dasarna in their places in the Pan jab (or Rajputana) and Central India respectively. The Jana-Vasabha. Suttanta gives a less complete list of these sixteen great Janapadas,

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Sec, I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA - 63 These states flourished during the period between the rise of Vaiji to power after the downfall of Videha and the annexation of Kasc to the Kosulan empire by king Mabakosala in the later half of the 6th century B. C. It is clear from the above evidences that Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Vajji, Kasz and Kosala are common to both the lists of sixteen great states given in the Bhs and the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya. Malavaka and Moli of the Bhs may probably be identi. cal with Avanti and Malla of the Anguttara Nikaya respectively. In addition to the above eight states, other new states mentioned in the list of the Bhs clearly show the knowledge of the political geography of the far east and the extreme south of India, possessed by its author at that period. This wider geographical horizon of India as described here indicates the more lateness of its list of states than that of the one referred to in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya.' The Bhs thus clearly reveals the political condition of India prevailing during the time of Lord Mabavira (i. e. the 6th century B. C. to the 5th century B. C.), which will fully be discussed in detail in the second section of this chapter. SECOND SECTION Factors of political condition. Among those above mentionei sixteen great states (Solas Mahajanapadas) the most famous states of North-Eastern India were Kasc, Kosala, Vajji (Vtjji), and Magadha which flourished I P. H. A. I., Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, p. 96, F.Note.1. "Mr. E. J. Thomas suggests (History of Buddhist Thought, p. 6) that the Jaina author who makes no mention of the northern Kamboja and Gandhara but includes several South Indian peoples in his list", "wrote in South India and compiled his list from countries that he knew". Dr. H.C. Raychaudhuri argues "If the writer was really ignorant of the northern peoples, his Malavas could not have been in the Punjab and must be located in Central India. In that case his account can hardly be assigned to a very early date',

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64 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III independently side by side during the time of Lord Mahavira with their respective political autonomy by following a policy of expansion. The most important factor in the political condition of this period was the quadrangular struggle' among these four states for establishing their respective political suzerainty over North-Eastern India by their aggressive imperialism under their respective ambitious rulers. The military power of the Vriji confederation was growing in the north to a considerable extent under the leadership of king Cetaka of Vaisali, united together with his allies, nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs (ganarajas). On the other side the aggressive monarchy of Magadha under its ambitious ruler, Vidchuputra king Kunika (Ajatasatru)s was following a policy of expansion and self-aggrandizement from his base at Rajagrha. 1_Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301. 8 'Videhaputta Kuniye' of the Bhs was also named as Asogavanacanda or Asogacanda after the name of the garden, Asogavaniya where he was throwni immediately after his birth. (ivasyaka C'urni II, p. 166). According to Ovaiya (6, p. 20), Kinika was thrown on a dung-hill outside the city where his little finger was wounded by the tail of a cock. Thus he was named Kugika. It is stated in the Nirayavaliya sutra that Kunika was the son of queen Cellana, the daughter of king Cetaka of Vaisali, which was a part of Videha. So this epithet Videhaputta' was attributed to him. The Buddhist Nikayas also attribute this epithet to Ajatasatru. Buddhaghost however resolves "Vedehi into Veda-iha. Vedana ihati or intellectual effort (i.e, the son of an accomplished princess)." (The commentary on the Digha Nikaya I, p. 139), (BKS, Vol. I, 1091). See foot note No 3 of P.H.A.I., Dr. HC. Ray Chaudhuri Jatakit, Nos. 239, 283, 492. According to the evidences of Thusa Jataka (338) and the Musikre sataka (373) Kosaladevi (t e Kosalan princess) was the mother of Ajatastru who is called the nephew of king Pasenadi of kosala in the Samyukta Nikuya (Book of Kindred Sayings 110). But Madda (Madra) is, however, mentioned as the mother of Ajatasatru in Vol. I of the Book of the Kindred Sayings (p. 380), while a "Tibetan writer calls her Vasavi (DPPN. 1. 34). Now the Jain tradition and the Nikayas agree in attributing the epithet .Videbapatta' to Kunika-Ajatasatru. So one may identify Kunika of the Jain texts with Ajata satru vedanarincess, vol van

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA So the Magadhan king, "the symbol of aggressive imperialism stood face to face" with the upholders of republicanism. But ultimately republicanism of the Vrians had to submit to the aggressive imperialism of Magadha which pushed up its frontiers to all directions. Thus the foreign policy of expansion followed by king Kunika launched this rising state to the career of conquest and self-aggrandizement which went a long way to bring about the political unification of India under the vigorous rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas in future and only ended with the conclusion of the Kalinga war of the emperor, Asoka. Political events -Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangram. In connection with the results of the participation by soldiers in two great wars viz. Mahasilakantaka3 and Rathamusala3, which took place between Videhaputra Kunika, the king of Magadha and king Cetaka of Vaisali, united together with his allies. nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosula and their eighteen republican chiefs (ganarajas). Two scenes of the Bhs depict a vivid picture of these two terrible wars as known and remembered by Lord Mahavira. They throw a welcome light upon the political condition and relation existing among the four states, viz. Magadha, Vaisali, Kasi, and Kosala and give an idea of the nature and form of war during the time of the Master. One scene relates that king Kunika, having known the impending Mahasilakantaka Sangrama (the war of big stone) with the Vrjjian confederacy, immediately ordered his staff-members on this ground of the common epithet 'Videhaputta' and identical political activities of both and the relation with the Vajjis, because fresh evidences are coming out to throw light upon this identification of Kinika-Ajatasatru. The Vinaya Texts of the Mulasarvastiva dins recently discovered, mention Ajata satru as the son of Cellana (named here Cela). See Age of Imperial Unity, foot note no. 2, p. 20. 1 Potilical History of Ancient India, Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, p. 189. * Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 4.8 [b. 7, 9, 300, 9 65 9 Ib, 7, 9, 301.

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66 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. III to harness the chief elephant, (called) Udayin and to equip his army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry. At his command all the forces were very quickly mobilized by his officials according to varieties of very skilful designs and actions of forming ideas of intelligence derived from the instruction of technical experts of war, and then the total mobilization was at once reported back by them to the king. After having performed the auspicious ceremoney, king Kunika, being surrounded by his well-equipped army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephants, best chariots and infantry and followed by a large body of his officers, such as Bhata, Catakara, etc., went to the war Mahasilakantaka. King Kunika fought this battle with his terrific war-engine and drove away the united forces of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs from one direction to another. Their best heroes were killed, trampled down and struck, so their war-flags marked with wheel, etc., fell down in the thick of fighting. In that Mahasilakantaka Sangrama' whoever was there, whether a horse or an elephant or a soldier or a charioteer was killed by a grass or a leaf or a wood or a stone, knew thus "I am killed by Mahasila (big stone)". For that reason this war was called Mahasilakantaka Sangrama.' It was a terrible war in wliich eighty-four lakhs of people were killed. But the victory of king Kunika does not appear to be a decisive one in the first phase of this struggle between the two contending parties. So another scene of the BKS describes the second great war called Rathamusala Sangramas, as known and remembered by Lord Mahavira, which also took place between king Kunika and the confederacy of nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis under the leadership of Cetaka, the Vaisalian king. But this time Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs do not appear on the scene of the theatre of this second struggle. 1.2 Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 9 I5, 7, 9, 301.

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Sec. 11] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Having known the approaching Rathamusala Sangrama', king Kunika went to give battle to the combined forces of the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis with his well equipped army as described before. He fought this war also with another new destructive weapon called 'Rathamusala" and drove away the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis together with their confederate army from one direction to another as he did in the 'Mahasilakantaka Sangrama'. In the Rathamusala Sangrama "one chariot having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier, but having one Musala (club or mace) attached to it, ran to all directions, causing a great destruction of a large number of peoples, and a Kalpa (a fabulous period of time) of total annihilation of peoples and made the mud of blood in the battlefield." So for that reason this war was called Rathamusala Sangrama'. A large number of casualties of death amounting to ninety-six lakhs peoples took place in this devastating war. Thus king Kunika finally inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined forces of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs led by king Cetaka of Vaisali with the use of these two new war engines called 'Mahassilakantaka' and 'Kathamusala' respectively. 67 While imparting the holy teachings of explanation on the rebirth of those who were killed in these two wars, Lord Mahavira made an indirect reference to the system of conscription of soldiers, introduced and enforced by the ancient republic of Vaisala in times of war. Here is given an instance of the state law in connection with the Rathamusala Sangrama. The Sramano pasaka, Nagaputra Varuna, a prominent citizen of Vaisali was perforce ordered by the king, the assembly (or republic) and the army of this state respectively to join the Rathamusala Sangrama in order to fight against the forces of 1 BhS, 7, 9, 301. Ib, do. (At the end of a Kalpa it is stated that the world is annihilated). 3 Ib, 7, 9, 303.

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68 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Videhaputra king Kunika of Magadha. He had to submit to the mandate of his state and went to war with his well-equipped army, being surrounded and followed by many leaders of the republic, ambassadors, and frontier guards. But he fought this battle according to the principle of not-striking the enemy first. Having seriously been smitten with an arrow of one rival soldier, he at once left the battlefield and passed his last breath in a lonely place by fully observing the holy teachings of the Nirgrantha Order.1 But what was the real cause of these two great wars between king Kunika and the confederation of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs? What was the common interest which led the members of this confederation to form a military alliance under the leadership of king Cetaka in order to fight their common enemy, the Magadhan king? The BhS does not throw any light upon these two aspects of this political struggle going on between the two sides at the time of Lord Mahavira. So one should turn his attention to the other literary sources for ascertaining the real cause of these two political events between the two warring camps and finding out also the reason of the military alliance formed by the confederate powers. In this respect some Jaina works furnish most valuable informations regarding the causes of these two political struggles between Magadha and the Vrjjian confederacy as reflected in the BhS. It is said in the Nirayavaliya Sutra that the cause of this great conflict was the gift of one famous state elephant, 'Seyanaga' (secanaka) i e., sprinkler and a huge necklace of eighteen strings of Jewels, made by king Seniya (Bimbisara) 1 BhS, 7, 9, 303. 2 Nirayavaliya Sutra 1; See Uvasagadasao,, Appendix II, p. 7, Dr. Hoernle; cf. Tawny, Kathakosa, pp. 176 ff. 3 According to Avasyaka Carni (II., p. 158), king Seniya was known as Bhambhasara, because once he took a drum (Bhambha) at the time when the palace of Kusag gapura caught fire due to the carelessness of a cook.

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Sec. II) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 69 of Magadha to his younger sons, Halla and Behalla by his wife, queen Cellana, the daughter of king, Cetaka. On his ascendency to the royal power after the usurpation of his father's throne by him, king Kunika, the eldest son of king Seniya, being instigated by his wife, Paumayai, demanded the surrender of those two gifts from his two younger brothers. But they refused to give them up to king Kunika and they immediately carried them off to their maternal grandfather, king Cetaka, by their secret flight to Vaisali in order to escape the forcible surrender of these two precious gifts. On his failure to obtain the peaceful extradition of the two fugitives, together with those presents, king Kunika waged war against king Cetaka'. The Buddhist text however reveals that the economic interest between Magadha and Vaisali was the real cause of this political struggle which led these two states to war to settle their issues in the battlefield. It is stated in the Sumangala Vilasini", a commentary of Buddhaghosa that the violation of the economic agreement on the part of the Licchavis, regarding the condominiun exercised by them and king Kunika, over a mine of precious gems or some fragrant article in the vicinity of a port situated on the bank of the Ganges, led to the war between these two powers. Thus it is found that there is a difference between the evi. dences furnished by the Jain and Buddhist texts respectively. A close study of the above facts shows that the real cause of the struggle between the two powers was both political and economic. It is apparently clear that the rising state of Magadha followed a policy of expansion and self-aggrandizement at the cost of its powerful northern neighbouring state of Vaisali to establish its hegemony over the lower Gangetic region 1 Nirayavaliya Sutra I, See U vasa gadasao II, Appendix, p. 7, Dr. Hoernle ; cf. Tawney, Kathakosa, pp. 176 ff. Burmese Edition, part II, p. 99. See also B. C. Law's Buddhist Studies, p. 199; DPPN. II 781.

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70 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. If by ousting the Vaisalian political and economic interests from the field of commerce and trade which were of vital importance to its prosperity. As it wanted to buy commodities which flowed from North Bihar to the port on the Ganges, so it followed a policy of expansion which is evidenced in the construction of a fort by king Kunika at Patligrama against the possible attack of Vaisali. Preparation for war : According to the description of several Pali texts' full preparations for a long-drawn war were made by both the states, Magadha and Vaisali to strike a deadly blow at each other for establishing their respective political suzerainty over the northeastern regions of India. The Mahavagga' gives an account of the construction of a fort at Palaligrama by Sunidha and Vassakara, two ministers of king Kunika with the object of repelling the attack of the Vajjis from this most important strategic position used as a new forward war base of operation. It is said in the Mahaparinivvana Suttanta(r) "The Blessed one was once dwelling in Rajagpha on the hill, called the Vulture's Peak'. Now at that time Ajatasattu Videhaputta, was desirous of attacking the Vajjians ; and he said to himself, "I will root out these Vajjians, mighty and powerful though they 1 Digha-Nikaya (Mahaparinjvvana Suttanta), Atthakatha. It is said in this text that there was a sinall estate of half a yojana of king Ajatsatru near the landing port (ghafa) of a river where there was another estate of the same area belonging to the Licchavis. There, from a hill a very precious fragrant article (mineral substance) was coming down. The Licchavis of Vaisali were active enough to take away the whole quantity of that substance, depriving king Ajatasatru of it who was slow to move to that place in order to take his share. In the second year of the discovery of that mine also, such thing happened. So Ajatasatru planned to punish the Licchavis. : The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 24 ; Majjhima-Nikaya, III, 7. 8 S. B. E. XI, pp. 1-5; XVII, 101 ; Gradual Sayings, IV, 11, etc. 4 Mahavagga Vide P.H.A.J., p. 212, Dr. H C. Ray Chaudhuri. 6 Mahaparinivvana Suttanta.

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71 Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA be, I will destroy these Vajjians, I will bring these Vajjians to utter ruin". "So he spake to the Brahmana, Vassakara, the prime minister of Magadha and said ; come now, Brahmana, do you go to the Blessed one and tell him that Ajatasattu has resolved "I will root out these Vaijians, etc." "Vassakara hearkened to the words of the king saying 'Be it as you say'," (and delivered the message even as the king had commended. Although Lord Buddha was unattached to all worldly affairs, he felt much for the Licchavi Republic of Vaisali, a great centre of his religious activities, as a champion of republican interests. He thought it his duty to assure the Licchavis that they could not be conquered by the powerful king like Ajatasatru, provided they maintained their national unity, solidarity and efficiency by "holding full and frequent assemblies, maintaining internal concord in assembly and administration, avoiding revolutionary laws and measures, following old traditions, honouring the elders of the community, old institutions and shrines, saints and women?". Kunika fully realised that it was impossible for him to conquer the Licchavis in a straight fight without disrupting and destroying the strength of their inner unity. So he charged his prime minister, Vassakara with the secret mission to sow the seeds of dissensions and disunion among the Vaisalians.9 This mission was crowned with success after three years. Infected by the poison of hatred and jealousy spread by Vassakara among them, the Liochavis of Vaisala lost their social and national unity, solidarity and efficiency. King Kunika-availed 1 Mahaparinivvana Suttanta---(S. B. E. of the Buddha Vol. III - Dialogues of the Buddha, part II. (translated by Rhys Davids-- Chapter 1). ? Mohaparinivvana Suttanta -XV-4. : Althakatha : See, P. H. A. I., p 214, Dr. H. C. Raychaudhuri "Diplomacy (upatapana) and disunion (mithubheda). DPPN. II, 846; J.R.A.S. 1931, cf. Gradual Sayings IV. 12. "The Dajjians cannot be overcome in battle, but only by cunning, by breaking up their alliance."

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72 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. III himself of this opportunity arisen from this national disruption and disunity of the Licchavis to wage war against them. But Cetaka, was not unaware and silent spectator these war designs and full scale war-preparations of king Kunika. It is stated in the Nirayavaliya Suttal that on the apprehension of the impending danger of war to be waged by king, Kunika against Vaisali, king Cetaka summoned the assenibly of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, rulers of Kai and ko ala and their eighteen republican chiefs also. The Majjhima Nikaya" refers to the good relation subsisting between Koala and Vaisali which was more strengthened by the matrimonial alliances with the kings of Sindhu-Sauvira, Vatsa and Avanii who married the daughterso of king Cetaka respectively. It appears that a great confederacy was formed by the Liccharis of Vaisali, the Mallakis of Pava and Kusinara, and the rulers of Kasi and Kosala together with their eighteen re. publican chiefs under the leadership of king Ceta ka due to the exigencies of war to offer a combined resistance to their common enemy, the Jagadhan king, Kunika. There was probably another genuine cause of political rivalry of Ka:z-Kosula with Magadh which led them to make an united front of military alliance with Vaisali and to cement the political relation among them by forming a confederation. The Buddhist texts refer to the protracted war of Kunika with the Kokalan king, Prasenadi (Prasenjit), centring round the possession of Kasi which was a bone of contention between the two states. 1 Nirayavaliza Sutra, p. 25. 3 Mijjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, p. 101. 3 HC 235, 236 ; BhS (12,2, 441) tells that queen Mrgavati of Kuusambi was the daughter of king Cetaka. 4 The Book of Kindred Sayings I, pp. 109 110 The Sainyutta Nikaya and the Ilaritamata, Vuddhaki-Sakara, kummasapinda, Tachchha Sakara and the Bhaddasala Jatakas. Kursambi was indred Sayingsa. Vandraki-Suklatakas.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA As a result of the matrimonial alliance' of king Seniya with king Prasenjit, a Kasi village producing a revenue of one hundred thousand was given by the Kosalan king as dowry to to his sister, Kosala-Devi, the wife of Seniya for her bath and perfume money." It is stated that Kosala Devi died of grief for her husband, king Seniya, on his murder committed by his son, the crown prince, Kanika, the then viceroy of Campa" with a view to usurping his father's throne. The revenues of the Kasi village were still going to the state coffer of the Magadhan king even after the death of Kosala Devi. The friendly relations of Magadha with Kosala were seriously affected by this ghastly act of crime of king Kunika for capturing the throne of his father.4 73 The Kosalan king, Prasenjit was determined not to allow the parricide, king Kunika any more the enjoyment of the revenue of the Kasi village which belonged to him by right of inheritance. So on this revocation of the gift of the said village made to King Seniya as a dowry on (account of) his marriage with 1 Dhammapada commentary (Harvard, 20, 60; 30, 225). Jataka, Nos. 239, 283, 492. 3 BhS; Niraya valiya Sutta; Parisistaparvan IV 1-9; VI. 22. and the Kathakosa, p. 178. Vinaya II, 190; Digha, N. I, 86; Sumangala, VII, 133-6, Peta. comm. 105. The Jaina text, Avasyaka-Sutra (pp. 682-3, etc.) also admits the imprisonment of king Seniya by Kunika, but does not brand him (Kunika) as a parricide. It is said that Seniya committed suicide by swallowing poison in prison, having feared the advance of his son with an iron club to do harm to him. But king Seniya was mistaken out of fear, because Kunika dashed off there "To break his father's fetters" with the iron club due to his repentence for his cruel treatment to his father. Dr. Smith thinks that the account of murder of king Seniya is "a product of Odium theologicum" and he is sceptic about the credibility of the evidences of the Buddhist "canon and chronicles", though it is accepted by the eminent scholars, like Rhys Davids and Geiger. In this controversial case See Jacobi's reference to the Nirayavaliya Sutra in his Kalpa-Sutra of Bhadrabahu, 1879, p. 5. 10

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74 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Kosala Devi, a protracted war between king Prasenjit and king Kunika began and lasted for a long period with alternate results of victory and defeat on both the sides. At first king Prasenjit was defeated and driven back by king Kunika to the wall of the capital city of Sravasti. On another occasion the tide of war flowed in favour of the Kosalan king. This time the Magadhan king was besieged and taken prisoner together with his whole army by king Prasenjit in an encounter, but his life was spared owing to his near relationship with the Kosalan king.' After this signal victory over king Kunika, king Prasenjit concluded a peace with the captive king by releasing him and offering him the hands of his own daughter, the princess Vajira, and by restoring the contended village of Kasi to him as a dowry for her bath money." But the relation between these two states became strained again after the death of king Prasenjit from exposure outside the gates of Rajagrha where he went as a result of the palace revolution to seek the military help of king Kunika in order to capture his rebel son, Vidadabha, who was placed on the Kosalan throne by the commander-in-chief, Digha-Carayana, during his absence from his capital, Sravasti in a country town.' Therefore "the Kosalan war and the Vajjian war were pro. hably not isolated events but parts of a common movement directed against the establishment of the hegemony of Magadha'' over North Eastern India. The evidences furnished by the Jaina texts clearly show that the political struggle between king Kuniku and king Cetaka, united together with his allies, the rulers of Kaiz and Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs. nine Mullakis and nine Licchavis, dragged on for more than sixteen years, because i The Book of the Kindred Sayings, I, pp. 109-110. 3 Sanyutta Nikaya, 1, 84-6, Jataka, IV, 1342, Dhammapala comm. III, 259. 3 Bhuldasala Jataka 4 P. H. A. I. --Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhuri p. 213,

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 75 Gosala Markhaliputra, the Ajzvila leader refers to the Maha. silakantaka Sangrama as one of the eight finals which was still in progress, before his followers assembled at or about the time of his death in circa 500 B.C. So the death of the Ajivika leader synchronised with the Mahabilakangaka Sangrana between the two contending powers. Even after sixteen years from the date of death of Gosala Mankhaliputra, at the time of the great demise of Lord Mahavira in circa eighties of the 5th century B.C., there was still the existence of the anti-Magadhan confederation of the Republics of the Mallakis and the Licchavis. It is said in the Kulpa Sitra? that the confederate rulers celebrated the great demise of Lord Mahavira by illumination of lights to mark the memory of the disappearance of the spiritual light from their midst. Effect of the two wars, viz. Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangrama These two wars set the seal of final victory on the fore-head of king Kuniku who inflicated a crushing defeat on the confederate army led by king Cetaka and paved the way for the future expansion of Magadhan imperialism to all directions to bring about the political unification of India under the leadership of the vigorous rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas. THIRD SECTION. Polity and Administration. Origin of State and its nature The Bhs gives an idea of political theory and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical-states of ancient i Bhs, 15, 1, 554 "Carime Mahasilakantae". ? Kalpa Sritra-(S. B. E. xxii 266-para 128). 3 Cf Modern Review, July, 1919, pp. 55-56. According to the Arya Masjusri-Mulakalpa (Vol. 1, el. Ganapati Sastri, pp. 603 f) the empire of Ajatasatru comprised Magalha, diga, Varanasi (Benaras), and Vaisali in the north. So it is clear that the result of two gr at wars - Mahasila kanaler and Rathamusala was the final annexation of Vaisali and Kasi by king Kunika to his state. 4 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. *

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76. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI Sutra (Ch. ffi India flourishing side by side during the time of Lord Mahavira. India was politically divided into sixteen great states (Solasa-Mahajanapadas) at that time. The etymological meaning of the term Janavaya' as used in the Bhs and other texts signifies the very early stage of land-occupation by the Jana (community or clan) for a permanent settlement from a nomadic life, long before the period of Lord Mahavira. This process of settlement on land went on till a Janapada (state) came into existence as territorial unit which was called after the name of the community (or clan) settled there. Their former community-significance was left out with the march of time. In most cases the political power of these states was exercised by the original Ksatriya settlers who held the reins of the government in their hands. These ruling Ksatriya communities governed the different states according to two-fold consti. tutions, viz. monarchical and republican. In the Bhs' there is found an idea of the theory of divine kingships and some sort of social contract theory as reflected in the governments of monarchical and non-monarchical states respectively. "Matsyanyayam-a pahitum prakrtibhih Laksmyah Karam grahitah"." Sovereignty of State With reference to the judicial administration, the Bh Se refers to the term 'Danda' which generally denotes the power of punishment or punishment, vested in the ruler. This word Danda' is also used to signify army? and sceptre, while the Brahmanical texts give a quite different interpretation to it. The Manusmrtis explains that the Danda "governs all created beings, protects and watches over them, while they sleep and the wise declare it to be the law of the state". 1 BhS, 15, 1, 554 ; 13, 6, 491. % 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. 3 16, 9, 33, 383; 13, 6, 491. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. * Rhalimpur Inscription of Dharmapala. Ep. Ind. IV, p. 218, Vide Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal; Dr. B.C. Sen, p. 292, f. N. 2 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 7, 9, 303. 8 Manusmrti, VII, 18,

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 97 "Dandah sasti prajah sarva danoa evabhiraksati / Dandah suptesu jagarti dandam dharmam vidur-budhah":// The Arthasastra of Kautilya! interprets the Danda "as the sceptre on which depend the well-being and progress of the sciences of Anviksaki, the triple Vedas and Varta (Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade constitute Varta). That which treats of Dandu is the law of punishment or Science of government (Dandaniti)". It is found that Dandaniti has become later on a synonym for political science. The Sanskrit Dictionary of Monier-Williams defines .Dandu' as 'application of the rod of administration of justice and judicature' (as a science). It is further explained that the Danda is one of the four political means "to make acquisition of any object demanded by the state), to keep them secure, to improve them and to distribute among the deserved the profits of improvement. It is on this science of government the course of the progress of the world depends.?" Judicial exercise of Danda The BhS and the two Brahmanical texts, viz. Manusmrti and Arthasastra agree in one point that the 'Dandu' must judicial. ly and impartially be exercised by the sovereign ruler. It is already pointed out that according to Manu "If the king did not without tiring inflict punishment (dandu) on those worthy to be punished, the stronger would roast the weaker like fish on a spit." "Yadi na pranayet raja dandam dandesu atandritah Sule matsyanivapaksyandurbalan-balavattarah' ||2011 A similar view of the Manusmrti on the judicial exercise of the Danda' is also expressed by the Arthasastra in which it is stated "When the law of punishment is kept in abeyance, it gives rise to such disorder as is implied in the proverb of fishes (Matsyanyayamudbhavayati'), for the absence of a magistrate 1 Arthasastra-9 (End of Science-Varta and Dandaniti). ? Arthasastra, 9. 3 Manusmrti, VII, 20.

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78 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III (dandadharabhave) the strong will swallow the weak but under his protection the weak resist the strong." It is stated in the BhS that king Bala of Hastinapura promulgated his order with a warning to his officers that the birth ceremony of his new born son, Mahabala must not be marked with impunity and unjust punishment (AdamdaKodamdima). The same view on the Danda is expressed by the Arthasastra which says "whoever imposes severe punishment becomes repulsive to the people, while he who awards mild punishment (he) becomes contemptible." This voice of Kautilya is also echoed by KamandakiyaNitisara in which it is said that "the king intimidates the people by severe punishment, (he) becomes contemptible by light punishment, so the just punishment is admired. "Udvejayati tiksnena mrduna paribhuyate/ Dandena nrpatih tasmat yuktadandah prasasyate."'|| Thus it is clear that the Danda is the symbol of punish. ment and justice, army, sceptre of power, and paramountcy. Idea of kingdom and power of kingship The word 'Cauramtacakkavati' as used in the BS carries the conception of an empire governed by a powerful monarch, while the term 'Rajja' mentioned in this canonical work denotes the monarchical state (kingdom) as distinguished from the 'Gana" (republic) referred to in it. The political situation probably demanded a strong monarchy, but the unbriddled authority of the sovereign king was not vested in kingship. Thus it is laid down in the Manusmrti "While a just king prospers, one who is voluptuous, partial and deceitful will be destroyed". The very Danda, the symbol of 1 Arthasastra, 9 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 4 Kamandakiya-Nitisara, Sarga II, 37. Ib, 11, 9, 417., 13, 6, 491. Arthasastra, 9. BhS, 1. 1. 7 [b, 7, 9, 303. 3

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79 Sec. III) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 79 paramountcy "Strikes down the king who swerves from his duty, together with his relatives."'1 "Tam raja pranayan-samyak trivargenabhivardhate Kamatma visamah ksudro dandenaiva nihanyate/2711 Dando hi sumahattejo durdharsascakstatmabhih/ Dharmad-vicalitam hanti nopameva sabandhavam"||28|| It was fully admitted that the Danda did not spare any one in the state from its sway. Education of Kingship :-- The political thinkers of ancient India fully realised that the Danda (Justice) must be administered by properly educated and trained men endowed with impartial and elevated mind, as the place of punishment had become that of Dandaniti (Science of government). Thus it is found that the BhS2 lays stress upon the principles of equitable justice and warns the kingship against impunity and unjust punishment. So in this regard this canopical work refers to the proper edication and training of all the kings, crown princes and heir-appirents mentioned here.3 This idea of all qualifications of royalty is also reflected in Oraraiya Sittat in which king Kunika is said to have been endowed with many virtues, qualifications, and attributes. The same view on the proper education of kingship is expressed by the Manusmrti and the Arthasastra, which have made an elaborate discussion on the education and training of a king." This theory of kingship is summed up by Kamandakao 1 Manusmri, VII, 27-28. 2 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 3 16, 9, 33, 383. (Educational qualification of Jamali), 11.11,429, (that of king Bala and Nahabala), 13, 6, 491 (that of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvirii, of his son and nephew, Abhici. kumara, and Kesi Kumara respectively), 7, 9, 300-301 (that of King Kunika), 11, 9, 417, (that of king Siva), etc, 4 Ovoiya $1.6. 6 Arthasastra, 35, 6 Kimanakiya Nitisura.

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80 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III who says "the king who is virtuous is a part of the gods. He who is otherwise is a part of the demons". Principle of Kingship (Rajadharma) Though there is no evidence of direct constitutional rights of the people to check the unbriddled autocracy of the king in the Bhs, still it enjoins upon the king the duty of following the eternal principle of Dharma (law) propounded by the ancient political thinkers of India. The study of the Bhs clearly shows that the state was an organic whole consisting of different constituent parts, viz. a territory, a king, an organised government, economic selfsufficiency, adequate defence and recognition by other states as essential elements, in other words, the king, minister, country, fort, treasury and friend. Sphere of State Activity The BhS presents a conception of an ancient state with a wider scope of various activities which covered the whole of individual and social life. The state machinery was organised for the sustenance of social order, realisation of spiritual life, executive and judicial function and defence of the country, and it took up a positive stand for the development and progress of family, society, economics, religion, ethics, and culture. The function of the state as mentioned in the Bhs may be summed up by the word Palayahi (protect). Here this term 'Palayahi' generally denotes that it is the duty of the king and the state to defend the territorial integrity and sovereignty from all possible external enemies and to protect life, property, and honour of its people from internal disruptive forces of lawlessness, disorder, encroachment by the royal officers" and injustice', and the effects of natural calamities, such as, flood, famine, earthquake, locusts, folly and ignorance, poverty, illiteracy, and 1 Bhs, 9, 33.383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429, 13, 6, 491 etc. Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. Ib, 11, 11, 429 (abhadappavesa). 4 Tb, 11, 11, 429 (adamda-kodamdima).

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA disease which are the obstacles on the way to progress of a good, healthy, wealthy and happy life of the citizens. Thus the proper sphere of the state activity is also widened enough to cover the whole spiritual, cultural, economic and social development of the people. 81 The evidences of the scope of the state as revealed in the BhS are corroborated by the Arthasastra which has made a comparative study of the sphere of state activity. an It is learnt from the BhS that the state was totalitarian in character as it exercised its power and influence over individual citizen and his activities, other institutions and associations for transforming the whole individual and social life. The state and the king were the pivots round which rotated the wheel of the social forces, intellectual life and activities, economic development and enterprise, and spiritual tradition of the people. Form of Government The government is the limb of the organic body of the state through which it functions for the welfare of the people, as the good government is the ideal of state-polity. The states, mentioned in the BhS were country-states (Janapadas) as distinct from the city-states of Greece, having monarchical or non-monarchical forms of government. In the truest sense there was not a single democratic state at the time of Lord Mahavira. Because the direct democracy implies a government of the people, by the people and for the people. No doubt, 1 Arthasastra. 2 Bhs, 7, 9, 303 Nagaputra Varuna, a prominent citizen of Vaisali had to submit to the mandate of the state to join the 'Rathamusala Sangrama' against his will and to discharge his duties to the state and its people. He died due to a serious wound inflicted by a rival soldier. This fact suggests a system of conscription introduced by the state of Vaisali in times of war. Bhs. 7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491, 4 lb, 7, 9, 300-301; 7, 9, 303, 11

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82 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III the states of the Mallakis and the Licchavis1 of Vaisali, referred to in the BhS throw some light upon the republican form of government, but they were not democratic in a real sense but oligarchic in character. A detailed discussion will be made on this republican (gana) form of government in the last section of this chapter. Here an attempt will be devoted to the study of monarchical form of government as revealed in the BhS. Monarchical form of Government The BhS clearly reveals that the king was the paramount power of his highly centralised state based on his sovereignty over his feudal kings (Samantarajas), cities, country-states etc. Naturally he was the head of the government who was assisted by a large body of royal officials of different grades in running the administration. The political theory tinged with the ethical principle as advocated in the text lays heavy moral, temporal and spiritual responsibilities on the king. This view on the three aspects of monarchical form of government is clearly expressed in the Brhat.k. Bhasya' in which it is stated that "Women, dice, hunting and drink, the four sins are reprehensible in a king" with regard to the state function. The same ideal of kingship is reflected and echoed in the Mahabharata which warns the king thus "Women, dice, hunting and drink-these are said to be the four sorrows by which a man loses his fortunes." The same idea on the moral side of kingship is clearly reflected in the political theory advocated in the Manusmrti, the Arthasastra', the Kamandakiya Nitisara and other works 1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-301. Ib 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. 2 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 4 Brhat. K. Bhasya, 1, 940. Mahabharata, III, 13, 7. Manusmrti, VIII, 50, "Panamaksah striyascaiva mrgaya ca yathakramam/Etatkastatamam vidyaccatuskam kamaje/ gane." 7 Arthasastra, Book 1, chapter VI, (Restraint of the organs of sense), p. 10. 8 Kamandakiya Nitisara, 1st Sarga-V. 54. "Mrgaya-aksa panam garhitani mahibhujam Drstastevyastu vipadahPandunaisadha-Vrsnisu,"

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Sec. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA according to the institution of kingship emerged out of the people's desire to be saved from the anarchical condition created by the Matsyanyaya' (rule of fish) which brought immense miseries to them in its train. "Matsyanyayam apahitum praksti. bhih Laksmyah karam grahitah."1. Although a great emphasis has been put on the moral aspect of the king's character to discharge his sacred duties to the people and the state, yet in some cases as described in the BAS there is found a glimpse of pompous royal life of luxury and vice, led generally by the crown prince like Jamali who spent his time in the upper palace by playing Mrdanga (a kind of drum) together with thirty-two kinds of dramatic represen. tation in the association of best young ladies (courtesans), dancing and dancing in front, singing and singing in front, by fondling them with tenderness again and again throughout the nights of the six seasons, viz. Pravrt (Sravanadin) Varsaratra (Asvayujadih), Sarat (Margasirsadih), Hemanta (Maghadih), Vasanta (Caitraduh) and Grisma (Jyesthadin) and by enjoying singly the five kinds of human sensual gratification of desires, i.e. desired sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell" at the expense of private and public wealth. Therefore the virtue of personal character and training in a disciplined life of a king and his officials are most essential for the successful working of government in a monarchical state. The king was the chief executive head of both civil and military departments of the government, who carried on both the executive and judicial functions and led the army in the battlefield with the assistance of a large body of his high officials'. In a word he kept a vigilent eye over all the departments, such as, jail, criminal, revenue, judicial, public works, social 1 Khalimpur Inscription of Dharmapala of Bengal. Ep. Ind. IV, p 218 Vide Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal, Dr. B. C. Sen. p. 292 f. N. 2. BhS, 9, 33, 383. 3 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301; 9, 33, 385; 11,9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 13, 6,491.

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84 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA . III entertainment, and other internal departments and external affairs', etc. It appears from the character of administration that there was no separation of power of the executive from that of the judicial. Thus the BLS presents an account of a well organised centralized government under the lordship of the king assisted by a host of high officials and minor functionaries. The political theory as reflected in the BUS lays a great emphasis on justice, as in theory and practice alike judicature was one of the most important aspects of governance. Federal character of Government It is known from the Bhs that a great deal of autonomy was granted to feudal chiefs (Samantarajas)" and sub-feudatories, who enjoyed a considerable amount of freedom in their internal administrative affairs and organised a regular system of local administration, the last unit of which was the village (gama). Elements of federalism and local autonomy were incorporated into the system of the state organisation, but it did not embrace the whole subjects of the social rules and customs. So parallel organisations on functional ground ran side by side in the form of guilds (Negama) of merchants and bankers who were free in respect of their managerial affairs to carry on their trade and commerce and industry according to their own business rules and customs recognized by the law of the state. The Bhs clearly reveals that the principle of function was filled together into that of kingship and habitancy. So it was the foundation of an essential component part of the machinery of social check and balance of unbriddled autocratic power. Thus the form of government which was both horizontal and vertical as found in this work, consisted of a number of local and functional bodies and intermediate organizations having somewhat undemarcated and ill-defined lines of relations with the state. 1 Ib, 11, 11, 429. Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. 9 Bhs, 11, 11,429. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 417 5 I6, 13, 6, 491. 6 1b, 13, 6, 491. 7 16, 18, 2, 618. 8 Ib, 2, 5, 107. (The merchants of the town of Tungika amassed abundant wealth by banking business (Aogapaoga).

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Sec. IV] stubIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 85 FOURTH SECTION System of Administration Crown-Prince A crown-prince? (e.g. Jamali, Siyabhadra, etc.) who is a heir-apparent stands second in rank to the king in the government as revealed in the Bhs. But no specific duties have been assigned to him. It is learnt from other Jaina texts that he had to attend the assembly and carry on administrative functions after completing his daily duties. The Bhs indirectly mentions some qualifications of the crown-prince, requisite for running the administration of the government. But other Jain works refer to his virtues and necessary qualifications in details. Thus it is stated in the Anuyoga Curni that he possessed eight virtues, such as, aaima, mahima, etc.', and he was to learn "seventy-two arts, eighteen provincial languages (desabhasa), music, dancing and the art of fighting on horse-back, elephant, and chariot'' in order to equip himself with knowledge and experience in different branches of learning with a view to shouldering the heavy burden of the state duties. Viceroyalty and Succession The study of the BhSclearly shows that the principle of hereditary kingship was generally followed by the ruling kings in the matter of succession to the throne. Naturally the sceptre 1 BhS, 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417 ; 13, 6, 491. 2 V yavahara Bhasya, 1, p. 129. 8 Anuyoga Curni, p. 11, Ovaiya Sutra, 44, pp. 185 ff.; The crowo-prince is referred to in the Brahmanical works as one of the eighteen Tirthas. "He was the right hand, right eye and ear to the king", Diksitar, H. A. I. pp. 106, 109f; also Cf. the Kurudhamma Jataka (11, No. 276, p. 374) "where it is said that the crownprince was to attend upon the king every morning and receive the greetings of the people". Life in Ancient India, p. 58. f. 3 by Dr. J. C. Jain. Bhs, 11, 9, 417 (King Siva of Fastina pura abdicated the throne in favour of his eldest son, Sivabhadra before renoun. cing the world.)

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86 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 2. II of kingship passed to the eldest son, the crown-prince, after the death of his father according to the law of primogeniture. Even during the life-time of the ruling king the throne was abdicated by him in favour of his eldest son in accordance with this law. But sometimes, under special circumstances the nephew (sister's son) of the ruling monarch was selected and anointed by him as his successor in place of his own eldest son, the rightful heir to the throne. Thus an instance is come across in the Bhs in regard to the case of the succession of prince Kesi. kumara', the nephew of king Udayana of Sindhu Sauvira (bhainejja) to the throne which was abdicated by his uncle in bis favour, having put aside the rightful claim of his eldest son, prince Abhici, on the ground that if the kingship was conferred on him, he might intensely be infatuated, attached and tied to it and consequently to the realm, state, pleasures anu enjoyments. As a result of these attachments and enjoyments, "he would travel again and again on the beginningless and endless long path in the forest of four-bordered world''. So king Udayana selected and installed his nephew, Kesikumara, on the throne of Sindhu-Sauvira to govern his kingdom before renouncing the world for undertaking the state of houselessness, after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma. There is another instance of succession of a nephew (sister's son) revealed in the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra? in which it is stated that Gaggali, the nephew of Sala and Mabasala of Pitthi-Campa was anointed king by his uncle Sala in the absence of a son before his renouncing the world for under. taking the ascetic life. The BhS does not give any idea about the succession to the throne after the death of a heirless king or after joining the ascetic order by only one son of a king leaving the wordly life. 1 Bhs, 13, 6, 491. ? Ib. 13, 6, 491. 9 The Sisyahita commentary on Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 10, p. 153 f. 4 Cf. Nayadhammakahao-14., P. 153 f.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In this regard some Jaina texts throw a welcome light upon the solution of the problem of succession arising out of heirless kingship. In such cases the ministers gave counsel to the king to beget sons through levirate by bringing the monks to the palace on the pretext of listening to their religious sermons and performing the worship of holy images. On their refusal to the royal proposal they were compelled to cohabit with the queens of the harem under the threat of penalty of death. Sometimes the unwilling ones of those monks were executed.* One does not come across any example in the BhS that a woman has succeeded to the throne in the absence of a male heir to the kingdom. In this regard only one Jaina text-the Mahanisiha" refers to the succession to the throne by a widowed daughter of a heirless king after his death. 87 In some Jaina texts there are references to the system of selecting a successor to the vacant throne by the divine will manifested through the horse, elephant, pitcher, chowrie and royal parasol.4 It is said in the commentary of the Uttaradhyayana that on the death of the heirless king of Bennayada, a procession of five divine articles, viz. an elephant, horse, a consecrationpitcher, chowries, and a parasol, was organized and led by the 1 Brhat. K. Bhasya-4. 4948; also cf. Kusa Jataka (No. 531. V. 278ff.); also Cf. Anguttara Nikaya V, p. 81 ff; Vide Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jain Canons-Dr. J. C. Jain (p. 51. 18 f). Brhat. K. Bhasya-4. 4948. * Mahanisiha-p. 30; It is stated in the Kandina Jataka I (No. 13, p. 155) "infamous is the land which owns a woman's sway and rule, and infamous are the men who yield themselves to women's dominion", but sometimes one comes across examples when women wielded the actual sovereignty. "On Udaya's death no king was set up and it is told that the commands of his widow Udayabhadda were promulgated" (Udaya Jataka, No. 458 IV, p. 105), Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. jain, p. 52, 22f. 4 (In the Kathakosa translated by Tawney, p. 4; f. note, it is said "an elephant with a pitcher of water roams about for seven days and chooses a person as king".); Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 52, 23 f.

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88 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. III royal officers to find out the future king, till they halted at some place and recognized their future king in the prince, Muladeva sitting under the shade of a tree there, by the divine will vealed througb the self-trumpeting of the elephant, the selfneighing of the horse, the self-sprinkling of water of the pitcher, the self-fanning of the chowries and the holding of the royal parasol by itself over his head. To the great joy of the people Muladeva was simultaneously accepted and proclaimed king by the ministers and tributary kings (mantisamanta) in the town with the cries of victory." Similar accounts of choosing king by the divine will manifested itself through the horse are given in other Jaina texts. It is related in the Uttaradhyayana Tikak that the divine horse let loose by the citizens of Kapicana pura halted in front of the prince, Karakandu who was immediately recognized as their king with his specific auspicious marks on his body and was declared king with the cries of victory and joy. Almost the same royal tradition of selecting king is found in the Karakandu Cariu' in which it is related that Karakandu, manifestly a Candala, was chosen as the king of Dantipura by the divine will revealed through the elephant, let loose by the royal officials and citizens to search out their future king on the death of their former heirless king.' In the same manner Nhaviyadasa Nandas referred to in the Avasyaka Curni was consecrated as the king of Padaliputta by the people. The Vyavahara Bhasya relates a similar story of succession of the robber, Muladeva to the throne. While he was being 1 The Sisyahita commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra-3, p. 63 a. The Ovoiya Sutta JI. pp. 44, refers to "sword (Khagga), umbrella (chat!a), crown (upphesa), shoes (vahana) and chowries (valavijana) as the five royal insignia, Vide Life in Ancient India, by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 53, 24 f ; Cf. Milindapanha, p. 330. 2 Uttaradhya yana-Pika-9., p. 134. 9,4 Karakandu Cariu, v. 219-21, edited by Dr. H. L. Jain. * Avasyaka Curni 11; p. 180. 6 Vyavahara Bhagya, 4, 169

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 89 taken for execution, he was chosen as king by the divine will manifested through the horse, released by the royal officials and citizens to find out their future king on the sudden death of the former heirless monarch. A similar custom of choosing king on the death of a heir. less king is mentioned in the Buddhist works in which it is stated that a festal car (phussaratha) drawn by horses was let by the priest (purohita, be driven to find out the future king in the same manner till it stopped and chose a man endowed with auspicious marks on his body, who was destined to be the king. Abdication In the BHS it is found that the whole issue of succession was inter-related with the event of renunciation of the world by the kings. It is found that King Siva of Hastinapura abdi. cated his throne in favour of his eldest son, prince Sivabhadra. In one case only, this problem of selecting a successor led to a strained relation between the father and the son. The event of succession of Kesikumara, the nephew of king Udayana in place of Abhici Kumara, the rightful heir to the throne of Sindhu-Sauvira appears to be an extra-ordinary one. This act of king Udayana in choosing his nephew as his successor generated a feeling of life-long uninterrupted hostility in the heart of his son, Abhicikumara towards him. So the prince, being aggrieved by this kind of arrangement made by his father left Vitibhaya, the capital city of Sindhu-Sauvira with all his belongings for ever and came to the court of king Kunika, the lord of Campa (i. e. Magadha) where he lived, having attained wealth, prosperity, abundant enjoyments and honour. w Phussaratha' on from the date of be driven being 1 The Darimukha Jataka (III, No. 378, p. 239) calls this ceremony Phussaratha' on the festal car ceremony. After the passing of seven days from the date of death of a heir less king the Purohita let a festal car be driven being followed by a traditional four-fold army with the beating of many hundred drums to search out the future king in the said manner. See Mahanaka Jataka (No. 534, VI. p. 39), also see Kithasaritsagara, Vol. V, Ch. IXX, pp. 175-7, note on Pancadivyadhivasa ; J.A.O.S., Vol. 33, pp. 158.66. i Bhs, 11, 9, 417. $ 16,13, 6, 492. Ib, 13, 6, 492, 12

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90 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Consecration Ceremony The Bhsi presents a graphic account of colourful consecration ceremony of a new king celebrated and attended by the retiring king and all the high dignitaries of his state. This august function of coronation was presided over and conducted by the retiring king himself with great pomp, grandeur and dignity, The king, being surrounded by many leaders of corporation ((gananayakas), judge (dandanayaka),' chief police officer (talavara), frontier guard-officer (sandhipala), ambassador (data), etc., made the heir-apparent seated on the best throne and then consecrated him with royal unction (rajyabhiseka) of 800 golden and 800 earthen jars, hailing him with the great cry of 'victory'. Having caused the heir-apparent to bathe, the king wiped off and made his limbs (the former's) dry with a very soft hairy cloth (towel) dyed with fragrant saffron (pamhasaksmagandhakasayika), besmeared his body with the juicy essence of Gosirsa sandal, adorned and decorated him with best clothes, precious ornaments and garlands, and then congratulated him with the cry of 'victory'. After the consecration and decoration were over, the retiring king declared the crown-prince 'king', holding before him the lofty ideals of kingship thus "protect the kingdom, being surrounded by wellwishers of cities, towns and villages". 3 Then the coronation ceremony was concluded with the cry "victory, victory". This kind of pompous and colourful consecration ceremony of king as revealed in the BhS is also described in the Jambuddivapannatti-, the Nayadhammakahao" and the Mahapurana' in a vivid manner. In the Jambuddivapannatti? the coronation of Bharata, the universal monarch is depicted in a colourful style. 1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. Sanskrit English Dictionary, Monier-Williams, p. 466. Col. 3. 8 Bhs. ii, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. 4 Jambuddivapannati, 3, 68, pp. 267a-280. 6 Nayadhammakahao, 1., p. 28f. Mahapurana, (see the following pages). ? Jambu. Su, 3, 68., pp. 267a-270.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 91 On his entering the coronation hall, Bharata was welcomed by many kings, the general, the priest, the eighteen guilds (senippaseni), the merchants and others with ovation of their auspicious sprinkling fragrant water and congratulated by them with the cry of 'victory'. He was crowned by the people who made his body dry with a very soft hairy red-brown coloured fragrant cloth (towel) and adorned him with a garland and many kinds of ornaments. This consecration ceremony was marked with the remission of taxes and provided with the celebration of a festival continuing for a long time. The Nayadhammakahao' refers to the consecration ceremony of Mehakumara who was made king for only one day by his parents on his request before his renouncing the world like Mahabala, the son of king Bala of Hastinapura'. It was performed exactly in the same manner with great pomp and grandeur amidst the beating of drum (dundubhi) as depicted in the BIS. In the Mahapurana3 it is stated that the coronation cere. mony of Rsabhadeva was performed by the gods, kings, and peoples in a divine style on the consent of Nabhi, the father of Rsabhadeva, who himself, having lifted his crown with his own hand, placed it on the head of Rsabhadeva. Similar colourful pictures of coronation ceremony of king are depicted in the Buddhist Jatakas", the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Thus it is described in the Ayoghara Jataka? that "the subjects headed by the priest came to see the prince with many kinds of auspicious articles ; the whole city was decorated ; 1 Nayidhammakahao, 1., p. 28 f. Bhs, 11, 11, 431. Skt. Mahapurana, parva, 16, LL. 193-234 See Apabh. Mahapurana, V 21. (11-12). "Puvvahum visa lakkha gaya jaiyahum baddhu pattu jaganahahu taiyahum Nahinarindamarasamghayahim Kacchamahakacchahivaraya him" . 4 The Jatakas. Pancagarry Jataka I No. 132, p. 470 ; Ayoghara Jataka IV, No. 510, p. 492. 5 The Mahabharata, Santi parva IXL, 6 The Ramayana II, 3; 6 ; 14, 15, IV, 26, 20 ff. ? Ayoghara Jataka IV, No. 510, p. 492.

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92 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III courtesans played and danced all round; priests, generals, merchants and citizens, provincials-all thronged at the palace and made a holiday; the town was decorated on a heavenly style, the prince was placed on a pile of jewels, he was sprinkled from the couches and an umbrella with its festoons of gold was held over him". Priest (Purohita) In the BhS the priest (purohita) does not appear as the king's adviser in secular matters and occupy a position in the administration of the government like other high royal officials. But here a reference is made to the term "Balikari' which denotes a propitiator employed in the service of a royal family along with other palace staff-members, such as, Bhanda garini Ajjhadharini etc. But one comes across the evidences in other Jaina texts that the priest held an important position as king's counsel in the royal court along with other high dignitaries of the state and was regarded as one of the jewels." In the Vivaga Suya1 it is stated that a sacrifice was performed by Mahesaradatta, the priest of king Jiyasattu with a view to averting his misfortunes. Sometimes he was also employed as witch-doctor by the king to win victory in the war for which a sacrifice was performed by the said priest with the flesh of hearts of eight hundred captured boys belonging to the four classes, viz. Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda. 1 Vide Life in Ancient India, by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 54, 29 f. 2 BhS, 11, 11, 430. There is the mention of Asura Purohita (Bhs 3, 1, 135). 3 Sthananga Sutra-7, 558; Cf. Milindapanha, p. 114, which refers to "Senapati, purohita, akkhadassa, bhandagarika, chattagahaka, khaggagahaka as six important officers of the king." See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain., p. 58 4f. 4 Vivaga Suya 5, p. 33; The Dhonasakha Jataka (III No. 353. p. 159) "refers to an ambitious priest who helped the king with sacrificial ceremony to acquire a city which was difficult to conquer." So he proposed to his master "to pluck out the eyes of thousand captured kings, to rip up their bellies, and take out the entrails and offer an offering (bali) to a god." Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 56 5f. See also Fick, op. cit. Ch. VII, "The House priest of the king."

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In Panini a reference is made to the duties of purohita as 'Paurohitya'. The position of the priest is indicated by the word purohitadigana' which implies the king, the general and other royal officers including the priest. According to the Arthasastra" the priest stood next to the chief minister in official rank, while the general (senapati) and the crown prince (yuvaraja) occupied next position in successive order. As regards qualifications a priest was supposed to be wellversed in the Vedas and political science (Dandaniti). FIFTH SECTION Structure of Government In the BhS it is revealed that the king was assisted by a large body of officials of different grades in his running the heavy administrative machinery of the government, as it was an impossible task for a ruler to govern a state without the active co-operation of honest and loyal officers. That is why Manu emphatically states that the 'Danda' cannot justly be administered by a helpless, foolish, greedy king, not well-versed in the Sastra according to the law without the assistance of the ministers, the general, the priest, etc. "So asahayena mudhena lubdhenakrtabuddhina / Na sakyo nyayato netum saktena visayesu ca' 3 1/30/1. 93 The Arthasastra of Kautilya also echoes the same sentiment of Manu, when it declares "sovereignty is possible only with assistance. A single wheel can never move". The BhS mentions many government officials of several grades, who appear to have been organized into a regular civil service which consisted of the following staff-members, viz. 1 Panini, VI, 128. 3 Manusmrti, VII, 30. 2 Arthasastra, V, 3, 247, p. 276. Arthas astra, 13 (Ch. VII).

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Itl chieftain' (gananayaka), judge (dandanayaka), princes (raisara), chief police officer of the city (talavara), royal household staff (kodumbiya purusa), chief merchant (satthavaha), general' (senavai), military technical experts (cheyayariya), frontier-guard-officer (samdhivala), ambassador10 (duya), administrative officers" (Bhata and Catakara), and others. 94 They formed the retinue of king's officers who assisted him in his heavy administrative work with their respective duties. The evidences of the maintenance of such a large contingent of government officials as revealed in the BhS are also corroborated by other Jaina texts which furnish a long list of royal staff of the same categories mentioned above. Besides these officers, the text refers to minor functionaries of the state, such as, bearers of sticks (latthi, lauda), sword (asi), lance (kunta), books (putthaya), stringed musical instrument (vina),13 charioteer1 (sarathi), marshall (or ancient pahakara), footsoldiers and others who formed the royal retinue during the journey of a king or a prince to any place. Personal and Palace Staff The Bh1 gives a long list of personal and palace staff maintained by the king in keeping with his majestic dignity. This contingent of household personnels employed in the service of the royal family consisted of chamberlain (kancuijje)18, enuch (varisadhare), courtier (mahattare), female inner doorkeepers (abbhimtariyao padihario), female outer door keepers 1 Bhs,7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417. 2 Ib. 11, 9, 417. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 385, 13, 6, 491. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 7 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 301; 8 lb, 7, 9, 300. Ib. 9, 33, 385; 13, 6, 491; Talavara may mean also Knight. 81b, 9, 33, 385; 13, 6, 491. also see Ovaiya Sutta. 9 Ib, 7, 9, 303, 11, 9, 417. 10 1b, 7, 9, 303, 11, 9, 417. 11 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 9, 33, 383. 12 Rayapaseniya Sutta Tika., p. 313; 148, p. 285; Nisi, cu, 9, p. 506; Brh. Bha. vrtti, 3.3757; Kalpa Ti. 4. 62. 13 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. 14 I6, 9, 33, 385, 7, 9, 301. 15 Ib, 9, 33. 385. 17 Ib, 11, 11, 430 16 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 7, 9, 300 (Payatta, Yoha). -18 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 95 (bahiriyao padiharzo), female treasurers (bhandagarinio) storekeepers (kotthagario), propitiators (balikarzo), actresses (nadaijjao) (or female dancers) and other menials, such as, female dwarfs (vamana), hunch-backed women (khujjao), clowns (davakarzo), bearers of new brides (or carriers of babes) (ajjhadharinio), female attendants (parisao), female bearers of umbrella, chowries, palm-leaf-fans, box for betel, (chattadhario celao, camara dhario cedio, taliyamudhario cedio, Icarodiyadharzo cedio), five classes of nurses (Ichiradhaio, etc., upto ankadhazo), female massagers of body (angamaddiyao) and rubbers of body (ummaddiyao), bathmakers (nhaviyao', decorators (pasahiyao), sandal.grinders (vannagapeszo), grinders of fragrant powders (cunnagapesao), waitresses (uvatthaniyao), female attendants (kodur winio), female cooks (mahanusinio), bearers of flowers, water, female despatchers of message (pesanakario), courtesans of different categories for dancing and singing,' holding umbrella, water-pitcher, golden stick and fanning chowries, and foster-mother who accompanied the prince on his journey. It is interesting to note that a separate large establishment of palace-staff for an individual queen had to be supported by the king on heavy expenditure, because polygamy was prevalent among the ruling Ksatriya castes, particularly in the royal families. It is to be observed that the BhS refers to the marriage of the Ksatriya prince Mababala of Hastinapura with eight princesses at a time on the same day. So it was thought wise by the ruling king, Bala, the father of the prince to provide all those eight princesses with their respective necessaries of life, lest the internal quarrel of the co-wives might arise and break the peace of the palace. It was a great problem for the king to keep the royal dignity in the state with his paraphernalia. Council of Ministers As it was an impossible task for the king to perform his heavy administrative duties of the state without the assistance i Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 16, 9, 33, 383. 3 18, 9, 33, 385,

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96 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III of honest, sincere and loyal officers of all grades, so it was an imperative necessity that he should have ministers and a cabinet consisting of them for consultation before deciding upon a course of action regarding the state policy. The Bh1 only mentions Mantz and Mahamamti', along with other high dignitaries of the government who formed the royal retinue, but there is no indication of the council of ministers (Mantriparisad) and its functions anywhere in this work. The BhS is acquainted with two kinds of 'Parisa", viz. the religious Parisa (assembly) and the royal retinue as recognized institutions. But it is not clear whether the royal retinue mentioned here denotes the political parisad as revealed in the Manu-smrti3, the Panini, the Arthasastra, the Buddhist texts and the Asokan Inscriptions. The character of administration as reflected here clearly shows that the absolute monarch presided over all functions of the state by exercising his autocratic sovereign authority over every branch of the administration of the government, the people and the state. So it was not probably thought necessary by him to form a council of ministers, who would advise and assist him in his deliberation on important state affairs with their wise counsel based on knowledge and experience. The council of ministers (Mantriparisad) which is referred to in some Jaina, Buddhist and Brahmanical works as one of the most important limbs of the state was perhaps a later phase of administrative evolution. 1 BhS, 7, 9 300. See the Suri. Commentary of Sri Abhayadeva 21b, 1, 1, 6. (Parisa niggaya parisa padigaya). 3 Manu-Smrti, VII, 146 5 Arthasastra, 13,-1, Ch. XV, p. 26-29. Mahasilava Jataka, 1. 264. 4 Panini, V, 2, 112. 7 Asoka's Inscription, Rock Edicts III and VI. 8 Bhs, 11, 11, 429; 7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.

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Sec. V STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 97 So there is no evidence of any idea of the nature, consti. tution and functions of this political institution in the BAS. In this respect some Jaina texts give a graphic account of this council of ministers which was an important factor of monarchical form of government. In the Brhatkal pa-Bhasya-Pithika" it is stated that there are five kinds of royal council, viz. Puranti, Chattanti, Buddhi, Mantri, and Rahassiya. The first one is called Puranti, as its officials formed the retinue of the king on his journey till bis return to the capital, while the Chattanti council was composed of royal officers who held the royal parasol over the head of the king and had the privilege to accompany him up to the outer assembly hall. The Buddhi council was constituted of very learned members in general customs (loka), the Vedas and the Scriptures (samaya) and it was entrusted with the task of gathering current informations about diverse reports and running comments among the people and bringing them to its intelligence. The Mantriparisad, the fourth council consisted of ministers, who were well-read in the political science (Rayasattha), born of non-royal family (atakkuliya), sincere, aged, loyal and courageous in the state affairs. They were the great sources of strength to the king who consulted them on important matters of the state policy in a secluded place before taking any administrative measure. The Rahassiya council constituted of secret emissaries was entrusted with the task of appeasing the angry queen, conveying the message of the dates of purificatory bath of different queens after their monthly menstruation to the king, telling him of the names of his grown up daughters fit for marriage, informing him of love affairs of the queen, if there 1 Kamandlakiya Niti sara, Sarga-IV. 1 (Svamyamatyasca rastraica durgan kosa balam suhrt/parasparopakaridan saptangai rajya.mucyate. Bihat Kulpa Bhasya Pithika (378-383). 13

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98 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III be any and conversing with him privately on different subjects of sexual life. The ministers as mentioned in the Jaina texts were entrusted with the duty of carrying on political affairs of the state with undivided loyalty to their country, city and the king, their lord, by dint of their capibility, knowledge and experience in law and administration.' Power of the Council of Ministers Some Jaina texts refer to the power of ministers to dismiss a king and install another in his place under special circums. tances which led to the negligence of state business. It is stated in the Avasyaka Curni that the king, Jiyasattu of Vasantapura was dethroned and banished by his ministers on his negligence to state affairs due to his excessive love for his wife, queen Sukumaliya, and his own son, the crown-prince was anointed king in his place'. Duties of Ministers According to one Jaina text' the minister was charged with the duty to organize a strong system of spies belonging to both the sexes, designated as Sicakas, Anusucakas, Pratisucakas and Sarvasucakas, for the safety and security of the state from internal disorders and foreign invasions. The duty of the Sucakas was to collect internal secrets of the harem by making friendship with the harem-officers, while that of the Anusucakas was to detect the presence of the foreign spies in the city. The Pratisucakas were entrusted with the task of watching the movement of enemy spies, while standing at the city gate 1 Vyavahara Bhasya, I, pp. 129 f. * Aoaklaka Can, p. 534 ; See Saccaniskira Jataka (1 No. 73) p. 326. 9 See Saccamkira Jataka (1. No. 73), p. 326 for similar cases. 4 Vyavahara Bhasya 1, p. 13.a f; see The Mahabharata (Santi, p. LXVIII, 8-12), and the Asokan Inscription, R.E. VI, where it is found that the king himself directed the spy orga. pization. See also drthasastra of Kautilya, pp. 17-22.

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Sec. VIT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 99 in the guise of & menial worker doing some petty job. And it was the duty of the Sarvas ucakas to report the secret informations, gathered through their assistant spies, to the minister concerned. Thus anet of spies was spread over the neighbouring states, own kingdom, cities and the royal harem by him to watch their activities for the safety and security of the state. The Mantriparisad (Council of ministers) and its functions as revealed in the Jaina texts are also referred to in the Panini Sutra, Buddhist work,' Manu-Smrti, Arthasastru, Asokan Inscriptions and other texts in details. Assembly Hall In the BhS references are made to the assembly hall (Uvatthanasala)? where he held his council, received his officials and peoples and transacted his state business. SIXTH SECTION, Functions of the Government The Bhs throws some light upon multifarious functions of different departments of the government of its period, such as, revenue, trade and commerce, banking, judiciary, executive, public works, social entertainment, defence, external affairs, etc., as alluded to in its stray references, but they are not systematically dealt with in one chapter. Here will first be discussed the following departmental functions, viz. revenue, land settlement (recording, measuring and sale or purchase of land), trade and commerce, banking, judiciary 1 Panini, V, 2, 112. : Mahasalava Jataka, I. 264. 3 Manu-Smoti, VII, 146. Arthasastra Book 1, Ch. XV. pp. 26-29. 6 Asoka's Inscriptions-R. E. III & VI. Kamandakiya Nitisara, Sarga, IV. ? Bhs, 11, 11, 428,

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100 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III as suggested by a number of terms, such as, "ussukkan, ukkaran, ukkitam, ummanam, adharimaiii adandan, kod adiman", etc. The words, 'U 88ukkan Ukkaran, Ukkitam, Ummanam and Adharimani' clearly imply the existence of well-organized revenue and commerce departments with their various activities connected with the finance of the state. Fiscal Administration Finance is the main support of the state on which stands the whole structure of the government for the successful working of the administration in the interests of the people. A stable financial condition of the monarchical states appears to be reflected in the Bhs which gives an idea of a re. gular system of land settlement and taxation organized by the state to collect revenue from land, commerce, etc. These evidences clearly show that the government also took administrative measures to raise the standard of weight and to control money-lending business (banking) in order to give an impetus to commerce for the material prosperity of the state and the people at large. Land Settlement It is clearly suggested by the terms "A-mijjan and Adijjani" (not to be measured, not to be given) that the land was measured, recorded and registered by the government officers of the land-settlement department at the time of transfer from one owner to another in the case of sale and purchase except on certain occasion, e. g. the birth-day ceremony of a new born prince (amijjan and adijjarii). The terms <Page #126
101 Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA financial policy were the main fountains of state income and prosperity. The study of the above evidences clearly suggests that the revenue was collected by the government officials concerned with the work from land-tax in cash and kind in the form of cattle) and customs on trade and commerce, fines and other sources. On certain occasion, particularly the birth-day ceremony of a new born prince, the king ordered the remission of taxes and customs (ukkaram and ussukkan) and the closing down of all land transactions of the state by a royal proclamation that the land was not to be cultivated (ukkitlan), donated (adijjan) and measured (amijjan), but he promulgated his order to the effect of raising the standard of weight (manummanavaddhanam). The study of these evidences reveals that the state paid much attention to the land, trade and commerce which brought material prosperity to the people, the royal exchequer and the society as a whole. The Bhs refers to many kinds of trade and commerce, such as, charcoal business (ingalakamme), cutting and selling of forest trees (vanakamme), making and selling of carts (salikamme), earning of fare by transport-business (Whadikamme), cultivation (ploughing and spading, phoaikamme), ivory-business (datavanijje), lac-business (lalckcha-vanijje), traffic in hair e. g. wool (kesavanijje), liquor-business (rasavanijje), poison-business (visavanijie), crushing of sesame, sugarcane etc. by machinery Gjarta. pilanakamme), castrating of animals, bulls, etc. (nillar chanakamme), setting fire to woods (davaggidavanaya), draining lakes and ponds (saradahatalayaparisosanaya), and running of brothels (asata. posanaya)' and economic and industrial guilds organized and carried on by private merchants and industrialists. They were certainly the largest sources of the state revenue, only next to that of land-tax. 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. -3 16, 8, 5, 330. $ 16, 2, 5, 107; 12, 1, 437; 18, 2, 618.

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102 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. III The state derived its revenue also from the receipts? of rich presents offered by individual subjects to the king and fines imposed on criminals found guilty by the judicial court (Dandigrahya)". In this connection one important matter should be observed that a rich merchant (satthavaha)* was always associated by the king with the administration probably as economic adviser to the government. It appears that his financial knowledge and experience were indispensible to the state for formulating the fiscal policy. Fiscal administration as revealed in the Bhs is also referred to in other Jain texts in a systematic manner. There it is found that the structure of land-tax was based on the principle of some specified factors, such as, the amount of production, cost of cultivation, condition of market and nature of soil. According to the Vyavahara Bhasya the legal land-tax was generally fixed at the rate of one-sixth of the land produce on the basis of the above principle, while the commercial and industrial tax was imposed by the state, after taking into consideration the volume of trade carried on by the merchants, their living standard, incidental charges or intermediaries, labour, etc. A house tax of two drammas is also referred to in the commentary on the Pinda-Niryukti', while the Nisitha Cirni? mentions one case where it is found tbat a merchant pays one vessel out of twenty as tax to the state. The study of some Jaina texts reveals that sometimes the king remitted commercial taxes in lieu of rich presents offered by the foreign merchants to him. 1 lb, 11, 11, 429. ? 16. 11, 11, 429. (See comm.) 3Ib. 7,9,300. 4 Gautama (X-24) mentions three different rates of land tax viz. one-tenth, one-eighth and one-sixth. See also Manu Smrti, VII, 130 ff. 5 V yuvahara Bhasya, 1, p. 128a. 8 Pinda Niryukli, 87. p. 329. ? Nisitha Curni, 20, p. 1281.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In the Nayadhammakahao a reference is made to the exemption of customs granted by the king of Mithila to a seafairing merchant of Campa on receipt of precious gift of a pair of earrings from him. In the Uttaradhyayana Tika there is found a similar account of the merchant, Ayala by name, who was exempted from commercial tax on his presentation of a plate (thala) full of silver, gold and pearls to the king of Bennayada". Besides these sources, the Jaina texts provide a long list of state revenue derived from eighteen kinds of income, viz. "taxes from cows (go), buffaloes (mahisa), camels (utti), cattle (pasu), goats (chagali), grass (tana), palala grass (puvala in Hindi), chaff (busa), wood (kattha), coal (angara), plough (siya), threshold (umbara, com. dehalis, pasture-ground (jangha or janga), bullocks (balivadda), earthen pot (ghaya), hides and skins (camma), food (cullaga), and any other taxes levied by will (uppatti, com. svecchayakal pita) and collected by tax collectors (sunkapala)". 103. The state coffer was also replenished with revenue derived from other sources, such as, precious gifts on the occasion of constructing a lake in the city, passport granted by the king to an artisan who was desirous to go to a foreign country', unclaimed property, treasure-trove belonging to the deceased,8 1 Nayadhammakahao, 8, p. 102. 2 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 3, p. 64. It is also referred to in the Brhat kalpa Bhasya, 3, 4770. Avasyaka Niryukti, 1071 f. (Hari): 4 Comm. by Malayagiri, p. 596. Various kinds of taxes are mentioned in the Brahmanical texts, such as, taxes derived "from the office of state gold. smith, the institution of prostitutes, building sites, guilds of artisans, handicrafts, religious and charitable endowments water tax, income tax, flowers, fruits and vegetable gardens, game-forests, timber and elephant forests, heads of cattle, asses, camels, horses, hides and skins etc". Diksitar, op. cit., p. 176. Vide Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, pp. 61-62. See the discussion on them in the last part of the fiscal administration. 5 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 3, p. 71. 6 Nayadhamakahao, 13, p. 142. 7 Uttaradhyna Tika, 18., p. 251 a. 8 Kalpa ika. 1, p. 7 Cf; Vinya III, 11, 21; Avadana Sataka, 1, 3, p. 13; III, p. 299 f.

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104 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III confiscation of treasure-trove? fines and forfeitures of property and other fines imposed on the charge of attempt to murder and a serious quarrel according to the law of the land and the gravity of crimes." Assessment and Collection of Tax The evidences of the land revenue and customs as mentioned here imply that there were royal officers (revenue-officers) to assess and collect taxes from all possible sources of the state in. come. But they do not provide much information regarding the fiscal administration and the officers of several grades associated with the work of land-settlement, assessment and collection of revenue. In this respect some idea of fiscal administration is given in the Kal pasutra in which a reference is made to a Rajjuyasabha of Hattbivala of Pava, the place of salvation of Lord Mahavira. The term 'rajjuya' denotes a settlement officer (or a survey minister) who measured land and he may be identical with rajjugahakaamacca of Jatakas and the Rajuka of Asokan Inscriptions." The Bhs does not throw any light upon the method of collecting revenue but it tells that the king warns the Bhata, his officer concerned with the work, not to enter the house of a subject on the auspicious day of birth-ceremony of a new born prince in his family (abhadappavesar)". In this regard some other Jaina texts refer to the oppressive method of revenue collection resorted to by the king and his officers. In the Avasyaka Curnis it is stated that one king was attacked by his suzerain lord for his failure to pay taxes (Kappaka) in due time. 1 Nisitha Curni, 20; p. 1281. Cf. Gautama X. 44; Yojnavallya Smrti II-2. 34 f.) Manu. VII, 133. 2 Brhat-Kalpa Bhasya. 4. 5104. See Life in Ancient India, p. 62. 8 Kurudhamma Jataka (II, No. 276). See R.E. III (Kalasi text) for Rajjuka. BhS, 11, 11, 429. * Avasyaka Curni 11, p. 190,

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Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 105 The Vivaga Suyal gives an account of tyrannical method of collecting revenue applied by a district officer (Ratthakuda), named Ilkai who was in charge of five hundred villages. He resorted to all sorts of oppression to trouble the people of those villages, such as, levying of different kinds of taxes (kara) custom-duties (bhara), interest, bribe, insult, compulsory donation (dejja), punitive taxes (bhejja), forcible extraction of money (i.e. illegal exaction) by violence, affording shelter to thieves, setting fire to the houses of the people, and attacking travellers. SEVENTH SECTION-A Administration of Justice and Judicial Procedure A great emphasis is put by the political theory advocated in all the ancient Indian literatures on the administration of law and justice which is a most essential condition of liberty and protection of the people in the state. The Bhs throws some light upon the judicial adminis. tration of its period as revealed in its stray references. The text lays a stress on the equitable justice and proper punishment to be administered to the people involved in any case, as it is advocated by its author thus that there must not be any impunity and unjust punishment awarded to anybody in the state and the encroachment upon the liberty of citizens. The king warns the Bhatas (a class of civil royal administrative officers) not to enter the house of a house-holder (ab hadappavesar) and orders the release of prisoners (caragasohana) on the auspicious occasion of the birth-ceremony of a new born prince in the royal family. The term "palayahi' (protect) used in the Bhs' in connection with the coronation ceremony of the crown prince, Sivabhadra denotes that the king should protect the people from both the 1 Vivaga Suya 1, p. 6f. 8 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 1, p. 6 f. 4 10, 11, 9, 417, 14

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106 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. III internal and external dangers, injustice, calamities, and encroachment upon the liberty made by any body in the state. This ideal of equitable justice and equality in the eyes of law preached in the BKS is also reflected in some Jaina texts', the Buddhist Jatakas, the Manu-Smrti", the Arthasastraand other Brahmanical works. In the V yavahara Bhasya a reference is made to an honest and impartial incorruptible judge, Rupajulekha (Ripadakkha in Pali) by name who was well-read in Bharbhiya, Asuruklcha", Nitisara of Mathara and Dandaniti of Kaundinya and was famous for equitable justice. The same view on the administration of justice is expressed by the Mrcchakarikn in which it is advocated that a judge should pronounce his unbiased, dispassionate and impartial judgement on any case of law-suit coming up to his court." The Buddhist Jatalcase also reflect the same ideal of justice by laying down the principle that the judgement in a criminal case should be delivered with 'careful measure' according to the gravity and seriousness of the crime committed by the culprit. But one should be cautious against drawing a hasty con. clusion about sound judiciary from the above principles of justice laid down in the Bhs and other ancient literatures mentioned here, because the kings, generally suspicious by nature awarded TI. i Vyavahara Bhasya; Micchakarika (Act, IX, pp. 256 f.). See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain., p. 64. 1f. ? Mann-Smrti. Vli-25 ; 14 ff; IX-288; VIII-12, 16, 17. 8 Arthasatra, 9. - Kumanilakiya Nilisara, Sarga II, 37. 5 Lalitavistara refers to Ambhirya and Asurya (p. 156). 8 V yavahara Bhilsya 1, p. 132. Cf. Ripadukkha in Milinda panha, p. 344. Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 64, 4f. 7 Cf. Mrcchakatika Act IX pp. 256 f. 8 Cf. Ratha'atthi Jataka (No. 332) I, p. 105 ; See also the commentary on the Digha-Nikuya Il. p. 519, for the administration of justice in Vesali according to the laws laid down in the Paveni potthaka', the Book of Customs'. The trial went through a long process-till the final judgement was passed by the king. See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C, Jain, p. 64, 2 f.

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Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 107 severe punishment out of anger to those against whom he harboured a mistrust in his mind due to some causes. So sometimes innocent person was charged with the case of theft, or robbery, or murder and awarded punishment, while the real culprit was acquitted of all charges and set free.1 Cases In the BhS there is not found any reference to civil or criminal cases which gave rise to law-suits and came before the royal court for adjudication, although it furnishes some evidence of theft, robbery3, murder and adultery in its stray statements in connection with the fruit (of binding) of Karmas (actions). But its acquaintance with the following official terms 'talavara" (chief city police officer), dandanayaga' (judge) and caragasohana (release of prisoners) implies that various crimes were committed by individuals in the kingdom at that period. Relativity of Crime and Punishment It is not possible for one to form a correct view on the relativity of crime and punishment of that period from the scanty evidences furnished by this text regarding the judicial procedure adopted in matters of justice for awarding punishment to the criminals. In the BhS there is no reference to various factors, such as, the nature of crime, the motive, time, place, circumstances, mental evolution of the individual, etc, which are generally taken into consideration of the judicial procedure by the judge before delivering unprejudiced, dispassionate and impartial judgement according to the laws laid down by the state. The 1 Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra-9.30; also refers to the Jataka (IV. p. 286), which states that an innocent ascetic, being suspected of robbery at night was abused and beaten by one householder and taken to the king for trial. He was impaled. There is another case of Carudatta who was 'charged with the murder of a courtesan and theft of her jewels and consequently punished, though no confession was made by him nor any proof was established. Bhs, 9, 33, 384; 15, 1, 551. 4 1b, 15, 1, 560; 12, 7, 453. Ib, 13, 6, 491. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 3 1b, 15, 1, 560. 51b, 8, 5, 328. 7 Ib, 7, 9, 300.

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108 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Bhs does not mention any civil or criminal cases which came up before the court, nor does it show causes of imprisonment of culprits. So one should turn his attention to other sources which may throw light upon this subject. The idea on the relativity of crime and punishment as embodied in the text is fully revealed in some Jaina texts which provide a list of various types of civil and criminal cases giving rise to law-suits, such as theft, robbery, murder, adultery, cheating, case over an umbrella of a Maharastrian taken away by a man of Lala, dispute between & Brahmana and a Candala, karakandu by name over a bamboo-staff grown in his cemetry,8 clairn over an ascetic boy named Vaira by his mother and some Jaina monks respectively,' seduction of Jaina monks by prostitutes, false testimony (kudasaklha) and falsification of documents (kudalehakarana). I Dasa Curni, p. 58; Vasu-p. 55 ; See also Avasyaka Curni. p. 119. A simple villager was cheated of his bullock cart together with his corn and patridge cage (Sagada-tittiri) by some perfumers who took forcible possession of those articles on purchase for one Karsapapa by using ambiguous words in the bargain which meant the cart as well as patridge. The villager went to the court but unfortunately lost the case. But he finally succeeded in recovering his bullock cart by kidnap. ping the mother of those purfumers under the pretext of selling *sattu' according to his strategem. He released that woman only on the return of his bullock cart by those perfumers. * Vyavahara Bhasya, 3, 345 f., p. 69. 8 Uttaradhyayana T'ika, 9, p. 134. Avasyaka Curne, p. 391 f. (A child of six months old named Vaira was taken by the Jaina monks for ordination. After few years the mother of that ascetic boy lodged a complaint with the court against those Jaina monks amongst whom one was the father of the boy. Unfortunately she lost her case, because the ascetic boy did not respond to the call of his mother who tried to tempt him with toys, but he immediately went to the side of the monks at the call of his ascetic father with a rajoharana). 6. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 4, 4923-25. Refer also to Uttara. Su, 3, p. 72 a. (A complaint of seduction of Jaina monks by prostitutes was made by Jaina monks against prostitutes). Uva sagadasao, p. 10; also notes, p. 215; Avasyaka. See (Hari), p 820. Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J.C. Jain, p. 64-66 for all these references.

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Sec. VIIA) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 109 Robbery Of the various types of crime enumerated in the Jaina texts robbery was regarded as a systematic art (vijja) practised in ancient India. In some Jaina texts references are made to a number of notorious robbers expert in the art of fighting, viz. Vijaya' of Saladava, his body-guard, Cilaya, Mandiyas of Bennayada, Abhaggasena' of Purimatala, etc., who resided in their respective wellprotected robber-infested areas in the jungles. They committed different types of crime and created terror in the hearts of the people by their nefarious activities. But they were ultimately rounded up and arrested by the forces of their respective governments and executed by the order of their kings after inflicting various kinds of tortures on them. The Uttaradhyayana Sutram refers to different classes of 1 Science of lacerny (theft) is attributed to Skanda, Kanaka sakti, Bhaskaranandi, Yogacarya and others, and thieves also used to be addressed as Skanda putras. Refer to Grecian Mercury and St. Nicholas of England, the patrongod of thieves ; See. 1. H, Q., 1929, pp. 312 ff; Kathasaritsagara (Vol. II, pp. 183-4), discussion Stealing'. Muladeva appears as the chief-thief in Hindu fiction who is identified by Bloomfield with Karnisuta, Ganiputraka or Ganikaputra or Gaaikasuta. Steyasastrapravartaka or Steyasutrapravartaka' a famous handbook of thieving is ascribed to him. He is also referred to in the com, on Digha (1. 89); also see Dhurtakhyana of Dr. A. N. Upadhye, A critical study, p. 23 and note. Refer to 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 66, 14 f. 2 Vivaga Suya, 3, p. 20; Nayadham makahao, 18, p. 208 f. 8 Sisyahita Commentary on Uttaradhyayana 4, p. 94a f.; also Cf. Bhuyangama Cora (Uttara. Ti. 4, pp. 87 ff); Rauhi. neya Cora (Vya. Bha, 2 304); also Yogasas'ra, Com. pp. 116 ff by Hemacandra., J. A. O. S. Vol. 44, 1-10, H M, Johnson ; also Cf. Yajnavalkya Smrti, 11, 23, 273. 4 Vivaga Suya, 3, pp. 24 f. Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, pp. 67-68; 26, 29, 31 ff. for details. 6 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 9, 28; see also Panha Tika, 3, p. 58., for seven types of robbers and eighteen ways of encouraging robbery, Cf. Law, India described, pp. 172 f. for the types of Coras in the Buddhist works. Refer to Life in Ancient Indiaby Dr. J. C. Jain.

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110 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA thieves-viz. thieves (amosa), robbers (Tomahara), cut-purses (ganthibheya), and burglars (takkara). The robbers committed various crimes, such as, the lifting of cows and other domestic animals, kidnapping of maidservants, children and even nuns, setting fire to villages, towns, houses and forests, destroying of ships, extraction of money from the people by threatening them with the sword, forcible entry into the residence of monks to terrify and threaten them with death. According to the evidences furnished by the Jaina texts the crime of robbery was punished with imprisonment", mutilation and death-penalty and various kinds of tortureso inflicted on the robbers. Adultery The Bhs refers to only one case of adultery? in connec. tion with the religious teachings on the fruit of karmas (actions), but it does not furnish any evidence of a case of adultery which gave rise to the law-suit, In this respect there are found some evidences in several Jaina texts that the adultery was considered 1 Panha, 3, pp. 43a ff. ; Cf. Moh. 1, 233, 5 ff. 9 Utiaradhyana Curni, p. 174; Cf. Mrcchakalika, IV, 6. For the reference to the robbing of children from the lap of nurses. $ Ci. V yavahara Bhasya 7.71 a; Brhatkalpa Bhasya 6. 6275. 4 Brhatkalpa Bhagya, 3, 3903 f; Anguttara Nikaya, IV, p. 339 Cf. Cora Sutta. "Nayadhammakahao, 2, pp. 53 f. The death of the robber, Vijaya in jail without food. 5 Commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra 4, p. 94a f : (Mandiya was impaled); Vivaga Suya 3, pp. 24 f. 6 Acaranga Curni 2, p. 65. For the crime of robbing the purse of a merchant, a Brahmana was given lashes, and forced to take excreta and his whole property was confiscated. ? Bhs, 8, 5, 328. 8 Vivaga Suya 2, p. 18 f. (see Kamvira Jataka III, No. 318, Sulasa Jataka III No. 419 for a similar description ; see also Yajnavalkya-Smrti III, 5, 232f., Manu VIII, 372 f) (A mer. chant's son of Vaniyagrama was executed for his crime of adultery with Kamajjhaya, a keep of the king); Vivaga Suya4, p. 31. (Sagada's adultery with Sudarsana, a keep of the king's minister is referred to ; both of them were put to

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Sec. IIVA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 111 a serious crime and severely punished with the penalty of death, imprisonment', mutilation of limbs' ard banishments. Murder The BhS contains references to a few cases of murder in connection with the religious teaching on the consequences of Karmas' (actions) done by an individual man. But there is no evidence to show that these crimes gave rise to law-suits in the court. In this regard some other Jaina texts reveal that the case of murder or an attempt to murder was severely dealt by the court with capital punishment or public execution and imposition of fines on the culprits involved and found guilty in such a crime according to the law of the land. Non-Execution There occur evidences in some Jaina texts that non-execution of royal order was considered a serious offence which was death; Vivaga Suya p. 35; (The adultery of Bassaidatta, the minister of king Udayana, with the queen was punished with death. Pinda Nirukti 127 (a merchant of Srinilaya nagara met the same fate a long with his friends and admirers for his adultery with the queen. 1 Nisi Curni 15, p. 1002 Cf. Manu. VIII, 374. ? Commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra-23, p. 285 f ; Cf. Gahapati Jataka (II, No. 199, p. 134 f. (The adultery of Kamatha with the wife of his brother Marubhui was punished with the banishment from Poyarapura. Vyavahara Bhasya Pithika 17, p. 10; (Cf. Gautama. XII-1 for the intentional reviling twice born men by criminal abuse or criminally attacking them with blows a Sudra will be punished with mutilation of the limb with which he assaulted); See also M. VIII, 12 f. (A Brahmana is expiated from his sin for the adultery with his daughter-in-law only by touching the four Vedas). 4 BhS, 15, 1, 560. 5 Vivaga Suya, 6, pp, 36-39. (Mandlivaddhana of Mathura was publicly executed for his conspiracy to murder his father by a barbar who disclosed this evil design of the prince to the king. Vivaga Suya, pp. 49-55 (D.Hvadatta, the queen of king Pusanandi was also a warded death punishment by him for murdering her mother-in-law. (i. e. King's mother) out of jealousy. 6 Vide Life in Ancient India, p, 70 by Dr, J. C. Jain.

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112 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III dealt with various kinds of punishment, such as, throwing the offender into salt", beheading with one stroke of sword, burning alive, taunting in disgraceful terms and branding with a mark of a pot or a dog (kundiya or 8 unaga) or banishment', mild admonition in the case of members belonging to the Ksatriya the Gahavai, the Mahana castes and the Isi assembly respectively. A slightest suspicion caused by any one in the minds of kings was followed by the death penalty. So they, who were generally suspicious by nature, inflicted severe punishments on their ministers and ordinary subjects in various ways on the slightest suspicion according to their whims. It is said in the Dasa Curni" that even Canakya, the great minister of king Candragupta Maurya had to resign his ministership under the ruling king Bindusara, the son of king Chandragupta due to the cold reception accorded to the said minister who was responsible for the death of his mother, queen Durdhara. Being thus disinterested in worldly affairs, Canakya renounced 1 Acaranga Curni, p. 38. * Arthasastra, p. 250. * Rayapaseniya Sutta, 184. 4 Avasyaka Curne, II, p. 182; Ib, p 184 (Kappaya the minister of king Nanda was thrown by him into a well together with all the members of his family on suspicion created by his ex-minister (who was a rival of Kappaya) in his mind. ; Sagadala, the minister of the Ninth Nanda embraced death to escape from the royal punishment together with his whole family due to the suspicion caused in the mind of the king by Vararuci another court member against him; Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain for details, p. 71, 48-49 ff. 0 Dasa Curni, p. 81 f. See also Mahabodhi Jataka (v 22, ff) for the royal treatment meted out to his minister. Sthaviravali Carita, 8, 377-414 : Cf. also Buddhist tradition about Bindusara ; Malalasekara, op. ct. Vol. II under "Bindusara.' (It is said in the Sthaviravali Carita that once Canakya ordered royal servants to mix up a very minute doze of poison with the food of king Candragupta with a view to immune him from the action of poison in future. Durdhara, the pregnant queen of Chandragupta also was taking the same together with her husband, but she could not stand the poisonous effect and died instantly. Canakya, having observed this unfortunate incident, immediately operated her womb and extracted the child to save him,

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Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 113 the material life and went to the jungle where he embraced death by starving himself. There are sufficient evidences to show that the culprits were subjected to great disgrace, together with their relatives who were even forced to live in the Candala area.? In addition to these penalties the following types of punishments are referred to in the Jaina texts, such as "putting in irons (aduyabandhana)," in stocks (hadibandhana), into prison, screwing up hands and feet in a pair of shakles and breaking them, cutting off hands and feet, ears or nose or lips or head or throat-glands (murava), piercing the organ (veyagachahiya ?jo body (angachahiya), the sides, tearing out eyes, teeth, testicles, or tongue, hanging, brushing, whirling round, impaling, lacerating, pouring acids (in wounds), belabouring with a leather strap, twisting the organ like a lion's tail (sihapucchiya)," like a bull's tail, burning in a wood fire and exposing the offender to be devoured by crows and vultures.":6 Prison The reference made in the Bhs to the release of prisoners by the promulgation of royal order as a general amnesty on account of the birth ceremony of a new born prince in the royal family implies that there was a regular system of jail administration. But the work does not throw any light upon the class of culprits put into prison, their terms of imprisonment, general conditions of prison and plight of prisoners. In this respect some Jaina texts give us a graphic account of the jail administration and conditions of prisoners' life. 1 Uttaradhyayana sika, p. 190a. The Commentary on the U dana, p. 149. 8 Ovaiya Suya, 38, p. 164. Abhayadeva gives a variant as Vaikacchachinnaga' and renders as 'Uttarasanganyayena vidaritak', Veyagacchahiya' is referred to in the Paiyasaddamahannavo. See the Commentary for explanation. Suya. II, 2, 35 ; Ovaiya Sul. 38, p. 162 f., Panha, 3, 52a ff; also Milinilapanha, p. 197; Majjhima Nikaya 1-87. Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain 73, 60-64 ff. Bh8, 11, 11, 429; Cf. Nayadhammakahao I, p. 20 and Arthasastra p. 165. 15

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114 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Both the Jaina texts, Vivaga Suya' and Nayadhammakahao1 depict a vivid picture of the sad plight of the prisoners who were tortured by the jail authorities in many ways with various instruments of tortures, such as, iron jars filled with copper, tin, lead, limewater (Kalakala), boiling oil cooked with alkaline ingredients (Kharatela), urine of different animals, hand cuffs (Hatthanduya), fetters (Payanduya), wooden frames to tie the feet (Hadi), iron chains, different kinds of whips, stones, sticks, clubs, ropes, traps, swords, saws, razors, iron-nails, leather-straps, needles, hatchets, nail-cutters and darbha-grass.3 Besides these inhuman tortures the prisoners suffered from other troubles, such as, hunger, thirst, heat, cold, cough and leprosy and had to live in their own excreta and urine passed by them, and died unattended and uncared; on their miserable deaths their corpses were thrown away into ditches unceremoniously and were eaten up by wolves, dogs, jackels, big rats (kola), cats and birds.* The Avasyaka Curni" presents the account of the sad plight of king Seniya without food and drink during his imprisonment by his son, Kunika, but he was served with one hundred lashes every morning. His qeeen Cellana however was permitted to see him and she offered secretly some food brought by concealing in her hair. Cases of law-suits, judicial procedure, criminal law and punishment as mentioned in the Jaina works are also elaborately discussed in the Brahmanical texts in a very systematic manner. Judicial procedure The relativity of crime and punishment as evidenced in 1 Vivaga Suya 6, pp. 36 ff. 2 Nayadhammakahao 2, p. 54 ff. 3 Refer to 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 73, for details; see also Vivaga Suya 6, pp. 36 ff. 4 Panhavagarana 3, p. 54. Refer also to 'Life in Ancient Indiaby Dr. J. C. Jain for information. 5 Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171. Manu-Smrti VIII, 47; 279, Vide A study in Hindu Social Theory by Kewal Motwani, p. 173.

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Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 115 the Jaina texts are also discussed by the Manu-Smrti, Arthasastra and other Brahmanical works in great details. Many advocates that various factors, such as, the motive, social status, time and place of the offence, circumstances, mental evolution of the criminal, his bearing capacity of punishment should first be ascertained by the judge without a priori legal assumption in all matters of justice before delivering impartial, unprejudiced and dispassionate judgement on crime and awarding just punishment to the deserving criminals found guilty by the court. It is futher observed by Manu that the psychological condition of an individual criminal should be taken into consi. deration in all cases of crime to inflict punishment on him. If he is higher in the level of mental evolution, he must bear more responsibility, "When a common man should be fined a trifle, the king should be fined a thousandfold". "In the case of theft a Sudra should pay a fine of eightfold, a Vaisya twice as much as the Sudra, a Ksatriya twice as much as the Vaisyu, a Brahmana twice as much as that of the Ksatriya or even four times as much". One most important observation is made by Manu on the social position of the criminals after serving their terms of sentence that they should be considered as having been purged of the crime', and given the social status. Because punishment should not be retaliation made by the society, but it should be guided by the ideal of forgiveness. "Ksantavym prabhuna nityam ksipatam karyinai nenam Balavrdd haturanam ca kurvata hitamatmanah"!/ (M. VIII-312). "Yah ksipto marsayatyartaistena svarge mahiyate) Yastvaisvaryanna ksamate narakam tena gacchati''|| (M. VIII. 313). 1 Manu-Smoti, VIII, 336-38. * Manu-S mrti, VIII, 318. 3 Ib, VIII, 312-313.

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116 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. It The Arthasastra also follows almost the same principles regarding criminal law and punishment with some variations and brings all in the state under the sway of "Law". SEVENTH SECTION-B. Army Army is one of the seven limbs of the state, viz. the lord (king, Svami), minister (amatya) territory (or country, rastra), fort (durga), treasury (cosa), army (bala) and ally (suht). "Svamyamatyaoca rastranca durgam Kosa balam subrt/ Parasparopa karidam saptangam rajyamucyate"'// It is the most essential part of the defence organization of the government. It is already known from the study of the political conditions reflected in the Bhs that there was no political unity of India' under one paramount ruler during the period of Lord Mabavira. Two forces, viz. centrifugal and centripetal, i. e. the force of local autonomy and that of imperialism had been operating with a regular oscilating movement of a swinging pendulum in the political evolution of that period. So the idea of imperialism had to fight the centrifugal political force of local autonomy in the successive eras. It is further learnt that the most important political event of this period was the long drawn quadrangular struggles among the four states viz. Magadha, Vaisali, Kasi and Kosala for establishing their respective political suzerainty over North-Eastern India by following a policy of expansion and aggrandisement from their respective bases. On the other hand every absolute monarch of each state (Janapada) had to exercise his supreme authority over a number of subordinate kings,' feudal princes (Samuntarajas") and re 1 Kamandakiya Nitisara, Fourth Sarga, 1. ? See the first section of this Chapter 8 BhS, 7, 9, 300, 301. 4 BhS, 13, 6, 491. See the second section of this Chapter. 5 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 117 publican chieftains (ganarajas1) whose loyalty to their sovereign depended on the feudal relation, military strength of the defence force, and vigilence of the state. Under these circumstances it was the primary duty of every independent sovereign ruler to organize and maintain a regular well-trained and well-equipped army for the safety and security of the state against internal and external dangers of war. The BhS' gives an idea of the form of army, nature of war, fighting services, military conscription, ethics of war, art of fighting, weapons used in war, etc. as known to the time of Lord Mahavira. Here an attempt will be made to deal with the military organization, fighting services and ethics of war, as they are connected with the part of administration of the state. The art of war, weapons, etc. will be discussed in connection with the topic 'military science' in the sixth chapter education. Military Organization The study of this work clearly shows that the military organization of the period was based on the traditional four-fold division of army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephant, chariot and infantry (hayagaya-rathayohakaliyae cauranginie senae), Cavalry on According to the order of the armed forces as mentioned here it appears that cavalry occupied the first and foremost place as a fighting unit in the army for guarding the advanced position and charging the enemy ranks by its swift and dashing attack from all flanks. It also acted as the forward guard during a royal journey, marching in front of all contingents.* Horses which were the most essential component parts of the cavalry were also used to draw both the war-chariots and ordinary ones driven by princes and nobles. 1 BHS, 7, 9, 300. * Ib, 7, 9, 300-303. 31b, 7, 9, 300. Army is also called Bala (BhS, 7, 9, 303). 4 BhS, 9, 33, 385. 5 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 303; 9, 33, 385.

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118 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Some Jaina texts give a detailed account of different classes of horses', their arming, saddling", training and riding", jumping (langhana), circular movement (vaggana), galloping (dhorana) and rearing." Elephant The elephant force stood second in rank as a fighting unit and held an honourable position in the army in the war and on other occasions, such as, royal procession and journey from one place to another. Elephants were furnished with the armoury cruppers, flags, standards, weapons, etc. as it is evidenced in the Jain texts." The BhS mentions two war-elephants of king KunikaAjatasatru, named Udayin1o and Bhutananda" which were used by him in two great wars called 'Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and Kathamusala Sangrama respectively, waged by him against the combined force of the confederate army of Vasali, Kasi and Kosala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis. A great importance was attached by all the rulers of that period to the elephants. It is already known from the evidence of Nirayavaliya Sutta that the Magadhan state elephant, Secanaka given by king 1 Dasa Cu. 6, p. 213 (asva, asvatara, 'mule', ghotoka); See also Jambu. Su 2. p. 110 f, Ramayana 1. 6, 22; akirna (ill bred horse) Uttara, Su. II 16; see Sthananga Sutra 4-327; Khalunka Sutta, Anguttara N. IV, p. 190 f, for 8 defects of a horse, Kanthaka (another variety of horse)-Uttara. Su II, 16 and the commentary; the com. of Sthananga-Sutra--4, 327. See also Dhammapada. A, 1., p. 85. Thani--Brh. Bha. 3, 395 a f. 2 Vivaga Suya 2, p. 13; Ovaiya Suya. 31, p. 132. (arming and saddling of horse and the horseman). 3 Ib. 4 Avasyaka Tika p. 261; See also Raya. Sa. 161. Uttara. Tika 9, p. 141--(Vamyali--the training centre for horse). 5 Uttara. Tika. 5, p. 103. 6 Ova, Su, 31. p. 132, Cf. Arthasastra (p. 148) for the explanation of the terms. 7 Vya. Bha. 10. 484, Uttara. Tika 4., p. 96. 8 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301. 9 Vivaga Suya, 2, p. 13; Ovaiya Suya, 30, p. 117; 31, p. 132; Ramayana, 1, 53, 118. 10 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 11 Ib, 7, 9, 301.

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119 Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Seniya-Bimbisara to his younger sons, Halla and Behalla as a gift together with a necklace of eighteen strings of pearls, was one of the causes of these two long-drawn devastating wars between Magadha and the Vaisalian confederacy. A similar account of the cause of war is given by Uttara. dlyayana Tikal in which it is stated that a war took place between Nami and Candajasa on their respective claim over an elephant. There are also references to the names of famous elephants recorded in other Jaina texts, e.g. Nalagiri of king Pajjoya' and Bhadravati of king Udayana who eloped away Vasa vadatta, the daughter of the former, from Ujjeni to Kausambi, and l'ijaya, the scent-elephant (gandhahatthi) of Kanbavasudeva.' The Arthasastra also attached a great importance to the elephant force by giving a warning thus "whoever kills an elephant shall be put to death."" These and numerous other evidences from Brahmanical and other sources clearly show that the Indian kings of the ancient period largely depended on elephant force. Chariot The chariot force occupied the third place in the order of the organization of the army. The BiS refers to two types of chariots, viz. war-chariots and ordinary transport-chariots, Warchariots were used for various purposes, such as, carrying arms and amunitions, food, quivers containing arrows, armours, helmets, bows and other weapons," while transport chariots were driven by princes and nobles on their journeys from one place to 1 Uttaradhyayana sika, 9, p. 104 f. ?ivasyaka Curns, ll. p. 160. 9 Avasyaka Curni, pp. 161f. 4 Nayadhammakahao, 5, p. 70. 6 Arthasastra, 50 (p. 49), Anu. Ti., p. 146 ; Arthasistra refers to six kinds of chariots viz. "Devaratha (chariot for imaged god), Pusparatha (festal car), Sangrama ratha (war-chariot), Pariyanika (transport-chariot), Starapurcbhiyanika, Venayika (training chariot). 7 Ovoiya Sutta 31, p. 132; Ava. Cu, p. 188; Ruma. III, 22, 13 ff; Moh. V. 94, 18 ff.

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120 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III another. It provides the informations that the chariot-force of king Kunika-Ajatasatru was strengthened by the introduction of two war engines, viz. Mahasilakanjaka? (a big stone-catapult) and Rathamusala,' a chariot having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier but having a musala (club or mace) fitted to it. Uniqueness of this weapon in the history of the ancient Indian army is not found anywhere else. The importance of chariots as referred to in the Bhs and other Jaina texts was also realized by the Arthasastras for the protection of the army, repelling the attack made by all the four (columns) constituents of the enemy's army, seizing and abandoning (positions) during the time of battle, gathering a dispersed army, breaking the compact array of enemy's army, frightening it, etc." Infantry According to the Bhs the infantry was the fourth column of the army, consisting of a large number of trained and disciplined soldiers mostly recruited from the common people. The account of foot soldiers as given in this canonical work is also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts." According to the Arthasastra the infantry "carried weapons to all places" and fought on all fronts. It is clear from the study of the evidences furnished by all sources that the infantry was the most important fighting force for close-fighting and ultimate success in any war, because it bore the brunt of the first attack of the enemy in collaboration with the cavalry and fought its way to final victory in the face of stubborn resistance offered by the rival forces. An army or a country of an enemy power may be attacked and harassed by the other columns of the fighting force, but it cannot be conquered without the service of a strong infantry. i Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 16, 7, 9, 301. . Arthasastra, 371, p. 399. 4 Bhs, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385; 7, 9, 301. o Ovoiya Suya, 31, p. 132 ; Vivaga Suya, 2, p. 13, 6 Arthasastra, 371, p. 399,

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Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 121 Fighting Services The success of an army in war depends on the strength and character of the fighting services. So the army to be effective needs a large contingent of efficient, well-trained, well. disciplined, brave officers, technical experts and soldiers under an able and experienced general (Senavai) and sufficient fighting equipments and latest weapons. Besides the military personnels of the defence force, there must be a regular heirarchy of civil officers to help its organization. In this regard the BKS gives an idea of the composition of the fighting forces of that period. According to the text the sovereign king, as the head of the state, was the commander-in-chief and he hiinself mobilized all his forces with the assistance of his staff-members and led the army in the battlefield together with his general (Senavai)'. In this connection it refers to very skilful military technical experts (cheyayariya), and a body of high dignitaries of the state, such as, chieftain (gananayaga ), judge (dandanayaga), frontier guard (randhivala), ambassador (duya), Bhada, Cadagara (a class of royal officials;', etc. They followed the king in all battles along with the large contingent of foot soldiers. It appears from this list of officers that both civil and military staff-members had to join the army and discharge their compulsory military duties in times of war without any excuse or objection to evade the call of the government, when the sovereignty of the state was threatened by the impending danger of war waged by a hostile power, Conscription In this connection the Bhs throws some indirect light upon the system of military conscription introduced and enforced by the ancient state of Vaisali Republic due to exigencies of war. The Sramanopasaka Naganattua (Nagaputra) Varuna' a prominent citizen of l'aisali was perforce ordered by the king, i BhS, 7, 9, 300, 301. 16 ; 10, 7, 9, 303. 8 16,7,9, 303,

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122 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Cb. III the Gana (Republic or Asserbly) and the army to join the impending Rathamusala war (Rahamusale-sargame) in defence of the sovereignty of his state which was threatened by this war waged by king Kunika-Ajatasatru of Magadha. He had to submit to the mandate of the state and discharge his civic duties as a citizen of the Republic. "Se Varune Naganattue annaya kayai rayabliogenain ganabhiogenam balabbiogenam rahamusale samgame anatte". SEVENTH SECTION-C Ethics of War The idea of war cannot be eliminated from the human society so long there is the existence of the military force, sanctioned and organized by different states representing the will of the people with the plea of their protection against the aggression of external enemies. So when the sovereignty of a state is threatened by war waged by any foreign enemy.power, it must be fought to the last on the principle of self-defence according to some ethics of war. The Bhs throws a welcome light upon this ethics of war in connection with the two great wars, viz. Mahasilakantaka Sangrama' and Rathamusala Sangrama. It is already known from the study of the political conditions, discussed in the second section of this chapter that the sovereignty of the state of Vaisali Republic was threatened by the invasion of king Kunika-Ajatasatru. Having apprehened this danger of war from Magadha, king Cetaka of Vaisali formed a political alliance with Kasi, Kosala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, and other eighteen republican chiefs (ganarajas) and organized a confederate army consisting of their combined forces to offer a stubborn resistance to the impending war waged by the Magadhan king for a righteous cause of self-defence. i Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 3 I6, 7, 9, 300, 301. ? 10, 7, 9, 301, 303,

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Sec. VIIC] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 123 In these common national dangers every able-bodied male citizen of Vaisali Republic was called upon by the president-king, the assembly and the army respectively to take up arms in defence of the sovereignty and independence of the state. Even the Sramanopasaka, Nagaputra Varuna,' a prominent citizen of Vaisala had to submit to the mandate of the state and to join the Rathamusala Sangrama to fight the enemy force, after having perforce been ordered by the king, the assembly and the army respectively to perform his duty to the nation and the state. But he fought this battle dispassionately according to the principle of not-striking first the enemy.' Being seriously smitten with an arrow discharged by a rival soldier whom Nagaputra Varuna killed immediately after he was first struck by him (his opponent), he left the battle. field and died a righteous death in a lonely place by observing all the five great vows (parcamahavaya) according to the teachings of the Nirgrantha order. Here the Bhs throws a welcome light upon the ethics of war based on the principle of self-defence and reveals an attitude of pacifism towards war like the modern Pacifists. The traditional ideal of war is referred to in this canonical work thus that many soldiers, being killed in many kinds of war are born in heaven." The positive ethics of war is embodied in the teachings of the Gita, the Mahabharata and other ancient works of India. In the Gita it is stated that Lord Krsna tried to rouse the drooping spirit of Arjuna by holding the ideal of righteous war before him thus "If killed in the battle, you will attain heaven or by conquering (it) you will enjoy the earth". "Hato va prapsyasi svargam jitva va bhoksyase Mahim". But one thing should be remembered that the Gita does not preach the doctrine of war for unrighteous cause with a passionate desire. 16 BAS, 7,9, 303. 6 Gita, 2, 37,

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124 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA. Ch. It The Arthasastra' also echoes almost the same sentiment on the ideal of war advocating thus "His (king's) minister and priest should encourage the army by saying thus". "It is declared in the Vedas that the goal which is reached by sacrifices after performing the final ablutions in sacrifices, is the very goal which the brave men are destined to attain." "Sooth-sa yers and court-bards should describe heaven as the goal for the brave and hell for the timid." But Lord Mahavira refuted the traditional arguments on the ideal of war by citing the case of ninety-six lakhs men killed in the Rathamusala Sangrama. He told Gautama Indrabhuti, his first disciple that only one of them i. e. Nagaputra Varuna would be born in heaven, one in a best family, the other ten thousands in the womb of fish, and the remaining of them in bell and lower animal world.3 The echoes of the same holy teachings of the Gita on the consequences of war are also heard in the Kalinga Edict' of the emperor Asoka, through which he speaks thus "Kalinga was conquered by king Priyadarain, Beloved of the gods, anointed eight years. One hundred thousand and a half in number were the men carried away thence (as captives), one hundred thousand in number were killed in action and as many as that died. Thereafter, in connection with the recently annexed country of the Kalingas (arose) a strong pious tendency, a longing for piety, (and) an (idea of) inculcating the Law of Piety in the Beloved of the gods. The Beloved of the gods has this repentence on account of having conquered the country of the Kalingas. In conquering indeed an unconquered country, the slaying or dying or deporting which occurs there is considered an extremely pain. ful and serious matter by the Beloved of the gods."....... "Now, as many men were then killed, died and were carried 1 Arthasastra, 367. (Book X. Ch. III). 2 Ib. 3 Bhs, 7, 9, 301, 303 (See also the Sutra No. 7, 9, 303) Thirteenth Rock-Edict : Sahbazgarhi. See Inscriptions of Asoka ; part II, by B. M. Barua, and Select Inscriptions, edited by Dr. D. C. Sirkar,

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Sec. VIIC STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 125 away as captives, a hundredth or thousandth part thereof is considered to-day a serious matter by the Beloved of the gods." As Nagaputra Varuna, having followed the principle of self-defence fought the battle of Rathamusala without passion and died a righteous death, he was destined to be born in heaven.1 But those soldiers, who being swayed by passion took the offensive and fought the Rathamusala Sangrama and Maha. Silakantaka Sangrama were destined to be born in hells and other lower animal worlds.' In the Nirayavaliya Sutta also the same view is expressed by Lord Mahavira on the next infernal birth of kala and others, the ten step-brothers of king Kunika (Ajatasatru), who lost their lives in the Mahasilakantaka Sangrama, fighting for an unrighteous cause on the side of the Magadhan king.3 The principle of a righteous war in defence of the sovereignty of the state as laid down in the BhS is also supported by the Manu-Smrti in which it is stated that if three expedients, viz. conciliation, (sama), gift (dana) and sowing dissension (bheda) prove unsuccessful to achieve the objectives of the state, the king should resort to war to conquer the enemy.* It is learnt from the Nirayavaliya Sutta that before declaring war against Vaisali, king Kunika sent his ambassador thrice to the court of king Cetaka for demanding the peaceful extradition of the scent-elephant, Secanaka and the necklace of eighteen strings of pearl which were secretly taken away by the princes, Hall and Behalla to their maternal-grandfather, the Vaisalian king. But his diplomatic mission for obtaining those precious objects met with utter failure on the refusal of the king Cetaka to give them up. So king Kunika ordered his ambassador to strike the foot-stool of king Cetaka with his left foot and then to deliver 1 BhS, 7, 9, 303. 2 Ib, 7, 9, 301, 303. Nirayavaliya Sutta (60-62), 63, 65; Kala and others were born in Hemabha hell. * Manu Smrti, VII, 200, 108.

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126 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA It the letter with the edge of a lance as a signal of declaration of war. "Cedagassa ranno vamena payenam payavidhath akkamahil kuntaggenam leham panavehi." The Nayadhammakahao* also refers to the four expedients, viz, sama, dama, danda and bheda which were adopted by king Padibuddhi and his five fellow kings to obtain the hands of the daughter of king Kumbhaga by sending their respective envoys. These four means of state-craft (conciliation, gift, dissension and war) and the diplomatic mission led by the ambassador and his duties are also referred to in the Manu-Smrti', the Arthasastra and the Mahabharata" and discussed in great details. It is now clear that the war was the last resort of the four means to settle the issue with a foreign state, but it must not be a surreptitious war. It should be an open fight between the contending parties for a righteous cause on the principle of selfdefence as clearly shown by the Bhs. Siinilar views on ethics of war are also expressed by the Manu-Smyti?, the Mahabharatao and the Gitao respectively. Manu says "A warrior should not kill enemy by secret weapons, etc. in the battle", etc. "Na kutairayudhaih ........kincit-tat-sarvam pratipadyate" (90-94). The Mahabharata preaches the principle of war thus that it should be fought dispassionately and the destruction with religion is better but not the victory by the sinful act. 1 Nirayavaliya Sutta 1, p. 23. See the Commentary on the Mahasilakantaka Sau grama mentioned in the Bh8 7, 9, 300. ? Nayadhammakahao 8, p. 97 ff (duta's duty); Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 78. 3 Manu-Smrti VII. 108, 109, 200, 66. 4 Arthasastra, 395, 382, 30. 5 Mahabharata, Santiparva, 12, 59, 35. 6 Bhs, 7, 9, 303. 7 Manu-Smiti VII, 90, 94. 8 Mahabharata Santi parva, 12, 95 (1-20), p. 665, 12, 95 (17). 9 Gita, 2, 38.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 127 *Yatharthameva yoddbavyam na kruddhyet jighamsatah," (S. 12.95.) "Dharmena nidhanam sreyo na jayan papakarmana" (S. 12-95). While the Gita advocates the same ethics of war embodied in the Mahabharata thus that "having thought or regarded happiness and sorrow, profit and loss, victory and defeat equal, so you get ready for war, you will not attain sin by this kind (of war)". "Sukhaduhkhe same krtva Labhalabhau jayajayau tato yuddhaya yujyasva naivam papamavapsyasi". The evidences of the Bhs regarding the ethics of war thus clearly reveal that a note of pacifism has pervaded the wbole approach to the ideal of war. And its echoes are also heard in the Mahabharata, the Kalinga Edict of Asoka, and the Gzia. EIGHTH SECTION Inter-state Relations Inter-state relations as reflected in the Bhs during the time of Lord Mabavira may be studied under two titles-- war and Peace.' The denotation of the term Diya'l (ambassador) mentioned in this canonical work and other texts clearly indicates that all the states established and maintained diplomatic relations with one another through their respective ambassadors in times of war and peace. It appears from the Bhs that the guiding principle of every independent sovereign of that period was the achievement of the supreme political power and material prosperity of his state at the expense of his neighbouring kingdoms. This motive force led him to follow a foreign policy of expansion and selfaggrandisement. 1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 303. ; also see --Nirayavaliya, Sutta-1,

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128 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch, III The doctrines of state-craft in the matter of internal and external affairs as laid down and advocated by all political thinkers of ancient India were the following four instruments, viz. conciliation (Sama), gift (dana or dama in Jaina text), division (theda) and war (danda). "Samadinamupayanam caturnamapi panditah!" "Sama bhedah pradanam ca tato dandasca parthivah." The Arthasastra" added deceitfulness and secret punish. ment to the list of these four means of statecraft to achieve the objectives for the material welfare of the state and the people at large. Both Manus and Kautilya(r) have formulated the following six-fold government policy for determining the inter-state relations, viz. peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), observance of neutrality (asana), marching (yana), alliance (samsraya) double policy (i. c. double dealing by making peace with one and waging war with another (dvaidhibhava). "Sandbim ca vigraham caiva yana masanameva cal Dvaid hibhavam samsrayam ca sadgunamscintayet sada'' || (M. VII 160) It was probably a natural consequence of the political conditions of those days that such conventions and rules were followed by the individual king for maintaining the inter-state relations and that between the paramount ruler and his vassals. Here an attempt will be made to examine how far the above principles of foreign policy were followed by different states mentioned in the BhS for determining the inter-state relations in times of war and peace. 1 Nayadhammakahao, 8, p. 97 ff. ? Manu-Smrti, VII, 109. 8 Mahabharata, Santi Parva, 35, p. 100. See also Artha fastra, 30 (pp. 29-30 for the mission of ambassador). 4 Arthasastra, 238 (Book IV). 6 Manu-Smiti, VII, 160. 6 Arthasastra, 263. (Book VII). ? Manu-Smrti, VII, 160.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 129 War-Time Relations The Bhs shows that the corner stone of the external relations of Magadha was a policy of expansion and self-aggrandisement at the cost of its neighbouring states. So this rising state under the leadership of king Kunika followed a policy of aggressive imperialism against its strongest northern neighbour, Vaisali, to crush its age-old republicanism, to push up its boundaries to all directions in order to achieve a scientific frontier on all sides and to turn the lower courses of the Ganges into a Magadhan lake by ousting the Vaisalian political and economic interests from the field of commerce and trade, as it was evidenced in his construction of a forward base of operation at Pataliyrama against the Republic of Vaisali. This policy of Magadha reminds one of the advent of the European trading companies to India in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries A. D., to establish their direct commercial relation with her by ousting the monopoly of interests of the Arab merchants from the field of Indian trade with the western countries. So they came here with the sanction and financial support of their respective states to sell their manufactured goods and in return to purchase raw materials, spices and other Indian commodities, greatly demanded by the western people. But as the time went on, all the European trading companies established factories and forts and entered into the Indian political field to safeguard their respective interests. Conse. quently their participation in local politics led to the building up of their colonies in India and subsequently an empire, as it is fully known from the British rule. Mugadha wanted to buy all commodities which flowed from North Bihar beginning from the foot of the Himalayas 1 According to the Commentary of Buddha Ghosa there was a dispute between king Kunika and the Vaisalians over a mine of precious......... articles near the port on the Ganges. See also Dighani kaya (Mahaparinivvana Sutta), Aftha. katha ; (Plan of Ajatasatru and his minister-Vassakara on trade policy). 17

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130 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. III to the port on the Ganges and to control the whole lower Gangetic trade. So it was very necessary for this rising state to establish its political suzerainty over the northern side of the Granges by conquering its most powerful neighbour, the Republic of Vaisali. Now, it is to be observed how far these two states followed the principles of foreign policy with regard to their inter-state relations during their long-drawn political struggle. It has already been discussed in connection with the ethics of war' that king Kunikal sent his ambassador thrice to the court of king Cetaka to demand the peaceful extradition of the agadhan state elephant, Secanka and the neclace of eighteen strings of pearls secretly taken away by his younger brothers, Halla and Behalla to their maternal-grandfather On the failure of his policy of peace and conciliation to obtain those precious objects from Vaisali, the Magadhan king resolved to root out the Vajjians (Vaisalians) by waging war against them, which was the last resort of the four means of statecraft to achieve its objectives. So he entrusted his prime minister, Vassa kara' with a secret mission to sow seeds of dissension (Bheda) among the Vaisalians. This policy of Bheda (dissension) bore fruits after three years when king Kunika marched with his well equipped army strengthened by the introduction of two new war-engines, Maha filakantaka and Rathamusala against the confederate forces of Vaisali, nine Mallakis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen ganarajas (republican chiefs) to settle the issue on the battlefield by war (danda). After a long drawn contest continuing for more than sixteen years he won the final victory over those states by inflicting a crushing defeat on their combined forces with his two new weapons. This event of the political struggle between Vaifali and Magadha throws light upon another side of the principles of inter-state relations. 1 Nirayavaliya Sutta-1. 2 Digha-Nikaya (Mahaparinirvana Suttanta),

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Sec. Viit] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA . 131 It is learnt from the Bhsi and the Nirayavaliya Sutra? respectively that king Cetaka of Vaisali made a political alliance (Samsraya) with nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosala and their eighteen Ganarajas to offer a stubborn resistance to the impending aggressive war declared by king Kunika in defence of the sovereignty of the state of Vaisali and others. He led the combined forces of his allies to fight the wars waged by Magadha, but unfortunately the local autonomy of the republican state of Vaisali could not keep up its banner high for a long period and consequently had to bow down its head to the imperialism of Magadha. In this connection one important matter should be observed that other states, such as, Vatsa, Avanti & Sindhu-Sauvira observed & policy of neutrality (asana) in this political struggle between Vaisali and Magadha, though the kings of the above three states were matrimonially related with king Cetaka', as it appears from the absence of any reference to their participation in these two wars as recorded in the Bhs. Peace-Time Relations According to the theory advocated by all the political authors of ancient India, every state should maintain peace and try to avoid war as far as possible by establishing diplomatic relations with other states through its ambassadors on whom both war and peace depended. The Bhs clearly shows that the foundation of every state was based on its military strength and peaceful federal relations with a number of princes, feudal lords and republican chiefs over whom the sovereign ruler exercised his suzerainty from hi capital. This feudal feature of the state reveals that the subordinate kings, feudal lords, princes and chiefs bound by the tie of their 1 Bh8, 7, 9, 300, 301. Nirayavaliya Sutra 1. 9 Hindu Civilization, 235, 236. See also the Bhs, for the matrimonial relation of king Cetaka with Vatsa king Sata. nika by offering his daughter, the princess, Mrgavati, the mother of king Udayan.

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132 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA loyalty to the crown surrendered their rights to the centre to follow an independent foreign policy, to establish and maintain separate diplomatic relations with other states and to organize full-fledged army of their own. They had to pay their tributes and to render military services to their paramount king in times of war. But it appears from the Bhs that perhaps they enjoyed autonomy in their internal administration within their respective small feudal estates. Thus it is stated in this canonical work that king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira' exercised his suzerainty over sixteen Janapadas Vitibhaya, etc., three hundred and sixty three cities, Mahasena and others, ten kings, many princes, lords etc., while king Siva of Hastinapuru' ruled over a number of feudal kings or lords. The political struggle between Magadha and Vaisali and others clearly reveals that eighteen republican chiefs, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis' rendered valuable military services to king Cetaka of Vaisali in his war with king Kunika. The evidence of the self-reflection of king Siva on his own powerful majestic position that his feudal kings "will obey his authority so long there is his prosperity" suggests that the state had to keep vigilence over them with regard to their doings, as their loyalty depended on the military power and material prosperity of the sovereign ruler. The terms "Sandhivala"6 and "Palayahi''? (frontier-guard and protect) used in the Bhs imply that the state appointed frontier-guards to keep a watchful eye over the inter-state affairs by carefully observing the activities of its neighbours, neutrals, enemies and ambitious rulers desirous of conquest. The counsel "govern (protect), being surrounded by allies" (palayahi itthajanasamparivude), given by the retiring king to the heir-apparent at the time of coronation suggests that the state must have followed a foreign policy to secure a firm, i Bhs, 13, 6, 491. ^ Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 6 16, 7, 9, 417. 7,8 lb, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. 3 Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 16, 7, 9, 309.

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Sec. IX] studies in THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 133 grateful, devoted and loyal ally in order to maintain a balance of power, It is clear from the above evidences that the inter-state relation as reflected in the Bhs was based on the systematic principles of foreign policy. It is revealed here that a state should avoid war as far as possible and try to achieve its objectives in peaceful way by applying any one of the first three means, viz. conciliation, gift and dissension through a diplomatic channel by sending its ambassador. On the failure of these expedients it may resort to war, the last means to determine the external relation in order to attain its desired objectives. In times of peace a state must keep a vigilent eye over the activities of its neighbours, neutrals, enemies and ambitious rulers desirous of conquest. On the other hand it should maintain a balance of power by establishing friendly relations with other states and try to secure firm, grateful and loyal allies who will follow it in war and peace with unshaken devotion. Inter-state relations as reyealed here are also elaborately discussed by the Manu-Smrti and the Arthasastra on almost similar lines in a systematic manner. NINTH SECTION Gana Polity as revealed in the Bhagavati Sutra The study of the political conditions as reflected in the BIS has clearly shown that two forces of political doctrine, viz. Monarchism and Republicanism, had been operating side by side during the time of Lord Mahavira, but ultimately they came into conflict which resulted in the defeat of the latter. In connection with the two great wars called Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangrama between Magadha and Vaisali, the Bhs refers to the confederacy of nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, Kasc, Kosala and their eighteen

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134 Studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III ganarajas? (republican chiefs), which was formed under the leadership of king Cetaka to offer a stubborn resistance to the agressive war waged by king Kunika. Like the Bhs, the Acaranga Sutra also alludes to the Ganarajas (ganarayano) The Mallakis and the Licchavis (Vajjians) are mentioned also in the Buddhist works and the Arthasastra* as republican communities (or corporations) having non-monarchical constitution, while Panini refers to the Vrijis (Vajjians or Vajjis) of which the Licchhavi was a part. The term "Gana' or Ganaraja as referred to in the BRS carries the conception of a republican state governed by the Ganarajas, where the sovereignty is vested in the entire population as distinguished from the word 'Rajjan' (kingdom). As regards the human society the "Gana' signifies a body of persons endowed with the main trait of "a mind of being conscious", while the political Gana is an organized conscious corporate body of human beings having a collective mind as distinct from a mere vast crowd of people. According to Panini, Sangha signified Gana as recognized by the people of his time.? The Jataka88 refer to the gathering of people by the bond of Gana (ganabandhanena) in one place for collective deliberation and work. It may be the assembly of three, four (persons or communities) or councillors or the whole city or many peoples. These references from the Jatakas reflect the very character of Gana in those days. . 300-301. ,1.4, 5, 35); chanau Ganas 1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-301. * Acaranga Sutra II, 3, 1, 10. * Majjhoma-Nikaya (1, 4, 5, 35). "imesam pihi bho Gotama Sanghanam Gananar seyathidani Vaijjinar Mallanam," Jata. IV, 148. "Vesalipagare Ganarajakulanai abhisekamaigalapokkhara nim", Lalita-Vistara. 4 Arthasastra XI, 378, p. 407. Panini Sutra, IV, 2, 131. 8 Hindu Polity, Dr. K. P. Jayaswal, p. 25. 7 Panini Sutra III, 3, 86. Vide India as known to Panini; Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 426. 8 Jataka 1, 422 ; Jataka I. 45.

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Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 135 The Mahabharatal throws much light upon the constitution, administrative organization, character, function, defect and weakness and success and strength of the Gana composed of the whole body politic and the entire political community. According to the Amarkosa* the 'Gana' denotes san assembly of co-habitants", while Amarasingha, an author of the Gupta period, defined and explained the terms "Rajaka' and 'Rajanyaka' as a Gana of kings and that of the Ksatriyas respectively. "Atha raja kam rajanyakam ca nopati ksatriyanam Gane kramat's. The term 'Raja' (king) of the word (Ganaraja); mentioned in the BKS denotes the republican chief belonging to a royal family. It appears from the denotation of the word "Ganaraja' that the descendants of the first powerful Ksatriya settlers and founders of Janapada (state) enjoyed the privilege of political sovereignty which was passed on to the members of their respective families from generation to generation. Even with the increase of population the reins of the main political power and central authority remained in the hands of those Ksatriya families which were entitled to kiagship by consecration ceremony. So the title Raja was borne by the heads of those ruling Ksatriyi families respresentiug their respective interests in the republican assembly. The significance of "Ganaraja" is also supported by the evidences of the Lalita Vistara in which it is stated that each of seven thousand seven hundred and seven (7707) Ganarajas" of the Licchavis considered himself as "I am king, I am king" "ekaika-- eva manyate abam raja, a ham rajeti". 1 Mahabharata, Santi parva, 107. ? Amara kosa, Vide Hindu Polity by Dr. K.P. Jayaswal, p. 25. 8 Amarasimha II, 8, XI, 34. (Lexicon), Vide H. P. p. 26. 4 Bhs, 7.9, 300. 5 Jataka, I, 504, a Lalita-Vistara, Ch. III, p. 21.

