Studies in the Bhagavati Sutra

Author(s): J C Sikdar
Publisher: Research Institute of Prakrit Jainology & Ahimsa Mujjaffarpur
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001615/1

Page #1

505
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİSŪTRA
DR. JOGENDRA CHANDRA SIKDAR

Page #2

PRAKRIT JAIN INSTITUTE RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS SERIES
VOLUME I
General Editor DR. NATHMAL TATIA, M.A., D.Litt., DIRECTOR, RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PRAKRIT, JAINOLOGY & AHIMSA, MUZAFFARPUR (BIHAR).
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪSŪTRA
Ву
Dr. Jogendra Chandra Sikdar,
M.A., Ph.D.
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PRAKRIT, JAINOLOGY & AHIMSA,
MUZAFFARPUR (BIHAR)
1964

Page #3

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Price: Rs. 18.67
Published on behalf of the Rescarch Institute of I'rakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur (Bihar) by Dr. Nathmal Tatia, M.A., D.Litt., Director.
Printed in india at The Tara Printing Works, Varanasi,

Page #4

Dedicated to
MY REVERED GURUS LATE DR. PRABODH CHANDRA BAGCHI,
M.A., D.LITT (PARIS), Ex-Vice-Chancellor, Yįsva-Bharati University (Santiniketan).
And
DR. HIRALAL JAIN,
M.A., LL.B., D.LITT., Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, Institute of
Languages and Rescarch, University of Jabalpur, Ex-Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa,
Muzaffarpur (Bihar).

Page #5

Page #6

The Government of Bihar established the Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa at Vaishali (Muzaffarpur) in 1955 with the object, inter alia, to promote advanced studies and research in Prakrit and Jainology, and to publish works of permanent value to scholars. This Institute is one of the five others planned by this Government as a token of their homage to the tradition of learning and scholarship for which ancient Bihar was noted. Apart from the Vaishali Research Institute, four others have been established and have been doing useful work during the last twelve or thirteen years, namely, the Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning at Darbhanga, the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute at Patna, the Bihar Rashtra Bhasha Parishad for Research and Advanced Studies in Hindi at Patna, and the Nalanda Institute of Research and Post-Graduate Studies in Buddhist learning and Pali (the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara) at Nalanda (Patna).
As part of this programme of rehabilitating and reorientating ancient learning and scholarship, this is the Research Volume I, which is the thesis of Dr. J. C. Sikdar, Research Scholar of the Institute, approved for the Ph.D. degree of Bihar University. The Government of Bihar hope to continue to sponsor such projects and trust that this humble service to the world of scholarship and learning would bear fruit in the fulness of time.

Page #7

Page #8

GENERAL EDITOR'S NOTE
The Viyāhapannatti (Vyākhyāprajñapti) or the Bhagavatī, as it is popularly known, is the fifth Anga of the Jaina scripture. It is encyclopædic in contents and gives a comprehensive glimpse of the various aspects of the life and society of ancient India over a range of several centuries beginning from the 6th century B. C. One can learn from it everything about ancient Jainism-its traditions and history, dogmatics, the life and activities of Lord Mahāvīra and his attitude towards other sects and thinkers and his peculiar method of exposition and expression. The Bhagavati is also a veritable promptuary of legends and parables,
Dr. Sikdar studied the text of the Bhagavatāsūtra with great care and patience under the guidance of two very eminent savantsthe late Dr. P. C. Bagcbi and Dr. H. L. Jain. His studies spread over a number of years, primarily at Viśva-Bhāratī University and later on at our Institute. As a devoted student of Ancient Indian History and Culture, he could with ease glean data from the Ardhamāgadhi text and weave them into a connected history of the various aspects of our ancient culture, political and economic conditions, social life and education. He bas also made an attempt to study the evolution of Jaina philosophical thought as embodied in the Bhagavatīsūtra and also the literary value of the work.
The tenets of Jainism in their original character have been fully preserved in the Bhagavatīsūtra, and their critical study, with a special reference to the corresponding ideas and concepts of Buddhism and other contemporary schools of thought, still remains a desideratum. Brilliant researches have been made in the field of general history and culture, but the specific issues and their bearing on our history and culture still remain obscure. This is even more true in the field of tenets and dogmas. Scholars should therefore come forward to evaluate the philosophical con

Page #9

. ( viii) tents of the Bhagavatīsūtra and reconstruct a connected history of Jaina thought from this specific point of view.
We are thankful to the author for allowing us to include the book in our Research Publication Series.
Vaishali Mahāvīra Jayantī,
April 24, 1964.
NATHMAL TATIA
Director Research, Institute of Prakrit,
Jainology and Ahimsa

Page #10

PREFACE
The BIS (Viyahapannati, Skt. Vyākhyāprajitapti) is one of the most important works of the Arddha-Māgadhi literature of the Jaina Canon, largest in volume and encyclopædic in its contents covering various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of dialogues between Lord Mahāvīra and his disciples. This work has not so far been exhaustively studied from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view, although Weber, Jacobi, Winternitz and other scholars made brief appraisal of it in course of their reviews of the Jaina canonical literature. It throws important light upon many problems of Indian History and Thought by revealing various aspects of them, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different religious systems, the Jajna tradition, nature of faith and preconditions and mythological figures before Lord Mahāvīra, contemporary history, cosmology, cosmography, evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought, etc. A critical study of the book was a desideratum and I have attempted in this thesis prepared for the Ph. D. degree of the Bihar University, to fulfil the want in my humble way.
The thesis has been divided into eleven chapters. The first chapter deals with the position of the Bhs in the Arddha-Magadhi Canon and its relation to the other canonical works. It reveals that this text is a mine of varied contents treasured in a consolidated form, as found in all the works put together, convering all aspects of Sramaņa-Nirgrantha-Dharma and its philosophy. It shows that the BIS is integrally connected with the other canonical works and occupies the highest position in the Arddha-- Māgadhi Canon.
The second chapter treats of the authorship and date of this canonical work and makes a brief analysis of its contents, language and style. It is revealed here that in the first stage the BHS along with the other canonical works, was derived

Page #11

from the teachings of Lord Mahāvīra and given a shape of grantha by Sudharma-Svāmin and then it was transmitted by him to Jambū-Svāmin, in the second stage it was collected and fixed in the Patali putra Council and in the third stage it was codified by the Vallabhi Council as the tradition says. But the core of the contents and subject-matter of the work existed long before the time of Lord Mabāvīra. Its language represents the Middle-Indo-Aryan stage, so its contents and language lend support to the assignment of its date to the period beginning from the 6th Cen. B. C. to the 6th Cen. A. D. As regards the technique of its style, it originates with prose containing the thoughts and activities of various religious teachers and conveys them through the language of the people in their own natural style.
The third chapter deals with the political conditions as reflected in the Bhs and reveals that there was no political unity among the different states of India under one sovereign ruler during the time of Lord Mahāvīra. A quadrangular struggle among the four leading states, viz. Kāsi, Košala, Vaišāli, and Magadha went on and led to the two great devastating wars called Mahasilākantaka-Sangrāma and Rathamusala-Sangrāma for establishing their respective political and economic supremacy over North-East India. In these wars king Kūņika came out successful by inflicting a crushing defeat on the confederate army of Kāsi, Košala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis led by king Cetaka of Vaiśālī. This chapter throws an important light upon the polity and administration by giving an idea of the political theory and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical forms of government, running side by side. The former was based on the principle of divine kingship and the latter on the social contract theory, as they are reflected in the monarchical state of Magadha, and the Republics of the Licchavis of Vaisalī and of the Mallakis of Pārā and Kusinārā.
The fourth chapter treats of the social conditions as reflected in this canonical work by making a critical study of Varnas (social orders), Aśramas (stages of life), social structure and family

Page #12

(xi)
relations, popular belief in dreams, celebrations of birth and marriage, position of women, dresses and ornaments, art of decoration, houses and articles of furniture, sports and amusements, manners and customs. It reveals that the society was based on the traditional Varnasrama Dharma but the social order was not very rigid, as it is evidenced by the fact of the racial synthesis of various Indian tribes and foreign nationals, such as, Kirātas, Barbaras (Indian tribes), Pārasīs, Arabs, Simghalis, (foreign nationals), etc., in the evolution of Indian civilization. The spirit of Varnasrama Dharma illustrated itself in the system of life into stages, for spiritualism dominated in the individual, social, political, religious and secular aspects of the people's life of that period.
The fifth chapter makes a study of the economic conditions as reflected in the Bhagavatī Sutra by revealing that the economic structure of its society stood on agriculture, arts and crafts, labour and capital, industry, trade and commerce, roads and communications and banking business. As regards the general economic conditions of the people it is found that there was a small number of rich persons in comparison with the economic standard of those days and that of the present time. A current of poverty flowed beneath the surface of much opulence of social wealth and prosperity.
The sixth chapter deals with education of that period by making discussion on the conception of education, its system, art of writing, language and literature, science and arts. It reveals that education was based on the unity of thought and action, knowledge, right attitude and right conduct. Its ideals and aims were self-control, building up of moral character, physical, mental and intellectual development, theoretical and practical knowledge in different branches of learning to make an individual capable of shouldering the responsibilities of the worldly affairs and discharging both temporal and secular duties by holding before him the goal of life-Moksa (liberation). So the system of education was academic and vocational, because a balance was maintained between the individual and secular aspects of life. This spiritual

Page #13

( xii ) background of education made itself realize that the human life and body, material enjoyment of objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world and the soul to the spiritual one.
The seventh chapter treats of the existence of various leaders of thought and their philosophical and religious systems as mentioned and described in the BhS viz. Sramanx-Nirgrantha Dharma, Ājīvikism, other schools and sects, such as, Kriyāvādins, Akriya. vādins, Ajñā navādins, Vinayavādins, Parivrājakas, Vānaprasthas, Carakas, other Tirthikas, the order of Lord Párávanātha, that of Jamālī, the first schism in the Nirgrantha order led by him, deities, supernatural powers and elements, etc. It depicts a picture of ancient India of the period of this canonical work, when the habitual religion of the people was in its degrees and forms in clash and adjustment with the higher religions preached by various schools of thought, while the common people followed their traditional faiths and customs.
The eighth chapter deals with the historical data found in this work and its bearing upon the history of the time the life of Lord Mahāvīra, his contemporary kings, clans, tribes and races. It throws fresh light upon the parentage of the Master by revealing that he was the son of Devānandā, the Brāhmaṇī of Brāhmanakundagrāma. Lord Muhāvīra appears to have erected a great edifice of Sramaņa Nirgrantha Dharma on a solid metaphysical foundation by systematizing the fundamental principles of this religion laid down by his predecessors.
The ninth chapter makes a study of cosmology, cosmography and historical geography as found and described in the BhS with the corroborative evidences of the Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical sources of information.
The tenth chapter throws an important light upon the contribution of this canonical work to the evolution of Jaina philosophical thought by dealing with Jaina Metaphysics, Psychology, Epistemology, Ethics, Logic and the doctrine of Karma and liberation as revealed herein. It gives an exposition of the

Page #14

(xiii)
metaphysical principles in general and the doctrine of matter in particular, containing an idea of the atomic theory, and reveals the relation of Metaphysics with Physics by dealing with the six fundamental substances of the Universe, viz. Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Ākāja (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Addhāsamaya (time). It shows that the metaphysical inquiry goes beyond the aspects of Physics.
The section of this chapter dealing with ethics reveals that the unlimited possession of wealth and its unrestricted enjoyments have not been commended as final according to the ethical principles laid down in this canonical work, for the forces of desire and enjoyments lead man to the mad lust for wealth and consequent suffering. So it lays a great emphasis on the principle of non-possession (aparigraha).
The eleventh chapter makes the estimation of the value of the BIS from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view and reveals that its value lies in the fact of its service to mankind with its thought-provoking and wisdom evoking principles of truth of life and Nature, amply and brilliantly expressed in thoughts evolved by the rational ideas of Lord Mahāvīra.
The critical study of the Bhs was assigned to me in July, 1954 by my late revered teacher, Dr. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, the then ViceChancellor of the Vishya-Bharati University at Shantiniketan where I served as Research Scholar-cum-honorary lecturer for about three years. There I made free study of some Jaina canonical works in general and the BIS in particular. After the sudden death of Dr. Bagchi on the 19th January, 1956, naturally I could not get the proper guidance at proper time ; still I resolved myself to continue the studies in the same subject as an academic duty as assigned by him. Fortunately I got timely help from Dr. Hiralal Jajn, M, A., LL. B., D. LITT., then Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur, Bihar. It is he who kindly gave me a seat as Research scholar in the Institute in March, 1957, to continue my studies in the same subject under his mature

Page #15

( xiv j
guidance. A regular scheme was drawn up with his help and guidance. Before starting the study topicwise I made a free translation of the Bhs. Then I went deep into the subject according to the scheme. In the day-to-day progress of my studies my revered teacher, Dr. H. L. Jain, guided me in dealing with the problems that arose by taking regular classes for the advancement of my work under his paternal care. I had to face the difficulty for not finding some of the necessary reference-books, journals, periodicals, etc., in the library of the Institute, as it was then newly established Research Institute and most of the reference-materials were unavailable in the market.
in this connection I feel called upon to acknowledge my deepest gratitude to my Guruji, Swamin Swatmananda, Shri Ramakrishna Ashrama, Burdwan, and Dr. Dhirendra Mohan Datta, the retired Professor of Philosophy, Patna University, for their encouragement in the pursuit of my studies and researches. I refrain from the vain attempt to praise my revered teacher an guide, Dr. H. L. Jain, because my feelings of attachment. and gratitude for him are too deep for utterance. In one word only I say he has transformed my life in the field of learning with his intellectual majesty combined with his benevolent heart and able guidance. I am very grateful to my revered teacher, Dr. Nathmal Tatia, M. A. D. Litt., Director, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa, Muzaffarpur for his act of kindness to get my Ph. D. thesis published by this Institute with great interest.
I am much indebted to my dear friend and colleague, Research Scholar, Sri K. R. Chandra for his invaluable help with his intelligent suggestions and sweet company in working out my thesis. I am also thankful with gratitude to my first dear fellow brother, Sri Vimal Prakāsh Jain, M. A. Lecturer, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa for his arduous work in assisting me in abbreviating my thesis for publication and reading the proofs. I am also indebted to Shri Atulnath Sinha and Shri Nandkishore Prasad, Research Scholars, for preparing the Index. In this connection I remember

Page #16

( x ) also my sister, Meera with affection for giving me fresh strength and energy by her constant inspiration in my hard task to complete the thesis. I place on record my debt of gratefulness to the institute for the award of a Research Scholarship to me for the prosecution of my studies and the publication of my thesis. Malāvīra Jayanti
JOGENDRA CHANDRA SIKDAR Friday, the 24th April, 1964.

Page #17

Page #18

CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
Pages
1-30
Position of the Bhagavati Sūtra in the Arddha
Magadhi Canon. Its inter-relation to the other
canonical works. Section 1. Position of the Bhagavati Sūtra in the
Arddha-Māgadhi Canon. „ II. Inter-relation of the Bhagavati Sūtra
to the other canonical works.
31-61
CHAPTER II. Its authorship and date. Examination of the internal
and external evidences, such as, linguistic and
literary as well as historical. Section 1. Authorship and date of the Bhagavati
| Sutra. , II. Analysis of the contents.
III. Language, , IV. Style.
CHAPTER III.
62-145
Political Conditions. ... Section 1. Political disunity.
II. Factors of political conditions. III. Polity and Administration. IV. System of Administration.
v. Structure of Government.
VI. Function of Government. VII a. Administration of Justice.
b. Army.
c. Ethics of War. VIII. Inter-state Relation. IX. Gaņa-polity as revealed in the
Bhagavati Sūtra.

Page #19

Social Conditions. Section I.
II.
III.
IV.
""
دو
39
99
""
23
99
..
39
39
23
""
Economic Conditions.
Section I. Agriculture.
II.
III.
39
Section
"9
39
..
VI.
VII.
99
Varna (Social order). Asrama (stage of life).
Social structure and Family Relations. Dream, Pregnancy and Celebrations of Birth and Marriage.
V. Position of Women as depicted in the

Dresses and Ornaments, Houses and Articles of Furniture.
VIII. Sports and Amusements, Manners and
Customs.
CHAPTER IV.
IV.
V.
VI.
( xviii)
Bhagavati Sūtra.
Food and Drink.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
CHAPTER V.
...
Arts and Crafts.
Labour and Capital.
Trade and Commerce.
Roads and Communications.
General Economic Conditions.
CHAPTER VI
Education.
1. Conception of Education, Educational system, Art of writing, Language and
Literature.
Science and Arts.
Biology.
Astronomy and Mathematics.
Military Science.
Fine Arts (Architecture, Art, Painting, Music, Dance, Drama, etc.),

Pages 146-267
268-326
327-387

Page #20

(xix } CHAPTER VII
Pages
388-464
Various leaders of thought and their philosophical
and religious systems mentioned and described in
the Bhagavatī Sūtra. Sectian 1. Sramaņa Nirgrantha Dharma
, II. Religious Vows and Austerities. , III. Religious Rules for the Nirgrantha
Monks and Nuns. IV. Classification of the Nirgrantha Monks. V. Agāra orŚrāvaka Dharma and
Aśrutvā Kevalin. Ājivika Sect--A brief-sketch of the life of Gośāla Maňkhaliputra the Ajīvika
leader. „ VII. Doctrine of Ajīvikism. „ VIII. Other Schools and Sects.
IX. Deities. ., X. Supernatural power of the Monks and
Supernatural Elements.
465-517
CHAPTER VIII. Historical data found in the Bhagavati Sūtra and its
bearing upon the bistory of the time. Section 1. Life of Lord Mahāyira. » II. Kings.
III. Clans. IV. Tribes and Races.
CHAPTER IX
... 518-554
Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography Section 1. Cosmology.
„ II. Cosmography. „ III. Geography-- Janapadas (States),
Towns and Cities, Hills and Rivers.

Page #21

Pages
555-607
(xx)
CHAPTERIX Contribution of the Bhagavatī, Sūtra to the evolution
of Jaina Philosophical Thought. Section 1. Jaina Metaphysics.
» II. Jaina Psychology. » III. Jaina Epistemology.
IV. Jaina Ethics. , V. Jaina Logic.
VI. Doctrine of Karma.
CHAPTER XI
... 608-626
Value of the Bhagavati Sūtra from the literary,
historical and philosophical points of view. Section 1. Literary value of the Work..
, II. Historical value of the Work.
... III. Philosophical value of the Work. Bibliography Index
627-638
639-658

Page #22

System of transliteration adopted in the Work
अ a,
आ ā,
इ i,
VOWELS ई उ ऊ i, u, ū,
ऋ ,
ल
e,
ai,
o,
au.
CONSONANTS
क् k,
ख् kh,
घ् gh,
ङ् n,
छ् ch,
ज् j,
झ् jb,
स् fie
For bio tor bor por Hor
to
t
th
d
t,
th,
d,
db,
n,
p,
ph,
by
posar win bron not a
S
Ib,
V,
156
The straight form of the diacritical mark has been used in this work to indicate the long a, i & ū.

Page #23

ABBREVIATIONS A. G. I. ... Ancient Geography of India. Antagada ... Antagadadasao. Anu. Sū ... Anuyogadvāra Sūtra. Anu. Ti
Tikā. Acā.
Acārānga. A. I.
Ancient India. A.R.A.S.I. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India. A.S.I.R.
Archaeological Survey of India-Reports. Ava. Cū. ... Avaśyaka Cūrņi. Āva. Nir. ...
Niryukti. Āva. Tīkā. ... „ Tīkā. Bhs.
Bhagavati Sūtra. B.K.S.
Book of the Kindred Sayings. BỊh. Bhā. ... Bịhat kalpa Bhāşya. C.H.I.
Cambridge History of India. C. L.
Carmichael Lectures. Comm.
Commentary. C. I. I.
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. C. A. G. I. ... Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India. Daśa Sūtra ... Dasavaikālika Sūtra. Daśa Cūrņi ... „ Cūrņi. D. P. P. N. ... Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names. Digh. N. ... Dighe-Nikaya. Digh. Comm....
Commentary. D.K.A.
Dynasties of the Kali Age. E. R. E. ... Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ep. Ind. ... Epigraphia Indica. H. and F. ... Hamilton and Falconer's translation of Strabo's
geography. G.O.S.
Gaekwad Oriental Series. H.C.
Hindu Civilization. Hari.
Harivamsa (Purāna). H. A. I.
Hindu Administrative Institutions.

Page #24

(
xxiii
)
Jāt
Ind. Ant. ... Indian Antiquary. .. I. H. Q. ... Indian Historical Quarterly. Jambu. Sū. ... Jambūsūtra.
... Jātaka. J. Gr. S. ... Jaimini Gșhya Sūtra. J.A.O.S. ... Journal of the American Oriental Society. J.A.S.B. ... , „ the Asiatic Society of Bengal. .., J.I.S.O.A. ... „ of the Indian Society and of the Oriental Art J.R.A.S. ... Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. . T.D.L.
„ of the Department of Letters. . J.R.I.
Jūnāgadha Rock Inscription. Kalpa. Tikā.... Kalpa Sūtra Tikā. L.A.I.
Life in Ancient India. Manu.
Manu-śmộti. Mbh,
Mahābhārata. M. V.
Mahāvastu. Mārk. Pu. Mārkaņdeya Purāņa. M. R. E.
Minor Rock Edicts of Asoka. Nārada.
Narada-Smrti. Nāyā.
Nāyādhammakahāo. Nirayā.
Nirayāyaliyā Sutta. Niśī. Cū. ... Niśītha Cūrņi. N. R.
Nākhsh-i-Rustam (Inscription). Ovā. Su.
Ovãiya Sutta. Paņņa.
Paņņavanā Sutta. Panha. Țikä ... Paņhavāgaraņa Țikā. Peta. Comm. ... Petavatthu Commentary : Ed. by E. Hardy,
P. T. S. London, 1901. P. T. S. Pali Text Society. Pkt.
Prākrita. P. H. A. I. ... Political History of Ancient India
Dr. H. C. Raychaudhury. Rāmā.
Rāmāyaṇa. Rāya. Su. ... Rāyapaseniya Suya. R. V. .. Rş-Veda,

Page #25

Skt.
( xxiv ) ... Samsksta. Sū. Ti, ... Sūtrakstāåga Tīka. Sūya.
Sūyagada (Sūtrakṣtānga). S. B. E.
Sacred Books of the East. S. B. M.
Sramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvīra. Sumanga.Vi. ... Sumangala Vilasinī. Sāmāñña. ... Sāmāññaphala Sutta. Tanqula..... Tandula Veyāliya. Uttarā. Sū. ... Uttaradhyayana Sūtra. Uttarā. Ti .... Uttaradhyayana Țikā. Vinaya. .... Vinaya-pitaka.
Vasudeva-hiņdi. Vāyu.
Vāyu-Purāņa.
... Vivāga Suya. Vya. Bhā. ... Vyavabāra Bhāșya.
Vasu.
Viv:

Page #26

FIRST CHAPTER
Position of the Bhagavati Sūtra in the Ardha-Magadhi Canon. Its inter-relation to the other Canonical works.
FIRST SECTION
Position of the BhS. in the Ardha-Magadhi Canon
The BhS (Viyahapannatti, Skt. Vyakhyaprajnapti) is one of the most important works of the Ardha-Magadhi canon of the Jainas. It is largest in volume, exceeding all the volumes of the ten Angas put together and encyclopaedic in its contents covering various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of conversations between Lord Mahavira and his disciples, Goyama Indabhūi and others and the members of the heterodox sects as existing during his period.
The study of this work has thrown light upon many problems of Indian History and Thought, more particularly in the field of Jainology. It is the mine of informations regarding various aspects of History and Culture, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different systems of religion, political history, cosmology, cosmography, Geography and evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought which are rarely embodied in any of the Agamas in such a consolidated manner.
Besides these, the BhS presents in a graphic manner a more vivid picture of the life and work of Lord Mahāvīra as ascetic and teacher, his relationship to his disciples and contemporaries and his dignified dynamic and divine personality than any other canonical work. It throws light upon the mytho logical figures before him, such as, Munisuvrata, Vimala, etc., Jaina traditions, and nature of faith and preconditions to those prevailing during the period of the Master. Here, side by side with the appearance of supernatural beings and the demonstration of the spiritual power of Lord Mahāvīra, are depicted the purely human traits as revealed in the scene of his accidental

Page #27

2
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
meeting with his former mother, Devananda, the Brahmani at the Bahusalaka Caitya in Brahmanakundagrāma1.
It is first necessary to make a brief survey of the contents of the other works of the Ardha-Magadhi canon in order to determine the position of the BhS among them.
This canonical text traces back the origin of the Agamas at the time of the first Tirthankara, Lord Ṛşabhadeva, by recording that there were twenty-four Tirthankaras beginning from Lord Rṣabhadeva upto Lord Varddhamana (i.e. Lord Mahāvīra). Of these twenty-four Tirthankaras twenty-three were the Jinantaras (i.e after the first one). During the time of the first and last eight Jināntaras there was the non-destruction (i.e. existence) of Kalika-Sruta, while at the time of the middle (or intermediate) seven Jinantaras there took place the destruction of Kalika-Sśruta (Kalikaśrutasya ekādaśāngi. rupasya vyavacchedaḥ) and at the period of all Jinantaras there was the destruction of Drstivada "Savvatthavi........ Vocchinne Diṭṭhivae".5
Lord Mahāvīra has said: varsa the Purvagata Sruta will of my one thousand years, i.e. my
"In Jambudvipa in Bharatafollow in the Avasarapiņi Kāla upto one thousand years from time, whereas the Purvagata Sruta of the remaining Tirthankaras in the Avasarpiņi Kāla followed upto numerable times and that of some of them continued up to innumerable times".
It is further stated that Arhats are invariably 'Pravacani', while Pravacana is twelve Ganipitakas, viz. Ayara (Ācārānga) Suyagada (Sutrakṛtānga), Thäṇanga (Sthānanga), Samavāyānga, Viyahapannatti (ie. Vyakhyāprajnapti, Bhagavati Sūtra), Nayadhammakahão, Uvasagadasão, Antagada (Antakṛta), Anuttarovavaiyadasão, Panhavāgaraṇa, Viväga-suya and Diṭṭhivaya."
It is clear from these evidences that the oldest part of the canon according to the tradition as recorded in this
1
Bh8, 9, 33, 382. 6 Ib, 20, 8, 679

25 Ib, 20, 8, 678.
7
Bhs, 20, 8, 682,

Page #28

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA Canonical work is represented by the fourteen Purvas or the former scriptures and the twelfth Anga, Drstivāda, now regarded as lost. The knowledge of those Purvas also gradually became extinct witbin one thousand years after the Master's demise.
Table of the contents of the Purvas preserved in the Nandi Sūtra' are as follows: (1) Uppāya (Utpādu', (2) Aggā. ṇīya (Aggāṇīya = Agrāyanīya), (3) Viriyappavāya (Viryapravāda), (4) Atthinatthipparāya (Astināsipravāda), (5) Nānappavāya (Jhānapravāda), (0) Saccappavāya (Satya-pravāda), (7) Āyappavāya (Atma pravāda), (8) Kummappavāya (Karmapravāda), (9) Paccakkhānappavāya (Pratyākhyāna-pravāda), (10) Vijjānuppavāya (Vidyānupravāda), (11) Avamjhu (Avandhya), (12) Pāṇāu (Prānāyuh), (13) Kiriyāvisāla (Kriyāvisāla) and (14) Logabindusāra (Lokabindusāra).
According to the tradition they formed a vast volume of the sacred literature and the present Agamas are said to have been extracted from one single small section.
It is recorded in the Bhs that Gośāla Mankhaliputra, the Ajīvika leader took his doctrine from the eight Mahānimittas (eight great causes) which were a portion of the Purvas (atthaviha-Puvvagaya)* (i. e. Vijjānuppavāya). So the Pūrvas were older than Lord Mahāvīra, as it is known from the fact that there are frequent references to them in this canonical work as existing even in the time of Munisuvrata" and Dharmaghoşa, a disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tīrthankara'.
There appear to be two traditions of the Pîrvas, viz. Dasapūrvas (ten pūrvas), and C'aturdasa Pūrvas (fourteen Pürvas) as recorded in the Dhavalā (Satkhandāgama) vol. 8. “Namo dasa puvviyāṇamo (Salutation to Daśapūrvis) Namo Coddasapuyviyāņań? (Salutation to Caturdaśapūrvīs)."
1 Nandi Sutra, (S. 57).
? BhS, 15, 1, 539, 9 Dhavālā Vol. VIII, p. 52. (Satkhandagāma, Dr. H. L. Jain) 4 Bh8, 8, 2, 618.
5 10, 11, 11, 431. 6 Introduction to Satkhandāgama-2., Dr. H.L. Jain 12, p. 54. 7 16, 13., p. 54.

Page #29

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
It is known from this Dhavala that the learning of the reader of the Srutas ended with the completion of the study of the tenth Purva and he received the worship of the goddesses, Rohini and other 500 Mahavidgas and Angusthaprasena and other 700 Alpavidyas. If he did not fall from the moral path out of greed, he was entitled to Jinahood.
The Purvas related controversies held between Lord Mahāvīra and his rival teachers. The Master wanted to combat the opinions of other religious leaders belonging to heterodox sects in defence of the doctrines he professed. So there was no more necessity of these discussions after his demise. This led to the composition of the new canon and the old one was in neglect and went into oblivion.
Weber thinks that "the development of the Svetambara sect had arrived at a point where the diversity of its tenets from those embodied in the Drstivada became too visible to be passed over." So the Drstivada was neglected, but Jacobi holds by contradicting this view that the Digambaras who have lost the Purvas and the Angas also, maintain that the Purvas existed even after the completion of the new canon.
Of the existing Agamas the Acaranga Sutra gives an exposition of the disciplinary and monastic rules in the two Books called Srutaskandhas (Suyakkhandha). The Sutrakrtanga deals with the faith and heretical doctrines, viz. those of one hundred and eighty Kriyavadins, eighty-four Akriyāvādins, sixty-seven Ajñānikas, thirty-two Vainayikavādins. It shows what the religious life should be in general and how it leads to liberation.
The Sthānanga Sutra treats of substance (Dravya) from different points of views (Sthanas), for example, division of time beginning from the unit of Avalika upto Sirsaprahelikā, then
1 S. B. E. (Vol. xxii) Introduction. p. XLVI. see also Indian Antiguary, Vol. XVII.
Sthananga Sutra-(S. 727) section-10. It can be compared with the contents of the Anguttara Nikaya of the Buddhists.

Page #30

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SŪTRA to Utsarpiņā. The 'Yugam' has been placed between the year and century as intermediate gradation and the quinquennial yuga is thereby still used as a system of calculation.
It makes references to seven schisms along with the names of their leaders and the centres of their origin, viz. 1 Bahurayā (Bahurutā), 2 Jrvapadesiyā (Jivapradesikā), 3 Avvattiya (Avyaktikā), 4. Sāmuccheiya (Samucchedikā) 5. Dokiriyā (Dvikiriya), 6. Terāsiyā (Trairāfikās), and 7. Avaddhiyā Abaddhikā) and the seven religious teachers of these seven schisms were Jamāli, Tīsagutta, Āsādha, Asamitta, Gamga, Chalua and Gotthāmāhila, having their respective centres of origin (uppattinagarāim) in Srāvastī, Ķsabhapuru (Usabhapura), Siyabiyā, Mithila, Ullukātīra (Ullugatīra) Pura, Amtarangi and Daśapura.
The Samarāyānga Sūtra' is the fourth Anga, the first part of which gives an exposition of substance and thus supplements the preceding tbird Anga. The last part contains the extent of divisions of the separate Angas with their respective names and a summary of the twelfth Anga-Dithivāya and it furnishes some legendary data on the eminent personalities of the Nirgrantha Order, e.g. Kunthu and others and about the lunar and Naksatra, computation of time and the quinquennial yuga, eighteen kinds of script (Bambhî livi, etc.) forty-six mātrikāpadas, season of the lunar year and seventy-two kinds of kalās (arts of learning).
The Nāyādhammakahāos is composed of two books, the first consists of a series of edifying stories containing moral teachings and the second contains a number of pious legends. These two books are closely inter-related to each other.
The Uvāsagadasão mainly deals with the lessons concerning the Upāsakas (lay disciples) like Ananda of Vānijyagrāma', Saddālaputta of Polāšapura, etc. Its first chapter is the most
116, (S. 587).
Samavāyānga. 8 Nayadhammakahão-Nayā and Dhammakahā. 4 Uvāsagadasão-1. 6 Uvāsagadasão-7.

Page #31

STUDIES IN. THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. I important, because it furnishes in a systematic way the rules of observance of a Jaina layman, while the other books only provide illustrations.
The Antagada deals with the legend of pious princes, etc. who are striving after the attainment of liberation through death by inanition (Sailekhanā). It refers to the sections in the fifth? and sixth Angas”, Candanā, Prasenajit, etc.
The Aņuttar ovavāiy adusão is a collection of legends of saints like the preceding one, each of whom attained the highest (anuttura) heavenly world by their meritorious acts.
The Panhavāgarana (the work containing questions with their replies) deals with the principles of Jaina morals in ten sections comprising two parts--the first of which treats of *Aśrava' influx of karma-matter into soul which is thus attached to Karma ; the second prescribes the rules in regard to the function which enables the soul to stop (samvara) the influx of karma-matter and leads it to liberation.
It also makes reference to some foreign tribes--Milikkha jāti, such as Kunti, Saga, Javaņa, etc.'s Jupiter, the Moon, the Sun, Venus, Saturn, Rāhu, Dhūmaketu, Mereury, Mars, etc.
The Vivāga Suya consisting of two books (ten chapters) furnishes only illustrations to the preceding work. It proves by a series of legends what recompense is prescribed for straight conduct and what punishment is laid down for the violation of moral prescription. It contains legends of good and evil deeds.
Of the twelve Upāngas the Uvavāiya (Aupapātikv)" Suya is divided into two parts. The first contains a sermon of Lord Mabāvira on the Law in general, partly āgāradharma (householders' religion) and partly anāgāradharma (monastic religion)
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 2 Nayachammakahão-(The material upto the taking of vows
of Goyama). * Panhāvāgaraņā-S. 4. • Vivāga suya-Duhavivāga & Suhhvivāga (Vipāka Satra). 5 Ovavaiyā, S. 74-100.

Page #32

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SUTRA
delivered in Campa which was under the rule of king Kūnika, the son of Bimbhisāra (Bimbisāra), The second part deals with the successive rebirths and conditions of deliverance. In the central part there is the mention of heterodox sects, such as, Parivrajakas (Parivvayaga), Kanha-Parivvayaga, etc. and eight "Tattha representatives of each class from the Brahmana caste. Khalu ime aṭṭha-mahaṇa-parivvāyagā bhavamti Karakanti ya, ammaḍa, etc."
Kanne
It refers to the female attendants belonging to different tribes, such as, Cilaiya (Kiratas.), etc. and alludes to eighteen unnamed deśībhāṣā (local dialects), other sects, such as Annautthiya (Anyatirthikas), terasiya (Trairasikas), seven schismsBahuraga, Jivapadesiya, (Jiva-pradesika), Dokiriya etc.
The Rayapaseniya (Rajaprašny 1) contains questions of the king, Paesi and equally furnishes some reply on the subject of re-incarnation of soul and its relation with the body. This Upanga also gives an account of the former birth of Suriabha Pãesī and his future birth as Dadhapa inna and it also refers to the foreign peoples.
1 Rayapaseniya. 3 Jiva. pratipattis.
7
ya,
The Jivabhigama consisting of ten sections' enumerates and classifies the diverse species of animated beings, e. g. divviha upto dasavviha and at last gives a description of the universe by furnishing some astronomical data, such as, the number of the suns, moons, stars, etc. in each of the dvipas (islandcontinents).
The Pannavana Suya having thirtysix chapters (or sections) contains an ethnographic sketch according to which men are divided into two categories, viz. Arya (noble) and Mleccha i.e. barbarians and it enumerates twenty-five and a half Aryan countries." Besides, this Upanga treats of different forms, conditions of life, etc. of beings (Jivas). Lastly it mentions eighteen kinds of script, viz. Bambhi upto Polimdi.

Ib., 3rd Pratipatti.
Pannavana. V. 4, 7, 36 sayas. Pannavana ti¦ Samugghae. 5 Ib., 1, 1 (36-37). 6 Ib., 1, 37, 55a.

Page #33

8
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. I The fifth and seventh Upāngas, namely, Suriyapannatti and Camdapannatti contain a description of the suns, the moons etc. by giving an exposition of Jaina Astronomy.
The Jambuddīvapannatti, the sixth Upānga describes Jambūdvipa as the habitat of men and it is interfused with many legends. It enumerates seventy-two kinds of Kalās (arts of learning). The conclusion of this work ends in its reference to the sun, the moon, stars, the extent of their vimānas, and Mars and Saturn as belonging to the lunar court.
The eighth to twelfth Upāngas are Nirayāvaliyā or Kalpikā, Kappāvaờansiā (Kalpāvatamsika), Pupphão, Pupphacūlão (Puspa cüda) or Pupphacüliã and Vanhidasão (Vrsniduśā). Each of them except the last one (12 ch.), having ten chapters contains legends about the after world, destiny of ten princes fallen in a battle.
Thus the Nirayāvaliya Sutra contains a description of hells and the future births of the ten princes, Kāla and others, the step-brothers of king Kūņika in the fourth hell as a result of their participation in the war called Mahāśilakantaka Sangrāma. Here it furnishes the historical data about this war, king Kuņika and imprisonment of his father, Seniya-Bimbisāra.
The Kalpāvatarsaka deals with the account of the ten sons of the ten princes, Kāla and others, all of whom were converted to Sramana Dharma and attained their respective heavens.
The Pupphiyā (Puspēkā) discusses the topic of the ten gods, viz. the moon, the sun and others, who paid their homage to Lord Mahāvīra by making their appearance to him from their celestial worlds. Thereupon the Master relates the story of their former births in which they were initiated to Sramana Dharma by Lord Pārsvanātha and devoted to the study of eleven Angas, commencing with sāmāyika.
The Pupphacülão treats of ten other accounts of similar character of ten goddesses, namely, Sri, HỊë, Dhrti and others.
+ Jombuddiva ponnatti,

Page #34

Sec. I
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
9
The Vanhidasão (Vrsņidaśa) also deals with similar legends of the twelve princes of the Vanhi race (Vrsni race), such as, Nisadha (Nişadha), Mabānişadha, etc. It treats of the history of Nişadha, son of Balarāma and nephew of Krşņa in Bārāvaż (Dvārāvatī). In his previous birth he was said to have been devoted to the study of the eleven Angas commencing with sāmāyika under the tutorship of Siddhattha.
The ten Painnas (Prakirņakas) which form the third group of the texts of the Agamas are “melanges” small treatises of verse starting precisely with some points of discipline, ritual, or mythology. They are as follows:
(1) Caisaraņa (Catuh Sarana), four refuges in 63 verses, namely (n) Şad-āvaśyaka and the Sāmāyika which enumerates six daily observances necessary for adopting a life devoid of sin, (b) Pratikramana, the manual of confession, (c) Pratyakhyāna-(renunciation) (or review of general discipline), (d) Caturvinsatistava vandanās which glorify the twenty-four Tirthankaras and pay homage to their virtues.
(2) The Aura-paccakkhāņa (Āturapratyākhyāna), composed in 70 verses with an insertion in prose after verse 10, treats of the supreme renunciation.
(3) The Bhattaparinnā (Bhaktaparijñā) reminds the monks of the way they should prepare themselves for death.
(4) Santhāraga (Saṁstāraka) (the pallet of straw)--It gives in detail a particular point of the death ritual, preparation for the saintly death (paņạitamarana). It describes the bed of grass or straw on which the dying monk should spread himself for meditating on the truth taught by the Master.
(5) Tbe Tandulaveyaliya-(Tandulavaikālika), a treatise on philosophy composed in the form of dialogue between Gautama Indrabhūti and Lord Mahāvīra gives successively the state of foetus in the womb of the mother (dans la matrice), the birth of the child, the diverse state of existence, the rital functions and the maladies' in which a man falls. The text is partly in prose and partly in verse.
Tandulnveyâliya-31 : Bala : Kidda upto Sāyani ya dasanā. Kāladasa. See Dasaveyāliya-v. 10.

Page #35

10
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. I (6) The Candāvijjhaya containing 174 verses is a work on the general discipline indicating the qualities which the teachers and disciples should have, the rules of conduct to follow in diverse circu mstances of life and at last the manner in which one should prepare himself for the holy death.
(7) The Devindatthava (Devendrastayas) containing about 292 verses in Pkt. enumerates, classifies and describes different gods.
(8) The Ganivijjā (Gaạitavidyā) is a short treatise of Astrology in 86 verses on the hours and days, constellations, planets as well as the favourable and nefast signs and on horoscope.
(9) The Mahāpaccakkhāņa (Mahāpratyākhyāna) is a general formula of confession and of renunciation, etc. in 142 verses.
(10) Vīratthava (Virastava) contains in 43 verses different names of the Jina, the hero who has vanquished all obstacles to freedom.
Next come the Cheda Sútrās - Books of "decision" or "statutes" the contents of which refer to the clergy and rules of conduct prescribed for them, though there is a large admixture of subsidiary matter of a legendary character, e.g., the entire Kalpa-Sutra. The first two rules according to the existing order refer to the expiation and penances (prāyaścitta and tapas) while the rest contain general matters refering to discipline. They are as follows :
(1) Nisīha (20 books) (Nisītha, Nişedha, Niśīthādhyayana). It contains rules prescribed for the monks and nuns for leading their lives according to them.
(2) Mahānisīha (6 sections)-This work discusses the teachings of Gautama Indrabhūti on transgress (Salla) and punishment (Pāyacchitta).
(3) The Vavahāra (ten uddeśakas or books) is the third Cheda Sūtra which treats of prescriptions and interdictions for the Jaina monks and nuns. The first Uddeśaka deals with-- Parihāratthāpanan (parihära-paristhāpana a kind of conduct) witha regard to 1, 2, 3, or 4 monks. The second with relation of two fellow monks (Sahammiya', the third with teacher and

Page #36

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRÀ
ii disciples, the fourth with the merā (maryādā) of the saints (Sāhūnam), the fifth with the merā (maryādā) of Samjātis, the sixth with the mischances, the seventh with the avagrah (lordship) of kings, etc. (rājādinām), the eighth with the avagrah of co-religionists or fellow monks (Sadharmikāvagrha), the ninth with Ähāra (meal or food), and the tenth with abhigraha (vow).
(4) The X yāradasão (or Dasasuyakkhanda -Daśaśrutaskandha) is the fourth Chedasūtra containing ten uddeśakas They treat of regulations pertaining to the Vinya (moral training), the course of life and the discipline of the laity and monk (Srāvaka and sādhu).
The eighth is the Kalpa Sūtra which deals with the legends of Lord Mahāvīra and other religious leaders and the rules of conduct for the Yatis (monks). The ninth dasão called Mohanijjatthānañ contains legends and a sermon of the Master delivered in Campă under the rule of king Koniya (Kuņika) on the topic 'Mohanijjatthāņāim' the causes which lead to the assimilation of Mohanżya-karma into the embodied soul.
The tenth dasão called Ayatiţthana deals with the sermon of Lord Mahāvīra on the distraction of the mind of all monks and nuns except Indrabhūti and Candanbālā by the splendour of king Seņiya and queen Cellanā during their attendance to his religious discourse,
(5) The Brhatkal pa Sutra, having six uddeśakas treats of ordinances for the Jaina monks and nuns in regard to that of which is proper (kappai) and that which is not, such as, restric. tions regarding food, apparatus, etc.
The Nandīsūtra and the Anuyogadvāra Sútra are the two miscellaneous works-the former consisting of three sections contains a versified list of Tirthankaras, of the Gañadharas and thirty other teachers and then in prose a theory of knowledge and a classification of the works constituting the Siddhānta. This last part is most precious document for the history of the Jaina Canon.
The Anuyogadvāra seems to be another redaction of the Nandīsütra dealing with a theory of knowledge and a classi

Page #37

12
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. 1 fication of the canonical texts. It is in the form of questions and answers, in prose and verse mixed without having any subdivisions in chapter.
of the four MülaSūtras (1) the Uttarādhyayana. Sitra teaches the young monk his principal duties and furnishes him against dangers which befall an ascetic career. It is not probably composed by a single author but rather constituted of a series of tenets selected from the traditional literature and arranged according to a certain order.
(2) The Avaśyalca Sūtra in its original text does not exist but only a versified exposition called Niryukti (Nijjutti) is incorporated into a later canon in 20 chapters. The Niryukti deals with ten oompulsory observances for the monks and contains also legendary data on the twenty-four Tīrthařkaras and some informations on the discipline of Lord Mahāvīra as well as on the first schism.
(3) The Daśavaikālika is a manual of discipline in ten chapters followed by two appendices.
(4) The Pindaniryukti contains the information on the cause of hunger and the nature and kind of food to be taken.
The BhS also contains all these varied contents in a consolidated form as embodied in all the above mentioned canonical works put together and touches upon every aspect of Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma and its philosophy,
In agreement with the Acārānga Sūtra this fifth Anga gives an exposition of the disciplinary and monastic rules," observance of vows,' samitis, (rules of conduct), guptis (selfcontrol)begging rules for the Nirgrantha monks and nuns, rules prescribed for them in regard to the acceptance and taking? food by them and other rules, such as, Lāghavikar (a little quantity of article should be kept), Appiocha (a little
i Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 3. ? Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 2; BLS 15, 1, 541; 18, 10, 647 etc. 3.4 lb, 2, 1, 91.
5 Ib, 1, 3, 30; 8, 6, 333 ; 15, 1, 541. 6 16, 8, 6, 333-34. ? Ib, 7, 1, 268, 69, 70 ; 14, 8, 525; 5, 6, 210.

Page #38

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
desire of a monk), Amuccha (non-delusion)', Akohattva (angerlessness), etc."
Like the Sutrakṛtanga this canonical work deals with true faith (unflinching devotion to and faith in Guru), as it is explained thus: That which is spoken by the Jinas is true without any doubt (Tameva saccam nisamkaṁ Jinehim paveditam). He who bears it in mind practises it and returns from the other opinions to the view promulgated by the Jinas, is a true devotee and worshipper of the instructions of the Jinas (evam manam dhāremāņe Jāva bhavati).*
The BhS also mentions heterodox sects, such as, the Ajivikas, Vainayikas, Parivrajakas, Carakas, Vanaprasthas, 10 Tapasas," Jamali's sect, followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order, 18 other Tirthikas, etc.
The BhS preaches what the religious life should be in general and how it leads one to perfection, as the heretical doctrines have so many pitfalls that one should follow the teachings of Lord Mahavira to save himself from the down fall into them.15
13
The BhS deals with the substances from different aspects16 as they are treated in the Sthananga Sutra and it gives an exposition of them like the Samavayanga Sutra and mentions the twelve Angas and twenty-four Tirthankaras by their names.17
In agreement with the Nayadhammakahão this fifth Anga contains some edifying stories containing moral teachings, e. g.
1 Bhs, 10, 2, 400.
3 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec, 3. 4 BhS, 1, 3, 31.
2 Ib, 1, 9, 74.
5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Scc. 8. 539-61.
1,

BhS, 11, 25; 5, 8, 330; 15,
7 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144. 8 Ib, 14, 8, 529; 2, 1, 90 ff. 9 Ib, 1, 1, 25.
12 Ib, 9, 33, 386-7.
14 Ib, 7, 10, 305 etc.
15 Vide infra Ch, VII, Sec. 1, on various sects for all these
accounts.
16 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. I. 17 Bhs, 20, 8, 672.
11,
12, 436.
10 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 11 Ib, 1, 1, 25. 13 Ib, 1, 9, 76; 9, 32, 371 etc.

Page #39

14
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
stories of Mahabala, Jamali' and others, and some pious legends, e. g. Gośāla-upākhyāna.3
Like the Uvasagadasão it embodies lessons for lay disciples and presrcibes some rules and observances of a Jaina layman, such as, twelve vows of a householder, etc.
As in the Antagada, the BhS treats of the legends of pious men, princes and others who practised austerity to attain liberation through death by observing the vow of Samlekhana (inanition of the body to save the soul).
Like the Anuttaropapātikasūtra the BhS presents the biographies of saints who attained the highest celestial world by their prolonged asceticism and were born among the gods, e.g. Skandaka, a converted Nirgrantha monk was born among the gods in the Acyutakalpa as a result of his austerities and meditation.
In agreement with the Panhavägarana it deals with the principles of Jaina moral teachings,' influx of Karmas (asrava) into the soul which is attached to Karma and prescribes the rules to be observed to stop it, i.e. the process of Samvara (stoppage of influx of Karma) and that of Nirjara (dissociation of Karma) which leads the soul to liberation. For example, Skandaka observed the five great vows, vinayas (moral disciplines) and other acts of austerities and meditation on soul and thus he put a stop to the influx of Karma and attained final emancipation.o
Like the Vivaga Suya it proves by a series of legends the reward for the good conduct and punishment for the violation of moral prescription, as it is found in the cases of Jamali,10 Gośāla Mankhaliputra,11 etc.
1 BhS, 11, 11, 429-31. 87b, 15, 1, 539 ff. 5 BhS, Skandaka 2, 1, 90 ff; Tamali-3, 1, 134; Siva. 11, 9, 417-19; Rṣabhadatta-9, 33, 382: King Udayana-13, 6, 491 ff. Ib, 2, 1, 93 ff.
8 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. VI. 10 BhS, 9, 33, 386-7.
2 Ib, 9, 33, 383-81.
4 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 5.

Vide infra Ch, X, Sec. IV. 9 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. I 11 Ib, 15, 1, 339 ff.

Page #40

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
15
In the agreement with the Upanga, Au papātika Sutra the BIS treats of the sermons of Lord Mahāvīra on the Law in general, the successive rebirths and conditions of liberation and deals like the Rājapraśniya Sūtrawith the question of reincarnation of soul and enumerates and classifies the different species of animated beings at the same time.
The BhS, makes discussion on the globe,' as it is treated in the Jivābhigama Sutra and deals with the repatriation of living beings, and ethnographic sketch according to which men are classified into two categories-Aryans and non-Aryans as mentioned in the Prajñāpanā Sitra.
It gives an exposition of Jaina Astronomy? in brief like the Siriyapannatti and the Cari lapannatti.
The Bhs describes the Jambūdvi pa island inhabited by men, as it is dealt with in the Jambuddiva Pannatti and it contains some legends about the next world-destiny of soldiers fallen in the battles called Mahāśilakantka Sangrāma and Rathamusala Sangrāma.9 as such similar topics are found in the Nirayāvaliyā Sutta and the remaining Upāngas.
In agreement with the ten Prakīrnakas the Bhslo treats of the subjects on moral discipline, ritual and mythologyll in brief and like the Causarana (Catuḥsaraņa) deals with some rules and discipline, observances most essential for adopting a life devoid of sin, confession, pratyākhyāna, religious disciplinel, worship of Tīrhankaras and paying homage to their virtuels in short in its stray references.
1 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. VI.
? BhS, 12, 7, 458. # Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. III on Biology. 4 Vide infra Ch. IX, Sec. 1 and 2 on Cosmology and Cosmography.
5 Bhs, 12-7-458. 8 Though they are not specifically classified, the clans--
U gras, Bhogas, etc. were Aryans, where as, the Kirātas, Barbaras etc. were non-Aryans. (BhS, 9, 33, 380, 383.
Vide infra Ch. VIII. Sec. 3 & 4 on class and tribes. 7 Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. 4 8 Vide infra Ch. IX Sec. 2 on Cosmography. 9 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-303. 10 Vide infra ch. VII, Séc. 2 & 3 11 BAS 5, 8, 203; 11,
11,431. ; 18, 2,618. 12 Vide infra Ch. VII. Sec. 2 & 3 13 Bhs, 1, 1, 5,

Page #41

16
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
It puts emphasis on the supreme renunciation (Vyutsarga)? and enthanasy (enthanasie) (Samlekhanā) like the Aurapaccakkhāņa and teaches the monks in what way they should prepare themselves for the death, as it is discussed in the Bhatta. pariņņā. For example, the case of Skandaka as given in details regarding a particular point of the ritual of death that it describes the bed of grasses or straws on which Skandaka spread himself for meditating on the truth taught by Lord Mahāvīra.
Next as in Tandula-Veyāliya, this canonical work explains the gradual development of the embryo of a child and its birth, different states of existence, the functions, etc., in brief.
Like the Candāvijjhaya, Bhs treats of the general discipline showing the qualities which should be possessed by the teachers and disciples', and the rules of conduct to follow. It states that the teachers should receive disciples with affection ; there should not be the attitude of a pratyanika (opposition or enemity) in different conditions of life and it describes the manner in which one should prepare himself for the holy death. Lastly, it enumerates the host of gods and goddessess and classi. fies and describes them in details.
In agreement with the Ganivijjā, the Bhs deals with a few short treatises on some aspects of Astronomy, such as, time, hours, days, etc. and contains some rules of confession, of renunciation as prescribed in the Mahāpaccakkhaņā.
It mentions the different names of Lord Mahāvīra, such as, Vardhamāna”, Nāyaputta, Kāsava, etc. in its stray references as they are found in the Virastava. Like the Cheda Sūtras the BhS prescribes some disciplinary rules for the monks to be observed as already pointed out.
i Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 2 2 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 1 on education (Medical science). 3 Vide infra Ch. VI, Sec. 2. 4 Bhs 9, 33, 389; 15, 1, 555 (comm); 117, 11, 429. 5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 10 6 Bhs 20, 8, 678 ; see also 1, 1, 5 (Aigara, etc.)

Page #42

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
As in the Nandi Sūtra, the Bhs also makes reference to some Gañadharas of Lord Mahāvīra, such as, Goyama Indabhūi, Aggibhūi, Vāyubhai', etc., and explains the theory of knowledge and makes classification of the Āgamas into twelve Angas'. It contains the theory of Logic and also Epistemology like the Anuyogadvāra.
In agreement with the Müla Sūtras the BhS teaches the monk or young monk some of his principal duties and provides him with the rules against dangers which may befall an ascetic career.
The BhS treats of the compulsory observance of vows and rules prescribed for the monks and contains some legendary data on the twenty-four Tirthankaras in brief and Munisuvrata? and Vimala in particular and some information on the discipline of Lord Mahāvīra as well as the first schism led by Jamälilo as evidenced in the Avasyaka Sitra.
In addition to these varied contents the BhS furnishes a good deal of information regarding the classification of the Nirgrantha monks into the categories of Pulāka, Bakusa upto Snätaka" and that of the Sanyatas (self-controlled), Sumavasarana," viz. Kriyāvādins, Akriyāvadins, Ainānikavādins and Vainayikavādina, Yugmas,18 political, social and economic conditions education, various leaders of thought and their systems and philosophies in general and Ajīvikism in particular, contemporary history, particularly the two political events-called Mahāśilalanțaka-Sangrāma, and RathamusalaSangrāma, Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography, evolution of Jaina Philosophy, Psychology, Epistemology, Ethics, logic and the Doctrine of Karma", presented in a consolidated manner.
1 Vide infra Ch. VIII, Sec. I on the topic 'Lord Mahāvīra as teacher'.
? Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. 3 3 Bhs, 20, 8, 678.
4 Vide infra Ch. X, Sec. 5 5 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec. 3 # Bh8, 20, 8, 678.
7 16, 18, 12, 638. 8 1b, 11, 11, 431.
9 16, 15, 1, 541 ff, ; 18, 10, 647. 10 16, 9, 33, 386-7.
11 Vide infra Ch. VII, See, I 12 Bhs, 30(1-4)824 to 828. 13 I6, 31, i, 829 to 41, 1-196, 868. 14 For details see infra Ch. III to X.

Page #43

18
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
As regards the style and language it is not merely a collection of dry clods of data on the above mentioned topics, but it also contains descriptive, explanatory and emotive styles with literary flourishes, colourful descriptions of persons and things, human emotions and traits depicted with the psycholo. gical background, humour and pun expressed in the language of the people in their own style.
The Acārānga Sūtra and the Sūtrakrtānga may be great in regard to their style and language as they are partly composed in Āryā metre, but the Bhs is the greatest of all the canonical works as the richest mine of varied contents dealing with different aspects of life and Nature.
Thus the Bhs occupies the highest unique position as the treasure of knowledge and truth in the Ardha-Māgadhi Canon bearing the appearance of a mosaic into which various texts have been inserted little by little and it is integrally connected with the representatives of the whole canonical works.
SECOND SECTION Inter-relation of the Bhs to other canonical works :
It is at once observable in regard to the growth of all the canonical works that none of them attained the development up to the present extent, quite independently of one another, as there are found in them well marked individual and comhined groups, the principles of which show their inter-relation.
These groups have been brought into relation with the other groups of similar characters in course of time in later age. It appears that an author has played a part to bear especially upon the Angas and the Upāngas with the aim at the unification and order of the canonical texts, as it is evidently clear from the study of many statements in reference to the redaction which contains partly the parallel references? of one text to
i Bhs, 1, 2, 22.

Page #44

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
19
another and partially the Karikas which are placed at the beginning to serve as a general introduction or incorporated in the middle or subadded at the end."
The linguistic characteristics of these redactory statements can easily be distinguished from that of the text. Many additions of secondary stories may have been incorporated into the Karikas, while some passages or sections which were extant at the time of the older commentaries may have been lost, but large interpolations have also been made into the texts. It is clear from the study of all the canonical works that they have undergone a great transformation most likely, as it is evidenced by the fact that the BhS had not yet attained the half of its present size containing 1,84,000 padas, at the time of the Samavayanga Sutra which records only 84,000 padas of the fifth Anga instead of the above number of its padas.
The allusions to certain stereotyped descriptions, "the epithet ornantia' and the so-called Vannao (Varņaka) are to be assigned without doubt to the period of redaction of all the canonical texts at the Vallabhi Council. So the fifth Anga itself has suffered some losses in all probability in course of time and its form of words has equally undergone transformation to some extent.
The Bhs holds a separate position in its relation to the other canonical works and commences in a characterized way. It bears one point of similarity with the Nāyādhammakahão in regard to the Karikas which state the contents of what is to follow in each larger section, e. g. Gaha "Usasa khaṁdae vi ya 1 samugghāya 2 pudhavim 3 diya 4 anna-utthi-bhasa ya 5 Deva ya 6 Camaracamca 7 Samaya 8 khitta 9 atthikaya 10 bîyasae".
In the BhS the sections have the title saya (śataka) instead of Ajjhayana as it is found in the cases of the other Angas. The title 'Pannatti' of Viyahapannatti attributed to this canonical work, bearing some resemblance with those of the
1 Bh8, 2nd Sataka.
Ib, 1, 1, 11; 1, 1, 14.

Page #45

20
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA Suriyapannatti, the Jambuddīva Pannatti and the Candapan. natti clearly shows an inter-relation to one another. The name of the fifth Anga appears in the Samavāyānga along with the other Angas as “Vivāhapannattle ņam Bhagavatīe caurāsim payasahassa padaggeņam paņņattā."
This adjective "Bhagavatī' as exclusively associated with this work is recorded only in the fourth Anga in this manner.
As regards the other textual differences between the Samavāyānga Sutra and the Bhs it is noticeable that the fifth Anga is arranged into Saya (śataka not 100, but 41 or including sub-saya-138) instead of Ajjhayana of the fourth Anya and Uddeśakas (1925) and Sutra 8 (868).
The Bhst once refers to the Samavāyānga in connection with the legends of Kulakaras, Tīrthankaras, Baladevas, and Vāsudevas for their detailed treatment as made in the fourth Anga.
Besides these, there occur frequent references in the fifth Anga to the Upānga groups of the texts, viz. Aupapātika Sutra Rapupra naga SẼtra, Javābhagama Sutra, Prajiāpamā Sutra, Jambūdvīpa Prajnapti, Ayāradasão," Nandi Sūtra, Anuyogadvāra Sutra and Hea gaca Stra.
The Bhs holds an isolated position in respect of the introductory formula of the first four Angas the Ācārānga the Sūtrakrtānga, the Sthānānga and the Samavāyānga e.g. *Suyummi' and their concluding word 'tummi bearing a point of similarity in them.
The last part of the Aupapatika Sutra appears to be like a more detailed treatment of the fifth Anga in regard to its topic--births and rebirths, while Ammada, a Parivrājaka is referred to in both the works. In the Bhagavatı Sūtra there occurs an enumeration of female attendants belonging to some Indian tribes and foreign nations whose names are generally identical with those mentioned in the Nāyādhammakahão and
| Bhs, 5,5,203.
* Vide, A History of Indian Literature,
Vol II, p. 443, Winternitz.

Page #46

Sec. INT STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA 21 the Aupapātiku Sūtra, e.g. many hunch-backed, Cilātikās, Barbarikās, upto Pärasīs. The Bhs makes references to other Tirthikas (annautthiyā) and the first schism led by Jamālī in the Nirgrantha order as they are also found in the first Upānga.
It is to be observed in the Rajapraśnīya Sūtra that there occurs an exclamation of reverence addressed to 'Suya devayā Bhagavatī,...... to Paņņatti.' "Namo suya devayāe Bhagavatie namo paņņattie Bhagavaie."
The Jivābhigama Sutra, the third Upānga appears to be a detailed treatment of the Bhs in reference to the astronomical topics dealing with the number of the suns, moons, stars in each of the dvipas (continent-islands). In the fifth Anga there are found many references to the Prajñāpanā Sūtra in regard to various subjects for their detailed treatment.
As regards the questions and answers couched in the style and manner of the dialogues there lies a line of difference between the Bhs and the Prajñāpanā Sūtra that there is no connecting link in the former, where as it is found in the latter,
Parallel references as found in the Bhagavati Sūtra and in
other Angas and Upāngas :The reference to the other canonical works for the detailed treatment of the subjects of the Bhs shows that this fifth Anga was not completed before they were done, as it is evidenced by the fact of the language of allusion to them, e.g. 'Jambuddive ņam bhamte Bhārahevāse imīseosappiņīe kai kulagarā hottbā..... eesim padisattu jahā Sama vāe parivādi tahā ņeyavvā.”
A monotony in the conventional phrases of conversation is found in all the canonical works, e. g. Teņa Kāleņam teņa samayeņam. They echo the same words almost everywhere to convey thoughts and ideas. The general descriptive epithets and phrases expressing the effect of sorrow and joy, affection and anger or depicting the picture of a city are used in all of them
1 Rayapaseniya Sutta, 8. 5. · BRIS, 5,5,203 ; see Samavāyanga, 157, 58,

Page #47

22
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
in the same words. Besides these, identical familiar similies, metaphors, and analogies drawn from gods, men, animals, physical phenomena and the daily incidents of life are found in them. The general character of the language (Ardha-Magadhi, Brahmi lipi) and phraseology used by the authors of all the canonical works are the same, for they are written on the same foundations of phrases and proverbs and the same ground of literary allusions and laid on the same plan. Thus it is found that a caitya where the holy teachings of Lord Mahāvīra took place was followed by a city-scene from where the people came forth to the caitya to attend the religious discourse of the Master, e. g a stream of peoples of Ksatriyakundagrāma made pilgrimage to Lord Mahāvira during his stay at the Bahusalaka caitya.
All the canonical works refer to similar social conditions, customs and manners, dresses and ornaments, etc.
Examples of parallel statements as found in the BHS and other canonical works :
The BhS once makes reference to the Samavayanga Sutra in connection with the number of Kulakaras, that of Tirthankaras, etc. in the Avasarpini kāla as already mentioned. "Jambuddive.........kai kulagarā......... jaha Samaväe......tahā
neyavva."
There occur references in this canonical work to the Aupapātika Sutra in regard to the following topics for their detailed treatment..
(1) Mahaśilakanṭaka Sangrama and preparation of king Kunika for this war.
"Tae nam se Kūņie rāyā......mangalajayasaddakayaloe evam jahā Uvāvāie jāva uvāgacchitta Udayim hatthirayam duruḍhe".
"Tae nam se Kūņie rāyā......hārotthayasu kayaraiyavacche jaha Uvavāie jāva seyavaracāmarahim, etc."
2 Ib. 7, 9, 300.
1 Bhs 5, 5, 203.