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136 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III This feature of Gana polity is also evidenced in the Sabha. Parva of the Mahabharata' in connection with the constitutional practice of the Republic mentioned and signified by the statement "Gshe glhe hi rajanah" as distinguished from the imperial government "Samrajasabdo hi kstsnabhak". The interpretation of the word "Ganaraja' as referred to in the Bhs, the Lalitavistara and the Mahabharata is also corroborated by the Arthasastrain which it is explained that the members of the corporations, such as, Licchavis, Mallas, etc., bore the title 'Raja' (raja-sabdopajivinah) The Licchavi Ganarajas of Vaisali are a lso referred to in the Jataka' in connection with the coronation tank, the sacred water of which was used by them in their consecration ceremony for rulership. "Vesali-nagare-Gana-rajakulanam abhiseka-mangala-pok kbaranim." The above evidences clearly show that the hereditary character of rulership was maintained in the Gana polity of the Licchavis and other Ksatriya republics having the sovereignty vested in some ruling families which constituted the governing class, as it is found in the case of 7707 members of the Licchavis designated as 'Raja' (king). It is clear from all sources of the Jaina, Buddhist and Brahmanical works that the Gana-polity of the Licchavis, the Mallakis, and other republics was based on the equality of the members of some ruling Ksatriya families vested with the sovereignty of the state. Confederation-Federal Council The BhS? gives an idea of the constitution of the confederation formed of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis and other 1 Mahabharata Sabha-Parva, 14-2. Vide India as known to Panini, p. 428. ? Arthasastra, XI, 378. 16, XI. I., p. 378. Jataka, IV, 148. 5 This abhiseka pokkharani has been located and the four corners of its embankments have been excavated by Dr. Altekar in April, 1958. 6 Jataka, (Fausboll) I, p. 504, ? Bhs, 7.9, 300-301,

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137 Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA eighteen republican chiefs of Kasi and Kosala under the leadership of king Cetaka with their headquarter at Vaisali to fight the aggressive war waged by king Kunika. It appears from the Kalpa Sutra that this confederation of the Mallakis and the Licchavis lasted for more than sixteen years upto the great demise of Lord Mahavira which was celebrated by them through their joint illumination of lights. The natural alliance between nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis as mentioned in the BhS suggests that the constitution of their confederation was based on the principle of parity of members having equal rights and duties in the affairs of their united republican state in the face of a common danger of war. It is learnt from the Buddhist works that the Licchavi state with its capital at Vaisali was the most powerful republic of the Vajjian confederation. Yet it had to make an alliance with the independent but less important state of the Mallakis of Kusinara and Para by giving them equal representation in the federal council, probably due to the exigencies of her war with Magadha. Constitution of the Licchavis Though the BhS gives an idea of the Ganas (republics) of the Licchavis and the Mallakis, yet it does not throw any light upon their respective constitutions and forms of govern ment. The text only reveals that the head of the Licchavi Republic of Vaisali was a king or consul (Raja) who was assisted by a body of high dignitaries, such as, Ganarajas, Gananayagas Dandanayaga, Duya, Samdhivala, Bhada, Cadagara etc., in his both civil and military functions. It makes an indirect reference to the system of conscription* introduced and enforced by Vaisali Republic in times of war for the defence of the state by relating the story of Nagaputra 1 Kalpa Sutra 128; J. B. O. R. S. 1, 103. Dighanikaya-Mahaparinivvana Suttanta (Trans. adopted from Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha Pt. II, pp. 79-85; Cf. S. B. E, Vol. XI., pp. 3-6, Jataka 1, 143 (7). 34 BhS, 7, 9, 303. 18

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138 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III Varuna, a prominent citizen of the state who was ordered by the king, the assembly and the army respectively to join the Rathamusala Sangrama in order to fight the forces of Magadha led by king Kunika. So one should turn his attention to other sources which present an elaborate account of the constitution and form of government of the Licchavi Republic which formed a part of the greater Vajjian confederacy. The fundamental principles of the Vajjian constitution are embodied in the following famous dialogue of Lord Buddha with his disciple, Ananda at Rajagrha, when Vassakara, the prime minister of Magadha paid a visit to the Blessed one with an intention to know his mind about the Vajjians. 1. "So long, Ananda, as the Vajjians hold full and frequent assemblies." 2. "So long as they meet together in concord and rise in concord and carry out Vajjian business in concord. (Vajji karaniyani). 3. So long as they enact nothing already established, abrogate nothing that has been already enacted and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjians as established in the former days. 4. So long as they honour, esteem and revere and support the Vajji Elders and hold it a point of duty to hearken to their words. 5. So long as no women or girls belonging to them are detained among them by force or abduction (i, e. law and not force reigns). 6. So long as they honour, esteem and revere and support the Vajjian Caityas (sacred monuments) (i. e. follow the religion established). 7. So long as the rightful protection, defence and support shall be fully provided for the Arhants amongst them

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Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 139 (i. e. follow the established practice and keep out Brahmanic religious systems). 8. So long may the Vajjians be expected not to decline but to prosper"). It is said that Lord Buddha himself founded his religious order or congregation (Sangha) on these fundamental principles of the Vajjian political system (ie. Gana polity). Liccbavi Constitution The constitution of the Licchavi Republic which was a part of the Vajjian confederacy was also framed on the same fundamental principles as revealed in the above dialogue of Lord Buddha with Ananda. According to Athakatha (a later work) the supreme executive body of this state was composed of a president-king (Raja), Vice-president (or deputy-king, Uparaja), general (Sena. pati) and treasurer (Bhandagarika). The parliament (federal assembly) consisted of 7707 Rajas who represented the founder ruling families residing in Vaisali. "Tattha niccakalam rajjam karetva vasamtanam ye va rajunarh satta sahassani satta sattani satta ca (.) rajano homti tatta ka; ye va uparajano tattaka; senapatino tattaka; tattaka bhamdagarika." The literal translation of the passage is this "of the kings who permanently residing and ruling there (i. e. in Vaisalz) the number was seven thousand, seven hundred and seven. The number of Uparajas was the same, as also the number of Senapatis and Bhandagarikas." From this it appears that the Licchavi Republic had 7707 kings, 7707 deputy-kings (or heirapparents), 7707 generals and 7707 treasurers who were entitled to govern the state. 1 Dighanikaya (Mahaparinivvana Suttanta)-Dailogues of the Buddha Pt. II, p. 79-85. Cf. S.B.E, Vol, XI, pp. 3-6, Rhys Davids. Turnour.Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal VII (1838) p. 993 et seq. 3 Jataka I, 504. 4 Homage to Vaisali; C. H. of Vaisali, Dr. Altekar.

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140 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III According to the interpretation of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar the passage suggests a federation of 7707 kings who enjoyed autonomy in their local administration but ceded the supreme powers to the Sangha (republic) to conduct the state affairs. Dr, R. C. Mazumdaris of opinion that the above number of kings only indicates the size of the great supreme assembly represented by a number of kings each of whom maintained a body of officers for running the administration of the state, while Dr. Ghosbale accepts only the number of the kings as true but rejects those of deputy-kings, generals and treasurers. Dr. Altekare supports the contention of Dr. D. R. Bbandar" kar about the number of kings. It appears from the study of the above views of all the scholars on this controversial passage that each king maintained a contingent of personal officers and individual treasury. In a real sense the Licchavi Republic cannot be called a democratic state but an oligarchy, because the right of citizenship was granted only to the heads of the permanent residents of the Ksatriya" community but was not extended to the total population of 1,68,000 including inner and outer Vaisalians. From this it is apparently clear that the sovereignty of the state was vested in those republican chiefs who were entitled to equal rights, privileges and powers in the supreme assembly (Gana), Though it appears theoretically that every king of the Gana had the right to govern the state, in actual practice the administration of the government was run by the experienced elderly members, as it is reflected in the famous dialogue of Lord Buddha that the Vajji elders should be honoured and supported.' i Carmichael Lectures, p. 154, D. R. C. Bhandarkar. 2 Corporate Life, pp. 93-4 (Ist edition), Dr. R. Mazumdar. 3 I. H. Q. XX, pp. 334 ff. 4 Homage to Vaisali, The constitutional history of the Licchavis. 6 Hoernle, J. A, S. B., 1898, p. 40. 6 Mahavastu-Trisakuniya, ed. Senart. 1, pp. 256, 271 ;M. V. and L. V. are the later works but they contain old tradition. 7 Dialogues of Buddha, pt. II, p. 80.

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Sec. IX STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 141 Moreover, the Executive Council of this Republic consisted of eight members (Asfakula) representing the interests of different sections, having their respective uniform and colour. Probably the external affairs were conducted by nine Licchavis, while the internal administration including justice was run by the Astakulas. Each young Licchavi prince had to be consecrated with the sacred water of the coronation tank of Vaisali at the time of his succession to his father's title and status of "Ganaraja'.? Functions of the Gana The Buddhist works throw some light upon the working of the republican assembly of the Licchavis as depicted therein. Thus it is stated in the Atthakatha that an alarm signal used to be given at the appearance of the Vaisalian Ganarajas in the Santhagaras (assembly house). An officer designated as Asanapanna paka (Regulator of seats) used to seat the members of the assembly at their appointed place according to the order of seniority in age and experience." A Mahattaka or a distinguished member among those ganarajas was appointed by the parliament in session to declare the message thus "on behalf of the Licchavis of Vaisali" in order to conduct the legislative business of the state. <Page #167
142 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. III Ganapuraka(whip) of the assembly. But it had to face sometimes difficulty in securing a complete quorum like the Athenian Republic of Greece. Then a motion on a particular subject was moved by a member like this "Let the Venerable Sangha hear me,'}, etc., and it was debated by the house before passing a resolution on it for its final acceptance or rejection. In this parliament of the Licchavis every member whether young or old was entitled to equal rights, expression (speech) and franchise on any bill placed before the house for enactment and also had the privilege to be the chairman of the assembly, as it is reflected in the following passage. "Nocca madhya vyddha jesthanupalita ekaika eva manyate aham raja abam rajeti na ca kasyacit sisyatvamupagacchati"4. The acceptance of any resolution proposed by a member for final enactment was subject to the approval of all the members present in the assembly house. In the case of division of opinion and dispute over any issue the final decision on the subject was taken by ballot votes counted by an officer designated as Salaka grahapala with the help of Salakas (sticks) two types chosen and collected by the members according to their respective support for and opposition to the bill. A provision was also made for taking votes of absentee members who could not attend the session due to una voidable circumstances?. 1 Mahavagga, III, 66 (Ganapurako va bhavissamite or I will help to complete the quorum); Sacred Books of the East, XIII, p. 307. 3 Glotz, The Greek city and its Institution, p. 153. It is said that the chairman of the Athenian Republic had to collect the indifferent citizens of this city-state with the help of officials and to bring them to the parliament in order to form the quorum. & Cullavagga, IV, 11,2 (S.B.E., XX, 29); Cullavagga, XI, 1, 4. 4 Lalitavistara-Ch, III, p. 21. 6 Cullavagga-IV, 9, 5; S.B.E. XX, p. 25. 8 These pins or sticks--are of wood according to a Chinese record; See Hindu polity by Dr. K. P. Jayaswal, p. 91-13f, 1 Cf. Mahavagga-S.B.E. III, p. 277.

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Sec. IX] STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 143 There was a legislative procedure to send the bill to a select committee composed of a few members for its further study and acceptance1 in some cases. The study of the following passage of the Mahagovinda Suttanta of the Digha-nikaya clearly suggests that some officers were appointed for recording the proceedings of resolutions and minutes of legislative function of this parliament (Gana). "The thirty-three gods assembled in the Hall of good counsel to discuss a certain matter, the four kings were receivers of spoken words and the four kings were receivers of the admonition given with respect to matter under discussion especi ally in the Mote hall". According to Rockhill a Nayaka (chief administrative officer) was elected by the ruling Licchavi community, probably to execute the laws passed by the parliament. Judicial System The Buddhist texts clearly show that an elaborate judicial procedure was followed by the Licchavi Republic for protecting the liberty of its citizens and administering proper justice in any criminal case which gave rise to law-suit and came up before the court for adjudication. The highest judicial authority in the state was the president king who presided over the supreme court of this Republic and was assisted in his work of administering justice by a judicial minister" who could be even an outsider or a paid officer. Besides these, there was a body of judges appointed by the government, viz., Viniccaya-Mahamattas (Justices), Voharikas (Lawyer-Judges who were well-versed in law and custom), Suttadharas (Doctors of law who held the thread of law and 1 Cullavagga-IV, 14, 24; S.B.E. XX, p. 54; XXVI, p. 56. MG. Digha-Nikaya XIX, 14; Pali text Society edition, Vol. II, pp. 22-25. 3 Dialogues of the Buddha, p. 263, pt. II 1 f. (Sacred Books of the Buddhist (East) Vol. III, pp. 263-64n). 4 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 62. 5 Turnour, J. A. S. B. VII, pp. 994, 95,

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144 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. III custom governing the state and the people from ancient times), Atthakulaka (a judicial bench consisting of judges presenting eight castes or tribes), Senapati and Uparaja.1 Judicial Procedure In criminal cases a systematic long judicial procedure was followed by the judges for ascertaining the seriousness of crime committed by any citizen and delivering the final judgement according to the laws of the state laid down in the Pavenipotthaka (a law book). A citizen charged with an act of crime was first to be produced before the Ganarajas who, in their turn, handed him over to the Viniccaya-Mahamattas for ascertaining whether he was guilty or innocent after proper investigation in the case. If this court of Viniccaya Mahamattas found him innocent, it released him immediately. If he was found guilty, his case was forwarded to the court of Appeal presided over by the Voharikas without awarding any punishment to him. If this court also considered him innocent, he was acquitted of the charge, but if he was proved guilty, he was made over to the High Court of Suttadharas for further trial. In this manner his case was forwarded to the courts of Atthakulaka, Senapati, and Uparaja respectively till it was transferred to the Supreme court presided over by the king, the highest judicial authority in the state. The king acquitted the accused if there was no sufficient proof of his crime; otherwise he awarded the just punishment to the culprit according to the law of the Paveni-potthaka. This account of the judicial procedure in criminal case, given in the Atthakatha is in aggrement with that of the republican judicial system embodied in the Sanskrit texts. It is laid down in the Mahabharata that in a republic criminal justice should quickly be administered by men learned 1 Athakatha, 118. 2 Turnour-J. A. S. B. VII, pp. 993-94. The Book of law and precedents.

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Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA in law through the president, so that it might not be neglected or tempered by the Elders of the Kula-court. "Nigrahah panditaih karyah ksiprameva pradhanatah".1 "Kulesu kalaha jatah kulavrddhairupeksitah". 145 According to Bhrgu the judicial body in a Gana was designated as Kulika and also Kula which was used by Katyayana as jury, so the Atthakulaka (or Astakulaka) referred to in the Atthakatha in connection with the judicial procedure should be taken in the sense of a judicial body consisting of eight members but not as representatives of eight clans of Rhys Davids." The constitution and form of government of the Malla Republic of l'ava and Kusinara was based on similar principles of those of the Licchavi state, as the former was always mentioned by the Buddhist works and the Arthasastra as republic along with other ones, viz. Licchavis, Vrjjka, Madraka, Kuru, Pancala, and others who "live by the title of 'Raja". 1 Mahabharata-Santi Parva, Ch. 107, 27. 2 Viramitrodaya, p. 11. 3 Katyayana is referred to in V. M., p. 41. (Vanigbhyah Syat Katipaih Kulabhutaih adhisthitam). 4 Cf. Rhys. Davids, Buddhist India, p. 22. Turnour-J. A. S. B., VII, 993 n. Mahaparinirvana Suttanta, 6-23. 6 Arthasastra-BOOK, XI, 378, p. 407. 19

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FOURTH CHAPTER-SOCIAL CONDITIONS, FIRST SECTION Varna (Social Order) It appears from the Bhs that during the time of Lord Mahavira the society was based on the traditional VarnasramaDharma', the chief distinguishing feature of the community life in ancient India. But the social order does not seem to be very rigid, as it is evidenced by the racial synthesis of different tribes and races of the period of this canoncial work in the evolution of Indian civilization. The term 'Cauvvanna'! Skt. Caturvarna' (four colours or orders) as mentioned in the Bhs, other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical works denotes that the society was divided into four orders on the basis of distinction of social relationship grown out of various factors, such as, birth, family heterogeneous cultures, customs and manners, restrictions as to connubium (the right of inter-marriage) and commensality (the right of eating together), religious, political, economic and geographical factors and other circumstances. Though the reference to the term "Cauvvanna' in the BhS does not specifically mean the four social orders by their names, yet it is apparently clear from the context that it signifies the four orders (castes), viz. the Brahmana, the Ksatriya, the Vaisya and the Sudra of ancient India. 1 Bhs, 15, 1. 557 ; Cf, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 25, 31 ; Vivaga Soya 5, p. 33; Acaranga-Niryukti 19-27; Rg-Veda, PurusaSukta, X.90 ; Manu 1, 31 ; Gita, 4, 13; Mahabharata Santi. parvan, 12, 60,2; See Buddhist India by Rhys Davids, p. 33 ; Dailogues of the Buddha 1, 148; Vinayapitaka 11, 4, 160. 2 Bhs, 15, 1, 557. (Once Lord Mahavira suffered from bilious fever (pittajara) and passed the motion of red coloured blood excrement. The four varnas (Cauvanna) talked about it and predicted to one another in the town of Mendhiyagama (Nagar) thus, "Surely Sramana.............bilious fever, etc." (Pittajara).

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 147 The date of the origin of growth of these four Varnas (colours or orders) can be assigned to the Ro-Vedic age when the basis of social distinction between the Aryans and the NonAryans was the physical difference of their two respective light and dark colours (Varnas) i. e. Aryan colour as against Dasyu Varna. The following stages in the evolution of Varna may be marked in general : First, the Ubhau Varnau' (both the colours), probably signifying the two colours-Aryan and Dasyu, lived side by side in Rg-Vedic society. The second stage of this social evolution ushered in the growth of the three Aryan colours (or orders) (Trai-Varnilca) marked out by the three distinct occupations as mentioned in one of the hymns of the Rg.Veda'. Lastly, the stage of Caturvarnyari'' is noted by the inclusion of the Sudras within the social fold as it is revealed in the Purusa Sukta hymn of the Rg Veda and in later secular and religious texts. In later period the term "Caturvarna' lost its original meaning and denoted a social order based on various factors, such as birth, tribal connexion, religion, occupation, political, economic and geographical factors which contributed to the formation and growth of different castes out of these four Varnas (Colours or orders). Divine origin of Caturvarna The divine origin of these four orders (Caturvarnus) can be traced to the Purusa Sukta hymn of the RgVedat in which it is stated that "the Brahmana was his mouth, the Rajanya was made his arm, that who was the Vaisya was his thigh, the Sudra sprang from the feet of the great Purusa". 1 Rg Veda, 1, 176,1. I, . 113, 6, 8 16, X, 90, V, 12. R, Veda, Tenth Mandala, Sutra, 90, V, 12 See also Manu Smrti, 1, 31; 10, 4.

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148 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA "Brahmano asya mukhamasid bahu Rajanyah kstah / Urutadasya yad-Vaisyah padbhyam Sudro ajayata."|| This divine theory of the origin of the four Varnas (orders) as referred to in the RgVeda is refuted by the Jain texts and interpreted by them in a different way. It is stated in the Jaina Mahapuranathat Lord Rsabhadeva advised the people to earn their livelihood by following six professions, viz. sword, pen, agriculture (cultivation), art and learning of Sastras, Commerce, arts and crafts. And he first established three orders (Varnas), viz. the Ksatriyas, the Vanijas, and the Sudras on the basis of their respective occupations and qualities." After Rsabhadeva his son, Bharata created the Brahmanical order out of those who were virtuous and studied and taught others, performed sacrifices, received gifts, etc. ... The interpretation of these passages furnished by the Mahapurana cuts across the divine origin of the Caturvarnas of the RgVeda, but it carries the same spirit of the later caste system as embodied in all the Jaina,' Buddhist and Brahmanical works. The social order based on qualification and occupation as revealed in the Jaina Mahapurana is also supported by the Gita in which it is explained by Lord Krsna to Arjuna thus "Four Varnas are created by me according to the division of qualification and vocation (or action)." "Caturvarnyam maya systam gunakarmavibhagasah."? 1 Mahapurana, (Jnanapitha edition), Parva, 16, LL, 179, 180. ? Ib, L., 183, 184. 8 Ib, Vol. 1, P. 16, L 246 ; and Vol. II, Parva 31, VV 20-22. 4 Uttaradhyayana Sutra 25, 31. Vivaga Suya 5, p. 33 ; Acara nga Niryuktu 19, 27. 5 Buddhist works -See the Dialogues of the Buddha 1, 148, Vinaya-pitaka 11, 4, 160. 6 Yajurveda etc.--Refer to Vedic Age, p. 449-51 ; Manu 10, 4; Mahabharata Santi parva, Ch. 296 VV. 5,6; Arthasastra, Book 1, Chapter III. 8. Gita 4, 13.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 149 The same views of the Jaina texts and of the Gita on the conception of Caturvarna are also expressed by the Buddhist works in which it is revealed that the social grades were based on occupation and there was no caste-bar, put in one's way to adopt any profession for earning his livelihood according to his qualification and to raise himself up to a higher social rank.' But the purity of birth and fair complexion, maintained througb seven generations from both sides of the father and the mother respectively, were considered as criteria of higher caste by the Ksatriyas who were "fair in colour, fine in presence, stately to behold". This classification of orders was probably made in harmony with the realities of life. It is clear from the above evidences that the social distinction among the four Varnas was the basis of later caste system of India. But the term Varna' cannot be equated with the word 'caste' as it stands now, because it does not bear the distinctive marks of a caste, such as, hereditary class with members socially equal, united in religion and usually following the same trade, having no social intercourse with persons of other castes, etc." 1 J. A. R. S, 1901, p. 869. (a) Jataka II, 5. 290 (A Ksatriya takes to pottery, busket making, flowering, cooking in pursuance of a love affair without losing his caste). (b) Jataka 4, 84 (Another becomes a trader by giving up his share in the kingdom to his sister), Jataka 4, 169 (Another prince earos his livelihood by hands). Jataka 7,87 (A noble man becomes an archer on pay). Jataka 4, 15 (A Brahmana earns money by trade and gives alms). Jataka 22, 417 (Two Brahmanas take to trade without any excuse). Jataka 5, 127 (Another Brahmana becomes an assistant to an archer who was previously a weaver). (h) Jataka 2, 200; 6, 170 (Brahmanas take to trapping). Jataka 4, 207 (A Brahmana appears as wheel wright). They figure also as agriculturists, cow-herds and goat. herds. * Dialogues of the Buddha, 1, 148 ; VI 4. 11, 4, 160. See Buddhist India by Rhys Davids for all these references. 3 The Concise Oxford Dictionary p. 172, Column 2. e m mm m ssi jim

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150 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. IV Moreover, the word "caste" is derived from Latin "Castus' meaning purity of blood which was transformed into the Portuguese word 'casta'. It is the Portuguese who first used this word "caste" as understood now to denote the institution of the social system of the Hindus based on distinction of races or castes (Castas). The earliest reference to it is found in a Decree of the sacred council of Goa of A.D. 1567, published in the Portuguese Chronicles in which it is said, "The Gentoos divide themselves into distinct races or castes (Castas) of greater or less dignity, holding the Christians as of lower degree and keep these so superistitiously that no one of higher-caste can eat or drink with those of a lower." This term Caste' was thus subsequently used by all the Europeans to denote tho social distinctions of the Hindus. : Restrictions as to connubium and commensality and the pride of purity of birth are the most important criteria of the origin of Indian caste-system which did not exist as an established institution in a rigid form before the age of the latter Samhitas. The Manu-Smrti attributes the origin of caste in a strict sense to the mixed marriages. "Strisu anantara jatasu dvijairutpaditansutan Sadrsaneva tanaburmatsdosa-vigarbitan" (6). Because the birth, the main element, combined with other factors, such as, tribal connexion, religion, occupation, political, economic, and geographical circumstances, etc., consolidated different social groups and simultaneously isolated them, contributing to the rise of the caste system. The BhS reveals that the society was based on the tradi. tional caste system of India which consisted of the Brahmana: 1 Imperial Gazetteer of India, I, 311 f., Vide Racial Synthesis by Visvanathan. : Cambridge History of India, Vol. I p. 112; Vedic Age, p. 449 f, p. 450. : Manu-Smrti 10, 6.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 151 (Mahana),1 the Ksatriyas, (Khattiya), the mercantile class (Vaniya), the householders (Gahavai), and other castes of lower order, such as, barbar (Kasavaga), potter (Kumbhakara)," weaver (Tamtuvaya), blacksmith," painter (Mankha), hunter,10 bearers of palanquin and Candalas, marked out by their respective occupations. But there is no reference to the Vaisyas and the $udras anywhere in the BhS, probably the Gahavais and the mercantile class belonged to the Vaisya caste, while the other communities of lower grade formed the rank of the Sudras, the fourth Varna. Different Castes and their respective positions The BhS throws sufficient light upon the functions and social positions of the above mentioned castes and clearly differentiates their respective status, occupations, obligations, duties and privileges in matters both spiritual and secular. Functions and social position of the Brahmanas (Mahana)1a In the society the Brahmanas appear as rich householders"11, officiators at worship,15 propitiators 16 (Balikario), interpreters of marks of dream (Suvinalakkanapadhaga)" and ascetics.18 1 Bhs 9, 33, 380; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 541; 18, 10, 647. 2 Ib. 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491. 3 Ib. 11, 11, 424; 15, 1, 547; 18, 2, 618. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 5 Ib. 9, 33, 385. 8 Ib, 16, 1. 564. 11 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 7 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 10 Ib, 5, 6, 206. 12 Ib, 3, 1, 134. (Pana) 18 The term 'Mahana' used in the Bhs denotes the Brahmana their as distinguished by some Jaina texts according to respective views. Thus it is stated in the Acaranga Curni (p. 5; also Cf. Ib, 213 f) that on the refusal of the Jaina monks invited by king Bharata to take share in a feast arranged by him, he entertained the savagas who were very simple, virtuous and kind hearted. Whenever they found any body killing some beings, they prevented him from doing this cruel act by saying thus "Ma hana" from which the term 'Mahana' is said to have been derived, See also Vasudevahindi (p. 184) and Paumacariu of Vimalsuri (4, 75-78) for its derivation according to their respective views. 14 Bhs, 9, 33, 380; 15, 1, 540, 541. 15 Ib, 18, 10, 647. 17 Ib, 11, 11, 428. 16 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 18 16, 2, 1, 90; 8, 6, 332; 11, 9, 417; 9, 33, 382. 6 Ib, 15, 1, 539 9 Ib, 15, 1, 540.

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152 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV As householder one of them named Rsabhadatta1 could even afford the luxury of maintaining a large contingent of waiting servants, maids and female slaves belonging to many Indian tribes and foreign nationalities, such as, Cilatikas (Kiratika), Barbarikas, Rsiganikas, Vasaganikas, Pallavikas, Lhasikas, Lausikas, Arabis, Dravidis, Simghalis, Pulindis, Puskalis, Sabaris and Parasis, etc. Another Brahmana, Gobahula by name, was in possession of a large number of cows kept in a big cowshed at Saravana near Nalanda where Gosala Mankhaliputra, the Ajivikaa leader was born. The third Brahmana named Bahula living in Kollaga Sannivesa (a quarter of the town) outside Nalanda is said to have entertained and honoured Lord Mahavira with abundant best food (paramanna) mixed with honey and clarified butter (ghaya) on the day of conclusion of his fourth fast of one month during the period of his austerities (cautt hamasakkhaman), when he went out of the weaver's workshop for begging alms. The fourth Brahmana, Somila" by name lived in Vanijya. grama (Vaniyagama) by officiating at worship and exercising his spiritual leadership over five hundred disciples of his own and of his relatives together. Other Brahmanas figure in the society as depicted in this canonical work as interpreters of marks of dream (Suvinalakkhanapadhaga), propitiators (Balikario) and ascetics (Tavasa) as already mentioned. It is learnt from the BhS that Rsabhadatta and Devananda, the Brahmana and the Brahmani undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world, after getting initiated by 1 BhS, 9. 33, 380; 9, 33, 382. 2 Ib, (Their identifications will be discussed in the Chapter on History). 3 Ib. 15. 1, 540. 5 Ib, 18, 10, 647. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 11, 11, 428. 77b, 11, 11, 430. 8 Ib, (Mahana), 8, 6, 332; 11, 9, 417 (Tavas).

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 153 Lord Mahavira to Sramina Dharma. They attained liberation by studying the prescribed religious texts, practising severe austerities, and meditation'. The above discussion shows that four classes of the Brahmanns, viz. rich householders, officiating priests and propitiators, interpreters of signs of dream and ascetics were in existence in the society during the time of Lord Mahavira. Duties of the Brahmanas The text clearly reveals that the main functions of the Brahmanas were study of the Vedas and other Brahmanical texts, teaching and officiating at worship', interpretation of dreams', propitiating for others", receiving and giving of gifts, entertaining of guests and ascetics and asceticism. Duties of the Brahmanas as enumerated in the Bhs are also corroborated by other Jaina texts. Thus in the Mahapurana" it is said that the duties of the Brahmanas are study, teaching, receiving and giving of gifts and performance of sacrifice. "Adhityadhyapane danam praticchejyeti tatkriyah". Some other Jaina works provide the information that the Brahmanas were well.versed in the fourteen subjects of study (cauddasa vijjathana) and they were employed by the king in his court, as it is evidenced by tbe fact revealed in the Uttaradhyavana Tikalo that one Brahmana scholar was appointed by the king of Kausambi in the place of Karava, the former state Brahmana after his death. There is also reference in the Uttaradhyayana Sutral to the Brahmana teachers who lived in the association of their pupils i Bhs, 9, 33, 382. * Ib, 9, 33, 380 ; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 541, 18, 10, 647; 11, 11, 428. Ib, 18, 10, 647. 4 10, 11, 11, 428. Ib, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 8, 6, 332. (Samana Mahana). 8 Ib, 2, 1, 40; 8, 6, 332 ; 11, 9, 417. * Mahapurana, Parva, 16, L, 264. 10 Uttaradhyayana sika, 8, p. 123 a. 11 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 112, 19. "Ajjhavayanari vayanai sunitta uddhaja tattha bahu kumara daridehid vettehim kasehim ceva samagaya tam isim talayamti" (119). 20 a 1, 15, 1,540: Parva. 16; 10. 123 a.

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154 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV exercising their spiritual leadership over them like Somila of the Bhs'. The second duty of the Brahmanas, as mentioned in some Jaina texts other than this work was the performance of sacrifices. Thus the Avasyaka Curnis furnishes the evidence that once Lord Mahavira passed his Pajjusana period (rainy season) in the sacrificial house of a Brahmana (aggihottavasahi), a resident of Campa. It is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that a Brahmana named Vijayaghosa, who was performing sacrifice, was taught a true sacrifice by the Jaina monk, Jayaghosa according to Sramana Dharma. The Vivaga Suya records the evidences that one Brahmana priest named Mahesvaradatta was employed by king Jiyasattu to avert his misfortune. In the Kalpa Sutra? they appear as interpreters of marks of dream (Suvinalalckhanapadhaya), well.conversant with the cight divisions of the Mahanimitta and other sciences to foretell the future destiny of the newly born Child, Lord Mahavira at the call of his father, king Siddhartha. They are also found as fortune-tellers and propitiators who utter blessings for the safety of the travellers during their journey. The duties of the Brahmanas, viz. study and teaching of the Vedas and other Sastras (Sciences), worshipping and guiding others in offering sacrifices, giving and receiving gifts as prescribed in the Bhs and other Jaiva texts are also assigned to them by the Brahmanical works. i BhS, 18, 10, 647. 2 10, 11, 9, 417. 15, 1, 540. 3 Avasyaka Carni, p. 320. 4 Avasyaka Curni, p. 320. 6 Uttaradhyayana Sutta 25. 6 Vivaga Suya, 5, p. 33. 7 Kalpa Sutra 4, 66 ff. 8 Nayadhammakahao 8. p. 98. See the Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 9 Manu (1, 88) "Adhyapanamadhyayanam yajanam yajanam tatha, danam pratigraham caiva Brahmananam akalpayat" (88); see also Yajurveda, Kautilya Arthas. Book 1, Chapter III, 8.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 155 But the Buddhist texts' bear ample evidences that besides the above mentioned functions, they adopted also other occupations to earn their livelihood without losing their caste. Position of the Brahmanas in the Society as depicted in the BhS The BhS' clearly shows that the Brahmanas occupied an honourable and dignified position equally with the Ksatriyas who were considered to be superior to all other castes the society. in The economic condition and occupation of the Brahmanas, the two most important factors of civic life determine their social position in relation to other castes. The following accounts of their financial condition and profession will throw some light upon their place in the society. One scene laid at Brahmanakundagrama describes the appearance of the rich aristocrat Brahmana and Brahmani, Rsabhadatta and Devananda on bullock-cart, being adorned with best clothes and ornaments with a large retinue of attendants and female slaves belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign nationalities, who were dressed in their respective national costumes, to attend the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira, delivered at the Bahusalaka Caitya (temple) where they were initiated by the Master to Sramana Dharma.1 The economic condition of this Brahmana family to afford the luxury of maintaining a large contingent of waiting maids and attendants and the very name of the Sannivesa-Brahmanakundagrama (Mahana-kundagama) associated with the members of this caste, speak of their separate entity and social status of high position as house-holders. In another scene laid at Vanijyagrama, Somila", a proud learned Brahmana as already mentioned appears at Dutipalasaka Caitya to debate with Lord Mahavira on the philosophical doctrines. 1 Jataka 11, 5, 290; 4, 84; 4, 169; 2, 87; 4, 15; 5, 22; 471; 5, 227; Ib, 2, 200; 6, 170; 4, 207. Bh8, 8, 6, 332; 15, 1, 541. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 380; 381, 382. Ib, 9, 33, 382. 5 Ib, 18, 10, 647.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV He was fully and perfectly satisfied with the holy teachings of explanation of the Master on those topics raised by him. And finally he was converted and initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma as Sravaka. The economic conditions of Gobahula? and Bahula', the other two Brahmnas, have already been pointed out in the beginning of this topic. It is further learnt how some Bralmnas as interpreters of marks of dream beheld by queen Prabhavati Devi were honoured by king Bala of Hastinapura with rich presents for predicting the birth of the great child, Mahabala who afterwards undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world during the life, time of his parents, having got initiated by the monk, Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tirthankara. As propitiators (Balikario)" of the royal family the Brahmanas held, an honourable position in the society. Lastly, they appear as ascetics (Tavasas)" like the Sramanas who were greatly honoured by the whole society as known to the Bhs. It is also stated that the Sramanopasaka, offering gifts to such Sramana or Mahana with acceptable and eatable food and drink, etc., dissociates his Karma and his sinful act (pavakamma) does not touch him. That means the offering of gifts to them results in spiritual merit of the householder. In the Bhs the occurrence of the Mahana' (Brahmana) together with the Sramana' as the objects of the highest honour to the householders determines their equal social position with the Sramanas. The Brahmanas were thus held in great respect by the society. 1 BhS, 15, 1, 540. Ib, 11, 11, 428. 6 16, 2, 1,90; 11, 9, 417. ? 16, 15, 1, 541. 4 II, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 8, 6, 332 ; 15, 1, 541.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 152 In other texts, such as the Mahapuranal and Avasyata Curniit is said that king Bharata established the Brahmanical order out of the most virtuous people and honoured them with the mark of Kakinz, sacred thread and entertained them with food and other rich presents. The Uttaradhyayana Tika also provides the information that the Brahmanas were honoured by the Nandas of Pafaliputra: with gifts of wealth and various costly articles, while one hundred and eight 'dinaras' were given by the king to Vararuci every day for reciting one hundred and eight verses in his eulogy." They were also entertained and honoured with food and other presents on the occasion of birth, death ceremony and other festivals. It has already been discussed in connection with the judicial and revenue administrations in the third chapter that they were exempted from capital punishment and taxation respectively and were rewarded for finding treasure trove, The Nisitha Curni? assigns the highest position to the Brahmanas, when it states that they who were once heavenly gods were created by the Prajapati on earth as living gods. This work echoes the same sentiment of the Bhs that they should be offered alms and gifts by the householders for attaining spiritual merit, As in the Bhs, the frequent occurrences together of the terms Samana' and 'Mahana' in several Jaina texts, clearly determine their equal status and identical relation in the social life. Moreover, it is known from the Uvasagadasao that the title Mahana or. Mahamahana' was attributed to Lord Mahavira. 1 Mahapurana, Parva, 18, LL-20, 21, 22. ? Avasyaka l'urni, p. 213 f. 3 Uttaradhyayna Tika, 3, p. 57. * 16, 2, 27 a.6 16, 13, p. 194a.. Nisitha Curni, 20, p. 1281. 7 Nisitha Curni, 12, p. 865. 8 Cf. dcaranga Curni-p. 93. Cf. Samyutta, Samana Brahmana Sutta Il 129 f., 236 f;IV p. 234 f, V, p. 9 Uvasa gadasao, 7.

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158 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Like the Jaina texts, the Buddhist works? also assign a similar social status to the Brahmanas, but they place them after the Ksatriyas, while all the Brahmanical literatures offer them the highest position in the society. The Khattiyas The Ksatriyas figure as the ruling caste and occupied the first and foremost position in the society, having formed the rank of the nobles during the time of Lord Mahavira. It is learnt from the Bhs that the following Ksatriya kings had been ruling over different parts of India at that period, viz. Seniya' (Bimbisara) of Magadha, his son, Kunika" (A jatasatru) of Campa, Cedaga(r) of Vaisali, Udayana(r) of Kausambi, Udayana? of Sindhu-Sauvira, his nephew Kesikumara, Mahasena' of Avanti, Bala1o and Siva'l of Hastinapura. Besides these kings, there is the mention of other Ksatriya princes like Jamali's of Ksatriyakundagrama, Abhici Kumaral of Sindhu-Sauvara, Mahabala?4, the son of Bala, and Sivabhadra's, the son of Siva of Hastinapura. The Ksatriyas were divided into several communities, viz. the Ugras (Ugga), the Bhogas (Bhoya), the Rajanyas (Rainna), the Iksvakus (Ilokhaga), the Jnatris (Nata), the Kauravas (Koravva), the Ksatriyas18, the Licchavis and the Mall akis (Licchai and Mallai)". 1 See Nidanakatha (1. p. 49) in which it is stated that the Buddhas are born in one or other of the two higher classes the Khattiyas or the Brahmanas, never in low caste.-Cf. Vajasaneya Samhita (XXXII, 19), and Kathaka (28.5) where the superior position is given to the Ksatriyas rather than to the Brahmanas (Mazumdar, Op. cit. pp. 367, 369. Fick. Op. cit. p. 84 ff); Refer to Dr. G. S. Ghurye's--Caste and Race in India' p. 63 f and the struggle between Vasistha and Visvamitra for the social position. For all these informations see Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons'-by Dr. J. C. Jain p. 140, foot note 9. ? Rgveda X, 90, Y. 12; Manu, 1, 31. 9 Bhs, 1, 1, 6. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 6 16, 7, 9, 300 (Comm.), 12, 2, 441. 6 1b, 12, 2, 441. 7,9 16, 13, 6, 491. 10' Ib, 11, 11, 428. 11 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 11 16, 9, 33, 383. 18 16, 13, 6, 491. 14 10, 11, 11, 429. 15 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 16 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 419; 20, 8, 683 17 16, 7, 9, 300, 301.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The duties of the Ksatriyas as mentioned in stray references of the BhS consisted of study, officiating at coronation ceremony, giving and receiving of presents, governing, fighting and protection of people." In a nutshell, the main function of the Ksatriyas can be summed up by one word "Palayahi" (Protect). The very term 'Ksatriya' (Khattiya) denotes 'Saviour' who is entrusted with the task of protecting the wounded. "Ksatatrane niyukta hi Ksatriyah' Sastrapanayah". It reminds one of the greek word 'Soteros' (saviour) inscribed on the coins of the Bactrian Greek ruler, Diodotus who assumed this honorific title "Diodotoy Soteros" (Diodotus the Saviour).8 The Raghuvamsa of the poet Kalidasa also supports the same denotation of the term 'Ksatriya' as interpreted by the Mahapurana and the Greek legend on the coins of Diodotus. It is stated in this poetic work that the derivation of the word 'Ksatra' which is famous in the world is made from the phrase "protects from injury", the sacred duty of the Ksatriyas. 159 "Ksatat kila trayata ityudagrah Ksatrasya sabdo Bhuvanesu rudhah". So, this most important duty of protecting the people and the state was assigned to the Ksatriyas by the society known to the BhS as it is evidenced by the fact of the highest position 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 9, 429 (Uvanayana); 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 541 2 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, +31; 13, 6, 491 (Consecration). 3 Ib 11, 11, 429. 4 Ib, 9, 9, 330-301; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491 (governing). Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301, (fighting). 6 Ib, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491 (Frotecting, Palayahi). 7 Mahapurana Parva, 16, 243. 8 Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1 (Rapson), p. 404, pt, III, 9, Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, Canto, II, V. 53.

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160 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch, IV of the above mentioned Ksaatriya kings and princes, ruling over their respective states with the assistance of large contin. gents of officials of all grades. Further, the two political events, viz. Mahasilakuntaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sungrama as already mentioned, speak themselves of the most essential duties of the Ksatriyas, who took part in these two wars on behalf of the two fighting camps of Vaisali and Magadha respectively for the protection of economic and political interests of their respective states. Lord Mahavira also infused a spirit of renunciation into the hearts of a number of kings, princess and princesses, who undertook the state of houselessness from that of the worldly life and devoted and dedicated themselves to the search of truth, religion and philosophy for the highest spiritual realization by renouncing the mundane life of materialism. Thus they advanced the cause of the religious movement of that period and made a contribution to the Indian culture and civilization by their religious devotion, spiritual activities and patronization of the ascetic order. Gabavas and Vanik (The Vaisyas) In the social order as revealed in the Bhs next stand the Gahavais" (householders) and Vaniya (merchants) who corresponded to the Vaisyas, the third Varna and formed the rank of the majority of commoners. It appears that the entire system of production of neceSsaries of social life and national wealth was controlled by the members of these two communities, particularly the mercantile class who exercised a great influence on the economic policy of the state.? The Bhs mentions a number of very rich houreholders and merchants and guild-president (Sethi) who were 1 Bhs 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. 1b, 13, 6, 491 ; 11, 9, 417. 3 16, 9, 33, 383-85 ; 11, 11. 431 4 16. 12. 2. 441. o BhS, 2. 1, 90 ; 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144 ; 15, 1, 541. & Ib, 15, 1, 547. 710, 9, 33, 383; 17, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6, 491.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 161 Sramanopasakas, viz. the house holders' Vijaya, Ananda and Sudarsana (or Sunanda) of Rajagrha, Pingalaka of Sravasti," Tamali, the Mauryaputra of Tamralipti, Purana of Bebhela Sannivesa in the Vindhyagiri," Nagaputra Varuna of Vaisali, Rsibhadraputra of the town of Alabhika and others, the well-todo householders of the town of Tungika,' Gangadatta of Hastinapura, Revati of Mendhikagrama, and the merchants, Sankha Srestki, Pokkali and others of Sravasti, 10 Sudarsana Sresthi of Vanijyagrama,11 Karttikadatta Sresthi and eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura's, the four merchants of Sravasti, referred to by Gosala Mankhaliputra in his story related to Ananda, the houseless monk and disciple of Lord Mahavira,18 Duties of the Gahavais and Vaniks Duties of this third social order comprised study!', performing of own worship and sacrifice,1% offering of gifts, 16 cultivation, 17 cattle-breading, 18 trade and commerce19. Hospitality*was considered as the most sacred duty of this class. It is stated in one scene laid in the city of Rajagrha that the three householders named Vijaya, Ananda and Sudarsana individually entertained and honoured Lord Mahavira with abundant food and drink on the days of conclusions of his first, second and third monthly fasts respectively, during the period of his practice of severe a usterities." The reference to four merchants of Sravasti made by Gosala Mankhaliputra clearly shows that the merchants used to * BhS, 15, 1, 541. We find another reading of Sudarsana viz. Sunanda. : 16, 2, 1, 90. 8 16, 3, 1, 134. 16, 3, 2, 144. 6 16, 7, 9, 303. 6 16, 11, 12, 433. 7 16, 2, 5, 107. 8 15, 16, 5, 577. 9 Ib, 15, 1, 557. 10 Ib, 12, 1, 437. 11 16,11, 11, 424. 12 1b, 18, 2, 618, 18 14, 15, 1, 547. 14 16, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144; 7, 9, 303 ; 2, 5, 107, etc. 15 1b, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144; 12, 1, 437, etc. 16 Ib, 2.5, 107. 17 16, 8, 5, 330, etc. 18 Ib. 3, 1, 334 ; 8, 5, 330, etc. 19 16, 2, 5, 107 ; 11, 11, 424 ; 12, 1, 437 ; 15, 1, 547 ; 18, 2, 618. 10 10, 12, 1, 437; 15, 1, 541. 31 lb, 15, 1, 541. 32 14, 15, 1, 547. 21

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162 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA go abroad [Ch. IV from their own city to carry on inland trade, having taken sufficient food, drink and other provisions for journey and their merchandise of various saleable articles, loaded in multitudes of bullock-carts, with the object of gaining much wealth by trade and commerce.1 There is also another indirect evidence to show that a merchant travelled to different countries for external trade and returned home after full sixteen years with abundant wealth of all kinds, such as, gem, jewel, gold and precious stone etc." The very name 'Vaniyagama," the home town of Sudarsana Sresthi carries the idea with it that it was a commercial centre where the mercantile class lived and carried on a voluminous trade throughout the state of its own and abroad. The references to Karttikadatta', the president of an economic guild of eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura, the wealthy and influential merchant, Sankha of Sravasti, the well-to-do Sravakas of the town of Tungika, who increased their wealth by banking business throw sufficient light upon the commercial activities of this mercantile class at different centres of trade and industry in ancient India during the period of Lord Mahavira. Besides these, the BhS, provides a list of the following trades and professions carried on by both the merchants and other tradesmen belonging to the class of Gahavais for earning their livelihood, viz. making of bow and arrow', business in utensils, silk and cotton cloths, gold, bellmetal, pearl, conch, precious stone, coral etc.10, transport business (Bhadikamma), ivory business (Damtavanijja), lac-business (Lakkha-vanijja) traffic in hair (wool etc., Kesavanijja), wine business (Rasa-vanijja), poisonbusiness (Visa-vanijja), crushing work with machinery (Jantapilanakamma, such as sugarcane-crushing), running of brothel 1 BhS, 15, 1, 547. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 424; 18, 10, 647. 51b, 12, 1, 437. 7 Ib, 5, 6, 205. 9 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 2 Ib, 12, 6, 456. 47b, 18, 2, 618. 6 Ib, 2, 5, 107. 8 Ib, 5, 6, 206. 10 Ib, 8, 5, 328.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 163 (csaiposanaya), charcoal making (Ingalakamma), cutting of forest (woods, Vanakamma), making and selling of carts (Salikamma), ploughing (Phodikamma), castrating (Nillamchanakamma),', act of setting fire to the forest (Davaggidavanaya), draining of lake (Saradahatalaya-parisosanaya)', etc. The account of the life of the householders and mercantile class and their respective occupations as given in the BhS is also corroborated by other Jaina texts in which they figure as rich land owners, cultivators and merchants. Thus it is known from the study of those works that a number of agriculturists and merchants, viz. Ananda', a rich land owner of Vanijyagrama, Parasara", a householder known as Krsiparasara, Kuiyanna, another householder, Gosamkhi", a Kufumbi, the lord of the Abhiras and Nanda", a merchant of Rajagyha prospered with their respective professions and wealth. The references to the occupations of this third social order as found in the Bhs and other Jaina texts are also supported by the Buddhistio and Brahmanical works". In the society, like the Ksatriyas, a number of householders and merchants also undertook the state of houselessness after getting themselves initiated to Sramana Dharma and other systems of religion. Thus the text reveals that the householders Tamali's and Purana'got themselves initiated to Panama and Danama Pravrajya initiations respectively, while the merchants i Bhs, 8, 5, 330. Sri Abhayadeva means castration of cattle by this word. 16, 8, 5, 330. These fifteen kinds of occupations were not approved by the religious teachings as embodied in the Bhs, though they were taken up by the people of its society to earn their livelihood. 3 Ovaiya Sutta, 27; CF. Fick. Op. cit, p. 256 ff. See also 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, Fi. 30, p. 143. 4 (Guhavai) Ovaiya Sutta, 27, (Ananda) Uvasagadasao (Lec. 1 Hoerole's Translation). o Uttaradhyayana ?ika, 2, p. 45 6 Avasyaka Curni p. 44. 1 Ib, p. 297. 8 Nayadhammakahao, 13, p. 9 Mahapurana, Parva 16. 141. 10 Buddhist India, Rhys Davids, 11 Manu-Smrti, 1,90, (87-91) Ch. IV, pp. 32-39. 12 BhS, 3, 1, 134, 13 16, 3, 2, 144.

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164 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Sudarsana, Karttikadatta and his eight thousand followers* undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world and attained Sramanahood, after having studied the prescribed Angas and practised severe austerities and meditation according to rules laid down by the Nirgrantha order. In this way they also devoted and dedicated their life to the mission of religion and philosophy for attaining the highest truth and spiritual realization. Their importance in the society lay not only in their contributions to the cause of Indian culture and civilization by their joining the ascetic order and spiritual activities, but it lay more in their valuable services rendered to the state and the people at large in the economic field. They were the backbones of the social structure, supporting its different parts and also the perennial sources of material prosperity which supplied the needs of economic life to the entire society for its existence and continuance by producing daily necessaries of all citizens. Besides these three social orders, the BhS mentions a number of professional castes of lower grades, such as, barbar (Kasavaga), potter (Kumbhagara), weaver (Tamtuvaya)", blacksmith, Mankha (painter and picture-shower), hunter, litterbearer, trapper10, fisherman", Candala", etc., marked out by the pursuits of their respective occupations of low crafts. They probably formed the rank of the Sudras. A list of the following tribes and peoples belonging to different races and nationalities, who were absorbed into the social system of its period, is also presented here. These wereCilatika, Barbarika, Rsiganika, Vasaganika, Pallavika, Lhasika, 1 BhS, 11, 11, 424. Ib, 9, 33, 385. 6 Ib, 16, 1, 562, 8 Ib, 1, 8, 65, 66, 67; 5, 6, 206. 10 Ib, 1, 8, 65. 12 16, 3, 1, 134. 13 Ib, 9, 33, 382. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 539. 2 Ib, 18, 2, 618. Ib, 15, 1, 541. 7 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 9 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 11 Ib, 7, 6, 288. (Pana means Candala; See comm.)

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 165 Lausika, Arabi, Dravidi, Simghali, Pulindi, Puskali, Sabari and Parasi. Conclusion From the above discussion, the position of the Brahmanas in the society does not appear to be superior to that of the Ksatriyas, but they ranked equally with the latter in the front line of the social strata. Like the Ksatriyas and the Vaisyas they possessed abundant wealth to live as rich citizens, even affording the luxury by maintaining a retinue of servants, maids and foreign female slaves belonging to different tribes and nationalities. The Ksatriyas appear as the ruling class, exercising their power and influence over the whole society, while the merchants and the householders controlled the economic life of the society by carrying on trade and commerce, industry and agriculture, and various arts and crafts, and producing the national wealth and necessaries of all citizens. They were the real bases of the social edifice on which stood the superstructure of the society. The BhS also reveals that these three orders stood equal in the eyes of Sramana Dharma, as it is evidenced by the fact of admission of the members of these three castes belonging to both sexes to the Nirgrantha order without any distinction. But there is no evidence to show that the members of lower social grades were admitted to this Sangha. The reference to the foreign female slaves and waiting maids employed in the house of the rich Brahmana, Rsabhadatta clearly shows the racial synthesis between the Indians and outside peoples belonging to different races and nationalities, who were incorporated into the fold of the social system of the period of the BhS. This gradual absorption of these foreign elements in Indian society was one of the most important features of the social evolution of that age which was marked by the catholic spirit of the people.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV The location of different castes in three distinct quarters, viz. Brahmanakundagrama, Ksatriyakundagrama and Vanijyagrama of the city of greater Vaisalz according to the caste basis furnished an additional incentive and gave an impetus to functional organizations of the society and self-government which were natural to all economic occupations, especially industry and commerce. 166 In conclusion it may be said that the society was something like a federation of castes and sub-castes, the members of which retained their individual identities. So the social organization consisted of a large number of groups which had partially been blended together and brought into the same spiritual and cultural system in the evolution of caste, as is made obvious by the fact of absorption of foreign elements in the Indian population of that age culminating in racial synthesis. SECOND SECTION. Asrama (Stage of Life) Of the Varnasramadharma organization of the society, 'Varna' has already been dealt with in the first section of this chapter. Here a discussion will be made on the Asrama' (Stage of life) as revealed in the text. It is known that Varnasrama-Dharma' was based on the capacity of an individual and it was attached to build up the social life. It appears from the BhS that the life of an individual member of the first three orders, namely, the Brahmana, the Ksatriya and the Vaisya (gahavais and Vaniya) was regulated by the Indian traditional four stages of the Vedic texts, viz. Brahmacarya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa (Parivrajaka stage), according to the evolving capacity of human life. These four stages were the guiding principles, each of which provided

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA an opportunity for manifestation of one more primary human desire and exercised a social control over an individual life by developing the best type of personality and making a progressive social order in those days of the past. According to the features of this 'Asrama' the first two predominantly prepared an individual for leading a wordly life, while the last two guided him in attaining his spiritual realization. Thus in the ascending order each stage was a stepping stone to the next one till the highest mission of life might be brought to a successful glorious consummation. The BhS does not categorically specify these four stages of life by their respective names, but they are inferable from the following terms, Bambhaceravasena," 'Guttabambhayari," 'Ghorabambhaceravasi,"3 Gahavai,* 'Agaravasa," Vanapattha Tavasa,' 'Parivvayaga," "Thera's and Anagara-Niggantha" as used in connection with the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira to denote the distinct stages of life. It The first stage was that of Barbhaceravasa10 which denoted the state or life of Brahmacarin (a religious student), occupied the first part of life of an individual (Komariyae)11 i. e. the period from childhood to youth, which was marked by investiture with sacred thread (uvanayana),1a initiation(pavvajjae), observance of celebacy (Bambhaceravas enam)13 and devotion to learning alphabet and study (vinnataparinayamette),14 In the BhS, it is stated that in one of his births Gosala Mankhaliputra, the Ajivika leader attained intelligence even before the piercing ceremony of the ear (aviddhakannae) by getting 16 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 2 1b, 2, 1, 92. Kumarasramana is also used to denote Balabrahmacarin; BhS (comm.), 5, 4, 118; Sadvarsajatasya tasya pravrajitvat. 3 76, 1, 1, 7; 15, 1, 550. 4 16, 3, 1, 134; 7, 9, 303; 15. 1, 540; 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 2, 1, 90 ; 11, 9, 417. 11, 12, 436. Ib, 11, 9, 417. 7 Ib, 1, 2, 25; 2, 1, 90; 8 Ib, 15, 1, 546. 9 Ib, 1, 6, 53; 1, 9, 76; 10 Ib, 9, 31, 365. 18 Th, 15, 1, 550. 167 2, 1, 90; 15, 1. 553; etc. 11 Ib, 15, 1, 550. 14 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 12 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

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168 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV initiated, leading the life of an unmarried religious student and observing continence in youth. "Komariyae pavvajjae komaraenam bambhaceravasenam aviddhakannae ceva samkhanam paailabhami", A great stress has been laid on the attainment of Brahmacarya (chastity) in the text which tells that some one dwells in (practises) pure observance of chastity even without listening to Dharma (religion) explained by a Kevalin (omniscient) and others, and some one does not do so without listening to it." Because he, the partial annihilation and suppression of whose conduct obscuring karmas bas taken place, dwells in pure Brahmacarya withiout listening to the religious discourse of a Kevalin and others, but he, whose conduct obscuring Karmas are not partially annihilated and suppressed, does not attain the chastity without listening to the religion explained by a Kevalin and others. The importance of observance of chastity (Brahmacaryavasa) as laid down in the Bhs is also greatly emphasized by the Chandogya Upanisad'. It teaches thus that "what the people call "Sacrifice' (yajna), Sacrificed' (ista!, Protracted sacrifice' (sattrayana), 'Silent asceticism (mauna), 'a course of fasting' (anasa. kayana), and betaking oneself to hermit life in a forest (aranyayana) are really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge. Because only through this life he attains that worldo (lokal, the soul (Atman), the protection of the real soul (Sat Atman)?, thinks and finds the imperishable soul and Ara and Nyn in the Brahmaloka where is the lake, 'Airan madiyan', affording refreshment and ecstasylo. This Upanisad further lays stress upon the practice of chastity by instructing thus : "Tau ha dyatrimsatam varsani Brahmacaryamusatuh Tau 2 Prajapatiruvaca kimicchautavavasa tam" 211 11 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 28 16, 9, 31, 365. 4.10 Chandogya U panisad, Ch. VIII, banda. 5. 11 1b, Ch. VIII, Kanda, 7. (India and Virocana went to Prajapati and practised Brahmacarya for 32 years). See the 13 principal Upanisads by Robert Ernest Hume, 2nd Edition ; p. 266 ; and for the text see Dasopanisads---edited by the Pandits of the Adyar Library, p. 204, 209.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA According to the nature of this stage of life the students may be classified into two groups, viz. one who studied for a certain period after which he entered the second stage, i. e. the life of householder by getting himself married, as he became grown up and capable of enjoying the worldly life', while the other one was 'Balatavassin" (Balata pasvin) or Kumarasramana who observed celibacy throughout his life which was entirely devoted and dedicated to the pursuits of learning, knowledge, austerity and meditation for the attainment of spiritual realization. 169 Thus it is learnt that prince Mahabala of Hastinapura1 had to undergo the following course of Brahmacarya in the first part of his life, viz. the ceremony of coloyanagam (cudadharanam, tonsure ceremony), uvanayanam (sacred thread ceremony), kalagrahanam (that of learning alphabet) till he became free from boyish state, learned, firm and capable of enjoying the worldly life. Of the second category of the student life it is found that the princess, Jayanti", the aunt of king Udayana of Kausambi remained 'Brahmacarini (maid, observing celebacy) throughout her life and joined the Nirgrantha order, after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma. She devoted and dedicated her life to the search of knowledge, truth and spiritual realization. Similarly there are also other examples of life-long Brahmacarins in the BhS. Thus it is related here that there lived a Balatapasvin named Vesiyayana' outside the town of Kurmagrama by practising austerity, observing fast, raising and holding up his arms, facing the sun and heating (absorbing heat) his body in the sunshine on his Atapanabhumi (the place 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. 1 Ib, 15, 1, 543. 3 1b, 5, 4, 188. 4.5 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 6 Ib, 12, 2, 441. 7 lb, 15, 1, 543. 8 There are two readings 'Kummagama' & 'Kundagama' found in the printed text of the BhS. I accept the reading 'Kummagama' which occurs in all the published Mss. except in one. Moreover all scholars also have accepted this reading. 22

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170 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV of meditation) while Atimukta Kumara-Sramana1, a disciple of Lord Mahavira, was also a student of this class. It thus appears that the acquirement of knowledge and building up of character by man-making education outstading features of the first stage of life. were the Second Stage Marriage distinguished the boundary of the second stage from that of the first one after the completion of education of the student at that period. From this second stage of life followed manifold secular duties of the householder comprising economic pursuits, supporting of family and other institutions, gratification of human desires (kamabhogadana etc.), liberality, offering of gifts, entertainment of guests, relatives and other peoples. But the religious and spiritual aspects of life were not ignored at all. The householder had to perform himself the family sacrifices, such as, 'Balikamma' (worship of house-gods) 'Kautukamangala' (auspicious ceremony) and prayascitta' (expiation) and to offer due worship to ancestors and gods. It was also his duty to study and lead a religious life by observing continence on festival days. In a word, a householder, who may be a Brahmana or a Ksatriya or a Gahavai or a Vanik had his three debts to pay, viz. debts to the people and ascetics, gods and ancestors as they are embodied in the stray references of the BhS. Here is found an idea of the cult of hero-worship in the act of offering oblation to the manes as the prevailing custom of the society. The Raghuvamsa of the poet Kalidasa also has echoed a similar sentiment expressed by the BhS on the ideals of house 1 BhS, 5, 4, 188. at the age of six 2 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 384. 4 I6, 11, 9, 417. (Devayapitikayakajje). A Kumara-Sramana was initiated generally 5 Raghuvamsa V, 10. (Yasmat te sarvesam asramanam Brahmacarya-vanaprasthayatinam-upakare Ksamam-Saktam-ksemain sakte hite trisu iti-Amarah).

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 171 hold life and the highly glorified second stage (gar hasthya) which was able to do service in the benefit of all the Asramas' (i. e. Brahmacarya, Vanaprastha & Yati stages of an individual man). "Kalo hyayam samkramitum dvitryam sarvopakaraksamasramam (V-10). The following examples of the BhS regarding the life of householders present a vivid picture of the second stage which regulated their both individual and social relations in regard to secular and religious aspects of their duties. After the completion of study, when prince Mahabala of Hastinapura' attained his full youth, and became grown up and capable of enjoying the worldly life, his parents, king Bala and queen Prabhavati Devi caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses at the auspicious moment of constellation of the part of the lunar day and provided them with all necessaries of the second stage of life, such as, palaces, palace-staff, wealth, etc. Like prince Jamali' of Ksatriya-Kundagrama, prince Maha. bala also passed his time in the upper palace by enjoying singly desired sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell-the five kinds of human gratification of desires in the company of best young beautiful ladies, dancing and singing throughout the nights of six seasons. Here it seems that 'Desire was the determining principle of this second stage of life, as it is reflected in the arguments advanced by the respective mothers of prince Jamali" and prince Mahabala" in order to dissuade them from undertaking the state of houselessness. They told their respective sons to enjoy abundant sensual gratifications of human desires with their wives and vast wealth and prosperity inherited by them from their respective grandfather and great-grand-father according to their desires. The mother of prince Jamali said to him "so long, son, we live, then later on with our death, being old (i.e. experienced) 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 384. ? 16, 9, 33, 383. 1b, 11, 11, 431. $ 16, 11, 11, 431.

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172 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV in the affairs of increasing family.thread (generation), and desireless............... undertake the state of houselessness." But this human desire could not ensnare the mind of prince Jamali nor that of prince Mahabala, because they realized the futility and transitoriness of these fleeting enjoy. ments and sensual gratification of desires. They did not lose the ideal of the spiritual aspect of the second stage of life, being engrossed in the material enjoyments and involved in secular duties. The knowledge and experience gained in the family affairs led them to the path of religion to attain the highest truth and spirital realization. So they undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world." It is further learnt that king Siva of Hastinapura' who prospered by his sons, cattle, kingdom, army, transport, revenue, treasury, city, inner female apartment, abundant gold, jewel and other kinds of wealth performed his both secular and reli. gious duties due to the state and the people at large. On his realization of the higher truth revealed by the sudden spiritual awakening in his heart, one day he, having placed his son, Sivabhadra in the affairs of the kingdom, undertook the state of Vanaprastha asceticism (asceticism practi. sed by the forest recluses) by renouncing the world for the attainment of spiritual knowledge, truth and final emancipation from the bondage of mundane life. It is further known from the Bhs that Sankha, Pokkali and others, the rich Sramanopasakas of the city of Sravasti passed their life by attending the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira delivered at Kosthaka Caitya and observing the vow of fasting (Pausadhavrata) and continence (Brahmacarya) in addition to their respective household affairs. A more vivid picture of the second stage of life is revealed in the graphic account of the household life led by the Sramanopasakas of the city of Tunjika. They were very rich with i BhS, 9, 33, 384. 3.4 16, 11, 9, 417. * 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 431. 6,6 16, 12, 1, 437-38.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 173 grains etc., famous and possessed many houses furnished with beds and seats, vehicles, abundant wealth and various kinds of precious stones. They increased their wealth by banking business (ayogapayogasam pautta) and were accomplished in many arts. In their houses much food and drink got wasted without consumption due to their plentiness'. They were masters of many male and female slaves and possessors of many cows, buffaloes and quadruped animals; and they were undefeated by many peoples in knowledge and learning, knowers of living and non-living substances ; realizers of virtue and vice (uvaladdhapunna pava), conversant with the doctrines of influx, stoppage and dissociation of Karma, the act of subordinating, bondage and liberation. They were well-established in the Nirgrantha teachings and unchallenged in its knowledge and had no predilection for any other doctrine. They obtained, accepted, asked, ascertained and knew the true meanings and explanations of the Nirgrantha teachings which were their bones and marrows "reddened with love and devotion"S. They were liberal like the high crystal ; their doors were open to others and their entrance into the houses of others was welcomed and pleasing. They purified their souls by observing many vows, such as Salavrata, Gunavrata, Viramanavrata, Pratyakhyanavrata, Pausadhavr ata etc. and performing the acts of complete fasting in Caturda si (fourteenth day of the moon), Astami (eighth day of the moon), Amavasya (the night of no moon), and Purnima (the day of full moo 1). They offered uncontamina ed, pure and desirable food, drink and other dainties, cloth, vessel, blanket, broom (rajaharana), seat, patta (cloth), bed, medicine, etc., to the Sramana-Nirgranthas and passed time by observing acts of austerities and meditation on the self". (Tavokammehis appanam bhavemana viharasti). One day, having learnt about the presence of the ascetics of Lord Parsvanatha's order at the Puspavati Caitya from the 14 BhS, 2, 5, 107.

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174 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV multitudes of people, going there to attend their religious discourses, those Sramanopasakas of the city of Tungika went to them to listen to their holy teachings and entered into a religious discussion with them by putting some questions to them for true explanations, e.g. "what was the fruit of self-control (Samyama) and that of austerity (tava) ?" To their great satisfaction, those Sthaviras (ascetics) explained that the fruit of self-control was the non-influx of karma-matter and that of austerity was the dissociation of Karma.1 Then those Sramanopasakas, being convinced and pleased with these explanations retired to their own city after paying due respect to those ascetics. This account of the ways of living of the Sramanopasakas of Tungika as given in the BhS truly represents the individual, social and religious aspects of household life. There is a similar example of this second stage from which followed manifold activities of a householder. Thus it is learnt that a very rich merchant named Karttikadatta lived in the city of Hastinapura by exercising his authority over eight thousand other merchants as their guildpresident (negama-padhana). They were engaged in manifold activities and professions of secular life, but the religious duties were not ignored by them. They also attended the sermons of the houseless monk, Munisuvrata, delivered in the grove of thousand mango-trees. They being satisfied with the holy teachings of that ascetic got initiated by him to Sramana Dharma and undertook the state of houselessness, after having placed their respective eldest sons in the household affairs and renounced the world." The above evidences remind one of the household life of Ananda of Vanijyagrama as mentioned in the Uvasagadasao.1 1 Bhs, 2, 5, 110. 2.3 Ib, 18, 2, 616. 4 Uvasagadasao, Lec, 1,, Hoernle's Translation. See also Mahavira: His life and teachings by Dr. B. C. Law p. 38-39.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 175 He is said to have "possessed a treasure of four kror measures of gold deposited in a safe place, a capital of four kror measures of gold put out on interest, a well-stocked estate of the value of four kror measures of gold, and four herds, each herd consisting of ten thousand heads of cattle." He was "a person whom many kings and princes and merchants made it a point to refer to, and to consult, on many affairs and matters needing advice,...in short, on all sorts of business. He was also the main pillar, as it were, of his own family, their authority, support, mainstay and guide. In short, he was a cause of prosperity to whatever business he was concerned with." "Ananda had his own Posahasala (fasting-house) in the Kollaga suburb of Vanijyagrama, in the midst of his people of Nata or Jnatri clan." The Bhs and the Uvasagadasao clearly show that an attention was paid to individual, social and religious aspects of a householder's life." Though the desire for sex, progeney and property received the first attention and care in this part of life, yet the spiritual aspect of this stage was not ignored, because the vision of the future was the guiding principle of the householder as conceived in the first stage of 'Brahmacarya' to follow in his day-to-day activities. He had to perform both secular and religious duties to the family, the society and to himself. Thus a balance was maintained in this material life of the second stage. Vanaprastha (Vanapattha, third stage of life) In connection with the austerity practised by the royal sage, Siva of Hastinapura the BhS presents a vivid picture of 1 Uvasagadasao, Lec. 1 Hoernle's Translation. See also 'Mahavira' His life and teachings by Dr. B. C. Law., p. 38-39. 2 Cf. Arthasastra, Book 1, Ch. III, 8. p. 7. It states "the duty of a householder is earning livelihood by his own profession, marriage among his equals of different ancestral Rsis, intercourse with his wedded wife after her monthly ablution, gifts to gods, ancestors, guests and servants and the eating of the remainder",

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176 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA [Ch. IV the life of the third stage called Vanaprastha led by a large number of forest recluses (vana pattha Tavasa), such as, Hottiya (Agnihotrikas), pottia (vastradharinas) upto Disapokkhiya (Disa. proksinas) who passed their time by observing different kinds of asceticism according to various religious faiths.1 A detailed discussion will be made later on about their systems and practices in relation to the subject Various leaders of thought and their philosophies and religious systems' as revealed in this canonical work. It is stated here that onee due to a sudden spiritual awakening in the mind of king Siva,' he realized the truth of transitoriness of the worldly life, pleasure, power and wealth. So, after having placed his son, Sivabhadra in the affairs of his kingdom, the king got initiated by the Disaproksina vanaprastha-Tapasa: (forest recluses who moved by sprinkling water in four directions) to their faith and undertook the ascetic life of the Vana prastha stage by renouncing the world. The Bhs presents a graphic account of the Disaprosina austerity of this third stage of life, practised by the royal sage, Siva, dwelling on the bank of the Ganges with a few necessary articles, such as, flower-basket made from bamboo, iron pot, iron-pan, spoon, tambika (an article of wearing), ascetic utensils, etc." On the day of conclusion of his first Sastha Ksamana vow (two consecutive days' fast), the royal sage, having descended from the Atapanabhumi", put on his bark.cloth (vagalavatthaniyatthe) and came to his hermitage to take the basket in order to pluck flowers, fruits, leaves, etc., for performing sacrifice. Having taken the basket, he first sprinkled the eastern direction with water and prayed to the god, Soma thus, "O Soma, Maharaja of the eastern quarter, protect Siva, the royal sage, who is engaged in collecting the fruits on the path of Sadhana (meditation) of the next life, by protecting (him) permit 14 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 6 The place for meditation.

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177 Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA him to pluck those which are tuberous roots, roots, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, haritakas (terminalia) etc.". Thus having advanced towards the eastern direction, he plucked those things and filled his basket with them. Then after collecting the Darbha grass, Kusa-grass and Samidha (firewood for sacrifice), Patra-motam (broken leaves with branches of tree), he returned to his own hermitage and placed the basket filled with flowers, fruits etc. on the ground. After that, having wiped off, besmeared, swept and purified his sacrificial altar with water, he went to the Ganges with a water-jar and Darbha-grass to take bath and purify himself by playing with the sacred water, sprinkling and sipping it according to the prescribed religious process. Then having performed the work (worship) of gods and ancestors (Devayapitikayakajje), he emerged from the Ganges and returned to his own hermitage with the sacrificial jar filled with water and Darbha-grass. He made next the altar with the Darbha and Kusa grasses, and sands, rubbed Arani with Saraka3 (the rubbing wood) to kindle fire for performing sacrifice. Having kindled fire by this process he caused it to rise & cast the Samidha wood into it. And thus he, having blazed the fire brought near the altar seven articles of sacrifice (angas), viz. Sakaha (Sakatha-a kind of article), Bakkalam (bark of tree), thana (Jyotisthanam, Patrasthanamva), Sijja (bed, Sayyabhanda), Kamandalu (water pot of ascetic made of wood or earth), Dandadaru (Stick-Dandaka), then Panam (drink) and worshipped the fire with honey and clarified butter and rice and cooked caru (oblation of rice prepared with buttermilk for offering to gods and manes). Then he worshipped Vaisvanara, the fire-god with the oblation of caru, entertained and honoured guests first with it, and he took himself food last of all. 12 BhS, 11, 9, 417. s 1b, 11, 9, 417. Avani and Saraka are two kinds of firewood. In ancient days the people used to kindle fire by rubbing 4 them against each other. Ib, 11, 9, 417. 23

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178 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Exactly in the same manner the royal sage, Siva performed sacrifices on the days of conclusions of his second, third and fourth fasts (Sasthaksamana) respectively. The particular difference is that he sprinkled the southern, western and northern directions and prayed to Yama, the lord of the South, Varuna, the lord of the West, and Vaisramana, the lord of the North on the days of conclusions of the second, third and fourth fasts in succession, while collecting flowers, fruits, leaves, sacrificial fire-wood, etc. These are the essentinl features of the third stage of life as revealed in the Bhs. It appears from the above evidences of Vanaprastha ascetic life of the royal sage, Siva that the class corresponding to this stage was the Ksatriya caste and the statesmen whose spiritual urge led them to their retirement to asceticism. The same view on the adoption of the Vanaprastha life is also expressed by the poet, Kalidasa in his Raghuvansa' in which it is said thus, "Then that king Dilipa, having offered the white royal parasol to his young son, king Kakuda, according to custom, took shelter of the Vanaprastha-Asrama together with his wife, Sudaksini. This retirement to forest was the family vow of the old Ilsvakus".. -Atha sa visayavyavsttatma yathavidhi sunave / Nfpatikakudam dattya yune sitatapavaranam | Munivanatarucchayam devya taya sa ha sisriye / galita vayasam Iksvakunamidam hi Kulavratam" (III-70). The Raghuvaria further tells that king Aja', having odered the modest prince, Dasaratha dressed in armour, in the matter of protection of the people according to the Sastras became Prayopavesanamati (having the mind to die in unmoving sitting position), desiring to end the suffering of his body wrecked by disease. "Samyag-vinitamatha varmahavam Kumaramadisya raksanavidhau vidhivat-prajanam / 1 Raghuvamsa, ili, 70. * Ib., VilI, 94.

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Sec. II] STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Rogopasrstatanudurvasatim mumuksuh prayopavesanamatih nrpatih babhava" (VIII-94). The same sentiment of the Raghuvamsa regarding the third stage of life is echoed also in the Padmapurana' where it is said that king Dasaratha too desired to retire to forest after getting initiated to asceticism, having realized the old stage of his life. "Tada Dasaratho bhito bhrsam samsaravasatah......... .........Samsatpravrajamiti niscitam" (vv. 77 to 80). So he ordered his ministers and other high dignitaries of his state to consecrate his first son, Rama as king quickly in the protection and governace of the kingdom so that he might enter the tapovana (forest of austerity) without any hindrances. 179 "Abhisincata me putram prathamam rajyapalane / Tvaritam yena nirvighnam pravisami tapovanam" (v. 90) || The above evidences of the BhS corroborated by the Raghuvamsa and the Padmapurana clearly show that at the Vanaprastha stage a householder retired from the worldly life into the forest and began a new course of life as a hermit, having a mind free from attachment to desires, pleasures and enjoyments but concentrated on renunciation and self-purification. At this stage he led a life of dignity, calm and partial seclusion by devoting and dedicating himself to meditation for his spiritual progress. Thus the Vanaprastha life of self-restraint and self-denial as incidentally referred to in this work is characterized by dis tinctive marks, such as, non-possession, continence, living in forest in solitude on its natural foodstuffs i.e. fruits, leaves, roots, etc., restraint of mind, speech, body (action). wearing of bark.cloth (vagalavatthaniyatthe) to cover nakedness, non-injury to living beings as far as possible, fasting, performance of sacrifice, entertaining of other ascetic-guests with 'caru' and practice of austerities and meditation according to the prescribed rules of religious systems. 13 Padmapurana, VV, 77 to 80. * BhS, 11, 9, 417. 8 1b, V. 90.

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180 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV These evidences of distinctive marks of the Vanaprastha life are also corroborated by the Arthasastra in which it is stated that the duty of a forest recluse (Vanaprastha) is "observance of chastity, sleeping on the bare ground, keeping twisted locks, wearing of dear skin, fire-worship, ablution, worship of gods, ancestors and guests and living upon food stuffs procurable in forests." This third stage of austerities and meditation prepared the ground for further spiritual progress of the forest recluse towards his attainment of final emancipation from the worldly bondage in the fourth Asrama called Sannyasa. Fourth Stage of Life (Parivrajaka-Anagara). The BhS gives a graphic account of the fourth stage of life of an individual by making incidental references to the undertaking of the state of houselessness by the forest recluse, Siva (Vanaprastha tapasa) and the ascetic (Parivvayaga). Skandaka of the city of Sravasti respectively. The term 'Parivvayage's used here and in other texts' denotes the ascetic of the fourth stage, who has renounced the world completely and devoted and dedicated himself to the attainment of perfect knowledge, truth, highest spiritual realization and final liberation from the bondage of mundane life. In the Vanaprastha stage one day sometime 'Vibhangajana' (transcendental knowledge with an unbeliever) of the royal sage Siva was born in him, while practising austerities. He saw only seven islands and seven seas in the Universe with the help of that awakened knowledge, but beyond that he did not see and know anything else. 1 Arthasastra, Book I, Chapter III, 9, p. 9 2 BhS, 11, 9,417-18. Ib, 2, 1, 90-96; 1, 2, 25; 2, 1, 90; 11, 12, 436. 4 Arthasastra, Book 1, Ch. III-9; Panini (VI. 1. 154) puts the Parivrajaka into the third stage, while he refers to the Bhiksu belonging to the fourth stage; Vide India as known to Panini by Dr. V.S. Agrawala, Ch. III Secion-2, p. 81.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 181 So he thought that he attained the last knowledge and intuition (Atisesa-jana-darsana) and proclaimed himself to the people of Hastinapura as the attainer of these two spiritual objects, after coming out of his hermitage from the forest on the bank of the Ganges. Having listened to this matter in the presence of many people of that city talking about it, the houseless monk, Gautama, Indrabhuti, the first disciple of Lord Mahavira reported the whole incident to his Master who was passing time in the mangogrove called 'Sahasambavana' situated in that city. On his request to know the truth regarding the existence of only seven islands and seven seas as declared by the royal sage, Siva, Lord Mahavira explained in the assembly of his followers that there were more islands, such as, Jambudvipa, etc., and more seas, such as, Lavana-Samudra etc., including those seven islands and seven seas. The message of this holy teaching of the Master immediately got circulated among the people of the city of Hastinapura who talked about it to one another, standing on the streets. Having listened to this matter in their presence the royal sage, Siva became doubtful about his own spiritual knowledge and intuition. So he at once went to Lord Mahavira to know himself the true explanation regarding the number of islands and seas in the Universe. He was convinced of the holy teaching of explanation of the Master on the subject and satisfied with his religious discourse. Then the royal sage got initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana-Dharma and undertook the state of houselessness, the main characteristic of Sannyasa (ascetism of the fourth stage). He attained spiritual emancipation by practising various acts of austerities and meditation. Though this evidence of asceticism practised by the royal sage according to the Nirgrantha-religion does not truly represent the picture of the fourth stage of life as depicted in the Vedic texts, yet it gives an insight into the

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182 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV fact that the Vanaprastha stage of Siva guided him further in attaining the final spiritual realization. There are references to the actual operation of the fourth stage of life in the Bhs as found in the cases of Parivrajaka Skandaka? of Sravasti and Pudgala Parivrajaka of Alabhika'. Skandaka resided in the Parivrajakavasati (matha, ascetic's residing place), in the city of Sravasati and passed time by practising austerities and meditation, having possessed Tridanda (three staves), Kundika ( Kamandalu = water pot ), Kaficanika (Rudraksamala = rosary), Karotika (earthen vessel), Bhrfika (grass seat), Kefarika (duster), Saanalika (Trikasthika= an article), Ankusa (axe), Pavitraka (staining cloth or ring), Ganetrika (a kind of ornament or rosary, Chhatra (umbrella), U panaha (shoes), Paduka (wooden sandals), and Dhaturaktavastra (red-coloured garment). One day this Skandaka, being unable to answer to the question of Pingala ka, a disciple of Lord Mahavira, whether the Universe was finite or infinite, etc., went to the Master who was staying by this time at the Chatrapalasaka Caitya outside the city of Kajangala to have the true explanation of the same. Having been satisfied with the holy teachings on the subject he got initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana. Dharma to undertake the state of houselessness. After practising various acts of austerities and meditation for many years he attained the highest spiritual realization and liberation. These examples give an idea of the fourth stage of life as it was in actual operation in the society. Side by side the Bhs presents a picture of the state of houselessness of the Nirgrantha order, as it is evidenced in the greetings accorded to prince Jamali by the people on his way to Bahusalaka Caitya to get initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma in order to take to ascetic life. The people greeted him by saying thus "you conquer the uuconquered senses with unbroken and best knowledge (jriana), WY. 1 BhS, 2, 1, 90. * 10, 11, 12, 436.

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Sec. II] 183 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA right attitude to truth (darsana) and conduct (caritra), dwell in the midst of perfection, kill the wrestler in the form of attachment and jealousy by austerity and firmly bound patience, destroy eight Karmas by best pure meditation, becoming careful without being swayed by passion. "O steady, hold the flag of worship inside the theatre hall of the three worlds, attain pure and best omniscience, emancipation, the best position by the straight road to perfection as instructed by the excellent Jina by defeating the army of twenty-two Parisahas (forbearances), let there be no hindrances of thorns of senses on the path of your religion." The mother of Jamali advised him thus, "self-control should be practised, passion should be conquered, exertion should be made," while offering him as the highest alms to Lord Mahavira. Thus it is clear that both the Brahmanical and Nirgrantha systems of asceticism, having the same ideal of liberation were in operation side by side in the society influencing each other. Thus the fourth stage of life as reflected in this canonical work carries the conception of complete renunciation of all worldly desires, pleasures and enjoyments by mind, speech and body (action) of the ascetic who fully devoted and dedicated himself to the spiritual pursuits by practising austerities and meditation on soul for the attainment of omniscience, the highest truth and liberation from the mundane life. This spiritual urge for emancipation infused a spirit of self-control, self-discipline, complete renunciation and detachment from the worldly desires and a spiritual freedom into the heart of an individual ascetic and led him to work out his salvation by studying the religious texts, practising severe austerities and meditation on the infinite, pure and perfect immortal soul. Thus it is revealed that the fourth stage made an individual a free and perfect man with a resurrected soul who was 1.2 BhS, 9, 33, 385.

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184 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV above truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain and did not desire this world or the next one nor the mundane existence, but aspired after attaining the pure state of soul and liberation. The Arthasastra' expresses the same views on the fourth stage of life. It states that the duty "of an ascetic retired from the world (Parivrajaka) is complete control of the organs of sense, abstaining, disowning money, keeping away from society, begging in many places, dwelling in forest and purity both internal and external" The references to these four stages of life in the Bhagavati Sutra (BhS) clearly show how the individual and social life was led and what were the social circumstances, prevailing at that time. The greatness of this Varnasrama system lay in the fact that it was not only a translation into form, but it was in the actual practice of life of the society. But here this organization is not prescribed in this canonical work. Thus the spirit of Varnasrama-Dharma illustrated itself in the system of life into stages, because spiritualism dominated the whole individual, social and political aspects of life of the people of that period. So they did not like to die in their houses but desired to attain Moksa', the ultimate goal of human life outside the household surroundings. THIRD SECTION Social Structure and Family Relations. Social Structure The social structure as revealed in the BhS consisted of Janapada (state), Varna (social order), Jati (caste), Gotra (origin), Jnati (kinsman), Kula (family), Vamsa (lineage), and Gahavai (householder). 1.2 Arthasastra, Book 1, chapter III, 9.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 185 Janapada (State) It has already been explained in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions that a Janapada or a Mahajanapada referred to in the Bhs was an autonomous political unit. The study of this text shows that a citizen of a Jana pada was distinguished by its name, as it is known by the fact that the two disciples of Lord Mahavira named Sarvanubhuti (Savvanubhui) and Sunaksatra (Sunakkhatta ) were called "Painajanavae''! (Pracinajanapada) and "Kosalajanavae'' (Kosalajanapada) respectively, i. e, they were the citizens of their own individual states. In this connection the epithet Vesalie's, attributed to Lord Mahavira in reference to his designation, is of great interest bearing a historical value. Sri Abhayadeva Surie explains Vesalie' (Vaisalika) by Lord Mahavira and in fact as metronymicum", "Visala Mahavirajanani" ; "Vesaliya-Savae Visala Maha. virajanani tasya apatyamiti Vaisalikuh Bhagavan, tasya vacanam srnoti tadrasikatvat iti Vaisalika Sravakah". The historic and social association of Lord Mahavira with this city is thus suggested by this epithet "Vesalie", which leads one to conclude that he was born in Vaisali and so he came to be known by the name of his state. Even some of the female slaves employed in the service of the rich aristocratic family of the Brahmana, Rsabhadatta? were distinguished by the names of their respective states (or countries), e, g. Cilaiya (Kiratika), Arabi (Arabian), Singhali (Ceylonese), and Parusi (Persian, of Parasa country= Persia). Varna and Jati (Order and caste) The Varna (Vanna) and "Jati' as referred to in the Bhs were the next component parts of the social structure existing during its period. 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 553. 8.4 Ib, 2, 1, 90 ; 12, 2, 441. o Weber, Indian Antiquary Vol. XVII, Dec. 1888, P. 345. & See Bhs, commentaty 2, 1, 90. ? BKS, 9, 33, 382. 8 1b, 15, 1, 557. 9 16, 2, 5, 108; 109 (Jati). 24

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186 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV It has already been discussed in the first section of this chapter that these two terms are often used in the BhS to denote the caste of an individual member of the society. Gotra (Ancestral family) According to the order of the social formation, after the Jati, there comes the Gotra (Gatta) to which the members of a family traced their origin in the distant past. Jnati (Kinsman) The Jaati (nati) generally signified all relations on the parents' sides or particularly the Kinsmen (Paternal relations). Kula (family) The Kula was the next important unit of the community round which rotated the whole social structure consisting of its different component parts. It was the nucleus of the society which was formed of a group of families, each having several members of its own under the guardianship of the father' or in his absence the eldest son." Joint family The text shows that the society as depicted in it was characterized by the joint family system which was prevailing during its period. It further reveals that there existed three classes of family, viz. high, low and middle class families (uccaniyamajjhimaim kulaim)' as distinguished by their respective economic and social status from one another. Vamsa (Natural Lineage) In the society great importance has been attached to Vamsa's on both the sides of the father and the mother, along with the 'Kula' from the point of view of the natural lineage and social and cultural position. 1 BhS, 1. 1. 7; 2, 1, 90 (Goyamasrgottenam, Kaccayana gottenam). Ib, 3, 1, 134. Ib, 2, 5, 108; 109. 4.5 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12 2, 441. 7 Ib, 15, 1, 540, 41. 13, 6, 491; 15. 1, 540. 6 Ib, 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491; 8 Ib, 2, 5, 108-9.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Gahavai (Householder) The householder', who was generally the father or in his absence his eldest son (Jetthaputta), was the head of the family, the smallest social unit, having the full responsibility deciding authority, care and charge of the welfare of all its members. Family Relations The Bhs presents a good account of a wider sphere of family relationsbip formed of great-grandfather, grandfather (Ajjaga pajjaga-piu-pajjagae),' mother and father (Ammapiyaro)," aunt (l'iuccha), son (putte, Attae, Jaya), husband (Bhatta),' wife (Bhajja, daughter (Dhiya), nephew (Bhattijjae, Bhainojja),10 daughter-in-law (Sunha)," sister-in-law (Nananda, Bhaijia)," brother-in-law (Sambandhi), 13 and grandson (Potte, Nattue),"" The mother was the object of more love and honour than father in the family, for the term "Amma" (mother of the compound word Ammapiyaro).5 is generally used before the term "Piya" (father). The sphere of family relation was also extended to the friends, kinsmen and relatives (mittanatiniyaga)16 and even to the attendants (pariyana)"? who were included in its gradation in the larger social circle. Family servants. In the list of the family members the BhS refers to several classes of servants and maids who have already been mentioned in connection with the topic <Page #213
188 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV appear as the members of the retinues of the Brahmani, Devananda1 and the queen, Mrgavati respectively. These servants, maids and female slaves formed thus the part of the contingent of the palace-staff in the royal household or they were employed in the service of the rich aristocratic families or in the houses of the well-to-do merchants, as it is revealed in the BhS and corroborated by the evidences of Panini," the Arthasastra(r) and the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana." Guests Hospitality to both the invited and uninvited guests and ascetics was the most important feature of the family life as depicted in the BhS. It was regarded as the cardinal virtue of a householder to entertain and honour the guests with various kinds of food, drink and other presents in order to earn the spiritual merit (punya) out of a good action.8 This text presents a vivid picture of the custom of welcoming, entertaining and honouring the guests and ascetics by the householders with great warmth of heart and modesty on their arrival at the houses of the hosts." A discussion on this topic of the manner of welcoming guests will be made later on in connection with the subject 'Hospitality to guests' as revealed in the BhS. Here it may be stated in short that a distinguished guest like a king1o or noblell or friend-kinsman-relative or a co-religionist 18 or a monk was highly honoured with proper decorum and devotion. a 1 BhS, 9, 33, 382. 2 Ib, 12, 2, 441. 9.4 Ib, 9, 33, 382; 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430. 5 Refer to India as known to Panini' by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 97-8. Panini III, 2, 21, (Kimkara). See Ganapatha (II, 2, 9 & VI, 2, 151, Yajakadi group, IV, 4, 48; IV, 1, 146; VII, 3, 4; IV, 4, 17; VI, 3, 60. 6 Arthasastra 43, Ch. XI, p. 41. 7 Kamasutra, See Haran Chakladar's studies in Kamasutra. 8 BhS, 8, 6, 332. 9 Ib, 15, 1, 541 10.11 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 13, 6, 491. 12 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 18 Ib, 12, 1, 438. 11, 11, 429; 13, 6, 491. 14 76, 15, 1, 541, 557.

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Sec. III] stubies IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 189 Succession It has already been discussed in connection with the royal succession in the fourth section of the third chapter on *Political conditions' that the law of primogeniture was generally operating in the case of the royal family. On the retirement of the kings, his eldest son was usually placed by him in the affairs of the state to succeed to his property. In the noble and rich families and other common households the same law of primogeniture determined the matter of succession to the father's property inherited from the grandfather and great-grandfather, as it is evidenced in the cases of prince Jamalr" of Ksatriyukundagrama, Tamalii of Tamralipti, Purana of Bebhela Sannivesa and Karttikadatta? of Hastinapura. Conjugal life . The Bhs presents a picture of a happy family life in which the husband and wife were the equal religious partners. The wife never stood on the way of her husband's resolution to undertake the state of houselessness by renouncing the world with a view to attaining spiritual emancipation. On the other hand she followed her husband as a devoted companion on the path of religion. Thus she helped him in every possible way she could do in relation to this stage of life by creating a serene and peaceful environment in the family. The husband also regarded her as the co-partner of bis life's journey, but he never considered her as a condemned thing in the worldly affairs. Thus it is found that king Seniya (Srenika-Bimbisara) and queen Cellana of Magadhas, and king Udayana and his wife, 1 BhS, 11, 9, 417. There is an exception in the case of the prince, Abhijit, the son of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira who installed his own nephew, the prince Kesi-Kumara on the throne by putting aside the rightful claim of his own son on the ground of his spiritual welfare. 2 1b, 9, 33, 384; 3, 1, 134. 8 16, 15, 1, 540. 416, 9, 33, 384. 5 I6, 3, 1, 134. 6 16, 3, 2, 144, 116, 18, 2, 618. 8 16, 1, 1, 4,

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190 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV queen Prabhavati Devi of Sindhu-Sauvira' made pilgrimages to Lord Mahavira to attend his holy sermons delivered in the two assemblies of his followers at the Gunaiilaka Caitya outside the city of Rajag?ha and at Mrgavana in the city of Vitibhaya respectively. When king Udayana undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world, after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira to the Nirgrantha-religion, Prabhavati Devi did not stand on his way as an obstacle to dissuade him from hi resolution, Besides these instances, the Bhs presents other brilliant pictures of conjugal love, devotion, fidelity and ideal relationship between the husband and wife belonging to the three classes of families, viz. high, low and middle (uccaniyamajjhimari Kulaim)". Thus in one scene it is depicted how Bala, the king of Hastinapuras welcomed his queen, Prabhavati Devi on her approach to him in his bed-chamber in order to reveal the incident of her auspicious dream by which she was awakened from her sleep at midnight. She was first received, seated on an auspicious seat and comforted by him with sweet words of love and honour and then she was inquired about the cause of her unexpected visit to him in an animated mood at such a time. She gracefully submitted to him the whole account of her dream of a vision of a lion having a beautiful figure and descending and speaking own words. According to his own intelligence king Bala interpreted this mark of dream thus that she would give birth to a great male child and then he congratulated the queen with these words that she was fortunate. In another scene laid at Brahmanakundagrama a happy picture of co-partnership of the husband and wife in work and worship is presented in the rich aristocratic Brahmana family of Rsabhadatta'. | Bhs, 13, 6, 491. $ 10, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 15, 1, 540. 4 16, 9, 33, 380-82.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 191 It is to be observed with a great admiration how he reported to his wife, Devananda the account of his attending the holy sermons of Lord Mahavira, delivered at the Bahusalaku Caitya, immediately after returning from there with a glad. dened heart. Then Rsabhadatta drove together with Devananda in a bullock-cart to the said Cuityto attend the holy teachings of the Master with a burning spiritual urge. They, being pleased and satisfied with the religious discourse of Lord Mahavira, got initiated by him and joined his ascetic order by renouncing the world'. In the middle class family of Samkha and Utpala?, the Sramanopasaka and Sramangpasika of Sravusti also, a burning example of a happy conjugal life is found thus that they led an ideal life of the husband and wife with mutual love, faith, devotion and honour endowed with the richness and glow of their pious hearts in the worldly affairs and worship. Even in the low class houseless wandering family, like that of Mankha Mankhali and Bhadras, the parents of Gosala Mankhaliputra, such a peaceful and happy relation existed between this couple that they had borne all hardships and poverty of their household life with calmness, patience and unflinching faith in and devotion to each other in their up and down journeys of the mundane world. But these material sufferings could not lead to the breach of the family peace and their separation from each other. Thus it is stated that the houseless Mankha Mankbali, accompanied by his pregnant wife, Bhadra, took shelter in the cowshed of the Brahmana Gobahula at Saravana, after wandering from village to village, to pass the rainy season there, without getting any residence anywhere in that town. It was here in this cowshed that their son, Gosala Man. kbaliputra was born to them in the midst of poverty, hardships i Bhs, 9, 33, 382. $ 10, 15, 1, 540. * 10, 12, 1, 437-38. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 540.

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192 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV and misery. Even under these pecuniary circumstances they marched together on the journeys of life, experiencing all sorts of suffering by holding the ideal of the sacred union of the husband and wife and their life-long companionship before them. Only one instance of infidelity of the wife has indirectly been referred to in the text. An another man enjoys the wife of a Sramanopasaka' in his absence. But the effect of this sinful act does not affect him, because he is not attached to his wife or any other worldly object. But it does not at all reflect upon the general moral breakdown of the family life. On the contrary it may safely be said that the conjugal life as depicted above appears to be an abode of love and peace reigning over the whole family. Relation among different members of the family In the society, as depicted in the BhS, reverence, devotion and unquestioned obedience to the parents were regarded as the highest natural duties of the son, for it was the spontaneous consequence of the seemly behaviour and great veneration towards all the elders of the family." Even when a son desired to undertake the state of houselessness by renouncing the worldly life, he did so with the permission of his parents who themselves arranged and performed the consecration ceremony of his departure from the state of houseness with great pomp and grandeur. They also accompanied him on his way to the taking of ascetic life to offer him as the highest alms to his future religious teacher, as it is evidenced in the case of the prince, Jamali, who was presented by his parents to Lord Mahavira. It was the duty of the parents to bring up their son with best care, attention and education in the first part of his life till he reached the stage of youth and became capable to shoulder the responsibilities of the family and to gratify the five kinds of human desires,' viz, sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell. 1 BhS, 8, 5, 328. 1b, 9, 33, 384 ; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491-92. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 384-385, 4' Ib, 11, 11, 429,

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Sec. III) STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SUTRA 193 Then the parents married their son with the best girl' belonging to the family of their equal status and placed him in the household affairs by providing him with all necessaries for the second stage of his life marked by the marriage, as it is found in the case of the prince, Mahabula of Hastinapura?. So the sweet and happy relation between the parents and the son was based on their reciprocal love, natural duties, and moral obligations called upon by the secular life. The Bhs presents a vivid picture of the outpourings of the mother's spontaneous love for her son in a scene laid at Ksatriyakundagrama. It is stated here that when the prince, Jamali, being frightened by the worldly fear, birth, old age and death, expressed his desire to his parents to undertake the state of houselessness from that of houseness with their permission, his mother, having heard this unwelcome, uncharming and unheard request of her dear son began to perspire, became pale, then swooned and fell down at once on the ground. She was very quickly brought to consciousness by her attendants through sprinkling cold water over her eyes and fanning (air) with a palm-leaf fan Then she, being consoled by them, tried to persuade her son to give up his resolution of undertaking the state of houselessness and told him, weeping and lamenting thus "you are, son, our only son", "we do not like your separation for a moment even, stay so long, son, we live, then later on, with our death, being old in the affairs of the increasing family.thread (tantu), desireless and initiated in the presence of Lord Mahavira, undertake the state of houselessness from that of houseness."4 In this connection a great religious discussion took place between the prince, Jamali and his parents in the form of arguments and counter-arguments on the futility and transitoriness of this worldly life and its material enjoyments. But the prince carried his points with his unanswerable arguments and convinced his parents of the validity of his reasons. i Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 25 ? 10, 11, 11, 430. 8.4 16, 9, 33, 384.

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194 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV So they, being disappointed, finally permitted his leaving the world to undertake the ascetic life. Even in a low family like that of the houseless Mankha couple. Mankbali and Bhadral there is found an account of the natural parental love towards their only son, Gosala Mankhali. putra in full brim of their hearts, as it is manifested in their loving care and attention for him with their meagre means. Because the child is the beam of light of happiness, rich in meaning and hope even in a poorest family. The Bhs clearly shows that. very cordial relation existed between the parents and the son in the family life at that period. But in one case, as already pointed out in connection with royal succession in the third chapter on Political conditions', it is learnt that a disgruntled son, like the prince Abhijit Kumara' entertained a feeling of animosity towards his father, king Udayana af Sindhu-Sauvira, for he was deprived by his father of his rightful claim to the throne according to the law of primoge ture. The king placed his nephew, Kesikumara in the affairs of his kingdom instead of his own son, the natural heir-apparent to the throne on the ground of his spiritual welfare. The prince, Abhijit Kumaras submitted to the pious wish of his father with a wounded feeling without showing any sign of revolting attitude and disrespect towards him. The text also throws light upon the happy relatioaship existing among the other members of the family, and friends (mitta), kinsmen (nati) one's own man (niyaga) blood relations (sayana, brother-in-law (sambandlii) and attendants or dependents (pariyana)', as it is evidenced in the common family gatherings, taking of meals together and entertainments on the occasions of the social or religious ceremonies, such as, the celebrations of the birth of a new born child', of marriage, of consecration, and of departure for undertaking the state of houselessness', etc i Bhs, 15, 1, 540. ? 16, 13, 6, 491. 9 lb, 13, 6, 492. 4 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429, 16, 5, 577; 18, 2, 618. Ib, 11, 11, 429. 10, 11, 11, 430. 7 10, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144 ; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491; 16, 5, 577 ; 18, 2, 618.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 195 The picture of the family life as depicted in the BhS is also found in other Jaina texts. In addition they give some brilliant examples of the joint family system, the natural devotion and honour and duty of the sons to their parents, and relationship among the brothers. Thus the Nayadhammakahao1 refers to a big joint family of a merchant consisting of his four sons and daughters-in-laws and its other members. They were living together very happily with mutual love, devotion and duties to one another. The merchant was very anxious about the future fate of his dear joint family as to who would maintain and continue the unity and integrity of his happy house after his death. It is learnt from the Sthananga Sutra that the greatest reverence was paid by the sons and daughters to the parents who were regarded like the master, religious teacher and god. So, it was the natural duty of the sons and daughters to serve them with best care and attention by giving them bath, dressing, decorating and entertaining them with eight kinds of cooked food. There is also a reference to the salutation by the children to the father, having touched his feet (payavandaya) everyday, because he was like a teacher and a god to them and his life was more precious to the rest of the family". The mother was also held in great esteem in the society as depicted in other Jaina texts in one of which it is found that king Pusanandi paid his reverence to his mother and used to take his bath and meal after his mother had enjoyed them first(r). As regards the relation among the brothers, it is learnt from the Nayadhammakahao' that the Brahmana brothers named 1 Nayadhammakahao, 7, p. 84 f. 2 Sthananga Sutra 3, 1, 135. Cf. Nayadhammakahao 1, 13; 16, 176. 3 Sthananga Sutra 3, 1, 135. Cf. Nayadhammakahao 1, 13; 16, 176. 6 Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain. 7 Nayadhammakahao 16, p. 162, for all these references, see Life in Ancient India, pp. 146, 147. Ib, 18, p. 213. 5 1b, 18, p. 213.

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196 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Soma, Somadatta and Somabhuti of the city of Campa used to take their meals in one another's house by turn in order to maintain a happy family relation, although they had their respective separate families. The features of the domestic relation as revealed in the Bhs and the other Jaina texts are also corroborated by the evidences of the Arthasastral and the Asokan Edicts. Conclusion Though the Bhs presents a picture of a happy family life without any breach of peace in it, still it is a matter of conjecture that the peaceful atmosphere of the royal family of the Ksatriya princes might have been affected by the existence of polygamy which might have probably led to the suppression of natural freedom of love of the wife by lowering her honourable position in course of time. It is learnt that eight separate royal household establishaments furnished with a contingent of the palace-staff and attendants and other necessaries of life were maintained by each of the princes, Jamali' and Mahabala' for their respective eight wives, probably with the apprehension, lest there might treak out any trouble and quarrel among them. The union of eight wives endowed with heterogeneous sentiments, behaviours, cultures and education possibly changed the character of the peaceful homelife. It should carefully be observed that even the rich environment of luxury and pleasure of the royal family could not dissuade the princes-Jamali and Mahabala from their undertaking the state of houselessness, as the sensual gratification of desires appeared to them impure and non-eternal. 1 Arthasastra 48, p. 47; Cf. Ib., p. 190. 9 Rock Edict III; Yerragudi Minor Edict ; Rock Edict IV and others. * Bhs, 9, 33, 384. Ib, 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA FOURTH SECTION Dream, Pregnancy and Celebrations of Birth and Marriage. Dream 197 It appears from Bhs that there was the popular belief in dreams current among the people of the society as depicted in this canonical work. It was the general belief at that period that the mothers of Tirthankara or Cakravartin, Vasudeva, Baladeva and Mandalika woke up by dreaming fourteen, seven, four and one of the following great dreams just after the birth of embryo in the wombs of their respective mothers, viz. elephant, bull, lion, consecration of Laksmi, flower garland, the moon, the sun, flag, water-jar (kumbha), lotus-lake, sea, heavenly palace, heap of gems and burning fire1. This account of the fourteen great dreams is also corroborated by the evidence of the Kalpa Sutra which also gives the same list of fourteen dreams. So, according to the Svetambara tradition there are fourteen great dreams, but the Digambara one mentions sixteen great dreams by adding two more objects, viz. a royal seat marked with a lion's head (Simhasana) and a palace of snakes or of the king of snakes (Nagabhavana). The Digambaras designate the consecration of Laksmi under the word 'disagaya' i. e. Goddess Laksmi, being bathed in waters from the trunks of the elephants of the quarters. There is another instance of the belief in dreams referred to in the BhS that Lord Mahavira once woke up from his sleep, having perceived the following ten objects in his dream during the period of the stage of his finite knowledge (chadmasthakala), viz. (1) One big frightful and spirited Tala-Pisaca (devil) 1 Bhs, 16, 6, 579. 2 Kalpa Sutra 4. 3 See Mahapurana of Puspadanta Vol. 1, Notes III, 5. pp. 40-41; 600-601; See also Skt. Mahapurana, First parttwelfth parva-LL. 148-152. (Gajendramavadatanga......jvalanam prajvaladdyutim" (151). Drstvaitan sodasa-svapnan athadarsam mahipate...... (152).

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198 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch, IV defeated in dream, (2) One big white-feathered male cuckoo, (3) One big variously coloured-feathered male cuckoo, (4) One large pair of garlands endowed with all jewels, (5) One big udder of a white cow, (6) lotus-la ke furnished with flowers from all sides and on all sides, (7) One large sea murmuring with thousand ripples of waves crossed by swimming with arms, (8) One big sun shining with rays, (9) One great Manusottara mountain covered with and surrounded by its own green and blue rays of colour, (10) One soul seated on a best throne on the peak of one great Mandara-mountain (Sumiru). The first dream vision of the defeated Tala Pisaca indicated that the Mohaniya Karma (Kurma which obstructs right faith and right conduct) is uprooted by Sramana Lord Malavira. The second one-i. e. the big white-feathered male cuckoo showed the passing of his time by attaining Sukladhyana (pure meditation) and the third one of a variously coloured. feathered male cuckoo meant the teaching, explaining, instruc. ting of twelve Angas and the illustrating of the Gani pitakas full of own and others doctrines (Sasamaya parasamaiyan) by him viz. Acara, Sutrakritanga...... upto Drativada. The fourth one of a big pair of garlands full of jewels meant two kinds of Dharma (Religion), viz. Agaradharma and Anagaradharma (Religion for the householder and religion for the houseless monks), while the fifth one of a high udder of a white cow signified the Sramana Sangha consisting of Caturvarnas of Sramana Lord Mahavira, viz. Sramanas (monks), Sramanis (nuns), Sravakas (laymen) and Sravikas (laywomen). The sixth one of a large lotus-lake explained four classes of gods, viz. Bhavanavasa, Vanavyantara, Jyotiska and Vaimanika'. The seventh one of a great sea is interpreted as the crossing of the beginningless and endless world-forest by Sramana Lord Mahavira. The eighth onei. e. one large sun, indicated the attainment of the infinite highest, coverless, pure, unobstructed 1.2 BhS, 16, 6, 580.

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Sec. IV STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 199 complete omniscience ( Kevalujsani) and self-awareness or intuition (Darsana) by the Master. The ninth one of a great Manusottara mountain covered with and surrounded by its own blue and grey rays of colour signified the noble glory, praise, honour and fame of Sramana Lord Mahavira travelled to the celestial, human and Asura (demon-gou) worlds. The tenth one of his own soul seated on the best throne on the peak of one great Mandira mountain meant that the Master, being seated among gods, human beings and Asuragods expounded Kevalajfilana' (omniscience). There are also other examples of dream-vision given in the Bhs. They are as follows: "If a man or a woman beholds a big row of horses or a flock of elephants or a herd of oxen in dream and thinks hin or herself mounted by mounting them or he or she beholds one long rope stretching eastward and westward touching both the seas, contracts himself or herself by contracting (it), thinks himself or herself contracted, or he or she beholds one long rope stretching to the east and west and touching both the borders of the Universe, cuts it and thinks himself or herself cut thus, then he or she will attain liberation and put an end to all miseries just at the present moment'?. If he or she perceives a big black yarn....... upto white yarn and confuses, thinks himself or herself confused thus. he or she will attain salvation and put an end to all miseries by the very life." Thus the dream vision of "a heap of iron or that of copper or that of tin or that of lead and mounting on it or that of silver or gold or a pile of wood or leaves or skin or straw or husk or ashes or dust and its scattering" experienced by one, indicated his or her attainment of salvation by the second birth. i Bhs, 16, 6, 580. 23 IB, 16, 6, 581,

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200 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV If he or she beheld the vision of a great heap of gold or that of gem or that of diamond and thought himself or herself mounted by mounting it in dream, he or she would attain his or her liberation and put an end to all miseries by the very life. If he or she experienced the dream-vision of one big pile of grass like 'Trja-nisarga' or that of wood, leaves, skins, husks, ashes and dust, various kin:ls of grass, such as, sarasta nbhaka (read grass), Viranistambhala (a tuft of fragrant grass) Vamsi. stambhaka (a stem or root of bamboo), Vallimalustambhuka (a tuft of stem or root of creeper plant) and thought himself or herself "uprooted thus" by uprooting it in dream, or a jar of milk or of curd or of clarified butter, or of honey and thought himself or herself "pulled up" by pulling it up in dream, or one big horrible pitcher of wine of sour rice gruel or of serum of flesh (i. e. oil and fat) and thought himself broken up" thus by breaking it up, or a large lotus lake furnished with flowers and thought himself or herself "plonged thus" by plunging into it in dream, or a great sea full of ripples of waves, thought himself or herself "crossed thus" by crossing it in dream, or a big house full of all kinds of jewels and thought himself or herself 'gone up" and "entered" into it thus by entering into it during the dreamvision, or a large aerial house inlaid with all kinds of jewels and thought himself or herself mounted thus, by mounting it in dream, he or she would attain liberation and put an end to all miseries by that very life.' There is a further evidence of the general belief in dream as revealed in the following graphic account of the Bhs. It is stated here that queen Prabhavatik Devi, the wife of king Bala of Hastina pura, beheld in her dream at the midnight a vision of a lion having "a beautiful and worth seeing breast which was very white like the silver necklace, milk-ocean, moonlight, particle of water and silver-mountain, firm charming fore arms, round, thick, well-set, excellent sharp teeth, smiling 1 BAS, 16, 6, 581 ; 10, 11, 11, 428. It is already mentioned in the topic conjugal life in the third section of this chapter.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 201 distorted mouth like a best adorned lotus, delicate measured splendid charming lips like the leaf of a red lotus, and soft and very tender palate tongue, eyes like the heated best gold existing in pot (for making liquid), rolling like the wheel to the right and left, round and pure like the lightning, large thick (heavy) thigh (shank), a fully developed bright shoulder adorned with soft shining, fine, auspicious-marking manes, a raised, wellbuilt and well-borne (beautiful) tail moving to and fro, sporting (rejoicing), gaping mouth like the shape of the moon, and open nails, descending and speaking too much constantly own words", Having dreamt this vision of a lion, she woke up from her sleep and immediately went to the bed.chamber of her husband, king Bala, to reveal this remarkable dream-vision to him as already pointed out in the previous section in connection with the topic conjugal love. King Bala, having listened to the whole story narrated by his wife, queen Prabhavnti Devi, interpreted this a uspicious and fortune-indicating dream according to his own natural knowledge, intellect and intelligence thus that a great son would be born to them. Next morning eight interpreters of signs of dream were summoned by the king in order to have the correct reading of this mark of lion beheld by the queen, because they were the experts in this subject. According to the principles of the Svapnasastra (text on Dream) they interpreted that the queen had dreamt one of the fourteen great dreams as enumerated above which indicated that she would give birth to a great male child who would become an independent king or a houseless monk in future : The evidences of the traditional belief of the people in dreams as revealed in the Bhs are also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts. Thus it is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra" that one attains glory, if he beholds decorated articles, a horse, an 12 Bhs, 11, 11, 428. 3 Ib, 11, 11, 428. * Uttaradhyayana Sutra 8, 13. See Commentary by santi Suri. 26

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202 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV elephant, and a white bull in dream and one loses wealth, if he passes urine or red stool in dream. The Avasyaka Curni' refers to the dream-vision of the ascetic Bambhagutta that a stranger drank his milk kept in a bowl. It was interpreted thus that some body would come to him to learn the sacred lore. It is also learnt from the birth-story of Lord Mahavirra related by the Kal pa Sutra" that the fourteen great dreams as enumerated in the Bhs were dreamt by his mother, Trisala at the time of her conception. In the Nayadhammakahao" also a similar tale is narrated thus that the queen Dharini beheld a big elephant entering into her mouth in her dreams-vision during the time of her conception of the future child, Meghakumara in her womb. This story reminds one of the birth of Lord Buddha in the womb of his mother, Maya" by entering into it in the form of a white elephant which is represented in sculpture on the Bharut Stupa and elsewhere. The evidences of general belief in dreams as revealed in the Jaina texts are also supported by the Buddhist works. Thus it is found in the Mahasupinu Jataka that Pasenndi propitiates to avert the effect of his sixteen bad dreams experienced in one night as they, according to the interpretations of the Brahmanas indicated that great dangers would befall on his kingdom or treasure or life. Maintenance of Pregnancy The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the course of nourishing the embryo of a child followed by a mother to nourish it in her womb during the period of her pregnancy which is the most delicate and dangerous time of the women's life. Thus it is stated here that having learnt the result of her auspicious dream from her husband, king Bala, that she would 1 Avasyaka Curni p, 274. 8 Nayadhammakahao 1, p. 8 ff.: 6 Mahasupina Jataka, 1, 77. ? Kalpa Sutra 4. 66-87. 4 Nidanakatha 1, p. 50 ff. 6 Bhs. 11, 11, 428.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 203 give birth to a great child as interpreted by the eight readers of signs of dream, queen Prabhavati Devi carried about i.e. nursed) the embryo of her future child, following the course of maintaining it by not taking very cold, hot, bitter, pungent, sour, sweet articles (of food), but by enjoying happinessproducing food, sleep, fragrant flowers, garlands, and moderate and embryo-nourshing diet. Thus having taken that kind of food at proper place in time and rest on the pure soft bed and seats, enjoyed lonely happiness agreeable to mind in pleasure garden and having her desire commended, fulfilled and honoured, but not-un honoured and destroyed, and also having become free from disease, infatuation, fear and terror, she nourished that embryo upto the period of nine months and seven and a half days and nights. After the completion of this course with all cares and attentions, she gave birth to a beautiful male child having very tender hands and feet, fully developed five sensed body endowed with the marks of good quality and a placid face like the shape of the moon, lovely, dear and pleasant to the sight? The evidences of the process of nourishing the embryo and maintaining the pregnancy as mentioned in the Bhs are also corroborated by those of other Jain texts'. They put an emphasis on the observation of the same carefulness by the mother in taking not very cold or hot or acrid or pungent or sour or sweet food but wholesome, moderate embryo-nourishing diet at proper time and place, and also in standing, sitting and sleeping, and dressing and decoration during the period of pregnancy for the safe growth of the future unborn child. Thus she, being free from disease, sorrow and terror should nurse the embryo having her all desires fulfilled and satisfied, as the pregnancy longing crops up in the heart of the mother. It is stated in the Nayadhammakahaos that the unfulfilled desire of queen Dharini to roam about in the outskirts of Vebhara 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 428, * Nayadhammakahao, 1, P. 19; CF. Avadana Sataka 1, 3, P 15. 9 16, 1, P. 10 ff.

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204 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA (Ch. IV mountain of Rajagrha in the monsoon, riding on an elephant, arose in her mind in the third month of her pregnancy. It caused her sickness, reduced her body and led to the loss of her happiness and beauty, Having received this report of the physical and mental conditions of queen Dharini, king Srenika immediately approa. ched to her and inquired about the cause of her melancholy state. On being asked thus, the queen expressed her pregnancy longing to her husband that she would like to roam about, mounting an elephant in the outskirts of the Vebhila (Vaibhara) hill. This unfulfilled desire of queen Dharini was satisfied by her step-son, prince Abhayakumara through some divine means adopted by him on the receipt of the information of this state of affairs from his father, king Srenika." The Vyavahara Bhasya also refers to the pregnancy longing of queen Satyavati to play in an ivory palace, while a case of desire of drinking the moon (Candapiyana) by a pregnant lady is mentioned in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra.* There are also some references to the desire of the pregnant ladies to take meat and wine during the period of their pregnancy. Thus Vivaga Suya points out to the pregnancy desire of a woman to drink different kinds of wine and to take flesh of various cattle, while the Avaiyaka Curnio furnishes the account of yearning of queen Cellana for eating the flesh of the belly of her husband, king Srenika mixed with wine. On receipt of this report, prince Abhaya made some secret devices to save the situation and at the same time to satisfy the desire of the queen by placing flesh with blood and entrails, 1 Nayadhammakakao 1, 14 p. 11-12. Also refer to Uttaradhyayana Tika, p. 132a. * 16, 1; 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.3 Vyavahara Bhasya 1. 335, p. 169. 4 Uttaradhyayana Sutra 3, p. 57. 5 Vivaga Suya 2, p. 14. 6 Avasyaka Turni II, P. 166. The other tradition tells that the piece of flesh was that of hare.

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Sec. IVI STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 205 brought from a slaughter's house (ghayatthana) just on the belly of the king assuming a pretended unconscious state. Similarly the Pinda Niryukti' refers to the rise of pregnancy longing of queen Sudamsana to take the flesh of the deer on the sight of their images in a painting hall, while the Vivaga* Suya tells of the desire of another lady to take abundant food, drink, spices, sweets and wine. The evidences of the Jaina texts with regard to the pregnancy.longings are also supported by the Brahmanical and Buddhist worksa. This fact of desire of the pregnant women corresponds to realities. Birth and its Celebration The BNS presents a vivid picture of the celebration of birth of a new born child who was the light of joy to the whole family whether it is rich or poor. Thus it is stated in the text that when the auspicious message of the birth of a male child given to by the queen, Prabhavati Devi was conveyed by her chamber-maids to her husband, king Bala of Hastinapuri, he took a silver pitcher filled with pure water and consecrated (washed) their heads with Sacred water, honoured them with the diamond of his crown and ornainents put on by him, gave abundant gifts of love suitable for livelihood, and entertained them thus, and then payed respect to them by making them free i, e. removing the bondage of their slavery." In honour of the birth-ceremony of his new born son king Bala ordered the release of prisoners, raised the standard of weights (ummanam), made the inner and outer parts of the city 1 Pinda Niryukti, 80. 2 Vivaga Suya, 3, P. 23. 8 See Susruta Samhita, Sarirasthana, Ch. III, P. 90-92; also Cf. Mahavagga X, 2, 5, p. 343; Kathasaritsagara , Appendix III, pp. 221-8. Refer to Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 149-50 for details, 4 Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

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206 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. IV of Hastinapura sprinkled, swept & besmeared with cowdung by his servants, and caused to erect thousand pillars (yupas) and thousand discuses (cakka). Then he worshipped and honoured them with great pomp and grandeur." The king celebrated this auspicious birth ceremony together with his friends, relatives, kinsmen, staff and subjects for ten days. By his order it was marked with the remission of customs and taxes (U88 ukkam-ukkaram), non-cultivation of land (ukkithan), non-donation (adijan i. e. selling), non-measuring (amijjar), non entrance of the royal officers into the house of cultivators (i. e. unwelcome visit of police officers, abhad appa. . vesam) non-taking of anything with impunity and unjust punish. ment (adamdakodam dimai) and non-payment of debt (adhariman)." This celebration of birth was provided with songs and dances presented by courtesans and actors followed by many classes of actors (a negatalacaranucariyan) and the unbarnessed Mrdanga and it was furnished with the unfaded flower garlands for the social entertainment of the people. Thus the birth-ceremony of his son was made delightful and sportive (Pamuiyan-pakkiliyan) by the king Bala together with the city and country people (sapurajanojanarayam) for ten days.' On this occasion he offered and caused to offer hundreds, thousands, lakhs of sacrifices, gifts, shares of desired objects and himself received and caused to receive such quantities of presents during this period extending for ten days. The king and queen, Bala and Prabhavati Devi performed the birth-ceremony (jayakamma) of their child by cutting his naval-string and burying it into the ground on the first day, that of showing the moon and the sun to him (Camda Suradarsanaya) on the third day, that of keeping the whole night vigil (jagariyar) | Bhs, 11, 11, 429. exaggeration) 6 16, 2.4 10, 11, 11, 429. (The figure of Sacrifices seems to be an 6 Ib, 11, 11, 429.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA on the sixth day, and that of purification (asuijayakammakarane) on the eleventh day, when the impurity caused by the birth of the child ended1. On the twelfth day they, having prepared abundant food, drink, sweets and other dainties, entertained their friends, kinsmen, relatives, attendants and many others upto the Ksatriyas with those things and honoured them with rich presents. 207 Then before all of them the parents christened their child with an attributive name derived from qualities, descending from grandfather, great-grandfather, thus coming down from many successive generations to generations, a name fit and worthy to the family thus: "As our boy, is the son of king Bala and the uterine son of queen Prabhavati, so let the name of this boy of ours be Mahabala". Then the child, Mahabala was received by five nurses', viz. Khiradhaie (Wet-nurse), Majjanadhaie (bath.nurse), Mam dana. dhate (toilet nurse), Kilavanadhaie (play-nurse), and Amkadhaie (lap-nurse) and he grew up day by day with happiness under the undecaying and unhindered conditions. Next, at proper time the parents of that Mahabala celebrated the following ceremonies of their son in succession, viz. the ceremony of crawling on the ground (Paramgamana), that of walking (payacam kamanam), that of tasting the solid food (jemamana), that of increasing the quantity of food (pimdavaddhanam), that of the utterance of the first intelligible word from his mouth (pajjapavanam), that of the boring of ears (kannavehanam), the birth-anniversary (samvaccharapadilehanam), tonsure. ceremony (coloyanagam), initiation with sacred thread (uvanayanam) and many other ceremonies pertaining to the womb, birth, etc." 13 BhS, 11, 11, 429. Also 4 Ib, 11, 11, 429. See Nayadhammakahao 1, p. 21. refer to the Divyavadana (XXXII, p. 475) which refers to four classes of nurses, viz. ankadhatri, mala, stana and kridapanika; also Avadana 1, V. p. 28. Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain. f. 4. 36, p. 151. 5 Bhs, 11, 11, 429.

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208 STUDIES in the BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV The birth of a male child even in an ordinary family was celebrated by his parents according to the above mentioned prescribed social customs within the limit of their poor means, as it is evidenced by the fact that the poor parents of Gosala Mankhaliputra, Mankhali and Bhadra performed the birthceremony of their child in the cowshed of the Brahmana, Gobahula by name, where he was born, according to their meagre economic resources. The evidences of the celebration of birth ceremony of a child are fully corroborated by other Jaina texts'. Thus it is stated in the Maya lhammukuhal that the birth of the child, Meghakumara born of queen Dharini, was celebrated by king Srenika according to the social customs as prescribed in the Bhs. Then this prince was handed over to the charge of the foreign nurses for his fostering under their care and attention Marriage Marriage was a sacrament in the society as depicted in the BLS. After the completion of education the second stage of life of an individual began with his marriage which was a spiritual union of two souls of man and woman. The terms Panin ginharimau used in the Bhs and other texts denote marriage which means the holding of the hand (of the girl), a symbol of Sva karana, i.e. formal transfer of the father's dominion over the girl to the husband. 1 BLS. 15, 1, 540. ? Cf Nayan hammakahao. 1, p. 21; Oviiya Sutta 40, p. 185; Ralpa Sutra 5, 102-108. 3 Najadhammakahao 1. p. 20-21. 4 10. I, p. 21. (The Nisitha Carni, 13, p. 856 ff makes a detailed discussion on various classes of nurses, especially the wet.nurse and the effect of her milk on the child. Refer also Panha Tika 418 ff; Cf. also Susruta Samhita Sarirasthana, Ch. X, see 25, p. 284 : see Magap kha Jatalba (538), VI, p. 2f ; Lalitavistara, 100. Refer to Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 151 f. note no, 38. 6 BhS, 11, 11, 430,

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Sec. IV] The text gives a graphic account of the marriage ceremony of a royal family which was performed with great solemnity and pomp and grandeur in accompaniment of music. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA It appears that the age for the boy and girl was determined by their capability of enjoying the worldly life at the attainment of their full youth. Form of marriage The picture of the marriage ceremony as depicted in the BhS reveals only one form of marriage arranged by the parents of the boy. It may be called a mixed Brahma-Prajapatya-Asura marriage of well developed and grown up boys and girls of mature age belonging to the families of equal and same social status, profession and caste, but having the different ancestral families as a rule, for the brides were to be brought from their parents' houses to that of the bridegroom and they were presented rich gifts of dowry. Thus it is learnt that the parents of prince Mahabala, the king and queen, Bala and Prabhavati Devi of Hastinapura caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses of a similar complexion and same age and endowed with the beauty, youth and qualifications by bringing them to their own house from the eight royal families of equal status1. Marriage Ceremony The text presents a vivid picture of the marriage ceremony as celebrated by the people of its period in the following manner. First, the bridegroom took his bath, performed the worship of the house-god (balikamma), purified himself by an expiatory sacrifice of charms and auspicious marks (kaya-kouya-payacchitta) and then adorned himself with all kinds of dresses and ornaments. 209 Next, he, having performed the rite for averting the evil misfortune by the worship of solemn ceremonies and been presented auspicious articles Tilaga and Kamkana by the married 1 BhS, 11, 11, 430. 2 Ib, (Tilaga is the auspicious mark on the forehead, while Kamkana is the band tied round the wrist of the bridegroom or bride. 27

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210 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV ladies (avidhavavahu-uvaniyam) with the blessing words in accom. paniment of vocal and instrumental music (giyavaiya) was caused to accept the hands of eight brides who also performed similar auspicious ceremonies just before the celebration of the marriage which was solemnized by the holding of their hands by the bridegroom at a time on the same day. The terms 'Avidhava-vahu-uvaniyam" used here in connection with the performance of the marriage ceremony of prince Maha bala denote that the auspicious articles such as Tilaka' and 'Kankana (sacred band) etc. were brought near the bridegroom by the not-widowed housewives (i. e. married ladies). And they clearly imply that the widows were not associated with the marriage ceremony, perhaps with the superstitious belief that some misfortune might befall the married couple due to their participation in the same. The BhS provides a long list of marriage gifts and other necessaries of life presented by the parents of the prince, Maha. bala to his eight wives, such as, money, ornaments, dresses, metal images of various goddesses, auspicious articles, palaces with their respective flags and banners, articles of furniture, lights, various kinds of utensils, contingents of palace-staff, different classes of transports, eight herds of cattle, each consisting of ten thousand cows, eight villages, each having ten thousand families, etc. As regards the contingents of palace-staff they have already been discussed in detail in the administrative section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions' under the heading 'palacestaff', while the dresses and ornaments, palaces and articles of furniture, etc. are dealt with in this chapter under the titles 'Dresses and ornaments', 'Houses' and 'Articles of furniture' respectively. And the villages, herds of cattle, images of goddesses, money and various kinds of transports will be 12 BhS, 11, 11, 430. 33 13 8 Ib. The population of ten thousand families in a village seems to be an exaggeration, perhaps it is the favourite figure of those days referred to in the BhS.

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Sec. 1V1 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 211 treated in the chapter on the 'Economic conditions' under the topics Agriculture', 'Dairy farming', 'Metallurgy', 'Currency' and 'Transport' respectively. The marriage gifts and other necessaries of life presented to the eight brides were divided by their husband, prince Mahabala into eight equal shares and each one of them was given to his individual wife. The account of the marriage ceremony, its form, social customs connected with it and presents to the brides as revealed in the BhS is corroborated by other Jaina texts. In regard to the marriageable age they also laid stress on the maturity of the boy and girl capable enough to lead and enjoy the worldly life. But the Pinda-Niryukti' warns the guardians thus that if they cannot give their daughter in marriage just after the reaching of the stage of her puberty, they will be born in hell on their deaths. The same sentiment of this work on the marriageable age is echoed by the Manu-Smrti". Like the Bhs the Nayadhammakahao also reveals that the negotiated form of marriage of the boy and girl belonging to the families of equal status was the general custom of the society as prevalent during its period. It was arranged and performed by the parents of the boy by bringing the girl to their house from that of her parents, as it is evidenced in the case of the marriage of prince Meghakumara, the son of king Srenika and queen Dharini. Besides this one, there are in the Jaina texts some ins. tances of Sayamvara* (marriage by self-choice), Gandharva 1 Nayadhammakahao, 1, 24. 2 Pindu-Niryukli, 509. 3 Manu-Smrti, IX, 88. 4 Nayadhammakahao 16, p. 169. 5 Panha Tika 4, 16, p. 85; Uttaradhyayana [ika 9, p. 141 ; 13, p. 190.

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212 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV (marriage by mutual love), Raksasa? (marriage by forcible method), and other forms of marriage." With regard to the marriage gifts like the BKS the Naya. dhammakabao also provides a long list of articles and other necessaries of life presented by the parents of the bridegroom to the newly married brides. In other Jaina works there are references to the dowry system prevailing in the society of their periods. The description of the marriage system as found in the Bhs and other Jaina texts is fully supported by those of the Buddhists and Brabmanical works in which the marriage is also treated as sacrament, a union of two incomplete human beings into a spiritual whole. The couple is united together by the religious bond with an ideal for creating compatibility, finally by subordinating their biological necessity to the ethical, intellectual and spiritual demand of a higher self. Because there are both physical and psychic unions manifested in the entrance of the husband into the womb of the wife in the form of semen and (his) birth as the son.? 1 Brh. Bhusya Pithika p. 57. Kamalamela was abducted and married by Sagaracanda). Avasyaka Curni II, p. 81; also Cr. Nisitha Curni II, p. 81 ; Avasyaka sika (Hari) p. 580a ; also refer to Kathasaritsagara, Vol. VII, p. 116ff. (Marriage with step-mother) for sister-marriage see Avasyaka Curni II, p. 178, and for cousin marriage refer to Uttaradhyayana sika p. 189a. 3 Nayadhammakahao Tika i, p. 42a f; Antagada pp. 33-35 trans, by Barnett, Vide Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 156.157. Uvasagadasao 8, p. 61. (The wives of Mahasayaga of Raya. giha possessed their ancestral property), also refer to the U ttaradhyayana [ika 4, p. 88; (A king of Varanasi presented a dowry of one thousand villages, one hundred elephants & abundant wealth. One lakh of foot-soldiers, and ten thousand horses to his son in-law). See also Ramayana 1-47. 4 ff. The Jataka refers to the custom of performing the marriage with bath money presented by father to his daughter particularly in the case of royal marriage (Mehta, P.B. 8.1, p. 281). Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain for all these details-p. 175. 6 See Buddhist India, Rhys Davids, p. 32. 8 Mano-Smrti 9, 8. 1 16. 9, 8.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SuTRA 213 The same sentiment of the Manu-Smyti on the union of the husband and wife is echoed in the BhSi in a different form. It is stated here that the combined body of the mother and father in the son lasts as long as his worldly body (Chavadharaniya sarira) exists but when it, becoming weaker perishes at last, the combined body of the mother and the father in the son also gets destroyed. FIFTH SECTION Position of Women as depicted in the BhS In the society the women appear in different capacities pertaining to the family and civic life, such as, maiden, bride', wife', mother, widow(r), nun?, teachers, queen-regent, musiciano, dancer", actress?. nurses, maid-servant", slave25, courtesane, prostitute"?, etc. So their position can be determined by these different status held by them in the family as well as in the society. A woman's life may be divided into three periods in relation to the family, viz. girlhood, stage of wife, and widowhood and thus her position can be studied from these three stand-points, each of which is connected with a distinct stage of her life. Different stages of Women's Life Maiden The term "Dariya'18 used in this canonical work denotes an unmarried girl or maiden. 1 BUS, 1, 7, 61. % 11, 12. 2, 441 ; 15, 1, 561. 3 1b, 11, 11, 430. 4 11, 1, 1, 4; 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 384 ; 11,9, 417; 11, 11, 428; 11, 11, 430 ; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 557. . 16, 9, 33, 384 ; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 428; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 540. 8 16, 12, 2, 441; 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 9, 33, 382 ; 12, 2, 442. 8 Ib, 9, 33, 382 16, 12, 2, 441. 10 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429-30. 11 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429-30. 12 Ib, 9, 33, 388; 11, 11, 429. 18 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 429.30. 14 Ib, 9, 33, 382 ; 11, 11, 429-30. 15 16, 9, 33, 382 ; 12, 2, 442; 11, 11, 430. 16 16, 9, 33, 383, 385 ; 11, 11, 429 (ganiya). 17 Ib, 15, 1, 560 (Kharittae). 18 16, 15, 1, 561.

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214 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV In the first part of her life as maiden the woman remained under the loving care and protection of her parents till her marriage, as it is evidenced by the fact that the eight wives of the prince, Mahabala of Hastinapura? were brought up under the shade of affection and guardianship of their respective parents before they were wedded to the said prince. As regards the education of the girls the BhS refers to the princess Jayanti', who was a highly well-instructed woman and specially capable of arguing on the difficult points in the abstract doctrine of philosophy with Lord Mahavira. But there is no other instance except this one to cite that a particular arrangement was made for imparting education to the girls belonging to all the social grades, although there is the mention of some educated married women and nuns. It appears that a maiden of marriageable age had no choice left to her in the matter of selection of her husband but to accept the bridegroom selected by her parents as her husband'. Wife The terms 'Bhariya'' and 'Bhajja's occurring in this text and other works denote a newly wedded bride or a wife. In connection with the topic, 'Marriage ceremony' it has already been discussed in this chapter that every new bride in the royal family of Bala, the king of Hastinapura was presented the gist of one independent palace together with the household establishments furnished with all necessaries of life, quite separate from those of her co-wives who were also married by her husband, the prince, Mahabalao along with her at the same time on the same day. The study of the list of the marriage gifts clearly shows the economic status of those women as wife in the royal family that they enjoyed a certain amount of right to property with 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 3 11, 11, 11, 430 ; 15, 1, 561. 6 16, 12, 2, 441. 9 10, 12, 2, 441-42. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 384 ; 15; 15, 1, 561. 6 lb, 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA regard to these presents which they could use independently according to their desires. But it does not throw any light upon their right of inheritance to their husband's property. The above evidence further shows that the married woman in the royal family had to bear the presence of her co-wives, because polygamy was the prevailing custom and fashion among the ruling Ksatriya princes of those days, as it is evidenced in the cases of Mahabala1 and Jamali.2 215 But in the BhS there is not a single instance to cite that the practice of polygamy existed among the members of the other castes belonging to the high, low, and middle class families respectively. On the other hand it is found that the married wife was the sole mistress of the household affairs there as the co-partner of her husband in all conditions of life. Though the text does not throw any light upon the breach of peace in the royal families of the princes, Mahabala and Jamali due to polygamy practised by them, yet it may be presumed that the existence and growth of this system might have caused the suppression of the natural freedom of women and thus degraded their position as wife in those ruling Ksatriya families in course of time. It is to be observed further that the BhS does not tell anything about the conditions of the eight wives of the respective princes, Mahabala and Jamali, after their undertaking of the state of houselessness. The union of eight wives of different sentiments, behaviours, cultures and education must have changed the whole character of the royal family and consequently lowered their status also, as it is evidenced by the fact of accomodating and 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 2 Ib, 9, 33, 384. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 380-82 (Refer to Rsabhadatta and Devananda). 4 Ib, 15, 1, 540 (Refer to Mankhali and Bhadra). Ib, 12, 1, 438 (Sankha and Utpala); 15, 1, 557 (Revati). 6 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 7 1b, 9, 33, 384.

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216 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. IV guarding them in separate palaces provided with necessary staff and requisites of the worldly life. The evidences of polygamy prevailing among the ruling Ksatriya princes are fully corroborated by the other Jaina texts in which many cases of the practice of this system of marriage are found to exist in the society of their periods. Thus it is found there that like the Ksatriya princes, Tamali and Mahabala, the kiogs-Bharata,? Vikramajasa' a Seniya and his son, prince Meghakumara* figure in the Jaina works as polygamous husbands each of whom maintained a large establishment for his individual wife in the harem. As a result of supporting a big contingent of the palacestaff there was certainly a heavy drainage of money on the financial resources of the family, however wealthy and prosperous it might have been. The main idea behind the practice of polygamy by the ruling Ksatriya princes was probably the sensual gratification of their desires, combined with the power of wealth, social position, priviledge, vanity, and political alliance. Similarly there is found the existence of the widely prevalent system of polygamy among the Ksatriya princes of the society depicted in the two great Epics - the Mahabharata" and the Ramayana. In this connection the views of the prince, Jamali on the sensual gratification of desires with his eight wives, expressed during his arguments advanced to his parents for obtaining their permission to undertake the state of houselessness in the presence of Lord Mahavira, should be taken into consideration to determine the position of woman as wife in the family of those days of the Bhs. 12 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 18, p. 239. 3 Antagada, 7, p. 43. 4 Naya hammakahao, 1, 24, p. 23. 5 Mahabharata "Arjuna and other princes were polygamous husbands. * Ramayana, King Dasaratha himself was polygamous.

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Sec. V STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 217 On being told by his mother to enjoy the wordly life of pleasure with his eight young beautiful wives, the prince advanced the following arguments to cross her plea by showing the futility and transitoriness of the worldly enjoyinents and pleasures thus : "Human gratifications of sensual desires are impure and non-eternal. Like the discharge or flow of vomitting, bilious fever, phlegm, rheum, semen, blood and passing of cxcreta, urine, etc, they are full of unpleasant ugly urine and excreta, ina uspi. cious inhaling and exhaling of the smell of the dead, short-lived and light natured. They are the causes of pain, hardship, unhappiness, always condemned by the saints, infinite worldly bondages and consequences of bitter fruit (of sinful acts). Like the lightning and pile of grass they are bound by unending sufferings and hindrances to attaining liberation?". This observation of Jamali throws a side-light on the position of the women in the family. But it cannot be generalized from this particular case of this Ksatriya prince, because this canonical work bears ample evidences to show that the married women, like the queen, Prabhavati Devi, the wife of king Bala", Devananda, the Brahmani of Rsabhadatta", Utpala, the wife of Sankha Sresthiz, Revati of Mendhikagrama", Bhadra, the wife of Mankhalie and others were regarded by their respective husbands as equal partners in their work and worship. The picture of the conjugal life of Rsabhadatta and Devananda?, as already depicted in this chapter, clearly reveals that the wife in a rich aristocratic family held a dignified position as a partner of her husband in the path of his work and worship of life sanctified by the touch of love and bound by the union of their hearts. 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 381. 2 16, 11, 11, 428. 9 16, 9, 33, 380-82. 4 Ib, 12, 1, 438. 6 16, 15, 1, 557. Revai's husband does not appear on the scene, but her position in the family is determined by her freedom of activity. 6 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 71b, 9, 33, 380-82. 28

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218 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA IV Similarly in the middle class family, Utpala, the wife of Sankha Sresthi of Sravasti occupied an honourable position as the co-partner of her husband in his life and religion, while in the houseless roving family of the Mankha couple Bhadra" is found following her husband, Mankhali as a devoted companion in the up and down journeys of his life by experiencing all kinds of hardship'. All these evidences from the Bhs clearly show that the woman held a position of honour and dignity as wife in the family as well as in the society. Institution of Guarding Women The Bhs shows that the 'Institution of guarding women' was maintained by the royal and rich aristocratic families where A veil of privacy was forced on the ladies who lived in the inner famale appartment (anteura= antah pura) provided with a large retinue of their respective attendants and other paraphernalia. It is learnt further that a married lady of the royal family could not appear at the outer assembly hall in public prior to her attainment of motherhood, as it is evidenced in the case of Prabhavati Devi, the queen of king Bala of Hastinapura". There is no doubt about it that a restriction was put on the social freedom of the women by not allowing the right of free movement to them before the attainment of their motherhood. Behind this system of their seclusion there was probably the prevailing theory that the woman should be kept at home throughout her life under the protections of her father in childhood up to the stage of marriage, then her husband in youth after marriage and her son in old age respectively. But there are the evidences to show that the ladies in the royal and aristocratic families appear in public in the company 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 540. 2 I6, 15, 1, 540, $ 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 380; 11, 9, 417;11, 11, 428. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

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Sec. V] STUDIESN THEBHI AGAWATIS SUTRA 219 of their respective husbands, as it is evidenced in the cases of queen Cellana,' queen Prabhavati Devi,' Devananda' and others as mother, In this connection it should be observed that the women belonging to the common family enjoyed the freedom of coming out to receive guests and even to move in public as their husbands' companions in the journeys of life, as it is found in the cases of Utpala", Revatio and Bhadra' respectively. These facts make it clear that there was a certain amount of restriction on the free movement of the newly married young ladies as evidenced in the conditions of the eight wives of the prince, Mahabala who were provided with all necessaries of life and separate establishments. Mother As mother the woman was the virtual mistress of the family, enjoying a unique position in all the internal household affairs assigned to her care and attention." It has already been pointed out that the mother is mentioned before the father (ammapiyaro,' in the list of the family relations as given by the Bhs. This grouping of words clearly suggests that more reverence was paid to the mother than that to the father in the family. But this picture does not show a relatively lower position of the latter than that of the former, because it was a patriarchal family10 under the headship of the father. Moreover, there was the prevailing custom of attributing a name of a new born male child after that of his father, as it is found in the cases of Mahabala, the son of king Bala', Gosala Mankhaliputra, the son of Mankha Mankhalid and also the prince Sivabhadra, the son of king Siva.18 1 Bhs 1, 1, 4. ? 10, 11, 11, 431. 316, 9, 33, 382. 4 16. 12. 1, 441-42. 6 11, 12, 1, 437. & Ib, 15, 1, 557. 7 16, 15, 1, 540. 8 10, 11, 11, 430. 9 16, 9, 33, 384. 10 11, 3, 1, 134 ; 11,9, 417 ; 11, 11, 428 ; 13, 6, 491. 11 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 12 16, 15, 1, 540, 19 I, 11, 9, 417.

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20 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV In this connection a reference may be made to the queen, Mrgavati', the mother of king Udayana of Kausambz, who appears to have acted as the queen-regent of her minor son for some period in the absence of her husband, king Satanika. Widow In connection with the marriage ceremoney of the prince Mahabala it has been mentioned that only the married ladies (avihavavahu) could bring and present the auspicious articles to the bridegroom. This evidence of the prevailing marriage custom clearly implies that the widows were not associated with this ceremony. Thus the reference to the terms "Avihavavahu uvaniya' occuring in the Bhs reflects upon the degraded position of the widows in general in the family as well as in the society of its period. Civic Status of Women The women appear also outside the pale of the family as members of a wider circle of the society in different capacities in the civic life. Women as religious students Two classes of the female students, studying the Vedas and other sacred texts are found here--the one class prosecuted studies till the marriage, while the other one remained unmarried throughout the life and continued the life-long studies of religious texts as prescribed by the ascetic order. It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic "Asrama' that the princess, Jayanti,the daughter of king Sabasranika, the sister of king Satanika and the aunt of king Udayana of Kausambz belonged to the latter class of students. At the Candravatarana Caitya in the city of Kausamli she took part in the abstruse philosophical discussion with Lord * Bh8, 12, 2, 441-42. 8 16, 11, 11, 430. ? Ib, 11, 11, 430. 4.6 11, 12, 2, 441-43.

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221 Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Mahavira on the doctrine of Karma, binding of Karma and attainment of liberation of the being which was under the influence of the five senses. She was pleased and satisfied with the holy teachings of explanation of the great Master and eventually she got herself initiated by him to Nirgrantha religion and was admitted to the ascetic order.1 Similarly the BhS provides the information that the married woman, like Devananda', also joined the Nirgrantha order as nun, together with her husband, Rsabhadatta, after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira and by Arya Candana," the nun respectively to Nirgrantha religion. She also attained Sramanahood and liberation by studying the prescribed religious texts, practising various acts of austerities and meditation. Here is found an instance of an exhalted position of the woman held by the nun, Arya Candana as religious teacher who was well-versed in all the Angas and the Upangas.1 It is said in the Arasyaka Cun that she was formerly a slave girl of a king, but she was released on the interven. tion of Lord Mahavira and subsequently was initiated and admitted by him to the Nirgrantha order. Under the guidance and holy teachings of the Master she rose to such a stature of highest honour and glory as nun and religious teacher in the 1 BhS, 12, 2, 441-43. 2.4 Ib, 9, 33-380, 81, 82, Avasyaka Curni-p. 318; see also Ava. Niryukti-520 f. Ava. Tika-p. 294 f.; for other version see MahapuranaII. LL. 343-347, p. 466. (It is stated here that Candana was the daughter of king Cetaka. Once while playing in the forest, she was captured by a lascivious Vidyadhara, but was left by him in the forest out of fear from his own wife. There some forester (Vanacarapatih), finding her in such a state offered her to a merchant named Vrsabhadatta with the intention of getting money, Candana was tortured by Subhadra, the wife of that merchant in various ways lest her husband fell in love with her. She was given bad food and was chained. One day some time Lord Mahavira went to the city of Kausambi for begging alms. Having seen him coming she tried to approach him from her chained condition and to honour and worship him. Immediately all fetters got broken automatically and her desire was fulfilled. Later on she reunited with her relatives and friends.

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222 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Sangha that she had the privilege to initiate Devananda, the Brahmani and to teach her the prescribed religious texts, various acts of austerities and meditation. Next, the BKS gives an account of the participation of the women in the public life as the members of the household staff in the royal and rich aristocratic families in different capacities, such as, chamber-lain', nurses', attendants, maid. servants, slaves& etc., courtesans, musicians', dancers and actresses and as prostitutes in the larger society. It has already been discussed in connection with the topic Personal and Palace-staff in the third chapter and 'Family servants' in the third section of this chapter respectively that a large number of the female members formed the rank of the contingent of the staff of the inner female apartment in the royal house as well as in the aristocratic family, Female servants and slaves also appeared in the domestic service of the wealthy merchants, as they are found serving the families of the well-to-do bankers of Tungikalo. A clear distinction has been made between the female slaves and servants of all categories by using the term Dasz'll in the Bhs. The fact of the employment of the female slaves in the household service is also corroborated by the Uttaradhyayana commentary in which a reference is made to "a festival of the female slaves" (dasimaba)!S. The Bhs thus clearly shows that there was the existence of slavery of the women, but it makes no reference to the maltreatment meted out to them by their masters. On the other hand there are instances to show that the female slaves along 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 429.430. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 382; 11, 11, 428, 430 ; 12, 2, 441-42. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385, 11, 11, 429. 6_7 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429, 430. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 9 10, 9, 33, 382. 10 16, 2, 5, 107. 11 Ib. 2. 5. 107. 13 Uttaradhyayana commentary, 3, p. 124.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 223 with the other maid-servants of all ranks were integrated into the household and treated as members of the family, although they held an inferior position in the domestic relation. There is an instance of the removal of slavery of some female slaves by king Bala of Hastinapura on the occasion of the birth of his son, Mababala, as already mentioned in connection with the celebration of birth ceremony'. But the fact remains there that the slavery was a recognized institution maintained by the kings, rich aristocrats and wealthy merchants of the society as known to the BS. Though there was this general prevailing custom, yet the evidence of manumission of slavery shows that a moral consciousness was growing in the society. Thus the text presents a picture of position of women appearing in their different capacities in the civic life. Women as Courtesan and prostitute The women figure also as courtesand and public prostitute? in the civic life as depicted in the Bhs. The term Ganiya as used here denotes a courtesan who had the privilege to be the member of the royal retinue. Formerly it signified a female member of the Gana (clan) who was the beauty queen for the enjoyment of the whole assembly of the people, united together by a common social, economic and political relationship. This view seems to be supported by the Vinayavastu of the Milasarvastivada' which states that Amrapali was the common courtesan of the Ganarajas of the Varsalian Republic as the object of enjoyment of the Gana (Ganabhogya). Manu also associates together the Gana and the Gaaika whose food is condemned by the scholars. 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 429. ? Ib, 8, 5, 330 (Asati); 15, 1, 560 (Kharitta). 3 Ib, 11, 11, 429 (Ganiyavara). 4 Cakladar-Studies in Vatsyayana's Kama-Sutra, p. 199 f. Vasu., p. 103. 5 Vinayavastu of Mulasarvastivada, p. 17 f,

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224 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA "Gananam Ganikanam ca vidusa ca jugupsitam'." The BhS refers to a number of young beautiful ladies employed as courtesan in the service of the royal families, like those of Jamali, the Ksatriya prince and Bala, the king of Hastinapura.3 They had the privilege to hold the royal umbrella, golden water-pitcher, fan, chowrie and golden stick during the pilgrimage of the prince Jamali to Lord Mahavira at the Bahusalaka Caitya to undertake the state of houselessness." They also formed the music and dramatic parties of the royal family where they entertained and gladdened its members, particularly the young princes and their wives by the presentation of their songs and performance of dance-drama in the theatre hall, as it is evidenced in the cases of Jamali and Mahabala. It has already been mentioned in connection with the birth-ceremony of the royal child, Mahabala that it was provided with the best artist-courtesans (ganiyavara) followed by many classes of actors to entertain the people by their presentation of songs and performance of various kinds of dances and dramas (nanavidhaprekshaacarusevita).8 [Ch. IV Besides these courtesans employed in the service of the royal family, there is an incidental reference in the BhS to an actress who exhibited her art of dance-drama before many thousands of the audience in a public theatre hall." These evidences clearly reveal that the courtesans were highly qualified in the art of music, dance and dramatic performance and they were the essential part of the palace staff. Thus they occupied a privileged and honoured position, though inferior to that of the royal ladies in the king's court. 1 Manu Smrti, IV, 209. Bhs, 3, 33, 383, 385. 5 Ib, 1, 11, 429. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 429, (Comm.). 3 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 6 Ib, 9, 33, 383. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 385. Ib, 11, 11, 430. 9 Tb, 11, 10, 422.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 225 Women as prostitute The women appeared also as public prostitute in the society of the period of the BhS, as it is clearly suggested by a pointed reference to the running of brothel (asati posanaya)' by a class of people for earning their livelihood. It is further stated that in the process of births and rebirths Gosala daikhaliputra was twice born as prostitute (kharittae)' due to the consequences of his sinful acts. These evidences make it clear that prostitution was a public institution existing in the society as depicted in the Bhs. A critical examination of the above facts clearly determines that the women occupied three positions in the society as known to it; the first one was the exalted position of honour and dignity as maiden, wife, mother, religious student, teacher and nun; the second one was inferior to that of the first one as members of the staff of the inner female apartment belonging to all grades including the female slaves and courtesans; and the third one was the most humiliating status as prostitute in the larger civic life. As similar account of the position of women is also given by other Jaina texts where they appear as mniden, wife, mother, religious student, members of the palace-staff and public prostitute in different stages and stations of their life. In some cases a darkest picture of their life has been depicted to reveal the ugly nature of womanhood with a view to warning the lustful monks. The same injunction of the Manu Smrti regarding the guarding of woman is also echoed in the Brhatkal pa Bhasya* in which it is laid down that a woman should be under the protection of her father in her childhood, her husband in youth 1 BIS, 8, 5, 330. 16, 15, 1, 560. 3 Manu-Smrti, V, 147, 49. ("Pita raksati kaumare bhartta raksati yauvane raksanti sthavire putrah na stri svatantryamarhati"). * Brhat. K. Bhasya, 1, 125 f. 29

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226 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV after marriage, her sons in old age or widowhood, as she does not deserve to have freedom. In the V yavahara Bhasyal there is a reference to the punishment of a daughter-in-law by abusing and turning her out of the house as she did not give up her habit of witnessing a procession or of running to see a commotion caused by a stray horse or a chariot through the window in spite of repeated prohibition to do so. In the same work the women are painted as "faithless, ungrateful, treacherous, untrustworthy" and they bring sorrows and sufferings to the village or town in which they exercise their supremacy over meno. Different synonyms of "woman' in Pralorit, such as, nari, mahila, pamada, mahiliya, rama, aigana, lalana, etc, have been given new interpretations and derivations in Tanula to paint the character of the woman as hellish, for example, she is called nari as she is the worst enemy of man, etc. The degraded position of women is further revealed in Agadadatta' in which it is stated that "the intelligent may know the sands of the Ganges, the waters in the sea and the size of the Himavat, women's heart they may not know." "They weep and make you weep, they tell lies and make you believe them and decietfully they eat poison, they die, but they do not conceive a true affection." "Woman indeed as soon as she has fallen in love is all sugar like a piece of sugarcane; the very same woman surpasses the bitter nimba, as soon as her love is gone." "In a moment women fall in love but in another moment their love grows cold. Delighting in various love sports and unstable in their affection, they are like the colour of turmeric." "Cruel in their hearts and charming in body, speech and glance, girls resemble a knife inlaid with gold." i Vyavahara Bhasya, 3, p. 233. ? 16, 1, p. 130. 3 Tandula, p. 50. For all these details see Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons, by Dr, J. C. Jain, p. 152. 4 Agadadatta (Translation in Hindu Tale by Meyer, p. 286 f.) Pide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 152.

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Sec. V] STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 227 These traits of women's character were depicted only to warn and guard the lascivious and feeble-minded monks with the apprehension lest they fell victim to the temporary charms of young ladies by breaking the ascetic discipline and self control. The same idea regarding the position of women as Jaina nuns is reflected in their rigorous life of monastic order as depicted in some Jaina texts, Thus it is stated that the nuns were forbidden to study the Dretirada which contained the magical farmulae, because they were not strong-minded to stand the influence of those principles on their ascetic life and character. It was the same case with the Buddhist nuns who were also not permitted to study the chapters on Mahaparijna and Arunopapata. The most humiliating position of the Buddhist nuns is described by the Cullavagga in which it is stated that the first of the eight main vows before admission to the order enjoins upon a Bhikkhuni, even of a hundred years' ascetic life to stand up and show respect to a 'Bhikkhu' who has just been initiated. It is further said that a Buddhist monk of three years' asceticism could become a religious teacher of a nun who practised austerities for thirty years, while a monk having the practice of asceticism for five years could have been an Acarya (religious preceptor) of a nun with the experience of sixty years' austerities.4 Some Jaina texts make references to a few cases of infidelity of women, such as, that of Mayanamanjari, the wife of prince Agadadatta and another of the wife of a banker. But side by side the brightest picture of womanhood has equally been depicted with a brilliant touch of honour and glory. 1 Brhat. Bhasya Pithika, 146. Cf. Vyavahara Bhasya, 5, 139. 2 Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 153. 34 Cullavagga, X, 1, 4. 5 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 4. pp. 84-93. 8 Dasa Curni, pp. 89-91; See also Suka Saptati, 15, p. 56, Ed. by Richard Schmidt, Leipzig. 1893; for details see 'Life in Ancient India' p. 153 by Dr. J. C. Jain.

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228 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Like the BhS the other Jaina texts have assigned a dignified position to the women by raising them on a highest pedestal of the society where they figured as devoted and chaste wife and were regarded as one of the fourteen jewels of a Cakkavattin (sovereign king).' According to the Svetambara tradition it is stated in the Nayadhammakahao that Malli, a woman attained the state of Tirthankara, which was considered as one of the ten unexpected things. This instance clearly shows the highest position of honour and glory ever occupied by any woman in the society of ancient India. It is laid down in the Brhat kalpa Bhasya that a woman must be delivered first from the trouble caused by the natural or unnatural phenomena, such as, water, fire, robber or famine, etc., which may befall her. As regards the character of the women there are many references to the cases of their fidelity occurring in the other Jaina texts where they appear as the most devoted wives following the footsteps of their respective husbands in their work and worship. Thus it it learnt that Rajimati joined the ascetic order as nun, together with her husband Aritthanemi like Devananda of the BhS and once she foiled the criminal attempt of her husband's brother, Rahanemi to court her during her austerity by clever means1. 1 Jambu. Su, 3. 67; refer also to the Digha-Nikaya (II, p. 172177) in which there is the mention of Cakka-ratanam, hatthiratanam, assa ratanam, mani-ratanam, itthi-ratanam, gahapati-ratanam, and parinayaka-ratanam. 2 Nayadhammakahao, 8. The Digambara tradition tells that Malli was a male, because according to it no woman can ever attain liberation (Moksa). See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 134, foot note 12. Brhatkalpa Bhasya 4, 4348f. 4 Dasa-Sutra 2, 7, 11; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, XXII. Vide 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 154.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 229 While Subhadra', another married woman was a symbol of chastity, though she was intricated by others with a false accusation of faithlessness to her husband on the ground that the red lead (cinapittha) of her forehead got stuck on that of a Jaina monk, while she was picking out a rice-speck from the inside of his eye with her tongue. Life and Position of Nuns as revealed in other Jaina texts As regards the life and position of the Jaina nuns as depicted in other Jaina texts, they were not safe and secure in the order and the society at large. Because they were sometimes fascinated by the Kapalika ascetics, followed and annoyed by young men of loose moral, lured and rapped per force by the lustful householders,' kidnapped by the king," merchants and robbers, So they had to lead a very hard life of rigorous discipline always under the protection of the monks or of their own vigilance to resist the fowl attempts of miscreants. Position of Courtesans in other texts The same picture of the life and position of courtesans is also found in other Jaina texts in great details. In addition they provide much informations regarding their qualifications, devo. tedness to particular lovers and different aspects of their life. The young beautiful and highly accomplished courtesans graced the royal court by holding the official and social status as a member of the palace-staff. Moreover, their company was greatly sought by the kings and rich people for the sensual Dasa Camasya 3:41C8. Kanal Theriganvited to en i Dasa Ourni 1, p. 49f. 2 Brhat Bhasya 3, 4106 ff ; 1, 2443, 2085. 8 I0, 4, 5254-5259 : Cf. Kanala Jataka (No 536) V. M. 424-8. 4 Brhat Bhasya 1. 2670-2; Cf. Therigatha (139-144) where it is stated that the nun Khema was invited to enjoy sensual pleasures. 6 Kalakacarya Kathanaka. 6 Brhat Bhasya 1, 2054. ? Vyavahara Bhasya 7, 418. See 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain for all the details about this topic.

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230 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV gratification of human desires in their individual and social enjoyments and pleasures. Thus it is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Tikal that a Ganika (courtesan) was considered as the jewel (rayana) of the capital of a king, while the Nayadhammakahao* tells of a wealthy courtesan of Campa who was highly accomplished and well.versed in sixty four arts and science of erotics, different dialects, music and dance and other qualifications. She found favour with the court and enjoyed the privilege and honour of carrying the royal umbrella, chowries and fans and also the right of moving in Karniratha (a kind of chariot used by the high persons) as the chief of many thousand courtesans. It is known from the other Jaina works tbat the mainte. nance of a chief courtesan' by the big cities of those days for the social entertainment of the rich and aristocratic peoples was a prevailing custom. Thus it is stated in the Nayadhammakahao that once two merchants of Campa enjoyed the water-sports, picnic, natural beauty and other meriments with Devananda, the chief courte. san of the city and they offered her rich presents at the end of their sensual gratification of desires with her. The evidences of the Bhs regarding the life and position of the courtesans are also corroborated by the Buddhist and Brahmanical works in great details. It is the well-known account of the life of Ambapalika6 endowed with beauty, charm and high accomplishments that she was the great courtesan of Vaisali as already mentioned in connection with the denotation of the term 'Ganiya'. She afterwards became the lay disciple of Lord Buddha and offered abundant gifts to the Buddhist Sangha. 1 Uttaradhyayana sika 3, p. 64. Nayadhammakahao 3, p. 59. 3 16, 3, p. 59. 4 Acaranga Curni p. 71. Nayadhammakahao 3, p. 60. Disha-Nikawa II, pp. 95-8 ; Therigatha-252-70 ; Mahabagga VI, 30, p. 231-3.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA There are also other proofs to show that the social position of the courtesan has been depicted in the Buddhist texts1 with a certain degree of honour for their virtues and natural qualities.' The Brahmanical texts also have dealt with the status of the courtesans in the society at great length and assigned a similar position to them as depicted in the Jaina and Buddhist works. All these evidences from the different sources clearly show that there was a recognized social institution of maintaining the courtesans for the private and public entertainments in those days of ancient India. In this connection it should be observed that the courtesans held a better social position than that of the ordinary prostitutes in the civic life. Food 231 SIXTH SECTION Food and Drink The BhS provides a good account of the production and consumption of food and drink by the people of the society as depicted in it. The terms 'Aharam' and 'Bhoyanam's used in this canonical work signify the general meal which can be classified into two groups, viz. eatable solid and drinkable liquid foods. Friends, kinsmen, relatives, guests and even the attendants of the family were entertained by the householders with the 1 Milindapanha, p. 121 for the courtesan Bindumati; Kurudhamma Tataka II, No. 276, p. 380; Kathasarit-Sagara Vol. III, Ch. XXX VIII, pp. 207-217. 2 Refer to Life in Ancient India, p. 165, 91 f. note, for the details of virtues and character of Bindumati and other courtesans as mentioned in the Buddhist works 8 Studies in the Kama-Sutra-H. Chakladar; Arthasastra - Book II, Ch. XXVII, 124, Vedic Index 1, p. 457. 4 Bhs, 3, 1, 134. 5 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541.

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232 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV following four kinds of the enjoyable meal, viz. asana, pana, khaima and saima. The term Asana' used here denotes solid food, while the other ones, 'Pari', 'khaima', and 'saima' stand for drink, sweets, and dainties respectively. Thus it appears that these four classes of food come under the general category of the above two kinds of the eatable solid and drinkable liquid foods. According to different conditions, such as, geographical and physical factors the social status and richness of the person, and the availability of the articles of food, there is the further classification of the general meal into several categories, viz. kartarabhatta (food prepared in the forest), dubbhikkhabhatta (food prepared in the famine time), vaddaliyabhatta (food prepared during the rain), gilanabhatta (food prepared for a patient), sejjayarapinda (meal given by the owner of the Upasraya), and rayapinda (meal given by the king)". Besides these, the Bhs mentions the following kinds of cooked food, viz. caru (rice prepared with the mixture of honey and clarified butter for sacrificej", Paramanna (best rice prepared with honey and clarified butter for guests), kummasapindiya (rice gruel or bean)", suddhodara (pure boiled rice), and atharasavanjana (eighteen kinds of sauce). The words Thalipagasuddha's, Urakkhada's and Artha. rasaramjana?, occuring in this canonical work clearly denote cooked food, as is ready for serving direct from the kitchen (Thalipagasuddhari atharasavarjanakular bhoyanan". - 1 Bhs, 3, 3, 134 ; 3, 2, 144; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429: 11, 11, 430 ; 12, 1, 438 ; 15,1 541. The term 'Bhatta' is also some. times used instead of 'Asana' e. g. Bhattajana (15, 1, 547). ? Ib, 5, 6, 210; 9, 33, 384. 3 lb, 11, 9. 417. 4 10, 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 15, 1. 545. 6 16, 3, 1, 134. 7-8 Ib, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456. 9 16, 3, 1, 134, 10 16, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456. 11 Ib. 12, 6, 456.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 233 The use of 'Vyanjana' (sauce or condiment) was imperative to make the food palatable, as it is indicated by the words 'asaemana (tasting)................... paribhurrjemana (enjoying) and paribhaemana (giving or distributing) asanan (food), panan (drink), khaiman (sweets) and saiman (dainties). Food was also mixed up with the other eatable articles to make it more tasteful. Different kinds of food The Bls gives a list of the following staple foods and their prepared products used by the people of the society as depicted in this work. Cereals Sali (a kind of rice harvested in the winter season), Vihi (a best type of rice), Godhima (wheat), Java (barley), Javajuva (a kind of Jowar), "Salinam vihinam Godhumanam javanam-javajavanam cesi nam dhannanam" and Nipphava (a kind of wheat).' Pulses Kalaya, Masira (a sort of lentil), Mugga (Phaseolus Mungo), Masa (a valued kind of pulse having seeds marked with black and grey spots, Phaseolus Radiatus), Kulattha (cabalikakarah, Dolichos Uniflorus), Alisan laga (cabalaka prakarah), Satina (tubar cana, Pisum Arvense) and Palimanthaga (matara), Vrtta canakah (Round pulse). Other grains? Ayasi (bhangi, linseed); Kusunbhaga (latta, Safflower, Carthamus Tinctorius); Koddava, a species of grain eaten by the poor people (Paspalum Scrobiculatum); Kangu (millet, a kind of parric seed); Varaga (Varatto or tubari, a king of grain); Ralaga (Karguvisesa, the resin of Shorea Robusta); Kodisaga(r) ; Sarisavao 1 BhS, 12, 1, 438. 2 16, 7, 1, 268. 8.5 1b, 6, 7, 246 ; 21, 2, 691. & According to Webber 'Alisamdaga' was a grain imported to India from Alexandria after the name of which it is called Alisardaga. See Indian Antiquary Vol. XIX. ? Bhs, 6, 7, 246. 8 The Mahabharata refers to Karadusaka as best corn (III. 193.19.). 9 BhS, 6, 7, 246; 18, 10, 647; 23, 5, 693. 30

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234 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV (siddharthakah, mustard seed); and Tila (sesame, Sesamum Indicum). Vegetables Aluga (Ebony, Arum Campanutum or a kind of tuberous root'); Mulaga (raddish)', Singavera (ginger)", Addae (adraka)", Pindahalidda (yellow turmeric), Palandu (Onion)?, Lhasara (garlic), Kandamulao, Lauya (bottle gourd, Lagenaria Vulgaris)10, Tumbi (Gourd, Gourd Lagenaria Vulgaris)"? ; Tuusala Valunkzls and Vaingani (Vrntaki, Brinjal,^4. Spices Jira(ka) (Cumin seed, Panicum miliaceum)15 ; Mariya (pepper),16 Pippala (long pepper),17 Lavanga (Clove),18 Ela (any species of cardamom),19 Jaru?o and Sunsha (dry ginger)." Fruits Amba (mango, Mangifera Indica), Jambu (black berry, Eugenia Jambolana)2, Kosamba,a! Kadali (banana, Musa Sepientum)85, Puyaphala (areca-put),? Khaijuri (date. Phoenix Sylvestris)", Nalieri (cocoanut), Tala (Palm),29 Tetali (Tama. rind),90 Nivayaga (Karafijaka, pongamia glabra or Verbesina Scandens)(r)), Atthiya (Asthika-guava), Tinduga (T'induka, Dios. pyros Embryopteris), Bora (the jujube), Maulinga (citron), Billa (wood apple, Aegle Marmelos), Amalaga (the fruit of Emblic Myrobalam), Phanasa (panasa = jack fruit cr bread.fruit, Artocarpus Integrifolia), Dadima (the Pomegranate), Satara (a kind of reddish grapes), Kakali (a kind of grape), Klaru (Cucumber),34 Rittha (a kind of fruit), Bahedaga (the fruit of Terminalia Belerica), Haritaga (the fruit of Terminalia Chebula) and Bhallaya (Bhallata, the fruit of the marking.nut-plant, Semecarpus Anacardium).35 i Bhs, 6, 7, 246. ? 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1, 693. 3 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324. 4 16, 7, 3,277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23,1, 693. $_16, 7, 3, 277. 7-8 16, 8, 5, 330. , 1b, 8, 5, 330; 22, 6, 692. 10 16,1, 1, 19. 1114 Ib, 22, 6, 692. 15,17 16, 21, 8, 691. 18.19 16, 22, 1, 692. 20_21 1b, 23, 1, 693. 22,29 1b, 15, 1, 554; 22, 2, 693. 34.27 Ib, 22, 2, 693. 28-30 16, 8, 3, 324, 22, 2, 692. 31_83 lb, 22, 2, 692. 31 16, 23, 5, 693. 85 16, 22, 2, 692 (from Rittha to Bhallaya).

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 235 In addition to these cereals, pulses, other grains, vegetables, spices and fruits, the BnS refers to various kinds of cooked food (uvaklchada) as already mentioned, different kinds of sweets and milk products which were generally taken by the people of its period. They are as follows :Cooked food--Odani (rice), caru (rice prepared with clarified butter and honey), etc.? Sweets - Mahu (honey), Phaniyagula (flowing molasses), Mahurakhanda (sweet sugar)', and Ulkhu or Ikkhu (sugar cane)." Milk and its by-products -- Khira (Milk), Dadhi (curd), Navaniya (navani, butter), and Ghaya (ghrta, clarified butter).' Oil - Tella (oil).10 A similar account of food classified into different categories as given in the BhS is also found in other Jaina texts. In addition, they provide a long list of various kinds of food generally taken by the people of the society as depicted in them. They are as follows:Uncooked food-stuffs -- Different varieties of salt, viz. sochal salt (sovaccala), rock salt (sindhava), ordinary salt (lona), minesalt (roma), sea-salt (samudda), earth-salt (parsukhara) and black salt (kalalonu)"? Cooked foods -Sakkuli (lucis in Hindi), paya (a meal of parched wheat), siharini (a mixed food of curd and sugar with spices)," Sattuga (fried barley),13 eighteen varieties of seasoned food (attharasu vamjana),14 as already referred to in the Bhs. These are the eighteen kinds of cooked food clearly mentioned in the Sthananga Sutra : "Supa (soup)), odana (rice) java i Vide supra, p. 232. BhS, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 3.4 Ih, 18, 6, 631. 6 16, 21, 5, 691. 6-7 Ib, 16, 6, 581. 8 16, 18, 6, 631. Ib, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541; 16, 6, 581. 10 Ib, 8, 6, 335, 18, 6, 631. 11 Dasavaitalika Sutra, 3.8; also see Caraka Ch. 27. p. 815 ff. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J.C. Jain, p. 123. 12 Avasyaka Curni II, p. 319. 13 16, p, 317, 14 Sthunarga-Sutra-3.135, also refer to Caraka, Kitannavarga Ch. 27, p. 800 ff.

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236 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. IV (boiled barley), three kinds of meat, cow-milk, jusa (water of boiled pulse), bhakkha (kchandakhadya or sweets in which candy was applied in sufficient quantity, com.), gulalavaniya (golapapada in Gujerati), mula phala (bread fruit), hariyaga (cumin), saga (vegetable), rasalu (majjika, a royal preparation made of the mix. ture of two palas of ghee, one pala of honey, half an adhaka of curds, twenty pepper corns and ten palas of candied sugar, com.), pana (wine), paniya (water), panaga (a drink made of grapes) and saga (a preparation seasoned with butter-milk, such as, dahibada, etc. com). Besides these, other palatable foods are also mentioned, such as, "Pejja (made of gruel or decoction of some kind of pulse or rice), ghayapunna (ghevara in Hindi), Palangamahuraya (a sweet liquid preparation of the mango or lemon-juice)," si hakesara' (a sweet), morandaka (a sweet made of oil seed),' manduku, (a cake stuffed with molasses and ghee), ahadiya, (a special sweet), pulaka? (a special dish), guliya (tablets made from the powder of the tubara tree, which were used by the monks) and the kholas (dried pieces of cloths moistened with inilk, the washing water of them was used as drink)."8 Fish and meat eating We learn from the Bhs that fish and meat-eating was prevalent in the society. Thus it is stated here that in Dusama-Dusamakali (a period of crisis according to the Nirgrantha religion, the people of Bharatavarsa, having come out of their respective holes before one instant of the sunrise and after one instant of the sunset will cause to take fish and tortoise to the land (or will cause to bury them into the ground); they will pass time up to twenty-one thousand years by carrying on livelihood with those lifeless fish and tortoises seasoned by cold i Sthanaiga Sutra-3. 135, Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 123. 9 Uvasagadasao, 1, p. 8. 9 Antagadadasao, p. 10. . 4 Brhat. Bhasya, 1. 3281. 5 Nisitha Curni, II, p. 695. & Brhatkalpa Sutra, 2, 17; Bhasya, 2. 3616. 116, 5, 6048 ff. 8 Ib, 1.2882; 2892. See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J.C. Jain. pp. 123-24, for details.

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Sec. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 237 and heat. And "those eaters of meat and fish (marsahara, macchahara), honey-drinkers (Khoddahara), and eaters of the dead body (kunimahara), will be born in hell'". In connexion with the holy teachings of explanation of Lord Mahavira on the doctrine of "Karma' there is another instance of meat-eating found in this canonical work where it is said that the hunter and fowler earned their livelihood by the occupations of hunting deer with the bow and arrow and net, and killing birds etc. in different places and then selling them to the other peoples of the society. "Purise nam bhaste kacchamsi va da hamsi va 2 udagassi va.................. miyavittie miyasamkappe miyapanihane miyavahae gamta ee mietti-kaum...uddai''. "Purise miya. vittie miyassa vahae usum nisirai''. "Ye miyam marei"4. The above evidences of taking fish and flesh of tortoise make it known that the people had to sustain their lives with them for a long time under the economic distress, because sometimes famine visited this land of Blaratavarsa in the distant past, as it is evidenced by one incidental reference to the meal taken in famine (dubbhikkhabhatta), occurring in the Bhs. The mention of the egg of hen (kukkuli-andaga) suggests that perhaps the eating of eggs was prevalent in the society, but it is not evidently clear whether they were actually taken by the people of that period. Vanaprastha Monks and Meat-eating There is a direct evidence that a class of forest ascetics called Vanaprastha Hastitapasas (Hatthitavasa)? used to live on the elephant's flesh as explained by Sri Abhayadeva Suri in bis commentary. The practice of fish and meat-eating by the people is also corroborated by other Jaina texts. They give a full account of the preparation of various kinds of flesh, such as, those of i Bhs, 7, 6, 288. ? 16, 1, 8, 65. 3 16, 1.8, 67. 4 1b, 1, 8, 68. 61b, 5, 6, 210. 16, 7, 1, 269. 7 16. 11. 9. 471. 8 Vivaga Suya 2, p. 14; 3, p. 22; it refers to different kinds of cooking of meat, such as, frying (taliya), roasting (bhajjiya), drying (parisukka), etc. See Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 126. f. n. 46.

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238 studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV casaya (a kind of bird), deer, tiger, frog, animal having claws and some acquatic animals on the occassion of particular constellations and those taken by the people and served to guests on the days of special festivities. There is also a reference in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra' to the entertaining of marriage party with meat, while the Uvasagadasao mentions the regular meat-eating by Revac (Revati), a housewife. Drink It appears from the frequent references to pana" (drink) together with 'asana' (food) that drink was an essential part of the meal served to one's friends, kinsmen, relatives and others on special occasions. This popular enjoyment of drink is also evidenced by the fact that a class of private merchants used to carry on a regular trade in wine (raravanijja), although it was disapproved by the Nirgrantha religion as revealed in this canonical work, It mentions the following kinds of drink, viz. honey (Mahu), milk ( klara),' liquor (sura(r) or majja). Besides these, Gosala Mankhaliputra, the Ajevika leader refers to four kinds of drink on the eve of his death in a state of mental disequilibrium as described in it, viz. Goputthae, hatthamaddie, ayavatattae and silapabbhatthae (water excreted by the cow, i.e. urine, water soiled or rubbed with the hand, water heated by the sunshine, and water fallen from the stone).10 It is said that he himself drank liquor (majjapanam piyamane) before his death in the workshop of the potteress, Halahala in Sravastz.11 1 Suriyapanntle 51, p. 115. : Uttaradhyayana 22, 14 ff. 3 Uvasagadasao 8, p. 63; See also Vedic Index-11, p. 145. For details refer to 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain. 4 Bhs, 3, 1, 134 ; 5, 6, 204 etc. 61b, 8, 5, 330. * I6, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 7 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 5, 2, 181. 9.11 Ib, 15, 1, 554.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 239 The evidences of drinking are also corroborated by other Jain texts. In addition, they mention different kinds of liquor, such as, sura, majja, sidhu, pasanna, kayambari, etc. There occurs a reference in the Uvasagadasao to the drinking of wine by the woman, while one passage of the Kalpa Sutra states that "Monks or nuns who are hale and hearty and of a strong body are not allowed during the pajjusana frequently to take the following nine drinks: milk, thick sour milk, fresh butter, clarified butter, oil, sugar, honey, liquor and meat." It appears that the monks or nuns were permitted to take these drinks under special circumstances, such as, sickness (gilana). Thus it is clearly stated in the Nayadhammakuhao" that the drinking of liquor (majjapanagam) is prescribed for a sick monk on medical advice. The same view of the Nayadhammakahao on the taking of liquor by the monk is also expressed by the Brhat-Kalpa Bhasya in which it is said that this drink may be taken by him as medicine for recovering health and energy." These evidences show that as a rule the monks or nuns were not allowed to drink liquor or other intoxicating drinks except under special circumstances. Besides these accounts of drink, various kinds of wine are mentioned in different ancient literatures of India, such as, candraprabha, manisilaka, varasidhu, varavaruni, etc.8 The evidences of drinking wine are also supported by the Brahmanical works. 1 Nayadhammakahao, 16, p. 179. Uttaradhyayana Tika, 2, p. 36a f. There is a reference to it in the Harivamsa; See Indo-Aryans of R. L. Mitra (11. 41.95). It is explained that Kayambari is prepared from the ripe fruit of Kadamba; Vide 'Life in Ancient India' p. 125. 3 Uvasagadasao, 8. 4 Kalpa Sutra, 9, 17. 6 5 Nayadhammakahao, 5, p. 80 f. Brhat K. Bhasya, 5, 635. Brhat. K. Bhasya 5, 6035. 8 See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 125. Cf. IndoAryan I. by R. L, Mitra-pp. 411, 412, 132,

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240 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. IV The history of drinking can be traced back from the RgVedic period', when the people used to take soma ( a kind of drink), sura (wine) and madhu (honey) as the most favourite drinks on different occasions, such as, war-festivals and sacrifices, etc. It is learnt from the Brahmanical sources that it was the prevailing custom among the common people of the society of ancient India to drink sura (wine) and other kinds of liquor "on the occasions of festivals, fairs and pilgrimage." Cooking The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the development of the art of cooking during its period by refering to different varieties of food, drink, other dainties and eighteen kinds of sauce (attharasaramjana)and cooks generally employed in the service of the royal family. The terms 'uvalkhadae't and pariyasie", (upaskyta and marirasita) used in this canonical work stand for cooking, while the cook was designated as 'mahanasinio (female cook). It appears that only the female cooks were appointed for preparing food, drink and other dainties, as it is evidenced in the case of the family of king Bala of Hastinapura?. Utensils In this connection the text provides a list of different kinds of cooking vessels and serving plates, such as, thali (cooking vessel,8, lohakadaha (iron pan)', kaduccha (spoon)', thala (dish)"}, patti (plates)", etc. It also mentions the dining hall (vhoyanamandava)13 and time (6 hoyanavela)14 where and when the rich aristocratic Peoples and 1 Rg-Veda, see the Vedic Age p. 393. * Arthasastra, p. 134; Cf. Dhammapada A. III. p 100. See also Ramayana II, 91, 51; V. 36-41; Mahabharata (1, 177, 13 ff; 1, 174; 13 ff; 1, 177, 10f ; II, 4, 8 f). Refer to Indo-Aryan by R. L. Mitra Vol. 1, pp. 396 ff. 9 Bhs, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 436; 4 Ib. 3, 1, 134. 5 10, 15, 1, 557. 6.7 1b, 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456. 9.10 1b, 11, 9, 417. 11_12 10, 11, 11, 430. 13.14 1b, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.

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Sec. VII STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA STUDIES IN THE BH 241 kings generally used to take their meals together with their friends, relatives and kinsmen on special occasions. Invitation to dinner The text refers to two kinds of welcome to dinner, viz. invited (amintita)' and uninvited (anahuyan),' as it is evidenced by the fact that whenever the kings and rich householders organized any feast on special occasions, they invited their friends, kinsmen, relatives and others, and entertained them with food and drink prepared in their honour. While the monks and other floating guests were uninvited but they were equally wel. comed to dinner, entertained and honoured with abundant food and drink free from nine kinds of faults (navakotisuddha). One particular feature of the family life is to be observed that even the servants were invited to dinner to enjoy it together with the friends, kinsmen and relatives of the host. SEVENTH SECTION Dresses and Ornaments, Art of Decoration, and Houses and articles of Furniture Dresses Four kinds of physical decorations of man, viz. decoration of hair, that of body with cloth, that of neck with garland and necklace, and that of arms, waist, legs (ankle) and feet with ornaments, came into existence from the time immemorial. With the inventions of the art of wearing cloth and of metallurgy respectively various kinds of cloth have taken the place of the ancient bark.cloth and skin-garment, while the crown, necklace, bracelets, ring and anklets have occupied those of the flower-wreaths and garlands, natural bracelets and other ornaments of flowers made first by man in the beginning of civilization, i Bhs. 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. 16, 7, 1, 270. ? Ib, 7, 1, 270 ; 15, 1, 541 4 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. 31

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242 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV But the wild beauty of Nature is still embroidered on the cloths and dresses and engraved on the plates of ornaments. It is an artistic attempt inspired with the aesthetic sense to make a communion with the sublime beauty of Nature, Similarly the sense of cleanliness and beauty caused man to wash himself and take bath and to toilet his body with various scented products and roots, such as, sandal wood, aloe, etc. The Bhs presents a graphic picture of dresses and ornaments, decorations and toilets used by the people of that period. The mention of different kinds of dresses and ornaments, decorations and toilets reminds one of their origin in the hoary past and their evolution upto its period, as it is known from the traces of the blending of distinct modes of living of the people in the society as depicted here. Thus the text refers to four kinds of decorations made by the men and women of its society with four varieties of adorning articles, viz. crown (mauda, the ornament of hair), cloth (vatcha), garland (malla), and ornament (abharana).? It provides a long list of colourful dresses and costly ornaments worn by the members of the rich aristocratic and royal families, particularly the ladies of the high society who adorned themselves with various kinds of gorgeous cloths, garments, ornaments of low and high prices (appamahaggha), garlands and flowers, etc. Side by side with these fine dresses and ornaments, there are also in this text references to the bark-cloth (vajalavattha)", flowers, perfumes and garlands. Words for clothing and decorating Various terms, such as, Vattha", 'dise', 'sadiya'e, bhusana", *alamkara's, etc. are used to denote clothing and decorating of the 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. : 10, 11, 9, 417. 3 Ib, 11, 11, 428. 4 16, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 385;11, 9, 417, 418; 11 , 11, 429. 6 16, 9, 33, 384 ; 15, 1, 541. 6 16, 9, 33, 383. ? 16, 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 384. 8 16, 9, 33, 385,

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 243 household people, while the words 'dhaturattavattha' and 'vagalavattha' are applied to signify the robe of an ascetic or a Bralimacarin. The term "cela's denoted in general the garment of a layman or of a householder or of an ascetic. DRESSES Male dress In the society the males used to put on generally two clothes-one lower garment and one upper garment (egasaliyansuttarasaingan)', a girt or waist-band (nijjoya)", shoes (vahanao)", and umbrella (ayarattam) to protect his head from the heat of the sunshine, while going on any journey. Female dress The women belonging to the royal and rich aristocratic families used to wear generally four or five kinds of dresses, viz. different varieties of long lower garment (i. e. Sadi), such as, cinarsu yavattha chinese silken cloth), khoma (cotton linen), vadaga (tussar silken cloth), patta (silken cloth), dugulla (cloth made from the fibres of the Dugulla plant), pavara (a kind of lower dress),o a soft upper garment (u'tarijja) ; 11 jacket (kamcuya);"* girdle (manimehala)" and inner or under garment (samdhibandhana)." Dresses of the Monks The BHS clearly shows that the monks of all religious sects used various kinds of dresses. There is no instance in the text to cite that complete nudity was observed by them in their ascetic life. On the otherhand it bears ample evidences to show that even the Nirgrantha monks used to wear clothes, as it is revealed by the fact that Lord Mahavira himself renounced the world by putting on one piece of divine cloth 1 Bhs, 2, 2, 90. 2 10, 11, 9, 417-418. ? Ib, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 4 16, 9, 33, 383; 15, 1, 541. $ 16, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 9, 33, 383. 7 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 9, 33, 385. 1b, 11, 11, 430. 0 Ib, 9, 33, 380. 11 Ib, 9, 33, 380 ; 9, 33. 384. 13 16, 9, 33, 381. 18 16, 9, 33, 380. 14 16, 9, 33, 384.

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ectively. 244 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV (devadusa)! and his disciples, Skandaka and Simha are found wearing a civara (monk's robe), and a muhapattiya (a piece of mouth covering cloth) respectively. Dresses of the monks belonging to the heterogenous reli. gious orders usually consisted of one or two clothes, such as, pottiya (a kind of monk's dress)' or dhaturattavattha (red.coloured robe) or vagalavattha (bark-cloth) or cela (monk's robe),' etc. while those of the Nirgrantha ascetic comprised one dusa or devadusa (one piece of divine cloth),8 civara' (robe) and one muhapattiya (i. e. mukhavastra),10 Besides these, other articles, such as, tidamda (tripple sta yes), chattayam (umbrella), vahanao (shoes), paua (wooden sandals), kesariya (duster)," etc. also formed the part of the general dress of the parivrajaka monks and other ascetics and the rajaharana (duster)13 and blanket (karbala)23 that of the Nirgrantha monks. The accounts of dresses as given in the BLS are also corro. borated by the other Jaina texts. In addition, they provide a long list of various kinds of dresses used by the householders, Jaina monks and nuns. Thus the Brhatkal pa Bhasyal mentions four kinds of garments worn on four occasions, viz. dresses for daily use, after bath, on the days of festivals and fairs and at the time of going to visit the king, nobles and others. The other Jaina works refer to various kinds of fine fabric used by the people of their periods, such as, wollen.cloth 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541. ? 16, 2, 1, 96. 3 16, 15, 1, 557. Ib, 11, 9, 417 (See com.). 5 I, 2, 1, 90. 6 Ib, 11. 9. 417. 7 10, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. , 15, 1, 541. 9 Ib, 2, 1, 96. 10 10, 15, 1, 557. 11 1, 2, 1, 90. 13 16, 9, 33, 385. 13 Ib, 2, 5, 107. 14 Brhatkalpa Bhasya. Pithika, 644. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 123 f. 17. 62.

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Sec. VII) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 245 (jangiya or janghika), bhanga (bhangiya)?, hemp cloth (saniya), palm leaf-cloth (pottugas, linen (khomiya,', tula (tulakada)", etc. Besides these, many varieties of costly cloths are also mentioned in them, such as, ainaga (com. ajina, cloth manufactured from skin,", sahina (com. suksma, fine cloth), sahinakallana (superfine), aya (cloth made from goat's hair)", taya (cloth made from blue cotton), etc. There is a reference in the Anuyogadvara' Sutra to cloths manufactured from eggs (anduga), cotton stalks (bondaya), insects (Icidaya), hair (valaya) and bark (vagaya). Like the BhS, the Acaranga curnill makes reference to another kind of cloth called 'disa' or devudisa (divine cloth) which was put on by Lord Mahavira at the time of his renouncing the world. It is stated that the value of this divine cloth was estimated to be one hundred thousand pieces of coins (sayasahassamollan". 1 Refer to 'Life in Ancient India' p. 123 ; Acuranga Sutra II 5, 1, 364, 368. A kind of cloth produced from the fibre of bhanga plant; it is still manufactured in the Kumaon district of U.P., and is known as Dhangela ; refer to Dr. Motichand's article in the Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. 1 pt. 1, p. 41 ; also see the Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvastivada, p. 92. & According to the commentary on the Brhatkalpa Bhasya (2.3661), Pottaga is cotton. 4 It is cotton cloth, see Mahavagga VIII, 3-1. Refer to Indian culture Vol. 1, 1-4, p. 196 f. The Bihatkalpa Sutra (2.24), and the Thananga Sutra (5,446) refer to Tirida paffa instead of tulakada manufactured from the bark of the tirida tree. Refer to Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvastivada, p. 94. & Skin was used for clothing (Mahavagga V. 10-63). 7 The aya cloth was produced from the moss that grew on the goats hoofs in the country of Tosali (Nisitha Curni, 7, p. 467). & The Nisitha Curni, 7, p. 467 states that the Kaya cloths were manufactured from Kakajangha (Abrus precatorious) in the Kaka-country. . Anuyogadvara Sutra (com.) 37. 10 It was manufactured from the egg of a swan (hansa), refer to Life in Ancient India' for details of dresses, p. 130. 11.12 Acaranga Curni, p. 263, also "Life in Ancient India,' p. 130 f. n. 92.

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246 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV The other Jaina texts mention various kinds of dusa cloths, such as, vijayadusa", kovaya, pavaraga", dadhiali (clean white cloth like the row of teeth), sacks, elephant-housing, etc., woven with coarse yarn (pari) and cloth woven with double yarn (virali). As regards the dresses of the Jaina monks and nuns a good account of them is found in different Jaina texts. Thus in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra' two garments.-under and upper (santaruttara) are found to have been prescribed by Lord Parsvanatha for the use of a monk (i. e. Jaina ascetic), while in the Acaranga Sutra' there is the reference to three robes-two linen (Icsomika) under garments (omu cela) and one woollen cloth (aurnika). It further states that a katibandha" (also called aggoyara), having the size of four fingers broad in width and one hand in length was allowed to be put on to cover the private parts in the case of those monks who felt shy to go without clothing. This Katibandha was substituted by Colapattaka in later times In the Brhatkal pa Bhasya' only the garment without flinges (dasa) is prescribed for the use of the Jaina monks. Similarly there are many references in the Jaina texts to various kinds of dresses used by the Jaina nuns, e.g. Uggahanantaga (a piece of cloth to cover their privities, tied with a patta round the waist), addhoruga (it is worn over the uggahanantaga and patta to cover the waist), unsewn calanika (covering knees), abbhintur. aniyamsini (it covered the part from the waist to balf length of the thighs) and bahiniyamsini (it was tied to the waist with 1 Rayapaseniya Sutra, 43, p. 100. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 3, 3823 f. Pavara is referred to in the Mahabharata (II. 71. 48). 8 16. (See also 'Life in Ancient India' for details, p. 130). 4 Uttaradhyayana, 23, 29. * Acaranga Sutra, 7, 4, 280. 8 Acaranga Sutra, 7, 6, 220. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 3,3905 f.

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 247 string and used to cover the part from the waist down to the ankles). Their upper garments consisted of the following, viz. kancula (jacket), ukkacchi (au palcaksiki, like kancuka, square in shape on the right side), vegacchiya (vaikaksiki, like the au pakaksiki but knotted on the right shoulders), four sanghalis, the first one was to be put on in the cloister (pratisraya), the second and the third ones outside the residence and the fourth one for attending the religious congregation (samavasarana;'. Besides these upper garments, the nuns used to wear kandhakarani (Wrapper-like cloth) together with the au pakaksiki and vaikaksikia to cover the shoulder and the body and to protect themselves from the blow of strong wind. Shoes According to the Byhatkalpa Bhasya the Jaina monks were allowed to put on shoes under special circumstances, such as, tours, diseases, tenderness of feet of some monks, fear of wild animals, etc.' There are references to different types of shoes used by the Jaina monks such as Taliya shoes (for night journey), egapuda (single-soled shoes, four soled shoes, pudaga or kchallaku" (winter shoes) to cover foot-sore (vivacci), vagura (to cover the ties and feet), kosagas (for protecting nails), etc. Ornaments The BhS reveals that both the men and women belonging to the upper stratum of the society as known to it, used to adorn 1 The icaranga (11, 5, 1, 364) refers to four Sanghatis. ? Bihatkalpa Bhasya, 3,4082-91 & com. See also Aca. 11,5,1,364. 8,4 16, 3,3862. 5 See Mahavagga V, 2, 3 where the Khallakabandha and other types of shoes are mentioned, Refer to Dr. Motichand's article in the Journal of the Indian society of the Oriental Art' Vol. XII. 1944. Dr. J. C. Jain thinks-"Perhaps it is the same as the Iranian kafis, and kapis-kipis of Central Asia" (Life in Ancient India, p. 133 f.n. 120). the "Jou14. Dr.kafis, 1133

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248 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV themselves with costly ornaments of many kinds, particularly the ladies of the royal and rich aristocratic families put on various ornaments to beautify the different parts of their bodies from the head to the ankle. Ornaments of the male persons, especially the kings and princes, consisted of crown (mauda)', necklace (hara) and other articles and garlands, while those of the women were as follows: Crown (mauda), car-ring (kurdala), necklace of pearls (hara), half-necklace (addhaltara), one-stringed necklace of gems (egavali). Thus that of pearl (muttavali), that of gold (kanagavali), that of jewel (rayanavali), torque round the breast (urattha) in addition to the flat triangular necklace, necklace (kanthasutta),' bracelets (kadagajoe), white bracelets (dhavala-ralaya),' ring (khuddagal, girdle of gems (manimehala)," a string round the loins (sonisuttaga)," anklet (neura),18 and various ornaments of precious metals, The account of the ornaments of the male and female is also found in the other Jaina texts. The Uvasagadasao mentions the minimum requirement of most essential ornaments for a person like Ananda of Vanijyagrama after his taking the vow before Lord Mahavira to observe the religious rules as his lay disciple. It is stated there that he used to wear various kinds of costly ornamentais previously, but after the taking of the vow he "limited himself to his use of personal ornaments," saying, "Excepting smoothly polished ear pendants and a finger ring engraved with my name, I renounce the use of every other kind of ornament" 16. 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 428. 4 lb, 11, 11, 430. 6 10, 11, 11, 430. 6.7 Ib, 9, 33, 380. 9 16, 9, 33, 384. 10_18 1b, 9, 33, 380. 15 U vasagadasao 9, p. 9 (Lec. 1, 6, 9). 16 Uvasagadasao 31, 25-35, p. 17. 23 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 10, 11, 11, 430. 14 10, 9, 33, 385.

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Sec. VII] Bath and Art of Personal Decoration The BhS shows that the observance of cleanliness of the body was a regular practice with the people. The art of personal cleaning and decoration was highly developed at that period, as it is known from the fact that the members of the royal and rich aristocratic families used to take regular bath in a special bathroom (majjanaghara)1 and to adorn their bodies with various kinds of decorations. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA For this purpose some specialists, like the female massagers and rubbers of limbs (angamaddiyao, ummadiyao), bath-makers (nhaviyao), decorators (pasahiyao), grinders of sandal wood (vannagapeszo) and fragrant powder (cunnagapesio), etc. were employed by them in the service of their families." 249 So the bath was followed by the art of decoration and toileting in those days of the BhS. There are also evidences to show that the men and women of all social grades used to take bath before beginning any kind of work, such as, going to attend the religious discourse,* marriage ceremony etc. Even today, in Rajasthana the barber is made to take bath first before cutting hair of any member of distinguished families. It appears that the original derivation of the word 'Napita' (barber) has been made from 'bath' (nhana or phaya), as he was associated with it. In course of the linguistic evolution the first form of the term (nhaviya) has undergone variations, such as, nhaviya, snapita, etc. in local dialects of India till it attained the modern form 'Napita' and 'Naz' respectively. 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383. 2 Ib, 11, 11, 430. Majjanadhayi (special female nurse) for causing the child-prince to bathe was also employed. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 383. 3 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 5 Ib, 11, 11, 430. Ib, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385 (Here it is nanhemti). 32

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250 Bath STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA There were two kinds of bath, viz. private and ceremonial. The first one was an essential part of the regular daily duty of an individual for maintaining cleanliness of his body, while the second one was given to those who resolved to renounce the worldly life or who were chosen as new rulers to ascend the throne. It has been a sacred thing and synonym for ascending the throne (abhiseka) since the birth of kingship in ancient India. The BhS presents a few colourful pictures of pompous ceremonial consecrations of some princes, like Jamali1 and Mahabala", and kings, like Siva of Hastinapura", and Udayana of SindhuSauvira on the eve of their renouncing the world to undertake the state of houselessness. [Ch. IV Similarly there are evidences to show that the princes Sivabhadra and Mahabala of Hastinapura and Kesikumara' of Sindhu-Sauvira were given ceremonial baths by the retiring kings, Siva, Bala and Udayana in their respective cases. Here are presented the features of this ceremonial bath in connection with the leaving of the worldly life by the prince, Jamali and others. The parents of this prince caused him twice to bathe with the water of eight hundred golden and earthen jars each time and made his limbs dry with a very soft hairy fragrant scented towel and then besmeared his body with the juicy essence of gosirsa sandal and caused him to put on an auspicious white silken cloth embroidered with gold and endowed with the chief colour and touch. Next he was decorated with various kinds of ornaments and garlands. Exactly in the same manner, prince Mahabala1, kings Siva11 and Udayana1 were given ceremonial baths and adorned with 1 BhS, 9, 33, 385. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 5 Ib, 11, 9, 417, 7 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 9 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 11 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 2 Ib, 11, 11, 431. 4 Tb, 13, 6, 491. 6 7b, 11, 11, 431. 8 lb, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417. 10 76, 11, 11, 431. 12 Ib, 13, 6, 491.

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 251 four kinds of decoration on the eve of their leaving the world for undertaking the state of houselessness. The same features of royal consecration are also found to have been observed in the cases of princes-Sivabhadra', Mahabala', and Kesikumara3 in regard to the ascendency to their respective thrones. On the occasion of marriage also a kind of ceremonial bath followed the presentation of eight auspicious articles (astamangala), such as, tilaka (mark on forehead), Kankana (a sacred band tied round the wrist), etc. was given to the bride', as it is evidenced in the case of prince Mahabala. Art of Decoration It is already mentioned that the bath was followed by the art of decoration which was the natural expression of the aesthetic sense of man. The BhSs presents a grapbic account of the personal decoration of the princes, rich and cultured citizens of its period, who could afford the luxury of adorning themselves with various kinds of costly silken clothes embroidered with gold, ornaments of gems, pearls and jewels, perfumes, rich toilets of Gosirsa sandal paste and black fragrant aloe (kalagaru, Aquilaria Agalloch). The decoration was applied to the different parts of the body in an artistic style from the head to foot. After taking bath, the male members belonging to the royal and rich aristocratic families besmeared their limbs with the essence of sandal paste, put on fine silken clothes embroidered with gold and adorned themselves with various kinds of costly ornaments, such as crown (mauda), necklace (hara), etc., garlandse and shoes.? Similarly the ladies of the royal and rich aristocratic families also decorated their bodies with various kinds of orna. 1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 10, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 9, 33, 385. : Ib, 11, 11, 431. SIb, 13. 6, 491. 516, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 428 ; 11, 11, 430. 7 1b, 9, 33, 383; 385.

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252 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA. (Ch. iv ments, such as, crown, necklaces, bracelets, armlets, rings," anklets, etc. It is already pointed out that a class of special female decorators (pasahiyao), grinders of sandal wood (vannaga pesao) and fragrant powder (cunnagapesao) were employed in the service of the royal family for decorating the ladies, particularly the young married princesses.' In addition, the following requisites for keeping up the standard of the art of decoration, toileting and luxury were used, viz. mirror (dappana), collyrium (kharjana), flowers of five colours, black aloe (kalagaru), best perfume (cila), olibanum (sil haka), incense (dhuva) and scented pills (gamdhavatii;?. The evidences of the taking of private and ceremonial baths and the art of personal decoration are fully corroborated by other Jaina texts also.8 Houses and Articles of Furniture The Bhs presents an account of the houses and articles of furniture generally used by the members of rich aristocratic and royal families, but it does not throw much light upon the dwellings of common men, probably because they had no conspicuous features to be mentioned. Moreover, there were some houseless peoples in the society as known to this text. So here is given a picture of the royal palace consisting of lofty mansions, inner female apartment (anteura),"o outer assembly hall (uvatthanasala)," theatre hall (pecchaghara),1 bath house (majjanaghara), gymnasium (attanas ala), treasury-house (kosa), 15 kitchen (mahanasa),29 dining hall (bhoyanamandava),17 store house 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 2-3 I6, 9, 33, 380. 116, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 6, 1, 229. 7 16, 11, 11, 428. 8 Nayadhammakahao, 1, 26, p. 24 ; 1, 29, p. 29. 9 Bh8, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 429. 10 16, 11, 9, 417. 11 16. 11, 11, 428. 12 I6, 11, 11, 429. 18 Ib, 9, 33, 383. 14 10, 11, 11, 428, 15 1b, 11, 9 417, (it may be treasure also). 18 1b, 11, 11, 430. The word is 'Mahanasio', it is clear that Maha. nasi is derived from Mahanasa. 17 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 253 (kotthagara)', bed-chamber (vasagharain),furnished with various articles of furniture. On the burning of fire the Bhs makes an indirect incidental reference to the common thatched house having the floor (kudda), roof (kadana), supporting wood (dharana), curved (horizontal) wood (reeds, balaharana), bamboo (varsa), another kind of supporting wood (malla), bark (vagga), thin plank of green wood (chittara) and thatched covering (roof, chane). There is also the mention of a hermitage (udae)* made of wood grass, leaves and creepers in the forest on the bank of the Ganges. Besides these, the text refers to the fort (duggan)", temple (devaulan)", stupa (thuva), caitya-temple (ceiya) , pillar (juya)', and discus (cakka)?', which also formed the parts of house-building. The terms "Giha'!, Agara'l and Ghara'? occurring in the Bhs stand for house, while the other ones "Pasaya't and Bhavana'denote palace. The word "sala as used in conjunction with the other words signifies many types of buildings, e. g. uvatthanasala (assembly hall), affanasala (gymnasium)", gosala (cowshed)18, tartuvayasala (weaver's workshop,'', posahasala (fasting house)20. and kudagarasala (simple conical shaped tent-like house)*1. Palace The text presents a colourful picture of the inner apartment of the palace, particularly the bed-chamber (vasaghara)29 the inside of which was decorated with various kinds of pictures and the outside was whitened (i. e. white-washed with limestone), rubbed and polished "abbhimtarao sacittakamme bahirao dumiyaghatthamatthe". 1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. ? 1), 11, 11, 428. 3 16, 8, 6, 335.. 4 10, 11, 9, 417. 5 1b, 15, 1, 552. 16, 18, 10, 647. 7.8 16, 9, 33, 383. 9.10 1b, 11, 11, 429. 11 16, 9, 33, 380; 12, 1, 438; 15, 1, 541 ; 15, 1, 557. 17 16, 9, 33, 383; 84. 13 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 84 ; 11, 11, 429. 14,15 1B, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 429. 18 16, 9,33,380; 83; 84 ; 11,11,428. 17 10, 11, 11, 428, 18 I6, 15, 1, 540. 19 I6, 15, 1, 541. 20 10, 12, 1, 438. 21 16, 3, 1, 134. 29 16, 11, 11, 428.

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254 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IV It had a variegated roof (i. e, the ceiling had a canopy of painted cloth) "vicitta-ullogacilliga" with lotus flowers and shining floor having the darkness dispelled by the studded jewels and pearls (cilligatale manirayanapanasiyamdhayare) and with many equally divided parts ; it was furnished with the presents of heaps of flowers of five colours, juice, fragrance ; and it was made beautiful (abhirama) by the production of spreading smell of black fragrant aloe wood and best perfume (cila), olibanum (silhaka) and incense full of pleasant odour and excellent smell. The bed chamber was also provided with the scented pills (gandhavattibhue) and furnished with a bed having cushion equal to the size of the human body, pillows on both sides ; it was high on both sides, sunk (low) in the middle like the pressed down sand of the bank of the Ganges, covered with a sheet of adorned covering cloth of linen and woven silk and dukula (dugulla) cloth, and then a well-worked bed-sheet (rayattana) and a covering of red cloth (rattarmsuya) having the soft touch like that of fur, cotton, fibres and fresh butter. It was furnished with the presents of layer of fragrant, excellent flowers, powders and scented pills. Outer assembly hall The outer assembly halla was well furnished with one throne (lion-seat) and other seats covered with the auspicious white cloths. Likewise the inner assembly hall was equipped with the seats for the royal ladies whose privacy was maintained by drawing a curtain (javaniya) in between the two halls. This curtain was embroidered with jewels and gems and was much visible, very costly, produced in a best city (mahaaghavara pattanuggayan), furnished with the beautiful fillets, and it was a fine fabric decorated with many hundreds of devotional pictures, images of wolves, bulls, men, dolphins (or shirk), birds, snakes, kinnaras (a class of vyantaras), yaks, elephants, shrubs and plants and other pictures. 1,5 Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 255 The BIS gives a graphic account of the royal harem consisting of eight crown-palaces (constructed for the eight newly married princesses), which looked like the rising smiling moon in the sky. In the centre of these lofty mansions there was a great palace (bhavana) for the crown prince and also a theatre hall supported on many columns (anegakharibhasaya-sainnivittham-pecchaghurumamdurariasi).' Articles of Furniture These eight palaces of the harem were furnished with the following articles of furniture one for each, viz. eight best palace-banners and eight flags, embroidered with jewels (savvarayanamae niyagavarabhavanakcu and jhae), eight golden hanging chained lights, eight silver hanging lights, eight golden-silver hanging lights, eight golden high-shining lights, thus and the same three also.' There is also an incidental reference to the oil lamp (padiva). There were eight golden mirrors" (attha sovanniyain tha. sayairi), eight golden foot-stools (payapidhae), eight golden seats (bhisiyao), eight golden couches (pallanke), eight golden sofas (padisejjao), eight swan-seats (hamsasanaim), eight curlew seats (lcorcasanaim), eight eagle-seats (garulasanain), eight high seats (unnayasanaim), eight low seats (panayasinaim), eight long seats (dihasanaim), eight feather-seats (pallchasanair), eight crocodile (or shark) seats (magarasanaim), eight lotus-seats (piumasanaim), and eight dilcsauvastikasanas (disasovatthiyasinaim, it may be a kind of revolving seat). Besides these articles, there is the mention of eight chowries (camarao), and eight palm-leaf fans (taliyante), which formed the part of furniture. A similar account of the houses etc. and the articles of furniture is also found in other Jain texts. In addition to them, i Bhs, 11, 11. 429. 116, 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 8, 6, 335. Ib, 11, 11, 430. According to Abhayadeva Suri the word 'thasaya' signifies both mirror and mirror-like plate. I have taken the first meaning, 5.0 Ib, 11, 11, 430.

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256 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. IV they deal with the construction of various types of buildings and articles of furniture in great details. Thus the Bihatkal pa Bhasyal refers to three kinds of buildings, viz. khaya (an underground cell), usiya (a palace), and ubhaya (a combination of the two), while the Rayapaseniya Sutta throws much light upon the architectural development which will be discussed later on in the section on Fine Arts' in the chapter on 'Education' in details. Besides these, the other Jaia works mention the buildings made of stones and bricks (kanitta), mirror-house (ayam sagiha!, 4 cool-house of a cakravartin, underground house (bhumihara), lack-house (jauhara),' sayanvara hall (hall for the performance of marriage by self choice)& supported on hundred columns and adorned with sportive statues (salab harijika), etc. Town-Planning It appears from the names of a large number of important cities and towns, e.g. Rajagrha", Vaisali,io Campa," Sravasti, Kausambi,13 Hastinapura,14 Vitibhaya, 26 Varanasi, 16 Tamralipti,?? etc. that there was a great development of the art of townplanning and also architecture which will be discussed later on in great details in connection with the topic .Fine Arts.' The reference to the existence of fort (duggam)18 clearly suggests that there was the construction of fortified cities which acted as the bulwark of defence against the enemy forces in times of war, if it broke out. 1 Bihatkalpa Bhasya, 1, 827. ? Rayapaseniya Sutta 97 f. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 3, 4768. 4 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 18, p. 2329. 5 Nisitha Curni, 10, p. 559. * 16, 13, p. 185 a. ? Uttaradhyayana Tika, 13, p. 188. Nayadhammakahao, 16, pp. 179.82. See Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain for details pp. 187.190. Bhs, 1, 1, 4, etc. 10 16, 7, 9, 303. 11 1b, 9, 33, 386 ; 13, 6, 491-92. 12 16, 2, 1, 90 : 9, 33, 386 ; 15, 1, 539. 13 16, 12, 2, 441. 14 1b, 11,9,417; 11,11,428. 15 I, 13, 6, 491. 18 Ib, 15, 1, 550. 17 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 18 16, 15, 1, 551. * 70, 15, 1, 550, 75, 11,9-12, 1,1,19%

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The pictorial descriptions of the town, such as, Simghadaga (crossway or a place where several roads meet)', Caccara (a place where four roads meet or a quadrangular place), etc. and the graphic accounts of the stream of the people, going through the streets to attend the religious discourse of Lord Mahavira at different Caityas reveal the well-planned cities of that period. EIGHTH SECTION Sports and Amusements, Manners and Customs. Sports and Amusements Sports and amusements are the marks of vitality of a healthy and strong social life endowed with the richness of the body and mind of the people, as it is manifested in their direct participation in these important arts of entertainment and their collective enjoyments. They create a spirit of activity and generate fresh energy in an individual, give a new impetus and add a fillip to his work and that of the society in general. 257 The Bhs throws some light upon these aspects of the social life of the people enjoying sports and amusements as developed and cultivated at that period. But it does not present a clear systematic picture of these important social entertainments. Sports The term 'kila' of the word 'Kilavanadhate',' occurring in this canonical work denotes the general sport or play enjoyed by the youngsters. This reference to kilavanadhaie' (Kridapanadhatri) clearly suggests that a special class of female nurses expert in various games was employed in the service of the royal family to coach the young princes in varieties of sports during their boyhood. Besides this evidence, the BhS mentions the taking of physical exercise by a king in his gymnasium (attanasala) before 1.3 BhS, 11, 9, 318. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 33 3 Ib, 9, 33, 384. Ib, 11, 11, 428.

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258 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV his bath. It clearly shows that a special care was taken by the kings of those days in physical culture to keep themselves healthy, strong and active in order to carry on their duties of the daily life without falling victims to diseases. There is also an indirect reference to wrestling as a part of sports, made in connection with the greetings of the people of Ksatriyakundagrama to prince Jamali on his way to the Bahusalaku Caitya to undertake the state of houselessness after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira.1 They paid him their spontaneous ovations by addressing him thus: "Kill the wrestler-like attachment and jealousy by austerity in the midst of perfection"". Amusements Besides these sports, the people of that period used to entertain themselves with various kinds of individual and social amusements on different occasions, such as, birth-ceremony, marriage, etc. It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Birth and its celebration' in the fourth section of this chapter that the birthday of the prince Mahabala became a public holiday of festivity for all the citizens of Hastinapura. It was celebrated for ten days with various kinds of amusements and social entertainments, such as, songs and dances and was made delightful and sportive together with the peoples of the city and of the country side. Similarly the marriage ceremony of the same prince was accompanied by both vocal and instrumental music which solemnized the occasion and created an atmosphere of joy and happiness for all the people attending this function. For the continuation of a happy life of the young married couple in cheerful surroundings they were provided with the best actors and dancers together with the composed dramas etc." 8.4 Ib, 11, 11, 429, 1. BhS, 9, 33, 385. 6, 16, 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 259 The reference to the theatre hall (peochaghara)? supported on many hundred columns (anegakhambhasayasamnivitha) inside the palace clearly shows that the members of the royal family entertained themselves with dances, dramas and songs presented by the professional dancers, actors and musicians respectively in that hall. The Bhs presents a vivid picture of ainusements enjoyed by the ruling Ksatriya princes by referring to the cases of the princes Jamali' and Mahabalain their respective residences at Katriyakundagrama and Hastinapura. It is stated that both of them passed time by enjoying thirty-two kinds of dramatic representations in the company of very beautiful young ladies, singing and singing, dancing and dancing, by fondling them in the upper palace and experiencing five kinds of sensual gratification of human desires, i.e. sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell, througout the nights of all the six seasons of the year. There is also an evidence to show that the young man moved along with the young lady, holding her hand in his hand and enjoyed the pleasure of her charming association, beauty and youth, Juvatim juvane hatthenam hatthe............ " Besides these, the members of the royal and rich aristo. cratic families organized feasts and entertained themselves and their friends, kinsmen, relatives, attendants and the peoples of the city and of the country together with abundant food and drink on various occasions, such as, birthday, marriage ceremony, at the time of renouncing the world, on the day of Karttika-Caturmasiku pratipada and Puusadha-vrata dayo (pausadha vrata = fasting vow). was observed by one class of householders after enjoying first abundant food and drink, 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. 16, 9, 33, 383. 4 16, 5, 6, 208. 6 Ib, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. , 16, 12, 1, 437. 3 lb, 11, 11, 431. 6 15, 11, 11, 430. 8 15, 15, 1, 541.

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260 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV The general people enjoyed pleasure and felt the efficacy of joy by perforining different religious festivals, such as, festival of Indra (Indamaha), that of Karttika, that of Vasudeva, that of Naga, that of Yaksa, that of Bhuta (Vyantaras), that of Kapa (well), that of Tadaga (tank)...... that of Stupa', etc. It appears from the Bhs that a special arrangement was made for the social entertainment of the people with the dance-drama, performed by an accomplished artist in a public hall. An indirect reference is made in the text to the public theatre hall where hundreds and thousands of people assembled to witness and enjoy the dance-drama presented by a young beautiful well-dressed actress. . The comparison of the Universe with a theatre hall, made by the greeters and eulogists of prince Jamali in connection with their greetings and instructions to him on his way to the Bahusalaka Caitya in order to get himself initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma, clearly suggests that the threatre was a great resort of the pleasures and amusements for the people. Thus it is said, "hold the flag of worship inside the theatre hall of the three worlds."'3 Last of all, the study of the references to the drinking of liquor and wine business (rasavanijja)" clearly shows that the suppressed desire of the individuals for joy and happiness was given a free satisfaction by this way. The account of the sports and amusements is also found in the other Jaina texts. In addition they refer to various sports and amusements enjoyed by the people, such as, games of lac marbles (vattaya), tip.cat (adaliya), ball (tindusa), doll(pottullu), cloths (salollaya)', bow (sara payaya), race of bullock cart 1 BhS, 9, 33, 383. 3 1b, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 8, 5, 330 ? 10, 11, 10, 422. Ib, 5, 2, 181; 15, 1, 554 6 Nayadhani makahao 18, p. 207.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA 201 (gorahaga), the play with ball of cloth (celagola)", cock and peacock fights', etc. Manners and Customs Manners and customs of a society are the reflections upon the true nature of its culture as manifested in various forms of the individual and social behaviour and relation of the people as a whole. They are the most essential factors for determining the cultural standard of the entire community, because they reveal to a great extent the real picture of the prevailing social conditions with their all brightuess and shortcomings. Hospitality to Guests As already pointed out in the third section of this chapter, the Bhss throws a welcome light upon the manners and customs of welcoming, honouring and entertaining friends, relatives, kinsmen, guests and monks on various occasions, such as, birth-ceremony, marriage, departing ceremony for undertaking the state of houselessness, etc. Here an attempt will be made to study them in regard to the manner of hospitality to guests. Whenever any guest, whether a familiar neighbour or a monk, arrived at the residence of a householder, it was the social custom to welcome him in the following manner. On the approach of the guest to the house, the host imme. diately got up from the seat, advanced seven or eight steps forward towards the guest, worshipped and saluted him and offered him a seat. In the case when a monk happened to be the guest, the host, after getting up from the seat, put off the sandals, put the utturasanga (upper garment) on the left shoulder, placed the hands in the form of afijali salutation 1 Suyagadanga-2. 13f; for others refer to Digha Nikaya 1. p-6, Ma jh ma Nokage 1. p. 266; Set galao@, pt. 1. pp. 84f. 2 Uttaradhyayana sika.13. p-191; See 'Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons' by Dr. J. C. Jain for detailed accounts of various games, amusements, p. 238-41. 8 Bhs, 12, 1, 438 ; 15, 1, 541 ; 15, 1, 557. The meaning of the phrase 'egasadagam uttarasamgarn kattva' is not quite clear. The above meaning has been adopted in accordance with the Pali phrase ekamsam uttarasamgain karittva': Cf. Pali Mahavagga, Brahma-yacana katha etc.

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262 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV (closed like a bud), advanced seven or eight steps towards him, circumambulated him thrice from the left to right, worshipped and saluted and offered him a seat.1 Next, the host or hostess inquired about the welfare of the guest, entertained him with food, drink and other dainties and honoured him with the flowers, cloth, perfume, garland and ornaments, in case the guest was an invited householder," particularly on the occasion of renouncing the world. If a monk was a guest, his host welcomed him in the same manner and entertained him with food, drink, etc. which fulfilled the following conditions, viz. purity of thing (dravyasuddhi), purity of giver (dayakasuddhi), purity of possession (pratigrahakasuddhi), three kinds of purity of trikarana (krta, karita and unumedita) by three acts of mind, speech and body (manovakkayasuddhena).1 It was the custom of the society that the householder should take his meal, together with his friends, kinsmen, relatives and guests. But if the host was a monk, he should take his food after entertaining the ascetic guests, as it is evidenced in the case of the royal sage Siva" in his Vanaprastha stage of life. Different customs The BhS reveals that it was the general custom of the people of its period, from a king down to a palanquin bearer, to take bath, to worship house-gods and to perform auspicious expiatory rites and ceremonies before starting any kind of work, e. g. going to war by a soldier, pilgrimage to a saint, or a king," attending the royal court, carrying palanquin by the palanquinbearers, performing birth-ceremony by the parents, marriage of the bridegroom and bride13 and consecration before renouncing the world and initiation," etc. 1 BhS, 12, 1, 438. 2 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 15, 1, 541. 4b, 15, 1 541. 5 Ib, 3, 1, 133; 11, 9, 417. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 7 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 301; 303. Ib, 11, 11, 428. 11.12 8 13 9_10 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 14 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 381; 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417. Ib, 9, 33, 1; 383. Ib, 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 263 At the time of the consecration (ceremonial bath), the same custom was observed by the retiring householder who was seated facing the eastern directio n1 or forward' on a bathing seat. While going by palanquin on the way to his undertaking the state of houselessness he sat always facing eastwards or forward. Observance of auspicious moment of stars, dates, etc. The people of that period followed the rule of auspicious stars, dates (tithis), etc. in the matter of the performance of their different ceremonies with the belief that their actions, if begun at those moments, would be fruitful and lead to prosperity and happiness. Thus it is found in the case of Mahabala that at the moment of constellation of star of auspicious lunar days his parents caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses after the performance of due ceremonies. Similarly, there are instances of observance of auspicious dates by the householders on various occasions. It is stated in the BhS that a Brahmana, Bahula by name, entertained other Brahmanas with abundant best food mixed with honey and clarified butter on the day of pratipada (first moon) of Karttika". Further, the custom of observing auspicious festivals is evidenced in the lamenting utterances of the mother of the prince Jamali at the time of his leaving the worldly life to undertake the state of houselessness. She, shedding unbearable tears due to the pangs of separation of her son, said thus: "This tuft of hair of our Jan ali (cut off by the barber) will be the last sight (apacchima darisana) in many tithis (dates), parvanis (festivities) utsavas (festivals), yajnas (sacrifices) and chanas (Indrotsava festival of Indra, etc.). = It follows from this account that the people believed in and observed the custom of preserving the hair of the departed dear ones to keep up their remembrance and to have consolation from the sight of their cut off hairs. 1 BhS, 13, 6, 491. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 2 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 430.

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264 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV It is stated here that the mother of the prince Jamali put the tuft of his hairs (aggakesa) in a jewelled casket and placed it under the pillow (osisagamile)', after taking it first in a piece of white cloth, washing it with the fragrant-scented water, then worshipping it with the most excellent incense and flowers and binding it in a piece of pure cloth to preserve it. Festivals The Bhs shows that the people of its society celebrated many kinds of festivals and ceremonies on different occasions, as already referred to, such as, festivals of Indra, Karttilca, Vasudeva, Naga (Snake-deity), Yaksa, Bhuta (Vyantaras), Kupa (well, i, e. opening ceremony of well), Tadaga (tank), Nadi (river), Hrada (lake), Viksa (tree), Caitya (temple), Stupu (relic worship), etc.' in the performance of which the entire community participated with great enthusiasm and joy. Besides these, the people observed the ceremonies of the births and marriage and the other incidents of life of an indivi. dual with the prevailing social customs of that period according to the economic prosperity of the family. The customs of ceremonies of the birth and marriage have already been dealt with in the fourth section of this chapter in connection with the topics-- Birth and its celebration' and "Marriage Ceremony'. Death The Bhs presents a picture of various classes of deaths caused by different factors, such as, natural and unnatural, accidental and suicidal, murderous and voluntary, etc. According to the text there are two main categories of death, viz. unsaintly (Balamarana) and saintly (Panditamarana) deaths. Under the first one come the following twelve kinds of death caused by the individual and social factors, viz. Valatah 1 BKS, 9, 33, 385. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 11, 9, 33, 383. Ih, 2, 1, 91. % 10, 11, 11, 429.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 265 marana (death caused due to fall from self control, being subject to senses, because of starvation); Vasartta-marana (death caused by the tortures or torments of the senses, i.e. due to being overpowered by the sensuous objects); Antahsalya-marana (death caused by the non-extraction of extraneous objects like pikes and thorns etc. or under the influence of passions); Tadbhava-marana (death which leads to the previous life due to some action); Giripatana-marana (death caused by the fall from the hill, i. e. accidental); Tarupatana marana (death caused by the fall from tree, i.e. accidental); Jalaprave samarana (death caused by drowning oneself, i. e. suicide); Jvalana-marana (death due to burning, entering into fire, i. e. suicide); Visabhaksana-marana (death by swallowing poision, a suicidal death); i. e. due to drinking of poison, it is Sastravapatana-marana (death due to the striking of weapon, i.e. murderous); Vehayasa-marana (death due to hanging from a tree, i.e. suicidal); Grddhas prsta-marana (death caused by the piercing or eating or devouring by the vulture or wild animals i. e. unnatural death)'. Under the second category come the two voluntary saintly deaths, viz. Padapopagamana-marana (death embraced by the saint by becoming immobile like a tree in his meditative state), and Bhakta pratyakhyana-marana (death embraced by the saint by giving up food). Padapopagamana is further divided into two groups, viz. Niharima (when the dead body is disposed of and some ceremony is performed by the fellow monks for his liberation) and Aniharima (when the dead body is left out in the forest or cave without burning and ceremony).' Thus from the above account of the different classes of death an idea may be formed about various social forces which operated during the period of this canonical work to bring the life of an individual to an end in this mundane world. 1.2 Bhs, 2, 1, 91. 34

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266 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV Death-Ceremony The Bhs throws some light upon the customs of the funeral ceremony observed by the people of its society as revealed in its stray references, but it does not present a complete picture of this important social function. Thus it is said that king Siva performed the work (worship) of gods and his dead father (i. e. manes) (Devayapitikayakajje),' plunging himself into the Gangea, while taking bath during the stage of his Vanaprastha ascetic life. In the case of death of a Nirgrantha monk, his fellow brethren of the order performed the kayotsarga ceremony for the liberation of his soul (parinivvana) and brought his begging bowl (patta) and robe (civara) with them to report this matter to their religious preceptor. In this connection the two kinds of death as already explained, viz. Niharima and Aniharima throw some light upon the funeral ceremony of a monk. In the case of Niharima death the dead body was disposed off by the performance of some funeral rite, but in that of Aniharima the corpse was left out in the forest or any lonely place without burning it and observing any ceremony. It appears that there was also a custom of taking out the dead body of a religious leader in a palanquin in a colourful funeral procession, after having given it a ceremonial bath and decorated it with the Gosirsa sandal paste, silken robe and all kinds of ornaments, as it is said to have been observed by the Ajavika monks in the case of their teacher, Gosala Mankhaliputra, on his death according to his instruction. A similar account of the manners and customs in regard "Bhs, 12, 9, 417. 16, 2, 1, 96. Here Skandaka is meant. On his death his fellow ascetics brought his begging bowl and robe (patta & civar a) to Lord Mahavira after performing due funeral rite. 9 lb, 15, 1, 556.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 267 to bath,' auspicious moments and days, festivals, ceremonies of birth and marriage," and funeral rites', is also found in the other Jaina texts. In addition, they provide informations regarding these and other manners and customs in great details." Conclusion The study of the above social conditions clearly reveals that the society of that period was based on the traditional Varnasrami Dharma with the ideal of Moksa (liberation). But it was not rigid, as it is evidenced by the fact of the gradual absorption of different tribes and nationals into the wider social system, resulting in the racial synthesis. Spiritualism dominated the whole individual, social, political, economic and cultural life of the people and the society. An equal attention was paid by them to both the secular and religious duties. Thus a balance was maintained to attain the goal of life which helped them to renounce the material enjoyments and desires and guided them towards the spiritual realization. 1 Cf. Nayadhammakahao 16, 181 ; 2, 51 ; See Raya. 148 ; Kalpa, 4, 67. ; Nayadhammakahao, 1, 24, p. 23. 3 Ib, 1, 25, p. 24. 4 16,1,20, p. 20. 5 16, 1, 24, p. 23. 6 See Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons', by Dr. J. C. Jain for various funeral rites as revealed in the Jaina texts, pp. 241-42. 7 Ib, pp. 227-242.

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FIFTH CHAPTER Economic Conditions FIRST SECTION Agriculture The very material necessity of human life has led men to devote their time very much to the earning of their livelihood, accumulation and distribution of wealth in different forms in various ways from the time immemorial. Since then the whole economic activity of the human society has been concentrated on the production, consumption and preservation of food and other necessaries of life for the present and future days. Thus the Science of Economics (Varta) evolved itself out of the economic pursuits (Vitti Vrtti)1 of men, such &S, agriculture (phodikamma Sphotih-bhumeh sphotanam halakudaladibhih saiva karma sphotikarma. comm.), arts and crafts (sippa), industry, trade and commerce (vanijja), etc. It is clear from the BhS and the other literary works that the main factors of production of the requisites of economic life are land (khetta), labour, capital (dhana), and organization (negama), which formed the basis of the 'Science of Economics' in the socio-economic evolution of human civilization in the distant past. The text throws a welcome light upon the different aspects of the economic conditions as reflected in its stray references, beginning from the hunting and agriculture upto that of a developed economy of trade, industry and banking, organized and run by the private guild of merchants. Thus the text presents a detailed account of various arts and crafts, trades and industries and professions adopted by the 1 BhS, 7, 6, 288. 3 lb, 17, 5, 525. 2 1b, 8, 5, 330. 4 Ib, 3, 5, 330.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 269 different sections of the people of its society for earning their livelihood, such as, hunting of deer (miyavittie)', fishery (macchakacchehim..... ...vittiin kuppemana)', charcoal-making (imgalakamme), cutting and selling of forest plants franakamme), making and selling of carts (salikamme), transport business (bhadikamme), cultivation (phoaikamme), ivory business (dartavanijje), lacbusiness (lakkhavanijje), traffic in hair (kesavanijje), e.g. woolbusiness", wine business (rasavanijje), poison-business (visavanijje), act of crushing (e.g. sugarcane, etc. with machine, jartapilana-kamme)", castration of bulls (nillam chanakamme), act of setting fire to the woods (davaggidavanaya i.e. clearing off jungles), act of draining or drying up the big tank, lake, etc. (sara-daha-talaya-paris08anaya) and act of running brothel (asai posanaya)". Besides these, a flourishing trade was carried on by the merchants in gold, bell-metal, cloth, jewel, gem, pearls, conch, coral, red jewelo, etc. These evidences clearly show that the economic structure of the society as depicted in this canonical work was based on agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and industry and banking business partially controlled by the state, as it is already discussed in connection with the aiscal administration in the sixth section of the third chapter that there were well-organized revenue and commerce departments with their various activities connected with finance of the Government, such as, the land settlement, taxation, raising the standard of weights and mea. sures, money-lending business, etc. Moreover, one rich merchant (Satthavaha) was always associated with the administration along with the other high dignitaries of the state, probably as economic adviser to the Government. 1 Bhs, 1, 8, 65; 67. 16, 7, 6, 288. 3 16, 8, 5, 330. (Abhaya Deva Suri explains that Kesa vanij ja means cattle-business "Kesavajjivanam gomahisistri prabhrtikanam vikrayah") 4.5 1b, 8, 5, 330. 815, 8, 5, 328. ? IB, 2, 5, 107. 8 16, 7, 9, 300.

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270 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Agriculture From the above list of trades and professions it appears that the agriculture (phodikamme) was the mainstay of a large section of the people for earning their livelihood. [Ch. V The centre of this agro-economy was in village consisting of ten thousand families (dasakulasahassienam gamenam), cattle, cultivable land, pasture (goyara)3 tank, garden, forest, etc. Beyond the arable land of the village lay the grazing field common for its cattle and those belonging to the state in some 4 cases. Besides the pasture, the village had its own groves (arama) and gardens (ujjana) and ended in the unfrequented and uncleared jungles and forests (adavie)." Thus it is clear that a village had both cultivated and uncultivated lands (goyara) for producing crops and grazing cattle respectively and also some waste lands and forests. The text thus gives an idea of the face of the country as existing at that period. Measurement and Survey of Land In connection with the fiscal administration in the sixth section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions' it has already been discussed that the land was measured, surveyed, and recorded by a class of settlement officers as suggested by the words "(a) mijjam" and "(a) dijjam" occurring in the BhS.' So this reference to the measuring and transfer of land in this canonical work throws an important light upon the system of land tenure as existing during its period. 1 Bhs, 8, 5, 330.. a Ib, 11, 11, 430. The population of ten thousand families in a village seems to be inconceivable and an exaggeration when it is compared with that of the modern village. It may be a popular figure used by the author of the BhS. 3 Ib, 12, 7, 457. 6 Ib, 14, 7, 525. 4 Ib, 11. 11, 430. 7 Ib, 12, 7, 457. 5 Ib, 18, 10, 647. s Ib, 11, 11, 429.

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271 Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA But the picture of this problem is, however, incomplete, as these evidences are concerned only with the royal amnesty declared on the occasion of the birth ceremony of a new born prince.1 Moreover, it does not convey a clear idea of ownership of the land whether the particular individual or the whole village was the owner of the same. But it is apparently clear from the evidences of the private possession of wealth and property by the individual householders, that the holdings of land by the cultivators were governed by a law which was a kind of tenure by which the purchaser obtained the right of permanent enjoyment over it and of selling or donating it, if he desired to do so at any time. On the basis of these holdings of land by the tenants taxes were assessed and collected by the revenue officials of the Government from them in kind or cash. Thus the stray references to the land settlement occurring in this canonical work give an idea of the presentdayproprietorship and of the officials who were concerned with the works of measuring and recording lands, collecting and sometimes remitting taxes under the royal orders. Classification of Land According to the BhS the land may be classified into three groups, viz. field (ksetra), garden (udyana), and forest (atavi or vana or kantara) as distinguished by the names of different crops, flowers and fruits respectively, e. g. Asogavana, Sattavannavana, Campayavana, Cuyavana, Tilagavana, Chattovavana, Asanavana, Siddhatthavana, Bandhujivagavanas, Ambavana', etc. Implement and Agricultural Operation The BhS makes incidental references to some implements used in the cultivation of the fields and harvesting of the crops 1 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 3 b, 1, 1, 19. 2 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144. Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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272 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA * [Ch. V and gives an idea of the method of agricultural operations, etc. as revealed in its scattered evidences. Agricultural Implements . The text mentions the following implements, viz. a newly sharpened and tempered sickle (navapajjanaenam asiyaenan) and a sharp axe (tikkhena paras una).' Besides these, the plough and spade, the two main agricultural tools were also used in cultivation, as it is suggested by the denotation of the word 'Phoaikamma'' i. e. ploughing and spading. The plough was drawn by the bullocks as distinguished from the others employed in the service of drawing the carts." The ripe crops were harvested with the sickle, while the trees were felled by the axe. Methods of Agricultural Operation The agricultural operation consisted of ploughing the fields, sowing the seeds, transplanting the seedlings, reaping the ripe crops and storing the grains of corns in a well-built store-house." Ploughing The act of ploughing and spading (cultivation) is denoted by the word 'Phoaikamma as used in the BhS in connection with the holy teachings of Lord Mabavira on the fifteen occupations disapproved by the Nirgrantha religion (karmadanas). Besides these, there is a direct evidence of ploughing the land by the cultivators, as revealed in reference to the effects of Kriyas (actions) arising out of the accidental killing of some beings by a man, while digging the earth.? Sowing of Seeds Some incidental references in this text to the storing of grains show that a great care was taken by the farmers for the 1 Bhs, 17, 7, 525. 3 16, 8, 5, 330. 16, 7, 6, 246. ? 1b, 7, 1, 263. 2 Ib, 16, 4, 573. 4 16, 9, 33, 380. 6 16,, 8, 5, 330. $ 11, 6, 7, 246.

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273 Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA preservation of the germination-capacity (yoni) of the seeds of rice, wheat, barley, pulses, etc. kept in a well-built store before sowing them by the broadcasting method in a cultivated field at proper time and season. The mention of some crops, such as, sugarcane1, tuberous root, ginger etc. clearly suggests that the method of transplanting the germinated cuttings and seedlings was also adopted by the cultivators for growing certain crops whose plant life exists in their adventitious buds or roots. Reaping The terms Lavae' and 'Luejja" occurring in the BhS denote ear or stalk of corn and its reaping by a sickle respectively. When the crops, sali (rice), Vrihi (a kind of rice), Godhuma (wheat), Yava (barley), etc. became mature and ripe, they were reaped by the cultivator holding and compressing together the scattered stalks of those yellow-stemmed crops in arms with a newly sharpened and well-tempered sickle (navapajjanaenam asiyaenam) (datrena). Storing out. A great precaution was taken by the cultivators to store the harvested corns, such as, different kinds of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and other grains for the future use, as already pointed The method of storing grains of these crops is described thus that they were kept in granaries made of the palya (grass), sack of corn, straw and bamboo on an elevated platform without walls (mamca) and also on the roof of the house (mala) (abhittiko manco malasca grhopari bhavati, comm.)", besmeared with the cowdung at the door together with the lid, and covered with the cowdung from all sides, closed (pihita) and completely sealed up with the mud and marked with the lines (lamchiya), in order to main 1 Bhs, 21, 5, 691,; 23, 6, 693. 2.3 Ib, 14, 7, 525. 4 Ib, 6, 7, 246 5 Ib, 6, 7, 246. Dr. J. C. Jain has translated the word 'Mamca' & 'Mala' as a granary standing on pillars (manca) & the upper storey of the house (mala). But it appears that 'mala' was the granary made on the roof of a building as it is found in Bengal. 35

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274 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA tain their food value and to preserve their germination-capacities (or viability) upto the maximum periods of three, five and seven years respectively.1 [Ch. V It appears from this evidence of the system of storing grains that the germination-capacities of the cereals, like rice wheat etc., those of pulses (kalai) and others, and those of oil-seeds like linceed (alasi), mustard (sarsapa) and others, lasted in the minimum for one antarmuhurta, and in the maximum for three, five and seven years respectively. After that (period) their individual germination-capacities withered and got destroyed and the seeds became unseeds." It is to be carefully observed that the knowledge of the germination-capacities of these cereals, pulses and other oil seeds as revealed in this canonical work almost agree with the results of germination-capacities obtained by the experiments of the agricultural researches of the present day.3 Rainfall The terms 'pausa' and 'vasa" used in the BhS denote the rainy season and rain respectively, which are most essential for growing rice and other crops of this season. The reference to the duration of Udakagarbha' (change or transformation of matter into water), upto one samaya in the minimum and six months in the maximum shows that the phenomena of Nature operated in causing the rainfall within a shortest period or after a long period of six months. There is no direct evidence in the text to cite that the process of irrigation of the cultivated fields was adopted by the peasants for growing crops, but the allusion to the act of drying up (or draining) the big tank, lake, etc., (saradahatadaya parisosanaya)" by a class of people clearly suggests that the system of irrigation was in operation as it was well-known in ancient India. 1 BhS, 6, 7, 246. 2 Ib, 6, 7, 246. 3 Plant physiology, 2nd. Ed. Bequard S. Myor and Donald S. Anderson p. 715. 4 Bhs, 9, 33, 383. "Ib, 2, 5, 101. 61b, 8, 5, 330,

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 275 Agricultural Produce In connection with the topic "Different kinds of food' as already discussed in the sixth section of the fourth chapter, it has been pointed out that the BhS presents an account of staple foods, such as, cereals, pulses, other grains, vegetables, fruits, etc. Here an attempt will be made to give a list of varieties of the field crops and other agricultural produces raised by the cultivators of the society of that period. Both the accounts are almost the same, for the agricultural produce is consumed by the people as food for the sustenance of life. So the varieties of field crops and other agricultural produces as presented in the BKS are given below :Cereals! Sali (a kind of rice harvested in winter), Vihi (a best type of rice), Godhuma (wheat), Java (barley), Javajava (a kind of jowar) and Nipphava (a kind of wheat).' Pulses Kalaya, Masura, Mugga (Phaseolus Mungo), Masa (a valued kind of pulse having seeds marked with black and grey spots, Phaseolus Radiatus), Kulattha (cabalikakarah, a kind of pulse, Dolichos Uniflorus), Alisamdaga' (cabalaka prakarah), Satina (tubar cana, Pisum Arvense) and Palimanthaga (matara), vrtta canaka (round pulse). Other crops Ayasi (bhangi), Linseed ; Kusunbhaga (latla), Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius; Koddava (kodrava), a species of grain eaten 13 Bh8, 6, 7, 246 ; 21, 2, 691. Nipphava is also called Valla. See Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 5.6049. According to Jacobi it is Dolichos Senensis (Jain Sutras XIV, p. 374). According to Weber Alisamdaga was a grain imported from Alexandria after the name of which it is called Alisamdaga. See Indian Antiquary Vol. XIX. 6 Bhs, 6, 7, 246.

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276 studies in THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V by the poor people (Paspalum Scrobiculatum); Kangu (millet), a kind of parric seed ; Varaga (varatta) or tubari ; Ralaga (kanguvisesa), the resin of Shorea Robusta; Kodusaga' (kodra visesa); Sarisava' (siddharthakah, mustard seed) and Tilas (sesa me), Sesamum indicum. Vegetables Aluga (Ebony, Arum Campanulatum); Mulaga (raddish) ; Singavera (ginger;^ ; Addae (araka, ginger)?; Pindahalidda (yellow turmeric) ; Palandu (onion), Lhasana (garlic); Kandamula (a kind of tuberous root)"; Lauya (bottle gourd),13 Turbi (gourd),18 Tausi (a kind of cucumber)"$ ; Valurki (a kind of cucumber)15 and Vaingani (Vrntaki-brinjal).18 Other field crops - Ikkhu (sugarcane)?? and Tambola (betel).18 Fibre-Crops-Sana (a kind of hemp, cannabis sativa)19 and Kappasa (cotton) 20. Dye-produce -(1) Mamjittha (mafjistha, Indian Madder)81 and (2) Kanhadala (Indigo)". It appears from the above list of the field crops that most of them were grown in Eastern India where there are still found positive evidences of their cultivation in abundance. Flora The Bhs clearly shows that its author was well-acquainted with the plant kingdom of India, particularly that of North India, and her flora and developed horticulture and arboricul. ture, as it is revealed by the fact that this canonical work presents a colourful description of the forests, groves, and gardens, endowed with different varieties of trees, Creepers, grasses, flowers and fruits. These natural products of the 1 The Mahabharata refers to Karalusaka as best corn (III, 193, 19). 2 Bh8, 6, 7, 246; 18, 10, 6+7 ; 23, 5. Ib, 6, 7, 246; 15, 1, 547. $ 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1. Ib, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324. 6 lb, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1. 7-8 16,7, 3, 277. 9.10 16, 8, 5, 330. 11 Ib, 8. 5, 330; 22, 6, 12 16.1, 1, 19. 13.16 11. 22, 6, 17 16, 21, 5, 18 16, 9, 33, 383. 19.21 16, 8, 6, 334. 22 16, 21, 5,

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SUTRA 277 plant kingdom had enriched the wild beauty of the landscape and supplied the necessary economic needs of the society to some extent. Forests The term "Vana'l used in the Bhs denotes two meanings, viz. the natural forest adavzand the well-cultivated groves and gardens full of trees, flowers and fruits. Thus it gives a list of different classes of van 189 as already pointed out in the beginning of this section, such as, Asogavana, Sattavannavana (Saptaparnavana)........, upto Bandhujivagavana, Ambavana, etc. A deep trackless forest is called 'aqavi' (atavz),while the groves and gardens were known as arama and ujjana respectively where the wandering monks sometimes used to take shelter for a short period of their stay. The plant kingdom as found in this text may be classified into the following main groups, viz. trees, (rukkha), herbs, grasses (tana), creepers (laya), and field crops which have already been discussed. The natural products of the plants may be divided into two broad categories on the basis of the economic use, namely, eatable and non-eatable natural products. Eatablo Natural Products Of the eatable natural products grown in the gardens and forests varieties of fruits and spices, as already mentioned in connection with the topic *Different kinds of Food' in the sixth section of the fourth chapter, are recorded in the Bhs. Fruits Anba (mango)o (mangifera Indica), Jarrbu (rose apple or black berry)10 (Eugenia Jambolana); Kosanball; Kadali (banana or plantain)1* (Musa Sapientum); Puyaphala (Arecanut)+3; Khajjuri 1 Bhs, 1, 1, 19; 8, 5, 330. ? 16, (Vana), 8, 5, 330; 15, 1, 517 (Adavi), 16, 18, 10, 647. 4.5 Ib, 1, 1, 19. 16, 11, 11, 428. 7 16, 15 1, 547. 8 16, 18, 10, 647. 9 16, 15, 1, 554 ; 22, 2, 10 16,8, 3, 324 ; 22, 2. il 16, 22, 2. 12 13 16, 22, 1.

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278 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V (date)1 (Phoenix Sylvestris); Nalieri (cocoanut) Tala (Palm); Tetali (Tamarind); Nivayaga (Karanjaka)5 (Pongamia glabra or verbesina scondens); Atthiya (asthika guava); Timduga (tinduka) (Diospyros embryopteris) (Ebony); Bora (the jujube); Maulinga (citron); Billa (wood apple) (Aegle Marmelos); Amalaga (Emblic Myrobalan); Phanasa (Panasa bread-fruit or jack fruit) (Artocarpus Integrifolia); Dadima (the Pomegranate); Satara (a kind of reddish grapes); Kakali (a kind of grape); Khira (Cucumber); Rittha; Bahedaga (the fruit of Terminalia Belerica); Haritaga (the fruit of Terminalia chebula) and Bhallaya (Bhallata) (the fruit of the marking-nut-plant, Semecarpus Anacardium)1o. Spices Jira (cuminseed)" (Panicum miliaceum), Mariya (pepper)12, Pippali (or long pepper)13 Lavanga (Clove), Ela (any species of cardamom), Jaru (a kind of spices) and Sunthi (dry ginger)17. Non-Eatable Natural Products Besides the fruits and spices, the BhS presents a long list of different classes of the plant kingdom, such as, trees, plants having tuberous roots (kanda), shrubs, herbs, creepers, flowers, etc. Some of them supplied the economic needs of the society in the forms of bark cloth (vagalavattha)18, raw stuffs of medicine, firewood, house-building materials, articles of decoration, lac, etc., while others added to the natural beauty of the land and gave shelter to the wild denizens. As a whole they checked the soil erosion and also contributed to the cause of rainfall which has always been one of the most essential factors for agriculture in India. 13 BhS, 8, 3, 324; 22, 1. 5 Ib, 22, 3. 6 Ib, 22, 3. (Atthika to Tinduka). Ib, 22, 3. (from Bora to Satara), 9 Ib, 23, 5. 11 1b, 21, 8. 13 Ib, 21, 7. 15 Ib, 22, 6. 11 Ib, 21, 5. 4 Ib, 22, 2. 8 Ib, 22, 6. 10 Ib, 22, 2. 12 Ib, 21, 8. 14 1b, 22, 1. 16 Ib, 23, 1. 18 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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Sec. 1] Trees STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA A list of trees, plants and flowers, etc. is given below: Campaya (Michelia Campaka-a kind of tree bearing a yellow fragrant flower), Chattova, Asana (the tree Terminalia)', Bhandiya (Sirisa tree) Asadhagas, Rohiyam, (Andersonia Rohitaka), Udumbara, Padalirukkha, Tamala (Xantho-chymus), Takkuli (Pictorius), Tetali (Tamarind tree), Sala, Surala (a species of pine tree)10, Masaragalla, Keyatz (the tree pondanus odoratissimus), Cammarukkha (the parchment tree, the bark of it is used for writing upon), Gumdarukkhas (Saccharum Sara, the plant pataraka), Hingurukkha1 (Ferula, Asa Foetida or cyporus rotundas), Lavangarukkhal (the clove tree), Tuyaphalale (arecanut tree), Khajjuri (the date tre, Phoenix sylvestris), Nalier718 (cocoanut tree), Salakallana, Jayai (a kind of flower tree, Jasminum grandiflorum), Bhuyarukkha, Saya (the Teak tree)10, Ambila (Tamarindus Indica)01, Jira22 (Cumin tree, Panicum miliaceum) and Saga. Nimba (Azadirachta Indica), Amba (Mango tree, Mangifera Indica), Jambu (black berry tree, Engenia Jambolana), Kosamba (Kosamra), Tala (Palmyra tree), Amkolla (the Plant Alangium, Hexa-petalum) Pilu (Careya Arbonea or Salvadora persica), Selu (cordia Myxa), Sallai, Moyai (Mopiringa-pterygosperma or Mussa Sapientum), Malluya (Ocimum Sanctum), Baula (Mimusops Elengi) Palasa (Butea frondosa), Karamja (the tree Pongamia glabra, a medicinal plant), Putramjiva (Roxburghii), Rittha (Sapindus Detergens), Bahedaga (Terminalia Belerica) Haritaga (Terminalia Chebula), Bhallaya (the Acajou or Cashew-nut tree or the marking nut tree, esp. acid quicea for medicine), Khira (Asclepia rosea, Mimosa kauki), Nidhai Piyala (the tree Buchanania Latifolia, Commonly called piyala), Puiya (Bonduc), Nivayaga (Pongamia glabra), Senhaya (Slaksana, 1 Bhs. 1, 1, 19 (Campaya to Asana). 2.4 Ib. 21, 6, 528. 7.10 1b, 8, 3, 324; 22, 1, 692. 11.14 Ib, 22, 1. 15-18 Ib, 22, 1. 20.23 16, 21, 7. 279 5.6 1b, 14, 8. 19 Ib, (Salakallana to Bhuyarukka), 8, 3, 324, 24 Ib 22, 1.

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280 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. V Bauhinia Tomentosa), Pasiyu, S58aea (Simsapa, the tree Dalberagia Sis800 or Asaka), Punnaga, Nagarukkha (Orange). Sivanna (Sraparna, Premna Spinosa or Longifolia), Asoga (the Jonesia Asoka). Atthiya (the guava), Tirduya (Diospyros embryopteris), Bora (vadara, zizyphus jujuba), Kavitha (kapistha, Feroma Elephan. tum), Ambadaga (the hogdrum or Spondias Mangifera)), Mauliinga (matulinga, a citron), Billa (the wood apple tree, Aegle Marmelos), Amalagie (emblic Myrobatan), Phanasa (Jack fruit or bread fruit, Artocarpus Integrifolia), Dadima (the Pomegranate), Asuttha (asvattha, Ficus religiosa),, Vada (Vata, the Banyan, Ficus Indica, Indian figs), Naggoha (nyagrodha, Ficus bengalensis), Nandirulkha, (Cedrela Toona), Pippali (Long pepper, Piper Longum hav. ing the waved leaf), Pilakkharukkha (plaksavrksa, Figtree, Ficus Infectoria), Kauivariya (Kadumvariku, the opposite-leaved fig, Ficus opposite folia) and Kucchumbhariya (Kaustombharika). Devadali3 (Pinus Devadaru), Tilaga (Clerodendrum Phlo. moides or Symplocos racemosa), Lanya (a kind of bread fruit tree, Artecarpus Lacucha), Chattoha (Pterospermum Suberi folium), Sirisa (Minosa sirisa), Sattavanna (Alstonia scholaris. Seven leaved tree), Dahivanna, Loddha (Symplocos Racemosa), Dhava (Grislea Tomentosa or Anogeissus Latifolia), Candana, Ajiuna (the tree terminatia, Arjuna). Niva (Nauclen kada mba). Kuduga, Kalamba (Kadamba) Ganja (Abrusprecatonius, gunija), Padala (the tree bearing the trumpet flower, Bignoma Suaveo. lens), Vasi (gendaruessa), An kolla (ankota(r), the plant vulgaris or Adhatoda vasica or Alangium Hexa patalum), Kalingi (the plant wrightia antidysen terica), Phollai, Akkavandina (arkavondika, the plant calotropis Gigantea). Kamariya (kantarika, Kitthi, Mahu (Bassia Latifolia or Jonesia Asoka), Payalai, (Mahu) Singiniruha (Trapa Bispinosa), Sappa-suganddha (Sarpa-sugandha, the ichneumon plant) Chinnaruha (clerodendrum phlomoides)? Ayakaya (Myrobalanus chebula), Kuhani Rukkhai Olibanum or thorn apple, Mesua Roxfurghii), Uvvehaliya, Saphasajja, Chatta (Andropogon or Mushroom), Niya, Kumara (the teee capparis 2-3 i BhS, 22, 2. 6 16, 22, 4. Ih, 22, 3. 16.22, 6. 4 Ib, 22, 3. 7 Ib, 23. 1.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 281 trifoliata)." Padhamie (Pajhamrga) Modhari, Danti, Cardi (Andropogon-aciculatus), Bhamgi (it may be bhanga-hemp ? Cannabis sativa), Nahi, Kimirasi, Nangalai (Uraria, Lagopodioides), Peyuya, Kirnapauyala, Vateha, Renuya (medicinal plant)36 Timira (a sort of acquatic plant), Sata (Anethum Sowa), Poraga (pome. granate tree), Samutava, Bhusa, Kurubha (a Shrub), Karavada," Vayana and Thurayak. Abbharuha (Cnlamus Rotung or Cyperus Rotundus), Voyana (Vodana), Tanlul<Page #307
282 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V Different kinds of Bamboo plant? Cavavarsa (Shorea robusta), Venu, Kanaka or the plant Butea Frondosa or Cassia Sophora, Kakkavarsa, Varuvarsa, Damda, Kula (it is found in East Bengal, Aegle maremelos ?), Vimacanda (a kind of plant of the bamboo group, probably it is Andropogon aciculatus) and Venuya a kind of bamboo with poisonous fruit). Grasses Virana (a kind of fragrant grass, Andropogon Muricatus), Ikkada (ekkada*), Nala (a species of reed, Ampbidonax Karka, 18-12 feet high: it is found in East Bengal). Sediva'. Dabbha" (Saccharum Cylindricum), Kartiyadabbha (another kind of Dabbha), Kusa (Kusa grass,' poa cynosuroides), Podai (Ponukz) Vibhangu, Sippiya and Sumkalitana, Reeds and creepers Bhamasa, Vetta (Vetra),10 Satta," Allai (allaki)12 Go-poida?? Viralilt and Rayavalli (Momordica Charantia).16 Flowers Utpala (the blossom of the blue lotus, Nymphaea caerubea)16, Pauma (padma, lotus, Nelumbium speciosum)'7, it closes towards the evening often confounded with water-lily, Nalina (water-lily, Nelumbium Speciosum)18 ; Udumbara flowep.19 (the flower of the tree Ficus Cilomerata) Padali flower 20 (trumpetflower of Bignonia Suaveoleus); Banla (Bakula), the flower of Mimusops Elengi; Palasa (the blossom of the tree of Butea Frondosa)"l; Siriyaka, Nava-Naliya (fresh lotus); Korantaga ; Bandhujivaga (red coloured-flower of Pentapetes phoenicea)23 ; Kunda (a kind of Jasmine, Jasminum Multiflorum), Avaya (alja, i Bhs, 21, 4. 2.3 16, 21, 5, 5 10, 11, 9, 417 ; 12, 8, 459; 21, 6. ? 16, 11, 9, 417; 12, 8, 459 21 6 9 Ib, 21, 6. 10.11 16, 21, 5. 13 16, 21, 6. 14 16, 22, 1. 16.18 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, (1-8), 416. 19 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 14, 8, 528. 20 1b, 14, 8, 528 31 16, 22, 2. 23 16, 22,6 ; 23, 1. 4 I5, 21, 6. 8 II, 21, 6. 8 16, 22, 4. 12 10, 21, 4. 15 Ib, 23, 4. 22 16, 22,5

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 283 lotus); Nanda; Kalambaga (kadamba); Indivara (the blossom of a blue lotus, the Nymphaea Stellata and Cyanea); Sayapuppha (Anethum Sowa)'; Manojja (a kind of flower which opens at midday and withers away the next morning) and Padha (a kind of red blossoms) A critical study of the above list of flora reveals the economic resources of the society of its period as derived from the horticulture and arboniculture. The reference to the occupations, Vanakamma', 'Ingalakamma' and 'Salikamma' adopted by certain sections of the people clearly shows that the trees, the natural products of the forests and gardens supplied the necessary woods for making charcoal, carts and other wooden articles required by the society in its economic life. Forests Forest was one of the important sources of the state income as mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures. Moreover, they were the abodes of the wild denizens some of which came to the service of the people after their domestication, e.g. wild elephants. They were also the places of serene and peaceful atmosphere for practising austerities and meditation, as it is evidenced by the fact that a number of the vanaprastha Tapasas including the royal sage, Siva', practised asceticism, living in a forest on the bank of the Ganga. Fauna Since the hunting age of human civilization upto the present day both wild and domestic animals have supplied the economic needs of the society to a considerable extent in various forms, such as, flesh, milk, skin, bone, wool and other byproducts in the peaceful civil life as well as in times of war. In the economic life of the period of the BhS also, the cattle have been considered by the householders and even by the 1 Bhs, 23, 1. 8 1b, 9, 33, 381. 6 16, 23, 1. : 10, 11, 9, 417, 4 10, 21, 8. 7 Ib, 8, 5, 330. 8 Ib, 22. 5. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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284 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V kings as one of the most important parts of the wealth of an individual family, as it is clearly expressed in the self-deliberations of the rich householder, Tamali of Tamralipti1 and king Siva of Hastinapura thus, "I prosper by gold, wealth, rice, sons, cattle", etc. The term 'Pasu' used in the BhS and other texts denotes both wild and domestic animals in a wider sense. Here in the BhS this term signifies the cattle-wealth in general which was most essential for the agricultural operation and the animal husbandry. It appears from the BhS that the usefulness of the service of the domestic animals in the economic life was fully realized and valued by the people of its society. The text gives a list of the domestic and wild animals in its stray references. Under the category of the first one come the elephants," horses, bullocks,' cows, buffaloes,' goats.10 sheep," dogs," etc. 8 6 The elephants and horses were used by the kings and nobles11 in war as the fighting instruments and in the peaceful civil life as means of conveyance in their journeys. On their deaths their tusks and bones, particularly those of the elephants were of great value for the ivory work, as it is evidenced by the fact that a class of merchants carried on the ivory-business (damtavanijja).15 The cows and buffaloes in general came to the service of the agricultural operation and the dairy farming for the production of milk and its by-products, while the bullocks in particular were utilized for the transport purpose to draw the carts, and the sheep and goats supplied wool and meat, skin and sometimes milk also. 1 Bhs, 3, 1, 134. 3.4 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 6 Ib, 7, 9, 303; 9, 33, 383. 8.9 Ib, 5, 3, 325. 13 Tb. 7, 9, 300. 15 Ib, 8, 5, 330. 2 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 5 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385. 71b, 9, 33, 380. 10.11 Ib, 12, 7, 457. 12 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 14 Ib, 9,33,385; 7, 9,303; 9,33,383.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 285 The hides of the dead cows and buffaloes were used in the leather work for making shoes, bags, etc. as it is suggested by the mention of these articles in the Bhs. The word 'Kesavanijja occurring in it denotes the traffic in hair in general, e. g. wool-business. Thus it is evidently clear that the cattle formed an important part of the economic life of the society as objects of trade for their hair (wool) also at that period. Cattle rearing The text gives some idea of cattle-rearing by the people by making some indirect incidental references to this occupation of animal-husbandry. It is learnt from this canonical work that ten thousand cows formed one herd (vaya), while a flock of goats consisted of one hundred to one thousand heads. It is learnt from these evidences that they were reared within some enclosure in a particular place provided with sufficient pastures and abundant water for their grazing and roaming, "Pauragoyarao paurapaniyao."" The text further reveals that the cows were kept in a well-built cowshed to protect them from the rain and scorching heat of the sunshine at mid-day. It was in one such cowshed belonging to Gobahula, where Gosala Mankhaliputra was born. Castration and piercing of noses of bulls There is an incidental reference in tbis text to the acts of castration of bulls and perforating of their noses done by some people, definitely for taming and yoking them so that they could be controlled and utilized in the service of the agricultural operation and in drawing the carts for the transport purpose." The evidences of castration of bulls as revealed in the BhS are also corroborated by the fifth pillar edict of Asoka where the king prohibits this act on certain days, such as, the eighth day 1 See Section on Arts & Crafts about leather works. ? Bhs, 8, 5, 330. 8 1b, 11, 11, 430. 4.6 Ib, 12, 7, 457. . 1b, 15, 1, 540 7 16, 8, 5, 330.