Page #48

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
23
(2) The pilgrimage of the people or Ksatriyakuņdagrāma to Lord Mahāvīra during his stay at the Bahuśālaka caitya.
“Uggā, Bhogā......jāva Ņhāyā jahā Uvavāie jāva nigga
cchamti."'1
(3) Bath and decoration of Jamālī for pilgrimage to the Master,
"Tae nam se Jamālī......kayabalikamme jahā Uvaväie parisā vannao tahā bhāņiyavvam jāva camdaņākinna
gāyasarire.............................. pajjuvāsai."
(4) Preparatory ceremony of Jamālī before the leaving of the worldly life.
“Klattiyakundaggāmam nagaram sabbhimtara-bāhiriyam
.........ovālittam jahā Uvavāie jāva paccappiņamti."3 "Ime aţthatthamangalagā purao ...... puņņakalasabhim
gāram jabā Uvavāie jāva gaganatalamaņulihanti”. "Purao a hānupuvvīe sampațțbiyā evam ja bā Uvavāie
taheva bhāņiyavvam jāva sampaţthiyā."4
(5) The pilgrimage of the prince to Lord Mahāvīra for initiation.
"Tadanaṁtaram ca ņam bahave Uggā ...jabā Uvavāie
jāva sampațțhiyā.” "Pahesu bahave atthatthiyā jahā Uvavāie jāva abhi
namdamtā, etc." “Tae se nam se Jamāli nayaņamālāsahassehim picchi
jjamāņe................ ......evam jahā Uvavāie
Kūņio jāva niggacchati etc."
(6) The undertaking of asceticism by king Śiva of Hastinā pura and the Vānaprastha Tāpasas, "Je ime Gangākūle vāņapatthā Tāvasā bbavamti tam hottiyā .....viharaṁti jahā Uvavāie Jāva...viharaṁti."
(7) Coronation ceremony of prince Śivabhadra performed by his father, king Śiva of Hastināpura.
1 BLS. 9, 33, 383. 4/6, 9, 33, 385.
16, 9, 33, 383. 6 16, 9, 33, 385.
8.16, 9, 33, 385. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #49

24
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. I “Sivabhaddam Kumāram Jaeņam vijaeņam badd hāyemti ..................jahā Uvavāie Koņiyassa Jāva Paramāum
Pālayāhi.”
(8) The deliberation of the people of Hastināpura and the royal sage, Śiva on the presence of Lord Mahāvīra at the Sahasrāmravana of this city.
“Tam mahāphalam khalu......nāmagoyassa jahā Uvavāie
jāva gahaņayāe." (9) The state of liberation of beings. "Goyamã vayarosabha-nārāyasangha yaņe sijjbamti
evaih jaheva Uvavāie taheva... .....parivasaņā:"8
(10) Ammaďa, the Parivrājaka and his seven hundred disciples.
"Teņam kāleņaṁ.........Ammaďassa parivvāyagassa satta a mtevāsīsayā Gimhakāla-samayamsi evam jalā Uvavāie
jāva ārāhagā."4 "Bahujane ņam bharte annamannassa..... Gharasae jahā Uvavāie Ammadassa vattavvayā jāva dadhappainno amtam kābiti.':5
The Bhs makes mention of the Rājapraśniya Sutra several times in connection with the following subjects for their detailed discussion in the latter, viz. the description of īsānavatansaka-vimāna, equality of the soul of an elephant and that of a Kunthu? (insect), division of knowledge, conse. cration ceremony of Jamālī,9 description of the palanquin to carry Jamali to the Bahuśāluka caitya for his initiation to be conducted by Lord Mahāvīra,10 Saudharma-council of Sakra,'ı the accounts of Śivabbadra, the son of king Śiva and queen Dhārini of Hastivāpura, the initiation of prince Mahābala like Kesiswāmī, is the description of the residence of Camara
i Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 Ib, 14, 8, 529. ? Ib, 7, 8, 294. 10 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. 13 |b, 11, 11, 431.
? Ib, u, 9, 418. $ 16, 14, 8, 530. $ 16, 8, 2, 318. 11 16, 10, 6, 407.
8 Ib, 11, 9, 419. 6 10, 3, 1, 144. 9 16, 9, 33, 385. 12 1b, 11, 9, 417,

Page #50

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
25
cañcā of Asurarāja Camara as compared to a rest house! and the account of the social position of Kārttikadatta of Hastināpura.'
The Bhs makes reference to the Jīvābhigama Sūtra in relation to the topics on the number of infernal worlds, pratisthāna (establishment) and Sunsthana (figure)* of Kalpaloka, Samayakşetras (human world), description of Lavaṇasamudra upto Lokasthitió (order of the universe), Jyotiska," Cakravāla of Lavana-Sumudra. Vikurvana (transformation) of infernal beings, six kinds of Samsāra-samīpannaka-jīvas (worldly beings),10 Yoni-Sangraha (place of birth)," duration of the state (or mode) of knowledge of all Jnānīs and Ajntānīs (knowers' right knowledge and wrong knowledge),12 the number of the moons upto stars in Jambidvāpa,19 in Lavana--Samudra,19 in Dhātakī. kchanda. Kalodadhi-Puskaravaradvīna. Abhyantara-Puškarārddha,' thus in all islands and seas upto Sayambhūramana,16 Antardvī pa upto those human beings as stated to be devalokaparigrahitas, the number of chief queens of the moon18 (namely, Candraprabhā, Jyotsnāprabhā, Arcimālī, Prabhar karā), Ekarukadvīpa and its location upto Suddhadantadvipale, the account of Jambidvāpa island, Lavana-Samudra etc., seas and their respective shapes extent upto that of Sayambhuramana20 the number of infernal worlds and their respective sizes?, existence of beings in these hells23, living conditions and experience of infernal beings in hells24, the account of the shape of island-seas except Jyotiska-mandala upto transformation in Jiva-upapāta (birth of beings) upto infinite times and Nigoda (minutest living beings); all these subjects are referred to in the Jīvābhiguma Sūtra for their detailed treatment.
1 Bhs, 13, 6, 490. 4 Ib, 2, 7, 115. 7 11, 3, 9, 179. 10 I1, 7, 4, 281. 19 1b, 9, 2, 363.
1b, 9.2; 363 (4). 19 Ib, 10, 34, 408. 33 16, 13, 4, 476. 25 16, 19, 6, 651.
- 16, 18, 2, 618. 6 Ib, 2, 9, 117. 8 Ib, 16th P.5, 2, 183. 11 16, 7, 5, 282. 14 Ib. 9, 2, 363 (4). 17 11, 9, (30-ff)-369. 20 10, 11, 9, 418. 29 16, 13, 4, 478. 28 16, 25, 5, 749,
8 16, 2, 3, 98. 6 Ib, 3, 3, 153. 9 lb, 5, 6, 209. 12 16, 8, 2, 323. 15 1b, 9, 2, 363(4), 18 1b, 10, 5, 406. 21 11, 12, 3, 444. 24 16, 14, 3, 509.

Page #51

26
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. I
The Bhs once makes mention of the Jambuddiva Pannatti in reference to the account of the globe for its detailed description.
"Evam Jambuddivapaņņattī bhāņiyavvā jāva evameva ..., coddasa-salilā saya sahassā-bhavaṁtīti mak khāyā'?.
There occurs the maximum number of allusions in this canonical work to the Pannavanā Sutta than to any other U pāngas in regard to the following subjects for their treatment in details, viz. the breathing and food of infernal beings, the particles of matter of Asurakumāra, Lesya, Antakriyāpadu', eight Karma-prakrtise, Utpāda-viraha of infernal beings in hells", Samuighāta-Samudghāta (expansion of soul,', Indriyas (senseorgans,°, Bhāsāpadu (speech or language):, Sthāna (section) of gods", dwelling places of enjoyment of Asurakumāras", leśyāpadu upto knowledge's, Leśyānārı anya-anyam.parināmam (Transformation of condition of soul)?.
Next the Bhs makes reference to the Prajñāpanā Sūtra in regard to the following topics on food of beings, Jhāni, Ajnāni and Jhānyajñānī and their comparative numbers, many kinds of SanIchyāta-pivita plants (having numberable germs of life) and many kinds of one-seeded and many-seeded plants", seven infernal worlds and Isat prāgbhāra and caramadi18, (last or not last), Kriyās (actions)19, Prayogagati (movement of action) upto Vihāyagatzo, Avagāhanā (extension), Sansthāna (figure) and Audarika-śarīra-prayogabandha (binding of karma by physical action) of beings'l, Avagāhanā (extension) upto manusya-āhāraka. śarīra-prayogabandha, Ekendriya-taija8a-śarīra-prayoyabandha, such
1 Bh8, 9, 1, 362. i Ib, 1, 1, 9.
9 1b, 1, 1, 15. 4 16, 1, 2, 22.
5 10, 1, 2, 24, 16, (23 pada of pannā), 1,4,58. I6, 1, 10, 82; see Pannā-vyut krāmti kapada.
16, 2, 2, 97; see pannavanā, Samudghātapada. 9 16, 2, 4, 99 (see 1st uddesaka of pannavanā). 10 lb, 2, 6, 114 (see Bhāṣāpada of pannavanā). 11 16, 2, 7. 115 (see Sthānapada of pannavanā). 12 Ib, 3, 2, 142. 13 16, 4, 9, 174 (see 3rd uddeśaka of pannavanā). 14 16, 4, 10, 175 (see 4th uddesaka of Pannavana). 15 16, 6, 2, 232. 16 16, 8, 2, 323.
17 16, 8, 3, 324. 18 16, 8, 3, 326.
19 I6, 8, 4, 327. 24 16, 8, 7, 338, 21 Į6, 8, 9, 348. 22 I6, 8. 9, 349,

Page #52

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
as, Avagahana-Samsthāna (extension and figure) upto Anuttaropapātika upto bandha (bondage), kinds of Audārikaŝarīra (gross physical body), Yoni (birth-place), Vedana (feeling) and its kinds upto the experience of pain or pleasure or pain-cumpleasure by infernal beings', Bhiksupratima (a kind of vow), birth of plant-bodied beings upto Isan, food of beings born in Utpala, food of plant-bodied beings, udvarttan (death) of Utpala (water-lily) and its rebirth, the duration of gods", Bhavadevas upto the death of Asurakumaras1o, birth of Bhavyadravyadeva from the different states of existence upto the Anuttaropapāttika", the birth of Bhavanavāsi gods", Paricāraṇā (movement), Anantarāhārā and Nirvartana (binding of karma) of infernal beings13, six chadmasthika-smudghatas-upto Åhārakasomudghata1, and eight Karma-prakṛtis 15.
Then the Bhs alludes to the Prajñāpana Sutra in reference to the following subjects for their detailed treatment, viz. food of infernal beings, Jivaparināma and Ajivaparināma (transformation of beings and non-beings)17, such as, (1) Indriyaparināma, etc. (2) Bandhapariņāma, (3) Gatipariņāma, etc., rebirth of Gośāla as Godha-Nakula (allegator and mongoose) upto four footed animal, upto insect of cow-dung many times, feeling (experience) of eight Karma-prakṛtis, Upayoga (consciousness)11
1 BhS, 8, 9, 350.
2 lb, 10, 1, 395 See the whole Avagahana samsthāna).
8 Ib, 10, 2, 397 (see the whole Yonipada of Pannavana).
1 Ib, 10, 2, 398. (See the whole vedanapada of Pannavana). Ib, 10, 2, 399. (See Bhiksu pratimā).
6 Bhs, 11, 1, 409 (See Vyutkrantika pada of Pannavana). Ib, 11, 1, 409. (Thāraka uddesaka of Pannavana).
8 Ib, 11, 1, 409. (See Vyutkräntika pada of Pannavaṇā). 916, 11, 11, 427 (Sthitipada of Pannavana).
10 Ib, 12, 9, 495 (See Vytkrāntika-pada of Pannavaṇā). 11 Ib, 12, 9, 462 (
12 Ib, 13, 3, 473 (
13 Ib, 13, 3, 474 (Pannavana-34.)
14 Ib, 13, 10, 499.
15 Ib, 13, 8, 497 (Bandhasthiti 18 Ib, 13, 5, 488 (Panna, 28, 1). 18 Ib, 15, 1, 560.
20 Ib, 16, 3, 571 (Panna),
do

uddesaka of pannavaṇā).
17 Ib, 14, 4, 514 (Panna, 13). 19 Ib, 15, 1, 566.
21 Ib, 16, 7, 583 (Panna).
27

Page #53

28
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
[Ch. Í
Avadhi (transcendental knowledge)', the power of a chadmas
to perceive the division of dissociated karma-matters." Kusāyas (passions), six leśyās (conditions of soul)," lesyās", the absorption of food by the earth-bodied beings having infinite parts, birth of the earth-bodied beings and others, the death of earth-bodied beings, and the birth, duration and death of the fire bodied beings'.
The Bhs next deals with the plant's life with reference to the Prajslāpanā Sūtra in regard to the birth of different species of plants, such as, śāli, brīhi (a kind of rice), wheat, barley etc., Vintaki (brinjal), etc.". pūsaphali Kālingi, tumbi, trapuri, etc. and balunki, etc.", receiving of food-matter by beings upto sometimes five directions, substance having one and two parts received by beings upto asthita (non-constant) substances without succession”, the account of smallness and muchness of infernal beings upto gods and the perfect ones (siddhas) with paticagati-samāsa's, five kinds of body-Audārika upto Kārmana, paryāya (modes)", the birth of Ksudraka-krtayugma infernal beings from the different states of existence18, that of Ksudrakatryoja-infernal beings, that of Kronaleśyā-leșudraka-krtayugmainfernal beings, that of Dhūmra-upto-Adhaḥsaptamä-krşņaleśya-ksudraka-kertayugma-infernal beingslthe udvarttana (death) of Kșudraka-Krtayugma-infernal beings", Svasthāna (own place or section) of the gross-earth bodied beings in eight prthivīs upto that of fine plant-bodied beings a3, the former place of birth of one sensed
i Bhs, 16, 10, 589. ? 16, 18, 3, 620 (Panna). 3 16, 18, 4, 625. 4 Ib, 19, 1, 649. 6 Ib, 1, 650 (Garbhoddesaka of Pannavana). 6 Bh8, 19,1, 651 ; (Ahāroideśaka-Pannavanā--1). 7 1b, 19, 1, 651 ; (V yutkrāntikapada-Pannavanā).
8
Ib,
do
9 lb,
do 10 16, 21, 1, 688.
do 11 16, 22, 4, 692
12 Ib, 22, 6, 692. 16, 25, 2, 723 ; (Tharaka-uddesaka of Pannavanā). 14 16, 25, 2, 723; (Bhäsāpada of Pannavaņā). 15 16, 25, 2, 733; 16 16, 25, 4, 738 ; (the whole farirapada of Pannavanā). 17 10, 25, 5, 746; (Par yayapada of Pannavana). 18.19, Ib, 31, (1.8) 829.
20 16, 31, 2, 830. 21 16, 31, 2,830. 22 Ib, 32, 1, 842. 23 16, 34, 1, 851,

Page #54

Sec
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
29
beings, that of the earth bodied beings, the existence of the life, samudghāta, (expansion of soul), Svasthāna (own place or state) of those developed gross, and undeveloped and fine earth-bodied beings, the former place of birth (or state of existence), of krtayugma-two-sensed beings, the birth of Krtayugma beings', that of Rāśiyugma-krtayuyma-beings upto the Vaimānikas.
The Bhs tbrice makes mention of the Nandi Sūtra in connection with the following topics for their detailed treatment, viz. theory of knowledge and the knowing power of the Jhānīs (knowers of right knowledge) thus :
sam jinam annāņiehim micchadiţthiehim jahā Namdīe
jāva catlāri Vedā Saigovamgä”i se samāsao cauvvihe paņņatte, tamjahā-davvao 4 ............... jāva bhāvao davyao nam ohināņi rūvidavvāim jāņai pāsai jabā Naṁdie jāva bhāvao."?
"Se samāsao cauvvile pannatte, tamjahā.davvao 4, davvao ņam ujjumati aņamte anamtapadesie jabā Namdie jāva bhāvao."8
In this fifth Anga there occur two references to the Anuyoyadvāra in regard to the subjects-Pramāņa (valid knowledge) and its classification, the state of soul and its divisions for their further discussion.
"Pamāṇe cauvvihe paņņatte, tam jahā.paccakkhe aņumāņe ovamme āgame, jahā Aņuyogadāre tahā ņeyavvam pamāņam jāva teņa paraṁ no attāgame no aņamtarā.
game paramparāgaine."'9 "Chavvihe bhāve paņņatte.Udaie uvasamie jāva sannivāie, udaie bhāve duvihe paņņatte, tamjahā, udaie udayanipphanne ya evam eeņam abhilāveņam jahā Aņuyogadare
1 Bhs, 34, 1, 851. : Ib, 34, 2, 852 (Sthana pada of pannavana). 8 16, 40, (1), 866 (Vyutkrantika pada of pannavaņā). 4 10, 41, 1, 867 (
Do 6 16, 41, (2), 867 (Vyat. kr. pada).
8 16, 8, 2, 318. 7 1b, 8, 2, 322. $ 16, 8, 2, 322. 9 1b, 5. 4, 193.

Page #55

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
channāmam taheva niravasesam bhāņiyavvam jāva se
tam sa nuivāie bhāve."
The Bhs only once makes mention of the Ävasyaka Sutra in connection with the request of Jamāli for permission of his parents to undertake the state of houselessness.
"Khalu jāyā Niggamthe pāvayaņe sacce anuttare kevale
jahā Avassae jāva savvadukkhāṇama mtaṁ karemti."
All these evidences clearly show that the fifth Anga is closely inter-related to the other Angas and Upāngas in regard to its varied contents, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, different systems of religion, contemporary history, Cosmology, Cosmography, Geography evolution of Jaina Philosophical Thought, Language, style, etc., as they are laid on a common plan.
Bhs, 17, 1, 594
· 16, 9, 33, 384.

Page #56

SECOND CHAPTER
Authorship and date of the Bhs. Examination of its internal and external evidences, such as, linguistic and literary as well as historical.
FIRST SECTION Authorship and date of the BhS:
As already discussed in the first section of the first chapter, the Bhs, stands as the fifth Anga in the list of the twelve Gani pitakas (Angas) which form the oldest part of the seven divisions of the Agamas as settled in the Vallabhi Council (Vallahhi-vācana).
In regard to their authorship and date, the Jain tradition says that after the demise of Lord Mahāvīra, Gautama Indrabhūti and Sudharman Swāmin became the heads of the Nirgrantha order in succession and continued the line without disturbance in the organization. It was Sudharman Swāmin who transmitted the sacred instructions of the Agamas to sambū Swāmin, as it is learnt from the fact of the mention of his name in the beginning of this canonical work as its author.1
The tradition as recorded in the Sthaviravali Carita' avers that some two centuries after the demise of the Master a terrible famine lasting for twelve years took place in Magadha at the time of Candragupta Maurya and consequently half the community accompanied by the king under the headship of Bhadrabāhu moved off near the sea in between 299-296 B.C., while the other portion remained in Magadha.
The Magadhan community under the presidency of Sthūlabhadra called a council of monks in Pataliputra early in the third century B. C. This council collected and fixed the canon of the Jaina sacred literature comprising eleven Angas
1 Bhs, See the beginning Gāthā of invocation. In regard to the succession the Svetāmbara tradition does not include
the name of Gautama Indrabhūti as the Pontiff. ? Sthavīrāvali Carita, Ninth Sarga 55, 59,

Page #57

32
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. II
and fourteen Purvas (which were included in Diṭṭhivão) in the absence of Bhadrabahu. They were not committed to writing but were still preserved in the memories of the monks till eight centuries later in the year 980 or 993 A. V. they were reduced to writing. On his return with his followers Bhadrabahu found the change in the Nirgrantha order that the Magadhan monks put on clothes, so the difference of opinions. about the religious rules arose between the two groups of ascetics. But there was no immediate schism at once till the final separation took place in 79 or 82 A.D. according to the Digamburas and the Swetambaras1 respectively.
The canons collected and fixed by the council of Pataliputra were in an unsatisfactory state. So the redaction of them was made in the council of Valabhi under the presidency of Devarddhi Ganin-the Kṣamäśramata in 980 A.V. (or 9)3) corresponding to 454 A. D. (or 467 A. D.), as the date is incorporated in the Kalpa Sutra." The council seems to have been connected in some way with a public recitation of the Jina carita -the life of Lord Mahavira before Dhruvasena of Anandapura. It is known that Dhruvasena of Valabhi succe. eded to the throne in 525 A.D., so the date of the council of Valabhi was the beginning of the sixth century A .D. when the canon was written down; since then there was no interpolation in the sacred texts.
According to other tradition the redaction of the canon was effected thirteen years after in 993 A.V. at the hands of a council in Mathura under the presidency of Skandilācārya."
The Digambara tradition says that the only surviving pieces of the original Jaina Canon of the twelve Angas are preserved in the works-Kamma-Pahuḍa and Kasaya-Pahuḍa popularly known as Dhavala and Jayidhavala Siddhantas from the names of their commentaries respectively. It is stated in
1 Uvasaga-dasão-Dr. Hornle, p. ix.
2 Kalpa Sutra (Jacobi) S. B. E. 5th Lec., p. 269.
3 Comm. on Yogasñstra, p. 207.

Page #58

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
33
the introductory part of Dhavalal that the teachings of Lord Mahāvīra were arranged into twelve Angas by his disciple Gautama Indrabhūti and they were transmitted from preceptor to disciple by the verbal recitation till gradually they fell successively into oblivion. Only some portions of them were known to Dharasena who passed time by practising austerities in the Chandra Guphā of Girinagara in the land of Saurāstra (modern Kathiawār). Having felt the necessity of preserving the knowledge, he taught to two sages, who later become celebrated as Puspadanta and Bhūtabali, portions of the fifth Anga:Viāhapanạıtti and of the twelfth Anga Ditthivāda. These fragmentary works were subsequently committed to writing in Sūtra form by these two famous disciples of Dharasena ; the former composed the first 177 Sutras and the latter reduced the rest to writing, the total number of sūtras being 6000. This was done soon after Lohācārya, who was the last of the Sruta-jñānīs and lived upto 683 years after the Nirvāṇa of Lord Mahāvīra, which took place according to the statement of the commentator, Vīrasena, 605 years before the beginning of the Saka era."
To continue the Svetāmbara tradition Devarddhi Ganin arranged the canons in order with the help of scholars after a collection of available MSS. and took down from the mouth of the theologicians such texts as had no MSS. Many copies were made to supply the seminaries. So his edition of the Siddhantas is only a redaction of the sacred texts which existed before his time in nearly the same form, although there might have been some interpolations made by the redactors. But much of it is genuinely old, even though a disparity is found in it, as it has undergone change with the march of time.
From this tradition it may be said with a tolerable certainty that the Viyāhapannatti, as it now exists, was also committed to writing in the same council along with the other canonical works.
Introduction to Şarkhandāgama, p.1, Dr. H.L.Jain, M.A.,LL.B.,
D. Litt. ? Saskhandügama, Vol. 1 Introduction, p. 13 ff. 8 Cf. Jacobi, Kalpa Sutra, p. 30

Page #59

34
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. II
Thus there are found three stages of the development of the BKS and the other canonical works, first, they were derived from the teachings of Lord Mahāvīra and given a shape of Grantha by the composition of Sudharman Swāmin and then they were transmitted by him to Jambū Swāmin ; in the second stage they were collected and fixed in the Pāšaliputra Council and in the third stage they were codified by the Vallabliż council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gaộin as the tradition says. Origin and development of the BhS:
It appears from the traditions as embodied in the BAS itself that the core of its ideas of philosophy and thoughts of the previous Tirthañkaras existed long before the time of Lord Mahāvīra in association with the other Aryas, but they generally refer to the Purvas as the original scriptures. As regards the tradition there may be the truth that the core of its contents and subject-matter existed in the distant past and came down to the time of the Master, for its form is so much associated with the time and place, occasion, history and performance that the entire environment appears to be post-Mahāvīra. The mention of king Seņiya and queen Cellanā of Rajagrha," king Kūņiya of Campā', the president-king of Vaiśālī, king Udayana of Kausāmbīs, king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra" and king Śiva of Ilastināpura', that of the Non-Aryans, foreign peoples, like the Āratīs, Singhalās, Pārasīs, etc., the record of the first schism led by Jamālī? and the legend of Gośāla Mankhaliputra®--all these facts support the above contention that they have been incorporated into this canonical work later on.
As already pointed out in the first chapter the evidence of the Samavāyānga shows that the Viyaha-Pannatti had not yet attained half of its present size at the time of the former, as there is the mention of 84,000 padas in this work instead of 1,84,000 padas as recorded in the latter. Besides, the tradition expressly acknowledges the additions of certain portions called Vivāha Cūlāh (appendices) to the fifth Anga. i bhs, 1.1, 4.
2 Ib, 7, 9, 300. 3 16, 12, 2. 441. 4:10, 13, 6, 491.
5 1b, 11, 9, 417. 61b, 9, 33, 380. ? 16, 9, 33, 386-7. 8 16, 15, 1, 539-61.

Page #60

35
Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
It has been observed in the first and second sections of the first chapter that the BhS stands as the fifth Anga in original form. But so far as the text is concerned, the chronological order has not been maintained except in one case of the Samavāyānga Sütru, for parallel references occur in the works of the Upānga group', viz. Aupapātika Sütra, Rajapraśniya Sūtra, Jivābhigama Sūtra, Jambūdvīpa Prajslapti and Prairāpanā Sūtra and even in the two miscellaneous texts-- Nandi Sūtra and Anuyogadvāra Sūtra and also in the Avaśyaka Sútra.
Thus it is apparently clear that the BKS was not complet. ed before they were codified, as it is evidenced by the fact of the forms of the words and sentences of its reference to those texts.
The study of certain stereotyped descriptions, the epithet ornantia, the so-called •Vannao' (Varņaka) as already mentioned in the first chapter reveals that the Bhs had undergone a complete transformation till it attained its present size, having suffered loss of forms of words. but gained an additon of new contents to it with the march of time. Date of the BhS:
The internal evidences of the Bhs as already mentioned show that the core of the contents of the subject-matter of this canonical work, according to the tradition recorded in it, existed along with the other Angas during a period anterior to that of Lord Mahāyira, but the entire environment of it is post-Mahāvīran. So a truly synthetic view should be formed to determine its date by taking into consideration all the internal and external evidences as far as possible.
The date of the complete Bhs as it stands to-day, cannot be assigned to a period later than the beginning of the sixth century A. D. on the basis of the historical data. But one may look back to the period of the sixth century B. C. on the same
i Vide Supra Ch. I, Sec, 2.

Page #61

36
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. Ii
ground of its internal historical evidences that with the exception of the portions incorporated later on, the parts of the records of the pilgrimage of king Seņiya-Bimbisāra and queen Cellanā? to Lord Mahāvira, king Kūnika, two wars, viz. Mahasila. kantaku Sangrāma’ and Rathamusala Sangrāma", fought between the Magadhan king and the Vaišalian confederation of nine Mallakiss, nine Licchavis, Kāść, Košala and their eighteen Ganarājas (republican chiefs) led by the president-king Ceța ka, king Udayana of Kausāmbz'. king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra and Mahāsena" (of Avantā ?) were definitely finished as early as by this time, i. e. the 6th century B. C.
Mahāvīra refers to the existence of the followers of Lord Pārsvunātha's order, Munisuvrataand Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tīrthankara whose religious activities were known and remembered by him. But there is nothing to show from the historical events, time, place, etc, as recorded in the BhS except the specific statements that the date of this canonical work can be pushed back to a period before the sixth century B. C.
Further, the record of the corpus of the Brāhmaṇical literature in the Bhs such as, the four Vedas, Itihāsa, etc., prescribed as the courses of study shows the delimitation of the date of its origin along with the other canonical texts.
It is also recorded in the Kalpa Sutrało that even Lord Mahāvīra was taught these prescribed courses of study in his boyhood, but not the twelve Angus, etc. of the Nirgrantha order.
The use of the title Anga' to signify the oldest works of the canon suggests the same period of the BLS along with the other Angas as that of the Vedic Angas and Upāngas as evidenced in this canonical text.
1 BhS, 1, 1, 4. 16, 7, 9, 300. 4 10, 12, 2, 441. 6 Vide infra Ch. VII, Sec, 8. 8 10, 11, 11, 431. 10 Kalpa Sätra 1st lecture, S.B.E., p. 221,
816, 7, 9, 301.
11, 13, 6, 491. 7 Bhs, 18, 2, 618. • Ib, 2, 1, 90.

Page #62

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
"Riuvveda......cauṇham vedāņaṁ saṁgovaṁgāṇarh sarahassaṇam sārae."
Moreover, it should be taken into account that the title Upanga' has been attributed to the second group of the Jaina canon as arranged in the Vallabhi Council.
The references occurring in the BhS to some Indian Non-Aryan peoples (tribes) and foreign nationals, such as, Cilātikas (Kiratas), Barbarikās (Barbara), Isiganikās, Drāvidīs (Drāviḍa), Lhasiyās (Lhāsikas), Lausiyas (Lausikās), Pulindis (Pulinda), Pukkhalis (Puskala), Sabaris (Sabara), etc., and (foreign peoples), like Jonhikäs, Palhavikās, Arabis, Singhalis, Murundis and Pārasis and others, leads one to assign the date of this canonical text with a tolerable certainty to a period extending from the sixth century B. C. up to the sixth century A. D. during which they might have been recorded in it as evidenced by the facts of their social relation and racial synthesis.
The mention of the Persian female attendants in this list clearly shows the synchronism of the BhS with the period of the Achamenid Persion rule in North-West-India and that of Lord Mahāvīra in the sixth century B.C., while the reference to the Jonhiyas (Yavanas), Valhikās (Bactrians), Murundas (Sakas), Palhavikās (Parthians), reveals the marked stages of the development of this canoncial work, as the successive periods of the advents of the Greeks, Bactrian Greeks, Šakas and Parthians fall in the fourth, second & 135 B.C.'s and the first century A.D. respectively.
37
The ancient Indo-Ceylonese relation goes back to the period of Vijaya Simha and Aśoka and the latest evidence of the epigraphic records of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta points to this relation again established during the Gupta rule.
1 Kalpa-Sutra, 2, 1, 91.
3 Vide infra Ch. VIII Sec. 4.
Allāhābād Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.

2 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. • Ib.

Page #63

38
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Ch. If
The mention of the Arabis forms another sheet anchor which has not yet been found in any earliest literature of India except in the Greek topographical account the Periplus of the Erythraen Sea"" and the Nausāri grant of Avanījñaśraya, the governor of Pulakeši II. This evidence of the Periplus indicates a period far anterior to that of the first century A. D. before their actual advent to India and establishment of their rule in Sindhu in the sixth and seventh centuries A, D. respectively. The references to the Arabs thus point to an ante Islamic period in which Arabia and India were closely related by commercial bonds, as it is fully justified by the mention of the Arabian female attendants with their national costumes for the first time in the Bhs. The commercial relation of the Arabs with the Western coast of India in the first century A. D. is corroborated by the peri plus of the Erythræan sea.
The reference to 'Oinarsuya' (Cīnāmśuka), Chinese silken cloth in this canonical text suggests the Indo-Chinese trade-relation which probably began in the first century A. D. or long before that time.
The evidences of the astronomical and astrological conception--the sun, the moon, the planets, etc, and the absence of any allusion to the zodiac, showing no trace of Greek Astronomy in the Bhs should be taken into consideration to determine its date. The Naks:utras and the Vedic quinquennial Yuga still were current during the period of this work. All these facts point to a date of this fifth Anga anterior to the Greek period at least for this part of the text.
All these historical data lead one to the conclusion that the core of the contents and subject-matter of the Bhs existed long before the time of Lord Mahāvīra and it was developed with the passage of time till it attained the final shape of its present size in writing along with the other can onical works in the beginning of the sixth century A. D, at the Vallabhi Council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gamin, the Kşamāśramaņa.
1 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Schoff L. No. 36, p. 36. ? See the section on tribes and races in the eighth chapter. 3 Bhs, 9, 33, 380.
.

Page #64

Sec. 117
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
39
SECOND SECTION Analysis of the contents :
The name of the fifth Anya is Viyahapannatti and this work is variously designated by the titles-Bhagavatı Viyahapannatti, Bhagavati, l'iāhapunnattii, Vivāhapannatti and Pannatti'. In each case was added to it the epithet Bhagavati' which indicated reverence for it (iyam ca Bhagavatītyapi pūjyatvenābhidbiyate) and later on it became the title of the whole work.
Śri Abhayadeva Sūris has given ten different meanings of the title “Viāhapannatti' in his commentary and equated it with the following Skt. words, viz., Vyākhyāprajfapti, V'yākhyā. prajapti, Vitahapra lapti, Vuahaprajapt, Vivadhapphapi and Vivādhaprajñāpti. Arrangement of the work :- .
The fifth Anga is arranged into Satakas, Udde sakas and Sūtras successively. The word "Sac (Šata or Śataka) used in the beginning of the second Sutakı suggests 'hundred', but there are found no proprieties in the present arrangement of this work. One is not able to explain its exact meaning because the extant forms have lost their significance. According to Śrī Abhayadeva Śūri this word "Sai' denotes Adhyayana (chapter) (Sate granthāntaraparibhāṣayā adhyayane). In the commentary on the Samavāyāng Sutra he, while interpreting the statement "Vivāhapannattie ekāsītiin mahäjummasayā pannattā'? makes it more clear that Adhyayana is called by the word "Sata'.
“Vyākhyāprajña pa tyāmekāśitirmahāyugmaśatāni prajñaptāni, iha ca "Sata sabdenādhyayanānyucyan te, tāın krtayugmādi lakṣmaṇarāśiviseşavicārarūpāņi atrāntarādhyayanasvabhävāni tadayagamāvaga myāniti".
i Samavāyanga S, 81. ? Antagadadasão (vagga VI para-2); Vivāga Suya
(Suyakkhandha, 1, ajjhayana 2). 3 Bhs, (Comm.) p. 1 a. 4 Vide Schubring. Die Lehre Der Jainas, 1953, p. 63. * Bhs, (Comm.), P. 17--2. • Bhs., (Comm.), p. 5. ? Samavāyānga, S. 81.
$ 16, (Comm.) pp. 886-89 ą.

Page #65

40
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. II
Uddeśaka means division of chapter.
"Adhyayanārthadeśābhidhāyino adhyayanavibhāgāḥ, uddiśyante upadbānavidhinā sişyasyācāryeņa yathā etāvantamadhyayanabhāgamadhiśvetyevamuddesasta evoddeśakāḥ."
The word "Sūtra' (Sutta) means the abbreviated form of the original Sülta of the Vedas, but here in the fifth Anga it has lost the old significance, because it contains the subject matter in an explanatory detailed form. Extent of the work :
According to Sri Abhayadeva Sūri the BhS's consists of 10,000 Uddeśakas, 36,000 questions and 2,88,000 Pramāņu-padas, while the Samavāyānga and Nandi Sītra* furnish the number of padas as 84,000 and 1,44,000 respectively.
At end of the MSS. of the BhS it is clearly mentioned that it contains 138 Satakas including the sub-Sutarras, 1925 Uddeśakas 1,84,000 Padas.
"Succãe Bhagavatīe aţthatīsam satam (138) satāņain, Uudesagānam culasīti.saya sa hassā padāņam, Pavaravaraņāņadamsīhim.........Paņņattā etthamamgamsi".
As regards the number of Padas and Uddeśukas the statement of this canonical work fully agrees with the actual state of the extent of the text with the exception of a slight variation in the number of Uddeśakas as there are found only 1923 Uddeśakas instead of 1925 in their specific mention in the Vidhi prapa. So the BhS, as it stands to-day in the published form after its arrangeinent, contains 41 Satakas, 1923, Uddeśakas and 868 Sūtras.
The great difference in regard to the extent of the Bhs, i. e. 1,84,000 Padas in contrast with the number of padas given by the Samavāyānga Sūtra and the Nandi Sūtra may be explained by the fact that this canonical work did not attain
1 Bhs, (Comm.), p. 5.
? Ib, (Comm),1, 1, 2. 8 Samavāyanga, 140.
4 Nandi Sutra, 49. 5 Bh8, End of MSS. 6 Vidhiprapā (v); Vide Indian Antiqnary vol. XIX.

Page #66

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
41
its present extent at the time of these two texts when the fifth Anga had 84,000 and 1,44,000 Padas respectively. Definition of Padas :
It is not clenrly explained in the commentary on the Bhs by Śri Abhayadeva Śūri what is meant by 'Pada.' In this respect the Gommațasāra' gives an explicit definition of the term •Pada' that one letter (knowledge), getting increased upto numerable letters one by one letter forms the scriptural knowledge called 'Padu' (foot).
"Eyakkharādu-uvarim egegeņā-kkhareņa vaddhamto /
Samkhejje khalu uddhe padaņāmam hodi sudaņāņam //''S
The total number of letters (Varna- Aksara' of a Pada (foot) is 1634, 83, 07, 888 (sixteen hundred thirty-four crores, eightythree lakhs and seven thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight.
“Solasasayacautīsā Koại tiyasīdilakkhayam ceva /
Sattasabassāļķhasayā atbāsīdī ya padavaņņā" //*.
In the commentary on the Gommafasāra 'Pada' has been divided into three kinds, viz., (1) Arthapada denoting foot, a union of letters which communicate some idea as "bring fire" (Agnim ānaya), (2) Pramāņa.pada (measure-foot), a fixed number of letters or syllables used "for a particular kind of combination in prose or poetry, e. g. “I bow to Lord Mahāvīra" (Namah. Śri.Varddhamānāya). Here the foot comprises letters ; constituting a fourth part of the verse of the metre called Anustupa and (3) Maddhyama pada (middle foot) consisting of 163+, 63, 07, 888 letters as mentioned above. The contents of the different Angas or parts of the scriptural knowledge in verse (gäthā) 350 and which follows''.
"Bāruttarasa yakodi-tesidi taha ya homti lakkhāņam/ Atthāvaņņasahassā pasceva padāņi Angāņam"ell.
lb.
1 Bhs (Comm.), 1, 1, 2. : Gommatasara (Jivakāņqla), p. 194, v. 335, J. L. Jainį.
Ib v, 336, p. 195, J. L. Jaini. 5 1b, Comm. 336, p. 195. • Ib, 350, p. 199,

Page #67

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRĄ [Ch. II “The total number of the middle feet in the Angas is one hundred twelve crores, eighty-three lakhs, fifty-eight thousands and five (112,83,580.05)".
The Bhs, was gradually developed and it attained its present extent of 15,750 granthāgra, 1,84,000 Padas, as it is evidenced by the fact of the reference to the Mahāyugmas just before the number of 84,000 (eighty four thousand) Padas of this canonical work as mentioned in the Samavāyānga Sūtra and also evidenced by the different proportions of the single Satakas, giving the impression of comprising later additions.
Thus it is found that the Satakas—the first to eight, twelfth to fourteenth and eighteenth to twentieth consist of ten Uddeśakas each; the ninth and tenth of thirty-four Uddeśaka: each, the eleventh of twelve Uddeśakas, the fifteenth without Uddeśaka, the sixteenth of fourteen Uddeśakas, the seventeenth of seventeen Uddesakas, the twenty-first of eighty Uddeśakas (i.e. 8 vaggas having ten Uddesakus each), the twenty-second of sixty (i.e. 6 vaggas containing ten Uddeśakas each), the twenty. third of fifty (5 vaggas with ten Uddeśakus each), the twentyfourth of twenty-four Uddeśakas, the twenty-fifth of twelve, the twenty-sixth to thirtieth of eleven each, the thirty-first and thirty-second of twenty-eight each, the thirty-third and thirtyfourth of one hundred and twenty-four each, the thirty-fifth to thirty-ninth of one hundred and thirty-two, the fortieth of two hundred and thirty-one and the forty-first of one hundred and ninety-six Uddeśakas respectively.
This canonical work gives a "detailed exposition of the doctrine of Sramana Dharma leading to Beautitude and it is the most important of all the sacred religious texts of the Jainas containing 36,000 questionsin forty-one Satalcas most of which are put in the mouth of Gautama Indrabhūti and the rest in those of other followers of Lord Mahāvīra, like Agnibhūti, Vayubhūti and others, those of the followers of Lord Pārsvanā. tha's order, like Gāngeya, Kālāsavesiyaputta, those of the other
1 BKS, (Comm.) 1, 1, 2,

Page #68

Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA Tirthikas, those of the Parivrājakas, like Skandaka, Poggala Ammada, that of Siva, the Vānaprastha tāpasa (forest recluse), those of the householders, like Sudarsana and Somila of Vānijyagrāma, the Sramanopāsaka, Pinglaka and the Sramano pāzikā Jayanti and those of Gośāla Maakhaliputra and his followers,
The first twenty Satakas constitute the essential part of the Bhs and deal with the varied subjects in irregular order, having no trace of recognizable connecting link among these Salakas in reference to the activity and teachings of Lord Mabāvīra in the form of conversations with his disciples, Gautama Indrabhūti and others on various occasions at different places.
In this connection the Master mentions a large number of legends in support of his doctrine to give a clear and concise exposition of his doctrine.
The rest consisting of the twenty-first Sataka and following up to the forty-first is a sort of supplementary to the first part: containing one-twenty Satakas. The second part consists of short treatises, independent of each other, in which the question of living beings, their species and their varied conditions are treated without reference to any legend. Each Sataka of this part bears harmonious contents, but many of the Satakus are co-related with one another, as it is evidenced by the fact that the twenty-first to the twenty-third deal with the plant's life, the twenty-fourth to the thirtieth with different conditions of living beings,-the twenty-fourth with their origin (birth), the twenty-fifth with their leśyā (conditions of soul), etc., the twenty-sixth with the binding of Karma (Karmabandha), the twenty-seventh with their process of action karmakarana kriya etc., the twenty-eighth with their sinful acts (pāpakarma), the twenty-ninth with their Karmaprasthāpanādi, the thirtieth with the four Samavasaraņas (assemblies or schools) and the thirty-first to the fortyfirst with their states during the four Yugmas (rāśis = numbers)', viz. Kitayugma, Tryoja, Diāparayugma and Kalyoja.
1 Dhavala-Tika-Samanvitah; Satlchandagaman.
Parisista, p. 43, (Index).
Pustak-16

Page #69

44
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. It
The Samavayanga Sutra records the contents of the BhS. in brief as given below:
"Viyaheņam sasamayā Viāhijjamti parasamayasasamaya parasamayā-Jīvā viā 3 loge viahijjaivivaheṇam, nänā-vihasuranarimda-raya-risi-vivihasamsaiapucchiyanam, jinenamvitthareņam, bhasiyāṇamdavva-guna-khetta-kāla pajjava-padesa-pariņāmajahacchiṭṭhiyabhāva-anuga mamkkhevaṇaya-ppamāņasuniuno
vakkama-vivihappagārapagaḍa-payasiyāņam; logālogapayāsiyāņaṁ samsārasa mudda-rumda-uttarana-samatthāṇam"Suravaisaṁpūjiyāņaṁ, bhaviyajaṇa-payahiyayābhinaṁdiyāņaṁ tamaraya-vidhamsaṇāņam, sudiṭṭha
divabhūya-ihāmati-buddhi-vaddhaṇāṇam,
Chattisasa hassa maṇūņayāņam vāgaraṇāņaṁ damsanão suyattha-bahu-viha-ppagārā”1
The study of the contents of the BS shows that the scenes of the religious discourses of Lord Mahavira and other leaders of thought are laid out in Rajagṛha (Gunaśilakacaitya), Srāvasti (Koṣṭhaka caitya), Kayangalā (Chatrapalāśaku caitya), Tungikā (Puspavati caitya), Moya (Nandana Caitya), Campā (Pūrṇabhadra Caitya), Mithila (Manabhadra Caitya), Vāṇijyagrāma (Ditipalasaka Caitya), Brahmaṇakunḍagrāma (Bahuśālaka Caitya), Hastinapura (Sahasrāmravana grove), Alabhikā (Sankhavana caitya), Kausāmbi (Chandravatarana caitya), Vitibhaya (Mrgavana), Kāmpilyapura, Mendikagrāma Sālakoṣṭha ka-caitya), Ullukatīra (Ekajambuka-caitya), and Visakha (Bahu putrikacaitya). Of these places Rajagṛha was the most important centre of the religious activities of the Master where he appeared more than sixty times and expounded the Law in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical problems raised by Gautama Indrabhuti and others.
It is revealed that out of 868 Sutras, one sutra deals with the questions of Roha to Lord Mahavira, one with those of Kalasavesiyaputta to the disciples of Lord Mahāvīra, one with
1 Samavayanga Sutra--140,

Page #70

45
Sec. If] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA those of Pingalaka to Skandaka, a parivrājaka of Srāvastī, five with those of Skandaka to Lord Mahāvīra, one with those of the Sramanopasakas of Tungikā to the Kāliyaputta and other Sthaviras of Lord Pārsvanātha's order, two with those of Agni. bhūti to the Master, one with those of Vāyubhūti to Lord Mahāvīra, two with the combined questions of Vāyubhūti and Agnibhūti to the Master, one with those of some Schaviras to him
with those of some Schaviras to him about the liberation of Atimukta Kumāra-Sramaņa, one with the questions of Nirgranthiputra to Nāradaputra and vice versa, and that of Nāradaputra to Lord Mahāvīra, one with those of the followers of Lord Pārsvanātha's order to the Master about the topic night and day, one with those of other Tirthikas to Gautama Indrabhūti and Lord Mahāvīra respectively about the doctrine of Pancāstikāya, two with those of other Tirthikas to the Sthaviras of the Master about the observance of religious rules, nine with those of Gängeya, a follower of Lord Pārsvanātha': order to Lord Mahāvīra on different topics, three with the question of initiation and undertaking of asceticism of Rsabbadatta and Devānandā to the Master: three with that of Jamālī, one with that of Jamālī and his five hundred followers at the Kosthaka Caitya on the new doctrine of Karma born in his mind, one with the debate between Jamali and Lord Mahāvīra, one with the question of Samahastin to Gautama Indrabhūti and the Master respectively; two with those of many Sthaviras of Rājagrha to Lord Mahāvīra about the number of queens of Camara, etc., two with the account of asceticism of the Vānaprastha, tāpasa Śiva and his conversion by the Master to Sramana Dharma ; nine with the questions of Sudarśana to Lord Mahāvīra on time, his former life, and his undertaking of asceticism, two with those of the Sramanopāsalas of Alabhikā to Rşibhadraputra and to the Master, one with the question of initiation of Poggala, a Parivrājaka of Åldhikā to Lord Mahāvīra, two with the observance of Pauşadhavrata as proposed by Sankha Śreşthi, a Sravaka of Srāvastz to his fellow brethern and his question to the Master, etc., three with the pilgrimage of Jayanti of Kaušāmbi of her question to Lord Mahävira and initiation by him to asceticism

Page #71

46
stubies İN THE BHAGAWATŤ SŪTRÀ
[Ch. II
of king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra to the Master, one with the account of the leaving of his son, Abhijit Kumāra for Campā and his political refuge in the court of king Kūņika, eighteen Sitras of the 15th Sataka with the accounts of the life and teachings of Gośāla Mankhaliputra, his spiritual duel with Lord Mahāvīra, his defeat and death in Srāvasti, one with that of the suffering of the Master from bilious fever in Mendhikagrama and his cure, three with the questions of Mākandikaputra to Lord Mahāvīra on the topic of bondage, etc., one with the questions of other Tirthikas to Madruka of Rājagrha a disciple of the Master on the doctrine of Astikāya, one with the dispute between other Tirthikas of Rājagļha and Gautama Indrabhūti over the question of observance of religious vows and rules and two with the questions of Somila, a proud Brahmana of Vānijyagrāma to Lord Mahāvīra on religious and philosophical problems. The remaining Sūtras of this cano. nical work treat of the questions raised by Gautama Indrabhūti. the first disciple of the Master on various subjects.
THIRD SECTION Language of the BhS :
Language of the Bhs, is called Arddha-Māgadhi which is stated to be the language of the gods and human beings in this canonical work.
Lord Mahāvira preached his doctrines of religion and philosophy to the people in this language, as it is clearly mentioned in the Samavāyānga Sutra, so that the common men could
follow the message of his holy teachings without any difficulty. . Bhagavam ca nam Addha-Māgahie Bhāsāe dhammamāikkhai."
The evidence of the Samavāyānga Sūtra is also corroborated by the Aupapātika Sūtra in which it is stated that the Master spoke to king Kūņika in this language.
1 Bhs, 5. 4. 191. ? Samavāyanga p. 60.

Page #72

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
"Tae naṁ Samane Bhagavam Mahāvire Kūnigassa ranno Bimbhisāra puttassa Addha-Māga hāe Bhāsāe bhāsai sā vi ya ņam Addha-Māgahā Bhāsā tesim savvesim ariyamanāriyāņam appaņo samāsāe pariņāmeṇam pariņa mai."
According to this instruction his contemporary Gañadhara Śri Sudharman Swāmin composed all the Sūtra-Granthas in Ardlha-Māgadhi.
"Attham bhāsai aribā, suttam gamthamti ganaharā niuņaṁ":
As already discussed in the first section of this chapter the Siddhantas were not committed to writing at the time of Sudharman Swamin, but they were preserved in memory by the recital study from preceptor to pupil. At the Pāļaliputra council under the headship of Sthūl bhadra they were collected and compiled but were not given the form in writing. It was at the Vallabhi Council under the presidency of Devarddhi Gamin-the Kşamāśramaņa they were again collected, redacted and reduced to writing in the beginaing of the six century A. D.
So the language of the Bhs and other canonical works is to be traced in Magadha in Eastern India. It is observable that the language of this fifth Anga is not uniform as the tendency of modernizing it was stopped by Devarddhi Ganin. There is the absence of self-persistent orthography of Jain Prākrta probably due to the effect of gradual entrance of the Vernacular in which the canonical texts were recited mostly and the spellings represent the original stratum; the most modern are representing the form immediately pending the redaction ; it is near Pāli than to Prākrta of Hāla, etc., e.g. bhūta-bhūya ; udaga-udaya, waya; lobha-loha.
It was provided with a good deal of peculiarities which form the characteristics of Māgadhi dialect e. g. the ending of the nominative in e, samane,' nayare, etc.
1 Aupapātika Sutra; vide Pāia Sadda Mahannavo, p. 19. * Ava Syaka Niryukti, vide Paia Sadda Mahannavo, p. 19. Bhs, 1, 1,5.
Įb, 1-1.5.

Page #73

48
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. II
The core of the language of the BhS and other canonical works is old, having its birth in Eastesn India, although the texts were codified in that dialect in Western India after 800
years transmission by the word of mouth from preceptor to pupil.
This is that they were preserved still in memory from generation to generation in original form in correct pronunciation. In this redaction a care was certainly taken by the Vallabhi Council to retain a part of the old grammatical form, as it is particularly evidenced in the ending of the Nom. Sing. Masc. of the 1st declension in ê, not ô. But a change in the original form of the language of the BhS and other sacred texts took place, as they were reduced to writing in that form which was taken by the language of the time and place of redaction for the comprehension and realization of the common people including the fools and knaves.
"Balastrimandamurkhaṇām nṛṇam caritrakankṣiņām".1 "Anugrahārtham tattvajñaiḥ śiddhanta Prākṛtah kṛtaḥ."
This influence of an inevitable change in the spoken dialect after a lapse of time on the language of the Bhs and other canonical works existing in the form of recitation was possible, as their purpose was at least to make them understandable to the people of that period.
Besides, there can be the main reason of the change in the language that after about 200 years of the demise of Lord Mahavira during the reign of Candragupta Maurya, Magadha was visited by a terrible famine lasting for twelve years when some monks of the Nirgrnutha order under the headship of Bhadrabahu moved off to the part near the sea in the south. "Itasca tasmin duşkale karāle Kalaratrivat | Nirvāhārtham sadhu-samgha-stiram niramd heryayau" (55).
Since that time the cause of inability of Pariślana (study) of the Sutra-Granthas is attributed to the fact that they were forgotten.
1 Daśavaikālika Tika of Haribhadra Suri & Kavyānusāsana of Hemachandra.
Sthaviravali-Carita, Sarga, 9.

Page #74

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
"Aguṇyamānam tu tadā sādhūnām vismṛtam Śrutam / Anabhyasanato naśyatyadhitam dhimatamapi" (56) ||.
After the famine was over they were compiled to eleven Angas but were not committed to writing at the Pațaliputra Council.
"Sangho-atha Pataliputre duşkālānte akhilo amilat/ Yadangadhyayanoddeśādyāsīd yasya tadadade" (57)|| "Tataścaikadaśāngāni Śrī sangho amelayat tada/
Dṛṣṭivadanimittam ca tasthau kiñcid vicintayan (58)//
49
Owing to these causes there appears to be a change in the language of the Bhs along with the other Sutra-Granthas, which differs from that of the original Arddha-Magadhi and agrees in some that of the so-called Jaina respect with Mahārāṣṭri.
It is possible that those monks who went to the south during the famine returned and joined the Pataliputra council in the compilation-work with the local influence of Maharastrī Prakrta.
After about eight hundred years of this ecclesiastical assembly the Vallabhi Council made further collection, compilation and codification of the sacred texts and committed them to writing by the monks, having carried the influence of different local dialects of Prakrta language due to their travellings in various parts of the country. So, there are found distinguishing marks of difference in the language of the BhS.
According to Jacobis the language of the Agamas is Jain Maharaştri, while Dr. Pischel' holds by refuting his arguments with substantial evidences that it is Arddha-Magadhi in prose and poetry coming down from generation to generation in later times. Dr. Woolner is of opinion that there is found in the canonical works a little part of Arddha-Magadhi and in
1 Sthaviravali-Carita, Sarga, 9. v. (56).
2 Sthaviravali Carita, vv. 57-58.
Kalpa Sutra, p. 17 Dr. Jacobi.
4 Introduction to comparative Grammar of the Prakrit language, Dr. Pischel., p. 16 ff.
5 Introduction to Prakrit Grammar, Dr. Woolner,
7

Page #75

50
50
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
[Ch. II
the major portion there occurs Mahārāstri; while Dr. Manmohan Ghoshhas tried to show in the introduction to his book
Karpūramañjari' that the so-called Mahārāstri is at its foundation a later form of Saurasenź which was carried to the south where it gathered some words and forms of the local Prākrta and thus it was used in literature there in course of time.
The language of the Bhs shows that it cannot be that Arddha-Magadhi, the language in which Lord Mahāvīra preached his Law to the people, for it bears the characteristics of the Middle Indo-Aryan stages of language. It may be called later Arddha-Māgadhi. It is influenced by the early Middle-Indo. Aryan stage of language (600 B. C.-200 A. D.) in which the intervocal consonants are not lost but assimilated, e. g. appa (1, 2, 21) = al pa, sappa (15, 1, 547)=sarpa and a simplification of the grammatical structure is noticeable. In the language of this canonical work there is found also a tendency to drop the intervocal consonants, e.g. nayare (1, 1, 4)= nagara, etc., which indicate the Middle-Middle (200-600 A. D.) and later Middle-Indo-Aryan (600-1000 A.D.) stages. The grammatical structure of its language is old and simple and its phonetics are much influenced by the Middle-Indo-Aryan stages, particularly the Middle-Middle-IndoAryan stage, for the language has undergone changes with the march of time. The analysis of all these facts leads to the conclusion that the language of the BKS represents the MiddleMiddle-Indo-Aryan stage.
So the contents and language of the BIS lend support to the assignment of its date to the period beginning from the sixth century B. C. to the sixth Century A. D.
FOURTH SECTION Style of the Bhs :
The style of a work is the voice of words uttered by its author, producing an effect on the feelings of the readers
1 Rarpūramañjari-Dr. M. M. Ghosh, p. 48.

Page #76

51
Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA by its action working upon their conscious minds. It may be both personal and impersonal. According to the different subject matters in writing the style of an author changes; it is descriptive when he tells something and describes a person or a thing; it is explanatory when he explains something or interpiets the underlying causes of the occurrence of a thing or an event or studies and examines some subject or persuades one to think in the light of his own thought; and it is emotive when he rouses emotions in his readers' minds and makes them happy or sorrowful or angry, etc. It is this style of a work which evokes a corresponding mood in the readers' minds by presenting its contents and treating of its subject-maiter in a clear and concise manner.
The Vedic literature begins with the metre of poetry in composing its verses, revealing prayers and hymns addressed to the powers of Nature deified thus:
"Risen in magestic blaze Lo! the universe's eye Vast and wondrous host of rays
Shineth brightly in the sky." etc.? The BhS as one of the Angas of the Agamic literature originates with prose containing thoughts and activities of various religious teachers. It is not the classical Sankrit prose, exhibiting its rich style, but it is the prose to convey the thoughts and ideas of the religious leaders through the language of the people among whom they moved. So the style of this canonical work is the style of the people, which distinguishes itself from that of the Vedic literature. Here the purpose is to teach religion to the general mass in a natural style but not in an artificial one of the Vedic verses where one is to memorize hymns of prayers.
The style of the Bhs used by its author in presentation of its different contents and in dealing with its subject-matter is of varied character, as it appears from its massiveness and
1 Hymns of the Rgveda, p. 12, Vide translation by C, Manning.

Page #77

52
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. It
ponderosity manifested in the continual repititions and cons. tantly stereotyped descriptions and forms of incorporations of materials into it, eg. “Namo Bambhie Livīe"'). “Namo suyassa,"9 “Vaņņao"3. "Samane Bhagavam Mahāvīre āigare tītthagare purisuttame, etc."
The precautions taken by Devarddhi Gaņin could not Save the text from insertions, interpolations, abbreviations, and omissions in spite of his best efforts by dividing this cano. nical work into Satakas, Uddeśakas and Sūtras successively. Its references to the parallel passages occurring in other sacred texts have frequently been made to abbreviate its volume by avoiding the continual repetitions of its contents with the connecting word 'Jāva'. Thus it has lessened descriptions ; besides there is a little variation in its forms made by alternating questions and answers without long continuation. The monotony of the sermons has thus been relieved by this deliberate interposition of dialogues and also by the presentation of its varied contents.
When the style of the Bhs is judged with an objective view, it is found that it has served its purpose in full by embodying the holy teachings of Lord Mahāvira in the form of conversations in the spoken language, as it explains "speech is the carrier of thought" (Mannāmīti ohāriņi bhāsā). It contains some literary flourishes in the form of numerous legends. parables, similes, metaphors, analogies, descriptions of persons and things, emotive prose, etc. faithfully transmitted from generation to generation and the manner of expression of the author to preach the holy teachings of Lord Mohāvira to the people. This method of explaining and interpreting the religious and philosophical doctrines made them easy, comprehensible and intelligible to the general mass for a clear conception and understanding and realization of the truth underlying them. The Master moved among all classes of people of the society, preaching his Law for their enlightenment,
i Bhs, 1, 1, 2. 5 I6, 2, 6. 113.
16, 1, 1, 3.
3 16, 1, 1, 4.
- 16, 1, 1, 5.

Page #78

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
so he took particular care to make his sermons understandable to them by drawing on the familiar incidents occurring in their day-to-day lives. For example, as a weak decrepit old man, being struck on the head with a blow received from a very strong young man feels pain, so an earthbodied being also. getting struck experiences more pain than that'.
As the glances of spectators cannot create any trouble nor cause disease nor dismemberment of the body of a dancer performing dance-drama in a theatre hall and vice versa, so the beings existing in the Universe do not create trouble to one another.
In one passage' the separate existence of individual beings in the space of the Universe has been brought to light according to the doctrine of plurality of souls.
53
Here the object of the explanatory style in prose is to explain and interpret the fundamental principles of life which govern the occurrence of things in a purest form of scientific impersonal voiceless description in order to bring out the truth.
The author makes study of truth and reality with the purpose of attaining the absolute truth with devotion according to his scheme. He searches out and gets a line of meaning in things as satisfying his inquisitive mind. Here the style of expression is scientific, but the topic of study is philosophic dealing with the concept of beings and space of the Universe. So the voice of words spoken by him is impersonally logical with a stress laid on the facts of reality.
Legends:
The auther of the BhS has utilized many legends to present the account of the predecessors of Lord Mahāvīra and also of some contemporary monks who attained Sramanahood and liberation by practising the acts of severe austerities and meditation. In these legends the following come in the lime lightMunisuvrata, Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala1,
1 Bhs, 19. 3, 654. 81b, 18, 2, 618.

2 Ib, 11, 10, 422.
4 Ib, 11, 11, 431.

Page #79

54
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. It the thirteenth Tirthankara, the followers of Lord Parsvanath's order', those of Jamali, the Vanaprastha tapasa (forest recluse), Šiva, the royal sage of Hastinapura3, the three parivrajakas, namely, Skandaka', Poggala, and Ammaḍa, and Gośāla Mankhaliputra,' the Ajivika leader. The whole fifteenth Sataka has been devoted to the legend of Gośala, his life and teachings, and the Ajivika sect. This account is presented in the form of an epilogue emerged out of the conversations between Gautama Indrabhuti and the Master. These legends throw light upon the religious conditions of the period and give a graphic account of the life and activities of various sects and their systems of thought and reveal the existence of some obscure cults with unsympathetic criticism. The way of presentation of the picture of religious firmament has brought to light the half-known and unknown life of these sects with a historical background.
The author of the BhS has also used some fictitious narratives to deduce some specific moral, e. g. the story of some merchants of Sravasti and their fate as narrated by Gośāla Mankhaliputra to Ananda, a disciple of Lord Mahāvīra to warn him against his (the Master) act of vilification of the Ajivika leader by disclosing his life's account.
As one good merchant among them was spared of his life by a wounded poisonous snake for the act of his moral advice given to his fellow-traders not to break the last mound out of greediness for more wealth, so Ananda also was allowed to return with safety from the attack of the spiritual power of wounded and wrathful Gośāla Mañkhaliputra, staying like that poisonous snake struck on the head by the other covetous merchants and to report this warning of destruction to the Master, if he indulged in the act of inciting the Ajivika leader again in this manner".
In the story of the four merchants the aim of the author is to move or to instruct the readers by his narrative style backed by reason. He has told this story of adventure,
1.6 Vide infra Ch. VIII, Section on other sects.
7 BhS, 15, 1, 539.