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286 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA [Ch. V or the fourteenth day or the fifteenth day of the lunar halfmonth or the Tisya-punarvas u days or the three Caturmasi days or on auspicious days. The following description of the two young bullockswhich were yoked to the cart of Rsabhadatta on his pilgrimage to Lord Mabavira at the Bahusalaka Caitya throws a side light upon the rearing of the cattle with best care taken by the people of those days. It is described that the two bullocks were endowed with the power of swiftness and yoked to the cart and they had equal hoofs, equal tails, equally polished horns and were more distinguished by golden ornaments round their necks, silverbells, the cotton naval ropes inlaid with gold and their heads furnished with the wreaths of blue lotuses. Wild Animals The BLS presents a list of a number of wild animals. Some of them are injurious, ferocious and dangerous to life, while the others are non-injurious and playful and they are liked by the people. Injurious wild animals--Siha (lion), Vaggha (tiger), Vaga (a class of ferocious animals), Diviya (a class of tiger), Accha (bear), Taraccha (a class of tiger) and Paras sara (Sarabha or a fabulous wild animal which is stronger than the lion and elephant). Non-injurious wild animals-Miya (deer)s and Golangula (monkey). Besides these, the text makes references also to a considerable number of other injurious and non-injurious lower animals of different species, both terrestrial and acquatic, birds, and insects. They are as follows: Injurious Poisonous lower animals (Asivisa.Terrestrial)Vrscika-Jati-asavisa (scorpion), Mandika.Jati-asivisu (frog) and Uraga-Jati-asavisa (snake). 1 Bh8, 9, 33, 380. 8 16, 1, 8, 65. 2 16, 7, 8, 288 ; 15, 1, 560. 4 Ib, 12, 8, 460. 6 Ib, 8, 7, 316

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 287 Reptiles - Ahi (other class of snake), Ajagara (a species of snake of large size), Asaliya, Mahoragat (allegator)' and Vilae (mouse) Non-injurious lower animals (terrestrial)-Nakula (mongoose). Acquatic animals-Jalauka (leech)," Sisumara(r) Kumma or Kacchava (tortoise) and Maccha (fish). Birds--Birds are classified into four categories", viz. Canma pakkhi, e. g. valguliprabhrtinan, (bat, etc.),10 Lomapalkhi e.g. Hurissaprabhrtanan (swans, etc )", Samuggapakkhi (Samudya. kakara paksavatan-Manusyuksetrabahirvarttinam) and Viyayapakkhi(Vistaritapaksavatam Samayaksetrabahirvarttinameva)," e.g. Dhanka (crow), Kanka (Heron), Maggae (acquatic crow), Sikhi (peacock), Kukkuda (cock)"^, Bijabijaka, Paksi-viralika, Jivafijavaka, Samuddavayasa (sea-crow) and Vatta (Varttaka).16 Insects-- Bhamara (bee), Masaga (mosquito), Damsa (injurious big type of fly)"?, Pottiya", Halle", Kunthu20 and Kulingacchae (ant). Dairy Farming As already discussed, the cattle constituted an important part of the household property on account of their economic value, as milk and its by-products, such as, curd, butter, etc. formed the most essential items of general food taken by the people of that period. The evidences of cattle-rearing and the mention of the herd of cows consisting of ten thousand head," the cowshed of Gobahulao and the rows of cows and buffaloes clearly suggest 10.11 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 560.2 1b, 8, 3, 325; 15, 1, 560.3 16, 12, 8, 460. 4 1b, 8, 3, 325 ; 15, 1, 560. 5 I6, 13, 9, 598. 6 Ib, 15, 1, 560. 7 16, 8, 3, 325 ; 7, 6, 288. 8 16, 7, 6, 288 ; 15, 1, 560. 16, 15, 1, 560. Ib, 13, 9, 498. 12 1b, 15, 1, 560 (Comm.). 13 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 12, 8, 460, Ib, 12, 8, 460. 15 Ib, 18, 8, 644. Ib, 18, 6, 631. 17 16, 9, 33, 384. 18 Ib, 15, 1, 560. 19 16, 15, 1, 555. 20 16, 7, 8, 294. 21 16, 18, 8, 640. 22 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 29 16, 15, 1, 540. 24 Ib, 12, 7, 457.

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288 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V that the dairy farming was a part of the agricultural economy of those days by which a section of the people earned their livelihood, as it is indicated by the incidental references to milk? (khira), curd (dadhi), butter (navaniya), clarified butter (ghaya)" and jars of milk, of curd and of clarified butter respectively. As regards the poultry farming the text does not give a clear idea about it, but the incidental references to the egg of hen (kukkuli amdaga), chicken (kukkudapote), cock (kukkuda), pigeons (kavoya)," and swan or duck (hamsa)10 suggest that there was probably the cultivation of poultry carried on by the private management of some members of the society. The picture of the agricultural economy as depicted in the BKS is also found in other Jaina works. In addition, they give a clear idea of agriculture which was carried on by the peasants in a systematic way. Thus the Brhatkalpa Bhasyal shows that the arable land was the very basis of the rural economy and it was counted as one of the ten most valuable external possessions, viz. buildings, gold, seeds of grains, wood-fuel and grass, friends, relations, conveyance, articles of furniture, male and female slaves, and utensils. It was classified into two groups, viz. Setu" (the agricultural field having mounds for irrigation from artificially made water sources) and ketuls (the land where crops may be grown during the rains) on the basis of the two different systems of irrigation, viz. artificial and natural as demanded by the exigencies of the geographical, physical and climatic factors of the region. The Setu land was cultivated by the peasants witb the help of artificial methods of irrigation, such as by the Persian 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429 ; 16, 6, 581. 2 15, 16, 6, 581. 3 16, 18, 6, 631. 11b, 11, 9, 417 ; 15, 1, 541 ; 16, 6, 581. 6 16. 16, 6, 581. Ib, 7, 1, 269. 7 16, 18, 8, 640. 3 Ib, 12, 8, 460. 9 I6, 15, 1, 557. 10 16, 13, 9, 498. 11 Brhatkalpa Bhasya--1,825. Vide 'Life in ancient India', p. 89. 12 Avasyaka Sutra, 6. 13 Nayadhammakahao, I. Tika, 1, p. 1.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 289 wheels (arahatta) etc., while the irrigation of the Ketu land was done by the natural process of rainfall.1 The agricultural operation was carried on as usual by the man behind the plough in proper time and season with the expectation of getting the better harvests." In this connection the festival of the ploughing-deity (Sitajanna) was celebrated by the peasants and thus the cultivation of land was sanctified by a religious performance with the hope of obtaining good results in the out-turn of crops. It appears from other Jaina texts that the agricultural operation was carried on by the farmers on a large scale as it is evidenced by the fact revealed in the Uvasagadasao1 that Ananda, the wealthy householder of Vanijyagrama, had five hundred ploughs, each having the capacity of ploughing and preparing a field of one hundred acres (Niyattana). As regards the agricultural implements they refer to three types of ploughs, viz. hala, kuliya and namgala. Spade (Kudala) and the fencing of cultivated plots of land were also known." There are also references in some other Jaina texts to the pounding of varieties of corns in Ganjasala, a wooden mortar (udukhala) for cleansing rice and a threshing floor (Khalaya), a cattle-feeding-basket (ogokilanja) and winnowing sieve (suppa kattara).10 Besides these, they make mention of the sugar-cane press 1 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 1, 826. 2 Uttara. Ti. 1. p. 109. 3 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 3, 3647. 4 Uvasagadasao, 1. p. 7. Nivartana is referred to by Baudha yana. See The Economic History of Ancient India'-p. 190 S. K. Das. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' p. 90, f. n. 9. 5 Avasyaka Curni, p. 81. Uvasagadasao, 2. p. 23. 7 Vide 'Life in Ancient India', p. 90. Nisitha Curni, 9, p. 511. 9 Vyavahara Bhasya, 10, 23, Suya, 4, 2, 12. 10 Uvasagadasao, 2, p. 23; Suya 4, 7, 12 Vide Life in Ancient India' p. 90. 37

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290 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V (mahajanta: kolluka) and the house for pressing sugar-cane (jamtasala). r As regards the horticulture and arboriculture a similar picture as revealed in the BhS is also found in other Jaina works. In addition, they make references to the collecting and piling up of fruits in a drying place (kottaka) and despatching them to the city-markets for selling purpose. There is also an account of different processes of ripening fruits according to their varieties, such as, mangoes by covering them with the husk or straw (indhana), Tinduka (the fruit of ebony) by the heat treatment (dhuma), cucumber (cirabhata) and citron (bijapura) by mingling them with the ripe fruits (gandha) of their own kinds etc.' A more definite account of the cattle-rearing and dairyfarming is found in other Jaina texts. It is stated there that the herds of cattle and goats were reared under the care and protection of the cowherds (gopalaka) and shepherds (ajapalaka), appointed by the owners of these domestic animals which were regularly taken to the pasture grounds (daviya)" for grazing. The Abhiras (Ahira), a particular class of the people of those days were well known for their profession of animal husbandry on a large scale.. In regard to the dairy farming, a picture of a developed state of this side of agro-economy is presented by other Jaina texts in which mention is made of the milk of cows, she-buffaloes, she-camels, she-goats etc., curd, butter, clarified butter and also the milk-house (khiraghara) where products were obtained. these 1 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 19. 43; Brhatkalpa Bhasya Pithika 575. 2 Vyavahara Bhasya, 10, 484. Vide 'Life in Ancient India,' p. 91. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 1. 872. 4 Ib, 1. 841 f. 5 Acaranga Sutra. II, 3. 2. 350. 6 Avasyaka Niryukti, 471: Ava. Cu, p. 280f. 7 Ava. Cu. II, p. 319. 8 Nisitha Curni, 9, p. 511.

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Sec. II] 291 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA SECOND SECTION Arts and Crafts Arts and crafts have stood next to agriculture in importance and been correlated with it in the economic life of the society in every age of human civilization. Agriculture produces the food stuffs and raw materials for the social consumption, but it cannot supply all the requirements of the people, such as, clothing, housing etc., nor can it absorb the entire population in its productive system. So with the change in Nature, the growth of the population, and the social evolution, the very fundamental economic laws have led the surplus people on lands to discover some ways and means for finding out a solution of this grave problem of maintenance and to learn arts and crafts in order to earn their livelihood and consequently inspired them with a new zeal to render service to the whole society by their occupation in this field of economics. The BIS throws much light upon these aspects of economic system by furnishing ample evidences regarding various arts and crafts which were the sources of earning livelihood of certain sections of the community during its period. The list of these arts and crafts begins with the hunting operation and ends with the medical profession, the former involved the act of killing peaceful and playful lower animals, like deer, birds and other games for the sustenance of human life; while the latter was carried on to cure diseases, to relieve physical sufferings and to save life, particularly the human life for its continuance. Thus the hunting of deer by trapping? and shooting arrows, bird.catching and fowling, and fishing" formed the occupations of some classes of the people for earning their livelihood. 1 Bhs, 1, 8, 65. 2-8 16, 1, 8, 67. 4 Ib, 7, 6, 288.

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292 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. V Hunting The Bhs reveals that there was a class of professional hunters who lived on by the occupation of hunting deer and other games and probably selling their flesh also, as it is implied by the denotation of the word 'miyavittie'. Method of hunting The text makes incidental references to two methods of hunting deer-the one by trapping them with the net? (kudapasa) and the other by shooting them with the arrow (usum nisirai) in different hunting grounds, such as, hills, forests, etc.' Fowling An indirect reference has been made to the fowling of birds in the Bhs where it is stated that some man holds the bow, ta kes the position, draws the arrow up to the ear and shoots it in the sky and kills beings in the air, etc. Fishery The BKS shows that fishery, another occupation, was carried on by a certain section of the population of its society to earn their means of living, as it is evidenced by the fact of the art of making net and catching fish in the river by the people in times of economic crisis for the sustenance of their lives. The text makes an incidental reference to the art of manufacturing net thus : "One net in which knots are tied in due order which are again gradually tied one after another without any gap and mutually tied with one another by its length, breadth and heaviness (weight), remains in a complete whole by the length, breadth and heaviness due to the tying of one knot with the other......... and thus one full production is made by the completion of knotting (Samudaya-racana).."" "Like the knotted net, thousands of particles of 'ayus karma' of many beings bound in many lakhs of births remain". i Bhs, 1, 8, 65. 2.8 16, 1, 8, 67. 4_5 Ib, 5, 3, 183.

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Sec. 11] TU BUAGAWATT SUTRA STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 293 The text further reveals that the people had to live on by the occupation of fishery in the hard times of an economic crisis, as it is apparently clear from the statement that during the Dusama-Dusamakala' in Bharatavarsa the people, having come out of their dwellings at the time of sunrise and sunset would cause the fish and tortoise to reach the land from the axile-deep water of the river and bury them into the earth. Thus they would pass time upto twenty-one thousand years by carrying on livelihood with those lifeless fish and tortoises seasoned by cold and heat. Besides tliese low professions, the BKS presents an account of a large number of artisans and tradesmen and various arts and crafts which formed an important part of the economic life of the people. Meaning of Sippa The term 'Sippa' (Silpa)s used here and also in the Buddhist and Brahmanical texts generally denotes a manual art or craft, or any handicraft or mechanical or fine art including proficiency in military art (Cheyayariya).* Such arts or crafts sometimes called bahyakala "external' or practical arts are stated to be sixty-four in number, e.g. carpentering, architecture, jewellery, farriery, acting, dancing, music, medicine, poetry, etc., and sixty.four abhyantarakala secret arts' are also enumerated, e.g. kissing, embracing and various other arts of coquetry. The term Kala' bears the wider denotation, having included Silpa in it in wider sense, but it signifies any mechanical or fine art in particular and sixty-four kinds of kala are also enumerated in the Saivatantra and other Brahmanical works", e.g. gitam (vocal music), vadyar (instrumental music), nrtyar (dance) and the like. The term 'Kari' occurring in the text denotes a worker in handicraft, e.g. kumbhakarz (potteress). 1 Bhs, 7, 6, 288. 9 1b, 14, 7, 425. 6 Vatsyayana's Kama Sutra 1, 3, 17. i 16, 7, 6, 288. 4 16, 7, 9, 300. 6 Bhs, 15, 1, 539.

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294 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V Classification of artisans The Bhs provides a list of the following artisans as distinguished by their respective arts and crafts, viz. Weaver (tamtuvayu), Potter (Kumbhakara) & Blacksmith(r). Ivory business (damtavanijja) was carried on by some people who got the supply of ivory products from the ivory workers. Wheel-wright (Rathakara), Wood-cutterdeg, Cook (mahanasini), Barber (kasa. vaga)a and others are also mentioned. The reference to these artisans and other professional men gives an idea of various arts and crafts taken up by certain sections of the people as occupations to earn their livelihood, such as, weaving, dying and cleaning, mining and metallurgy, blacksmithy, ivory work, pottery, building industry, fuel industry, leather work, perfumery and toiletting, etc. Weaving The art of spinning and weaving was one of the most important professions in the economic life of the people, as it produced and supplied yarns, cloths of various qualities and screens which have already been discussed in connection with the topic 'Dresses' in the sixth section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions'. Cloths were manufactured by this industry from cotton, wool, silk, dugulla bark, etc. in the weaver's workshop located in the towns and cities It is stated that Lord Mahavira obtained his residence in one such weaver's workshop outside Nalanda to pass the rainy season during the second year of his asceticismo. In connection with the holy teachings of the Master on the binding of karma-matter, given by way of an example, the Bhs presents an idea of the art of manufacturing cloth thus:-- As a cloth which is fresh from the loom 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541. 3 16, 6, 1, 229; 16, 1, 564. 6 16, 9, 33, 385. 16, 11, 11, 430. 9 16, 6, 3, 233. ? 10, 15, 1, 539. 4 16, 5, 8, 330. 6 Ib. 16, 4, 573. Ib, 9, 33, 385. 16, 15, 1, 541.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 295 (tartugayassa) and is enjoyed (used) binds matter (dirt), just like that karma-matters get stuck in the soul.' Cleaning and Dyeing crafts The Bhs throws some light on the arts of cleaning and dyeing cloths by making incidental references to them, while dealing with the karma-matter as explained by Lord Mahavira by way of an example. Thus it is stated "As the matters (pudgal18) of a cloth which is full of dirt, mud, soft and hard dirts and dust get dissolved from all sides, when it is cleaned and washed with pure water, just like that karma-matters also get dissociated, by pure meditation, from the soul"? Dyeing The art of dyeing cloths is associated with that of cleaning them, as they flourish together side by side with the craft of weaving. This canonical work gives some ideas about the process of dyeing cloths in a similar way like that of cleaning as already explained by way of analogy. Thus it is stated : "As some man throws an unused or washed or fresh cloth just produced from the loom into a pot of colour of Indian Madder (mamjittha lonze), that surely being thrown is thrown, being cast is cast, and being coloured is coloured,'8 just e that a Nirgrantha or a Nirgrant hi becomes a worshipper (aradhaka or aradhila) as soon as he or she resolves to perform an atonement for the crime committed by him or her during the journey from one village to the other. Cloths were also dyed in red ochre (dhaturattavattha)", while towels were coloured in saffron (Gardhakajaie). The Parivrajaku monks used to wear cloths dyed in red ochre (dhaturattavatthi). 1.3 Bh8, 6, 3, 233. 6 16, 2, 1, 90 ; 11,9, 417. 7 Ib, 2, 1, 90; 11, 9, 417. 9.4 16, 8, 6, 334. 6 16, 9, 33, 385.

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296 Dyeing Industry It is learnt from the BhS that the dyeing industry was fully developed during its period, as it is evidenced by the fact of the process of dyeing cloth and the mention of three kinds of colour, viz. mineral colour (dhaturatta red ochre)', organic (mamjittha Indian Madder), and prepared colour (khamjanaragaratta collyrium). STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The term 'Raga' denotes both colour and dye-stuff. So the cloth dyed in red ochre was called 'dhaturattavattha' (dhaturakta vastra), while one coloured in collyrium was known as khamjanaragaratta. The reference to 'Lakkhavanijja' (Lac trade) in this canonical work clearly shows that Laksa (lac) was another dye-product of this industry. Tailoring The references to various kinds of dresses, as already mentioned in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', clearly show the development of the tailoring profession by which a section of the society as known to the BhS used to earn their livelihood. [Ch. V The existence and continuation of the art of tailoring are further supported by the fact that even the female attendants and waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign countries were dressed in their respective national costumes. "Sadesanevatthagahiyavesahim". Mining and Metallurgy The references in the text to trade in various metals, such as, gold, silver, bell-metal, gem, jewels, pearls, etc., many kinds of ornaments, utensils and weapons used by the people of its society clearly show a highly developed industry of mining and metallurgy of its period. It was one of the most essential parts of the economic structure based on the co-ordinated foundation 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 90. 8 Ib, 6, 1, 229, 2 Ib, 8, 6, 334. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 380.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 297 of agriculture, arts and crafts, industry and commerce and determined the scientific age marked by the development of metallic works. The term 'Agara' occurring in this canonical work denotes the mine which was one of the most important sources of the state income as evidenced in all the Jaina, Brahmanical and Buddhist texts. It is clearly suggested by the denotation of this term that the mining industry was in operation to exploit the mines for extracting various kinds of metal ores, such as, iron (aya, loha)", silver (ruppa,", gold (8uvanna)', copper (tamba)", tin (tauya), etc. Moreover, there occurs also an indirect reference in this canonical work to the exploitation of the mines of gold and jewel by the four merchants of Sravasti in a forest, while searching for drinking water there, as it is related by Gosala Mankhaliputra to Ananda, the disciple of Lord Mahavira?. The study of the list of ornaments as already discussed in connection with the topic 'Dresses and ornaments' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', reveals that there was a great development of metallurgy and the art of goldsmithy during the period of the Bhs. Besides these, there is mention of various products of metal works, such as, articles of furniture, utensils, etc. which have already been mentioned in the seventh section of the fourth chapter in details. Even the bullocks, horses'', and elephants were decorated with the metallic articles of adornment, while the bullock.cart13 and pala nquins were inlaid with various kinds of precious jewels, and gems.16 i Bhs, 1, 1, 19; 7, 6, 287; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 547. 2 15, 16, 1, 564; 15, 1. 547. 3 16, 11, 11, 430; 18, 10, 647. Ib' 8, 5, 328; 11, 11, 430; 18, 10, 647. 5.6 Ib, 16, 6, 581. 7 16. 15, 1, 557. 8,9 10, 11, 11, 430. 10 Ib, 9, 33, 380. 11 11, 9, 33, 383. 11 16, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385. 18 1b, 9, 33, 380. 14 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 15 I6, 9, 33, 380. 18 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 38

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298 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V The ceiling and floor of the royal chamber also were studded with many kinds of jewels and gems, the lustre of which dispelled the darkness from it as already described in connection with the topic Houses' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter." Blacksmithy The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the occupation of blacksmith and his workshop (ahikarani)s which consisted of iron (aya), iron furnace (ayakottha), pliers (sandasanam), charcoal (ingala, ingalakaddhin) furnace (bhattha), leather strap or billowing bag (cammettha), mallet or hammer (murthie), wooden stands (adhikaranikhodi) and waterpot (udagadoni)". The text presents also a vivid picture of the working process of blacksmithy. It is described that a man cast and recast some piece of iron ore into the iron furnace with the help of a pair of pliers (saradasaenai) for heating it ; tben he took it out and placed on the anvil (adhikaranz) ; next he malletted, cut and tore and filed the mould ; then again he heated and allowed it to get cooled by dipping it into the water pot. By this process the blacksmith tempered the iron-piece to bring its metallic property, specially the steel-element, to its surface-layer-thus to a state of working condition, as it is suggested by the reference to its dipping into the water pot. The text further gives an account of the art of this trade by way of analogy thus : As some man (blacksmith), striking a particle of iron with a great sound and indistinct noise is not able to remove a gross matter of that article, just like that the karma-matters of the infernal beings do not get easily dissociated. It also throws light upon the process of tempering and normalizing a newly sharpened sickle by dipping it in the salt bath solution? 12 Bhs, 11, 11, 428. 6 16, 6, 1, 229. 8.4 II, 16, 1, 564. 5 lb, 16, 1, 564. 7 Ib, 14, 7, 525.

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Se STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 299 lance, The text mentions various kinds of iron-products, such as, utensils, iron-pan, iron spoon, etc., agricultural impliments-sickle, etc., and other tools and weapons, axe, hammer, anvil, etc., lance, sword, arrow, coats of mail, etc. Thus the above account reveals a picture of a developed state of the industry of mining and metallurgy, together with its associated crafts and reflects upon the flourishing economic conditions of the society of that period. Ivory work The references to the Damtavanijja' (ivory-business) and trade in conch-shell (samkha)' clearly show that the ivory work was a thriving cottage industry which was carried on by certain sections of the people for earning their livelihood. Pottery Pottery was one of the most important handicrafts of the cottage industry taken up by a class of people called 'kumbhakara's as distinguished by this occupation. It produced various earthen wares, such as, earthen water jar (Chomejjanam kalasanam)", earthen utensils, e. g. earthen plate (udakasthalaka... ...), thali (earthen cooking vessel), etc. The text also gives an idea of the potter's workshop which consisted of the working house, clay-pot layamcani), earth (mattiya) and water (udae)". and other tools. The mention of the rich potteress, Halahala, the Ajivikaupasika of Sravasti6 and the description of her workshop clearly show that pottery was a flourishing cottage industry of that period and it occupied an important position in the economic life of the society. It was in this workshop of Halahala where Gosala Mankhaliputra, having attained the round of twenty-four years of his initiation passed time by preaching the tenets of Ajivikism and practising austerity and meditation according to the i BhS, 8, 5, 330. 3 I6, 15, 1, 539. " Ib, 15, 1, 552. 1 Ib, 8.5, 328. 4 10, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417. 6 lb, 15, 1, 552.

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300 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V Ajivika doctrine (Ajiviyasamaenam) and breathed his last, after propounding the final principles of this religion to his followers'. It is learnt from the Bhs that both the potter? and weaver* classes were the great supporters of the new movement of Sramana Dharma of those days. Carpentry and Masonry In the economic field of the society the industries of carpentry and masonry were highly developed, as it is evidenced by the fact of a good account of many kinds of articles of furniture and various types of buildings which have already been discussed in connection with the topics "Houses and Articles of Furniture' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter in great details. Besides the articles of furniture, the carpenter-class produced different types of vehicles, such as, bullock cart, chariot, open chariot, palanquino, boat (navam), etc. The reference to "Sadikamma's and Vanakamma' clearly reveals that a section of the carpenters carried on the occupation of making and selling cart (Sadikunma), while the other earned livelihood by cutting and selling woods (Vanakamma). Masonry The evidences of the construction of palaces, lofty buildings, temples (Caityas)'', etc. and the colourful descriptions of the royal chambers studded with gems and jewels", the outer assembly hall (uvathanasala)", gymnasium (atfanasala)", bathroom (majjanaghara)?4, fort (dugga)16 and other houses show that a highly developed stage of masonry was attained by the architects and the engineering talents of the period of the Bhs. Fuel Industry The mention of 'Imgalakammalo' (angarakarma) along with the other trades in the Bhs clearly shows that some people 1.2 Bhs, 15, 1, 539, 6 16, 15, 1, 541. 8 16, 8, 5, 330. 14 1b, 9, 33, 383. 1b, 15, 1, 556. 6 16, 11.11, 430. 9.10 I1, 11, 11, 429. 15 10, 15, 1, 551, - 1b, 15, 1, 539. ? Ib, 1, 6, 55. 1118 10, 11, 11, 428. 16 16, 8, 5, 330.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 301 adopted the occupation of charcoal-making and selling it as a means of living at that period. An account of different kinds of fuels used by the people of the society is found in the following references. They are :grass (tana), wood (kattha), leaf (patta), bark (taya), chaff of grains (tusa), rubbish or refuse (busa), cowdung (gomaya), sweepings (avakara)", charcoal (imgala)", sacrificial fire-wood (samidha), Saraka and Arani wood Here a vivid picture of hewing wood by some man with an axe (parasuna) is presented as revealed in its stray references made in connection with the religious discourse of Lord Mahavira on the dissociation of Karma-matters of the infernal beings and of the houseless monks thus: "As some old man having a body worn out owing to old age...... tired strikes a big, dry, twisted ......curved trunk of a Kosamra tree with a blunt (unsharp) axe by making a great sound, while striking it, but he cannot cut it into pieces and big logs, just like that the infernal beings do not become putters of an end to all miseries by dissociating their closely bound sinful Karma-matters". Side by side, the BhS places the opposite picture thus : "As some young and strong man may cut and split a big, raw, untwisted, rough & straight trunk of a Samali tree with a sharp axe into pieces without making any great sound, just like that the Sramana Nirgranthas become the putters of an end to all miseries by dissociating their Karma-matters which fall asunder". The text describes also the method of kindling fire by rubbing the wood * Arani' with 'Saraka', the other one. Other Small Cottage Industries : The references to the mat of split up bamboos (viyalakid dan = vidalakatam), that of fragrant grasses, that of skin or cot interwoven with leather (cammakiddam = carmavyutan khatvadikam) and of blanket (kambalakiddam =urnamayam kambalam)? clearly 1 Bh8, 15, 1, 553. 3 10, 11, 9, 417. * 10, 11, 9, 417. 16, 2, 1, 92; 8, 5, 330. 4,6 16, 16, 4, 573. 7 IO, 13, 9, 498,

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302 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V indicate that the small cottage industries produced these articles as demanded by the social needs of the period of the Bhs. The mention of flower basket made from bamboo (kiuhinasamkaiyaga)", palm-leaf-fan (taliyamtavzyanaga)', chowrie (valavijana), umbrella (chattaya)", bambooo-stick (damda or latthi)", broom (rajaharana), etc., shows that the crafts of these articles flourished side by side with the other small cottage industries to produce them in order to supply the requirements of the society. Leather work It is known from the text that the leather work was carried on by a class of people, as it is supported by the fact that there are found some incidental references in this canonical work to various kinds of leather-products, such as, shoes (vahanao)?, leather bladder or skin-receptacle (vatthimadovei), blacksmith's tool (cammettha), cot interwoven with the leather (cammakiddam), musical drum (mrdamga)", gilli and thilli (seats used on the backs of elephant and horse respectively)". Arts of decorating and toileting as profession It has already been pointed out in connection with the topic Art of decoration' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on Social conditions' that the members of the rich aristocratic and royal families were very luxurious and fond of flowers, garlands, perfumes, cosmetics, etc. The study of the references to various articles of decoration, toileting and luxury, the appointment of decorators and the entertainment of guests with garlands, etc., clearly reveals that there was a regular profession of decorating by which some people earned their livelihood. 1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 2, 1, 90. ? 16, 2, 1, 90. 9 16, 16, 1. 554. 11 16 11, 11, 430. 2 1b, 9, 33. 384. 4 16, 2, 1, 90. 6 16. 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 1, 6, 93. 10 Ib, 13, 9, 498.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 303 Thus it throws light upon this aspect of the economic life of that period. Other occupations Besides the above mentioned arts and crafts and industries, the BhS inakes references to different classes of intelligentsia and professional men as marked out by their respective occupations adopted as means of living, such as, teachers Kalacarya (teacher of arts)', Silpacarya (technical teacher or expert)", Upadhyaya (a class of religious teachers), physician (vegja)", interpreters of signs of dream (suvinalakkhanapadhaga)", musician (gitavadita), actor (natta)?, female dancer (naffia), painter, picture-exhibitor (mankha)", clown (daviyakari)"0, buffoon, (hasa kara) and Kandappiya', flatterer (cafukara), and others who supported themselves by their service both to the royal family and the government, e. g. standard bearers (laffhiggaha), sword-bearers (asiggaha), spear-bearers (kuintaggaha), foot soldiers (payayie), fetter-careers (pasaygaha), bow.careers (caraggaha), account book-careers (potthayaggala), etc. 1* THIRD SECTION Labour and Capital Labour In the first stage of human civilization physical labour was the main power to provide man with food, cloth and shelter for the continuance of his life. It has already been discussed in connection with the origin of the state in the third chapter on 'Political conditions' that when the Kalpavrkcas (the wish yielding trees) got destroyed owing to a sudden change in Nature, the people, being struck with fear, approached Nabhi, the fourteenth Kulakara, to have 1 Bhs, (Comm.), 11, 11, 423, 3 I6, 8, 8, 339 ; 9, 33, 389. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 29. 9 16 15, 1, 539, 12 16. 9, 33, 385. ? Ib, 7, 9, 303. 4 I5, 16, 3, 572. 6.8 16, 11, 11, 430. 10.11 10, 11, 11, 430 ; 9, 33, 385 (See Comm. also).

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304 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V the explanation of the appearance of these natural phenomena, as, rain, thunder, etc. Nabhi told them that this change in Nature signified that from now on they were to earn their livelihood by the sweat of their brow, i. e. hard labour. This human labour has produced food, made cloths and such shelters and brought into existence wealth and capital in the society. In a word they are the products of labour, the excess of which has taken the form of capital. It has already been discussed in the second section of this chapter that certain sections of the people lived on by the occupation of different arts and crafts, such as, hunting, fowling, fishery, weaving, smithy, pottery, etc. They supplied skilled labour for the production of particular economic requirements of the social consumption. The evidences regarding the nature of various kinds of jobs of the family servants, female nurses, waiting maids as already mentioned, show that they formed the contingent of unproductive la bour. Besides these, the fifteen disapproved occupations (karma. danas)' as referred to in the beginning of this chapter involved both physical and mental labour without which they could not be carried on for a day. Capital Capital, an important factor in the field of economics, is in a real sense the accumulated product of human labour in different forms, such as, land. cattle, house, wealth, money, precious metals, etc., which have been brought into a very useful state by men from the time immemorial. It has already been discussed in connection with the origin of the state in the third chapter that with the change in Nature and growth in the population a social evolution began in regard to the earning of livelihood. 1 Bhs, 8, 5, 330.

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Sec. 111] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 305 The people gradually took to the occupations of agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and commerce to produce more necessaries of life by hard labour under the clemency of natural forces. The instinct of possession combined with the necessity of sustaining and continuing their life guided them to accumulate and save their resources and products of labour for the future use in times of economic crisis. Thus the conception of wealth and capital emerged in the age of the barter system of economics. The invention of metal and coinage further facilitated the operation of the economic laws with the development of which there arose the problem of possession and inheritance of the earned and unearned wealth and capital in the shapes of land, corn, cattle, house, metal and coins inherited from generation to generation. The Bhs presents such a picture of a fully developed economy in which the capital played an important part in the individual and social relations with regard to the material prosperity, power and enjoyments. Thus it is learnt that the rich householder like Tamals of Tamralipti prospered by gold, money, corn, sons, cattle and other abundant wealths, such as, jewel, gem, pearl, conch, precious stones, coral, red jewel, etc. While a class of merchants carried on trade in gold, bell-metal, cloth, jewel, pearl, conch, etc., the other group doubled its money by a flourishing banking business. Like Tamali, king Siva' of Hastinarura also prospered by the same kinds of wealth as possessed by the former, in addition to his kingilom, army, treasury and city. The opulence of the family wealth of the prince, Jamalio inherited from his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, is 8 16, 2, 5, 107, 1 BhS, 3, 1, 134. Ib, 11, 9.417. 2 I6, 8, 5, 328. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 384. 39

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306 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V clearly revealed in the arguments of his mother to dissuade him from his resolution to undertake the state of houselessness. It was so great in quantity that if he enjoyed and distributed it according to his desire, it would not get exhausted even in the seventh generation from him. It is further known that in the case of marriage in the royal family' one crore of gold pieces was the standard amount of dowry for the bride in addition to the other valuable articles. These evidences clearly show that both the earned and unearned wealths inherited from generation to generation formed the capital of an individual citizen in the economic organization and determined the individual and social relations with one another. Besides these, the capital, combined with the labour power controlled the fields of agriculture, arts and crafts, industry and commerce, production and distribution of wealth of the entire economic system of the society. Organization Organization is a most important factor in the economic field, because it brings the capital and labour power into a mutual relation and employs their collective service in the production of the necessaries of social life and national wealth and their distribution among the people at large. Even a big industry or a flourishing business establishment with a large capital declines and ultimately leads to bankruptcy without its proper guidance. The BhS throws a welcome light upon organization by testifying to the existence of a number of economic guilds and corporations formed of many merchants. They advocated private enterprise based on collective system which gave an impetus and an incentive to the growth of industry, trade and commerce and brought material prosperity to themselves and to the economic life of the people as a whole. Thus it is learnt that a flourishing economic guild of the merchants, Sankha, Pokkhali and others existed in the city of 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430, 2 Ib, 12, 1, 437.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 307 Sravasti and played a prominent part in the material prosperity of its citizens. There is also a mention of a large economic corporation of eight thousand merchants of Hastinapura under the presidentship of Karttikadattal who exercised his authority over them in matters concerned with this great establishment. Besides these two instances, an incidental reference occurs in the BhS to a private limited banking organization, as already pointed out, formed and run by the merchants of the city of Tungika? who increased their wealth by money-lending business. The story of the four merchants of Sravasti as related by Gosala Mankhaliputra to Ananda, a disciple of Lord Mahavira, gives some idea of the co-operative mercantile organization of the high and low class merchants to carry on their inland trade. Thus it is stated that four merchants of that city, being desirous of gaining wealth took many kinds of abundant saleable articles, sufficient food and drink and other provisions for the journey in bullock carts and went to the distant land and entered into a large forest having no village, no water pond but unfrequented path and struggled with their caravans of bullock carts through it to reach their destination. The existence of such economic groups was represented by the first (chief) merchant (padhama satthavaha) who was always associated with the administration of the state, probably as financial adviser to the government, for his knowledge and experience in the economic affairs were considered most essential for the material prosperity of the state and the people at large. Thus it appears that the important branches of the arts, crafts, industry, trade and commerce demanded some sorts of guilds for their successful running and development. The reference to the existence of Negama' (trade-guild) in the BhS reminds one of the Negama coins of Taxila, or Pafica Nikama coins issued by the independent economic guilds of Bhs, 18, 2, 437, 16, 2, 5, 107. $ 16, 15, 1, 543.

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308 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V that city which enjoyed the privilege of self-autonomy in economic affairs. So it is presumable from the mention of Vanijyagrama,1 'Negama' (trade-guild) of the eight thousand merchants of Hastinapura under the guild-president, Karttikadatta, and 'Padhama Satthavaha" that there were some economic organizations based on trade rules and regulations, recognized and sanctioned by the state to carry on both the internal and external trade and commerce. It was perhaps through the first merchant or the guildpresident and the guild, the king executed the trade and industrial policies of the government. It was probably for this reason, the first merchant was assigned an important position among the high dignitaries of the state and was considered as a wealthy favourite in the royal court. FOURTH SECTION Trade and Commerce Along with the agriculture, arts and crafts and industries, trade and commerce play a vital role in the economic life of the people, the society and the state for the promotion of their respective material prosperities by causing the flow of various kinds of marchandise to every part of the country and to the foreign land. Thus they help the distribution of the necessary commodities of civic life among the people according to their needs based on the laws of supply and demand. The BhS gives a good account of various kinds of trade and commerce carried on by the different classes of merchants on their private enterprise during its period. 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 424. 2 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. 3 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 303.

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Sec. Iv] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 309 In this respect some business terms associated with trade, reveal the different aspects of the general trade and commerce as existing at that period. The term "Vanijja'used in the Bhs and other texts denotes the general trade, while the following ones, Vaniya' or Setthia, paniya', appamahaggha", uvaniya and anuvaniyao, sukka," paniyabhumis, kuttiyavana', apanalo, katiyatl, vikkina", satiejjal}, (satyankara), dhana?", ayogapayogals and labha's, stand for merchant, saleable commodity, price, purchased article, taken and not taken, customs, market place, emporium, shop, purchase, sale, earnest money, currency or wealth, money-lending and profit respectively. It is clear from the denotations of these terms that there was a regular system of trade based on some commercial laws and customs sanctioned by the state and observed by the society as depicted in this canonical work. The main features of trade and commerce were the purchase and sale of goods of all kinds as demanded by social needs In the matter of sale or purchase there appears to be a custom of paying the earnest money (8atiejja)lt by the purchaser (kaiyassa) to the seller as a security of good faith or business agreement. The Bhs clearly shows that the desire for gaining18 and increasing19 wealth was the dominating motive of the merchantile class, as it is evidenced by the fact that some high and low merchants of Sravasta,40 "desirous of gaining wealth, greedy of wealth and thirsty for wealth" went abroad, having taken many 1 Bh8, 8, 5, 330. 8 1), 11, 11, 424; 18, 2, 608. 5 11, 9, 33, 380. 7 10, 11, 11, 429. 9.10 16, 9, 33, 385. 14 10, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. 16 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 18 I0, 15, 1, 547. 30 16, 15, 1, 547. 2 1b, 11, 11, 424; 15, 1, 547. 4 I), 15, 1, 547. 6 16, 5, 6, 206. 8 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 11.3 16, 5, 6, 205. 15 16, 2, 5, 107; 5, 6, 205. 17 16, 5, 6, 205. 19 16, 2, 5, 107.

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310 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V kinds of abundant saleable articles and food, drink and other provisions for the journey in multitudes of bullock carts, while the merchants of Tungika doubled their wealth by a flourishing banking business (ayogapayogena)." Trade routes Thus it is clear that the trade and commerce were generally carried on by land routes, sometimes passing through dense forests. But the reference to the appearance of some foreign female slaves, e. g. Singhali, Arabi, Parasi and others in the service of the royal and aristocratic families of North-Eastern India clearly suggests that water-routes were also followed by the merchants. A detailed discussion on this topic will be made later on in connection with the subject "External trade". Trade centres According to the Bhs all the capital cities and small towns appear to be the centres of trade and commerce, as they were closely connected with the economic life of the people. So a number of these business centres figure in the text, such as, Campa, Rajagrha, Vaisali, and Vanijyagrama,? Mithila, Sravasti," Kausamb7,10 Hastinapura," Vitibhaya,"? Tungika, 13 Alabhika," Varanasi,16 Kajangala, 16 Nalanda,? Siddhartthagrama, Kurmagrama, Kollaga, 28 Bebhela, 19 Satadvara," Mendhikagrama," Tamralipti, etc." Most of these trade centres are identifiable and are located in the geographical horizon of North-Eastern India, particularly in Bihar and Uttara Pradesa, the rest are casually i BhS, 2, 5, 107. 16, 15, 1, 547. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 386. 5 Ib, 1, 1, 4. ? Ib, 11, 11, 424. & 16, 9, 1, 312. 9 10, 12, 1, 437; 15, 1, 539. 11 10, 11, 9, 417. 12 1b, 13, 6, 491. 19 15, 2, 5, 107, 11, 11, 428; 16, 5, 557. 15 I6, 15, 1, 550. 16 16, 2, 1, 90. 19 16, 3, 2, 144. 20 I6, 15, 1, 559. 110, 3, 1, 134. 7 16, 9, 33, 380. 16, 12, 2, 441. 10 Ib, 12, 2, 441. 14 Ib, 11, 12, 433. Ib, 15, 1, 541. 16, 15, 1, 557.

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Sec. IVI STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 311 mentioned outside this zone, eg. Vitibhaya and Tamralipti were situated in the far west (Sindhu) and far South-Eastern India (Midnapore in West Bengal) respectively. Their proper identi. fications will be dealt with later on in the geographical section of the eighth chapter. Articles of trade The Bhs provides a long list of articles of various kinds of trades carried on by the merchants of all classes. They are as follows : (1) Food-stuffs--cereals' and pulses", vegetables and fruits,4 milk productso (curd, butter and clarified butter), sweets (honey and molasses), and drinks (rasa, sura, majja= wine and liquor), and others. (2) Clothes and dresses-cotton, silken and woolen stuff of various kinds as already referred to in connection with "Dresses" in the seventh section of the fourth chapter. (3) Dye-stuffs"---Indian madder, collyrium and lac. (4) Leather productsleather bladder, shoe, etc. (5) Ornaments of various kinds as already mentioned in connection with the topic 'Ornaments' in section seven of the fourth chapter. (6) Perfumes and toiletsle--aloe, incense, scented pills, sandal, etc. (7) Utensils"--both earthen and metallic--such as, eartben jar, water pitch, iron pot, copper pot, iron pane, etc. (8) Metal images of gods and goddesses." (9) Articles of furniture of various kinds' as already referred to in the seventh section of the fourth chapter. (10) Transports of different types", such as, palanquin, bullock-cart, chariot, boat, etc. 18 Bhs, 6, 7, 246. 4.6 Vide Supra Ch. IV. 6 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. ? Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. & Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. 9 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. 10 Bh8, 11, 11, 428 ; 9, 33, 385; Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. 11 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 6. 12 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. 13 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec, 7. 14 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 5.

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312 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. v (11) Musical instruments of various kinds', such asSankha, Sriga, Laghusankha, etc. They will be discussed later on in connection with the topic Music' in the sixth chapter on 'Education' in details. (12) Weapons of different classes." (13) Agricultural implements and other tools.3 (14) Precious metals-such as, gold, bell-metal, etc. Besides these, we come across references to other articles of trade, such as, ivory (damta), lac (lakkha), hair or wool (kesa), wine (rasa) and poison (visa) as they are clearly suggested by the denotations of the words damtavanijja, lakkhavanijja, kesavanijja, rasavanijja and visavanijja respectively. Distribution of wealth The distribution of social wealth and necessaries of household life among the people according to their real needs and demands is the next important factor of Economics on which largely depend the regulation and stabilization of the economic conditions of the society. It is this process of distribution of the national products of all kinds which helps in bringing plenty and prosperity to an individual member, the public and the state at large by providing them with the essential requisites according to their necessities and demands. It is sometimes found in the history of social economy that in spite of sufficient productions and storage of consumable goods the people in general suffered from the effects of economic distress, starvation and famine due to a defective commercial policy and maladministration of the government and the anti-social attitude of the mercantile class. Process of Distribution of wealth According to the BhS the distribution of 1 Vide Supra Ch. VI, section on fine arts. 2 Vide Supra Ch. VI, section on Military Science. 3 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 1 & 2. 4 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. BhS 8, 5, 330. wealth as

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 313 produced in its society may be classified into four groups, viz. tax and customs, wage, interest, and profit. Tax and customs-One portion of this national wealth went to the state-coffer in the shape of taxes and customs (karam and sukkam) collected by the government officials from the produces of land and commerce respectively at some rates, not specifically mentioned, as already pointed out in connection with the fiscal administration in the third chapter, while the remainder came to the social use and consumption of the people in general. Wage-The officials and other servants of the state, family-attendants and different tradesmen received their portion in the form of salaries, according to the nature of their respective jobs and the hired labourers got wages for their labour, as it is suggested by the term 'bhayagattae" (hired labourer). Interest A class of merchants earned their income by the banking business from the interest on the money invested by them at some rate, as it has already been mentioned that the Sramanopasakas of Tungika increased their wealth by the money-lending profession." Profit-Profit is the surplus wealth produced by the organized power of labour, skill and management of the industry and commerce over the actual cost of the production of goods. It was the remuneration to the organizers of the industrial and commercial establishments, as it is evidenced by the fact that the merchants went abroad for trade with the desire to gain much wealth and returned home with a large amount of the same after a long period of sixteen years". Measures and Weights The BhS throws some light upon the system of measures and weights used in commercial transaction during its period. 8.4 Ib, 2, 5, 107. 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. Ib, 15, 1, 547. 40 2 Ib, 12, 7, 458. * Ib, 12, 6, 456.

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-314 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. V The reference to the word "Manummana'l used in this canonical work in connection with the royal amnesty declared by Bala, the king of Hastinapura on the occasion of the birth of his son, Mahabala, clearly suggests that the state took some steps to increase the standard of the measures and weights in order to give an economic relief to the people and an impetus to trade and commerce. The term Manummana' as occurring here denotes both the cubic and gravitational measures. It was thought by the king to increase the standard of weights and measures, as it is clearly evidenced by the fact of the mention of kudatula and kudamana (false weight and false measure)' in course of the holy teachings of Lord Mahavira on the binding of the ayuskarma of lower animals. The references to false weights and measures as found in this canonical work are also made to in the Uvasagadasao in connection with the taking of vow of Ananda, a wealthy householder of Vanijyagrama that "he must know and avoid the following five typical offences against the law of abstention from gross taking of things not given, viz. receipt of stolen property, employment of theives, smuggling into a forbidden country, false weights and measures and dealing with adulterate wares". Patanjali" explains that the term "Unmana' denotes a measure of weight, while the other ones mana', 'Parimana' and 'Pramana' stand for that of volume or capacity and a lineal measure or dimension respectively. Urddhvamanam-kilonmanam Parimanam tu sarvatah, Ayamas tu Pramanam syat samkhya bahya tu sarvatah". 1 BhS, 11, 11, 429; mana-signifies both dimension (side, length, height in space and time and weight also, while ummana only stands for measure and weight. 9 16, 8, 9, 351. 3 Uvasagadasao, 1, 47, (Translated by Hoernle), pp. 23-24. - Patanjali's Bhasya, V. 1. 19; II. 343. 6 16, Bhasya, V.1. 19; II. 343. Vide 'India as known to Panini' by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, Ch. IV-Section-8, p. 258.

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 315 It appears from the Bhs that the government took some measure in regard to the measures and weights used in business transaction. The text gives some idea about the weights and measures of length, volume, figure and time in its scattered statements. The incidental reference to the "Suvannamasa and ruppamasa" (gold and silver masas) suggests that this system of weight was also used in the business transaction. One masa denoted a weight, which was equal to five rattis for gold and two for silver", but it also signified the name of a coin. Besides these, there is the mention of different kinds of measures, e.g. angulippamana (length) having the size of a finger", Icukkuli.amdagappamana (size of an egg of a hen)", sanakhapamana (quantity contained in a nail)", purusappamanakala (i.e. a prahara, the length of shadow having the size of a man,', yojana (a measure of length of four krosas = 4.54 British miles), etc. Currency The references to earnest money (satiejja)", wealth (dhana)10, in the Bhs clearly imply that there was a regular system of currency which facilitated business transaction and regulated the whole economic condition of its period by issuing legal coins as the medium of exchange, for it is suggested by the mention of the word "Suvannakodio'll which denotes wealth in terms of gold coins. Moreover, it has already been pointed out that the Masa19 may denote the name of a coin of specific weight. 1 Bhs, 18, 10, 647. : Arthasastra, 18, 10, 647. 8 Panini, V.1, 34. Vide, 'India as known to Panini', Ch. IV, p. 259. 4 Bh8, 9, 33, 385. 6 Ib, 1, 11, 424 Ib, 15, 1, 543. 7.8 16, 11, 11, 424. (See comm.) 9 Ib, 5, 6, 205. 10 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 11 I., 11, 11, 430. 19 16, 18, 10, 647 .

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316 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V. In the history of coinage in ancient India it is found that various kinds of metals, such as, gold, silver, copper, lead, potin, etc., were used to make coins according to different standards of weight and value. Here the text does not throw any light upon the standard of weight and value of the gold coin (suvarna). But it may be guessed on the evidences of the Kusana and Gupta coins that the weight of one Suvarna coin was one hundred and twenty-three grains and had a value equal to that of the Roman gold coin Dinarious'. Banking and Loans The Bhs throws some light upon the banking system as existing and working in the economic field during its period. The term 'Dhana'l denotes wealth which is defined in terms of gold currency, e.g. "Suvannakodio", but a new classical word (8avayejja, svapateya)' unknown to the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas occurs here to signify property. This word corresponds to the Pali word "Sapateyya' and Panini's Svapatau' to which he has attached a legal definition as "Svapatau sadhu'' - that is, the property in which the owner (svapati) has a valid title (sadhuta). The Bhs classifies the wealthy people by attributing to them the distinguishing title 'add he's which corresponds to the Pali word 'addho', while the Asokan Edicts mention 'ibuha'' (Skt. ibhya) as a rich man who appears to belong to the same category of the addhas (well-to-do persons) of the Bhs. Banking It has already been mentioned that there is a pointed reference to the private banking system organized and run by the Sramanopasakas of Tungika, as it is clear from the fact that 1 BKS, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. ? 16, 11, 11, 430. & Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 4 Panini, IV, 4, 104. Vide, India as known to Panini' by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 274. * 10, 3, 1, 134. Asokan Rock Edict-5th M.V.

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317 Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA India had a trade relation with Alexandria after the name of which the grain was known to be as 'Alisamdaga' in India where it was imported from that Greek city by way of foreign trade. This commercial intercourse with Alexandria seems to be supported by the evidence of the Asokan Edict' in which it is stated that king Asoka established diplomatic and cultural relations with Alikasudara which was one of the five Greek Potentates. The fact of foreign trade between ancient India and Greece is corroborated by the topographical account of the Periplus' of the Erythraean Sea in which it is recorded that the ships abound in the port of Muziris (modern Cranganore in SouthWestern India) from Arab, Greece and Persia. Besides these, the mention of some waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign countries, such as Cilatikas Simghalis, Arabis, Parasis, etc., clearly suggests that India had a regular trade relation with those countries, as it is evidenced by the fact that those female attendants were dressed in their respective tribal and national costumes which also formed the articles of trade. The evidences of external trade are also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts during their periods. It is learnt from the Uttaradhyayana-Tika' that Ayala, a merchant of Ujjayini, carried on a regular foreign business with Parasa country (Persia) by the land and sea routes, having taken the merchandise from India for sale and purchased the commercial goods from that country. The Buddhist works also throw much light upon the relation of ancient India with the foreign countries in this field of economic affairs. Thus it is known from them that the overland Caravans, sometimes going east and west and also across the deserts, took 1 R. E. XIII. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. "Jataka, 1, 98 f. The 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' Schoff. 4 Uttaradhyayana. Tika, 3. P. 64

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318 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V the help of a land pilot' (thala niyyamaka) to cross them over during the cooler periods of the night, being guided by the position of stars.1 Such caravans might have started from Banaras, the chief industrial and commercial centre as mentioned in the Buddhist works, across the deserts of Rajaputana westward to the seaport of Bharukaccha, the present Broach and the sea-port of Sovira and its capital city, Rorura or Roruka. It was probably from these ports that the Indian merchants established their trade relation with Babylon or Baveru. This evidence is supported by the fact that the Milindapanha' has left an account of the main objective of India's oversea-trade at a later date. FIFTH SECTION Roads and Communications Roads and communications are the most essential factors for the defence, economic development and material prosperity of a country, because they are the arteries of the state-body through which flows the volume of trade and commerce to its different parts and to the outside world. Thus they bring the people of the society into a closer contact and help them in establishing the economic, political, social and cultural relations with the foreign countries by facilitating the exchange of mutual thoughts and ideas carried through the external affairs, trade and commerce of a state. It is a well known fact in the history of ancient India how the caravans of Indian merchants and her sea-traders helped indirectly in spreading her religions and cultures to central Asia, China, Africa, Simhala, Suvarnadvipa and Kamboja respectively, 1 Jataka, 1, 107. 2 Ib, III, 188; IV. 137. Ib, III, 470. 80, II, 235; Divyavadana, 544. Milindapanha, 359; Trans. II, 269 (S. B. E. ) XXXVI.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 319 by taking along with them the Indian monks to these countries on their great missions. It appears from the references to 'Sirghadagatiyacaukkacaccara' (junctions of three, four and many roads)', 'paha' (road)", and Pahakara' (road-maker or road or traffic officer)', that there was a regular system of developed city traffic and well-constructed roads organized and maintained by the state during its period. It is further evidenced by the fact that whenever Lord Mahavira appeared in any city, streams of people of that city flowed to him through its streets to attend his religious discourses and they talked about him and his holy teachings, standing at the crrossings of different roads. Then the members of the rich and aristocratic and royal families went to the Master, driving in bullock-cartso or in horsechariots' or in a royal procession consisting of cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry? to listen to his sermons as it is found in the cases of Rsabhadatta a rich Brahmana of Brahmanakunda. grama, the prince Jamali or Ksatriyakundagrama, queen Mrgavati and the princess Jayanti and king Udayana of Kausambi, and king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira who made pilgrimage to him at different Caityas. These evidences clearly suggest that there was an organized city-traffic system run by every state of those days. Besides these facts, the events of the two great wars, viz. Mahasilakantakasangramul and Rathamusala-sangrana', as already discussed in the third chapter on 'political conditions', further support the above evidences that the movements of the army consisting of cavalry, elephant, chariot and infantry to the battle field from the respective war bases of Magadha and Vaisali were made along some routes at that period. 1,7 Bh8, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9,418. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 418. 5 1b, 9, 3, 380 ; 12, 2, 442. ? 1b, 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6, 491. 8 Ib, 7, 9, 300. $ 10, 9, 3, 383. Ib, 9, 33, 384. * 16, 7, 9, 301.

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320 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V So it is presumable that there was a regular system of roads and communications for the transport and despatch of soldiers and military convoys. An account of the country roads is found in the itinerary of Lord Mahavira1 and those of the other monks', parivrajakas3, and the common people who made journeys on foot to the different parts of India, particularly North India by crossing village after village to reach their respective destinations. The merchants' went abroad to carry on the inland trade outside their city, having taken their merchandise and the other provisions for the journey, loaded in many bullock-carts, struggling with their caravans through the villages and forests to reach the centre of trade. Moreover, the commodities, like fine cloths, curtains precious metals etc., had to be imported to and exported from the different business places through some routes. Thus it is clear that the different parts of the country were well connected by roads with one another. This fact is further supported by the reference to the presence of female attendants belonging to the different Indian tribes and foreign countries as already mentioned in the third section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', viz. Kiratika, Barbarika, Isiganika, Palhavika, Lhasika, Lausiya, Arabi Dravidi, Singhali, Pulindi, Murundi (Saka-country), Puskali, Sabari and Parasi (Parasa = Persia)* The reference to the statement crossing the Ganges or a great sea by hands against the current of its water used as an analogy to explain the difficulties of observing the Nirgranthavow and the employment of the waiting maids belonging to ancient Ceylon and Arab, clearly suggests that the Indians were well acquainted with the sea and sea-voyage was common 1 BhS, 13, 6, 491. 4 Ib. 15, 1, 540. 7 Ib, 9, 33, 384. 2 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 5 Ib, 15, 1, 547. 8 Ib, 2, 1, 90-91. 6 Ib, 9, 33, 380.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 321 to them during the period of this canonical work. While the mention of the Chinese silken cloth shows that India had an overland traffic with China, maintained by her ancient merchants for external trade. It appears from the knowledge of geographical places, such as, Rajag?ha, Vaisai7, Campa, Kajangala, Sravasti Kauaambi, Kasc, Hastinapura, Tamrulipti, Vitibhaya, etc., that the Himalayan belts, the far north and south, the far east and west of India were well connected by some means of communications. A close study of the itinerary of Lord Mahavira and those of the other wandering teachers and monks shows that they followed the familiar routes which were used by all peoples including the merchants. As to the east-west routes the BhS tells of the journey of Lord Mahavira from Campa to the city of Vitibhaya' in Sindhu. Sauvira and that of the Prince Abhijit from Vitabhaya to Campa,* on its way lay Kasi and Kausambi. One north-south-east route ran from Sravasti to Rajagrha and the other from Sravasti to Kajangala, the south-east to the north-east routes-were from Rajaglha to Campa Sravasti to Campa; Vaisali to Campa; Vaisali to Mithila; Vaisali to Pava; Kasi to Vaisali, Kosala to Vaisali, RajagIha to Tamralipti. Others ran from Rajagrha to Vindhyagiri, Rajagrha to Alabhika, Rajagrha to Hastinapura, Tungika Kampilya, etc. Besides these, there were small roads linked with Rajagrha as indicated by the evidences of this canonical work. The references to the female attendants belonging to some Indian tribes and foreign countries as already pointed out clearly suggest that there were trade rocads and communications from Vaisali to the Kirata country in the north and north-east (Asama), to the Barbaradesa (the Himalayan belt from Kasmira to north i Bhs, 9, 33, 380, 4 Ib, 9, 33, 380. I6, 13, 6, 491. 9 16, 13, 6, 492. 41

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322 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V Bihar according to the evidences of Paumacariu of Sayambhu)', to Puskalavati (Peshawar), to the Tamil country in the far south, to the Sabaraland (Andhradesa), Pulindaland (Central province), Isika (or Rsika) region (Deccan), and Lhasiya (Nasika, Western coast of India). While the oversea routes were connected with Ceylon, Arab and Alexandria as suggested by Weber, the overland ones ran to Sakasthana, Parthia, Persia and China through Central Asia. In addition to them, the river routes, e.g. those of the Ganges and the Indus were probably followed by the people for trade and commerce. The account of the inland, overland and oversea-routes of India as suggested by the BhS is also corroborated by those of the other Jaina texts, Buddhist works, the Greek classical records and the Chinese sources. Transport The text gives a list of transports used by the people of its period for the economic, civil and military purposes. The caravan of the merchants formed of many small twowheeled carts loaded with various kinds of abundant saleable articles, food, drink, and other provisions for the journey, each drawn by two bullocks was a distinct feature of that time. For the private civil use a number of means of conveyance finds mention in this canonical work, such as, bullock-cart drawn by a pair of young-strong bullocks having their horns. (and heads) furnished with flowers, bells and cords made of cotton and inlaid with various kinds of gem, jewels. etc., horse-chariots pulled by four horses (caughamtaraha) generally used by the 1 In Paumacariu of Sayambhu-Ch. 21; it is stated that the Barbaras inhabiting the Himalayas infested the kingdom of king Janaka of Mithila along with the Sabaras and Pulindas who lived in the Vindhyas. BhS. 15, 1, 547. 3 b, 9, 33, 380; 12, 2, 442. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 323 members of the rich aristocratic, noble and royal families, horses and elephantsa ridden by the nobles and kings, Besides these, there are references to the other civil transports in this canonical work, viz. palanquin (siviya) carried by the professional bearers, sedan chair (sandamaniya), open vehicles (viyadajanain) and transport chariots for the royal ladies." Horses,' elephants and war chariots (samgamiya) also formed the parts of the military transports, as it is evidenced by the fact that they were used in the great wars Mahasilakanjaka. sangrama and Rathamusalasangrama as already pointed out. The incidental references to the terms "Nava (boat) and Pota (ship) occurring in the Bhs.? clearly suggest that the boat and ship were the means of water-communications for use in rivers and seas. In hus already been discussed that the making of carts (salikamma) and transport business (bhadikamma) were the occupations of certain sections of the people for earning their livelihood. These evidences clearly reveal that there was a development of transport system which facilitated the quick movement of men and women in their journeys and the swift despatch of soldiers and military convoys during the period of this canonical work. SIXTH SECTION General Economic Conditions and Ethics of Economics General Economic Conditions The BHS throws sufficient light upon the general economic conditions of the people of its period and enables one to form 1 Bh8, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 430. 9 Ib, 11, 11, 430. * Ib, 7, 9, 300. 7 Ib, 1, 6, 51; 1, 6, 55. 16, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 430. 4 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. $ 16, 7, 9, 303; 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 8, 5, 330.

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324 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V some ideas as to the purchasing power of the high, low and middle class families, i.e. of the well-to-do merchants and nobles, the poor, and the men of the professional class. It is learnt that there was a limited number of wealthy persons as considered from the economic standard of that period and of the present day. There appeared a few monarchs, like Bala, Siva, Udayana, Seniya, Udayana, Kesikumara, Kunika and others whose wealth and prosperity were derived from land taxes and customs supplemented by other dues, such as, cattle, gifts and presents,' and wealth inherited from the forefatherso. It has been pointed out in connection with the topic 'Capital in the third section of this chapter that one of the Ksatriya princes named Jamali possessed so much accumulated wealth that it would not get exhausted even in seven generations, if it would have been spent and distributed according to bis desires. Next came a number of nobles and rich aristocrats like Nagaputra Varuna of Vaisalis, Tamali of Tamralipti", and Rsabbadatta of Brahmanakundagrama? and the Samantarajas' and Ganarajas', who were considered well-to-do, possessing abundant wealth of all kinds. In the Bhs mention is made of a Padhama Satthavaha10 always associated with the government and a few millionaire merchants, like those of Tungikal and Hastinapura" who led a very luxurious life. Besides these, the vast majority of the population lived on agriculture and a considerable number on different arts and crafts and other trades, and had to work hard. While a section of the peoples both male and female earned their livelihood by serving the government and the royal and rich aristocratic families 1.2 Bhs, 11, 11, 429, 316, 9, 33, 389. 16, 9, 33, 384. * 16, 7, 9, 303. 8 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 7 I., 9, 33, 380. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 9I6, 7, 9, 303. 10 Ib, 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6,491. 11 Ib, 3, 5, 107. 1216, 18, 2, 618.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 325 in different capacities, such as, government officials, palace-staff, servants and maids respectively. Their economic conditions can be determined from their respective occupations and social status. Under the surface of so much opulence of the social wealth there flowed a current of poverty, as it is evidenced by the fact that a section of homeless people wandered from village to village and one of them, namely, Markha Mankhalid had to take shelter in a cowshed of the Brahmana, Gobahula with his pregnant wife, Bhadra without obtaining any residence anywhere in the town of Saravana, while the other ones (tanuya-poor)' had to beg the means of subsistence and live on public charity and a section of women was forced by financial circumstances to take up the conditions of slavery and prostitution for sustenance and continuance of their lives. Moreover, the economic condition of the Candalas (Panas)" as referred to in this canonical work was not good at all. An incidental reference to the food prepared in the famine time (dubbikkhabhatta) clearly suggests that the country was sometimes visited by this phenomenon. Thus here is presented a picture of the outlines of social economy as constructed from the fragmentary evidences furnished by the Bhs. It should be observed that the whole subject of the economic ideas as reflected in this work was based on the ethical principles which do not approve of the most important occupations. Moreover, the division of labour made on a system of hereditary caste probably arrested the growth of economic progress of the society. Behind these ethical precepts of the religious teachers and sectarian scruples of the caste, there is found a picture of economic conditions as reflected in the stray references of this canonical work that agriculture was the most natural and 1 BhS, 15, 1, 540. : 16, 1, 9, 77, 8 16, 9, 33, 380 ; 11, 11, 429. 4 16, 3, 1, 134. 5 16, 9, 33, 384.

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326 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V necessary pursuit diligently carried on by the vast majority of the people. While various kinds of arts and crafts, trades and commerce were highly organized by the private and collective leadership of the economic guild with the help of the service of labour, largely hereditary, and capital in a spirit of mobility, initiativeness and enterprise. And the social economy was fully familiar with the money and credit ages.

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SIXTH CHAPTER Education FIRST SECTION Conception of Education as reflected in the BhS Education is the light of human life, as it gives a clear vision of knowledge of the mundane world and Nature to man by dispelling the darkness of his ignorance, prejudices, false notions and ideas; and consequently it illuminates the entire society with its all prevading radiance. It represents the ideals of a nation acting as its back bone and reveals the spirit of its culture and civilization by focussing its aim on the remotest and darkest corner of social life. In a word, life is education which is manifested in its selfdevelopment and self-culture, as it is reflected in the famous teachings of ancient India. "Yavajjivamadbite viprah". I Education touches upon all the phases of life of a man by sharpening his intellect and assisting him in controlling his senses, thoughts and actions, refines his cultural tastes and modifies his desires. It instils a spirit of creative energy and faculties in him, developes his personality, quenches his thirst for spiritual urge, and paves the way of his emancipation from the worldly bondage, because wisdom, the fruit of its cultivation reigns supreme in all spheres of human life. Thus proper education helps and guides an individual man from the first stage up to the last of his life in building up his higher character and developing his personality by removing all obstacles on his way to progress, and dissolving all contradictions i Vide 'Education in Ancient India'-Dr. Altekar, p. 3.

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328 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI of life and differences between him and the society, and bringing about & harmonious relation between them to a successful consummation. The BhS gives the above conception of education of its period, although a complete picture of educational institutions, like the modern schools, colleges and universities is conspicuous by its absence in this canonical work. It has placed the ideal of education based on the unity of thought and action thus that men can attain liberation and put an end to all miseries by intellect, the only sight, like a snake and by the only sharpness (kriya-action) like a razor blade.' It has laid a great emphasis on the self-control, moral character, physical, mental and intellectual development, theoretical and practical knowledge in different arts and crafts to make an individual man capable of shouldering the responsibility of the worldly affairs by holding before him the goal of life-Moksa (liberation). The conception of education as reflected in the BhS is well supported by the ancient literatures of India which throw much light upon its meanings, principles and importance in a very clear and systematic way. Aims and Ideals of Education The aims and ideals of education as embodied in this work are represented in the four stages of life which have already been discussed in the second section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions' in details. Here they may be summed up in brief for recapitulation and dealing with the educational system of its period in a clea. rest possible manner. They are as follows: Virtue, acquirement of knowledge, building up of character, development of personality, capability of shouldering the responsibilities of household life with a spirit of performing the individual and social, secular and religious 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 384.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA duties to oneself, the family and the society at large, promotion of the social relation and efficiency, preservation of culture, spiritual urge and aspiration after attaining liberation-the highest goal of life. 329 It is, therefore, apparently clear from the above discussion that there was the spiritual background of education which influenced the individual and social life and made oneself realize that the human body, material enjoyments, objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world, while his mind, intellect and soul to that of spiritualism, as it is evidenced in the arguments of the prince, Jamali advanced to his parents. This conception of education governed one's life and conduct, developed his personality and held the noble ideals before him. It was a picture of education with a religious and spiritual background, but the individual and secular aspects of life were not ignored. A balance was maintained to make an individual a worthy member of the society within the purview of its principles. Educational System : The BhS presents an account of a system of education, learning, literature, different branches of science and arts which were studied and cultivated by the people of its period. It throws a welcome light upon the evolution of different types of educational institutions, the life of the students and teachers, the subjects of study, the development of literatures and the progress of science and arts. The production of this very voluminous canonical work itself sufficiently testifies to the linguistic and literary development of a remarkable system of education at its age. Primary Education : It appears from the text that education began with a man in his boyhood and continued throughout his life up to the last 42

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330 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI stage without the stoppage of study, as it is evidenced by the fact that the householders of all classes and the monks of all sects mentioned in this text are found devoted to the studies of certain prescribed texts as a part of duty in their respective states of life ; because it was realized by them that knowledge was the supreme power to lead them to the path of spiritual liberation. Mass education of modern days was not prevalent at that period, but the evidences of celebrating tonsure ceremony (colayanagar = cudadharanan), initiation with the sacred thread (uvanayanan), or beginning of alphabet or learning (kalagrahanan) of every new born child at the proper time and age gives an insight into the fact of admission of a large number of boys to the educational institution based on the principle of Brahmacarya (the life of celibacy) and a close relationship between the students and teachers. It is evidenced by the fact that even the boy like Gosala Mankhaliputra though born in a poor family of Mankbali and Bhaira, was not deprived at least of this primary religious and literary education, the beginning of which was marked by his 'Upanayana' (investiture with the sacred thread).' Thus it appears that this system of 'Upanayana' & 'Kala. grahana' ensured the primary education to a great number of boys of those days. It is further revealed that the parents generally educated their boys in the art of their traditional hereditary occupations to make them their worthy successors in these professions, as it is found in the case of Gosala Mankhaliputra(r) and Mahabala 10 respectively. The former took up his father's vocation of painting picture and exhibiting them, while the latter ascended the throne of his father in Hastinapura at least for one day as a Ksatriya prince before renouncing the world. BhS, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 380. * 10, 11, 11, 429, * Ib (common) 11, 11, 429. 7.0 T6, 15, 1, 540. * 16 2; 1, 90; 9, 33, 382. 4 16, 15, 1, 540. # 10, 11, 11, 429. 10 10, 11, 11, 431.

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Sec. I) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 331 The basis of this distinction in social education was the caste system prevalent at that period. The significance of this education based on 'Brahmacarya' clearly suggests that marriage was inconsistent with the student's life for his physical and mental development till he was free from the childish state, became learned and firm, reached the stage of youth, and attained the capability of enjoying :be worldly pleasures and shouldering the responsibility of the worldly affairs. Age of Education: The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the proper agelimit of a boy to begin his education by referring to the case of the prince Mahabala thus ; when he was a little more than eight years old,' his parents took him to a teacher of arts (kalayariya) at an auspicious moment of a favourable day, after having caused him to bathe and performed the balikarma (the worship of house gods) and other expiatory rites, and adorned him with various kinds of decorations by offering rich entertainment, etc. It was realized by the parents that in this tender age the mind of the child was pliable, his memory was sharp and intellect was receptive like the clay on which any impression made then, would remain throughout the life. So this age of childhood was the best time to build up the character of a man, to develop his body, mind and personality and to infuse a spirit of the individual and social duties into his heart. The evidence of commencing education at the proper age as revealed in the Bhs is also corroborated by the ancient Indian literatures which recommend an early age limit of five 1 Bh8, 11, 11, 429. * 16, 11, 11, 429. 8 1b, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary *

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332 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Vi or eight years, because the beginning of education at the age of sixteen would not produce good results as expected from the student. "Nati-sodasa varsamupanayita prasrstavrsano hyesa vrsalibhuto bhavati"". It is further said that the parents themselves are the enemies of their child who is not educated by them. "Mata satruh pita vairi balo yena na pathitah3." Education of Girls As regards the female education the BhS throws some light upon the subject by refering to the cases of the princess, Jayanti', Utpala, the wife of Sankha Sresthi, Halahala, the Ajivikopasika of Sravasti, Arya Chandana, the nun" and others who were learned in the sacred lores. It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Stages of Life' in the second section of the fourth chapter that one group of students continued their studies upto the time of their marriage, the other one remained unmarried throughout the life and the princess, Jayanti belonged to the latter, while the other girls were given in marriage at their proper age. It appears from the above evidences that some private arrangements were probably made by the parents at home to impart education to the girls, particularly those of the rich aristocratic and royal families. 1 J. A. S. B., 1935, p. 294. Vide Dr. Altekar's 'Education in Ancient India' Appendix (A & B), p. 266, f. n. 2; p. 274, f. n. 2 (astame-ayuskamam navame......sodase sarvakamaiBaudh. Gr. S. II, 5. 5. * J, Gr. S.1. 12. Vide 'Education in Ancient India,' p. 26. f.n. 4. 3 Subhashita, Vide 'Education in Ancient India', p. 26. f.n. 2. * Ib, 15, 1, 539. 4 Bhs, 12, 1, 441. 5 Ib, 12, 1, 437-8. 7 Ib, 9, 33, 382. 8 Ib, 15, 1, 557.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 333 But a definite account about this matter is not found in this canonical work whether the girls also were sent to the Kalacarya like the boys for education. However, it is evidently clear that all the religious insti. tutions of that period, particularly the Nirgrantha Order made special arrangements for the nuns to teach the prescribed religious texts to them in a systematic manner so tbat they could advance towards the attainment of spiritual realization with their acquired knowledge of the Law. This fact shows that the women were also admitted to the Vedic and Bramanic studies. There was no caste bar nor sex-bar on the way of an individual male or female member of the society to get education, such a narrow outlook did not exist in the matter of learning. On the other hand, education iinparted by the religious intitutions was open to all whoever desired to study, learn and acquire knowledge. Teacher: Teacher is the fountain-head of knowledge, the flow of which irrigates the barren land of mind of the young students and transforms it into a shining field endowed with the richness of the products of education, learning and culture. The text reveals that a great importance was laid on the noble position of the teacher to whose care the child was entrusted by his parents for his education. The reference to this fact clearly suggests a closer relationship between them. As a result of this direct contact the teacher could illuminate and transform the life of his student by teaching the prescribed subjects of learning to him, removing the darkness of his ignorance, opening the vision of knowledge about the worldly affairs, and holding the lofty ideals of human life before him. Classes of Teachers It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Other occupations' in the second section of the fifth 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. See comm.

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334 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Vi chapter on 'Economic conditions' that there were three classes of teachers in the society as depicted in this canonical work, viz. Kalacarya, Silpacarya' and Upadhyaya.3 Relation Between Teacher and Student A great emphasis has been laid on the discipline of the students in regard to their behaviour and reverence towards their teacher. Any opposition to him was highly condemned,' because he has been called the spiritual and intellectual father in the ancient Indian texts. "Acarya upanayamano Brahmacarinam krnute garbhamantah." The terms 'Ayariyapadinie' and 'Uvajjhayapadinie' express the censure attaching to the students who opposed their teacher. The reference to the statement "defamers of the Acaryas and Upadhyayas" (ayariya-uvajjhayanam ayasakara)' made in the BhS, reflects upon the general relation between the teachers and students in both religious and secular institutions of its period. Students' life : The text does not give a clear idea of the students' life, except that they continued their education till they became free from the childish state, reached the stage of youth, and attained the capability of bearing the burden of responsibilities of the household affairs and enjoying the worldly life. Centres of Education : Thus it appears that the above mentioned three classes of teachers were the main props of the educational institutions of its period. Besides these, there were the other centres of education at different capital cities, holy places, Caityas (temples) and 1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary of Abhayadeva Suri. 8.4 Ib., 9, 33, 389. Ib., 7, 9, 300. Ib; Cf. Atharva-Veda, XI, 5. Acaryah. 6. Bh8, 9, 33, 389. 8 Ib; 9, 33, 380.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 335 parivrajakava:atis (mathas). In this connection it should be observed that the place where this canonical work, along with the other religious texts was compiled was certainly a great centre of learning and culture. But there is no reference to any type of public institutions organized and run by the society, like those of the modern days. Every religious order of the Sramanas was a travelling school for the progress of education, learning and knowledge in different branches of religious and philosophical studies which were the chief characteristic features of the cultural activities of that period. Thus there is the mention of many religious assemblies of disputants belonging to heterodox sects, such as, other Tirthikas," Ajivikas, followers of Lord Parsvanatba,' Parivrajakas, Vanaprasthas, Carakas," Brahmanas,' and Nirgranthas who entered into discussion of subjects on religious and philosophical doctrines to attain the truth and knowledge. So the teachers of all classes, monks of all sects, students, home, learned assemblies, religious discourses expounding the Law, and literatures were the agencies of learning which imparted education to the people in general. The ideals of this education have played an important part in shaping the academic careers of the teachers and students and greatly influenced and inspired them with a spirit of literary and cultural mission and activities of their period. An idea of the systematic educational institutions is found from the evidences of the temple colleges of the Nirgrantha Order where a newly initiated monk or nun had to study the prescrib. ed religious texts for a period of certain years to acquire the requisite knowledge in religion and philosophy along with the 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 90. ? 16, 1, 9, 75 ; 1, 10, 81 etc. 4 Ib, 1, 9, 76; 2, 5, 108.9. 5 Ib, 2, 1, 90. 1 lb, 1, 2, 25, 16, 1, 2, 25; 8, 5, 328 ; 15, 1, 539. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 8.9 16, 18, 10, 647,

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336 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI practice of austerities, as it is known from the cases of Skandaka,' Rsabhadatta, Devananda,' Jamali' and others. Financial condition of Educational Institutions The BhS does not throw any light upon the financial con. ditions of the educational institutions and of the teachers who were devoted to the teaching profession. But it appears from the study of text that the three classes of teachers, namely, Kalacarya," Silpacarya," and Upadhyaya,' were financially helped by the state and the society. Courses of Studies It is learnt from the text that the course of studies included the four Vedas, viz. Kig, Atharva, Sama and Yaju, Itihasa (Purana) the fifth Veda, Nighantu the sixth Veda, six Vedangas, Sankhana (arithmatic), Sikkha (phonetics), Kappa (ritual), Vagaruna (grammar), Chand 1 (metre), Nirutta (exegesis) and Joisamaya (astronomy and astrology),' six Upangas and Sathitamta. The six Upangas which comprised the further elaborations of the subjects are dealt within the Vedangas and the Satthitamta was an authoritative treatise on the Sankhya system of philosophy. Besides these, the other Jaina texts make references to seventy-two kinds of arts which will be discussed later on. The students might have studied all these subjects but specialized themselves in one or the other of these different branches of learning. Similarly there might have been teachers who were specialists in particular subjects of studies, as it is evidenced by the fact of the Kulacarya, Silpacarya,9 and Svapnalaksanaputhaka (who were well versed in the Astangamahanimitta)'. These evidences indicate how specialization in a particular branch of knowledge fairly advanced at that period. i Bhs, 2. 1, 91-96. ? 16, 9, 33, 382. 8 16, 9, 33, 385. 4 1b, 11, 11, 429. 5IB, 7, 9, 300. IV, 9, 33, 389. ? Ib, 2, 1, 90. See also Ovaiya Sutta 38, p. 172. 8 BhS, 11, 11, 429. Ib, 7, 9, 300, 10 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 337 This reference to teachers and scholars endowed with special qualifications reveals that their creative faculties justified itself in producing the vast literary works and even in inventing the two war-engines - Mahasilakantaka and Rathamusala and in contributing to the development of other sciences and arts which will be dealt with later on. Art of writing The art of writing is the vehicle of human thoughts and languages which are conveyed by its meaningful signs, words and lines from man to man in his day-to-day life. This important part of education and learning was well known to the society of the Bhs, as it is evidenced by the significant invocation to "Brahmilipi' and 'Sruta'. "Namo Bunbhze livie" (Salutation to Brahmilipi).' "Namo Suyassa" (Salutation to the Sruta) and the reference to Kalagrahana' (learning of alphabet), Kalacariya' (teacher of arts)*, *Potthaya' (book)", and the study of several texts. The term 'Livi' (Skt. lipi))? used here denotes writing in general and stood for the same meaning in the Maurya period and earlier, as it is evidenced by the fact of the references to Dhammalipi', 'Lipikara'' in the Asokan Edicts, 'Lipi' in the Arthasastral' and 'Yavanali pi' in Panini's work. 11 In the Behistun Inscription'there is found the mention of Dipi' instead of Lipi' for engraved writing. Thus it is clear that the Bambhz-lipi' referred to in the Bhs stood for name of the script which is distinct from language.18 i Bh8, 1, 1, 2 ? 16, 1, 1, 3. * Ib, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary. $ 16, 2, 1, 90. Ib, 1, 1, 2. 9 Rock Edict, I. XIV. 11 Panini, VI, 3, 115. 12 Behistun luscription of Darius III. 18 Bhs, 1, 1, 2.See Commentary. 3 10, 11, 11, 429. (comm. * 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 Rock Edict, I. XIV. 10 Arthasastra, 1, 5, 1. 43

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338 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI The evidences of the art of writing are also fully corroborated by the other Jaina texts which refer to 'Lekha' (writing) as one of the seventy-two arts (Kala).1 The Rayapaseniya Suya gives a list of different kinds of writing stuffs, such as pattaga (leaves), kambiya (wooden board), dora (thread), ganthi (knots), lippasana (ink-pot), chandana (lid), samkala (chain), masi (ink), lehani (pen), akkhara (letters) and potthaya (book), while the reference to Lehariya occurs in the Avasyaka Bhasya" and in the Curni'. In the commentary on the Samavayanga there are also the evidences of the art of writing and inscribing letters on different writing materials, such as, leaves, bark, wood, ivory, iron, copper, silver and of shaping them by cutting those stuffs according to their size and of combining them with one another (saNkramana to have the correct formation of the sentences and their meanings. Besides these, there occur references in the other Jaina texts to the despatch of diplomatic letters by the kings through their ambassadors before waging the actual war against their respective enemy-rulers, forged letter (kudaleha), love letters,10 sealed letters," etc. 1 Nayadhammakahao, 1. p. 11; Ovaiya Suya-40; Rayapaseniya Suya-211; Samavayanga, p. 177a. Jambu Su II-2. p. 136f. Vide 'Life in Ancient India'-p. 172, f.n. 27. 2 Rayapaseniya Suya, 131. 3 Avasyaka Bhasya, 76 (Niryukti Dipika, 1, p. 90a.) 4 Ib, p. 248. See 'Life in Ancient India' p. 175. There is the mention of writing on P. 5 Avasyaka Curni, p. 530. See 'Buddhist India' the bhujjapatta in this work. 117. 6 The Vasudevahimdi (p. 189) refers to the writing of a book on the copper leaf. Besides, there are copper plate Inscriptions of many kings. 7 Commentary on the Samavayanga, p. 78. 8 Nirayavaliya Sutta. 10 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 13, p. 191a. 11 Brhat Kalpa Bhasya Pithika, 135; Nisitha Curni, 5, p. 87 (Mss.) 9 Uvasagadasa?, 1, p. 10.

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Sec. 1 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 339 In its commentary the Bhsi makes a reference to eighteen kinds of Brahmi script without naming them in clear terms. But they are specifically mentioned in the Samavayanga Sutra' as given below (1) Bambhi, (2) Javaniliya, (3) Dosauria, (4) Kharotthia, (5) Kharasavia. (6) Paharaia, (7) Uccattaria, (8) Akkharaputthiya, (9) Bhogavayata, (10) Venatiya, (11) Ninhaiya, (2) Ankalivi, (13) Gaaialivi, (14) Gandhavralivi (Bhuyalivi), (15) A dansalivi, (16) Mahesari livi, (17) Dami livi, (18) Bolindi livi. In the Prajnapana Sutral there are mentions of Javanaliya, pukkhar isariya and Arntakkhariya in places of Javaniliya, Icharagavia and Uccattaria respectively, and the Sumavayanga Sutra connects Bhayalivi with Gandhavvalivi. It should be observed that these scripts are not derived from Brahmi but they are alternates to it, e.g. Kharosthi has got its different origin. Brahini and Kharostli, the two important scripts are also referred to in the Lalitavistara' along with the other sixty-four livis (lipis). The Klarosthi script came to India during the Achamenid rule and continued upto the Kusana period, as it is evidenced by the fact that some of the inscriptions of the Kusana kings were inscribed in this script. Brahmi has played a great role in the evolution of the modern Indian scripts, all of which except the persian script of Urdu have originated from it, but the other scripts have disappeared into oblivion during the course of the development of Indian Palcography. According to the Samavayanga Sitra, Brahmi consisted of forty-six 'mauyakkharas' (matykaksaras) or the original letters without having the four liquid vowels viz. R, R., L., L., and LL.S 1 Commentary on the Bhs, 1, 1, 2. 2 Samavayanga Sutra, 18. 3 Prajnapana Sutra, 1,51. p. 55a. * Lalitavistara, 125 f. * Panjtar stone inscription of a Kusana king (65 A.D.); Kalavan copper plate Inscription (77 A.D.); and others. See 'Life in Ancient India', p. 176.

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340 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SOTRA [Ch. VI Origin of Indian Scripts The origin of the Indian scripts, particularly that of Brahmi has been dealt with by a number of scholars according to their respective theories based on different historical materials, The Jaina Mahapurana' attributes the honour to Rsabbadeva for teaching first the art of writing (masi) to his people out of economic necessity, along with the other arts and crafts. In the Buddhist works there occurs a reference to "writing in a tract called Silas which are recorded in each of the thirteen Dialogues, forming the first chapter of the first division of the Suttantas. This tract may be assigned to a date circa 450 B, C. Besides these, the mention of Akkharika (lettering) a game of guessing at letter traced in the air or on a play-fellow's back further supports the prevalence of the art of writing in the Buddhist and pre-Buddhist periods. The origin of the Brahmi script is attributed by the BhS3 to a different source according to the commentary of Sri Abhyadeva Suri. It is explained thus that the name "Brahmi lipi' is derived from that of Brahmi, the own daughter of Rsabhadeva, the Jina, because he first showed her how to write letters with the right hand. It is clear from the above references that the art of writing was in vogue and prevalent during the period of this canonical work, the compilation of which speaks itself for the conclusion, Language Language is the symbolic expression to convey human thoughts and ideas in the form of sounds, words and writings from man to man. The more it is simple, the more it becomes i Mahapurana, Vol. 1, Parva-16, L. 179 ( Jnanapitha EI,!. ? Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. 1, pp. 326. 3 BhS, 1, 1, 2. 1 16, 1, 1, 2. (comm.)

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Sec. I STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 341 understand able to the people with all its meanings and reaches their hearts. The BhS refers only to Arddha-Magadhi, the language spoken by the gods and the human beings, thus it becomes distinguished. "Deva nam addhamagahae bhasae bliasamti savi ya nam addhamagaha bhasa bhasijjamana visissati"'?. This prevalent language is also referred to in the Prajiapama Sutra". Besides these, the other Jaina texts bear testimony to the fact that Lord Mahavira preached the Law in this very language to the people so that all of them including the men and women of all ages, the literate and illiterate* belonging to the different communities could grasp and understand the message and meanings of his holy teachings witbout any difficulty, for it was their common dialect current in the region in which the Master moved and carried on his religious activities. The Nisitha.curni" gives a quite different denotation of the word Arddha-Magadhi' thus that it was either the language of half of Magadha or it consisted of the eighteen classes of Desibhasa. It appears from the Bhs that Arddha-Magadhi was a language common and understandable to all the cultured and ordinary laities including the kings, nobles, officials, merchants, and the general people among whom Lord Mahavira and the other wandering religious teachers preached their respective Laws. But it should be observed that Sanskrit also flourished side by side with Arddha-Magadhi, as it is evidenced by the fact of 1 BhS, 5, 4, 191. 2 Pannavana, 11, 37. 3 Samavayanga Sutta, p. 57; Ovaiya Sutta 34. p. 146; Acaranga Curni 7. p. 255. 4 Acaranga Curne, 7. p. 255. 5 Nisitha Curni, p. 733.

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342 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Vi the studies of a considerable number of the Vedic literatures1 which were in this language. As regards the definition of Bhasa (Language or speech) this canonical work precisely explains that it is the carrier or instrument of understanding, i.e. vehicle of thought. "Se nunam bhamte mannamiti oharini bhasa". In this connection a scientific explanation of Bhasa (specch) is given here that speech is not the soul but it is other than the soul, i.e. matter. "No aya bhasa anna bhasa". It is endowed with form, is unconscious and non-living, and belongs to the beings. Bhasa, before and after the speaking times is not the speech, but when it is being spoken, it is speech, because the speech before and after the speaking times does not break forth (get transformed), but when it is being spoken, it gets transformed. "No puvvim bhasa bhasijjamani bhasa no bhasasamayavitikkamta bhasa." "No puvvim bhasa bhijjati bhasijjamani bhasa bhijjai no bhasasamaya vitikkamta bhasa bhijjati". Literature Literature is the reflection of human thoughts and ideas and the representation of education, learning and culture of the social life, made through the instrument of language and embodied in letters on the writing materials. It carries the message of knowledge and the cultural heritage of a people or a country from the distant past upto the present day. The extent of the literary works as revealed in the BhS clearly shows a great intellectual development of the people of its period and throws a welcome light upon the historical back 1 BhS, 2, 1, 90. Ib, 13, 7, 493. 2 Ib, 2, 6, 114. 4 Ib, 13, 7, 493; 1, 10, 80.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 343 ground of Indian culture and civilization froin the Vedic age up to that of this canonical work. Behind this historical background there was a considerable number of the Brahmana and Nirgrant ha literatures and other works as recorded in this canonical work. In connection with the topic 'Courses of study' it has already been mentioned that the vedic branches of education and learning consisted of the studies of the following subjects as revealed by the titles of the works, viz. the Rg, Yaju, Sama and Atharva Vedas, Itihasa-puranas (the fifth Veda), Nigghantu (the sixth Veda, Namakosa), six Vedangas, six Upangas (Sadamgovanga) work on Rahasya, Sasthitantra (Kapilya-sastra), Sankhana (arithmatic, ganitakhanda), Silckha (phonetics), Kappa (ritual), Vagarana (grammar), Nirutta (exegesis), Jotisamaya (Astronomy-Astiology) and also many other Nayas (Logic) and philosophy of the Brahmanas and Parivrajalas? This list of the Bralmana works is also found in the Aupapatiku Sutra. Here the fifth Veda is represented by the Itihasa-Purana, while the Anuyoyadvara refers to the Bharata and the Ramayana in its place. TIT The Upangas' formed the explanatory parts of the sujects discussed in the four Vedangas and the Sasthitantra was the work on the Sankhya system of thought dealing with the sixty terms or topics. I BAS, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 380, 383; 11, 12, 436. * Aupaj atika Sutra, Section-77, Anuyogadvara Sutra, Section, 41. The later Brahmanical tradition says that the Upargas were four and they consited of the Puranas, Nyaya treatises, Mimavisa works and Dharmasastras. See R. Fick, 'Social organization in Noth-East India in Buddha's time' p. 203. Vide, Dr. B. C. Law's 'India as described in the Early texts of Buddhism and Jainism'.

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344 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI According to the Uttaradhyayana Sutra and the Anuyogadvara Sutra, the Sasthitantra was an independent Sankhya treatise distinct from the Kavila (Kapila's formulation) Kanagasattari (Kanaka saptati or Sankhya-karika) and Madhara (Mathara Vitti)." The Bhs refers to the Astangum zhanimitta," various classes of the Sastras, the Kalika (Karika) Sruta," Sippus (arts, and thirty-two kinds of drama without any specific mention of their titles. Besides these literatures, there were following Jaina canonical texts, viz., fourteen Purvas, twelve Angas,' and Upangas. A detailed discussion has already been made in regard to these works in connection with the topic 'Position of the Bhs in the Arddha-Magadhi Canon' in the first section of the first chapter. SECOND SECTION. Science and Arts The BhS throws light on the development of the different branches of Science and Arts' during its period, such as, Medical Science, Biology, Physics. Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, Military Science, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music, Dance and Drama, and others. Medical Science The text gives an account of the advancement of Medical Science, anatomy of human body, physiological functions, transformation of physical and psychical matters, process of conception and growth of the embryo and the subsequent 1 Aupapatika Sulta, Sec. 76. ? Bhs, 11, 11, 428 ; 15, 1, 539.3 16, 11, 11, 428. 4 Ib, 20, 8, 678. 5 1b, 7, 9, 300. 6 16, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 18, 2, 618 ; 20, 8, 678. & 15, 16, 6, 580; 20, 8, 682; 25, 3, 732. 9 16, 25, 3, 732.

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Sec. 117. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 345 stages of development of the child after its birth, various kinds of diseases and their treatment, medicinal and surgical. From this it appears that the Medical Science advanced on two lines, viz., medicinal treatment proper and surgery. It is well-known from the Jaina, the Buddhist and the Brahmanical works that the Medical Science was studied and practised in ancient India. Ayuvveya or Tegicchaya is mentioned in the faina texts' as one of the black sciences (pavasuya) and it is said to have been invented and introduced by Dhanvantari" wlio was a specialist in the eight groups of this branch of knowledge, viz, pediatrics (Kumarabhicca), surgery and midwifery (salaga), treatment of eye, ear, nose, and throat (sallahattha), that of bodily diseases (kayatigiccha), toxicology (Jangola), demonology (bhuyavijja), science and arts of recovering lost health in old age (rasayana) and sexual rejuvenation (vajikarana or Icharatanta). The evidences of the Jain texts regarding the development of Ayurveda are fully corroborated by the Buddhist and the Brahmanical" works which give information about the study and practice of this important science in its different branches. * Thananga Sutta, 9, 678. Nisitha Curni, 15. p. 944; Cf. Milinda-Panha, p. 277 ; refer also to Ayoghara Jataka No. 510, IV. pp. 496, 498. : Vivaga, 7, 41 ; Cf. Susruta Samhita, Ch. 1-8, p. 4 f. * Cf. Milimda-panha-p. 272 ; refer to goghara Jataka (No. 510) IV. pp. 496, 498; Digha Nikaya 1. p. 12 ; 1. p. 9.: Majjhima 1, p. 265 f. See Mahaniddesa-p. 120; Milindapanha, p. 40 for the knowledge of the process of conception and gradual development of the foetus in the womb. 6 Susruta Samhita; Sutrasthana, IV, 4, 4-8 (learning from different experts). ; Caraka, Vimanasthana, 8, 4. (practical training in medicine). Sufruta Sutrasthana, Ch. 9. Training in Surgery, Sufruta, Sararasthana, 5, 49, 44

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346 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI Birth of Child The BKS throws some light on fertilization and human embryology. It explains that in one life one being becomes the father of of one or two or three issues in the minimum and of nine lakhs in the maximum. When there takes place the sexual union called 'mehunavattie' in the heated sex-orguns of the famale and the male, semen and blood combine and by this process one or two or three issues in the minimum upto nine lakhs in the maximum may be begotten. Process of Conception It is explained that a Jiva, being born and existing in the body (mother's womb) is called Kayabhavastha, the duration of which is one antur muhurta in the minimuni and twenty-four years in the maximum." The sperm in case of the human beings and the fivesensed lower animals exists for one antarmuhurta in the minimum and twelve muhurtas in the maximum, after entering the uterus.' Fertilization of Embryo Next, the text throws light upon the fertilization and gradual development of the embryo by explaining the transformation of physical and psychical matters of the child. It states that the being which is conceived in the womb may be born with the sense-organs (sairdie) and not sense-organs (animdie). "The being which is conceived in the womb is endowed with the body (saririye) and is non-bodied also (asaririye), because from the point of view of gross physical transformation and translocation of bodies, a bodiless or incorporal being is born, while from the standpoint of fiery (luminous) and karmic bodies, a bodied being is born'': Being conceived in the mother's womb it takes first the matter of mutually mixed kalusam and leilvisar from both mother's blood and father's semen." 1 BhS, 2, 5, 105. 8 Ib, 2, 5, 103, ? 16, 2, 5, 102. 4.5 16, 1, 7, 61.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 347 11 It absorbs the mother's blood (ojam) with one part of many kinds of transformed food taken by her.' There is no excrement nor urine nor spitting (or saliva) nor rheum (of nose) nor vomitting, in case of the being while it is in the womb, because it collects whatever it absorbs and transforms the same in the forms of ear, skin, bone, marrow, hair, beard, hair on the body (roma) and nails. The being, existing there absorbs abundant food by the whole body but not by the mouth and transforms it, inhales and exhales again and again, for the Matryiva-rasaharani (mother's naval string) and the Putrajivarasaharani (child's naval string) are joined together." There is also the other string bound by the putrajiva (child's being) and touched by the Matrjava (mother's being) through which the child receives and accumulates the foodmatter, The Matrangas (limbs of mother) received and possessed by the child are known to be his flesh, blood and brain, while the Pitr-angas (limbs of father) are his bone, marrow, hair, beard, and hair on the body. Position of the child in the mother's womb The child existing in the mother's womb remains like an umbrella or the side ribs of human body (gabbhagae samane uttanae va pa:illae), it is like a hump-backed (crooked) mango (ambakhajjae) and also stays standing, sitting and laying (tuyattejja).? When the mother sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy and unhappy the child also sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy and unhappy respectively.8 Birth of the child--A child is born after the complete course of pregnancy of full nine months seven and half nights and days according to the Medical Science as explained by the BhS. At the time of delivery, if it comes out straight either head or feet emerging first, it is born) is safe, but attains death if it comes crosswise, i.e. obliquely. 1.9 BKS, 1,7,61. 16 16, 1, 7,61. 79 16, 1, 7, 62.

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348 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI The united body of the mother and the father in the child lasts as long as its worldly body exists, but it comes to an end with the end of the physique of the child at last after gradual decay.1 The above evidences clearly show a highly advanced knowledge of the process of conception, gradual development of the foetus, anatomy of human body, physiological functions, and the birth of a child, as acquired by the Medical Science of that period. These principles of the conception, fertilization of human embryo and the birth of the child compare favourably well with those of the modern Medical Science. Diseases and Treatments The BhS refers to various kinds of diseases, such as, ringworm (daddu), bilious fever (pittajara), sometimes accompanied by blood dysentry', piles (amsiyao,, rheumatic (vataka), bilious (pittika) and phlegmatic (lesmika) diseases, typhoid (sannipatika)', insanity (unmada), etc. It does not throw much light upon the causes of these diseases except in one or two cases. But it is presumable that they appeared in the human body generally owing to the state of the physical and mental disequilibrium and particularly to the disturbed condition of the three most important physical elements, viz. Vayu (rheum or air), Pitta (bile or heat) and Slesma (kapha phlegm or water). - Thus it is learnt from the text that insipid, dry and cold food and drink untimely cause bilious fever with which the monk Jamali suffered, while passing his time in Sravasti, because the normal function of the physical system was disturbed by the generation of more heat from the bile on account of unsuitable and untimely diet. 1 Bhs, 1, 7, 61. 8 Ib, 9, 33, 386; 15, 1, 557. 5 Ib, 16, 3, 572. 8 Ib, 14, 2, 503. 2 Ib, 7, 6, 288. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 557. 8.7 Ib, 18, 10, 647.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 349 In the case of the mental disease Insanity', a clear idea is given about its causes and symptoms. It is said to be of two kinds, viz. Yaksavesa and Mohaniyakarma (unmada). The first one appears on account of the cause of possession of the whole body and mind by Yaksa (demi-god) and the second one occurs owing to the rise of Mohaniya Karma (faith and right-conduct obscuring Karma) in his mind. The Yaksavesa-insanity brings the state of happiness (sukhavedanataraka) and its cure also is accompanied by happiness, while the Mohaniyakarma-insanity is full of suffering (duhkhavedanataraku) and the cure or release from it is attained with pain (duhkhavimocanataraka).' Treatment The BhS clearly shows that two kinds of treatment, viz. medicinal and surgical were applied to cure diseases according to their natures and classifications on the basis of diagnosis. A reference is found in the text to the taking of medicine (osahi) mixed with food by mouth. In the case of a sudden swoon due to mental shock, the patient was brought to consciousness by sprinkling cold water on face and fanning air with a palm-leaf-fan, as it is evidenced in the case of the mother of the prince, Jamali, who swooned immediately after listening to the undesired, unpleasing, disagreeable and unheard words of request of her son for permission to undertake the state of houselessness." Surgery An evidence of the treatment of the disease 'piles' by the surgical operation is mentioned. A physician, having observed the piles of a meditating monk, hanging outside the rectum, caused him to lie down in a proper position and then operated on it.3 1 Bhs, 14, 2, 503. 2 1b, 9, 33, 384. 3 Ib, 16, 2, 572.

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350 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Diet It appears from the denotation of the word 'gilanabhatta" used in the BhS, that the patient was served with a special kind of diet in the case of his disease. [Ch. Vi The evidences of the study and practice of the Medical Science are also fully corroborated by other Jain texts. In addition, they provide information regarding the development of the different sections of this branch of knowledge in those days. Thus, they give a long list of various kinds of diseases, such as, boils (gandi), leprosy (kuttha of eighteen types), consumption (rayamsi), epilepsy (avamariya), blindness (kaniya), stiffness (jhimiya), lameness (kuniya), humpback (khujjiya), dropsy (udari), dumbness (muya), swelling (suniya), over-appetite (gilasani), trembling (vevai), disablement (pidhasappi), elephantiasis (pilivaya), diabetes (madhumeha), asthama (sasa), cough (kasa), fever (jara), inflamation (daha), intestinal colic (kucchisula), fistula (bhagandara), piles (arisa), etc.5 According to those works various causes are attributed to the appearance of diseases in the human body, such as, overeating, taking of bad food, over-sleeping, over-walking, checking calls of nature, travelling, irregularity of taking food, indulgence in sexual intercourse". 1 BhS, 9, 33, 384. Refer to Susruta-Samhita, Nidanasthana, 5, 4, 5, p. 342; Caraka Ch. 7, pp. 2069-73 for eighteen kinds of Kusta, 3 Acaranga Sutra, 6, 1, 173. Vide 'Life in Ancient India, p. 179. Cf. Vivaga Suya 1, p. 7. Refer to Jambu Su (24. p. 120) which records family disease (kularoga), village disease (gamaroga), country disease (manda roga), etc.; see Nisitha Cu. II, p. 737 f.; Jivabhigama Sutra, 3, p. 153; Mbh. III, 230, 44 ff; Cf. History of Pali literature, p. 281 * Thananga Suya, 9. 667. For all these references see 'Life in Ancient India', p. 180.

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Sec. II) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 351 As regards the medicine, treatment, diet and hospitalization, they give a detailed account on the two lines of treatment, viz. medicinal and surgical, as referred to in the Bhs. Thus, there occur references to various kinds of treatment prescribed and given by the physician on the basis of the nature of the disease, such as, rubbing with oil (abbhanga) rubbing with powder (uvvattana), oil drinks (sineha pani), vomitting (vamana), purging (vireyana), branding (avaddahana), medicated baths (avanhana), oil eneina (anuvasana), head bath (batthikamma), purging by drugs (viruha), opening vejus (siraveha), cutting (tacchana), scrapping (pacchana), bathing the head with oils (sirobatthi), nourishing the body with oils (tappana) by means of ingredients roasted on fire, by puta paka method, barks, roots, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bitters (silika), pills, drugs (08aha), etc. Besides these, a long list of other kinds of treatmentboth medicinal and surgical, as prescribed by the physicians according to the nature of diseases is provided by the different Jaina texts, e.g. the use of hairy or hairless (saloma-nilloma) skin for the old monks and nuns thus, the lying down on the skin in the case of flatulence (uddhavata) or paralysis (dhanuggaha) or of piles or severe pain or of the dislocation of foot or of the attack of wind on the whole or the part of the body of a nun, the wrapping of the affected part of the body with the skin of hyena (taraccha) in the case of her rheumatism (vata) and the lying down on a tiger-skin (divicamima) in that of dog-biting, etc. The other Jnina texts throw a welcome light upon the surgical treatment by refering to various kinds of instruments for operation and to the surgical cases treated by the surgeons. i Vivaga Suya, 1. p. 8; Vide 'Life in Ancient India.' p. 179. ? Bihatkalpa Sutra, 3, 3, 6; Bhasya, 3839.41. 9 Bihatkalpa Bhasya, 3816-18. 4 Vide, 'Life in Ancient India', p. 180. 5 Nisitha Cu, ll, p. 701. Vivaga Suya, 8, p. 48; see Vinayavastu of Mulasaravastivada, pp. 27-43.

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352 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA Ch. VI As regards the diet of the patients, there is the mention of meat and wine as prescribed by the physician in special cases of diseases. It is learnt from the other Jaina texts that there were two classes of physicians, viz. the private and state physicians whose services were indispensable in the society. In the case of the former, patients were brought to him for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and his medical advice or he was called in to the house of the patient, honoured and entertained with the present of food, valuable utensils and fees, while the latter was appointed and maintained by the king for the medical service of the royal family on a certain rate of salary. There occurs also a reference in the Nayadhammakahaok to the running of a public hospital where the patients were treated by a number of physicians and surgeons with different kinds of medicines and herbs according to the nature of their diseases. THIRD SECTION Biology The BRS reveals that a remarkable progress was made by the scholars of its age in the science of Biology, as it is known by the fact that both the plant and animal kingdoms have been dealt with in the text, though in a brief manner. Moreover, it should be observed that Ajivikism" as propounded by Gosala Mankhaliputra contains some principles of Biology, the comprehensive accounts of which are revealed in 1 Nayadhammakahao, 5, p. 80. Cf. Vivaga Suya, II. Cf. Mahavagga. VI. 10-2. ? Bihatkalpa Bhasya, p. 1910-70. 3 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, Pihika 376 ; V yavahara Bhasya, 5, 21. 4 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 1, 1910-70.5 Vyavahara Bhasya, 5, 21. 6 Nayadhammakahao, 13. p. 143. See 'Life in Ancient India' p. 179. ? BhS, 15, 1, 539,

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 353 the Digha Nikayal and Sumangalavilasinza which deal with the elements of Botany, Zoology, Geology, Anatomy, Physiology and Embryology. Botany As regards the plant life, the BhS gives a clear insight into it by explaining the different stages of its development in a few scattered statements made in course of the sermons of the Master. The life of all plants exists within the cover of seeds in a state of dormancy to be awakened at a proper time and season under the favourable conditions, though it is imperceptible to the naked human eyes. This life persists within the protective seed-coat for certain periods, resisting against all the forces of the natural phenomena. In due time and season this dormant life springs up, bursting asunder the seed-coat and begins to grow gradually into a full plant like all beings, though in its immobile state, due to the transformations within itself. It is explained that the plant also has the feeling experience of touch like all other beings as one-sensed being (ekendriya java). In a dialogue of Lord Mahavira with Gosala Mankhaliputra on the reanimation of a Tilastambaka (Sesamum plant) the Bhs sheds light on the existence of the plant life. Sir Jagadisha Chandra Bose also has proved this truth to the world by his proper scientific researches on the silent life of the plants in the nineteenth Century A.D. Germinating Capacity or visibility of different kinds of Seeds The BKS gives some knowledge of the germinating capacity of different kinds of seeds of corps. It has already been discussed in connection with the topic Agricultural operation in the first section of the fifth chapter 1 Digha-Nikaya, I, p. 53 f. 9 Sumangalavilusini, 1. p. 160 f. 8 Bhs, 15, 1, 544, 4 Plant Autographs and their Revelations' 1927, Sir J.C. Bose. 45

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354 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. VI that the germinating capacity, or viability of the cereals, such as, Sali (a kind of rice), Brihi (a kind of fine rice), Godhuma (wheat), Yava (barly), etc., if kept in a well protected granary, lasts in the minimum for one antarmuhurta and in the maximum upto three years; that of the pulses, like Kalaya, Masura (lentil), Munga, etc., for one antarmuhurta in the minimum and five years in the maximum; and that of Alusi, Kusumbhaka, Kodrava, Kangri, Sana, Sarsapa (mustard seed), Mulaga (raddish), etc., for one antarmukurta in the minimum and seven years in the maximum, if stored up according to the above process. After the specified periods their respective germinating capacities (or viability) wither away and the seeds become unseeds.? Plant life and Absorption of food by plants in different seasons In the rainy season the Vanaspati-kayika jivas (plant-bodied beings) become much absorbers of their food, but after that in the seasons of Hemanta (autumn), Vasanta (spring), and Grisma (Summer) all of them become less absorbers (sarvalpahara). In Summer many Usnayoniku beings (born in hot place) and Poggala (living organism) are born as plant-bodied beings in particular numbers and they increase and decrease (die) also in certain numbers, and they are born again ; for this reason in this season many plants endowed with leaves, flowers and fruits remain green, shining, beautiful and brilliant, having been adorned with these natural products and the wild beauty the forest.3 This account reveals the knowledge of the plant life and storage of its food for its sustenance and continuance against the clemency of the weather of the hot summer season. Absorption of food by the Plants The BhS throws some light upon the process of absorption and assimilation of food-matter by the plants by explaining thus that the roots of the plants are touched (pervaded) by the root i Bhs, 6, 7, 246. 98 16, 7, 3, 275.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 355 beings (i.e. bacteria existing in roots) which are connected with the earth-bodied beings, for that reason they absorb food-matter from the soil and assimilate it. Likewise the stems are touched (pervaded) by the stembeings and they are connected with the root beings; the seeds also are pervaded by the seed-beings and connected with the fruit beings; so they absorb and assimilate their food-matter.1 This process of absorption and assimilation of food-matter by the plants fully agrees with the law of osmosis of Botany. This theory of osmosis explains that the plant absorbs nitrogen, pliospherous, potash, etc., by its auxiliary roots (not by the tape root) from the earth in the form of liquid substance and draws it up by the root pressure to the leaf where it gets cooked with the help of the heat of sunshine. Thence it passes in a transformed condition to every part of the plant, causing it to grow and to bear flowers and fruits. Classification of Plants In the BhS the plants have been classified into three natural orders on the basis of the number of beings existing in their bodies and the span of their life, viz. Sankhyata jivita (the plant in which there are numerable beings), Asavikhyata jivita (the plant in which there are innumerable beings), and Anantajzvita (the tree in which there are infinite beings). Under the first order of this classification come the following species of Savrchyatajivita plants, viz. Tala (palmtree), Tamala (dark-barked xanthochymus pictorius), Takkali (Pimenta acris ?), Tetali (Temarind tree), upto Nalieri (cocoanut tree), while under the second one there are two kinds of plants, viz. Ekasthika (one-seeded) and Bahubijaka (many-seeded), e. g. Nimba (neem tree), Amra (mango tree), Jambu (the rose apple), etc., are stated to be one-seeded and Asthika (guava), Tinduka (Diospyros embryopteris), Dadima (Pomegranate), etc., fall under the second category of Bahubijaka." 1 Bhs, 7, 3, 276. ? 16, 8, 3, 324.

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356 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI The third natural order contains the following species of plants, viz. Aluka (a kind of ebony), Mulaka (raddish), Singavera (ginger), upto Musundhi and others like them." This analysis of the plant life and its classification on the basis of the existence of the germs of life fully corresponds to the theory of Botany about them and thus reveals the development of knowledge in this branch of learning at that period of the BhS to a considerable extent. Zoology The references to various species of animals in the text, as already discussed in connection with the topic 'Fauna' in the first section of the fifth chapter on 'Economic Conditions', reveal that the science of Zoology developed to a considerable extent during its period. Besides these, the very classification of beings on the basis of the possession of senses and sense-organs into five groups, viz. one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed beings, clearly shows the scientific progress of this branch of learning The BhS divides the animal kingdom into three natural classes from the point of view of their respective habitations, viz. terrestrial (sthalacara), acquatic jalacara), and aerial (khecara or khahayara). It mentions three processes of birth of the birds and of the other five-sensed lower animals, viz. andaja, potaja and sammur. cchima, i. e. birth from an egg, birth from a foetus (womb) which has no enveloping membrane and birth without the union of the male and female (i. e. father and mother). These evidences of the classification of animals and the processes of their births as revealed in the Bhs are corroborated by the Jivabhigama Sutra where they are explained in details. Thus it is stated that there are three kinds of yonisangraha (birth), viz.--Andaja, Potaja and Sarmurochima. i Bhs, 7, 3, 277. 3.4 16, 7, 5, 282, * I6, 33, 1, 844. $ 16, 7, 5, 282.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 357 They are again further divided into different groups thus : the Andajas and Potajas are of three classes, viz. female (stri), male (purusa) and third sex (napursaka), while the Sarmurcchimas are stated to be only the third-sex.? The Jivabhigama Sutra classifies the five-sensed lower animals into two main groups, viz. Sarimarcchima-tiryag-yonika and Garbhavyutkrantika-Pancendriya-tiryag.yonikas, i. e. lower animals born without the sexual union of the male and female and those born from the foetus. The first group is further divided into three natural categories, viz. acquatic (jalacara), terrestrial (sthalacara), and aerial (khe cara). There are stated to be five kinds of the Sunmurcchima acquatic animals viz. fish, tortoise, crocodile, allegator (goha) Susumara,and two kinds of terrestrial animals, viz. four footed terrestrial Samurcchina-five-sensed lower-animals and ParisarpaSammurchima. The first group is further classified into four Categories viz. ekakhura, dvikhura, gandipada and sanapakaya. The second group (sthalacara sarmurcchima) is divided into two classes viz. Uragaparisarpasanmurochima and Bhujagaparisar. pasanmircchima, (i.e. those animals which move on their breast and those on arms), e.g. the snakes belong to the first group, while the allegator and mongoose, etc., to the second. The five-sensed aerial lower animals are stated to be of four classes, viz, Carmapaksi, Lomapaksi, Samudgapaksi, and Vitatapaksi; the Baguli (bat) etc., belonged to the first one, Hansa (swan), Dhanka (crow), Karka (heron), etc., to the second, Samudgapaksi, (birds shaped like a round casket) to the third and Vitatapaksi (birds having extended wings) to the fourth respectively. A very scientific study of the possession of poision by some beings in one particular part of their bodies shows a 1 Jivubhigama Sutra, 3, 1, 96. 1b, 1, 33. 3 Ib, 1, 34. 4 16, 1, 35. * Ib, 1, 35. 6 Ib, 1, 36.

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358 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA (Ch. Vi stage of development of Zoology at that period of the BhS, as it is evidenced by the fact that it classifies the animals possessing poison in their teeth into four groups, viz. Vrscika-jati-ascvisa (scorpion, etc.), Manduka-jati-asivisa (frog), Uraga-jatiasivisa (snake), and Manusya-jati-asivisa (human beings). This analysis of the existence of poison in the teeth of these four classes of beings fully agrees with the result of the scientific researches of the present day about the problem of the life of poisonous animals. It is further explained that the scorpion and the frog are endowed with the power to inake the bodies equal to the sizes of the half of Bharatavarsa affected by their poison and to rend them asunder individually. And the snake and the human being possess the capacity to make the bodies equal to the sizes of Jambudvapa island and Samayaksetra (the human world) poisonous respectively. But none of them applied or applies or will apply their powers in this regard. These statements of the extent of the capacities of the four classes of beings to poison the bodies by biting require a scientific research to verify the truth lying in them. It is found from the general observation that whenever a poisonous snake bites a man, the poison immediately spreads throughout his body. Cause of the sound of a running horse The BKS throws light upon the physiological function of the body of a horse by explaining the cause of the sound of a running horse thus that there is born in between the heart and liver of this animal an air called Karbata (or Karkata) (while running) due to the presence of which the sound Khukhu' is heard." The cause of this sound requires a proper scientific research to ascertain the truth of the above statement. 1 BKS, 8, 2, 316, * 16, 10, 3, 407.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 359 359 Other Natural Sciences-Physics and Chemistry It is learnt from the BhS that Natural Sciences-Physics and Chemistry-made a remarkable progress during its period, as it is evidenced by the fact of its scientific treatment of the theory of Matter, particularly the atomic theory and Metallurgy. Here some ideas are given to show the scientific studies of the elements of Nature as made in this canonical work and to hold that they fully agree with the theories of the modern science, but these subjects will be dealt with in details later on in the chapter on Philosophy. It is explained that Matter was, is, and will be infinite and eternal in the past, the present and the future.' It was endowed with the dissimilar qualities like dryness and adhesiveness and got transformed into the states having many colours and forms by the applied and natural processes. The skandhas (aggregate of atoms), after getting worn out underwent further transformation and disintegrated into the matter of one colour and one form i. e. an atom which is indivisible. impenetrable," infinite and eternal from the point of view of substance and non-eternal from that of the modes of colour, etc.8 The text throws a sidelight also upon the theory of light by making a scientific analysis of the burning of fire of a lamp. It explains thus that a lamp, its stand, wick, oil, and cover do not burn, but fire in the wick buros. It is the well-known theory that the oil of the lamp is sucked up by capillary action caused by the heat of fire burning at the tip of the wick. In connection with the explanation of Lolasthiti (order of the Universe) this canonical text makes a scientific discussion on the action of air and water thus. Some man fiills a leather bladder with air and binds its mouth with a knot, fixes a knot in the middle of it and opens the upper knot (mouth). Then he 1.2 BhS, 14, 4, 510. 5 16, 25, 4, 740 16, 5, 7, 214. 3 16, 5, 7, 215. 6 16, 14, 4, 512.

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360 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI bleeds the air from the upper part and fills it up with water, then he opens the middle knot, after binding the mouth of the bladder. Ultimately the filled up water will rest on the uppermost portion of the air.1 All these evidences regarding the knowledge of science show that the ideas on the operations of the forces of Nature worked in the minds of the great thinkers of those days. But it is difficult to say how far those ideas were experimented in a practical scientific laboratory as they are done in modern days. FOURTH SECTION Astronomy and Mathematics. Astronomy The Bhs reveals that the science of Astronomy made a remarkable progress during its period, as it is revealed by the fact of its treatment of different directions and the solar system. Directions The text mentions ten directions with their respective names, viz. East (Indra), East-South (Agneyi), South (Yama), South-West (Naisti), West (Varuni), West-North (Vayavya), North (Soma), North-East (Aisani = isani), Upper-direction (Vimala) and Lower-Direction (Zama)." It also explains the existence and non-existence of beings and non-beings in the space of these ten directions. The Bhs3 makes mention of many suns, moons, planets and stars existing in different hemispheres of the universe and they form the Jyotiskas (luminous heavenly bodies). Thus it is enumerated that there shone, shine and will shine two suns, two moons, fifty six Nakyatras (particular stars), ' one hundred seventysix planets, one lakh and thirty-three thousand stars in the 1 Bhs, 1, 6, 54. 1b, 10, 1, 394. Ib, 9, 2, 363-4. 4 In the Vedas the Naksatras are considered as abodes of the gods or of pious persons after death. Sayana on R.V.1.50,2 Vide, Skt. Dictionary-Monier-Williams, p. 524, Col. 2.

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Sec, IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 361 Jambudvipa island, four suns, four moons, one hundred and seventy-two Naksatras, three hundred and fifty-two planets, two lakhs sixty-seven thousand and nine hundred stars in LavanaSamudra (Salt sea), twelve suns, twelve moons, three hundred thirty-six Naksatras, one thousand fifty-six planets, eight lakhs three thousund seven hundred crores of stars (taraganakodikodinan), forty-two suns, forty-two moons, one thousand one hundred and seventy-six Nalesatras, three thousand six hundred and ninety-six great planets, twelve thousand and twenty-eight (atthavisar barasa ya taha sahas sain), nine hundred fifty crores of stars in Kaloda; one hundred and forty-four suns, one hundred forty-four moons, four thousand thirty-two Naksatras, twelve thousand six hundred and seventy-two great planets, ninety-six lakhs forty-four thousand and four hundred crores of stars in Puslarardhadvipa; seventy-two suns, seventy-two moons, two thousand and sixteen Naksatras, six thousand three hundred and thirty-six great planets and forty-eight lakhs, twenty-two thousand and two hundred crores of stars in Abhyantarapuskarardha (Puskaravaradvzpardha), one hundred and thirtytwo suns, one hundred and thirty-two moons, three thousand six hundred and ninety-six Naksatras, eleven thousand ninety-six great planets and eighty-eight lakhs forty-thousand and seven hundred less by one crores of stars in Manusyaloka (human worlu). It is difficult to explain how far the numbers of the suns, the moons, the Naksatras, the planets and the stars given here are correct without the proper astronomical research studies at the present state of inowledge. But one thing is clear from the above evidences that they formed the Jyotiskas according to the Jaina texts. Solar System The Sun The sun (Sura) is called Aditya because it is the first of all the members of the solar system, such as, the moon, the planets, the Naksatras, the stars, etc., upto the unit | BhS, 9, 2, 363. See Comm. 46

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362 studies in THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VI of time, such as, samaya, avalika upto utsar pinas, avasarpinas, etc. It is the first cause of all. The Moon The moon is called Sasi for there are in its heavenly house (Mrganka-vimana) beautiful gods and goddesses, nice seat, bed, pillars and other articles, and it is also placid, lovely, charming, pleasant, good-looking and handsome. It is the conception of the celestial abode of the gods." Courses of the Sun It is explained in this canonical work that in the Jambudvipa island two suns are seen far and near (though far) at the rising and setting times due to the non-diffusion (resistance) of their light, and near and far (though near) at the moment of midday due to the cause of extreme heat of light.3 It is further stated that they are equal in altitude every. where at the above mentioned three moments. The two suns pervade' and illuminate the present space of the Universe but not its past and future spaces. They make bright the space touched by their respective rays (tejasa sprstar) but not the untouched one as a rule in the six directions. Thus they cause to shine and make hot and lustrous the present space pervaded by their rays in six directions. They shine upon a space of one hundred yojanas above, that of eighteen hundred yojanas below and that of forty-six thousand two hundred and sixty-three and more by 1/21st part yojanas horizontally.? Then it is explained that the setting sun soon comes in view from the very intervening space from which the rising sun comes. 1 Bhs, 12, 6. 455. 11, 12, 6, 454. 8 16, 8, 8, 344. 4.5 16, 8, 8, 344. Ib, 8, 8, 344. Here the touching of the space by the rays of the sun means that space where the sun rays fall, enter and pervade. 7 1b, 8, 8, 344. 8 16, 1, 6, 50.

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Sec. 1V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 363 The setting sun illuminates, causes to shine, makes hot and lustrous the space which is illuminated, etc., by the rising sun with its rays on all sides in all directions. It illuminates, causes to shine, makes hot and bright the space which is touched by its rays as a rule in six directions. Thus whatever space is touched by the rays of the sun during the touching time in all directions, may be called the touched space and the sun touches the touched space but not the untouched space in all directions.3 In these statements whatever may be the scientific truth regarding the existence of two suns etc., the thought and experience of the learned society of the scholars of that age, as revealed in the study of the course of the sun and illumination of the space of the Universe by its rays lead one to probe into the knowledge of Astronomy acquired and applied by them in the field of education. Lunar Eclipse It was the popular belief at that period that when Rahu, the heavenly demon, seized and devoured the moon, the lunar eclipse took place in the Universe. Against this popular belief of the society it is explained in the Bhs that Rahudeva is endowed with great prosperity and attributed with the following nine names :- Srngataka, Jatilaka, Ksambhaka (Ksatraka), Kharaka, Dardura, Maraka, Matsya, Kacchapa, Krsnasarpa and he is possessed of five vimanas (heavenly houses), having five colours, viz. black (Krsna), blue (nala), red (lohita), yellow (haridra) and white (sukla). When Rahu, coming or going or assuming various shapes, or enjoying sexual intercourse crosses to the west by covering the moonlight in the east, then the moon becomes visible in the east and Rahu in the west. 1,9 BIS, 1, 6, 50. * Ib, 12, 6, 453.

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364 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI When he crosses to the east by covering the moonlight in the west, then the moon shows itself in the west and he appears in the east. Like this two divisions should be known in regard to each movement of Rahu to the north and south, north-west and south-west, south-east and north-east and north-west and southwest respectively. When Rahu, coming or going etc., stays (exists) by covering the moonlight, then in this world the human beings tell thus : "Surely Rahu devours the moon and when he crosses by the side of the moon" they say, "Surely the belly of Rahu is pierced by the moon"?. When he returns by covering the moonlight, then the human beings say, "Surely the moon is vomitted by Rahu" and when he stays by covering the moonlight in the lower region and in front, they tell that the moon is captured or devoured by him. It is further explained that there are two Rahus, viz. Dhruva Rahu and Parva Rahu. The former stays by covering the fifteenth part of the moonlight by his own fifteenth part of body since the Pratipada of Krinapaksa (the first duy of the dark half of a month), e. g. the first part by his first, the second part by his second upto the fifteenth by his fifteenth part ; thus at last time the moon becomes completely covered. Again the moon becomes partly covered (rakta) and partly uncovered (virakta), unshowing and showing itself in the Suklapaksa (the bright half of the month), when Rahu stays by uncovering the first part of the moonlight by his first upto the fifteenth by his fifteenth part. At last the moonlight becomes completely uncovered (virakta) and again covered and uncovered. Parva-Rahu exists by covering the moonlight after six months in the minimum, after forty-two months in the maximum and the rays of the sun after forty-eight years in the maximum. 1.2 Bhs, 12, 6, 453.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 365 That is, this lunar eclipse takes place after six months and forty-two months in the minimum and maximuin respectively and the solar eclipse after forty-eight years in the maximum. According to Varahamihira!, Rahu resembles the shape of a snake, baying its mouth and tail divided, for the head of the demon was cut by Visnu with his Cukra as a punishment of tasting the nectar by him secretly along with the gods. He also propounds the theory that the eclipse takes place owing to the covering of the light of a luminous body by the presence of another body. In the science of Astronomy an eclipse has been defined as the interception of the light of a luminous body (the sun, the moon, etc.) by the intervention of another body between it and the eye or between the luminous body and what illuminates it. This eclipse is annual, partial and total. So there is an agreement between the theory as embodied in the Bhs and that of the modern Astronomy on the fundamental principle of eclipse that it takes place due to the interception of the light of a luminous body by the intervention of another body between it and the eye or it and the source of its light. Time (Kala) According to the Bhs time is one of the six fundamental substances of the Universe which will be discussed later in the chapter on Philosophy". There are stated to be four kinds of time as explained from the four points of view, viz. Pramanakala (standardized time), Yathayurnirorttika-kala (time when the binding of ayur. karma takes place), Maranakala (death-time), and Addhakala (time associated with Nature). Vol-X-pt. 1) i Varahamihira. Rahucara (Brhat Samhita (p. 160-161.)-3. * 16 -1 (p. 116)

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366 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA VI Pramanakala is subdivided into two classes, viz. Divasapramanakala and Ratripramanakala. The day of four praharas becomes the night of four praharas. "Cauporisie divase cauporisiya rai bhavati".! Addhakala is determined by the travelling of the sun and it is divided into many units of time, the smallest indivisible part of which is Samaya; Avalika' is the next unit of time which is formed of ihe union of innumerable Samayas ; numerable Avalikas become one Ucchvasa-kala and one Nihavasa. kala respectively, one Ucchvasa-Nihavasa (inhale and exhale) of one young, healthy, stout and diseaseless animal is called one Prana ; seven Pranas make one stoka ; seven stokas constitute one Lava ; seventy-seven Lavas are stated to form one Muhurta which is equal to forty-eight minutes and there are three thousand seven hundred and seventy-three Ucchvasus in one Muhurta as found by all men possessed of infinite knowledge. By this unit of measurement of Muhurta, one day and one night are formed of thirty Muhurtas ; fifteen days and nights make one Paksa (fort-night), two Paksas-one Masa (month); two Masas (2 months)-one Rtu (season), three Rtus (seasons)one Ayana ; two Ayanas-one Samvatsara (year); five Sarmvatsaras (years)-one Yuga (age); twenty Yugas-one Varsakata (century); ten hundred years (ten Centuries)-one Varsasahasra (one thousand years); hundred thousand years-one lakh years ; eighty-four lakhs of years-one Purvanga; and eight lakhs of Purvangas form one Purva." By this order of the measurement of Purva, Trutitanga, Trutita, Atatanga, Atata; Apapanga, A papa (Avava); Huhuyanga, Huhuya; Utpalanga, Utpala; Padmanga, Pudma ; Nalinanga, Nalina ; Acchanikuranga (Arthanupuranga), Acchanikura (Arthanu. pura); Ayutanga, Ayuta ; Prayutanga, Prayuta ; Nayutanga, Nayuta ; Culikanga, Culika; Sirsaprahelikanga and Sirsaprahelika are counted. This is the measurement of time by the process of the mathematical calculation. After this there is another method of measuring time, viz. Aupamika (measurement by comparison or analogy). i Bhs, 11, 11, 424. ? Ib, 11, 11, 426. 3 Ib, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 367 Aupamika-kala is divided into two kinds, viz. Palyopama and Sagaropama. Atom is the last indivisible unit of matter occupying : certain imperceptible point of space. One UschlaksnaSlaksnika is formed by the union of infinite atoms, eight Ucchlaksna-Slaksnika make one Slaksna-Slaksnika; eight Slakana-Slalesnikas constitute one Urdhvarenu (atom of dust or rising grain of dust), eight Urdhvarenus one Trasarenu (moving grain or atom of dust raised by wind); eight Trasarenus one Ratharenu (grain of dust raised by the movement of a chariot), eight Ratharenus-one Valagra of men of Devakuru and Uttarak ru. Thus there becomes one tuft of hair (Valagra) of men of Harivarsa and Ramyaka from the eight Valagras of men of Devakuru and Uttarakuru ; One Valagra of men of Haimavata and Airavata from the eight Valagras of men of Harivarsa and Ramyaka ; and one Valagra of men of Purvavideha from the eight Valagras of men of Haimavata and Airavata. One Liksa is made by the union of eight Valagras of men of Pirvavideha ; one Yuka (or Yuvas) by that of eight Liksas ; one Yavamadhya by that of eight Yukus (or Yuvas); and one Angula by that of eight Yavamadhyas. By the unit of measure of Angula (finger) the further calculation is made thus : Six Angulas make one Pada; twelve Angulas one Vitasti; twenty-four Angulas one Rayani (one cubit); forty-eight Angulas one Kuksi; ninety-six Angulas one Dunda or Dhanusa or Yuga or Nalika or Aksa or Musali. By this measure of Dhanusa one Krosa (gauyam) is formed by the area of two thousand Dhanusas and one Yojana by that of four Krosas. By this unit of Yojana one Palya (a storing place), being one Yojana in length, one Yojana in breadth and one Yojana in 1 BKS, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.