8.9 Ib, 15, 1, 547.

Page #80

Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 55 furnished vividly with the details of incidents by bringing out speed, suspense and visibility in its cumualtive effect imposed by its own atmosphere. A distinct and separate impact is made by each sentence used by him. Here a continuity of the voice having up and down pitch is kept in an unbroken link of description of successive collective images or ideas each of which is made to merge into the next. The author creates a kind of sense-atmosphere in which he makes his readers appreciate his statement by shaking their attention with receptivity of mind. He uses clear-cut words with a voice very keen like a man, observing every thing caught up in his mind in the action of the moment and thus he makes the final impression on them with the last statement which still rings in the ear, though he has stopped talking.
Here the quality of style is simple narrative but the telling of the story is objective with regard to the description of things neatly arranged to make a cumulative effect in unslacking sentences. Because the author is treating of a great problem - the spiritual power and the way of life without using apostrophes and making any attempt to impress the effect of fact by explaining it with particulars or by uttering an even or a raised voice or by making a sudden halt or by shaking the readers' minds into attention.
Simile and Metaphor :
The BhS makes frequent use of many similes and metaphors to expound the philosophical doctrines. simile and metaphor are almost identical, but metaphor is only a compressed simile; it makes a deeper impact on the mind by its vividness than simile does. Some examples of simile and metaphor are given below :
The author explains non-eternality of human life by the familiar similes thus-it is non-eternal like the evening colour of the sky, like the water bubble, etc. upto like the sparkling of lightning, it is inconstant."
i Bh8, 9, 33, 384.

Page #81

56
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. II It is explained by metaphor that "human body is the house of suffering, place of hundreds of diseases, the standing bones like wood covered with veins, nerves, etc, the house of oldness, fesh, decay and it has the nature of fall and destruction.'
In these examples of similes and metaphors the author keeps up the familiar voice by making precision in the words and forms of phrases in each nicely balanced sentence. Here he appeals to the intellect of the readers, working upon the feelings of their responsive minds completely merged in his personality.
Analogy :
He has used many familiar analogies also to explain the abstruse doctrines of philosophy for their clear understanding and realization. For example, an enclosure of he-goats (ayāvaya). compared to the Universe is applied to expound the principle of origination and decay of beings in the space. Just as in one large enclosure of 100 he.goats kept and reared by some person every point of space of it, having the size of an atom gets within six months touched with their excrement, urine upto hoofs, or nails, etc., so also in this extensive Universe there is no point of space having the size of an atom where this soul was not born or did not die. Description of people :--
The inner reactions of man are closely related to his physical being. The author of the Bls professedly makes use of literary flourishes in the description of persons. things, scenes and action, besides for explanatory or illustrative purposes.
The physical condition of a houseless monk named Skandaka as a result of his practice of severe austerities and meditation is compared with that of a bullock-cart loaded with wood, etc., so it, being hot and dry, if drawn by any body, moves or stops with a cracking sound, just like that Skandaka moves, and stops with sound. Like the fire covered with ashes, his body becomes very glowing by the beauty of his spiritual fire.
1 BKS, 9, 33, 384. ? 16, 12, 7, 457. $ 16, 2, 1, 93.

Page #82

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
57
Here the purpose of the author is to explore a complicated structure of human body without an attempt to present an image of man but at the same time to reveal the inner emotions without applying any psychological method. He aims at the truth by depicting the person with the psychological background of knowledge without using terms. Here his style is like that of a keen anatomist, displaying the physical structure of the man, with a creative mind of a discoverer of new things which give pleasure to both the readers and himself.
The author depicts youth and physical beauty of a young lady with a brilliant touch of a masterly hand of an artist, as she appears to be vivacious with the rhythm of her life. Thus it is described that during the pilgrimage of Jamālī to Lord Mahāvīra for undertaking asceticism there stood behind the prince in the palanquin one excellent young lady (courtesan) dressed in charming costumes, like the abode of sexual passion or expert in sexual union, endowed with beauty, youth, bud of luxury or loveliness, unblossmed flower of lustre, having beautiful breasts and holding a garland of koranta flowers, shining like silver, lotus, jasmine and the moon, and a white umbrella.?
Further, two pictures-one of youth and the other of old are presented by depicting the two stages of human life.
As an old man is unable to cut a knotty trunk of wood with a blunt axe by making sound, just like that the effects of sinful acts of infernal beings do not come to an end', while as a strong young man fells a large straight trunk of a Samali tree with a sharp axe without making sound, so the gross karmı-matter of the Sramana-Nirgranthas quickly gets an. nihilated.'
In these passages the author creates the images of persons with great agility and carries the readers' minds with his, without allowing the images to disappear. He applies his mental faculty to paint the physical being out of fresh stuff with bold sentences and firm ending. i Bhs. 9, 33, 385.
* 15, 16, 4, 573.

Page #83

58
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. II
Description of things :
There are two classes of description of things, viz. scientific and imaginative, the first depends on the statement of facts to create human pleasure, while the aim of the other is to generate atmosphere in every physical object which is made the starting point of an idea with a springy rhythm. The following examples will throw some light upon the descriptive style on things used by the author of the Bhs. In presenting
graphic account of the bed-chamber of queen Prabhāvati of Hastinapural it is depicted thus, that it was decorated with pictures from inside and having been whitened, rubbed, and smoothened from outside, variegated upper part (roof) and intensely shining lower part (floor), (having) darkness dispelled by jewels and pearls (studded there) and many equally divided parts. It was furnished with the presents of flowers, having five colours, juice, fragrance, and it was made beautiful by the production of fragrant smell of black agaru, best perfume, olibannum and incense endowed with pleasant odour and elegant smell.
In this passage the author has created an atmosphere by this way of description of things and produced an effect by bringing inanimate (or non-living) things to life and by presen. ting the objects to the readers with a rhythm.
Similarly a description of the vision of a lion in dream beheld by this queen Prabhāvati is made in a very colourful style thus : She woke up from her sleep, having beheld the vision of a lion, having a beautiful and worth seeing breast, very white like a silver necklace, milk ocean, moonlight and particles of water and silver mountain, having firm charming fore-arms and round thick well-set excellent sharp teeth, smiling mouth like an adorned best lotus, delicate, measured splendid charming lips like the leaf of a red lotus and soft, and very tender palate tongue, having eyes like the heated best gold existing in a pot (for making liquid), rolling like the wheel to the right, round and pure like the lightning, (having) large thick
i Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

Page #84

59
Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
thigh (or shank), a fully developed broad shoulder adorned with soft, shining, fine, auspicious-marking manes, a tail raised, well built and well grown flapping to and fro, a sportive gaping mouth having the shape of the moon, and open nails, descending from the sky and entering her own mouth.
This imaginative description of the lion releases the imagination of the readers by creating a state of mind to play over its physical being, from one side of the object, grasping all the while the connecting link outside it. Here this style of the author sketches the image of the lion out of his own experience to make the readers see it with their imaginative eyes.
Besides these specimens of the descriptive style, the art of depicting gods and goddesses endowed with their splendour and power and their celestial houses as revealed in the BhS' makes a union of heaven and earth with their respective inmates.
All these evidences clearly show the aesthetic sense of its author, as it is reflected in its literary flourishes explaining and interpreting the doctrines of life and Nature with a brilliant touch of an artistic hand, when occasions and incidents demanded it in this encyclopaedic work, mainly dealing with religion and philosophy.
The author of the BhS uses the emotive style, the purest form of which treats of ideas by applying words containing suggestions of moving events or things in rousing emotions of its readers.
He paints human traits, especially mother's heart, joy and sorrow with the softness of touch of Nature as manifested in and through his artistic hand thus: On the recognition of her former son in Mahavira at the Bahusalaka Caitya Devanandā stood gazing steadfastly at him without winking her eyes out of overwhelming motherly affection and joy. Then milk from her breast gushed forth through her Jacket, with her eyes filled with tears, her arms swelled besides her bangles, jacket stretched, the hairs of her body stood erect as when a Kadamba flower
1 Bhs, 2, 8, 116.

Page #85

60
Studies ÎN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. II unfolds itself in response to a shower of rain ; thus she gazed at the Master without averting her eyes.?
In one passage the author presents a specimen of pathos of human heart by expressing sorrow of the mother of Jamālī caused by the thoughts of the pangs of his separation with a brilliant touch of the style of climax and anticlimax, when the prince requested for the permission of his parents to undertake the state of houselessness. Having heard the undesirable, unpleasing and hitherto unheard words of her son that he desired to take to asceticism, she began to perspire (svedāgatā), became pale, swooned and at once fell down on the floor."
Then she was quickly brought to consciousness by her female attendants, having sprinkled pure cold water on her face and fanned her body with a palm-leaf fan. Thus being consoled by them, she, crying and lamenting told Jamāli “You are son, our only one son, etc."
Here the aim of the author is to rouse emotions which are not at present in the readers' minds by the art of his style. Humour :
In the nature of the subject-matter of the Bhs, dealing with the serious problems of religion and philosophy, the use of humour is not expected. Nevertheless, this sentiment is not totally absent, as it is evidenced in the following passage.
At the Dütipalāśaka Caitya Somila, a proud Brāhmaṇa of Vānijyagrāma asked Lord Mahāvira an ambiguous question whether 'Kulatthas' are eatable or uneatable to the Sramana. Nirgrunthas. The Master replied that there were two kinds of Kulatthas, viz. Stri-lculatthas and Dhanya-kulatthas (pulses, etc.). The Stri-kulatthas are of three classes, viz. Kulakanyakā (familydaughters), Kulabad hús (family-daughters in-law) and Kulamātā: (family-mothers) ; they are unfit for food of the SramanaNirgranthus ; while the Dhānyakulatthas (pulses) may be taken by them on certain conditions.
? 16, 9, 33, 382.
16, 9, 33, 384.
16, 18, 10, 647.

Page #86

Sec. IV
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
61
All these examples of different styles used by the author of the Bhs reveal that he presented the contents and dealt with the subject-matters of this encyclopaedic work in the language of the people in their own style by utilizing rich literary flourishes whenever demanded by the occasion to explain and interpret the doctrines of religion and philosophy so that they would be comprehensible, understandable and realizable to the common man.

Page #87

THİRD CHAPTER
Political conditions as reflected in the BhS.
FIRST SECTION
Political Disunity It appears from the Bhs that there was no politioal unity of India under one paramount power during the period of Lord Mahāvira. Then India (Bhāratavarsa) was divided into a large number of independent monarchical and non-monarchical states, as this political condition is reflected in the list of sixteen great states (Solasa Mahājana padas)' mentioned in the Bhs.
They are as follows :- Anga, Magadha, Malaya, Mālavaka, Accha (Riksa)), Vaccha (Vatsa), Koocha (Kaccha= Kautsa), Padha (Pāndya), Lādha (Rādha = West Bengal), Vajja (Vajji=Videha), Moli (Malla= Pāvā and Kuśīnārā), Kāść, Košala, Avāha (not yet correctly identified), and Sunbhuttara (Sumhottara)".
At the beginning of the 6th century B. C. the same political condition is reflected in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikāya in which the following sixteen great states (Solasa Mahājanapadas)* of considerable extent and power are mentioned, viz. Kāsī, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (Vriji), Malla, Cetiya (Cedi), Varsa (Vatsa), Kuru, Paficāla, Maccha (Matsya = Jaipur), Sīrasena (Mathurā), Assaka (Aśmaka), Avantž, Gandhāra and Kamboja.
1 Bhs, 15. 1, 554 (Fifteenth Sataka First Uddeśaka). See also
Uvāsagadasão, Appendix II, Dr. Hoernle; refer also to Die
Kosmographie Der Inder', 225, W. Kirfel. . Sumbhuttara is identified with the modern districts of
Midnapore and Bāůkurā in West Bengal. See Märkandeya
Purāna, p. 357. 9 P. T. S. 1. 213; IV, 252, 256, 260. The Mahāvastrı (1. 34)
presents a similar list but drops Gandhāra and Kamboja and puts Sibi and Daśärna in their places in the Pan jab (or Rajputänä) and Central India respectively. The Jana-Vasabha. Suttanta gives a less complete list of these sixteen great Janapadas,

Page #88

Sec, I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
-
63
These states flourished during the period between the rise of Vaiji to power after the downfall of Videha and the annexation of Kāść to the Košulan empire by king Mabākošala in the later half of the 6th century B. C.
It is clear from the above evidences that Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Vajji, Kāśż and Kośala are common to both the lists of sixteen great states given in the Bhs and the Buddhist Anguttara Nikāya. Málavaka and Moli of the Bhs may probably be identi. cal with Avanti and Malla of the Anguttara Nikāya respectively.
In addition to the above eight states, other new states mentioned in the list of the Bhs clearly show the knowledge of the political geography of the far east and the extreme south of India, possessed by its author at that period. This wider geographical horizon of India as described here indicates the more lateness of its list of states than that of the one referred to in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikāya.'
The Bhs thus clearly reveals the political condition of India prevailing during the time of Lord Mabāvīra (i. e. the 6th century B. C. to the 5th century B. C.), which will fully be discussed in detail in the second section of this chapter.
SECOND SECTION
Factors of political condition. Among those above mentionei sixteen great states (Solas Mahājanapadas) the most famous states of North-Eastern India were Kāść, Košala, Vajji (Vțjji), and Magadha which flourished
I P. H. A. I., Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, p. 96, F.Note.1.
"Mr. E. J. Thomas suggests (History of Buddhist Thought, p. 6) that the Jaina author who makes no mention of the northern Kamboja and Gandhāra but includes several South Indian peoples in his list", "wrote in South India and compiled his list from countries that he knew". Dr. H.C. Raychaudhuri argues "If the writer was really ignorant of the northern peoples, his Mālavas could not have been in the Punjab and must be located in Central India. In that case his account can hardly be assigned to a very early date',

Page #89

64
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
independently side by side during the time of Lord Mahāvīra with their respective political autonomy by following a policy of expansion.
The most important factor in the political condition of this period was the quadrangular struggle' among these four states for establishing their respective political suzerainty over North-Eastern India by their aggressive imperialism under their respective ambitious rulers.
The military power of the Vriji confederation was growing in the north to a considerable extent under the leadership of king Cetaka of Vaiśālī, united together with his allies, nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kāsi, Kośala and their eighteen republican chiefs (ganarājas). On the other side the aggressive monarchy of Magadha under its ambitious ruler, Vidchuputra king Kūņika (Ajātaśatru)s was following a policy of expansion and self-aggrandizement from his base at Rājagrha.
1_Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301. 8 'Videhaputta Kuniye' of the Bhs was also named as
Asogavanacanda or Asogacanda after the name of the garden, Asogavaniya where he was throwni immediately after his birth. (ivasyaka C'ūrni II, p. 166). According to Ovaiya (6, p. 20), Kinika was thrown on a dung-hill outside the city where his little finger was wounded by the tail of a cock. Thus he was named Kūgika. It is stated in the Nirayāvaliyā sūtra that Kūņika was the son of queen Cellanā, the daughter of king Cetaka of Vaisali, which was a part of Videha. So this epithet Videhaputta' was attributed to him. The Buddhist Nikayas also attribute this epithet to Ajātaśatru. Buddhaghost however resolves "Vedehi into Veda-iha. Vedanā ihati or intellectual effort (i.e, the son of an accomplished princess)." (The commentary on the Digha Nikāya I, p. 139), (BKS, Vol. I, 1091). See foot note No 3 of P.H.A.I., Dr. HC. Ray Chaudhuri Jatakıt, Nos. 239, 283, 492. According to the evidences of Thusa Jataka (338) and the Musikre sātaka (373) Kośaladevi (t e Kosalan princess) was the mother of Ajātastru who is called the nephew of king Pasenadi of košala in the Samyukta Nikūya (Book of Kindred Sayings 110). But Maddā (Madrā) is, however, mentioned as the mother of Ajātasatru in Vol. I of the Book of the Kindred Sayings (p. 380), while a "Tibetan writer calls her Vasavi (DPPN. 1. 34). Now the Jain tradition and the Nikäyas agree in attributing the epithet .Videbapatta' to Kūņika-Ajātasatru. So one may identify Kūņika of the Jain texts with Ajāta satru
vedanarincess, vol van

Page #90

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
So the Magadhan king, "the symbol of aggressive imperialism stood face to face" with the upholders of republicanism. But ultimately republicanism of the Vrians had to submit to the aggressive imperialism of Magadha which pushed up its frontiers to all directions.
Thus the foreign policy of expansion followed by king Kunika launched this rising state to the career of conquest and self-aggrandizement which went a long way to bring about the political unification of India under the vigorous rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas in future and only ended with the conclusion of the Kalinga war of the emperor, Aśoka.
Political events -Mahāsilākaṇṭaka Sangrama and Rathamusala Sangrām.
In connection with the results of the participation by soldiers in two great wars viz. Mahāśilākaṇṭaka3 and Rathamusala3, which took place between Videhaputra Kūņika, the king of Magadha and king Cetaka of Vaisali, united together with his allies. nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kośula and their eighteen republican chiefs (ganarajas). Two scenes of the Bhs depict a vivid picture of these two terrible wars as known and remembered by Lord Mahāvīra. They throw a welcome light upon the political condition and relation existing among the four states, viz. Magadha, Vaisali, Kasi, and Kośala and give an idea of the nature and form of war during the time of the Master.
One scene relates that king Kūnika, having known the impending Mahasilakanṭaka Sangrama (the war of big stone) with the Vrjjian confederacy, immediately ordered his staff-members
on this ground of the common epithet 'Videhaputta' and identical political activities of both and the relation with the Vajjis, because fresh evidences are coming out to throw light upon this identification of Kinika-Ajātaśatru. The Vinaya Texts of the Mulasarvästiva dins recently discovered, mention Ajāta satru as the son of Cellana (named here Celä). See Age of Imperial Unity, foot note no. 2, p. 20.
1 Potilical History of Ancient India, Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, p. 189.
* Bhs, 7, 9, 300.
4.8 [b. 7, 9, 300,
9

65
9
Ib, 7, 9, 301.

Page #91

66
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
Ch. III
to harness the chief elephant, (called) Udāyin and to equip his army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry. At his command all the forces were very quickly mobilized by his officials according to varieties of very skilful designs and actions of forming ideas of intelligence derived from the instruction of technical experts of war, and then the total mobilization was at once reported back by them to the king.
After having performed the auspicious ceremoney, king Kūnika, being surrounded by his well-equipped army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephants, best chariots and infantry and followed by a large body of his officers, such as Bhata, Cațakara, etc., went to the war Mahāśilākanțaka.
King Kūņika fought this battle with his terrific war-engine and drove away the united forces of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kośala and their eighteen republican chiefs from one direction to another. Their best heroes were killed, trampled down and struck, so their war-flags marked with wheel, etc., fell down in the thick of fighting.
In that Mahāśilākantaka Sangrāma' whoever was there, whether a horse or an elephant or a soldier or a charioteer was killed by a grass or a leaf or a wood or a stone, knew thus "I am killed by Mahāśila (big stone)". For that reason this war was called Mahāśilākantaka Sangrāma.' It was a terrible war in wliich eighty-four lakhs of people were killed. But the victory of king Küņika does not appear to be a decisive one in the first phase of this struggle between the two contending parties.
So another scene of the BKS describes the second great war called Rathamusala Sangrāmas, as known and remembered by Lord Mahāvīra, which also took place between king Kūņika and the confederacy of nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis under the leadership of Cetaka, the Vaiśālian king. But this time Kāśi, Kośala and their eighteen republican chiefs do not appear on the scene of the theatre of this second struggle.
1.2 Bhs, 7, 9, 300.
9 I5, 7, 9, 301.

Page #92

Sec. 11]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Having known the approaching Rathamusala Sangrāma', king Kunika went to give battle to the combined forces of the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis with his well equipped army as described before. He fought this war also with another new destructive weapon called 'Rathamusala" and drove away the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis together with their confederate army from one direction to another as he did in the 'Mahasilakantaka Sangrāma'.
In the Rathamusala Sangrama "one chariot having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier, but having one Musala (club or mace) attached to it, ran to all directions, causing a great destruction of a large number of peoples, and a Kalpa (a fabulous period of time) of total annihilation of peoples and made the mud of blood in the battlefield."
So for that reason this war was called Rathamusala Sangrama'. A large number of casualties of death amounting to ninety-six lakhs peoples took place in this devastating war. Thus king Kūņika finally inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined forces of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kāśī, Kośala and their eighteen republican chiefs led by king Cetaka of Vaiśāli with the use of these two new war engines called 'Mahasśilākantaka' and 'Kathamusala' respectively.
67
While imparting the holy teachings of explanation on the rebirth of those who were killed in these two wars, Lord Mahāvīra made an indirect reference to the system of conscription of soldiers, introduced and enforced by the ancient republic of Vaisala in times of war. Here is given an instance of the state law in connection with the Rathamusala Sangrama.
The Sramano pasaka, Nagaputra Varuna, a prominent citizen of Vaisali was perforce ordered by the king, the assembly (or republic) and the army of this state respectively to join the Rathamusala Sangrama in order to fight against the forces of
1 BhS, 7, 9, 301.
Ib, do. (At the end of a Kalpa it is stated that the world is
annihilated).
3 Ib, 7, 9, 303.

Page #93

68
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
Videhaputra king Kūņika of Magadha. He had to submit to the mandate of his state and went to war with his well-equipped army, being surrounded and followed by many leaders of the republic, ambassadors, and frontier guards. But he fought this battle according to the principle of not-striking the enemy first. Having seriously been smitten with an arrow of one rival soldier, he at once left the battlefield and passed his last breath in a lonely place by fully observing the holy teachings of the Nirgrantha Order.1
But what was the real cause of these two great wars between king Kūņika and the confederation of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kaśi, Kosala and their eighteen republican chiefs? What was the common interest which led the members of this confederation to form a military alliance under the leadership of king Cetaka in order to fight their common enemy, the Magadhan king? The BhS does not throw any light upon these two aspects of this political struggle going on between the two sides at the time of Lord Mahāvīra. So one should turn his attention to the other literary sources for ascertaining the real cause of these two political events between the two warring camps and finding out also the reason of the military alliance formed by the confederate powers.
In this respect some Jaina works furnish most valuable informations regarding the causes of these two political struggles between Magadha and the Vrjjian confederacy as reflected in the
BhS.
It is said in the Nirayavaliya Sutra that the cause of this great conflict was the gift of one famous state elephant, 'Seyanaga' (secanaka) i e., sprinkler and a huge necklace of eighteen strings of Jewels, made by king Seniya (Bimbisāra)
1 BhS, 7, 9, 303.
2 Nirayavaliya Sutra 1; See Uvasagadasão,, Appendix II, p. 7, Dr. Hoernle; cf. Tawny, Kathakośa, pp. 176 ff.
3 According to Avasyaka Carni (II., p. 158), king Seniya was known as Bhambhasara, because once he took a drum (Bhambha) at the time when the palace of Kusag gapura caught fire due to the carelessness of a cook.

Page #94

Sec. II) STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 69 of Magadha to his younger sons, Halla and Behalla by his wife, queen Cellanā, the daughter of king, Cetaka.
On his ascendency to the royal power after the usurpation of his father's throne by him, king Kūņika, the eldest son of king Seņiya, being instigated by his wife, Paumāyaī, demanded the surrender of those two gifts from his two younger brothers. But they refused to give them up to king Kūņika and they immediately carried them off to their maternal grandfather, king Cetaka, by their secret flight to Vaiśāli in order to escape the forcible surrender of these two precious gifts.
On his failure to obtain the peaceful extradition of the two fugitives, together with those presents, king Kūņika waged war against king Cetaka'.
The Buddhist text however reveals that the economic interest between Magadha and Vaiśäli was the real cause of this political struggle which led these two states to war to settle their issues in the battlefield. It is stated in the Sumangala Vilāsini", a commentary of Buddhaghoşa that the violation of the economic agreement on the part of the Licchavis, regarding the condominiun exercised by them and king Kūņika, over a mine of precious gems or some fragrant article in the vicinity of a port situated on the bank of the Ganges, led to the war between these two powers.
Thus it is found that there is a difference between the evi. dences furnished by the Jain and Buddhist texts respectively.
A close study of the above facts shows that the real cause of the struggle between the two powers was both political and economic. It is apparently clear that the rising state of Magadha followed a policy of expansion and self-aggrandizement at the cost of its powerful northern neighbouring state of Vaiśāli to establish its hegemony over the lower Gangetic region
1 Nirayāvaliyā Sūtra I, See U văsa gadasāo II, Appendix, p. 7,
Dr. Hoernle ; cf. Tawney, Kathākośa, pp. 176 ff. Burmese Edition, part II, p. 99. See also B. C. Law's Buddhist Studies, p. 199; DPPN. II 781.

Page #95

70
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
Ch. If
by ousting the Vaišālian political and economic interests from the field of commerce and trade which were of vital importance to its prosperity. As it wanted to buy commodities which flowed from North Bihar to the port on the Ganges, so it followed a policy of expansion which is evidenced in the construction of a fort by king Kūņika at Pațligrāma against the possible attack of Vaiśāli.
Preparation for war :
According to the description of several Pāli texts' full preparations for a long-drawn war were made by both the states, Magadha and Vaišali to strike a deadly blow at each other for establishing their respective political suzerainty over the northeastern regions of India.
The Mahāvagga' gives an account of the construction of a fort at Pāļaligrāma by Sunidha and Vassakāra, two ministers of king Kūņika with the object of repelling the attack of the Vajjis from this most important strategic position used as a new forward war base of operation.
It is said in the Mahāparinivvāna Suttanta® “The Blessed one was once dwelling in Rājagpha on the hill, called the
Vulture's Peak'. Now at that time Ajātasattu Videhaputta, was desirous of attacking the Vajjians ; and he said to himself, "I will root out these Vajjians, mighty and powerful though they
1 Digha-Nikāya (Mahāparinjvvāna Suttanta), Atthakatha. It is
said in this text that there was a sinall estate of half a yojana of king Ajātšatru near the landing port (ghāfa) of a river where there was another estate of the same area belonging to the Licchavis. There, from a hill a very precious fragrant article (mineral substance) was coming down. The Licchavis of Vaiśāli were active enough to take away the whole quantity of that substance, depriving king Ajātaśatru of it who was slow to move to that place in order to take his share. In the second year of the discovery of that mine also, such thing happened. So Ajātasatru planned to punish the
Licchavis. : The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 24 ; Majjhima-Nikaya, III, 7. 8 S. B. E. XI, pp. 1-5; XVII, 101 ; Gradual Sayings, IV, 11, etc. 4 Mahāvagga Vide P.H.A.J., p. 212, Dr. H C. Ray Chaudhuri. 6 Mahaparinivvāna Suttanta.

Page #96

71
Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA be, I will destroy these Vajjians, I will bring these Vajjians to utter ruin".
"So he spake to the Brāhmaṇa, Vassakāra, the prime minister of Magadha and said ; come now, Brāhmana, do you go to the Blessed one and tell him that Ajātasattu has resolved “I will root out these Vaijians, etc." "Vassakāra hearkened to the words of the king saying 'Be it as you say',” (and delivered the message even as the king had commended.
Although Lord Buddha was unattached to all worldly affairs, he felt much for the Licchavi Republic of Vaisāli, a great centre of his religious activities, as a champion of republican interests. He thought it his duty to assure the Licchavis that they could not be conquered by the powerful king like Ajātaśatru, provided they maintained their national unity, solidarity and efficiency by "holding full and frequent assemblies, maintaining internal concord in assembly and administration, avoiding revolutionary laws and measures, following old traditions, honouring the elders of the community, old institutions and shrines, saints and women?".
Kūņika fully realised that it was impossible for him to conquer the Licchavis in a straight fight without disrupting and destroying the strength of their inner unity. So he charged his prime minister, Vassakāra with the secret mission to sow the seeds of dissensions and disunion among the Vaisālians.9 This mission was crowned with success after three years. Infected by the poison of hatred and jealousy spread by Vassakāra among them, the Liochavis of Vaiśālā lost their social and national unity, solidarity and efficiency. King Kūņika-availed
1 Mahāparinivvāna Suttanta---(S. B. E. of the Buddha Vol. III -
Dialogues of the Buddha, part II. (translated by Rhys
Davids-- Chapter 1). ? Mohaparinivvāna Suttanta -XV-4. : Althakatha : See, P. H. A. I., p 214, Dr. H. C. Raychaudhuri “Diplomacy (upatapana) and disunion (mithubheda). DPPN. II, 846; J.R.A.S. 1931, cf. Gradual Sayings IV. 12. “The Dajjians cannot be overcome in battle, but only by cunning, by breaking up their alliance."

Page #97

72
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. III himself of this opportunity arisen from this national disruption and disunity of the Licchavis to wage war against them.
But Cetaka, was not unaware and silent spectator these war designs and full scale war-preparations of king Kūņika. It is stated in the Nirayāvaliyā Suttal that on the apprehension of the impending danger of war to be waged by king, Kūņika against Vaiśālī, king Cetaka summoned the assenibly of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, rulers of Kāi and ko ala and their eighteen republican chiefs also.
The Majjhima Nikāya” refers to the good relation subsisting between Koala and Vaišāli which was more strengthened by the matrimonial alliances with the kings of Sindhu-Sauvīra, Vatsa and Avanıī who married the daughtersø of king Cetaka respectively.
It appears that a great confederacy was formed by the Liccharis of Vaiśālī, the Mallakis of Pāvā and Kuśīnārā, and the rulers of Kasi and Košala together with their eighteen re. publican chiefs under the leadership of king Ceța ka due to the exigencies of war to offer a combined resistance to their common enemy, the Jagadhan king, Kūņika.
There was probably another genuine cause of political rivalry of Kâ:z-Kośula with Magadh which led them to make an united front of military alliance with Vaišāli and to cement the political relation among them by forming a confederation.
The Buddhist texts refer to the protracted war of Kūņika with the Kokalan king, Prasenadi (Prasenjit), centring round the possession of Kasi which was a bone of contention between the two states.
1 Nirayávaliză Sutra, p. 25. 3 Mijjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, p. 101. 3 HC 235, 236 ; BhS (12,2, 441) tells that queen Mrgāvati of
Kuuśāmbi was the daughter of king Cetaka. 4 The Book of Kindred Sayings I, pp. 109 110 The Sainyutta
Nikāya and the Ilaritamāta, Vuddhaki-Sakara, kummāsapinda, Tachchha Sakara and the Bhaddasāla Jatakas.
Kuršāmbi was indred Sayingsa. Vandraki-Suklatakas.

Page #98

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
As a result of the matrimonial alliance' of king Seniya with king Prasenjit, a Kāši village producing a revenue of one hundred thousand was given by the Kośalan king as dowry to to his sister, Kośala-Devi, the wife of Seniya for her bath and perfume money."
It is stated that Kośala Devi died of grief for her husband, king Seniya, on his murder committed by his son, the crown prince, Kanika, the then viceroy of Campa" with a view to usurping his father's throne. The revenues of the Kasi village were still going to the state coffer of the Magadhan king even after the death of Kośala Devi.
The friendly relations of Magadha with Kosala were seriously affected by this ghastly act of crime of king Kūnika for capturing the throne of his father.4
73
The Kosalan king, Prasenjit was determined not to allow the parricide, king Kūņika any more the enjoyment of the revenue of the Käsi village which belonged to him by right of inheritance.
So on this revocation of the gift of the said village made to King Seniya as a dowry on (account of) his marriage with
1 Dhammapada commentary (Harvard, 20, 60; 30, 225). Jataka, Nos. 239, 283, 492.
3 BhS; Niraya valiya Sutta; Parisistaparvan IV 1-9; VI. 22. and the Kathakosa, p. 178.
Vinaya II, 190; Digha, N. I, 86; Sumangala, VII, 133-6, Peta. comm. 105.
The Jaina text, Avasyaka-Sutra (pp. 682-3, etc.) also admits the imprisonment of king Seniya by Kunika, but does not brand him (Kunika) as a parricide. It is said that Seniya committed suicide by swallowing poison in prison, having feared the advance of his son with an iron club to do harm to him. But king Seniya was mistaken out of fear, because Kunika dashed off there "To break his father's fetters" with the iron club due to his repentence for his cruel treatment to his father. Dr. Smith thinks that the account of murder of king Seniya is "a product of Odium theologicum" and he is sceptic about the credibility of the evidences of the Buddhist "canon and chronicles", though it is accepted by the eminent scholars, like Rhys Davids and Geiger. In this controversial case See Jacobi's reference to the Nirayavaliya Sutra in his Kalpa-Sutra of Bhadrabāhu, 1879, p. 5.
10

Page #99

74
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. III Kośalā Devī, a protracted war between king Prasenjit and king Künika began and lasted for a long period with alternate results of victory and defeat on both the sides.
At first king Prasenjit was defeated and driven back by king Kūnika to the wall of the capital city of Srāvasti. On another occasion the tide of war flowed in favour of the Košalan king. This time the Magadhan king was besieged and taken prisoner together with his whole army by king Prasenjit in an encounter, but his life was spared owing to his near relationship with the Kośalan king.'
After this signal victory over king Küņika, king Prasenjit concluded a peace with the captive king by releasing him and offering him the hands of his own daughter, the princess Vajirā, and by restoring the contended village of Kāśī to him as a dowry for her bath money."
But the relation between these two states became strained again after the death of king Prasenjit from exposure outside the gates of Rajagrha where he went as a result of the palace revolution to seek the military help of king Kūņika in order to capture his rebel son, Vidādābha, who was placed on the Kośalan throne by the commander-in-chief, Digha-Cārāyana, during his absence from his capital, Srāvastī in a country town.'
Therefore "the Kośalan war and the Vajjian war were pro. hably not isolated events but parts of a common movement directed against the establishment of the hegemony of Magadha'' over North Eastern India.
The evidences furnished by the Jaina texts clearly show that the political struggle between king Kūņiku and king Cetaka, united together with his allies, the rulers of Kāíz and Košala and their eighteen republican chiefs. nine Mullakis and nine Licchavis, dragged on for more than sixteen years, because
i The Book of the Kindred Sayings, I, pp. 109-110. 3 Sanyutta Nikāya, 1, 84-6, Jataka, IV, 1342, Dhammapala
comm. III, 259. 3 Bhuldasala Jataka 4 P. H. A. I. --Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhuri p. 213,

Page #100

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
75
Gośāla Markhaliputra, the Ājzvila leader refers to the Mahā. silākanțaka Sangrāma as one of the eight finals which was still in progress, before his followers assembled at or about the time of his death in circa 500 B.C. So the death of the Ajivika leader synchronised with the Mahabilākangaka Sangrāna between the two contending powers.
Even after sixteen years from the date of death of Gośäla Mankhaliputra, at the time of the great demise of Lord Mahāvīra in circa eighties of the 5th century B.C., there was still the existence of the anti-Magadhan confederation of the Republics of the Mallakis and the Licchavis. It is said in the Kulpa Sitra? that the confederate rulers celebrated the great demise of Lord Mahāvíra by illumination of lights to mark the memory of the disappearance of the spiritual light from their midst. Effect of the two wars, viz. Mahāśilākantaka Sangräma and Rathamusala Sangrāma
These two wars set the seal of final victory on the fore-head of king Kūņiku who inflicated a crushing defeat on the confederate army led by king Cetaka and paved the way for the future expansion of Magadhan imperialism to all directions to bring about the political unification of India under the leadership of the vigorous rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas.
THIRD SECTION.
Polity and Administration. Origin of State and its nature
The Bhs gives an idea of political theory and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical-states of ancient
i Bhs, 15, 1, 554 "Carime Mahāsilākantae". ? Kalpa Sritra-(S. B. E. xxii 266-para 128). 3 Cf Modern Review, July, 1919, pp. 55-56. According to the
Ārya Masjusri-Mülakalpa (Vol. 1, el. Ganapati Šāstri, pp. 603 f) the empire of Ajātaśatru comprised Magalha, diga, Varānasi (Benaras), and Vaiśāli in the north. So it is clear that the result of two gr at wars - Mahāśilā kanaler and Rathamusala was the final annexation of Vaišali and Kasi by king Kūņika to his state. 4 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303.

•

Page #101

76.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI Sūtra
(Ch. ffi
India flourishing side by side during the time of Lord Mahāvīra. India was politically divided into sixteen great states (Solasa-Mahajanapadas) at that time. The etymological meaning of the term Janavaya' as used in the Bhs and other texts signifies the very early stage of land-occupation by the Jana (community or clan) for a permanent settlement from a nomadic life, long before the period of Lord Mahāvīra.
This process of settlement on land went on till a Janapada (state) came into existence as territorial unit which was called after the name of the community (or clan) settled there. Their former community-significance was left out with the march of time. In most cases the political power of these states was exercised by the original Ksatriya settlers who held the reins of the government in their hands. These ruling Ksatriya communities governed the different states according to two-fold consti. tutions, viz. monarchical and republican.
In the Bhs' there is found an idea of the theory of divine kingships and some sort of social contract theory as reflected in the governments of monarchical and non-monarchical states respectively.
"Mātsyanyāyam-a pahitum prakrtibhiḥ Lakşmyāḥ Karam grāhitaḥ"." Sovereignty of State
With reference to the judicial administration, the Bh Se refers to the term ‘Danda' which generally denotes the power of punishment or punishment, vested in the ruler. This word
Danda' is also used to signify army? and sceptre, while the Brāhmaṇical texts give a quite different interpretation to it.
The Manusmrtis explains that the Danda "governs all created beings, protects and watches over them, while they sleep and the wise declare it to be the law of the state".
1 BhS, 15, 1, 554 ; 13, 6, 491.
% 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. 3 16, 9, 33, 383; 13, 6, 491.
4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. * Rhälimpur Inscription of Dharmapala. Ep. Ind. IV, p. 218,
Vide Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal; Dr. B.C. Sen, p. 292, f. N. 2 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 7, 9, 303. 8 Manusmrti, VII, 18,

Page #102

Sec. III] STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
97 "Dandaḥ śāsti prajāḥ sarvā daņờa evābhirakṣati / Daņdah supteşu jāgarti daņdam dharmaṁ vidur-budhāh”://
The Arthaśāstra of Kautilya! interprets the Danda "as the sceptre on which depend the well-being and progress of the sciences of Anviksaki, the triple Vedas and Vārtā (Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade constitute Vārtā). That which treats of Dandu is the law of punishment or Science of government (Dandanīti)”. It is found that Daņdaniti has become later on a synonym for political science.
The Sanskrit Dictionary of Monier-Williams defines .Dandu' as 'application of the rod of administration of justice and judicature' (as a science).
It is further explained that the Daņda is one of the four political means "to make acquisition of any object demanded by the state), to keep them secure, to improve them and to distribute among the deserved the profits of improvement. It is on this science of government the course of the progress of the world depends.?" Judicial exercise of Danda
The BhS and the two Brāhmaṇical texts, viz. Manusmrti and Arthaśāstra agree in one point that the 'Dandu' must judicial. ly and impartially be exercised by the sovereign ruler. It is already pointed out that according to Manu “If the king did not without tiring inflict punishment (dandu) on those worthy to be punished, the stronger would roast the weaker like fish on a spit.”
"Yadi na pranayet rājā dandam daņdesu atandritah Śüle matsyānivāpakşyandurbalān-balavattarāh' ||2011
A similar view of the Manusmrti on the judicial exercise of the Danda' is also expressed by the Arthaśāstra in which it is stated “When the law of punishment is kept in abeyance, it gives rise to such disorder as is implied in the proverb of fishes (Matsyanyāyamudbhāvayati'), for the absence of a magistrate
1 Arthaśāstra-9 (End of Science-Vārtā and Dandaniti). ? Arthaśāstra, 9.
3 Manusmrti, VII, 20.

Page #103

78
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
(dandadharabhave) the strong will swallow the weak but under his protection the weak resist the strong."
It is stated in the BhS that king Bala of Hastinapura promulgated his order with a warning to his officers that the birth ceremony of his new born son, Mahabala must not be marked with impunity and unjust punishment (AdamḍaKodamḍima).
The same view on the Danda is expressed by the Arthasastra which says "whoever imposes severe punishment becomes repulsive to the people, while he who awards mild punishment (he) becomes contemptible."
This voice of Kautilya is also echoed by KamandakiyaNitisara in which it is said that "the king intimidates the people by severe punishment, (he) becomes contemptible by light punishment, so the just punishment is admired.
"Udvejayati tīkṣṇena mṛdunā paribhūyate/ Dandena nṛpatiḥ tasmat yuktadandaḥ praśasyate."'||
Thus it is clear that the Danda is the symbol of punish. ment and justice, army, sceptre of power, and paramountcy.
Idea of kingdom and power of kingship
The word 'Cauraṁtacakkavati' as used in the BS carries the conception of an empire governed by a powerful monarch, while the term 'Rajja' mentioned in this canonical work denotes the monarchical state (kingdom) as distinguished from the 'Gana" (republic) referred to in it.
The political situation probably demanded a strong monarchy, but the unbriddled authority of the sovereign king was not vested in kingship. Thus it is laid down in the Manusmṛti "While a just king prospers, one who is voluptuous, partial and deceitful will be destroyed". The very Danda, the symbol of
1 Arthasastra, 9 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 4 Kamandakiya-Nitisära, Sarga II, 37. Ib, 11, 9, 417., 13, 6, 491.

Arthasastra, 9. BhS, 1. 1. 7 [b, 7, 9, 303.
3

Page #104

79
Sec. III) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 79 paramountcy "Strikes down the king who swerves from his duty, together with his relatives."'1
"Tam rājā pranayan-samyak trivargenābhivardhate Kāmātmā vişamah kşudro dandenaiva nihanyate/2711 Dando hi sumahattejo durdharşaścākṣtātmabhih/ Dharmād-vicalitam hanti nộpameva sabāndhavam"||28||
It was fully admitted that the Danda did not spare any one in the state from its sway. Education of Kingship :--
The political thinkers of ancient India fully realised that the Danda (Justice) must be administered by properly educated and trained men endowed with impartial and elevated mind, as the place of punishment had become that of Dandanīti (Science of government).
Thus it is found that the BhS2 lays stress upon the principles of equitable justice and warns the kingship against impunity and unjust punishment. So in this regard this canopical work refers to the proper edication and training of all the kings, crown princes and heir-appirents mentioned here.3
This idea of all qualifications of royalty is also reflected in Orarāiya Sittat in which king Kūņika is said to have been endowed with many virtues, qualifications, and attributes.
The same view on the proper education of kingship is expressed by the Manusmrti and the Arthašāstra, which have made an elaborate discussion on the education and training of a king."
This theory of kingship is summed up by Kāmandakao
1 Manusmri, VII, 27-28. 2 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 3 16, 9, 33, 383. (Educational qualification of Jamāli), 11.11,429,
(that of king Bala and Nahābala), 13, 6, 491 (that of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvirii, of his son and nephew, Abhici. kumāra, and Keśi Kumāra respectively), 7, 9, 300-301 (that of
King Kūnika), 11, 9, 417, (that of king Siva), etc, 4 Ovõiya $1.6.
6 Arthasastra, 35, 6 Kimanakiya Nitisūra.

Page #105

80
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
who says "the king who is virtuous is a part of the gods. He who is otherwise is a part of the demons".
Principle of Kingship (Rajadharma)
Though there is no evidence of direct constitutional rights of the people to check the unbriddled autocracy of the king in the Bhs, still it enjoins upon the king the duty of following the eternal principle of Dharma (law) propounded by the ancient political thinkers of India.
The study of the Bhs clearly shows that the state was an organic whole consisting of different constituent parts, viz. a territory, a king, an organised government, economic selfsufficiency, adequate defence and recognition by other states as essential elements, in other words, the king, minister, country, fort, treasury and friend.
Sphere of State Activity
The BhS presents a conception of an ancient state with a wider scope of various activities which covered the whole of individual and social life. The state machinery was organised for the sustenance of social order, realisation of spiritual life, executive and judicial function and defence of the country, and it took up a positive stand for the development and progress of family, society, economics, religion, ethics, and culture. The function of the state as mentioned in the Bhs may be summed up by the word Palayāhi (protect). Here this term 'Palayahi' generally denotes that it is the duty of the king and the state to defend the territorial integrity and sovereignty from all possible external enemies and to protect life, property, and honour of its people from internal disruptive forces of lawlessness, disorder, encroachment by the royal officers" and injustice', and the effects of natural calamities, such as, flood, famine, earthquake, locusts, folly and ignorance, poverty, illiteracy, and
1 Bhs, 9, 33.383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429, 13, 6, 491 etc. Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.
Ib, 11, 11, 429 (abhaḍappavesa).
4 Tb, 11, 11, 429 (adamḍa-koḍamḍima).

Page #106

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
disease which are the obstacles on the way to progress of a good, healthy, wealthy and happy life of the citizens.
Thus the proper sphere of the state activity is also widened enough to cover the whole spiritual, cultural, economic and social development of the people.
81
The evidences of the scope of the state as revealed in the BhS are corroborated by the Arthašastra which has made a comparative study of the sphere of state activity.
an
It is learnt from the BhS that the state was totalitarian in character as it exercised its power and influence over individual citizen and his activities, other institutions and associations for transforming the whole individual and social life. The state and the king were the pivots round which rotated the wheel of the social forces, intellectual life and activities, economic development and enterprise, and spiritual tradition of the people.
Form of Government
The government is the limb of the organic body of the state through which it functions for the welfare of the people, as the good government is the ideal of state-polity.
The states, mentioned in the BhS were country-states (Janapadas) as distinct from the city-states of Greece, having monarchical or non-monarchical forms of government. In the truest sense there was not a single democratic state at the time of Lord Mahāvīra. Because the direct democracy implies a government of the people, by the people and for the people. No doubt,
1 Arthasastra.
2 Bhs, 7, 9, 303 Nagaputra Varuna, a prominent citizen of Vaisali had to submit to the mandate of the state to join the 'Rathamusala Sangrama' against his will and to discharge his duties to the state and its people. He died due to a serious wound inflicted by a rival soldier. This fact suggests a system of conscription introduced by the state of Vaisali in times of war.
Bhs. 7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491, 4 lb, 7, 9, 300-301; 7, 9, 303,
11

Page #107

82
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III the states of the Mallakis and the Licchavis1 of Vaisali, referred to in the BhS throw some light upon the republican form of government, but they were not democratic in a real sense but oligarchic in character.
A detailed discussion will be made on this republican (gana) form of government in the last section of this chapter. Here an attempt will be devoted to the study of monarchical form of government as revealed in the BhS.
Monarchical form of Government
The BhS clearly reveals that the king was the paramount power of his highly centralised state based on his sovereignty over his feudal kings (Samantarājas), cities, country-states etc. Naturally he was the head of the government who was assisted by a large body of royal officials of different grades in running
the administration.
The political theory tinged with the ethical principle as advocated in the text lays heavy moral, temporal and spiritual responsibilities on the king. This view on the three aspects of monarchical form of government is clearly expressed in the Brhat.k. Bhasya' in which it is stated that "Women, dice, hunting and drink, the four sins are reprehensible in a king" with regard to the state function. The same ideal of kingship is reflected and echoed in the Mahabharata which warns the king thus "Women, dice, hunting and drink-these are said to be the four sorrows by which a man loses his fortunes."
The same idea on the moral side of kingship is clearly reflected in the political theory advocated in the Manusmrti, the Arthaśastra', the Kamandakiya Nitisara and other works
1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-301.
Ib 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.
2 Ib, 13, 6, 491.
4 Brhat. K. Bhasya, 1, 940. Mahabharata, III, 13, 7. Manusmrti, VIII, 50, "Panamakṣāh striyaścaiva mrgaya ca yathakramam/Etatkaṣṭatamam vidyaccatuskam kamaje/ gane." 7 Arthasastra, Book 1, chapter VI, (Restraint of the organs of sense), p. 10.
8 Kamandakiya Nitisara, 1st Sarga-V. 54. "Mrgaya-akṣā panam garhitāni mahibhujam Dṛṣṭastevyastu vipadaḥPandunaiṣadha-Vrsnisu,"

Page #108

Sec.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRÀ
according to the institution of kingship emerged out of the people's desire to be saved from the anarchical condition created by the Mātsyanyāya' (rule of fish) which brought immense miseries to them in its train. “Mātsyanyāyam apahitum prakști. bhiḥ Lakşmyāḥ karam grähitah."1.
Although a great emphasis has been put on the moral aspect of the king's character to discharge his sacred duties to the people and the state, yet in some cases as described in the BAS there is found a glimpse of pompous royal life of luxury and vice, led generally by the crown prince like Jamālī who spent his time in the upper palace by playing Mrdanga (a kind of drum) together with thirty-two kinds of dramatic represen. tation in the association of best young ladies (courtesans), dancing and dancing in front, singing and singing in front, by fondling them with tenderness again and again throughout the nights of the six seasons, viz. Prāvrt (Srāvanādiņ) Varşārātra (Aśvayujādih), Sarat (Mārgasīrśādih), Hemanta (Māghādiḥ), Vasanta (Caitrādụh) and Grīşma (Jyesthādiņ) and by enjoying singly the five kinds of human sensual gratification of desires, i.e. desired sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell" at the expense of private and public wealth.
Therefore the virtue of personal character and training in a disciplined life of a king and his officials are most essential for the successful working of government in a monarchical state.
The king was the chief executive head of both civil and military departments of the government, who carried on both the executive and judicial functions and led the army in the battlefield with the assistance of a large body of his high officials'.
In a word he kept a vigilent eye over all the departments, such as, jail, criminal, revenue, judicial, public works, social
1 Khalimpur Inscription of Dharmapāla of Bengal. Ep. Ind.
IV, p 218 Vide Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal, Dr. B. C. Sen. p. 292 f. N. 2. BhS, 9, 33, 383.
3 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301; 9, 33, 385; 11,9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 13, 6,491.

Page #109

84
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
. III
entertainment, and other internal departments and external affairs', etc.
It appears from the character of administration that there was no separation of power of the executive from that of the judicial. Thus the BLS presents an account of a well organised centralized government under the lordship of the king assisted by a host of high officials and minor functionaries.
The political theory as reflected in the BUS lays a great emphasis on justice, as in theory and practice alike judicature was one of the most important aspects of governance. Federal character of Government
It is known from the Bhs that a great deal of autonomy was granted to feudal chiefs (Samantarājas)" and sub-feudatories, who enjoyed a considerable amount of freedom in their internal administrative affairs and organised a regular system of local administration, the last unit of which was the village (gāma).
Elements of federalism and local autonomy were incorporated into the system of the state organisation, but it did not embrace the whole subjects of the social rules and customs. So parallel organisations on functional ground ran side by side in the form of guilds (Negama) of merchants and bankers who were free in respect of their managerial affairs to carry on their trade and commerce and industry according to their own business rules and customs recognized by the law of the state.
The Bhs clearly reveals that the principle of function was filled together into that of kingship and habitancy. So it was the foundation of an essential component part of the machinery of social check and balance of unbriddled autocratic power. Thus the form of government which was both horizontal and vertical as found in this work, consisted of a number of local and functional bodies and intermediate organizations having somewhat undemarcated and ill-defined lines of relations with the state.
1 Ib, 11, 11, 429. Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. 9 Bhs, 11, 11,429. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 417 5 I6, 13, 6, 491. 6 1b, 13, 6, 491. 7 16, 18, 2, 618. 8 Ib, 2, 5, 107. (The merchants of the town of Tungikā
amassed abundant wealth by banking business (Aogapaoga).

Page #110

Sec. IV]
stubIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
85
FOURTH SECTION
System of Administration Crown-Prince
A crown-prince? (e.g. Jamālī, Śiyabhadra, etc.) who is a heir-apparent stands second in rank to the king in the government as revealed in the Bhs. But no specific duties have been assigned to him. It is learnt from other Jaina texts that he had to attend the assembly and carry on administrative functions after completing his daily duties.
The Bhs indirectly mentions some qualifications of the crown-prince, requisite for running the administration of the government. But other Jain works refer to his virtues and necessary qualifications in details. Thus it is stated in the Anuyoga Cūrni that he possessed eight virtues, such as, aạimā, mahimă, etc.', and he was to learn “seventy-two arts, eighteen provincial languages (deśābhāsā), music, dancing and the art of fighting on horse-back, elephant, and chariot'' in order to equip himself with knowledge and experience in different branches of learning with a view to shouldering the heavy burden of the state duties.
Viceroyalty and Succession
The study of the BhSclearly shows that the principle of hereditary kingship was generally followed by the ruling kings in the matter of succession to the throne. Naturally the sceptre
1 BhS, 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417 ; 13, 6, 491. 2 V yavahāra Bhăsya, 1, p. 129. 8 Anuyoga Cúrni, p. 11,
Ovaiya Sutra, 44, pp. 185 ff.; The crowo-prince is referred to in the Brāhmaṇical works as one of the eighteen Tirthas. "He was the right hand, right eye and ear to the king”, Dikşitar, H. A. I. pp. 106, 109f; also Cf. the Kurudhamma Jataka (11, No. 276, p. 374) "where it is said that the crownprince was to attend upon the king every morning and receive the greetings of the people". Life in Ancient India, p. 58. f. 3 by Dr. J. C. Jain. Bhs, 11, 9, 417 (King Siva of Fastinä pura abdicated the throne in favour of his eldest son, Sivabhadra before renoun. cing the world.)

Page #111

86
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
2. II
of kingship passed to the eldest son, the crown-prince, after the death of his father according to the law of primogeniture. Even during the life-time of the ruling king the throne was abdicated by him in favour of his eldest son in accordance with this law.
But sometimes, under special circumstances the nephew (sister's son) of the ruling monarch was selected and anointed by him as his successor in place of his own eldest son, the rightful heir to the throne. Thus an instance is come across in the Bhs in regard to the case of the succession of prince Keśi. kumāra', the nephew of king Udāyana of Sindhu Sauvīra (bhāinejja) to the throne which was abdicated by his uncle in bis favour, having put aside the rightful claim of his eldest son, prince Abhīcī, on the ground that if the kingship was conferred on him, he might intensely be infatuated, attached and tied to it and consequently to the realm, state, pleasures anů enjoyments. As a result of these attachments and enjoyments, "he would travel again and again on the beginningless and endless long path in the forest of four-bordered world''. So king Udayana selected and installed his nephew, Keśikumāra, on the throne of Sindhu-Sauvīra to govern his kingdom before renouncing the world for undertaking the state of houselessness, after getting initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana Dharma.
There is another instance of succession of a nephew (sister's son) revealed in the commentary on the Uttarādhyayana Sutra? in which it is stated that Gaggali, the nephew of Sāla and Mabāsāla of Pitthi-Campā was anointed king by his uncle Sāla in the absence of a son before his renouncing the world for under. taking the ascetic life.
The BhS does not give any idea about the succession to the throne after the death of a heirless king or after joining the ascetic order by only one son of a king leaving the wordly life.
1 Bhs, 13, 6, 491.
? Ib. 13, 6, 491. 9 The Sisyahită commentary on Uttarādhyayana Sutra, 10,
p. 153 f. 4 Cf. Nāyādhammakahāo-14., P. 153 f.

Page #112

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
In this regard some Jaina texts throw a welcome light upon the solution of the problem of succession arising out of heirless kingship. In such cases the ministers gave counsel to the king to beget sons through levirate by bringing the monks to the palace on the pretext of listening to their religious sermons and performing the worship of holy images. On their refusal to the royal proposal they were compelled to cohabit with the queens of the harem under the threat of penalty of death. Sometimes the unwilling ones of those monks were executed.*
One does not come across any example in the BhS that a woman has succeeded to the throne in the absence of a male heir to the kingdom. In this regard only one Jaina text-the Mahanisiha" refers to the succession to the throne by a widowed daughter of a heirless king after his death.
87
In some Jaina texts there are references to the system of selecting a successor to the vacant throne by the divine will manifested through the horse, elephant, pitcher, chowrie and royal parasol.4
It is said in the commentary of the Uttaradhyayana that on the death of the heirless king of Bennayaḍa, a procession of five divine articles, viz. an elephant, horse, a consecrationpitcher, chowries, and a parasol, was organized and led by the
1 Brhat. K. Bhasya-4. 4948; also cf. Kusa Jataka (No. 531. V. 278ff.); also Cf. Anguttara Nikaya V, p. 81 ff; Vide Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jain Canons-Dr. J. C. Jain (p. 51. 18 f).
Brhat. K. Bhāṣya-4. 4948.
* Mahänisiha-p. 30; It is stated in the Kandina Jataka I (No. 13, p. 155) "infamous is the land which owns a woman's sway and rule, and infamous are the men who yield themselves to women's dominion", but sometimes one comes across examples when women wielded the actual sovereignty. "On Udaya's death no king was set up and it is told that the commands of his widow Udayabhadda were promulgated" (Udaya Jataka, No. 458 IV, p. 105), Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. jain, p. 52, 22f.
4 (In the Kathakosa translated by Tawney, p. 4; f. note, it is said "an elephant with a pitcher of water roams about for seven days and chooses a person as king".); Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 52, 23 f.

Page #113

88
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Ch. III
royal officers to find out the future king, till they halted at some place and recognized their future king in the prince, Mūladeva sitting under the shade of a tree there, by the divine will
vealed througb the self-trumpeting of the elephant, the selfneighing of the horse, the self-sprinkling of water of the pitcher, the self-fanning of the chowries and the holding of the royal parasol by itself over his head. To the great joy of the people Mūladeva was simultaneously accepted and proclaimed king by the ministers and tributary kings (mantisāmanta) in the town with the cries of victory."
Similar accounts of choosing king by the divine will manifested itself through the horse are given in other Jaina texts.
It is related in the Uttarādhyayana Tīkāk that the divine horse let loose by the citizens of Kapicana pura halted in front of the prince, Karakaņdu who was immediately recognized as their king with his specific auspicious marks on his body and was declared king with the cries of victory and joy.
Almost the same royal tradition of selecting king is found in the Karakandu Cariu' in which it is related that Karakandu, manifestly a Candāla, was chosen as the king of Dantīpura by the divine will revealed through the elephant, let loose by the royal officials and citizens to search out their future king on the death of their former heirless king.'
In the same manner Nhāviyadāsa Nandas referred to in the Avaśyaka Cūrni was consecrated as the king of Padaliputta by the people.
The Vyavahāra Bhāsya relates a similar story of succession of the robber, Mūladeva to the throne. While he was being
1 The Sisyahită commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra-3,
p. 63 a. The Ovõiya Sutta JI. pp. 44, refers to "sword (Khagga), umbrella (chat!a), crown (upphesa), shoes (vāhana) and chowries (vālavijana) as the five royal insignia, Vide Life in Ancient India, by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 53, 24 f ; Cf.
Milindapanha, p. 330. 2 Uttaradhya yana-Pika-9., p. 134. 9,4 Karakandu Cariu, v. 219-21, edited by Dr. H. L. Jain. * Āvasyaka Cúrni 11; p. 180. 6 Vyavahāra Bhagya, 4, 169

Page #114

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
89
taken for execution, he was chosen as king by the divine will manifested through the horse, released by the royal officials and citizens to find out their future king on the sudden death of the former heirless monarch.
A similar custom of choosing king on the death of a heir. less king is mentioned in the Buddhist works in which it is stated that a festal car (phussaratha) drawn by horses was let by the priest (purohita, be driven to find out the future king in the same manner till it stopped and chose a man endowed with auspicious marks on his body, who was destined to be the king. Abdication
In the BHS it is found that the whole issue of succession was inter-related with the event of renunciation of the world by the kings. It is found that King Siva of Hastinapura abdi. cated his throne in favour of his eldest son, prince Śivabhadra. In one case only, this problem of selecting a successor led to a strained relation between the father and the son.
The event of succession of Keśīkumāra, the nephew of king Udayana in place of Abhîci Kumāra, the rightful heir to the throne of Sindhu-Sauvīra appears to be an extra-ordinary one. This act of king Udāyana in choosing his nephew as his successor generated a feeling of life-long uninterrupted hostility in the heart of his son, Abhicīkumāra towards him. So the prince, being aggrieved by this kind of arrangement made by his father left Vitibhaya, the capital city of Sindhu-Sauvīra with all his belongings for ever and came to the court of king Kūņika, the lord of Campā (i. e. Magadha) where he lived, having attained wealth, prosperity, abundant enjoyments and honour.
w Phussaratha' on from the date of be driven being
1 The Darimukha Jataka (III, No. 378, p. 239) calls this ceremony Phussaratha' on the festal car ceremony. After the passing of seven days from the date of death of a heir less king the Purohita let a festal car be driven being followed by a traditional four-fold army with the beating of many hundred drums to search out the future king in the said manner. See Mahānaka Jataka (No. 534, VI. p. 39), also see Kithasaritsāgara, Vol. V, Ch. IXX, pp. 175-7, note
on Pañcadivyadhiväsa ; J.A.O.S., Vol. 33, pp. 158.66. i Bhs, 11, 9, 417. $ 16,13, 6, 492. Ib, 13, 6, 492,
12

Page #115

90
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
Consecration Ceremony
The Bhsi presents a graphic account of colourful consecration ceremony of a new king celebrated and attended by the retiring king and all the high dignitaries of his state. This august function of coronation was presided over and conducted by the retiring king himself with great pomp, grandeur and dignity,
The king, being surrounded by many leaders of corporation ((gananāyakas), judge (dandanāyaka),' chief police officer (talavara), frontier guard-officer (sandhipāla), ambassador (data), etc., made the heir-apparent seated on the best throne and then consecrated him with royal unction (rājyābhiseka) of 800 golden and 800 earthen jars, hailing him with the great cry of 'victory'. Having caused the heir-apparent to bathe, the king wiped off and made his limbs (the former's) dry with a very soft hairy cloth (towel) dyed with fragrant saffron (pamhasākṣmagandhakāśāyika), besmeared his body with the juicy essence of Gośīrsa sandal, adorned and decorated him with best clothes, precious ornaments and garlands, and then congratulated him with the cry of 'victory'. After the consecration and decoration were over, the retiring king declared the crown-prince 'king', holding before him the lofty ideals of kingship thus "protect the kingdom, being surrounded by wellwishers of cities, towns and villages”. 3
Then the coronation ceremony was concluded with the cry “victory, victory".
This kind of pompous and colourful consecration ceremony of king as revealed in the BhS is also described in the Jambuddīvapannatti-, the Nāyādhammakahão” and the Mahāpurana' in a vivid manner.
In the Jambūddīvapannatti? the coronation of Bharata, the universal monarch is depicted in a colourful style.
1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.
Sanskrit English Dictionary, Monier-Williams, p. 466. Col. 3. 8 Bhs. ii, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491. 4 Jambuddivapannati, 3, 68, pp. 267a-280. 6 Nāyādhammakahão, 1., p. 28f.
Mahāpurāna, (see the following pages). ? Jambu. Sú, 3, 68., pp. 267a-270.