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368 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI depth is filled with crores of Valagras (tufts of hairs) of children of the age of one, two, three upto seven days of Devakuru and Uttarakuru to the brim in such a way that fire cannot burn those Valagras, air cannot carry them off and they cannot get destroyed and soon attain the putrid state. The time which is required to make that Palya emptied, dustless, dirtless, cleaned by removing these l'alagras (tufts of hairs) one by one at every hundredth year (i. e. after the intervening space of 100 years) is called one Palyopama and ten Kotikotis (crore x crore) of Palyopama make one Sagaropama. By the unit of Sagaropama one Susamasusamakala is formed by the total time of four Kotikatis of Sagaropama, one Susama by that of three Kotikotis of Sagaropama; one Susama-Dusama by that of two Kotikotis of Sagaropamas, and one Dusama-Susama by that of one Kotikoti less by forty two thousand years. Dusama is equal to the time of twenty-one thousand years, and Dusama-Dusama has the same quantity of time. Ten Kotikotis of Sagaropamakalas make one Avasarpini-kala and also one Utsarpini-kala and twenty Kotikotis of Sagaropamakalas form one Kalacakra (wheel of time) of Avasarpini and Utsarpini.1 The longest period of time is conceived and denominated as Pudgala-Parivarttana or Pudgala-paravarta." The BhS contains a mathematical analysis of the continuity of the past, present and future times and draws a line of demarcation between them. Thus it is explained that the future time is one Samaya more than the past time and the past time is one Samaya less than the future time. The Sarvaddha (i.e. present time) is a little more than the past time, while the past one is one Stoka less than the present time (Sarvaddha). 1 BhS, 6, 7, 247. 27b, 12, 4, 446.

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 369 T : It is two times more than a duration less by one Stoka than the future time and the future one is a little more length of time than the present one. A similar account of the measurement of time is found in the Saskhandagama' where the subject has been dealt with in great details from different aspects. In the introduction to the Saskhandagama, Vol. III, a table of the measurement of time has been given thus : Ahoratra or Divasa = 30 muhurtas = 24 hours. Muhurta = 2 nali = 48 minutes. Nali = 384 lava = 28 minutes. Lava = 7 Stoka = 37 Seconds. 539 Stoka = 7 Ucchvasa = 5 186 Seconds. Uechvasa or Prana = Sainkhyata Avalika = 2009 Seconds 3773 Avalika = Asankhyata Samaya (innumerable Samayas). Samaya is the time which is taken by an atom to go by slow movement from one part of space to the other part of space." Year, Months and Seasons According to the BhS a year consists of following twelve months, viz. Vaisakha, Jyestha, Asadha, Sravana, Bhadra, Asvina, Karttika, Margasirsa, (Agrahayana), Pausa, Magha, Phalguna and Caitra. It is divided into the following six seasons viz. Pravrt (Pausa) Rainy season (Sravanadih), Varsarattra (Aivayujadih), Sarat (Margasirsadin)Autamn, Hemanta (Maghadih) Winter, Vasanta (Caitradih) spring and Grisma (Jyesthadih) Summer." 1 Satkhandagama, Vol. IV, pp. 313-488 ; Ed. by Dr. H, L. Jain; see Introduction, pp. ii, iii; & Vol. III, introduction, pp. 33-34. ? Safkhandaguma, Vol. III, Introduction, pp. 33-34. 8 Bhs, 18, 10, 647. 4 16, 9, 33, 383. 47

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370 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI This table of the months and seasons fully agrees with that of the modern Indian months and seasons based on the calculation of Naksatras as recorded in the ancient literature of India. Day and Night The Bhs throws an important light upon the revolution of the day and night, their astronomical divisions, the causes of the longest day and shortest night and those of shortest day and longest night, Thus it is conceived here that the "Day is bright and Night is dark (Diva ujjoe raim andhayare), because in day time there is auspicious matter the transformation of which is auspicious, while at night there takes place the transformation of inauspicious matter.) Revolution of Day and Night The revolution of day and night takes place due to the travelling of the sun in its orbit. It is explained in the Bhs that in the Jambudvi pa island two suns rising in the north-east come to the east-south ; again rising in the east-south come to the west-south; rising in the southwest come to the west-north ; rising in the west-north come to the north-east. Occurrences of the day and night in the southern and northern halves of Jambudvipa and in the region to the east of Mandara mountain are treated thus : "When in the southern half of Jambudrzpa it becomes day, in its northern balf also it becomes day; when it becoines day in the northern half of Jambudvipa, then it becomes night in the east and west of Mandara mountain." When it bccomes day in the east of Mandara mountain, it becomes day also in west, when in the west it becomes day, then in Jambudvipa it becomes night to the north and south of Mandara mountain".' i Bhs, 5, 9, 224. 9 I6, 5, 1, 187. * Ib, 5, 1. 176. 4 16, 5, 1, 177. .

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 371 Whatever may be the astronomical truth behind this revolution of the day and night, it is apparently clear that the occurrences of the day and night are caused by the course of the sun in its own or bit. Division of Day and Night The text further explains the division of the whole day and night into thirty muhurtas which operate in different regions of this world according to the unit of time. Thus it is stated that when in Jumvudvi pa in the southern half there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas, then in the northern half also there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas." When in the northern half it becomes the longest day of eighteen mukurtas then in Jambudvipa it becomes the shortest night of twelve muhurtas to the east and west of Mandara mountain. There occurs the longest day of eighteen muhurtas simultaneously in the regions lying to the east and west of Mandara mountain. When it becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas to the west of Mandara mountain then it becomes the night of twelve muhurtas to the north of Mandara mountain. In both the southern and northern halves of Jambudvepa it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas simultaneously. * When in the northern half it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas, then it becomes the night of little more than twelve muhurtas to the east and west of Mandara mountain. In the eastern and western halves of Jambuduzpa there occurs the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas at the same time. When in the western hemisphere it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas, then it becomes the night of little more than twelve muhurtas to the south of Mandara mountain. By this order the length of the day and that of the night decrease and increase respectively. Thus when it becomes the day 1 BhS, 5, 1, 177.

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312 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. Vi of seventeen muhurtas, it becomes the night of thirteen mukurtas ; when it becomes the day of little less than seventeen muhurtas, it becomes the night of little more than thirteen muhurtas and so on. In the southern and northern hemispheres of Jambudvipa there occurs the shortest day of twelve muhurtas simultaneously. When in the northern hemisphere it becomes the day of twelve muhurtas, then it becomes the longest night of eighteen muhurtas to the east and west of Mandara mountain in Jambudvi pa ; when it becomes the shortest day of twelve muhurtas to the east of Mandara mountain, there becomes the longest night of eighteen muhurtas in the northern and southern hemispheres of Jambidvipa. Next, the Bhs deals with the question of different seasons and its divisions according to different regions, e. g., when in Jambudvipa in its southern hemisphere it becomes the first time of the rainy season, then in its northern hemisphere also it becomes the first time of the same season, when in the northern half the first time of the rainy season approaches, then there becomes also the first time of this season having an interval of one Samaya in the region lying to the east and west of Mandara mountain and so on." The BhS explains the rising and setting of the suns, the occurrence of day and night, the passing of time, etc., in different regions of the world, such as, Lavana.Samudra, Dhatakzkhanda, Kalodadhi, Abhyantara Puskarardha, etc., like the account of Jambudvipa. Causes of the longest day and shortest night and viceversa, and of equal day and night. The BhS explains the cause of the longest day or night and that of the shortest day or night, and also those of equal day and night in the year. There is the longest prahara of four and a half muhurtas of day or of night and the shortest prahara of three muhurtas of day or of night. "BhS, 5, 1, 177. ? 16, 5, 1, 178. 8 16, 5, 1, 179.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 373 When there becomes the longest prahara of four and a half muhurtu8 of day or of night, there takes place the shortest prahara of three mukurta8 of day or of night, getting decreased and decreased by one hundred and twenty second part of a muhurta.' When there is the shortest prahara of three mukurtas of day or of night, there becomes the longest prahara of four and a half muhurlas of day or of night, getting increased and increased by one hundred twenty second part of a muhurta. When there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas and the shortest night of twelve muhurtas, then there takes place the longest pruhara of four and a half muhurtas and the shortest prahara of three muhurtas. In the case of the night also the whole account should be known like that of the day. In the year on the Asadha Purnima day (the day of the full moon) there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas and the shortest night of twelve muhurtas while on the day of Pausa-Puraima there take place the longest night of eighteen muhurtas and the shortest day of twelve muhurtas. On the day of Caitra and Asvina-Purnimas (full moon) both the day and night become equal, having fifteen muhurtas each and there becomes the prahara of three and three-fourth muhurtas of the day and night." These evidences clearly show the remarkable development of Astronomy at that period and throw an important light upon the mathematical foundation of this branch of knowledge, a comparative discussion of which may be made with the modern Astronomy. It is a well-known fact in the Astronomical Science that there occur two Solstices, viz. Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice at about the 21st June and 22nd December respectively. At these times the sun is furthest from the equator and appears to pause before returning, BhS, 11, 11, 425. ? Ib, 11, 11, 425.

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374 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI At the time of Equinox the sun crosses the Equator and thus the day and night become equal on the 20th March (Vernal equinox) and September 22nd or 23rd (Autumnal equinox). The comparative study of the causes of the longest day and shortest night, of the longest night and shortest day, and of the equal day and night at those specific times clearly reveals the scientific basis of the analysis of these subjects. The evidences of the study of Astronomy as revealed in the Bhs are fully corroborated by the Suriyapannatti' and the Camdapannatti:-- the fifth and the seventh Upangas of the Jain canonical literature in which this subject is dealt with in details. As regards the development of Astrology as already mentioned in connection with the topic "Courses of study' in the first section of this chapter, the testimony of the Bhs is well supported by the three texts, viz. Vivahapadala, Jonipahuda, and Cudamaniwhich treat of this branch of knowledge elaborately. Mathematics The Bhs clearly shows that Mathematics (Sarkhana) was one of the important branches of learning and it attained a remarkable stage of development, as it is evidenced by the calculation of numerals from one upto crore?; Yugmas,8 Mahayugmas, etc., and of the measurement of time and space" from one Samaya upto one Sirsaprahelika, and from one atom upto one yojana respectively. The reference to the following figures (sansthana), viz. Parimandala (round), Vitta (circular), Tryasra (triangular), Caturasra (square), Ayata (oblong), Anitthanstha (other than these five) throws a welcome light upon the advancement of Geometry along with Mathe. matics during that period. i Suriyapannatti. ? Candapannatti. 8 Nisitha Curni, 12, p. 854. 4 Brahatkalpa-Bhasya, 1, 1303, o Ib, 1, 1313; Vide 'Life in Ancient India', p. 177. & Bhs, 2, 1, 90. 1 Ib, 11, 11, 430. & 10, 25, 4, 734. 91b, 35, 1. 10 I6, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.11.13 16, 6, 7, 247.

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Sec. V] 375 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The evidence regarding the progress of this branch of learning is also corroborated by other Jaina texts in which it is stated that 'Ganiya' (arithmetic) was one of the seventy two arts and one of the four topics of discourse (anuyoga). There is also the reference in the Thananga3 to ten kinds of science of numbers, viz. parikamma (fundamental operation), vavahara (subject of treatment), rajju ("rope" meaning Geometry), rasi ("heap" meaning measurement of solid bodies), Kalasavanna (fractions), Javam tavam ("as may as", meaning simple equations), vagga ("square" meaning quadratic equation), ghana ("cube" meaning cubic equation), vaggavagga (liquidratic equation), and vikappa (permutation and combination).. FIFTH SECTION Military Science It appears from the BhS that Military Science, particularly the science of archery, the art of mechanised fighting and the strategy of war planned by military experts reached a remarkable stage of development. Archery The archer held the bow, took the position, drew the arrow upto his ear and discharged the arrow with full strength at the target.' 1 Avasyaka Curni, p. 156. 2 Dasa Curni, p. 2. 3 Thananga Sutra, 10, 747. Refer to the Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society, Vol. XXI, p. 115 ff. (1929), "The Jaina school of Mathematics,' Bibhutibhusana Datta; Indian Historical Quarterly, 1931, 'A short chronology of Indian Astronomy', Sukumar Ranjan Das; 'Introduction to Ganitatilaka' (G. O. S. No. LXXVIII)-L. R. Kapadia; Annals of the Bhandarkar Institute, 1926-7, pp. 145 ff.-D. M. Roy: See also 'Life in Ancient India' p. 178, f.n. 36. 4 BhS, 7, 9, 303,

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376 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Hunting' in the second section of the fifth chapter on 'Economic Conditions' that the hunter earned his livelihood by killing deer in forests and other places.1 Art of War The text presents a graphic account of the art of war, together with alliances, plans, stratagem, diplomacy, and new war-engines, while depicting a vivid picture of the two devastating wars, viz. Mahasilakantaka Sammgrama and Rathamusala Sangrama. It is learnt from the text that in these two long drawn contests, military alliances and total mobilization of all forces were made by both the states, Magadha and Vaisali, according to some war plans designed by very skilful military technical experts.* It is stated in the Nirayavaliya Sutta3 that king Cetaka arrayed his army in the waggon-formation (sagadavuha), while king Kunika-Ajatasatru formed the eagle-array (garudaviha) of his army in the battle field. References are also made in some other Jain texts' to cakka, danda and sucivuha as the names of battle array formed by the army. As regards plans and designs of war, the Arthusastra" has discussed various battle-formations and tactics of fighting in great details. The plan of protracted war and siege of enemy's fort was another feature of the military science of that period. 1 BhS, 1, 8, 67. Nirayavaliya Sutta-1. p. 28, See Arthasastra-pp. 403f. Manu VIII, 187f; MahabharataVI, 58; 75; Refer to 'The Art of War in Ancient India' p. 72ff.-Date. See 'Life in Ancient India,' p. 78. 49f. Ovaiya Sutta-40, p. 186; Panha 3, p. 44. Arthasastra 376, pp. 403ff. (Book X, Ch. VI). 4 2 Ib, 7, 9, 300.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 377 It is already known from the second section of the third chapter that the war between Magadha and Vaisali continued for more than sixteen years. The Avasyaka-Curnil provides informations that the city of Vaisali was besieged by king Kunika for a long period. It appears that strategy and diplomacy also played a great part in the warfare of that time. It is learnt from the Buddhist work that Vassakara, the prime minister of king Kunika-Ajatasatru, was entrusted with the secret mission of sowing seeds of dissension among the Vaisalians. His diplomatic effort was crowned with success after three years, when the unity of those people was totally lost due to their mutual distrust and quarrelling caused by his machination and the king of Magadha dealt a deadly blow at Vaisali.' The Avakyaka Curnis also furnishes the evidences that the hermit Kulavalaya was charged by king Kunika-Ajatasatru with the task to cause the citizens of Vaisali to demolish the mound erected by this state for its defence so that he might win an easy victory over king Cetaka. The evidences provided by the BhS and the Avasyaka Curni show that fort (Dugga)" was constructed by the belligerent powers for the defensive and offensive warfare of that time. Arms Victory in war depends to a considerable extent on the effective latest weapons and their proper use by well-trained soldiers. The terms Ayudha and Praharana'' occuring in the BhS denote non-throwing and throwing weapons respectively. The Bhs provides a list of various kinds of arms used in the two devastating wars Mahasilalantaka and Rathamusala and 1 Avasyaka Carni-II. p. 173. Dighanikaya (Maha parinirvana Suttanta). * Avasyaka Cirni--11. p. 174. * BIS, 3, 2, 141. 35 I6,7,9, 300, 48

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378 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 1. VI on other occasions, such as, amoghavana, bow and arrow (dhanu & usu), club (or stick), sword (asi), lance (kunta),' mace (musala), big iron-rod-like weapons, big stone catapult (Mahasilakantaka)," a mace fitted to the chariot (Rathamusala), impregnable armour (abhedyakavacar vajrapratirupakar),' and coat of mail (sanna. ddhabaddha vammiyakavae),' and other equipments, such as, flag, (cimdhaddhaya padaga) marked with discus or disc (cakra), umbrella (chattar), etc. Flags, trumpets and drums etc., as the marks of distinctions of different contending parties infused a fighting spirit and instilled courage and morale into the hearts of the soldiers belonging to both the warring camps, so they fought with undaunted courage to keep up the honour of their respective flags but tried to cut off and capture those of their rival force with arrows. If the banner of one party was lost, the war was also lost to it, because the victory was inter-related with the honour of this war insignia representing the state. The introduction and use of two war engines called Mahasilakaataka and Rathamusala by king Kunika-Ajatasatru in the two great wars against the confederate army of Vaisali, Kasi, Kosala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis clearly show the invention of most effective mechanized weapons at that period. In the Mahasilakantakasangramao some mechanism was probably devised to throw musket ball of stone which caused great atrocities and destructions in the camp of the confederate army. Bhs, 7, 9, 300. : Ib, 9, 33, 85. 3 16, 7, 9, 301. + 16, 7, 9, 300. 5 Ib, 7,9, 300, 6 16, 7, 9, 300. ? 16, 7, 9, 300-303. 8 16, 7, 9, 300. 16, 7, 9, 300. This reminds one of the Sataghni of the Ramayana. Mahasila is a kind of weapon (a sataghni with iron nails)-Monier-Williams : Sanskrit Dictionary. See also Harivamsa-II, 42. 21 ; II 39, 75.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 379 He, whoever, whether horse or elephant or soldier or charioteer was killed, knew (or thought) "I am killed by Mahasila (large stone)". That is why it was called Mahasila kantaka Sangrama. While in the Rathamusala Sangrama one chariot, having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier but having a club (or mace) ran to all directions, causing destruction of a large number of peoples, chieftains, etc., and making mud of blood (in the battle field).' These two devastating wars were immortalized by the association of the names of these two weapons like the atomic warfare of the second great war of global magnitude in which two atom bombs were dropped by the American Air Force on Hirosima and Nagasiki, the two island cities of Japan in 1945. The introduction of these two new engines as mentioned in the BhS shows the unique importance attached to weapons in the history of warfare of ancient India, though they were not widely known, as there was no mention of such weapons anywhere else in the ancient world. The reference to these two war-engines reveals that they were a surprise to the confederate army of Vaisali which was winning in the first phase of the war. They were invented by the engineering genius of 'Military Science' of Magadha. Probably they remained as secrets of the military art of that state and died a natural death for further use in future war, as the useless destructive thing did not survive, while the useful always did in the evolution of human civilization. Several Jaina texts also provide the following list of different kinds of arms used in the wars of ancient India, viz. muggara (Indian club or mace), musundh3 (octagonal club), karakaya (saw), satti (spear), hala (plough), gada (mace or heavy 1 Bhs, 7, 9, 301. 2 Panhavagarana. pp. 17a, 44. etc. 8 Musundi is also referred to in the Mahabharata-II. 70, 34.

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380 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VI club), musala (pestle), cakla (discus), Kunta (lance), tomara (javelin), sula (trident-spit), lauda (light club), bhindipala (a small javelin thrown from the hand) savvala (an iron spear), paffisa (battle axe), cammettha (stone covered with leather), duhana (hatchet), mutthiya (dagger), asikhe daga (sword with a shield), khagga (sword), capa (bow), naraca (iron-tipped arrow), kanaka (arrow), kappini (a kind of scissors), vasi (adze), parasu (axe)' and sayagghi, magical missiles, viz. nagabana, tamasabana, paumabana, and vahnibanabesides flags, drums and trumpets. Four types of drums of Kanhavasudeva are mentioned in the Brhatkal pa-Bhasya, viz. Komudika', Sanganiya, Dubbhuiya, Asivopasaminzo and Sannahiya. 1 Panhavagarana-pp. 17a, 44 ; Uttaradhyayana 19, 51, 55, 58, 61 f; Ref. to Abhidhanacinta mani 3.446 451 ; Arthasastra, p. 110 f.; Ramayana, III. 22. 20 ff; See Prsalkur, BhasaA study' Ch. XVI, p. 414; Mehta-p. 13. 1. p. 171.; Date, G. T.-The Art of war in Ancient India ; Oppert Gustav, Weapons and Armoury Organisation, See the Allahabada Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta for the reference to a few arms. ? Uttaradhyayana-918; Ramayana (1,6.11); Arthasastra p. 110, according to which it is a huge pillar having numerous sharp points on the surface of its body and set up on the top of a fort wall. See also the Mahabharata --III, (29) 24; Hopkins-J.A.O.S., Vol. 13 p. 300, says Sataghni which was adorned with bulls and shining and hollow was flung and split to pieces by arrows like a sword or a spear. Jovabhigama Sutra-3, p. 152 f; Jambu Sutra Tika-24. p. 124 a ; also refer to the Ramayana_1.27. 50. 4 Mahabharata-1.251, 28. Kaumudi which was referred to as a mace of Krsqa, had the destructive powers of slaying every daitya (demon). 6 Pithika - 356. Asjvopa samini could banish the diseases for six months by its beating. & Naya--16. p. 190. See also Mahabharata, 1. 244. 38. Krisna mobilised his forces by beating this drum to march against king Padmanabha.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 381 SIXTH SECTION Fine Arts Architecture The BLS provides a good deal of information regarding the development of Architecture' which included the planning and founding of cities, towns and villages, the erection of buildings of different types, palaces, council halls, forts, gateways, decorative designs, selection of sites, examination of the soil, preparation of building materials with proper selection, and laying out the foundation and the like. Carpentry, wood carving, stone masonry, etc., were also associated with the art of house-building. In connection with the topic 'Houses' it has already been pointed out in the seventh section of the fourth chapter that 'Architecture' as one of the branches of Fine Arts was highly developed and patronized by the kings and nobles of that period. The evidences of the architectural development as revealed in this canonical work are fully corroborated by those of other Jaina texts which refer to Vatthuvijja (art of house building) as one of the important arts studied and cultivated by the Vatthupadhagas." There an architect (vaddhai) was regarded as one of the fourteen Jewels'. It is stated that in the case of constructing a new building in a city a proper examination of the land and its levelling were made before digging the earth and laying the foundation on a well pressed ground; then it was erected by the mason with the building materials, such as, bricks, rings, (undiyao) cast on different places, etc. The text throws some light upon the construction of buildings, walls, etc., by making incidental references to 1 Avasyaka Curni, II, p. 177. * Jambi Sutra, 3, 55, p. 229. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J.C.Jain, p. 187. : Brhatkalpa Bhasya Pithika 331 3; also Cf. Digha Nikaya-1, p. 9; Milindapanha, pp. 331. 345.

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382 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VI Slesanabandha and Samuccaya-bandha'. The first one is caused by the flaccid substances like those of peak (kuta), floor inlaid with jewel (manibhumika), pillar (stambha), palace (prasada), etc., with lime, mud, hard-besmearing (vajralepa), lacs, wax, gum and other flaccid substances. The second one is that binding which is made by the collection of the same materials in the cases of the construction of well, tanks, temples, council houses, stupas, walls, buildings, gates, doors, palaces, sheltering houses, shops, market, esplanade, crossway of roads, etc." The Rajaprasniya Sutra(r) gives some ideas about the architectural development of its period by describing the different parts of the Vimana of Suryabhadeva. This building was surrounded by a rampart (pagara), embellished with beautiful cornices (kavisisaga). Its gates (dara) with cupola (thubhiya) were adorned with the images of wolf (ihamigal, bull (usabha) horse with a man's head, crocodile (magara), bird, oinaga), serpent (vaingan), kennara (a mythical being having a human body and a head of a horse), deer (rurx) sarabha (a species of wild animals), yak (camara', Elephant (lufjara), creeper (vanalaya) and lotus creeper. Their capitals (veiya) were beautified with the figure of a pair of the vidyadharas (a kind of supernatural being possessed of magical powers); the doors were fitted with landings (nimma), pedestal (paitthana), pillars (Khambha), thresholds (eluya), bolts (indakila), door-posts (ceda), lintels (uttaranga), small door bolts (suz), joints (sandhi), sockets (samuggayal, wooden cross bolt pin (aggala), sockets for wooden pin (aggalapasaya), hinges (avattana. pedhiya), and left wings (uttarapasaga). Besides, there is the mention of closely fitted heavy doors, (nirantariyaghanakavada), having globular bases (bhittiguliya) and cushions (gomanasiya) in their panels (bhitti). The doors were adorned with the carved figures of salabhanjika: in various sportive postures and were provided with pinnacles (kula), elevation (usseha), the tops (ulloya), lattices (bhoma), pinions ? 16, 8, 9, 347. 1 BhS, 8, 9, 347. 9 Rajaprafniya Sutra, 97f.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 383 (paklcha), pinion supports (pakkhabaha), cross beams (vamsa), ribbings (varsakavelluya), panels (pattiya), thatches (ohalani), and thatches under the ribbings (uvari pufchani).' The other Jaina works also throw a good deal of light upon the architectural technique and its development." Sculpture The study of the references to some images of the Goddesses, Sri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi, and Laksmi, which were presented by king Bala to his newly married daughters-inlaw as marrige gifts clearly shows that Sculpture was a branch of learning and was patronized by the kings and the nobles. Art of Painting The art of painting also was highly developed, as is evidenced by the fact of the mention of a costly painted curtain, decorated with many devotional pictures and figures of beasts, birds and creepers. Moreover, the reference to the painting of pictures and exhibiting them by Markha Mankhali and his son Gosala Munkhaliputra, for earning their livelihood throws more light upon the cultivation of this art of painting during the period of the Bhs. The evidences of the art of sculpture and painting as revealed in the Bhs are also found in other Jaina texts in great details. As regards the cultivation of the art of sculpture there are references to the wooden figure of the sage Varattaka, made and worshipped by his son," images of plaster (puttha), ivory (danta), i Rajaprasniya Sutra, 97 f. ; Nayadhammakahao, 1, p. 3 f; Brhat. K. Bhasya Pithika, 582 ff. Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 4 10, 11, 11, 428. 6 16, 15, 1, 540. & Nayadhammakahao, VIII, 78, p. 106 ; Brhat Kalpa Bhasya, 1. 2429 ; Ava. Cu, II, p. 165; Nayadhammakahao, 8, p. 95. ? Vyavahara Bhasya, 2, 11.

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384 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI and stone isela),' a golden image of Malli,' a mechanical image vantapadima) of a human beings and mechanical elephant." The art of painting as mentioned in the other Jain texts appears to have made a great progress, as is evidenced by the fact that one of the painters referred to in the Nayadhammakahao could sketch the complete figure of bipeds (dupaya), quadrupeds (caupaya) and footless (apaya) beings, even having seen only a part of their bodies. The objects of painting were trees, mountains, rivers, seas, houses, creepers, beasts and birds, etc. Music, Dance and Drama The Bhs reveals that the art of music, dance and drama was well developed and it formed an integral part of education and culture of the society. It was greatly cultivated and patronized by the kings? and princess who not only enjoyed themselves music, dance and drama, but entertained the general people with the performance of these arts made by courtesans and other artists at the public gatherings on auspicious occasions, such as, the celebrations of birth and marriage, etc. There are references to both vocalo and instrumental music, dance and thirty-two kinds of dramalo staged by the best actors and actresses. In the wider sense the art of music contains four subjects, viz. singing (giya), dancing (natta), playing on instruments (vadita), and dramatic performance (peccha). ! Bihatkalpa-Bhasya, 1, 2469. ! Nayadhammakahao, 8, p. 95. 3 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 4, 4915. 4 Ava. Curni, II, p. 161. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 187. o Nayadhamakaho, VIII, 78, p. 106. 6 BIhat Kalpa Bhasya, 1. 2429. ? Bhs, 1, 11, 429, 430. 8 1b, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 431. 1b, 9, 33, 383. 10 I6, 11, 11, 429 ; 11, 11, 430,

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 385 In connection with the topic Amusement' in the eighth section of the fourth chapter, it has already been pointed out that the dance-dramas were performed generally by the actresses, highly accomplished in the art of music, dance and dramatic skill, at the palace and public theatre hall for the social entertainment of the people. Vocal music was accompained by the playing of musical instruments, such as Mrdanga and Vina, etc. In relation to the instrumental music (vadita) the BhS. provides a list of instruments, viz. sankha (conch). singa (horn), laghu sankha (small conch), kharamukhi (kahala), poya (large kharamukhi), paripiriya (khuvai) panava (bhanda pataha) pataha (dhola, a kind of drum), bambha (nagara) horambha (rudhigamaya, a kind of drum), bheri (mahadhakka, large drum), jhallari, dundubhi (a kind of drum), tayani (tatani, a kind of stringed instrument), vitatani (a stretched musical instrument), ghanani (concussion instrument), jhusira (wind instrument)', mrdanga (drum), vina (a stringed instrument), and vams (flute).' The sublimation of the art of singing and dancing was made by the Ajivikas for creating probably a devotional feeling towards their religion, as is evidenced by the fact that there is the mention of Gitamarga and Nrtyamarga, as the two spiritual paths of Ajivikism. Moreover, Gosala Mankhaliputra himself sang and danced before his death by pronouncing thus, "play the vina O little man."5" These evidences clearly show that the art of music, dance and drama occupied an important place in the educational and social life of the people of that period. A similar account of the art of music, dance and drama as presented in this canonical work is also found in other Jaina texts. * 1 Bhs, 5, 4, 185. Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429, 3 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 15, 1, 555. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 555. 5 Ib, 15, 1, 55. 6 Anuyogadvara Sutra, 127; Sthanaiga Sutra, 7,553; JivaTika. 3. p. 193; Cf. Anu. Cu, p. 175; also refer to Saranga. deva's Sangita-Ratnakara, Ch. 1, etc. 49

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386 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VI In addition they throw a good deal of light upon the origin of the musical notes, the performance of different types of dance and the staging of the religious drama. Thus it is recorded in the Anuyogudrara Sutra that there are seven musical notes (supta svaras), viz. sadja, rsabha, gandhara, madhyama, panicama, raivat (dhairat) and nisada, Sajje risahe gandhare, majjhime pamcame sare revae (uhevae) ceva nesae sara satta viahia" (i. e. sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni)]. The seven places of origin of these notes (Saratthana) are given as follows : sadja is made by the tip of tongue, rsabha by the breast, gandhara by the throat, madhyama by the middle of the tongue, paricama by the nostril, dhaivata by the tooth and lip and nisada by bhruksepavastamabha (bhamuhakkheva) by contracting eyebrows. These seven notes are described as resembling respectively the notes of peacock, duck, goat, cuckoo, curlew or heron and elephant." Seven musical instruments, such as, Mrdanga, etc., also give rise to these seven notes. As regards the resemblance of gabha' there is a difference of opinion about the explanation found in the ancient works of India that it sounds the note of bull (vrsabha). Besides these, the Anuyogadrara Sitra further explains the theory of music by permutation and combination of different notes with reference to three musical scales (gamas) twentyone murochanas (modulation or melody or the rise and fall of sound) and forty-nine tanas (tones): There is the mention of thirty-two kinds of dance-drama, the first of which was performed with the playing of orchestral music representing the eight symbols, viz. svastika, srivatsa. nandiyavatta, varddkamanaka bhadrasana, kalaka, mataya and 1-3 Anuyogadvara Sutra, 127.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 387 darpana, while the last one represented all the stages of the life of Lord Mahavira. Conclusion Thus it is clearly known from the BhS that the system of education was both academic and vocational. It was so organized as to furnish the learners with proficiency in the general as well as special knowledge, and also in the doctrinal knowledge. So it included in its courses of studies the following subjects, viz. Itihasa (History), Vyakarana (Grammar), Chanda (Metre), Nirukta (Exegesis), Sankhana (Arithmetic), Jyotisa (Astronomy and Astrology), and the like in order to achieve the first objective and it imparted education in the Medical Science, Military Science, and Art of Warfare, Fine Arts, etc., to attain the second one, while the study of the Vedas and the other religious and philosophical treatises provided knowledge of their doctrines and spiritualism, Each of the religious orders of that period was a travelling school of thought which introduced the rules of conduct and mental training based on its ideals and imparted education to its followers in the subjects of religion and philosophy. The method of teaching the principles of knowledge and truth by discussion to the people was a remarkable characteristic of the educational and cultural activities of those days. In conclusion the preachings of the doctrines of truth, the social and moral elevation of men and women, the development of the spoken language, science and arts and the democratization of learning were the distinguished features of the educational system as revealed in the BhS.

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SEVENTH CHAPTER Various leaders of thought, their philosophies & religious systems mentioned and described in the Bhs. FIRST SECTION. Sramana-Nirgrantha-Dharma The objectives of human life are Dharma (virtue), Artha (wealth or material possession), Kama (pleasure or gratification of desires) and Moksa (spiritual liberation). In a real sense they can be reduced to two objectives, viz. Kama and Moksa (pleasure and spiritual liberation), because Artha (wealth) is the means of Kama (pleasure) for its gratification, while Dharma (virtue) is the way to Moksa (liberation). These aims of life distinguish two types of men, viz. extroverts and introverts--the first one looks to the pleasure of the physical world, while the second looks into the inside of the world for searching out something tangible in life and nature. So Kama (pleasure) which is the gratification of desires creates new desires, but Dharma (virtue) is a means to achieve the goal of human life, i. e. liberation (Moksa) from all bondages. From this point of view philosophy is religion. So religion constitutes a sphere of individual and collective existences in which human activities are devoted to the two-fold pursuits, viz. Dharma (virtue) and Moksa (liberation), i. e. perfection of conduct and perfection of personality, as the auspicious and pure conduct is guided by the auspicious and pure thoughtactivity. Human mind searches out something universal which can be attained only by supersensuous consciousness. It is this su persensuous consciousness which reigos supreme as the reali. zing vision of the universal reality as the subject-matter of religion. The reaction of human mind to such a reality absorbs his whole self-entity with a feeling of devotion for the personal deity and intellectual faith in the divine universal reality and

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 389 finally pure emotion, cognition and conation. The aim of religion is self-realization of the universal and absolutely Real embodying the highest qualities re-oriented into the ultimate objective values--truth (satyam), goodness (sivan) and bliss (santi) Obiect of worship & meditation in Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma According to the doctrine of Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma as embodied in the BhS, soul (atma;' is the ultimate object of worship, meditation and spiritual realization. It is also revealed in the Samayasara' that soul (Jiva) which rests on right conduct, self-awareness and knowledge is the real self. "Jivo cauittadamsanananatthido tam hi sa samayam jano". The self which has realized its oneness is the beautiful ideal in the whole Universe. "Eyattanicchaya gado samao savvattha sumdaro loge''s. To know this ultimate reality there should be right attitude of mind (Samyagdysti) and absence of wrong attitude of mind (mithyadrsti) about the self. Again this Samyaktva consists of sanvega (desire for liberation), nirveda (disregard of worldly objects), anukampa (compassion or sympathetic feeling), while mithyatva contains in it viparyaya (preversicn), ekanta (exclusive. ness), sansaya (doubt) and ajnana (wrong knowledge). The following statement throws a welcome light upon the conception of Sramana Nirgrantha religion. Desire for liberation (samvega), disregard of worldly objects (nirveda), attendance upon preceptor and co-religionists (guru. sahammiya-8u88usana), self-analysis and self-confession of all faults committed (aloyana), self-blame (nimdanaya), self-censure (garahana), forgiveness (khamavana), assistance to the scriptural study (suyasahayata), observance of vows (such as, renunciation of anger, etc.) (viu samanaya=vyavasamanata), absence of obstruction (unimpededness) in thought (bhave appadibaddhaya), 2 Samayasara, Gatha 1, 2, p. 2. i Bhs. 2, 1, 92. 8 Ib, Gatha 1, 3, p. 3.

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390 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SuTRA Ch. VII desisting from the not-self-control, i.e. sinful acts (vinivattanaya =vinivarttanata), indifference to comfortable and discomfortable beds in a lonely place, use of bel and seat free from woman, worm, etc. (vivittasayanasanasevanaya), control of all senses (soirdiya-jara phasimdiya-samvara), vows of renunciation of activities (i.e. harmful and voilent activities, yogapaccakkhana), renunciation of body (sarirapaccakkhani), that of passion (i.e. anger upto greed) (kasaya-paccalckhani), that of sensual enjoyment (sambhoga paccakkhana), that of articles (uvahi paccakkhana) and that of food (bhattapaccakkhana), pardon (khama), detachment (virajaya), (i.e. absence of love and hatred), truth in thought (bhavasacca) and truth in activities (jogasacca), i.e. truth in mental, vocal and physical activities, truth in doing (karanasacca) the act of complete control of mind, speech and body (manasamannahuruniya upto lcayasamnnaharanaya), cornplete renunciation of anger, pride, deceitfulness, greed and other eighteen kinds of sinful deeds upto wrong attitude of mind (kohavivega-java-micchadamsanasallavivega', attainment of knowledge (nanasam pannaya), that of self-awareness or intuition (dansanasampannaya) and that of conduct (carittasampannaya), forbearance of pain (vedani-ahiya. sanaya) (i.e. pain of hunger, etc., twenty-two parisahas) and that of the last part of death (maranamtiya-ahiyas anaya)-all these ultimately lead to perfection (i.e. liberation). There are two aspects of this Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma, viz. Agara-Dharma or Sravaka-Dhurma and Anayara. Dharma (religion of the house-holders and that of the houseless monks) which are based on the conditions of the individuals. Accordingly there are two broad divisions of the followers of this religion, viz. Sravakas and Sramanas (lay worshipers and ascetics) who are classified into four varnas on the basis of sex, namely, Sravakas and Sravika8 (the male and female lay worshippers) and Sramanas and Sramanis (the monks and nuns).' The Bhs throws important light upon Anagara-Dharma (monasticism), causes of renunciation of the world by individual Bhs., 17, 3, 601, : Ib, 16, 6, 580.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 391 householders, practice of austerities, studies, meditation, religious vows, duties and rules, Sramana-Sangha, ideals of the Nirgranthus, their classification and that of the Sanyatas (selfcontrolled) and Agara-Dharma (religion of the householders). Anagara-Dharma The introverts in the human society realize the truth of the futility and transitoriness of this worldly life and its material enjoyments which ensnare men with their temporary charms at the outset but lead them to miseries in the end. Their ioner urge inspires and guides them to follow the path of monasticism by renouncing the worll for the realization of the highest truth and knowledge and for the attainment of spiritual liberation-the ultimate goal of life. This truth was realized by the introvert prince Jamali, who expressed his feelings of non-attachment towards life thus : "Human life is aggrieved by many births, old age, death, disease, pliysical and mental desires, suffering, danger, crime. hundred misfortunes and calamities ; it is uncertain, non-permanent, non-eternal. Like the evening colour of the sky, the water bubble, it is inconstant and unfixed having the nature of disso. lution, fall and destruction ; before or later this life will certainly be abandoned". "Human body is the house of suffering, the standing bones like the woods enveloped by veins, etc. it is the house of oldness, flesh (lead body), having the character of decay and fall ; soon or late, it will be given up". "Human sensual gratifications of desires are impure, noneternal like the discharge er flow of vomitting always condemned by the saints and Arhats, the causes of infinite worldly bondages accompanied by unlimitted sufferings and hindrances to the attainment of liberation." "Wealths, such as, gold, bell-metal, etc., are consumed by the fire, thief, king, death and sons and are thus commion to them ; (they are) non-eternal; soon or late they will be abandoned.'' 1 BIS, 9, 33, 384,

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392 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII This represents the whole attitude of the introverts towards the mundane world of materialism. They reveal the Sramanic outlook on life on which detachment to the world (vitaragata) is based and thus they arouse a feeling of non-attachment towards life. In one word they are the basis of the Sramanic philosophy. The pessimistic attitude towards the world has been shared almost by all systems of Indian philosophy and its intense mani. festation is expressed in Sankchya-Yoga and Buddhism. The four noble truths (catvari Arya-Satyani), "Life is full of suffering, there is a cause of this suffering. it is possible to stop suffering and there is a path which leads to the cessation of suffering" formed the basis of Buddhism (Duhkha, duhkhasamudaya, duh kha-nirodha f duhkhanirodha-marga). What appear as pleasures are fraught with pain, "birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, grief, wish, despair, in short all that is born of attachment is misery".? Like Buddhism, Sankhya and Yoga embody the principle 'all experience is sorrowful' ; Tamas is the representation of the pain-substance. As it exists in all combinations in some degree, all intellectual operations are fraught with some amount of painful experience. Even the state of temporary pleasure is accompanied by sorrow at the previous moment of its solicitation and at the time of its enjoyment lest it may be lost. So the amount of sorrow is thus much more than that of pleasures which only strengthen the holds of sorrow.S Rajas' is also the cause of all painful experiences of life, being itself of the nature of pain (duhkha)". 1 Digha-Nikaya Sutta-22 (Warren-p. 368). ? A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, p. 75-76, Dr. S, N. Dasgupta. 3 Tativavaisaradi and Yoga Varttika-II, 15; & Tattvakaumudi. Vide History of Indian Philosophy Dr. S. N. Dasgupta, p. 264. 4 Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 301, Dr. Datta & Chatterjee,

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 393 In contrast with Jainism, Buddhism and Samkhya-Yoga, the Vedic religion shows optimism and preaches the doctrine of the realization of life through the enjoyment, as it is explained that sacrifice leads to happiness 1 This is the fundamental difference existing among the three main systems of religion, Jainism, Buddhism and Vedic religion in regard to their approach and attitude towards the mundane life and the world. Preparatory Ceremony for initiation to Monkhood and Asceticism The Bhs presents a graphic account of the preparatory ceremony for initiation to monkhood and asceticism of the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks coming from different sections of the society, from the royal families down to the common social stratum and other religious sects, by making reference to the cases of prince Jamali, king Udayina and princess Jayanti, Ksabbadatta and Devananda, Skandaka (a Parivrajaka) and others. A description of such ceremony has already been given in the topic 'Bath' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter by citting the case of prince Jamali's initiation ceremony. After the performance of consecration a great procession organized by his father followed his departure from his palace at Ksatriya.. kundagrama to the Bahubalaka Caitya for his initiation to be conducted by Lord Mahavira there. His parents, having placed him in front, approached the Master and addressed him by circumambulating thrice thus : "Our only son like waterlily... (being) frightened by the fear of the world...desires to undertake the initiation of houselessness... thus we offer this one as alms of Devanupriya...please accept...the highest alms as disciple (Sisab hilkhari). Then Lord Mahavira said to Tamali thus: "As you please, no objection". Initiation Then the prince, being pleased with this consent of the Master saluted him thrice and himself took off all his decorations, 1 History of Indian Philosophy, p. 20-21, 50

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII garlands and ornaments; having gone to the north-eastern quarter. His mother received them in a piece of pure cloth and advised him, shedding tears thus: "Son, self-control should be practised, passion should be conquered, exertion should be made", with these words the parents of prince Jamali retired to their palace. Then the prince, having pulled out five handfuls of tuft of his hair approached Lord Mahavira and got initiated by the Master (pavvaio), together with his five hundred followers. He studied eleven Angas and practised various acts of austerities and meditations.1 394 A similar account of the preparatory ceremony, initiation and taking to ascetic life is presented in the case of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira In the cases of other householders like Rsabhadatta and Sudarsana', the Parivrajaka Skandaka" and others, a simple ceremony of initiation was observed by the act of pulling out five handfuls of tuft of hair and it was followed by the formal initiation. In this connection it is to be noted that a special attention was paid by the Master in regard to the initiation of women to asceticism, as it is evidenced in the undertakings of the state of houselessness by Devananda' and Jayanti.8 Ascetic Life The BhS presents a vivid picture of ascetic life as observed by the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks by making references to the acts of austerities practised by Skandaka and others. A Nirgrantha monk stays like a snake with its concentrated sight (buddhi intellect) or like a razor with absolute sharpness, by chewing the words of the Nirgrantha teachings hard as ironbarley and tasteless as particles of sand." Practice of Asceticism The Bh presents a graphic account of the practice of 1 BhS, 9, 33, 385. . 4 Ib, 11, 11, 432. 7 Ib, 9, 33, 382. 2 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 5 Ib, 2, 1, 92. 8 Ib, 12, 2, 443. Ib, 9, 13, 382. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 418. 9 Ib, 9, 33, 384,

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 395 asceticism as revealed in the performance of various acts of austerities and meditation by Skandaka' and other monks." It is stated that the Universe (Loka) is burnt by (the fire of) old age and death. "Alitte nam bhamte loe jaramaranena ya." Here in the Skandaka Uddesaka it is clearly revealed that soul is the only object of worship and meditation according to Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma. Thus Skandaka, the Parivrajaka said to Lord Mahavira "As some householder, having his house on fire, steps down into the burning house and tries to save the precious and light articles from it, because that article will be beneficial to him in future, just like that my soul is a kind of article dear.........highly valued ornament box". So it must first be saved by him before any mishap happens to it, lest it is affected by cold, heat, etc., upto misfortune. If his soul was saved it would be beneficial......good in his future life. So, on his express desire Lord Mahavira himself initiated him to Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma and instructed him in its practice, (or performance, i e. acara), begging tour (gocara=bhiksatanam), discipline (vinaya), result of discipline (vainayika = vinayaphala), vows (carana), purity of meal (karma = pindavisuddhyadi), practice of self-control (yatra=sanyama), measure of food to be taken (matra), practice or mode of moral conduct (urttika = vinas yadinam vsttih varttanam yatrasa u) and religion (dharma)." Then Skandaka observed carefulness in going (walking), standing, sitting, lying down, taking food, speaking, exertion, protecting beings by self-control according to the instructions of the Master. Thus he became a houseless monk careful in walking (iryasamita), speech (bhasasamita), taking meal (esanasamita), receiving, possessing and putting limited articles (adanabhanda-matra-niksepana-samita), passing stool, urine, spit, phlegm of nose, etc. (uccarapasavanakhela.simghana -jalla-parittlavaniyasamie), self-restrained in mind (manasamita), speech (vaksamita) ; I6, 9, 33, 382. 3 16, 2, 1, 90. .1 Bhs. 2, 1, 91-96. 4 Ib, 2, 1, 92.

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396 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII and body (i.e. physical activity) (kayasamita), self-controlled in senses (indriya) and continence (brahmacarya), renouncer (tyagi ca), straight-minded like rope, attainer of religion (dhamma), forgiving in nature (khamtikhama), conqueror of senses (jitendriya), pure (sodhita), desireless (aniyane)-less curious (appussue), introvert (abahilesse), well-devoted to Sramanahood (susamannarae) and controller of anger, etc., (damta). He passed time by holding the Nirgrantha teaching (Niggamtham pavayanam purao kaum viharati) before him as ideal and studying eleven Angas in the presence of other Sthaviras of the Master. Next, he practised the following acts of austerities with the permission of Lord Mahavira in succession. He performed the vow of Bhiksupratima (Bhikkhupadima, a kind of vow) of one month, of two months (domasiyam), of three months (temasiyam) of four months (caummasiyam), of five months, of six months and of seven months (pamca-chasattamasiyam) by taking food at proper time according to rule, observing, awakening (paleti), purifying or making his soul auspicious, having taken the remains of food given by his Guru (religious teacher) on the day of conclusion of his fast, crossing the time of vow and staying a little while, (tireti), fulfilling completely the (pureti), announcing (kitteti) its completion on the paranaka day and practising thus the complete vow (anupaleti) by physical action (kayena) according to the Srutas ahasuttam), pratimakal pa (vow ahakappa), the path of knowledge, conduct, etc., i.e. liberation (ahamaggam), Bhiksupratima or real truth (ahataccam) and equanimity of mental state (ahasammam). VOW = After this he observed the vows of Astami (padhamam sattaraimdiyam). of Navami (doccam sattaraimdiyam), and of Dasami (taccam sattaraim diyam) by taking the fourth meal (caturthabhaktena) and that of Ekadasi (ahoraimdiyam) and lastly that of Ekaratriki by taking or enjoying the sixth (sasthabhaktam) and eighth (astama) meals respectively. Next, he practised the acts of Gunaratna Samvatsara tapas (austerities) with the permission of Lord Mahavira in the following manner.

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391 Sec. ij STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In the first month he performed this austerity by observing the vow of continuous fast of one day by one day, i.e. alternate day (cautthan-cautthenan), sitting upon his hands in the day time at the meditating place (ata panabhumi), where the sunrays fell and facing the scorching sun. In the night he practised it, sitting in the virasana posture (a kind of yogasana) without putting on any piece of cloth. In this way this austerity was performed by him in the second month with the observance of two consecutive fasts, i. e. two days' fast (chathan.charthenar), in the third month with three-three (atthamari-althamenan), in the fourth month with four-four (dasaman-dasamenan), in the fifth month with five-five (varasamaria-varasamenam), in the sixth-month with six-six (coddasamar.coddasamenam), in the seventh month with seven-seven (solasamarin-8olasamenam), in the eighth month with eight-eight (attharasamari-attharasamenar), in the ninth month with nine-nine (vzsatiman-visatimenan), in the tenth month with ten-ten (bavi. samam bavisamenar), in the eleventh month with eleven-eleven (cauvvisatiman.cauvvisatimena), in the twelfth month with twelve-twelve (chavvisatimar-chavvisatimenari), in the thirteenth month with thirteen-thirteen (atthavisatimam-atthavisatimenam), in the fourteenth month with fourteen-fourteen (tigaimantisaimenar), in the fifteenth month with fifteen-fifteen (battisatimam-battisatimenam), and in the sixteenth month with the observance of sixteen-sixteen fasts (cottisai man-cottisaimenan). In the performance of this Gunaratnasamvatsara austerity total period of thirteen months and seventeen days is taken for the observance of the vow of fasting and that of seventy-three days for Paranaka (day of conclusion of fast). Thus after having practised this act of austerity, Skandaka performed various penances by observing many continuous fasts, such as, two, three, four, five, etc., and by meditation on his soul.1 1 Bhs, 2c 1, 93.

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398 . STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII It is permissible to Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma that when the physical condition does not allow a monk to practise religion any more he should give up his body voluntarily by Samlekhana tapa (austerity of renouncing the body), i. e, scratching out the body to save his soul. As a result of his performance of acts of severe austerities the body of Skandaka became dry, rough and reduced to a skeleton, but it got transformed into a high elevated, noble, illustrious and great physique endowed with spiritual power (tapateja) acquired by penance. He walked and sat by the help of the inner strength of his soul (atmasakti), but he stopped and felt tired, while delivering religious discourse. So he thought it wise to give up his perishable body by the Samlekhana tapa with the permission of his Guru, Lord Mahavira. Accordingly, he, having taken five great vows and begged pardon of the Sramanas and Sramanis, slowly climbed up the Vipula mountain along with the other fellow-inonks (KytayoginSthaviras) and cleansed the black stone of cloud colour, the place of passing excrement and urine, then spread the layer of the Durbha grass and sat there in the Padmasana position (lotus-likesitting pose) facing the east. Then having folded his both hands and touched his head by making anjali (pose of salutation), he said thus: "Salutation to Arhats and Lords...... Lord Mahavira. I, being seated here, worship, and salute Lord Mahavira who is seated there." "In the past in the presence of Lord Mahavira all acts of killing upto perverted attitude of mind (i.e. eighteen sinful acts) were given up by me for the whole life." "The rules (know. ledge of matter as the matter is), do like that, but do not do the opposite to that", were also taken up by me to observe for the whole life." Now again, "I accept all the rules in the presence of Lord Mabavira, and give up food and drink, etc., for the whole life. I renounce my desired beautiful and charming dear body which is not capable of giving me trouble at the last moment of life." 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 94.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 399 Having observed the austerity of Samlekhana of one month by giving up food and drink, he began to purify his soul by meditation in an immobile state like a tree without wishing death. He studied eleven Angas in the presence of the other Sthaviras and observed sramanahood for full twelve years. After making self-analysis and self-confession and repentance for his past faults in their presence, he embraced death by renouncing his body in Samadhi state (abstract meditation), Thus this account of the practice of asceticism by Skandaka presents a vivid picture of the ascetic life of the Nirgrantha Inonks at that period. SECOND SECTION Religious Vows and Austerities In addition to the religious vows and acts of austerities practised by Skandaka, the BhS makes mention of worship, various kinds of vows, external and internal austerities and rules prescribed by the Nirgrantha order for the Jain Sravakas and Sramanas for the attainment of their spiritual realization. They are discussed below. Aradhana (worship) . Worship is one of the most essential factors for spiritual realization and liberation which can be attained jointly by right knowledge (jgana) right attitude of mind (darsana) and moral conduct (caritra). Knowledge is the revealer of truth, austerity is the purifier of soul and self-control is the restrainer of mind, speech and body. 8 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 95. 3 Ib, 8, 10, 355. 31b, 8, 10, 354 (comm.). The worship and the vows Silavrata to Jagarika are also observed by the householders,

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400 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII According to the BKS there are prescribed three kinds of Aradlana (worship), viz. Jtanaradhana (worship by knowledge), Darsanaradhana (worship by right attitude of mind), and Caritra. radhana (worship by conduct), i. e. samayileadi niraticarata by the observance of five great vows and five Samitis. Vows -Silavrata It is the vow of virtue, a moral conduct, i. e, five anuvratas non-violence, truth, non-stealing, continence and non-possession. Gunavrata It is the vow of secondary importance consisting of digvrata, etc. These with the five anuvratas and four siksa-padas make twelve duties of the laymen devoted to the Nirgrantha religion (Mula-gunavratani). Pausadha It is the custom of observing festival days (parvadinopavasanam). There appear to be two kinds of Pausadhas, the first one was observed on the fortnightly days (pakkhiya) by enjoying abundant food and drink, while the second one was observed by giving up jewel, gold, garland, etc., being alone, spreading the bed of darbha grass and observing the fortnightly vow as Brahmacarin, as it is evidenced in the case of Sankha who observed the second one in bis Pausadhasala, while his fellow Sramanopas akas performed the first one, having enjoyed abundant food and drink." Jagarika It is the vow of keeping awake by one's religious thought. Buddhajagarika is the wakefulness of the enlightened (kevalin). Abuddhajagarika is the wakefulness of the chadmastha (unliberated) houseless monk and Sudakkhujagarika is that of a Sramanopasaka, having right attitude of mind. Those who are Arhats, Lords and bearers of manifest knowledge and intuition upto omniscient, omniseer and enlightened perform Buddhajagarika. Those who 1 Bh8, 8, 5, 328 ; 11, 9, 417 ; 11, 12, 435. ; [b, 12, 1, 438,

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 401 are the houseless monks, Lords, careful in walking, speech upto Gupta-Brahmacarin (self-controlled) and are not enlightened, observe the religious vow of awaking of the Abuddha (Chadmastha) in absence of Kevalajana (omniscience). Those who are the Sramanopasakas, knowers of Jivajiva (being and non-being), observe the vow of awaking (Sudukkhujagarika) by religious thought and giving up negligence (or spiritual inertia) and sleep. Besides these, the unflinching faith in and devotion to the truth of teachings of Guru (religious teacher), and those of the Jinas' and their practices by disciple and his reversion from the other opinions (i. e. non-predilection for others' teachings) formed the part of worship.' Vyavahara" It is a particular knowledge consequent upon exertion towards the spiritual realization and cessation from the worldly acts of striving after the material gain and it is also exertion made for spiritual realization.* There are stated five kinds of Vyavahara, viz. (1) Agama (Purvas, Angas, etc.), (2) Sutta (Sutra-literature), (3) Ana (ajna), the rules prescribed by the Acarya, (4) Dharana-purification of faults according to their respective corresponding injunctions of purification from the point of view of substance, space, time and condition and (5) Jita-expiation prescribed according to the physical power of the monk from the same aspects of substance upto condition, having taken them into consideration. "Agame, Sue Ana, Dharana, Jie." One should practise the Law according to the instruction of any one of these five Vyavaharas whichever of them is available (i.e. known) to him there, whatever his Agama, Sutra, Ajna, Dharana and Jita may be. Pratisenvana (Enjoyment of prohibited things or entertaining of anti-religious feelings) 1 BhS, 1, 3, 30. Ib, 1, 3, 31. Ib, 8, 8, 340. 51 4 Ib, (comm.).

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402 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII There are stated to be ten kinds of Pratisevanas which should be given up by a monk for the attainment of his spiritual progress, viz. Darpa (pride or conceit), Pramada (spiritual inertia or negligence), Anabhoga (wrong attention), Atura (suffering or sickness in body and mind or from hunger and thirst etc.), A padi (misfortune), Sankirna (mental confusion), Sahasakara (suddenness or unexpectedness), Bhaya (fear), and Pradvesa (hatred or jealousy). Faults Similarly there are ten kinds of faults of confession which should be corrected and given up by the monks for the practice of religion, viz. faults of akampya (a confession after pleasing the preceptor in advance by service), confession of anumanya (by observing light punishment in anticipation of preceptor's approval), Yaddrsta (confession of what has been exposed to the preceptor), of badaram (confession of the gross transgressions), of Siksmam (confession of some select minor transgressions in order to conceal other major and minor ones), of channa (confession in secrecy), of sabdakulam (confession aloud within the hearing of the unexperienced monks), of bahujana (confession of the same transgression before more than one preceptors), avyakta (confession before an unexperienced preceptor), and of tatsevz (confession of a transgression before a monk who is himself guilty of the same fault. The houseless monk endowed with the following ten qualities is worthy to discuss his own faults and to make self-analysis, viz. (if) he is of good birth (or caste) and family and endowed with moral training, knowledge, right attitude of mind, conduct, patience, restraint, guilelessness and nonrepentance after self-analysis of guilt. And also the houseless monk who is practiser of rules of conduct, i.e. virtuous (acaravan), holder of the vow with promise not to do again the self-analysed guilts (adharavan), practiser of five Vyavaharas, viz. Agama, Sruta, Ajna, Dharana and Jita as already mentioned, unashamed to conceal the faults (apavridaka), able to purify himself by

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA atonement after self-analysis of faults (pratikurvaka), non-teller of or discloser of the discussed faults to others (aparisravi), performer of partial atonement (niryapaka) (if unable to perform at a time) and visualizer of the future destruction or calamity or the next world (Avayadarsi). Samacari (Customary practice) The BS, mentions ten kinds of Samacari (customary practice of the monks), viz (1) Iccha (desire or inclination), (2) Mithya (perversion of right attitude), (3) Tathakara (blind following, as yes man), (4) Avasyaki (religious duty), (5) Naisadhika (renunciation of sinful deeds or prohibitive conduct or practice), (6) Aprechana (asking question in the work), (7) Pratiprechana (reasking question about the previous prohibited work), (8) Chandana (request for meal accepted in the past), (9) Nimantrana (invitation to food), and (10) Upasampacca (Kala) the act of entering or joining the order of monks (Buddhas) coming to the other Acarya for attaining knowledge. 403 Expiation (Prayascitta) There are prescribed ten kinds of expiation for the purification of oneself who has committed sinful deeds so that he may attain the state of equanimity and mental peace and progress in his path of spiritualism. They are as follows:(1) Alocana (expiation by confession, discussion and self analysis of sinful act committed), (2) Pratikramana (retracing from sinful deed and repentance), (3) Tadubhaya (the acts of both discussion and self-analysis and retracing from the sinful act and repentance), (4) Viveka (giving up impure food, etc.), (5) Vyutsarga (complete detachment from the body), (6) Tapah (the act of austerity), (7) Cheda (reduction of monastic seniority), (8) Mula (complete re-initiation) (9) Anavasthapya (a kind of hard expiation for the serious crime committed by a person who cannot be initiated again) and (10) Parancika (the expiation which demands suspension of monkhood).' 1 Bhs, 25,7,801.

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404 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VII Austerity (Tapah) There are stated two kinds of austerity, viz. external (bahirika) and internal (abhyantarilca), which are again divided and subdivided into different kinds. External Austerity External austerity is divided into six kinds, viz. (1) Anasana (fasting), (2) Avamodarika (general reduction of food, articles, passion, etc.), (3) Bhiksacarya (begging of alms), (4) Rasatyaja (abstension from drink, liquor, ghee, etc.), (5) Kayallesa (physical mortification or suffering) and (6) Pratisamlinata (complete retirement to a lonely place for the sake of meditation and mortification of flesh), or control of senses, passions, activities and non-enjoyment of seat, bed, etc.). According to the Tattvartha Sutra: the external austerity consists of Anasana (fasting), Avamodarya (general reduction of food, etc.), Vrittiparisankhyana (limit of various articles of food and drink), Rasaparityaga (abstention from drinks, etc.), Viviktasayanasana (indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed in a lonely place) and Kayaklesa (mortification of flesh). The difference between the two definitions lies in the fact that the Tattvarthasutra prescribes Vitti-parisankhyana and Vivikta ayanasana in place of Bhiksacarya and Pratisanlinata respectively of the Bhs. In the definition of the latter Viviktasayanasanasevanata (indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed in a lonely place) is one of the four kinds of Pratisanlinata. Anasana It is stated to be of two kinds, viz. Itvarika (short lived or temporary) and Yavatkathika (lifelong till death). Itvarila Anasina is again divided into the following categories, viz. caturthabhakta, sasthabhalta, upto six-monthly fast's, as already explained in the previous section in connection with the practice of asceticism by Skandaka. 1 BhS, 25,7,802. 2 Tattvartha Sutra, 9, 19.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Yavatkathika Anasana is of two kinds, viz. Padapopagamana (observance of fast by sitting like a tree) and Bhaktapratyakhyana (observance of fast by giving up food up-to death). The Padapopagamana fast is stated to be of two kinds, viz. Niharima and Aniharima, as explained in the eighth section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions'. Avamodarika It is a kind of austerity which enjoins upon the monks to reduce their articles, food and evil passions etc., for spiritual progress. There are stated to be two kinds of Avamodarika tapah, viz. Dravyavamodarika (taking of less articles, food, etc.), and Bhavavamodarika (less passion, less evil thought, etc.). The first one is sub-divided into two groups, viz. Upakaranadravya vamodarika (taking of less articles) and Bhaktapanadravyavamodarika (taking of less food and drink). The austerity practised by the acceptance of one cloth, one pot and enjoyment of articles that are discarded and rejected by others is called U pakaranadravyavamodarika, while that which is called Bhaktapanadravyavamodarika is observed by taking less food and drink, e. g. a morsel of food equal to the size of th part of an egg of hen upto 1/32 part of an egg.1 Bhavavamodarika austerity is of many kinds, such as, reduction of anger (alpa-krodha), reduction of greed (alpa-lobha), less talk and the like. 405 Bhiksacarya There are stated to be many kinds of Bhiksacarya (the practice of begging alms under restriction) in respect of the article (Dravyabhigraha-caraka), the place of origin (Ksetrabhigraha-caraka), time (Kalabhigraha-caraka) and mental & physical conditions of the alms given (Bhavabhigraha-caraka), etc. Rasaparityaga There are stated to be many kinds of austerity of giving up dainties, such as, abstension from nirvikrtika (delicious) and 1 BhS, 7, 1, 269.

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406 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII pranita (rich) food prepared with ghee, ayanbila, ayamasitthabhoga, arasahara, virasahara, antahara, pantahara, ruksahara, etc. Kayaklesa Tapah Kayakleia-tapah is a self-torturing asceticism which involves many kinds of physical sufferings for the concentration of mind, as it is thought that the attachment to the body is the bar to the purification of soul by meditation and attainment of spiritual realization. It consists in different kinds of postures, such as, sthanasthitikasanika (kayotsarga=standing position), utkutukasanika, pratimasthayi, virasana, naisadhikah, lakutasanika, etc. It is difficult to explain all these physical postures taken by the monks in the practice of their austerities and meditation without proper practical training in this yogic process. Pratisamlinata tapah Pratisamlinata tapah is the austerity known as control or restraint of senses, passions, activities and enjoyments of bed and seat (indriyapratisarlinata, kasayasarlinata, yogasamlinata, viviktasayanasanasevanata). These four kinds of pratisamlinata are further divided into different groups according to their respective numbers. The control of senses is stated to be of five kinds, viz. control of the sense of hearing the desired and undesired sounds, sense of smell, sense of taste, and the sense of touch. The control of passion is of four kinds, viz. control of the rise of anger or the suppression of the risen anger and similar control of the other three, viz. pride, deceit and greed. The control of activities is divided into three groups, viz. control of mental, vocal and physical activities. They are again sub-divided into different kinds, e.g. the control of mental activity is threefold, viz, control of inauspicious activity of mind, the rise of auspicious activity of mind and the act of concentrating mind. Similarly the control of vocal activity is of three kinds like those of manasarlinata. Kayasamlinata is a kind of control of physical activity which is practised by one having his hands

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Sec. II) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 407 and feet well composed and contracted like a tortoise, i.e. control of body and sense-organs. Viviktasayanasanasevanata It is the practice of austerity, having indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed and seat in a lonly place. Internal Austerity Internal austerity is divided into six categories, viz. prayascitta (expiation), vinaya (moral training or discipline), vaiyavrtya (service), svadhyaya (study), dhyana (meditation) and vyutsarga (complete renunciation). Prayascitta It is the expiation of sin committed by anyone for his internal purification so that he may progress in the path of spiritualism. The ten kinds of expiation have already been discussed in this section. Vinaya It is the moral training or discipline in regard to knowledge, right attitude of mind, conduct, activity and general behaviour, attendance or service, etc. There are stated to be seven kinds of Vinaya viz. Jhanavinaya (discipline in knowledge) Darsanavinaya (moral discipline or training in right attitude of mind to truth), Caritravinaya (discipline in conduct), Manavinaya (mental discipline), Vagvinaya (discipline in speech), Kayavinaya (physical discipline), and Lokopacaravinaya (moral training or discipline in regard to the behaviour of the people). These seven kinds of Vinaya (discipline) are further classified into different divisions according to their respective numbers. Thus Jhanavinaya is prescribed to be of five kinds, viz. Abhinibodhikajnanavinaya, Srutajatanavinaya, Avadhijnangvinaya, Manah paryayajnanavinaya and Kevalajnanavinaya. Darsanavinaya is divided into two categories, viz. Susrusanavinaya (moral dicipline in attendance or service) and Anatya. satanavinaya (discipline in reverence). There are many kinds

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408 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII of Suarusanavinaya, such as, abhyutthana (getting up from seat), asanapradana (offering of seats), satkara (hospitality with presents), etc. Anatyasatanavinaya is prescribed to be of different kinds, such as, non-repudiation of religion (Dharma explained by Arhats), of Acaryas, Upadhyayas, Sthaviras, cominunity, assembly (Gana), clergical community (Sanghu), action (kriya), equal enjoyment or mutual acceptance of fruits or gifts of religion of co-religionists, etc. Caritravinaya It is the moral discipline in conduct which is of vital importance in the acts of austerity to attain spiritual realization. It is of five kinds, viz. (1) Samayika-caritravinaya, Chedopasthapaniyacaritravinaya, pariharavisuddhika-caritravinaya, Suksma-samparayacaritravinaya and Yathakhyata-caritra-vinaya, i. e. (1) equanimity by giving up all harmful activities, (2) reinitiation after lapse from monastic duties or confirmation (upasanpada)after a period of apprenticeship (pravrajjya), (3) special purification by means of specific kinds of austerities and services to one's preceptor, (4) a spiritual state in which all the passions are suppressed excepting a subtle form of greed and (5) perfect conduct where no kind of passion can ever arise. Manavinaya (mental discipline) There are stated to be two kinds of Manavinaya, viz. prasasta-manavinaya (auspicious mental discipline) and aprasastamanavinaya (inauspicious mental discipline). They are also further sub-divided into different groups according to the forces of virtue and vice operating in one-self. Thus the prasastamanavinaya is classified into seven divisions, viz. apapakam (sinless), asavadyam (uncensurable or angerless), akriyam (actionless), nirupakramam (free from the cause of misery without the act of killing, etc.), anasravakaram (not causing pain to any one, or free from asrava), aksa pikaram (blameless or not lazy) and abhutabhisankanam (not alarmed about the evil spirit). Aprasastamanavinaya is prescribed to be of seven kinds which are opposite

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 409 to the first one, viz. papakam (sinful) upto bhutabhisarkanam (alarmed about the evil spirit). Vagvinaya (moral discipline of speech or vocal discipline) It is also divided into two main categories, viz. prasasta (auspicious) and aprasasta (inauspicious) vagvinayas, which are sub-divided into seven groups like Manavinaya. Kayavinaya (discipline in behaviour done through the body or physical discipline) It is also classified into two groups like Manavinaya and Vagrinaya, viz. prasasta and aprasasta. Auspicious physical discipline is prescribed to be of seven kinds, viz. careful in going, careful in standing, sitting, stretching out limbs, crossing, recrossing, and controlled activity of all senses. Ina uspicious physical discipline is also stated to be of seven kinds which are opposite to the auspicious ones. Lokopacaravinaya (discipline in general behaviour) It is of seven kinds, viz. abhyas avarttitvam (tutelage under preceptors), paracchandanuvarttitvam (obedience to teachers). karyahetum facilitating means and ways for preceptor's functions), krta pratikrtata (gratefulness), arttagavesanata (nursing of diseased monks), desakalajsiata (performance of duties according to the conditions of time and place), and sarvarthesu-a pratilomata (sympathetic attitude in all functions). Vaiyavrtya (moral discipline in service or attendance) It is of ten kinds, viz. services to Acaryas, Upadhyayas, Sthaviras, ascetics, patients, disciples, the family of monks, the community or assembly of monks, order, and fellow-monks respectively. Svadhyaya (study) It is divided into five groups, viz. vacana (recitation), prati prcchana (question), paravarttana (repetition of the studied 52

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII subject), anupreksa (deliberation on the subject of study) and dharmakatha (religious discourse). 410 Dhyana (meditation) It is divided into four categories according to different stages of human thought, viz. Arttadhyana (concentration of mind on account of anguish; in moments of deep sorrow and anger mind fixes itself temporarily on the objects of such passions; these have been recognised as kinds of inauspicious meditations), Raudradhyana (concentration consequent upon anger and rath), Dharmadhyana (meditation on religious thoughts) and Sukladhyana (pure meditation). These four kinds of meditation are further divided and sub-divided into different groups. Arttadhyana This kind of meditation is achieved when a man is in utter anguish on account of his association with an undesirable object or his being deprived of the desirable one. It is accordingly of four kinds, viz. (1) Meditation accompanied by the association with the undesirable (Amanoja-samprayogasamprayukta) and a sustained desire for getting rid of it (Viprayaga-smrti-samanvagata); (2) Meditation accompanied by the association with the desirable (Manoja-samprayogasamprayukta) and a sustained desire for not being deprived of it (Aviprayoga-smrti-samanvagata); (3) Meditation accompanied by a sense of fear, disease, etc. (Atanka-samprayoga-samprayukta) and a constant desire for getting rid of it (Viprayogasmrti-samanvagata); and (4) Meditation accompanied by the memory of past enjoyments (Pariyusita-kamabhoga samprayukta) and an ardent desire for not getting rid of the memory (Aviprayogasmrti-samanvagata). The following are the characteristics of these dhyanas-bewailing, a sense of poverty, weeping, and affliction. Raudradhyana It is of four kinds, viz. Himsanubandhin (meditation consequent upon violent thought), Mrsanubandhin (that which is connected with falsehood), Steyanubandhin (meditation connected

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Sec. 1 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 411 with stealing) and Samraksanubandhin (that which is connected with the protection of one's possession). This Raudradhyana is endowed with four characteristics, viz. (1) utsannadosa (unhindered sinful activity and possession), (2) bahudoga (multiplicity of sin), (3) ajsa nadosa (perversion, i. e. misguided activity, and (4) maranantikadosa (lifelong sinning), Dharmadhyana There are stated to be four kin Is of Dharmadhyana (meditation on religious thoughts) viz. Ajftavicaya (thought on the holy scripture), (2) Apayavicaya (avayavijaya = thought on the bad results of attachment and hatred), (3) Vipalcavicaya thoughts on the fruits of karmns) and (4) Sansthanavicaya (thoughts on coufiguration of the Universe). Dharmadhyana bears four characteristics viz. (1) ajnaruci (faith in the holy scripture), (2) nisargaruci (faith in truth or reality), (3) sutraruci (faith born of scriptural study) and (4) avagadharuci (faith born of a critical appreciation of the scripture). This ineditation is endowed with four alambana: (repetition of prayer), viz. vacana (recitation), (2) prati pracchana (asking of questions again and again), (3) paravarttana (repeatition of the studied subjects and (4) dharmakatha (religious talk). Besides these, there are four anupreksas (deliberations) of Dharmadhyana, viz. ekatvanu preksa (deliberation on oneness), (2) anityanupreksa (deliberation on transitoriness), (3) asarananupreksii (deliberation on shelter lessness) and (4) sarasaranupreksa (deliberation on the world). Sukladhyana (Pure meditation) It is of four kinds of four pratyavatara (disembarkation), viz. (1) p?thakatva-vitarka-savacara (meditation with analysis, judgement, of many debates or dissensions), (2) ekatva-vitarka-avicara (meditation without judgement of a single discussion), (3) suksmakriyaanivartta (meditation with desirelessness in the suttle acts of mind, speech and body), i.e. not inclined to the subtlest mental,

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412 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. VII vocal and physical acts and (4) Suminucchinna-riya.aprapti pati (meditation having completely cut off all ties of action by the self-controlled activities of mind, speech, and body). Sukladhyana is endowed with four characteristics, viz. ksanti (forgiveness), mukti (non-attachment), arjara (straightforwardness or simplicity), and mardava (freedom from pride), and it has also four alambanas (objects of meditation), viz, avyatha (freedom from fear), asammoha (110n-delusion), viveka (distinction between soul and body) and vyutsarga (renunciation of body). In addition to these, there are also four anupreksas (deliberations), viz. (1) anantavrttitanu preksa, (2) viparinamanu preksa, (3) asubhanu preksa and (4) apayanupreksa, i.e. deliberations (i) on the eternity of worldly existence, (ii) on the incessant transformation of things, (iii) on inauspiciousness of the world and (iv) on the evils of violence and the like. Vyutsarga' (complete renunciation) It is divided into two categories, viz. Dravya-vyutsarga (renunciation of physical objects), etc., and Bhavaryutsarga (renunciation of mental states and objects). They are subdivided into different groups according to different objects of renunciation. Dravyavyutsarga is stated to be of four kinds, viz. renunciation of Gana (society), of body, of articles, and of food and drink. While Bhavavyutsarga is classified into three divisions, viz. renunciation of four passions (anger upto greed), of the four forms of life (human, hellish, divine and brutal), and of eight karma-prakrtis (knowledge obscuring larma upto energy. hindering karma). THIRD SECTION Religious rules for the Sramana-Nirgrantha Monks and Nuns The BhS lays down some rules for the Nirgrantha monks and nuns to be observed by them in their daily life. 1. BhS, 25, 7, 803.

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Sec. III) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 413 The first criterion of all the rules is endurance of the following twenty-two parisahu(for bearances) because they are correlated with Karma-prakrtis which bind the soul by covering its inherent state of perfection. They are as follows:- Hunger (ksudha), thirst (pipasa), cold (sita), leat (usna), flies (damsa), mosquitos (masaka), clothlessness (acelu), dislike (arati) (mohaniyajo manavikarah), woman (stri, i. e. liking for woman's society), walking or staying (carya, i. e. the monk must not stay in one place for long), the most unpleasant spot (naisidhiki-svadbyaya. bhunim-sunyagarali-r@pa-tat parisahanam), bed (bagga, i. e, indifference to a comfortable or discomfortable bed), reviling with hard words (akrosa), beating with stick (vadha), begging alms (yacuna), non-obtaining of alins (alabha), disease (roga), touch of grass (tinas parku, i. e. endurance of pain caused by the touch of the pointed tip of grass), dirt (jalla or mala) on body (i, e. monk must not allow his mind to think on the refreshment and joy of bath), honour with gift or praise (satkara) and standing in reverence, etc., by the kings and others (puraskara), intellect (prajna) (i. e. the feeling of own intellectual accomplishment or lack of intellect), knowledge (fana) (i. e. the feeling of pride in knowledge or the feeling of inferiority for want of knowledge), right attitude to own religious truth (darsana) (i. e. a monk must not have doubt in the truth of his own religion and predilection for other faith). Samitis (rules of conduct) Besides the five samitis, as already mentioned in the first section of this chapter, there is also the mention of three other gamitis along with them, viz, manasamiti, vag-samiti, and kaya-samiti (.e. restraint in mental, vocal, and physical activities). iti * BAS, Comm., 8, 8, 343. Granthantare tu ajnaparisaha pathyate. * 16, 8, 8, 343. See Uttaradhyayana Sutra xlv., p. 11. # 16, 2, 1, 92.

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414 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII The other rules of conduct for the Nirgrantha monks The following rules are prescribed for the monks and nuns in the BIS in connection with worship and non-worship. In case an improper action is done by a Nirgrantha monk entering into the house of a householder for food, a thought arose in his mind "Just now, I discuss, confess, repent, blame (censure) this sinful act, desist from it by purifying myself with the performance of expiation, exert myself by not doing (such act). I practise proper act of a usterity, then later on I shall discuss, confess it to the sthavira upto practise act of austerity (tapahkarma)." He went out of that house but did not find the sthavira, for he died before his arrival or became dumb, in that Case he is aradhaka (worshipper), or if he himself dies or becomes dumb before his arrival, then he is a worshipper, not a nonworshipper (viradhalca) in that case. The same religious rules are applicable to the case of a Niragranthi committing some improper actions. If she resolves to make self-analysis, confession and repentance, to censure these and, to perform expiation and to practise austerity or she actually observes these rules, she becomes a worshipper. If a monk, having committed any prohibited sinful deed, dies without making self-analysis, confession and repentance for it, he has no worship, but if he dies by making self-analysis, confession, etc., he is a worshipper. Similarly one has no worship, if he resolves to observe that vow of expiation in the last part of his life, but he dies without performing it or if he thinks thus : "If the Sramanopasakas also, dying at the appointed time are born in heaven as gods, what again, shall I not incarnate even as a demigod ?", and he dies, having said this without observing that vow.' Rules for begging alms The BLS prescribes the following begging rules for the i Bhs, 8, 6, 334. * 16, 10, 2, 400.

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Scc. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 415 the monks and nuns in addition to those mentioned in the first section of this chapter. They are as follows: On the day of conclusion of fast a monk is to study the religious text (Dharma-Sastra) in the first part of the day (prahara), to meditate in the second prahara and to go out in the third prahira with the permission of his Guru, having taken his mukhavastra (mouth-covering piece of cloth), bowl and clothes for begging alms from the high, low and middle class families. After returning from this begging tour, he is to show his food and drink obtained by him to his religious teacher.' A Nirgrantha monk, being invited by a householder to meal should take his share only and carry the other portion given for another ascetic according to the instruction of the householder and offer it to his fellow monk after searching him out. But if that ascetic (sthavira) is not found, his share should not be taken by the former nor should it be given to others, rather it should be left out on the ground free from living beings in a desolate place by cleansing and wiping off the earth. The same rules should be followed by a Nirgrantha monk in regard to the acceptance of three to ten portions of food offered by a householder and in the cases of receiving other articles, viz. pot (pratigraha', a cleaning piece of cloth (gocchaka), duster (rajaharana), clothes (colapataka), blankets (kambala), sticks (lathi), and bed (santharaga), respectively.' Rules of taking food prescribed for the Nirgrantha Monks & Nuns The Bhs prescribes some rules for nirgrantha monks and nuns in regard to their taking of food and drink. Food and drink are classified into two categories, according to the monastic rules viz. Sadosa (faulty) and Nirdosa (faultless), i. e. impure and pure from the point of view of asceticism. Faulty or impure food and drink are classified into the following groups, viz. sangara-panabhojana, sadhuma-panab hojana, ? BhS, 2, 5, 111 * 16, 8, 6, 333. $ 16,

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416 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII sanyojanadosadustapanabhojana, while faultless or pure food and drink are divided into three kinds, viz vitangara-panubhojana, vitadhuma-panabhojana and sanyojanavipramuktapanabhojana. Food and drink which are taken by a Niryrantha or a Nirgranthi with infatuation, deep attachment, after receiving them, is called sangara panabhojana, that which are taken by him or her, having a mind consuined with hatred and anger are Sadhuma-panabhojana, and that which are taken by mixing them with other things for making them tasteful are Sarayojanad93adusta, i.e. polluted by the fault of mixing. But if they are taken by him or her, without being infatuated or deeply attached to and swayed by hatred and anger and without mixing them with other things for making them palatable, they are called vitangara, vitadhuma and saryojana-vipramukta-panahhojana respectively. Besides these, the taking of the following kinds of food and drink by the monks or nuns involves the act of committing fault on their part, viz. ksetratikranta-panub hojana (food and drink taken before sunrise), kalatikranta-panabhojana (that received in the first part of the day and taken in the last part of it), margantikranta-panabhojana (that received and taken after crossing the length of half a yojana) and pramanatilcrantapanabhojana (that taken more than the standard measure, i.e. only thirty-two morsels equal to the size of an egg of a hen)." A Sramana-Nigrantha or a Nirgranthi is to take gastratita, sastra-parinamita, esita, vesita and samudanika-panabhojana for practising self-control and asceticism like a snake existing in a hole. The food which is offered by a householder who has given up weapon, mace, garland, (the act of) besmenring his body with sandal paste, (which is free from all kinds of bacterias and lifeless, (which is) not prepared or to be prepared for a monk and not intended for him, uninvited, unpurchased, prepared 1 Bhs., 7, 1, 268. Ib, 7, 1, 269.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 417 without any intention, (which is) navakoti-parisuddha (pure from the points of nine acts of preparing food, i.e. (1) to kill, (2) to cause to kill (3) to approve killing, (4) to cook, (5) to make cook, (6) to approve to cook, (7) to buy, (8) to make buy, (9) to support purchasing food, (which is) free from ten faults (i.e. doubt (or fear, etc.), pure in udgama (origin) or production (adhakarmadi), utpadana (the act of producing), esana (pindavisuddhi= purity of meal), and also free from the faults of angara (in. fatuation), dhumra (hatred and anger) and savyojana (mixing), (which is) offered without making sound, haste, and delay and leaving any portion of it-that is called susiratita, sastra parinamita, exitu, vesita and samudanika-panabhojana.? Besides these, it is not proper for a Sramana-Nirgrantha to take adhakarmika lood (which is prepared for another monk), uddesaka (which is intended for), or misrajata (mixed), or adhyavapuraka (more food prepared for monk beforehand), or pujita (worshipped), or Icrita (purchased), or a pamitya (loaned food), acchidya (forcibly taken food from someone), or anisssta (unassented to) i. e, alms whose owners are many persons and which is not given with the consent of all, or abhihita (brought in front or before), or kantarabhakti (food prepared in forest), or durbhiksabhukta (food prepared in famine time), or glanabhakta (patient's dict), or varddalikabhakta (food prepared during the rain), or sayyatarapinda (meal given by the owner of upasraya), or rajapinda (meal given by the king), or mulubhojana (taking of root), or kandabhojana (taking of tuberous root), or phalabhojana (taking of fruit), or vijabhojana (taking seed), or havyabhojana (taking of clarified butter).' FOURTH SECTION Classification of Sramana-Nirgrantha Monks The Bhs classifies the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks into five categories on the basis of their knowledge, conduct, and 2 I6, 9, 33, 384. 1 Bhs, 7, 1,269. 53

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418 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII spiritual attainment, viz. Pulaka, Bakusa, Kusila, Nirgrantha and Snataka, 1 This classification of the Jain monks as found here is also made in the Tattvartha-Sutra "Pulaka-Bakusa-Kusila-NirgranthaSnata ka-Nirgrantbah."" They represent asceticism as manifested in the stages of their spiritual progress made by them through their meritorious acts of austerities and meditation. Sri Abhayadeva Suri explains that a Pulaka-monk is like a Pulaka (a species of edible plant or sapless) from the point of view of self-control (i.e. cccassinally he is subject to moral lapses), a Bakusa is endowed with spotted self-control (i.e. occassionally he yields to worldly objects and associates himself with worldly people and violates moral rules); a Kusila is a monk who sometimes deviates from the minor rules of conduct; a Nirgrantha is a monk free from all ties of deluding Icarmas and is destined to attain omniscience in immediate future ; and Snataka is a monk who is purified or bathed (snata) from the dirt of ghatikarmas, i. e. Jranavaraniya (knowledge obscuring), Darsanavaranzya intiution obscuring), Molanzya (belief and conduct obscuring) and Antarayika (power-hindering) karmas and has attained omniscience which is known as Jivianmukti in other schools of Indian thought. They are again sub-divided into different groups according to their respective attributes from various aspects, such as, knowledge (fana), application (or acquisition) of knowledge (abhoga) and non-application (anabhoga), enjoyment of prohibited things (pratisevana), passion (Icasaya), intuition or attitude of mind (darsana), conduct (caritra), attachment (raga = saraga), non-attachment (vitaraga), etc. The Pulakas are divided into five groups, viz. Jitanapulaka, Darsana-pulaka, Caritra pulaka, Linga-pulaka and Yathas uksma. i Bhs, 25, 6, 751. Tattvartha-Sitra, 9, 48.

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Sec. IV? STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 419 Pulaku nama. Similarly the Bakusas are divided into five classes, viz. Abhoga, Anabhoga, Sarsvrta (self-disciplined), Asarivrta (nonself-disciplined) and Yathasuksma; the Kusilas into two, viz. Pratisevana-Kusila (a monk who violates the minor rules of conduct under the influence of his senses) and Kasaya-Kusila (a monk who is sometimes swayed by subtle passion) and the Nirgranthas into five, viz. Prathamasamaya-Nirgrantha, A prathamasamaya-Nirgrantha, Carima-samaya.Nirgrantha, Acarima samaya. Nirgrantha and Yathasulcsma-Nirorantha. As already stated a Nirgrantha is a monk who is sure to attain omniscience in immediate future. This time interval is about 48 minutes in the maximum. In the first instant of this period the monk is known as Prathamasamaya Nirgrantha. Such monks during the rest of interval belong to the second category. Similarly the monks during the last instant belong the third category and the remaining to the fourth. The fifth category is comprised by such monks in general. The Snatakas also are classified into five groups, which are rather five different aspects of the person who has attained Arhatship viz. Acchavika (who is free from all injurious physical activities-avayathaka), Asavala (spotless, i. e. absolutely pure), Alarmarsa (free from ghatikarmas), Sarsuddha-jhana. darsanudhara-Arhat-Jina-levalin (who is the bearer of complete pure knowledge and intuition) and Aparisravin (free from all karmic influx-abandhaka). Classification of Samyatas (self-controlled monks) Like the Pulakas, the Sanyatas (self-controlled) are classified into five groups, viz. Samayiku-Samyata, ChedopasthapanikaSanyata, Parihara-vieuddhika-Samyata, Suksma-samparayika-Sanyata and Yathakhyata-Sanyata.1 The BhS explains the respective positions of these classes of Samyata, thus that the monk who observes best CaturvamaDharma (four-fold religion) by mental, vocal and physical activities in the undertaking of Samayika-Sanyama (primary 1 BKS, 25, 6, 786.

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420 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII stage of self-control) is called the Samayika-Samyata; he who establishes the self in Pancayama-Dharma (five fold-religion) by cutting off the previous old state is the ChedopasthapanikaSamyata; he who, observing pure best Pancayama-Dharma by mental, vocal and physical activities, renounces all things and observes particular types of austerities, is the PariharavisuddhikaSamyata; he who, experiencing only Suksma kasaya (i. c. subtle greed) exists in Upasamika or Ksapaka Sreni (the state of suppression or destruction of deluding karma) is known as the Suksmasamparaya-Samyata (i. e. a little below the stage of Yathakhyata) and a Chadmastha or a Kevali who exists, having his Mohaniyakarma suppressed (in the case of the former) and annihilated is Yathakhyata Samyata. These five classes of Samyatas are further sub-divided into different groups according to various aspects. Thus the Samayika-Samyatas are classified into two divisions from the point of view of time, viz. Itwarika (temporary) and Yavat-kathika (permanantly for life) self-controlled and the Chedopasthapanika-Samyata into two, vjz. Saticara and Niraticara the first is endowed with conduct with the transgression of moral laws of self-control, and the second is possessed of conduct without break and transgression of self-control. The Parihara-Visuddhika Samyatas are divided into two groups, viz. Nirvisamanaka (Practiser of special types of austerities mainly consisting of fasting spread over a long time), and Nirvistakayika (attendant on the former). This austerity is observed by groups of monks. A group of nine monks observes this austerity-one of them being the head and the other eight divided into two sub-groups. The four monks of one of these two groups serving as attendants to the rest. The attendants are called Nirvista-Kayikas and others are known as Nirvisamanakas. The Suksma-samparayika-Samyatas are divided into Samklisyamanaka and Visuddhamanaka (i.e. one who is falling back down the ladder of suppression-Upasama-Sreni) and one * Ib, 25, 7, 788. 1 BhS, 25, 7, 786.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 421 who is ascending the Upasama-Sreni or Ksapaka-Sreni, the ladder leading to the annihilation of Karma). The YathakhyataSamyata is classified into two categories, viz. Chadmastha (a monk endowed with finite knowledge) and Kevali (a selfcontrolled monk having infinite omniscience). There exists an inter-relation among the five classes of Sariy atas and the five divisions of the Nirgranthas on the basis of self-control and the stages of spiritual development. For example, it is explained that a Samayika-Sariyata may be a Pulaka or a Bakusa upto a Kasaya-Kusila; but not a Nirgrantha nor a Snataka and so on. FIFTH SECTION Agara-Dharma or Sravaka-Dharma (Religion of Lay Worshipper or Householder) The BNS throws a welcome light upon Agara-Dharma or Sravaku-Dharme? which is quite distinct from that of Anagara Dharma (monasticism). It was realized by Lord Mahavira and his disciples that the uniformn religious vows and rules of conduct should not be prescribed for the monks and householders, for they would defeat the mission of the Nirgrantha-Dharma and would be fruitless. They would help neither the monks nor the laymen, so separate vows and rules of conduct were set forth for the householders by considering all the conditions of their life, as it is known from the fact of some relaxations made in the observance of the religious vows and rules of conduct to which they were required to conform. This Sravaka-Dharma is the most essential counterpart of monasticism of the Nirgrantha-Dharmu. It is the twelve-fold Law of laymen (duvalasavihan savagadhamman) consisting of five lesser vows (pancanuvatiyan) and seven disciplinary vows 1 BKS, 25, 7, 788. : 16, 18, 10, 648. 316.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII (sattasikkhavaiyam). They are as follows: (1) Renouncement of all gross ill-usuage of living beings in two forms and in three ways (i.e. not to do oneself nor cause to be done by others either in thought or in word or in deed), (2) renouncement of all grossly lying speech in two forms and three ways like the previous one, (3) renouncement of all gross taking of things not given, (4) renouncement of every other kind of sexual intercourse excepting with one's own wife, and (5) limitation of possession of one's wealth by renouncing all other possessions. 422 Some relaxations have been made for the householders in regard to the observance of the religious vows and rules. Thus it is explained that the act of killing a mobile being by some Sramanopasaka in the past has been renounced, but his act of killing the earth-bodied being is partially given up. For instance, if he, while digging the earth kills any mobile being, he does not violate (or transgress) the vow of non-killing, because he is surely not intent upon its killing. It is an accidental and unintentional act of killing beings. Thus in the cases of his accidental and unintentional injury to the life of plant-bodied beings also, while ploughing the land (i.e. digging the earth), he does not transgress the vow of non-killing, as he was not intent upon its killing.1 The seven disciplinary vows consist of three Gunavratas and four proper Siksavratas as given below: The three Gunavartas are stated to be Digvrata (vow of the quarters), Anarthadamda (vow of abstention from unprofitable employment) and Bhogopabhogaparimana (vow of limitation of the measure of enjoyment), while the four proper Siksaviratas are Samayikavrata (vow of inward peace), Pausadhavrata (vow of fasting, abstinence from bodily attentions, sexual intercourse and daily work), Atithisamvibhaga (vow of right distribution of alms and worshipping the guests) and Sallekhana (vow of a 1 BhS, 7, 1, 263.

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423 Sec. V] determined self-mortification by the last mortal emaceration to save the soul by scratching out the body). STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The offering of gifts by a householder to the Sramanas and Brahmanas was considered as a part of the vow of Sravaka-Dharma the merit of which led him towards the attainment of spiritual realization. Thus it is explained in the text that if a Sramanopasaka helps a Sramana or a Brahmana in the practice of his austerity, meditation and deep concentration of abstract thought (Samadhi) by offering gifts to him, he also attains that very state of Samadhi and finally he gives up food and drink, performs difficult act (of austerity), attains anivrtti-karana (a spiritual process by which one attains a stage from which he never falls down) or experiences enlightenment or right attitude and later on attains liberation by putting an end to all miseries.1 the It is further stated that a Sramano pasaka, offering presents to such a self-controlled Sramana or Brahmana with acceptable eatable food, drink and dainties completely dissociates his karma and his sinful act previously committed does not touch (i.e. affect) him, while by giving unacceptable food and drink, etc., to him he annihilates his karma (nirjara) much and the effect of his sinfnl deeds less. But as a result of his offering gift to a not-self-controlled and not-self-disciplined Sramana or a Brahmana, having unchecked and non-renounced sinful act with acceptable or unacceptable, eatable or uneatable food, etc., he binds sinful deed and not a little amount of dissociation of his karma takes place." Asrutva-Kevali & Srutva-Kevali The BhS throws a welcome light upon the attainment of Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma (religion explained by a Kevali) by some persons without listening to it from a Kevali and others (i.e. Asrutva Kevali), and by some having attended to it (i.e. SrutvaKevali) and also upon the attainment of right attitude of mind 1 BhS, 7, 1, 264. 2 Ib., 8, 6, 332.

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424 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII to truth (samyag-darsana), chastity (brahmacarya), self-control (samyama), stoppage of influx of karma (samvara) and five kinds of knowledge by some without listening to it and its causes, and by some, having attended to it, as also the non-attainment of it by some, even having listened to it, etc. Thus it is explained that some person attains the religion, experiences pure enlightenment (bohi), undertakes the state of houselessness in pure chastity, controls his senses, stops the influx of karma and attains five kinds of knowledge (perceptual upto omniscience), without listening to the religion explained by a Kevali or a Kevali-Sravaka or a Kevali-Sravika or Kevali Upasaka or a Kevali-Upasika or a Tadpaksika-Sravaka (svayam-buddha) upto or a Tadpaksika-Upasika (svayam buddhika), then he is an Airutva Kevali; while someone does not attain it nor experiences enlightenment, etc., upto the five kinds of knowledge without attending to the religion explained by a Kevali but attains the religion after hearing to it as explained by a Kevali, then he is a Srutva Kevali. Because he, the partial annihilation and suppression (sayopasama) of whose Jhanavaraniya (knowledge obscuring), Darsanavaraniya (intuitionobscuring), Caritravaraniya (conduct obscuring) and yatanavaraniya (exertion-obscuring), Adhyavasanavaraniya karmas (tenor of mind) upto those of five kinds of knowledge have not taken place (krtabhavati), does not attain the Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma, etc. But he, the partial annihilation of whose Janavaraniya karma, etc., have occurred, attains the same even without listening to it.1 From the same points of view it is explained that some person attains the Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma, Samyag-Darsana (right attitude), Brahmacarya (chastity), Samyama (self-control), etc., upto five kinds of knowledge by listening to religious teachings of a Kevali upto Tadpaksika-Upasika; while someone does not attain them even by attending to the religion explained by a Kevali and others. 1 BhS, 9, 31, 366, a

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Sec. VI STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 425 SIXTH SECTION Ajivika Sect. Along with the Nirgranthas there existed heterodox sects in the society as depicted in the text such as, the Ajevikas, Vainayikas, Vanaprasthas, Parivrajakas, Carakas, other Tirthikas, etc. Of all these sects the Ajivikas appear to be the most rival in their relation to the Nirgrantha order and their leader, Gosala-Mankhaliputra proclaims himself as Jina by challenging the spiritual leadership of Lord Mahavira. The Bhs shows that they were originally associated with each other till they came to the parting of ways on the ground of doctrinal differences. Meaning of the name 'ajiviya': Skt. Ajivika The word 'Ajiviya' (Skt. Ajzvika) denotes one who follows special rules with regard to livelihood or live by profession (azivati), as it is derived from the term 'Ajiva (livelihood) of any class of people whether they are householders or religious mendicants, Sri Abhayadeva Suri? explains that those who live (ajivanti) by the practices of austerity and the worship of faculties as avivekilokata (want of judgament as usual) are called Ajivikas and they were the disciples of Gosala Maikhaliputra. "Ajivanti va ye avivekilokato labdhipujakhyatyadibhistapa scaranadibhih te Ajivikah astitvenajivikah." In the Buddhist texts there occurs the reference to Samyag-ajiva (right livelihood) as one of the eight paths (astangikamarga) to be followed by the monks. It appears from these facts that the word 'Ajiviya signified a class of religious mendicants who originally lived by profession with regard to their livelihood. This view is supported by the significance of the word "Mankhatva', the profession of exhibiting i Sanskrit : English Dictionary, Monier-Williams, p. 133; col. 1st ? Bhs (comm.), 1, 2, 25. 54

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426 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII pictures as used in the text in connection with the earning of livelihood of Mankha Mankhali, and that of his son, Gosala by this vocation of Mankhatva. "Cittaphalagahatthagae mankhattanenam. bhavemane....... gamanugamam... ...'1 Sri Abhayadeva Suri explains that the word 'Mankha' denotes a class of beggars (or mendicants) that tries to extract alms from the people by exhibiting pictures of malignant' deities (citraphala kavyagrakaro bhiksukavisesab), while Hemacandra in his commentary on the Abhidhana Cintaman equates it with the word 'Magadha' (a bard). There is also reference to Mankhas in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana.' The tradition of earning livelihood by displaying religious pictures is also recorded in the Harsacarita of Banabhatta. There it is stated that King Harsa, while entering his capital-city after returning from his hunting operation saw a Yamapattika (one who lives by Yamapatta, i.e. by displaying a piece of cloth on which Yama, the god of death with his attendants and punishments of hell are represented), surrounded by greatly excited and curious boys on the traffic road, relating with a shaft of an arrow the accout of the other world as depicted on a spread out cloth (or canvas) decorated with the painting of Yama seated on a terrible buffalo, which was fixed on a raised The king also listened to the verse sung by that very Yamapattika thus: "Thousands of mothers and fathers and hundreds of sons and wives passed away (i.e. dead) in ages, whose are they or whose are you.' staff held in his left hand. 995 appanam 1 BhS, 15, 1, 540-41. 2 Ib. (comm), 15, 1, 540. Abhidhana-cintamani comm. to V 795, 1-365 (Boht Linck & Rien edn). 4 Rajatarangini-viii. 969, 995, 3354. See also V. Anatagadadasao L. Barnett. p. 2, 43 and Ardha-Magadhi Dictionary. 5 Harsacarita, Ucchvasa 5, p. 153.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 427 The same tradition of earning livelihood by exhibiting the patas (a piece of cloth) depicted with religious pictures and other incidents of social life, such as Yamapata, Gajarpata, etc., has continued up to the present day in Bengal and in other parts of India. Charpentier is of opinion on the evidence of a Sutra of Panini that Mankhali was a mendicant, carrying a picture board having the painting of a representation of the god Siva.? It appears from all these facts that the Ajivika-Mankbas did not like to become an economic burden on the society, but they earned their livelihood by means of this profession of exhibiting pictures. Life of Gosala Mankhaliputra It is related in the 15th Sataku of the Bhs that one day some time Maokba Mankhali', together with his pregnant wife, Bhadra took shelter in the cowshed of a Bralmana named Gobahula at Saravana after their journey without obtain. ing any dwelling residence anywhere in that quarter of the town. It was here Bhadra gave birth to a very tender and beautiful male child. The Mankhali couple christened their new-born son as Gosala on the ground that he was born in the cowshed. Panini also explains, "Gosala as one born in a cowshed." In some respects this incident of the birth of Gosala shows a happy coincidence with that of Jesus Christ who is also said to have been born in a cowshed, as it is recorded in Saint Luke's Gospel. With the attainment of the stage of maturity and youth Gosala himself made each painting and earned his livelihood by carrying on the profession of Mankhatva (exhibition of pictures) like his father, Mankha Mankhali. I J. R. A. S., 1913, pp. 671-2. Vide 'History & Doctrine of Ajivikas', p. 36. ? BAS, 15, 1, 540. 3 Panini Sutra, IV, 3. 35. Vide 'India as known to Panini', by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 383.

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428 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII The account of his birth as given in the BhS is supported by the evidence of the Sumangala-Vilasini1 which agrees with the former in stating that the name 'Gosala' was attributed to him on the ground of his birth of a slave-girl in a cowshed.* It is recorded there that one day, while walking with an oil pot in his hand on a patch of muddy ground, he stumbled off and fell down, and thus broke it due to his carelessness despite his master's warning, "My dear man, take care lest you stumble, "T'ata-ma-khaliti." So fearing the chastisement from his angry master he ran up, but he was overtaken by his master who caught him by the edge of his garment. Letting his cloth go behind him, he fled away naked to a village the people of which offered him clothes out of kindness. But he refused to put them on, hoping to be honoured as a holy man or naked Arhat. Thus he was known as Mankkhali the name derived from the last words 'Ma khali' used by his master to take care of the oil pot. In the Grammar of Paninis there appears Maskarin as a Parivrajaka (Maskara-maskarinau venu-parivrajakayoh) who has been identified with Maskarin Gosala on the following grounds as explained by Patanjali that "A Maskarin Parivrajaka is not so-called, because there is a Maskara (bamboo-staff) in his hand......Do not perform action, but seek peace as the highest end. This is their teaching, who are therefore called Maskarin (Ma krita karmani ma krita karmani, santirvah sreyasityahato Maskari parivrajakah)." The evidence of Panini as! supported by the Divyavadana where Gosala Mankhaliputra appears by the name of Maskari 1 Sumangalavilasini (Samannaphala Sutta) - Buddhaghosa's comm, on the Dighanikaya, II, 3, pp. 143 ff. 2 Ib, II, 3, pp. 143 ff. 3 Panini, iv, 1, 154. Vide 'India as known (to Panini,' p. 381. 4 Patanjali Bhasya, III, 96. 5 Divyavadana-p. 143. See C. D. Chatterjee, 'A. Hist. charac ter in the Reign of Asoka', Bhandarkar commemoration Vol. p. 331.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 429 Gosalaputra, i. e. he was a Maskari ascetic. The Ajivika leader is also connected with Manki of the Mahabharata on the ground of preaching the doctrine of peace (nirveda) and destiny, giving up the principle of Paurusa (deed) Suddham hi daivamevedam hathe naivasti paurusam." These facts clearly reveal that there existed a class of religious mendicants called Maskari-Parivrajakas, having the belief in the doctrine of Niyativada (determinism) during the periods of Panini and of the Mahabharata respectively. Meeting of Gosala with Lord Mahavira The account of the first meeting of Gosala Mankhaliputra with Lord Mahavira in a weaver's workshop at Nalanda and his association with the Master as an ascetic-disciple and dissociation from himn on account of the doctrinal difference arisen out of his reflection on the reanimation of a sesamum plant is discussed in the first section of the eighth chapter in details in connection with the topic 'The ascetic life of Lord Mahavira.' Gosala as religious teacher Next, Gosala Mankhaliputra, having attained the round of twenty-fourth year of his initiation (cauvvisavasapariyae) appears as the teacher and leader of the Ajivika sect in the workshop of the potteress Halahala in the city of Sravasti. There he, being attended upon by the Ajivika-Sangha passed time by practising austerity and by explaining and expounding the doctrine of six inviolable principles, viz. acquisition and nonacquisition, happiness and suffering, birth (or life) and death to his followers amongst whom there were the following Dikcaras, namely, Sana, Kalanda (Kanada ?), Kaniyara, Acchidda, Aggivesayana and Ajjuna Gomayuputta.' 1 Mahabharata Santiparvan-Ch. 177, vv. 1-14. Vide India as known to Panini' p.383. 2 Bhs, 15, 1, 539.

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430 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII The evidences of the BhS regarding the position of Gesala Mankhaliputra as the Ajivika leader are fully corroborated by those of the Uvasagadasao where he is depicted as a religious teacher, having a host of followers one of whom was Saddalaputta of Polasapura. In the Pali texts Gosala appears to be a great dangerous rival leader of Lord Buddha, and he is depicted in a blackest manner thus that "he was a stupid (moghapurisa), knew no other persons, born to the detriment, grief and disadvantage of so many people or to such disadvantage and sorrow of gods and men, Makkhali was like a fisherman casting his net at the mouth of a river for the destruction of many a fish." The teachings of Gosala are criticized by the Blessed one in a very strong language thus that "Just as a hair-blanket (Kesakambala) is the worst of all fabrics in texture, appearance and utility, so of all unorthodox doctrines (samana-ppavalanam) that of Makhali is the worst." Last meeting of Gosala with Lord Mahavira at the Kosthaka Caitya in Sravasti and his spiritual due! with the Master" The revelation of the birth-incident of Gosala in a low family of Mankha Mankhali and Bhadra and that of the account of his past life as made by Lord Mahavira in the assembly of his followers at the Kosthaka Caitya enraged the Ajivika leader very much. One day he threatened the Master with total destruction through his disciple Ananda who happened to pass by the neighbourhood of Halahala's house on his begging tour by relating the story of the fate of the four merchants of Sravastz, if his teacher indulged in such acts of vilification and spoke anything against his person. As soon as Ananda was telling this matter to the other monks after his return and 1 Aiguttara Nikaya 1, p. 33 ; cf. ng. 1. 2 Anguttara Nikaya I p. 286, Vide, History & Doctrine of Ajivikas' by Dr. Basham, p. 54-55. 3 BhS, 15, 1, 547-53.

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Sec. Vil STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 431 report of this dreadful warning of Gosala to Lord Mahavira, the Ajzvika leader, followed by his disciples appeared at the Kosthaka Caitya to challenge the veracity of the so-called statements of the Master with regard to his birth and life. Here a serious verbal duel took place between the two leaders reviling each other. Gosala tried to prove thus by explaining and justifying the doctrine of re-animation (Parivrtya parihara) that he was not that Gosalo Mankbaliputra who was the latter's disciple. The Ajavilca leader related that he was born as a male child named Udayin in the first birth. Having attained the power of intellect and intelligence by observing the vows of ubstinence and practising chastity, he abandoned the body of Udayin of Kaundinya Gotra outside the city of Rajagrha and entered into that of Aineyaka and he experienced thus the first Purivrtya-parihara for twenty-two years. Having given up the body of Ainey aka be entered into that of Mallaraina at the Candravaturana Caitya outside the city of Uddandapura and bore it for twenty-one years in the second parivstya-parihara. In the tbird he entered into the body of Mandika by abandoning that of Mallarama in the Anga-Mandira outside the city of Campa and bore it for twenty years. In the fourth he took birth into the body of Roha by giving up that of Mandika in the Kamamahavana Caitya outside Vanarasi (Varanasi) and carried it upto nineteen years. In the fifth he entered into the body of Bbaradvaja by abandoning that of Roba in the Praptakala Caitya outside the city of Alabhika and enjoyed it for eighteen years. In the sixth he took birth into the body of Arjuna Gautainiputra by giving up that of Bharadvaja in the Kaundikavana Caitya outside the city of Vaisali and bore it up to seventeen years. In the seventh and last Parivrtya-parihara he entered into the body of Gosala Mankhaliputra by giving up that of Arjuna just in the premises of the potteress Halahala in Sravasti, having learnt it firm, constant, durable and fit to bear enduring cold, heat, hunger and different kinds of natural troubles, such as, flies, mosquitos, etc., and endowed with the firmness of joints, and he bore this body at present,

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432 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII A critical study of the account of Parivrtya-parihara undergone by the Ajivika leader in the form of his autobiography throws an important light on the history of Ajivikism that it began 133 years before him.' Besides, it might imply, as in the Jatakas, that life is continued through the virtue of the former births. In this case of Parivrtya-Parihara of Gosala the principle of Buddhavada or Tirthankaravada is applied, for he proclaims himself as the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. The tradition is recorded in the Jatakas that the Gautama Buddha, took many incarnations as bodhisattva, while the Jainas admit that the soul assumes numerous births for the well-being of this world before being born as Tirthankara. There were twenty-four such Tirthankaras amongst whom Lord Mahavira was the last. Spiritual dual between Gosala and Lord Mahavira At the denial of discipleship of Lord Mahavira by Gosala the Master rebuked him thus "You are not worthy of it, Gosala and you are the self-same person, not anybody else." Then the Ajivika leader, inflamed with the fire of wrath cursed and reviled the Master again and again, "To-day you are no more. There is no happiness of yours from me, etc." Being unable to bear this insult hurled at their teacher, two disciples of Lord Mahavira named Sarvanubhuti and Sunaksatra got up and requested Gosala in succession not to revile and curse the Master in such a manner and they repeated the same rebuke to him as made by their teacher. At this reproach the Ajivika leader, being very angry reduced Sarvanubhuti to a heap of ashes and burnt Sunaksatra to death one by one by releasing his fiery energy on their bodies. Lord Mahavira again abused 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 2 BhS, 15, 1, 552,

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Gosala by using the same censuring terms for his unworthy cruel acts of killing two Sramanas. At this rebuke the Ajivika leader released his fiery energy on the body of the Master to kill him. But it got warded off by the superior spiritual power of Lord Mahavira and entered into the body of that very Gosala, burning and burning it gradually. Being possessed of his own fiery energy, the Ajzvika leader again cursed the Master thus: "You Ayusman Kasyapa, being occupied by my fiery energy (and) having the attack of bilious fever will die as Chadmastha at the end of six months."1 At this curse Lord Mahavira fretorted to Gosala thus: "Not certainly I, Gosala,......shall die at the end of six months, I shall pass time as Jina for another sixteen years, you, just yourself Gosala......will die as Chadmastha at the end of seven nights." It is stated that some of the followers of Gosala went over to the side of the Master at this moment, having left their leader, while the others remained with him. After this spiritual defeat the Ajivika leader left the Kosthaka Caitya without achieving his purpose, having cast a fiery glance at Lord Mahavira. Last part of his Life Then Gosala passed time in the premises of Halahala by chewing raw-mango-fruit, drinking liquor, singing and dancing again and again and making overtures (anjalikarma) to the potteress & sprinkling his body with cold clay water of the potter's pot in a state of mental disequilibrium. In such a condition of his, one day he was approached by Ayampula, an Ajivikopasaka who came to have the explanation of the shape of Hall (an insect) from his teacher. He, being ashamed to find the Ajivika leader in such a state was slowly returning to his house with a 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 553. 55 433 2 Ib, 15, 1, 553

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434 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII great disappointment, but approached his teacher again on the request of the Ajivika-Sthaviras to have the answer to his question about Halla. It is stated that on receipt of the signal from them in the meantime Gosala left the raw-mango-fruit in a solitary place and then he gave an explanation of his chewing the raw mango to Ayampula thus that it was the rind of mango, but not the mango. Next, he described that Halla had the shape like that of Vamsimula (lower part of a flute) and addressed himself thus "O dispassionate sage, play the flute"-"Vinamvaehi re viraga." Being pleased and satisfied with this explanation to his question given by his teacher, Ayampula retired to his home after paying due respect to his preceptor. Own Having known and realized the approach of his death by intuition, Gosala instructed his disciples, the AjivikaSthaviras on the performance of his funeral ceremony after his death thus: They were to cause him to bathe (i.e. his corpse) with fragrant water, to besmear his limbs with Gosirsa sandalpaste, to dress him (his dead body) with costly garments and ornaments and to take out a procession of his corpse in a palanquin carried by one hundred men by proclaiming him as the last of the twenty-four Tirthankaras." It is stated that at the end of seven nights from the day of this incident Gosala again summoned his followers and told them that he was not Jina, etc., but Lord Mahavira was Jina. And he expressed his repentence and sorrow for his misdeeds, such as, the killing of Sarvanubhuti and Sunaksatra, the two disciples of Lord Mahavira by applying his fiery energy Then he (tejolesya) on them at the Kosthaka Caitya, etc. instructed them to perform his funeral ceremony with all sorts of dishonour, such as, by tying his left leg with a rope of bark, spitting thrice upon his mouth, dragging his dead body through 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 554. 2 Ib, 15, 1, 554.

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Sec. VIT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 435 the city of Sravasti and declaring him Jinapralapin (false Jina) and Sramanaghataka (killer of Sramanas), etc. Having said thus, he breathed his last with these words. It is clear from a comparative study of all these evidences furnished by the Bhs, other Jaina texts and Buddhist works regarding the life of Gosala Mankhaliputra that they were coloured with the sectarian bias borne against the Ajzvika sect led by him to a certain extent, though they differ in details. Certain facts emerge out of these evidences regarding the life of Gosala that he was the greatest rival leader to Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha and he was an outstanding spiritual leader of the Ajivika sect, as it is admitted by the Master himself. Moreover, the study of the references to his practice of severe austerities on the Atapanabhimi during his stay in the premise of Halahala, his fiery energy (tapateja) acquired by penance, his personality and the character of the potteress should not be taken to throw any shade of doubt upon his chaste life, though some Jain texts level the charge of unchastity against him and his followers. It is an attempt made by the rival sects of the Ajevikas who are motivated and guided by the sectarian bias to paint their leader and his doctrine in a blackest possible way, to establish their own religion in the society of those days. But this manner of their presentation of the life of Gosala has placed him on the highest pedestal of glory along with the other leaders of thought of his period. Predecessors of Gosala Mankhaliputra It has already been pointed out that the account of the cycle of births undergone by Gosala shows the existence of the Ajivika sect 133 years before him. Moreover, his proclamation 1 BhS, 15, 1, 555. 1 Jaina Sutra, ii, vii, pt. 1 & Il in S.B.E. Vol. xxii & xxiji. & Ib, II, 270; II, 245.

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436 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VIL as the last Tirthankara in Avasarpina-kala indicates that there were other predecessors of this great Ajivika leader, though this statement seems to be an interpolation of the author of the Bhs. According to this canonical work Udayan, Aineyaka, Mallarama, Mandika, Roha, Bharadvaja and Arjuna Gautamaputra appear to be his seven predecessors including Arjuna, as the list of these personalities shows that there was a line of ascetic teachers of the Ajavika order, though the progressive diminution by one year of the period of each Parivritya parihara raises a doubt about the artificiality of the plan inserted by some hand The association of these ascetics with different Caityas outside various cities as the centres of their activities and the variance of the Gotra names, e. g. Kaunddikayana Gotra of Udayin and Gautana Gotra of Arjuna support the contention of the real existence of these teachers prior to the period of Gosala. The evidence of the Bhs regarding the existence of line of the Ajivika teachers is also corroborated by the Buddhist work? where Gosala appears as one of the six religious teachers of his age including himself, namely, Purana Kassapai, Ajitakesakam. bali, Pakudha Kaccayana, SanjayaBelatthiputta and Niggantha Nataputta. Besides, the occurence of the names of Nanda-vaccha and Kisa-samkicca along with that of Makkhali Gosala in the Buddbist texts clearly reveals that they were the Ajivika leaders. Now there arises the question of priority in time of these three teachers. Dr. Hoernle is of opinion that Nanda and Kisa were probably the two contemporaries of Gosala on the ground that "there were indeed other groups of ascetics of a similarly dubious character who also bore the name of Azivika, 1 E.G. Jataka, 1. 509; Digha, II, 150. Samannaphala Sutta of the Digha-Nikaya, 1, pp. 47ff. Ville 'History & Doctrine of Ajivikas' Dr. Basham, p. 11. ? Anguttara Nikuya, III, p. 382 ; Majjhima Nikaya, 1, p. 238, p. 524.

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Sec. VIT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 437 but they lived apart under separate leaders, the names of two of whom Nanda-Vaccha and Kisa-samkicca are recorded in the Buddhist scriptures."1 While Dr. B. M. Barua? holds the view of Jacobio that Nanda-vaccha and Kisa-Samkicca were the predecessors of Gosala Makkhali in succession, although the Bhs mentions Arjuna and Bharadvaja as his immediate predecessors, It is clear from these facts that there was a line of Ajzvika teachers prior to Gosala according to the tradition recorded in this canonical work. Followers of Gosala Mankhaliputra The text gives a list of the followers of Gosala Mankhaliputra, namely six Dikcaras-Sana, Kalanda, Kanniyara, Acchidda, Aggivesayana, Ajjuna Gomayuputta, Halahala, the Potteress of Sravasti, Ayampula and Ajivika ascetics. Besides these, there were other twelve Ajivikopasakas, namely, Tala, Talapalamba, Uvviha, Samviha, Avaviha, Udaya, Namudaya, Namudaya, Anuvalaya, Samkhavalaya, Ayambula, and Kayaraya who regarded their Arhunta (Gosala) as God (Arihantadevataya). Date of Gosala In connection with the chronology of Lord Mahavira in the second section of the eighth chapter it is discussed that the great demise of the Master took place sixteen years after the death of Gosala. So according to the calculation made therein the date of the death of the Ajivika leader may be assigned to a period about 500 B.C., and that of his birth approximately to the first quarter of the sixth century B.C. as he appears to be 1 E. R. E., 1, p. 265; refer also to Bharatiyavidya, II, p. 202, Gopani. * J. D. L., II, p. 2. 3 Introduction to Jaina Sutra, II, S. B. E., xlv, p. xxxi. 4 Bhs, 8, 5, 330.

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438 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII a senior contemporary of Lord Mahavira as recorded in the BhS.1 A short history of the Ajivika Sect Besides the literary sources, the earliest archaeological evidences of the existence of the Ajivikas are found in the Barbara Hill cave Inscriptions of king Asoka and Nagarjuni Hill cave Inscriptions of Dasaratha.3 The In the sixth Century A. D. they appear also in the two astrological works of Varaha-mihira, viz. Brhajjataka and Layhujataka" as one of the seven classes of ascetics, viz the Sakyas or Raktapatas (i.e. Buddhists), the Ajzvikas upto the Carakas. existence of the Ajivikas in the ninth century A. D. is borne out by the evidence of the great Jaina commentator Silanka(r) (C. 876 A.D.), while they figure in the Abhidhana Ratnamala1 of Halayudha (950 A.D.) as Ajivas in the tenth century A.D. The Ajivikas existed also in the thirteenth century A. D. as it is revealed by the land-grant made by the Cola king, Rajaraja to the temple, together with 'tax on the Ajivikas' in 1238, 1239, 1243, 1259 A.Ds. SEVENTH SECTION Doctrine of Ajivikism The BhS reveals that the fundamental doctrine of Ajivikism was parivarttavada (the doctrine of reanimation) which propounds that all beings are born after death and foster. "Evam Khalu 1 Vide, Sec. 2, Chap. IX. 2 Nos. 38, 39 & 40 Barbara Hill cave Inscriptions, Indian Ant. XX, p. 168 ff. 3 Ib. Brhajjataka-XXf, Varahamihira. 4 5 Laghujataka, IX-12. Varahamihira. Silanka,-See Sutrakrtanga. Abhidhana-Ratnamala II-189, 190 Halayudha. South Indian Inscriptions Nos. 88, 89, 92 & 108.

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 439 savvajivavi pauttapariharam pariharamti."1 There are six inviolable laws which govern the life of all beings, viz. Labha (gain), Alabha (loss), Sukha (happiness), Dukha (suffering), Jivita (birth or life) and Marana (death). They are explained by Gosala with a reference to the statement of Astangamahanimitta (the principle of eight great causes) embodied in the Purva (10th purva), viz. Divyam (heavenly), utpatum (portent), Antariksam (sky or atmosphere), Bhaumam (earthly), Angam (that relating to body), Svaram (sound), Laksanam (mark or sign) and Vyanjanam (manifestation). A critical study of these eight great causes reveals that Ajivikism was founded on science which propounded the theory of causation. This law of cause and effect pervades the whole Universe and governs all events of phenomenal and noumenal aspects of life and nature. For example, the science of Laksana and Vyanjana dealt with the distinguished marks of a great man as well as the way of testing and selecting the best type of men and women, horses, gems, jewels and the like. Music and dance formed the two margas (paths) of Ajivikism called Gitamarga and Nrtyamarga. Besides these principles, it is stated to be the explanation of the - Ajivika doctrine that all beings are uninterrupted enjoyers (akkhinapadibhoino savve satta), SO they take food by killing, cutting, piercing, taking out the skin of beings and destroying other beings. According to the doctrine of parivarttavada anyone whoever attained or attains or will attain emancipation will have to enter into eighty-four lakhs Mahakalpas (period of time), seven celestial births, seven samjnigarbhas (womb of human embryo, i. e. sentient birth & seven parivrtya-pariharas (or parivartta-parihara, i.e. entrance or birth of beings into seven other bodies). He attains enlightenment and liberation by anni 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 544. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 539. 2 Ib, 15, 1, 539. 5 Ib, 8, 5, 350. 3 Ib, (Comm.).

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440 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. VII hilating gradually the divisions of five lakh sixty thousand six hundred and three karmas and thus he puts an end to all miseries by making (causing) complete extinction of all rebirths. The study of all these data of the doctrine of Ajivikism reveals that this system of thought was based on the eight principles of causation. Biology in the widest sense, containing the elements of Botany and Zoology, Cosmology, Anatomy, Physiology and Embryology, Physics and Chemistry, etc., with in its sphere. The reference to the Gitamarga and Nityamarga, the two paths, suggests that music and dance were the two ways for creating devotion in the hearts of the devotees of the Ajivika sect. The doctrine of Parivarttavada (re-animation) contains the seed of Niyativada determinism), which is the motive factor of the Universe and the absolute agent of all phenomenal and noumenal changes. The principles of Niyativada as advocated by Gosala Mankhaliputra are clearly embodied in the Uvasagadasao which explains thus : "There is no such thing as exertion or labour or power or energy or human strength,' all things are unalterably fixed."'1 A more clear conception of this doctrine of determinism is found in the Buddhist works, particularly in the Digha-Nikaya* where it is stated thus "There is no cause either proximate or remote for depravity of beings; they become depraved without reason or cause. "N'atthi hetu...... n'atthi paccayo sattanam samkilesaya." It is further explained "There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the purity of beings; they become pure without reason or cause. Nothing depends either on one's own effort or on the efforts of others......everything that lives is destitute of force, power or energy. These varying conditions at any time 1 Uvasagadasao, 7, 199, p. 132. Dr. Hoernle. * Digha-Nikaya-1. p. 53 Dialogue-71.

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Sec. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 441 are due to fate......that men experience base or pain." Likewise the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil karma was without cause or basis "Ahetu-apaccayo satta visujhanti". I It is further recorded that the forceful, the courageous like the weakling, the idler and the coward were all completely destined to the one, i. e. Niyati. "N'atthi purisakare, n'atthi balam ....Sabbe satta avasa...... niyati sangati-bhava-parinata." Eterminism of the Ajivika system of thought did not exclude the idea of karma completely from its doctrine, as it is evidenced by the fact of its belief in the transmigration of soul and its final liberation as a result of annihilation of all Karmas. Moreover, the relation of cause and effect has not categorically been precluded from its doctrine as it appears that the individual conduct of a being may affect his future state of life in numerous possible ways of karma in the worldly stage of truth, though ultimately his life is regulated and guided by the Niyati, the absolute destiny. Because it is already pointed out that 500,000 Karmas, 60,000, 600 and 3 parts of karmas must be destroyed by one before the attainment of final liberation." This evidence regarding the number of Karmas as mentioned here is also supported by that of the Pali texts which have divided Karma into five hundred five, three and one and one-half a Karma'. Buddhaghosainterprets the figure 'five hundred by the explanation "a useless heresay (Takkamallakena niratthakam ditthim dipeti); the five as actions according to five senses or appendages to the five hundred (adisu pi es' eva nayo, keci pan-ahu panca kamman' iti panca-indriyavasena bhanati) and the three as the act, speech and thought, the one as either act or word, the half as thought'." 1 Ib., : BhS, 15, 1, 550. 3 Pali texts--See below. 4 Sumangala Vilasini I, pp. 461-49, Buddhaghosa's commen tary to Digha-Nikaya. (The interpretation of the addhakamma is supported by a statement in the commentary to the Abhidhana-Kosa). 56

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442 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII Dr. Basham suggests that the figures 60,000 and 600 as recorded in the BIS may be the total numbers of 'yoni pamukkha' of the Pali texts and Karmansa or part of larma may correspond to the act, speech and thought of Buddhaghosa. Thus three parts of karma (tinni kamman?) of this cannonical work may be identical with the addha-kamna of the Samaffiaphala Sutta.? Conception of Soul The conception of soul is intimately related to the doctrine of Karma and transmigration of being from one life to another and its final liberation. The study of the references to the many rebirths of an individual in different forms and bodies by Gosala and to the Karmas occurring in the Bhs clearly reveals that Ajivikism believed in the existence of soul, though a clear conception of its nature, etc., is not found in this work. The evidence of the idea of soul according to the doctrine of Ajivikism as revealed in the text is well supported by the Buddhist works where it is stated that all the six mendicant leaders alike taught in opposition to Lord Buddha that the conscious soul continues to exist after death. They had difference of views in regard to the exact mode of its existence; Gosala is said to have expounded that it is endowed with form (rupi), while Lord Mahavira explained that it was formless (arupi). "Rupi atta hoti arogo param marana sanni (Digh. N. 1. p. 31)." Conception of Immeasurable length of time involved in the process of transmigration of Soul The BHS throws some light upon the measurement of time according to the doctrine of Ajivikism by giving an account of immeasurable length of it, involved in the process of trans 1 History & Doctrine of Ajivikas-Dr. Basham p. 242. * Majjhima Nikaya-IV.398 (explained in Digha-N, 1. p. 303 ; Di. 44-45).

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Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 443 migration of soul as discussed below. As the Gangas is five hundred yojanas in length, half a yojana in breadth and five hundred dhanusa in depth (yojana =41 miles, 1 dhanusa=6 feet), so by this unit of measurement of space of the Gangas, seven Gangas make one great Gangas (Mahaganga), seven Mahaganga:= one Sadina-Ganga, seven Sadina-Ganga:=one Mrtyu Ganga, seven Mityu Gangus = one Lohita Ganga, seven Lohita-Gangas = one Avanti Ganga and seven Avanti Ganga:=one Paramava(n)ti Ganga: thus there become 117,649 Gangas in all with the first and last Gangas.1 There are stated to be two kinds of particles (grains) of sand in these Gangas, viz. suksmavondikalevara (having the fine form of body), and vadaravondikalevara (endowed with gross form of body). The first one is sthapya (thappa-not explained. If in every hundred years each one gross particle of sand gets diminished, the time by which the store of the seven Gaugas becomes empty of gross particles of sand would be one Saras (a period of time). By this unit of Sara one Mahakalpa is formed of 300,000 of such Saras and eighty-four Mahakalpas make one Mahamanasa." This definition of Mahakal pa (the period of transmigration) is supported by the evidences of the Sumangalavilasini,s where it is stated that the Mahakal pa is the time required to empty a great lake seven times larger than one Sara (i.e. equal to 7 Saras) by removing water by the measure of one drop in every hundred years. The BhS and the Sumangalavilasini agree on this point that time is measured by introducing a Sara in both the cases, but they differ on this that Mahakalpa of the former is formed of 300,000 Saras in place of seven Suras of the latter. 1 It is not clear from the study of the comm, what is meant by the number of these Gangas except the one river-Gangas, ? Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 3 Sumangaluvilasini 1, p. 164 (Buddha gosa's Commentary).

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444 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII Besides this system of Mahakal pas of Ajivikism as revealed in this canonical work, it also contains the theory of cosmic progress and decay of time (i.e. measurement of time upto Sagaropama) similar to that of the Nirgrantha religion, for Gosala proclaims himself as the twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the Avasarpini age (or aeon of decline).1 Sannigabbha (Samjnigarbha = Sentient birth) It has already been pointed out that soul transmigrates through eighty-four Mahakalpas, seven celestial births, seven heavenly bhavanas (samyuthas), seven sentient or human births (sannigabbhas) and seven reanimations till the attainment of its final emancipation. Thus it is explained that soul (or being), giving up the body is born from infinite samyuthas (devabhava) as god in the upper Manasasamyutha (devabhava) where it passes time by enjoying the celestial enjoyments. After the decay of the span of its life and duration it is born from there in the first human womb as five-sensed human being; from there immediately after its death it is born as god in the Manasa-Samyutha (devabhava), having Manasa-Sara-pramana-ayus (span of life having the period of Manasa-Sara) from that celestial world again it is born as human being in the second Samjnigarbha; from that state of existence after its death, it is born in the lower Samyutha (devabhava), having Manasa-pramana-ayus. Then falling from that celestial state of existence it it born in the third Samjni-garbha as human being, from there after death it is born in the highest Samyutha (devabhava) having Manusottarasara-pramana-length of life; having fallen from that celestial state of existence it is reborn in the fourth Samjnigarbha as human being; from there immediately after death it is born in the middle Samyutha (devabhava), having Manusottura-Sara-pramana-length of life; having fallen from that divine state of existence it is reborn in the fifth Samjnigarbha as human being; from that state of existence it is reborn in the lower Manusottara Samyutha, there 1 BhS, 15, 1, 554.

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445 Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA having enjoyed the divine enjoyment, it is reborn from that celestial state in the sixth Samjnigarbha as human being; from this state of existence it is born as god in the Kalpa called Brahmaloka, having the length of life of ten-Sagaropamas, having fallen from there it is reborn as human being in the seventh Samjnigarbha; after full course of pregnancy of nine months seven and a half nights and days it is born as a boy. In this process of Samjnigarbha fourteen births are involved. Gosala is said to have entered into these seven Samjnigarbhas and seven parivrtya-pariharas (re-animations) as already mentioned in connection with the account of his life. Conception of Liberation According to the doctrine of Ajivikism as revealed in the Bhs there is no short cut for a being to attain the final liberation without undergoing the process of so many births and rebirths till its Karmas get annihilated. This conception of liberation in Ajivikism as embodied in the Bhs is also found in the Buddhist works where it is explained that there is no short-cut door to bliss without transmigration. Thus it is explained "Bijaka, wait on Destiny, whether (a man has) joy or sorrow, it is obtained through Destiny. All beings are purified through transmigration, (so) do not be eager for that which is to come." "N' atthi daram sugatiya Niyatim kankha Bijaka; Sukham va yadi va dukkham Niyatiya kira labbhati; Samsarasuddhi sabbesam ma turittho anagate." Eight Finalities2 It is recorded in the BhS that Gosala propounded the doctrine of eight lasts, viz. the last drink, the last song, the last dance, the last solicitation (or salutation), the last great tornado, 1 Jataka, V1, p. 229, Cf. Ime satta. Samsara Suddhika; Jataka, V, p. 228. 2 Bhs, 15, 1, 554.

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446 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Vit the last sprinkling (secanaka) elephant, the last Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and the last Tirthanlara (i. e. Gasala himself) in the Avasar pini kala. In addition to these the Ajivika leader preached the doctrine of four potables (drinks) and four Impotables (condrinks) (cattari panagaim and cattari apanagaim). They are as follows : Four Drinks--(1) Goputthae (Goprotha=cow's urine), (2) Hatthamaddiyae (hastamarditaka = water soiled by hand), (3) Atavatattae (ata patapta=drink heated by the sunshine) and (4) Silava. bbhatthae (Silaprabhrasta=water dripped from a rock). Four non-drinks (1) Thalapanaya (sthalapanaka = water kept in wares like earthen jars etc., these cold and wet earthen pots are touched by hands, the water kept there-in is not drunk). (2) Tayapanaya (Tvak.panaka - juice squeezed out of unripe mango by putting it into the mouth, or out of the edible fruit of jujubee or young shoots of darbha grass, since its juice is not drunk), (3) Simbalipanaya (Simbalipanaka = water or juice chewed from the raw pulses under teeth, such as Kalaya, Munga, etc.) and (4) Suddhapanaya (Suddhapanaka= the touch of limbs of dying monk by Purnibhadra and Manibhadra with their cold and wet hands). It is explained that if the dying monk on the last night of his full six months' penance, experiences (or submits to) the touch of the cold and wet hands of these two gods on his limbs, he binds Karma which turns into deadly poison, if he does not pay attention to it, fire gets generated in his body and it gets consumed by this fire, and he attains perfection and puts an end to all miseries. Initiation The Bhs throws some light upon the initiation of the Ajivika monk by refering to the process of initiation, the observance of chastity, study and acquired knowledge of Gosala in one of his former births as described by himself.8 1 Digha-Nikaya (Sumangalavila sini 162, translated in Uva. sagadasao, appendix II, p. 21. * Anguttara Nikaya, IV. 3 BhS, 15, 1, 550.

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Sec. VIIT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 447 Austerity As regards the Ajivika austerity the text gives some ideas about it by describing the practice of severe penance of Gosala, raising his hands high in the sunshine, giving up six con. secutive meals, living on a handful of lump of kulmasa (benn or rice gruel) and one sip of water in the initial stage of his asceticism. Thus he attained the faculty of condensed sufficient fiery energy at the end of six months. He is also found to have performed the acts of austerities and meditation on the Atapanabhumi during his stay in the premises of his female disciple, Halahala, the potteress in the city of Sravasti." The evidences of the practice of austerities and meditation as revealed in the Bhs are also fully corroborated by other Jainas and Buddhist works and other works in details. Thus the Sthananga Sutra presents an account of their severe penances by describing the four kinds of their austerities, viz, uggatava, ghoratava (ghorata pa), rasa-nijjuhanata (absention from liquids-rasa .ghrtadi) and jihvendriya pratisamlinata (indiffe. rence to pleasures of sense of taste). The account of the practice of severe austerities by Bodhisattva born as an Ajivilea, in the peaceful atmosphere of a denseforest tlirows light upon the nature of asceticism and meditation of this sect. According to the Tamila Civanana-cittiyara the Ajivika doctrine ordains self-torturing asceticism to all souls as the road to spiritual liberation. The evidences of the Tittira Jataka suggest the practice of secret magical rites of a repulsive tantric type which is also implied by the last behaviour of Gosala. | BhS, 15, 1, 545 : Ib, 15, 1, 530; 546 3 Sthananga Sutra, IV. 309 ; Aupapatika Sutra. 4 Lomahaisa Jataka, 1. p. 390, Jat. 1. p. 493. Also see Nigamttha Jataka; Tittira Jataka-III pp. 541-2. 5 Civanana Cittiyara ; ed. Mudaliyar-p. 235. v. 1.; Sugiura : "Hindu-Logic as prescribed in China and Japan-p. 16, quoting Hyaku-ron soi 22. Dr. Hoernle identifies the Alibekas with the Digambara Jaivas E.R.E. 1. p-269. 6 BhS, 15, 1, 553,

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448 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII Customs It is recorded in the BNS that the Ajavika layman observed the principles of non-violence as approved by the Nirgrantha religion. They regarded their leader Gosala as god and attended upon their parents and they were non-eaters (or takers) of five kinds of fruits, viz. udunbara (udumbara fruit), vata (banian fruit), vora (jujube), satara (afijira) fruit, pilankhu (a kind of fruit) and renouncer of onion, garlic and bulbous roots. They passed their time by the occupations without castrating domestic cattle (cows), branding them and perforating their noses with the thought free from the act of killing moving beings. Difference between Ajivikism and Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma The fundamental difference between Ajivikisin and Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma as recorded in the BhS lies in the doctrine of reanimation as propounded by Gosala in opposition to the established theory of Lord Mahavira on the birth and rebirth of beings. Besides, there were other religious disputes between the Ajivika Sramanopasakas and the Niryranthu Sramano pasakas over the observance of Samayika-vrata and other vows. For example, it is stated that a N. Sramaaopasaka observing Silavrata, Gunavrata, Viramanavrata, Pratyalchyanavrata and Pausadhavrata becomes free froin the thought of attachment to the worldly objects, wife and wealth as a result of his performance of these vows. The N. Sramanapasakas practise the following vows, viz. renunciation of three kinds of acts of killing (to kill, to cause to kill and to approve to kill), that of telling lie ; that of sexual union, and that of possession together with their divisions and pratikramana (self-analysis), retrace from the past acts, confession and repentance), stoppage of the present act and renouncement of the future act by mental, vocal and bodily activities.' But the Ajrviku-Sramanopasakas do not observe them. i Bhs, 8, 5, 329. ? 16, 8, 5, 328-29.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 449 These statements appear to be self-contradictory and suffer from the sectarian bias, for it has already been pointed out that the twelve Ajivika laymen observed the principle of non-violence preached by Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma by worshipping their Arhat as god, attending upon their parents, renouncing five kinds of fruits and vegetables containing germs of life and carrying on occupation without castrating domestic cattle (cows) perforating their noses, etc., with the thought free from the act of killing mobile beings, These facts clearly show that the Ajavika doctrine of reani mation or Niyativada, determinism in another form, the denial of Lord Mahavira's discipleship by Gosala and the laxity of morals1 are the real causes of difference betwen Ajivikism and Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma. But one should be cautious to draw a conclusion from the statements which suffer from the sectarian bias, for the BhS and other Jaina texts and Buddhist works have revealed that Ajivikism was based on the solid ground of the eight principles of causation. EIGHTH SECTION Other Schools and Sects Besides the Ajivikas, there existed other schools of thought and heterodox sects in the society as depicted in the BhS, such as, four heretical schools of Kriyavadins, Akriyavadins, Ajnanavadins & Vinayavadins,' the Parivrajakas, the Vanaprasthas, the Carakas, other Tirthikas, the followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order, those of Jamali, etc. Kriyavadins According to the doctrine of Kriyavada soul exists, acts and is affected by acts. The Kriyavadins may be identified 1 Vide, Sutrakrtanga, J. S. II-267, for fourrestrictions. Bhs, 30, 1, 824. 57

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450 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII with the followers of the Nyaya and Vaisesika systems along with the Sramana Nirgranthas, for they admit the existence of soul and its action, Akriyavadins They deny the existence of soul and its action as an agent and they may correspond to the Buddhists who believed in the doctrine of Ksanikavada (momentariness). Aj anavadins They do not admit the importance of knowledge for attaining spiritual liberation, because many contradictory theories assert themselves in the system of knowledge to establish their views on the attainment of salvation. Vinayavadins The Vinayavadins observed the principle of reverence for all beings as the highest virtue to attain spiritual realization and perfection. The Sutra-Kytanga' treats of these four schools and their systems of thought in details and mentions 180 schools of the Kriyavadins, 84 schools of the Akriyavadins, 67 of the Ajnanavadins, and 32 groups of the Vinayavadins. The text throws a welcome light upon the system of thought and practice of religion of the Vinayavadins by presenting two cases of the two Vinayavadins, namely, Tamali of Tamralipti and Purana of Bebhela Sannivesa. Initiation It is stated that Tamali got initiated by Pranama pravrajya (panamapavvajja= diksa) with the permission of his friends, kinsmen, own people, brother-in-law, attendants and his first born son. On the day of conclusion of his fast he begged alms of pure rice from the high, low and middle class families of the city of 1 Sutra-Kritanga, 1. 12 ; 1. 12. p. 208 ; 1. 12. p. 223 a ; 11. 240 ; Su-Ti 1. 12. p. 208 a. See-12-5. 8; Anu. Su. 20 (Viruddhas); Su. Tika-1. 12 p. 209-1. 12. 2; Su. Ti. 1, 12, p. 209; Su. Te. 1. 12. p. 209 a.

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Sec. VIII) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 451 Tamralipti and took that food after washing it with water twenty.one times. It is called "Pranama-Pravrajya', because he, being initiated, saluted any one high or low, whomever and wherever he saw, whether he perceived (the image of) Indra, or Skanda, or Rudra, or Siva, or Vaisramana (Kuvera), or Arya (Parvati), or Kotta kiriya (Candika), or a king, or a merchant, or a crow, or a dog, or a pana (Candala), or an honourable person.' Tamali, having realized his shattered physical condition as a result of his practice of austerity left this worldly life by observing the padapopagamana samlekhana tapa' like Skandaka, Purana of Bebhela Sannivega', the other Vinayavadin got initiated by Danama Pravrajya to monkhood. According to this system he divided his alms into four parts--the first portion of which was given to the travellers, the second to the crows and dogs, the third to the fish and tortoise and the remaining part was kept for his use. For this reason it is called Danama Pravrajaya. Purana also left the mundane world by observing the austerity of Samlekhana like Tamali. The evidences of the existence of the Vinayavadins are also found in other Jaina texts." Parivrajakas The Parivrajakas were the wandering teachers who moved in a group with the object of mutual discussion on ethical and philosophical subjects of studies. They also resided sometimes in monasteries (matha) which were out of bounds for women according to the rule of their monastic order. It is stated in the BhS that Skandaka a Parivrajaka was profoundly learned in the hidden knowledge of the four Vedas-Rig., Yaju., sama., Atharvan, Itihasa, Purana, Nighantu, Sasthitantra (Kapilasastra), Sankhyana (Mathematics), Siksa (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (Grammar), Chanda (Metre), Nirukta (Exegesis), i Bhs, 3, 1. 134. Ib, 3, 1, 135. 16, 3, 2. 144. See Ovoiya Suya, 38, p. 169; Naya Ti. 15- p. 194-a. 6 Bh8, 2, 1, 90. 11, 12, 436; 14, 8, 529-30.

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452 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII Jyotinamayana (Astronomy and Astrology), Naya (Logic) and Philosophy of the Brahmanas and Parivrajakas.' The monks of this sect used the following articles in their ascetic life, viz. Tridanda (three staves) Kundika (Kamandalu water-pot) Kafcuika (Rudraksamala-rosary), Karotika (earthen vessel), Bhroika (a grass seat), Kesyrika (sweeping duster), Sadnalaka (teapoy), Ankusa (axe or hook), Pavitraka (ring), Gantrika (a rosary) Kalacika (fore-arm-ornament), Chatra (umbrella), Upanaha (shoes), Paduka, (wooden sandals), Dhatu. raktavastra (red-coloured garment)!* Practice of Asceticism Poggala (Pudgala), another Parivrajakas is said to have practised the unbroken act of Sastha-Sastha-tapa (austerity), residing at a near distance of the Sarkhavana Caitya in the city of Alabhika, while the third Parivrajaka, Ammada" by name lived with a retinue of his seven hundred followers in the city of Kampilyapura by peforming acts of penance. A detailed treatment of the account of the monastic life of Ammada and his disciples is found in the Aupapatika Sutra.". Thus it is stated there that this Parivrajaka leader practised austerity by observing sastha-sastha fast, raising his arms high in the sunshine to absorb it. He did not take food prepared, or brought, or earmarked for him, or that kept for famine-striken people or rich men, nor did he take roots, bulbous fruits, seeds, and green vegetables. His followers begged alms from hundred houses (gharasac). According to the evidence of the text, the Parivrajaka doctrine consisted of the following principles, viz. charity, (danadharma), purity (saucadharma), and bath at holy places (tirthabhiseka). It was their faith and practice to purify the impure body by using mud on it and then washing it with water and to take bath at the holy places with the hope and belief of 12 BhS, 2, 1, 90. 3 16, 11, 12, 436. * Aupapatika, Sutra, p. 27-8 80. 59 f. 16, 14, 8, 529-30. . Bhs, 14, 8, 530.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 453 attaining heaven. "Tanuam udaena ya mattiae pakkhaliyam sui bhavati." They observed the rules of not using any kind of conveyances in travelling, such as, cart or a litter, etc., nonentering a lake or a river for bathing, nor riding on a horse or an elephant, nor visiting (i.e. attending) the dancing performance or that of a bard, etc. Vanaprastha Tapasas (Forest recluses) As already mentioned in the second section of the fourth chapter in connection with the topic 'third stage of life,' a large number of Vanaprastha-ta pasas (forest recluses) lived in the society of the Bhs by practising different kinds of austerities on the bank of the Ganges. They are as follows: (1) Hottiya (Agnihotrikas = offerers of fire-sacrifice), (2) Kottiya (Bhumisayikas = who slept on the ground), (3) Pottiya (Vastradharinah=wearers of clothes), (4) Jannai (Yajna-yajinah= performers of sacrifice), (5) Saddhaz (Sraddhaka=Devotional class of ascetics), (6) Thalal (Grhitabhanda=carriers of all their belongings), (7) Humva-uttia (Kundika-Sramanadi = those who carried, a vessel with them), (8) Dantukkhaliya(Phalabhojinah= fruit eaters using teeth as mortar), (9) Ummajjaka (Unmajjaka= They bathed by only a dip into water), (10) Sammajjaka (They bathed without dipping into water), (11) Nimmajjaka (They remained in the water only for a short while), (12) Sar pakkhala (They rubbed and cleansed their bodies with mud), (13) Dahinakulaka (They dwelt only on the south bank of the Ganges), (14) Uttarakulaka (They dwelt only on the north bank of it), (15) Samkhadhamaka (They used to take their meals after blowing a conch-shell to keep the people away), (16) Kuladhamaka (They blew a conch.shell on the river bank to keep the people away at the time of taking their meal), (17) Mrgalubdhaka (They killed | Bhs, 11, 9, 417 ff. 2 The Ramayana also refers to the Dantilulhalim and Unmaj jaka hermits III, 6.3 ; see also Digh. Com. Vol. 1- p. 270.

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454 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII animals), (18) Hastitapasas (They killed an elephant with arrows and lived on its flesh for a long time. According to their faith they committed one sin only by killing an elephant in a year or so, their sinful deed was atoned by the effect of the merit acquired by them through the observance of non-violence to other beings during this period).' (19) Uddandaga (They always walked about with their staff raised high and they are also referred to in the Acaranga Curnia along with Boaiya and Sasarakkha ascetics), 20) Jalabhiseka-kidhinagatra (They did not take food by taking bath), (21) Ambuvasinas (They lived in water), (22) Vayuvasinas (They lived in or on air), (23) Jalavasinas (They submerged themselves in water), (24) Celavasinas or Velavasinas (They lived on the sea-coast), (25) Ambubhaksinas (They lived by drinking water), (26) Vaya (or w)-bhaksinas (They lived by inhaling air), (27) Saivalabhaksinas (They lived by eating moss)," (28) Mulahara (They lived on roots of trees), (29) Kandahara (They lived on bulbous roots), (30) Patrahara (They lived on leaves), (31) Puspa. hara (They lived on flowers), (32) Phalahara (Those who lived on fruits), (33) Bijahara (They lived on seeds), (34) Parisadiyakamilamulapanoupatra puspaphalahara (They lived on rotten roots, bulbous roots, skin, leaves, flowers and fruits"), (35) Rukkhamuliya (They lived under trees), (36) Valavasinas or Vilavasinas (They lived in caves), (37) Vakkavasinas (They put on bark-cloth), (38) Disapokkhiya (They sanctified all sides by sprinkling water and then collected flowers and fruits), These Vanaprastha tapasas passed time by making their souls burnt (i.e. purified) by the heat of five fires of austerity (pancaggitave him) like charcoal or cooked as charcoal, perched in a pan and burnt as fire-wood. 1 See Suyagadanga. II, 6 (comm.), they appear as Buddhists; refer also to Lalitavistara-p. 248 for Tastivrata a scetics. 2 The Ramayana III. 2, 13. refers to Mandakarni, a hermit who lived on air; also see Mahabharata, 1. 96-42. 8 Cf. Lalitavistara--p. 248. 4 Cf. Digha-Nikaya-1. pp. 166 f. 6 Bhs, 11, 9, 417-18.

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Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 455 These ascetics also find mention in other Jaina texts. A full account of the system of Vanaprastha asceticism, particularly that of the Disaproksina forest recluse as practised by the royal sage Siva, has already been given in the second section of the fourth chapter in connection with the third stage of life. Carakas The Carakas of the Bhs also figure in the Anuyogadvara Sutras and Brhadaranyaka Upanisad" as wandering monks. It is stated in the Anuyogadvara Sutra that these ascetics, while moving in group begged alms (Dhatibahaka) or moved on, while taking food (Dhatibhaiksopajivinastridandinas). They wore loin cloth (kacchafaka) and they are said to have been the sons of Kapila Muni (Kapilamunisunavo). It is recorded in the Avasyaka Tika that they worshipped 'Skanda' and other dieties by burning incense in temples, after having risen early in the mor. ning and besmeared them. Other Tirthikas It appears from the Bhs that other Tirthikas (Anya-yuthikas) were one of the rival sects of the Nirgranthus, but many of them were converted by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma and absorbed into his order. They cannot be identified with certainty. Among them the following appear in this canonical work, namely Kalodayin, Selodayin, Sevalodayin, Udaya, Namudaya, * Selavalaya, Samkhavalaya and Suhatthi the house. holder." The other Tarthikas held different thoughts and ideas on religious and philosophical problems contrary to those of Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma preached by Mahavira. For 1 Niraya-3. pp. 39 ff. (Somila); Ava. Cu. p. 457 (king Prasanna candra and his queen). ? Bhs, 1, 2, 25. Anuyogadvara Sutra, 20 ; Naya-Ti, 15. 4 Vedic Index-1. p. 256. 5 Panna Ti.-II, 20 p. 405 ; of Ava-Cu. p. 265. 6 Ava T2--p. 87. Bhs, 7, 10, 305. *Namudaya seems to have been an Ajivikopasaka, Editor.

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456 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. VII example, they maintained that Jiva (soul) of the being (dehi) existing in the acts of killing, telling lie upto wrong attitude of mind (i. e, eighteen sinful acts) was other than the soul and Jivatma was another, etc. Followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order There existed a number of monks of Lord Parsvanatha's order following Caturyama Dharma during the time of Lord Mahavira who absorbed them into his order by converting them to his doctrine of Paficamahavratas (five great vows). Among them Kalasavesiyaputta Gangeya', Kaliyaputta, Mehila, Anandaraksita, Kasava, Kesisvamin' and others find mention as wandering teachers preaching the religion of Caturyama to the people. Dissension and First Schismi in the Nirgrantha Order led by Jamali The Bhs throws an important light upon the first schism in the Nirgrantha order and the birth of Jamali's sect out of his doctrinal difference with his Guru, Lord Mahavira in his life time. During his stay together with five hundred followers at the Kosthala Caitya in Sravasti, Jamali fell ill and asked for a bed from them. He thought that he could not yet use tbis bed which was being prepared, so was action, when it was being done, it was not done. But Lord Mahavira explained that all actions, as soon as they were begun, were as good as already done. This doubt led the prince-ascetic to entertain ideas different from that of the community and finally this doctrinal difference resulted in the first schism led by Jamali" in the Nirgrantha order. 9 I6, 9, 32, 371. i Bhs, 7, 2, 597. 4 16, 2, 5, 110. * Ib, 1, 9, 75. 51b, 9, 33, 386-7.

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Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 457 NINTH SECTION Deities The Bhs provides a list of the Brahmanical deities worshipped by the people of its society who celebrated festivals in their honour, as already pointed out in connection with the topic Manners and Customs' in the eighth section of the fourth chapter on Social conditions'. They are as follows: Indra, Skanda, Mukunda, Naga, Yaksa, Bhuta, Rudra, Siva, Ajja (Parvati, the consort of Siva),' Kottakiriya, Soma (the lord of the Eastern quarter), Yama (the lord of the Southern quarter) Varuna (the lord of the Western quarter), and Vaiara. mana (the lord of the Northern quarter), Vai avanara (the firegod)," Purnabhadra and Munibhadra, the two Ajivika gods, the goddesses-Sri (the goddess of Luck), Hri (the goddess of Modesty), Dhyti (the goddess of resolution or satisfaction), Kirti (the goddess of fame), Buddhi (the goddess of learning or intelligence) and Laksmi (the goddess of wealth). There was the prevalence of image worship of gods and goddesses, as it is revealed by the fact of the salutation and worship to the images of Indra, Skanda, Rudra, Siva and Ajja? (Arya, Parvati or Candika), Kostakiriya (the Mahisasuravadhika), made by Tamals of Tamralipti, while practising the Pranama austerity and that of the presentation of marriage gifts of the images of the female deities Sri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi and Laksmi,s to the eight wives of prince Mahabala by his father, king Bala of Hastinapura for the purpose of their worship. It appears from the reference to these goddesses that the trend of the worship changed from the abstract conception of the five or six attributes or virtues to their personifications from the Vedic period up to that of the Bhs, as they are typically Vedic goddesses. Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 3, 1, 134. 10, 3, 1, 134. s 1b, 11, 9, 417. Ib, 3. 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. * Ib, 15, 1, 550. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 7 16, 3, 1, 134. 810, 11, 11, 430. 58

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458 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII In the Buddhist Jatakas1 there appear the four Indian graces, viz. Asa (hope), Saddha (faith), Siri (Luck) and Hri (Modesty) as the four daughters of Sakka (Sakra), the king of gods. Vedic gods: The Vedic gods, such as, Indra, Varuna, Agni (Vaisvanara), etc., appear as the personalities and characters endowed with the element of mental conditions, joys, and sorrows, richness, power and prosperity like the human beings, having their original character as hypostatic powers of Nature. But they are depicted as impersonal in nature, for the powers of Nature, such as, the storm, the rain, the thunder, the fire, the water, etc., are still closely associated with them, as it is evidenced by the fact revealed in their characters, e. g. Indra is the possessor of the thunder bolt, Vaisvanara is that of fire, Varuna is that of water, etc. The evidences of the plurality of gods and goddesses, the worship of demons (Yaksa, Bhutas), trees, etc., show the faith of the people of its society in polytheism and many obscure cults of the primitive stage of belief which was the fountain-head of many cults emerged in course of the religious evolution in India. TENTH SECTION. Supernatural powers of the houseless Monks & Supernatural Elements Supernatural power of the houseless monks The BhS gives some ideas about the supernatural powers of the houseless monks by introducing the miraculous things demonstrated by them. It is stated that some of the houseless monks, meditating on soul perceive the goddess and a vehicle, 2 Bhs, 3, 2, 145 (Vajjam). 1 Jataka, V. p. 393 f, 3.4 76, 11, 9, 417.

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459 Sec. X] Studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA some perceive the vehicle but not the god and goddess ; some perceive both and some do not perceive any of them at all by the process of Vaikriya-Samudghata (Process of expansion of body and soul;. It is further recorded that a houseless monk can fly into the sky by assuming the form of a man with a sword and a shield in hand, etc., but he did not assume nor does nor will do it. He can go many Yojanas by assuming many forms of a horse by his own strength, self-action and self-application. But he is not certainly the horse. The text throws further light upon the supernatural powers of the monks by explaining Caranat (a faculty of movement) possessed by them and classifying it into two kinds, viz., Vidyacarana and Janghacarana. The faculty of Vidyacarana is born in a monk as a result of his practice of consecutive Sastha-tapa-karma with the attainment of Uttaragunalabdhi (faculty) and that of the learning of the Purvagata Sruta, i. e. the tenth Purva. By the acquired power of the faculty of Vidyacarana he may fly to different places and return to his original place within the twinkling of an eye. The faculty of Janghacarana of a monk, meditating on the self is born in him as a result of his consecutive Astama-Astama-tapa-karma. By the power of this faculty of Janghacarana he may go to the horizontal and upward directions and return to his original place within an instant. Supernatural Elements In the Bhs the author has introduced some supernatural elements to teach the law of morality to the people in general for their proper guidance and conduct in following the path of religion and attaining spiritual realization by creating the fear of sin (papa), hells and the sufferings of infernal beings as the consequences of their former sinful acts and by holding before them a picture of heaven, an abode of enjoyment and happiness | Bhs, 3, 4, 156. 3 Ib., 13, 9, 498. 2 Ib, 3, 5, 161. 4 Ib., 20,?,684-85.

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460 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII of gods and goddesses as the results of their meritorious acts in the previous births. It is explained that the bondage of Ayuskarma (age-determining karma) of infernal beings caused by the result of a great amount of act of killing and possession, meat-eating, act of killing five-sensed beings and the rise of infernal ayus-karmanasariraprayoga-namakarma (the karmabandha caused by the action of the infernal karmanasarira). While that of celestial ayus-karmanasarira-prayoga is effected by the act of self-control with attachment, i.e. self-control-cum-not-self-control, the unsaintly austerity (bala-tapakarma), the dissociation of karma with akama (without internal self exertion) and the act of bearing the suffering or enduring from the unfulfilled desire, troubles like hunger, etc., and the rise of the celestial ayuskarmana-sarira-prayoga-namakarma.' Infernal beings' The infernal beings are deformed evil beings of the third sex, having a fine transformation body. They suffer from various kinds of physical pains, such as, cold, hunger, thirst, etc., in hells, They who are consumed by passions and hatred, torment one another with hellish thought, feeling and action. They enter into this infernal state of existence through upapata (manifestation) as a result of their karmas and this state comes to an end with the decay of their span of life. The infernal beings are endowed with cognition-mati,sruta-avadhi-jnana or ajnana (as the case may be); intuitioncaksu-acaksudarsana; activities-4 mental, 4 vocal and vaikriya, vaikriya-misra and karmana-kaya (physical) activities; conditions of soul-black, dark, blue and grey (lesyas), attitudes of mindperverted (mithyatva), mixed (mithyatva-samyaktva), right (samyaktva) attitude; and conduct (caritra) not self-discipline. They dwell in the numerous hells of the seven successive descending lower regions of the Universe, viz. Ratnaprabha upto Tamas-tamah-prabha. 1 BhS., 8, 9, 351. Ib., 1, 5, 45; 5, 6, 209. 5.7 Ib, 1, 5, 46. 2 Ib., 15, 1, 470-71. 4 Ib, 1, 2, 21; 5, 9, 224. 8 Ib, 1, 5, 43.

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461 Sec. X] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The infernal state of existence has been dealt with in the Bhs from different aspects, such as, their birth' and death, etc.3 Celestial beings The celestial beings are the gods and goddesses endowed with transformation bodies, a great longevity of life in comparison with that of the worldly beings, and great prosperity and power, splendour, enjoyment and happiness during their state of existence in heaven. With the exhaustion of Devayus (celestial span of life) they fall from the heaven and are reborn as human beings. Like the worldly human beings, there are stated to be developed and undeveloped gods (i. e. those whose sense-organs are fully developed and those whose sense-organs are not fully developed)." They are possessed of cognitions-mati,-sruta,-avadhi-jnana or ajnana (as the case may be); intuitions-caksur-acaksur-avadhidarsana; activities-4 mental, and 4 vocal activities and vaikriya (transformation); vaikriya-misra and karmanakayayoga; 6 lesyas (with some difference among different classes of gods); attitudes of mind-perverted (mithyatva), sasadana-samyaktva (mixed) and right attitude (samyaktva); and conduct-not-self-control (no-samyata). They are reborn as human beings or as animals. They do not find celestial and infernal states of existence (gati), anuparvi, ayus, transformation-body and limbs, translocation-body and limbs, undeveloped, common body, two to four-sensed lower animal's ayus-karma, fine body. Classification of Gods Gods are classified into four species, viz. Bhavanavasis (or patis), Vanavyantaras, Jyotiskas and Vaimanikas." The Bhavanavasis who are the lowest of them are divided into ten classes, viz. Asurakumara, Nagakumara, Vidyut-kumara, Suparna-kumara, Ib, 20, 10, 687. 1 Bhs, 26, 8, 805 (birth); 20, 10, 685. 8.4 Ib, 1, 7, 57, 58, 59. Ib, 2, 7, 115; 5, 9, 227; 13, 2, 473.

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462 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA h. Vit Agni-Kumara Vayu-kumara, Stanita-kumara, Udadhi-kumara, Dvi pa-kumara and Dik-Kumara. The Asura-kumara gods live in the upper part of Ratnaprabha, while the other Bhavanavasi gods dwell in the earth.? They are like princes in stature and appearance, power, prosperity and splendour and enjoyment & happiness. It is stated that Camaru-Asurendra rules over 40 lakhs heavenly palaces, 64 thousand Samanika gods, 33 lakhs Trayastrimsaka gods and 256,000 body guards. He is capable to assume various shapes with his divine power, such as, the figure of Asura. kumara-gods, etc. Two Indras rule over each class of these Bhavanavas2-gods with their respective Lokapalas in the following order-Camara and Bali rule over the Asurakumaras ; Dharana and Bhutananda over the Naga-kumaras ; Venudeva and Venudali over the Su parna-Kumaras; Harikanta and Harisaha over the VidyutKumaras ; Agni-Simha and Agnimanava over the Agnikumaras ; Purana and Visistha over the Dvipakumaras ; Jalakanta and Jala prabha over Udadhi-Kumaras ; Amitagati and Amitavahana over the Dik-Kumaras ; Velarva and Prabhafijana over the Vayu-Kumaras ; Ghosa and Mahaghosa over Stanita-Kumaras respectively. Their sexual desire is satisfied by coition. They are endowed with black, dark, blue, grey and red conditions of soul.? Vyantaras The Vyantara gods are divided into eight classes, viz. Kinnara, Kimpurusa, Mahoraga, Gandharva, Yaksa, Raksasa, Bhuta and Pisaca. They live in all the three worlds. Each of these classes has two overlords in the following order. Kala and Mahakala are two overlords of the Pisaca-Kumaras. Surupa and Pratirupa are those of the Bhutas ; Purnabhadra and Maaibhadra i Bhs, 13, 2, 473. 8 16, 3, 6, 16+. *Ib, 3, 8, 169. Ib, 16, (11-12), 590. Ib, 2, 7, 115 ; 3, 2, 142. 4 Ib, 3, 1, 126. 6 10, 2, 10, 82 8 16, 2, 7, 115. 16, 3, 8, 169.

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Sec. X] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 463 are those of the Yaksas; Bhima and Mahabhima are those of Raksasas ; Kinnara and Kimpurusa are those of the Kinnaras ; Satpurusa and Mahapurusa are those of Kimpurusas, Atikaya and Mahalaya are those of the Mahoragas ; and Gitarati and Gitayasa are those of the Gandhakayas or (Gandharvas)? Purnabhadra and Manibhadra are also mentioned as the Ajevika gods. Their sexual desire, conditions of soul and karman are like those of the Bhavanavasi gods. Jyotiskas The Jyotiskas consist of five classes of gods, viz. suns, moons, planets, Naksatras and fixed stars. Two gods rule over them viz. the moon and the sun. They have been dealt with in the sixth chapter in connection with the topic Astronomy'. Vaimanikas There are stated to be two classes of the Vaimanikas, viz. Kal popapan nas (residents of kal pas) and Kalpatitas (abodeless). The first group lives in the twelve Kalpas, viz. Saudharma upto Acyutakalpa as mentioned in the second section of the ninth chapter. The duration of life power, enjoyment, happiness, splendour, purity of the lesyas, strength of the senses, the sphere of activity of the avadhi-jnana of the resident gods of each Kalpa, is increasing in each case, but the circumference of sphere of their travelling, the size of body, the possession and pride are growing less. There are different grades of these gods. One Indra rules over each of the group of these gods, for instance, Sakra, rules over Saudharma-Kalpa and Tsanas over Aisanakalpa. Kalpatita The Kalpatitas are the gradeless gods having auspicious lesyas but no carnal desire in the slightest degree. They are i Bhs, 3, 8, 169. 8 16, 3, 8, 169; 17, 7, 473. Ib, 3, 1, 131. Ib, 15, 1, 554. 4 16, 2, 7, 115,

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464 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII classified into two divisions, viz. Graiveyaka and Anuttara gods and sub-divided into different groups. The Graiveyakas are stated to be nine classes, viz. Sudarsana, Supratibandha, Manorama, Sarvabhadra, Suvisala, Somanasa, Sumanlasa, Priyankara and Nandikara. The Anuttara gods are classified into five groups, viz. Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddha. They are endowed with Samyagdrsti and affected by the fourth stage of spiritual development. The first four classes undergo two births at the utmost and the fifth is born once more, then they attain liberation,

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EIGHTH CHAPTER History FIRST SECTION Life of Lord Mahavira as depicted in the BhS The Bhs, throws a welcome light upon various aspects of the history of its period, particularly the development of men and the society as revealed in its scattered evidences. The political and social, economic and educational, and religious aspects of it have already been dealt with in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh chapters respectively, while the evolution of philosophical thought will be discussed later on. Here an attempt will be made and devoted only to the study of the development of personalities like Lord Mahavira and others, and that of the historical bearings of kings, clans and tribes during that period. Life of Mahavira as depicted in the BhS In the Bhs Lord Mahavira appears as a great ascetic, a teacher, a philosopher. a religious reformer and the last of the twenty-four Tirtharkaras? wandering with the retinue of his monk-disciples from village to village, city to city throughout North India extending from Eastern Bihar upto the united kingdom of Sindhu-Sauvira, and preaching religion to the people of all social grades belonging to heterogeneous faiths, expounding and interpreting, developing and systematizing the metaphysical aspects of the Nirgrantha religion by refuting the arguments of his own followers and those of the other sects, and of the people at large on the religious and abstruse philosophical doctrines through his holy teachings partly in the form of questions and 1 BhS, 20, 8, 677. 59

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466 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII answers, partly in that of dialogues, legends, numerous parables. familiar similes, analogies and incidents of their daily lives. Here he is found to have developed and systematized the fundamental principles of the doctrines of Jainism laid down by his predecessors on a firm ground by making some improvements on them, as their moral precepts demanded a deeper metaphysical foundation necessitated by the religious conditions of his time. It is revealed in the question of Kebi put to Gautama Indrabhuti as recorded in the Jaina Satras' that there were no fundamental differences between the Laws preached by Lord Parsvanatha and Lord Mahavira, because both of them pursued the same end. So the development of the metaphysical side of Nirgrantha religion was a historical necessity due to the existence of other strong oppositions of heterodox religious sects having different faiths, such as, Brahmanism, Ajivikism, those of the Carakas, Parivrajakas, Vanaprasthas, other Tirthikas, etc., and the followers of Lord Parsvanatha, and the first schism led by Jamali, his own disciple. In such a condition of religious firmament Lord Mahavira reformed and consolidated the whole Nirgruntha Sangha on a solid ground of metaphysical principles by absorbing the followers of Lord Parsvanatha and strengthened it by converting, initiating, and admitting those of the other sects and the common people to his order. In this respect he only followed in the foot steps of Lord Parsvanatha and erected a great edifice of Nirgrantha religion on the foundation laid by his great predecessor. He persisted in carrying out his mission with best effort, attention and undaunted courage against a heavy opposition. He brought it to a successful conclusion, and passed away with glory, entrusting his work to be continued by his devoted followers to perfection. IS. B. E. Vol. XIV. p. 122, Pt. II. Jacobi's Jaina Sutras,

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467 Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In the BhS there is presented such a vivid picture of his life and work, his association with his disciples, contemporaries, his miraculous powers and magnificent personality. Parentage of Lord Mahavira The text throws a unique light upon the parentage of Lord Mahavira as revealed in course of his sermons delivered at the Bahusalaka Caitya and Brahmanakundagrama in the assembly of Rsabhadatta, his wife Devananda, Gautama Indrabhuti and others. On the first sight of Devananda at the Master just after her arrival at this Caitya, together with her husband from their house, milk gushed forth from her breast and she stood gazing at him with unwinking eyes. Having observed these striking physical and mental conditions of Devananda, Gautama Indrabhuti, the first disciple of Lord Mahavira requested his Guru to explain the cause of the flow of milk from her breast. In that great assembly of his followers the Master made the sensational revelation of the incident of his birth in the Brahmana family of Rsabhadatta and Devananda and told Gautama Indrabhuti and others thus, "surely Goyama, Devananda is my mother, I am the son of Devananda, the Brahmani, then that Devananda......having the flow of milk from her breast and being overwhelmed with joy stands gazing at me due to the attachment for the former son."1 Now this incident of the flowing of milk from her breast on the sight of her former son reveals the natural human trait of a mother for her son and gives a new turn to his birth-story and parentage. This fact leads one to think fresh and to examine the account of the transfer of his embryo from the womb of Devananda to that of Trisala, the Ksatriyani and vice versa, 1 Bhs, 9, 33, 381.

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468 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. Vifi caused by the God, Indra through Harinegamesi, as it was not desirable that an Arhat or a Cakravarttin or a Baladeva or a Vasudeva or a Tirthankara should be born in a Brahmana family or a poor family." The echoes of the same story of the transfer of the embryo as recorded in the Kalpa Sutra' is also heard in the Bhs in connection with the holy teachings of the Master on the function of Harinegamesi. In this connection it should be observed that Lord Mahavira is attributed with the epithets Kasava'' (Kasyapa), Samana' *Niganthanata (or naya) putta' (Sramana Nirgranthajnatrputra)" by which he was also known to the Buddhists of his time. The epithet "Nayaputta' denotes that he was the scion of the Naya-Nata or Jnatr clan of the Ksatriyas, just as Lord Buddha was known by the epithet Sakyaputra', for he was a son of the Sakya clan, while the attributive title .Kasava' signifies that he belonged to the Kasyapagotra. Thus one evidence of the Bhs reveals that Lord Mahavira was born in the Brahmana family of Rsabhadatta of Brahmanakundagrama, while the other shows that he belonged to the Jaatr clan of the Ksatriyas' and the third one suggests the transfer of his embryo from the womb of Devananda, to that of Trisala, the wife of king Siddbartha belonging to that clan, as it is recorded in the Kalpa Sutra.? But the Digambara tradition does not believe in the story of the removal of his embryo by Harinegames and tells that he was born in the Jhatr Ksatriya family of king Siddhartha. 1 Kalpa Sutra 17. lb, 28. 8 Bhs, 5, 1, 187. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 6 16., 15, 1, 547. 6 Dialogues of the Buddha S, B, E. II. p. 60, (Samannaphala). 7 Kalpa-Sutra, 28. 8 Apabhranca Mahapurana-Sandhi 95-102 (Life of Mahavira).

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 469 Lord Mahavira was also known to the Buddhist works as Nigantha Nataputta? but they do not explain why he was attributed with the name Nataputta'. It is apparently clear from the study of these conflicting evidences of the BhS and the other sources that the Master belonged to the Jhatkra Ksatriya clan. But the solution of the problem of his parentage hinges upon the reconciliation of the evidences of his Brahmana and Ksatriya origins, as recorded in the BKS and the Kalpa Sutra respectively. So there are two traditions of his birth, running side by side in the Svetambara Canons. It may be an effort of some authors to reconcile these conflicting traditions by introducing the story of the transfer of the embryo and tracing the origin of Lord Mahavira to a Brahmana family in later times when the social distinction and rigidity between the Brahmana and Ksatriya castes became well-marked. Taking the facts of Nature into consideration, several explanations to the problem of the parentage of the Master are possible to be made in this regard. It may be associated with the Krsna-legend to magnify his personality, as recorded in the Purana" that Lord Krsna, though born of Devaki, was transferred by Vasudeva to the family of Nanda and Yasoda, just after the moment of his birth to be brought up there, having apprehended the danger of the destruction of his life by Kassa. The views of some scholars that Lord Mahavira was adopted by the childless Trisala as son do not agree with the fact, because he had his eldest brother named Nandivarddhana." i Digha Nikaya, 1. pp. 47 Foll; Samannaphala Sutta ; Samagama Sutta, M. N. II, pp. 243, Foll: Vinaya texts, S. B. E. Vol. XVII, pp. 108, Foll. * Bhagavat Parara, pt. II, 3rd Adhyaya, 10th Skandha, vv. 48-53, pp. 137-39. * Mrs. Stevenson's 'Heart of Jainism'; Buhlar : The Indian Sect of the Jainas. 4 Kalpa Sutra.

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Siman 470 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII Similarly the opinions of a few scholars' that Devananda was the foster-mother (nurse) may be rejected on the ground that she appears in the Bhs as a rich aristocratic lady, followed by a retinue of servants and waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign nationalities. It seems plausible on the evidences of the Bhs that Lord Mahavira may be the son of Devananda or he was the son of Trisala according to the Digambara tradition which does not believe in the story of the transfer of his embryo. Birth-place of Lord Mahavira The determination of the exact location of the birth-place of Lord Mahavira is interlinked with the solution of the problem of his parentage. The genuine evidences of purely human trait as depicted in the scene of the accidental meeting of the Master with his mother Devananda, i.e. the flow of milk from her breast on the recognition of her former son in him, and the sensational self-revelation of the incident of his birth in the Brahman, family, suggest that he was born in Brahmanakundagrama to the west of which lay Ksatriya-kundagrama. But according to the Kalpa Sutra he was born in the Ksatriya family of king Siddhartha of Ksatriyakundagrama. In connection with these conflicting statements the epithet *Vesalie's occuring in two places of the Bhs is of great importance in reference to the designation of Lord Mahayira himself. Thus it is said in the Skandaka Uddesaka that there lived a Nirgrantha Vaisalika Sravaka named Pingalaka in the city of Sravasti. There is the other statement of historical colouring that the Sramanopasika, the princess Jayanti, the aunt of king i See 'Darsava and Cintana'; Buhler : The Indian Sect of the Jainas. ? Bhs, 2, 1, 90; 12, 2, 441. 3 16, 2, 1, 90.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 471 Udayana of Kausambi was the first donor of abode to the Vaisalika Sravakas and monks. In both the cases Sri Abhayadeva Surio explains the epithet Vesalie' (Vaisalika) by Lord Mahavira and in fact a matronymicum "Visala Mahavira-Janani tasyah apatya miti Vaisalikah Bhagavan tasya vacanam srnoti tadrasikatvat iti Vaisalika Sravakah." Thus it is evidently clear that the epithet Vesalie' attributed to Lord Mahavira reveals his historic association with Vaiaali, i.e. he was a citizen of the ancient city of Vaisali. The geographical data furnished by the BHS shows that Vaisali was divided into three quarters, viz Brahmanakundagrama, Ksatriyakundagrama, and Vanijyagrama" with which the Master was associated in connection with his religious activities. As regards the exact location of the birth-place of Lord Mahavira, Dr. A. F. Rudolf Hoernlea was the first scholar to identify it with Varukunda, a village in Basarh (Vaikali) in the district of Muzaffarpur, North Bihar, and he has subsequently been supported by Hermann Jacobi' and other scholars.8 Boyhood of Lord Mahavira The Bhs makes only one brief statement that Lord Maha. vira, having lived in the household life up to the age of thirty vears, got initiated and undertook the state of houselessness from that of houseness by taking one piece of divine cloth (devadusa) with the attainment of godhood of his parents?. Except this information it does not throw any light upon bis boyhood. 1 Bh8, 12, 2, 441. ? 16, 2, 1, 90. 8 Indian Antiquary-Vol. XVII., Weber. See-Sutra Krtanga, 1, 2, 3, 22. 4 BhS, 2, 1, 90. See Commentary. 5 B.C. Law: Some Ksatriya tribes of Ancient India, p. 38. 0 Uvasagadasao, (p. 3-5-6). Lec. 8. ? Hermann Jacobi, S.B.E. Vol. XXII, pp. X-XIII, B See--Homage to Vaisali, p. 85-90,

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4 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII In this respect other Jaina texts present a picture of his family life, revealing two stages-the one of boyhood and the other of household. Thus it is recorded in the Kalpa Sutra that his birth was celebrated by his parents for ten days, together with the citizens of Ksatriyakundagrama with great pomp and grandeur in a very colourful way, like that of Mahabala of the BhS. According to the Svetambara tradition Lord Mahavira married Yasoda, a Ksatriya girl of Kaundinya gotra who bore him a daughter named Anojja". She was given in marriage to Jamali, a Ksatriya prince who became his disciple later on and led the first schism in the Nirgrantha order on account of his doctrinal difference with the Master in regard to the theory of Karma.(r) Both the Acaranga and the Kalpa Sutra" fully corroborate the evidence of the Bhs that Mahavira left the world at the age of thirty after the death of his parents. Ascetic Life of Lord Mahavira as revealed in the BhS The text reveals that in the first year of his asceticism Lord Mahavira having observed the vow of fast of half a month by half a month, passed time in his first intermediate residence at Asthikagrama during the rainy season. In the second year he practised austerity by observing the fast of one month by one month during the rainy season, having taken shelter in a weaver's workshop at outer Nalanda in the neighbourhood of Rajagrha. 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541 2 Kalpa Sutra-Fifth lecture, 99-106, 107. 3 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. 45 Acaranga Sutra, 15 (Fifteenth lecture). Vide 'Mahavira' by Dr. B. C. Law 5. 21. BhS, 9, 33, 386. Acaranga Sutra, 1, 158, 15. 17. 8 Kalpa Sutra, Fifth lecture-109-110, 111, 112. See Jacobi's Jain Sutras.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 473 It was here in the corner of the same workshop that Gosala Mankhaliputra took residence to pass the rainy season without getting any shelter elsewhere at outer Nalanda. On the conclusion of his first one month's fast, Lord Maha. vira was greatly welcomed, honoured and worshipped by Vijaya, a householder of Rajagrha according to the prevailing customs and was entertained by him with abundant food, drink and other presents, when the Master approached the latter's house for begging alms. As a result of this act of honouring and entertaining such a saint like Lord Mahavira, five kinds of celestial things appeared in the house of Vijaya, revealing the supernatural power of the Master viz. rains of streams of wealth (Vasudharavuttha), droppings of five-coloured flowers (dasaddhavanne kusume nivaie), tossing up of garmments by the gods (oelukkhevkae), beating (playing) of divine drum (ahayao devadundubhio), in the sky the sound "Aho dane (ob gift), aho dane (oh gift)" was proclaimed by the gods. Having heard of this incident in the presence of many people of that locality Gosala Mankhaliputra also went out of that weaver's workshop to see the miraculous things and found them true in accordance with the story spread among the people. It is said that he entreated Lord Mahavira to accept him as his disciple, after worshipping and saluting him. But the Master remained silent and returned to that weaver's workshop without regarding and recognizing the request of the former. Similarly Lord Mahavira observed the vows of the second, third and fourth as one month's fast in succession, while staying in that workshop during the rainy season. On the conclusion of these fasts he went out on begging tours to the houses of Ananda and Sudarsana of Rajagrha and to that of Bahula of Kollaga Sanniveia lying at a near distance of outer Nalanda respectively. Everewhere he was accorded welcome, worshipped, honoured and entertained by these individual householders with 60

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474 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII abundant food and drink according to the prevailing social customs. As a result of these acts of honour and entertainment offered by them to the Master the same miraculous incidents as happened in the case of Vijaya took place in their respective houses also. On the second and third occasions also Gosala Mankhaliputra made the same request to Lord Mahavira to accept him as his disciple, but it was turned down by the Master in silence without paying any regard to it. On the day of the conclusion of his fourth one month's fast Lord Mahavira, being prayed by Gosala again at Kollaga Sannivesa accepted him as his disciple and practised the austerity of 'Anityajagarana' (thinking on non-enternality) for six years in the market-place of that town (Paniyabhumi) by experiencing gain and loss, happiness and sorrow, honour and dishonour.1 In the next scene the BhS throws a side light upon the doctrinal difference between Gosala Mankhaliputra and Lord Mahavira on the problem of the reanimation of a Tilastambhaka (Sesamum Indicum plant). One day in the first part of Autumn, while going along with Gosala Mankhaliputra to Kurmagrama from Siddharthagrama the Master explained the question raised by the former on the sight of a sesamum plant, standing at a place by the side of their way, whether it would grow or not and where would its seven seeds (Tilapuspajivas) be born after its death. Mahavira said that the plant would not get destroyed, it would certainly grow and its seven seeds would be born in one capsule of the plant still again. Gosala Mankhaliputra did not believe in this explanation of Lord Mahavira, and so he, slowly falling back, pulled it out by See also the Kalpa Sutra for 'Paniyabhumi and its identi. fication. It is doubtful whether Lord Mahavira stayed in one place for six years as ascetic, it may be that he passed six rainy seasons. Bhs, 15, 1, 541.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 475 poules. the roots and threw it in a corner of the field at the same moment. Immediately there appeared a shower of rain by which it was again revived to life and those seven seeds were reborn as seven tilas (sesames) in one of its capsules. Next, is presented an account of the superior spiritual power of the Master, as it is revealed in its application by him to save the life of Gosala from the effect of the fiery energy (tejolesya), released by Vaisyayana, a Balatapasvin of Kurmagrama, on Gosala for the act of his insulting behaviour towards that ascetic. Vaisyayana, being inflamed with the fire of wrath at the provocative and mocking questions of Gosala in the midst of his meditation climbed down from his meditating place, expanded and released his physical fiery energy on the latter to kill him. But his life was saved by Lord Mahavira by warding off the fiery energy of that ascetic with his own cold spiritual energy. The Master narrated the whole fact to Gosala on his asking to know the reason of the painful utterance of that ascetic, "This is gone, O Lord, this is gone" (se gayameyam Bhagavam se gayameyam Bhagavam), as he knew his hot fiery energy checked, warded off and ineffective and withdrew it, having found no trouble or injury or dismemberment of the body of his insulter. So, Lord Mahavira, being requested by Gosala to teach him the process of acquiring the faculty of condensed abundant fiery energy (samksipta vipula tejolesya) revealed and explained its secrecy thus: "He who passes time by taking sanakha kulmasa pindika (smallest quantity of bean or rice gruel), and vikatasana (viyadasae i.e. fermented food), observing the vow of sasthasastha (two consecutive days' fast) and practising continuous acts of austerities, raising his arms high, facing the sun, heating his body with the sunshine in the meditating place (ata panab humi), becomes endowed with the faculty of Sanksipta vipula tejolesya' at the end of six months.'' * 16 15, 1, 543. i BhS, 15, 1, 543. 3 16, 15, 1, 543.

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476 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA [Ch. VIII One day some time on his way to Siddharthagrama from Kurmagrama Lord Mabavira, being accompanied by Gosala Mankhaliputra arrived at the same spot where was standing the sesamum plant. * Having come to that place, the latter told the former that his previous explanation about it was false and incorrect, because it did not grow and had got destroyed and its seven seeds were not reborn in one of its fruits after their deaths. On this statement of Gosala Mankhaliputra the Master narrated the whole fact regarding the re-animation of that plant, uprooted by the former previously, due to an immediate shower of rain. But Gosala Mankhaliputra would not still believe in the statement of Lord Mahavira about its re-animation and those of other plants that they fostered the same body in which they were reborn after their deaths. So he went back to that Sesamum plant and plucked out one capsule from it; while counting seven sesa mum seeds, which were splitted up by him from the capsule, by placing them on his palm, this kind of thought arose in his mind 'thus surely, all beings also are born after death and foster." This was the doctrine of Parivarttavada' (re-animation) of Gosala Mankhaliputra which has already been dealt with in the seventh chapter in details in connection with the topic * Ajivikism'. This is the cause of his dissociation from Lord Mahavira, and he left the Master for ever, after having received from him the instruction in the process of acquiring the fiery energy." The evidences of the association between Lord Mahavira and Gosala Mankhaliputra at this period of asceticism are also corroborated by the Avasyaka Curni of Jinadasa' in which a more detailed account of their ascetic life is found. >> Bh8, 15, 1, 544. * Avasyaka Curni of Jinadasa (7th Cen. A. D.)

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 477 Next, Lord Mahavira appears as a Chadmastha ascetic (he who has not yet attained omniscience), practising the astama-tapa (a kind of austerity) in the eleventh year of his asceticism to attain (i. e. perform) the ekaratrimahapratima-vrata (the vow of great pratima of one night) in the Asokavana (Asoka garden) of the city of Susumarapura. The scanty evidences of the practice of austerity and meditation of Lord Mahavira, furnished by the BhS, are supplemented by the Acaranga Sutra and the Kalpa Sutra which throw much light upon his severe asceticism. It is to be observed that the accounts of his austerity as given in the Acaranga Sutra and the Kalpa Sutra do not bring in Gosala Mankhaliputra to form an episode in these works and the names of the places where he obtained residence during the first twelve years of his asceticism do not agree with those referred to in the BhS except the one, namely Asthikagrama. Lord Mahavira as religious teacher and his itinerary as The BhS clearly reveals that Sramana Mahavira an omniscient religious teacher travelled over different places of Northern India, extending from Eastern India (West Bengal) up to Sindhu-Sauvira, preaching and expounding the doctrine of the Nirgrantha religion to the people of all classes and his own followers and those of the other sects and converting and initiating them to this Sramana Dharma. He was well acquainted with the great sixteen states (Solasa Mahajanapadas), existing and flourishing in his time. The following places visited by him appear to be the scenes of his religious and spiritual activities among the people of all social grades, viz. Rajagrha, (Gunasilaka Caitya), Nalanda, Campa (Purnabhadra Caitya), Kajangala (Chatrapalasaka Caitya), Vanijyagrama (Dutipalasaka Caitya), Sravasti (Kosthaka Caitya), Hastinapura (Sahasramravana), Alabhika, Kausambi, Vitibhaya (Sindhu-Sauvira), Kampilyapura, Ullukatira (Ekajambuka Caitya), Visakha, Saravana and Mendhikagrama. Bhs, 3, 2, 144.

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478 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Cc. VIII Besides these, there are other places which were well known to Lord Mahavira, such as Kasi, Kosala, Pracinajanapada, Vindhyagiri, Pundra. Satadvara, Tamralipti, etc. Of all these places Rajagrha appears to be the main centre of his religious activities, where he appeared more than sixty times to deliver his sermons and to expound the Law in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical problems raised by his first disciple, Gautama Indrabhuti and others. Next in importance comes Vanijyagrama which was visited by him four times in the course of his religious tours, while Campa stands next to Vanijyagrama in regard to his sacred visit to this city where he passed time thrice at the Purnabhadra Caitya. He paid two visits to each of these cities, viz. Sravasti, and Alabhika and one to each of these places, viz. Brahmanakundagrama, Moya, Kajangala, Mithila, Nalanda, Hastinapura, Kausambi, Vitibhaya, Kampilyapura, Visakha and Mendhikagrama. It is not possible to construct an itinerary of Lord Mahavira in a successive and systematic order on the basis of the scattered geographical data provided by the BhS except in one or two cases. His activities as religious teacher among the people at different places as revealed in the Bhagavati Sutra Lord Mahavira's visit to Alabhika Lord Mahavira paid two visits to the city of Alabhika where he stayed at the Sankhavana Caitya. On the first occasion he settled the religious dispute between Rsibhadraputra and other Sramanopasakas over the celestial state by approving the explanation given by Rsibhadraputra on this subject.1 While on his second visit to this city the Master converted Poggala, a Parivrajaka to Sramana Dharma on his express desire by explaining to him the question of the duration of the life of the gods in Brahmaloka. 1 Bhs, 11, 12, 433. Ib, 11, 12, 436.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 479 The Master at Brahmanakundagrama During his visit to this place Lord Mahavira stayed at the Bahuaalaka Caitya. It is here he delivered his sermons on different topics in the great assembly of his followers like Gautama Indrabhuti, Arya Candana and others and initiated Rsabhadatta. and Devananda,' and Jamali, together with his five hundred followers, to asceticism on their express desire to undertake the state of houselessness. The Master handed over Devananda to the charge of the nun, Arya Candana, to teach and guide her in learning the prescribed religious texts, practising austerities and meditation, and thus attaining Sramana hood and final liberation. It is stated that one day Jamali, being followed by his five hundred fellow-nonks left the Bahusalaka Caitya for Sravasti without the permission of his religious teacher and passed time there in the Kosthaka Caitya by practising austerities and meditation, Lord Mahavira also left this Caitya for Campa where he passed time in the Purnubhadra Caitya. It is here the Master explained to Jamali the questions put to him by Indrabhuti to silence his pride whether the Universe was eternal or non-eternal or whether soul was eternal or noneternal, out of pity, when the prince-ascetic failed to answer to them but declared himself as Kevalin (omniscient) in their presence after his arrival at this Caitya from Sravasti. But Jamali left his teacher for the second and last time without believing in his doctrinal interpretations of these problems." Lord Mahavira appeared twice more in Campa and stayed at the Purnabhadra Caitya. Here he explained the questions of Gautama Indrabhuti on the astronomical and cosmological subjects. On the last occasion the Master came to this place from the Gunasilaka Caitya of Rajagtha and after a short while he left Bh8, 9, 33, 380 ; 382. 8.4 16, 9, 33, 386. * 16, 9, 33, 383-385. 6 16, 5, 1, 176,

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480 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII for the city of Vitibhaya, the capital of Sindhu-Sauvira ruled over by king Udayana.1 It is here in the Mrgavana garden he initiated the king to Sramana Dharma on his inner urge to undertake the state of houselessness from the worldly life. His visit to Vanijyagrama It is recorded in the BhS that Lord Mahavira paid his four sacred visits to Vanijyagrama and delivered his religious discourses in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical subjects at the Dutipalasaka Caitya. It is here the Master converted Gangeya, a follower of Lord Parsvanatha's sect to his Pancayama Dharma and absorbed him into his order by explaining the questions whether all beings were born and would die at an interval or without an interval, birth and its divisions with reference to the combination of one, that of two, upto that of innumerable numbers of different kinds of beings and four kinds of birth and their respective causes." On another occasion Lord Mahavira explained the questions raised by his disciple, Sama hastin on the existence and total number of Trayastrimsaka gods of Camara upto those of Sakra, those of Isanendra and those of Sanat-Kumara, when Gautama Indrabhuti failed to give a satisfactory answer to the same problems put by his brother-monk to him. Here again on the third occasion the Master expounded the theory of time and its divisions, the cause of the longest day and shortest night, that of the shortest day and longest night on the request of Sudarsana, a merchant of Vanijyagrama. He, being reminded of his former life as prince Mahabala in the family of king Bala of Hastinapura and his initiation conducted by Sramana Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tirthankara, etc., undertook the state of houselessness, having his inner urge for emancipation doubled, after getting initiated by 1 Bhs, 13, 6, 491. Ib, 10, 4, 404. 2 Ib, 9, 32, 339. 4 Ib, 10, 4, 404.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 481 Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma on his advice. On the fourth occasion the Master had a religious and philosophical debate with a proud Brahmana of Vanijyagrama named Somila at the Dutipalasaka Caitya on the following questions : whether he had Yatra (auspicious activity of life), Yapaniya (observance or exertion), and Avyabadha (disenselessness); whether Sarsapa, Masa and Kulattha were eatable or ineatable to the Sramana-Nirgranthas, and whether he was one or two, imperishable, undecaying and constant in many past, present, and future transformations of life. The Brahmana was fully convinced of the holy teachings of explanations of Lord Mahavira to these questions and was finally converted by the Master to Sramana Dharma as a Sramanopasaka on his express desire." Lord Mahavira appeared once on the scene laid at Vaisali in connection with the result of the participation of soldiers in the two great wars called Mahasilakaataka Sangramas and Rathamusala Sangrama" as already discussed in the first section of the third chapter. His visit to Kajangala It is stated that during his stay at the Chatrapalasaka Caitya lying outside the city of Kajangala, Lord, Mahavira converted Skandaka, a Parivrajaka of Sravasti to Sramana Dharma on his express desire by explaining the questions to him "Is the Universe finite or infinite ?, is Siddha (the perfect) finite or infinite ?, by what kind of death does the dying being increase or decrease the Universe ?, when Skandaka, having failed to explain these subjects put to him by Pingalaka (a Sramanopasaka of Sravasti) came to this Caitya from there and requested the Master to have their correct answers. Lord Mahavira in Kampilyapura Here in Kampilyapura Lord Mahavira initiated and conver i Bhs, 11, 11, 424. 8 16, 18, 10, 647, 016, 2, 1, 90, 91-92. 61 16, 11, 11, 432. 4 10, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 301-3. 6 16, 14, 8, 530.

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482 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII ted Ammada, a Parivrajaka together with his seven hundred followers to Sramana Dharma. His visit to Kausambi? During his august visit to Kausambi the Master delivered his religious discourse in the assembly of Jayanti, her nephew king Udayana, his mother Mrgavati and others at the Candravatarana Caitya. It is here that he initiated the princess to asceticism as nun on her express desire, after a great discussion on the abstruse religious and philosophical doctrines between her and the Master. His;visit to Mithila On one occasion Lord Mahavira appeared at the Manabhadra Caitya in the city of Mithila and explained the questions raised by Gautama Indrabhuti on the location and shape of Jambuduzpa island. Lord Mahavira at Moya* During his stay at the Nalanda Caitya situated outside the city of Moya the holy teachings of explanation took place between Agnibhuti, the second Ganadhara and the Master and between Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti, the third Ganadhara on the topics of the prosperity, power and ability of the gods and the goddesses to assume various shapes, the union of two Indras of the northern and southern hemispheres, their quarrel, etc. The Master in Hastinapura" In the Sahasramravana (mango-grove) of Hastinapura Lord Mahavira converted Siva, a Vanaprastha ascetic (forest recluse) to Sramana Dharma on his express desire by explaining to him the question of the number of islands and seas in the Universe, etc. His activities in Rajagsha It has already been pointed out that Lord Mahavira appeared sixtyfour times on the scenes laid at the Gunasilaka Bh8, 12, 2, 441, 442. $ 16, 3, 1, 126. 16, 9, 1, 362. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 417-18.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 483 Caitya in Rajagrha and that most of his teachings as embodied in the BIS were delivered at this place on various subjects in the assembly of his followers, for it was a great centre of his activities. Here came king Seniya-Bimbisara and queen Cellana, followed by their retinue of officials, servants, etc., to attend his holy teachings. At this Caitya the Master made a reference to the monk-disciples of Lord Parsvanatha's order," living at the Puspavati Caitya in the city of Jungika in his time. It is here again that Lord Mahavira converted some followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order to his doctrine of Paficamahavrata Sapratikramana Dharma from that of Caturyama Dharma by his holy teachings of explanation on the number of worlds, its shape and multitudes of people, infinite nights and days and their revolution. At this Gunasilaka Caitya he initiated and converted the other Tirthikas, namely, Kalodayin, Selodayin, Sevalodayin, Udaya, Namudaya, Tammudaya, Annavalaya, Selavalaya, Sankhavalaya and Subatthi on their express desire to Sramana Dharma by his religious discourse on the doctrine of Astikaya'.' His visit to Sravasti Lord Mahavira paid two august visits to the city of Sravasti and stayed there at the Kosthaka Caityu with his followers. On the first occasion he initiated Sankha to asceticism on his express desire by explaining the significance of the observance of Pausadha Vrata (vow of fast) and the binding of eight Karmaprakstis by beings under the sway of passions, viz. anger, pride deceitfulness and greed." On the second occasion Lord Mahavira revealed in the assembly of his followers there at the Kosthaka Caitya the incident of the birth of Gosala Mankbaliputra in the cowshed of Gobahula at Saravana and the account of his life and association with the Master as his disciple, when the Ajivika leader passed time in the premises of Halahala, the potteress, in that city by proclaiming : 10, 5, 9, 226. i Bhs, 1, 1, 4. 16, 7, 10, 305. ? 16, 2, 5, 107. 6 Ib, 12, 1, 437-38-39.

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484 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII himself as Jina and practising austerities, having been surrounded by his followers. As already pointed out in connection with the topic 'Gosala Mankbaliputra as teacher' in the sixth section of the seventh chapter, this matter of disclosure of his birth in a low family and the revelation of his past life, made by Lord Mahavira enraged him very much and finally led to a spiritual duel between him and the Master at the Kosthala Caitya, resulting in the death of Saryanubhuti and Sunaksatra, two disciples of the Master, caused by the fiery energy released by the Azivika leader on them, while defending their teacher's honour, and his own spiritual defeat, as his fiery energy became ineffective in the case of the Master who was endowed with more spiritual power than he possessed. Then Gosala Mankhaliputra cursed Lord Mahavira that he would die as Chadmastha at the end of six months, having the attack of bilious fever due to the effect of fiery energy released by him. At this curse the Master retorted to the Ajivika leader that he himself would die as Chadmastha at the end of seven nights. After the departure of Gosala from the Kosthaka Caitya with spiritual defeat Lord Mahavira gave the account of the power of his fiery energy by which he could reduce sixteen great states, viz, Anga, Vanga and others to ashes and that of the last stage of his life and death, etc.' His visit to Mendbikagrama? Having left the Kosthaka Caitya, Lord Mahavira appeared at Mendhikagrama, together with his retinue of followers. It is here in the Salakosthaka Caitya the Master suffered from the bilious fever, accompanied by the passing of blood stool. He allayed the fear of his disciples, Simha and others against the street-talk of the four castes that this disease was the effect of the fiery energy released by the Ajivika leader, Gosala on his body, and told them that he would live for another sixteen and a half years as Jina unharmed. He got cured of this serious 1 Bh8, 15, 1, 553. 16, 15, 1, 557. : 1b, 15, 1, 553-561,

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Sec. 11 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 485 disease by taking cooked cock's flesh (kukkuta marsa)*, brought by his disciple, Simha from the house of Revati, a female householder of Mendhikagrama on his instruction. Lord Mahavira in Ullukatira The Master paid two sacred visits to the town of Ullukatira, and stayed at the Ekajambuka Caitya. During the first one he explained the question raised by Gautama Indrabhuti whether the physician, operating on the piles of a meditating houseless monk or the said monk was effected by Kriya, while on the second occasion he dealt with the subject : prosperous gods, matter, transformed matter, the account of the former life of Gangadatta. devu as the king of Hastinapura, his initiation by Munisuvrata to Sramana Dharma, his rebirth as god in the heaven and his final liberation.' His visit to Visakha* During his stay at the Bahuputrika Caitya in the city of Visakha Lord Mahavira narrated the accounts of the initiation of Karttikadatta, the guild-president of Hastinapura, together with his eight-thousand fellow merchants, conducted by Munisuvrata to Sramana Dharma and their undertaking of the state of houselessness and attainment of monkhood, etc. The life of Lord Mahavira as wandering teacher is also depicted in other Jaina texts4 where further accounts of his religious activities among the people are found in a graphic manner. He carried on his sacred mission by developing and systematizing the Nirgrantha religion on metaphysical grounds, preaching religion to the people, elevating and leading them to the path of freedom and liberation. It is said that after thirty years of his missionary activities as venerable wandering religious teacher, he left this mundane world cutting asunder all the bondages of birth, decay and death, 1 BhS, 16, 3, 572. 23 Ib. 16, 3, 574. 4 Uvasa gadasao. Vide 'Mahavira'--His Life and Teachings' Dr. B. C. Law, pp. 37-38. * The commentators explain the words as a particular kind of vegetable - Editor.

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486 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI Sutra [Ch. VIII in the fourth month of the rainy season in the seventh fortnight of Karttika on its fifteenth day in the last watch of the night in king Hastipala's office of the writers in the town of Pava. The account of the life of Lord Mahavira as depicted in the Bhs, and the other Jaina texts is also corroborated by the Buddhist works which mention him as the head of the Nirgrantha order, a man of experience, a great ascetic, old and well-striken (bent in years), revered by the people of all classes." It appears from the study of the evidences of the Buddhist texts that the Master was a senior contemporary of Lord Buddhas and predeceased him.. The teachings of Lord Mahavira as embodied in the Bhs reveal that the bold flight of human imagination in the absence of adequate varifying data at the time of this text is the most thoughtprovoking and wisdom-evoking, as it has rightly been said by Gomperz" that inexperience is the mother of wisdom. This truth is amply and brilliantly expressed in the speculative daring, not sacrificing the logical subtlities, in the thoughts evolved by the religious and philosophical ideas of the Master. He brought an immortal and eternal life with him and left it in his demise to be worshipped by mankind. SECOND SECTION Chronology of Lord Mahavira It is recorded in the Bhs that Lord Mahavira renounced the world with the attainment of godhood of his parents, having lived the life of a householder for thirty years (tisam vasaim agaravasamajjhe vesitta). 1 Jaina Sutra p. 264; (Kalpa Sutra), 1, 22-23, ? Dialougues of the Buddha--S. B. E. 11 (3) p. 66, Samannaphala Sutta, Digha-Nikaya, 1. p. 491. 8 Cf. Sambhuya Sutta, Sutta Nipata, pp. 92- foll. * Samagama Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 243 foll. * Gomperz : Greek thinkers, Vol. I. 6 Bhs, 15, 1, 541.

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487 Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA In the first year of his asceticism he passed the first rainy season in Asthikagrama and the second in a weaver's workshop at outer Nalanda in the second year. By this year Gosala Mankhaliputra also took shelter in the same workshop without obtaining any residence elsewhere and was accepted by the Master as his disciple after his repeated earnest requests on four occasions as already mentioned It is further learnt from this work that Lord Mahavira passed six years with Gosala Mankhaliputra in the Market place (Paniyabhumi) of Kollaga Sanniveia as it is already discussed. After this period the latter left the former on the doctrinal difference arisen out of the problem of the birth and rebirth of a sesamum plant. Next, he is found to pass time at the premises of the workshop of Halahala, the potteress in the city of Sravasti, having attained the round of twenty-four years of his initiation when the spiritual duel took place between him and Lord Mahavira at the Kosthaka Caitya on the revelation of the story of his birth and life, made by the Master in a reviling manner. It is stated that when Gosala Mankhaliputra cursed Lord Mahavira by saying that he would die within six months due to the effect of the fiery energy released by him on his body, the Master replied that he would live as Jina for another sixteen years, but the Ajivika leader himself would die within seven days. During the time of his suffering from the bilious fever at Mendhikagrama he made the same statement to his disciple, the houseless monk Siba, to allay his fear, that he would live for another sixteen years and a half as Jina, unharmed. The calculation of these numbers of years (30 +2 +6 +18 (24) +16) amounts to a figure of seventy-two years which is the total length of the life of Lord Mahavira. 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 557.

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488 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VIII This account of the total span of life of the Master is also fully corroborated by the Kalpa Sutral which states that he left the world at the age of thirty and passed time as ascetic, practising austerities for more than twelve years in the state of Chadmastha and some thing less than thirty years as Kevalin and religious teacher, forty-two years as recluse, and seventy-two years on the whole. He breathed his last at the age of seventytwo in the writers' office of king Hastipala in the town of Pava. The solution of the problem of the Chronology of Lord Mahavira hinges upon the fixation of the date of his demise (Nirvana). The text reveals that the Master was contemporary of the kings, Seniya-Bimbisara', and his son, Kunika-Ajatasatrul of Magadha, Cetaka of Vaisalz", Udayana of Kausamba," Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira, and Mahasena of Avanti.? It has already been discussed in connection with the topic *Political Conditions' in the first section of the third chapter that the two great wars called Mahasila kantakasangrama and Rathamusalasangrama were known, heard and remembered by Lord Mahavira. Moreover, in the BhS Gosala Mankhaliputra also refers to the sprinkling scent-elephant, the last Tirthankara and the last Mahasilakantaka Sangramalo, after the sixteen years of which the Master is said to have died. He also knew the existence of sixteen great states flourishing during his life time. The evidences of these two great events are also fully corroborated by those of the Nirayavaliya Suttall as already discussed in the first section of the third chapter. While in the Buddhist works? Lord Mahavira appears as a contemporary of i Kalpa Sutra, 5, 122. Vide Jacobi's Jaina Sutras Pt. I. p. 256-264. 2 Bh8, 1, 1, 4. 3 16, 7, 9, 300. 4 Ib, 12. 2, 441. Ib, 12, 2, 441. 6 16, 13, 6, 491. ? Ib, 13, 6, 491. 8 16, 7, 9, 300. 9 16, 7, 9, 301. 10 1b, 15, 1, 554, 11 Nirayavaliya Sutta, 1. 1: E.g. Jataka I, 509; Digha Nikaya II, 150,

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 489 Lord Buddha along with the other five teachers, viz. Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajitakesakambali, Pakudha Kaccayana and Sanjaya Belatthiputta, as it is evidenced by the fact that Upali and Simha, the general, were converted by Lord Buddha to his faith. The kings, Seniya-Bimbisara, Kunika-Ajatasatry and Prasenjit were also associated with both the teachers. Moreover, the Majjhima Nikayal records the demise of Niggantha Nata putta as taking place at Pava and being followed by a serious confusion and quarrelling among his folfowers in the life time of Lord Buddha. When this message was conveyed by one of his disciples to him, he apprehended the same fate of his order after his death, These evidences of the BhS, the other Jaina texts and Buddhist works show the synchronism between Lord Mahavira and the above mentioned kings, Gosala Mankhaliputra and Lord Buddha in the sixth-fifth Century B. C. Now, according to the Buddhist records Lord Mahavira predeceased Lord Buddha, while the study of the references to the two great political events, viz. Mahasilakantaka-Sangrama and Rathamusala-Sangrama as recorded in the Bhs and a complete silence of the Pali canons about them suggests that the latter predeceased the former who was alive at the time of the occurrences of these two wars and was associated with the court of Magadha, as it is evidenced in the Nirayavaliya Sutta. But it is to be observed that the evil designs of king Kunika-Ajatsatry on Vaisali and the Vaijs were well known to Lord Buddha as pointed out in the first section of the third chapter. Besides these facts, there is a gap of some years between 1 Majjhima Nikaya-1. Samagama Sutta. Vide 'Mahavira-- His Life and teachings' Dr. B.C. Law, pp. 6-7. ? Majjhima Nikaya--II, pp. 243 ff, 8 Ib, II, 243; Patika Sutta, Digha. N. III. * Nirayavaliya Sutta-1. 62

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490 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII these two great events according to the statement of Gosala Mankhaliputra' as recorded in this canonical work, because he knew only about the first war on the eve of his death, after the sixteen years of which the demise of Lord Mahavira, by whom tbe event of second one also was known, heard and remembered, took place at Pava. Even then the alliance between the Mallakis and the Licchavis existed, as it is evidenced by the fact of the celebration of the great decease of the master by their joint illumination of lights. Dr. Hoernles has attempted to reconcile the two opposite views on the question of the pre-decease of Lord Mahavira and that of Lord Buddha as recorded in the Pali Records and suggested 484 B. C. for the death of the Master and 500 B. C. for that of Gosala Mankhaliputra and the occurrence of the Mahasilakaataka Sangrama and the defacto accession of king Kunika-Ajatasatru and the date of decease of Lord Buddha in 482 (or 483) B.C. in the eighth regnal year of the Magadhan king. This interpretation of the chronology of the war that it took place in the first year of Ajatasatru's reign cannot be accepted on the ground that the Nirayavaliya Sutta makes it apparently clear that it occurred after the death of king SeniyaBimbisara. Further, it is pointed out by Jacobi* that the traditional date of the demise of Lord Mahavira is 470 years before the Vikrama Era (58 B. C.), i.e. 528 B.C. according to the Svetambaras and 605 years according to the Digan baras (i.e. 527 B. C.) on the suggestion that this Vikrama of the latter is meant for $alivahana (78 A.D.) Era. Another tradition quoted by HemachandraS says that i Bhs, 15, 1, 554, Kalpa Sutra 128. Vide, Jaina Sutras-S.B.E XXII of Jacobi p. 266. 8 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ajivikism pp. 259 ff. 4 S.B.E. XXII (2.66), para 128, Kalpa Sutra 6 ff. Vide, Political History of Ancient India. p. 213 f. note no. 3. fifth Ed. 5 $thaviravalicarita, Parisista Parva, VIII, 339.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 491 Maurya Candragupta became king one hundred and fifty-five years after the liberation of Lord Mahavira. So according to this tradition the liberation may be assigned between 481 king Candragupta ascended the throne 312 B. C. date of the Master's and 467 B.C., because at a date between 326 But the Buddhist works record the demise of Lord Mahavira before that of Lord Buddha as already mentioned. According to the cantonese tradition the Parinirvana of the Sakya sage took place in 486 B. C.', while the Ceylonese writers record this event of Parinirvana in the eighth regnal year of Kunika-Ajatasatru." On the basis of the Cantonese date of Lord Buddha's decease, the date of accession of Ajatasatru would fall in 493 B.C. A gap of sixteen and odd years is found to exist between the date of accession of Kunika-Ajatasatru and that of the demise of Lord Mahavira, while according to the Buddhist works it will be less than eight years on the ground that the Master died before the Blessed one. A reconciliation of the divergent views on the chronology of Lord Mahavira as recorded by the Jaina and Buddhist works can be made, if it is supposed that the former accepts the date of accession of Kunika as the king of Campa as the starting point and the latter make their calculation from a date of his actual ascendancy to the throne of Rajagrha. Dr. Hiralal Jain has tried to throw light upon the chronology of Lord Mahavira in his article on 'Date of Mahavira's Nirvana" to show that "all the Jaina traditions boil down to this that there were 155 years from Mahavira's Nirvana to Candragupta's coronation, 410 years up to Vikrama's coronation, and 470 years up to Vikrama's death, and that the Vikrama Era 1 Early History of India of V. Smith, fourth Ed. 179. Mahavamsa, Ch. II. Nagapur University Journal, December, 1940. No. 6. Date of Mahavira's Nirvana by Dr. Hiralal Jain, pp. 50-54.

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492 studies IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA (Ch. VIII began with the death of Vikrama". But the interval of 155 years between Lord Mahavira's Nirvana and Chandragupta's coronation would put the Master's demise in circa (320 + 155), i. e. 475 B. C. Having taken into consideration all these evidences it may be suggested on the basis of the above analysis of the facts furnished by the Jaina and Buddhist works that the demise of the Master took place in the eighties of the fifth Century B. C. although much reliance cannot be placed on the traditional chronology in the absence of further evidences about it. THIRD SECTION Kings Political History The BhS throws some light upon the political history of its period by making a few statements of historical colouration, e. g. the incidental references to king Seniya Bimbisara and queen Cellana of Magadha', the two great wars called Mahasilakantaka Sangrama* and Rathamusala Sangramas, fought between king Vajjividehaputta Kuniya (Ajatasatru) of Campa and the Vaisalian Confederacy of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kosalu, and their eighteen Ganarajas and the final victory of the Magadhan king over them at the time of Lord Mahavira, the mentions of king Udayana, the son of king Satanika and queen Mrgavati, the daughter of king Cetaka of Vaisali and the grandson of king Sahasranika, the nephew of princess Jayanti, king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira, his son, Abhijit Kumara and his nephew, Kesikumara and his coronation, king Mahasena, king Siva of Hastinapura and some Ksatriya clans, such as, the Ugras, the Bhogas, the Kauravyas, the Iksvakus, the Rajanyas, etc.? It has already been discussed in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political Conditions that India was divided into sixteen great states--both monarchical and non-monarchical. 1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4. * Ib, 7, 9, 300. 4 11, 12, 1, 441. 6 16, 13, 6, 491. ? 16, 9, 33, 383; 20, 8. 3 16, 7, 9, 301. 16, 11, 9, 417.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 493 flourishing side by side with their respective political ideals of imperialism and republicanism during the time of Lord Mahavira.. And there was no political unity among these states under one paramount sovereign, so a political struggle went on between Magadha under king Kunika-Ajatasatru and Vaisali and its allies for establishing their political and economic supremacy over the North-eastern region of India and it ended in the final victory of the Magadhan king over the combined forces of his rival camp led by king Cetaka. Thus the ancient republicanism of Vaisali had to bow down its head to the aggressive imperialism of Magadha The effect of the two wars was far-reaching, as it went a long way to pave the way for the expansion of Magadha to all directions and to bring about the political unification of India under the leadership of its rulers of the successive dynasties-the Nanda and the Maurya till the Kalinga war which changed the whole character of its foreign policy of war to that of peace. So the political conditions will not be dealt with again in details in this section. As regards the other historical kings, the Ksatriya clans, Indian tribes and foreign peoples an attempt will be made here to form an exact idea of their political life and position in the history of those days and of the extent of the country on the basis of the BhS. With regard to the monarchies the text makes mention of the kingdom of Magadha with its capital at Rajagrha, presided over by Seniya-Bimbisara1 and his son, king Kunika-Ajatasatru, ruling at Campa in succession, to the west and north-west lay the kingdoms of Kasi and Kosala with their capitals at Varanasi and Sravasti respectively, still further to the north-west there was the kingdom of Hastinapura ruled over by king Siva". There lay to the south of Kosala the kingdom of Vatsa with its capital at Kausambz on the Yamuna under the kingship of Udayana, the 1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4. 8.4 Ib, 7, 9, 300. Ib, 12, 2, 441. 2 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. Ib, 11, 9, 417.

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494 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII son of Satanika, still farther in the south there was the kingdom of Avanti of Mahasenal with its capital at Ujjayini. To the far west lay the country of Sindhu-Sauvira with its capital at Vitibhaya under the rulership of king Udayana and his nephew Kesikumara in succession. In the north there lay the republican states of the Licchavis of Vaisali and of the Mallakis of Pava and Kusinara. It appears that the royal family of Kausambi and that of Cetaka, the president-king of Vaisali were united by a matrimonial alliance, as it is revealed by the fact that queen Megavati, the wife of king Satanika, the mother of king Udayana of Kausambi was the daughter of Cetaka." Similar relations were established by him with the royal houses of Sindhu-Sauvira and Magadha by offering his other two daughters, Prabhavati and Cellana to king Udayana of Vitibhaya and king Seniya-Bimbisara(r) of Rajagrha respectively. It is stated in the Avasyaka Curni? that Cellana, the youngest of the seven daughters of king Cetaka of Vaisali was carried off by king Seniya-Bimbisara privately from the female apartment of the palace of the republican president in the presence of his son, Abhaya, born of his queen Sunanda and then she was married by him, King Seniya In the Bhs king Seniya of Magadha only once appears together with his queen, Cellana on the scene laid at the Gunaarlaka Caitya in Rajagrha in connection with his pilgrimage to Lord Mahavira to attend his religious discourse delivered there. It is also recorded in the Uttaradhyayana Sutrao that the lion of kings visited the lion of the houseless ascetics. 14 BhS, 13, 6, 491. Ib, 7, 9, 300-303. 4 Ib, 12, 1, 441. 5 I6, 13, 6, 451. & 16, 1, 1, 4. ? Avasyaka Curni, II, p. 165 f. 8 lb, 1, 1, 4. Uttaradhyayan, Sutra, 20. 58.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 495 Except this brief statement this canonical work does not throw any light upon the life and career of this king and his political achievements. In this respect other Jaina' and Buddhist works and the Puranas provide a good deal of information regarding the genealogy of the dynasty of Seniya, his private life and reign, and the contemporary history of his time." It is said in the Ava yaka Curnis that he was born in the Vahiya clan. According to the Puranas Seniya-Bimbisara belonged to the Saisunaga dynasty, while Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar is of opinion that he was born of the Sisu-Naga dynasty. But Asvaghosa, the author of the Buddha Caritas connects him with the Haryanka family as its scion, while the Mahavamsa(r) refers to Sisunaga as a founder of a separate line of kings which ruled after that of Seniya-Bimbisara. The Vayu-purana10 states that Sisunaga will take away the glory of the Pradyotas who were contemporaries according to the Jaina and Buddhist works."1 According to this statement Sisunaga must come after the first Pradyota called Canda who was the contemporary king of Avanti of Seniya-Bimbisara and Kunika-Ajatasatru, as it is evidenced in the BhS, other Jaina texts and Buddhist works and supported by the ancient Sanskrit poets and dramatists of India.12 1 Avasyaka Carni, II, p. 165 f. p. 158; Nayadhammakahao, 1; Antagadadasao, 7, p. 43 f. 2 Jataka Nos. 239, 283, 492; Samyutta Nikaya, Books of Kindred sayings 110. 8 Vayu-purana, 99-314. See Dynasties of the Kali Age (Pargiter 68-9) for the Puranic account. See P.H.A. I. 6th Ed. Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhury, pp. 205-209. Avasyaka Curni, p. 165. Vide, I. A. I., p. 378. 7 Vide, Age of Imperial Unity, p. 19, D.K.A., 68-9. 8 Buddha Carita, XI, 2, Asvaghosa. 9 Mahavamsa; Vide, Age of Imperial Unity, p. 19. 10 Vayupurana, 99, 314. 11 Vayupurana, 99, 314. 12 Indian Culture, VI, 411.

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496 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII Late Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury also has tried to show that Seniya-Bimbisara did not belong to the Saisunaga dynasty but to that of Haryanka-kula of Asvaghosa." So the view of Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury may safely be accepted by taking into consideration the above facts, though the statement of the Puranas that Sisunaga was an ancestor of Bimbisara remains uncorroborated by independent evidences. It is stated in the Mahavamia that Bimbisara was anointed king by his own father at the age of fifteen. This statement cuts across the view of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar who inferred from the epithet "Srenika' that he was previously a general probably of the Vajjis, having sway over Magadha and later on he carved out a kingdom and founded his own dynasty.* It should also be observed that he is known to the BhS, as king Seniya (Srenika), while in the Buddha Carita he is called Srenika-Bimbisara. It is to be noticed that the Mahavamia does not mention the name of his father at all. According to Turnour and N. L. Dey the name of his father was Bhatiyo Bhattya," while the Tibetans call him as Mahapadma. This new king endowed with political sagacity and foresight launched the small state of Magadha to the career of conquest and aggrandizement by following a policy of expansion in regard to the inter-state relation which has been dealt with by late Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury and other scholars in great details on the basis of the evidences furnished by the Jaina and Buddhist sources about his political career and political achievements. 1 Political History of Ancient India, Dr. H, C. Ray Chaudhury, Fifth Ed., p. 115. Buddha Carita of Asvaghosa, XI, 2, P.H.A.I., p. 115 f. etc. 3 Mahavamsa (translated by Geiger, p. 12). 4 Carmical Lecture 1918. 1.67 ff. See Dynasties of Kali Age: Pargiter pp. 68-9 for the puranic account. 5 Turnour, Mahavamsa 1. p. 10; J. A. S. B. 1872, i. 298, 1914, 321; Essay on Gunadhya p. 173. The Puranas name Hemajit, Ksemajit, Ksetroja or Ksetrauja as the father of Bimbisara. Refer to P. H. A. I. p. 117 f. n. 5. P. H. A. I. pp. 205-209,

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Sec. III] King Kunika As already discussed in the third chapter on 'Political Conditions' King Kunika of Campa appears here as the victor in the political struggle over his rival confederate army of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi and Kosala and their eighteen Ganarajas led by Cetaka, the president-king of Vaisali Republic. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Kunika, the son of king Seniya-Bimbisara, was attributed by the names of Kunika1 and Asogacanda as derived from the incidents of the tearing of his little finger by a cock's tail, when thrown on a dung hill according to one tradition and the illumination of the garden of Asoka tree where he was cast according to another tradition, just after his birth. The third epithet Vajjividehaputta or Videhaputta was attributed to him because of his maternal relation with Videha. Both the Jaina" and Buddhist works record the accounts of Kunika's ascendancy to the throne of his father, Seniya-Bimbisara by putting him into the prison where he breathed his last with painful tortures at the hands of his own son. It is said that Kunika transferred his capital to Campa from Rajagrha only to forget this unbearable tragic incident and sorrow." It appears from the Jaina and Buddhist works that king Kunika-Ajatasatru was intimately associated with the Nirgrantha order as well as with the Buddhist church and had predilection for both religions, as it is revealed by the fact that he was claimed as a devoted follower of both the faiths. 1 Ovaiya Sutta 6. 3 Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 497 p. 20. 2 Avasyaka Curni p. 166. 4 Comm. on Digha Nikaya 1. p. 139. Nirayavaliya Sutta 1; Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171. See Comm. on the Digha Nikaya p. 135 ff for the Buddhist verson. 7 Nirayavaliya Sutta 1; Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171. 8 Aupapatika Sutra 12. 27. 30; 6 p. 20; Hemachandra's PariSista Parvan Canto IV; Avasyaka Sutra pp. 684, 687 Samannaphala Sutta; Digha Nikaya 1.50; Digha-Nikaya 11. 168. 63

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498 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII King Cetaka In the Bhs Cetaka, the president-king of Daisali figures as the father of queen Mrgavati, the wife of king Satanika and the mother of king Udayana of Kausambi as already mentioned in the beginning of this section. According to the Bshatkathakosa* he was the son of Keka and Yasomati and was the scion of the Haihaya clan. It is recorded in the Mahapurana that he was the maternal uncle of Lord Mahavira. In the political struggle of the confederacy of Vaisali with Magadha, Cetaka sustained defeat together with his allies at the hands of king Kunika due to the superior technical military strategy and skill planned and demonstrated by his military experts with the introduction of the two war-engines - Mahasilakantaka" and Rathamusala", combined with the forces of treachery of the ascetic, Kulavalaya and the courtesan, Magahiya. The city of Vaisali fell to the hands of the Magadhan king after a long drawn war and a siege laid by him; Cetaka committed suicide by throwing himself into a well with an iron image suspended on his neck to avoid the surrender and capture, torture and dishonour at the hands of his enemy, king Kunika-Ajatasatru. King Satanika and king Udayana The BhS throws some light upon the dynastic history of king Udayana of Kausambi by giving a genealogical list of his family. Thus it is recorded that king Udayana was the son of king Satanika and queen Mrgavati, the daughter of king Cetaka, 1 BhS, 12, 2, 441. ? Brhat Kathakosa, 55, 165. 3 Mahapurana - Puspadanta. Vide, Life in Ancient India : Dr. J. C. Jain p. 382. * Nirayavatiya Sutta - 1; BhS, 7, 9, 300.. 6 Bhs, 7, 9, 301. * Avasyaka Curni II. pp. 164 ; Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301 ; Vyavahara Bhasya - 10-535 f. See, Digha Nikaya-Mahaparinirvana Suttanta & its comm.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 499 and the grandson of king Sahasranika and Cetaka, and the nephew of Jayanti. This genealogical list of this royal family as found in the Bhs' is also corroborated by the Puranas and Bhasa. The particular difference between these two sources is that the Puranas' name Vasudana as the father of Satanika, while Bhasa' mentions Sahasranika as the father of Satanika who was also known as Parantapa." King Satanika According to the Svapnavasavadatta" king Satanika is said to have married a princess of Videha, for his son was designated Vaidehiputra. It is stated that he made an expedition against Campa, the capital of Anga, at the time of reign of its king Dadhivahana. King Udayana The Bhs', other Jaina texts and Buddhist works' show that king Udayana was a contemporary ruler of king Cetaka, king Seniya-Bimbisara," king Kunika-Ajatasatru,12 king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvirals and king Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti. A critical discussion of the reference to the pilgrimage of queen Mrgavati placing her son, king Udayana before her to Lord Mahavira at the Candravatarana Caitya in the city of Kausambi in accompaniment of Jayanti with a large royal retinue clearly suggests that the king was still probably minor and his mother was widow at that time during which she acted as the queen i Bhs, 12, 2, 441. 2 The Peranas : Harivamsa Purana-p. 29, 73. Vide P. H. A. I. p. 132. : Svapnavasavad atta, Act VI, p. 129. Buddhist India : Rhys Davids p. 2. Svapnavasavadatta, Act VI, p. 129. & J. A, S. B. 1914 - p. 321. i Bhs, 12, 2, 441. 8 Avasyaka Curni - p. 88 f. 9 Commentary on Dhammapada, 21-23. 10 Bhs, 12,2, 441. 11 Ib, 1, 1, 4. 19 1b, 13, 6, 491 13 16, 7, 9, 300 14 16, 13, 6, 491. See Svapnavasavadatti also.

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500 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA [Ch. VIII regent to govern the state of Vatsa in his name. This suggestion is supported by the evidences of the Avasyaka Curnia in which it is recorded that on the sudden death of her husband, king Satanika, the royal sceptre of Vatsa fell on her and she acted as the queen-regent of her minor son, Udayana. Queen Mrgavati cleverly rejected the renewed demand of Pradyota to marry him by requesting him to allow her postpone her consent till Udayana attained his youth and became capable enough of governing the kingdom independently without her regency, as the Avanti king became unsuccessful in his attempt to secure her by following the path of war with her husband, king Satanika, being enamoured with her beauty. After this event one day queen Mrgavati joined the Nirgrantha order of Lord Mahavira as nun with the permission of Pradyota in the presence of the Master before whom it was impossible for the Avanta king to refuse her request. At the same time she very cleverly entrusted her son, Udayana to the care of king Pradyota. Thus she outwitted him and saved her chastity and dignity of womanhood like a queen. There are many popular legends about king Udayana, his captivity by king Pradyota Mahasena with a clever feat made through a wooden camouflaged elephant, his love affairs with Vasavadatta, the daughter of the Avantz king and elopment of the princess and his war with Avanti, etc., which are running in the Jajna, Buddhist* and Brahmanical' works. It is difficult to find out the kernel of the historical truth from these messes of popular fables. It appears from all these facts that king Udayana was a great king who earned glory by his victory over some of his contemporary rulers and made matrimonial alliances with the 1 Bhs, 12, 2 442. Avasyaka Curni, p. 88f. 3 Avasyaka Curni-II; Vide, Life in Ancient India : Dr. J. C. Jain. p. 399. 4 Commentary on Dhammapada, vv. 21-23. 6 Svapnavasavadatta of Bhasa.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SUTRA 501 royal families of Avanti," Anga,' and Magadha. His career was short and meteoric. King Siva King Siva was the ruler of the small kingdom of Hastinapura". After having installed his son, Sivabhadra on its throne the king took to the Vanaprastha ascetic life by getting himself initiated by the Disaproksina ascetics. Later on he was converted by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma with proper initiation from Vanaprastha stage of life. King Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira King Udayana(r) ruled over the united kingdom of SindhuSauvira with its capital at Vitibhaya by exercising his authority over sixteen states, three hundred and sixty-three cities, Mahasena and other ten unnamed subordinate kings and the dignitaries of the state, such as, Rajesvara, Talavara, etc. As already mentioned in connection with the topic 'Royal Succession' in the second section of the third chapter the king undertook the state of houselessness, getting himself initiated by Lord Mahavira, after having placed his nephew, Kesikumara in the affairs of the kingdom instead of his own son, Abhijit-Kumara on the ground of his spiritual welfare. This evidence of joining the ascetic order by king Udayana is also corroborated by that of the Avasyaka Curni.? The study of the references to sixteen states not specifically mentioned, Mabasena and other ten unnamed kings, the matrimonial relation of king Udayana with the president-king of Vaisali and the political asylum of the prince, Abhijit Kumara in the court of Kunika of Campa throws a welcome light upon the interstate relation as existing during that period. 1 Commentary on Dhammapada, vv. 21-23. : The Priyadarsika of Sri Harsa; Vide P.H.A.I. 5th Ed. p. 203. : P.H.A.I. 5th Ed. p. 203. - Bhs, 11, 9, 417-18. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 418. 6 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 7 Avasyaka Curni, ll, p. 171 f. See also p. 36 (he was poisoned to death by minister's son later on).

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502 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII If the identification of Mahasena with Pradyota of Avanti is accepted, then the evidence of the BHS gives a new turn to the contemporary history that the Avanti ruler was a crowned vassal of Sindhu-Sauvira. This fact is corroborated by the other Jaina texts that king Udayana inflicted a crushing defeat on Pradyota in his own kingdom and branded his forehead with a frontlet legend dasi pai(husband of slave girl) by marching on Ujjayini with his ten vassals on the issue of a sandal-wood image of Lord Mahavira which was taken away by the Avanti king along with its care-taker, a slave girl named Devadatta from Vitibhaya to Ujjayinz. But on the approach of Pajjusana the Sindhu king set him at liberty by granting him pardon and investing him with a gold plate (sovanna-patta) in order to cover the letters da82-pai' and restored his former kingdom to him. It is said that from that time the kings were invested with the golden plate." The other Jaina texts, the Puranas,' and the Buddhist works throw much light upon the life and political career and character of the Avanti king and his relation with SeniyaBimbisara of Magadha, Satanika and his son, king Udayana of Vatsa, Puskarasarin of Taxila, and Mathura". FOURTH SECTION Clans As already pointed out in the beginning of this chapter that the Bhs makes incidental references to the following Ksatriya clans, viz. Ugras, Bhogas, Rajanyas, Iksvakus, Jaatris, Kauravyas and Ksatriyas. 1 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 18, pp. 253 ff. ; Avasyaka Curri, p. 400. 9 16. 3 Avasyaka Curni, p. 88 ff. Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 396. 4 See P.H.A.I. Fifth Ed. p. 204. o S. B. E. XVII, p. 187. (Comm. on Dhammapada, 21, 23.) Majjhima Nikaya, III. 7. 6 Essay on Gunadhya, 176. 7 Vide, P. H. A. India-Fifth Ed. p. 204. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 383.

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 503 The members of these Ksatriya clans were associated with the Government along with the other high dignitaries of the state and enjoyed an important status in the society and occupied a place in the contemporary history of the period of the Bhs. They are also recorded in other Jaina texts as the Ksatriya clans. Ugras The Ugras of the Bhs are mentioned in the Uvasagadasao,* while in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya they are found as being associated with Vaisali and Hatthigama." The earliest reference to the Ugras occurs in the Vedic literature which states, "Rule here a mighty benevolent (king) upto tenth decade of thy life" "Dasamimugrah sumana vaseha".5 The evidences regarding the identification of the Ugras, furnished by all the Jaina, Buddhist,' and Brahmanical sources show that they were a Ksatriya clan settled over different parts of Northern India during the time of Lord Mahavira. The existence of this clan may still be traced in the Ugas of Rajputana" and the Ugra-Ksatriyas of Burdwan (West Bengal) commonly known as Aguri. Bhogas The Bhogas were one of the Ksatriya clans occupying an important position in the state as well as in the society according to the evidences of the Jaina" and Buddhist"a works. i Ovaiya Sutta, 23, 38; Kalpa Sutra, S. 211; Uvasagadasao, II, p. 139 etc. ? Uvasagadasao, II, p. 139. * Anguttara Nkaya, 1.26 (gao-gahapati Petaloko-Nipata, 1.14.6.). 4 Nipatu, 1. 14. 6, IV. The Dhammapada commentary refers to a city of Ugga. . Atharva Veda, III, 4.7. Vide, Hindu Polity : K. P. Jayaswal, p. 189 f., note 9. 6 U vasagadasao, II, p. 139. 7 Angutara Nikaya, 1, 26 (Nipata, 1.14.6). 8 Atharva Veda, ili, 4. 7, Vide, Hindu Polity p. 189 f., note 9; Manusmrti X, 9; See Abhidhana-Cintamani, V, 896. 9 The Rajputana Gazetteer, p. 275 ; Vide, Sherring's Hindu Tribes and castes Vol. III, p. 46. 10 Vide, Uvasagadasao, II, p. 139. 11 Uvasagadasao, II, p. 139. 13 Mahaparinivvana Suttanta, 1, (Digha Nikaya) 122-26; Cf. also Sutta Nipata, 194.

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504 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII Rajanyas The Rajanyas are also mentioned in the Brahmanical works and the numismatic legends. The term 'Rajanya' appears to be a synonym with Ksatriya' in the Purusa Sukta hymn of the Rg-Veda' where reference is made to the four social orders, viz. Brahmana (priest), Rajanya (prince or warrior), Vaiaya (commoner), Sudra (servile class). A class of nobles, being of the kingly family formed the Ksatriya class of the later times in a nascent form. In the periods of Panini" and the Mahabharatu" the Rajanyas appear as a distinct ruling republican Ksatriya clan. The numismatic evidences support the literary accounts as recorded in the above mentioned works that they were a ruling republican Ksatriya clan, as it is revealed by the legend of their coins in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts: "Rajanya Janavadasa". Obv. Humped bull to L. Rev. Rajanya Janavadasa standing figure. These coins may be assigned to the later half of the first century B. C. It appears from the find spots of their coins that they were probably settled over Mathura and some region in the Mathura and some region in the western or north-western Rajputana.? A critical study of all these literary and numismatic evidences shows that the Rajanyas of the Bhs were a Ksatriya clan in Vaisali and other regions at the time of Lord Mahavira. Iksvakus (Ikkhaga) The Iksvakus appear also in the Brahmanical and Buddhist works as the celebrated Ksatriya clan which produced many 1 Rgveda, X, 90; Panini, IV.2. 104; Mbh. Sa. Parva, Ch. 81. 2 Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1, p. 485. 9 Rgveda, X, 90, V, 12. 4 Panini, IV, 2. 104; See also Katyayana. 6 Mahabharata-Santi Parva, Ch. 18. & Cambridge History of India Vol. 1, p. 485, ? Age of Imperial Unity, p. 160 ;.

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Sec. IV) STUDIBS IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 505 legendary personalities. The first reference to a prince, Iksvaku by name is found in a passage of the Rg-Veda. Both the Vedic and Puranica literatures furnish a long list of kings belonging to the Aiksvaka dynasty from Iksvaku himself down to king Prasenjit of Kosala, the contemporary ruler of king SeniyaBimbisara. The evidences of the Vedic and Puranic works are also supported by the Ramayana' in which the royal family of Kosala is said to have discended from a king named Iksvaku, while in the Buddhist works the branches of this family are found ruling at Kusinara and at Benaras respectively. The epigraphic records also reveal that a Iksvaku dynasty reigned in the south in the 2nd and 3rd century A. D. Thus it appears that this famous Ksatriya clan spread over different parts of India with the process of Aryanization of the country upto the far south. The Iksvakus of the Bhs were one of its branches as being associated with Vaisali. Jnatrika (Naya) The Jhatrikas became celebrated by the birth of Lord Mahavira in the family of its chief Siddhartha, in Ksatriyakundagrama. It was the Master who raised the status of this clan to a high pedestal of honour and glory by bringing them into prominence as the last Tirthankara. According to the Uvasagadasaos, the Jhatrikas settled over Kundagrama, Kollaga aud Vanijyagrama, the three quarters of Vaisali which are identified with the present villages Vasukunda, Kolhua, and Baniyagaon respectively of Basarh (Vaisala) in the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar. The association of the Jaatrikas with Vaikali is well supported by the epithet Vesalie', attributed to Lord Mahavira, a scion of this clan. 1 Rg-Veda, X. 60. : Atharva-Deda XIV, 39-9; Gopatha Brahmana 1-2-10 et, seg. 8 Vayupurana 1. 47. 11. 4 Ramayana 1. 47. 11. $ Kusa Jataka No. 531; Mahavastu 111. 8. & Nagar junikunda Inscription, En. Indica XX p. 16, 19 f. ? Kalpa Sutra (Jaina Sutra II pt. II S. B, E. Vol. XIV p. 416. 8 V vasagadasao II. p. 4 f. 4. 9 Bhs 2, 1, 90; 12, 2, 441. 64

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506 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Kauravyas (Korovva) The Kauravyas appear to be one of the branches of the famous Kuru clan as mentioned in the Brahmanical1 and Buddhist works and epigraphic records. The first reference to this famous clan occurs in the Rg-veda which alludes to king Kurusravanasa (the glory of the Kurus, or as the hearer of the Kurus). But this king was also known as Trasadasyava (descendant of Trasadasyu) who was the king of Purus inhabiting the region on the Sarasvati, The merging of these Trtsu Bharatas and their rival clan, the Purus resulted in the formation of the Kurus later on the land of the Sarasvati which came to be known as Kuruksetra, the field of the Kurus, the centre of Indo-Aryan Culture.? In the Buddhist Records the land of this clan appears as one of the sixteen great states where they ruled. In the Arthasastra of Kautilya the Kurus are mentioned as a Ksatriya clan, having the republican form of government, still holding the title 'raja' ('rajasabda-upajivinah'). They also played some active part in North Indian politics during the rule of king Dharmapala of Bengal1o who installed his protege, Cakrayudha on the throne of Kannauja with the consent of the elders of the Kurus and Pancalas, after defeating Indrayudha. [Ch. VIII These evidences show that the Kauravyas of the Bhs were an eastern branch of the famous Kuru clan.. Ksatriyas (Khattiya) The Ksatriyas of the BhS may be a clan of that name 1 Rg-Veda IX. 33. 4.; Aitareya Brahmana VIII. 14 (tra, Keith Rgveda, Brahmanas p. 331, Cf. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad III, 1, 1. foll. Manu-Smrti II, 17. 19; Bhagavat, Gita 1st verse; Mahabharata (Vanaparva) Ch. 129, pp. 394. 5. 2 Anguttara Nikaya Vol. 1. p. 213. Vol. IV pp. 252, 256 and 260; Digha Nikaya II, pp. 200. 201 & 203. * Khalimpura Inscription of Dharmapala of Bengal. 4 Rg-Veda, IV, 38, 1; VII, 19, 3; etc. Vedic Index, 1.327. 6 Vedic Index, 1.167 7 Ib. 1, 167, 8. Vide, Cambride History of India, Vol. 1, p. 117. Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. 1, p. 213. 9 Arthasastra, p. 455. 10 Khalimpura Inscription of Dharmapala of Bengal.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 507 which is also mentioned in the Grammar of Panini' in association with the Gotras, Janapadas and Sanghas, where they, as the original founders, gave their names to the region where they settled down. "Janapadasabdat Ksatriyadan". They may be identified with the Kathaioi or Cathaeans of the Greek writers some of whom place "Cathaia and the country of Sopheithes, one of the monarchs, in the tract between the rivers, Hydas pes (Jhelum) and Acesines (the Cenaba); some on the other side of the Acesines and of the Hydaratis (the Ravi) on the confines of the territory of the other Poras, the nephew of Poras who was taken prisoner by Alexander".* The Kathaians were well-known and renowned for their bravery and skill in the art of warfare. It is stated by Onesikritos that the most beautiful man among them was chosen as king in Kathaia. The Ksatriyas of the Bhs may be one of the branches of that famous Ksatriya clan of that name who probably migrated to the east and settled over the Vaisalz region in course of time, FIFTH SECTION Tribes and Races As already pointed out in the first and third sections of the fourth chapter the BhS,' while giving a list of female servants and slaves makes mention of their respective tribal, racial and country names. They are as follows: Cilaiya, Babbariya, Tsiganiya, Vasaganiya, Jonhiya, Pallaviya, Lhasiya, Lausiya, Arabi, i Panini, 1. 168. Strabo, H. and F's translation III. p. 92. See Jolly S.B.E. VII, 15: Ep. Ind. III, 8. Ct. Panini II, 4, 20, Mahabharata, VIII, 85, 16. Vide, P.H.A.I., Dr. Ray Chaudhury, 5th Ed. p. 251 for the identification and location of the Kathaioi ; Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1. 371. 8 Mc. Crindle : Ancient India as described in classical literature p. 38. Bhs, 9, 33, 380.

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568 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VIII Damili, Singhali, Pulindi, Pulkhali, Bahali, Murundi, Sabari and Parasi. Most of these names occur also in other Jaina texts, the Puranas and foreign accounts and are well-known and can be identified with certainty, while the others are obscure and unidentifiable. Cilaiyas (Cilatikas) The Cilaiyas (Skt. Kiratas) are also mentioned in other Jain texts," Brahmanical works," epigraphic records and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe. In the Nagarjunikunda Inscription the Cilatas are branded as dishonest traders. Of the foreign sources the Skyrites of the account of Magasthenes, having merely orifices instead of nostrils probably represent the Kiratas. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions "the Cirrahadae -- a race of men with flattened noses, very savages" among many barbarous tribes settled over a region beyond Bengal towards the north. Ptolemy places Kyrrahadae among the tribes of Sogdian (modern Soghd) which is separated from Bactriana by the river Oxus. Thus it is known that the Cilatas were settled over the regions along with greater parts of the southern side of the Himalayas and they also inhabited the eastern region of India near the river Brahmaputra in Assam, eastern parts of Tibet (Bhota), eastern Nepal and Tiperah. Babbariyas (Barbarikas) The Babbariyas are the peoples of the Barbara tribe 1 Jambuddiva Pannatti, 56. p. 23. ? Mbh., XII, 207; Vienu purana (Wilson's edition, pp. 156-90. Srimat Bhagavat Gita, II. 4.18. 9 Nagarjunakunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal year. 4 Magasthenes India ; Periplus of Erythraean Sea Schoff ; Ptolemy-Mc. Crindle-Ancient India, p. 277. 5 Le Nepal. II. pp. 72-8, Sylvain Levi. & J. A, S. B. XIX. Leong-Chronicles of Tripura p. 536,

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 509 which finds mention in other Jaina texts, the Mahabharatas, the Puranas' and foreign records. All the evidences from the Indian and foreign sources show that the Barbaras were settled over the Himalayan belt from Kasmira upto North Bihar" as well as in Sindha Isiganiyas (isikas or Rsikanikas or Rsikas) The Tsiganiyas may be identified with the Tsikas of the Matsya Purana" and the Vayu Purana, in the former they are associated with the Karusas, Atavyas, Sabaras etc., while in the latter they are mentioned along with the Abhiras, Atayas, etc. They may be .located in the Hyderabad region in the Deccan. Vasaganiyas The Vasaganiya: (Vasagaaikas) may probably be identified with the Namavasakas of the Markandeya Puranalo and the Vanavasakas of the Vayu Puranall and the Harivarasa Purana." The term "Vasaganiya'may denote the peoples of the kingdom of Vanavasi the name of which still exists as the name of a town near the north-western border of Mysore.18 It is also mentioned in the Nagarjunikunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta as a distinct territorial unit. Vanavasi may be identical with 1 Pauma Carin of Sayambhu, Sandhi, 21. ? Mahabharata (Sabhaparva), Ch. 31-99; XII, 207, 43. & Mark. Purana, 57, 59; Matsya Purana, XXI, 45, 51. 4 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ; Ptolemy, Mc. Crindle, p. 148. 6 Paumacariu of Sayambhu, Sandhi, 21. It is said here that the Barbaras of the Himalayas attacked the country of Janaka from the north in league with the Pulindas & the Sabaras. 6 C. A, G. I. pp. 692-4. Early History of India, p. 110; 11th ed. ? Matsya Purana, III. 46-48. 8 Dayupurana, 45-126; see also Moh. IX, 365. Bhs (Comm.), 9, 33, 380. 10 Markandeya Purana, 57. Vayu Purana, XLV, 125. 19 Harivamsa Purana, XIV, 52. 13, 523, 33. 18 Rice, Mysore and Coorg (1. pp. 89,95). 14 Nagarjunikunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal year.

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510 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VIII ancient Vaijayanti,' Busantion of the Periplus and Banaousii of Ptolemy. Jonhiyas (Jonhikas = Yaunas - Yavanas-Greeks). The Jonhiyas may be identical with the Yaunas (Yavanas = Greeks) of the Mahabharatu" and other Brahmanical works, who are mentioned along with the Kambojas, Gandharas, etc. Pallaviyas (Palhavas Parthians) The Pallaviyas are the Palhavas which find mention in the Puranase, the two epics?, epigraphic and numismatic records and foreign accounts. Prof. Rapsono thinks that the word Palhava' is a corruption of "Parthava' the Indian name for the Parthians. So the Palhavikas may definitely be identified with the female members of the Parthians who were originally an Iraniam people settled on the frontiers of Mazandaran and Khurasan, circa 249-8 B. C. The establishment of the rule of the Parthians in the 1st Cen. A. D. in North-West India is evidenced by the numismatic" and epigraphic records and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 23 1 Satavahana Inscription, Nasika cave Inscription of Gautami putra Satakarni, 18th regnal year. * Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Schoff). ; Mc. Crindle: Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 129. 4 Mahabharata, XII, 207. 6 Visnu Purana (Wilson's edition), pp. 156. 90. 6 Vayu Purana ; Vide Tribes in Aucient India p. 93, Samskrit English Dictionary: Monier-Williams. P. 612. 7 Ramayana, Adikanda, LIV 1018-20 (B) Mahabharata, XII; 207 (?) 8 Nasika caye Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Vide, Select Inscriptions Junagadha R, 1. of Rudradaman, 150 A. D. Also see, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar; Parthian coins, C.H.I. Vol. 1. 9 Periplus of the Erytraean Sea. 10 Cambridge History of India Vol. 1, Rapson ; see Takt-i, Bahi Inscription of Gondopharnes, 11 Parthian Coins-C.H.I. Vol. 1, Rapson. 12 Takt-g-Bahi Inscription of Gondopharnes. 18 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 511 Lbasiyas (Nasikyas ?) The Lhasiyas may correspond to the Nasikyas of the Puranas! who were located in the Nasika region of the present Maharastra state. But there is still uncertainty about their identity without further evidences. Lausiyas (Lausikas) The Lausiyas are not yet identified. Can they be the people of modern Laos in South-East Asia ? Arabis (Arabs) The Arabis were the people of Arabia (Arab) whose relation with India may be traced even in the first Century A. D. and even earlier on the basis of the evidence of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to the Nausari grant of Avanijanasraya' the Governor of Pulakesi II, the Calukya king of Vatapi repulsed the incursion of the Arabs into Thana (near Bombay), Broach, the Gulf of Debal and Al-kikan (the district round Kelat) by inflicting a defeat on them in the 7th Century A. D. It is a well-known fact that they conquered Sindhu in 637 A. D. under the generalship of Md. Bin Kasim by making war on Dahira, the then ruling king of the state. The appearance of the Arabs at the time of Lord Mahavira seems to be a matter of historical controversy without further corroborative evidences, though the Periplus suggests their early relation with India in the B. Cs. Damilis (Dravilas) The Damilis were the famous south Indian race, having the same name now known as the Tamilas. They are also Puranas-Markandeya Purana LVII, 48, 51; LVIII, 24 ; Vayu-Purana XLV; Matsya Purana CXIII, 50. 9 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 8 Nausari grant of Avani-Janasraya ; see also Aihole Ins cription of Pulakesin II. Refer to Bombay Gazetteer Vol. 1. * Advance History of India - Dr. R. C. Mazumdar.

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512 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII mentioned in other Jaina, Buddhista and Brahmanical works, epigraphic records and foreign accounts. The land of the Damilas is referred to in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as Damirica which is the same as Limirike of Ptolemy, that is, Tamilakam, a region lying to the south of the river Tungabhadra extending upto Cape-Comorin. This clearly reveals that the Damilas were the Dravidian: of the past and the Tamilas of the present day. Simhalis (Ceylonese) The Sinhalis were the people of ancient Ceylon with its capital at Anuradhapura They are also mentioned in the ancient Buddhist texts and epigraphic records' as a distinct race living in an island country. According to the tradition recorded in the Mahavarias and Dipavansa this island country is known as Sihaladdipa after the name of Vijayasimha, the famous Indian adventurer from Simhapura in Lata, and her people are called Simhalis (Lion-tribe). The Simhalese chronology commences also with the landing of Vijayasimha which synchronizes with the demise of Lord Buddha in 483 B. C. It appears from the above facts that there had been waves of immigration to Sinhala from ancient India and her cultural and commercial relation with that country since a long time. In course of this relation some slave girls might have been imported from there to India to be employed in the service of the royal and rich aristocratic families of North-Eastern India, 1 Brhatkalpa-Bhasya 1. 123. * Dipavamsa ; Mahavamsa ; Cullavamsa ; Sasana-vansa--33. 9 Mahabharata-Ch. 118. 4; Bhagavat Purana--IV. 28. 30. 4 Nagarjunikunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal year. & Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : Ptolemy's Ancient India. . Mahavamsa, VI-VIII; Dipavamsa, IX. ? Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta ; Vide, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar. 8 Mahavamsa, VI-VIII, 9 Dipavamsa, IX.

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Sec. V] Pulindis (Pulindas) The Pulindis are also mentioned in other Jaina texts1, Brahmanical' and Buddhist works, epigraphic records, and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The earlist reference to the Pulindas occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana where they are associated with the Andhras, the Pundras, the Sabaras, etc., who belonged to the clan of Visvamitra but were essentially constituted of the Dasyus. In the Asokan Edict' they are also mentioned along with the Andhras who were settled on the frontier of his empire. Their name is interpreted in the Tibetan Mahavyutpatti by Gym Po as "outcaste and in Chinese by Tukva the race which kills the beasts for their food."" The Pulindas appear also in the geography of Ptolemy10 as Poulindai with the epithet 'agriophagoi' which means wild-eaters. 513 It appears from all the sources" that they were a wellknown non-Aryan tribe settled over the region extending from Malwa to the Godavari.12 Pukkhalis (Puskalis) The Pukkhalis may be the Puskalas of the Markandeya Purana.13 They were associated with Puskalavati, the old capital of Gandhara which is also recorded in the foreign accounts by different variations of this name, such as, Greek forms-Peukelaotis, 1 Panhavagarana, St. 332, 397; Pannavana Sutta, 1. ; Pauma-Cariu of Sayambhu, S., 21. Aitareya Brahmana-7. 18; Markandeya Purana--57. 45-8; Matsya Purana, III 46-8; Vayu Purana, 5, 12, 6; Mbh, III, 188; Rama. 4, 43. 103; 44, 129; Raghuvamsa, XV, 32. 3 Mahavamsa, 1. 68. 4 Asokan R. E. XIII. Ptolemy's Ancient India-VII. 164. Aitareya Brahmana-7. 18. See Mbh, 175, 6685 and Mahavamsa, 1, 68 for their different origins. 7 R. E. XIII. 8 Mahavyutpatti, 188, 15. Vide, Pre-Aryan, Pre-Dravidian in India pp. 88-91, Sylvain Levi. 10 Ptolemy's Ancient India VII. 164. 11 Markandeya. Purana, 57, 45-8; Matsya P. III, 46-8; Paumacariu, S. 21, etc. 12 Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian India pp. 88-91; translation by Dr. P. C. Bagchi. 18 Markandeya Purana, 57. 65

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514 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Cb. VIII Peukalaos, Proclais of Ptolemy' etc. The first of these names is probably derived from the Praksta 'Pakkhalavadi' occurring in the legend of a piece of gold-coin of the Indo-Scythic period in Kharosthi "Pakkhalavadi devata" (the deity of Pakhalavati or Puskalavati)". It is Pu-se-ke-la-fa-ti of Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese transliteration of Puskalavati or Puskaravati, the Skt. form of the name of the city founded by Puskara, the son of Bharata. It corresponds to the modern villages of Carasada and Prag in Hastanagar group in the Peshawar district (N. W. P.)". The above discussion shows that the Pulkhalis of the BhS were the people of Puskalavati region. Bahalis (Vahlikas) The Bahalis of the BhS may be identical with the Vahlikas, the people of Bactria (modern Balkh in Afganistan). The Vahlikas are mentioned in the Meharauli Iron pillar Inscription of king Candra where it is recorded thus, "Tirtva saptamukhani yena samare Sindhor-jita Vahlikah." This epigraphic evidence shows that they inhabited a region beyond the river Indus by crossing which king Candra inflicted a defeat on them. According to the Avaiyaka Curnis, Takkhasila was the capital of the Bahali country which was given to Bahubali by Rsabhadeva before his renunciation of the world. The literary and numismatico evidences show that the Vahlikas (Bactrian Greeks) established their rule in the NorthWest India under the leadership of Demetrius in the second 1 Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 115. 8 Indo.Scythic coins, Gardener. 8 Wattars on Yuan Chwang, 1, 214; Vide C. A. 1. p. 105. 4 See Visnu Purana, (Wilson's edition, Vol. V. Ch. 4). * C. A. G. I., p. 105. & Bhs (Comm.), 9, 33, 380. 7 Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra. 8 Avas yaka-Curni, s. p. 180 9 Turn's Greeks in Bactria and India ; Patanjali Mahabhasya (Indian Antiquary, 1872, p. 300). 10 Indo-Greek coins,

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Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 515 century B. C. The Indo-Greek relation began long before Demetrius since the time of Indian invasion of Alexander in the fourth Century B. C. It may be presumed that some Bactrian female slaves might have been imported to India in course of trade to be employed in the service of the royal and rich aristocratic families in North-Eastern India. Murundis (Murundas) The Murundis of the BS also appear in other ancient works of India, epigraphic records and foreign accounts as a distinct foreign race who migrated from outside and settled over different parts of India by establishing their rule which continued upto the period of Candragupta II, the Gupta king. In the Vayu Purana1 they are described as a Mleccha tribe known by the name 'Marunda', while Ptolemy mentions them as Moroundai and places them on the Western border of the Gangaradai. The Abhidhana Cintamani of Hema candras identifies the Murundas with the Lampakas, the Lambatas of Ptolemy who are located in the vicinity of the fountain head of the modern Kabul river in the region around Laghaman (Langhana). In the Allahabad pillar Inscription of Samudragupta' the Saka-Murundas are mentioned along with the other foreign potentates who came of their own accord to pay their homage to the Gupta king while a MurundaSwamin is referred to in a Central India Inscription of the 6th Century A. D. Sten Konow thinks that the word 'Murunda' signified 'Lord' as the later form of the word 'Saka'. It appears from the study of these evidences together with the epigraphic' and numismatic records of the Sakas that the Murundas were a 1 Vayu Purana; Vide, Tribes in Ancient India p. 94. Ptolemy's A.I.-M.C. pp. 215-6. 8 Abhidhana Cintamani, IV, 26. 4 Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. 6 Vide, Tribes in Ancient India: B. C. Law. 94. Cf. Allahabad Pillar Inscription; Vide, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar. 7 Taxila Silvar Scroll. Ins. of Patika; Mathura Ins. of Sodasa, etc. 8 Coins of Indo-Scythic rulers (Gardener); Andhra coins: Rapson.

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$16 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Cb. VIII branch of the Sakas. But their existence at the time of Lord Mahavira seems to be a historical absurdity without further evidence. Sabaris (Sabaras) The Sabaris also find mention in other indegenous and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe. The Paumacariu of Sayambhu locates them in the Vindhyas, while Cunningham suggests the identity of the Sabarai with the Suari of Pliny and holds that both of them are identical with the Sabaras of the Sanskrit works-a wild tribe spreading over the region to the south of Gwalior and Marwar where they are still styled as Snchn8. Parasis (Parsis = Persians) The Parasis of the Bhs were the people of Parasa country (modern Persia) who are also referred to in other Jain texts, foreign accounts and epigraphic records' as a distinct race. The relation between India and Persia dates back to the hoary past of the Indo-Iranian unity when the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and Perso-Aryans formed the common racial group till the final comptete historical separation of these two peoples took place through the process of migration into different countries. But a certain community of interest, both political and economic brought about the relation of the two Nations again in the North-West of * Aitareya Brahmana VII. 18; Matsya Purana 144. 46-9; Rama. 1. 1. 55. etc. 2 Ptolemy's Ancient India--Mc. Crindle, Ed. S. N. Mazumdar-- p. 173. 8 Pauma Cariu: Sayambhu, S. 21. 4 Vide, Tribes in Ancient India : Dr. B. C. Law-p. 172. 5 Avasyaka Curni-p. 448; Uttaradhyayana [ika ; Kalaka caryakathanaka. & Herodotus' accounts 1. 177; Hdt. II, 94. Cf. ch. III, 89; III, 94 II, 44 ; cf. III, 102. 7 Darius, Persepolis Edict (15-18). 518-515 B. C.; Nakshi Rustam (NK 9-23-26) after 515 B. C. Behistun Inscription, 1. 14-17; sar rese. Cf. 10-18. N. R. 9-22-30, Persian coins ; Vide, C. H. I. Vol. 1, Plato, 1. Ch. XIV. pp. 285-308.