Page #116

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
91
On his entering the coronation hall, Bharata was welcomed by many kings, the general, the priest, the eighteen guilds (senippaseņi), the merchants and others with ovation of their auspicious sprinkling fragrant water and congratulated by them with the cry of 'victory'. He was crowned by the people who made his body dry with a very soft hairy red-brown coloured fragrant cloth (towel) and adorned him with a garland and many kinds of ornaments. This consecration ceremony was marked with the remission of taxes and provided with the celebration of a festival continuing for a long time.
The Nayādhammakahão' refers to the consecration ceremony of Mehakumāra who was made king for only one day by his parents on his request before his renouncing the world like Mahābala, the son of king Bala of Hastināpura'. It was performed exactly in the same manner with great pomp and grandeur amidst the beating of drum (dundubhi) as depicted in the BIS.
In the Mahāpurāņa3 it is stated that the coronation cere. mony of Rşabhadeva was performed by the gods, kings, and peoples in a divine style on the consent of Nābhi, the father of Rşabhadeva, who himself, having lifted his crown with his own hand, placed it on the head of Rşabhadeva.
Similar colourful pictures of coronation ceremony of king are depicted in the Buddhist Jātakas“, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana.
Thus it is described in the Ayoghara Jātaka? that "the subjects headed by the priest came to see the prince with many kinds of auspicious articles ; the whole city was decorated ;
1 Nāyidhammakahão, 1., p. 28 f.
Bhs, 11, 11, 431. Skt. Mahāpurana, parva, 16, LL. 193-234 See Apabh. Mahāpurāna, V 21. (11-12). "Puvvahum visa lakkha gaya jaiyahum baddhu pattu jagaņāhahu taiyahum Nāhiņarindāmarasamghāyahim Kacchamahākacchāhivarāya
him" . 4 The Jatakas. Pañcagarry Jätaka I No. 132, p. 470 ; Ayoghara
Jataka IV, No. 510, p. 492. 5 The Mahābhārata, Santi parva IXL, 6 The Rāmāyana II, 3; 6 ; 14, 15, IV, 26, 20 ff. ? Ayoghara Jataka IV, No. 510, p. 492.

Page #117

92
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
courtesans played and danced all round; priests, generals, merchants and citizens, provincials-all thronged at the palace and made a holiday; the town was decorated on a heavenly style, the prince was placed on a pile of jewels, he was sprinkled from the couches and an umbrella with its festoons of gold was held over him".
Priest (Purohita)
In the BhS the priest (purohita) does not appear as the king's adviser in secular matters and occupy a position in the administration of the government like other high royal officials. But here a reference is made to the term "Balikari' which denotes a propitiator employed in the service of a royal family along with other palace staff-members, such as, Bhanda garini Ajjhadharini etc.
But one comes across the evidences in other Jaina texts that the priest held an important position as king's counsel in the royal court along with other high dignitaries of the state and was regarded as one of the jewels."
In the Vivaga Suya1 it is stated that a sacrifice was performed by Mahesaradatta, the priest of king Jiyasattu with a view to averting his misfortunes. Sometimes he was also employed as witch-doctor by the king to win victory in the war for which a sacrifice was performed by the said priest with the flesh of hearts of eight hundred captured boys belonging to the four classes, viz. Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda.
1 Vide Life in Ancient India, by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 54, 29 f. 2 BhS, 11, 11, 430. There is the mention of Asura Purohita (Bhs 3, 1, 135).
3 Sthananga Sutra-7, 558; Cf. Milindapanha, p. 114, which refers to "Senapati, purohita, akkhadassa, bhandagarika, chattagahaka, khaggagahaka as six important officers of the king." See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain., p. 58 4f. 4 Vivaga Suya 5, p. 33; The Dhonasakha Jataka (III No. 353. p. 159) "refers to an ambitious priest who helped the king with sacrificial ceremony to acquire a city which was difficult to conquer." So he proposed to his master "to pluck out the eyes of thousand captured kings, to rip up their bellies, and take out the entrails and offer an offering (bali) to a god." Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 56 5f. See also Fick, op. cit. Ch. VII, "The House priest of the king."

Page #118

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
In Panini a reference is made to the duties of purohita as 'Paurohitya'. The position of the priest is indicated by the word purohitadigana' which implies the king, the general and other royal officers including the priest.
According to the Arthasastra" the priest stood next to the chief minister in official rank, while the general (senapati) and the crown prince (yuvaraja) occupied next position in successive order.
As regards qualifications a priest was supposed to be wellversed in the Vedas and political science (Dandanīti).
FIFTH SECTION
Structure of Government
In the BhS it is revealed that the king was assisted by a large body of officials of different grades in his running the heavy administrative machinery of the government, as it was an impossible task for a ruler to govern a state without the active co-operation of honest and loyal officers. That is why Manu emphatically states that the 'Danda' cannot justly be administered by a helpless, foolish, greedy king, not well-versed in the Sastra according to the law without the assistance of the ministers, the general, the priest, etc.
"So asahāyena mūḍhena lubdhenākṛtabuddhinā / Na śakyo nyayato netum saktena viṣayeṣu ca' 3 1/30/1.
93
The Arthasastra of Kautilya also echoes the same sentiment of Manu, when it declares "sovereignty is possible only with assistance. A single wheel can never move".
The BhS mentions many government officials of several grades, who appear to have been organized into a regular civil service which consisted of the following staff-members, viz.
1 Panini, VI, 128. 3 Manusmrti, VII, 30.

2 Arthaŝastra, V, 3, 247, p. 276. Arthas astra, 13 (Ch. VII).

Page #119

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. Itl chieftain' (gananayaka), judge (dandanayaka), princes (raisara), chief police officer of the city (talavara), royal household staff (koḍumbiya purusa), chief merchant (satthavaha), general' (senāvai), military technical experts (cheyayariya), frontier-guard-officer (samdhivala), ambassador10 (duya), administrative officers" (Bhata and Caṭakara), and others.
94
They formed the retinue of king's officers who assisted him in his heavy administrative work with their respective duties.
The evidences of the maintenance of such a large contingent of government officials as revealed in the BhS are also corroborated by other Jaina texts which furnish a long list of royal staff of the same categories mentioned above.
Besides these officers, the text refers to minor functionaries of the state, such as, bearers of sticks (latthi, lauda), sword (asi), lance (kunta), books (putthaya), stringed musical instrument (vina),13 charioteer1 (sarathi), marshall (or ancient pahakara), footsoldiers and others who formed the royal retinue during the journey of a king or a prince to any place.
Personal and Palace Staff
The Bh1 gives a long list of personal and palace staff maintained by the king in keeping with his majestic dignity. This contingent of household personnels employed in the service of the royal family consisted of chamberlain (kancuijje)18, enuch (varisadhare), courtier (mahattare), female inner doorkeepers (abbhimtariyão paḍihario), female outer door keepers
1 Bhs,7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417. 2 Ib. 11, 9, 417.
3 Ib, 9, 33, 385, 13, 6, 491.
5 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 7 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 301; 8 lb, 7, 9, 300.
Ib. 9, 33, 385; 13, 6, 491; Talavara may mean also Knight. 81b, 9, 33, 385; 13, 6, 491. also see Ovaiya Sutta.
9 Ib, 7, 9, 303, 11, 9, 417.
10 1b, 7, 9, 303, 11, 9, 417. 11 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 9, 33, 383.
12 Rayapaseniya Sutta Tika., p. 313; 148, p. 285; Niśī, cū, 9, p. 506; Brh. Bha. vṛtti, 3.3757; Kalpa Ti. 4. 62.
13 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. 14 I6, 9, 33, 385, 7, 9, 301.
15 Ib, 9, 33. 385.
17 Ib, 11, 11, 430

16 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 7, 9, 300 (Payatta, Yoha). -18 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430.

Page #120

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
95
(bahiriyão padihārzo), female treasurers (bhandägārinio) storekeepers (kotthagārio), propitiators (balikāržo), actresses (nādaijjão) (or female dancers) and other menials, such as, female dwarfs (vāmanā), hunch-backed women (khujjão), clowns (davakäržo), bearers of new brides (or carriers of babes) (ajjhādhāriņio), female attendants (pārisão), female bearers of umbrella, chowries, palm-leaf-fans, box for betel, (chattadhārīo ceļão, câmara dhārio cedio, tăliyamudhārio cedio, Icarodiyadhāržo cedio), five classes of nurses (Ichiradhāio, etc., upto ankadhažo), female massagers of body (angamaddiyão) and rubbers of body (ummaddiyão), bathmakers (nhāviyão', decorators (pasāhiyão), sandal.grinders (vannagapesžo), grinders of fragrant powders (cunnagapesão), waitresses (uvatthāniyão), female attendants (kodur winio), female cooks (mahānusinio), bearers of flowers, water, female despatchers of message (pesanakārio), courtesans of different categories for dancing and singing,' holding umbrella, water-pitcher, golden stick and fanning chowries, and foster-mother who accompanied the prince on his journey.
It is interesting to note that a separate large establishment of palace-staff for an individual queen had to be supported by the king on heavy expenditure, because polygamy was prevalent among the ruling Ksatriya castes, particularly in the royal families.
It is to be observed that the BhS refers to the marriage of the Ksatriya prince Mabābala of Hastināpura with eight princesses at a time on the same day. So it was thought wise by the ruling king, Bala, the father of the prince to provide all those eight princesses with their respective necessaries of life, lest the internal quarrel of the co-wives might arise and break the peace of the palace. It was a great problem for the king to keep the royal dignity in the state with his paraphernalia. Council of Ministers
As it was an impossible task for the king to perform his heavy administrative duties of the state without the assistance
i Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 16, 9, 33, 383. 3 18, 9, 33, 385,

Page #121

96
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
of honest, sincere and loyal officers of all grades, so it was an imperative necessity that he should have ministers and a cabinet consisting of them for consultation before deciding upon a course of action regarding the state policy.
The Bh1 only mentions Mantz and Mahāmaṁti', along with other high dignitaries of the government who formed the royal retinue, but there is no indication of the council of ministers (Mantriparisad) and its functions anywhere in this work.
The BhS is acquainted with two kinds of 'Parisa", viz. the religious Parisa (assembly) and the royal retinue as recognized institutions.
But it is not clear whether the royal retinue mentioned here denotes the political parisad as revealed in the Manu-smṛti3, the Panini, the Arthaśastra, the Buddhist texts and the Aśokan Inscriptions.
The character of administration as reflected here clearly shows that the absolute monarch presided over all functions of the state by exercising his autocratic sovereign authority over every branch of the administration of the government, the people and the state. So it was not probably thought necessary by him to form a council of ministers, who would advise and assist him in his deliberation on important state affairs with their wise counsel based on knowledge and experience. The council of ministers (Mantriparisad) which is referred to in some Jaina, Buddhist and Brahmaṇical works as one of the most important limbs of the state was perhaps a later phase of administrative evolution.
1 BhS, 7, 9 300. See the Sūri.
Commentary of Sri Abhayadeva
21b, 1, 1, 6. (Parisā niggaya parisā paḍigayā). 3 Manu-Smrti, VII, 146
5
Arthasastra, 13,-1, Ch. XV, p. 26-29. Mahäsilava Jataka, 1. 264.

4 Panini, V, 2, 112.
7 Asoka's Inscription, Rock Edicts III and VI.
8
Bhs, 11, 11, 429; 7, 9, 300; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.

Page #122

Sec. V
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
97
So there is no evidence of any idea of the nature, consti. tution and functions of this political institution in the BAS. In this respect some Jaina texts give a graphic account of this council of ministers which was an important factor of monarchical form of government.
In the Brhatkal pa-Bhāsya-Pithikā” it is stated that there are five kinds of royal council, viz. Püranti, Chattanti, Buddhi, Mantri, and Rahassiyā.
The first one is called Púranti, as its officials formed the retinue of the king on his journey till bis return to the capital, while the Chattanti council was composed of royal officers who held the royal parasol over the head of the king and had the privilege to accompany him up to the outer assembly hall.
The Buddhi council was constituted of very learned members in general customs (loka), the Vedas and the Scriptures (samaya) and it was entrusted with the task of gathering current informations about diverse reports and running comments among the people and bringing them to its intelligence.
The Mantriparisad, the fourth council consisted of ministers, who were well-read in the political science (Rāyasattha), born of non-royal family (atakkuliya), sincere, aged, loyal and courageous in the state affairs. They were the great sources of strength to the king who consulted them on important matters of the state policy in a secluded place before taking any administrative measure.
The Rahassiya council constituted of secret emissaries was entrusted with the task of appeasing the angry queen, conveying the message of the dates of purificatory bath of different queens after their monthly menstruation to the king, telling him of the names of his grown up daughters fit for marriage, informing him of love affairs of the queen, if there
1 Kamandlakiya Niti sāra, Sarga-IV. 1 (Svāmyamatyasca
rāstraîca durgan koşa balaṁ suhrt/parasparopakāridan saptāngai rājya.mucyate. Bihat Kulpa Bhāşya Pithikā (378–383).
13

Page #123

98
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
be any and conversing with him privately on different subjects of sexual life.
The ministers as mentioned in the Jaina texts were entrusted with the duty of carrying on political affairs of the state with undivided loyalty to their country, city and the king, their lord, by dint of their capibility, knowledge and experience in law and administration.' Power of the Council of Ministers
Some Jaina texts refer to the power of ministers to dismiss a king and install another in his place under special circums. tances which led to the negligence of state business.
It is stated in the Avasyaka Cūrni that the king, Jiyasattu of Vasantapura was dethroned and banished by his ministers on his negligence to state affairs due to his excessive love for his wife, queen Sukumaliyā, and his own son, the crown-prince was anointed king in his place'. Duties of Ministers
According to one Jaina text' the minister was charged with the duty to organize a strong system of spies belonging to both the sexes, designated as Sīcakas, Anusūcakas, Pratisūcakas and Sarvasūcakas, for the safety and security of the state from internal disorders and foreign invasions.
The duty of the Sūcakas was to collect internal secrets of the harem by making friendship with the harem-officers, while that of the Anusūcakas was to detect the presence of the foreign spies in the city.
The Pratisūcakas were entrusted with the task of watching the movement of enemy spies, while standing at the city gate
1 Vyavahāra Bhāsya, I, pp. 129 f. * Áoaklaka Can, p. 534 ; See Saccaniskira Jặtaka (1 No. 73)
p. 326. 9 See Saccamkira Jataka (1. No. 73), p. 326 for similar cases. 4 Vyavahāra Bhäsya 1, p. 13.a f; see The Mahābhārata
(Santi, p. LXVIII, 8-12), and the Asokan Inscription, R.E. VI, where it is found that the king himself directed the spy orga. pization. See also drthaśāstra of Kautilya, pp. 17-22.

Page #124

Sec. VIT
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
99
in the guise of & menial worker doing some petty job. And it was the duty of the Sarvas ücakas to report the secret informations, gathered through their assistant spies, to the minister concerned. Thus anet of spies was spread over the neighbouring states, own kingdom, cities and the royal harem by him to watch their activities for the safety and security of the state.
The Mantriparişad (Council of ministers) and its functions as revealed in the Jaina texts are also referred to in the Panini Sutra, Buddhist work,' Manu-Smrti, Arthaśāstru, Asokan Inscriptions and other texts in details.
Assembly Hall
In the BhS references are made to the assembly hall (Uvatthānasālā)? where he held his council, received his officials and peoples and transacted his state business.
SIXTH SECTION,
Functions of the Government The Bhs throws some light upon multifarious functions of different departments of the government of its period, such as, revenue, trade and commerce, banking, judiciary, executive, public works, social entertainment, defence, external affairs, etc., as alluded to in its stray references, but they are not systematically dealt with in one chapter.
Here will first be discussed the following departmental functions, viz. revenue, land settlement (recording, measuring and sale or purchase of land), trade and commerce, banking, judiciary
1 Panini, V, 2, 112. : Mahāsālava Jataka, I. 264. 3 Manu-Smộti, VII, 146.
Arthaśāstra Book 1, Ch. XV. pp. 26-29. 6 Asoka's Inscriptions-R. E. III & VI.
Kamandakiya Nitisära, Sarga, IV. ? Bhs, 11, 11, 428,

Page #125

100
ŠTUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. III as suggested by a number of terms, such as, “ussukkan, ukkaran, ukkitam, ummānam, adharimaiii adandan, kod adiman", etc.
The words, 'U 88ukkan Ukkaran, Ukkitam, Ummānam and Adharimani' clearly imply the existence of well-organized revenue and commerce departments with their various activities connected with the finance of the state.
Fiscal Administration
Finance is the main support of the state on which stands the whole structure of the government for the successful working of the administration in the interests of the people.
A stable financial condition of the monarchical states appears to be reflected in the Bhs which gives an idea of a re. gular system of land settlement and taxation organized by the state to collect revenue from land, commerce, etc.
These evidences clearly show that the government also took administrative measures to raise the standard of weight and to control money-lending business (banking) in order to give an impetus to commerce for the material prosperity of the state and the people at large.
Land Settlement
It is clearly suggested by the terms “A-mijjan and Adijjani" (not to be measured, not to be given) that the land was measured, recorded and registered by the government officers of the land-settlement department at the time of transfer from one owner to another in the case of sale and purchase except on certain occasion, e. g. the birth-day ceremony of a new born prince (amijjan and adijjarii).
The terms «U-88ukkam and U-kkarars' suggest that a regular system of taxation was organized by the government for collecting revenues from trade and commerce, land and other sources in order to defray the heavy expenditures of the state, because the assessment and collection of revenue based on sound
i Bhs, 11, 11, 429.
28 BKS, 11, 11, 429.

Page #126

101
Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĨ SŪTRA financial policy were the main fountains of state income and prosperity.
The study of the above evidences clearly suggests that the revenue was collected by the government officials concerned with the work from land-tax in cash and kind in the form of cattle) and customs on trade and commerce, fines and other sources.
On certain occasion, particularly the birth-day ceremony of a new born prince, the king ordered the remission of taxes and customs (ukkaram and ussukkan) and the closing down of all land transactions of the state by a royal proclamation that the land was not to be cultivated (ukkitlan), donated (adijjan) and measured (amijjan), but he promulgated his order to the effect of raising the standard of weight (māņummānavaddhanam).
The study of these evidences reveals that the state paid much attention to the land, trade and commerce which brought material prosperity to the people, the royal exchequer and the society as a whole.
The Bhs refers to many kinds of trade and commerce, such as, charcoal business (ingālakamme), cutting and selling of forest trees (vanakamme), making and selling of carts (sāļikamme), earning of fare by transport-business (Whädikamme), cultivation (ploughing and spading, phoạikamme), ivory-business (datavanijje), lac-business (lalckcha-vānijje), traffic in hair e. g. wool (kesavānijje), liquor-business (rasavāņijje), poison-business (visavānijie), crushing of sesame, sugarcane etc. by machinery Gjarta. pilanakamme), castrating of animals, bulls, etc. (nillar chanakamme), setting fire to woods (davaggidāvanayā), draining lakes and ponds (saradahatalāyaparisosanayā), and running of brothels (asata. posanaya)' and economic and industrial guilds organized and carried on by private merchants and industrialists. They were certainly the largest sources of the state revenue, only next to that of land-tax.
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429.
-3 16, 8, 5, 330. $ 16, 2, 5, 107; 12, 1, 437; 18, 2, 618.

Page #127

102
STUDIÈS IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
(Ch. III
The state derived its revenue also from the receipts? of rich presents offered by individual subjects to the king and fines imposed on criminals found guilty by the judicial court (Dändigrāhya)".
In this connection one important matter should be observed that a rich merchant (satthavāha)* was always associated by the king with the administration probably as economic adviser to the government. It appears that his financial knowledge and experience were indispensible to the state for formulating the fiscal policy.
Fiscal administration as revealed in the Bhs is also referred to in other Jain texts in a systematic manner. There it is found that the structure of land-tax was based on the principle of some specified factors, such as, the amount of production, cost of cultivation, condition of market and nature of soil.
According to the Vyavahāra Bhasya the legal land-tax was generally fixed at the rate of one-sixth of the land produce on the basis of the above principle, while the commercial and industrial tax was imposed by the state, after taking into consideration the volume of trade carried on by the merchants, their living standard, incidental charges or intermediaries, labour, etc.
A house tax of two drammas is also referred to in the commentary on the Pinda-Niryukti', while the Niśitha Cīrni? mentions one case where it is found tbat a merchant pays one vessel out of twenty as tax to the state.
The study of some Jaina texts reveals that sometimes the king remitted commercial taxes in lieu of rich presents offered by the foreign merchants to him.
1 lb, 11, 11, 429. ? 16. 11, 11, 429. (See comm.) 3Ib. 7,9,300. 4 Gautama (X-24) mentions three different rates of land tax
viz. one-tenth, one-eighth and one-sixth. See also Manu
Smrti, VII, 130 ff. 5 V yuvahāra Bhāsya, 1, p. 128a. 8 Pinda Niryukli, 87. p. 329. ? Nisitha Cūrni, 20, p. 1281.

Page #128

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
In the Nāyādhammakahão a reference is made to the exemption of customs granted by the king of Mithila to a seafairing merchant of Campa on receipt of precious gift of a pair of earrings from him. In the Uttaradhyayana Tika there is found a similar account of the merchant, Ayala by name, who was exempted from commercial tax on his presentation of a plate (thala) full of silver, gold and pearls to the king of Bennayaḍa".
Besides these sources, the Jaina texts provide a long list of state revenue derived from eighteen kinds of income, viz. "taxes from cows (go), buffaloes (mahisa), camels (uṭṭi), cattle (pasu), goats (chagali), grass (tana), palāla grass (puvala in Hindi), chaff (busa), wood (kaṭṭha), coal (angara), plough (siya), threshold (umbara, com. dehalis, pasture-ground (jangha or janga), bullocks (balivadda), earthen pot (ghaya), hides and skins (camma), food (cullaga), and any other taxes levied by will (uppatti, com. svecchayakal pita) and collected by tax collectors (sunkapala)".
103.
The state coffer was also replenished with revenue derived from other sources, such as, precious gifts on the occasion of constructing a lake in the city, passport granted by the king to an artisan who was desirous to go to a foreign country', unclaimed property, treasure-trove belonging to the deceased,8
1 Nayadhammakahão, 8, p. 102.
2 Uttaradhyayana Tikā, 3, p. 64.
It is also referred to in the Bṛhat kalpa Bhāṣya, 3, 4770. Avasyaka Niryukti, 1071 f. (Hari):
4
Comm. by Malayagiri, p. 596.
Various kinds of taxes are mentioned in the Brāhmaṇical texts, such as, taxes derived "from the office of state gold. smith, the institution of prostitutes, building sites, guilds of artisans, handicrafts, religious and charitable endowments water tax, income tax, flowers, fruits and vegetable gardens, game-forests, timber and elephant forests, heads of cattle, asses, camels, horses, hides and skins etc". Dikṣitar, op. cit., p. 176.
Vide Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, pp. 61-62. See the discussion on them in the last part of the fiscal administration.
5 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 3, p. 71.
6 Nayadhamakahão, 13, p. 142.
7
Uttaradhyna Tika, 18., p. 251 a.
8 Kalpa ika. 1, p. 7 Cf; Vinya III, 11, 21; Avadāna Sataka,
1, 3, p. 13; III, p. 299 f.

Page #129

104
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
confiscation of treasure-trove? fines and forfeitures of property and other fines imposed on the charge of attempt to murder and a serious quarrel according to the law of the land and the gravity of crimes."
Assessment and Collection of Tax
The evidences of the land revenue and customs as mentioned here imply that there were royal officers (revenue-officers) to assess and collect taxes from all possible sources of the state in. come. But they do not provide much information regarding the fiscal administration and the officers of several grades associated with the work of land-settlement, assessment and collection of revenue.
In this respect some idea of fiscal administration is given in the Kal pasūtra in which a reference is made to a Rajjuyasabhā of Hattbivāla of Pāvā, the place of salvation of Lord Mahāvīra. The term 'rajjuya' denotes a settlement officer (or a survey minister) who measured land and he may be identical with rajjugāhakaamacca of Jatakas and the Rājuka of Asokan Inscriptions."
The Bhs does not throw any light upon the method of collecting revenue but it tells that the king warns the Bhata, his officer concerned with the work, not to enter the house of a subject on the auspicious day of birth-ceremony of a new born prince in his family (abhadappavesar)".
In this regard some other Jaina texts refer to the oppressive method of revenue collection resorted to by the king and his officers. In the Āvasyaka Cūrnis it is stated that one king was attacked by his suzerain lord for his failure to pay taxes (Kappaka) in due time.
1 Niśitha Cúrni, 20; p. 1281. Cf. Gautama X. 44; Yojñavallya
Smrti II-2. 34 f.) Manu. VII, 133. 2 Brhat-Kalpa Bhāsya. 4. 5104. See Life in Ancient India, p. 62. 8 Kurudhamma Jataka (II, No. 276). See R.E. III (Kālasi text)
for Rajjuka. BhS, 11, 11, 429. * Avasyaka Cūrni 11, p. 190,

Page #130

Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 105
The Vivāga Suyal gives an account of tyrannical method of collecting revenue applied by a district officer (Ratthaküda), named Ilkāi who was in charge of five hundred villages.
He resorted to all sorts of oppression to trouble the people of those villages, such as, levying of different kinds of taxes (kara) custom-duties (bhara), interest, bribe, insult, compulsory donation (dejja), punitive taxes (bhejja), forcible extraction of money (i.e. illegal exaction) by violence, affording shelter to thieves, setting fire to the houses of the people, and attacking travellers.
SEVENTH SECTION-A Administration of Justice and Judicial Procedure
A great emphasis is put by the political theory advocated in all the ancient Indian literatures on the administration of law and justice which is a most essential condition of liberty and protection of the people in the state.
The Bhs throws some light upon the judicial adminis. tration of its period as revealed in its stray references. The text lays a stress on the equitable justice and proper punishment to be administered to the people involved in any case, as it is advocated by its author thus that there must not be any impunity and unjust punishment awarded to anybody in the state and the encroachment upon the liberty of citizens. The king warns the Bhațas (a class of civil royal administrative officers) not to enter the house of a house-holder (ab hadappavesar) and orders the release of prisoners (cāragasohana) on the auspicious occasion of the birth-ceremony of a new born prince in the royal family.
The term "palayāhi' (protect) used in the Bhs' in connection with the coronation ceremony of the crown prince, Śivabhadra denotes that the king should protect the people from both the
1 Vivāga Suya 1, p. 6f. 8 Bhs, 11, 11, 429.
? 16, 1, p. 6 f. 4 10, 11, 9, 417,
14

Page #131

106
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. III internal and external dangers, injustice, calamities, and encroachment upon the liberty made by any body in the state. This ideal of equitable justice and equality in the eyes of law preached in the BKS is also reflected in some Jaina texts', the Buddhist Jātakas, the Manu-Smrti”, the Arthaśāstraand other Brāhmanical works.
In the V yavahāra Bhāsya a reference is made to an honest and impartial incorruptible judge, Rūpajulekha (Rīpadakkha in Pāli) by name who was well-read in Bharbhīya, Asuruklcha", Nītisāra of Māthara and Dandanīti of Kauņdinya and was famous for equitable justice.
The same view on the administration of justice is expressed by the Mrcchakarikn in which it is advocated that a judge should pronounce his unbiased, dispassionate and impartial judgement on any case of law-suit coming up to his court."
The Buddhist Jatalcase also reflect the same ideal of justice by laying down the principle that the judgement in a criminal case should be delivered with 'careful measure' according to the gravity and seriousness of the crime committed by the culprit.
But one should be cautious against drawing a hasty con. clusion about sound judiciary from the above principles of justice laid down in the Bhs and other ancient literatures mentioned here, because the kings, generally suspicious by nature awarded
TI.
i Vyavahāra Bhāsya; Micchakarika (Act, IX, pp. 256 f.).
See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain., p. 64. 1f. ? Mann-Smrti. Vli-25 ; 14 ff; IX-288; VIII-12, 16, 17. 8 Arthaśātra, 9. - Kūmanilakiya Nilisāra, Sarga II, 37. 5 Lalitavistara refers to Ambhirya and Asurya (p. 156). 8 V yavahāra Bhilsya 1, p. 132. Cf. Ripadukkha in Milinda
panha, p. 344. Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain,
p. 64, 4f. 7 Cf. Mrcchakațika Act IX pp. 256 f. 8 Cf. Ratha'atthi Jataka (No. 332) I, p. 105 ; See also the
commentary on the Digha-Nikūya Il. p. 519, for the administration of justice in Vesāli according to the laws laid down in the Paveni potthaka', the Book of Customs'. The trial went through a long process-till the final judgement was passed by the king. See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C, Jain, p. 64, 2 f.

Page #132

Sec. VIIA]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
107
severe punishment out of anger to those against whom he harboured a mistrust in his mind due to some causes. So sometimes innocent person was charged with the case of theft, or robbery, or murder and awarded punishment, while the real culprit was acquitted of all charges and set free.1
Cases
In the BhS there is not found any reference to civil or criminal cases which gave rise to law-suits and came before the royal court for adjudication, although it furnishes some evidence of theft, robbery3, murder and adultery in its stray statements in connection with the fruit (of binding) of Karmas (actions). But its acquaintance with the following official terms 'talavara" (chief city police officer), dandanayaga' (judge) and caragasohana (release of prisoners) implies that various crimes were committed by individuals in the kingdom at that period. Relativity of Crime and Punishment
It is not possible for one to form a correct view on the relativity of crime and punishment of that period from the scanty evidences furnished by this text regarding the judicial procedure adopted in matters of justice for awarding punishment to the criminals.
In the BhS there is no reference to various factors, such as, the nature of crime, the motive, time, place, circumstances, mental evolution of the individual, etc, which are generally taken into consideration of the judicial procedure by the judge before delivering unprejudiced, dispassionate and impartial judgement according to the laws laid down by the state. The
1 Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra-9.30; also refers to the Jataka (IV. p. 286), which states that an innocent ascetic, being suspected of robbery at night was abused and beaten by one householder and taken to the king for trial. He was impaled.
There is another case of Carudatta who was 'charged with the murder of a courtesan and theft of her jewels and consequently punished, though no confession was made by him nor any proof was established. Bhs, 9, 33, 384; 15, 1, 551.
4 1b, 15, 1, 560; 12, 7, 453. Ib, 13, 6, 491.
8 Ib, 11, 11, 429.

3 1b, 15, 1, 560. 51b, 8, 5, 328. 7 Ib, 7, 9, 300.

Page #133

108
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
Bhs does not mention any civil or criminal cases which came up before the court, nor does it show causes of imprisonment of culprits. So one should turn his attention to other sources which may throw light upon this subject.
The idea on the relativity of crime and punishment as embodied in the text is fully revealed in some Jaina texts which provide a list of various types of civil and criminal cases giving rise to law-suits, such as theft, robbery, murder, adultery, cheating, case over an umbrella of a Mahārāstrian taken away by a man of Läļa, dispute between & Brāhmana and a Candala, karakandu by name over a bamboo-staff grown in his cemetry,8 clairn over an ascetic boy named Vaira by his mother and some Jaina monks respectively,' seduction of Jaina monks by prostitutes, false testimony (kūdasaklha) and falsification of documents (kūdalehakarana).
I Dasā Cūrni, p. 58; Vasu-p. 55 ; See also Âvasyaka Cūrni.
p. 119. A simple villager was cheated of his bullock cart together with his corn and patridge cage (Sagada-tittiri) by some perfumers who took forcible possession of those articles on purchase for one Kāršāpapa by using ambiguous words in the bargain which meant the cart as well as patridge. The villager went to the court but unfortunately lost the case. But he finally succeeded in recovering his bullock cart by kidnap. ping the mother of those purfumers under the pretext of selling *sattu' according to his strategem. He released that woman
only on the return of his bullock cart by those perfumers. · Vyavahāra Bhasya, 3, 345 f., p. 69. 8 Uttaradhyayana T'ikā, 9, p. 134.
Avasyaka Curne, p. 391 f. (A child of six months old named Vaira was taken by the Jaina monks for ordination. After few years the mother of that ascetic boy lodged a complaint with the court against those Jaina monks amongst whom one was the father of the boy. Unfortunately she lost her case, because the ascetic boy did not respond to the call of his mother who tried to tempt him with toys, but he immediately went to the side of the monks at the call of his ascetic
father with a rajoharana). 6. Brhatkalpa Bhäsya, 4, 4923-25. Refer also to Uttarā. Su, 3,
p. 72 a. (A complaint of seduction of Jaina monks by prostitutes was made by Jaina monks against prostitutes). Uvā sagadasão, p. 10; also notes, p. 215; Avasyaka. See (Hari), p 820. Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J.C. Jain, p. 64-66 for all these references.

Page #134

Sec. VIIA) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRÀ
109 Robbery
Of the various types of crime enumerated in the Jaina texts robbery was regarded as a systematic art (vijjā) practised in ancient India.
In some Jaina texts references are made to a number of notorious robbers expert in the art of fighting, viz. Vijaya' of Salādavā, his body-guard, Cilāya, Mandiyas of Bennāyada, Abhaggasena' of Purimatāla, etc., who resided in their respective wellprotected robber-infested areas in the jungles. They committed different types of crime and created terror in the hearts of the people by their nefarious activities. But they were ultimately rounded up and arrested by the forces of their respective governments and executed by the order of their kings after inflicting various kinds of tortures on them.
The Uttarādhyayana Sūtram refers to different classes of
1 Science of lacerny (theft) is attributed to Skanda, Kanaka
sakti, Bhāskarānandi, Yogācārya and others, and thieves also used to be addressed as Skanda putras. Refer to Grecian Mercury and St. Nicholas of England, the patrongod of thieves ; See. 1. H, Q., 1929, pp. 312 ff; Kathasaritsägara (Vol. II, pp. 183-4), discussion Stealing'. Müladeva appears as the chief-thief in Hindu fiction who is identified by Bloomfield with Karņisuta, Ganiputraka or Ganikāputra or Gaạikāsuta. Steyaśāstrapravartaka or Steyasūtrapravartaka' a famous handbook of thieving is ascribed to him. He is also referred to in the com, on Digha (1. 89); also see
Dhurtākhyāna of Dr. A. N. Upādhye, A critical study, p. 23 and note. Refer to 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain,
p. 66, 14 f. 2 Vivāga Suya, 3, p. 20; Nayadham makahão, 18, p. 208 f. 8 Sisyahită Commentary on Uttarādhyayana 4, p. 94a f.;
also Cf. Bhuyangama Cora (Uttarā. Ti. 4, pp. 87 ff); Rauhi. ņeya Cora (Vya. Bha, 2 304); also Yogaśās'ra, Com. pp. 116 ff by Hemacandra., J. A. O. S. Vol. 44, 1-10, H M,
Johnson ; also Cf. Yājñavalkya Smrti, 11, 23, 273. 4 Viväga Suya, 3, pp. 24 f.
Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, pp. 67-68;
26, 29, 31 ff. for details. 6 Uttarādhyayana Sutra, 9, 28; see also Panha Țikā, 3, p. 58.,
for seven types of robbers and eighteen ways of encouraging robbery, Cf. Law, India described, pp. 172 f. for the types of Coras in the Buddhist works. Refer to Life in Ancient Indiaby Dr. J. C. Jain.

Page #135

110
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
thieves-viz. thieves (amosa), robbers (Tomahara), cut-purses (ganthibheya), and burglars (takkara).
The robbers committed various crimes, such as, the lifting of cows and other domestic animals, kidnapping of maidservants, children and even nuns, setting fire to villages, towns, houses and forests, destroying of ships, extraction of money from the people by threatening them with the sword, forcible entry into the residence of monks to terrify and threaten them with death.
According to the evidences furnished by the Jaina texts the crime of robbery was punished with imprisonment", mutilation and death-penalty and various kinds of torturesø inflicted on the robbers.
Adultery
The Bhs refers to only one case of adultery? in connec. tion with the religious teachings on the fruit of karmas (actions), but it does not furnish any evidence of a case of adultery which gave rise to the law-suit, In this respect there are found some evidences in several Jaina texts that the adultery was considered
1 Panha, 3, pp. 43a ff. ; Cf. Moh. 1, 233, 5 ff. 9 Utiarādhyana Curņi, p. 174; Cf. Mrcchakalika, IV, 6. For
the reference to the robbing of children from the lap of nurses. $ Ci. V yavahāra Bhāsya 7.71 a; Brhatkalpa Bhasya 6. 6275. 4 Brhatkalpa Bhagya, 3, 3903 f; Anguttara Nikaya, IV, p. 339
Cf. Cora Sutta. "Nayādhammakahao, 2, pp. 53 f. The death of the robber,
Vijaya in jail without food. 5 Commentary on the Uttarādhyayana Sutra 4, p. 94a f :
(Mandiya was impaled); Vivāga Suya 3, pp. 24 f. 6 Acaranga Curni 2, p. 65.
For the crime of robbing the purse of a merchant, a Brahmana was given lashes, and forced to take excreta and his whole property was confiscated. ? Bhs, 8, 5, 328. 8 Vivāga Suya 2, p. 18 f. (see Kamvira Jataka III, No. 318,
Sulasā Jātaka III No. 419 for a similar description ; see also Yajñavalkya-Smrti III, 5, 232f., Manu VIII, 372 f) (A mer. chant's son of Vaniyāgrāma was executed for his crime of adultery with Kāmajjhayā, a keep of the king); Vivāga Suya4, p. 31. (Sagada's adultery with Sudarsanā, a keep of the king's minister is referred to ; both of them were put to

Page #136

Sec. IIVA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
111 a serious crime and severely punished with the penalty of death, imprisonment', mutilation of limbs' ard banishments. Murder
The BhS contains references to a few cases of murder in connection with the religious teaching on the consequences of Karmas' (actions) done by an individual man. But there is no evidence to show that these crimes gave rise to law-suits in the court.
In this regard some other Jaina texts reveal that the case of murder or an attempt to murder was severely dealt by the court with capital punishment or public execution and imposition of fines on the culprits involved and found guilty in such a crime according to the law of the land.
Non-Execution
There occur evidences in some Jaina texts that non-execution of royal order was considered a serious offence which was
death; Vivāga Suya p. 35; (The adultery of Bassaidatta, the minister of king Udayana, with the queen was punished with death. Pinda Nirukti 127 (a merchant of Srinilaya nagara met the same fate a long with his friends and admirers
for his adultery with the queen. 1 Nisi Cūrni 15, p. 1002 Cf. Manu. VIII, 374. ? Commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra-23, p. 285 f ; Cf.
Gahāpati Jātaka (II, No. 199, p. 134 f. (The adultery of Kamatha with the wife of his brother Marubhūi was punished with the banishment from Poyarapura. Vyavahāra Bhāsya Pithikā 17, p. 10; (Cf. Gautama. XII-1 for the intentional reviling twice born men by criminal abuse or criminally attacking them with blows a Sudra will be punished with mutilation of the limb with which he assaulted); See also M. VIII, 12 f. (A Brāhmana is expiated from his sin for the adultery with his daughter-in-law only by
touching the four Vedas). 4 BhS, 15, 1, 560.
5 Vivāga Suya, 6, pp, 36-39. (Mandlivaddhana of Mathurā was publicly executed for his conspiracy to murder his father by a barbar who disclosed this evil design of the prince to the king.
Vivaga Suya, pp. 49-55 (D.Hvadattā, the queen of king Pūsanandi was also a warded death punishment by him for murdering her mother-in-law. (i. e. King's mother) out of
jealousy. 6 Vide Life in Ancient India, p, 70 by Dr, J. C. Jaiņ.

Page #137

112
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
dealt with various kinds of punishment, such as, throwing the offender into salt", beheading with one stroke of sword, burning alive, taunting in disgraceful terms and branding with a mark of a pot or a dog (kundiya or 8 unaga) or banishment', mild admonition in the case of members belonging to the Ksatriya the Gähävai, the Māhana castes and the Isi assembly respectively.
A slightest suspicion caused by any one in the minds of kings was followed by the death penalty. So they, who were generally suspicious by nature, inflicted severe punishments on their ministers and ordinary subjects in various ways on the slightest suspicion according to their whims.
It is said in the Daśā Cürni" that even Cāņakya, the great minister of king Candragupta Maurya had to resign his ministership under the ruling king Bindusāra, the son of king Chandragupta due to the cold reception accorded to the said minister who was responsible for the death of his mother, queen Durdharā. Being thus disinterested in worldly affairs, Cāņakya renounced
1 Acaranga Cúrni, p. 38.
· Arthasāstra, p. 250. * Rayapaseniya Sutta, 184. 4 Avasyaka Cūrne, II, p. 182;
Ib, p 184 (Kappaya the minister of king Nanda was thrown by him into a well together with all the members of his family on suspicion created by his ex-minister (who was a rival of Kappaya) in his mind. ; Sagadāla, the minister of the Ninth Nanda embraced death to escape from the royal punishment together with his whole family due to the suspicion caused in the mind of the king by Vararuci another court member against him; Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain
for details, p. 71, 48-49 ff. 0 Dasa Cürni, p. 81 f. See also Mahābodhi Jataka (v 22, ff)
for the royal treatment meted out to his minister. Sthavirāvali Carita, 8, 377-414 : Cf. also Buddhist tradition about Bindusāra ; Malalasekara, op. ct. Vol. II under "Bindusāra.'
(It is said in the Sthavirāvali Carita that once Cāņakya ordered royal servants to mix up a very minute doze of poison with the food of king Candragupta with a view to immune him from the action of poison in future.
Durdharā, the pregnant queen of Chandragupta also was taking the same together with her husband, but she could not stand the poisonous effect and died instantly. Canakya, having observed this unfortunate incident, immediately operated her womb and extracted the child to save him,

Page #138

Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
113
the material life and went to the jungle where he embraced death by starving himself.
There are sufficient evidences to show that the culprits were subjected to great disgrace, together with their relatives who were even forced to live in the Candāla area.?
In addition to these penalties the following types of punishments are referred to in the Jaina texts, such as "putting in irons (aduyabandhana)," in stocks (hadibandhana), into prison, screwing up hands and feet in a pair of shakles and breaking them, cutting off hands and feet, ears or nose or lips or head or throat-glands (muravā), piercing the organ (veyagachahiya ?jo body (angachahiya), the sides, tearing out eyes, teeth, testicles, or tongue, hanging, brushing, whirling round, impaling, lacerating, pouring acids (in wounds), belabouring with a leather strap, twisting the organ like a lion's tail (sihapucchiya)," like a bull's tail, burning in a wood fire and exposing the offender to be devoured by crows and vultures.":6 Prison
The reference made in the Bhs to the release of prisoners by the promulgation of royal order as a general amnesty on account of the birth ceremony of a new born prince in the royal family implies that there was a regular system of jail administration. But the work does not throw any light upon the class of culprits put into prison, their terms of imprisonment, general conditions of prison and plight of prisoners.
In this respect some Jaina texts give us a graphic account of the jail administration and conditions of prisoners' life.
1 Uttaradhyayana sikā, p. 190a.
The Commentary on the U dana, p. 149. 8 Ovāiya Suya, 38, p. 164. Abhayadeva gives a variant as
Väikacchachinnaga' and renders as 'Uttarāsanganyāyena vidaritak', Veyagacchahiya' is referred to in the Paiyasaddamahannavo. See the Commentary for explanation. Suya. II, 2, 35 ; Ovāiya Sul. 38, p. 162 f., Panha, 3, 52a ff; also Milinilapanha, p. 197; Majjhima Nikāya 1-87. Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain 73, 60-64 ff. Bh8, 11, 11, 429; Cf. Nāyādhammakahão I, p. 20 and Arthaśāstra p. 165.
15

Page #139

114
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
Both the Jaina texts, Vivaga Suya' and Nayadhammakahão1 depict a vivid picture of the sad plight of the prisoners who were tortured by the jail authorities in many ways with various instruments of tortures, such as, iron jars filled with copper, tin, lead, limewater (Kalakala), boiling oil cooked with alkaline ingredients (Khāratela), urine of different animals, hand cuffs (Hatthanduya), fetters (Payanḍuya), wooden frames to tie the feet (Hadi), iron chains, different kinds of whips, stones, sticks, clubs, ropes, traps, swords, saws, razors, iron-nails, leather-straps, needles, hatchets, nail-cutters and darbha-grass.3
Besides these inhuman tortures the prisoners suffered from other troubles, such as, hunger, thirst, heat, cold, cough and leprosy and had to live in their own excreta and urine passed by them, and died unattended and uncared; on their miserable deaths their corpses were thrown away into ditches unceremoniously and were eaten up by wolves, dogs, jackels, big rats (kola), cats and birds.*
The Avasyaka Curni" presents the account of the sad plight of king Seniya without food and drink during his imprisonment by his son, Kūņika, but he was served with one hundred lashes every morning. His qeeen Cellana however was permitted to see him and she offered secretly some food brought by concealing in her hair.
Cases of law-suits, judicial procedure, criminal law and punishment as mentioned in the Jaina works are also elaborately discussed in the Brahmanical texts in a very systematic manner. Judicial procedure
The relativity of crime and punishment as evidenced in
1 Vivaga Suya 6, pp. 36 ff.
2
Nayadhammakahão 2, p. 54 ff.
3 Refer to 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 73, for details; see also Vivaga Suya 6, pp. 36 ff.
4 Panhavagarana 3, p. 54. Refer also to 'Life in Ancient Indiaby Dr. J. C. Jain for information.
5 Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171.
Manu-Smrti VIII, 47; 279, Vide A study in Hindu Social Theory by Kewal Motwani, p. 173.

Page #140

Sec. VIIA] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪ SŪTRA
115 the Jaina texts are also discussed by the Manu-Smrti, Arthaśāstra and other Brahmaņical works in great details.
Many advocates that various factors, such as, the motive, social status, time and place of the offence, circumstances, mental evolution of the criminal, his bearing capacity of punishment should first be ascertained by the judge without a priori legal assumption in all matters of justice before delivering impartial, unprejudiced and dispassionate judgement on crime and awarding just punishment to the deserving criminals found guilty by the court.
It is futher observed by Manu that the psychological condition of an individual criminal should be taken into consi. deration in all cases of crime to inflict punishment on him. If he is higher in the level of mental evolution, he must bear more responsibility,
"When a common man should be fined a trifle, the king should be fined a thousandfold".
"In the case of theft a Sūdra should pay a fine of eightfold, a Vaisya twice as much as the Südra, a Ksatriya twice as much as the Vaišyu, a Brāhmaṇa twice as much as that of the Ksatriya or even four times as much".
One most important observation is made by Manu on the social position of the criminals after serving their terms of sentence that they should be considered as having been purged of the crime', and given the social status. Because punishment should not be retaliation made by the society, but it should be guided by the ideal of forgiveness. “Kșantavym prabhuņā nityam kşipatāṁ käryiņāı něņām
Bālavrdd hāturāņāṁ ca kurvatā hitamātmanaḥ"!/ (M. VIII-312). “Yaḥ kṣipto marşayatyārtaistena svarge mahīyate) Yastvaiśvaryānna kşamate narakam tena gacchati''||
(M. VIII. 313).
1 Manu-Smộti, VIII, 336-38. · Manu-S mrti, VIII, 318.
3 Ib, VIII, 312-313.

Page #141

116
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. It The Arthaśāstra also follows almost the same principles regarding criminal law and punishment with some variations and brings all in the state under the sway of "Law".
SEVENTH SECTION-B. Army
Army is one of the seven limbs of the state, viz. the lord (king, Svāmi), minister (amatya) territory (or country, răstra), fort (durga), treasury (cosa), army (bala) and ally (suht).
"Svāmyamātyaóca rästrañca durgam Koşa balam subrt/ Parasparopa kāridam saptāngam rājyamucyate"'//
It is the most essential part of the defence organization of the government.
It is already known from the study of the political conditions reflected in the Bhs that there was no political unity of India' under one paramount ruler during the period of Lord Mabāvira. Two forces, viz. centrifugal and centripetal, i. e. the force of local autonomy and that of imperialism had been operating with a regular oscilating movement of a swinging pendulum in the political evolution of that period. So the idea of imperialism had to fight the centrifugal political force of local autonomy in the successive eras.
It is further learnt that the most important political event of this period was the long drawn quadrangular struggles among the four states viz. Magadha, Vaiśālī, Kāśi and Košala for establishing their respective political suzerainty over North-Eastern India by following a policy of expansion and aggrandisement from their respective bases.
On the other hand every absolute monarch of each state (Janapada) had to exercise his supreme authority over a number of subordinate kings,' feudal princes (Sāmuntarājas") and re
1 Kamandakiya Nitisāra, Fourth Sarga, 1. ? See the first section of this Chapter 8 BhS, 7, 9, 300, 301. 4 BhS, 13, 6, 491. See the second section of this Chapter. 5 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #142

Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
117
publican chieftains (ganarajas1) whose loyalty to their sovereign depended on the feudal relation, military strength of the defence force, and vigilence of the state.
Under these circumstances it was the primary duty of every independent sovereign ruler to organize and maintain a regular well-trained and well-equipped army for the safety and security of the state against internal and external dangers of war.
The BhS' gives an idea of the form of army, nature of war, fighting services, military conscription, ethics of war, art of fighting, weapons used in war, etc. as known to the time of Lord Mahāvīra. Here an attempt will be made to deal with the military organization, fighting services and ethics of war, as they are connected with the part of administration of the state. The art of war, weapons, etc. will be discussed in connection with the topic 'military science' in the sixth chapter
education.
Military Organization
The study of this work clearly shows that the military organization of the period was based on the traditional four-fold division of army consisting of four parts furnished with cavalry, elephant, chariot and infantry (hayagaya-rathayohakaliyāe caurangiņie seņāe),
Cavalry
on
According to the order of the armed forces as mentioned here it appears that cavalry occupied the first and foremost place as a fighting unit in the army for guarding the advanced position and charging the enemy ranks by its swift and dashing attack from all flanks. It also acted as the forward guard during a royal journey, marching in front of all contingents.*
Horses which were the most essential component parts of the cavalry were also used to draw both the war-chariots and ordinary ones driven by princes and nobles.
1 BHS, 7, 9, 300.
* Ib, 7, 9, 300-303.
31b, 7, 9, 300. Army is also called Bala (BhS, 7, 9, 303). 4 BhS, 9, 33, 385. 5 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 303; 9, 33, 385.

Page #143

118
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
Some Jaina texts give a detailed account of different classes of horses', their arming, saddling", training and riding", jumping (langhana), circular movement (vaggana), galloping (dhorana) and rearing."
Elephant
The elephant force stood second in rank as a fighting unit and held an honourable position in the army in the war and on other occasions, such as, royal procession and journey from one place to another. Elephants were furnished with the armoury cruppers, flags, standards, weapons, etc. as it is evidenced in the Jain texts."
The BhS mentions two war-elephants of king KūņikaAjātaśatru, named Udayin1o and Bhūtānanda" which were used by him in two great wars called 'Mahāśilākaṇṭaka Sangrāma and Kathamusala Sangrama respectively, waged by him against the combined force of the confederate army of Vasali, Kasi and Kosala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis. A great importance was attached by all the rulers of that period to the elephants.
It is already known from the evidence of Nirayāvaliyā Sutta that the Magadhan state elephant, Secanaka given by king
1 Dasa Cũ. 6, p. 213 (aśva, asvatara, ‘mule', ghotoka); See also Jambu. Sú 2. p. 110 f, Ramayana 1. 6, 22; akirna (ill bred horse) Uttara, Su. II 16; see Sthänänga Sutra 4-327; Khalunka Sutta, Anguttara N. IV, p. 190 f, for 8 defects of a horse, Kanthaka (another variety of horse)-Uttara. Su II, 16 and the commentary; the com. of Sthānanga-Sutra--4, 327. See also Dhammapada. A, 1., p. 85. Thani--Brh. Bha. 3,
395 a f.
2 Vivaga Suya 2, p. 13; Ovaiya Suya. 31, p. 132. (arming and saddling of horse and the horseman).
3 Ib.
4 Avasyaka Tika p. 261; See also Raya. Sa. 161. Uttara. Tika 9, p. 141--(Vāmyāli--the training centre for horse). 5 Uttara. Tikā. 5, p. 103.
6 Ovā, Su, 31. p. 132, Cf. Arthaśāstra (p. 148) for the explanation of the terms.
7 Vya. Bha. 10. 484, Uttara. Tikā 4., p. 96.
8 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301.
9 Vivaga Suya, 2, p. 13; Ovaiya Suya, 30, p. 117; 31, p. 132; Ramayana, 1, 53, 118.
10 Bhs, 7, 9, 300,
11 Ib, 7, 9, 301.

Page #144

119
Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA Seņiya-Bimbisāra to his younger sons, Halla and Behalla as a gift together with a necklace of eighteen strings of pearls, was one of the causes of these two long-drawn devastating wars between Magadha and the Vaišalian confederacy.
A similar account of the cause of war is given by Uttarā. dlyayana Tīkāl in which it is stated that a war took place between Nami and Caņdajasa on their respective claim over an elephant.
There are also references to the names of famous elephants recorded in other Jaina texts, e.g. Nalagiri of king Pajjoya' and Bhadrāvatī of king Udayana who eloped away Väsa vadattā, the daughter of the former, from Ujjeni to Kausāmbi, and l'ijaya, the scent-elephant (gandhahatthi) of Kaņbavāsudeva.'
The Arthaśāstra also attached a great importance to the elephant force by giving a warning thus “whoever kills an elephant shall be put to death.""
These and numerous other evidences from Brahmaņical and other sources clearly show that the Indian kings of the ancient period largely depended on elephant force.
Chariot
The chariot force occupied the third place in the order of the organization of the army. The BiS refers to two types of chariots, viz. war-chariots and ordinary transport-chariots, Warchariots were used for various purposes, such as, carrying arms and amunitions, food, quivers containing arrows, armours, helmets, bows and other weapons," while transport chariots were driven by princes and nobles on their journeys from one place to
1 Uttarādhyayana sikā, 9, p. 104 f. ?īvasyaka Cūrns, ll. p. 160. 9 Avasyaka Cúrni, pp. 161f. 4 Nāyādhammakahao, 5, p. 70. 6 Arthaśāstra, 50 (p. 49),
Anu. Ti., p. 146 ; Arthasistra refers to six kinds of chariots viz. "Devaratha (chariot for imaged god), Pusparatha (festal car), Sangräma ratha (war-chariot), Pariyanika (transport-chariot), Starapurcbhiyānika, Venayika (training
chariot). 7 Ovõiya Sutta 31, p. 132; Āva. Cū, p. 188; Rūmā. III, 22, 13 ff;
Moh. V. 94, 18 ff.

Page #145

120
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
another. It provides the informations that the chariot-force of king Küņika-Ajātaśatru was strengthened by the introduction of two war engines, viz. Mahāśilākanjaka? (a big stone-catapult) and Rathamusala,' a chariot having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier but having a musala (club or mace) fitted to it. Uniqueness of this weapon in the history of the ancient Indian army is not found anywhere else.
The importance of chariots as referred to in the Bhs and other Jaina texts was also realized by the Arthaśāstras for the
protection of the army, repelling the attack made by all the four (columns) constituents of the enemy's army, seizing and abandoning (positions) during the time of battle, gathering a dispersed army, breaking the compact array of enemy's army, frightening it, etc." Infantry
According to the Bhs the infantry was the fourth column of the army, consisting of a large number of trained and disciplined soldiers mostly recruited from the common people. The account of foot soldiers as given in this canonical work is also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts."
According to the Arthasāstra the infantry "carried weapons to all places" and fought on all fronts.
It is clear from the study of the evidences furnished by all sources that the infantry was the most important fighting force for close-fighting and ultimate success in any war, because it bore the brunt of the first attack of the enemy in collaboration with the cavalry and fought its way to final victory in the face of stubborn resistance offered by the rival forces.
An army or a country of an enemy power may be attacked and harassed by the other columns of the fighting force, but it cannot be conquered without the service of a strong infantry.
i Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 16, 7, 9, 301. . Arthasastra, 371, p. 399. 4 Bhs, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385; 7, 9, 301. o Ovõiya Suya, 31, p. 132 ; Vivāga Suya, 2, p. 13, 6 Arthaśāstra, 371, p. 399,

Page #146

Sec. VIIB] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 121 Fighting Services
The success of an army in war depends on the strength and character of the fighting services. So the army to be effective needs a large contingent of efficient, well-trained, well. disciplined, brave officers, technical experts and soldiers under an able and experienced general (Senāvai) and sufficient fighting equipments and latest weapons.
Besides the military personnels of the defence force, there must be a regular heirarchy of civil officers to help its organization. In this regard the BKS gives an idea of the composition of the fighting forces of that period.
According to the text the sovereign king, as the head of the state, was the commander-in-chief and he hiinself mobilized all his forces with the assistance of his staff-members and led the army in the battlefield together with his general (Senāvai)'.
In this connection it refers to very skilful military technical experts (cheyāyariya), and a body of high dignitaries of the state, such as, chieftain (gananāyaga ), judge (dandanayaga), frontier guard (randhivāla), ambassador (düya), Bhada, Cadagara (a class of royal officials;', etc. They followed the king in all battles along with the large contingent of foot soldiers.
It appears from this list of officers that both civil and military staff-members had to join the army and discharge their compulsory military duties in times of war without any excuse or objection to evade the call of the government, when the sovereignty of the state was threatened by the impending danger of war waged by a hostile power, Conscription
In this connection the Bhs throws some indirect light upon the system of military conscription introduced and enforced by the ancient state of Vaišāli Republic due to exigencies of war.
The Sramanopāsaka Nāganattua (Nāgaputra) Varuņa' a prominent citizen of l'aiśālī was perforce ordered by the king,
i BhS, 7, 9, 300, 301.
16
; 10, 7, 9, 303.
8 16,7,9, 303,

Page #147

122 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Cb. III the Gana (Republic or Asserbly) and the army to join the impending Rathamusala war (Rahamusale-sargāme) in defence of the sovereignty of his state which was threatened by this war waged by king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru of Magadha. He had to submit to the mandate of the state and discharge his civic duties as a citizen of the Republic.
"Se Varuṇe Nāganattue annayā kayāi rāyābliogeņain gaņābhiogeņam balābbiogenaṁ rahamusale samgāme āņatte".
SEVENTH SECTION-C Ethics of War
The idea of war cannot be eliminated from the human society so long there is the existence of the military force, sanctioned and organized by different states representing the will of the people with the plea of their protection against the aggression of external enemies.
So when the sovereignty of a state is threatened by war waged by any foreign enemy.power, it must be fought to the last on the principle of self-defence according to some ethics of war.
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon this ethics of war in connection with the two great wars, viz. Mahāśilākantaka Sangrāma' and Rathamusala Sangrāma. It is already known from the study of the political conditions, discussed in the second section of this chapter that the sovereignty of the state of Vaiśālī Republic was threatened by the invasion of king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru. Having apprehened this danger of war from Magadha, king Cetaka of Vaiśāli formed a political alliance with Kāśi, Košala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, and other eighteen republican chiefs (ganarājas) and organized a confederate army consisting of their combined forces to offer a stubborn resistance to the impending war waged by the Magadhan king for a righteous cause of self-defence.
i Bhs, 7, 9, 300. 3 I6, 7, 9, 300, 301.
? 10, 7, 9, 301, 303,

Page #148

Sec. VIIC] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
123 In these common national dangers every able-bodied male citizen of Vaiśāli Republic was called upon by the president-king, the assembly and the army respectively to take up arms in defence of the sovereignty and independence of the state.
Even the Sramanopāsaka, Nāgaputra Varuņa,' a prominent citizen of Vaiśālā had to submit to the mandate of the state and to join the Rathamusala Sangrāma to fight the enemy force, after having perforce been ordered by the king, the assembly and the army respectively to perform his duty to the nation and the state. But he fought this battle dispassionately according to the principle of not-striking first the enemy.'
Being seriously smitten with an arrow discharged by a rival soldier whom Nāgaputra Varuņa killed immediately after he was first struck by him (his opponent), he left the battle. field and died a righteous death in a lonely place by observing all the five great vows (parcamahāvaya) according to the teachings of the Nirgrantha order.
Here the Bhs throws a welcome light upon the ethics of war based on the principle of self-defence and reveals an attitude of pacifism towards war like the modern Pacifists.
The traditional ideal of war is referred to in this canonical work thus that many soldiers, being killed in many kinds of war are born in heaven.”
The positive ethics of war is embodied in the teachings of the Gitā, the Mahabhārata and other ancient works of India.
In the Gitā it is stated that Lord Krşņa tried to rouse the drooping spirit of Arjuna by holding the ideal of righteous war before him thus "If killed in the battle, you will attain heaven or by conquering (it) you will enjoy the earth". "Hato vā prāpsyasi svargam jitvā vā bhokşyase Mahîm".
But one thing should be remembered that the Gitā does not preach the doctrine of war for unrighteous cause with a passionate desire.
16 BAS, 7,9, 303.
6 Gitā, 2, 37,

Page #149

124
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA.
Ch. It
The Arthaśāstra' also echoes almost the same sentiment on the ideal of war advocating thus "His (king's) minister and priest should encourage the army by saying thus". "It is declared in the Vedas that the goal which is reached by sacrifices after performing the final ablutions in sacrifices, is the very goal which the brave men are destined to attain." "Sooth-sa yers and court-bards should describe heaven as the goal for the brave and hell for the timid."
But Lord Mahāvīra refuted the traditional arguments on the ideal of war by citing the case of ninety-six lakhs men killed in the Rathamusala Sangrāma. He told Gautama Indrabhūti, his first disciple that only one of them i. e. Nāgaputra Varuņa would be born in heaven, one in a best family, the other ten thousands in the womb of fish, and the remaining of them in bell and lower animal world.3
The echoes of the same holy teachings of the Gitā on the consequences of war are also heard in the Kalinga Edict' of the emperor Asoka, through which he speaks thus "Kalinga was conquered by king Priyadaráin, Beloved of the gods, anointed eight years. One hundred thousand and a half in number were the men carried away thence (as captives), one hundred thousand in number were killed in action and as many as that died. Thereafter, in connection with the recently annexed country of the Kalingas (arose) a strong pious tendency, a longing for piety, (and) an (idea of) inculcating the Law of Piety in the Beloved of the gods. The Beloved of the gods has this repentence on account of having conquered the country of the Kalingas. In conquering indeed an unconquered country, the slaying or dying or deporting which occurs there is considered an extremely pain. ful and serious matter by the Beloved of the gods."....... "Now, as many men were then killed, died and were carried
1 Arthaśāstra, 367. (Book X. Ch. III). 2 Ib. 3 Bhs, 7, 9, 301, 303 (See also the Sūtra No. 7, 9, 303)
Thirteenth Rock-Edict : Sahbāzgarhi. See Inscriptions of Asoka ; part II, by B. M. Barua, and Select Inscriptions, edited by Dr. D. C. Sirkar,

Page #150

Sec. VIIC STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
125
away as captives, a hundredth or thousandth part thereof is considered to-day a serious matter by the Beloved of the gods."
As Nagaputra Varuna, having followed the principle of self-defence fought the battle of Rathamusala without passion and died a righteous death, he was destined to be born in heaven.1
But those soldiers, who being swayed by passion took the offensive and fought the Rathamusala Sangrama and Maha. Silakantaka Sangrama were destined to be born in hells and other lower animal worlds.'
In the Nirayavaliya Sutta also the same view is expressed by Lord Mahāvīra on the next infernal birth of kala and others, the ten step-brothers of king Kūņika (Ajātaśatru), who lost their lives in the Mahasilakantaka Sangrama, fighting for an unrighteous cause on the side of the Magadhan king.3
The principle of a righteous war in defence of the sovereignty of the state as laid down in the BhS is also supported by the Manu-Smrti in which it is stated that if three expedients, viz. conciliation, (sāma), gift (dana) and sowing dissension (bheda) prove unsuccessful to achieve the objectives of the state, the king should resort to war to conquer the enemy.*
It is learnt from the Nirayavaliya Sutta that before declaring war against Vaiśāli, king Kunika sent his ambassador thrice to the court of king Ceṭaka for demanding the peaceful extradition of the scent-elephant, Secanaka and the necklace of eighteen strings of pearl which were secretly taken away by the princes, Hall and Behalla to their maternal-grandfather, the Vaiśalian king. But his diplomatic mission for obtaining those precious objects met with utter failure on the refusal of the king Ceṭaka to give them up.
So king Kunika ordered his ambassador to strike the foot-stool of king Cetaka with his left foot and then to deliver
1 BhS, 7, 9, 303.
2 Ib, 7, 9, 301, 303.
Nirayavaliya Sutta (60-62), 63, 65; Kala and others were born in Hemäbha hell.
* Manu Smrti, VII, 200, 108.

Page #151

126
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRÁ
It
the letter with the edge of a lance as a signal of declaration of war.
"Cedagassa raņņo vāmeņa pāyeņam pāyavidhath akkamāhil kuntaggenam leham panāvehi."
The Nāyādhammakahão* also refers to the four expedients, viz, sāma, dāma, danda and bheda which were adopted by king Padibuddhi and his five fellow kings to obtain the hands of the daughter of king Kumbhāga by sending their respective envoys.
These four means of state-craft (conciliation, gift, dissension and war) and the diplomatic mission led by the ambassador and his duties are also referred to in the Manu-Smrti', the Arthaśāstra and the Mahābhārata" and discussed in great details.
It is now clear that the war was the last resort of the four means to settle the issue with a foreign state, but it must not be a surreptitious war. It should be an open fight between the contending parties for a righteous cause on the principle of selfdefence as clearly shown by the Bhs.
Siinilar views on ethics of war are also expressed by the Manu-Smyti?, the Mahabharatao and the Gitao respectively.
Manu says "A warrior should not kill enemy by secret weapons, etc. in the battle", etc. "Na kūțairāyudhaiḥ ........kiñcit-tat-sarvam pratipadyate"
(90-94). The Mahābhārata preaches the principle of war thus that it should be fought dispassionately and the destruction with religion is better but not the victory by the sinful act.
1 Nirayāvaliya Sutta 1, p. 23. See the Commentary on the
Mahasilakanţaka Sau grāma mentioned in the Bh8 7, 9, 300. ? Nayadhammakahão 8, p. 97 ff (dūta's duty); Vide Life in
Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 78. 3 Manu-Smrti VII. 108, 109, 200, 66. 4 Arthasāstra, 395, 382, 30. 5 Mahābhārata, Säntiparva, 12, 59, 35. 6 Bhs, 7, 9, 303.
7 Manu-Smiti VII, 90, 94. 8 Mahābhārata Sänţi parva, 12, 95 (1-20), p. 665, 12, 95 (17). 9 Gitā, 2, 38.

Page #152

Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪ SÜTRA 127 *Yathārthameva yoddbavyam na kruddhyet jighāṁsataḥ,"
(S. 12.95.) “Dharmeņa nidhanam śreyo na jayan pāpakarmaņā”
(S. 12-95). While the Gita advocates the same ethics of war embodied in the Mahābhārata thus that “having thought or regarded happiness and sorrow, profit and loss, victory and defeat equal, so you get ready for war, you will not attain sin by this kind (of war)".
"Sukhaduḥkhe same křtvā Lābhālābhau jayājayau tato yuddhāya yujyasva naivam pāpamavāpsyasi".
The evidences of the Bhs regarding the ethics of war thus clearly reveal that a note of pacifism has pervaded the wbole approach to the ideal of war. And its echoes are also heard in the Mahābhārata, the Kalinga Edict of Asoka, and the Gzia.
EIGHTH SECTION
Inter-state Relations
Inter-state relations as reflected in the Bhs during the time of Lord Mabāvīra may be studied under two titles— war and Peace.'
The denotation of the term Diya'l (ambassador) mentioned in this canonical work and other texts clearly indicates that all the states established and maintained diplomatic relations with one another through their respective ambassadors in times of war and peace.
It appears from the Bhs that the guiding principle of every independent sovereign of that period was the achievement of the supreme political power and material prosperity of his state at the expense of his neighbouring kingdoms. This motive force led him to follow a foreign policy of expansion and selfaggrandisement.
1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 303. ; also see --Nirayāvaliyā, Sutta-1,

Page #153

128
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch, III
The doctrines of state-craft in the matter of internal and external affairs as laid down and advocated by all political thinkers of ancient India were the following four instruments, viz. conciliation (Sama), gift (dāna or dāma in Jaina text), division (theda) and war (danda).
"Sāmādīnāmupāyānāṁ caturņāmapi paņditāh!" “Sāma bhedah pradānam ca tato daņdaśca pārthivaḥ."
The Arthaśāstra" added deceitfulness and secret punish. ment to the list of these four means of statecraft to achieve the objectives for the material welfare of the state and the people at large.
Both Manus and Kautilya® have formulated the following six-fold government policy for determining the inter-state relations, viz. peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), observance of neutrality (asana), marching (yāna), alliance (samśraya) double policy (i. c. double dealing by making peace with one and waging war with another (dvaidhibhāva). "Sandbim ca vigraham caiva yāna māsanameva cal Dvaid hībhāvam samśrayam ca şadguṇāmścintayet sadā'' ||
(M. VII 160)
It was probably a natural consequence of the political conditions of those days that such conventions and rules were followed by the individual king for maintaining the inter-state relations and that between the paramount ruler and his vassals.
Here an attempt will be made to examine how far the above principles of foreign policy were followed by different states mentioned in the BhS for determining the inter-state relations in times of war and peace.
1 Nayadhammakahao, 8, p. 97 ff. ? Manu-Smrti, VII, 109. 8 Mahābhārata, Sānti Parva, 35, p. 100. See also Artha fästra,
30 (pp. 29-30 for the mission of ambassador). 4 Arthaśāstra, 238 (Book IV). 6 Manu-Smiti, VII, 160. 6 Arthasāstra, 263. (Book VII). ? Manu-Smrti, VII, 160.

Page #154

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
129
War-Time Relations
The Bhs shows that the corner stone of the external relations of Magadha was a policy of expansion and self-aggrandisement at the cost of its neighbouring states.
So this rising state under the leadership of king Kūņika followed a policy of aggressive imperialism against its strongest northern neighbour, Vaiśālī, to crush its age-old republicanism, to push up its boundaries to all directions in order to achieve a scientific frontier on all sides and to turn the lower courses of the Ganges into a Magadhan lake by ousting the Vaiśālian political and economic interests from the field of commerce and trade, as it was evidenced in his construction of a forward base of operation at Pataliyrāma against the Republic of Vaiśālī.
This policy of Magadha reminds one of the advent of the European trading companies to India in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries A. D., to establish their direct commercial relation with her by ousting the monopoly of interests of the Arab merchants from the field of Indian trade with the western countries.
So they came here with the sanction and financial support of their respective states to sell their manufactured goods and in return to purchase raw materials, spices and other Indian commodities, greatly demanded by the western people. But as the time went on, all the European trading companies established factories and forts and entered into the Indian political field to safeguard their respective interests. Conse. quently their participation in local politics led to the building up of their colonies in India and subsequently an empire, as it is fully known from the British rule.
Mugadha wanted to buy all commodities which flowed from North Bihar beginning from the foot of the Himālayas
1 According to the Commentary of Buddha Ghoşa there was
a dispute between king Kūnika and the Vaiśālians over a mine of precious......... articles near the port on the Ganges. See also Dighani kāya (Mahāparinivvāna Sutta), Aftha. kathā ; (Plan of Ajätasatru and his minister-Vassakāra on trade policy). 17

Page #155

130
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA [Ch. III to the port on the Ganges and to control the whole lower Gangetic trade.
So it was very necessary for this rising state to establish its political suzerainty over the northern side of the Granges by conquering its most powerful neighbour, the Republic of Vaisāli.
Now, it is to be observed how far these two states followed the principles of foreign policy with regard to their inter-state relations during their long-drawn political struggle.
It has already been discussed in connection with the ethics of war' that king Kūņikal sent his ambassador thrice to the court of king Cețaka to demand the peaceful extradition of the
agadhan state elephant, Secanka and the neclace of eighteen strings of pearls secretly taken away by his younger brothers, Halla and Behalla to their maternal-grandfather
On the failure of his policy of peace and conciliation to obtain those precious objects from Vaiśālī, the Magadhan king resolved to root out the Vajjians (Vaiśālians) by waging war against them, which was the last resort of the four means of statecraft to achieve its objectives.
So he entrusted his prime minister, Vassa kāra' with a secret mission to sow seeds of dissension (Bheda) among the Vaisālians. This policy of Bheda (dissension) bore fruits after three years when king Kūņika marched with his well equipped army strengthened by the introduction of two new war-engines, Mahā filākantaka and Rathamusala against the confederate forces of Vaisāli, nine Mallakis, Kāśi, Kośala and their eighteen ganarājas (republican chiefs) to settle the issue on the battlefield by war (danda). After a long drawn contest continuing for more than sixteen years he won the final victory over those states by inflicting a crushing defeat on their combined forces with his two new weapons.
This event of the political struggle between Vaifāli and Magadha throws light upon another side of the principles of inter-state relations.
1 Nirayāvaliya Sutta-1. 2 Digha-Nikāya (Mahāparinirvāna Suttanta),

Page #156

Sec. Viit] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA . 131
It is learnt from the Bhsi and the Nirayāvaliyā Sūtra? respectively that king Cetaka of Vaiśāli made a political alliance (Samśraya) with nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, Kāśi, Kośala and their eighteen Gaņarājas to offer a stubborn resistance to the impending aggressive war declared by king Kūņika in defence of the sovereignty of the state of Vaiśālī and others.
He led the combined forces of his allies to fight the wars waged by Magadha, but unfortunately the local autonomy of the republican state of Vaisāli could not keep up its banner high for a long period and consequently had to bow down its head to the imperialism of Magadha.
In this connection one important matter should be observed that other states, such as, Vatsa, Avanti & Sindhu-Sauvīra observed & policy of neutrality (āsana) in this political struggle between Vaiśālī and Magadha, though the kings of the above three states were matrimonially related with king Cetaka', as it appears from the absence of any reference to their participation in these two wars as recorded in the Bhs. Peace-Time Relations
According to the theory advocated by all the political authors of ancient India, every state should maintain peace and try to avoid war as far as possible by establishing diplomatic relations with other states through its ambassadors on whom both war and peace depended.
The Bhs clearly shows that the foundation of every state was based on its military strength and peaceful federal relations with a number of princes, feudal lords and republican chiefs over whom the sovereign ruler exercised his suzerainty from hi capital.
This feudal feature of the state reveals that the subordinate kings, feudal lords, princes and chiefs bound by the tie of their
1 Bh8, 7, 9, 300, 301.
Nirayāvaliya Sūtra 1. 9 Hindu Civilization, 235, 236. See also the Bhs, for the matrimonial relation of king Cetaka with Vatsa king Satā. nika by offering his daughter, the princess, Mrgavati, the mother of king Udayan.

Page #157

132
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
loyalty to the crown surrendered their rights to the centre to follow an independent foreign policy, to establish and maintain separate diplomatic relations with other states and to organize full-fledged army of their own. They had to pay their tributes and to render military services to their paramount king in times of war. But it appears from the Bhs that perhaps they enjoyed autonomy in their internal administration within their respective small feudal estates.
Thus it is stated in this canonical work that king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvīra' exercised his suzerainty over sixteen Janapadas Vitībhaya, etc., three hundred and sixty three cities, Mahāsena and others, ten kings, many princes, lords etc., while king Śiva of Hastināpuru' ruled over a number of feudal kings or lords.
The political struggle between Magadha and Vaišāli and others clearly reveals that eighteen republican chiefs, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis' rendered valuable military services to king Cetaka of Vaiśālī in his war with king Kūņika.
The evidence of the self-reflection of king Śiva on his own powerful majestic position that his feudal kings "will obey his authority so long there is his prosperity" suggests that the state had to keep vigilence over them with regard to their doings, as their loyalty depended on the military power and material prosperity of the sovereign ruler.
The terms "Sandhivāla"6 and "Palayāhi''? (frontier-guard and protect) used in the Bhs imply that the state appointed frontier-guards to keep a watchful eye over the inter-state affairs by carefully observing the activities of its neighbours, neutrals, enemies and ambitious rulers desirous of conquest.
The counsel "govern (protect), being surrounded by allies" (pālayāhi itthajaņasamparivude), given by the retiring king to the heir-apparent at the time of coronation suggests that the state must have followed a foreign policy to secure a firm,
i Bhs, 13, 6, 491. ^ Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 6 16, 7, 9, 417. 7,8 lb, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.
3 Bhs, 7, 9, 300.
16, 7, 9, 309.

Page #158

Sec. IX] studies in THE BHAGAWATÍ SUTRA 133 grateful, devoted and loyal ally in order to maintain a balance of power,
It is clear from the above evidences that the inter-state relation as reflected in the Bhs was based on the systematic principles of foreign policy. It is revealed here that a state should avoid war as far as possible and try to achieve its objectives in peaceful way by applying any one of the first three means, viz. conciliation, gift and dissension through a diplomatic channel by sending its ambassador.
On the failure of these expedients it may resort to war, the last means to determine the external relation in order to attain its desired objectives.
In times of peace a state must keep a vigilent eye over the activities of its neighbours, neutrals, enemies and ambitious rulers desirous of conquest. On the other hand it should maintain a balance of power by establishing friendly relations with other states and try to secure firm, grateful and loyal allies who will follow it in war and peace with unshaken devotion.
Inter-state relations as reyealed here are also elaborately discussed by the Manu-Smrti and the Arthaśāstra on almost similar lines in a systematic manner.
NINTH SECTION
Gaņa Polity as revealed in the Bhagavati Sūtra
The study of the political conditions as reflected in the BIS has clearly shown that two forces of political doctrine, viz. Monarchism and Republicanism, had been operating side by side during the time of Lord Mahāvīra, but ultimately they came into conflict which resulted in the defeat of the latter.
In connection with the two great wars called Mahasilakantaka Sangrāma and Rathamusala Sangrāma between Magadha and Vaisāli, the Bhs refers to the confederacy of nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, Kāść, Košala and their eighteen

Page #159

134
Studies IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÜTRA [Ch. III ganarājas? (republican chiefs), which was formed under the leadership of king Cetaka to offer a stubborn resistance to the agressive war waged by king Kūņika. Like the Bhs, the Ācārānga Sutra also alludes to the Ganarājas (ganarāyāno)
The Mallakis and the Licchavis (Vajjians) are mentioned also in the Buddhist works and the Arthaśāstra* as republican communities (or corporations) having non-monarchical constitution, while Pāṇini refers to the Vrijis (Vajjians or Vajjis) of which the Licchhavi was a part.
The term "Gana' or Ganarāja as referred to in the BRS carries the conception of a republican state governed by the Ganarājas, where the sovereignty is vested in the entire population as distinguished from the word 'Rajjan' (kingdom).
As regards the human society the "Gana' signifies a body of persons endowed with the main trait of "a mind of being conscious", while the political Gana is an organized conscious corporate body of human beings having a collective mind as distinct from a mere vast crowd of people.
According to Pāṇini, Sangha signified Gana as recognized by the people of his time.?
The Jataka88 refer to the gathering of people by the bond of Gaņa (ganabandhanena) in one place for collective deliberation and work. It may be the assembly of three, four (persons or communities) or councillors or the whole city or many peoples.
These references from the Jatakas reflect the very character of Gana in those days.
. 300-301. ,1.4, 5, 35); chānau Gaņas
1 Bhs, 7, 9, 300-301.
* Ācāränga Sutra II, 3, 1, 10. * Majjhóma-Nikāya (1, 4, 5, 35).
"imesam pihi bho Gotama Sanghānam Gaņänar seyathidani Vaijjinar Mallānam," Jāta. IV, 148. "Vesālipagare Gañarājakulānai abhisekamaigalapokkhara
nim", Lalita-Vistara. 4 Arthaśästra XI, 378, p. 407. Pānini Sutra, IV, 2, 131. 8 Hindu Polity, Dr. K. P. Jayaswal, p. 25. 7 Panini Sutra III, 3, 86. Vide India as known to Pānini;
Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 426. 8 Jātaka 1, 422 ; Jataka I. 45.

Page #160

Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA 135
The Mahābhāratal throws much light upon the constitution, administrative organization, character, function, defect and weakness and success and strength of the Gana composed of the whole body politic and the entire political community.
According to the Amarkoşa* the 'Gana' denotes san assembly of co-habitants", while Amarasingha, an author of the Gupta period, defined and explained the terms "Rājaka' and 'Rajanyaka' as a Gana of kings and that of the Ksatriyas respectively.
"Atha rāja kam rājanyakaṁ ca nộpati kşatriyāņāṁ Gaņe
kramāt's.
The term 'Rājā' (king) of the word (Ganarājā); mentioned in the BKS denotes the republican chief belonging to a royal family.
It appears from the denotation of the word "Ganarāja' that the descendants of the first powerful Ksatriya settlers and founders of Janapada (state) enjoyed the privilege of political sovereignty which was passed on to the members of their respective families from generation to generation.
Even with the increase of population the reins of the main political power and central authority remained in the hands of those Ksatriya families which were entitled to kiagship by consecration ceremony.
So the title Rajā was borne by the heads of those ruling Ksatriyı families respresentiug their respective interests in the republican assembly.
The significance of "Ganarāja" is also supported by the evidences of the Lalita Vistara in which it is stated that each of seven thousand seven hundred and seven (7707) Ganarājas" of the Licchavis considered himself as "I am king, I am king" "ekaika-- eva manyate abam rājā, a ham rājeti".
1 Mahabharata, Santi parva, 107. ? Amara kosa, Vide Hindu Polity by Dr. K.P. Jayaswal, p. 25. 8 Amarasimha II, 8, XI, 34. (Lexicon), Vide H. P. p. 26. 4 Bhs, 7.9, 300.
5 Jataka, I, 504, a Lalita-Vistara, Ch. III, p. 21.

Page #161

136 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. III
This feature of Gana polity is also evidenced in the Sabhā. Parva of the Mahābhārata' in connection with the constitutional practice of the Republic mentioned and signified by the statement “Gșhe gļhe hi rājānah" as distinguished from the imperial government "Samrājaśabdo hi kştsnabhāk”.
The interpretation of the word "Ganarāja' as referred to in the Bhs, the Lalitavistara and the Mahābhārata is also corroborated by the Arthaśāstrain which it is explained that the members of the corporations, such as, Licchavis, Mallas, etc., bore the title 'Rājā' (rāja-sabdopajīvinah)
The Licchavi Ganarājas of Vaiśālī are a lso referred to in the Jātaka' in connection with the coronation tank, the sacred water of which was used by them in their consecration ceremony for rulership. "Vesāli-nagare-Gaņa-rājakulānām abhiseka-mangala-pok
kbaraṇīm." The above evidences clearly show that the hereditary character of rulership was maintained in the Gaņa polity of the Licchavis and other Ksatriya republics having the sovereignty vested in some ruling families which constituted the governing class, as it is found in the case of 7707 members of the Licchavis designated as 'Rājā' (king).
It is clear from all sources of the Jaina, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical works that the Gaña-polity of the Licchavis, the Mallakis, and other republics was based on the equality of the members of some ruling Kşatriya families vested with the sovereignty of the state. Confederation-Federal Council
The BhS? gives an idea of the constitution of the confederation formed of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis and other
1 Mahābhārata Sabha-Parva, 14-2. Vide India as known to
Pāņini, p. 428. ? Arthaśāstra, XI, 378. 16, XI. I., p. 378. Jātāka, IV, 148. 5 This abhiseka pokkharani has been located and the four
corners of its embankments have been excavated by Dr.
Altekar in April, 1958. 6 Jataka, (Fausboll) I, p. 504,
? Bhs, 7.9, 300-301,

Page #162

137
Sec. IX]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
eighteen republican chiefs of Kasi and Kosala under the leadership of king Cetaka with their headquarter at Vaisali to fight the aggressive war waged by king Kunika.
It appears from the Kalpa Sutra that this confederation of the Mallakis and the Licchavis lasted for more than sixteen years upto the great demise of Lord Mahāvīra which was celebrated by them through their joint illumination of lights.
The natural alliance between nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis as mentioned in the BhS suggests that the constitution of their confederation was based on the principle of parity of members having equal rights and duties in the affairs of their united republican state in the face of a common danger of war.
It is learnt from the Buddhist works that the Licchavi state with its capital at Vaišali was the most powerful republic of the Vajjian confederation. Yet it had to make an alliance with the independent but less important state of the Mallakis of Kusinara and Para by giving them equal representation in the federal council, probably due to the exigencies of her war with Magadha.
Constitution of the Licchavis
Though the BhS gives an idea of the Ganas (republics) of the Licchavis and the Mallakis, yet it does not throw any light upon their respective constitutions and forms of govern ment. The text only reveals that the head of the Licchavi Republic of Vaisali was a king or consul (Raja) who was assisted by a body of high dignitaries, such as, Ganarajas, Gananayagas Dandanayaga, Düya, Samdhivala, Bhada, Cadagara etc., in his both civil and military functions.
It makes an indirect reference to the system of conscription* introduced and enforced by Vaisali Republic in times of war for the defence of the state by relating the story of Nagaputra
1 Kalpa Sutra 128; J. B. O. R. S. 1, 103. Dighanikaya-Mahaparinivvana Suttanta (Trans. adopted from Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha Pt. II, pp. 79-85; Cf. S. B. E, Vol. XI., pp. 3-6, Jataka 1, 143 (7). 34 BhS, 7, 9, 303.
18

Page #163

138
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. III
Varuna, a prominent citizen of the state who was ordered by the king, the assembly and the army respectively to join the Rathamusala Sangrama in order to fight the forces of Magadha led by king Kūņika.
So one should turn his attention to other sources which present an elaborate account of the constitution and form of government of the Licchavi Republic which formed a part of the greater Vajjian confederacy.
The fundamental principles of the Vajjian constitution are embodied in the following famous dialogue of Lord Buddha with his disciple, Ananda at Rajagrha, when Vassakāra, the prime minister of Magadha paid a visit to the Blessed one with an intention to know his mind about the Vajjians.
1. "So long, Ananda, as the Vajjians hold full and frequent assemblies."
2. "So long as they meet together in concord and rise in concord and carry out Vajjian business in concord. (Vajji karaniyani).
3.
So long as they enact nothing already established, abrogate nothing that has been already enacted and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjians as established in the former days.
4.
So long as they honour, esteem and revere and support the Vajji Elders and hold it a point of duty to hearken to their words.
5.
So long as no women or girls belonging to them are detained among them by force or abduction (i, e. law and not force reigns).
6. So long as they honour, esteem and revere and support the Vajjian Caityas (sacred monuments) (i. e. follow the religion established).
7.
So long as the rightful protection, defence and support shall be fully provided for the Arhants amongst them

Page #164

Sec. IX] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SŪTRA 139
(i. e. follow the established practice and keep out
Brahmanic religious systems). 8. So long may the Vajjians be expected not to decline
but to prosper”).
It is said that Lord Buddha himself founded his religious order or congregation (Sangha) on these fundamental principles of the Vajjian political system (ie. Gaña polity). Liccbavi Constitution
The constitution of the Licchavi Republic which was a part of the Vajjian confederacy was also framed on the same fundamental principles as revealed in the above dialogue of Lord Buddha with Ananda.
According to Athakathā (a later work) the supreme executive body of this state was composed of a president-king (Rāja), Vice-president (or deputy-king, Uparājā), general (Senā. pati) and treasurer (Bhāndāgārika).
The parliament (federal assembly) consisted of 7707 Rājās who represented the founder ruling families residing in Vaiśālī.
"Tattha niccakālam rajjam kāretvā vasamtānaṁ ye va rājūnarh satta sahassāni satta sattāni sattā ca (.) rājāno homti tatta kā; ye va uparājano tattakā; senapatino tattakā; tattakā bhamdāgārikā."
The literal translation of the passage is this "of the kings who permanently residing and ruling there (i. e. in Vaisalz) the number was seven thousand, seven hundred and seven. The number of Uparājās was the same, as also the number of Senāpatis and Bhandāgārikas." From this it appears that the Licchavi Republic had 7707 kings, 7707 deputy-kings (or heirapparents), 7707 generals and 7707 treasurers who were entitled to govern the state.
1 Dighanikāya (Mahāparinivvāna Suttanta)-Dailogues of the
Buddha Pt. II, p. 79-85. Cf. S.B.E, Vol, XI, pp. 3-6, Rhys Davids. Turnour.Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal VII (1838) p. 993 et seq.
3 Jataka Ì, 504. 4 Homage to Vaiśālī; C. H. of Vaiśāli, Dr. Altekar.

Page #165

140
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
[Ch. III
According to the interpretation of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar the passage suggests a federation of 7707 kings who enjoyed autonomy in their local administration but ceded the supreme powers to the Sangha (republic) to conduct the state affairs.
Dr, R. C. Mazumdaris of opinion that the above number of kings only indicates the size of the great supreme assembly represented by a number of kings each of whom maintained a body of officers for running the administration of the state, while Dr. Ghosbale accepts only the number of the kings as true but rejects those of deputy-kings, generals and treasurers.
Dr. Altekare supports the contention of Dr. D. R. Bbandar" kar about the number of kings.
It appears from the study of the above views of all the scholars on this controversial passage that each king maintained a contingent of personal officers and individual treasury. In a real sense the Licchavi Republic cannot be called a democratic state but an oligarchy, because the right of citizenship was granted only to the heads of the permanent residents of the Ksatriya" community but was not extended to the total population of 1,68,000 including inner and outer Vaiśālians. From this it is apparently clear that the sovereignty of the state was vested in those republican chiefs who were entitled to equal rights, privileges and powers in the supreme assembly (Gana),
Though it appears theoretically that every king of the Gaņa had the right to govern the state, in actual practice the administration of the government was run by the experienced elderly members, as it is reflected in the famous dialogue of Lord Buddha that the Vajji elders should be honoured and supported.'
i Carmichael Lectures, p. 154, D. R. C. Bhandarkar. 2 Corporate Life, pp. 93-4 (Ist edition), Dr. R. Mazumdar. 3 I. H. Q. XX, pp. 334 ff. 4 Homage to Vaiśāli, The constitutional history of the
Licchavis. 6 Hoernle, J. A, S. B., 1898, p. 40. 6 Mahāvastu-Trišakuniya, ed. Senart. 1, pp. 256, 271 ;M. V.
and L. V. are the later works but they contain old tradition. 7 Dialogues of Buddha, pt. II, p. 80.

Page #166

Sec. IX
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
141
Moreover, the Executive Council of this Republic consisted of eight members (Aşfakula) representing the interests of different sections, having their respective uniform and colour.
Probably the external affairs were conducted by nine Licchavis, while the internal administration including justice was run by the Astakulas.
Each young Licchavi prince had to be consecrated with the sacred water of the coronation tank of Vaiśāli at the time of his succession to his father's title and status of "Gañarāja'.? Functions of the Gana
The Buddhist works throw some light upon the working of the republican assembly of the Licchavis as depicted therein.
Thus it is stated in the Atthakathā that an alarm signal used to be given at the appearance of the Vaiśālian Ganarājas in the Santhāgāras (assembly house).
An officer designated as Asanapannā paka (Regulator of seats) used to seat the members of the assembly at their appointed place according to the order of seniority in age and experience."
A Mahattaka or a distinguished member among those ganarājas was appointed by the parliament in session to declare the message thus "on behalf of the Licchavis of Vaiśālī" in order to conduct the legislative business of the state.
«Vaiśālakānām Licchivīnām vacanena”.5 The Buddhist works reveal that a systematic legislative procedure was followed by this supreme assembly of the Licchavis in the matter of transaction of its business.
First of all, the rule of quorum of a required number of members was observed by this house of representatives before beginning the legislative work, as it is evidenced in the duty of
1 Mahā parin vvāna Suttanta, S. B. E, X1-31 ; Angu, P. T. S. II,
239 ; Mahāvastu-1, 259 ; Dighanikaya II, 96. ? Jataka-(Fausboll) IV, p. 148. 8 Turnour-J. A. S. B. VII, pp. 994.95. 4 Vinaya Text-S. B. E., Vol. XX, p. 408 in. (See the account
of the congress of Vesāli, Cullavagga, XII--2-7). Mahāvastu, 1, 254.

Page #167

142
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
(Ch. III
Ganapüraka(whip) of the assembly. But it had to face sometimes difficulty in securing a complete quorum like the Athenian Republic of Greece.
Then a motion on a particular subject was moved by a mémber like this “Let the Venerable Sangha hear me,'}, etc., and it was debated by the house before passing a resolution on it for its final acceptance or rejection.
In this parliament of the Licchavis every member whether young or old was entitled to equal rights, expression (speech) and franchise on any bill placed before the house for enactment and also had the privilege to be the chairman of the assembly, as it is reflected in the following passage.
"Nocca madhya výddha jeşthānupālitā ekaika eva manyate aham rājā abaṁ rājeti na ca kasyacit șișyatvamupagacchati"4.
The acceptance of any resolution proposed by a member for final enactment was subject to the approval of all the members present in the assembly house. In the case of division of opinion and dispute over any issue the final decision on the subject was taken by ballot votes counted by an officer designated as Salākā grāhāpala with the help of Salākās (sticks)
two types chosen and collected by the members according to their respective support for and opposition to the bill.
A provision was also made for taking votes of absentee members who could not attend the session due to una voidable circumstances?.
1 Mahāvagga, III, 66 (Ganapurako vā bhavissāmite or I will
help to complete the quorum); Sacred Books of the East, XIII,
p. 307. 3 Glotz, The Greek city and its Institution, p. 153. It is said
that the chairman of the Athenian Republic had to collect the indifferent citizens of this city-state with the help of officials and to bring them to the parliament in order to
form the quorum. & Cullavagga, IV, 11,2 (S.B.E., XX, 29); Cullavagga, XI, 1, 4. 4 Lalitavistara-Ch, III, p. 21. 6 Cullavagga-IV, 9, 5; S.B.E. XX, p. 25. 8 These pins or sticks--are of wood according to a Chinese
record; See Hindu polity by Dr. K. P. Jayaswal, p. 91-13f, 1 Cf. Mahavagga-S.B.E. III, p. 277.

Page #168

Sec. IX]
STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
143
There was a legislative procedure to send the bill to a select committee composed of a few members for its further study and acceptance1 in some cases. The study of the following passage of the Mahagovinda Suttanta of the Digha-nikāya clearly suggests that some officers were appointed for recording the proceedings of resolutions and minutes of legislative function of this parliament (Gana).
"The thirty-three gods assembled in the Hall of good counsel to discuss a certain matter, the four kings were receivers of spoken words and the four kings were receivers of the admonition given with respect to matter under discussion especi ally in the Mote hall".
According to Rockhill a Nayaka (chief administrative officer) was elected by the ruling Licchavi community, probably to execute the laws passed by the parliament.
Judicial System
The Buddhist texts clearly show that an elaborate judicial procedure was followed by the Licchavi Republic for protecting the liberty of its citizens and administering proper justice in any criminal case which gave rise to law-suit and came up before the court for adjudication.
The highest judicial authority in the state was the president king who presided over the supreme court of this Republic and was assisted in his work of administering justice by a judicial minister" who could be even an outsider or a paid officer. Besides these, there was a body of judges appointed by the government, viz., Viniccaya-Mahamattas (Justices), Voharikas (Lawyer-Judges who were well-versed in law and custom), Suttadharas (Doctors of law who held the thread of law and
1 Cullavagga-IV, 14, 24; S.B.E. XX, p. 54; XXVI, p. 56. MG. Digha-Nikaya XIX, 14; Pali text Society edition, Vol. II, pp. 22-25.
3 Dialogues of the Buddha, p. 263, pt. II 1 f. (Sacred Books of the Buddhist (East) Vol. III, pp. 263-64n).
4 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 62.
5 Turnour, J. A. S. B. VII, pp. 994, 95,

Page #169

144
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. III
custom governing the state and the people from ancient times), Atthakulaka (a judicial bench consisting of judges presenting eight castes or tribes), Senapati and Uparājā.1
Judicial Procedure
In criminal cases a systematic long judicial procedure was followed by the judges for ascertaining the seriousness of crime committed by any citizen and delivering the final judgement according to the laws of the state laid down in the Pavenipotthaka (a law book).
A citizen charged with an act of crime was first to be produced before the Ganarajas who, in their turn, handed him over to the Viniccaya-Mahamattas for ascertaining whether he was guilty or innocent after proper investigation in the case.
If this court of Viniccaya Mahamattas found him innocent, it released him immediately. If he was found guilty, his case was forwarded to the court of Appeal presided over by the Voharikas without awarding any punishment to him. If this court also considered him innocent, he was acquitted of the charge, but if he was proved guilty, he was made over to the High Court of Suttadharas for further trial. In this manner his case was forwarded to the courts of Atthakulaka, Senapati, and Uparājā respectively till it was transferred to the Supreme court presided over by the king, the highest judicial authority in the
state.
The king acquitted the accused if there was no sufficient proof of his crime; otherwise he awarded the just punishment to the culprit according to the law of the Paveni-potthaka.
This account of the judicial procedure in criminal case, given in the Atthakatha is in aggrement with that of the republican judicial system embodied in the Sanskrit texts.
It is laid down in the Mahābhārata that in a republic criminal justice should quickly be administered by men learned
1 Athakatha, 118. 2 Turnour-J. A. S. B. VII, pp. 993-94. The Book of law and precedents.

Page #170

Sec. IX]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
in law through the president, so that it might not be neglected or tempered by the Elders of the Kula-court.
"Nigrahah panditaiḥ karyaḥ kṣiprameva pradhanataḥ".1 "Kuleṣu kalahā jātāḥ kulavṛddhairupekṣitāḥ".
145
According to Bhrgu the judicial body in a Gana was designated as Kulika and also Kula which was used by Katyayana as jury, so the Atthakulaka (or Asṭakulaka) referred to in the Atthakatha in connection with the judicial procedure should be taken in the sense of a judicial body consisting of eight members but not as representatives of eight clans of Rhys Davids."
The constitution and form of government of the Malla Republic of l'avā and Kuśināra was based on similar principles of those of the Licchavi state, as the former was always mentioned by the Buddhist works and the Arthasastra as republic along with other ones, viz. Licchavis, Vrjjka, Madraka, Kuru, Pancala, and others who "live by the title of 'Rajā”.
1 Mahabharata-Santi Parva, Ch. 107, 27. 2 Viramitrodaya, p. 11.
3 Katyayana is referred to in V. M., p. 41.
(Vanigbhyah Syat Katipaiḥ Kulabhūtaiḥ adhisthitam). 4 Cf. Rhys. Davids, Buddhist India, p. 22. Turnour-J. A. S. B., VII, 993 n. Mahaparinirvana Suttanta, 6-23. 6 Arthasastra-BOOK, XI, 378, p.
407.
19

Page #171

FOURTH CHAPTER-SOCIAL CONDITIONS,
FIRST SECTION
Varņa (Social Order)
It appears from the Bhs that during the time of Lord Mahāvīra the society was based on the traditional VarnāśramaDharma', the chief distinguishing feature of the community life in ancient India. But the social order does not seem to be very rigid, as it is evidenced by the racial synthesis of different tribes and races of the period of this canoncial work in the evolution of Indian civilization.
The term 'Cāuvvanna'! Skt. Caturvarna' (four colours or orders) as mentioned in the Bhs, other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmanical works denotes that the society was divided into four orders on the basis of distinction of social relationship grown out of various factors, such as, birth, family heterogeneous cultures, customs and manners, restrictions as to connubium (the right of inter-marriage) and commensality (the right of eating together), religious, political, economic and geographical factors and other circumstances.
Though the reference to the term "Cāuvvanna' in the BhS does not specifically mean the four social orders by their names, yet it is apparently clear from the context that it signifies the four orders (castes), viz. the Brāhmana, the Ksatriya, the Vaisya and the Súdra of ancient India.
1 Bhs, 15, 1. 557 ; Cf, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 25, 31 ; Vivāga
Soya 5, p. 33; Ācārānga-Niryukti 19-27; Rg-Veda, PuruşaSukta, X.90 ; Manu 1, 31 ; Gitā, 4, 13; Mahābhārata Santi. parvan, 12, 60,2; See Buddhist India by Rhys Davids, p.
33 ; Dailogues of the Buddha 1, 148; Vinayapițaka 11, 4, 160. 2 Bhs, 15, 1, 557. (Once Lord Mahāvīra suffered from bilious
fever (pittajara) and passed the motion of red coloured blood excrement. The four varņas (Cauvanna) talked about it and predicted to one another in the town of Mendhiyagama (Nagar) thus, “Surely Sramana.............bilious fever, etc." (Pittajara).

Page #172

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA 147
The date of the origin of growth of these four Varnas (colours or orders) can be assigned to the Ro-Vedic age when the basis of social distinction between the Aryans and the NonAryans was the physical difference of their two respective light and dark colours (Varņas) i. e. Aryan colour as against Dasyu Varna.
The following stages in the evolution of Varna may be marked in general :
First, the Ubhau Varnau' (both the colours), probably signifying the two colours-Aryan and Dasyu, lived side by side in Rg-Vedic society.
The second stage of this social evolution ushered in the growth of the three Aryan colours (or orders) (Trai-Varnilca) marked out by the three distinct occupations as mentioned in one of the hymns of the Rg.Veda'.
Lastly, the stage of Caturvarnyari'' is noted by the inclusion of the Sūdras within the social fold as it is revealed in the Purusa Sukta hymn of the Rg Veda and in later secular and religious texts.
In later period the term "Cāturvarna' lost its original meaning and denoted a social order based on various factors, such as birth, tribal connexion, religion, occupation, political, economic and geographical factors which contributed to the formation and growth of different castes out of these four Varnas (Colours or orders).
Divine origin of Cāturvarna
The divine origin of these four orders (Cāturvarnus) can be traced to the Purusa Sūkta hymn of the RgVedat in which it is stated that "the Brāhmana was his mouth, the Rajanya was made his arm, that who was the Vaisya was his thigh, the Südra sprang from the feet of the great Purusa”.
1 Rg Veda, 1, 176,1. I, . 113, 6, 8 16, X, 90, V, 12.
R, Veda, Tenth Mandala, Sutra, 90, V, 12 See also Manu Smrti, 1, 31; 10, 4.

Page #173

148
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
"Brāhmaṇo asya mukhamāsīd bāhū Rājanyaḥ kṣtah /
Urūtadasya yad-Vaisyah padbhyām Südro ajāyata."||
This divine theory of the origin of the four Varņas (orders) as referred to in the RgVeda is refuted by the Jain texts and interpreted by them in a different way.
It is stated in the Jaina Mahāpurānathat Lord Rşabhadeva advised the people to earn their livelihood by following six professions, viz. sword, pen, agriculture (cultivation), art and learning of Sāstras, Commerce, arts and crafts.
And he first established three orders (Varnas), viz. the Ksatriyas, the Vanijas, and the Sūdras on the basis of their respective occupations and qualities."
After Rşabhadeva his son, Bharata created the Brāhmaņical order out of those who were virtuous and studied and taught others, performed sacrifices, received gifts, etc. ... The interpretation of these passages furnished by the Mahapurāna cuts across the divine origin of the Caturvarņas of the RgVeda, but it carries the same spirit of the later caste system as embodied in all the Jaina,' Buddhist and Brāhmanical works.
The social order based on qualification and occupation as revealed in the Jaina Mahāpurāna is also supported by the Gita in which it is explained by Lord Krşņa to Arjuna thus
"Four Varņas are created by me according to the division of qualification and vocation (or action).”
“Cāturvarṇyam mayä sýstaṁ guņakarmavibhāgaśaḥ."?
1 Mahāpurāna, (Jñānapīțha edition), Parva, 16, LL, 179, 180. ? Ib, L., 183, 184. 8 Ib, Vol. 1, P. 16, L 246 ; and Vol. II, Parva 31, VV 20-22. 4 Uttaradhyayana Sutra 25, 31. Vivāga Suya 5, p. 33 ;
Acara nga Niryuktů 19, 27. 5 Buddhist works -See the Dialogues of the Buddha 1, 148,
Vinaya-pitaka 11, 4, 160. 6 Yajurveda etc.--Refer to Vedic Age, p. 449-51 ; Manu 10,
4; Mahabharata Santi parva, Ch. 296 VV. 5,6; Arthasāstra, Book 1, Chapter III. 8. Gitā 4, 13.

Page #174

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
149
The same views of the Jaina texts and of the Gitä on the conception of Caturvarņa are also expressed by the Buddhist works in which it is revealed that the social grades were based on occupation and there was no caste-bar, put in one's way to adopt any profession for earning his livelihood according to his qualification and to raise himself up to a higher social rank.'
But the purity of birth and fair complexion, maintained througb seven generations from both sides of the father and the mother respectively, were considered as criteria of higher caste by the Ksatriyas who were "fair in colour, fine in presence, stately to behold".
This classification of orders was probably made in harmony with the realities of life.
It is clear from the above evidences that the social distinction among the four Varnas was the basis of later caste system of India. But the term Varna' cannot be equated with the word 'caste' as it stands now, because it does not bear the distinctive marks of a caste, such as, hereditary class with members socially equal, united in religion and usually following the same trade, having no social intercourse with persons of other castes, etc."
1 J. A. R. S, 1901, p. 869. (a) Jataka II, 5. 290 (A Ksatriya takes to pottery, busket
making, flowering, cooking in pursuance of a love affair
without losing his caste). (b) Jataka 4, 84 (Another becomes a trader by giving up
his share in the kingdom to his sister), Jataka 4, 169 (Another prince earos his livelihood by hands). Jātaka 7,87 (A noble man becomes an archer on pay). Jātaka 4, 15 (A Brāhmana earns money by trade and gives alms). Jataka 22, 417 (Two Brahmanas take to trade without any excuse). Jataka 5, 127 (Another Brahmana becomes an assistant
to an archer who was previously a weaver). (h) Jātaka 2, 200; 6, 170 (Brāhmanas take to trapping).
Jātaka 4, 207 (A Brāhmana appears as wheel wright). They figure also as agriculturists, cow-herds and goat.
herds. • Dialogues of the Buddha, 1, 148 ; VI 4. 11, 4, 160.
See Buddhist India by Rhys Davids for all these references. 3 The Concise Oxford Dictionary p. 172, Column 2.
එ ම මම ම ෂි ජිම

Page #175

150
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Ch. IV
Moreover, the word "caste” is derived from Latin "Castus' meaning purity of blood which was transformed into the Portuguese word 'casta'.
It is the Portuguese who first used this word "caste" as understood now to denote the institution of the social system of the Hindus based on distinction of races or castes (Castas).
The earliest reference to it is found in a Decree of the sacred council of Goa of A.D. 1567, published in the Portuguese Chronicles in which it is said, “The Gentoos divide themselves into distinct races or castes (Castas) of greater or less dignity, holding the Christians as of lower degree and keep these so superistitiously that no one of higher-caste can eat or drink with those of a lower."
This term Caste' was thus subsequently used by all the Europeans to denote tho social distinctions of the Hindus. : Restrictions as to connubium and commensality and the pride of purity of birth are the most important criteria of the origin of Indian caste-system which did not exist as an established institution in a rigid form before the age of the latter Samhitās.
The Manu-Smrti attributes the origin of caste in a strict sense to the mixed marriages.
"Strīşu anantara jātāsu dvijairutpāditānsutan
Sadrśāneva tānāburmātsdoşa-vigarbitān" (6).
Because the birth, the main element, combined with other factors, such as, tribal connexion, religion, occupation, political, economic, and geographical circumstances, etc., consolidated different social groups and simultaneously isolated them, contributing to the rise of the caste system.
The BhS reveals that the society was based on the tradi. tional caste system of India which consisted of the Brāhmana:
1 Imperial Gazetteer of India, I, 311 f., Vide Racial Synthesis
by Visvanāthan. : Cambridge History of India, Vol. I p. 112; Vedic Age, p. 449 f,
p. 450. : Manu-Smrti 10, 6.

Page #176

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
151
(Mahana),1 the Ksatriyas, (Khattiya), the mercantile class (Vaniya), the householders (Gahāvai), and other castes of lower order, such as, barbar (Kasavaga), potter (Kumbhakāra)," weaver (Tamtuvaya), blacksmith," painter (Mankha), hunter,10 bearers of palanquin and Caṇḍālas, marked out by their respective occupations.
But there is no reference to the Vaisyas and the $ūdras anywhere in the BhS, probably the Gahavais and the mercantile class belonged to the Vaisya caste, while the other communities of lower grade formed the rank of the Sudras, the fourth Varna. Different Castes and their respective positions
The BhS throws sufficient light upon the functions and social positions of the above mentioned castes and clearly differentiates their respective status, occupations, obligations, duties and privileges in matters both spiritual and secular.
Functions and social position of the Brāhmaṇas (Māhaṇa)1a
In the society the Brahmanas appear as rich householders"11, officiators at worship,15 propitiators 16 (Balikario), interpreters of marks of dream (Suviṇalakkaṇapāḍhaga)" and ascetics.18
1 Bhs 9, 33, 380; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 541; 18, 10, 647. 2 Ib. 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491.
3 Ib. 11, 11, 424; 15, 1, 547; 18, 2, 618.
4 Ib, 15, 1, 541.
5 Ib. 9, 33, 385.
8 Ib, 16, 1. 564.
11 Ib, 9, 33, 385.
7 Ib, 15, 1, 541.
10 Ib, 5, 6, 206.
12 Ib, 3, 1, 134. (Pāna)
18 The term 'Mahana' used in the Bhs denotes the Brahmana
their
as distinguished by some Jaina texts according to respective views. Thus it is stated in the Acaranga Curni (p. 5; also Cf. Ib, 213 f) that on the refusal of the Jaina monks invited by king Bharata to take share in a feast arranged by him, he entertained the savagas who were very simple, virtuous and kind hearted. Whenever they found any body killing some beings, they prevented him from doing this cruel act by saying thus "Ma hana" from which the term 'Mahana' is said to have been derived, See also Vasudevahindi (p. 184) and Paumacariu of Vimalsūri (4, 75-78) for its derivation according to their respective views. 14 Bhs, 9, 33, 380; 15, 1, 540, 541. 15 Ib, 18, 10, 647. 17 Ib, 11, 11, 428.
16 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
18 16, 2, 1, 90; 8, 6, 332; 11, 9, 417; 9, 33, 382.

6 Ib, 15, 1, 539 9 Ib, 15, 1, 540.

Page #177

152
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
As householder one of them named Rṣabhadatta1 could even afford the luxury of maintaining a large contingent of waiting servants, maids and female slaves belonging to many Indian tribes and foreign nationalities, such as, Cilātikās (Kirātikā), Barbarikās, Ṛṣiganikās, Vasaganikās, Pallavikās, Lhāsikās, Lausikas, Arabis, Dravidis, Simghalis, Pulindis, Puskalis, Sabaris and Parasis, etc.
Another Brāhmaṇa, Gobahula by name, was in possession of a large number of cows kept in a big cowshed at Saravana near Nalanda where Gośāla Mankhaliputra, the Ajivikaa leader was born.
The third Brahmana named Bahula living in Kollāga Sannivesa (a quarter of the town) outside Nālandā is said to have entertained and honoured Lord Mahāvīra with abundant best food (paramāņṇa) mixed with honey and clarified butter (ghaya) on the day of conclusion of his fourth fast of one month during the period of his austerities (cautt hamasakkhaman), when he went out of the weaver's workshop for begging alms.
The fourth Brahmana, Somila" by name lived in Vanijya. grāma (Vāṇiyagama) by officiating at worship and exercising his spiritual leadership over five hundred disciples of his own and of his relatives together.
Other Brahmanas figure in the society as depicted in this canonical work as interpreters of marks of dream (Suvinalakkhanapaḍhaga), propitiators (Balikario) and ascetics (Tavasa) as already mentioned.
It is learnt from the BhS that Rṣabhadatta and Devānandā, the Brahmana and the Brahmanī undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world, after getting initiated by
1 BhS, 9. 33, 380; 9, 33, 382.
2 Ib, (Their identifications will be discussed in the Chapter
on History).
3 Ib. 15. 1, 540.
5 Ib, 18, 10, 647.
4 Ib, 15, 1, 541.
6 Ib, 11, 11, 428.
77b, 11, 11, 430.
8 Ib, (Mahana), 8, 6, 332; 11, 9, 417 (Tāvas).

Page #178

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 153 Lord Mahāvīra to Sramına Dharma. They attained liberation by studying the prescribed religious texts, practising severe austerities, and meditation'.
The above discussion shows that four classes of the Brāhmaṇns, viz. rich householders, officiating priests and propitiators, interpreters of signs of dream and ascetics were in existence in the society during the time of Lord Mahāvīra. Duties of the Brāhmanas
The text clearly reveals that the main functions of the Brāhmaṇas were study of the Vedas and other Brāhmaṇicál texts, teaching and officiating at worship’, interpretation of dreams', propitiating for others”, receiving and giving of gifts, entertaining of guests and ascetics and asceticism.
Duties of the Brāhmaṇas as enumerated in the Bhs are also corroborated by other Jaina texts. Thus in the Mahāpurāna" it is said that the duties of the Brāhmaṇas are study, teaching, receiving and giving of gifts and performance of sacrifice.
"Adhityadhyāpane dānam praticchejyeti tatkriyāḥ".
Some other Jaina works provide the information that the Brāhmaṇas were well.versed in the fourteen subjects of study (cauddasa vijjāthāņa) and they were employed by the king in his court, as it is evidenced by tbe fact revealed in the Uttaradhyavana Tikalo that one Brāhmana scholar was appointed by the king of Kausāmbi in the place of Karava, the former state Brāhmana after his death.
There is also reference in the Uttarādhyayana Sūtral to the Brāhmaṇa teachers who lived in the association of their pupils
i Bhs, 9, 33, 382. * Ib, 9, 33, 380 ; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 541, 18, 10, 647; 11, 11, 428. Ib, 18, 10, 647.
4 10, 11, 11, 428. Ib, 11, 11, 430.
6 16, 8, 6, 332. (Samana Mahana).
8 Ib, 2, 1, 40; 8, 6, 332 ; 11, 9, 417. • Mahāpuräna, Parva, 16, L, 264. 10 Uttaradhyayana sikā, 8, p. 123 a. 11 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 112, 19. "Ajjhāvayānari vayanai suņittā uddhājā tattha bahü kumārā daridehid vettehim kasehim ceva samāgayā tam isim tālayamti" (119). 20
a 1, 15, 1,540: Parva. 16; 10. 123 a.

Page #179

154 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. IV exercising their spiritual leadership over them like Somila of the Bhs'.
The second duty of the Brāhmaṇas, as mentioned in some Jaina texts other than this work was the performance of sacrifices. Thus the Avaśyaka Cūrnis furnishes the evidence that once Lord Mahāvīra passed his Pajjūsaņa period (rainy season) in the sacrificial house of a Brāhmaṇa (aggihottavasahi), a resident of Campā.
It is stated in the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra that a Brāhmana named Vijayaghoșa, who was performing sacrifice, was taught a true sacrifice by the Jaina monk, Jayaghoşa according to Sramana Dharma.
The Vivāga Suya records the evidences that one Brāhmaṇa priest named Maheśvaradatta was employed by king Jiyasattu to avert his misfortune.
In the Kalpa Sūtra? they appear as interpreters of marks of dream (Suviņalalckhanapādhaya), well.conversant with the cight divisions of the Mahānimitta and other sciences to foretell the future destiny of the newly born Child, Lord Mahāvīra at the call of his father, king Siddhārtha.
They are also found as fortune-tellers and propitiators who utter blessings for the safety of the travellers during their journey.
The duties of the Brāhmanas, viz. study and teaching of the Vedas and other Sastras (Sciences), worshipping and guiding others in offering sacrifices, giving and receiving gifts as prescribed in the Bhs and other Jaiva texts are also assigned to them by the Brāhmanical works.
i BhS, 18, 10, 647.
2 10, 11, 9, 417. 15, 1, 540. 3 Avasyaka Carni, p. 320. 4 Avašyaka Cūrni, p. 320. 6 Uttaradhyayana Sutta 25. 6 Vivāga Suya, 5, p. 33. 7 Kalpa Sūtra 4, 66 ff.
8 Nayadhammakahão 8. p. 98. See the Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 9 Manu (1, 88) “Adhyāpanamadhyayanam yajanam yājanam
tathā, dānam pratigraham caiva Brāhmaṇānām akalpayat" (88); see also Yajurveda, Kautilya Arthas. Book 1, Chapter III, 8.

Page #180

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
155
But the Buddhist texts' bear ample evidences that besides the above mentioned functions, they adopted also other occupations to earn their livelihood without losing their caste.
Position of the Brahmanas in the Society as depicted in the BhS The BhS' clearly shows that the Brahmanas occupied an honourable and dignified position equally with the Ksatriyas who were considered to be superior to all other castes the society.
in
The economic condition and occupation of the Brahmanas, the two most important factors of civic life determine their social position in relation to other castes.
The following accounts of their financial condition and profession will throw some light upon their place in the society.
One scene laid at Brahmanakundagrāma describes the appearance of the rich aristocrat Brahmana and Brahmaṇī, Rṣabhadatta and Devānanda on bullock-cart, being adorned with best clothes and ornaments with a large retinue of attendants and female slaves belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign nationalities, who were dressed in their respective national costumes, to attend the holy teachings of Lord Mahavīra, delivered at the Bahusalaka Caitya (temple) where they were initiated by the Master to Sramana Dharma.1
The economic condition of this Brahmana family to afford the luxury of maintaining a large contingent of waiting maids and attendants and the very name of the Sanniveśa-Brahmanakunḍagrama (Mahana-kunḍagama) associated with the members of this caste, speak of their separate entity and social status of high position as house-holders.
In another scene laid at Vanijyagrama, Somila", a proud learned Brahmana as already mentioned appears at Dütipalasaka Caitya to debate with Lord Mahāvīra on the philosophical doctrines.
1 Jataka 11, 5, 290; 4, 84; 4, 169; 2, 87; 4, 15; 5, 22; 471; 5, 227; Ib, 2, 200; 6, 170; 4, 207.
Bh8, 8, 6, 332; 15, 1, 541. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 380; 381, 382. Ib, 9, 33, 382. 5 Ib, 18, 10, 647.

Page #181

ŠTUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IV He was fully and perfectly satisfied with the holy teachings of explanation of the Master on those topics raised by him. And finally he was converted and initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramaņa Dharma as Srāvaka.
The economic conditions of Gobahula? and Bahula', the other two Brāhmnas, have already been pointed out in the beginning of this topic.
It is further learnt how some Brālmnas as interpreters of marks of dream beheld by queen Prabhāvatí Deví were honoured by king Bala of Hastināpura with rich presents for predicting the birth of the great child, Mahābala who afterwards undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world during the life, time of his parents, having got initiated by the monk, Dharmaghoşa, the disciple’s disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tīrthankara.
As propitiators (Balikārio)" of the royal family the Brāhmanas held, an honourable position in the society.
Lastly, they appear as ascetics (Tavasas)" like the Sramaņas who were greatly honoured by the whole society as known to the Bhs.
It is also stated that the Sramanopāsaka, offering gifts to such Sramana or Mahana with acceptable and eatable food and drink, etc., dissociates his Karma and his sinful act (pavakamma) does not touch him. That means the offering of gifts to them results in spiritual merit of the householder.
In the Bhs the occurrence of the Māhana' (Brāhmana) together with the Sramana' as the objects of the highest honour to the householders determines their equal social position with the Sramaņas. The Brāhmaṇas were thus held in great respect by the society.
1 BhS, 15, 1, 540.
Ib, 11, 11, 428. 6 16, 2, 1,90; 11, 9, 417.
? 16, 15, 1, 541. 4 II, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 8, 6, 332 ; 15, 1, 541.

Page #182

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA 152
In other texts, such as the Mahāpurānal and Avaśyata Cürņiit is said that king Bharata established the Brāhmanical order out of the most virtuous people and honoured them with the mark of Kākinž, sacred thread and entertained them with food and other rich presents.
The Uttaradhyayana Tikā also provides the information that the Brāhmaṇas were honoured by the Nandas of Pāfaliputra: with gifts of wealth and various costly articles, while one hundred and eight 'dināras' were given by the king to Vararuci every day for reciting one hundred and eight verses in his eulogy."
They were also entertained and honoured with food and other presents on the occasion of birth, death ceremony and other festivals.
It has already been discussed in connection with the judicial and revenue administrations in the third chapter that they were exempted from capital punishment and taxation respectively and were rewarded for finding treasure trove,
The Nišitha Cūrni? assigns the highest position to the Brāhmanas, when it states that they who were once heavenly gods were created by the Prajāpati on earth as living gods. This work echoes the same sentiment of the Bhs that they should be offered alms and gifts by the householders for attaining spiritual merit,
As in the Bhs, the frequent occurrences together of the terms Samana' and 'Māhana' in several Jaina texts, clearly determine their equal status and identical relation in the social life.
Moreover, it is known from the Uvāsagadasão that the title Mahana or. Mahāmāhana' was attributed to Lord Mahāvīra.
1 Mahāpurāņa, Parva, 18, LL-20, 21, 22. ? Avasyaka l'urni, p. 213 f. 3 Uttaradhyayna Tikā, 3, p. 57. * 16, 2, 27 å.6 16, 13, p. 194a.. Nisitha Cūrni, 20, p. 1281. 7 Niśitha Cūrni, 12, p. 865. 8 Cf. dcāranga Cūrni-p. 93. Cf. Samyutta, Samana Brahmana
Sutta Il 129 f., 236 f;IV p. 234 f, V, p. 9 Uvāsa gadasão, 7.

Page #183

158
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. IV Like the Jaina texts, the Buddhist works? also assign a similar social status to the Brāhmaṇas, but they place them after the Ksatriyas, while all the Brāhmaṇical literatures offer them the highest position in the society. The Khattiyas
The Ksatriyas figure as the ruling caste and occupied the first and foremost position in the society, having formed the rank of the nobles during the time of Lord Mahāvira.
It is learnt from the Bhs that the following Ksatriya kings had been ruling over different parts of India at that period, viz. Seņiya' (Bimbisāra) of Magadha, his son, Kūņika“ (A jātaśatru) of Campā, Cedaga® of Vaiśālī, Udayana® of Kaušāmbi, Udāyana? of Sindhu-Sauvīra, his nephew Keśikumāra, Mahāsena' of Avanti, Bala1o and Siva'l of Hastināpura.
Besides these kings, there is the mention of other Ksatriya princes like Jamālī’s of Ksatriyakundagrāma, Abhīcī Kumāral of Sindhu-Sauvära, Mahābala?4, the son of Bala, and Śivabhadra's, the son of Siva of Hastināpura.
The Ksatriyas were divided into several communities, viz. the Ugras (Ugga), the Bhogas (Bhoya), the Rajanyas (Rāinnā), the Iksvakus (Ilokhāgā), the Jnātris (Nāta), the Kauravas (Koravvā), the Ksatriyas18, the Licchavis and the Mall akis (Licchai and Mallai)".
1 See Nidánakathā (1. p. 49) in which it is stated that the
Buddhas are born in one or other of the two higher classes the Khattiyas or the Brāhmanas, never in low caste.-Cf. Vajasaneya Samhita (XXXII, 19), and Kathaka (28.5) where the superior position is given to the Ksatriyas rather than to the Brāhmanas (Mazumdar, Op. cit. pp. 367, 369. Fick. Op. cit. p. 84 ff); Refer to Dr. G. S. Ghurye's--Caste and Race in India' p. 63 f and the struggle between Vasistha and Viśvāmitra for the social position. For all these informations see Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons'-by
Dr. J. C. Jain p. 140, foot note 9. ? Rgveda X, 90, Y. 12; Manu, 1, 31. 9 Bhs, 1, 1, 6.
4 16, 7, 9, 300, 301, 6 16, 7, 9, 300 (Comm.), 12, 2, 441. 6 1b, 12, 2, 441. 7,9 16, 13, 6, 491. 10' Ib, 11, 11, 428. 11 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 11 16, 9, 33, 383. 18 16, 13, 6, 491. 14 10, 11, 11, 429. 15 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 16 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 419; 20, 8, 683 17 16, 7, 9, 300, 301.

Page #184

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The duties of the Ksatriyas as mentioned in stray references of the BhS consisted of study, officiating at coronation ceremony, giving and receiving of presents, governing, fighting and protection of people."
In a nutshell, the main function of the Ksatriyas can be summed up by one word "Palayāhi” (Protect).
The very term 'Ksatriya' (Khattiya) denotes 'Saviour' who is entrusted with the task of protecting the wounded.
"Kṣatatrane niyuktā hi Kṣatriyāḥ' Sastrapānayaḥ".
It reminds one of the greek word 'Soteros' (saviour) inscribed on the coins of the Bactrian Greek ruler, Diodotus who assumed this honorific title "Diodotoy Soteros" (Diodotus the Saviour).8
The Raghuvamsa of the poet Kalidasa also supports the same denotation of the term 'Ksatriya' as interpreted by the Mahapurana and the Greek legend on the coins of Diodotus.
It is stated in this poetic work that the derivation of the word 'Ksatra' which is famous in the world is made from the phrase "protects from injury", the sacred duty of the Ksatriyas.
159
"Kṣatāt kila trāyata ityudagraḥ Ksatrasya sabdo Bhuvaneṣu rūḍhaḥ".
So, this most important duty of protecting the people and the state was assigned to the Ksatriyas by the society known to the BhS as it is evidenced by the fact of the highest position
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 9, 429 (Uvanayana); 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 541
2 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, +31; 13, 6, 491 (Consecration).
3 Ib 11, 11, 429.
4 Ib, 9, 9, 330-301; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12, 2, 441;
13, 6, 491 (governing).
Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301, (fighting).
6 Ib, 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491 (Frotecting, Palayâhi).

7 Mahapurana Parva, 16,
243.
8 Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1 (Rapson), p. 404, pt, III, 9, Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, Canto, II, V. 53.