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Sec. V STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 517 India during the Achamenjd rule over this region, as it is evidenced in the classical Greek accounts and the epigraphic and numismatic records of the Achamenids. The Indo-Persian trade-relation established by the Indian merchants is mentioned in the Avasyaka Curni, the Uttaradhyayana Tika and it is also supported by the account of Kalakacarya-Kathanaka. The presence of the female attendants of Parasa in the North-East of India during the time of Lord Mahavira appears to be a historical fact in the Light of the evidences furnished by the classical Greek accounts and Persian records--both epigraphic and numismatic. The Ajhole Inscription of Pulakesi? II, shows that the diplomatic relation with Persia was established by him late in the 7th Century A. D. Bhuttuyas The Bhuttuyas may be identified with the people of ancient Bhota country the name of which is still preserved in that of modern Bhutan. 1 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II, See Bombay Gazetteer Vol.1. : Bhs, 3. 2. 143

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NINTH CHAPTER Cosmology, Cosmography, and Geography FIRST SECTION Cosmology In the Bhs the entire Universe is conceived of as comprising Loka (the inhabited Universe) and Aloka (Non-Universe-uninhabited by beings), both of which were eternal and without succession. "Dovi ee sasaya bhava, ananupuvvi"l. There are prescribed to be four kinds of the Universe (Loka), viz., Dravyaloka (the Universe of substane), Ksetraloka (the Universe of space), Kalaloka (the Universe of Time), and Bhavaloka (the Universe of state). The Ksetraloka is divided into three regions, viz. AdhahlokaKetraloka (lower region), Tiryagloka-Ksetraloka (horizontal region) Urddhvaloka-ksetraloka (upper region); they are further sub-divided into different worlds. Thus there are stated to be seven kinds of AdhahlokaKRetraloka viz. Ratnaprabha-prthivi, Sarkara prabha, Valukaprabha, Parkaprabha, Tama, Tamahtama (i.e. Adhah-Saptama),' innumerable Tiryagloka-Ksetra-loka, such as, Jambudvipa island upto Svayambhu ramana island and sea, and there are fifteen Urddhvaloka-Ksetralokas, viz. (1) Saudharma, (2) Aisana, (3) Sanatkumara, (4) Mahendra, (5) Brahmaloka, (6) Lantaka, (7) Mahasukra, (8) Sahasrara, (9) Anata, (10) Pranata, (11) Arana, (12) Acyuta, (13) Graiveyakavimana, (14) Anuttara-V imana, (15) Isadpragbharaprthivi-Urddhvaloka." It is stated that the border of the Non-Universe (Alokanta) is touched by that of the Universe (Lokanta), while the borders of the Universe are connected by the following stages (sthanas) one after another, viz. the intervening space (avakasantara), 1 Bhs,1, 6, 53. : 10, 11, 10, 420. 10, 11, 10, 420.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 519 air (vata), a highly rarified air (tanuvata), a thick atmosphere (ghanavata) a cloudy atmosphere (ghanodadhi), earth, islands, seas and continents (Vargas). In the cases of Lokanta and Alokanta, the Lokanta and the Seventh intervening space, the Lokanta and the seventh world, tanuvata and ghanavata, ghanodadhi and the seventh world there is no succession.' Shapes of the Universe and the Non-Universe The Universe is of the shape of a well-placed lid (sara) on a water-pitcher; its lower region is wide apart standing as if on two legs; the middle one is narrow; the upper one is shaped like the mouth (face) of a standing drum. The Non-Universe is stated to have a round shape with perforation in the centre. The shape of the Adhahloka (lower region) is said to be like that of a lid of a vessel; that of the Tiryagloka (horizontal region) is like that of a cymbal (Jhallari santhie) and that of the Urddhvaloka (upper region) is like that of a standing drum." According to the BhS there are infinite living, non-living and living-cum-non-living substances in the lower, horizontal and upper regions of the Universe from the point of view of substance, while they do not exist in the Non-Universe from the same point of view, but there is one part of non-living substance (ajivadravyadesa) i.e. space which is the infiniteth part of the whole space (Akasa). In those three regions of the Universe, Time is eternal from the point of view of time and there are infinite states of colour, smell, etc., upto the infinite states of not-heaviness-cumlightness in the Universe, while in the Non-Universe there are no states of colour, etc., but only space. Extent of the Universe and Non-Universe The text deals with the question of immeasurable largeness of the Universe and the Non-Universe with the help of 1_Bhs, 1, 6, 53. 4.6 10, 11, 10, 420. 8 16, 7, 1, 261; 11, 10, 420

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520 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX examples of the inability of ten swiftest gods to reach the end of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe with their fastest divine speed. But the uncrossed space of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe of those gods are much more than their Crossed space of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe.? Thus the Universe is stated to be very spacious ; in the east it is countless Kotikoti yojanas (crores & crores of leagues); in the west it is countless, etc., likewise it is in the south and the north : thus with regard to the upper and lower regions also it is countless crores of leagues in length and breadth." In this extensive Universe there is no part, having the size of an atom, where this soul (or being) was not born nor died from the point of view of the state of eternality of the Universe, its beginningless state, the eternality of Jiva (soul), manifoldness of Karma, and many births and deaths. . It is explained by a familiar analogy of one large enclosure and one hundred he-goats, kept therein by some man that as within six months every part of that enclosure, having the size of an atom, becomes touched with the excrement, or urine, or phlegm, or mucus of nose, or vomit, or bilious humour, or pus, or semen, or blood, or skin, or hairs, or hoofs, or nails of those he-goats, just like that in every part of the Universe having the dimension of an atom, the soul was born and died." Existence of Beings in the Universe All beings from the one-sensed being upto the quasi-sensed beings (anindriya) exist in the part of Space of the Universe without causing any trouble to one another like the female dancer and spectators witnessing the performance of dance-drama by her in a theatre hall. As she or they cannot cause any pain, or trouble, or injury, or dismemberment of the body of one another with their respective looks, so the beings exist in one part of Space of the Universe without binding, touching and causing pain to one another." 1 Bhs, 11, 10, 421. 8 Ib, 12, 7, 457. * 10, 12, 7, 457, * 16, 11, 10, 422.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 521 Centres of the Universe Having gone deep into the innumerable parts of the Space of Ratnaprabhap?thivi--here comes the centre of the Universe. After having crossed a little more than the half of the intervening space of the fourth infernal world Parka prabha, here is stated to be the centre of the lower region. Above the Sanatkumara-Mahendrakalpas and below the Brahmaloka-kal pa, is Ristavimana, here lies the centre of the upper region. In the Jambudvipa island, just in the middle part of the Mandaru-mountain there are above and below the Ratnaprabhaprthivi two smaller parts of elevation (or width), here is located the centre of the horizontal region called Rucaka, having eight parts, because from this point flow the ten directions--East, EastSouth' etc. It is stated that the seven skies are not heavy, nor light, not-heavy-cum-light, but are neither heavy nor light. Similarly the seven tanuvatas rarified air) are not heavy, not-light but heavy cum-light and not neither heavy nor light. Thus the seven ghanavatas, (thick atmosphere!, ghanodadhi (cloudy atmosphere), and the skies of the seven worlds should be known like the seven skies as neither heavy nor light." Order of the Universe (Lokasthiti) There are eight kinds of Lokasthiti (order of the Universe), viz. (1) Akaxapratisthitavata (air resting on the support of space), (2) Vatapratisthita--udadhi (sea resting on the support of air), (3) U dadhipratisthita-prthiva (earth resting on the support of the sea), (4; Pithivz-pratisthita-trasa-sthavara-prana (mobile and immobile beings resting on the support of the earth), (5) Ajiva-jiva pratisthita (non-living substances resting on the living substances), (6) Jiva Karmapratisthita (beings resting on the support of Karma), (7) Ajiva-jivasanhrita (non-living substances collected by the beings (or souls) and (8) Jiva-Karmasanhrta (souls of beings collecting Karma-matters (i.e. souls affected by Karmas). 1 Bhs 13, 4, 479. 10, 1, 9, 73. & 1b, 1, 6, 54. 66

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522 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX The Lokasthiti is explained by an example thus, "as some person fills a leather bladder with air and binds its mouth with a knot; then he ties a knot in the middle of it and opens the upper knot (i.e. mouth) and bleeds the air from its upper part and fills it with water, Next he, binding the mouth of the bladder opens the middle knot; as a result of this action the filled up water will rest on the uppermost portion of the air." "Or some man fills the bladder with air, ties it to his waist and enters into very deep water with the superhuman power, but he will rest on the upper surface of the water with the help of the upward force of this filled up bladder without getting immersed into the water." Cosmography The BhS throws some light upon the Cosmography, but it does not give a complete account of the conception of the world. SECOND SECTION According to it the world is conceived of as comprising innumerable island-continents, each being separated by one encircling sea which increases double and double as compared with each preceding one, such as, Jambudvipa island, Lavana-Samudra (salt sea), Dhataki-khanda, Kalodadhi, Puskaravaradvipa, Abhyantara-Puskararddha-Manusyaksetra, Puskararddha Samudra, etc...... upto Svayambhuramana island and sea." The Jambudvipa-island is the smallest of all islands and seas and is situated in the centre of all "Ayam Jambuddvive...... samuddanam savvabhamtare"." The BhS makes incidental references to Bharata, Airavata, Mahavideha, Haimavata, Hairanyavata, Harivarsa, Ramyakavarsa, Devakuru and Uttarakuru as sub-continents in connection with the discussion on fifteen Karmabhumis and thirty Akarmabhumis.5 1 Bhs, 1, 6, 54. Ib, 11, 9, 418. Ib, 6, 8, 251; 9, 2, 363-4. 4 16 2, 9, 117; 6, 5, 241. Ib, 20, 8, 676.

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Sec. II) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 523 The BhS states that Bharatavarsa lies in the Jambudvi pa island and mentions some mountains, such as, Culla-Himavanta, Varsadhara, Vaitadhya, etc. and the rivers--Ganga and Sindhu, etc. Besides these descriptions, it does not give a clear systematic account of cosmography, but it refers to the JambudvipaPrajfiapti and the Jivabhigama Sutra for the detailed treatment of the conception of the world, the location of Jambudvipa island and its shape, etc.? According to the Jambudvipa Prajftapti also the Jambuduzpa island is in the centre of all islands and seas and smallest of all; it is circular like the shape of apupa (cake) soaked (or seasoned) with oil, that of a wheel of a cart, that of a pericarp of a lotus, that of the full moon ; it is one lakh Yojanas (leagues) by length and breadth, three lakhs two thousand and sixteen Yojunas, three hundred twenty-seven krosas, twenty-eight hundred dhanus and more than thirteen and half angulas by circumference." It is further stated that the Jambudvipa consists of seven Kretras (or Vargas), viz. Bharata, Haimavata, Harivarsa, Videha, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airavata. These seven Ksetras are separated from one another by six Kulaparvatas, viz. Himavana, Mahahimavana, Nisadha, Nila, Rukmi and Sikhari. of the above lands and mountains situated in the Jambudvzpa island the dividing mountain is double the preceding land; the next land is double the preceding mountain due to its circular shape. This order is followed upto Videha which is in the centre of this island continent, the extension of the forward mountain is half of Videha, that of the next forward land is half of the 1 Bhs, 9, 1, 362. See Jambud diva Pannati. % Jambud diva Pannati, 1, 1, 3,

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524 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX preceding mountain; thus this order should be known upto Airavata land.1 According to this arrangement there are 190 divisions of Jambudvipa island, Bharata 1+ Himavana 2+ Haimavata 4+ Mahahimavana 8+ Harivarsa 16+ Nisadha 32+ Videha 64 + Nila 32+ Ramyaka 16+ Rukmi 8+ Hairanyavata 4+ Sikhari 2+ and Airavata 1. In the Jambuddiva Pannatti, Harivarsa is located to the north of Bharatavarsa; the Himalayan range is divided by the Himalayan mountain into two, viz. Mahahimavanta or greater Himalayan and Culla-Himavanta or lesser Himalayan-the first one extending eastwards upto the eastern sea and the second westwards and then southwards below the Varsadhara mountain upto the sea". Further it is described that Bharatavarsa lies to the south of the Himalayas and between the eastern and western seas. Nomenclature of Bharatavarsa According to the Jambuddiva-Pannatti the name of Bharatavarsa is derived from that of king Bharata, the first sovereign king of India'. Shape of Bharatavarsa Bharatavarsa resembles the shape of a bed-stead (couch) from the north and a bow from the south "uttarao palankasamthanasamthie dahinao dhanupittha-samthie." It is divided into six parts by the Ganga, the Sindhu and the Vaitadhya mountain-range and it is 526 leagues in area." 12 Jambuddiva Pannati Samgaho-2nd Uddesaka-2, 10 (gatha). See also Introduction p. 113 (Jivaraja Jain Granthamala). "Jambuddiva Pannatti 1. 9. Vide Dr. B. C. Law's India as described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism. p 4. 4 Jambuddiva Pannatti, III, 41. 5 Jambudvipa-Prajnapti, 1, 9. Ib. It is described that Bharatavarsa is divided by the Vaitadhya into two halves, viz. the northern half and the southern half (Jambu. 1. 12). Vide, Dr. B. C. Law-India as described in the early texts

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Sec. 11] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 525 It is further stated that there is in the Cwla Himavanta a large lotus lake from the four outlets of which flow the four great rivers, viz. Ganga, Rohita (Brahmaputra), Sindhu and Harikanta (not definitely identified).' A similar account of the conception of the world, Jambudvipa and Bharatavarsa as given in the Bhs and the Jambuddivapannatti is also found in the Brahmanical and Buddhist works with some differences. According to the Brahmanical works the world is conceived of as containing seven concentric island-continents (Saptadvipa Vasumati),* (Saptadvipavati Mahi), demarcated by the encircling seas which increased double as compared with each preceding one (dvigunair veddhya sarvatah parivestitah)." In some texts the number is increased to nine "Sasagara navadvipa datta bhavati Medini" or to thirteen (trayodasa samudrasya dvipanasuan pururava") or decreased to four.? According to the earlier and later texts and commentaries the world consists of four islands, viz. Jambudvipa, Purvavideha, Aparagodana, and Uttarakuru.8 Jambudvipa appears with Sineru (Sumeru) in the centre of all Pirvavideha (eastern continent) is situated to the east of Sineru, Aparagodana (the western continent) to the west, Uttarakuru or northern continent to the north and the Jambudvipa (southern continent) to the south. 1 Jambuddiva-Pannatti, IV 34. 35; Vide, Dr. B, C. Law's India as described in the early texts of Buddhism & Jainism. Patanjali Mahabhasya, Kielhorn's Ed. Vol. 1, p. 9; Vide, Studies in Indian Antiquites, 6th Ch. P. 65. 8 Brahmanda Purana.-37. 13; Vide, Studies in Indian Anti quties, Ch. VI; P. 65. Mark. P. Ch. 54.7. 4 Vide, Studies in Indian Antiquities, Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhuri, 6th Ch., P. 65. 5 Padmapurana. Sarga, VI, I, 26. 8 Mahabharata, 1, 74, 19 with Nilakantha Sastri's commentary. 7 Mahabharuia, VI, 6, 13., Vide, Studies in Ihdian Antiquities, 6th Ch., P. 65. 8 Vide, India as described in the early texts of Buddhism & Jainism. 9 Dr, B. C. Law: Geography of Early Buddhism p. xvi.

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526 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. IX In the Buddhist texts Jambudvipa signifies the continent of India. Comparative Study of the evidences furnished by the above three sources regarding Jambudvipa According to the Jaina conception there are nine Varsas of Jambudvipa in the centre of which lies the mount Meru, to the south of which are located Himavana, Mahahimavana and Nisadha, the three mountains by which Bharata, Himavata and Harivarsa are demarcated respectively. By the same order Nila, Rukmi, Sikhari, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airavata Kretra are placed ; in between the Nisadha and Nila mountains Videha is situated, while Deva is placed in between two mountains, viz. Saumanasa and Vidyutprabha and Uttarakuru in between Gandhamadana and Malyavana. Just like this Jambudvipa is discribed in the Brahmanical works as an island having a space of 1,00,000 Yojanas and a shape like a lotus with Meru as its Karnika (Pericarp) and the Varsas or Mahadvipas, viz. Bhadraiva, Bharata, Ketumala and Uttarakuru, as its four petals. The elevated land around Meru is known as Ilavsta to the east of which lies Bhadrasva in between Malyavana mountain and the eastern sea ; to the west of Ilavita, Ketumala in between Gandhamadana and the western sea ; to the north of this tract lie Ramyaka, Hairanyavata, and Uttarakuru ; Ramyaka in between Nila and Sveta ; Hairanyavata in between Sveta and Sragavana, and Uttarakuru in between $rngavana and the north sea. On the south of this tract are Bharata, Kimpurusa and Harivarsa ; Harivarsa lies in between Nisadha and Hemakuta ; Rimpurusa in between Hemakuta and Himavana, and Bharata, being the most southern Varsa lying in between the Himavana and the southern sea extending upto the ocean. Thus taking Bhadraiva and Ketumala and Ilavrta there are nine Varsas in the Jambudvzpa island. 1 Geographical Essays p. 5; M, R. E. of Asoka R. E. xiii,

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 527 As in Jaina Geography the Jambu tree is situated in the region to the north of Mandara mountain, so in the Brahmanical Geography also it is mentioned as lying to the east of Meru on Mandara, Gandhamadana-Supariva. The particular difference is that there are innumerable islands and seas encircling each other, while in the Brahmanical Geography there are seven islands and seven seas, viz. Jambudvzpa, Lavana-Samudra, Plaksadvipa, Iksurasa-Samudra, Salmalidvipa, Sura-Samudra, Kusadvipa, Ksira-Samudra, Sakadozpa, DadhiSamudra, Puskaradvipa and Suddha-Samudra. It is difficult to identify all these islands, seas, continents, sub-continents, mountains and rivers, etc., with accuracy in the light of the modern knowledge of Indian Geography at the present state of informations. Here and there a few identifications of them are possible. So far as India is concerned, the account of its shape, size, nomenclature, mountains, rivers, etc., seems to be accurate, THIRD SECTION Geography Janapadas (States) It has already been pointed out in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political Conditions that India was politically divided into sixteen great states during the time of Lord Mahavira, viz. Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vatsa, Kautsa, (Kaccha) Padha (Patha), Lata, Vajji (Vaija) (Videha), Moli, Kasz, Kosala, Abadha (Avaha) and Sunbhuttara.? Besides these, there is the mention of Sindhu-Sauvira, sixteen unnamed small states and many cities. Most of these great states and cities are well known to the other ancient texts of India and can be identified with certainty. i Bhs, 15, 1, 554. Ib, 13, 6, 491.

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528 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX Anga Anga is also mentioned in other Jain texts', Brahmanical' and Buddhist works, and epigraphic records as a state of ancient India with its capital at Campa which stood at the confluence of the river of the same name and the Ganga. The original name of the city was Malini as recorded in the Mahabharata? and the Puranas. The earliest reference to Anga occurs in the Atharva Veda where the Angas are described as a distinct people in association with the Magadhas, the Mujavantas and the Gandharvas without locating their habitats, and they are also branded as Vratya, a despised people who were outside the pale ob orthodox Aryanism.10 There are different legends grown round the origin of the name of Anga. According to the Aitareya Brahmana" the people of Anga were called Angas after the name of an eponymous king Anga Vairocana, who is mentioned in the list of consecrated kings. The Ramayana" tells that it was called Anga because it is here that Ananga, the cupid god left his body (anga) after taking shelter in this country to save himself from the fire of wrath of Rudra. The foundation of this country is attributed by the Mahabhurata and the Purana:18 to a prince, Anga by name. Ancient Anga corresponds to modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr and comprised the western part of the district of Purnea and extended northwards upto the river Kausikz or Kosz14. i Pannavana, 1, 37. p. 55a. Atharva Veda, v. 22. IV; Panini, VI, 1, 170; 11, 4, 62 Mbh. 1, 104 ; Rama, 47, 14 : (J A.S.B. 1914, 317), * Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S. 213. 4 Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela ; Belava grant of Bhoja Varman (Inscriptions of Bengal Vol. III. pp. 15ff, etc.). 6 Jataka, 506. 6 Mahabharata, III. 84. 163; 307, 26. ? Mahabharata, II, 5, 6, 7. XIII, 42, 16. 8 Matsya Purana, 48, 97; Vayu P. 98, 105; Hari. P. 31, 49. 9 Atharva Veda, 22, 14. 10 J. R. A. S. 1913, 155 ff. J.A.S.B. 1914. p. 317 ff. 1 Aitareya Brahmana. 1,23, 14. 12 Ramayana 1, 23, 14; J.A.S.B. 1914 p. 317. 18 Moh. 1, 144, 55, 54 ; Matsya Pu. p. 48, 19. See, Epi. I. XXVV. pt. 3, July 1937; Vide, B.C. Law : India as described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 529 Vanga Vanga also finds mention in other Jajna?, Brahmanical, and Buddhist works and several epigraphic records along with Anga, Magadha and other Janapadas. In the Jaina Pannavana Sutta the people of Vanga are placed in the first rank of the Aryans along with those of Magadha, Anga and others. The earlist appearance of Vanga is found in the Aitareya Aranyaki(r) as well as in the Baudhayana Dharma Sutra where the Vangas are branded as impure people along with the Pundras, Kalingas and others. According to the collective evidences furnished by the Sakti Sangama Tantra", the commentator of Vatsyayana KamaSutra", the Pannavana Sulta, the Mahabharata', the Raghuvarsa and Dasakunara carita", Vanga, in the wider sense, was the vast territory extending from the eastern bank of Lauhitya upto Kapisa (Kasai river in Midnapore, West Bengal), while in the limited sense, it was the land including Vikrama pur (East Bengal) and its adjoining regions lying to the eastern bank of the Brahmaputra comprising Eastern Bengal, "Vanga Lohityat Purvena". 1 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37, 55a. ? Aitareya Aranyaka, II, 1, 1, 1, Panini's Astadhyayi (4,170); Mbh. XII ; Rama. Book II, etc. 9 Anguttara Nikaya, III, pp. 57 ff. * Meharauli Iron pillar Inscription of king Candra, C.I.I. Vol. III. pp. 141 ff; l'irumalai los. of Rajendra Cola, Goharwa plate of Laksmikarna, E. I. XI. 112, etc. 6 Pannavuna sutta, 1, 37. & Aitareya Aranyaka, II, 1, 1, 1. Cf Keith, Aitareya Aranyaka 600; Bauhayina Dharma Sutra, (1, 1, 14). Sakti Sangang Tantra (Ratnakarath samarabhya Brahmaputraotagah Sive Vadgadese saya proktah sarvasiddhi pradarsakah); sce Yoginitantra 2. 2. 119, Vide, H. G. A. p. 268. 8 Yasodhara-Varga Lohityat purvena. Mahabharata (Vanguraja...). Sabhaparvan, Ch. XXX. 23-5. 10 Raghuvam sa (Vanganutkhaya tarasa), Canto IV. 35-6. 11 I. H. Q. Vol. VII. No. 3, p. 533, 67

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530 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX Magadha Magadha is also recorded in other Jaina texts', Vedic and Buddhist' works and in several epigraphic documents' as one of the great states of ancient India with its capital at Rajagsha. It is regarded as one of the holy places of the Jainas, because it is closely associated with the lives and works of Lord Parsvanatha and Lord Mahavira for several centuries after their demises. The earliest mention of the name of Magadha is found in the Atharva Veda" where the Magadhas appear along with the Gandharas, etc., as despised people outside the pale of the Aryan society, but in the later Vedic works they are incorporated into the Aryan fold. As regards the location of Magadha it is to be observed that this state pushed up its frontiers to all directions in different periods. According to the views of all scholars, Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya of South Bibar, to the east of Anga demarcated by the river Campa, having the Ganga on its north, the Vindya mountain to the south and the the river Sone to the west. Malaya Malaya is also mentioned in other Jaina texts' as one of the sixteen great states and one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan lands with its capital at Bhaddilapura which corresponds to the Kuluha hill in the Hazaribagh district to the south of Patna and south-west of Gaya in Bihar. Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55a. * Atharva Veda, v. 22, 14. 8 Anguttara Nikaya 1II. pp. 57ff; p. 57 ff ;P. T. S. 1.213. Bhabra Edict of Asoka; Hathigumpha Inscriptions of Khara vela E. I. p. X 12f, Vide, Select Inscriptions. 6 Atharva Veda, 22-24. Brhat Sanhita Kurmavibhaga; Vide, C. A. G. 1. p. 6. A. G. 1. pp. 518 ff ; Ancient India, p. 166; P. H. A. Iodia, fifth ed. p. 53; Buddhist India, p. 14 ; see C, H. I., A. I. p. 182. ? Pannavana Sutta, 1-37, p. 55a. 8 S. B. M. p. 381. Jalore V. S. 1988. .

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 531 But there was a country named Malaya located in the south, having the mountain Malaya lying there.' It is identified with the country which corresponds to the present Malabar region with Travancore-Cochin.2 Malavaka Malavaka is recorded in other Jaina texts as one of the sixteen great states with its earlier and later capitals at Avanti or Ujjayini and Dharanagara at the time of king Bhoja. Malavaka may be identified with Avanti of the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya. This state also finds mention in several epigraphic records' and in the itinerary of Hiuen Tsang as Mo-la-paR which corresponds to modern Malwa. 6 Attha (Accha) Attha appears also in other Jaina texts as one of the great sixteen states with its capital at Varana or Varuna. It may be identified with the place centring about Bulandshahr in the Uttara-Pradesh.10 Vattha (Vaccha=Vatsa) Vattha (Vatsa) finds mention in other Jaina texts," Buddhist1* 1 Brhatkathakosa. 75. 1. 2 Geographical Dictionary, N. L. Dey. p. 122. Vide, L. A. I. p. 310. 8 Pannavana, 37; Nisitha Curni, 16. p. 110; Brrhatkalpa Bhasyavritti. 47. 4 Geographical Dictionary, p. 122. Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 310; Anguttara Nikaya, P. T. S. 1. 213. Vide, Political History of Ancient India p. 96; 4th ed. Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury. Sagartala (Gowalior Prasasti) Inscription of Pratihara king, Bhoja, Paithana plate of the Rastrakuta king, Govinda III; Madhuvana and Banskhera Inscriptions of Harsa-Varddhana. 8 Watters on Yuan Chwang II. pp 242. 9 Pannavana Sutia, p. 37. 55a. 10 Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 264. 11 Pannavana, 1. 37; Uvasagadasao, 11, Dr. Hoernle Vol. 1 Appendix 1. p. 7. Here Vaccha is referred to as people. 12 Anguttara Nikaya, P. T. S. 1. 213 (Here Vamsa is mentioned in stead of Vaccha or Vatsa).

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532 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX and Brahmanical' works as a distinct territorial unit with its capital at Kausambi (Kosam). According to the tradition recorded in the Harivamia Purana the origin of the Vatsas and the building up of their land (Vatsabhumi) are attributed to a prince of Kasi and the foundation of the city of Kosambi or Kausambi to a Cedi king, Kosamba by name according to the Ramayana. Probably Fatsa corresponds to the region lying to the north-east of Avanti along with the bank of the Yumuna southwards from Kosala to the west of Allahabad" and the south of the Ganga." Kottha (Koccha - Kautsa) Kottha may correspond to Kausikikaccha lying to the east of the river Kausiki in the district of Purnea (N. Bihar)." This Kaccha or Kautsa may probably be identical with Kautsa of the Udayagiri Inscription of Candragupta II, whose minister is called Kautsa-saba i.e. a boy or man of Kautsa.8 Ladha (or Radha) Ladha is also mentioned in other Jaina texts Buddhist works,10 and several epigraphic records" as a separate unit of territory. According to the Acaranga Sutra it was a pathless land comprising two sub-divisions, viz. Subbhabhumi and Vajjabhumi where lived the rude people who set their dogs on Lord Mahavira 1 Aitareya-Brahmana, VIII. 14. 3. It mentions the people of Vatsa as Vasas. 2 Harivamsa, p. 29-73. * Ramayana, 1, 32. 4 Buddhist India p. 3. 5 N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary p. 100. 6 Ramayana, 52, 101. ? N.L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary p.97. Vide, Life in Ancient India p. 298. 8 Udayagiri Inscription of Candragupta II. Vide, Select Inscriptions: Dr. D. C. Sarkar p. 272, A. D. 401. 9 Acaranga Sutra, 1, 8, 3-4. 10 Majjhima Nikaya, 1. 79 Vide, H.G. of Ancient India p. 254, 11 Bhuvanesvara Inscription of Bhatta-Bhavadeva; Terumalai Rock Inscription of Rajendra Cola, etc.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 533 and his followers. The Terumalai Rock Inscription of Rajendra Cola records two Ladhas, viz. Uttara-Ladha and Daksina-Ladha (Takkana-ladam) as two independent teritorial units. It may be that in the earlier times Ladha or Radha was a large unit which included. Subbhabhumi and Vajjabhumi, it is also found in later stage that the name Suhma gradually gave place to Radha which was its synonym. Ladha may correspond to the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah. Burdwan, Bankura and major portion of Midnapore and some portions of Murshidabad districts. Padha (Pandya) Padha of the Bhs may be identified with Padham in the district of Mainpuri in Uttara Pradesha. There is also a reference in the Asokan Edict to another Padha (pada) along with Coda, Satiyaputta. and Keralaputta which are located in the south. This Padha is identical with the Pandya country which finds mention in Indian and foreign records as distinct territorial unit with its capital at Madura. Vajja Vajja was the land of the Vajjis (Vrijas) of the Buddhist works which lay with its capital at Vaisali to the north of the Ganga and extended as far as the Nepal hills; on the west it was probably demarcated by the river Gandaka from the territory of the Mallas and perhaps also the Kosalas : on the east by the forests that bordered the rivers, Kosi and Mahananda." Vajja may also correspond to the greater Videha with its capital at Mithila round Darbhanga. 1 John Allan-The Ancient India coins, p. 1. HR. E. S. II. XIII. 8 Astadhyayi of Panini 4, 1, 171 ; S.J.I. 1. 1. pp. 5, 59, 63, etc. Mbh. Sabha. P. Ch. 31. v. 17. ; Rama. IV, Ch. 41 ; Mark. P. Ch. 57. V. 45. 4 A. I. Megasthenes & Arrian-pp. 162-163 ; Periplus ; Ptolemy p. 183. * P.H.A.1, fifth Ed. p. 118. 6 Satapatha Brahmana, X1, 6.2.1. etc., Jataka-6. 30-68, etc.

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534 Moli (Malla) Moli of the BhS is the Malla country of the Anguttara Nikaya. This Malla territory is also mentioned in the Mahabharata as the Malla-Rastra which was divided into two partsMalla proper and the southern Malla." This evidence of two units of Malla is also corroborated by the Buddhist works which state that it was partitioned into two zones with their respective capitals at Kusavati or Kusinara (modern Kasia) and Pava. STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA The Malla territory was hallowed by the sacred visits of Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha respectively. The Mallakis and the Licchavis were closely united in their war with king Kunika-Ajatasatru of Magadha." [Ch. IX These evidences show that Moli (Malla) lay on the mountain slopes to the east of the Sakya land and to the north of the Vajji Confederacy.R Avaha Kasi Avaha has not yet been identified. Kasi figures also prominently as a distinct territorial unit with its capital city as Varanasi in other Jain texts, Brahmanical10 and Buddhist" works and epigraphic records" which throw much light ubon its political, social, economic and cultural history. 1 Anguttara Nikaya (P. T. S. 1.213; IV. 252, 256, 260). Mahabharata, VI, 9, 34. Ib, II, 33, 3 and 12. 4 Kusa Jataka, No. 531; etc. 5 Kalpa Sutra, Jaina Sutras, pt. 1, p. 264. Vide, Hindu Polity, p. 43 (Jat. 111, 157; 1, 2, 127. 4, 198-99, p. 44, f.n 12, M. P.S. 6. 23). 7 Bh8, 7, 9, 300-301 8 Buddhist India, p. 16., see also C. A. G. 1 (1924) 714, Vide, P.H.A. I, 5th Ed., p. 12; C. A. G. I., pp. 430-3. 9 Nirayavaliya Sutta 1, Uvasagadasao II, 90-8. 10 Vedic Index, II, 116. n. (Atharva Veda) Samkhyayana Srauta Sutras, XVI, 29.5. Satapatha Brahmana, XIII, 5, 4, 19, Panini, 4, 2, 116; Rama. Adikanda, 13th Sarga, etc., Mbh. Udyogaparva, Ch. 117, p. 746. 11 Anguttara Nikaya, 1. 213. Digha Nikaya II, 1. 46. 13 Madhainagara grant of Laksmana Sena. Cf. E. I., XXVI, pt. I India office plate of Laksmana Sena.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 535 Ancient Kasi corresponds to the region round Benares district which was demarcated by Kasala on the north, Magadha on the east and Vatsa on the west. In the days of Lord Mahavira Kaii was one of the members of the Vajj Confederacy which was formed to fight with king Kunika-Ajatasatru. Kosala Kosala also appears in other Jaina texts, Brahmanical' and Buddhist," works as an independent state having two zones, namely, Northern Kokala with its capital at Savatthi (Sravasti) and Southern Kosala with Saketa as its capital. It was probably bounded by the Ganga on the south, the mountains on the north, the Gandaka Sadanira' on the east and Gomata on the west and it may be identical with the present Oudha (Ayodhya). Kosalapura (or Kosala), was associated with the birth of the fifth Tirthankara' and the activities of Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism, as it is evidenced by the fact that its capital city Sravasti was hallowed by the presence of Gosala Mankhaliputra, Lord Mahavirao and Lord Buddhato respectively. In the time of the Master, Kosala also joined the Vajji Confederacy against Magadha and sustained defeat at the hands of king Kunika-Ajatasatru". Sumbhuttara (Suhma) Sumbhuttara?? appears to be identical with Subbhabhumi of 1 Buddhist India, p. 21, Rhys Davids. ? Bh8, 7, 9, 300. 9 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37, 55a. 4 Satapatha Brahmana, 1, 4, 11; Panini (Astadhyayi). VI. 1.17; Visnu, P. Ch. 4; Ramayana, II, 68, 13; Moh. ll, 30, 2, 3; 31. 12. 13. * Anguttara N4kaya, 1. 213. . 6 Buddhist India p. 21, Rhys Davids 7 Avasyaka Niryukti, 382. Vide, Life in Ancient India p. 300. 8 Bhs, 15, 1, 539 ff. | 16, 15, 1, 539 ff. 10 Dialogues of the Buddha, I. pp 108, 288 11 Bhs 7, 9, 300. 13 16, 15, 1, 554.

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536 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX the Acaranga Sutra1 and Suhma of the Buddhist and Brahmanical3 works. Sri Nilakantha Sastri equates Suhma with Radha in his commentary on the Mahabharata. Thus it appears that the centre of Sumbhuttara (Suhma) corresponds to Triveni-Saptagrama-Pandua area in the Hooghly district (West Bengal), as it is supported by the existence of the famous shrine of Murari, of Raghu-Kulaguru (the Sun) and Arddhanarisvara (conjoint form of Siva and his consort Parvati) as recorded in the Pavanaduta of Dhoyi. Its boundaries also extended upto Tamralipta (Tamaluk) at one time and it formed the part of greater Radha. Sindhu-Sauvira Sindhu-Sauvira was one of the sixteen small states with its capital at Vitibhaya ruled over by king Udayana who was matrimonially related to the president-king, Cetaka of Vaisali. It appears that Sindhu-Sauvira formed one united kingdom, but Sovira or Sauvira is mentioned as a separate territorial unit in the early Buddhist works', Astadhyayz and Patanjali Mahabhasya. These two lands figure conjointly in the epics' and Puranas11 and also in the Junagadha Rock Inscription of Rudradamana." The unification of two territorial units suggests that the two peoples were considered as one and the same. 1 Acaranga Sutra (S B.E. Vol. XXII, pp. 84-5), Pannavana, 1.17 Talapatta Jataka, No. 96, Vol. 1. p. 393. 3 Mahabharata, Ch. 30,16 (Sabha P.); Raghuvamsa 49-35, 49, 38; Raghu-IV. 3, 5, 6.; Dasa-Kumara Carita 6th Ucchvasa p. 102; Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara, Ch. 17; Harsacarita, 6th Ucchvasa; Pavanaduta of Dhoy i-V. 27. Nilkantha's commentary on the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata Suhmah-Radhah' 5 Pavanduta of Dhoy1, V. 27. 7 Mahagovinda Suttanta (Digha 8 Astadhyayi (4. 2. 76; 4.1.143.) Mahabhasya, 4. 2. 76. 10 Mbh. (Bhisma-Parva) 5, 1, 14. Ch. 18. 13. 14. Adiparva 4. 139. 21-3. 4 BhS, 13, 6, 491. Panna. 1, 37. N. II p. 235). 11 Mark. P. Ch. 57, 36; 58, 30; Visnu P. Book II, Ch. III. 1 J.R.I. of Rudradamana-150 p. 7.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 537 Sindhu-Sauvira corresponds to the region comprising the whole valley of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea including the delta and the island of Cutch.1 Punda (Pundra)' Punda was a small state situated at the foot of the Vindhyagiri with its capital at Sayaduvara (Satadvara). It is also mentioned in the other Jaina texts. Its identity has not yet been traced. FOURTH SECTION Geography Some Towns and Cities Atthiyagama (Asthikagrama)' It was Atthiyagama is also mentioned in the Kalpa Sutra3. the place where Lord Mahavira passed his first rainy season during the period of his austerity. According to the commentary on the Kalpa Sutra the earlier name of Varddhamana (Burdwan, West Bengal) was Asthikagrama where a temple was erected on the bones of the dead people" killed by a Yaksa Sulapani, while Dr. B. C. Law suggests the identification of Atthiyagama with Hatthigama Hastigrama) which lay on the high road from Vaisali to Pava. It is not yet definitely identified. Alabhiya (Alabhika) Alabhiya was a city inhabited by Rsibhadraputra and other Sramano pasakas. It also finds mention in other Jaina and 1 C.A.G.I. p. 284. 3 Thananga, 9, 693; Antagada, 5, p. 4 Bhs, 15, 1, 541. * Commentary on the Kalpa Sutra. 7 Mahavira; His Life & teachings: B. C. Law. p. 33. 8 BhS, 11, 12, 423. 9 U vasagadasao, II, p. 103; Appendix p. 51-53; Niryukti, 516. 68 2 BhS, 15, 1, 559. 26. 5 Kalpa Sutra, 5, 122. Avasyaka

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538 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX Buddhist works as a city sanctified by the sacred visits of Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha. It is here in the Sankhavana Caitya Lord Mahavira converted Pudgala, a Parivrajaka to Sramana Dharma. It is said that this city was also visited by Gosala Mankhaliputra in one of his former births." It is identical with Alavi of the Buddhist Records which lay between Savatthi and Rajugrha, thirty Yojana: from Sravasti and twelve Yojanas from Benaras. It has been identified by Cunningham and V. Smith with the Ghazipura regions, U. P. Campa Campa was the capital city of Anga which was ruled over by king Kunika as already pointed out in connection with the identification of Anya. It is also referred to in other Jain texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical' works, and Chinese Records as an important city having its political, social, economic, religious and cultural history. Campa was intimately associated with the development of Jainism and Buddhism. It was so celebrated in ancient India that its name was attributed by the Indian colonists in Cochin-China to one of their important colonies." The city has been identified by Cunningham" with two villages, viz.Campanagara and Campa pura in the neighbourhood of Bhagalpur in Bihar. Hastinapura 13 Hastinapura was the capital city of king Siva, the royal sage who was converted by Lord Mahavira to Sramana Dharma Sutta Nipata; The Book of Kindred Sayings Vol. 1 p. 275, Ch. XI. 17 etc. : Bh8, 15, 1, 556. 8 Watters op Yuan Chwang II. pp. 61. 340. 4 Bh8, 5, 1, 176; 5, 10, 222. 6 Pannavana, 37 ; Nayadhammakahao, 8. p. 92 ff. & Jataka, 506. ? Mahabharata, 111, 84, 163; 307 26, Dasakumaracarita II. 2. 8 Watters on Yuan Chwang, II. 181. 9 Avasyaka Niryukti, 307, 383 (It was the birth place of Vasupujja, the 12th Tirthankara, and the place of his Nirvana. 10 Dialogues of the Buddha, 1, 144. 11 I-tsing's travels, p. 58; Vide, Buddhist India, p. 21: Rhys Davids. 19 Geography of Early Buddhism, London, 1932. 18 Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 428 ; 16, 5, 577,

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 539 from his Vanaprastha asceticism during the short stay of the Master in the Sahasramravana garden. It finds mention also in other Jaina1 and Brahmanical works as the city of the Kurus. It is stated that Rsabhadeva the first Tirthankara was an inhabitant of this city. The Vividha-tirtha-Kalpas attributes the foundation of Hastinapura to king Hasti after whose name it came to be known Hastinapura. It stood on the Ganges in the Meerut district of Uttara Pradesh and is identified with the modern town of the same name in Mawana Tahsil.* Kayangala (Kajangala)" Kayangala was a town outside of which lay in the northeastern quarter the Chatrapalasaka Caitya where Lord Mahavira once appeared from Rajagrha and converted the Parivrajaka named Skandaka to Sramana Dharma. It is also mentioned in the Buddhist works and the account of Hiuen Tsang.' According to the Mahavaggas and the SumangalaVilasini, Kajangala formed the eastern boundary of Madhyadesa (middle country) during the Buddhist period. Rahul Sankrtyayan10 identifies it with Kankajola (or Kakajola) in Santhal Paragana in Bihar. It may correspond to the region in the Rajamahal area. 1 Sthananga Sutra, 9, 691. Markandeya Purana, Ch, 57. 91, Bhagavat Purana, 1, 3, 6; 1, 8, 45; Cf. Ramayana, II, 68, 13; Mbh. 1, 128. Vividhatirtha-Kalpa: Jinaprabhasuri, Bombay 1934. See also Harivamsa Purana, 20, 1053-4, etc. 4 C.A.G I., p. 707. 5 BhS, 2, 1, 90. Angultara Nikaya, V, 54; Majjhima Nikaya, III, 298. 7 Watters on Yuan Chwang, II. 8 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E. II. 38. 9 Sumangala Vilasini, II, 429. 10 Vinayapitaka, p. 213n.: Rahul Sankrtyayan, Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 295.

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540 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Kampillapura (Kampilyapura)1 Kampillapura appears also in other Jaina texts, Buddhist3 and Brahmanical works. The earliest reference to it occurs in the Taittiriya Samhita." It is here Lord Mahavira converted Ammada, a Parivrajaka, together with his 700 followers Sramana Dharma. It was the birth place of Vimalanatha, the thirteenth Tirthankara.7 to [Ch. IX Ancient Kampillapura lay on the bank of the Ganges and it corresponds to modern Kampil which stands on the same river lying between Budayun and Farrukkhabad in Uttara Pradesh at a distance of twentyeight miles north-east of Fatehgadh." Kummagama (Kurmagrama)10 Kummagama was a town which was visited by Lord Mahavira along with Gosala Mankhaliputra during the period of his austerity. It is not yet definitely identified, but it appears to be situated in South Bihar according to the evidence of the BhS. Kayandi11 It was a city where lived some Sramano pasakas. It has not yet been identified. Kollaya (Kollada or Kollaga1) Kollaya was a small town in the neighbourhood of Nalanda. It is here Lord Mahavira is said to have accepted Gosala 1 BhS, 14, 8, 530. 2 Ovaiya Sutta, 39-40; Avasyaka-Niryukti, 383. 3 Jataka, 11. 214 (Kumbhaka Jat.). 4 Taittiriya Samhita, VII. 4.19.1; Satapatha Brahmana, xiii, 2.8.3.; Ramayana, Adikanda, Sarga, 33, V. 19; Mahabharata, 1, 138, 73-74; Panini, Kasikavrtti, 4.2.121. Taittiriya-Samhita, VII, 4. 19, 1. * Bh8, 14, 8, 430. 8 C.A.G.I. 413; A.S.R I. 255. 9 Geographical Dictionary, p. 88: N. L. Dey. 7 Avasyaka Niryukti, 383. 10 Bhs, 15, 1, 542, (There seems to be a printing mistake in one latest Vol. of the BhS, where Kundagama appears in place of Kummagama which is found in all the Mss. 11 Bhs, 10, 4, 404. (It may perhaps be identified with Kakandi Refer to Jain Shilalekha Samgraha, Pt. I, edited by P. C. Nahar-Editor). 12 BhS, 15, 1, 541.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 541 Mankhaliputra as disciple after his repeated earnest request. It is not yet definitely identified. It may correspond to a village called Koligama lying eight or nine li (1 miles = 1 li) south west of the Nalanda monastery.' Kosambi (Kausambi) Kosambi was the capital city of Vatsa kingdom (VatthaVaccha). It was hallowed by the august visit of Lord Mahavira and it is here in the Candravatarana Caitya the Master initiated the princess, Jayanti to ramana Dharma and admitted her to the Nirgrantha order on her express desire. Kosambi also finds mention in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical" works foreign accounts' and epigraphic records. The foundation of this city is attributed by the Epics to a Cedi prince named Kosamba, the third son of the Cedi king, UpacaraVasu.9 It is said that it was the birth place of the sixthTirthankara and was also visited by Lord Parsvanatha." Kosambi correspods to modern Kosam on the Yamuna about 30 miles south-west from Allahabad.1 Khattiyakundagama (Ksatriyakundagrama)13 It was Khattiyakundagama also finds mention in other Jain texts14 where it is recorded as the birth-place of Lord Mahavira. a suburb of ancient Vaisali and it is identified by the scholars 1 Watters on Yuan Chwang II. 171. It is said that Koligama (Kollaga) was the place of birth and death of Moggallana P.T.S. Vol. 1 p. 89. (Dhammapada Commentary). BhS, 12, 2, 441. Ib, 12, 2, 442. 4 Pannavana, 1, 37. Jataka, 4, 28, Vide, Buddhist India, p, 22. XXII. 2. 2. 113. Satapatha Brahmana, Cf. Weber Ind. Hist. p. 123; Vedic India 1-193; Mahabharata, Adiparva, 63, 31; Ramayana, 1, 32, 1-6. 7 Legge Fa-hien p. 96; Watters on Yuan Chwang 1 p. 365. 6; Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 72. 8 Asoka's Kosambi, pillar Edict; Allahabad pillar Ins. C. II. Vol. III. Mbh. 1, 63, 31. 10 Ava. Nir. 382. 11 Naya, 10, p, 230. 1 C. A. G. I. p. 709. 18 BhS, 9, 33, 383. 14 Kalpa Sutra, 1; Avasyaka Curni, p. 243; Avasyaka Niryukti, 384.

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542 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX with the present village, Vasukunda in Basarh region in the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar.' Mahanakundagama (Brahmanakundagrama) Mahanakundagama was also a quarter of ancient Vaisali and lay to the east of Ksatriyakundagrama, as it is evidenced in the BhS. It appears that there were two Kundagramas, viz. Ksatriyakundagrama and Brahmanakundagrama; the prince, Jamali hailed from the former quarter, while Rsabhadatta, the Brahmana from the latter locality. It is here in the Bahukalaka Caitya of Brahmanakundagrama Lord Mahavira initiated Rsabhadatta, his wife Devananda, and the prince Jamali to asceticism. It may correspond to a place lying somewhere to the east of Vasukunda. Mahesariya It was an ancient city in the Vindhya region. It finds mention in other Jaina texts' and may correspond to Mahismati or Mahesa on the right bank of the Nerbuda (Narmada) forty miles to the south of Indore." Mihila (Mithila)" Mihila appears as the capital city of Videha in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical works with the historical background of its culture. The Ramayana10 attributes the name 'Mithila' to the city as well as to the country itself. According, to the Puranas, Mithi, the son of Nimi popularly known as Janaka was the founder of this celebrated city. Here lay the Manabhadra Caitya which was hallowed by the august visits of Lord Mahavira." It is recorded in the Jaina 1 Homage to Vaisali. p. 85-90. Ib, 14, 8, 528. 5 G. D. pp. 119, 120. 2 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. Ava. Ti. p. 249, a; Ava. Cu. 2, 1, p. 333. Bh8, 9, 1, 312. 8 Jataka, 3, 365, 4, 316; 6, 246; etc. Ramayana. 1, 48, 11; Mbh. III, 210, Vanaparva, 254; etc. 10 Ramayana, Adikanda, XLIX, 9, 16. 11 Bhagavat Pu. IX, 13, 13. 12 BhS, 9, 1, 312. Pannavana, 1, 37; Kalpa Sutra, 5, 123.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 543 texts that Mithila was the place of birth and salvation of the nineteenth and twenty-first Tirtharkaras. It corresponds to modern Janakapur,' a small town within the border of Nepal as it was called Janakapuri in the Ramayana. Mendhiyagama (Mendhikagrama)' Mendhiyagama was a town which was visited by Lord Mahavira after his departure from Sravasti. It is here in the Salakoshaka Caitya he suffered from the bilious fever and got cured of it by taking well seasoned Kukkuta-Mariosa, presented by Revati, a female householder of this town. It is not yet identified. Moya" Moya was hallowed by the sacred visit of the Master who once took his temporary abode there at the Nalanda Caitya lying to the north-eastern quarter of this city. It is not yet identified. May it correspond to the region round the present Mokamah in Bihar ? Nalanda Nalanda was a suburb town of Rujagrha where Lord Mahavira took his temporary residence in a weaver's workshop in the second year of his asceticism. It is here the first meeting between Gosala Mankhaliputra and the Master took place. Nalanda also finds mention in other Jaina texts,? Buddhist works, Chinese accounts and epigraphic records.10 It was intimately associated with the development of Jainism and Buddhism. It is identified with modern Baragaon situated at a 1 Avasyaka-Niryukti, 383. 2 C. A. G. I, p. 718. 3 Ramayana, 1, 48, 11. 4 Bhs, 15, 1, 557. 6 16, 3, 1, 126. & Ib, 15, 1, 126. ? Suyagadanga Ti, 7, 68. 8 Samyutta, Nikaya II, p 220; Digha Nikaya, 1, p. 211; Majjhima Nikaya, Vol 1, 371 ff.. 9 I-tsing-Record of the Buddhist religion-Introduction, p. xvii ; Watters on Yuan Chwang II. pp. 164, 166. 10 Shahpur Stone Image Inscription of Adityasena ; Nalanda : Vagisvari stone Image Inscription in the 1st year of Gopala (J.A.S.B- 1908, VI. pp. 105-6 new series), Nalanda copper plate of Devapala.

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544 STUDIES in the BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX distance of seven miles north-west of Rajgir in the district of Patna on the archaeological evidences. Palasaka It was a settlement where lived some Sramanopasakas. It has not yet been identified. Padaliputta (Pataliputra) Padaliputta was the capital city of Magadha after Rajaglha as mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical" works, foreign accounts and epigraphic records with different variatious of its name, such as, Pataliputra. Kusumapura, Kusumadhvaja, Puspapura, Puspabhaya (A.P.I.), Polimbothra (Gk.), Pa-lintou (Chinese), etc. The foundation of this city is attributed by the Jaina works' to Udayin, the son of Darsaka, while the Buddhist tradition mentions Kunika-Ajatasatru as its real founder at Pataljgrama on the southern side of the Ganges during the life time of Lord Buddha by fortifying it as a military base of operation against Vaisali with the help of his two ministers, named Sunidha and Vassakara.'' It appears from the Bhs, that this city was not the capital of Magadha at the time of Lord Mahavira. It is here the first council of the Jaina church was held under the presidency of Sthulabhadra to collect the orally transmitted canons about 200 years after the demise of the Master.11 ICA.G.I p. 537. ? Bhs. 10, 4, 404 9 Ib, 14, 8, 529 4 Avasyaka Curni, II. p. 179; Avasyaka Niryukti, i279. 5 Digha Nikaya, II, 86 ff; Sumangala-Vilasini, p. 540 ; See Ivasyaka jana, II, 86 ff $18. Sushita (Kern), P Modern Review unabhasya ; rasa, Sloka? by Magastheneuan & Patanjali's Mahabhasya; Brhat Samhita (Kern), p. 37 ; Dasakumara-Carita-1st Ucchvasa, Sloka 2. 7 Mc. Crindle -- Ancient India as described by Magasthenese : and Arrian, p. 65. Legge, Fa-hien-pp. 77-78 ; Watters on Yuan Chwang-11. p. 87. 8 Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. 9 Avasyaka Curni, II, p. 179. 10 Modern Review, March-1918 ; See also Digha N. II, 86 ff.; Sumangala-Vilasini, II, p. 540. 11 Sthavir arali Carita, Sarga 9.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 545 Ancient Patali putra has been identified with Kumra har in the neighbourhood of Patna in Bihar. Rajagrha (Rajgir)! Rayagiha (Rajayrha) was the celebrated capital city of Magadha ruled over by Srenika-Bimbisara. It is also mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhists and Brahmanical' works and Chinese Records. It was known as Giribbaja in the Buddhist records, for it was surrounded by five bills, viz. Pandava, Gijjhakuta, Vebhara, Isiyili und Vepulla ; and according to the Mahal harata-Vaibhara, (the ground rock), Varaha, Vrsabha Ksigiri and Caityaka.' It is here at the Gunakilaka Caitya, situated in the northeastern quarter of Rajayrha, Lord Mahavira appeared more than sixty times and delivered most of his sermons on different topics in the assembly of his followers. It was a famous centre of Jainism and Buddhism and it was also sanctified by the sacred visits of Lord Parsvanatha and Lord Buddha(r) respectively. It was the birth place of the twentieth Tirthankara. According to the Bhs, the location of the hot spring in the Veb hara hill, Rayagihu can safely be identified with the present Rajgir. Sayaduvara (Satadvara) Sayaduvara was a town in the Pundra Jana pada at the foot of the Vindhyagiri where Gosala Maokhaliputra was said to have been born in one of his births in the royal family of Sumati and Bhadra and was known as Mahapadma. It is not yet identified. 1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4; etc. Nayadhammakahao, II, 10, p. 230; Pannavana, 1, 37 ; etc. 9 Vimanuvattha (Commi) p. 87; Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. IV, pp. 116-117. 4 Mahabharata, III, 84. 104 ; see Luder's list No. 1345. 6 Watters on Yuan Chwang II, p. 148. . Mahavngga, (S. B. F. XII-150); D. P. P. N.II, 721. Commentary on the Sutta Nipata, II, p. 382. ? Mahabharata II, 21.2. & Nayadhammakhao, II, 10. p. 230; Nirayavaliya, 4. * Vinaya Pitaka, IV, p. 267 ; II, 36 ff. ; Digha, II, pp. 76-81, etc. 10 Avasyaka Niryukti, 325, 383. 11 Bh8, 2, 5, 113. 11 Ib, 15, 1, 559; see Thananga Sutta, 9, 663 ; Antagada, 5, p. 26. 69

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546 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA Ch. IX Saravana Saravana was a small town where Gosala Mankhaliputra was born in a cowshed of Gobahula. It is not yet definitely identified. Savatthi (Sravasti)? Savatthi was the capital city of Kosala (North) which was celebrated by the association of Pingalaka---a Sramanopasaka, Skandakama Parivrajaka, Jamali, Lord Mahavira and Gosala Mankha liputra. Outside the city there lay in the north-eastern quarter a Caitya called Kosthaka where a spiritual duel took place bet ween the Ajivika leader and the Master, resulting in the defeat of the former. Sravasti also finds mention in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical works, Chinese accounts and epigraphic records? as a capital city with its political, social, economic, religious and cultural history. It was the birth place of Sambhavanatha and Candraprabhanatha, the two Tirthankaras8 and it was sanctified by the visits of Lord Parsvanatha and his disciple Kesikumara". Sravastz stood on the bank of Aciravati (modern Rapti) 10 and is identified with the present Sahet-Mahet on the basis of archaeological evidencesll. 1 Bhs, 15, 1, 340 : Ib, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 386; 15, 1, 539-556. 8 Avasy aka Niryukti, 323 ; 382; Nayadlhammakahao, II, 9. 19. p. 229; Niraya. 3,1; Raya-Paseniya S. --- 146 ff. 4 Vinaya : Mahavagga, pp. 190-191, 293, etc. 6 Visnu Pu, Ch. II, Arsa, 4; Matsya Pu. XII, etc. 6 Legge: Travals of Fa-Heien, 55-56; Watters on Yuan Chwang, 1, 377; II. 200. 7 Soghaura copper plate, I.A. XXV, 216 ff. Vide, H.G.A. I. p. 125. 8 Jain Harivamsa Purana, p. 717. Vide, Jainism in North India, C. J. Shah, p 26. 9 Rayapaseniya Sutta, 146 ff; Uttaradhyayana Tika, p. 35a ; Nayadhammakahao, II, 9. 10 p. 229; Nirayavuliya, 3. 1. 10 Vinaya : Mahavagga, pp. 190-191, 293. 11 J. R A. S. 1903 1098 ff. A. S. 1, R. 1, 330 ff; XI. 78 ff; A. R. A. S. 1. 1907-8, 81 ff; 1910-11, pp. 1'ff; C. A. G. I. p. 469; H, G. A. I. p. 125.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 547 Siddhatthagama (Siddharthagrama)' Siddhatthagama was a small town where Lord Mahavira appeared at Kurmagrama, being accompanied by Gosala Mankhaliputra during the days of his austerity. Siddhatthagama may correspond to Siddharthagrama in the Birbhum district of West Bengal'. Susamarapura Susamarapura also appears in other Jaina texts and Buddhist workso as a city. It is here in the Asoka garden Lord Mahavira passed the eleventh year of his asceticism in the state of Chadmastha (state having finite knowledge) by practising the austerity of lekaratrikan mahapratina-vratar' (taking only the eighth meal). According to the Buddhist records Susamarapura.was the capital of the Bhaggas (Bhargas). It is identified with modern Cunar in the Mirzapura district in Uttara Pradesh.6 Tamalitti (Tamralipti=Tamralipta=Tamaluk? Tamalitti is also mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical works and foreign accounts" as an important city and emporium with different variations of its name, such as, Tamalipta, Damulipta, Tamalipti, Tamalini (by Hemachandra), Tamalites (by Ptolemy), To-mo-liti (by Fa-Hien), Tan-mo-li-ti (by Huien Tsang), etc. According to the Prajnapana Sutrala Tamalitti, was the capital city of Vanga in the list of the Aryans of the first order. Bhs, 15, 1, 542. ? History of Bengal Vol. 1, p. 22. 3 BhS, 3, 2, 144. 4 Avasyaka-Curni, il, p. 199 ff. Majjhima Nikaya, 1, 332-8; Vide, H. G. A. I. P. 129. * Ghosa : Early History of Kausambi, p. 32; Majjhima Ni. p. 6ln. by Rahul Satokstyayan; Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 339f. f.11. 303. Bh8, 3, 1, 134. & Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55 a. 9 Kathasarit-Sagara, Ch. 14 ; Mahavamsa, XI, 38; XIX, 6. 10 Mahabharata, Bhismaparva, Ch. 9; Sablaparva, Ch. 29. 1094 1100, Raghuvamsa, IV, 38. 11 Ptolemy, VII, 1, 76; Beal : Buddhist Records of the Western world II, 200. 13 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55a.

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548 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX "Rayagiha-Magaha-Campa-Anga taha Tamalitti-Vanga ya", while the Dasakumara Carita' mentions it as a city of Suhma, together with the temple of Binduvasini which was visited by Fa-hien' and Hiuen Tsang. It was from here the mission of king Asoka consisting of Sanghamitra and Mahendra embarked for Ceylon. Fa-Hien also left for the same country on his way to China, while I-Tsing disembarked here after coming from China by the sea-route and embarked for Sri-Vijaya (in Sumatra) on his return journey. Tamalitti is identified with modern Tamaluk which stands on the bank of the river Rupanarayana in the Midnapore district (West Bengal).* Tungiya (Tungika) Tungiya was a native town of a large number of Sramanopasakas who flourished by banking business. It was here in the Puspavati Caitya a religious discussion took place between those Sramanopasakas of Lord Mahavira and followers of Lord Parsva natha's order. It may be identified with the present Tungi which is lying two miles from Bihar-Shariff." Udandapura' Udandapura was a small town which is said to have been visited by Gosala Mankhaliputra in one of his births. Outside this town lay a Caitya called Candravatarana. Udandapura is identical with the town of Bihar-Shariff in the Patna district, which is also known as Dandapura or Udandapura, for it was the centre of the Dandins, a class of ascetics." 1 Dasakumara-Carita: Dandin (6th A.D.) Fa-Hien's travels in India. I-Tsing, Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 263. 4 Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 263. 5 BhS, 2. 5, 107. Pracina-Tirthamala-Sangraha, Bhavanagar, V. S. 1978. pt 1, p. 16 Introduction. Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 345. 7 Bhs, 15, 1, 55. 8 Arch. Survey of India, Vol. VIII, p. 75. Vide, Life in Ancient India. p. 345.

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Sec. Iv] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 549 Ulluyatira (Ullukatira)' Ulluyatira was a small town in the north-eastern quarter of which was situated a Caitya called Ekajambuka. It was hallowed by the two visits of Lord Mahavira. It has not yet been identified. Vanarasi (Varanasi)? Vanarasz was the celebrated city of Varanasz or Kasi, which finds mention also in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmanical works, and Chinese recordso as a great centre of culture with its political, social, economic and religious life. It is said to have been visited by Gosala Mankhaliputra in one of his former births when he abandoned the body of Mandika possessed by him and entered into (i.e. took birth) that of Roha there at the Kamamahavana Caitya lying outside the city.' Varanasi was the birth place of the seventh and twentythird Tirthankaras Lord Suparsva and Lord Parsvanatha. It was intimately associated with the development of Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism, Varanasz is identified with the present city of Varanasi itself. Viibhaya (Vitibhaya) Vizbhaya was the capital city of Sindhu-Sauvira. It is here in the Mrgavana garden Lord Mahavira initiated its king U dayana to monkhood. This city is also mentioned in other Taina textslo as the capital of tne same united kingdom which was one of the twenty-five and a half-Aryan countries. It is identified with Bhera which stands on the left bank of the river Jhelum in the Dhahapura district in West Punjab." * Bhs, 16, 3, 502; 16, 5, 574. Ib, 15, 1, 540. 8 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37 ; Uvasagadasao, Ed. Hoernle pp. 909, etc. 4 Digha Nikaya, !I, 146; III, p. 141, etc. 0 Visnu Purana, 5th Amsa, Ch. 34; Kavya Mimamsa of Raja sekhara (Varanasyah paratah) & Beat's Records of the western world, II, pp. 45 ff. ? Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 8 Avasyaka Niryukti, 382, 384, 1302. Bhs, 13, 6, 491. 10 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37, p. 55a. 11 Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. II, p. 385.

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550 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX Visaha (Visakha) Visaha was a city which was sanctified by the sacred visit of Lord Mahavira. It is identified with modern Ayodhya by Cunningham." Vesali (Vaisali) Vesali was the celebrated capital city of the Licchavi Republic and the head quarter of the Vajji Confederacy at one time. It is also recorded in other Jaina' and Buddhist works, the Ramayana and Chinese accounts' with the history of its administrative system, society, economic. educational, religious and cultural aspects. Vaigali was a great centre of Jainism and Buddhism. It is identified with modern Basarh' in the the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar. Vebhela" It was a settlement (Sannivesa) located at the foot of the Vindhyagiri. It has not yet been identified. Rivers The Bhs, makes the specific mention of only two rivers, viz. Ganga and Sindhu. They also appear in other Jaina texts, 13 BhS, 18, 2, 618. : C. A. G. l., p. 460. 3 Bh8, 7, 9, 303; 15, 1, 559. 4 Kalpa sutra, 5, 123 (Jaina Sutras, S. B. E., pt. 1, Intro. XI). "Cf. Lalita-Vistara : Leafmann-Ch. III, p. 21. & Vinaya texts, S.B.E.II, p. 171; Ramayana, Ch. 47, VV. II. 12. See Visnu-P. (Wilson's, Vol. III, p. 246). 7 Legge : Fa-hien's travels, p. 72; Watters on Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 63. 8 Kalpa Sutra, 122-123; (Ivasagadadao. Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S. II, 190-94, 200-02; Vide, H.G.A.I., p. 266-267. 10 Arch. Survey Report, Vol. I, pp. 55-56 & Vol. XVI, p. 6; A. S. I. A. R., 1903-4, p. 74 11 Bhs, 3, 2, 142; 10, 4, 404. 11 Bh8, 7, 6, 288; 15, 1, 550. 18 Jambuddiva Pannatti, IV, 34. 35

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 551 Buddhist and Brahmanical works, and foreign accounts as the most celebrated rivers of India. Ganga The earliest reference to Ganga occurs in the Nadi-stuti verse of the Roveda" (Imam me Ganga Yamuna......Susomaya). This river figures in a number of later texts with different variations of its name, such as Alakananda, Dyudhuni, Bhagirathi", Janhavze, etc. Gosala Mankhaliputra mentions seven Gangas(r), viz. Ganga, Maha Ganga, Maccu Ganga, Lohita Ganga, Avanti Ganga and Paramavati Ganga. It is not possible to identify all of them except the first one at the present state of knowledge without fresh information. They may represent the legendary rivers or the local names of this river. Ganga is the famous river Ganges which rises up in the Gangotri in the Garhwal district of Uttara Pradesh and falls into the Bay of Bengal, flowing southwards from Hardwar to Bulandshahr, from there to the south-eastern direction upto Allahabad, where it is met by the Yamuna, thence eastward up to Pamahal in Bihar ; from there enters into West Bengal and joins the sea passing by Calcutta.10 Sindhu Sindhu is also mentioned in other Indian texts", foreign i Pancasudani, Il, p 586; Vide, India as described in Early texts, of Buddhism and Jainism. ? Rg-Veda, X, 75, VI, 45, 21, Satapatha-Brahmana, XIII. 5. 4. 11, Mark. Pu. 56. 1. 12; Mbh. 6. 43, 44. ; Rama. II, 50-12fF. 3 Mc Crindle : Ancient India pp. 190-91; Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 78. Ro-Veda, X, 75. 6 Bhagavat Purana, IV, 6, 24. XI, 29. 42. << Bhagavat Purana, III, 23, 39. 7 Raghuvamsa, VII, 36; VIII, 95 ; X. 26. 69. 9 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 10 Geographical Dictionary, N. L. Dey-p. 79; See H.G.A.T. -- * B.C. Law, p. 78. 11 Thananga Sutta, 10, 717 ; Rg-Veda, X. 75; Panini. 4. 3. 32 33 ; 4. 3.93) Astadhyayi, M. Bhasya 1. 3. 1. pp. 588-589; Brhat Samhata -XIV. 19. 8 Ib.

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552 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX accounts and epigraphic records as a celebrated river having seven streams under different names, such as Sindhu'. Hindu', Sintu', etc. It is the trans-Himalayan river which flows from the slopes of the Himalayas through North-West-Frontier-Province, the Punjab and Sindh and joins the Western Indian sea. The classical Greek accounts refer to the seven tributaries of Sindhu, viz. the Hydraotes (Ravi), the Akesines (Cenab), the Hypasis (Vipasa-Beas), the Hydaspes (Vitasta-Jhelum), the Kophon (Kabul), the Parenos, the Saparnos and the Saonos. The list of the seven streams of the Sindhu does not fully tally with that of its seven tributaries mentioned in the Rgveda, viz. Sutudri (Sutlej), Parusni (Ravi) Asikni (Cenab), Marudvrddha (a small Kasmirian river), Vitsta (Jhelum) and Susama (Sohan)." The Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra also refers to the seven mouths of Sindhu (Tirtva saptamukhani Sindhoh). They also find mention in the Periplus of the Erythraean sea.9 Mountains The Bhs makes mention of the following mounts, viz. Himavata,to Vindhyagiri,"? Vipula" and Velhara, but it does not give a clear account of the mountain system of India as recorded in other Jaina texts, Brahmnical and Buddhist works. Behistun Inscription of Darius; Vendad (Hindu); Beal's Buddhist Records of the Western world I, p. 69 ; Cf. J.A.S.B. 1886 (II. p. 323); Legge : Fa-Hien, p. 26. * Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra. 8 Rg-Veda, VIII, 24.27 etc. 4 Hi(v) du or Hindu (Behistun Inscription of Darius), C. H. I. Vol. 1 p. 324; 5 Legge : Fa-Hien, p. 26. 6 H. G. A. I. p. 127, B.C. Law. 7 Rg-Veda, X, 75. 8 Me harauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candara; Vide, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar. p. 275. 9 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 10 Bhis, 9, (3-30), 364. 11 16, 3, 2, 144 ; 14, 8, 528. 1[6, 2, 1, 94. 13 lb, 3, 4, 160.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 553 Himavata Himavata finds mention also in other Jaina texts, Brahmai. cals and Buddhist* works and foreign accounts." It is the great Himalayas lying on the north of India and stretching from the eastern to the western sea like the string of a bow (Karmukasya yathagunah). Vindhyagiri Vindhyagiri appears as one of the Kula-Parvatas in otber Indian texts and it is identical with Ptolemy's ouindion? w is the origin of the rivers Namados (Narmada) and Nanagouna (Tapti). The evidences from the Puranic records and Ptolemy show that the Vindhya was a mountain of central India, having three distinct divisions, viz. Paripatra, Vindhya proper and Riksa in the limited sense. But in wider sense the long range of the Vindhya corresponds to the whole chains of hills from Gujerat to the Gaya district, stretching on both sides of the Narmada. Vipula Vipula-Parrata is identical with Vepulla mountain of the Pali texts(r) which was one of the five hills protecting the city of Girivraja (Rajagrha). It corresponds to the Vipulacala of Rajgir (Bihar). Vebhara (Vaibhara) Vebhara mountain was one of the five hills surrounding the ancient city of Girivraja as recorded in the Buddhist works and 1,Jambuddiva Pannatti, 1, 9. ? Rg-Veda, X, 121, 4; Atharva-Veda, XII, 1, II; Mark. Pu, 54, 24 ; 57. 59; Mbh. Vanaparva, 253. 3 Paramatthajotika, II, p. 66; Malalasekara, Dict. of the Pali proper names 1. p. 1325. * Ptolemy's (Imaos) Ancient India, p. 19. 6 Markundeya Purana, 54, 24 ; 57, 59, Markandeya Purana, 54, 21; 57, 59. ? Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 77. 8 Pali texts (D.P.P.N. 11, 721); See also the Mahabharata, 1, 113, 27 ; 1.H.Q. 1939. 9 Pali texts (D.P.P.N, II, 721). 70

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554 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX the Mahabharata! which mentions Vipula instead of Vebhara. This hill was intimately associated with Jainism and Buddhism as a sacred place, for many saints belonging to the two orders attained emancipation here. According to the Bhs it was situated at the outskirt of Rajagrha and had the hot spring from which hot water always flowed. "Saya samio usine auyae abhinissa vai." This Vebhara hill is identified with the Vaibharagiri of modern Rajgir. Besides these mountains there is also mention of some mountains, such as, Vaitadhya, Citra-Vicitra-Yamaka mountains, Kancana mountains, etc. where Jrmbhaka gods live.s It is difficult to identify them correctly at the present state of knowledge of Indian Geography. It is stated in the Jambuddiva Pannatti* that the Vaitadhya mountain range divides Bharatavarga into two halves, viz. the northern half and southern half. May it be identical with the Vindhya mountain ?. i Mahabharata, 1, 113, 77 ; See LHQ, Keith, 1939, 163-64. * Bhs, 2, 5, 113. SI6, 14, 8, 533, * Jambuddiva Pannatti, 1, 12.

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TENTH CHAPTER. Contribution of the Bhs to the evolution of Jaina. Philosophical thought. FIRST SECTION. Jaina Metaphysics At the dawn of civilization man began to ponder over the problem of life and phenomena of Nature with a feeling of admiration, awe and wonder which animated him to religious acts and to probe into them with a speculative thought to interpret and explain the deeper' meanings of life and Nature. His thirst for knowledge born out of his spiritual urge led him to understand things relying upon his internal senses. These were the haunting questions to his inquist tive mind ; what is life, what is Nature, how have they originated and evolved, etc. ? His admiration was the first expression of sentiments which revealed themselves as the aesthetic idea at a more advanced stage, while wonder and inquisitiveness guided him later to develop "his philosophy, his religion and science". Since then in every country the quest for knowledge of these problems of life and Nature started among the thinkers and thus different systems of philosophy evolved out of their self-consciousness, thoughts and experiences to interpret and explain the underlying fundamental principles which govern life and the Universe. In India this quest for knowledge of life and Nature started in the Rgvedic age and it has continued upto the present day, contributing to the evolution of philosophical thoughts with speculative daring of many sages. Thus these questions on life and the Universe haunted the speculative mind of the Vedic sage of Nasadiya hymn "From whence did it spring forth, from whence was i Religion and Rational outlook- Dr. S. N. Dasgupta, p. 44

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556 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X this creation ?" "Kuta ajata kuta iyarh visrstih" ? He himself answers "Nasad asin no sad asit tadanim". Next, he asks the question to himself. "Was there deep abysmal waters"? "Ambhah kim asid gahanam gabhiram"? He asserts that "there was no death, nor was there anything immortal"." But immediately his mind reacts thus "That one breathed by Itself without breath, other than It there was nothing-"Anid avatam svadhaya tad ekam tasmad dha'nyan na parah kincana sa". "There was absolute darkness and a sea without light. That one was born by the power of austerity (tapah). The sages (rsis) searching in their heart discovered in non-existence the connecting bond of existence Sato bandhum asati nira vindan hrdi pratisya kavayo manisa." Thus the Indian Philosophical thought began in the Rgvedic age and passed through the different phases of its evolution, giving birth the six orthodox systems of philosophy, viz. Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta and the unorthodox systems of philosophy, viz. Carvakism, Jainism and Buddhism in different ages. In the domain of knowledge the ramana-Nirgrantha-Dharma also made a great contribution to the evolution of the metaphysical thought by systematizing the teachings of the leaders of religion as it is revealed in the BhS. The study of this canonical work shows that Metaphysics is something which is correlated with Physics, though the former goes beyond the latter. Cosmogony The BhS throws a welcome light upon Cosmogony, i.e. origin, evolution and continuation of life and the Universe by explaining the fundamental principles of Nature that there takes place the transformation of the state of existence (astitva) into that of existence which means the existence of a thing in the form in which it is and that of non-existence into that of non-existence (nastitva), i.e. when a thing undergoes transformation into the 1 Rg-Veda X, 129, 6. N. Tatia. p. 1 Ib, X, 129-.1. 16, X, 129, 4. page no. 2. Vide 'Studies in Jaina Philosophy', Dr. 3.4 Ib, X, 129, 2.

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Sec. 1] Studies in THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 557 other state than its own (anyapoha). "Atthittan atthitte patinamai natthittam natthitte parinamai". For example, the entity or being of earth as lump exists in the being of a jar in the transformed state "(ya tha mrddravyasya pindaprakarena satta ghataprakara sattayam iti)". It is a case of astitva, while that of nastitva is explained by the example of the state of darkness due to the state of absence or destruction of light, "dipadivinasasyapi. tamisradirupataya parinamat.": These principles of astitva and nastitva are co-related with each other from the points of view of eternality of the Universe (inhabited portion, and the Non-Universe (uninhabited portion), living and non-living substances without the priority of existence of any one of them. Thus it is explained that both the Universe and the Non-Universe, living and non-living substances are eternal without succession. The BhS expounds that finiteness and infiniteness, eternality and non-eternality are co-related from different aspects of substance, space, time, condition, etc., in relation to the Universe and soul. For example, the substance-world (dravyaloka) and spaceworld (ksetraloka) are finite and non-eternal from the points of view of substance and space, and infinite and eternal from those of time and condition, i. e. temporal dimension and model expression. Similarly soul (Jiva) is finite and non-eternal from the aspects of substance and space, and infinite and eternal from those of time and condition (thava) respectively. Conception of Substance (Dravya) or Reality and its Nature According to the metaphysical principles laid down in the BhS the Universe is a system of Reals all inter-related with one another with regard to dravya (substance), ksetra (space), kala (time) and bhava (condition), having a fundamental unity comprising the plurality of inter-dependent and inter-connected substances, Dravya is endowed with gunas (qualities), inifinite' in number. From the Vyavahara Naya (practical or empirical standpoint) the flowing molasses is endowed with sweet taste and from that of i Bhs, 1, 3, 32. Ib, (comm.). 3_4 Ib, 2, 1, 91.

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558 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X Niscaya Naya (noumenal standpoint), it has got five colours, two smells, five tastes and eight touches.1 So Dravya is that which possesses gunas and paryayas (attributes as well as modes) and reveals permanence and change inherent in it to be real. It is Reality endowed with three potent factors, viz. permanence, origination and decay. There had been an evolution of this conception of Reality with the development of philosophical thought. In the Tattvartha Sutra', Umasvati conceives 'Sat' (existence) as the mark of Dravya i.e. Reality (Sat-dravya-laksmanam) and explains that this 'Sat' is endowed with three factors, viz. origination, decay and permanence (Utpada-vyaya-dhrauvya-yuktam sat, which characterize Reality. Accordingly in a substance there are its origin and decay of its changing modes (paryayas) and permanence the unchanging essence. It is further explained that Dravya is endowed with guna and paryaya (essential and accidental characters) "Gunaparyayavad-dravyam." 4 So there is no fundamental difference between the two definitions of Dravya as embodied in the BhS and Ta. Su. respectively. Only the definition of Reality has been made more clear in the Ta, Su. with the evolution of philosophical thought. 6 The principle of Dravya is of two kinds, viz. Jivadravya and Ajivadravya (living and non-living substance)." These living and non-living substances are infinite and they have infinite modes. Living substance is formless (arupe), while non-living substances are classified into two groups, viz. rupe-ajivadravyas (corporeal non-living substances which are tangible to senses) and arupi-ajiva-dravyas (formless non-living substances which intangible to senses), "Ruvi ya aruvi ya." It is explained that matter (pudgala) is corporeal non-living substance, while the formless non-living substance consists of Dharmastikaya (principle of motion), Adharmastikaya (principle of rest), Akasastikaya (space) are 257 1 Bhs, 18, 6, 631. 8 Ib, 5, 30. Ib, 7, 10, 305. - 2 Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 29 Umasvati. 4 Ib, 5, 38. 7 Ib, 2, 10, 121. 5 Ib, 25, 2, 720. 8_9 Ib, 7, 10, 305.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 559 and Addhasamaya (time).' But at the same place of the Bhs Arupi. Ajivadravya is also divided into five kinds, viz. Dharmastikaya, Dharmastikaya-pradesa (element of the principle of motion), Adharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya-pradesa (element of the principle of rest) and Addhasamaya." Here Akasastikaya is omitted. This canonical work makes a study of the relation between living and non-living substances. The former receives the latter from all sides and effects the formation of the gross physical, transformation - and translocation-bodies and all the five sense organs, three activities (mental, vocal and bodily) and inhaling and exhalings Conception of the Universe The Universe is conceived of as comprising Pancastikayas (five extensive substances), viz. Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya, Akasastikaya, Jivastikaya, and Pudgalastikaya." But on the basis of the divisions of Dravya it is explained in one place of the Bhs that there are six fundamental substances in the Universe, called Sarva dravyas, i.e. Postive Realities characterized by attributes and modes (guna and paryaya), viz. Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya, A kasastikaya, Jivastikaya, Pudgalastikaya, and Addhasamaya. The last substance-Addhasamaya, appears also in other places as a distinct eternal real substance. So far as conception of the Universe as comprising five extensive substances is concerned, time is not included in it as the sixth substance, because it does not form one organic extension. Nature of these six fundamental substances The BKS throws an important light upon the nature of all these six fundamental substances of the Universe by explaining them from different aspects. It is expounded that Dharmastikaya? and Adharmastikaya are single substances from the point of view of Dravya, equal to the extent of the Universe inhabited portion) 1 Bhs, 2, 10, 121. $ 16, 25, 2, 721. 4 Ib, 2, 10, 118; 7, 10, 305; 13, 4, 481. 6 I, 13, 4, 482-483. o 1b, 11, 11, 424, 16, 2, 10, 118-119.

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56.0 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X from that of space, eternal from that of time, and colourless, Smell-less, tasteless and touchless from that of condition. But the former is signified by the motion of other bodies, while the latter by their rest. Dharmastikaya is the medium which causes all the moving states, e.g. coming, going, etc., to be set in motion, because the characteristic of movement presupposes Dharmastikaya.' It helps the motion of the moving objects. In reality it is one extensive non-living substance pervading the cosmic Universe and it is of innumerable points,' as it is co-extensive with spacehaving innumerable points. Adharmastikaya is signified by the attribute of rest of otherbodies. It is this principle of rest which causes all the nonmoving states, such as, standing, sitting, fixed state of mind, etc., because the static state of bodies points to its existence (thanalakkhane-nam ahammatthikaye). This eternal substance consists of innumerable points, because it is co-extensive with space having infinite points. Akasastikaya (Space) Akasastikaya is a single substance from the aspect of dravya, equal to the extent of the Universe (inhabited portion) and NonUniverse (uninhabited portion), i.e. all pervasive from that of space, eternal from that of time, and colourless, smell-less, tasteless, and touchless from that of condition, and it is endowed with the attribute of extension (avagahana) i.e. it gives room for the existence of all the extended and non-extended substances-Dharma, Adharma, Jiva, Pudgala and Addhasamaya. Space consists of infinite points (pradesa ananta?) and it is the receptacle of living and non-living substances and is filled or occupied by one to infinite atoms, because the attribute of extension is space (avaga bana. lakkhane nam agasatthikaye)s. Jivastikaya Soul is colourless, smell-less, tasteless, touchless, formless, living, eternal and permanent substance of the Universe, having i Bhs, 13, 4, 481. 4 Ib, 13, 4, 481. 16, 2, 10, 119. 6.7 16, 2, 10, 119. 8 Ib, 2, 10, 118. 8 16, 13, 4, 481.

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Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 561 the attribute of consciousness. There are many synonymous words of soul, such as, jiva or jivastikaya, pana, bhuya, satta, vinnu, ceya, jeya, aya etc.? Definition of Soul The definition of soul becomes clear by the meanings of its synonymous words, e. g. the term "Jiva' denotes that the soul is consciousness and consciousness also is invariably the soul (Jive tava niyama jive jivati jive)." He who ever breathes is invariably jiva (being), but jiva (soul) breathes in some respect and does not breathe in other respect. (Jivati tava jive, jive puna siya jivati siya no jivati). It is to be observed that the word 'Poggala' sometimes stands as synonym for soul. It is so called because of the integration and disintegration of its bodies (Puranad-galanaccasariradinam pudgalah). It is explained that soul is infinite from the aspect of substance, co-extensive with the Universe from that of space (kesetra), eternal from that of time and colourless, smell less, tasteless and touchless from that of condition." It is single eternal substance having infinite points (pradesas), for it is co-extensive with space possessing infinite points. Nature of Soul Proof of Existence of soul In the human body one feels the experience of another agency which defies the laws of Nature, time and space ; there is something, not analysable nor subject to physical analysis but is distinct from the object. Thus it is explained that the soul is endowed with exertion, action, strength, energy, effort and vigour and it manifests its jivabhava (the state of consciousness) by its atmabhava? (the state of the self) i.e. the act of rising, lying, going, acting etc. Because the soul, having the attribute of consciousness attains consciousness of infinite modes of all kinds of knowledge, wrong knowledge and undifferentiated cognition (or self-awareness) (jnana, ajnana and darsana). 1 Bhs, 20, 2, 665. 23 Ib, 6, 10, 256. Ib, (Comm.), 20, 2, 665. 6 16, 2, 10, 118. 6 lb, 2, 10, 119. 7 I6, 2, 10, 120 ; 13, 4, 481. 71

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562 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. x As regards the equality of the soul the BIS reveals that the soul of an elephant and that of a Kunthu (insect) are equal." Soul pervades the body in which it exists, e. g. the whole bodies of tortoises, allegators, cows, men, buffaloes, etc., and even their inner parts, cut into two to innumerable pieces.' It may in some respect exist in every point of space of the Universe and even in an atom or may not exist in them in other respect, because they are endowed with soul in reference to its presence (sva-adista) and with not-soul in reference to the presence of not-soul (para-adista). Soul is imperishable, immortal and impenetrable ; no man can cause pain or destruction to it or cut its inner points by touching with hand or cutting them asunder with a sharp weapon or burning them with fire. It is eternal from the point of view of time and non-eternal from that of the State of existences (gati), because it was, is, and will be ; and it undergoes transmigration from one birth to another. Soul is finite from the aspects of substance and space, for it is a single substance possessed of innumerable points and immersed in innumerable points of space, but it is infinite from that of condition, because it is endowed with infinite modes of knowledge, of self-awareness, of conduct, etc.? As a changing entity soul always vibrates in different forms, moves further and goes to all directions; then it enters into the world, agitates, rises up and transforms itself into different conditions. Soul is the agent of all actions of beings, for without it eighteen kinds of sinful acts (act of killing upto the perverted attitude), and the act of desistence from them, different states of the soul (bhava), perception (avagraha), speculation (iha), i.e. desire to know, determination (avaya), retention (dharana), exertion, 1 Bhs, 7, 8, 294. 4 Ib, 8, 3, 325. 8 16, 3, 3, 153. 2 15, 8, 3, 325. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 387. 3 Ib, 12, 10, 469, _7 16, 2, 1, 91.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 563 action, etc., upto determinate and inderminate consciousness of beings do not take place." Plurality of soul The Bhs believes in the plurality of souls, having a unity running on the ground that two sentient beings are individual absorbers (pratyekahara) and transformers of food and they bind separate bodies, and assimilate matters or form bodies independently. Further they differ in regard to their respective senses, conditions of soul, attitudes of mind, knowledges and activities. Classification of soul Soul is studied from eight points of view, viz. substance (dravya), passion (kasaya), activity (yoga), consciousness (upayoga), knowledge (jnana), self-awareness (darsana), conduct (caritra), and energy (virya). Accordingly there are stated to be eight kinds of soul, viz. dravyatma (soul existing as substance), kasayatma (soul having passion), yogatma (soul endowed with activity), upayogatma (soul endowed with consciousness), Jranatma (soul endowed with knowledge), darkanatma (soul endowed with self-awareness), caritratma (soul in conduct) and viryatma (soul endowed with energy). There exists psychologically a mutual relation among these eight kinds of soul, for they are inter-connected as the different aspects of one substance, namely, soul. For example, he who has dravyatma has in some respect kasayatma and he has not it in other respect. But he who is endowed with kasayatma has invariably dravyatma.' Characteristics of Soul The BhS explains that the soul is jfiani (i.e. endowed with right knowledge) in some respect and also ajnana (i.e. endowed with wrong knowledge) in other respect, but knowledge itself is invariably the soul, because consciousness (upayoga) is the attribute of the soul. 1 Bh8, 20, 3, 666. 16, 12, 10, 468. ? Ib, 20, 1, 663. 6 16, 12, 10, 468. 3 Ib, 12, 10, 464.

Page #589
564 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X "Aya siya nane siya annane nane puna niyamamaya." Self-consciousness and outside objects are correlated. As the soul is endowed with the capacity of taking note of natural objects, it is the knower. It is also invariably self-awareness (darsana) and self-awareness is invariably the self itself (aya niyamam damsane damsane niyamam aya)." Relation of soul with speech, mind and body This canonical work throws important light upon the relation of the soul with speech, mind and body by explaining their different characteristics. Speech and mind' are non-souls (i. e. matter) because they are endowed with form (corporeal) and are non-conscious (acitta) and non-living (ajiva). They are only intimately associated with the soul. But body is both soul and non-soul (matter) conscious and non-conscious, living and nonliving matter of beings and non-beings. This dual nature of body is due to its association or absence of association with the soul. The body undergoes various transformations such as (1) the gross physical (2) gross physical-mixed with translocation, (3) transformation (veuvvie), (4) transformation-cum-translocation, (5) translocation (aharae) (6) translocation-cum-karmic and (7) karmic bodies. It is further explained that the jiva (soul) engaged in eighteen kinds of sinful acts is not different from the jivatman, as some heretics who distinguished between jiva and jivatman were used to hold. Pudgalastikaya (Matter) Ajivadravya (non-living substance) is of various kinds the most visible form of which is matter (pudgala) which exists in different forms, such as, earth, water, fire, plant, physical bodies, etc. It is a tangible reality which exists along with the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in visible and invisible conditions. Its finest form is atom. There are many synonymous words of 1 Bhs, 13, 7, 493. * 16, 13, 7, 494. - 16, 17, 2, 597.

Page #590
Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 565 pudgalastikaya, such as, poggala or paramanupoggala (atom), etc.1 The word 'poggala' (Skt. pudgala) is formed of two terms 'pud' and 'gala', the first one denotes to combine, while the second signifies to dissociate. According to the commentary of Sri Abhayadeva Suri the word pudgala, stands for matter which is subject to intergration and disintergration of bodies, etc. involving the process of transformation." So pudgala is a corporeal non-living eternal and fixed (or permanent) substance of the Universe, having five colours, five tastes, two smells and eight touches." It is infinite (substances) from the point of view of substance, equal to the extent of the Universe from the standpoint of space, eternal from that of time and endowed with colour, taste and touch from that of condition and with the attribute of reception from that of quality.* Matter causes the receiving (i.e. formation) of five kinds of bodies, viz. gross physical body upto Karmana body, five senseorgans, viz. ear upto skin, three kinds of activities (mental, vocal and bodily) and breathing in and out, because the characteristic of receiving is inherent in it. "Veuvviya-aharae......gahanam pavattati ......gahanalakkhane nam poggalatthikaye." Nature of Matter Matter is heavy-cum-light (guruya-lahue) with regard to heavy-cum light substances and neither-heavy nor light with regard to substances which are neither heavy nor light (aguruyalahuya). It It is endowed with parts (or points i.e. sapradesa) and is partless also (apradesa) from the point of view of substance. is infinite from those of space, time and condition respectively," as being co-extensive with space.* 1 Bhs, 20, 2, 665. Ib, 13,4,481. 37b, 2, 10, 118. Ib, 1,9,73. 4 Ib, 2, 10, 118. " Ib, 5,8,221. 8 Ib, 2,10,119.

Page #591
566 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SUTRA Ch. X "Anamta khettadesenavi evam ceva kaladesenavi bhavadesenavi evam." Classification of matter Matter is classified into three categories from the point of view of transformation, viz. prayoga-parinata-pudgala (matter, transformed into the physical form by the action of beings) misraparinata-pudgala (matter-transformed by the action-cum-natural innate disposition) and visrasa-parinata-pudgala (matter transformed by nature or the natural srate). They are again divided and sub-divided into different groups from various aspects. For example, there are five kinds of prayoga parinata-pudgala, viz. ekendriya upto pancendriya-prayoga-parinata-pudgala (i. e. matters transformed by the action of one-sensed upto five-sensed beings). Visrasa-parinata-pudgalas are divided into five groups, viz. varnaparinata upto sansthana-parinata-pudgala (i. e. matters transformed by the process of the natural states of colour upto figure. Forms of Matter Matter eonsists of two forms, viz. paramanu (atom) and skandha (aggregate of atoms) from the physical aspect of Nature. Here the problem arises how do they exist in the spatial Universe. Formation of Atoms It is explained in the Bhs that matter was, is, and will be dry and adhesive in the infinite eternal past, present and future times respectively. It underwent, undergoes, and will undergo transformation and got, gets, and will get changed into the states having many colours and forms as a result of the applied and natural processes. Then those states again get worn out (i. e. disintegrated) and become matter, having one colour and one form, i. e, atom. "Esanam bhamte poggale titamanamtam sasayam ...samayam lukkhi samayam alukkhi.... egavanne egaruve." 1 BLS, 8, 1, 310. 16, 8, 1, 312. Ib, 14, 4, 510.

Page #592
Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 567 This theory of the formation of atoms as embodied in this canonical work is also explained in the T. Su. The atoms are produced by the division of matter, while the origination of skandha is caused by the division and union of matters (bhedasamghatebhyah utpadyante),' i. e. it takes place owing to the disintegration, integration and disintegration-cum-integration of atoms with one another as a result of internal and external causes. Definiton of Atom An atom is defined as endowed with one colour, one smell, one taste and two touches. "Para manupoggalle nam egavanne egagandhe egarase duphase pannatte." It may be black or upto white; it may have the property of pleasant or unpleasant smell; it may be bitter or upto sweet; and it may be cold and adhesive, or cold and dry or warm and adhesive or warm and dry. It is to be observed that the qualities of hardness and lightness are not inherent in an atom. Kundakunda also propounds in regard to the properties of an atom that "of the eight kinds of touch, hardness and softness, heaviness and lightness are not the qualities of the individual atoms." The Tattvartha Sutra also explains that a paramanu (atom) is the smallest material unit of substance, devoid of any further divisible points (pradesas) (nanoh). A skandha (aggregate of atoms) possesses two to infinite parts and properties of colour, smell, taste and touch in varying numbers according to the number of its constituent parts, e.g. a skandha, having two parts of atoms may be endowed with one or two colours, etc.? Characteristics of Atom and aggregate of Atoms One atom is equal to another atom from the point of view of substance. It is impenetrable and indivisible, incombustible 1 Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 27. * 1b, 5, 26. 3 Bhs, 18, 6, 632. 4 I0, 20, 5, 669. Pancastikayasara, 88. Vide, 'Outlines of Jaina philosophy' by Mohanlal Mehta, p. 72. & Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 11. 7 Bhs, 20, 5, 670. 8 ]6, 14, 7, 523.

Page #593
568 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X and non-receivable (agajjha)'; anardha (without half part), amadhya (having no interior part) and apradesa (having no points or only one point);" while a skandha is sardha or anardha, amadhya or samadhya and sapradesa, e. g. skandhas having two, four, six and eight parts are sardha ; but those, having three, five, seven and nine parts are anardha. Skandhas, having numerable, innumerable, and infinite parts may be sardha and anardha also. An atom may be a single substance or a part of a substance. It is so fine in form that it is touched by air, but it does not touch air. An atom and an aggregate of atoms are infinites in numbers, while the former is eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of modes of colour, taste, smell and touch. It is the not-last (acarima) from the point of view of substance and it may be the last and not-last from that of space, time and state. Classification of Atoms Atoms are studied and classified from the points of view of substance, space, time and state as they are inter-related to one another. Thus there are stated to be four kinds of atoms, viz. dravyaparamanu (atom of substance), ksetraparamanu (atom of point of space), kalaparamanu (atom of time, i. e. samaya) and bhavaparamanu (atom of state, e. g. colour, etc.). They are further divided into different kinds on the basis of their respective characteristics and the state in which they exist. Thus there are four kinds of dravyaparamanu, viz. indivisible, impenetrable, incombustible and non-receivable ; four kinds of ksetra paramanu, viz. anardha (without half or equal part), amadhya (without inner part), apradesa (partless) and avibhajya (indivisible); four kinds of kalaparamanu, viz, colourless, smell-less, tasteless, and touchless and four kinds of bhava paramanu (the state in which it exists) viz. varnavan (endowed with colour), gandhavan (endowed with smell), rasavan (endowed with taste) and sparsavan (endowed with touch).10 i Bhs, 5, 7.214; 20, 5, 671. 16, 5, 5, 215. 8. Ib, 25, 4, 743. 16, 8, 10, 357. Ib, 18, 10, 645. & 16, 25, 4, 740. Ib, 14, 4, 512. 8 lb, 14, 4, 513. 9_10 Ib, 20, 5, 671.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 569 Physical contact of Atoms and Aggregates of Atoms Atoms and aggregates of atoms exist mutually touching one another. An atom touching the other one touches its whole by the whole of it, while touching a skandha, having two parts, it touches the part and the whole of that skandha by its whole." The duration of touching of one atom by the other one is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum. Vibration of Atoms Atoms are stated to be in a state of flux, always vibrating, moving and combining with other atoms to get transformed into skandhas (aggregate of atoms). Thus it is explained that an atom may or may not vibrate and get transformed into the state of vibration, etc. Movements of Atoms Atoms are moving and non-moving from the point of view of time (siya see siya niree).' The duration of moving of an atom is one samaya in the miuimum and innumurableth part of an avalika in the maximum and that of its non-moving is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum. An atom is sauveya and nireya (wholly moving and non-moving), while skandha, having two to infinite parts may be desuija (partly moving), sarvaija (wholly moving) and nireja (non-moving). The Bhs throws light upon the intermediate times of the vibration of matter, atom and aggregate of atoms, e. g. matter immersed in one point of or innumerable points of space exists vibrating for one samaya in the minimum and innumerableth part of an avalika in the maximum in the case of vibration and innumerable samayas in the case of non-vibration from the point of view of time, etc.? It is stated that an atom goes from one last border of the Universe to its other last border by one samaya. The movement i Bhs, 5, 7, 216. 4 Ib, 23, 4, 744. 7 16, 5, 7, 217. 72 * Ib, 5, 7, 217. $ 16, 5, 7, 217. 8 I6, 16, 8, 585. 3 16, 5, 7, 213. 16, 25, 4, 744,

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570 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X of matter is explained scientifically thus that the cavity of smell of a ketakz flower does not flow nor does the flower flow in the favourable wind from one place to another. But the matter gone (endowed) with smell blows.! Union of matter The union of matters takes place as a result of the existence of the proporties of different degrees. viz. adhesiveness and dryness and adhesiveness-cum-dryness inherent in atoms and aggregates of atoms, having two upto infinite parts. It lasts for one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum." The combination of atoms originates owing to the presence of the property of oily-body (sinehakae) i. e. ad hesiveness inherent in them. Thus two atoms may combine together into a skandha because of their property of adhesiveness (sinehakaya). Aggregates of atoms (or skandhas) also get united and separated into two and three parts, etc. 4 The ideas of the union of dissimilar matters, having pro perties of different degrees are also found in the Tattvartha Sutra and the Gommatasara. The first states that the matters may combine by the virtue of their qualities of adhesiveness or smoothness and dryness or roughness inherent in them, "Snigd haruksatvadbandhah.'5 The second book also holds the same view that adhesiveness (or smoothness) and dryness (or roughness) are the causes of bondage of atoms into an aggregate of atoms, "Niddhattam lukkhattam bamdhassa ya karanam tu eyadi." It further explains that the smooth and rough atoms combine with each other. "Niddhalukkha ya bajjhasti ruvaruvi ya poggala."? An atom with the minimum degree of smoothness or roughness is never fit for union in its own place or in the other, 1 Bhs, 16, 6, 582. Ib, 8, 9, 345. 3.4 16, 1, 10, 80. 6 Tattvartha Sutra, 5-33. 8 Gommatasara-Jiva-Kanda, 609, (Ed.J. L. Jaini). ? 16, 612.

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SUTRA 571 It unites, if there is a proper change in its degree of smoothness or roughness owing to external and internal causes. In the case of aggregate of numerable, innumerable and infinite atoms with great degrees of smoothness or roughness when uniting they alter the atoms of lesser degree to their own kind." The BhS embodies both the theories of the Gommatasara that not only the atoms, having dissimilar properties unite, but also the atoms, having similar properties but of different degrees combine together into a skandha. After union atoms may get disintegrated into different parts. Atoms and aggregates of atoms, having two upto infinite parts get integrated and disintergrated, e. g. two atoms combine together and get transformed into a skandha, having two parts. That skandha, while getting splitted up gets disintegrated into atoms by oneness." Transformation of Matter There are five kinds of transformation of matter, viz. varnaparinama (transformation of colour), gandha parinama (transformation of smell), rasa parinama (transformation of taste) and sparkaparinama (transformation of touch) and saristhanaparinama (transformation of figure). They are again subdivided into different groups according to their respective numbers, e. g. there are five kinds of varnaparinama, viz. black. upto white, etc." Pudgala Parivartta (union of atoms with matter) It is explained in the Bhs, that there take place infinite pudgala-parivartta: owing to the process of integration and disintegration of atoms.? The pudgala-parivarttas are divided into seven kinds viz. audarika, vaikriyika, taijasa, karmana, mana, vak, and anaprana-unions of atoms with the gross physical matter, with the transformation body, with the firy-body, with the karmic body, with matter of mind, matter of speech and matter of breathing in and out. They are explained with regard to all beings from different aspects, such as, time, etc. Matters, atoms and aggre 1 BhS, 618. 16, 619. 6 16, 8, 10, 356. % 16, 1, 10, 80. 8_7 1b, 12, 4, 446. 16, 12, 4, 445. 8 16, 12, 4, 446-448.

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572 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. X gates of atoms of all categories, immersed in one to innumerable points of space of the Universe are infinite in number. Matter and Soul It is explained in the Bhs that souls and matters exist in the Universe, being mutually bound, touched, immersed and tied to each other by attachment (or oiliness) and getting mixed (or immersed) like a jar and water or a sunken boat and water of a lake." Addhasamaya (Time) Addhasamaya is an eternal fundamental formless non-living independent substance,but it is devoid of organic extension. In the Sthananga Sutra time is called living or non-living substance according as it is the determination of a living or non-living substance. "Samayati va avaliyati va jiva ya ajiva ti ya pavuccati."4 It appears from the BhS that there were two traditions, running side by side to regard and not to regard time as an independent real-substance of the Universe, because the Universe is characterized in one place 'Pancastilayaloku.'' The occurrence of the Sutra 'Kalasca' or Kalascetyeke, etc. after the Sutra 'Gunaparyayavad-dravyam' in the Tattvartha Sutra indicates that time was not first accepted as a separate real substance of the Universe, but latter on it was admitted to the category of the fundamental substances with the evolution of the philosophical thought. Kundakunda(r), while accepting Paricastikaya-loka regards time as one of the six real substances. According to Gunaratnao 1 Bhs, 25, 4, 740. 3 Ib, 1, 6, 55. 8 16, 2, 10, 21; 11, 11, 425; 13, 4, 482-83. Also see Pannavana, 1 and Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 28-10. 4 Sthananga Sutra, 95, 6 Bhs, 13, 4, 481 ; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 28-7. 6 Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 38. * 16, 5, 37. 8 Samayasara, Kundakunda, . Saddarsana Samuccaya, p. 163-3, of Gugaratna, Haribhadra's Comm. Vide, Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Datta & Chatterjee,

Page #598
Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 573 one school of teachers did not admit it as a separate entity but regarded it as mode (paryaya) of the other substances. Thus it appears that the tradition to accept time as a separate entity is not old, and for this reason there is some difference between the Svetambara and the Digambara schools on the point of the nature of time." The term 'addha' denotes distance (or length) of time as well as that of space, while 'samaya' signifies point of time (moment). Kala (time) is the substantial cause of samaya." The Dravya-Sarngrahas explains that it does not form an organic extension (kaya), though it has got existence like the heaps of jewels (ratnarasiva) in each point of space of the Universe, for every space-point contains time-unit in it. In the Bhis time is called kala-paramanu which is colourless, smell-less, tasteless and touchless. This theory reveals the atomic growth of time that one substance (atom) moves in time and space, for the passive element of space is samaya which is the continuum of kala. The unit of a samaya is the time taken by an atom to traverse one unit of space by slow movement. . It is explained also in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that the movement or continuity (or rolling) is the mark of time, "Varttana. laksanah kalah." While the Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati defines that time as an agency helps the continuity, modification, movement, newness and oldness of substances and the action of transformation of new qualities in things. "Varttana-parinama kriyah paratvaparatve ca kalasya." The BhS mentions two kinds of time, viz. addhakala and pramanakala, the first one is associated with Nature and is evolved by the travelling of the moon and the sun, while the second is the standardized time (i.e. samaya, avalika muhartas, day, night, fortnight, month, year, yuga, palya, sagara, utsarpina, paravartta). 1 Karmagrantha, p. 158. 3 Dravya-Sangraha, 22. * Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 28, 10. Bhs, (Comm.), 2, 10, 121. 4 Bhs, 20, 5, 671. Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 22.

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574 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X "Pramiyate paricchidyate yena varsasatadi tat pramanam sa casau kalasceti pramanakalah." According to the Dravya-Sangrahal there are two kinds of kala, viz. paramarthika-kalu (real time) and vyavanarika-kala (empirical or conventional time or samayu), as they are studied from the points of view of continuity and changes of all kinds or ordinary point of view respectively. The paramarthika-kala is formless and eternal, while the vyavaharika-kala is bound by a beginning and an end and it is conventionally divided into moments, hours, etc., as it is produced by imposing conventional limitations and distinctions on real-time. So time is a substance (dravya) having samaya as its modes (paryaya). Inter-relation of six fundamental substances The six fundamental substances of the Universe, Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Addhasamaya (time) are interrelated to one another, because they exist mutually touching (pervading) by their respective points and getting immersed into one another, e.g. one point of Dharmastikaya is touched in the minimum by its three points and four of Adharmastikaya, and in the maximum by its six points and seven of Adharmastikaya, and also by seven points of space, infinite points of soul and infinite parts of matter. It is also pervaded by time in some respect and it is not done so in other respect, if touched, it is invariably touched by infinite units of time and so on." The study of Jaina Philosophy as revealed in the BhS shows that it believes in the reality of souls and matter in agreement with the Nyaya and Vaisesika. But it differs from the Vedanta which believes in only one Reality (Sat), (Sarvamkhalu, idas Brahman). The Vedanta asserts the unity of soul and 1 Bhs 11, 11, 424. * Dravya-Sangraha, 21; Pide, Introduction to Indian Philosophy p. 113. 8 Bh8, 13, 4, 482-3. Chandogya Upanisad, 6, 2, 1; Vide, Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 406, f. n. 1.

Page #600
Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 575 denies its plurality (neha nanasti kincana)', while Jainism holds that souls exist in all living beings. Its doctrine of plurality of souls is in accord with those of the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Sankhya Schools which propound the theory that there exist different souls in living bodies. As regards the activity of the soul. Jaina Philosophy maintains the view of Kriyavada (i, e. soul exists, acts, and is affected by karmas) in common with the Nyaya and Vaibesika Systems. According to the Nyaya, the soul, being impelled by desire, aversion and infatuation (raga and dvesa) acts as an agent for good and bad ends and enjoys the fruits of its karma which leads it to undergo the process of birth and rebirth in the mundane world. In respect of pudgala (matter), such as, earth, water, fire, and air, Jaina Metaphysics bears some similarity with the Vaisesika which propounds nine categories of real substances, viz, earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind. The particular difference between them is that Jainism does not regard earth, water, light and air as ultimate substances as admitted by the Vaioesika, but the theory of space, time and soul as ultimate substances is accepted by both the Schools. -LOOIS. Beings Soul is the principle of life of all beings. It is asserted that there exist as many jivapradesas (smaller points of individual souls) as there are space--points in the Universe. This view of the BhS is explicitly expressed in the Tattvartha Sutra thus-"If the space is divided into innumerable points, the size of a soul can be so small as to occupy one or more of these parts." "By the contraction and expansion of pradesas, the soul occupies space like the light from a lamp." "Pradesasamhara-visarpabhyam pradipavat." i Bhs 8, 10, 358 ? Tattvartha Sutra, V, 15. 8 ]6, V, 16 ; See Raja. Su and comm, to BhS,

Page #601
576 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X The minute living beings in the Universe are the Nigodas: which are the collections of infinite number of souls, making minutest groups, having common breathing in and out and experience of pain. They, longing for development continue their evolution of life through the successive jivaparyayas (modes of soul) and they provide an infinite supply of souls. Thus the Universe does not and will not be empty of living beings.* There are two kinds of souls, viz. liberated souls and worldly souls, having its purity and power convered with a veil of karma-matters which are accumulated into them. The worldly souls are classified into two categories, viz. trasa moving) and 8thavara (non-moving). These two classes are further divided into different species in accordance with the number of senseorgans possessed by them, viz. one-sensed-(ekendriya), two sensed (dvindriya), three-sensed-(trindriyu), four-sensed-(caturindriya) and five-sensed beings (pancendriya jivas). One-sensed beings come under the category of the non-moving beings and they are divided into five classes, viz. earth-bodied (prthvikaya), water-bodied (apakaya), air-bodied (vayukaya), fire-bodied (tejakaya) and plantbodied beings (vanas patikaya). Thus it is revealed that four-elements of Nature, viz. earth, water, air and fire are animated by souls. Some plants are ekajivas (endowed with one soul or one germ of life) ; some are samkhyatajivita (animated with numerable souls or germs of life); some are asankhyatajivita (animated with inumerable germs of life or souls) ; and some are anantaj,vita (endowed with infinite souls or germs of life).* The moving beings (trasas) are classified into four divisions, viz. two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five sensed beings according to the number of senses possessed by them, e. g. worms, having two-senses, viz. touch and taste ; and ants endowed with three senses of touch, taste and smell ; bees, having four senses of touch, taste, smell and sight (vision) ; the vertebrates i BhS, 25, 5, 749, 3 Ib, 33, 1, 814. 2 lb, 12, 2, 443. 4 16, 8, 3, 324.

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Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 577 endowed with five senses of touch, taste smell, sight and hearing. Of these five-sensed beings, human beings, infernal beings and gods possess rational mind. One-sensed beings There are two classes of one-sensed beings, viz. fine or subtle (suksma) and gross (vadara) one-sensed beings, which are again sub-divided into developed and undeveloped, fine and gross one-sensed beings. The developed fine one-sensed beings are invisible to senses as they inhabit the earth, water, air, fire and plant. They have been studied from the aspects of sex, cognition, darsana (self-awareness) activity, condition of soul, attitude, conduct, the binding of karmus, state of existence, etc., e. g. they belong to the third sex. There are also the undeveloped one.sensed beings which differ from the developed ones in regard to activity and rise of Nama-karma. The developed and undeveloped gross one-sensed beings are visible to the eyes and they are dealt with from the same aspects of the fine one-sensed beings; they differ from each other in regard to lesya, etc. Vikalendriya-Jivas (Beings having two, three & four sense-organs) The vikalendriya-jivas are classified into two categories, viz, paryaptaka (developed) and aparya ptaka (undeveloped). They are studied from different aspects, such as, cognition, activity, condition of soul (lesya) attitude of mind (drati), conduct, binding of karma, etc. Five sensed beings They are classified into three species, viz. jalacara (acquatic), e. g. fish etc., sthalacara (terrestrial), e. g. elephant, etc., and khahacara (aerial', such as bird, etc. They are further divided into two groups, viz. sanjhi (endowed with rational mind) and asanja (endowed with irrational mind) and also into two other categories, viz., paryaptaka (developed) and aparyaptaka (undeveloped). They are classified into four divisions on the basis of their birth, viz. andaja (born from egg), potaja (born from a foetus) 73

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578 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X and sammurchima (born without the union of the male and female). The five-sensed-beings are also studied from the same aspects of the vikalendriya beings, such as, cognition, etc. Human beings Human beings are classified into two groups, viz. developed (paryaptaka) and undeveloped (aparyaptaka), like the five-sensed lower animals. They are further divided into sammurechima and garbhaja (i.e. those born without the union of the male and the female and those born in the womb after their union). They are studied from aspects, such as, cognition, activity, etc. SECOND SECTION Jaina Psychology as revealed in the Bhagavati Sutra Psychology is one of the necessary aspects of philosophy, as it is the scientific study of soul which is the central theme of knowledge, It is the whole scheme of experience which helps one understand Ontology as well as Materialism (the problem of being and matter). There is a self-distinct bodily structure which is the basis of Psychology as found in the BhS. In the evolution of life and the Universe as revealed in this canonical work there are two traditions, viz. atom-tradition (paramanu) and self-tradition (aya-atma) i. e. materialistic and spiritualistic. Atom and atma (soul) are eternal substances and exist mutually bound together in the Universe." It is explained that upayoga" (conscionsness or application) which is inherent in soul is the most fundamental characteristic of life. It is divided into two kinds, viz. darsana (self-awareness and jnana (knowledge), as the application of the psychic process comes in the form of darsana and jnana. Darsana is self-consciousness, self-awareness while jaana is the taking note of external 1 BhS, 2, 10, 118; 2 Ib, 1, 6, 55. 14, 4, 510; 18, 10, 647. s Ib, 2, 10, 118. 4 16, 18, 8, 642.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 579 objects in details. It is revealed in the light of life and Nature that soul exhibits itself the state of being by its own-self (Jive ayabhavenas jivabhavam uvadamseti')'. The same view on the principle of upayoga (consciousness) is expressed in the Dhavala Tika that the consciousness of soul is called 'cit' which is revealed in the forms of bahirmukhacit (external consciousness) and antarmukhacit (internal consciousness), i.e. knowledge and self-awareness.' It is the principle of psycho-physical activities that all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the body, as it is the dual form, i. e. the psycho-physical structure which takes into consideration the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings, viz. pranas (breath), indriyas (sense-organs), bala (strength), virya (energy), mana i. e. (mind=thought force), vak (speech) and kaya (body) (vocal and bodily activities), ayus (span of life) and anaprana (breathing or life-expanding). There are two aspects of the psycho-physical activity, viz. natural (visrasa or pure) and applied (prayogya); the latter is due to the delusion which leads to deviation from its normal position when all activities are not in pure form, i.e. it is delusive transformation, and there are two conditions of such process, viz. raga (attachment-feeling of attraction) and dvesa (dislike, hatred). These are the two fundamental psychological tendencies as revealed in the Bhs. Soul tends to maintain itself, and whatever is conducive to its preservation (or identity) is liked by it ; what is not helpful, is disliked by it. These are raga and dvesa which are divided into four kasayas (decoction or liquour), i. e. passions, viz. krodha (anger), mana (pride), maya (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed)." i Bh8, 2, 10, 120. Dhavala Tika, 1st Khanda, p. 145. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. Ib, 18, 4, 625. Also refer to Kasaya Pahuda (Pejja-DosaVihatti) of Gunadharacarya, edited by Pt. Phoolchandra Siddhanta Shastri, Varanasi, p. 257 (No. 207), p. 258 (No. 208 pp. 364.69 ff. for detailed treatment of raga (pejja) and dvesa (dosa).

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580 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA fch. X Nature is qualitative, while the psychological development is quantitative. If one goes inward there is the natural psychology, if he goes outward, he reaches the natural manifestion, i.e. instinct, This instinct needs stimulus from the outside world (i.e. psycho-physical), as it is revealed in the psycho-physical phenomena according to the conditions of soul. As already explained soul has been studied and classified from eight points of view, viz, substance (dravya), passion (kasaya), activity (yoga), consciousness (upayoga), knowledge (intana), selfawareness (darsana), conduct (caritra) and energy (virya), as they are the different forms of manifestation of soul. Physical basis of mental life A being enters the womb with sense-organs (saindie) in one sense and also without these (anindie) in another. With regard to the configuration and constituting matters of the physical senseorgans (dravyendriyani) it is without them, while with regard to the faculty of cognition, i.e. psychical mind (bhavendriya) it is endowed with sense organs. A jiva (soul) while entering the womb is corporeal (sasarirz) with regard to the luminous (taijas) and karmic bodies, it is noncorporeal (asariri) with regard to the gross physical, transformation, and translocation bodies. It is explained that when a pregnant mother sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy or unhappy, the child born in her womb also does, and feels the same emotions." Thus psychology originates with the birth of a child in the mother's womb in course of the process of transformation of its physico-psychical matters. Sensation and Modes of stimulus of Sense-organs Sensation in the human brain is caused by the stimulus of the five sense-objects received from outside when the sense organs come into contact with them. This process involves the factors of discrimination assimilation, association and localization of the sense-objects and leads i Bh8, 1, 7, 61. 16, 1, 7, 62. 3 Ib. 3, 9, 170. (Jiva Jyotiska Uddesaka).

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Sec. II] 581 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA to perceptual knowledge. Thus it is explained in the BhS1 and the Prajnapana Sutra' that the ear hears the touched and entered sounds; the eye sees the touched and entered objects (i.e. the image of objects); the nose smells the touched and entered smells; the tongue tastes the touched and entered objects and the skin experiences the touches of the touched and entered objects. The principles of the theory of sensation as laid down herein agree with those of the modern psychology to a great extent. For example, it explains that the sensation of sound is created in the brain when sound-waves, being converged by the outer ear, strike upon the outer membrane of the ear-drum and make it vibrate and the vibrations are transmitted to the auditory nerve through the chain of bones, the inner membrane and the contents of the labyrinth. Next, the disturbance of vibration is carried by the auditory nerve to the brain causing finally the sensation of sounds. Sense-Perception It is explained in the BhS that the following psychological factors are involved in this process of perceptual knowledge (abhinibodhika-jnana) or sense-perception, viz. avagraha (perceptual judgement of generality of object), zha (desire to know or speculation), avaya (determination) and dharana (retention or memory).* Memory and Imagination Memory and imagination involve the process of tha (speculation or mental desire to know), apoha (exclusion), maggana and gavesana (searching and fathoming by thought). In the process of memory the images of the past sensible experiences accompanied by a belief are revived and recognized by an individual, i. e. having familiarity of characteristics of images, as it is evidenced in the case of Devananda" who recognized in Lord Mahavir as her former son. 1 BhS, 2, 4, 99. 2 Prajnapana 15, 1, 191, 194, 195. 3 Ib. Indriyapada 15, 1, 194, 195. 4 Bhs,12, 5, 450; 8, 2, 318. Ib, 9, 33, 382. 5 Ib. 11,11, 432.

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582 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. * Thought (Cinta or mental activity) The process of mental activity (manoyoga) is thought which is inter-connected with memory and imagination of the past events, objects, etc., and the imagination of the present and future activities of life, as the mind acts and reacts to new objects of thought at every moment. As already explained mind is matter (manadravya) and is associated with the spiritual being. Its activities are the passing phases of matter. Mind, when operating is mind (manemanijjamanemane), for it breaks forth while operating (manijjamane mane bhijjati)". Thus it is the organ of apprehension of all sense objects and knowledge', while thought implying comprehension is abstract representative mental activity involving analysis in the form of abstraction and synthesis, in that of comparison and expressing itself through speech or language. Dream The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the principle of dream by explaining five kinds of dream-vision, viz. yathatathya, pratana, cintasvapna, tadviparita and avyakta darsana,' i.e. (1) dreamvision in accordance with truth or reality, (2) ramified dreamvision, (3) dream-vision according to the thought in the waking state, (4) dream vision opposite to realities and (5) indistinct inexpressible-dream-vision. It is further explained that only a sleeping-cum-waking man experiences a dream-vision. These broad principles of dream touch upon all the combined theories on dream propounded by Dr. Freud, Jung and Adler, and other scholars. According to Dr. Freud a dream is the fulfilment of a repressed desire which does not peaceably leave the organism but sinks to a level of unconscious state in which it is still active and apt to appear in the disguised and symbolic ways. Abnormal 1 Bh8, 16, 6, 578. ' Ib, 13, 7, 494. 3 Pramanamimaisa, 1, 2, 24, 4 BKS, 16, 6. 578-81. 5 Interpretation of Dreams-Dr. Freud, pp. 344, 388.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 583 worry', a queer idea haunting a nervous person, 'hysterical paralysis, etc., sometimes are the effects of this disguise. In the case of a normal man the repressed desires come up in the garb of an innocent appearing symbolism. Adler holds the view that a dream is not the revival and reappearance of the suppressed wish of the distant past, but a rehearsal for some impending action of an individual man to perform, and it reveals his characteristic mode of dealing with his new problem. Jung* thinks that a dream is associated with the present difficulties of an individual and shows his unconscious attitude of mind towards the problem of his life. According to the theory of dream as embodied in the BhS, yathatathya svapna (dream-vision in accordance with reality) and cinta-8vapna (dream according to the thought in the waking state) agree with those of the theories propounded by Adler and Jung, as they are the results of the process of thoughts to deal with the present and future problems of life. While the pratana (ramified dream vision), tadvi parata (dream-vision-opposite to reality), (i. e. object of thought) and avyakta-darsana (indistinct or inexpressible dream vision) touch upon the theory of Dr. Freud, as they are associated with some desires repressed by thought and they appear in some garbs of symbolism. From this analysis it may be defined that "dream whether awake or asleep is a free, passive, incoherent and constructive imagination often due to recent experience. But it is an imagination confounded with perception." Belief or Attitude of Mind (Drsti)' In the process of thought the attitude of mind or belief is the central theme which is characterised by truth (samyaktva) or falsehood (mithyatva) in regard to the objects of thought. Thus it is endowed with the union of the intellectual, emotional and conational elements and is inter-related with knowledge. i Vide, Psychology, Robert S. Wood worth, pp. 567-68. ? Vide, Psychology-Robert S. Woodworth, p. 563. * Psychology-Suresh Chandra Datta, p. 165. Bh8, 1, 9, 73.

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. 584 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. x Vedana (Feeling in general) Vedana (feeling) is a relatively subjective and passive state of consciousness manifesting itself in the form of pleasure or pain or pleasure-cum-pain (sata, asata, satasata-vedana), happiness or suffering (sukha or duhkha or sukha-cum-duhkha) or some mental agitation. They are eternal.' Sense-feeling As a result of sensation accompanied by simple feeling of pleasure or pain there takes place the sense-feeling which is cognitive and affective. It can be divided into two kinds, viz.' organic feeling and special sense-feeling. Of the ten feelings mentioned in the BhS, viz. hunger, thirst, burning sensation, fever, itching, servility, fear and sorrow come under the category of the organic feeling, as they are connected with the discordant working of internal organs, while the feelings of cold and warmth belong to the special sense-feeling, for they are related to touch. Besides these, there are stated to be other sense-feelings of hearing, smell, taste and touch. Kamabhoga (Desire and Gratification of Desire) Kamas (desires) and bhogas (gratifications of desires) are explained on the principle of the psychophysical activities thus that they are corporeal (rupi) and endowed with both consciousness and unconsciousness, because they are associated with the spiritual beings. There are stated to be two kinds of kama (mental enjoyment or desire), viz. sound (sabda), and object of beauty (rupa), while bhoga (gratification of desire or physical enjoyment) is of three kinds, viz. smell, taste and touch as they involve the mental and physical enjoyments respectively. Emotion As already explained in the beginning there are two transformations of the psychic process, viz, raga (feeling of attraction) 1 Bhs, 5, 5, 202 ; 6, 10, 255; 14, 4, 511. 16, 14, 4, 511. 3 I6, 7, 8, 296. 4 lb, 12, 5, 557. 5 10, 7, 7, 290.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 585 and dvesa (dislike or hatred). Raga and dvesa are divided into four kinds of kasayas (passions), viz. kerodha (anger), mana (pride), maya (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed). This analysis shows the emergence of emotions in the form of passions and quasipassions, appearing in different degrees due to the rise of karma. Passion is correlated to colour which is associated with feeling, because there is the material colour of the karmic matter of the body,' e. g. the karma-pudgalas of these four kinds of passions are endowed with five colours, five tastes, two smells and four touches. Here the psychic analysis of the correlation between the karma-matters and physical colour throws light upon the relation of the soul with the physical matter. Krodha is the self-expression aggravating the mind ; the first repulsive reaction of it is resistance and resentment to any attempt from outside to flout it. Mana is the consciousness of self-respect to measure the self to maintain dignity, and to show itself distinct from others, i. e. self-maintenance. Maya is the expression of inner-self and self-display and it attracts something to have. The self wants to express its nature and magnitude, but it is obstructed, so it takes the course of deceitfulness. Maya is thus self-exhibition, Lobha tries to appropriate everything. Lesya (condition of Soul)? As already mentioned the psychological phenomena manifest themselves into six colourations of the soul, viz. krona (black), nila (blue), kapota (grey), teja (red), padma (lotus) and sukla (white). They are the names to represent the conditions of the soul, as if persons want to enjoy the fruit of a tree. The worthy one of them thinks that the fruit would come and fall on the ground in due course. This is a suklalesya man, while a gross materialist is a man endowed with the black condition of soul. These lesyas have been studied from different aspects, such as, colour, smell, taste, touch, transformation, etc. e. g. krona-lesya is stated to be of cloud colour, of bitter taste like that of Nimba, 1 Bhs, 12, 5, 449. : 10, 1, 2, 22 ; 12, 5, 1, 450. 74

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586 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X Instinct (Samjna)! Instinct is the natural manifestation of a being which is caused by the stimulus received from the outside world of sensation according to the conditions of soul. It involves the process of an inter-linked chain of actions, directed to some definite and distant objective which is conducive to self-preservation, etc. According to the BhSa there are stated to be ten kinds of instinct (samjna), viz. aharasanjna (instinct of eating), bhayasarjna (fear-instinct), maithuna-samjia (sex-instinct), parigrahasamjna (possessing instinct or appropriating instinct); krodha-sanjna (instinct of anger), mana-sarjna (pride-instinct), maya-sarja instinct of deceitfulness), lobha-samjna instinct of greed), loka-samjna (conscious knowlege of particular objects) and oghasarnjna (that of self awareness of general objects). It appears from the study of these ten instincts that there were originally only four instincts and six more were added to the list of the original four with the subsequent development of psychology. These ten instincts are closely related to emotions, as it is evidenced in the case of fear, anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed. The classification of instincts into ten categories agrees with that of the modern psychology as advocated by the scholar like McDougall." According to his theory there are fourteen kinds of instinct, including laughter which belongs to human beings, viz. (1) parental or protective instinct (such as that of a mother ape), (2) Instinct of combat (the mother will fight in defence of her young kiddies), (3) Instinct of curiosity, (4) Food-seeking Instinct, (5) Instinct of repulsion (avoidance or disgust), (6) Instinct of escape (escape from danger), (7) Gregarian Instinct (8) Instinct of selfassertion, (9) Instinct of submission, (10) Mating Instinct, (11) Acquisitive Instinct (12) Constructive Instinct, (13) Instinct of appeal, and (14) Instinct of laughter. 10, 12, 5, 450, 1: Bhs, 7, 8, 296. 8 1b, (comm.), 7, 8, 296. 6 An outline of Psychology-p. 110, McDougall.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 587 The first four instincts of the BhS, viz., ahara (food), bhaya (fear), maithuna (sexual union) and parigraha (possession) and also lobha (greed) are the same as the food-seeking instinct, escaping instinct, mating instinct and acquisitive instinct of McDoughall respectively, while krodha (anger), mana (pride) and maya (deceitfulness) correspond to the instincts of combat and repulsion and that of self-assertion, and the protective instinct respectively. The remaining instincts as defined by McDougall come under The the category of Loka-samjna and oghasamjna of the BhS. scheme of instinct as laid down herein appears to be more sound than that of McDaugall's theory, because some instincts, such as, instinct of repulsion, parental instinct, instinct of submission and instinct of appeal are not found among all beings (or animals). Conation The process of thought and feeling leads to will or action owing to the presence of karma-matter in the corporate body. They manifest themselves into the form of mental, vocal and bodily activities' of various kinds, for all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the psycho-physical structure. The characteristic mark of activity is its causing the movement of the particles of the soul. The mental, vocal and bodily activities are subdivided into fifteen kinds according the nature of objects of realities, viz. satya-mana-yoga (mental activity relating to true thing) upto karmana-sarira-kayayoga (activity of the karmana body). The study of these principles of psycho-physical activities brings to light the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings which form the basis of Jaina Psychology as revealed in the BhS. THIRD SECTION Epistemology Epistemology is the integral part of Philosophy, as it is the study of realities - the main object of knowledge. It is also 1 Bhs, 17, 1, 593. 3 Ib, 25. 1, 719.