Page #185

160
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch, IV
of the above mentioned Kşaatriya kings and princes, ruling over their respective states with the assistance of large contin. gents of officials of all grades.
Further, the two political events, viz. Mahāsiläkuntaka Sangrāma and Rathamusala Sungrāma as already mentioned, speak themselves of the most essential duties of the Ksatriyas, who took part in these two wars on behalf of the two fighting camps of Vaišāli and Magadha respectively for the protection of economic and political interests of their respective states.
Lord Mahāvīra also infused a spirit of renunciation into the hearts of a number of kings, princess and princesses, who undertook the state of houselessness from that of the worldly life and devoted and dedicated themselves to the search of truth, religion and philosophy for the highest spiritual realization by renouncing the mundane life of materialism. Thus they advanced the cause of the religious movement of that period and made a contribution to the Indian culture and civilization by their religious devotion, spiritual activities and patronization of the ascetic order. Gābāvas and Vanik (The Vaisyas)
In the social order as revealed in the Bhs next stand the Gāhāvaīs“ (householders) and Vaniyā (merchants) who corresponded to the Vaiśyas, the third Varna and formed the rank of the majority of commoners.
It appears that the entire system of production of neceSsaries of social life and national wealth was controlled by the members of these two communities, particularly the mercantile class who exercised a great influence on the economic policy of the state.?
The Bhs mentions a number of very rich houreholders and merchants and guild-president (Sethi) who were
1 Bhs 7, 9, 300, 301, 303.
1b, 13, 6, 491 ; 11, 9, 417. 3 16, 9, 33, 383-85 ; 11, 11. 431 4 16. 12. 2. 441. o BhS, 2. 1, 90 ; 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144 ; 15, 1, 541. & Ib, 15, 1, 547. 710, 9, 33, 383; 17, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6, 491.

Page #186

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA 161 Sramanopāsakas, viz. the house holders' Vijaya, Ananda and Sudarśana (or Sunanda) of Rājagrha, Pingalaka of Srāvasti," Tāmali, the Mauryaputra of Tâmralipti, Pūraņa of Bebhela Sanniveśa in the Vindhyagiri," Nāgaputra Varuņa of Vaisāli, Rşibhadraputra of the town of Alabhikā and others, the well-todo householders of the town of Tungikā,' Gangadatta of Hastinapura, Revati of Mendhikagrāma, and the merchants, Sankha Srestki, Pokkali and others of Srāvasti, 10 Sudarśana Sresthi of Vānijyagrāma,11 Kārttikadatta Sresthi and eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura's, the four merchants of Srāvasti, referred to by Gośäla Mankhaliputra in his story related to Ananda, the houseless monk and disciple of Lord Mahāvīra,18
Duties of the Gāhāvaīs and Vaniks
Duties of this third social order comprised study!', performing of own worship and sacrifice,1% offering of gifts, 16 cultivation, 17 cattle-breading, 18 trade and commerce19.
Hospitality*was considered as the most sacred duty of this class. It is stated in one scene laid in the city of Rājagrha that the three householders named Vijaya, Ānanda and Sudarsana individually entertained and honoured Lord Mahāvīra with abundant food and drink on the days of conclusions of his first, second and third monthly fasts respectively, during the period of his practice of severe a usterities."
The reference to four merchants of Srāvasti made by Gośāla Mankhaliputra clearly shows that the merchants used to
* BhS, 15, 1, 541. We find another reading of Sudarsana
viz. Sunanda. : 16, 2, 1, 90. 8 16, 3, 1, 134.
16, 3, 2, 144. 6 16, 7, 9, 303. 6 16, 11, 12, 433. 7 16, 2, 5, 107. 8 15, 16, 5, 577. 9 Ib, 15, 1, 557. 10 Ib, 12, 1, 437. 11 16,11, 11, 424. 12 1b, 18, 2, 618,
18 14, 15, 1, 547. 14 16, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144; 7, 9, 303 ; 2, 5, 107, etc. 15 1b, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144; 12, 1, 437, etc. 16 Ib, 2.5, 107. 17 16, 8, 5, 330, etc. 18 Ib. 3, 1, 334 ; 8, 5, 330, etc. 19 16, 2, 5, 107 ; 11, 11, 424 ; 12, 1, 437 ; 15, 1, 547 ; 18, 2, 618. 10 10, 12, 1, 437; 15, 1, 541.
31 lb, 15, 1, 541. 32 14, 15, 1, 547.
21

Page #187

162
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
go abroad
[Ch. IV from their own city to carry on inland trade, having taken sufficient food, drink and other provisions for journey and their merchandise of various saleable articles, loaded in multitudes of bullock-carts, with the object of gaining much wealth by trade and commerce.1
There is also another indirect evidence to show that a merchant travelled to different countries for external trade and returned home after full sixteen years with abundant wealth of all kinds, such as, gem, jewel, gold and precious stone etc."
The very name 'Vaniyagama," the home town of Sudarśana Sresthi carries the idea with it that it was a commercial centre where the mercantile class lived and carried on a voluminous trade throughout the state of its own and abroad.
The references to Kārttikadatta', the president of an economic guild of eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura, the wealthy and influential merchant, Sankha of Sravasti, the well-to-do Sravakas of the town of Tungika, who increased their wealth by banking business throw sufficient light upon the commercial activities of this mercantile class at different centres of trade and industry in ancient India during the period of Lord Mahāvīra.
Besides these, the BhS, provides a list of the following trades and professions carried on by both the merchants and other tradesmen belonging to the class of Gāhāvais for earning their livelihood, viz. making of bow and arrow', business in utensils, silk and cotton cloths, gold, bellmetal, pearl, conch, precious stone, coral etc.10, transport business (Bhāḍikamma), ivory business (Daṁtavāṇijja), lac-business (Lakkha-vānījja) traffic in hair (wool etc., Kesavanijja), wine business (Rasa-vānijja), poisonbusiness (Visa-vanijja), crushing work with machinery (Jantapilanakamma, such as sugarcane-crushing), running of brothel
1 BhS, 15, 1, 547.
8 Ib, 11, 11, 424; 18, 10, 647.
51b, 12, 1, 437.
7 Ib, 5, 6, 205.
9 Ib, 11, 11, 430.

2 Ib, 12, 6, 456. 47b, 18, 2, 618. 6 Ib, 2, 5, 107. 8 Ib, 5, 6, 206. 10 Ib, 8, 5, 328.

Page #188

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
163
(csaīposanayā), charcoal making (Ingālakamma), cutting of forest (woods, Vanakamma), making and selling of carts (Sāļīkamma), ploughing (Phodikamma), castrating (Nillamchanakamma),', act of setting fire to the forest (Davaggidāvanayā), draining of lake (Saradahatalāya-parisosaņaya)', etc.
The account of the life of the householders and mercantile class and their respective occupations as given in the BhS is also corroborated by other Jaina texts in which they figure as rich land owners, cultivators and merchants.
Thus it is known from the study of those works that a number of agriculturists and merchants, viz. Ananda', a rich land owner of Vānijyagrāma, Pārāśara", a householder known as Krsipärāšara, Kūiyaņņa, another householder, Gosamkhī”, a Kufumbī, the lord of the Abhiras and Nanda”, a merchant of Rājagyha prospered with their respective professions and wealth.
The references to the occupations of this third social order as found in the Bhs and other Jaina texts are also supported by the Buddhistio and Brāhmaṇical works".
In the society, like the Ksatriyas, a number of householders and merchants also undertook the state of houselessness after getting themselves initiated to Sramana Dharma and other systems of religion. Thus the text reveals that the householders Tāmali's and Pūraņa'got themselves initiated to Pāņāmā and Dāņāmā Pravrajyā initiations respectively, while the merchants
i Bhs, 8, 5, 330. Sri Abhayadeva means castration of cattle by
this word. 16, 8, 5, 330. These fifteen kinds of occupations were not approved by the religious teachings as embodied in the Bhs, though they were taken up by the people of its society to
earn their livelihood. 3 Oväiya Sutta, 27; CF. Fick. Op. cit, p. 256 ff. See also 'Life
in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, Fı. 30, p. 143. 4 (Gūhāvai) Ovãiya Sutta, 27, (Ananda) Uvāsagadasāo (Lec. 1
Hoerole's Translation). o Uttarādhyayana ?ikā, 2, p. 45 6 Avasyaka Cūrni p. 44. 1 Ib, p. 297.
8 Näyädhammakahāo, 13, p. 9 Mahāpurāna, Parva 16.
141. 10 Buddhist India, Rhys Davids, 11 Manu-Smrti, 1,90, (87-91)
Ch. IV, pp. 32-39. 12 BhS, 3, 1, 134,
13 16, 3, 2, 144.

Page #189

164
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV Sudarśana, Karttikadatta and his eight thousand followers* undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world and attained Sramanahood, after having studied the prescribed Angas and practised severe austerities and meditation according to rules laid down by the Nirgrantha order. In this way they also devoted and dedicated their life to the mission of religion and philosophy for attaining the highest truth and spiritual realization.
Their importance in the society lay not only in their contributions to the cause of Indian culture and civilization by their joining the ascetic order and spiritual activities, but it lay more in their valuable services rendered to the state and the people at large in the economic field.
They were the backbones of the social structure, supporting its different parts and also the perennial sources of material prosperity which supplied the needs of economic life to the entire society for its existence and continuance by producing daily necessaries of all citizens.
Besides these three social orders, the BhS mentions a number of professional castes of lower grades, such as, barbar (Kasavaga), potter (Kumbhagara), weaver (Tamtuvaya)", blacksmith, Mankha (painter and picture-shower), hunter, litterbearer, trapper10, fisherman", Candala", etc., marked out by the pursuits of their respective occupations of low crafts. They probably formed the rank of the Sudras.
A list of the following tribes and peoples belonging to different races and nationalities, who were absorbed into the social system of its period, is also presented here. These wereCilatika, Barbarikā, Rṣiganikā, Vāsagaṇikā, Pallavikā, Lhāsikā,
1 BhS, 11, 11, 424. Ib, 9, 33, 385.
6 Ib, 16, 1, 562,
8 Ib, 1, 8, 65, 66, 67; 5, 6, 206.
10 Ib, 1, 8, 65.
12 16, 3, 1, 134. 13 Ib, 9, 33, 382.

4 Ib, 15, 1, 539.
2 Ib, 18, 2, 618.
Ib, 15, 1, 541. 7 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 9 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 11 Ib, 7, 6, 288.
(Pāna means Candala; See comm.)

Page #190

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
165
Lausikā, Arabi, Drāviḍī, Simghali, Pulindi, Puşkali, Sabari and
Pārasi.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, the position of the Brahmanas in the society does not appear to be superior to that of the Ksatriyas, but they ranked equally with the latter in the front line of the social strata. Like the Ksatriyas and the Vaisyas they possessed abundant wealth to live as rich citizens, even affording the luxury by maintaining a retinue of servants, maids and foreign female slaves belonging to different tribes and nationalities.
The Ksatriyas appear as the ruling class, exercising their power and influence over the whole society, while the merchants and the householders controlled the economic life of the society by carrying on trade and commerce, industry and agriculture, and various arts and crafts, and producing the national wealth and necessaries of all citizens.
They were the real bases of the social edifice on which stood the superstructure of the society.
The BhS also reveals that these three orders stood equal in the eyes of Sramana Dharma, as it is evidenced by the fact of admission of the members of these three castes belonging to both sexes to the Nirgrantha order without any distinction. But there is no evidence to show that the members of lower social grades were admitted to this Sangha.
The reference to the foreign female slaves and waiting maids employed in the house of the rich Brahmana, Rṣabhadatta clearly shows the racial synthesis between the Indians and outside peoples belonging to different races and nationalities, who were incorporated into the fold of the social system of the period of the BhS.
This gradual absorption of these foreign elements in Indian society was one of the most important features of the social evolution of that age which was marked by the catholic spirit of the people.

Page #191

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV The location of different castes in three distinct quarters, viz. Brāhmaṇakundagrāma, Ksatriyakunḍagrāma and Vanijyagrama of the city of greater Vaisalz according to the caste basis furnished an additional incentive and gave an impetus to functional organizations of the society and self-government which were natural to all economic occupations, especially industry and commerce.
166
In conclusion it may be said that the society was something like a federation of castes and sub-castes, the members of which retained their individual identities.
So the social organization consisted of a large number of groups which had partially been blended together and brought into the same spiritual and cultural system in the evolution of caste, as is made obvious by the fact of absorption of foreign elements in the Indian population of that age culminating in racial synthesis.
SECOND SECTION. Asrama (Stage of Life)
Of the Varnaśramadharma organization of the society, 'Varna' has already been dealt with in the first section of this chapter. Here a discussion will be made on the Asrama' (Stage of life) as revealed in the text.
It is known that Varnasrama-Dharma' was based on the capacity of an individual and it was attached to build up the social life.
It appears from the BhS that the life of an individual member of the first three orders, namely, the Brahmana, the Ksatriya and the Vaisya (gähävais and Vaniya) was regulated by the Indian traditional four stages of the Vedic texts, viz. Brahmacarya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa (Parivrājaka stage), according to the evolving capacity of human life. These four stages were the guiding principles, each of which provided

Page #192

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
an opportunity for manifestation of one more primary human desire and exercised a social control over an individual life by developing the best type of personality and making a progressive social order in those days of the past.
According to the features of this 'Asrama' the first two predominantly prepared an individual for leading a wordly life, while the last two guided him in attaining his spiritual realization.
Thus in the ascending order each stage was a stepping stone to the next one till the highest mission of life might be brought to a successful glorious consummation.
The BhS does not categorically specify these four stages of life by their respective names, but they are inferable from the following terms, Bambhaceravasena," 'Guttabambhayari," 'Ghorabambhaceravāsī,"3 Gāhāvai,* 'Agāravāsa," Vanapattha Tavasa,' 'Parivvayaga," "Thera's and Aṇāgara-Niggantha" as used in connection with the holy teachings of Lord Mahāvīra to denote the distinct stages of life.
It
The first stage was that of Barbhaceravasa10 which denoted the state or life of Brahmacarin (a religious student), occupied the first part of life of an individual (Komariyae)11 i. e. the period from childhood to youth, which was marked by investiture with sacred thread (uvanayana),1a initiation(pavvajjāe), observance of celebacy (Bambhaceravās enam)13 and devotion to learning alphabet and study (vinṇātaparinayamette),14
In the BhS, it is stated that in one of his births Gośāla Mankhaliputra, the Ajivika leader attained intelligence even before the piercing ceremony of the ear (aviddhakannae) by getting
16
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550.
2 1b, 2, 1, 92. Kumarasramana is also used to denote Balabrahmacarin; BhS (comm.), 5, 4, 118; Sadvarṣajatasya tasya pravrajitvāt.
3 76, 1, 1, 7; 15, 1, 550.
4 16, 3, 1, 134; 7, 9, 303; 15. 1, 540; 15, 1, 541.
6 Ib, 2, 1, 90 ; 11, 9, 417. 11, 12, 436.
Ib, 11, 9, 417.
7 Ib, 1, 2, 25; 2, 1, 90; 8 Ib, 15, 1, 546.
9 Ib, 1, 6, 53; 1, 9, 76; 10 Ib, 9, 31, 365. 18 Th, 15, 1, 550.

167
2,
1, 90; 15, 1. 553; etc. 11 Ib, 15, 1, 550. 14 Ib, 15, 1, 540.

12 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

Page #193

168
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
initiated, leading the life of an unmarried religious student and observing continence in youth.
"Komāriyae pavvajjāe komāraeņam bambhaceraväsenam
aviddhakanņae ceva samkhāņam paạilabhāmi",
A great stress has been laid on the attainment of Brahmacarya (chastity) in the text which tells that some one dwells in (practises) pure observance of chastity even without listening to Dharma (religion) explained by a Kevalin (omniscient) and others, and some one does not do so without listening to it."
Because he, the partial annihilation and suppression of whose conduct obscuring karmas bas taken place, dwells in pure Brahmacarya withiout listening to the religious discourse of a Kevalin and others, but he, whose conduct obscuring Karmas are not partially annihilated and suppressed, does not attain the chastity without listening to the religion explained by a Kevalin and others.
The importance of observance of chastity (Brahmacaryavāsa) as laid down in the Bhs is also greatly emphasized by the Chandogya Upanisad'. It teaches thus that "what the people call "Sacrifice' (yajña), Sacrificed' (ista!, Protracted sacrifice' (sattrāyana), 'Silent asceticism (mauna), 'a course of fasting' (anāśa. kāyana), and betaking oneself to hermit life in a forest (aranyāyana) are really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge. Because only through this life he attains that worldó (lokal, the soul (Atman), the protection of the real soul (Sat Atman)?, thinks and finds the imperishable soul and Ara and Nyn in the Brahmaloka where is the lake, 'Airan madiyan', affording refreshment and ecstasylo.
This Upanişad further lays stress upon the practice of chastity by instructing thus :
"Tau ha dyātrimsatam varsāni Brahmacaryamūsatuh Tau 2 Prajāpatiruvāca kimicchautāvavāsa tam" 211 11
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 28 16, 9, 31, 365. 4.10 Chāndogya U pānisad, Ch. VIII, banda. 5. 11 1b, Ch. VIII, Kānda, 7. (India and Virocana went to
Prajāpati and practised Brahmacarya for 32 years). See the 13 principal Upanisads by Robert Ernest Hume, 2nd Edition ; p. 266 ; and for the text see Dasopanişads---edited by the Pandits of the Adyar Library, p. 204, 209.

Page #194

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
According to the nature of this stage of life the students may be classified into two groups, viz. one who studied for a certain period after which he entered the second stage, i. e. the life of householder by getting himself married, as he became grown up and capable of enjoying the worldly life', while the other one was 'Balatavassin" (Balata pasvin) or Kumaraśramana who observed celibacy throughout his life which was entirely devoted and dedicated to the pursuits of learning, knowledge, austerity and meditation for the attainment of spiritual realization.
169
Thus it is learnt that prince Mahabala of Hastinapura1 had to undergo the following course of Brahmacarya in the first part of his life, viz. the ceremony of coloyanagaṁ (cuḍadharanam, tonsure ceremony), uvanayaṇam (sacred thread ceremony), kalagrahanam (that of learning alphabet) till he became free from boyish state, learned, firm and capable of enjoying the worldly life.
Of the second category of the student life it is found that the princess, Jayanti", the aunt of king Udayana of Kausambi remained 'Brahmacāriņī (maid, observing celebacy) throughout her life and joined the Nirgrantha order, after getting initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana Dharma. She devoted and dedicated her life to the search of knowledge, truth and spiritual realization.
Similarly there are also other examples of life-long Brahmacarins in the BhS. Thus it is related here that there lived a Balatapasvin named Vesiyāyaṇa' outside the town of Kurmagrama by practising austerity, observing fast, raising and holding up his arms, facing the sun and heating (absorbing heat) his body in the sunshine on his Atapanabhumi (the place
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. 1 Ib, 15, 1, 543. 3 1b, 5, 4, 188. 4.5 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 6 Ib, 12, 2, 441.
7 lb, 15, 1, 543.
8 There are two readings 'Kummagāma' & 'Kunḍagama' found in the printed text of the BhS. I accept the reading 'Kummagama' which occurs in all the published Mss. except in one. Moreover all scholars also have accepted this
reading.
22

Page #195

170
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
of meditation) while Atimukta Kumāra-Sramana1, a disciple of Lord Mahāvīra, was also a student of this class.
It thus appears that the acquirement of knowledge and building up of character by man-making education outstading features of the first stage of life.
were the
Second Stage
Marriage distinguished the boundary of the second stage from that of the first one after the completion of education of the student at that period.
From this second stage of life followed manifold secular duties of the householder comprising economic pursuits, supporting of family and other institutions, gratification of human desires (kamabhogadana etc.), liberality, offering of gifts, entertainment of guests, relatives and other peoples. But the religious and spiritual aspects of life were not ignored at all. The householder had to perform himself the family sacrifices, such as, 'Balikamma' (worship of house-gods) 'Kautukamangala' (auspicious ceremony) and prayaścitta' (expiation) and to offer due worship to ancestors and gods. It was also his duty to study and lead a religious life by observing continence on festival days. In a word, a householder, who may be a Brahmana or a Ksatriya or a Gahavai or a Vanik had his three debts to pay, viz. debts to the people and ascetics, gods and ancestors as they are embodied in the stray references of the BhS.
Here is found an idea of the cult of hero-worship in the act of offering oblation to the manes as the prevailing custom of the society.
The Raghuvamsa of the poet Kalidasa also has echoed a similar sentiment expressed by the BhS on the ideals of house
1 BhS, 5, 4, 188. at the age of six
2 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
3 Ib, 9, 33, 384.
4 I6, 11, 9, 417. (Devayapitikayakajje).
A Kumara-Sramana was initiated generally
5 Raghuvamsa V, 10.
(Yasmat te sarveṣām āśramānāṁ Brahmacarya-vanaprasthayatinam-upakāre Kṣamam-Saktam-kṣemain sakte hite trişu iti-Amarah).

Page #196

Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SUTRA 171 hold life and the highly glorified second stage (gār hasthya) which was able to do service in the benefit of all the Aśramas' (i. e. Brahmacarya, Vānaprastha & Yati stages of an individual man). “Kālo hyayam samkramituṁ dvitryam
sarvopakārakşamāśramam (V-10). The following examples of the BhS regarding the life of householders present a vivid picture of the second stage which regulated their both individual and social relations in regard to secular and religious aspects of their duties.
After the completion of study, when prince Mahābala of Hastināpura' attained his full youth, and became grown up and capable of enjoying the worldly life, his parents, king Bala and queen Prabhāvati Devi caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses at the auspicious moment of constellation of the part of the lunar day and provided them with all necessaries of the second stage of life, such as, palaces, palace-staff, wealth, etc.
Like prince Jamāli' of Ksatriya-Kundagrāma, prince Mahā. bala also passed his time in the upper palace by enjoying singly desired sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell-the five kinds of human gratification of desires in the company of best young beautiful ladies, dancing and singing throughout the nights of six seasons.
Here it seems that 'Desire was the determining principle of this second stage of life, as it is reflected in the arguments advanced by the respective mothers of prince Jamālī" and prince Mahābala" in order to dissuade them from undertaking the state of houselessness.
They told their respective sons to enjoy abundant sensual gratifications of human desires with their wives and vast wealth and prosperity inherited by them from their respective grandfather and great-grand-father according to their desires.
The mother of prince Jamālī said to him "so long, son, we live, then later on with our death, being old (i.e. experienced)
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 384.
? 16, 9, 33, 383.
1b, 11, 11, 431.
$ 16, 11, 11, 431.

Page #197

172
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
(Ch. IV
in the affairs of increasing family.thread (generation), and desireless............... undertake the state of houselessness."
But this human desire could not ensnare the mind of prince Jamālī nor that of prince Mahābala, because they realized the futility and transitoriness of these fleeting enjoy. ments and sensual gratification of desires.
They did not lose the ideal of the spiritual aspect of the second stage of life, being engrossed in the material enjoyments and involved in secular duties. The knowledge and experience gained in the family affairs led them to the path of religion to attain the highest truth and spirital realization. So they undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world.”
It is further learnt that king Siva of Hastināpura' who prospered by his sons, cattle, kingdom, army, transport, revenue, treasury, city, inner female apartment, abundant gold, jewel and other kinds of wealth performed his both secular and reli. gious duties due to the state and the people at large.
On his realization of the higher truth revealed by the sudden spiritual awakening in his heart, one day he, having placed his son, Śivabhadra in the affairs of the kingdom, undertook the state of Vānaprastha asceticism (asceticism practi. sed by the forest recluses) by renouncing the world for the attainment of spiritual knowledge, truth and final emancipation from the bondage of mundane life.
It is further known from the Bhs that Sankha, Pokkali and others, the rich Sramanopāsakas of the city of Srāvasti passed their life by attending the holy teachings of Lord Mahāvira delivered at Kosthaka Caitya and observing the vow of fasting (Pausadhavrata) and continence (Brahmacarya) in addition to their respective household affairs.
A more vivid picture of the second stage of life is revealed in the graphic account of the household life led by the Sramanopāsakas of the city of Tunjikā. They were very rich with
i BhS, 9, 33, 384. 3.4 16, 11, 9, 417.
* 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 431. 6,6 16, 12, 1, 437-38.

Page #198

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
173
grains etc., famous and possessed many houses furnished with beds and seats, vehicles, abundant wealth and various kinds of precious stones. They increased their wealth by banking business (āyogapayogasam pauttā) and were accomplished in many arts. In their houses much food and drink got wasted without consumption due to their plentiness'.
They were masters of many male and female slaves and possessors of many cows, buffaloes and quadruped animals; and they were undefeated by many peoples in knowledge and learning, knowers of living and non-living substances ; realizers of virtue and vice (uvaladdhapunna pāvā), conversant with the doctrines of influx, stoppage and dissociation of Karma, the act of subordinating, bondage and liberation.
They were well-established in the Nirgrantha teachings and unchallenged in its knowledge and had no predilection for any other doctrine. They obtained, accepted, asked, ascertained and knew the true meanings and explanations of the Nirgrantha teachings which were their bones and marrows "reddened with love and devotion”S.
They were liberal like the high crystal ; their doors were open to others and their entrance into the houses of others was welcomed and pleasing. They purified their souls by observing many vows, such as Salavrata, Gunavrata, Viramanavrata, Pratyākhyānavrata, Pauşadhavr ata etc. and performing the acts of complete fasting in Caturda šī (fourteenth day of the moon), Aştamī (eighth day of the moon), Amavasyā (the night of no moon), and Pūrnimā (the day of full moo 1).
They offered uncontamina ed, pure and desirable food, drink and other dainties, cloth, vessel, blanket, broom (rajaharaņa), seat, patta (cloth), bed, medicine, etc., to the Sramana-Nirgranthas and passed time by observing acts of austerities and meditation on the self". (Tavokammehis appāņam bhāvemāņā viharasti).
One day, having learnt about the presence of the ascetics of Lord Pārsvanātha's order at the Puspavati Caitya from the
14 BhS, 2, 5, 107.

Page #199

174
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
multitudes of people, going there to attend their religious discourses, those Sramanopasakas of the city of Tungika went to them to listen to their holy teachings and entered into a religious discussion with them by putting some questions to them for true explanations, e.g. "what was the fruit of self-control (Samyama) and that of austerity (tava) ?"
To their great satisfaction, those Sthaviras (ascetics) explained that the fruit of self-control was the non-influx of karma-matter and that of austerity was the dissociation of Karma.1
Then those Sramanopasakas, being convinced and pleased with these explanations retired to their own city after paying due respect to those ascetics.
This account of the ways of living of the Sramanopāsakas of Tungika as given in the BhS truly represents the individual, social and religious aspects of household life.
There is a similar example of this second stage from which followed manifold activities of a householder.
Thus it is learnt that a very rich merchant named Kārttikadatta lived in the city of Hastinapura by exercising his authority over eight thousand other merchants as their guildpresident (negama-padhāna).
They were engaged in manifold activities and professions of secular life, but the religious duties were not ignored by them. They also attended the sermons of the houseless monk, Munisuvrata, delivered in the grove of thousand mango-trees.
They being satisfied with the holy teachings of that ascetic got initiated by him to Sramana Dharma and undertook the state of houselessness, after having placed their respective eldest sons in the household affairs and renounced the world."
The above evidences remind one of the household life of Ananda of Vanijyagrāma as mentioned in the Uvāsagadasão.1
1 Bhs, 2, 5, 110.
2.3 Ib, 18, 2, 616.
4 Uvasagadasão, Lec, 1,, Hoernle's Translation. See also Mahavira: His life and teachings by Dr. B. C. Law p. 38-39.

Page #200

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
175
He is said to have "possessed a treasure of four kror measures of gold deposited in a safe place, a capital of four kror measures of gold put out on interest, a well-stocked estate of the value of four kror measures of gold, and four herds, each herd consisting of ten thousand heads of cattle." He was "a person whom many kings and princes and merchants made it a point to refer to, and to consult, on many affairs and matters needing advice,...in short, on all sorts of business. He was also the main pillar, as it were, of his own family, their authority, support, mainstay and guide. In short, he was a cause of prosperity to whatever business he was concerned with."
"Ananda had his own Posahasala (fasting-house) in the Kollaga suburb of Vanijyagrāma, in the midst of his people of Nata or Jnatri clan."
The Bhs and the Uvasagadasão clearly show that an attention was paid to individual, social and religious aspects of a householder's life."
Though the desire for sex, progeney and property received the first attention and care in this part of life, yet the spiritual aspect of this stage was not ignored, because the vision of the future was the guiding principle of the householder as conceived in the first stage of 'Brahmacarya' to follow in his day-to-day activities. He had to perform both secular and religious duties to the family, the society and to himself. Thus a balance was maintained in this material life of the second stage.
Vanaprastha (Vāṇapattha, third stage of life)
In connection with the austerity practised by the royal sage, Siva of Hastinapura the BhS presents a vivid picture of
1 Uvāsagadasão, Lec. 1 Hoernle's Translation. See also 'Mahavira' His life and teachings by Dr. B. C. Law., p. 38-39. 2 Cf. Arthaśāstra, Book 1, Ch. III, 8. p. 7. It states "the duty of a householder is earning livelihood by his own profession, marriage among his equals of different ancestral Rsis, intercourse with his wedded wife after her monthly ablution, gifts to gods, ancestors, guests and servants and the eating of the remainder",

Page #201

176 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SÚTRA [Ch. IV the life of the third stage called Vānaprastha led by a large number of forest recluses (vāna patthā Tavasā), such as, Hottiyā (Agnihotrikas), pottia (vastradhārinas) upto Disapokkhiyā (Diša. proksinas) who passed their time by observing different kinds of asceticism according to various religious faiths.1
A detailed discussion will be made later on about their systems and practices in relation to the subject Various leaders of thought and their philosophies and religious systems' as revealed in this canonical work.
It is stated here that onee due to a sudden spiritual awakening in the mind of king Siva,' he realized the truth of transitoriness of the worldly life, pleasure, power and wealth.
So, after having placed his son, Sivabhadra in the affairs of his kingdom, the king got initiated by the Dišāproksiņa vānaprastha-Tāpasa: (forest recluses who moved by sprinkling water in four directions) to their faith and undertook the ascetic life of the Vāna prastha stage by renouncing the world.
The Bhs presents a graphic account of the Dišāprosina austerity of this third stage of life, practised by the royal sage, Siva, dwelling on the bank of the Ganges with a few necessary articles, such as, flower-basket made from bamboo, iron pot, iron-pan, spoon, tambika (an article of wearing), ascetic utensils, etc."
On the day of conclusion of his first Şaştha Ksamana vow (two consecutive days' fast), the royal sage, having descended from the Atāpanabhūmi", put on his bark.cloth (vägalavatthaniyatthe) and came to his hermitage to take the basket in order to pluck flowers, fruits, leaves, etc., for performing sacrifice.
Having taken the basket, he first sprinkled the eastern direction with water and prayed to the god, Soma thus, "O Soma, Mahārāja of the eastern quarter, protect Siva, the royal sage, who is engaged in collecting the fruits on the path of Sadhanā (meditation) of the next life, by protecting (him) permit
14 Bhs, 11, 9, 417.
6 The place for meditation.

Page #202

177
Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
him to pluck those which are tuberous roots, roots, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, haritakas (terminalia) etc.".
Thus having advanced towards the eastern direction, he plucked those things and filled his basket with them. Then after collecting the Darbha grass, Kusa-grass and Samidha (firewood for sacrifice), Patra-motam (broken leaves with branches of tree), he returned to his own hermitage and placed the basket filled with flowers, fruits etc. on the ground.
After that, having wiped off, besmeared, swept and purified his sacrificial altar with water, he went to the Ganges with a water-jar and Darbha-grass to take bath and purify himself by playing with the sacred water, sprinkling and sipping it according to the prescribed religious process. Then having performed the work (worship) of gods and ancestors (Devayapitikayakajje), he emerged from the Ganges and returned to his own hermitage with the sacrificial jar filled with water and Darbha-grass.
He made next the altar with the Darbha and Kusa grasses, and sands, rubbed Arani with Saraka3 (the rubbing wood) to kindle fire for performing sacrifice. Having kindled fire by this process he caused it to rise & cast the Samidha wood into it. And thus he, having blazed the fire brought near the altar seven articles of sacrifice (angas), viz. Sakahā (Sakathā-a kind of article), Bakkalam (bark of tree), thana (Jyotisthanam, Patrasthānaṁvā), Sijja (bed, Sayyabhanda), Kamandalu (water pot of ascetic made of wood or earth), Dandadaru (Stick-Dandaka), then Panam (drink) and worshipped the fire with honey and clarified butter and rice and cooked caru (oblation of rice prepared with buttermilk for offering to gods and manes).
Then he worshipped Vaiśvānara, the fire-god with the oblation of caru, entertained and honoured guests first with it, and he took himself food last of all.
12 BhS, 11, 9, 417. s 1b, 11, 9, 417.
Avani and Saraka are two kinds of firewood.
In ancient days the people used to kindle fire by rubbing
4

them against each other.
Ib, 11, 9, 417.
23

Page #203

178
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
Exactly in the same manner the royal sage, Siva performed sacrifices on the days of conclusions of his second, third and fourth fasts (Sasthakşamana) respectively.
The particular difference is that he sprinkled the southern, western and northern directions and prayed to Yama, the lord of the South, Varuna, the lord of the West, and Vaišramana, the lord of the North on the days of conclusions of the second, third and fourth fasts in succession, while collecting flowers, fruits, leaves, sacrificial fire-wood, etc.
These are the essentinl features of the third stage of life as revealed in the Bhs.
It appears from the above evidences of Vanaprastha ascetic life of the royal sage, Śiva that the class corresponding to this stage was the Ksatriya caste and the statesmen whose spiritual urge led them to their retirement to asceticism.
The same view on the adoption of the Vānaprastha life is also expressed by the poet, Kālidāsa in his Raghuvansa' in which it is said thus, "Then that king Dilipa, having offered the white royal parasol to his young son, king Kakuda, according to custom, took shelter of the Vānaprastha-Asrama together with his wife, Sudakșini. This retirement to forest was the family vow of the old Ilsvākūs"..
-Atha sa vişayavyāvșttātmā yathāvidhi sūnave / Nfpatikakudam dattyā yūne sītātapavāraṇam | Munivanatarucchāyām devyā tayā sa ha siśriye / galita
vayasāṁ Ikşvākūņāmidam hi Kulavratam" (III-70).
The Raghuvaría further tells that king Aja', having odered the modest prince, Dasaratha dressed in armour, in the matter of protection of the people according to the Šāstras became Prāyopaveśanamati (having the mind to die in unmoving sitting position), desiring to end the suffering of his body wrecked by disease.
"Samyag-vinitamatha varmahavaṁ Kumāramādiśya rakṣaṇavidhau vidhivat-prajānāṁ /
1 Raghuvamsa, ili, 70.
· Ib., ViļI, 94.

Page #204

Sec. II]
STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Rogopasṛṣṭatanudurvasatiṁ mumukṣuḥ prāyopaveśanamatiḥ nṛpatiḥ babhava" (VIII-94).
The same sentiment of the Raghuvamsa regarding the third stage of life is echoed also in the Padmapurana' where it is said that king Dasaratha too desired to retire to forest after getting initiated to asceticism, having realized the old stage of his life. "Tada Dasaratho bhīto bhṛśam samsaravasataḥ......... .........Samsatpravrajāmīti niścitam" (vv. 77 to 80).
So he ordered his ministers and other high dignitaries of his state to consecrate his first son, Rama as king quickly in the protection and governace of the kingdom so that he might enter the tapovana (forest of austerity) without any hindrances.
179
"Abhiṣiñcata me putram prathamaṁ rajyapālane /
Tvaritam yena nirvighnaṁ praviśāmi tapovanam" (v. 90) ||
The above evidences of the BhS corroborated by the Raghuvamsa and the Padmapurana clearly show that at the Vanaprastha stage a householder retired from the worldly life into the forest and began a new course of life as a hermit, having a mind free from attachment to desires, pleasures and enjoyments but concentrated on renunciation and self-purification. At this stage he led a life of dignity, calm and partial seclusion by devoting and dedicating himself to meditation for his spiritual progress.
Thus the Vanaprastha life of self-restraint and self-denial as incidentally referred to in this work is characterized by dis tinctive marks, such as, non-possession, continence, living in forest in solitude on its natural foodstuffs i.e. fruits, leaves, roots, etc., restraint of mind, speech, body (action). wearing of bark.cloth (vagalavatthaniyatthe) to cover nakedness, non-injury to living beings as far as possible, fasting, performance of sacrifice, entertaining of other ascetic-guests with 'caru' and practice of austerities and meditation according to the prescribed rules of religious systems.
13 Padmapurana, VV, 77 to 80. * BhS, 11, 9, 417.

8 1b, V. 90.

Page #205

180
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV These evidences of distinctive marks of the Vanaprastha life are also corroborated by the Arthaŝastra in which it is stated that the duty of a forest recluse (Vanaprastha) is "observance of chastity, sleeping on the bare ground, keeping twisted locks, wearing of dear skin, fire-worship, ablution, worship of gods, ancestors and guests and living upon food stuffs procurable in forests."
This third stage of austerities and meditation prepared the ground for further spiritual progress of the forest recluse towards his attainment of final emancipation from the worldly bondage in the fourth Asrama called Sannyasa.
Fourth Stage of Life (Parivrājaka-Anāgāra).
The BhS gives a graphic account of the fourth stage of life of an individual by making incidental references to the undertaking of the state of houselessness by the forest recluse, Siva (Vanaprastha tapasa) and the ascetic (Parivvayaga). Skandaka of the city of Sravasti respectively.
The term 'Parivvayage's used here and in other texts' denotes the ascetic of the fourth stage, who has renounced the world completely and devoted and dedicated himself to the attainment of perfect knowledge, truth, highest spiritual realization and final liberation from the bondage of mundane life.
In the Vanaprastha stage one day sometime 'Vibhangajana' (transcendental knowledge with an unbeliever) of the royal sage Siva was born in him, while practising austerities. He saw only seven islands and seven seas in the Universe with the help of that awakened knowledge, but beyond that he did not see and know anything else.
1 Arthasastra, Book I, Chapter III, 9, p. 9
2 BhS, 11, 9,417-18.
Ib, 2, 1, 90-96; 1, 2, 25; 2, 1, 90; 11, 12, 436.
4 Arthasastra, Book 1, Ch. III-9; Panini (VI. 1. 154) puts the Parivrajaka into the third stage, while he refers to the Bhiksu belonging to the fourth stage; Vide India as known to Panini by Dr. V.S. Agrawala, Ch. III Secion-2, p. 81.

Page #206

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
181
So he thought that he attained the last knowledge and intuition (Atiseṣa-jana-darśana) and proclaimed himself to the people of Hastinapura as the attainer of these two spiritual objects, after coming out of his hermitage from the forest on the bank of the Ganges.
Having listened to this matter in the presence of many people of that city talking about it, the houseless monk, Gautama, Indrabhuti, the first disciple of Lord Mahāvīra reported the whole incident to his Master who was passing time in the mangogrove called 'Sahasambavana' situated in that city.
On his request to know the truth regarding the existence of only seven islands and seven seas as declared by the royal sage, Śiva, Lord Mahavira explained in the assembly of his followers that there were more islands, such as, Jambudvipa, etc., and more seas, such as, Lavana-Samudra etc., including those seven islands and seven seas.
The message of this holy teaching of the Master immediately got circulated among the people of the city of Hastinapura who talked about it to one another, standing on the streets. Having listened to this matter in their presence the royal sage, Śiva became doubtful about his own spiritual knowledge and intuition. So he at once went to Lord Mahāvīra to know himself the true explanation regarding the number of islands and seas in the Universe.
He was convinced of the holy teaching of explanation of the Master on the subject and satisfied with his religious discourse.
Then the royal sage got initiated by Lord Mahavira to Sramana-Dharma and undertook the state of houselessness, the main characteristic of Sannyasa (ascetism of the fourth stage). He attained spiritual emancipation by practising various acts of austerities and meditation. Though this evidence of asceticism practised by the royal sage according to the Nirgrantha-religion does not truly represent the picture of the fourth stage of life as depicted in the Vedic texts, yet it gives an insight into the

Page #207

182
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
[Ch. IV
fact that the Vânaprastha stage of Siva guided him further in attaining the final spiritual realization.
There are references to the actual operation of the fourth stage of life in the Bhs as found in the cases of Parivrājaka Skandaka? of Srāvasti and Pudgala Parivrājaka of Alabhikä'.
Skandaka resided in the Parivrājakavasati (matha, ascetic's residing place), in the city of Srāvasatī and passed time by practising austerities and meditation, having possessed Tridanda (three staves), Kundikā ( Kamandalu = water pot ), Kaficanikā (Rudrāksamālă = rosary), Karoţikā (earthen vessel), Bhrfikā (grass seat), Kefarika (duster), Şaạnalikā (Trikasthika= an article), Ankusa (axe), Pavitraka (staining cloth or ring), Gañetrikā (a kind of ornament or rosary, Chhatra (umbrella), U pānaha (shoes), Padukā (wooden sandals), and Dhāturaktavastra (red-coloured garment).
One day this Skandaka, being unable to answer to the question of Pingala ka, a disciple of Lord Mahāvīra, whether the Universe was finite or infinite, etc., went to the Master who was staying by this time at the Chatrapalāśaka Caitya outside the city of Kajangalā to have the true explanation of the same.
Having been satisfied with the holy teachings on the subject he got initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana. Dharma to undertake the state of houselessness. After practising various acts of austerities and meditation for many years he attained the highest spiritual realization and liberation.
These examples give an idea of the fourth stage of life as it was in actual operation in the society.
Side by side the Bhs presents a picture of the state of houselessness of the Nirgrantha order, as it is evidenced in the greetings accorded to prince Jamālī by the people on his way to Bahuśālaka Caitya to get initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana Dharma in order to take to ascetic life.
The people greeted him by saying thus "you conquer the uuconquered senses with unbroken and best knowledge (jriāna),
WY.
1 BhS, 2, 1, 90.
* 10, 11, 12, 436.

Page #208

Sec. II]
183
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
right attitude to truth (darśana) and conduct (caritra), dwell in the midst of perfection, kill the wrestler in the form of attachment and jealousy by austerity and firmly bound patience, destroy eight Karmas by best pure meditation, becoming careful without being swayed by passion.
"O steady, hold the flag of worship inside the theatre hall of the three worlds, attain pure and best omniscience, emancipation, the best position by the straight road to perfection as instructed by the excellent Jina by defeating the army of twenty-two Parisahas (forbearances), let there be no hindrances of thorns of senses on the path of your religion."
The mother of Jamālī advised him thus, "self-control should be practised, passion should be conquered, exertion should be made," while offering him as the highest alms to Lord Mahāvīra.
Thus it is clear that both the Brahmanical and Nirgrantha systems of asceticism, having the same ideal of liberation were in operation side by side in the society influencing each other. Thus the fourth stage of life as reflected in this canonical work carries the conception of complete renunciation of all worldly desires, pleasures and enjoyments by mind, speech and body (action) of the ascetic who fully devoted and dedicated himself to the spiritual pursuits by practising austerities and meditation on soul for the attainment of omniscience, the highest truth and liberation from the mundane life.
This spiritual urge for emancipation infused a spirit of self-control, self-discipline, complete renunciation and detachment from the worldly desires and a spiritual freedom into the heart of an individual ascetic and led him to work out his salvation by studying the religious texts, practising severe austerities and meditation on the infinite, pure and perfect immortal soul.
Thus it is revealed that the fourth stage made an individual a free and perfect man with a resurrected soul who was
1.2 BhS, 9, 33, 385.

Page #209

184
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
above truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain and did not desire this world or the next one nor the mundane existence, but aspired after attaining the pure state of soul and liberation.
The Arthasastra' expresses the same views on the fourth stage of life. It states that the duty "of an ascetic retired from the world (Parivrajaka) is complete control of the organs of sense, abstaining, disowning money, keeping away from society, begging in many places, dwelling in forest and purity both internal and external"
The references to these four stages of life in the Bhagavati Sūtra (BhS) clearly show how the individual and social life was led and what were the social circumstances, prevailing at that time. The greatness of this Varnasrama system lay in the fact that it was not only a translation into form, but it was in the actual practice of life of the society. But here this organization is not prescribed in this canonical work.
Thus the spirit of Varnasrama-Dharma illustrated itself in the system of life into stages, because spiritualism dominated the whole individual, social and political aspects of life of the people of that period. So they did not like to die in their houses but desired to attain Moksa', the ultimate goal of human life outside the household surroundings.
THIRD SECTION
Social Structure and Family Relations.
Social Structure
The social structure as revealed in the BhS consisted of Janapada (state), Varna (social order), Jati (caste), Gotra (origin), Jnāti (kinsman), Kula (family), Vamsa (lineage), and Gahāvai (householder).
1.2 Arthasastra, Book 1, chapter III, 9.

Page #210

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
185 Janapada (State)
It has already been explained in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions that a Janapada or a Mahajanapada referred to in the Bhs was an autonomous political unit.
The study of this text shows that a citizen of a Jana pada was distinguished by its name, as it is known by the fact that the two disciples of Lord Mahāvīra named Sarvānubhūti (Savvāņubhūi) and Sunaksatra (Suņakkhatta ) were called "Painajāņavae''! (Prācīnajānapada) and "Kosalajāņavae'' (Košalajānapada) respectively, i. e, they were the citizens of their own individual states.
In this connection the epithet Vesālie's, attributed to Lord Mahāvīra in reference to his designation, is of great interest bearing a historical value. Śrī Abhayadeva Sūrié explains
Vesālie' (Vaišalika) by Lord Mahāvīra and in fact as metronymicum", "Visālā Mahāvīrajanani" ; "Vesāliya-Sāvae Viśālā Mahā. vīrajananī tasya apatyamiti Vaiśālikuḥ Bhagavān, tasya vacanam śrņoti tadrasikatvāt iti Vaiśālika Śrāvakah”.
The historic and social association of Lord Mahāvīra with this city is thus suggested by this epithet "Vesālie", which leads one to conclude that he was born in Vaišāli and so he came to be known by the name of his state.
Even some of the female slaves employed in the service of the rich aristocratic family of the Brāhmana, Rsabhadatta? were distinguished by the names of their respective states (or countries), e, g. Ciläiyā (Kirātikā), Arabi (Arabian), Singhali (Ceylonese), and Pārusī (Persian, of Pārasa country= Persia).
Varna and Jāti (Order and caste)
The Varņa (Vanna) and "Jāti' as referred to in the Bhs were the next component parts of the social structure existing during its period.
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 553.
8.4 Ib, 2, 1, 90 ; 12, 2, 441. o Weber, Indian Antiquary Vol. XVII, Dec. 1888, P. 345. & See Bhs, commentaty 2, 1, 90. ? BKS, 9, 33, 382. 8 1b, 15, 1, 557. 9 16, 2, 5, 108; 109 (Jāti).
24

Page #211

186
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
It has already been discussed in the first section of this chapter that these two terms are often used in the BhS to denote the caste of an individual member of the society.
Gotra (Ancestral family)
According to the order of the social formation, after the Jati, there comes the Gotra (Gatta) to which the members of a family traced their origin in the distant past.
Jnāti (Kinsman)
The Jaati (nāti) generally signified all relations on the parents' sides or particularly the Kinsmen (Paternal relations). Kula (family)
The Kula was the next important unit of the community round which rotated the whole social structure consisting of its different component parts. It was the nucleus of the society which was formed of a group of families, each having several members of its own under the guardianship of the father' or in his absence the eldest son."
Joint family
The text shows that the society as depicted in it was characterized by the joint family system which was prevailing during its period. It further reveals that there existed three classes of family, viz. high, low and middle class families (uccaniyamajjhimāiṁ kulāiṁ)' as distinguished by their respective economic and social status from one another.
Vamsa (Natural Lineage)
In the society great importance has been attached to Vamsa's on both the sides of the father and the mother, along with the 'Kula' from the point of view of the natural lineage and social and cultural position.
1 BhS, 1. 1. 7; 2, 1, 90 (Goyamasrgottenam, Kaccayana gottenam). Ib, 3, 1, 134.
Ib, 2, 5, 108; 109.
4.5 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 383; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 12 2, 441.
7 Ib, 15, 1, 540, 41.
13, 6, 491; 15. 1, 540.
6 Ib, 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491; 8 Ib, 2, 5, 108-9.

Page #212

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA Gähāvai (Householder)
The householder', who was generally the father or in his absence his eldest son (Jetthaputta), was the head of the family, the smallest social unit, having the full responsibility deciding authority, care and charge of the welfare of all its members. Family Relations
The Bhs presents a good account of a wider sphere of family relationsbip formed of great-grandfather, grandfather (Ajjaga pajjaga-piu-pajjagae),' mother and father (Ammāpiyaro)," aunt (l'iucchā), son (putte, Attae, Jāyā), husband (Bhatta),' wife (Bhajjā, daughter (Dhīyā), nephew (Bhättijjae, Bhāinojja),10 daughter-in-law (Sunha)," sister-in-law (Nanandā, Bhāijia)," brother-in-law (Sambandhi), 13 and grandson (Potte, Nattue),""
The mother was the object of more love and honour than father in the family, for the term "Ammā" (mother of the compound word Ammāpiyaro).5 is generally used before the term “Piya" (father).
The sphere of family relation was also extended to the friends, kinsmen and relatives (mittaņātiniyaga)16 and even to the attendants (pariyana)"? who were included in its gradation in the larger social circle.
Family servants.
In the list of the family members the BhS refers to several classes of servants and maids who have already been mentioned in connection with the topic «personal and palace-staff' in the sixth section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions.'
Besides them, female slaves also served the rich aristocratic and royal families, as it is evidenced by the fact that they
1 Bhs, 3, 1, 134 ; 15, 1, 541. * 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 117.
3 Ib, 9. 33, 384. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 384 ; 11, 11, 422.
6 Ib, 12,2, 441. 6 16;12, 9, 417; 12, 2, 441 13, 6, 491. 7.12 1b, 12. 2, 441. 18 16, 3, 1, 134.
14 16, 12, 2, 441 15 1b, 9, 33, 384. 16_17 10, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429.

Page #213

188
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
appear
as the members of the retinues of the Brahmani, Devananda1 and the queen, Mrgavati respectively.
These servants, maids and female slaves formed thus the part of the contingent of the palace-staff in the royal household or they were employed in the service of the rich aristocratic families or in the houses of the well-to-do merchants, as it is revealed in the BhS and corroborated by the evidences of Panini," the Arthaśāstra® and the Kama Sutra of Vätsyāyana."
Guests
Hospitality to both the invited and uninvited guests and ascetics was the most important feature of the family life as depicted in the BhS. It was regarded as the cardinal virtue of a householder to entertain and honour the guests with various kinds of food, drink and other presents in order to earn the spiritual merit (punya) out of a good action.8
This text presents a vivid picture of the custom of welcoming, entertaining and honouring the guests and ascetics by the householders with great warmth of heart and modesty on their arrival at the houses of the hosts."
A discussion on this topic of the manner of welcoming guests will be made later on in connection with the subject 'Hospitality to guests' as revealed in the BhS. Here it may be stated in short that a distinguished guest like a king1o or noblell or friend-kinsman-relative or a co-religionist 18 or a monk was highly honoured with proper decorum and devotion.
a
1 BhS, 9, 33, 382.
2 Ib, 12, 2, 441.
9.4 Ib, 9, 33, 382; 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430.
5 Refer to India as known to Panini' by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 97-8. Panini III, 2, 21, (Kimkara). See Ganapatha (II, 2, 9 & VI, 2, 151, Yajakadi group, IV, 4, 48; IV, 1, 146; VII, 3, 4; IV, 4, 17; VI, 3, 60.
6 Arthasastra 43, Ch. XI, p. 41.
7 Kamasutra, See Haran Chakladar's studies in Kamasutra. 8 BhS, 8, 6, 332. 9 Ib, 15, 1, 541
10.11 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429; 13, 6, 491. 12 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 18 Ib, 12, 1, 438.

11, 11, 429; 13, 6, 491. 14 76, 15, 1, 541, 557.

Page #214

Sec. III]
stubies İN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
189
Succession
It has already been discussed in connection with the royal succession in the fourth section of the third chapter on •Political conditions' that the law of primogeniture was generally operating in the case of the royal family. On the retirement of the kings, his eldest son was usually placed by him in the affairs of the state to succeed to his property.
In the noble and rich families and other common households the same law of primogeniture determined the matter of succession to the father's property inherited from the grandfather and great-grandfather, as it is evidenced in the cases of prince Jamālr“ of Ksatriyukundagrāma, Tāmalīí of Tamralipti, Purana of Bebhela Sanniveśa and Kärttikadatta? of Hastinapura. Conjugal life .
The Bhs presents a picture of a happy family life in which the husband and wife were the equal religious partners. The wife never stood on the way of her husband's resolution to undertake the state of houselessness by renouncing the world with a view to attaining spiritual emancipation.
On the other hand she followed her husband as a devoted companion on the path of religion. Thus she helped him in every possible way she could do in relation to this stage of life by creating a serene and peaceful environment in the family. The husband also regarded her as the co-partner of bis life's journey, but he never considered her as a condemned thing in the worldly affairs.
Thus it is found that king Seņiya (Śreņika-Bimbisāra) and queen Cellanā of Magadhas, and king Udāyana and his wife,
1 BhS, 11, 9, 417.
There is an exception in the case of the prince, Abhijit, the son of king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvira who installed his own nephew, the prince Kesi-Kumāra on the throne by putting aside the rightful claim of his own son on the ground
of his spiritual welfare. 2 1b, 9, 33, 384; 3, 1, 134. 8 16, 15, 1, 540. 416, 9, 33, 384. 5 I6, 3, 1, 134.
6 16, 3, 2, 144, 116, 18, 2, 618. 8 16, 1, 1, 4,

Page #215

190
ŠTUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÛTRA
[Ćh. IV
queen Prabhāvati Devi of Sindhu-Sauvira' made pilgrimages to Lord Mahāvīra to attend his holy sermons delivered in the two assemblies of his followers at the Gunaiilaka Caitya outside the city of Rājag?ha and at Mrgavana in the city of Vitibhaya respectively. When king Udāyana undertook the state of houselessness by renouncing the world, after getting initiated by Lord Mahāvira to the Nirgrantha-religion, Prabhāvati Devī did not stand on his way as an obstacle to dissuade him from hi resolution,
Besides these instances, the Bhs presents other brilliant pictures of conjugal love, devotion, fidelity and ideal relationship between the husband and wife belonging to the three classes of families, viz. high, low and middle (uccaniyamajjhimāri Kulāim)".
Thus in one scene it is depicted how Bala, the king of Hastināpuras welcomed his queen, Prabhavati Devi on her approach to him in his bed-chamber in order to reveal the incident of her auspicious dream by which she was awakened from her sleep at midnight.
She was first received, seated on an auspicious seat and comforted by him with sweet words of love and honour and then she was inquired about the cause of her unexpected visit to him in an animated mood at such a time.
She gracefully submitted to him the whole account of her dream of a vision of a lion having a beautiful figure and descending and speaking own words.
According to his own intelligence king Bala interpreted this mark of dream thus that she would give birth to a great male child and then he congratulated the queen with these words that she was fortunate.
In another scene laid at Brāhmaṇakundagrāma a happy picture of co-partnership of the husband and wife in work and worship is presented in the rich aristocratic Brāhmaṇa family of Rşabhadatta'.
| Bhs, 13, 6, 491. $ 10, 11, 11, 429.
? 16, 15, 1, 540. 4 16, 9, 33, 380-82.

Page #216

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
191
It is to be observed with a great admiration how he reported to his wife, Devānandā the account of his attending the holy sermons of Lord Mahāvīra, delivered at the Bahuśālaku Caitya, immediately after returning from there with a glad. dened heart.
Then Rsabhadatta drove together with Devānanda in a bullock-cart to the said Cuityto attend the holy teachings of the Master with a burning spiritual urge. They, being pleased and satisfied with the religious discourse of Lord Mahāvīra, got initiated by him and joined his ascetic order by renouncing the world'.
In the middle class family of Samkha and Utpalā?, the Sramaṇopāsaka and Sramangpāsikā of Srāvustī also, a burning example of a happy conjugal life is found thus that they led an ideal life of the husband and wife with mutual love, faith, devotion and honour endowed with the richness and glow of their pious hearts in the worldly affairs and worship.
Even in the low class houseless wandering family, like that of Mankha Mankhali and Bhadrās, the parents of Gośāla Mankhaliputra, such a peaceful and happy relation existed between this couple that they had borne all hardships and poverty of their household life with calmness, patience and unflinching faith in and devotion to each other in their up and down journeys of the mundane world. But these material sufferings could not lead to the breach of the family peace and their separation from each other.
Thus it is stated that the houseless Mankha Mankbali, accompanied by his pregnant wife, Bhadrā, took shelter in the cowshed of the Brāhmana Gobahula at Saravana, after wandering from village to village, to pass the rainy season there, without getting any residence anywhere in that town.
It was here in this cowshed that their son, Gośāla Man. kbaliputra was born to them in the midst of poverty, hardships
i Bhs, 9, 33, 382. $ 10, 15, 1, 540.
* 10, 12, 1, 437-38. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 540.

Page #217

192
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IV and misery. Even under these pecuniary circumstances they marched together on the journeys of life, experiencing all sorts of suffering by holding the ideal of the sacred union of the husband and wife and their life-long companionship before them.
Only one instance of infidelity of the wife has indirectly been referred to in the text. An another man enjoys the wife of a Sramanopāsaka' in his absence. But the effect of this sinful act does not affect him, because he is not attached to his wife or any other worldly object. But it does not at all reflect ūpon the general moral breakdown of the family life. On the contrary it may safely be said that the conjugal life as depicted above appears to be an abode of love and peace reigning over the whole family. Relation among different members of the family
In the society, as depicted in the BhS, reverence, devotion and unquestioned obedience to the parents were regarded as the highest natural duties of the son, for it was the spontaneous consequence of the seemly behaviour and great veneration towards all the elders of the family.”
Even when a son desired to undertake the state of houselessness by renouncing the worldly life, he did so with the permission of his parents who themselves arranged and performed the consecration ceremony of his departure from the state of houseness with great pomp and grandeur. They also accompanied him on his way to the taking of ascetic life to offer him as the highest alms to his future religious teacher, as it is evidenced in the case of the prince, Jamāli, who was presented by his parents to Lord Mahāvīra.
It was the duty of the parents to bring up their son with best care, attention and education in the first part of his life till he reached the stage of youth and became capable to shoulder the responsibilities of the family and to gratify the five kinds of human desires,' viz, sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell.
1 BhS, 8, 5, 328. 1b, 9, 33, 384 ; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491-92. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 384-385,
4' Ib, 11, 11, 429,

Page #218

Sec. III)
STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SŪTRA
193
Then the parents married their son with the best girl' belonging to the family of their equal status and placed him in the household affairs by providing him with all necessaries for the second stage of his life marked by the marriage, as it is found in the case of the prince, Mahābula of Hastināpura?.
So the sweet and happy relation between the parents and the son was based on their reciprocal love, natural duties, and moral obligations called upon by the secular life.
The Bhs presents a vivid picture of the outpourings of the mother's spontaneous love for her son in a scene laid at Ksatriyakundagrāma.
It is stated here that when the prince, Jamālī, being frightened by the worldly fear, birth, old age and death, expressed his desire to his parents to undertake the state of houselessness from that of houseness with their permission, his mother, having heard this unwelcome, uncharming and unheard request of her dear son began to perspire, became pale, then swooned and fell down at once on the ground. She was very quickly brought to consciousness by her attendants through sprinkling cold water over her eyes and fanning (air) with a palm-leaf fan
Then she, being consoled by them, tried to persuade her son to give up his resolution of undertaking the state of houselessness and told him, weeping and lamenting thus "you are, son, our only son", "we do not like your separation for a moment even, stay so long, son, we live, then later on, with our death, being old in the affairs of the increasing family.thread (tantu), desireless and initiated in the presence of Lord Mahāvīra, undertake the state of houselessness from that of houseness."4
In this connection a great religious discussion took place between the prince, Jamāli and his parents in the form of arguments and counter-arguments on the futility and transitoriness of this worldly life and its material enjoyments. But the prince carried his points with his unanswerable arguments and convinced his parents of the validity of his reasons.
i Bhs, 11, 11, 430.
25
? 10, 11, 11, 430.
8.4 16, 9, 33, 384.

Page #219

194
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
So they, being disappointed, finally permitted his leaving the world to undertake the ascetic life.
Even in a low family like that of the houseless Mankha couple. Mankbali and Bhadrāl there is found an account of the natural parental love towards their only son, Gośāla Mankhali. putra in full brim of their hearts, as it is manifested in their loving care and attention for him with their meagre means. Because the child is the beam of light of happiness, rich in meaning and hope even in a poorest family.
The Bhs clearly shows that. very cordial relation existed between the parents and the son in the family life at that period. But in one case, as already pointed out in connection with royal succession in the third chapter on Political conditions', it is learnt that a disgruntled son, like the prince Abhijit Kumāra' entertained a feeling of animosity towards his father, king Udāyana af Sindhu-Sauvīra, for he was deprived by his father of his rightful claim to the throne according to the law of primoge
ture. The king placed his nephew, Kesīkumāra in the affairs of his kingdom instead of his own son, the natural heir-apparent to the throne on the ground of his spiritual welfare.
The prince, Abhijit Kumāras submitted to the pious wish of his father with a wounded feeling without showing any sign of revolting attitude and disrespect towards him.
The text also throws light upon the happy relatioaship existing among the other members of the family, and friends (mitta), kinsmen (nāti) one's own man (niyaga) blood relations (sayana, brother-in-law (sambandlii) and attendants or dependents (pariyana)', as it is evidenced in the common family gatherings, taking of meals together and entertainments on the occasions of the social or religious ceremonies, such as, the celebrations of the birth of a new born child', of marriage, of consecration, and of departure for undertaking the state of houselessness', etc
i Bhs, 15, 1, 540. ? 16, 13, 6, 491. 9 lb, 13, 6, 492. 4 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429, 16, 5, 577; 18, 2, 618.
Ib, 11, 11, 429. 10, 11, 11, 430. 7 10, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144 ; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491;
16, 5, 577 ; 18, 2, 618.

Page #220

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
195
The picture of the family life as depicted in the BhS is also found in other Jaina texts.
In addition they give some brilliant examples of the joint family system, the natural devotion and honour and duty of the sons to their parents, and relationship among the brothers.
Thus the Nayadhammakahão1 refers to a big joint family of a merchant consisting of his four sons and daughters-in-laws and its other members. They were living together very happily with mutual love, devotion and duties to one another. The merchant was very anxious about the future fate of his dear joint family as to who would maintain and continue the unity and integrity of his happy house after his death.
It is learnt from the Sthānanga Sutra that the greatest reverence was paid by the sons and daughters to the parents who were regarded like the master, religious teacher and god.
So, it was the natural duty of the sons and daughters to serve them with best care and attention by giving them bath, dressing, decorating and entertaining them with eight kinds of cooked food.
There is also a reference to the salutation by the children to the father, having touched his feet (payavandaya) everyday, because he was like a teacher and a god to them and his life was more precious to the rest of the family".
The mother was also held in great esteem in the society as depicted in other Jaina texts in one of which it is found that king Pusanandi paid his reverence to his mother and used to take his bath and meal after his mother had enjoyed them first®.
As regards the relation among the brothers, it is learnt from the Nayadhammakahão' that the Brahmana brothers named
1 Nayadhammakahão, 7, p. 84 f.
2 Sthananga Sutra 3, 1, 135.
Cf. Nayadhammakahão 1, 13; 16, 176.
3 Sthānanga Sutra 3, 1, 135.
Cf. Nayadhammakahão 1, 13; 16, 176.
6 Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain.
7 Nayadhammakahão 16, p. 162, for all these references, see Life in Ancient India, pp. 146, 147.

Ib, 18, p. 213.
5 1b, 18, p. 213.

Page #221

196
STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
[Ch. IV
Soma, Somadatta and Somabhūti of the city of Campā used to take their meals in one another's house by turn in order to maintain a happy family relation, although they had their respective separate families.
The features of the domestic relation as revealed in the Bhs and the other Jaina texts are also corroborated by the evidences of the Arthaśāstral and the Asokan Edicts.
Conclusion
Though the Bhs presents a picture of a happy family life without any breach of peace in it, still it is a matter of conjecture that the peaceful atmosphere of the royal family of the Ksatriya princes might have been affected by the existence of polygamy which might have probably led to the suppression of natural freedom of love of the wife by lowering her honourable position in course of time.
It is learnt that eight separate royal household establishaments furnished with a contingent of the palace-staff and attendants and other necessaries of life were maintained by each of the princes, Jamālī' and Mahābala' for their respective eight wives, probably with the apprehension, lest there might treak out any trouble and quarrel among them.
The union of eight wives endowed with heterogeneous sentiments, behaviours, cultures and education possibly changed the character of the peaceful homelife.
It should carefully be observed that even the rich environment of luxury and pleasure of the royal family could not dissuade the princes-Jamāli and Mahābala from their undertaking the state of houselessness, as the sensual gratification of desires appeared to them impure and non-eternal.
1 Arthasāstra 48, p. 47; Cf. Ib., p. 190. 9 Rock Edict III; Yerragudi Minor Edict ; Rock Edict IV and
others. * Bhs, 9, 33, 384.
Ib, 11, 11, 430.

Page #222

Sec. IV] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
FOURTH SECTION
Dream, Pregnancy and Celebrations of Birth and Marriage.
Dream
197
It appears from Bhs that there was the popular belief in dreams current among the people of the society as depicted in this canonical work.
It was the general belief at that period that the mothers of Tirthankara or Cakravartin, Vasudeva, Baladeva and Mandalika woke up by dreaming fourteen, seven, four and one of the following great dreams just after the birth of embryo in the wombs of their respective mothers, viz. elephant, bull, lion, consecration of Lakṣmi, flower garland, the moon, the sun, flag, water-jar (kumbha), lotus-lake, sea, heavenly palace, heap of gems and burning fire1.
This account of the fourteen great dreams is also corroborated by the evidence of the Kalpa Sutra which also gives the same list of fourteen dreams.
So, according to the Svetambara tradition there are fourteen great dreams, but the Digambara one mentions sixteen great dreams by adding two more objects, viz. a royal seat marked with a lion's head (Simhasana) and a palace of snakes or of the king of snakes (Nagabhavana). The Digambaras designate the consecration of Laksmi under the word 'disagaya' i. e. Goddess Laksmi, being bathed in waters from the trunks of the elephants of the quarters.
There is another instance of the belief in dreams referred to in the BhS that Lord Mahavira once woke up from his sleep, having perceived the following ten objects in his dream during the period of the stage of his finite knowledge (chadmasthakāla), viz. (1) One big frightful and spirited Tala-Pisaca (devil)
1 Bhs, 16, 6, 579.
2 Kalpa Sutra 4.
3 See Mahapurana of Puspadanta Vol. 1, Notes III, 5. pp. 40-41; 600-601; See also Skt. Mahāpurana, First parttwelfth parva-LL. 148-152.
(Gajendramavadātānga......jvalanam prajvaladdyutim" (151). Dṛṣṭvaitan ṣoḍaśa-svapnan athādarśam mahipate......
(152).

Page #223

198
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch, IV
defeated in dream, (2) One big white-feathered male cuckoo, (3) One big variously coloured-feathered male cuckoo, (4) One large pair of garlands endowed with all jewels, (5) One big udder of a white cow, (6) lotus-la ke furnished with flowers from all sides and on all sides, (7) One large sea murmuring with thousand ripples of waves crossed by swimming with arms, (8) One big sun shining with rays, (9) One great Manusottara mountain covered with and surrounded by its own green and blue rays of colour, (10) One soul seated on a best throne on the peak of one great Mandāra-mountain (Sumiru).
The first dream vision of the defeated Tala Pisāca indicated that the Mohanīya Karma (Kurma which obstructs right faith and right conduct) is uprooted by Sramana Lord Malāvīra.
The second one-i. e. the big white-feathered male cuckoo showed the passing of his time by attaining Sukladhyāna (pure meditation) and the third one of a variously coloured. feathered male cuckoo meant the teaching, explaining, instruc. ting of twelve Angas and the illustrating of the Gani pitakas full of own and others doctrines (Sasamaya parasamaiyan) by him viz. Acāra, Sūtrakritānga...... upto Drațivāda.
The fourth one of a big pair of garlands full of jewels meant two kinds of Dharma (Religion), viz. Agāradharma and Anāgāradharma (Religion for the householder and religion for the houseless monks), while the fifth one of a high udder of a white cow signified the Sramaņa Sangha consisting of Cāturvarnas of Sramana Lord Mahāvīra, viz. Sramanas (monks), Sramanīs (nuns), Srāvakas (laymen) and Srāvikās (laywomen).
The sixth one of a large lotus-lake explained four classes of gods, viz. Bhavanavāsā, Vānavyantara, Jyotiska and Vaimānika'.
The seventh one of a great sea is interpreted as the crossing of the beginningless and endless world-forest by Sramana Lord Mahāvīra.
The eighth onei. e. one large sun, indicated the attainment of the infinite highest, coverless, pure, unobstructed
1.2 BhS, 16, 6, 580.

Page #224

Sec. IV
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
199
complete omniscience ( Kevalujšānı) and self-awareness or intuition (Darśana) by the Master.
The ninth one of a great Manusottara mountain covered with and surrounded by its own blue and grey rays of colour signified the noble glory, praise, honour and fame of Sramana Lord Mahāvīra travelled to the celestial, human and Asura (demon-gou) worlds.
The tenth one of his own soul seated on the best throne on the peak of one great Mandira mountain meant that the Master, being seated among gods, human beings and Asuragods expounded Kevalajfilāna' (omniscience). There are also other examples of dream-vision given in the Bhs. They are as follows:
"If a man or a woman beholds a big row of horses or a flock of elephants or a herd of oxen in dream and thinks hin or herself mounted by mounting them or he or she beholds one long rope stretching eastward and westward touching both the seas, contracts himself or herself by contracting (it), thinks himself or herself contracted, or he or she beholds one long rope stretching to the east and west and touching both the borders of the Universe, cuts it and thinks himself or herself cut thus, then he or she will attain liberation and put an end to all miseries just at the present moment'?.
If he or she perceives a big black yarn....... upto white yarn and confuses, thinks himself or herself confused thus. he or she will attain salvation and put an end to all miseries by the very life."
Thus the dream vision of "a heap of iron or that of copper or that of tin or that of lead and mounting on it or that of silver or gold or a pile of wood or leaves or skin or straw or husk or ashes or dust and its scattering" experienced by one, indicated his or her attainment of salvation by the second birth.
i Bhs, 16, 6, 580.
23 IB, 16, 6, 581,

Page #225

200
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
If he or she beheld the vision of a great heap of gold or that of gem or that of diamond and thought himself or herself mounted by mounting it in dream, he or she would attain his or her liberation and put an end to all miseries by the very life.
If he or she experienced the dream-vision of one big pile of grass like 'Trja-nisarga' or that of wood, leaves, skins, husks, ashes and dust, various kin:ls of grass, such as, sarasta nbhaka (read grass), Viraṇīstambhala (a tuft of fragrant grass) Vamsi. stambhaka (a stem or root of bambɔɔ), Vallimalustambhuka (a tuft of stem or root of creeper plant) and thought himself or herself "uprooted thus" by uprooting it in dream, or a jar of milk or of curd or of clarified butter, or of honey and thought himself or herself "pulled up" by pulling it up in dream, or one big horrible pitcher of wine of sour rice gruel or of serum of flesh (i. e. oil and fat) and thought himself broken up" thus by breaking it up, or a large lotus lake furnished with flowers and thought himself or herself "plonged thus" by plunging into it in dream, or a great sea full of ripples of waves, thought himself or herself "crossed thus” by crossing it in dream, or a big house full of all kinds of jewels and thought himself or herself 'gone up" and "entered" into it thus by entering into it during the dreamvision, or a large aerial house inlaid with all kinds of jewels and thought himself or herself mounted thus, by mounting it in dream, he or she would attain liberation and put an end to all miseries by that very life.'
There is a further evidence of the general belief in dream as revealed in the following graphic account of the Bhs.
It is stated here that queen Prabhāvatīk Devī, the wife of king Bala of Hastinā pura, beheld in her dream at the midnight a vision of a lion having "a beautiful and worth seeing breast which was very white like the silver necklace, milk-ocean, moonlight, particle of water and silver-mountain, firm charming fore arms, round, thick, well-set, excellent sharp teeth, smiling
1 BAS, 16, 6, 581 ; 10, 11, 11, 428. It is already mentioned
in the topic conjugal life in the third section of this chapter.

Page #226

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
201
distorted mouth like a best adorned lotus, delicate measured splendid charming lips like the leaf of a red lotus, and soft and very tender palate tongue, eyes like the heated best gold existing in pot (for making liquid), rolling like the wheel to the right and left, round and pure like the lightning, large thick (heavy) thigh (shank), a fully developed bright shoulder adorned with soft shining, fine, auspicious-marking manes, a raised, wellbuilt and well-borne (beautiful) tail moving to and fro, sporting (rejoicing), gaping mouth like the shape of the moon, and open nails, descending and speaking too much constantly own words",
Having dreamt this vision of a lion, she woke up from her sleep and immediately went to the bed.chamber of her husband, king Bala, to reveal this remarkable dream-vision to him as already pointed out in the previous section in connection with the topic conjugal love. King Bala, having listened to the whole story narrated by his wife, queen Prabhāvnti Devī, interpreted this a uspicious and fortune-indicating dream according to his own natural knowledge, intellect and intelligence thus that a great son would be born to them.
Next morning eight interpreters of signs of dream were summoned by the king in order to have the correct reading of this mark of lion beheld by the queen, because they were the experts in this subject.
According to the principles of the Svapnaśāstra (text on Dream) they interpreted that the queen had dreamt one of the fourteen great dreams as enumerated above which indicated that she would give birth to a great male child who would become an independent king or a houseless monk in future :
The evidences of the traditional belief of the people in dreams as revealed in the Bhs are also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts.
Thus it is stated in the Uttarādhyayana Sutra" that one attains glory, if he beholds decorated articles, a horse, an
12 Bhs, 11, 11, 428.
3 Ib, 11, 11, 428. • Uttaradhyayana Sutra 8, 13. See Commentary by śānti Sūri.
26

Page #227

202
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IV elephant, and a white bull in dream and one loses wealth, if he passes urine or red stool in dream.
The Ävaśyaka Cūrņi' refers to the dream-vision of the ascetic Bambhagutta that a stranger drank his milk kept in a bowl. It was interpreted thus that some body would come to him to learn the sacred lore.
It is also learnt from the birth-story of Lord Mahāvīrra related by the Kal pa Sútra” that the fourteen great dreams as enumerated in the Bhs were dreamt by his mother, Trišalā at the time of her conception.
In the Nāyādhammakahäo" also a similar tale is narrated thus that the queen Dhāriņī beheld a big elephant entering into her mouth in her dreams-vision during the time of her conception of the future child, Meghakumāra in her womb.
This story reminds one of the birth of Lord Buddha in the womb of his mother, Māyā" by entering into it in the form of a white elephant which is represented in sculpture on the Bhārut Stüpa and elsewhere.
The evidences of general belief in dreams as revealed in the Jaina texts are also supported by the Buddhist works. Thus it is found in the Mahāsupinu Jātaka that Pasenndi propitiates to avert the effect of his sixteen bad dreams experienced in one night as they, according to the interpretations of the Brāhmanas indicated that great dangers would befall on his kingdom or treasure or life. Maintenance of Pregnancy
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the course of nourishing the embryo of a child followed by a mother to nourish it in her womb during the period of her pregnancy which is the most delicate and dangerous time of the women's life.
Thus it is stated here that having learnt the result of her auspicious dream from her husband, king Bala, that she would
1 Āvaśyaka Curni p, 274. 8 Nāyādhammakahão 1, p. 8 ff.: 6 Mahāsupina Jātaka, 1, 77.
? Kalpa Sutra 4. 66-87. 4 Nidānakatha 1, p. 50 ff. 6 Bhs. 11, 11, 428.

Page #228

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
203
give birth to a great child as interpreted by the eight readers of signs of dream, queen Prabhāvati Devi carried about i.e. nursed) the embryo of her future child, following the course of maintaining it by not taking very cold, hot, bitter, pungent, sour, sweet articles (of food), but by enjoying happinessproducing food, sleep, fragrant flowers, garlands, and moderate and embryo-nourshing diet.
Thus having taken that kind of food at proper place in time and rest on the pure soft bed and seats, enjoyed lonely happiness agreeable to mind in pleasure garden and having her desire commended, fulfilled and honoured, but not-un honoured and destroyed, and also having become free from disease, infatuation, fear and terror, she nourished that embryo upto the period of nine months and seven and a half days and nights. After the completion of this course with all cares and attentions, she gave birth to a beautiful male child having very tender hands and feet, fully developed five sensed body endowed with the marks of good quality and a placid face like the shape of the moon, lovely, dear and pleasant to the sight?
The evidences of the process of nourishing the embryo and maintaining the pregnancy as mentioned in the Bhs are also corroborated by those of other Jain texts'. They put an emphasis on the observation of the same carefulness by the mother in taking not very cold or hot or acrid or pungent or sour or sweet food but wholesome, moderate embryo-nourishing diet at proper time and place, and also in standing, sitting and sleeping, and dressing and decoration during the period of pregnancy for the safe growth of the future unborn child. Thus she, being free from disease, sorrow and terror should nurse the embryo having her all desires fulfilled and satisfied, as the pregnancy longing crops up in the heart of the mother.
It is stated in the Nāyādhammakahāos that the unfulfilled desire of queen Dhāriņi to roam about in the outskirts of Vebhāra
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 428, • Nāyādhammakahāo, 1, P. 19; CF. Avadana Satakā 1, 3, P 15. 9 16, 1, P. 10 ff.

Page #229

204 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SÚTRA (Ch. IV mountain of Rajagrha in the monsoon, riding on an elephant, arose in her mind in the third month of her pregnancy. It caused her sickness, reduced her body and led to the loss of her happiness and beauty,
Having received this report of the physical and mental conditions of queen Dhāriņī, king Śreņika immediately approa. ched to her and inquired about the cause of her melancholy state. On being asked thus, the queen expressed her pregnancy longing to her husband that she would like to roam about, mounting an elephant in the outskirts of the Vebhila (Vaibhāra) hill.
This unfulfilled desire of queen Dhāriņi was satisfied by her step-son, prince Abhayakumāra through some divine means adopted by him on the receipt of the information of this state of affairs from his father, king Sreņika."
The Vyavahāra Bhäsya also refers to the pregnancy longing of queen Satyavati to play in an ivory palace, while a case of desire of drinking the moon (Candapiyana) by a pregnant lady is mentioned in the Uttarādhyayana Sutra.*
There are also some references to the desire of the pregnant ladies to take meat and wine during the period of their pregnancy.
Thus Vivāga Suya points out to the pregnancy desire of a woman to drink different kinds of wine and to take flesh of various cattle, while the Avaíyaka Cürnio furnishes the account of yearning of queen Cellanā for eating the flesh of the belly of her husband, king Śreņika mixed with wine.
On receipt of this report, prince Abhaya made some secret devices to save the situation and at the same time to satisfy the desire of the queen by placing flesh with blood and entrails,
1 Nāyādhammakakao 1, 14 p. 11-12.
Also refer to Uttaradhyayana Tikā, p. 132a. · 16, 1; 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.3 Vyavahāra Bhāsya 1. 335, p. 169. 4 Uttaradhyayana Sutra 3, p. 57. 5 Vivāga Suya 2, p. 14. 6 Āvaśyaka Turni II, P. 166. The other tradition tells that
the piece of flesh was that of hare.

Page #230

Sec. IVI
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
205
brought from a slaughter's house (ghayatthāna) just on the belly of the king assuming a pretended unconscious state.
Similarly the Pinda Niryukti' refers to the rise of pregnancy longing of queen Sudamsaņā to take the flesh of the deer on the sight of their images in a painting hall, while the Vivāga* Suya tells of the desire of another lady to take abundant food, drink, spices, sweets and wine.
The evidences of the Jaina texts with regard to the pregnancy.longings are also supported by the Brāhmaṇical and Buddhist workså.
This fact of desire of the pregnant women corresponds to realities.
Birth and its Celebration
The BNS presents a vivid picture of the celebration of birth of a new born child who was the light of joy to the whole family whether it is rich or poor.
Thus it is stated in the text that when the auspicious message of the birth of a male child given to by the queen, Prabhāvati Devi was conveyed by her chamber-maids to her husband, king Bala of Hastinapuri, he took a silver pitcher filled with pure water and consecrated (washed) their heads with Sacred water, honoured them with the diamond of his crown and ornainents put on by him, gave abundant gifts of love suitable for livelihood, and entertained them thus, and then payed respect to them by making them free i, e. removing the bondage of their slavery."
In honour of the birth-ceremony of his new born son king Bala ordered the release of prisoners, raised the standard of weights (ummāņam), made the inner and outer parts of the city
1 Pinda Niryukti, 80. 2 Vivāga Suya, 3, P. 23. 8 See Suśruta Samhita, Sarirasthāna, Ch. III, P. 90-92; also
Cf. Mahāvagga X, 2, 5, p. 343; Kathāsaritsägara , Appendix III, pp. 221-8. Refer to Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 149–50 for details, 4 Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

Page #231

206
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
Ch. IV
of Hastināpura sprinkled, swept & besmeared with cowdung by his servants, and caused to erect thousand pillars (yūpas) and thousand discuses (cakka). Then he worshipped and honoured them with great pomp and grandeur."
The king celebrated this auspicious birth ceremony together with his friends, relatives, kinsmen, staff and subjects for ten days. By his order it was marked with the remission of customs and taxes (U88 ukkam-ukkaraṁ), non-cultivation of land (ukkithan), non-donation (adijan i. e. selling), non-measuring (amijjar), non entrance of the royal officers into the house of cultivators (i. e. unwelcome visit of police officers, abhad appa. . vesam) non-taking of anything with impunity and unjust punish. ment (adamdakodam dimai) and non-payment of debt (adhariman)."
This celebration of birth was provided with songs and dances presented by courtesans and actors followed by many classes of actors (a negatālācarānucariyan) and the unbarnessed Mrdanga and it was furnished with the unfaded flower garlands for the social entertainment of the people.
Thus the birth-ceremony of his son was made delightful and sportive (Pamuiyan-pakkiliyan) by the king Bala together with the city and country people (sapurajanojānarayam) for ten days.'
On this occasion he offered and caused to offer hundreds, thousands, lakhs of sacrifices, gifts, shares of desired objects and himself received and caused to receive such quantities of presents during this period extending for ten days.
The king and queen, Bala and Prabhāvati Deví performed the birth-ceremony (jāyakamma) of their child by cutting his naval-string and burying it into the ground on the first day, that of showing the moon and the sun to him (Camda Súradarsanaya) on the third day, that of keeping the whole night vigil (jāgariyar)
| Bhs, 11, 11, 429.
exaggeration)
6
16,
2.4 10, 11, 11, 429. (The figure of Sacrifices seems to be an
6 Ib, 11, 11, 429.

Page #232

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
on the sixth day, and that of purification (asuijāyakammakarane) on the eleventh day, when the impurity caused by the birth of the child ended1.
On the twelfth day they, having prepared abundant food, drink, sweets and other dainties, entertained their friends, kinsmen, relatives, attendants and many others upto the Ksatriyas with those things and honoured them with rich presents.
207
Then before all of them the parents christened their child with an attributive name derived from qualities, descending from grandfather, great-grandfather, thus coming down from many successive generations to generations, a name fit and worthy to the family thus:
"As our boy, is the son of king Bala and the uterine son of queen Prabhavati, so let the name of this boy of ours be Mahabala".
Then the child, Mahabala was received by five nurses', viz. Khiradhaie (Wet-nurse), Majjanadhaie (bath.nurse), Mam dana. dhate (toilet nurse), Kilavaṇadhaie (play-nurse), and Amkadhāie (lap-nurse) and he grew up day by day with happiness under the undecaying and unhindered conditions.
Next, at proper time the parents of that Mahabala celebrated the following ceremonies of their son in succession, viz. the ceremony of crawling on the ground (Paraṁgāmana), that of walking (payacam kamanam), that of tasting the solid food (jemamana), that of increasing the quantity of food (pimdavaddhanam), that of the utterance of the first intelligible word from his mouth (pajjapavanam), that of the boring of ears (kannavehanam), the birth-anniversary (samvaccharapaḍilehanam), tonsure. ceremony (coloyaṇagam), initiation with sacred thread (uvaṇayaṇaṁ) and many other ceremonies pertaining to the womb, birth, etc."
13 BhS, 11, 11, 429.
Also
4 Ib, 11, 11, 429. See Nayadhammakahão 1, p. 21. refer to the Divyavadana (XXXII, p. 475) which refers to four classes of nurses, viz. ankadhatri, mālā, stana and kriḍāpanika; also Avadana 1, V. p. 28. Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain. f. 4. 36, p. 151.
5 Bhs, 11, 11, 429.

Page #233

208
STUDIES in the BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
The birth of a male child even in an ordinary family was celebrated by his parents according to the above mentioned prescribed social customs within the limit of their poor means, as it is evidenced by the fact that the poor parents of Gośāla Mankhaliputra, Mankhali and Bhadrā performed the birthceremony of their child in the cowshed of the Brāhmana, Gobahula by name, where he was born, according to their meagre economic resources.
The evidences of the celebration of birth ceremony of a child are fully corroborated by other Jaina texts'.
Thus it is stated in the Māyā lhammukuhal that the birth of the child, Meghakumāra born of queen Dhāriņi, was celebrated by king Śreņika according to the social customs as prescribed in the Bhs. Then this prince was handed over to the charge of the foreign nurses for his fostering under their care and attention
Marriage
Marriage was a sacrament in the society as depicted in the BLS. After the completion of education the second stage of life of an individual began with his marriage which was a spiritual union of two souls of man and woman.
The terms Pānin ginharimau used in the Bhs and other texts denote marriage which means the holding of the hand (of the girl), a symbol of Sva karana, i.e. formal transfer of the father's dominion over the girl to the husband.
1 BLS. 15, 1, 540. ? Cf Näyān hammakahão. 1, p. 21; Oviiyā Sutta 40, p. 185;
Ralpa Sutra 5, 102-108. 3 Nājādhammakahão 1. p. 20-21. 4 10. I, p. 21. (The Nisitha Carni, 13, p. 856 ff makes a
detailed discussion on various classes of nurses, especially the wet.nurse and the effect of her milk on the child. Refer also Panha Tika 418 ff; Cf. also Susruta Samhita Sarirasthāna, Ch. X, see 25, p. 284 : see Magap kha Jatalba (538), VI, p. 2f ; Lalitavistara, 100. Refer to Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 151 f. note
no, 38. 6 BhS, 11, 11, 430,

Page #234

Sec. IV]
The text gives a graphic account of the marriage ceremony of a royal family which was performed with great solemnity and pomp and grandeur in accompaniment of music.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
It appears that the age for the boy and girl was determined by their capability of enjoying the worldly life at the attainment of their full youth.
Form of marriage
The picture of the marriage ceremony as depicted in the BhS reveals only one form of marriage arranged by the parents of the boy. It may be called a mixed Brahma-Prājāpatya-Âsura marriage of well developed and grown up boys and girls of mature age belonging to the families of equal and same social status, profession and caste, but having the different ancestral families as a rule, for the brides were to be brought from their parents' houses to that of the bridegroom and they were presented rich gifts of dowry.
Thus it is learnt that the parents of prince Mahabala, the king and queen, Bala and Prabhāvati Devi of Hastinapura caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses of a similar complexion and same age and endowed with the beauty, youth and qualifications by bringing them to their own house from the eight royal families of equal status1.
Marriage Ceremony
The text presents a vivid picture of the marriage ceremony as celebrated by the people of its period in the following manner. First, the bridegroom took his bath, performed the worship of the house-god (balikamma), purified himself by an expiatory sacrifice of charms and auspicious marks (kaya-kouya-payacchitta) and then adorned himself with all kinds of dresses and ornaments.
209
Next, he, having performed the rite for averting the evil misfortune by the worship of solemn ceremonies and been presented auspicious articles Tilaga and Kamkana by the married
1 BhS, 11, 11, 430. 2 Ib,

(Tilaga is the auspicious mark on the forehead, while Kamkana is the band tied round the wrist of the bridegroom or bride.
27

Page #235

210
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV ladies (avidhavavahu-uvaṇīyaṁ) with the blessing words in accom. paniment of vocal and instrumental music (giyavaiya) was caused to accept the hands of eight brides who also performed similar auspicious ceremonies just before the celebration of the marriage which was solemnized by the holding of their hands by the bridegroom at a time on the same day.
The terms 'Avidhava-vahu-uvaṇīyam" used here in connection with the performance of the marriage ceremony of prince Maha bala denote that the auspicious articles such as Tilaka' and 'Kankana (sacred band) etc. were brought near the bridegroom by the not-widowed housewives (i. e. married ladies). And they clearly imply that the widows were not associated with the marriage ceremony, perhaps with the superstitious belief that some misfortune might befall the married couple due to their participation in the same.
The BhS provides a long list of marriage gifts and other necessaries of life presented by the parents of the prince, Mahā. bala to his eight wives, such as, money, ornaments, dresses, metal images of various goddesses, auspicious articles, palaces with their respective flags and banners, articles of furniture, lights, various kinds of utensils, contingents of palace-staff, different classes of transports, eight herds of cattle, each consisting of ten thousand cows, eight villages, each having ten thousand families, etc.
As regards the contingents of palace-staff they have already been discussed in detail in the administrative section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions' under the heading 'palacestaff', while the dresses and ornaments, palaces and articles of furniture, etc. are dealt with in this chapter under the titles 'Dresses and ornaments', 'Houses' and 'Articles of furniture' respectively. And the villages, herds of cattle, images of goddesses, money and various kinds of transports will be
12 BhS, 11, 11, 430.
33
13
8 Ib. The population of ten thousand families in a village seems to be an exaggeration, perhaps it is the favourite figure of those days referred to in the BhS.

Page #236

Sec. 1V1 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA 211 treated in the chapter on the 'Economic conditions' under the topics Agriculture', 'Dairy farming', 'Metallurgy', 'Currency' and 'Transport' respectively.
The marriage gifts and other necessaries of life presented to the eight brides were divided by their husband, prince Mahābala into eight equal shares and each one of them was given to his individual wife.
The account of the marriage ceremony, its form, social customs connected with it and presents to the brides as revealed in the BhS is corroborated by other Jaina texts.
In regard to the marriageable age they also laid stress on the maturity of the boy and girl capable enough to lead and enjoy the worldly life. But the Pinda-Niryukti' warns the guardians thus that if they cannot give their daughter in marriage just after the reaching of the stage of her puberty, they will be born in hell on their deaths.
The same sentiment of this work on the marriageable age is echoed by the Manu-Smrti".
Like the Bhs the Nayādhammakahāo also reveals that the negotiated form of marriage of the boy and girl belonging to the families of equal status was the general custom of the society as prevalent during its period. It was arranged and performed by the parents of the boy by bringing the girl to their house from that of her parents, as it is evidenced in the case of the marriage of prince Meghakumāra, the son of king Śreņika and queen Dhāriņi.
Besides this one, there are in the Jaina texts some ins. tances of Sayamvara* (marriage by self-choice), Gandharva
1 Nayadhammakahão, 1, 24. 2 Pindu-Niryukli, 509. 3 Manu-Smrti, IX, 88. 4 Nāyādhammakahão 16, p. 169. 5 Panha Tika 4, 16, p. 85; Uttaradhyayana [ikā 9, p. 141 ;
13, p. 190.

Page #237

212 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SŪTRA (Ch. IV (marriage by mutual love), Raksasa? (marriage by forcible method), and other forms of marriage."
With regard to the marriage gifts like the BKS the Nāyā. dhammakabão also provides a long list of articles and other necessaries of life presented by the parents of the bridegroom to the newly married brides. In other Jaina works there are references to the dowry system prevailing in the society of their periods.
The description of the marriage system as found in the Bhs and other Jaina texts is fully supported by those of the Buddhists and Brābmanical works in which the marriage is also treated as sacrament, a union of two incomplete human beings into a spiritual whole. The couple is united together by the religious bond with an ideal for creating compatibility, finally by subordinating their biological necessity to the ethical, intellectual and spiritual demand of a higher self.
Because there are both physical and psychic unions manifested in the entrance of the husband into the womb of the wife in the form of semen and (his) birth as the son.?
1 Brh. Bhūsya Pithika p. 57.
Kamalâmelā was abducted and married by Sagaracanda). Āvasyaka Cürni II, p. 81; also Cr. Nisitha Cúrni II, p. 81 ; Āvaśyaka sikà (Hari) p. 580a ; also refer to Kathāsāritsagara, Vol. VII, p. 116ff. (Marriage with step-mother) for sister-marriage see Avasyaka Cūrni II, p. 178, and for cousin
marriage refer to Uttaradhyayana sikā p. 189a. 3 Nāyādhammakahão Țikā i, p. 42a f; Antagadā pp. 33-35
trans, by Barnett, Vide Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 156.157. Uvāsagadasão 8, p. 61. (The wives of Mahāsayaga of Rāya. giha possessed their ancestral property), also refer to the U ttaradhyayana [ikā 4, p. 88; (A king of Vārānasi presented a dowry of one thousand villages, one hundred elephants & abundant wealth. One lakh of foot-soldiers, and ten thousand horses to his son in-law). See also Rāmāyana 1-47. 4 ff. The Jataka refers to the custom of performing the marriage with bath money presented by father to his daughter particularly in the case of royal marriage (Mehta, P.B. 8.1, p. 281). Refer to Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain
for all these details-p. 175. 6 See Buddhist India, Rhys Davids, p. 32. 8 Mano-Smrti 9, 8.
1 16. 9, 8.

Page #238

Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SūTRA
213 The same sentiment of the Manu-Smyti on the union of the husband and wife is echoed in the BhSi in a different form. It is stated here that the combined body of the mother and father in the son lasts as long as his worldly body (Chavadhāraniya śarīra) exists but when it, becoming weaker perishes at last, the combined body of the mother and the father in the son also gets destroyed.
FIFTH SECTION Position of Women as depicted in the BhS
In the society the women appear in different capacities pertaining to the family and civic life, such as, maiden, bride', wife', mother, widow®, nun?, teachers, queen-regent, musiciano, dancer”, actress?. nurses, maid-servant", slave25, courtesane, prostitute"?, etc.
So their position can be determined by these different status held by them in the family as well as in the society. A woman's life may be divided into three periods in relation to the family, viz. girlhood, stage of wife, and widowhood and thus her position can be studied from these three stand-points, each of which is connected with a distinct stage of her life. Different stages of Women's Life Maiden
The term "Dariyā'18 used in this canonical work denotes an unmarried girl or maiden.
1 BUS, 1, 7, 61. % 11, 12. 2, 441 ; 15, 1, 561. 3 1b, 11, 11, 430. 4 11, 1, 1, 4; 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 384 ; 11,9, 417; 11, 11, 428;
11, 11, 430 ; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 540; 15, 1, 557. . 16, 9, 33, 384 ; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 428; 12, 2, 441; 13, 6, 491;
15, 1, 540. 8 16, 12, 2, 441; 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 9, 33, 382 ; 12, 2, 442. 8 Ib, 9, 33, 382
16, 12, 2, 441. 10 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429-30. 11 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429-30. 12 Ib, 9, 33, 388; 11, 11, 429. 18 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 429.30. 14 Ib, 9, 33, 382 ; 11, 11, 429-30. 15 16, 9, 33, 382 ; 12, 2, 442; 11, 11, 430. 16 16, 9, 33, 383, 385 ; 11, 11, 429 (ganiyā). 17 Ib, 15, 1, 560 (Kharittäe). 18 16, 15, 1, 561.

Page #239

214
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRÀ [Ch. IV In the first part of her life as maiden the woman remained under the loving care and protection of her parents till her marriage, as it is evidenced by the fact that the eight wives of the prince, Mahābala of Hastināpura? were brought up under the shade of affection and guardianship of their respective parents before they were wedded to the said prince.
As regards the education of the girls the BhS refers to the princess Jayanti', who was a highly well-instructed woman and specially capable of arguing on the difficult points in the abstract doctrine of philosophy with Lord Mahāvīra.
But there is no other instance except this one to cite that a particular arrangement was made for imparting education to the girls belonging to all the social grades, although there is the mention of some educated married women and nuns.
It appears that a maiden of marriageable age had no choice left to her in the matter of selection of her husband but to accept the bridegroom selected by her parents as her husband'.
Wife
The terms 'Bhāriyâ'' and 'Bhajjā's occurring in this text and other works denote a newly wedded bride or a wife.
In connection with the topic, 'Marriage ceremony' it has already been discussed in this chapter that every new bride in the royal family of Bala, the king of Hastināpura was presented the gist of one independent palace together with the household establishments furnished with all necessaries of life, quite separate from those of her co-wives who were also married by her husband, the prince, Mahābalao along with her at the same time on the same day.
The study of the list of the marriage gifts clearly shows the economic status of those women as wife in the royal family that they enjoyed a certain amount of right to property with
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 3 11, 11, 11, 430 ; 15, 1, 561. 6 16, 12, 2, 441.
9 10, 12, 2, 441-42. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 384 ; 15; 15, 1, 561. 6 lb, 11, 11, 430.

Page #240

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
regard to these presents which they could use independently according to their desires.
But it does not throw any light upon their right of inheritance to their husband's property.
The above evidence further shows that the married woman in the royal family had to bear the presence of her co-wives, because polygamy was the prevailing custom and fashion among the ruling Ksatriya princes of those days, as it is evidenced in the cases of Mahabala1 and Jamāli.2
215
But in the BhS there is not a single instance to cite that the practice of polygamy existed among the members of the other castes belonging to the high, low, and middle class families respectively. On the other hand it is found that the married wife was the sole mistress of the household affairs there as the co-partner of her husband in all conditions of life.
Though the text does not throw any light upon the breach of peace in the royal families of the princes, Mahabala and Jamali due to polygamy practised by them, yet it may be presumed that the existence and growth of this system might have caused the suppression of the natural freedom of women and thus degraded their position as wife in those ruling Ksatriya families in course of time.
It is to be observed further that the BhS does not tell anything about the conditions of the eight wives of the respective princes, Mahabala and Jamali, after their undertaking of the state of houselessness.
The union of eight wives of different sentiments, behaviours, cultures and education must have changed the whole character of the royal family and consequently lowered their status also, as it is evidenced by the fact of accomodating and
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430.
2 Ib, 9, 33, 384.
3 Ib, 9, 33, 380-82 (Refer to Rṣabhadatta and Devananda).
4 Ib, 15, 1, 540 (Refer to Mankhali and Bhadra).
Ib, 12, 1, 438 (Sankha and Utpala); 15, 1, 557 (Revati). 6 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 7 1b, 9, 33, 384.

Page #241

216
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. IV
guarding them in separate palaces provided with necessary staff and requisites of the worldly life.
The evidences of polygamy prevailing among the ruling Ksatriya princes are fully corroborated by the other Jaina texts in which many cases of the practice of this system of marriage are found to exist in the society of their periods.
Thus it is found there that like the Ksatriya princes, Tāmāli and Mahābala, the kiogs-Bharata,? Vikramajasa' a Seniya and his son, prince Meghakumāra* figure in the Jaina works as polygamous husbands each of whom maintained a large establishment for his individual wife in the harem.
As a result of supporting a big contingent of the palacestaff there was certainly a heavy drainage of money on the financial resources of the family, however wealthy and prosperous it might have been.
The main idea behind the practice of polygamy by the ruling Ksatriya princes was probably the sensual gratification of their desires, combined with the power of wealth, social position, priviledge, vanity, and political alliance.
Similarly there is found the existence of the widely prevalent system of polygamy among the Ksatriya princes of the society depicted in the two great Epics - the Mahābhārata" and the Rāmāyaṇa.
In this connection the views of the prince, Jamālī on the sensual gratification of desires with his eight wives, expressed during his arguments advanced to his parents for obtaining their permission to undertake the state of houselessness in the presence of Lord Mahāvīra, should be taken into consideration to determine the position of woman as wife in the family of those days of the Bhs.
12 Uttarādhyayana Tikā, 18, p. 239. 3 Antagada, 7, p. 43. 4 Naya hammakahão, 1, 24, p. 23. 5 Mahābhārata "Arjuna and other princes were polygamous
husbands. * Rāmāyāna, King Dasaratha himself was polygamous.

Page #242

Sec. V
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
217
On being told by his mother to enjoy the wordly life of pleasure with his eight young beautiful wives, the prince advanced the following arguments to cross her plea by showing the futility and transitoriness of the worldly enjoyinents and pleasures thus :
"Human gratifications of sensual desires are impure and non-eternal. Like the discharge or flow of vomitting, bilious fever, phlegm, rheum, semen, blood and passing of cxcreta, urine, etc, they are full of unpleasant ugly urine and excreta, ina uspi. cious inhaling and exhaling of the smell of the dead, short-lived and light natured. They are the causes of pain, hardship, unhappiness, always condemned by the saints, infinite worldly bondages and consequences of bitter fruit (of sinful acts). Like the lightning and pile of grass they are bound by unending sufferings and hindrances to attaining liberation?".
This observation of Jamālī throws a side-light on the position of the women in the family.
But it cannot be generalized from this particular case of this Ksatriya prince, because this canonical work bears ample evidences to show that the married women, like the queen, Prabhāvati Devī, the wife of king Bala", Devānandā, the Brāhmanī of Rşabhadatta", Utpalā, the wife of Sankha Sreşthiż, Revati of Mendhikagrāma", Bhadrā, the wife of Mankhalie and others were regarded by their respective husbands as equal partners in their work and worship.
The picture of the conjugal life of Rşabhadatta and Devānanda?, as already depicted in this chapter, clearly reveals that the wife in a rich aristocratic family held a dignified position as a partner of her husband in the path of his work and worship of life sanctified by the touch of love and bound by the union of their hearts.
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 381.
2 16, 11, 11, 428. 9 16, 9, 33, 380-82.
4 Ib, 12, 1, 438. 6 16, 15, 1, 557. Revai's husband does not appear on the scene,
but her position in the family is determined by her freedom of activity.
6 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 71b, 9, 33, 380-82. 28

Page #243

218
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
IV
Similarly in the middle class family, Utpalā, the wife of Sankha Sresthi of Srāvastī occupied an honourable position as the co-partner of her husband in his life and religion, while in the houseless roving family of the Mankha couple Bhadrā" is found following her husband, Mankhali as a devoted companion in the up and down journeys of his life by experiencing all kinds of hardship'.
All these evidences from the Bhs clearly show that the woman held a position of honour and dignity as wife in the family as well as in the society. Institution of Guarding Women
The Bhs shows that the 'Institution of guarding women' was maintained by the royal and rich aristocratic families where A veil of privacy was forced on the ladies who lived in the inner famale appartment (anteura= antah pura) provided with a large retinue of their respective attendants and other paraphernalia.
It is learnt further that a married lady of the royal family could not appear at the outer assembly hall in public prior to her attainment of motherhood, as it is evidenced in the case of Prabhāvati Devī, the queen of king Bala of Hastināpura".
There is no doubt about it that a restriction was put on the social freedom of the women by not allowing the right of free movement to them before the attainment of their motherhood.
Behind this system of their seclusion there was probably the prevailing theory that the woman should be kept at home throughout her life under the protections of her father in childhood up to the stage of marriage, then her husband in youth after marriage and her son in old age respectively.
But there are the evidences to show that the ladies in the royal and aristocratic families appear in public in the company
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 540. 2 I6, 15, 1, 540, $ 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 380; 11, 9, 417;11, 11, 428. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

Page #244

Sec. V] STUDIESN THEBHI AGAWATIS SŪTRA
219 of their respective husbands, as it is evidenced in the cases of queen Cellanā,' queen Prabhāvati Devi,' Devānandā' and others as mother,
In this connection it should be observed that the women belonging to the common family enjoyed the freedom of coming out to receive guests and even to move in public as their husbands' companions in the journeys of life, as it is found in the cases of Utpalā", Revatio and Bhadrā' respectively.
These facts make it clear that there was a certain amount of restriction on the free movement of the newly married young ladies as evidenced in the conditions of the eight wives of the prince, Mahabala who were provided with all necessaries of life and separate establishments.
Mother
As mother the woman was the virtual mistress of the family, enjoying a unique position in all the internal household affairs assigned to her care and attention."
It has already been pointed out that the mother is mentioned before the father (ammāpiyaro,' in the list of the family relations as given by the Bhs. This grouping of words clearly suggests that more reverence was paid to the mother than that to the father in the family.
But this picture does not show a relatively lower position of the latter than that of the former, because it was a patriarchal family10 under the headship of the father.
Moreover, there was the prevailing custom of attributing a name of a new born male child after that of his father, as it is found in the cases of Mahābala, the son of king Bala', Gosala Mankhaliputra, the son of Mankha Mankhalid and also the prince Śivabhadra, the son of king Siva.18
1 Bhs 1, 1, 4.
? 10, 11, 11, 431. 316, 9, 33, 382. 4 16. 12. 1, 441-42. 6 11, 12, 1, 437. & Ib, 15, 1, 557. 7 16, 15, 1, 540. 8 10, 11, 11, 430. 9 16, 9, 33, 384. 10 11, 3, 1, 134 ; 11,9, 417 ; 11, 11, 428 ; 13, 6, 491. 11 Ib, 11, 11, 429. 12 16, 15, 1, 540, 19 I, 11, 9, 417.

Page #245

20
STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA (Ch. IV In this connection a reference may be made to the queen, Mrgāvati', the mother of king Udayana of Kaušāmbz, who appears to have acted as the queen-regent of her minor son for some period in the absence of her husband, king Satānika.
Widow
In connection with the marriage ceremoney of the prince Mahābala it has been mentioned that only the married ladies (avihavāvahu) could bring and present the auspicious articles to the bridegroom.
This evidence of the prevailing marriage custom clearly implies that the widows were not associated with this ceremony.
Thus the reference to the terms "Avihavāvahu uvanīya' occuring in the Bhs reflects upon the degraded position of the widows in general in the family as well as in the society of its period.
Civic Status of Women
The women appear also outside the pale of the family as members of a wider circle of the society in different capacities in the civic life.
Women as religious students
Two classes of the female students, studying the Vedas and other sacred texts are found here--the one class prosecuted studies till the marriage, while the other one remained unmarried throughout the life and continued the life-long studies of religious texts as prescribed by the ascetic order.
It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic "Aśrama' that the princess, Jayantī,the daughter of king Sabasrānika, the sister of king Satānīka and the aunt of king Udayana of Kaušāmbż belonged to the latter class of students.
At the Candrāvatarana Caitya in the city of Kausāmli she took part in the abstruse philosophical discussion with Lord
* Bh8, 12, 2, 441-42. 8 16, 11, 11, 430.
? Ib, 11, 11, 430. 4.6 11, 12, 2, 441-43.

Page #246

221
Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Mahāvīra on the doctrine of Karma, binding of Karma and attainment of liberation of the being which was under the influence of the five senses. She was pleased and satisfied with the holy teachings of explanation of the great Master and eventually she got herself initiated by him to Nirgrantha religion and was admitted to the ascetic order.1
Similarly the BhS provides the information that the married woman, like Devānanda', also joined the Nirgrantha order as nun, together with her husband, Rşabhadatta, after getting initiated by Lord Mahāvīra and by Arya Candana," the nun respectively to Nirgrantha religion. She also attained Sramanahood and liberation by studying the prescribed religious texts, practising various acts of austerities and meditation.
Here is found an instance of an exhalted position of the woman held by the nun, Arya Candana as religious teacher who was well-versed in all the Angas and the Upāngas.1
It is said in the Arasyaka Cun that she was formerly a slave girl of a king, but she was released on the interven. tion of Lord Mahāvīra and subsequently was initiated and admitted by him to the Nirgrantha order. Under the guidance and holy teachings of the Master she rose to such a stature of highest honour and glory as nun and religious teacher in the
1 BhS, 12, 2, 441-43.
2.4 Ib, 9, 33-380, 81, 82, Avasyaka Curni-p. 318; see also Ava. Niryukti-520 f. Ava. Tika-p. 294 f.; for other version see MahapuraṇaII. LL. 343-347, p. 466. (It is stated here that Candana was the daughter of king Ceṭaka. Once while playing in the forest, she was captured by a lascivious Vidyadhara, but was left by him in the forest out of fear from his own wife. There some forester (Vanacarapatih), finding her in such a state offered her to a merchant named Vrṣabhadatta with the intention of getting money, Candana was tortured by Subhadra, the wife of that merchant in various ways lest her husband fell in love with her. She was given bad food and was chained. One day some time Lord Mahavira went to the city of Kausambi for begging alms. Having seen him coming she tried to approach him from her chained condition and to honour and worship him. Immediately all fetters got broken automatically and her desire was fulfilled. Later on she reunited with her relatives and friends.

Page #247

222
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Sangha that she had the privilege to initiate Devānandā, the Brāhmani and to teach her the prescribed religious texts, various acts of austerities and meditation.
Next, the BKS gives an account of the participation of the women in the public life as the members of the household staff in the royal and rich aristocratic families in different capacities, such as, chamber-lain', nurses', attendants, maid. servants, slaves& etc., courtesans, musicians', dancers and actresses and as prostitutes in the larger society.
It has already been discussed in connection with the topic Personal and Palace-staff in the third chapter and 'Family servants' in the third section of this chapter respectively that a large number of the female members formed the rank of the contingent of the staff of the inner female apartment in the royal house as well as in the aristocratic family,
Female servants and slaves also appeared in the domestic service of the wealthy merchants, as they are found serving the families of the well-to-do bankers of Tungikālo.
A clear distinction has been made between the female slaves and servants of all categories by using the term Dasz'll in the Bhs.
The fact of the employment of the female slaves in the household service is also corroborated by the Uttaradhyayana commentary in which a reference is made to "a festival of the female slaves" (dāsīmaba)!S.
The Bhs thus clearly shows that there was the existence of slavery of the women, but it makes no reference to the maltreatment meted out to them by their masters. On the other hand there are instances to show that the female slaves along
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 429.430. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 382; 11, 11, 428, 430 ; 12, 2, 441-42. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385, 11, 11, 429. 6_7 16, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429, 430.
8 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 9 10, 9, 33, 382. 10 16, 2, 5, 107. 11 Ib. 2. 5. 107. 13 Uttarādhyayana commentary, 3, p. 124.

Page #248

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
223
with the other maid-servants of all ranks were integrated into the household and treated as members of the family, although they held an inferior position in the domestic relation.
There is an instance of the removal of slavery of some female slaves by king Bala of Hastināpura on the occasion of the birth of his son, Mabābala, as already mentioned in connection with the celebration of birth ceremony'.
But the fact remains there that the slavery was a recognized institution maintained by the kings, rich aristocrats and wealthy merchants of the society as known to the BS. Though there was this general prevailing custom, yet the evidence of manumission of slavery shows that a moral consciousness was growing in the society.
Thus the text presents a picture of position of women appearing in their different capacities in the civic life. Women as Courtesan and prostitute
The women figure also as courtesand and public prostitute? in the civic life as depicted in the Bhs.
The term Ganiyā as used here denotes a courtesan who had the privilege to be the member of the royal retinue. Formerly it signified a female member of the Gana (clan) who was the beauty queen for the enjoyment of the whole assembly of the people, united together by a common social, economic and political relationship.
This view seems to be supported by the Vinayavastu of the Milasarvāstivāda' which states that Amrapali was the common courtesan of the Ganarājas of the Varśālian Republic as the object of enjoyment of the Gana (Ganabhogyā).
Manu also associates together the Gana and the Gaạikā whose food is condemned by the scholars.
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 429. ? Ib, 8, 5, 330 (Asati); 15, 1, 560 (Kharittā). 3 Ib, 11, 11, 429 (Ganiyāvara). 4 Cakladar-Studies in Vätsyāyana's Kāma-Sutra, p. 199 f.
Vasu., p. 103. 5 Vinayavastu of Mulasarvastivāda, p. 17 f,

Page #249

224
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
"Gaṇānāṁ Ganikānāṁ ca vidusă ca jugupsitam'."
The BhS refers to a number of young beautiful ladies employed as courtesan in the service of the royal families, like those of Jamali, the Ksatriya prince and Bala, the king of Hastinapura.3
They had the privilege to hold the royal umbrella, golden water-pitcher, fan, chowrie and golden stick during the pilgrimage of the prince Jamāli to Lord Mahavira at the Bahusalaka Caitya to undertake the state of houselessness."
They also formed the music and dramatic parties of the royal family where they entertained and gladdened its members, particularly the young princes and their wives by the presentation of their songs and performance of dance-drama in the theatre hall, as it is evidenced in the cases of Jamali and Mahabala.
It has already been mentioned in connection with the birth-ceremony of the royal child, Mahabala that it was provided with the best artist-courtesans (ganiyāvara) followed by many classes of actors to entertain the people by their presentation of songs and performance of various kinds of dances and dramas (nānāvidhaprekshaācārusevita).8
[Ch. IV
Besides these courtesans employed in the service of the royal family, there is an incidental reference in the BhS to an actress who exhibited her art of dance-drama before many thousands of the audience in a public theatre hall."
These evidences clearly reveal that the courtesans were highly qualified in the art of music, dance and dramatic performance and they were the essential part of the palace staff.
Thus they occupied a privileged and honoured position, though inferior to that of the royal ladies in the king's court.
1 Manu Smrti, IV, 209. Bhs, 3, 33, 383, 385. 5 Ib, 1, 11, 429.
8 Ib, 11, 11, 429, (Comm.).

3 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 6 Ib, 9, 33, 383.

4
Ib, 9, 33, 385. Ib, 11, 11, 430.
9 Tb, 11, 10, 422.

Page #250

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
225
Women as prostitute
The women appeared also as public prostitute in the society of the period of the BhS, as it is clearly suggested by a pointed reference to the running of brothel (asati posanayā)' by a class of people for earning their livelihood.
It is further stated that in the process of births and rebirths Gośāla daikhaliputra was twice born as prostitute (kharittäe)' due to the consequences of his sinful acts.
These evidences make it clear that prostitution was a public institution existing in the society as depicted in the Bhs.
A critical examination of the above facts clearly determines that the women occupied three positions in the society as known to it; the first one was the exalted position of honour and dignity as maiden, wife, mother, religious student, teacher and nun; the second one was inferior to that of the first one as members of the staff of the inner female apartment belonging to all grades including the female slaves and courtesans; and the third one was the most humiliating status as prostitute in the larger civic life.
As similar account of the position of women is also given by other Jaina texts where they appear as mniden, wife, mother, religious student, members of the palace-staff and public prostitute in different stages and stations of their life.
In some cases a darkest picture of their life has been depicted to reveal the ugly nature of womanhood with a view to warning the lustful monks.
The same injunction of the Manu Smrti regarding the guarding of woman is also echoed in the Brhatkal pa Bhāsya* in which it is laid down that a woman should be under the protection of her father in her childhood, her husband in youth
1 BIS, 8, 5, 330.
16, 15, 1, 560. 3 Manu-Smrti, V, 147, 49.
("Pitā raksati kaumāre bharttā raksati yauvane raksanti
sthavire puträh na stri svātantryamarhati"). * Brhat. K. Bhāsya, 1, 125 f.
29

Page #251

226
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
after marriage, her sons in old age or widowhood, as she does not deserve to have freedom.
In the V yavahāra Bhāsyal there is a reference to the punishment of a daughter-in-law by abusing and turning her out of the house as she did not give up her habit of witnessing a procession or of running to see a commotion caused by a stray horse or a chariot through the window in spite of repeated prohibition to do so.
In the same work the women are painted as "faithless, ungrateful, treacherous, untrustworthy" and they bring sorrows and sufferings to the village or town in which they exercise their supremacy over meno.
Different synonyms of "woman' in Prālorit, such as, nārī, mahilā, pamada, mahiliyā, ramā, aiganā, lalanā, etc, have been given new interpretations and derivations in Tanula to paint the character of the woman as hellish, for example, she is called nāri as she is the worst enemy of man, etc.
The degraded position of women is further revealed in Agadadatta' in which it is stated that "the intelligent may know the sands of the Ganges, the waters in the sea and the size of the Himavat, women's heart they may not know.” “They weep and make you weep, they tell lies and make you believe them and decietfully they eat poison, they die, but they do not conceive a true affection.” “Woman indeed as soon as she has fallen in love is all sugar like a piece of sugarcane; the very same woman surpasses the bitter nimba, as soon as her love is gone."
“In a moment women fall in love but in another moment their love grows cold. Delighting in various love sports and unstable in their affection, they are like the colour of turmeric."
"Cruel in their hearts and charming in body, speech and glance, girls resemble a knife inlaid with gold."
i Vyavahāra Bhasya, 3, p. 233.
? 16, 1, p. 130. 3 Tandula, p. 50. For all these details see Life in Ancient India
as depicted in the Jaina Canons, by Dr, J. C. Jain, p. 152. 4 Agadadatta (Translation in Hindu Tale by Meyer, p. 286 f.)
Pide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 152.

Page #252

Sec. V]
STUDIES INTHE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
227
These traits of women's character were depicted only to warn and guard the lascivious and feeble-minded monks with the apprehension lest they fell victim to the temporary charms of young ladies by breaking the ascetic discipline and self control.
The same idea regarding the position of women as Jaina nuns is reflected in their rigorous life of monastic order as depicted in some Jaina texts,
Thus it is stated that the nuns were forbidden to study the Dretirada which contained the magical farmulae, because they were not strong-minded to stand the influence of those principles on their ascetic life and character.
It was the same case with the Buddhist nuns who were also not permitted to study the chapters on Mahāparijna and Arunopapāta.
The most humiliating position of the Buddhist nuns is described by the Cullavagga in which it is stated that the first of the eight main vows before admission to the order enjoins upon a Bhikkhuni, even of a hundred years' ascetic life to stand up and show respect to a 'Bhikkhu' who has just been initiated.
It is further said that a Buddhist monk of three years' asceticism could become a religious teacher of a nun who practised austerities for thirty years, while a monk having the practice of asceticism for five years could have been an Acārya (religious preceptor) of a nun with the experience of sixty years'
austerities.4
Some Jaina texts make references to a few cases of infidelity of women, such as, that of Mayaṇamañjarī, the wife of prince Agadadatta and another of the wife of a banker.
But side by side the brightest picture of womanhood has equally been depicted with a brilliant touch of honour and glory.
1 Brhat. Bhasya Pithika, 146. Cf. Vyavahara Bhāṣya, 5, 139. 2 Vide Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 153. 34 Cullavagga, X, 1, 4. 5 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 4. pp. 84-93. 8 Dasa Curni, pp. 89-91; See also Suka Saptati, 15, p. 56, Ed. by Richard Schmidt, Leipzig. 1893; for details see 'Life in Ancient India' p. 153 by Dr. J. C. Jain.

Page #253

228
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV Like the BhS the other Jaina texts have assigned a dignified position to the women by raising them on a highest pedestal of the society where they figured as devoted and chaste wife and were regarded as one of the fourteen jewels of a Cakkavaṭṭin (sovereign king).'
According to the Svetambara tradition it is stated in the Nayadhammakahao that Malli, a woman attained the state of Tirthankara, which was considered as one of the ten unexpected things.
This instance clearly shows the highest position of honour and glory ever occupied by any woman in the society of ancient India.
It is laid down in the Brhat kalpa Bhasya that a woman must be delivered first from the trouble caused by the natural or unnatural phenomena, such as, water, fire, robber or famine, etc., which may befall her.
As regards the character of the women there are many references to the cases of their fidelity occurring in the other Jaina texts where they appear as the most devoted wives following the footsteps of their respective husbands in their work and worship.
Thus it it learnt that Rajimati joined the ascetic order as nun, together with her husband Ariṭṭhanemi like Devānanda of the BhS and once she foiled the criminal attempt of her husband's brother, Rahanemi to court her during her austerity by clever means1.
1 Jambu. Su, 3. 67; refer also to the Digha-Nikaya (II, p. 172177) in which there is the mention of Cakka-ratanam, hatthiratanam, assa ratanam, mani-ratanam, itthi-ratanam, gahapati-ratanam, and parinayaka-ratanaṁ.
2 Nayadhammakahão, 8. The Digambara tradition tells that Malli was a male, because according to it no woman can ever attain liberation (Moksa). See Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 134, foot note 12.
Brhatkalpa Bhasya 4, 4348f.
4 Dasa-Sutra 2, 7, 11; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, XXII. Vide 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 154.

Page #254

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
229
While Subhadrā', another married woman was a symbol of chastity, though she was intricated by others with a false accusation of faithlessness to her husband on the ground that the red lead (ciņapittha) of her forehead got stuck on that of a Jaina monk, while she was picking out a rice-speck from the inside of his eye with her tongue. Life and Position of Nuns as revealed in other Jaina texts
As regards the life and position of the Jaina nuns as depicted in other Jaina texts, they were not safe and secure in the order and the society at large. Because they were sometimes fascinated by the Kāpālika ascetics, followed and annoyed by young men of loose moral, lured and rapped per force by the lustful householders,' kidnapped by the king," merchants and robbers,
So they had to lead a very hard life of rigorous discipline always under the protection of the monks or of their own vigilance to resist the fowl attempts of miscreants.
Position of Courtesans in other texts
The same picture of the life and position of courtesans is also found in other Jaina texts in great details. In addition they provide much informations regarding their qualifications, devo. tedness to particular lovers and different aspects of their life.
The young beautiful and highly accomplished courtesans graced the royal court by holding the official and social status as a member of the palace-staff. Moreover, their company was greatly sought by the kings and rich people for the sensual
Dasa Camasya 3:41C8. Kanal Theriganvited to en
i Dasa Oūrni 1, p. 49f. 2 Brhat Bhāsya 3, 4106 ff ; 1, 2443, 2085. 8 I0, 4, 5254-5259 : Cf. Kanāla Jätaka (No 536) V. M. 424-8. 4 Brhat Bhāsya 1. 2670-2; Cf. Therigātha (139-144) where it is
stated that the nun Khemā was invited to enjoy sensual
pleasures. 6 Kālakācārya Kathānaka. 6 Brhat Bhāsya 1, 2054. ? Vyavahāra Bhāsya 7, 418.
See 'Life in Ancient India by Dr. J. C. Jain for all the details about this topic.

Page #255

230
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÚTRA (Ch. IV gratification of human desires in their individual and social enjoyments and pleasures.
Thus it is stated in the Uttarādhyayana Tikal that a Ganikā (courtesan) was considered as the jewel (rayana) of the capital of a king, while the Nayadhammakahão* tells of a wealthy courtesan of Campā who was highly accomplished and well.versed in sixty four arts and science of erotics, different dialects, music and dance and other qualifications. She found favour with the court and enjoyed the privilege and honour of carrying the royal umbrella, chowries and fans and also the right of moving in Karnīratha (a kind of chariot used by the high persons) as the chief of many thousand courtesans.
It is known from the other Jaina works tbat the mainte. nance of a chief courtesan' by the big cities of those days for the social entertainment of the rich and aristocratic peoples was à prevailing custom.
Thus it is stated in the Nāyādhammakahão that once two merchants of Campă enjoyed the water-sports, picnic, natural beauty and other meriments with Devānandā, the chief courte. san of the city and they offered her rich presents at the end of their sensual gratification of desires with her.
The evidences of the Bhs regarding the life and position of the courtesans are also corroborated by the Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical works in great details.
It is the well-known account of the life of Ambapālikā6 endowed with beauty, charm and high accomplishments that she was the great courtesan of Vaisalı as already mentioned in connection with the denotation of the term 'Ganiya'. She afterwards became the lay disciple of Lord Buddha and offered abundant gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.
1 Uttarādhyayana sikā 3, p. 64. Nayadhammakahão 3, p. 59. 3 16, 3, p. 59.
4 Acaranga Cūrni p. 71. Nāyādhammakahão 3, p. 60.
Disha-Nikawa II, pp. 95-8 ; Therigatha-252-70 ; Mahabagga VI, 30, p. 231-3.

Page #256

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
There are also other proofs to show that the social position of the courtesan has been depicted in the Buddhist texts1 with a certain degree of honour for their virtues and natural qualities.❜
The Brahmanical texts also have dealt with the status of the courtesans in the society at great length and assigned a similar position to them as depicted in the Jaina and Buddhist works.
All these evidences from the different sources clearly show that there was a recognized social institution of maintaining the courtesans for the private and public entertainments in those days of ancient India.
In this connection it should be observed that the courtesans held a better social position than that of the ordinary prostitutes in the civic life.
Food
231
SIXTH SECTION
Food and Drink
The BhS provides a good account of the production and consumption of food and drink by the people of the society as depicted in it.
The terms 'Aharam' and 'Bhoyaṇam's used in this canonical work signify the general meal which can be classified into two groups, viz. eatable solid and drinkable liquid foods.
Friends, kinsmen, relatives, guests and even the attendants of the family were entertained by the householders with the
1 Milindapanha, p. 121 for the courtesan Bindumati; Kurudhamma Tataka II, No. 276, p. 380; Kathasarit-Sagara Vol. III, Ch. XXX VIII, pp. 207-217.
2 Refer to Life in Ancient India, p. 165, 91 f. note, for the details of virtues and character of Bindumati and other courtesans as mentioned in the Buddhist works

8 Studies in the Kama-Sutra-H. Chakladar; Arthasästra - Book II, Ch. XXVII, 124, Vedic Index 1, p. 457.
4 Bhs, 3, 1, 134.
5 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541.

Page #257

232
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
following four kinds of the enjoyable meal, viz. asana, pana, khāima and sāima.
The term Asana' used here denotes solid food, while the other ones, 'Pārı', 'khāima', and 'śāima' stand for drink, sweets, and dainties respectively.
Thus it appears that these four classes of food come under the general category of the above two kinds of the eatable solid and drinkable liquid foods.
According to different conditions, such as, geographical and physical factors the social status and richness of the person, and the availability of the articles of food, there is the further classification of the general meal into several categories, viz. kartārabhatta (food prepared in the forest), dubbhikkhabhatta (food prepared in the famine time), vaddaliyabhatta (food prepared during the rain), gilānabhatta (food prepared for a patient), sejjāyarapinda (meal given by the owner of the Upāsraya), and räyapinda (meal given by the king)".
Besides these, the Bhs mentions the following kinds of cooked food, viz. caru (rice prepared with the mixture of honey and clarified butter for sacrificej", Paramānna (best rice prepared with honey and clarified butter for guests), kummāsapindiya (rice gruel or bean)", suddhodara (pure boiled rice), and atharasavanjana (eighteen kinds of sauce).
The words Thālipāgasuddha's, Urakkhada's and Artha. rasaramjana?, occuring in this canonical work clearly denote cooked food, as is ready for serving direct from the kitchen (Thālipāgasuddhari athārasavarjaņākular bhoyanan".
-
1 Bhs, 3, 3, 134 ; 3, 2, 144; 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 429: 11, 11,
430 ; 12, 1, 438 ; 15,1 541. The term 'Bhatta' is also some.
times used instead of 'Asana' e. g. Bhattajāna (15, 1, 547). ? Ib, 5, 6, 210; 9, 33, 384.
3 lb, 11, 9. 417. 4 10, 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 15, 1. 545. 6 16, 3, 1, 134. 7-8 Ib, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456.
9 16, 3, 1, 134, 10 16, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456.
11 Ib. 12, 6, 456.