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588 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA h. X intimataly connected with Psychology, Logic and Ethics, for it deals with the consciousness of soul, the nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity of knowledge and the conduct and values of life respectively, Nature of knowledge As already discussed, upayoga (consciousness) is the attribute of soul and it is classified into two categories, viz. sakaropayoga (determinate consciousness) and anakaropayoga (indeterminate consciousness). Sakaropayoga is jnana (knowledge) and anakaropayoga is darsana (self-awareness). Soul is knowledge and knowledge is soul," for upayoga (consciousness) is the essential quality of soul. It is the knower (stanz)and the object of knowing (jicya). Kundakuda also holds the same view on the relation between soul and knowledge. There exists a difference between soul and knowledge from the empirical point of view, but soul is the knower and nothing else in its transcendental aspect. In the Pravacanasara it is defined that absolute bliss and absolute knowledge are one and the same thing," while the Samayasara explains that there lies no difference, between the knower and his knowledge, for the omniscient knows and perceives the whole reality from the empirical standpoint and the self from the transcendental point of view.? Theory of knowledge (Jnana) According to the theory of knowledge as embodied in the Bhs there are five categories of knowledge, viz. abhinibodhika-jfana (sensuous knowledge), sruta-jntana (knowledge acquired by interpreting signs, i.e. words, writings, gestures), avadhi-jnana (transcendental knowledge of material things), manahparyaya-jnana (transcendental knowledge of the thoughts of others or intuition of mental modes), and kevala-jhana (omniscience). i Bhs, 18, 8, 642. , 16, 12, 10, 468. 3 16, 8, 2, 318. * Samayasara, 6, 7. 5 Pravacanasara, 1, 50-60, & Samayasara, 10, 11, 433. 7 Niya masara, 158. 8 Bhs, 8, 2, 318.

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Sec. 111] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 589 Abhinibodhika-jnana is the sensuous knowledge acquired through the sense-organs and quasi-sense, i.e. mind, and aruta-jnana is the knowledge derived from the interpretations of signs or hearing. Avadhi-jnana is transcendental knowledge of that which has form; manahparyaya-jnana is the knowledge of mental modes or thoughts of others; and kevala-jnana is omniscience the only pure knowledge free from the covering of karma-pudgala.1 These five kinds of knowledge are divided and sub-divided into different groups according to their respective nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity. Thus abhinibodhika-jnana involves four stages, viz. avagraha (perception or general knowledge), iha (desire to know or speculation), avaya (determination i. e. removal of doubt, and ascertainment of the object) and dharana (retention of the accepted knowledge). These four stages of sensuous knowledge are studied from different aspects. Thus avagraha (perception or general knowledge) is divided into two kinds, viz., arthavagraha (object-perception) and vyanjanavagraha (contact-awareness). Tha (desire to know or speculation), avaya (determination) and dharana (relention) are classified into six divisions as they are caused by the activities of five sense-organs and mind. Sruta-juana is of two-kinds, viz. angapravista (internal) and angabahira (external); avadhi-jnana is classified into two categories, viz. bhavapratyayika (by virtue of birth) and ksayopasamika (that of human beings and five-sensed lower animals on accont of the destruction-cum-subsidence of relevant karmic neather. It is born as a result of the destruction of anger, destruction-cum-suppression of the knowledge-obscuring risen karma and suppression of the not-risen karma". Ajnana (wrong knowledge) an There are three kinds of wrong knowledge, viz. mati-ajnana (wrong knowledge acquired by ajnani and mithyadrsti), sruta-ajnana (wrong interpretation of signs, by an ajani and mithyadrsti), and vibhanga-jnana (perverted avadhijnana ).o 1 BhS, (comm). Nandi Sutra 134 to 140, 3 Bhs, 8, 2, 318.

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590 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA Ch. X Knowledge is further classified into two categories, viz. pratyaksa (immediate knowledge) and paroksa (mediate knowledge). The former is further subdivided into two kinds, viz. indriya-pratyaksa (immediate knowledge acquired through sense-organs) and noindriya-pratyaksa (that attained through mind). Indriyapratyaksa-jnana is of five kinds, viz. srotrendriya-pratyaksa, caksurindriya-pratyaksa, ghranendriya-pratyaksa, jihvendriya-pratyakesa, and spargendriya-pratyaksa, (immediate knowledge acquired through the sense-organs-ear, eye, nose, tongue and skin). Noindriya pratyaksa Grana) is of three kinds, viz. avadhi-jnanapratyaksa (clair voyance) manah-paryaya-jnana pratyaksa (telepathy) and kevala-jftana-pratyaksa (omniscience)? Relation between Jnana and Darsana (knowledge and self-awareness) Relation between jatana and darsana is explained thus. Darsana (self-awareness) is the stepping stone to jnana (knowledge) and they are inter-related to each other as the two aspects of consciousness, the attributes, of soul. They do not take place simultaneously, because sakaropayoga (determinate consciousness) is jana (knowledge), while anakaropayoga (indeterminate consciousness) is darsana (self-awareness). It is clearly explained that even a paramavadhika and a kevalin do not know and perceive an atom or a skandha at a time. FOURTH SECTION Ethics Ethics is the continuation of the metaphysical and psychological aspects of studies. Metaphysics deals with life and Nature and Psychology explains how the mind reacts to the objects of Nature, while Ethics is the moral consideration of all forces of life and Nature. It gives an insight how man started the estimation of the value of life from the first stage of civilization. 1 BKS, 8, 2, 318, * Ib, 11, 8, 642.

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Sec. IV) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 591 The term 'Ethics' is derived from the Greek ethikos which is related to ethos, characteristic spirit of community, people or system. The first thing in human life is food the more of which is good. But Nature has set some limit to man's demand to enjoy more things, because it becomes harmful to him in its excessive degree. The entire idea of the moral standard is founded on the basis of this individual and social demand. But materials are limited in space and the physical personality of man in comparison with the natural forces is also limited. Only a limited quantity of food is good but beyond that it is harmful. Desire which is the main factor of the economic life is guided by the instinct of possession, but the unbridled forces of desire and enjoyment ensnare the human mind and lead it to the path of mad lust for the acquisition of the worldly objects and wealth at the expense of others and finally to the consequent sufferings and unhappiness. So the unlimited amassing of wealth and its unrestricted enjoyments have not been commended as final in the ethical principles laid down in the Bhs but rather they have been condemned by the saints. So a great emphasis has been put on the principle of non-possession (aparigraha), one of the five great vows of the Nirgrantha Dharma. Pleasure or happiness is the goal of the material life of man and the ethical ideas are directly and indirectly connected with happiness and physical pleasure which are fulfilled by means of wealth. But beyond the particular point of pleasure or happiness there is harm, because non-pleasure arises. So the quantitative restriction comes to a limit-nivitti (return or ceasing from wordly acts), yama (restraint), 8anyama (self control) and niyama (fixed moral rule). Nature has got a belt and it does not allow men to go beyond that, though goodness is wanted in more quantity. Goodness and badness of a thing are to be 1 Bhs, 9, 33. 384.

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592 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA S' ll. X I determined from the aspects of substance, space, time, and condition - the mental approach of the person concerned. As they are of relative value, so ethics is not absolute. It is the personal approach determined by the utility which is decided by one's own mind in different modes at different times from the practical point of view. In the social organization men require standardization of the sources of material objects in conformity with the natural condition. In this standardization samyama is an important factor, as it contains doubt, e.g. do not do that, observe it, etc.' Jainism as embodied in the Bhs starts with the prohibitive principle of non-violence or non-injury (panati pataviramana or ahimsa). It is comprehensive in meaning from the social, ethical and religious standpoints. Distinction is made between dravyahinsa and bhavahinsa (violence committed in act and violence committed in thought). Virtue of non-violence arises out of self-preservation, because men are socially related to one another. One must not do injury to the social life for self-preservation and self-development. Thus this prohibitive principle leads to vitaragata (non-attachment or detachment) and to the higher interest as one must consider the value of others and to self-sacrifice, because attachment leads men to clashes, while detachment to peace and asceticism. There are two aspects of ethics as advocated in the Bhs, the first consists of non-violence, non-lying, non-stealing, nonsexual union, and non-possession", which constitute the core of morality and the second comprises the restricted twelve principles of Sravaka Dharma". So long as one does not intend to do the act of killing, it is positive virtue from the individual, social and spiritual aspects of virtue and non-violence ; control of senses is the positive virtue which inculcates an ideal in one's spirit to follow the path of spiritual progress. Natural and unnatural troubles and old age 1 BhS, 2, 1, 92-93. : 16, 2, 1, 92, 95. 16, 18, 10, 648.

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Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 593 come in life which should be maintained by practising external and internal austerities and by scratching out the body (samlekhana) to save the soul in order to attain the highest goal of life-liberation'. Religion attaches fear to its tenets by showing the attainment of heaven and hell' for meritorious and sinful acts of men respectively in connection with the individual, social and religious aspects of life. So one should retrace his steps (pratikramana) from the unvirtuous acts and make others forgive him, if he has done any wrong to any body. Actual value of life of an individual depends on self-imposed punishment and expiation (prayascitta) which are there to induce virtue in him. Self-analysis (alocana) and the retracing of steps (pratikramana) come next to be made for what has been done in the case of an educated person, while in that of the illiterate people confession of guilt to their religious teacher is the best way to retrace from the sinful deeds, for the goal of happiness has changed its connotation into supreme bliss and liberation. Relativity of goodness and badness The Bhs explains the relativity of goodness and badness. The state of sleep of some beings is good and that of sleeplessness is also good. The state of sleep of those beings, who are unrighteous and earn livelihood by the act of unrighteousness is good, for they, being slept, do not live for the sufferings of many beings and do not become the binders of inauspicious karmas. The state of sleeplessness of the virtuous beings who earn their livelihood by the righteous act is good, because they live without causing suffering to many beings and become the binders of auspicious karmas by their religious acts and thought." As regards the stanardization of life which induces men to conform to natural condition, this canonical work lays a great emphasis on self-control by warning that the beings under the sway of five senses and passions travel again and again in the 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 91-96. * 16:12, 2, 443. ? 16, 8, 9, 351. 5 I6, 2, 1, 92. 8 16, 2. 1, 94-95. 75

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594 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X mundane world.1 It advocates that one should practise selfcontrol in respect of all beings, i.e. the observance of non-violence. Categories of sin (papasthanas) There are eighteen categories of sin, viz. act of killing, untruthfulness, stealing, sexual intercourse, act of possession, anger, pride, deceitfulness, greed or avarice, attachment to worldly objects and interests, hatred and jealousy, quarrelsomeness, slandering, telling of stories to discredit anyone, criticism and finding fault with others, disliking, hypocrisy and perverted attitude of mind to truth (pranatipata upto mithyadarsana salya). The sinful acts of all beings are the causes of their sufferings, while the annihilation of sinful acts is the cause of happiness. Classification of violent action There are five kinds of violent action" which are the causes of bondage, viz. kayiki kriya (physical action), adhikaranikriya (act of preparation for killing beings by collecting murderous materials, such as, poison, net, instruments, and the act of producing weapons, etc., or subordination), pradvesiki kriya (act of hatred and jealousy) paritapaniki kriya (act of causing pain) and pranatipata-kriya (act of killing) by one's own hand and that by other's hand. The BhS makes analysis of the effects of these five kinds of action from the ethical standpoint, on a person involved in hunting a deer. For example, when a person who earns his livelihood by killing a deer, intends upon its killing and endeavours to kill it, and having gone to a game forest, marks the deer and makes trap for its killing, he is called the performer of three or four or five actions. Because as soon as that person lays out the net but does not bind or kill the deer, he is effected by three actions (kayiki, adhikarani and pradvesiki), and by four actions (i. e. kayiki upto paritapaniki), if he captures or binds the 3 Ib, 1, 6, 52. 1 BhS, 12, 2, 443. 4 Ib, 10, 2, 396. Ib, 2, 1, 92. 5 lb 3, 3, 150.

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Sec, Iv] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 595 deer with the net but he does not kill it, and by five (i. e. kayiki upto pranatipata kriya)", if he kills it. Another example explains the effect of these five actions. A person, having gone to a game forest for hunting deer, remains standing by drawing his bow up to his ear with the intention to kill it, while another person armed with a sword cuts the head of the standing man with it, having come from behind. Now, the arrow drawn by the former springs up and wounds the deer. The person who kills it is affected by the act of enemity towards the deer and the person who kills the standing bowman is touched by that of enemity towards the man. The action, being done is (equal to) the action done. "Kajjamane kade." If the dying animal dies within six months from the time of its injury, then that killer is affected by five actions (kayiki upto pranatipata kriya), if it dies after six months, he is affected by four actions. These ethical principles of five actions tally with the sections of the Indian Penal Code No. 299, 300 & 302, dealing with culpable homicide and its charge and punishment. It is note-worthy that the BMS advocates the ethical principles of dispassionate defensive war to be followed as a duty to the state, when its sovereignty is threatened by an enemy power, as it is evidenced by the fact of the dispassionate fighting of Varuna", a citizen of Vaisali in the Rathamusala Sangrama against the forces of king Kunika at the call of his state. The act of violence is divided into the following groups, viz. arambhiki (act of killing), udyogi (preparatory), virodhi (opposing) and sankalpa (intentional or deliberate), according to the transaction, profession, self-protection and deliberate killing. Besides these acts of violence committed on beings, there is the thought of violence which is equally sinful. For instance, a man, while killing another person kills him and also others. He kills many beings by his thought, as he is affected by the act of enemity.' 1 Bs, 1, 8, 65. * 16, 1, 8, 68. $ 16, 7, 9, 303. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 391,

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596 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X Renunciation Act of renunciation in respect of all beings is the most important factor in the moral conduct which should be practised by one, having complete knowledge about beings and non-beings. The study of all these evidences furnished by the BhS reveals that the unrighteous acts produce bad effects in the long run by grinding slow and cutting and disintegrating the very roots of life which is engulfed and overtaken by the disastrous evil consequences of bad actions. So this canonical text puts a great emphasis on the observance of the five great vows which constitute the very core of morality and the ideal of renunciation which leads to the path of asceticism, attainment of spiritual liberation. ultimate peace and happiness-the aim of human life. FIFTH SECTION Jain Logic as found in the Bhagavati Sutra Logic is the formal and scientific exposition of a system of thought evolved out of formulation of thought going on for some time; when it is formulated, it governs the future thought, Religion, Philosophy, Psychology, Epistemology and Ethics. Apart from this position in relation to different branches of knowledge it appears as an independent study later on. Besides Jain Logic, there are traditions of other Indian systems of Logic, viz. Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Mimamsa and Vedanta. The BKS throws some light upon Jain Logic. The word 'pamana" (Skt. 'pramana") used in this canonical work stands for the system by which the validity of any kind of knowledge is determined, as it is explained by the Anuyogadvara-- "Nanagunappamano': This pramana is divided into four kinds, viz. pratyaksa (direct perception), anumana (inference) upamana or aupamya (analogy) and agama (scripture or authority)." i Bhs, 7, 2, 271 ff, 3 Anuyogadvara Sutra, S. 144. 16, 5. 4, 193. 4 Bhs, 5, 4, 193,

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Sec. V] Studies in the BHAGAWATI SUTRA 597 Pratyaksa pramana is the knowledge determined by the senses and mind. It is indriya-pratyaksa (valid knowledge acquired through five sense-organs) and non-indriya-pratyaksa-pramana (knowledge determined by mind). Empirical knowledge is incomplete and it does not convey the correct knowledge of the object. Accordingly the object is judged from two standpoints, viz. vyavahara-naya and niscaya-naya (empirical and transcendental standpoints) as already discussed in the first section of this chapter and there is the form of judgement called anumana (inference) to determine the validity of knowledge. Anumana-pramuna (inference--syllogism-deduction) is that by which an object is known by means of the knowledge of the problems and the memory of universal concomitance, and the like (Linga grahanasambandhasmaranadeh pascanmiyati anenetyanumanam). There are three kinds of anumana-pramana, viz. purvavat, sesavat and dystasadharmya. The first one is determined by any former sign, e. g. when the mother recognizes her son, who was lost in his childhood, and returns after a lapse of long period, by the sign of some scar on his body. The second is determined by karya (action), karana (cause), guna (quality), avayava (feature) and asraya (receptacle), e. g. sankha (conch) is known by its sound i. e. action, thread is the cause of cloth (karana), gold is known by nikasa (test-stone) (i. e. guna), buffalo by horn (avayava) and fire by smoke (asraya). The third (drstasadharmya) is determined by the general and particular views (samanya-drsta and visesadysta). Aupamya or Upamana (Analogy or Similarity) It is the empirical nature of objects which helps to have the idea of things by way of similarity, figure of speech or analogy. There are two kinds of aupamya (analogy), viz. sadharmya and vaidharmya (similarity and dissimilarity), e.g. as is mandara, (thorn-apple), so is mustard, as is mustard, so is mandara, etc., are examples of kificit-sadharmya, as samalero (calf) is, bahulero Bhs, (Comm.), 5, 4, 193.

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598 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA is not; as bahulero is, samalero is not; are examples of (kifcit vaidharnya). Agama (Scripture) ama is the sacred literature embodying the experiences of the Apta-purusas characterized by disinterestedness (vitaragata). There are two kinds of Agama, viz. laukika and lokottarikathe first one consists of the Bharata, the Ramayana upto the four Vedas, etc., while the second comprises the twelve Angas composed by the Arhats." Relativity of Judgement The logical system as formulated in the Bhs throws a welcome light upon the relativity of judgement, while giving exposition of the metaphysical thoughts from the stand-point of non-absolutism?, e g. souls are eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of mode or state. "Jiva sasaya asasaya davvatthayae sasaya bhavatthayae asasaya." The Acaranga Sutra gives a more clear conception of the relativity of judgement by explaining that he who knows one object with its qualities knows all things, he who knows all things with their qualities knows one thing. "Je egam janai se savvam janai" "Je savvam janai se egam janai." Things are not same at different moments, because there is the evolution of beings, origination, continuation and decay of the substances of the Universe with the march of time. The qualities continue in things so long as they exist, but the modes (paryayas) change; these characterize the things. Thus the value of a substance is determined from different aspects, e.g. soul is knowledge, knowledge is souls The study of the nature of substance reveals that infinite malities and modes of it exist in it as the cause and effect. To 1 Anuyogadvara Sutra, pp. 194 to 200. 9 Non-Absolutism, Dr. Satkari Mookerjee. * Acaranga Sutra, 1, 3, 4; 122. 8 Bh8, 7, 2, 274, 5 Bhs, 12, 10, 468.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 599 make the nature of things clear one uses 'bhangi', such as, pramanabhangi, syadvadbhangi, etc. That is, the style or mode of expression by taking care of other aspects of the thing in mind, which must be conveyed to others, is used to give exposition of thoughts and ideas about it. One particular aspect of Reality which has infinite qualities is expressed by 'syad'. The BKS does not specifically deal with this syadvada theory of judgement, but it is evidently clear from the study of its contents that the system of saptubhangz-naya (seven fold judgement) governs the thoughts of religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology and ethics as embodied in this canonical work. SIXTH SECTION. Doctrine of Karma. All forces of life and Nature are associated together in the principle of cause and effect--the central theme of studies of all branches of knowledge. This fundamental law of causation pervades the entire sphere of physical and psychical worlds, governing the process of origination, continuation and decay of substances--living and non living, gross and fine, developed and undeveloped. The Bhs throws light upon this principle of causation by explaining it from the five positive and negative aspects that jiva (soul or being) knows, perceives realizes and attains cause (hetu) and dies a chadmastha marana (death of a man endowed with finite knowledge), having cause and by cause also. From the negative point of view jzva does not know, perceive and attain cause, but dies an ignorant death, having cause and by cause. Significance of Karma Thus a universal law of causation explains and interprets the psycho-physical actions and reactions of beings manifested in the forms of thoughts, feeling and behaviour. i Visesavasyaka-bhasya, pp. 895 ff. and Syadvada-manjari, pp. 170 ff. " BhS, 12, 10, 469. 8 Ib, 5, 7, 220.

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600 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. X * As already discusssd in the first section of this chapter soul is endowed with consciousness, infinite knowledge, infinite selfawareness, infinite conduct", power, energy, etc., in its perfect eternal state. But the worldly souls are imperfect, for their innate faculty is clouded by a very fine foreign element imperceptible to the senses, which is called karma and is an aggregate of material particles. This karma-matter, entering into the mundane soul through the physical vocal and bodily actions causes certain conditions in it as a result of the modifications of consciousness comprising four passions viz. anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed. Thus karmabandha of soul takes place owing to the penetration and assimilation of karma-particles into it. Liberation of soul from this bondage can be attained by the two-fold processes, viz. the stoppage of the influx of karma-matters and their dissociation. Karmabandha is studied from four points of view, viz. its nature (prakrti-bandha) duration (sthiti-bandha) intensity (anubhagabandha) and quantity (pradesa-bandha). According to its nature, karma is classified into eight fundamental species (mula praktis), viz. jnanavaraniya-karma (knowledge obscuring karma), darsahavarniyakar ma intuition obscuring karina), vedaniya-karma (feeling producing Icarma), mohaniya-karma (deluding karmu which obscures the right attitude of soul to faith and conduct), ayus karma (longevity-determining karma) ; nama karma (body-making or personality-determining karma with its general and special qualities and faculties), gotra-karma (status-determining karma, e. g. family clan, caste, nationality, social, standing, etc.) and antaraya-karma (soul's energy-hindering karma). They are divided and sub-divided into 158 kinds of karmas. Nature of Karma Karmas are bound by consciousness of soul (ceyakala kamma kajjanti), because they get transformed into bad place, 1 Bhs, 2, 1, 91. i Io, 1, 4, 38. See also Pannavana, uddesaka I, and Karma grantha, s Bhs, 16, 2, 570.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA etc., like the matters of beings, accumulated as food and collected as the physical structure, and in one's mind there arise fear, and definite intention for the killing of a being and its ending in death. Thus karma is the cause of the bondage of the soul. States of Soul (Bhava)1 Karmas produce six kinds of states in the soul, viz(1) audayika (the state of soul caused by the unhindered realization of the eight karma-prakrtis-it consists of all accidental attributes of soul, (2) aupasamika (the state is produced by the suppression of the karmas, though they still continue to exist and may be overcome by proper efforts of self-control). (3) parinamika (the essential state comprising the qualities attributed to the soul in itself the qualities in which nothing is changed through the karma), (4) ksayika (the state produced as a result of annihilation of the karmas, in the perfection this state liberation is attained), (5) ksayopasamika (the mixed state in which some karmas still exist, but some are neutralized and some annihilated; so the existing karma does not realize itself and possesses no intensity) and (6) sannipatikabhava (the state which consists in the concidence of several states). Faculty of cognition or capacity of soul (Labdhi)' Labdhi is the faculty of cognition or capacity of soul by the power of which it is capable of recognizing every thing in the present, past and future-all substances and their conditions. There are ten kinds of labdhi, viz., jnanalabdhi (faculty of knowledge), darsanalabdhi (faculty of self-awareness), caritralabdhi (faculty of conduct), caritra-caritralabdhi (that of conduct-cum-nonconduct), danalabdhi (that of giving), labhalabdhi (that of receiving), bhogalabdhi (that of enjoyment), upabhogalabdhi (that of experience), viryalabdhi (that of energy of soul) and indriyalabdhi (that of the senses). These ten kinds of labdhis are further sub-divided according to their respective classification, e. g. there are five kinds of jnanalabdhi, viz. abhinibodhika upto kevalajnanalabdhi (faculty of sensuous knowledge upto that of omniscience). 21b, 8, 2, 320. 1 Bhs, 17, 1, 594. 76 601

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602 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. X Samudghata (Expansion of Soul) Samudghata is the expansion of soul outside the body for some particular purpose, without leaving the body, and retraction to the original shape after the purpose is served. This process is a means of the premature fruition and the consequent exhaustion of the karmas of longer duration Samudghata is of seven kinds, viz. six chadmasthika-samudghatas namly vedana, kasaya, maranantika, vaikriya, taijasa and aharakasamudghatas and one kevali.samudghata. Vedana-samudghata is the process of expansion of soul by which it shakes off a huge quantity of the material particles of vedaniya karma (pain-producing). Kasayasamudghata is that by which it shakes off the prrticles of the kasayapudgala (i. e. caritramohaniya karma). Maranantika-samudghata is the retraction or expansion of the soul by which it exhausts the last ayuskarma-pudgalas. In vaikriya samudghata, the soul stretches itself in straight line in order to shake off the unwanted material particles and collect finer particles in order to assume various shapes according to its own desire. By means of taijasa samudghata, an ascetic launches tejolesya in order to consume an object. By the aharaka samudghata, an ascetic versed in the fourteen Purvas can assume a subtle body in order to approach to a tirthankara in a distant region for the solution of his doubts. By kevali-samudghata is meant the expansion of his soul by the kevalin (omniscient) in order to equalize the duration of his other karmas with the ayuslarman. The States and Processes of Karma : Karana" (process of energy of soul) The karma-matter gets associated with soul on account of its passions and activities and at certain states of the soul the passions get completely destroyed, but the mental, vocal and bodily activities still exist (or continue) in causing consequent influx and bondage of karma which require some energy of soul for their origination. i Bhs, 2, 2, 97; 13, 10, 409, and Studies in Jaina Philosophy, p. 280. * fb, 6, 1, 230.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 603 Thus it is explained that there are four kinds of karana (process or organ of energy of soul), viz, mana, vak, kaya and karma-karanas. The karma-karana is the process of energy by which the karma matter undergoes various processes as a result of different conditions of the activities. The processes of ene have been divided into eight kinds, viz. bandhana (bondage), the condition of the energy responsible for bondage'; sankramana (transformation of one karma into another) the condition of the energy, responsible for transformation'; udvarttana (increased realization of kar mas), 'the condition of the energy responsible for increased realization'; apavarttana (decreased realization of karma), 'the condition of the energy responsible for decreased realization'; udirana (premature realization of karmas), the condition of the energy responsible for premature realization'; upasamana (subsidence), "the condition of the energy responsible for subsidence'; nidhatti (the condition that is capable of making the karmas incapable of all the processes (karanas) other than increased realization and decreased realization; and nikacana the condition that is responsible for making the karmas incapable of all the processes." "Jivaviryam bandhanasankramanadinimittabhutam * karma-karanam. The process of energy produces a corresponding karmic process and vice-versa. Thus karana is explained from the aspects of substance, space, time, life, condition, body, sense-organ, speech, mind, passion, expansion of soul, instinct, condition of soul, attitude of mind, sex-passion, act of killing, matter and its modes--colour, smell, taste, touch and figure. Here karana is the means of action-"Kriyate anena iti karanam." Asrava (Influx of Karma into Soul)" Asrava is the influx of karma-matters into the soul which takes place as a result of mental, vocal and bodily activities accompanied by passions. 1 Vide, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Dr. Nathmal Tatia, p. 254. ? Bhs, (Comm.), 6, 1, 230. 8 Ib, 19, 9, 661. * 16, (Comm.). 616, 6, 3, 233.

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604 STUDIES IN THE VBHAGAWIT SUTRA (Cb. X "Tivihenam paogenam jiyanam kammovacae payogasa." As the four sides of a new piece of cloth when used, in due course bind dirts (matters) which get collected and accumulated into it and consequently it becomes dirty and full of bad smell, just like that the conditions of the soul get transformed into an ugly form and its purity is tarnished by the influx and accumulation of karma-matters from all sides and directions. "Se jahanamae-vatthassa-ahayassa-anupuvvie paribhujjamanassa savvao poggala vajjhamti java parinamamti.'' Classification of Asrava There are stated to be two kinds of general action of beings or influx of karma technically known as iryapathika (nonaffecting) and samparayika (affecting) kriyas. They may be classified into two kinds of asravas, viz. bhavasrava and karmagrava, the former signifies the channel of thought activities through which the karma-matters enter into the soul and the latter denotes their actual entrance into it.' Trya-pathikakriya is not accompanied by passion (kasaya), but samparayika kriya is associated with it according to the mental disposition of human beings. Bondage (Bandha) Bondage is the penetration and assimilation of particles of karma-matters into the soul the purity of which is sullied by their veil. There are stated to be five causes of bonage, namely, mithyatva (delusion or wrong attitute of mind), avirati (absence of self-control), pramada (spiritual inertia or inadvertence), yoga (activity)a and kasaya (passion)." Classification of Bondage Bondage is divided into two categories, viz. dravyabandha (material bondage conditioned by the action of the soul) and bhavabandha internal bondages conditioned by the thought activities) on the basis of karma and mental condition. Dravya 1 BhS, 6, 3, 234. ? 16, 6, 3, 233. 16, 7, 1, 262; 7,7, 289. 4 Dravya-Sangraha, SI, 29. 6 Bhs, 7,1,262; 7,7,289; 10,2,396, . 10, 3, 3, 152, 1 16, 7, 7, 289. 8 16, 18, 3, 621.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 605 bandha is divided into two groups, viz. prayogabandha (bondage caused by the action of jiva (soul or being) and visrasaban (that which takes place by the natural process). They are further sub-divided into different kinds and discussed from various aspects, such as, its causes, duration, intensity, quantity, etc. with regard to all beings. Bhavabandha is of two kinds, viz. mulagunapraksti-bandha (bondage of the eight fundamental species of karma) and uttaragunaprakrti-bandha (that of the sub-species of karma) on the basis of the result of the reprehensible thought activities which are the causes of the actual influx of karmu affecting the soul. These two kinds of bhavabandha are sub-divided into different groups according to their respective numbers, e. g. there are stated to be eight kinds of mulaguna-prakrtibandha, viz. jnanavaraniya upto antarayika-kar mabandha." Liberation Liberation is the freedom of the soul from the bondage of karma and thereby the stoppage of its rebirth. It can be achieved by two processes, viz. samvara (the stoppage of the influx of new karma--matters into the soul) and nirjara (the dissociation of the accumulated karma-matters in the soul). Samvara (Stoppage of the influx of karma-matters) Samvara can be attained by the observance of (1) the five great vows, viz. non-injury upto non-possession, (2) that of samitis (self-control) in walking, speech, taking of food, etc., (3) that of three guptis (restraint of mind, speech and body and control of senses), (4) that of dharmas consisting of continence, renouncement (straight-forwardness, attainment of virtue), forgiveness, conquering of senses, purity, desirelessness, well devotion to sramanahood, controlling of passion, penance, etc., (5) anupreksa (deliberation or meditation about the transitoriness of the mundane world, truths, process of birth, one's own responsibility for good and evil deeds, 1 Bh8, 8, 3, 345. 16, 18, 3, 621. 8 16, 2, 1, 92, 9, 33, 384.

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606 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX distinction between the soul and the non-soul (jivajiva), uncleanliness of body, influx of karma-matters and its stoppage and the dissociation of those karma-matters accumulated and stuck into the soul, matter, substances of the Universe, etc., (6) the conquering of the twenty parisahas (forbearances) and (7) right conduct.1 Nirjara (Dissociation of Karma-matters)? It is the change in the soul and the dissociations of karmamatters brought about by the external and internal austerities. As the matters of a piece of dirty cloth get dissolved from all sides, if it is gradually cleansed and washed with pure water, just like that the soul, having been freed from the dust of karmamatters becomes pure and attains the beautitude, perfection and happiness as a result of austerities and meditation. Gunasthana (Stage of spiritual development) The Bhs throws a side light upon the stage of spiritual development (gunasthana) by making incidental reference to the sixth, seventh and eighth gunasthanas, viz. pramatta-saiyata, apramatta-sanyatas and apurva-karana," which are conditional upon the elemination of the mohaniya-karmas. In the stage of pramatta-sarnyata--a complete self-control is attained in spite of the disturbance caused through the spiritual inertia or negligence (pramada), produced, through the realization of the flaming up passions, of sleep, etc. The duration of the stay in this stage is, in the minimum one samaya with regard to one jiva (soul or being) and in the maximum less than a purvakoti and all times with regard to different jivas (beings or souls). In the stage of apramatta-samyata a complete self-control without negligence (pramada) exists lasting only for one antarmuhurta with regard to one being or soul in the minimum and less than a purvakoti in the maximum and all times (sarvaddha) with regard to different souls or beings (nanajivas). In the stage of a purva-karana BhS, 2, 1. 92; 9, 33, 384. 8 16, 3, 3, 154. * Ib, 6, 3, 233. * 16, 9, 31, 367.

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Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGA WATI SOTRA 607 the soul which is on the upasamasreni remains in the minimum one samaya and in the maximum one antarmuhurta and the one who is on the ksaa pakasreni altogether one muhurta." The State of Liberation Soul attains perfection, when the renouncement of thought (bhavavyutsarga) and that of articles, body, passion, world and action etc., (dravyavyutsarga) take place as a result of the joint action of right knowledge, right attitude of mind and right conduct. Being freed from the karma-matters, the soul gets a propulsion like the movement of an arrow released from the bow towards the target and it goes up in a straight line to the top of the Universe. In that state it stays permanently in Tsat Pragbhara which is lying close to the border of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe high above the Sarvartha-siddhi heaven and enjoys eternal perfect bliss with freedom from the worldly bondage and suffering of the physical existence. 1 The Doctrine of karma in Jain Philosophy-Dr. S.V. Glasenapp pp. 82, 83, 84. * Bhs, 25, 7, 803. : 16, 8, 10, 355. * 16, 7, 1, 255.

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ELEVENTH CHAPTER Value of the Bhs from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view. FIRST SECTION Literary value of the work Literature is to be judged by its value to humanity. An estimation of it is determined by the principles to what extent does it contribute to the progress of mankind by enabling it to live with more happiness. more intensity. more profoundness more wisdom and more freedom in the mundane world. Next comes up the question of technique used in the work for proper criticism which distinguishes its subject-matter, guiding one to a finer appreciation of writing and making him realize more clearly and completely what the author has meant there. Literature is the reflection of human life, thoughts, ideas and activities and Nature, and the representation of education, learning and culture of a developed civilized society. It carries the message of knowledge and cultural heritage of a people or of a country from the distant past up to the present and preserves the treasure of different branches of learning of to-day for the future human generations through the successive stages of the social evolution. So a fully developed literature touches upon all aspects of individual and social life, such as, family, social, political and economic conditions, education, all branches of knowledge arts and sciences, technology, religion, history and philosophy with all phenomenal and noumenal aspects of Nature. All beings and non-beings and peoples of all walks of life with their different roles in the larger society appear on the stage of a true literature endowed with the richness of developed human thoughts and ideas about the self and not-self. It vitalizes and

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Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 609 revitalizes the individual, social, national and international life, shapes and reshapes, adjusts and readjusts, transforms and retransforms the human society to a considerable extent by conveying the message of its knowledge and truth preserved in it with great care. From this angle of vision on literature the Bhs testifies sufficiently to the linguistic and literary development of its age and its value to mankind by conveying various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of conversation between Lord Mahavira and his disciples. The Bhs touches upon different phases of life and Nature, beings and non-beings and their evolution, more particularly human life and society and their progress in all conditions from the time of birth up to that of death, covering the four stages of life and the world past, the world present and the world beyond. It reveals the underlying fundamental principles governing the forces of life and Nature, the evolution of beings and the states of non-beings, the development of man and the society in the cosmic process of the Universe. Besides these literary contributions, the Bhs throws light upon the political, social and economic conditions, education, science and arts, religious evolution - various leaders of thought and their systems, particularly Ajivikism and the history of its period, cosmology, cosmography, geography and Jaina Philosophy and History within its purview as they are revealed in course of the holy teachings of the Master, imparted to his disciples in a brilliant manner in the form of questions and answers. Thus it fulfils the very mission of a true literature. In regard to the language and style of the Bhs it may be said with reservation that they represent an age different from the present, in which all monastic orders and religious teachers used to impart the holy teachings to the people in general and their followers in particular to make them intelligible in the 1 Vide, Ch. II, Sec. 3 & 4, 77

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610 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. XI spoken language in the form of conversation. Though its stereotyped descriptions and linguistic style sometimes appear to be dry and unagreeable to the mind, it does not lack embellishment in any way. The total effect of the texture and spirit of the language of the Bhs, enriched with some literary flourishes, explaining the thoughts and ideas of Lord Mahavira inspires one to dive deep into its subject matters with more energy, vigour, patience and effort to collect the hidden treasure of knowledge and truth preserved in it. It is remarkable to observe how the richness of its vocabularies produces an equal effect on the minds of its readers by truly expressing, explaining and interpreting all aspects of its varied contents it has touched upon without faltering, slowness and haziness by presenting a clear and concise conception about them with logical nicety. As regards the technique of style, the Bhs originates with prose embodying the thoughts, ideas and activities of various religious leaders and conveys them through the language of the people in their own natural style in prose, for here the purpose is to teach religion to the people.. . In the Bhs the author has used three styles, viz. descriptive explanatory and emotive in the presentation of its varied contents and explaining its subject matters in a clear, concise and explicit manner so that the message of the Law, embodied herein may be comprehended and realized by the people. He has lessened the continual repetitions of its contents by refering to them as occur. ring in its different places and in other works with the connecting word "Java'. A little variation has been made in its form by alternating questions and answers without long continuation. Thus he has relieved the monotony of the sermons by deliberately interposing dialogues and by presenting its varied subjects. The literary value of the BhS lies in the fact that its rich language expresses clearly by its proper terminologies the thoughts and ideas of its creative genius, dealing with various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the field of knowledge. Thus this canonical work stands supreme as an outstanding encyclopaedic literary work in the list of the Jaina Agamas produced by the creative genius of its age.

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Sec. fl] 611 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA SECOND SECTION Historical value of the work The BhS is of great historical value, for it throws important light upon various aspects of history, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, religious evolution, heterodox sects and their systems of thought, different personalities, kings, clans and tribes of its period, etc., in general and the development of men and the society in particular, as they appear in its incidental references. It reveals that there was no political unity of India under one sovereign ruler during the time of Lord Mahavira. The country was divided into a large number of independent and semi-independent monarchical and non-monarchical states as evidenced by the fact of the mention of sixteen great states viz. Anga, Vanga and others' and also that of Sindhu-Sauvira and other sixteen small states. Thus it refers to the kingdom of Magadha with its capital at Rajagrha ruled over by king Seniya, Anga with its capital at Campa governed by king Kunika, the kingdoms of Kasi and Kosala with their respective capitals at Varanasi and Sravasti respectively lying to the west of Magadha, that of Hastinapura ruled over by king Siva and his son Sivabhadra in succession, Vatsa under the rule of king Udayana, having its capital at Kausambi lying to the south of Kosala on the Yamuna, the united kingdom of Sindhu-Sauvira with its capital at Vitibhaya ruled over by king Udayana and his nephew, Kesikumara after his abdication, that of Avanti under the kingship of Mahasena in central India and the republic of the Licchavis with its capital at Vaisali under the presidentship of king Cetaka and that of the Mallakis of Pava and Kusinara in the north of the Ganga." Of the above mentioned states the kingdoms of Kasi, Kosala and Magadha and the republic of Vaisali followed a policy of aggrandisement and expansion for establishing their respective 1 Vide, Ch. III & VIII. 2 Vide, Ch, VIII. .

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612 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Ch. XI political and economic supremacies over North-Eastern India. This policy of aggressive imperialism formulated by their statecraft led to the two great devastating wars called Mahasilakantaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangrama between two fighting camps, the one led by king Kunika of Magadha and the other by king Cetaka of Vaisali, united together with the forces of Kasi and Kasala. These two great wars set the seal of final victory on the forehead of the Magadhan king, crushed the age old republicanisin of Vaisali and paved the way for the future expansion of Magadha in all directions to bring about the political unification of India under the vigorous leadership of the imperialist rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas.? The study of these two political events and other historical data provided by the BhS reveals that the guiding principle of every independent sovereign state of its period was the achievement of its highest political power and material prosperity at the expense of its neighbours, as it is clearly evidenced by the fact of the corner-stone of the external policy of Magadha to crush its strongest neighbouring state of Vaisali with a view to achieving its political and economic supremacy by turning the lower courses of the Ganges into a Magadhan lake, having ousted that republic from the field of commerce and trade. In regard to the inter-state relation the Bhs, throws light upon the policy of statecraft that a state should avoid the path of war as far as possible and follow that of peace to achieve its objectives by applying one of the first three means, viz. Sama (conciliation), Dana (gift) and Bheda (dissension) through the diplomatic mission led by its ambassador. On the failure of these means it may go to war to settle its issue with its enemystate in the battle field. It is revealed that a state should maintain its inter-state relations by making alliance with other states or by observing complete neutrality in times of war and peace, as it is evidenced by the fact that king Cetaka made political alliance with nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi and Kosala and their i Vide, Ch. III, Sec. 1 & 2.

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Sec. 11) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA. 613 eighteen republican chiefs to put up a stubborn resistance to the impending wars declared by king Kunika in defence of the republic of Vaisali, while Vatsa, Sindhu-Sauvira and other states maintain ed complete neutrality in these struggles, though king Udayana of Vatsa and king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira were matrimonially related to king Cetaka. The BhS further reveals that the foundation of every state was based on its military strength and peaceful feudal relation with a number of princes, feudal lords and republican chiefs under the suzerainty of their sovereign ruler. Besides the political conditions, the Bhs furnishes a good deal of valuable informations regarding the polity and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical forms of government, running side by side during its period. The former was based on the divine kingship and the latter on the social contract theory, as they are reflected in the monarchical state of Magadha and the republic of the Licchavis of Vaikali and that of the Mallakis of Pava and Kusinana. It throws light upon the origin, nature and sovereignty of the state, kingship, conception of the state, its organs and functions. According to the political ideas as embodied herein the state was an organic whole consisting of a king (or a president-king), government, economic selfsufficiency, defence and its recognition by other states. It is revealed that the state was totalitarian in character, for its sphere of activities covered the political, social, economic, spiritual and cultural development of the people. The Bhs also provides many informations regarding the social conditions-social organization, caste system, four stages of life, social structure, family and social relation, social belief in dreams, etc., birth ceremony of a new born male child, his education, marriage, position of women in its society, food and drink, dresses and ornaments, art of decoration, houses, articles of furniture, social manners and customs, sports and amusements, and funeral ceremonies. The society as depicted in this canonical work was based on the traditional Varnasrama Dharma and it was divided into

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hin. 614 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. XI four orders, viz. Brahmana, Ksatriya, Grhapati or Vanik (i.e. Vaisya) and the fourth order (i.e. Sudra) on the basis of distinction of social relationship. The gradual absorption of various Indian tribes and foreign nationals in the social organization, such as, the Kiratus, Barbaras, (Indian tribes), Parasis, Arabis, Simghalis, Pahlavas, Murundas, etc., (foreign nationals) was one of the most important characteristics of the social evolution of that age, marked by the racial synthesis and the Catholic spirit of the people. So the social organization' was like the federation of castes and sub-castes mixed together and brought into the same spiritual and cultural system. * The Bhs reveals that the spirit of Varnairama Dharma illustrated itself in the system of the individual life as regulated into four stages of the Vedic texts, viz. Brahmacarya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa according to the evolving capacity of human life, for spiritualism dominated the individual, social, economic, political, religious and secular aspects of the life of the people of its period. The BhS presents an account of a social structure consisting Janapada (state), Varna (social order), Jati (caste), Gotra (origin), Jhati (kinsmen), Kula (family), Vamia (lineage) and Gahavai (head of the family, and a picture of wider sphere of family relationship which was extended to the friends, kinsmen, relatives and even to the attendants of the family who were included in its gradation in the larger social circle. A happy relation existed among the different members of the family, friends, kinsmen blood relations and others. The conjugal life of the husband and wife was endowed with mutual love, faith, devotion and honour to each other and the glow of their hearts in work and worship. Between the parents and the son there existed a sweet and happy relation based on their reciprocal love, natural duties and moral obligations called upon by the secular life. Vide, Ch. V, Sec. 2. 1 Vide, Ch. IV. & Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 3. 3

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 615 In regard to the position of women' it is revealed that they occupied three positions in the society in which they appeared in different capacities pertaining to the family and civic life. The first one was the exalted position of honour and dignity as maiden, wife, mother, queen-regent, religious student, teacher and nun ; the second was inferior to the first one as members of the palace-staff belonging to all grades, including the female slaves and courtesans ; and the third was the most humiliating status as prostitute in the larger civic life. The BhS gives a graphic account of popular belief of the people in dreams, the course of nursing the embryo of a future child, followed by a mother during her pregnancy, celebration of the birth ceremony of a new born son, his education and marriage performed with all social rites and customs. As regards food and drinks it is found that two kinds of general meal were commonly enjoyed by the people, viz. eatable solid and drinkable liquid food under the category of which come the four classes of food, viz. asana (solid food), pana (drink), saim and khaima (sweets & dainties). This canonical work provides a list of various kinds of food and drink produced and consumed by the people of its society, such as, cooked food--iuddhodana (pure rice), astadasavyanjana (eighteen kinds of sauce), paramanna (best rice cooked with ghee and honey), etc., uncooked food-fruits, milk, butter, clarified butter, honey, etc. It presents an account of dresses and ornaments, bath, art of decoration and toilet generally used by the members of the royal and rich aristocratic families. The observance of cleanliness of the body was a regular practice with the people, as it is evidenced by the fact of their taking bath before starting any kind of work. The BS provides a long list of houses and articles of furniture and presents a pictorial description of town. Lastly, it gives an i Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 4, s Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 6. i Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 5. u Pide, Ch. IV, Sec. 7, :

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616 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Cb. XI account of various kinds of sports and amusements, manners and customs of the people. The Bhs throws much light upon different aspects of the economic conditions of the people. In the social economy agriculture was the most natural and necessary occupation adopted by the major section of the population, while there flourished side by side various kinds of arts and crafts, trade and commerce, and banking business, organized by the private and collective enterprise of the economic guild but partially controlled by the state. In regard to the general economic conditions of the society it reveals that there was a small number of rich persons in comparison with the economic standard of the people of those days and that of the present time. A current of poverty flowed beneath the surface of much opulence of the social wealth and prosperity, as it is evidenced by the fact of the existence of the houseless family of Mankha-mankhali and Bhadra, the parents of Gosala. The Bhs throws an important light upon the ethics of Economics by revealing the fact that the human desire is the main factor of the economic life which is guided by the instinct of possession, and the forces of desire and the material enjoyments tie human-life to the worldly attachments and lead one to the mad lust for wealth at the cost of others and to the consequent sufferings, because Nature has set some limit to his demands. Moreover, wealth is non-permanent and belongs to fire, king, thief and sons. So this canonical work advocates the principle of non-possession (aparigraha), one of the five great vows of Sramana-Nirgrantha-Dharna preached by Lord Mahavira. As regards education the BhS reveals that it was based on the unity of thought and action, knowledge, right attitude and right conduct and the attainment of liberation by intellect (sight) and action (kriya or sharpness). The system of education was academic and vocational as organized to impart teachings in i Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 8. : Vide Ch. V.

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Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 617 general as well as special branches of knowledge and also in the law. So it incorporated into the course of studies--Itihasa (History), Vyakarana (Grammar) and Chanda (Metre) in order to achieve the first objective and imparted education in Medical Science, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, Military Science, Art of warfare, and Fine Arts, etc., to attain the second, and the Vedas and other religious and philosophical treatises like the Angas, etc., to provide knowledge in their doctrines and spiritualism. So a balance was maintained to make an individual a worthy member of the society. The principles of truth, the social and moral elevation of men and women, the development of the spoken language, science and arts and the democratization of learning without any social bar to the caste or sex were the remarkable features of the system of education as reflected in the text. There was the spiritual background of this education which made itself realize that the human life and body and material enjoyment of objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world and the soul to that of the spiritual. This conception of education governed both the individual and social life and conduct, developed personality and held the noble ideal of liberation before the people. It is of great historical value that the BhS reveals the religious conditions of its period by furnishing a good deal of informations regarding the existence of various leaders of thought and their activities and systems of religion, obscure cults and the life and teachings of heterodox sects in a manner of unsympathetic criticism of one sect against the other in their relation to Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma. But this way of presentation of the religious firmament has brought to light the half-known and unknown life of those sects with historicity. Of the hetrodox sects the Ajivikas under the spiritual leadership of Gosala, Vainayikas, Vanaprasthas, Parivrajakas, Carakas and other Tirthikas, etc., come in the lime light along with the followers of Lord Parsvanatha and the Nirgranthas under Lord Mahavira. 1 Vide, Ch. VII, 78

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618 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. XI The BhS reveals Sramana Nirgrantha-Dharma with all its aspects in a consolidated manner which is rarely found in any of the Agamas in the form of conversations between Lord Mahavira and his disciples. In this work he is found to have developed and systematized the fundamental principles of Sramana-Niryrantha-Dharma laid down by his predecessors and placed them on a solid metaphysical basis by making some improvement on them, as it was a historical necessity demanded by the religious conditions of his time. In regard to the conception of Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma the BhS explains that soul (atma) is the ultimate object of worship and meditation and spiritual realization. To know this reality there should be the right attitude of mind (samyaktva) to truth and the absence of perverted attitude (mithyatva) of one-self. * As already discussed in the first section of the seventh chapter, this canonical work gives a full conception of this religion in a nut-shell in one Sutra thus that the desire for liberation (sanvega), disregard of worldly objects (nirveda) upto complete renouncement of four kinds of passions and eighteen kinds of sinful acts, forbearance of pains (twenty-two parasahas) and that of the last part of death--all these ultimately end in perfection. It reveals two aspects of Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma, viz. Agara-Dharma or Sravaka-Dharma consisting of twelve vows and Anagara-Dharma (monasticism), based on the conditions of the individuals. It deals with different phases of the monastic life, such as, initiation to asceticism, practice of austerities and meditation, observance of religious vows and rules, external and internal austerities, classification of monks into five categories, viz. Pulaka, Bakusa, Kusila, Nirgrantha and Snataka. The BhS reveals that the aim of religion is self-realization of the Universal and absolutely Real, embodying the highest qualities reorientated into the ultimate objective values--truth, goodness and eternal bliss. i Bhs, 17, 3, 601.

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Sec. 111] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 619 This canonical work makes a valuable contribution to the study of Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography' which compare well with those of the Brahmanical and Buddhist works. THIRD SECTION Philosophical value of the work? The Bh S stands supreme and shines aloft in glory as the most valuable philosophical treatise among all the Agamas. In this respect it is an analytical work, dealing with the principles of Metaphysics and gives a subtle critical exposition of them in general and that of the doctrine of Matter' in particular containing an idea of the atomic theory, as ever propounded by any system of Indian Philosophy in a comprehensive manner. This canonical work embodies the principles of life and the Universe and explains and interprets them with logical niceties. It reveals the relation of Metaphysics with Physics and shows that the metaphysical inquiry goes beyond the aspects of Physics. The BLS throws an important light upon cosmogony--order, permanence and continuation of life and the Universes by explaining the principle of transformation of astitva (the state of existence) into astitva (that of existence) and that of nastitva (non-existence) into that of nastitva (non-existence). It expounds the law of eternality of the Universe and Non-Universe, of beings and non-beings without succession and deals with the evolution of spirit operating through the process of birth and rebirth. Because the Universe is a system of reals, all inter-related with one another from the aspects of substance, space, time and condition respectively, having a fundamental unity in diversity. Reality is conceived as Dravya (substance) which is endowed with infinite qualities (gunas) as well as modes (paryayas), ? Vide Ch, X. 1 Vide, Ch. IX. 3 Vide, Ch. x. Sec. 1.

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620 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA having origination, permanence and decay as there is a substratum in which substances exist in the Universe with their noumenal and phenomenal aspects. Dravya (substance) is classified into two categories, viz. Jivadravya (living substance) and Ajivadravya (non-living substance). The Universe is conceived of as comprising six fundamental substances, viz. five Astikayas-- Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space), Jiva (soul) and Pudgala (matter), and (non-extensive) Addhasamaya (time) i. e. six positive realities characterized by qualities (gunas). The study of the Bhs shows that time has been incorporated into the conception of reality as an eternal substance later on in course of the evolution of Taina philosophical Thought. The text gives an exposition of the principles of the nature, characteristics and inter-relation of these six fundamental substances and makes their classification from different aspects. The BhS makes a great contribution to the theory of "Matter' by giving the conception of it as a tangible reality existing in different forms, such as, earth, water, fire, air, plant, physical bodies, etc., within the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in visible and invisible states to the senses. This canonical work treats of the nature of matter, its parts, classification, forms into atom (paramanu) and aggregate of atoms (skandha), conception of atom, its characteristics, physical contact of atoms, their vibration, movement, division and union, transformation of matter, union of atoms with matter, etc. The Bhs throws a new light upon Jaina Psychology as an essential part of Philosophy by giving an exposition of the problems of Ontology (Philosophy of being) and Materialism (i.e. the problem of matter) and by revealing a self-distinct physical structure forming the basis of psychology with the background of two 1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 2.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 621 traditions in the evolution of life and the Universe, viz. atomtradition and self-tradition, as they remain emanating each other. This canonical work explains that Upayoga (agential spirit or consciousness) is the fundamental instinct of life-the inherent attribute of the soul which exhibits itself by itself. This Upayoga (consciousness) is divided into two categories, viz. Darsana (self-awareness) and Jana (knowledge). It is the principle of psycho-physical activities that all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the body, for it is the dual form, i. e. psycho-physical structure which takes into consideration the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings, namely, prana (life) indriya (sense), bala (strength), virya (energy), ayus (length of life), and anaprana (life-expanding or breathing in and out-the action to maintain the psycho-physical structure). The BhS explains Raga (feeling) and Dvesa (dislike) as the two forms of the delusive transformation of mind by showing two fundamental tendencies in Jaina Psychology. Raga and Dvesa are classified into four Kasayas (decoction or passions), viz. krodha (anger), mana (pride), maya (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed). Instinct of life manifests itself in the psycho-physical phenomena according to the conditions of soul. Thus they reveal themselves into six conditions (lesyas) in different degrees, viz. Krsna (black), nila (blue), Kapota (grey), teja (fiery or red), padma (lotus) and sukla (white). Besides these aspects, the BhS throws important light upon the physical basis of mental life, the process of thought, imagination, memory, attitude of mind, the principles of dream, perception, sense-feeling, conation-activities of soul, relation of mind with the soul, kama-bhoga (desire and enjoyment) with a psychic basis in a comprehensive manner.1 This canonical work makes a valuable contribution to Jaina Epistemology which is an integral part of philosophy by explaining the nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity 1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 2. Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 3.

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622 SIUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. XI of knowledge. Knowledge is soul and soul is knowledge, for it is the determinate consciousness (sakaropayoga), which is inseparable from the conception of soul as a part of its attribute, life, nature and emancipation. The Bhs shows two stages of the development of the theory of knowledge the first is the classification of it into five categories, viz. abhinibodhika (sensuous knowledge) upto kevalajnana (omniscience). They are again classified into two categories, viz. pratyaksa (direct) and paroksa (indirect) knowledges. It throws an important light upon the relation between Darsana and Jhana by explaining that the first is self-awareness and the second is knowledge. Darsana is the stepping stone to Jhana and they are inter-related to each other for they form together the consciousness (upayoga) of soul. But Dariana and Jhana do not take place simultaneously, because sakaropayoga (determinate consciousness) is Jnana (knowledge) and anakaropavoga (indeterminate consciousness) is Dargana (self-awareness). The Bhs stands as a great valuable treatise of ethics which is the continuation of the metaphysical and psychological aspects of studies, as it is the subject of moral consideration of all forces of Life and Nature. Ethical principles are directly and indirectly connected with happiness and pleasure which are the good of the material life, satisfied by means of wealth. But when a particular point of pleasure is crossed, there arises a harm as a result of the rise of unpleasure. Nature has got a belt of limitation beyond which it does not allow man to cross it over, for all are not co extensive ; materials are limited in space; and the physical personality of man is limited in comparison with the natural forces. So the quantitative restriction comes to a limit-Nivrtti, Yama, Sanyama and Niyama. Accord. ing to this general maxim the unrestricted possession and enjoyment of wealth have not been commended as final in the Bhs. There it stresses upon the principle of non-possession. 1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 4.

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Sec. III STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 623 The BhS explains that the relativity of goodness and badness depends on the circumstances, i.e. the aspects of substance, space, time and state (mental approach of a person). For example, sleepness and sleeplessness are good from different aspects and conditions in the case of different persons, because a saintly man will perform more meritorious acts by his sleeplessness, while an unsaintly person will avoid the sinful acts by his sleepness. So ethics is not absolute according to this moral precept embodied herein. The principle of ethics as laid down in the Bhs commences with non-injury to the individual and social life, for the virtue of non-violence arises out of self-preservation of socially inter-related men. This maxim of prohibitive mode of life leads one to detachment and higher interest, self-sacrifice and peace. The Bhs reveals two aspects of ethics, viz. negative and positive ; the negative side consists of non injury, non-telling lie, non-stealing, non-sexual union and non-possession which form the core of morality in Jainism. So long one does not intend to do the act of violence it is positive virtue from the individual, social and spiritual aspects of his life. It is the general maxim that the sinful acts affect the formless soul by their ripe bad fruits, while the meritorious acts are followed by the auspicious results as a natural order of things. It is to be observed that the BhS preaches the ethics of war to be fought dispassionately for a righteous cause in self-defence, when the liberty and sovereignty of a state are threatened by the attack of a foreign power, as it is evidenced by the fact of the dispassionate fighting of Varuna, a citizen of Vaisali in the Rathmusala-Sangrana against the forces of king Kunika of Magadha at the call of his republican state. The BhS advocates that the control of senses is the positive virtue which inculcates in one's spirit an ideal to follow the path of spiritualism, for his detachment to the worldly objects leads him to avoid warfare and seek liberation and supreme bliss. So one should retrace his step (pratikramana) from the sinful acts,

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624 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA XI observe self-imposed punishment, expiation, make self-analysis, (alocana), practise external and internal austerities and samlekhana to maintain life (or to save his soul). The BhS reveals that the unrighteous acts produce bad effects with the march of time by grinding the wheel of life. So it advocates the observance of the five great vows which form the kernel of ethics and the ideal of renunciation which leads to the path of asceticism, attainment of spiritual liberation, ultimate peace and happiness-the aims of human life. The text throws an important light upon the field of Logic by making a formal and scientific exposition of the entire system of thought, religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology and ethics through the linguistic expressions. It divides Pramana the system by which the validity of any knowledge is determined) into pratyaksa (direct perception), anumana (inference) upamana (analogy) and Agama (scripture). Jainism as revealed in the BKS has modified the view of pratyaksa-pramana by explaining that it is conditioned by the senses and mind. As the empirical knowledge is incomplete and does not convey the correct knowledge of the object, so the Bhs classifies Naya (Judgement) into two categories, viz. Vyavahara Naya and Niscaya Naya (phenomenal or empirical judgement or logic and noumenal or ascertaining judgement or logic). The text makes a formal and scientific exposition of the relativity of judgement from the stand-point of non-absolutism, e.g. souls are eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of state. It explains the principle of cause and effect as manifested in the infinite qualities and modes of substances, the value of which is determined from different aspects. Though the text does not clearly deal with the Saptabhangi-Naya (sevenfold judgement), it is apparently clear from the study, exposition and analysis of its subject-matters that the whole system of thought, religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology, and ...1. Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 5.

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Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 625 ethics of Janism as embodied herein is based on the SaptabhangiNaya of Syadvad theory. The Bhsi makes a great contribution to the doctrine of Karma from different aspects, as it is inter-related with ethics. It throws light upon the principle of causation by explaining the operation of cause and effect in relation to soul from the positive and negative points of view. The doctrine of Karma as advocated herein is not action but an aggregate of very fine imperceptible particles of matter which, entering into the soul through the actions of mind, speech and body covers its inner faculties and produces certain conditions in it. This canonical work gives an exposition of the fundamental laws of Life and Nature by explaining the theory of Karma from various aspects, such as, its division, nature, states of soul (bhava), faculty of soul (lubdhi), expansion of soul (samudghata), states and processes of karma-karana (process of energy of soul), influx of karma, (aarava), bondage by karma, stoppage of influx of karma (sarirvara), dissociation of karma (nirjara), a side light on the stages of spiritual development (gunasthanas) and liberation (Moksa). The greatest value of the Bhs as literary, historical and philosophical treatise lies in the fact that the daring flight of human imagination in the absence of critical verifying data in its period is the most thought-provoking anl wisdom-evoking. The truth of Life and Nature has amply and brilliantly been expressed in the speculative daring, not sacrificing the logical aspect of knowledge in the thoughts, evolved by the rational ideas of Lord Mahavira to Philosophy. It reveals that the evolution is a part of the whole evolution in the Universe, 1 Vide, Ch, X, Sec. 6, 79

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Jaina Works Abhidhana Cintamani --Hemachandra. Bhavanagar, Veer Era, 2441. Abhidhana Ratnamala-Halayudha. Antagadadasao-Comm. by Abhayadeva Ed. M. C. Modi, Ahmedabad, 1932. ,, Translated by L. D. Barnett, London, 1907. Anuyogadvara. Comm., Haribhadra, Rutlam, 1928. , , , Maladhari Hemacandra, Bhavanagar, 1939. , Curni. Jinadasagani, Rutlam, 1928. Anuttaropapatika Sutra-Comm. by Abhayadeva. Ed. M. C. Modi, Ahmedabad, 1932. Arddha-Magadhi Dictionary - Acaranga Sutra Comm. by Silanka, Surat, 1835. Niryukti-Bhadrabahu. ,, Translated by H. Jacobi, xxii, 1884. , Curni, Jinadasagani, Rutlam, 1941. Aura PaccakkhanaAvasyaka Sutra-Comm. by Haribhadra, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1916. , Curni---Jindasagani, Rutlam, 1928. >> Niryukti--Bhadrabahu. Bhagavati Sutra-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1921. Bhatta-ParinnaBrhat Kalpa Sutra-Comm. Malayagiri and Ksemakirti, Atma. nanda Tain Sabha, Bhayanagar, 1933 1938. , , Bhasya-Sanghadasagani. Brhat Katha-Kosa --Harisena, Ed. A.N. Upadhye, Bombay, 1943. Candapannatti

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628 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Canda-vijjhayaCau-sarana --Avacurni, Virabhadra, Devachand Lalbhai. DevindatthavaDlavala Tika--1st Vol. of Satkhandigama-Dr. H. L. Jain. Dravya-Sangraha-Nemicandra. Doctrine of Karma in the Jain Philosophy--Glasenapp. Ganivijja-- Gommata-Sara-Jivakanda and Karmakanda---Nemicandra. Ed. by J. L. Jaini. Ileart of Jainism-Mrs. Stevenson. S. Hindu Tales (Trans.) -- Meyer J. J. London, 1909 Indian Sect of the Jaimas-Buller, London, 1903. Introduction to Satkhandagama--Dr. H. L. Jain. Tambuddivapannatti, Comm.-Santicandra. Bombay. 1920. Jambuddiva Pannatti Samgraha-Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Jain Harivamsa PuranaJaina Sutras (S. B. E.) I & II--H. Jacobi. Jainism in North India--C. J. Shah. Kathakosa-Translated by Tawney, London, 1895. Karakanda-Cariu--Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Kalpa Sutra, Comm. by Samayasundara, Bombay, 1939. , , Translated by H. Jacobi (S. B. E.) xxii 1884. Kappavadamsiao - Kasaya Pahudam-Bhaga-1. (Pejjadosavihatti)--Gunadharacarya, Ed. by Pandit Phulchandra Siddhanta Shastri. KalakacaryakathanakaKavya-Mimamsa-Hemacandra. Mahanisitha-Ed. Schubring, Berlin, 1918. Mahapaccakkhana. Mahapurana (Apbh.) ---Puspadant. Mahapurana (Skt.)---Jwanapitha Edition. Nandi Sutra Comm. - Haribhadra, Rutlam, 1928. -- Malayagiri, Bombay, 1924. Nayadhammakahao, Comm.--- Abhayadeva, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1919. -Ed. by N. V. Vaidya, Poona, 1940.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Nirayavaliya Sutta, Comm.-Candra Suri, Ahmedabad, 1922. Ed. by Gopani and Chokshi, Ahmedabad 1934. 99 93 Nisiha Sutta "" Curni-Jinadasagani. Ed. by Vijaya Prema Surishvara V. S. 1995. Niyamasara Kundakunda. Ovaiya Sutta (Aupapatika Sutra) Comm. by Abhayadeva, Second Edition, Surat V. S. 1914. Padma Purana-Ravisena. Paumacariyam-Vimala Suri. Paumacariu Sayambhu. Pancakalpa - Pancastikayasara-Kunda kunda. Pannavana (Prajnapann) Sutta-Comm. Malayagiri, Bombay 629 1918-1919. Panhavagarana-Comm. Abhayadeva, Bombay, 1919. Paiyasadda-Mahannava-Pandit Hargovindadas Trikamchand Seth Parisistaparvan ---Hemacandra. Pinda Niryukti Comm. Malayagiri, Surat, 1918. Pupphao. Pupphaculao Pravacanasara-Kundakunda. Pramana Mimamsa-Hemacandra. Pracina Tirthamala Sangraha. Pt. 1, Bhavanagar. Sam. 1978. Rayapaseniya Sutta (Rajaprasniya Sutra) Comm. by Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1938. Samtharaga. Satkhandagama-Vols. III, IV & VIII Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Sad-darsana Samuccaya-Haribhadra (Gunaratna's Commentary). Samavayanga Sutra Comm. Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1938. Samayasara-Kundakunda. Sramana Bhagavan Mahavira. Suriyapannatti-Comm. Malayagiri, Bombay, 1919. Suyagadanga (Sutrakrtanga )-Comm. Silanka, Samiti, Bombay, 1917. Trans. by H. Jacobi, S. B. E. XLV, 1895. Agamodaya

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630 Sthaviravalicarita Sthananga Sutra-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1937. Syadvad-Manjari-Mallisena (Anyayoga-vyavaccheda-dvatrimsika) Tandula-Veyaliya-Comm. by Vijayavimala-Devachandra STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Tatvartha Sutra-Umasvati Uttaradhyayana Sutra-Comm. by Santisuri, Bombay, 1916; Nemicandra, Bombay, 1937. dw 37 Lalbhai 95 Uvasagadasao-Comm. Abhayadeva. Trans. H. Jacobi S. B. E. XLV, 1895. Trans. by Hoernle, Calcutta, 1888. Vasudevahindi-Sanghadasagani-Vacaka, Atmananda Sabha, Bhavanagar, 1930-31. Vyavahara Sutra-Comm. by Malayagiri, Bhavanagar, 1926. Bhasya. "1 Viratthava (tthui) Visesavasyaka Bhasya-Jinabhadra. Vivaga Suya-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Baroda, V. S. 1922. Vividha-Tirthakalpa-Jinabhadra Suri, Bombay, 1934. Yoga Sastra-Comm. by Hemacandra. Brahmanical Works Aitareya Brahmana Arthasastra of Kautilya-Trans. by Shamashastri, Mysore, 1908. Astadhyayi of Panini. Atharva-Veda Baudhayana Dharma Sutra Brhadaranyaka Upanisad Brhajjataka-Varahamihira. Brhat Parasara Smrti Brhat Samhita (xiv)-Varahamihira, Ed. Sudhakar Dvivedi, Banaras. Brahmanda Purana Bhagavata Purana Caraka-Samhita-Trans. by Jayadeva Vidyalankar, Lahore, S. V. 1991-93.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Chandogya Upanisad Dasakumara Carita-Dandi, Kale, Bombay, 1926. Dasopanisad-Ed. by the Pandits of the Adyar Library. Gita Gopatha BrahmanaHarivamsa Purana Harsa Carita Banabhatta. Jaimini Grhya Sutra- Katha-sarit-sagara-Somadeva, Trans. by Tawney. Kamanda kiya Nitisara-Ed. by R. Mitra (B.In.), Calcutta, 1849-84. Kamandakiya Nitivakyamrtam-Somadeva Suri. Kavya-Mimamsa-Rajasekhara. Laghujataka-ix-Varahamihira. Mahabharata-Ed. by T. R. Krishnacharya & T. R. Vyasacharya, Nirnaya Sagara Press, Bombay, 1906-9. Mahabhasya of Patanjali. Manu Smrti Matsya Purana Markandeya Purana Mrccha katika-Sudraka. Ed. R. D. Karmarkar, Poona, 1937. Narada Smrti 631 Nidanasthana Patanjali's Bhasya (19-11). Pavanaduta of DhoyiPanini Vyakarana. Priyadarsika of Sri Harsa Raghuvamsa,-Kalidasa. Rajatarangini-Kalhana. Ramayana-Valmiki. Ed. T. R. Krishnacharya & T. R. Vyasa charya, Bombay, 1911. Rg-Veda Sayana Bhasya. Sakti Sangama Tantra. Sangita Ratnakara-Sarangadeva. Satapatha Brahmana. Subhasita (Vide, Education in Ancient India, Dr. A.S. Altekar).

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632 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Svapana Vasavadatta-Bhasa. Tattvakaumudi. Tattva Vaisaradi. Thirteen Principal Upanisads-Robert Ernest Hume. Vasistha Dharma Sutra. Vajasaneya Samhita. Vayu Purana Vedic Index-Macdonald and Keith, 1912. Viramitrodaya, Pt. II of Mitramishra: Jivananda's Edition. Visnu Purana Yajurveda Yajnavalkya Smrti--Vijnanesvara, 4th Ed. Bombay. Buddhist Works Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S. London-1885-1900. Atthakatha P. T. S. Ed. by Walleser & Harmann Kopp, London, 1924-1940. Avadana Sataka Ed. by Dr. J.S. Speyer St. Petersburg, 1906. Ayoghara Jataka-- Arya-Manjusri-Mula kalpa-Ganapati Shastri. Book of the kindred Sayings-Rhys Davids. Buddha Carita-Asvaghosa. Buddhist Nikaya Commentary on Digha-Nikaya. Cullavagga Culavamsa-Ed. by W. Geiger, London, 1925. Darimukha Jataka Dhammapada (Comm.)-Harvard, P.T.S. 1906-1915. Dhonasakha Jataka-- Dialogues of the Buddha-(S.B.E. Pt. II)-Rhys Davids. Dictionary of Pali-Proper Names -Malalasekara. Digha-Nikaya-Ed. Rhys Davids & J. E. Carpenter, P.T.S., London, 1889-1911. Dipavamsa Divyavadana-Ed. E. B. Cowell & R. A. Neil Cambridge, 1886.

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 633 Jatakas-Fousboll, London, 1877-97. Kunala Jataka. Kusa Jataka. Kurudhamma Jataka. Lalitavistara--Ed. S. Lefmann. Halle A. S., 1902-1908. Lomahamsa Jataka. Mahajana ka Jataka. Mahasilava Jataka. Mahavamsa-Ed. by W. Geiger, London, 1908. Mahavastu. Majjhima-Nikaya-Ed. V. Trenckner, and R. Chalmers, London, 1888-1899. Milinda-Panha--Ed. V. Trenckner, London, 1880.. Mugga-Pakkha JatakaMusika JatakaNiggaittha Jataka. Nidanakatnam Papanca Sudani-- PancadivyadhivasaPaacagaruka JatakaPatika SuttaPetavatthuRathalatthi Jataka-(No. 352) III. Samyutta-Nikaya--M. Leon Feer, London, 1880. Samkicca Jataka . Suttanipata-Ed. Rahul Sankrityayana, Rangoon, 1937, Sacred Books of the East (11) Rhys Davids. Sasana-Vamsam Sumangala VilasiniTelapatta JatakaTittira JatakaThusa Jataka Udana--Ed. by Rahul Sankrityayana, Rangoon, 1937. Vimana-Vatthu-of Mulasarvastivada. Vinaya Texts of Mulasaryastivada Ed. by Oldenberg, London, 1870-1884. 80

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA General Works Advance History of India-Dr. R. C. Mazumdar, Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury & Dr. K. K. Datta. Age of Imperial Unity- Dr. R. C. Mazumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 634 Amara Kosa-Amara Singha. Annals of the Bhandarkar Institute-1926-27. Ancient Geography of India-Cunningham. Ancient India-Ptolemy-M'Crindle. Ancient India as described in the classical literature. M'Crindle Archaeological Survey of India Reports. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India. The Art of War in Ancient India-Date G. T., London, 1929. Buddhist India-Rhys Davids. Buddhhist Studies-Dr. B. C. Law. Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society-Vol. xxi, 1929. Bhagavan Buddha-Dharmananda Kaushambi. Bombay Gazetteer Vol. 1. Cambridge History of India Vol. I. Rapson. Carmichael Lectures-1918 Bhandarkar. Caste and Race in India-G, S. Ghurye. Civanana Cittiyar-Ed. Mudaliyar Vol. I. Corporate Life in Ancient India-Dr. R. C. Mazumdar. Chronicles of Tripura-Leong. Darshana and Cintana-Pandit Sukhlalji. Die Kosmographie Der Inder.-W. Kirfel. Early History of India-V. Smith. Economic History of Ancient India- S. K. Das. Education in Ancient India-Dr. A. S. Altekar. Elements of Hindu Iconography-Gopinath Rao. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Epic Mytheology-Hopkins. Fa-Hien-Legge The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval IndiaN. L. Dey, Calcutta, 1899. The Greek City and Its Institutions Cambridge History-Glotz.

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srUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 635 Greeks in Bactria and India-Turn. Greek Thinkers, Vol. I.-Gomperz. Hindu Civilization-R. K. Mukerjee. Hindu Polity-Dr. K. P. Jayaswal. Hindu Tribes and Castes, Vol. III, Surring. Hindu Administrative Institutions--Dikshitar, V.R. Ramachan: dra, Madras, 1929, History of Bengal, Vol. 1--Dr. R. C. Mazumdar. History of Buddhist Thought-E. J. Thomas. History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas-Dr. Basham. History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I--Dr. S. N. Dasgupta. History of Indian Literature, Vol. II-Winternitz. History of Northern India--Dr. H. C. Ray. Historical Geography of Ancient India - Dr. B. C. Law. Homage to Vaisali-Ed. J. C. Mathur. Hymns of Rig-Veda-Manning. Imperial Gazetteer of India-Vol. I. (Ancient) India -Alberuni. (Ancient) India-Magasthenes. India as described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism Dr. B. C. Law. India as known to Panini--Dr. V. S. Agrawal. Indian History-F. Weber. Indian Invasion of Alexander-Diodorous. Indian Culture, Vol. 1. . Indian Antiquary, Vols. XVII-XXI. Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XX, 1931, Interpretation of Dreams-Dr. Freud. Introduction to Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Language Dr. Pischel. Introduction to Indian Philosophy--Dr. Chatterjee and Dr. Dutta. Introduction to Prakrit Grammar-Dr. Woolner. Journal of the American Oriental Society. of Asiatic Society of Bengal. of Royal Asiatic Society. , of the Indian Society and of the Oriental Art.

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636 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Journal of the Department of Letters II, Calcutta University. Karpuramanjari-Ed. Dr. M. M. Ghosh. Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India-Dr. B. C. Law. Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons Dr. J. C. Jain. Mahavira-His Life and Teachings-Dr. B. C, Law. Manu--A Study in the Hindu Social Theory-Kewal Motwani. Mannual of Ethics--Mackenzie. Middle Indo-Aryan Language-Dr. S.K. Chatterjee. : Modern Review (1918 July, 1919). Monier-Williams--Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Mysore and Coorg-Rice. Nagpur University Journal-Dec. 1940. An Out Line of Psychology-McDougall. Outlines of Jaina Philosophy.--Mohan Lal Mehta. Oxford Concise Dictionary. Plant Autobiographs and their Revelations--1929, Sir J.C. Bose. Plant Physiology--Bernard S. Meyer, & Donald B. Anderson. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea-Schoff. Philosophy of Non-Absolutism-Dr. Satkari Mookerjee. Philosophy of Religion-Galloway. Political History of Ancient India Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhari. Psychology-Robert S Woodworth Pusalkar's Bhasa-- A Study, Lahore, 1940: Pre-Ariyan and Pre-Dravidian-Sylvain-Trans. by Dr. P.C. Bagchi. Pre-Buddhistic India-Mehta. Racial Synthesis-- Vishvanathan. Rajputana Gazetteer. Religion and Rational Outlook-Dr. S.N. Dasgupta. Social Organization in North-East India in Buddha's time-Fick. R. Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal-Dr. B. C. Sen. Studies in Vatsyayana's Kamasutra, 1929, Haran Cakladar. Studies in Indian Antiquities- Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury, Calcutta--1932. Tribes in Ancient India--Dr. B. C. Law.. Vedic Age-Bharatiya Vidya-Bhavan,

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SUTRA 637 Watters on Yuan Chwang-II. Weapons and Armoury Organization-Oppert Gutav. Inscriptions Corpus Inscriptionam Indicarum-Vol. III, Dr. Fleet. Epigraphia Indica (III). (IV) Inscriptions of Asoka II--Dr. B.M. Barua. of Bengal Vol. III-N.G. Mazumdar. Select Inscriptions--Dr. D. C. Sirkar. South Indian Inscriptions-Sewell. Coins Ancient Indian Coins-John Allan. Andhra Coins--Rapson. Coins of Indo-Scythic Rulers--Gardener.

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Abhaggasena, notorious robber, 109 Abhaya, 494 Abhayadeva Suri, 39, 40, 425, 426, 471 Abhayakumara, prince 204 Abhici kumara, prince, 86, 89, 158 Abhidhanacintamani, 426, 515 Abhidhana Ratnamala, 438 Abhijit Kumara, 46, 194, 321, 492, 501 Akhiras, 509 INDEX A Acaranga Curri, 245, 454 Acaranga Sutra, 4, 12, 134, 246, 472, 532, 536 Accha, 62, 531 Acchidda, 437 Acchidya, 417 Acesines (the Cenaba), 507 Aciravati, 546 Adhakarmadi, 417 Adharimam, 100 Addhasamaya, 572 adijjam, 100 aduyabandhana, 113 adhyavapuraka, 417 Africa, 318 Agadadatta 226 Agara Dharma, 390, 421 Aggivesayana, 437 Agnibhuti, 42, 45, 482 Aguri, 503 Aineyaka, 436 Aitareya Aranyaka, 529 Aitareya Brahmana, 513, 528 Ajitakesakambali, 436, 489 Ajivika, 3, 13, 385, 425, 438; the meaning of, 425 Ajivikism, 448 Ajiviya, meaning of, 425 Ajja, Parvati, 457 Ajjhadharini, 92, 95 Ajjuna Gomayuputta, 437 Ajnanavadins, 449, 450 Ajnanikas, 4 Ajnanikavadins, 17 Akesines (Cenaba), 552 Akkharika, 340 Akriyavadins, 4, 17, 449 Alabhika, 44, 45, 310, 321, 431, 452, 477, 478 Alabhiya, 537 Alavi, 538 Alexander, 507, 515 Alexandria, 317, 322 Alisamdaga, 317 Al-kikan, 511 Aloka, 518 Amarakosa, 135 amatya, 116 Ambubhaksinas, 454 Ambuvasins, 454 amijjam, 100 amkadhato, 95 Ammada, the Parivrajaka, 24, 43, 452, 482, 540 amosa, 110 Amrapali, 223 Amtarangi, 5 Amusements, 257 Ananda, 5, 54, 138, 151, 163, 175, 307, 430, 473 Anandaraksita, 456 anasakayana, 168 Anasana, 404 Andhras, 513 Anga, 62, 501, 528, 621 angamaddiyao, 95 Anga-Mandira, 431 angara, 417 Anagara-Dharma, 390, 391, 421

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640 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Angas, 344 Angavairocana, king, 528 Anguttara Nikaya, 62, 503, 531, 534 anissata, 417 Annautthiya, 7 Annavalaya, 483 Antagada, 6 Anuradhapura, 512 Anusucakas, 98 Anuttarovavoiyadasao, 6 Anuvala ya, 437 Anuyogadvara Sutra, 11, 245, 343, 344, 386 Anviksaki, 77 apamitya, 417 Arab, 322 Arabi, 34, 37, 38, 310, 317, 320, 511 Aradhana, three kinds of, 400 aranyayana, 168 Arddhanarisvara, 536 Arddha-Magadhi, Aritthanemi, 228 Arjuna, 123 Arjuna Gautamiputra, 341, 436 Arthasastra, of Kautilya, 77, 79, 81, 82, 93, 96, 106, 115, 116, 119, 120, 124, 126, 128, 133, 136, 145, 180, 184, 188, 196, 376, 506 Arya, 7 Arya Satyani, 392 Asadha, 5 Asamitta, 57 Asana, 232 asana, 128, 131 Asana panna paka, 141 asati posanaya, 101 Asikni (Cenaba), 552 Asoka, 37, 65, 124, 438 Asokan Edicts, 196 Asokavana, 477 Asrama, 166 Asrava, 603, 604 Asrutva-Kevali, 423 Assaka, 62 Astadhyayz, 536 Astakula, 141 Astakulaka, 145 Astangamahanimitta, 439 Asthikagrama, 472, 477, 487, 537 Asurukkha, 106 Asvaghosa, 495, 496 Atavatattae, 446 Atavyas, 509 Atharva, 336, 528, 530 Atimukta-Kumara-Sramana, 45 170 Atom, definition of, 567 Attha, 531 Atthakulaka, 144, 145 Atthiyagama, 537 Au papatika Sutra, 343, 452 Aura-paccakkhana, 9 Avaddhiya, 5 Avaha, 62, 534 Avamodarika, 405 Avanijanasraya, 511 Avanijnasraya, Nausari grant of, 38 Avanti, 62, 63 131, 494, 499, 501, 502, 531 Avasar pini, 368, 444 Avasarpini Kala, 436 Avakyaka Bhasya, 338 Avasyaka Curni, 98, 104, 114, 154, 157, 202, 204, 221, 377, 476, 494, 495, 500, 501, 514, 517 Avasyaka Sutra, 12 Avakyaka Tika, 455 Avaviha, 437 Avvattiya, 5 Ayala merchant, 103, 317 Ayambula, 437 Ayampula, 434, 437 Ayaradasao, 11 Ayodhya, 535 Ayoghara Jataka, 91 Babbariyas, 508

Page #666
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 641 ma, 1209 Balik Babylon, 318 .: Bactria, 514 Bahalis, 514 Bahubali, 514 Bahula, 152, 156, 263, 473 Bahuraga, 7 Bahuraya, 5 Bakusa, 17, 418, 419 bala, 116 Bala, King, 78, 91, 156, 158, 171, 190, 200, 201, 205, 206, 209, 217, 218, 219, 223, 224, 324, 480 Baladeva, 197, 468 Balarama, 9 Balata pasvin, 169 Balikamma, 170 Balikari, 92 balikario, 95 Bambhi, 7 Bambhilivi, 5, 52 Banabhatta, 426 Banaousii, 510 Bandha, 604 Baniyagaon, 505 Barabara Hill, 438 Barava7, 9 Barbaradega, 321 Barbarikas, 37, 320 Barua, Dr. B. M. 437 Basarh, 471, 505 Baudhayana Dharma Sutra, 529 Baveru, 318 Bebhela, 310 Bebhela Sanniveka, 189, 450, 451 Behalla, 69, 119, 125, 130 Bennayana, 87, 103, 109 Bhada, 121, 137 bhadikamme, 101. Bhadra, 191, 194, 208, 217, 219, 427, 430 Bhadrabahu, 32 Bhadravati, elephant, 119 Bhaggas, 547 Bhambhiya, 106 Bhandagarika, 139 Bhandagarinao, 95. Bhandagarini, 92 Bhandara kar, Dr. D. R., 495, 496 Bharadvaja, 431, 436 Bharata, 90, 157, 216 Bharata, 343 Bharatavarsa, 523; nomenclature of, 524; shape of, 524 Bhaddila pura, 530 Bhadra, 330, 545 Bhargas, 547 Bharukaccha, 318 Bhasa, 499 Bhasa, the definition of, 342 Bhata, 94, 105. Bhatiyo Bhatta, 496 Bhattaparinna, 9 Bhava, 601 Bheda, 128 Bhiksacarya, .405 Bhiksupratima, 396. Bhima, 463 Bhogas; 492, 503 Bhoja, king, 531. Bhota, 517 Bhrgu, 145 Bhutana, 517 Bhutananda, war elephant, 118 Bhuttuyas, 517. Bindusara, king, 112 Binduvasini, temple of, 548 Bodiya, 454 Brahmana, 115, functions and. social position, 151 ; duties, 153 Brahmanakundagrama, 44, 190, - 319, 324, 467, 468, 470, 471, 478, 479, 542 Brahmaputra, 508, 529 Brahmi, 504 Brahmilipi, 337 Brahmi script, eighteen kinds of, 339 Bihajjataka, 438 . Brhatkalpa-Bhasya, 82, 225, 228, 239, 244, 246, 256, 288, 380 81

Page #667
642 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Brhatkal pa-Bhasya Pathika, 97 Brhatkal pa-Sutra, 11 Brhatkathakosa, 498 Broach, the Gulf of Debala and Al-kikana, 511 Buddha, 138, 486 Buddha-Carita, 495, 496 Buddhi, 97 Buddhism, 392 Burdwan, 537 Busantion, 510 Business centres, 310 Campa, 34, 44, 46, 73, 89, 196, 230, 256, 310, 321, 431, 477, 479, 491, 492, 493, 497, 499, 501, 528, 538, 611 Canakya, 112 Canda, 495 Candajasa, 119. Candana, 6; Arya 221, 332, 479 Candapannatti, 8 Candapiyana, 204 Candavij jhaya, 10 Candika, 457 Candra, king, 514 Candragupta, Maurya, 112, 491, Candragupta II, 515, 532 Candraprabhanatha, 546 Carakas, 13, 425, 438, 449, 455, 466 Candava, 4576.514 urevash Cadagara, 121, 137 Caitya, 319, 436; Bahu putrika, 44, 485; Bahusalaka, 2, 44, 59, 155, 182, 191,224,258, 260, 393, 467, 479, 542 ; Candravatarana, 44, 220, 431, 482, 499, 541, 548; Chatrapalasaka, 44, 182, 477, 481, 539; Dutipalasaka, 44, 60, 155, 477, 480, 481; Ekajambuka, 44, 477, 485, 549; Gunasilaka, 44, 190, 477, 479, 482, 483, 494, 545; Kamamahavana, 431, 549; Kosthaka, 44, 45, 172, 430, 431, 433, 434, 456, 477, 479, 483, 484, 487, 546; Kaundikayana, 431 ; Manabhadra, 44, 482, 54 Nalanda, 482, 543; Nandana, 44 ; Praptakala, 431; Purnabhadra, 44, 477, 478, 479; Puspavati, 44, 173, 483, 548; Salakosthaka, 44, 484, 543; Sankhavana, 44, 452, 478, 538. Cakravartin, 197 Calukya, 511 Camaradhario, 95 Carasada, 514 Caru, 177 caste, 150; of lower grades, 164 Catakara, 94 Cathaeans, 507 Caturvimeatistava Vandanas, 9 Caturyama Dharma, 419, 456, 483 Caurantacakkavatti, 78 Causarana, 9 Cedaga, of Vaisali 159 Celavasins, 454 Cellana, queen, 34, 69, 114, 189, 204, 219, 483, 492, 494 Cereals, 233 Cetaka, King, 36, 65, 69, 72, 122, 125, 130, 131, 134, 137, 376, 377, 488, 492, 493, 494, 497, 498, 499 Cetiya, 62 Chalua, 5 Chanda, 336 Chandogya Upanisad, 168 Chattadhario, 95 Chattanti, 99 Cheda Sutras, 10 cheyayariya, 94, 121 c

Page #668
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA China, 318, 322 Cilaiya, 7, 508 Cilatas, 508 Cilatikas, 37, 317 Cilaya, 109 Cinarasuya, 38 Cirrahadae, 508 Citra-Vicitra-Yamaka, 554 Civanana cittiyara, 447 Coda, 533 Cola-Rajendra, 533 colapattaka, 415 Colayanagan, 169, 207 Confession, ten kinds of faults of, 402 Council, of monks, 31; Patali- putra, 47, 49; Vallabhi, 47, 48, 49 Cullavagga, 227 cunnaga pesio, 95 Cunningham, 538, 550 D Dasaratha, 438 Dasasuyakkhanda, 11 Dasavaikalika, 12 Dasyu8, 513 Davaggidavanaya, 101 davakario, 95 Death, 264 Debala, 511 Demetrius, 515 Desibhasa, 341 Devadatta, 502 Devaki, 469 Devananda, 2, 59, 152, 155, 188, 191, 217, 219, 221, 222, 228, 230, 393, 467, 468, 470, 479 Devarddhi Ganin, 32, 33, 47, 52 Devindatthava, 10 Dey, N. L. 496 Dhammalipi, 337 Dharanagara, 531 Dharini, queen, 24, 202, 203, 204, 208, 211 Dharmaghosa, 3, 156 Dharmapala, king, 506 Dhavala, 3, 4, 32, 33 Dhoyi, 536 Dhrti, 8 dhumra, 417 Dhyana, 410 Digambaras, 4, 32 Digha-Carayana, 74 Dagha-Nikaya, 143, 353 Dikcaras, 429, 437 Dipavamsa, 512 Disapokkhiya, 454 Disaproksina, a graphic account of, 176, 455, 501 Diseases, 348, 450 Ditthieao, 32 Ditthivaya, 5 Dokiriya, 5, 7 drammas, 102 Dravidi, 37, 320 Dravidians, 512 Dravya, 4 Dravya-Sangraha, 574 Dream, 197 Dadhivahana, 499 Dahinakulaka, 453 Dahira, king, 511 Daksina-Ladha, 533 dama, 128 Damilzs, 511, 512 dantavanijje, 101 Darntukkhaliya, 453 dana, 128 Danama, 163 Danama Pravrajya, 451 Danda, 76, 77, 79, 128 dandanayaga, 107, 121. 137 dandanayaka, 90, 94 Dandaniti, 77, 79; of kaundinya, 106 Dandapura, 548 Dantipura, 88 Darbhanga, 533 Darsaka, 544 Dasa Curni, 112 Dasakumaracarita, 529, 548 Dasa pura, 5

Page #669
644 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Dresses, 241, 243 ; of the monks 243 Drink, 238 Drums, four types of, 380 Drotivada, 2, 4, 227 durbhiksabhakta, 417 Durd hara, queen 112 durga, 116 duta, 90 daya, 94, 121, 127, 137 dvaidhabhava, 128 esana, 417 F Fa-Hien, 547, 548 Family Relations, 187 Festivals, 264 Fruits, 234 Furniture, 252, 255 Gangas, 443 Gargeya, 42, 45, 456, 480 Ganivijja, 10 ganthibheya, 110 . garudavuha, 376 Gautama Indrabhuti, 42, 45, 124, 181, 466, 467, 478, 482, 485 Gaya, 530 Gijjhakuta, 545 Giribbaja, 545 Girinagara, 33 Girivraja, 553 Gita, 123, 124, 126, 127, 149 Gitamarga, 385, 439, 440 glanabhakta, 417 Gobahula, 152, 156, 191, 208, 325, 427, 483, 546 gocchaka, 415 Godavari, 513 Gods, classification of, 461 Gomati, 535 Gommatasara, 41, 570 Gomperz, 486 Goputthae, 446 Gosala, 14, 426, 432, 433, 434, 439, 445,446, 475, 480 Gosala Mankhaliputra, 3, 34, 43, 54, 75, 119, 208, 219, 225, 307, 330, 352, 383, 385, 425, 427, 428, 429, 431, 435, 473, 474, 476, 477, 483, 484, 487, 488, 490, 535, 538, 546 Gosamkbi, 163 Ghosh, Dr. Manmohan, 50 Gotra, 186 Gotthamahila, 5 Gunaratnasarvatsara, 397 Gunaratnasamvatsara ta pas, 396 Gunasthana, 606 Gunavrata, 400, 422 Gwalior, 516 Gaggali, 86 Gahavai, 160; duties of 161 ; 187 gama, 84 Gamga, 5 Gana, 134, 135, 136; functions of the 141 gananayaga, 121, 137 gananayaka, 90, 94 Ganapuraka, 142 Ganaraja, 134, 136, 141 Ganaraja, 135 ganarajas, eighteeen republican chiefs, 64, 65, 117, 122, 130, 131, 134, 137, 144, 223 ganarayano, 134 Gandhara, 62, 510 Gandharvas, 528 Ganga, 551 Gangadatta, 161 Gangadattadeva, 485 Gangaradai, 515 H hadibandhana, 113

Page #670
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 645 ista, 168 Itihasa, 336 Jan Hala, 47 Halahala, 332, 430, 433, 437, 483, 487 Halayudha, 438 Halla, 69, 119, 125, 130 Halla, 434 Harinegamesi, 468 Harivansa Purana, 509, 532 Harsa, king, 426 Harsacarita, 426 Haryanka-Kul1, 496 Hastanagar, 514 Hastinapura, 23. 34, 44, 78, 89, 91, 189, 256, 258, 259, 307, 308, 310, 321, 324, 330, 457, 477, 478, 480, 482, 485, 492, 493, 501, 538, 611 Hastita pasas, 454 Hastigrama, 537 Hatthamaddiyae, 446 Hatthigama, 503, 537 Hatthivala, 104 Hazaribagh, 530 Hemacandra, 415 Herbs, 281 Himavata, 552, 553 Hiuen Tsang, 514, 531, 539, 547, 548 Hoernle, 490 Houses, 252 Hri, 8 Hursva-uttia, 453 Hydas pes (Jhelam), 507, 552 Hydraoles (Ravi), 552 Hypasis (Vipaia-Beas), 552 Jacobi, 49, 437, 471, 490 Jagarika, 400 Jalabhiseka-kidhinagatra, 454 Jalavasins, 454 Jamali, 5, 14, 45, 85, 158, 171, 183, 189, 192, 193, 196, 215, 216, 224, 259, 263, 319, 329, 349, 391, 393, 394, 456, 479, 542, 546 Jamali's sect, 13, 456 Jam!uddiva pannalti, 8, 90 Jambudvipa, 523, 526 Jambudvipa Prairia pti, 523 Jamgola toxicology, 345 Jarta pilanakamme, 101 Janaka, 542 Janapada, 116, 132, 185, 527 Janavaya, the etymological meaning of, 76 Jatakas, 91, 106, 134, 136 Jati, 185 Javana, 6 Jayadhavala, 32 Jayaghosa, 154 Jayanti, 43, 45. 169, 214, 319, 332, 393, 482, 492, 499 jemamana, 207 Jinadasa, 476 Jivabhigama, 7, 523 Jivapadesiya, 5, 7 Jiyasattu, king, 92, 98, 154 Jnana, 588 Jpati, 186 Jnatri, 175 Jnatrikas, 505 Jhatrksatriya, 468, 469 Joisamaya, 336 Jonhiyas, 510 Jonhikas, 37 Junagadha, 536 I Ikkai, 105 Iksvalus, 492, 505 Indrayudha, 506 Indus, river, 514 ingalalamme, 101 Isiganika, 37, 320 Isiganiyas, 509 Isigili, 545 Isiku, 322

Page #671
646 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Kappavadansia, 8 Karakandu Cariu, 88 Karana, 602 Karma, doctrine of, 599 karodiyadhario, 95 Karpuramaljari, 50 Karttikadatta, the president of an economic guild of eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura, 162, 164, 174, 189, 307, 308, 485 Karusas, 509 Kasai, 529 Kasia, 534 Kasava, 16, 456 Kasaya-Pahuda, 32 Kaat, 36, 62, 65, 73, 116. 118. 122, 130, 131, 133, 137, 321, 378, 478, 492, 493, 497, 534, 535 k Kaccha, 532 Kajangala, 310, 321, 477, 478, 481, 539 Kala, prince, 8 Kala, 125 Kalagrahanan, 169 Kalakacarya-Kathanaka, 517 Kalanda, 437 Kalasa vesiyaputta, 42, 44, 456 Kalidasa, 159. 170 Kalika-bruta, 2 Kalinga, War, 65; Edict 124 Kalingas, 529 Kaliyaputta, 45, 456 Kalodayin, 455, 483 Kalpa Sutra, 10, 11, 104, 137, 154, 197, 202, 239, 468, 469, 470, 472, 488, 537 Kalpatita, 463 Kal pavatarsaka, 8 Kal pavrk:08, 303 Kalpika, 8 Kamandakiya-Natisara, 78, 82 Kama Sutra, 188 Kamboja, 62, 318 Kambojas, 510 Kamma-Pahuda, 32 Kampilla pura, 540 Kampilya, 321 Kampilyapura, 44, 452, 477, 478, 481, 540 Kamsa, 469 Kanagasattari, 344 Kanaka Saptati, 344 Kancanapura, 88 Karcuijje, 94 Kanhavasudeva, 1 Kankajola, 539 Kannauja, 506 Kannavehanan, 207 Kanniyara, 437 Kantarabhakta, 417 Kapila Muni, 455 Kapilasastra, 451 Kapisa, 529 Kappa, 336 Kasmira, 321 Kathaians, 507 Kathaioi, 507 Katyayana, 145 Kauravyas, 492, 506 Kausambi, 34, 44, 45, 119, 220, 256, 310, 321, 471, 477, 478, 482, 493, 498, 499, 532, 541 Kausiki, river, 528 Kausikikaccha, 532 Kautilya, 128, 506 Kautsa, 532 Kautukamangala, 170 Kayaklesa, 406 Kayandi, 540 Kayangala, 44, 539 Kayaraya, 437, Keka, 498 Kerala putta, 553 kesavanijje, 101 Kesi, 466 Kesikumara, prince, 86, 89, 158, 194, 250, 251, 324, 492, 494, 501, 546 Kesisyamin, 456 Ketu, 288 Khaima, 232 380

Page #672
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 647 Kulavalaya, ascetic, 498 Kulika, 145 Kuluha, 530 Kumarabhicca, pediatrics, 345 Kummagama, 540 Kumrahar, 545 Kundagrama, 505 Kunika king, 8, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 74, 79, 114, 129, 130, 134, 324, 497, 498, 501 Kunika-Ajatasatru 64, 118, 120, 122, 125, 377, 378, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 495, 499, 534, 535; of : 534. 12, 493 Kinlampa Kharosthi, 339, 504, 514 Khattiyakundagama, 541 khiradhaio, 95 khujjao, 95 Khurasan, 510 Kirata, 321 Kiratika, 320 Kiratas, 508 Kis-sankicca, 436, 437 Koccha, 62 kodunvinio, 95 Kolhua, 505 Koligama, 541 Kollada, 540 Kollaga, 175, 310, 505, 540 Kollaga Sanniveia, 473, 474 Kollaya, 540 Kollaya Sanniveia, 487 Kophen (Kabul), 532 Kosa, 116 Kosala, 36, 62, 65, 116, 118, 122, 130, 131, 133, 137, 321, 378, 478, 492, 493, 497, 505, 532, 533, 535 Kosala Devi, 73 Kosala pura, 535 Kosam, 532 Kosarbi, 541 Kosi, river, 528, 533 Kotta-Kiriya, 451, 457 Kottha, 532 Kotthagario, 95 Kottiya, 453 Krita, 417 Kriyavadins, 4, 17, 449 Kysiparasara, 163 Krsna, 9, 123, 469 Ksinikavada, 450 Ksatriyu, 115, 158, 159 Ksatriyakundagrama, 22, 23, * 189, 193, 258, 259, 319, 393, 470, 471, 472, 505, 541 Kuiyanna, 163 Kula, 145, 186 Kulidhamaka, 453 Kulakara, 303 Kula-Parvatas, 553 Kuniya, 34 Kunti, 6 Kurmagrama, 169, 310, 474, 475, 476. 540, 547 Kuru, 62, 145, 506 Kuruksetra, 506 Kusavati, 534 Kusila, 418, 419 Kusinara, 137, 145, 505, 534, 611 Kusumadhvaja, 544 Kusuma pura, 554 Kyrrahadae, 508 Labdhi, 601 Ladha, 62, 532, 533 Laghaman, 515 Laghujataka, 438 lakkha-vanijje, 101 Laksana, 439 Lalita Vistara, 135, 136, 339 Lambatas, 515 Lampakas, 515 Langhana, 515 Lata, 512 Lauhitya, 529 Lausiya, 37, 320, 511 Law Dr. B. C., 537 Lekya, 585 Lhasika, 320,

Page #673
648 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Lhasiyas, 37, 322, 511 Liochavis, 36, 65, 71, 118, 122, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 143, 145, 378, 490, 492, 497, 534 ; Consititution of the, 137, 139 Limirike, 512 lipi, 337 Livi, 337 Logic, 624 Loka, 518 lomahara, 110 M Maccha, 62 Madhara, 344 Madraka, 145 Madruka, 46 Madura, 533 Madhyadesa, 539 Magadha, 62, 116, 131, 132, 133, 319, 377, 501. 528, 530, 524, 535, 611 Magadhiya, courtesan, 498 Magasthenes, 508 Mahabala, 14, 78, 156, 158, 169, 171, 193, 196, 207, 210, 214, 216, 219, 223, 224,250, 251, 258, 259, 263, 330, 331 Mahabharata, 82, 91, 123, 126, 127,135, 136, 144, 216, 429, 504, 509, 510, 528, 529,534, 536, 545 Mahabhima, 463 Mahagovinda Suttanta, 143 Mahajana padas, Solasa, 62 Mahakal pa, 439, 443, 444 Mahakcsala, king, 63 Mahamanti, 96 Mahanakudagama, 542 Mahananda, 533 Mahanisiha, 10, 87 mahanasinio, 95 Mahanimittas, 3 Mahanisadha, 9. Mahapaccakkhana, 10 Mahapadma, 496, 545 Maha parinivvana Suttanta, 70 Mahapurana, 90, 91, 148, 153, 157, 159, 340 Maharastra, 511 Maharastri, Jaina, 49 Mahasala, 86 Mahasena, king, 132, 158, 488, 492, 494, 501, 502 Mahasilakantala, war 66 ; war engine, 120, 130, 337, 377, 378, 498 Mahasizakantaka Sangrama, 8, 15, 17, 65, 67, 75, 118, 122, 125, 133, 160, 319, 323, 376, 446, 481, 488, 489, 490, 492 Mahasu pina Jataka, 202 Mahattaka, 141 mahattare, 94 Mahavagga, 70, 539 Mahavana, 495, 496, 512 Mahavira, life of Lord, 465 Mahavyut patti, 513 Mahesariya, 542 Mahismati, 542 Majjhima Nikaya, 489 Makandikaputra, 46 Makkhali Gosala, 436, 489 Malavaka, 62, 63, 531 Malaya, 62, 530,531 Malini, 528 Malla, 62, 136, 145, 533, 534 Mullakis, 36, 65, 118, 122, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 378, 490, 492, 494, 534 Mallarama, 431, 436 Malla Rastra, 534 Malli, 228 ; a golden image of 384 Malva, 513, 531 Manti, 96 Mandalika, 197 Mandika, 431, 436 Mandiya, notorious robber, 109 Manibhadra 457, 463 Mankha, 426 Magkhali, 191, 194, 208

Page #674
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 649 137, 13 Hill, 4388, 509 Mankha Madkhali, 219, 325, Mrgalubdhaka, 453 383, 426, 427, 430 Mrgavana, 190, 549 Mantri, 97 Mrgavati, queen, 188, 220, 319, Manu, 128 482, 492, 494,498, 499, 500 Manusmrti, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, muhapattiya, 244 96, 106, 115, 125, 126, 133, Mujavantas, 528 150, 211, 213, 225 mulchavastra, 415 Markandeya Purana, 509, 513 Muladeva, 88 Marriage, 208 Mulasarvastivada, 223 Marudurddha, 552 Mula Sutras, four, 12 Marunda, 515 Munisuvrata, 485 Marwar, 516 Murari, famous shrine of, 536 Mathara Vitti, 344 Murunda Swamin, 515 Mathura, 32, 502, 504 Murundi, 320 matrilca padas, 5 Murundis, 37, 515 matrkaksaras, 339 musundhi, 379 Matsyanyaya, 77, 83 Matsya Purana, 509 matter, 564 mauna, 168 Nabhi, 91, 303 Mauryas, 65 nadaijjao, 95 mauyalckaras, 339 Naganattua (Nagaputra) VaruMaya, mother, 202 na, 67, 121, 123, 124, 125, Mayanamanjari, the wife of 137, 138, 161, 324 prince Agadadatta, 227 Nagarjuni Hill, 438 Mazandaran, 510 Nagarjunikunda, 508, 509 Meat-eating, 237 Nalagiri elephant, 119 Meghakumara, 202, 208, 211, Nalanda, 310, 429, 472, 473, . 216 477, 478, 487, 540, 543 Meharauli, 514 Namados (Narmada), 553 Mehila, 456 Namavasakas, 509 Mendhikagrama 44, 46, 217, Nami, 119 310, 477, 478, 484, 487, Namudaya, 437, 455 543 Namudaya 437 Mendhiyagama, 543 Namudaya, 483 Milikkha, 6 Nanagouna (Tapti), 553 Milindapanha, 318 Nanda, a merchant of Rajagrha, misrajata, 417 163; the family of N. and Mithila, 5, 44, 310, 321, 478, Yasoda, 469 484, 533, 542, 543 Nandas, 65 Mleccha, 7, 5, 15 Nanda-Vaccha, 436, 437 Mola-pa, 531 Nandi Sutra, 3, 11 Moli, 62, 63, 534 Nandivarddhana, 469 Monarchism, 133 Naradaputra, 45 Moroundai, 515 Narmada, 542 Moya, 44, 478, 482, 543 Nasadiya, 555 Mrcchakatika, 106 Nasikyas, 511 82

Page #675
650 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA tata, 17.469 511 Nataputta, 469 Nausari grant, 511 navakoti-parisuddha, 417 Nayadhammakahao, 5, 90, 91, 103, 114, 126, 195, 202, 203, 208, 211, 228, 230, 239, 352, 384 Nayaka, 143 Nayaputta, 16 Negama, 84, 307 Nerbuda, 542 Nhaviyadasa Nanda, 88 phai vao, 95 Nigantha Nataputta, 436 Nighantu, 336, 451 Nijjutti, 12 Nilakantha Sastri, 536 Nillanchanakamme, 191 Nirayavaliya Sutta (Sutra), 8, 72, 118, 125, 131, 376, 488, 489, 490 Nirgrantha, 17, 418, 419 Nirgranthiputra, 45 Nirjara, 606 Nirutta, 336 Niryukti, 12 Niscaya Naya, 558 Nisiha, 10 Nisitha Curni, 102, 157, 341 Nitisara, of Mathara, 106 Niyati, 441 Niyativada, 429, 440, 449 Nrtyamarga, 385, 439, 440 Pajjoya, king, 119 Palckhalavati, 514 Pakkhalavadi, 514 Pakudha kaccayana, 436, 489 Palace, 253 Palasaka, 544 Palhvas, 510 Palhavikas, 37, 320, 510 Pallaviyas, 510 Pal lin-tou, 544 Pana, 232 panabhojana, esita, 416; mar gatikranta, 416; kalati. kranta, 416; koetratikranta, 416 ; pramanatikranta, 416; sadhum, 415; samudanika, 416 ; samyojana-dosadusta, 416 ; sanyojana-vipramukta, 416; sangara, 415 ; bastraparinamita, 416 ; sastratita, 416 ; vitadhuma, 416 ;vita ngara, 416 panagain 446 Panama, 163 Panama pavvaija, 450 Pancala, 62, 145, 506 Pancamahavratas, 456 Pancayama-Dharma, 420, 480 Pandava, 545 panditamarana, 9 Pandya, 533 Panhavagarana, 6 Panini, 93, 96, 134, 188, 428, 429, 504, 507 Paniyabhumi, 474 Pannavana Suya, 7, 529 papasthanas, 594 Parangamana, 207 Parasa, 317, 320, 516 Parasara, 163 Parasi, 34, 37, 310, 317, 320, 516 Parenos, 552 parzsahas, twenty two, 413 parisao, 95 parivarttavada, 438, 439, 440, 476 O Ovavaiya Sutta, 79 Pada, definition of the term, 41 Padaliputta, 88, 544 Padha, 62, 533 Padihario, 94 Padmapurana, 179 Painnas, ten, 9 pajjapavanar, 207

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651 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Parivrajakas, 13, 425, 449, 451, Polasapura, 5, 430 466 Polimbothra, 544 Parivrtya-parihara, 431, 432, Polindi, 7 436, 439 Poras, 507 Parivvayaga, 7 Pottiya, 453 Parivvayage, 180 Poulindia, 513 Parsvanatha, 335, 466, 541 Prabhavati (Devi), queen, 58, Parsvanatha'sorder, 13, 466, 483 156, 171, 190, 200, 203, 205, Parthava, 510 206, 207, 209, 217, 218, 494 Parthia, 322 Pracinajanapada, 472 Parthians, 510 Pradyota Mahasena, king, 499, Parusni (Ravi), 552 500, 502 pasahiyao, 95 Pradyotas, 495 Pasenadi, 202 Prag, 514 Pataligrama, 70, 544 Prajna pama Sutra, 339, 341, 547 Pataliputra, 31, 34, 47, 49, 544, Pranama prayrajya, 450 545 Prasenjit, king, 6, 73, 74, 505 Patanjali, 314 Pratigraha, 415 Patanjali Mahabhasya, 536 Pratikeramana, 9 Patna, 530 Pratisamlinata, 406 Paumacariu, 322, 516 Pratisevanas, ten kinds of, 402 Pausadhas, two kinds of, 400 Pratisucakas, 98 Pausadha Vrata, 423 Pravacapa, 2 Pava, town, 104, 137, 14: Pratyakhyana, 9 486, 488, 489, 490, 494, Prayascitta, 170, 407 ; ten kinds 534, 537, 611 of 403 Pavanaduta, 536 Proalais, 514 Pavenipotthaka, 144 Ptolemy, 508, 510, 512, 513, Payacankamanan, 207 514, 515 Periplus, 508, 510, 512 Pudgala a Parivrajaka of Penkalaos, 514 Alabhika, 182, 538 Persia, 317, 320, 322, 516 Pudgala-paravarta, 368 Pesanakario, 95 l'udgala Parivartta, 571 Peukelaotis, 513 Pujita, 417 Phodicamme, 101 Pukkhalis, 37, 513, 514 Pindavaddhanan, 207 Pulaka, 17, 418 Pindaniryukti, 12, 103, 205, 211 Pulakas, 418 Pingalaka, 43, 45, 161, 182, Pulkesi II, 511, 517 470, 546 Pulindis, 37, 320, 513 Pichel, 49 Pulses, 233 Pitthi-Campa, 68 Punda, 537 Plants, classification of, 3 Pundra, 478, 513, 529, 537, 545 different species of, 28 Pupphaculao, 8 Pliny, 516 Pupphaculia, 8 Poggala, a Parivrajaka, 45, 478 Pupphao, 8 Pokkali, 161, 172 Pupphiya, 8 Pokkhali, 306 Purana, 336

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652 Purana, 161, 163, 189, 450, 451 Purana kassapa, 436, 489 Puranti, 97 Purimatala, 109 Purnabhadra, 457, 463 Purus, 506 Purusa Sukta, 504 Purvagata Sruta, 2 Purvas, 4, 32, 34, 344; table of the contents of the, 3 Pusanandi, king 195 Pu-se-ke-la-fa-ti, 514 Puskalavati, 322, 573, 514 Puskali, 320 Puskarasarin, 502 Puskaravati, 514 Puspapura, 544 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Raktapatas, 438 Ramayana, 91, 216, 343, 505, 528, 532, 542 Rapson, Prof., 510 Rasaparityaga, 405 rasavanijje, 101 rastra, 116 Ratthakuda, 105 Rathamusala, war engine, 120, 130, 337, 377, 378, 498 Rathamusala Sangrama, 15, 65, 66, 67, 75, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 133, 138, 160, 319, 323, 376, 481, 488, 489, 492, 495 R Radha, 532, 533, 536 Raghu-kulaguru, 536 Raghuvamsa, 159, 170, 529 Rahanemi, 228 Rahassiya, 97 Rahudeva, 363 Rahul Sankrtyayana, 539 raisara, 94 Raja, 135, 136, 139, 145 Rajagrha, 34, 44, 74, 190, 204, 256, 310, 321, 431, 472, 477, 479, 483, 491, 493, 494, 497, 530, 538, 543, 545, 553, 611 rajaharana, 415 Rajaka, 135 Rajamahal, 539 Rajanyaka, 135 Rajanyas, 492, 504 rajapinda, 417 Rajaraja, Cola king, 438, 472 426 Rajatarangini, Rajesvara, 501 Rajgir, 545 Rajimati, 228 Rajja, 78 Rajjuyasabha, 104 Raychoudhary, Dr. H. C., 496 Rayapaseniya, 7, 338, 382 Republicanism, 133 Revati, a female householder of Mendhikagrama, 161, 217, 219, 485 Rg-veda, 336, 505, 506 Roha, the queens of, 44; 431, 436 Roruka, 318 Rorura, 318 Rsabhadatta, 152, 155, 165, 190, 191, 217, 221, 319, 324, 393, 394, 467, 468, 479 Rsabhadeva, 2, 92, 340 Rsabhapura, 5 Rsibhadraputra, 45, 161, 537 Rsigiri, 545 Rsika, 322 Rukkhamulilya, 454 Rupadakkha, judge, 106 Rupajakkha, judge, 106 Rupanarayana, river, 548 S Sabarai, 516 Sabaras, 509, 513, 516 Sabaris, 37, 320, 516 sacrifice, seven articles of, 177 Sadanira, 535 Sad-avasyaka, 9

Page #678
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 653 Saddalaputta, 5, 430 sadikamme, 101 Saga, 6 sagad avuha, 376 Sahasarbavana, 181 'Sahasramravana, 477, 482 Sahasranika, king, 492, 499 Sahet-Mahet, 546 Saima, 232 Saivalabhaksinas, 454 Saka-Murundas, 515 Sakas, 516 Sakasthana, 322 Saleta, 535 Sakti Sangama Tantra, 529 Sakyas, 438 Sala, 86 Salalava, 109 Salakagrahapaka, 142 Sama, 128, 336 Samacari, ten kinds of, 403 Samahastin, 45, 430 Samantarajas, 82, 116 Samuvayanga Sutra, 5, 338, 339 Samayasara, 389 Samayika, 9 Sambhavanatha, 546 Sandlivala, 94, 121, 132, 137 Samitis, five, 413 Samjna, 586 Samrigarbha, 444, 445 Samkha, 191 Samkhdhamaka, 453 Samkhavalaya, 437, 455 Sankhya-Yoga, 392 Sarlekhana, 6, 399 Samlekhana tapa, 398 Sampakichala, 453 samsraya, 128 Santhagara, 141 Santharaga, 9, 415 Samucchciya, 5 Samudghata, 602 Samudragupta, 515 ; Allahabad Pillar Inscription of, 37 savnavaccharapadilehanar, 207 Sanvara, 605 Samviha, 437 Samyatas, 17 ; classification of. 419 Samyojana, 417 Sanyuthas, 444 Sana, 437 sandhi, 128 sandhi pala, 90 Sangha, 134 Sanjaya Belatthiputta, 436, 489 Sankha, 161, 162, 172, 306 Sankhana, 336 Sankha Sresthi, 45, 217, 332 Sankhavalaya, 483 Sanlchya-Karika, 344 Sannyara, 181, Saonos, 552 Suparnos, 552 Sapartikramana Dharma, 483 saradahatalayaparisosanaya, 101 Sarasvati, 506 Saratthana, 386 Saravana, 325, 427, 477, 483, 546 Sarvanubhuti, 432, 434, 484 Sarvasucakas, 99 Sasarakkha, 454 Sasthitantra, 343, 344, 451 Satadvaru, 310, 478, 537, 545 Satanika, king, 210, 492, 494, 498, 499, 500, 502 Satiyaputta, 533 Satkhandagama, 369 satthavaha, 94 Satthitamta, 336 sattrayana, 168 Satyavati, queen, 204 Sauvira, 536 Sapatche, 535, 538, 546 Suyaduvara, 537, 545 Sayambhu, 516 Sayyatara pinda, 417 schims, seven, 5, 7 script, eighteen kinds of, 5; origin of Indian, 340 Secanaka, the Magadhan state elephant, 118, 125, 130

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654 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Scatole da 60 kin ? Selavalaya, 455, 483 Selodayin, 455, 483 Sena pati, 139, 144 senavai, 94, 121 Seniya, 216, 324 Seniya-Bimbisara, 8, 34, 68, 73, 114, 119, 158, 189, 483, 488, 489, 490, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 499, 505, 545 Setth7, 160 Setu, 288 Sevalodayin, 455, 483 Seyanaga, 68 Siddhartha, king, 468, 505 Siddharthagrama, 310, 474, 476, 547 Siddhatthagama, 547 Sihaladdipa, 512 Sikkha, 336 Siksavratas, 422 Silanka 438 Sila pabbhatthae, 446 Silavrata, 400 Simha, 244, 484, 485, 489 Sinhala, 318, 512 Sinhali, 310, 512 Simhapura, 512 Sindhu, 311, 511, 551 Sindhu-Sauvira, 34, 86, 89, 131, 132, 190, 194, 250, 319, 321, 394, 465, 477, 480, 492, 494, 499, 501, 502, 536, 537, 549, 611 Singhali, 34, 37, 317, 320 Sisu-Naya, dynasty, 495 Siva, king, 23, 24, 34, 89, 1 158, 172, 176, 178, 180, 181, 250, 266, 284, 305, 324, 492, 43, 501; royal sage, 262; Vanaprastha tapasa, 45; Vanaprastha ascetic, 482 Sivabhadra, 23, 85, 89, 158, 172, 176, 219, 250, 251, 501 Siyabiya, 5 Skandaka 16, 43, 45, 56, 180, 182, 244, 393, 394, 395, 399, 451, 481, 539, 546 Skandilacarya, 32 Skyrites, 508 Smith, V., 538 Snataka, 17, 418, 419 Soma, 196 Somabhuti, 196 Somadatta, 196 Somila, 43, 152, 155, 481 Soul, proof of existence of, 561 Sovira, 318, 536 Spices, 234, 278 Sports, 257 Sramanas, 390 Sravakas, 390 Sravaka-Dharma, 390, 421 Sravasti, 5, 44, 46, 74, 192, 256, 307, 309, 310, 3?1, 332, 348, 430, 431, 435, 437, 456, 470, 477, 478, 479, 481, 483, 487, 493, 535, 538, 546, 611 Srenika, king, 204, 208 Sresthi, 161 Sri, 8 Sri-Vijaya, 548 Srutva-kevali, 424 Stamanga Sutra, 4, 195, 447 Sthaviravali Carita, 31 Sthulabhadra, 31, 544 Suari, 516 Suhbhabhumi, 532, 533, 535 Subhadra, 229 Sucakas, 98 sucivuha, 376 Sudarsana, 43, 161, 164, 394 473 Sudra, 115 Suhatthi, 483, 455 Suhma, 533, 536 suhrt, 116 Sukumaliya, queen, 98 Sumangalavilasini, 69, 353, 428 Sumbhuttara, 62, 535, 536 Sumati, 545

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STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 655 Sunaksatra, 432, 434, 484 Sunanda, 161 Sunanda, queen, 494 Sunidha, 70 Surasena, 62 Suriyapannatti, 8 Susama (Sohan), 552 Susumara pura, 477, 547 Sutrakrtanga, 4, 13, 450 Suttadharas, 143, 144 Sutudri (Sutlej), 552 Suvarnadvzpa, 318 Svadhyaya, 409 Svami, 116 Svapnasastra, principles of the, 201 Svapnavasavadatta, 499 Svetambara, 4, 32, 33 Syadvadb hangi, 599 Taxila, 307, 502 Terasiya, 5, 7 Terumalai Rock Inscription, 533 Thalai, 453 Thana, 511 Tirthankara, 197 Tirthikas, 449, 466 Tisagutta, 5 Tittira Jataka, 447 To.mo-liti, 547 Town-Planning, 256 Trade routes, 310 Trades and professions, a list of, 162 Trasa dasyava, 506 Trees, 279 Tribes, a list of, 164 Trisala, 467, 468, 469, 470 Triveni-Saptagrama Pandua, 536 Trtsu Bharatas, 506 Tukva, 513 Tungabhadra, river, 512 Tungi, 548 Tungika, 44, 45, 222, 307, 310, 316, 321, 324,483, 548 Tungiya, 548 Turnour, 496 T U Taittiriya Samhita, 540 Takkana-ladam, 533 Takkara, 110 Takkhasila, 514 Tala, 437 Talapalamba, 437 Talavara. 90, 94, 107, 501 taliyantadhario, 95 Tamali, 161, 163, 189, 284, 305, 450, 451 Tamalitti, 547 Tamaluk, 536, 547 Tamil, 322 Tamilakam, 512 Tamilas, 511, 512 Tammudaya, 483 Tamralipta, 236, 547 Tamralipti, 189, 256, 284, 310, 311, 321, 324, 450, 451, 478, 547 Tandulaveyaliya, 9 Tan-mo-li-ti, 547 Tapah, 404 Tapasas, 13 Tattvartha-Sutra, 558 Udandapura, 548 Udaya, 437, 455, 483 Udayagiri, 532 Udayana, king, 34, 119, 158, 169, 220, 319, 324, 436, 471, 482, 488, 492, 493 494, 498, 499, 500, 502 Udayana king, 34, 46, 86, 89, 132, 158, 189, 190, 194, 250, 319, 324, 394, 480, 494, 499, 501, 502, 549 Udayin, king 393, 431, 544 ; war elephant, 118 Uddandaga 454 Uddandapura, 431 Uddesaka, 417 Ugras, 492, 503

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656 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA stent of the 5197 he 5.9 Vajzabno 124. 489, 496, Ujjayini, 317, 494, 502, 531 Ujjeni, 119 Ukkarain, 100 Ulkittan, 100 Ullukatira, 5, 44, 477, 485, 549 Ulluyatira, 549 Umasvati., 558 Ummaddiyao, 95 Ummanam, 100 Universe, centres of the 521; extent of the 519; order of the 521; shape of the, 5.9 Upacara Vasu, 541 Upali,489 Upangas, twelve 6, 344 U paraja, 139, 144 U pasakas, 5 U payoga, 621 Ussukkan, 100 Utensils, 240 ut padana, 417 Utpala, 191, 217, 218, 219 332 Utsar pini, 368 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 12, 86, 87, 109, 153, 154, 201, 204, 222, 238, 246, 344, 494 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 88, 103, 119, 157, 230, 317, 517 Uttarakulaka, 453 Uttara-Ladha, 533 uvanayanan, 169, 207 Uvasagadasao, 5, 157, 175, 239, 248, 289, 430, 440, 503, 505 uvatthanasala, 99 uvatthaniyao, 95 Uvavaiya, 6 Uvviha, 437 Vaisali, 34, 65, 71, 116, 118, 129, 130, 132, 133, 230, 256, 310, 319, 321, 324, 377, 378, 431, 471, 489, 493, 494, 497, 498, 501, 503, 505, 507, 533,537, 550 Vai avanara, 177, 457, 458 Vaisya, 115, 160 Vaisyayana, 475 Vaiyavsiya, 409 Vajja, 62, 533 Vajjabhumi, 532, 533 Vai, 62, 134, 489, 496, 533 Vajjians, 130, 134 ; constitution, 138 Vakkavazinas, 454 Valavasinas, 454 Valhikas, 37, 514 Vallabli, 32, 34, 38, 47, 48 Vallal hi-vacana, 31 Varsa, 62, 186 vanakarme, 101 Vanaprastha Hastita pasas (Hatthitavasa), 237 Vanuprasthas, 13, 178, 180, 425, 449, 466 Vanaprostha Tapasas, 23, 43, 176, 454 Tanapattha Tavasa, 176 Vanarasi, 431, 549 Vanavasakas, 509 Vanavasi, 509 Vanga, 529, 611 Vanhidasao, 8, 9 Vanijyagrana, 5, 43, 44, 46, 175, 289, 308, 310, 314, 471, 477, 478, 480, 481, 505 Vanika, 160 vannaga pesao, 95 Vannao, 19, 35, 52 Varaha, 545 Varaha-mihira, 438 Varana, 531 Varanasi, 256, 310, 493, 534, 549, 611 Vardhamana, 16, 537 Varddalikal hakta, 417 Vaccha, 62 Vagarana, 336 Vahiya, 495 Vaibhara, 204, 545, 553 Vaijayanti, 510 Vainayikas, 13, 425 Vainayikavadins, 4, 17

Page #682
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 657 varisadhare, 94 Varna, stages in the evolution of, 147, 185 Varta, 77, 268 Varttaka, wooden figure of the sage, 383 Varuna, 531 Vasaganiyas, 509 Vasantapura, 98 Vasavadatta, 119, 500 Vassa kara, 70, 71, 130, 138, 377 Vasudana, 499 Vasudeva, 197, 468 Vasukunda, 471, 505, 542 Vatapi, 511 Vatsa, 131, 500, 502, 531, 432, 535, 541 Vatsyayana, 188 Vatayayana Kama Sutra, 529 Vattha, 531 Pattlnyaawa, 381 Vavahara, 10 Vaya-bhaksinas, 454 Vayubhuti, 42, 45, 482 Vayu-purana, 495, 509, 515 Vebhara, 545, 552, 553 Vebhela, 204, 550 Vegetables, 234 Velavasins, 454 Vepulla, 545 Vesali, 550 Vesalie, 185 Vesiyayana, 169 Viahapannatti, ten defferent meanings of the title, 39 Videha, 63, 533 Vidudabha, 74 vigraha, 128 Vribhaya, 549 Vijaya, a householder of Rajagrha, 161, 473, 474 ; notorious robber, 109; the scent-elephant 119 Vijayaghosa, 154 Vijaya Sisha, 37, 512 Vikramajasa, 216 Vikramapur, 529 Vilavasinas, 454 Vimana, of Surya hadeva, 382 Vinaya, 407 Vinay ivadins, 449, 450, 451 Vindhyagiri, 321, 478, 537, 5.15, 552, 553 Vindhyas, 516 Viniccay.t-Mahamittas, 143, 144 violence, 595 Vipula, 552, 553 Vipulacala, 553 Virutthava, 10 Visaha, 550 Visakha, the city of, 44, 477, 478, 485, 550 Visvamitra, clan of, 513 visavanijje, 101 Vitibhaya 44, 89, 132, 190, 256, 310, 311, 321, 477, 478, 480, 494, 501, 502, 549 Vitsta (Jhelum), 552 Vivaja Suya, 6, 92, 105, 114, 154, 204, 205 Vividha-tirtha-Kalpa, 539 l'iviktakayanasnasevanata, 407 Voharikas, 143, 144 Vratya, 528 Vrijis, 533 Vrijika, 145 V rjjis, 134 l'rsabha, 545 Vyanljana, 439 Vyantaras, 462 Vyavahara, five kinds of, 401 V yavahara Bhasya, 88, 102, 106, 204, 226 Vyavahara Naya, 557 Vyutsarga, 412 Vijay marha, obber, w Weber, 4, 322 Women, position of, 213 Woolner, 49 Writing Stuffs, 338

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658 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Yajna, 168 Yaju, 335 'aksa Sulipani, 537 Yama pattika, 426 Yamuna, 532 Yana, 128 Yasoda, 469 Yasomati, 498 Yaunas, 510 Yavanalipi, 337 Yavanas, 510 l'ugin, 5 Yugmas, 17

Page #684
CORRECTION SLIP 1. Page 38. According to other tradition the redaction of the canon was simultaneously effected some time between Vira Samvat 827 and 840 at the hands of a council in Mathura under the presidency of Skandilacarya and at the Valaihi Council under the chairmanship of Nagarjuna. Foot note no. 3 Comm. on Yogusastra, 3 p. 207. Vide, Vira Nirvana Samyat Aur Jain kala Ganana, p. 110, Muni Kalyana Vijaya. 2. For the correction of diacritrical printing mistakes in the volume,please refer to the Index given.

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