Page #258

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
233
The use of 'Vyanjana' (sauce or condiment) was imperative to make the food palatable, as it is indicated by the words 'āsāemāņā (tasting)................... paribhurrjemāņā (enjoying) and paribhāemāņā (giving or distributing) asanań (food), pāņaň (drink), khāiman (sweets) and sāiman (dainties). Food was also mixed up with the other eatable articles to make it more tasteful. Different kinds of food
The Bls gives a list of the following staple foods and their prepared products used by the people of the society as depicted in this work.
Cereals
Sāli (a kind of rice harvested in the winter season), Vihi (a best type of rice), Godhima (wheat), Java (barley), Javajuvā (a kind of Jowar), “Sālīņam vīhīņam Godhūmāņam javāṇam-javajavāņam cesi ņam dhannāņam” and Nipphāva (a kind of wheat).' Pulses
Kalāya, Masira (a sort of lentil), Mugga (Phaseolus Mungo), Māsa (a valued kind of pulse having seeds marked with black and grey spots, Phaseolus Radiatus), Kulattha (cabalikākārāḥ, Dolichos Uniflorus), Alisan laga (cabalaka prakārāḥ), Satīņa (tubar canā, Pisum Arvense) and Palimanthaga (matara), Vrtta canakah (Round pulse).
Other grains?
Ayasi (bhangi, linseed); Kusuñbhaga (latta, Safflower, Carthamus Tinctorius); Koddava, a species of grain eaten by the poor people (Paspalum Scrobiculatum); Kangu (millet, a kind of parric seed); Varaga (Varatto or tubari, a king of grain); Rālaga (Karguvisesa, the resin of Shorea Robusta); Kodisaga® ; Sarisavao
1 BhS, 12, 1, 438. 2 16, 7, 1, 268. 8.5 1b, 6, 7, 246 ; 21, 2, 691. & According to Webber ‘Alisamdaga' was a grain imported to
India from Alexandria after the name of which it is called
Alisardaga. See Indian Antiquary Vol. XIX. ? Bhs, 6, 7, 246. 8 The Mahabharata refers to Karadusaka as best corn (III. 193.19.).
9 BhS, 6, 7, 246; 18, 10, 647; 23, 5, 693. 30

Page #259

234
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
(siddharthakaḥ, mustard seed); and Tila (sesame, Sesamum Indicum). Vegetables
Aluga (Ebony, Arum Campanutum or a kind of tuberous root'); Mülaga (raddish)', Singavera (ginger)", Addae (adraka)", Pindahalidda (yellow turmeric), Palandu (Onion)?, Lhasara (garlic), Kandamülao, Lāuya (bottle gourd, Lagenaria Vulgaris)10, Tumbi (Gourd, Gourd Lagenaria Vulgaris)"? ; Tuusäla Vālunkżls and Vāingani (Vrntaki, Brinjal,^4. Spices
Jira(ka) (Cumin seed, Panicum miliaceum)15 ; Mariya (pepper),16 Pippala (long pepper),17 Lavanga (Clove),18 Elā (any species of cardamom),19 Jāru?o and Sunsha (dry ginger)."
Fruits
Amba (mango, Mangifera Indica), Jambu (black berry, Eugenia Jambolana)2, Kosamba,a! Kadali (banana, Musa Sepientum)85, Püyaphala (areca-put),? Khaijuri (date. Phoenix Sylvestris)", Nālieri (cocoanut), Tala (Palm),29 Tetali (Tama. rind),90 Nivāyaga (Karafijaka, pongamia glabra or Verbesina Scandens)®), Atthiya (Asthika-guava), Tinduga (T'induka, Dios. pyros Embryopteris), Bora (the jujube), Māulinga (citron), Billa (wood apple, Aegle Marmelos), Amalaga (the fruit of Emblic Myrobalam), Phanasa (panasa = jack fruit cr bread.fruit, Artocarpus Integrifolia), Dādima (the Pomegranate), Satara (a kind of reddish grapes), Kākali (a kind of grape), Klāru (Cucumber),34 Rittha (a kind of fruit), Bahedaga (the fruit of Terminalia Belerica), Haritaga (the fruit of Terminalia Chebula) and Bhallāya (Bhallāța, the fruit of the marking.nut-plant, Semecarpus Anacardium).35
i Bhs, 6, 7, 246. ? 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1, 693. 3 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324.
4 16, 7, 3,277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23,1, 693. $_16, 7, 3, 277. 7-8 16, 8, 5, 330.
, 1b, 8, 5, 330; 22, 6, 692. 10 16,1, 1, 19.
1114 Ib, 22, 6, 692. 15,17 16, 21, 8, 691. 18.19 16, 22, 1, 692. 20_21 1b, 23, 1, 693. 22,29 1b, 15, 1, 554; 22, 2, 693.
34.27 Ib, 22, 2, 693. 28-30 16, 8, 3, 324, 22, 2, 692.
31_83 lb, 22, 2, 692. 31 16, 23, 5, 693. 85 16, 22, 2, 692 (from Rittha to Bhallaya).

Page #260

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
235
In addition to these cereals, pulses, other grains, vegetables, spices and fruits, the BnS refers to various kinds of cooked food (uvaklchada) as already mentioned, different kinds of sweets and milk products which were generally taken by the people of its period. They are as follows :Cooked food--Odanı (rice), caru (rice prepared with clarified butter and honey), etc.? Sweets - Mahu (honey), Phaniyagula (flowing molasses), Mahurakhanda (sweet sugar)', and Ulkhu or Ikkhu (sugar cane)."
Milk and its by-products -- Khira (Milk), Dadhi (curd), Navaniya (navani, butter), and Ghaya (ghrta, clarified butter).' Oil - Tella (oil).10
A similar account of food classified into different categories as given in the BhS is also found in other Jaina texts.
In addition, they provide a long list of various kinds of food generally taken by the people of the society as depicted in them. They are as follows:Uncooked food-stuffs -- Different varieties of salt, viz. sochal salt (sovaccala), rock salt (sindhava), ordinary salt (lona), minesalt (roma), sea-salt (sāmudda), earth-salt (parsukhāra) and black salt (kālālonu)"? Cooked foods -Sakkuli (lucis in Hindi), pāya (a meal of parched wheat), siharini (a mixed food of curd and sugar with spices)," Sattuga (fried barley),13 eighteen varieties of seasoned food (atthārasu vamjana),14 as already referred to in the Bhs.
These are the eighteen kinds of cooked food clearly mentioned in the Sthānānga Sūtra : "Süpa (soup)), odaņa (rice) java i Vide supra, p. 232.
BhS, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 3.4 Ih, 18, 6, 631.
6 16, 21, 5, 691. 6-7 Ib, 16, 6, 581.
8 16, 18, 6, 631. Ib, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541; 16, 6, 581. 10 Ib, 8, 6, 335, 18, 6, 631. 11 Dasavaitālika Sútra, 3.8; also see Caraka Ch. 27. p. 815 ff.
Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J.C. Jain, p. 123. 12 Avasyaka Cūrni II, p. 319.
13 16, p, 317, 14 Sthūnārga-Sutra-3.135, also refer to Caraka, Kitannavarga
Ch. 27, p. 800 ff.

Page #261

236 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. IV (boiled barley), three kinds of meat, cow-milk, júsa (water of boiled pulse), bhakkha (kchandakhādya or sweets in which candy was applied in sufficient quantity, com.), gulalavaniyā (golapāpada in Gujerāti), mula phala (bread fruit), hariyaga (cumin), sāga (vegetable), rasālu (majjika, a royal preparation made of the mix. ture of two palas of ghee, one pala of honey, half an ādhaka of curds, twenty pepper corns and ten palas of candied sugar, com.), pāņa (wine), pāņiya (water), pāņaga (a drink made of grapes) and sāga (a preparation seasoned with butter-milk, such as, dahibadā, etc. com).
Besides these, other palatable foods are also mentioned, such as, "Pejja (made of gruel or decoction of some kind of pulse or rice), ghayapunna (ghevara in Hindi), Palangamāhuraya (a sweet liquid preparation of the mango or lemon-juice)," si hakesara' (a sweet), morandaka (a sweet made of oil seed),' manduku, (a cake stuffed with molasses and ghee), ahadiyā, (a special sweet), pulāka? (a special dish), guliya (tablets made from the powder of the tubara tree, which were used by the monks) and the kholas (dried pieces of cloths moistened with inilk, the washing water of them was used as drink)."8
Fish and meat eating
We learn from the Bhs that fish and meat-eating was prevalent in the society. Thus it is stated here that in Dusama-Dusamākālı (a period of crisis according to the Nirgrantha religion, the people of Bhāratavarşa, having come out of their respective holes before one instant of the sunrise and after one instant of the sunset will cause to take fish and tortoise to the land (or will cause to bury them into the ground); they will pass time up to twenty-one thousand years by carrying on livelihood with those lifeless fish and tortoises seasoned by cold
i Sthanaiga Sutra-3. 135, Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr.
J. C. Jain, p. 123. 9 Uvāsagadasão, 1, p. 8.
9 Antagadadasão, p. 10. . 4 Brhat. Bhāsya, 1. 3281. 5 Nišitha Cürni, II, p. 695. & Brhatkalpa Sutra, 2, 17; Bhāsya, 2. 3616. 116, 5, 6048 ff. 8 Ib, 1.2882; 2892. See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J.C. Jain.
pp. 123-24, for details.

Page #262

Sec.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
237
and heat. And "those eaters of meat and fish (marsāhārā, macchahārā), honey-drinkers (Khoddähārā), and eaters of the dead body (kuņimāhārā), will be born in hell'”.
In connexion with the holy teachings of explanation of Lord Mahāvīra on the doctrine of "Karma' there is another instance of meat-eating found in this canonical work where it is said that the hunter and fowler earned their livelihood by the occupations of hunting deer with the bow and arrow and net, and killing birds etc. in different places and then selling them to the other peoples of the society.
"Purise ņam bhaste kacchaṁsi vā da hamsi vā 2 udagassi vā.................. miyavittie miyasamkappe miyapaņihāņe miyavahāe gamtā ee mietti-kāum...uddāi''. "Purise miya. vittie miyassa vahāe usum nisirai''. "Ye miyam mārei"4.
The above evidences of taking fish and flesh of tortoise make it known that the people had to sustain their lives with them for a long time under the economic distress, because sometimes famine visited this land of Bläratavarsa in the distant past, as it is evidenced by one incidental reference to the meal taken in famine (dubbhikkhabhatta), occurring in the Bhs.
The mention of the egg of hen (kukkuļi-andaga) suggests that perhaps the eating of eggs was prevalent in the society, but it is not evidently clear whether they were actually taken by the people of that period. Vānaprastha Monks and Meat-eating
There is a direct evidence that a class of forest ascetics called Vānaprastha Hastitāpasas (Hatthitāvasā)? used to live on the elephant's flesh as explained by Sri Abhayadeva Sūri in bis commentary.
The practice of fish and meat-eating by the people is also corroborated by other Jaina texts. They give a full account of the preparation of various kinds of flesh, such as, those of
i Bhs, 7, 6, 288. ? 16, 1, 8, 65. 3 16, 1.8, 67. 4 1b, 1, 8, 68. 61b, 5, 6, 210.
16, 7, 1, 269. 7 16. 11. 9. 471. 8 Vivāga Suya 2, p. 14; 3, p. 22; it refers
to different kinds of cooking of meat, such as, frying (taliya), roasting (bhajjiya), drying (parisukka), etc. See Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 126. f. n. 46.

Page #263

238
studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
[Ch. IV
cāsaya (a kind of bird), deer, tiger, frog, animal having claws and some acquatic animals on the occassion of particular constellations and those taken by the people and served to guests on the days of special festivities.
There is also a reference in the Uttarādhyayana Sutra' to the entertaining of marriage party with meat, while the Uvāsagadasão mentions the regular meat-eating by Revač (Revati), a housewife.
Drink
It appears from the frequent references to pāņa" (drink) together with 'asana' (food) that drink was an essential part of the meal served to one's friends, kinsmen, relatives and others on special occasions.
This popular enjoyment of drink is also evidenced by the fact that a class of private merchants used to carry on a regular trade in wine (raravānijja), although it was disapproved by the Nirgrantha religion as revealed in this canonical work,
It mentions the following kinds of drink, viz. honey (Mahu), milk ( klära),' liquor (sură® or majja).
Besides these, Gośāla Mankhaliputra, the Ājēvika leader refers to four kinds of drink on the eve of his death in a state of mental disequilibrium as described in it, viz. Goputthae, hatthamaddie, āyavatattae and silāpabbhatthae (water excreted by the cow, i.e. urine, water soiled or rubbed with the hand, water heated by the sunshine, and water fallen from the stone).10
It is said that he himself drank liquor (majjapāņam piyamāņe) before his death in the workshop of the potteress, Hālāhalā in Srāvastz.11
1 Sūriyapanntle 51, p. 115. : Uttarădhyayana 22, 14 ff. 3 Uvāsagadasão 8, p. 63; See also Vedic Index-11, p. 145.
For details refer to 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain. 4 Bhs, 3, 1, 134 ; 5, 6, 204 etc. 61b, 8, 5, 330. • I6, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 7 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 5, 2, 181.
9.11 Ib, 15, 1, 554.

Page #264

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
239
The evidences of drinking are also corroborated by other Jain texts. In addition, they mention different kinds of liquor, such as, sura, majja, sidhu, pasannā, kāyambarī, etc.
There occurs a reference in the Uvasagadasão to the drinking of wine by the woman, while one passage of the Kalpa Sutra states that "Monks or nuns who are hale and hearty and of a strong body are not allowed during the pajjusana frequently to take the following nine drinks: milk, thick sour milk, fresh butter, clarified butter, oil, sugar, honey, liquor and meat."
It appears that the monks or nuns were permitted to take these drinks under special circumstances, such as, sickness (gilāna).
Thus it is clearly stated in the Nāyādhammakuhão" that the drinking of liquor (majjapānagam) is prescribed for a sick monk on medical advice.
The same view of the Nayadhammakahão on the taking of liquor by the monk is also expressed by the Brhat-Kalpa Bhasya in which it is said that this drink may be taken by him as medicine for recovering health and energy."
These evidences show that as a rule the monks or nuns were not allowed to drink liquor or other intoxicating drinks except under special circumstances.
Besides these accounts of drink, various kinds of wine are mentioned in different ancient literatures of India, such as, candraprabha, manisilākā, varasīdhu, varavāruṇī, etc.8
The evidences of drinking wine are also supported by the Brahmaṇical works.
1 Nayadhammakahão, 16, p. 179. Uttaradhyayana Tika, 2, p. 36a f.
There is a reference to it
in the Harivamsa; See Indo-Aryans of R. L. Mitra (11. 41.95). It is explained that Kayambari is prepared from the ripe fruit of Kadamba; Vide 'Life in Ancient India' p. 125.
3 Uvasagadasão, 8.
4 Kalpa Sutra, 9, 17.
6
5 Nayadhammakahão, 5, p. 80 f. Brhat K. Bhasya, 5, 635. Brhat. K. Bhasya 5, 6035.
8 See 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 125. Cf. IndoAryan I. by R. L, Mitra-pp. 411, 412, 132,

Page #265

240
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
[Ch. IV
The history of drinking can be traced back from the RgVedic period', when the people used to take soma ( a kind of drink), surā (wine) and madhu (honey) as the most favourite drinks on different occasions, such as, war-festivals and sacrifices, etc.
It is learnt from the Brāhmanical sources that it was the prevailing custom among the common people of the society of ancient India to drink sura (wine) and other kinds of liquor "on the occasions of festivals, fairs and pilgrimage." Cooking
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the development of the art of cooking during its period by refering to different varieties of food, drink, other dainties and eighteen kinds of sauce (atthārasaramjana)and cooks generally employed in the service of the royal family.
The terms 'uvalkhaďae't and pāriyāsie", (upaskyta and mārirăsita) used in this canonical work stand for cooking, while the cook was designated as 'mahānasinīø (female cook).
It appears that only the female cooks were appointed for preparing food, drink and other dainties, as it is evidenced in the case of the family of king Bala of Hastināpura?. Utensils
In this connection the text provides a list of different kinds of cooking vessels and serving plates, such as, thâli (cooking vessel,8, lohakadāha (iron pan)', kaduccha (spoon)', thāla (dish)"}, patti (plates)", etc.
It also mentions the dining hall (vhoyaṇamandava)13 and time (6 hoyanavela)14 where and when the rich aristocratic Peoples and
1 Rg-Veda, see the Vedic Age p. 393. · Arthaśāstra, p. 134; Cf. Dhammapada A. III. p 100. See
also Rāmāyana II, 91, 51; V. 36-41; Mahābhārata (1, 177, 13 ff; 1, 174; 13 ff; 1, 177, 10f ; II, 4, 8 f). Refer to
Indo-Aryan by R. L. Mitra Vol. 1, pp. 396 ff. 9 Bhs, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 436; 4 Ib. 3, 1, 134. 5 10, 15, 1, 557.
6.7 1b, 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 7, 10, 306; 12, 6, 456. 9.10 1b, 11, 9, 417. 11_12 10, 11, 11, 430.
13.14 1b, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.

Page #266

Sec. VII
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA STUDIES IN THE BH
241
kings generally used to take their meals together with their friends, relatives and kinsmen on special occasions. Invitation to dinner
The text refers to two kinds of welcome to dinner, viz. invited (amintita)' and uninvited (anāhūyan),' as it is evidenced by the fact that whenever the kings and rich householders organized any feast on special occasions, they invited their friends, kinsmen, relatives and others, and entertained them with food and drink prepared in their honour. While the monks and other floating guests were uninvited but they were equally wel. comed to dinner, entertained and honoured with abundant food and drink free from nine kinds of faults (navakoțiśuddha).
One particular feature of the family life is to be observed that even the servants were invited to dinner to enjoy it together with the friends, kinsmen and relatives of the host.
SEVENTH SECTION Dresses and Ornaments, Art of Decoration, and Houses and articles of Furniture Dresses
Four kinds of physical decorations of man, viz. decoration of hair, that of body with cloth, that of neck with garland and necklace, and that of arms, waist, legs (ankle) and feet with ornaments, came into existence from the time immemorial.
With the inventions of the art of wearing cloth and of metallurgy respectively various kinds of cloth have taken the place of the ancient bark.cloth and skin-garment, while the crown, necklace, bracelets, ring and anklets have occupied those of the flower-wreaths and garlands, natural bracelets and other ornaments of flowers made first by man in the beginning of civilization, i Bhs. 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.
16, 7, 1, 270. ? Ib, 7, 1, 270 ; 15, 1, 541
4 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 6 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.
31

Page #267

242
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
But the wild beauty of Nature is still embroidered on the cloths and dresses and engraved on the plates of ornaments.
It is an artistic attempt inspired with the aesthetic sense to make a communion with the sublime beauty of Nature,
Similarly the sense of cleanliness and beauty caused man to wash himself and take bath and to toilet his body with various scented products and roots, such as, sandal wood, aloe, etc.
The Bhs presents a graphic picture of dresses and ornaments, decorations and toilets used by the people of that period.
The mention of different kinds of dresses and ornaments, decorations and toilets reminds one of their origin in the hoary past and their evolution upto its period, as it is known from the traces of the blending of distinct modes of living of the people in the society as depicted here.
Thus the text refers to four kinds of decorations made by the men and women of its society with four varieties of adorning articles, viz. crown (mauda, the ornament of hair), cloth (vatcha), garland (malla), and ornament (abharaṇa).?
It provides a long list of colourful dresses and costly ornaments worn by the members of the rich aristocratic and royal families, particularly the ladies of the high society who adorned themselves with various kinds of gorgeous cloths, garments, ornaments of low and high prices (appamahaggha), garlands and flowers, etc.
Side by side with these fine dresses and ornaments, there are also in this text references to the bark-cloth (vājalavattha)", flowers, perfumes and garlands. Words for clothing and decorating
Various terms, such as, Vattha", 'dise', 'sādiya'e, bhūsana”, *alamkāra's, etc. are used to denote clothing and decorating of the
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 385. : 10, 11, 9, 417.
3 Ib, 11, 11, 428. 4 16, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 385;11, 9, 417, 418; 11 , 11, 429. 6 16, 9, 33, 384 ; 15, 1, 541. 6 16, 9, 33, 383. ? 16, 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 384. 8 16, 9, 33, 385,

Page #268

Sec. VII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRÁ
243
household people, while the words 'dhāturattavattha' and 'vāgalavattha' are applied to signify the robe of an ascetic or a Bralımacārin.
The term "cela's denoted in general the garment of a layman or of a householder or of an ascetic.
DRESSES Male dress
In the society the males used to put on generally two clothes-one lower garment and one upper garment (egasāļiyansuttarāsaingan)', a girt or waist-band (nijjoya)", shoes (vāhaņāo)", and umbrella (āyarattam) to protect his head from the heat of the sunshine, while going on any journey. Female dress
The women belonging to the royal and rich aristocratic families used to wear generally four or five kinds of dresses, viz. different varieties of long lower garment (i. e. Sādi), such as, cīnarsu yavattha chinese silken cloth), khoma (cotton linen), vadaga (tussar silken cloth), pațța (silken cloth), dugulla (cloth made from the fibres of the Dugulla plant), pavara (a kind of lower dress),o a soft upper garment (u'tarijja) ; 11 jacket (kamcuya);"* girdle (manimehalā)" and inner or under garment (samdhibandhaņa)." Dresses of the Monks
The BHS clearly shows that the monks of all religious sects used various kinds of dresses. There is no instance in the text to cite that complete nudity was observed by them in their ascetic life. On the otherhand it bears ample evidences to show that even the Nirgrantha monks used to wear clothes, as it is revealed by the fact that Lord Mahāvīra himself renounced the world by putting on one piece of divine cloth
1 Bhs, 2, 2, 90.
2 10, 11, 9, 417-418. ? Ib, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. 4 16, 9, 33, 383; 15, 1, 541. $ 16, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 9, 33, 383. 7 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 9, 33, 385.
1b, 11, 11, 430. 0 Ib, 9, 33, 380. 11 Ib, 9, 33, 380 ; 9, 33. 384.
13 16, 9, 33, 381. 18 16, 9, 33, 380. 14 16, 9, 33, 384.

Page #269

ectively.
244
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IV (devadūsa)! and his disciples, Skandaka and Simha are found wearing a cīvara (monk's robe), and a muhapattiya (a piece of mouth covering cloth) respectively.
Dresses of the monks belonging to the heterogenous reli. gious orders usually consisted of one or two clothes, such as, pottiya (a kind of monk's dress)' or dhāturattavattha (red.coloured robe) or vāgalavattha (bark-cloth) or cela (monk's robe),' etc. while those of the Nirgrantha ascetic comprised one dūsa or devadūsa (one piece of divine cloth),8 cīvara' (robe) and one muhapattiya (i. e. mukhavastra),10
Besides these, other articles, such as, tidamda (tripple sta yes), chattayam (umbrella), vāhaņão (shoes), pāuā (wooden sandals), kesariya (duster)," etc. also formed the part of the general dress of the parivrājaka monks and other ascetics and the rajaharana (duster)13 and blanket (karbala)23 that of the Nirgrantha monks.
The accounts of dresses as given in the BLS are also corro. borated by the other Jaina texts.
In addition, they provide a long list of various kinds of dresses used by the householders, Jaina monks and nuns.
Thus the Brhatkal pa Bhāsyal mentions four kinds of garments worn on four occasions, viz. dresses for daily use, after bath, on the days of festivals and fairs and at the time of going to visit the king, nobles and others.
The other Jaina works refer to various kinds of fine fabric used by the people of their periods, such as, wollen.cloth
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541. ? 16, 2, 1, 96. 3 16, 15, 1, 557.
Ib, 11, 9, 417 (See com.). 5 I, 2, 1, 90. 6 Ib, 11. 9. 417.
7 10, 11, 9, 417; 15, 1, 541. , 15, 1, 541.
9 Ib, 2, 1, 96. 10 10, 15, 1, 557.
11 1, 2, 1, 90. 13 16, 9, 33, 385.
13 Ib, 2, 5, 107. 14 Brhatkalpa Bhāsya. Pithikā, 644. Vide 'Life in Ancient India'
by Dr. J. C. Jain, p. 123 f. 17. 62.

Page #270

Sec. VII) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 245 (jangiya or jānghika), bhanga (bhangiya)?, hemp cloth (sāņiya), palm leaf-cloth (pottugas, linen (khomiya,', tūla (tülakada)", etc.
Besides these, many varieties of costly cloths are also mentioned in them, such as, āiņaga (com. ajina, cloth manufactured from skin,", sahiņa (com. sūksma, fine cloth), sahiņakallāņa (superfine), āya (cloth made from goat's hair)”, tāya (cloth made from blue cotton), etc.
There is a reference in the Anuyogadvāra' Sutra to cloths manufactured from eggs (anduga), cotton stalks (boņdaya), insects (Icidaya), hair (vālaya) and bark (vägaya).
Like the BhS, the Acārānga cūrnill makes reference to another kind of cloth called 'disa' or devudīsa (divine cloth) which was put on by Lord Mahāvīra at the time of his renouncing the world. It is stated that the value of this divine cloth was estimated to be one hundred thousand pieces of coins (sayasahassamollan".
1 Refer to 'Life in Ancient India' p. 123 ; Acūränga Sūtra II
5, 1, 364, 368. A kind of cloth produced from the fibre of bhanga plant; it is still manufactured in the Kumaon district of U.P., and is known as Dhangelā ; refer to Dr. Motichand's article in the Bharatiya Vidyā, Vol. 1 pt. 1, p. 41 ; also see the Vinayavastu of the
Mülasarvāstivāda, p. 92. & According to the commentary on the Brhatkalpa Bhasya
(2.3661), Pottaga is cotton. 4 It is cotton cloth, see Mahāvagga VIII, 3-1. Refer to Indian
culture Vol. 1, 1-4, p. 196 f. The Bihatkalpa Sutra (2.24), and the Thānănga Sūtra (5,446) refer to Tirida paffa instead of tulakada manufactured from the bark of the tirida tree. Refer to Vinayavastu of the
Mulasarvästivāda, p. 94. & Skin was used for clothing (Mahāvagga V. 10-63). 7 The āya cloth was produced from the moss that grew on the
goats hoofs in the country of Tosali (Nisitha Cūrni, 7, p. 467). & The Nišitha Cūrni, 7, p. 467 states that the Kāya cloths were manufactured from Kākajangha (Abrus precatorious) in the
Kaka-country. . Anuyogadvara Sūtra (com.) 37. 10 It was manufactured from the egg of a swan (hansa), refer to
Life in Ancient India' for details of dresses, p. 130. 11.12 Ācārānga Curni, p. 263, also "Life in Ancient India,' p. 130
f. n. 92.

Page #271

246
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
(Ch. IV
The other Jaina texts mention various kinds of dūsa cloths, such as, vijayadūsa”, kovaya, pāvāraga", dādhiāli (clean white cloth like the row of teeth), sacks, elephant-housing, etc., woven with coarse yarn (pari) and cloth woven with double yarn (virali).
As regards the dresses of the Jaina monks and nuns a good account of them is found in different Jaina texts.
Thus in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra' two garments.-under and upper (santaruttara) are found to have been prescribed by Lord Pārsvanātha for the use of a monk (i. e. Jaina ascetic), while in the Acārānga Sūtra’ there is the reference to three robes-two linen (Icsomika) under garments (omu cela) and one woollen cloth (aurņika).
It further states that a katibandha" (also called aggoyara), having the size of four fingers broad in width and one hand in length was allowed to be put on to cover the private parts in the case of those monks who felt shy to go without clothing.
This Katibandha was substituted by Colapattaka in later times
In the Brhatkal pa Bhāsya' only the garment without flinges (dasā) is prescribed for the use of the Jaina monks.
Similarly there are many references in the Jaina texts to various kinds of dresses used by the Jaina nuns, e.g. Uggahananțaga (a piece of cloth to cover their privities, tied with a patta round the waist), addhoruga (it is worn over the uggahananțaga and patta to cover the waist), unsewn calanikā (covering knees), abbhintur. aniyamsiņi (it covered the part from the waist to balf length of the thighs) and bahiniyamsiņi (it was tied to the waist with
1 Rayapaseniya Sutra, 43, p. 100.
Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 3, 3823 f. Pāvāra is referred to in the
Mahābhārata (II. 71. 48). 8 16. (See also 'Life in Ancient India' for details, p. 130). 4 Uttarādhyayana, 23, 29.
• Ācāranga Sutra, 7, 4, 280. 8 Ācāränga Sūtra, 7, 6, 220.
Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 3,3905 f.

Page #272

Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 247 string and used to cover the part from the waist down to the ankles).
Their upper garments consisted of the following, viz. kañcula (jacket), ukkacchi (au palcaksiki, like kancuka, square in shape on the right side), vegacchiyā (vaikaksiki, like the au pakaksiki but knotted on the right shoulders), four sanghāļīs, the first one was to be put on in the cloister (pratiśraya), the second and the third ones outside the residence and the fourth one for attending the religious congregation (samavasarana;'.
Besides these upper garments, the nuns used to wear kandhakarani (Wrapper-like cloth) together with the au pakaksikī and vaikaksikia to cover the shoulder and the body and to protect themselves from the blow of strong wind.
Shoes
According to the Byhatkalpa Bhāsya the Jaina monks were allowed to put on shoes under special circumstances, such as, tours, diseases, tenderness of feet of some monks, fear of wild animals, etc.'
There are references to different types of shoes used by the Jaina monks such as Taliya shoes (for night journey), egapuda (single-soled shoes, four soled shoes, pudaga or kchallaku" (winter shoes) to cover foot-sore (vivacci), vāgurā (to cover the ties and feet), kosagas (for protecting nails), etc. Ornaments
The BhS reveals that both the men and women belonging to the upper stratum of the society as known to it, used to adorn
1 The īcārānga (11, 5, 1, 364) refers to four Sanghātis. ? Bihatkalpa Bhāsya, 3,4082-91 & com. See also Ācā. 11,5,1,364. 8,4 16, 3,3862. 5 See Mahāvagga V, 2, 3 where the Khallakabandha and other
types of shoes are mentioned, Refer to Dr. Motichand's article in the Journal of the Indian society of the Oriental Art' Vol. XII. 1944. Dr. J. C. Jain thinks-"Perhaps it is the same as the Iranian käfis, and kāpis-kipis of Central Asia" (Life in Ancient India, p. 133 f.n. 120).
the "Jou14. Dr.kāfis, 1133

Page #273

248 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SỬTRA [Ch. IV themselves with costly ornaments of many kinds, particularly the ladies of the royal and rich aristocratic families put on various ornaments to beautify the different parts of their bodies from the head to the ankle.
Ornaments of the male persons, especially the kings and princes, consisted of crown (mauda)', necklace (hāra) and other articles and garlands, while those of the women were as follows:
Crown (mauda), car-ring (kurdala), necklace of pearls (hāra), half-necklace (addhaltāra), one-stringed necklace of gems (egāvali). Thus that of pearl (muttāvali), that of gold (kanagāvalī), that of jewel (rayaņāvali), torque round the breast (urattha) in addition to the flat triangular necklace, necklace (kanthasutta),' bracelets (kadagajoe), white bracelets (dhavala-ralaya),' ring (khuddāgal, girdle of gems (manimehalā)," a string round the loins (sonisuttaga)," anklet (neura),18 and various ornaments of precious metals,
The account of the ornaments of the male and female is also found in the other Jaina texts.
The Uvāsagadasão mentions the minimum requirement of most essential ornaments for a person like Ananda of Vānijyagrāma after his taking the vow before Lord Mahāvīra to observe the religious rules as his lay disciple.
It is stated there that he used to wear various kinds of costly ornamentais previously, but after the taking of the vow he "limited himself to his use of personal ornaments," saying, "Excepting smoothly polished ear pendants and a finger ring engraved with my name, I renounce the use of every other kind of ornament" 16.
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 11, 428. 4 lb, 11, 11, 430. 6 10, 11, 11, 430. 6.7 Ib, 9, 33, 380. 9 16, 9, 33, 384. 10_18 1b, 9, 33, 380. 15 U vasagadasão 9, p. 9 (Lec. 1, 6, 9). 16 Uvāsagadasão 31, 25-35, p. 17.
23 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 10, 11, 11, 430. 14 10, 9, 33, 385.

Page #274

Sec. VII]
Bath and Art of Personal Decoration
The BhS shows that the observance of cleanliness of the body was a regular practice with the people. The art of personal cleaning and decoration was highly developed at that period, as it is known from the fact that the members of the royal and rich aristocratic families used to take regular bath in a special bathroom (majjanaghara)1 and to adorn their bodies with various kinds of decorations.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
For this purpose some specialists, like the female massagers and rubbers of limbs (angamaddiyão, ummadiyão), bath-makers (nhaviyão), decorators (pasähiyão), grinders of sandal wood (vannagapeszo) and fragrant powder (cunnagapesio), etc. were employed by them in the service of their families."
249
So the bath was followed by the art of decoration and toileting in those days of the BhS.
There are also evidences to show that the men and women of all social grades used to take bath before beginning any kind of work, such as, going to attend the religious discourse,* marriage ceremony etc.
Even today, in Rajasthana the barber is made to take bath first before cutting hair of any member of distinguished families.
It appears that the original derivation of the word 'Napita' (barber) has been made from 'bath' (nhana or phaya), as he was associated with it. In course of the linguistic evolution the first form of the term (nhaviya) has undergone variations, such as, nhaviya, snapita, etc. in local dialects of India till it attained the modern form 'Napita' and 'Naz' respectively.
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 383. 2 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
Majjanadhayi (special female nurse) for causing the child-prince to bathe was also employed.
4
Ib, 9, 33, 380; 9, 33, 383.
3 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
5 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
Ib, 9, 33, 383; 9, 33, 385 (Here it is nanhemti).
32

Page #275

250
Bath
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
There were two kinds of bath, viz. private and ceremonial. The first one was an essential part of the regular daily duty of an individual for maintaining cleanliness of his body, while the second one was given to those who resolved to renounce the worldly life or who were chosen as new rulers to ascend the throne.
It has been a sacred thing and synonym for ascending the throne (abhiseka) since the birth of kingship in ancient India.
The BhS presents a few colourful pictures of pompous ceremonial consecrations of some princes, like Jamālī1 and Mahābala", and kings, like Śiva of Hastinapura", and Udayana of SindhuSauvira on the eve of their renouncing the world to undertake the state of houselessness.
[Ch. IV
Similarly there are evidences to show that the princes Sivabhadra and Mahabala of Hastinapura and Keśīkumāra' of Sindhu-Sauvira were given ceremonial baths by the retiring kings, Siva, Bala and Udayana in their respective cases.
Here are presented the features of this ceremonial bath in connection with the leaving of the worldly life by the prince, Jamali and others.
The parents of this prince caused him twice to bathe with the water of eight hundred golden and earthen jars each time and made his limbs dry with a very soft hairy fragrant scented towel and then besmeared his body with the juicy essence of gośīrsa sandal and caused him to put on an auspicious white silken cloth embroidered with gold and endowed with the chief colour and touch. Next he was decorated with various kinds of ornaments and garlands.
Exactly in the same manner, prince Mahabala1, kings Śiva11 and Udayana1 were given ceremonial baths and adorned with
1 BhS, 9, 33, 385.
8 Ib, 11, 9, 417.
5 Ib, 11, 9, 417,
7 Ib, 13, 6, 491.
9 Ib, 9, 33, 385.
11 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

2 Ib, 11, 11, 431.
4 Tb, 13, 6, 491.
6 7b, 11, 11, 431.
8 lb, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417.
10 76, 11, 11, 431.
12 Ib, 13, 6, 491.

Page #276

Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 251 four kinds of decoration on the eve of their leaving the world for undertaking the state of houselessness.
The same features of royal consecration are also found to have been observed in the cases of princes-Śivabhadra', Mahābala', and Keśīkumāra3 in regard to the ascendency to their respective thrones.
On the occasion of marriage also a kind of ceremonial bath followed the presentation of eight auspicious articles (astamangala), such as, tilaka (mark on forehead), Kankana (a sacred band tied round the wrist), etc. was given to the bride', as it is evidenced in the case of prince Mahābala.
Art of Decoration
It is already mentioned that the bath was followed by the art of decoration which was the natural expression of the aesthetic sense of man.
The BhSs presents a grapbic account of the personal decoration of the princes, rich and cultured citizens of its period, who could afford the luxury of adorning themselves with various kinds of costly silken clothes embroidered with gold, ornaments of gems, pearls and jewels, perfumes, rich toilets of Gośīrsa sandal paste and black fragrant aloe (kālāgaru, Aquilaria Agalloch).
The decoration was applied to the different parts of the body in an artistic style from the head to foot.
After taking bath, the male members belonging to the royal and rich aristocratic families besmeared their limbs with the essence of sandal paste, put on fine silken clothes embroidered with gold and adorned themselves with various kinds of costly ornaments, such as crown (mauda), necklace (hāra), etc., garlandse and shoes.?
Similarly the ladies of the royal and rich aristocratic families also decorated their bodies with various kinds of orna.
1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 4 10, 11, 11, 430. 6 16, 9, 33, 385.
: Ib, 11, 11, 431. SIb, 13. 6, 491. 516, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 428 ; 11, 11, 430. 7 1b, 9, 33, 383; 385.

Page #277

252
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA. (Ch. iv ments, such as, crown, necklaces, bracelets, armlets, rings," anklets, etc.
It is already pointed out that a class of special female decorators (pasāhiyão), grinders of sandal wood (vannaga pesão) and fragrant powder (cunnagapesão) were employed in the service of the royal family for decorating the ladies, particularly the young married princesses.'
In addition, the following requisites for keeping up the standard of the art of decoration, toileting and luxury were used, viz. mirror (dappaña), collyrium (kharjaņa), flowers of five colours, black aloe (kālāgaru), best perfume (cīļā), olibanum (sil haka), incense (dhūva) and scented pills (gamdhavații;?.
The evidences of the taking of private and ceremonial baths and the art of personal decoration are fully corroborated by other Jaina texts also.8 Houses and Articles of Furniture
The Bhs presents an account of the houses and articles of furniture generally used by the members of rich aristocratic and royal families, but it does not throw much light upon the dwellings of common men, probably because they had no conspicuous features to be mentioned. Moreover, there were some houseless peoples in the society as known to this text.
So here is given a picture of the royal palace consisting of lofty mansions, inner female apartment (anteura),"o outer assembly hall (uvatthāṇasāla)," theatre hall (pecchāghara),1 bath house (majjanaghara), gymnasium (attaņas ālā), treasury-house (kosa), 15 kitchen (mahānasa),29 dining hall (bhoyanamandava),17 store house
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430.
2-3 I6, 9, 33, 380. 116, 11, 11, 430.
6 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 6, 1, 229.
7 16, 11, 11, 428. 8 Nayadhammakahão, 1, 26, p. 24 ; 1, 29, p. 29. 9 Bh8, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 429.
10 16, 11, 9, 417. 11 16. 11, 11, 428.
12 I6, 11, 11, 429. 18 Ib, 9, 33, 383.
14 10, 11, 11, 428, 15 1b, 11, 9 417, (it may be treasure also). 18 1b, 11, 11, 430. The word is 'Mahānasio', it is clear that Mahā.
nasi is derived from Mahānasa. 17 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.

Page #278

Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
253 (kotthāgāra)', bed-chamber (vāsagharaín),furnished with various articles of furniture.
On the burning of fire the Bhs makes an indirect incidental reference to the common thatched house having the floor (kuddā), roof (kadaņā), supporting wood (dhāraṇā), curved (horizontal) wood (reeds, balaharana), bamboo (varsa), another kind of supporting wood (mallā), bark (vaggā), thin plank of green wood (chittarã) and thatched covering (roof, chāne).
There is also the mention of a hermitage (udae)* made of wood grass, leaves and creepers in the forest on the bank of the Ganges.
Besides these, the text refers to the fort (duggan)", temple (devaulan)", stūpa (thüva), caitya-temple (ceiya) , pillar (jüya)', and discus (cakka)?', which also formed the parts of house-building.
The terms "Giha'!, Agāra'l and Ghara’? occurring in the Bhs stand for house, while the other ones "Pāsāya't and Bhavana'denote palace.
The word "sālā as used in conjunction with the other words signifies many types of buildings, e. g. uvatthāṇasālā (assembly hall), affaņasālā (gymnasium)", gosālā (cowshed)18, tartuvāyasālā (weaver's workshop,'', posahasālā (fasting house)20. and kūdāgārasälä (simple conical shaped tent-like house)*1.
Palace
The text presents a colourful picture of the inner apartment of the palace, particularly the bed-chamber (vāsaghara)29 the inside of which was decorated with various kinds of pictures and the outside was whitened (i. e. white-washed with limestone), rubbed and polished "abbhimtarao sacittakamme bāhirao dūmiyaghatthamaţthe".
1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. ? 1), 11, 11, 428. 3 16, 8, 6, 335.. 4 10, 11, 9, 417. 5 1b, 15, 1, 552.
16, 18, 10, 647. 7.8 16, 9, 33, 383.
9.10 1b, 11, 11, 429. 11 16, 9, 33, 380; 12, 1, 438; 15, 1, 541 ; 15, 1, 557. 17 16, 9, 33, 383; 84.
13 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 84 ; 11, 11, 429. 14,15 1B, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 429. 18 16, 9,33,380; 83; 84 ; 11,11,428.
17 10, 11, 11, 428, 18 I6, 15, 1, 540. 19 I6, 15, 1, 541. 20 10, 12, 1, 438. 21 16, 3, 1, 134. 29 16, 11, 11, 428.

Page #279

254
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
(Ch. IV
It had a variegated roof (i. e, the ceiling had a canopy of painted cloth) "vicitta-ullogacilliga" with lotus flowers and shining floor having the darkness dispelled by the studded jewels and pearls (cilligatale manirayanapaņāsiyamdhayāre) and with many equally divided parts ; it was furnished with the presents of heaps of flowers of five colours, juice, fragrance ; and it was made beautiful (abhirāma) by the production of spreading smell of black fragrant aloe wood and best perfume (ciļā), olibanum (silhaka) and incense full of pleasant odour and excellent smell.
The bed chamber was also provided with the scented pills (gandhavattibhūe) and furnished with a bed having cushion equal to the size of the human body, pillows on both sides ; it was high on both sides, sunk (low) in the middle like the pressed down sand of the bank of the Ganges, covered with a sheet of adorned covering cloth of linen and woven silk and duküla (dugulla) cloth, and then a well-worked bed-sheet (rayattāna) and a covering of red cloth (rattarmsuya) having the soft touch like that of fur, cotton, fibres and fresh butter.
It was furnished with the presents of layer of fragrant, excellent flowers, powders and scented pills. Outer assembly hall
The outer assembly halla was well furnished with one throne (lion-seat) and other seats covered with the auspicious white cloths.
Likewise the inner assembly hall was equipped with the seats for the royal ladies whose privacy was maintained by drawing a curtain (javaniyā) in between the two halls.
This curtain was embroidered with jewels and gems and was much visible, very costly, produced in a best city (mahaaghavara pattanuggayan), furnished with the beautiful fillets, and it was a fine fabric decorated with many hundreds of devotional pictures, images of wolves, bulls, men, dolphins (or shirk), birds, snakes, kinnaras (a class of vyantaras), yaks, elephants, shrubs and plants and other pictures.
1,5 Bhs, 11, 11, 428.

Page #280

Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
255 The BIS gives a graphic account of the royal harem consisting of eight crown-palaces (constructed for the eight newly married princesses), which looked like the rising smiling moon in the sky. In the centre of these lofty mansions there was a great palace (bhavana) for the crown prince and also a theatre hall supported on many columns (anegakharibhasaya-sainnivittham-pecchāghurumamdurariasi).' Articles of Furniture
These eight palaces of the harem were furnished with the following articles of furniture one for each, viz. eight best palace-banners and eight flags, embroidered with jewels (savvarayaņāmae niyagavarabhavaņakcū and jhae), eight golden hanging chained lights, eight silver hanging lights, eight golden-silver hanging lights, eight golden high-shining lights, thus and the same three also.'
There is also an incidental reference to the oil lamp (padiva).
There were eight golden mirrors" (attha sovanniyāin tha. sayāiri), eight golden foot-stools (pāyapīdhae), eight golden seats (bhisiyão), eight golden couches (pallańke), eight golden sofas (padisejjāo), eight swan-seats (hamsāsaņāim), eight curlew seats (lcorcāsaņāim), eight eagle-seats (garulāsaņāin), eight high seats (unnayāsaņāim), eight low seats (panayāsıņāim), eight long seats (dihāsanāim), eight feather-seats (pallchāsanāir), eight crocodile (or shark) seats (magarāsaņāim), eight lotus-seats (piumāsaņāim), and eight dilcsauvastikāsanas (disāsovatthiyāsiņāim, it may be a kind of revolving seat).
Besides these articles, there is the mention of eight chowries (camarão), and eight palm-leaf fans (taliyante), which formed the part of furniture.
A similar account of the houses etc. and the articles of furniture is also found in other Jain texts. In addition to them,
i Bhs, 11, 11. 429. 116, 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 8, 6, 335.
Ib, 11, 11, 430. According to Abhayadeva Süri the word 'thāsaya' signifies both mirror and mirror-like plate. I have taken the first meaning,
5.0 Ib, 11, 11, 430.

Page #281

256
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
(Ch. IV
they deal with the construction of various types of buildings and articles of furniture in great details.
Thus the Bihatkal pa Bhāşyal refers to three kinds of buildings, viz. khāya (an underground cell), usiya (a palace), and ubhaya (a combination of the two), while the Rāyapaseniya Sutta throws much light upon the architectural development which will be discussed later on in the section on Fine Arts' in the chapter on 'Education' in details.
Besides these, the other Jaia works mention the buildings made of stones and bricks (kāņitta), mirror-house (āyam sagiha!, 4 cool-house of a cakravartin, underground house (bhumihara), lack-house (jauhara),' sayanvara hall (hall for the performance of marriage by self choice)& supported on hundred columns and adorned with sportive statues (sālab harijikā), etc. Town-Planning
It appears from the names of a large number of important cities and towns, e.g. Rājagrha", Vaiśāli,io Campā," Srāvasti, Kaušāmbi,13 Hastināpura,14 Vitībhaya, 26 Vārāṇasī, 16 Tāmralipti,?? etc. that there was a great development of the art of townplanning and also architecture which will be discussed later on in great details in connection with the topic .Fine Arts.'
The reference to the existence of fort (duggam)18 clearly suggests that there was the construction of fortified cities which acted as the bulwark of defence against the enemy forces in times of war, if it broke out.
1 Bihatkalpa Bhäsya, 1, 827. ? Rāyapaseniya Sutta 97 f.
Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 3, 4768. 4 Uttaradhyayana Tikā, 18, p. 2329. 5 Nisitha Cūrni, 10, p. 559.
* 16, 13, p. 185 a. ? Uttaradhyayana Țikā, 13, p. 188.
Näyādhammakahāo, 16, pp. 179.82. See Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C. Jain for details pp. 187.190. Bhs, 1, 1, 4, etc.
10 16, 7, 9, 303. 11 1b, 9, 33, 386 ; 13, 6, 491-92. 12 16, 2, 1, 90 : 9, 33, 386 ; 15, 1, 539. 13 16, 12, 2, 441.
14 1b, 11,9,417; 11,11,428. 15 I, 13, 6, 491. 18 Ib, 15, 1, 550. 17 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 18 16, 15, 1, 551.
* 70, 15, 1, 550, 75, 11,9-12, 1,1,19%

Page #282

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The pictorial descriptions of the town, such as, Simghaḍaga (crossway or a place where several roads meet)', Caccara (a place where four roads meet or a quadrangular place), etc. and the graphic accounts of the stream of the people, going through the streets to attend the religious discourse of Lord Mahāvīra at different Caityas reveal the well-planned cities of that period.
EIGHTH SECTION
Sports and Amusements, Manners and Customs.
Sports and Amusements
Sports and amusements are the marks of vitality of a healthy and strong social life endowed with the richness of the body and mind of the people, as it is manifested in their direct participation in these important arts of entertainment and their collective enjoyments.
They create a spirit of activity and generate fresh energy in an individual, give a new impetus and add a fillip to his work and that of the society in general.
257
The Bhs throws some light upon these aspects of the social life of the people enjoying sports and amusements as developed and cultivated at that period. But it does not present a clear systematic picture of these important social entertainments. Sports
The term 'kila' of the word 'Kilavanadhate',' occurring in this canonical work denotes the general sport or play enjoyed by the youngsters.
This reference to kilāvanadhāie' (Kriḍapanadhātrī) clearly suggests that a special class of female nurses expert in various games was employed in the service of the royal family to coach the young princes in varieties of sports during their boyhood.
Besides this evidence, the BhS mentions the taking of physical exercise by a king in his gymnasium (aṭṭaṇasālā) before
1.3 BhS, 11, 9, 318.
4 Ib, 11, 11, 429.
33

3 Ib, 9, 33, 384. Ib, 11, 11, 428.

Page #283

258
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
his bath. It clearly shows that a special care was taken by the kings of those days in physical culture to keep themselves healthy, strong and active in order to carry on their duties of the daily life without falling victims to diseases.
There is also an indirect reference to wrestling as a part of sports, made in connection with the greetings of the people of Ksatriyakunḍagrama to prince Jamali on his way to the Bahusalaku Caitya to undertake the state of houselessness after getting initiated by Lord Mahavira.1
They paid him their spontaneous ovations by addressing him thus: "Kill the wrestler-like attachment and jealousy by austerity in the midst of perfection"".
Amusements
Besides these sports, the people of that period used to entertain themselves with various kinds of individual and social amusements on different occasions, such as, birth-ceremony, marriage, etc.
It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Birth and its celebration' in the fourth section of this chapter that the birthday of the prince Mahabala became a public holiday of festivity for all the citizens of Hastināpura. It was celebrated for ten days with various kinds of amusements and social entertainments, such as, songs and dances and was made delightful and sportive together with the peoples of the city and of the country side.
Similarly the marriage ceremony of the same prince was accompanied by both vocal and instrumental music which solemnized the occasion and created an atmosphere of joy and happiness for all the people attending this function.
For the continuation of a happy life of the young married couple in cheerful surroundings they were provided with the best actors and dancers together with the composed dramas etc."
8.4 Ib, 11, 11, 429,
1. BhS, 9, 33, 385. 6, 16, 11, 11, 430.

Page #284

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
259
The reference to the theatre hall (peochāghara)? supported on many hundred columns (anegakhambhasayasamnivitha) inside the palace clearly shows that the members of the royal family entertained themselves with dances, dramas and songs presented by the professional dancers, actors and musicians respectively in that hall.
The Bhs presents a vivid picture of ainusements enjoyed by the ruling Ksatriya princes by referring to the cases of the princes Jamāli' and Mahābalain their respective residences at Katriyakundagrāma and Hastināpura.
It is stated that both of them passed time by enjoying thirty-two kinds of dramatic representations in the company of very beautiful young ladies, singing and singing, dancing and dancing, by fondling them in the upper palace and experiencing five kinds of sensual gratification of human desires, i.e. sound, touch, taste, object of beauty and smell, througout the nights of all the six seasons of the year.
There is also an evidence to show that the young man moved along with the young lady, holding her hand in his hand and enjoyed the pleasure of her charming association, beauty and youth,
Juvatim juvāne hatthenam hatthe............
"
Besides these, the members of the royal and rich aristo. cratic families organized feasts and entertained themselves and their friends, kinsmen, relatives, attendants and the peoples of the city and of the country together with abundant food and drink on various occasions, such as, birthday, marriage ceremony, at the time of renouncing the world, on the day of Kärttika-Caturmāsiku pratipadā and Puuşadha-vrata dayo (pausadha vrata = fasting vow). was observed by one class of householders after enjoying first abundant food and drink,
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. 16, 9, 33, 383. 4 16, 5, 6, 208.
6 Ib, 11, 11, 429. ? 16, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. , 16, 12, 1, 437.
3 lb, 11, 11, 431. 6 15, 11, 11, 430. 8 15, 15, 1, 541.

Page #285

260
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IV
The general people enjoyed pleasure and felt the efficacy of joy by perforining different religious festivals, such as, festival of Indra (Indamaha), that of Kārttika, that of Vāsudeva, that of Nāga, that of Yakşa, that of Bhūta (Vyantaras), that of Kapa (well), that of Tadāga (tank)...... that of Stupa', etc.
It appears from the Bhs that a special arrangement was made for the social entertainment of the people with the dance-drama, performed by an accomplished artist in a public hall.
An indirect reference is made in the text to the public theatre hall where hundreds and thousands of people assembled to witness and enjoy the dance-drama presented by a young beautiful well-dressed actress. . The comparison of the Universe with a theatre hall, made by the greeters and eulogists of prince Jamäli in connection with their greetings and instructions to him on his way to the Bahuśālaka Caitya in order to get himself initiated by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana Dharma, clearly suggests that the threatre was a great resort of the pleasures and amusements for the people.
Thus it is said, "hold the flag of worship inside the theatre hall of the three worlds."'3
Last of all, the study of the references to the drinking of liquor and wine business (rasavānijja)" clearly shows that the suppressed desire of the individuals for joy and happiness was given a free satisfaction by this way.
The account of the sports and amusements is also found in the other Jaina texts. In addition they refer to various sports and amusements enjoyed by the people, such as, games of lac marbles (vattaya), tip.cat (adaliyā), ball (tindusa), doll(pottullu), cloths (sāļollaya)', bow (sara pāyaya), race of bullock cart
1 BhS, 9, 33, 383. 3 1b, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 8, 5, 330
? 10, 11, 10, 422.
Ib, 5, 2, 181; 15, 1, 554 6 Nāyādhani makahão 18, p. 207.

Page #286

Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SUTRA 201 (gorahaga), the play with ball of cloth (celagola)", cock and peacock fights', etc. Manners and Customs
Manners and customs of a society are the reflections upon the true nature of its culture as manifested in various forms of the individual and social behaviour and relation of the people as a whole. They are the most essential factors for determining the cultural standard of the entire community, because they reveal to a great extent the real picture of the prevailing social conditions with their all brightuess and shortcomings. Hospitality to Guests
As already pointed out in the third section of this chapter, the Bhss throws a welcome light upon the manners and customs of welcoming, honouring and entertaining friends, relatives, kinsmen, guests and monks on various occasions, such as, birth-ceremony, marriage, departing ceremony for undertaking the state of houselessness, etc. Here an attempt will be made to study them in regard to the manner of hospitality to guests.
Whenever any guest, whether a familiar neighbour or å monk, arrived at the residence of a householder, it was the social custom to welcome him in the following manner.
On the approach of the guest to the house, the host imme. diately got up from the seat, advanced seven or eight steps forward towards the guest, worshipped and saluted him and offered him a seat. In the case when a monk happened to be the guest, the host, after getting up from the seat, put off the sandals, put the utturāsanga (upper garment) on the left shoulder, placed the hands in the form of afijali salutation
1 Suyagadanga-2. 13f; for others refer to Digha Nikaya 1. p-6,
Ma jh ma Nokage 1. p. 266; Set galao@, pt. 1. pp. 84f. 2 Uttaradhyayana sikā.13. p-191; See 'Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons' by Dr. J. C. Jain for detailed accounts of various games, amusements, p. 238-41. 8 Bhs, 12, 1, 438 ; 15, 1, 541 ; 15, 1, 557.
The meaning of the phrase 'egasādagam uttarāsamgarn kattvā' is not quite clear. The above meaning has been adopted in accordance with the Pali phrasé ekaṁsam uttarāsamgain karittvā': Cf. Pali Mahāvagga, Brahma-yācana kathā etc.

Page #287

262
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
(closed like a bud), advanced seven or eight steps towards him, circumambulated him thrice from the left to right, worshipped and saluted and offered him a seat.1
Next, the host or hostess inquired about the welfare of the guest, entertained him with food, drink and other dainties and honoured him with the flowers, cloth, perfume, garland and ornaments, in case the guest was an invited householder," particularly on the occasion of renouncing the world.
If a monk was a guest, his host welcomed him in the same manner and entertained him with food, drink, etc. which fulfilled the following conditions, viz. purity of thing (dravyaśuddhi), purity of giver (dayakaśuddhi), purity of possession (pratigrahakaśuddhi), three kinds of purity of trikarana (kṛta, kārita and unumedita) by three acts of mind, speech and body (manovakkayaśuddhena).1
It was the custom of the society that the householder should take his meal, together with his friends, kinsmen, relatives and guests. But if the host was a monk, he should take his food after entertaining the ascetic guests, as it is evidenced in the case of the royal sage Siva" in his Vanaprastha stage of life.
Different customs
The BhS reveals that it was the general custom of the people of its period, from a king down to a palanquin bearer, to take bath, to worship house-gods and to perform auspicious expiatory rites and ceremonies before starting any kind of work, e. g. going to war by a soldier, pilgrimage to a saint, or a king," attending the royal court, carrying palanquin by the palanquinbearers, performing birth-ceremony by the parents, marriage of the bridegroom and bride13 and consecration before renouncing the world and initiation," etc.
1 BhS, 12, 1, 438. 2 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 15, 1, 541. 4b, 15, 1 541. 5 Ib, 3, 1, 133; 11, 9, 417.
6 Ib, 11, 9, 417.
7 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 301; 303. Ib, 11, 11, 428.
11.12

8
13
9_10
Ib, 9, 33, 385.
14 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 9, 33, 381; 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417.

Ib, 9, 33, 1; 383.
Ib, 11, 11, 430.

Page #288

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
263
At the time of the consecration (ceremonial bath), the same custom was observed by the retiring householder who was seated facing the eastern directio n1 or forward' on a bathing seat. While going by palanquin on the way to his undertaking the state of houselessness he sat always facing eastwards or forward. Observance of auspicious moment of stars, dates, etc.
The people of that period followed the rule of auspicious stars, dates (tithis), etc. in the matter of the performance of their different ceremonies with the belief that their actions, if begun at those moments, would be fruitful and lead to prosperity and happiness. Thus it is found in the case of Mahabala that at the moment of constellation of star of auspicious lunar days his parents caused him to accept the hands of eight princesses after the performance of due ceremonies. Similarly, there are instances of observance of auspicious dates by the householders on various occasions.
It is stated in the BhS that a Brahmana, Bahula by name, entertained other Brahmanas with abundant best food mixed with honey and clarified butter on the day of pratipada (first moon) of Karttika".
Further, the custom of observing auspicious festivals is evidenced in the lamenting utterances of the mother of the prince Jamālī at the time of his leaving the worldly life to undertake the state of houselessness. She, shedding unbearable tears due to the pangs of separation of her son, said thus: "This tuft of hair of our Jan ali (cut off by the barber) will be the last sight (apacchima darisana) in many tithis (dates), parvanis (festivities) utsavas (festivals), yajñas (sacrifices) and chanas (Indrotsava festival of Indra, etc.).
=
It follows from this account that the people believed in and observed the custom of preserving the hair of the departed dear ones to keep up their remembrance and to have consolation from the sight of their cut off hairs.
1 BhS, 13, 6, 491.
4 Ib, 15, 1, 541.

2 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 385.

8
Ib, 11, 11, 430.

Page #289

264
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
It is stated here that the mother of the prince Jamāli put the tuft of his hairs (aggakesa) in a jewelled casket and placed it under the pillow (ošīsagamile)', after taking it first in a piece of white cloth, washing it with the fragrant-scented water, then worshipping it with the most excellent incense and flowers and binding it in a piece of pure cloth to preserve it. Festivals
The Bhs shows that the people of its society celebrated many kinds of festivals and ceremonies on different occasions, as already referred to, such as, festivals of Indra, Kärttilca, Vāsudeva, Nāga (Snake-deity), Yakşa, Bhūta (Vyantaras), Kúpa (well, i, e. opening ceremony of well), Tadāga (tank), Nadi (river), Hrada (lake), Vīksa (tree), Caitya (temple), Stūpu (relic worship), etc.' in the performance of which the entire community participated with great enthusiasm and joy.
Besides these, the people observed the ceremonies of the births and marriage and the other incidents of life of an indivi. dual with the prevailing social customs of that period according to the economic prosperity of the family.
The customs of ceremonies of the birth and marriage have already been dealt with in the fourth section of this chapter in connection with the topics— Birth and its celebration' and "Marriage Ceremony'. Death
The Bhs presents a picture of various classes of deaths caused by different factors, such as, natural and unnatural, accidental and suicidal, murderous and voluntary, etc.
According to the text there are two main categories of death, viz. unsaintly (Bālamarana) and saintly (Panditamarana) deaths.
Under the first one come the following twelve kinds of death caused by the individual and social factors, viz. Valataḥ
1 BKS, 9, 33, 385. 4 Ib, 11, 11, 430.
11, 9, 33, 383. Ih, 2, 1, 91.
% 10, 11, 11, 429.

Page #290

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
265
marana (death caused due to fall from self control, being subject to senses, because of starvation); Vaśartta-marana (death caused by the tortures or torments of the senses, i.e. due to being overpowered by the sensuous objects); Antaḥśalya-marana (death caused by the non-extraction of extraneous objects like pikes and thorns etc. or under the influence of passions); Tadbhava-marana (death which leads to the previous life due to some action); Giripatana-marana (death caused by the fall from the hill, i. e. accidental); Tarupatana marana (death caused by the fall from tree, i.e. accidental); Jalaprave samarana (death caused by drowning oneself, i. e. suicide); Jvalana-marana (death due to burning, entering into fire, i. e. suicide); Visabhaksana-marana (death by swallowing poision, a suicidal death); i. e. due to drinking of poison, it is Sastravapatana-marana (death due to the striking of weapon, i.e. murderous); Vehayasa-marana (death due to hanging from a tree, i.e. suicidal); Grddhas prsta-marana (death caused by the piercing or eating or devouring by the vulture or wild animals i. e. unnatural death)'.
Under the second category come the two voluntary saintly deaths, viz. Padapopagamana-marana (death embraced by the saint by becoming immobile like a tree in his meditative state), and Bhakta pratyakhyana-marana (death embraced by the saint by giving up food).
Padapopagamana is further divided into two groups, viz. Niharima (when the dead body is disposed of and some ceremony is performed by the fellow monks for his liberation) and Aniharima (when the dead body is left out in the forest or cave without burning and ceremony).'
Thus from the above account of the different classes of death an idea may be formed about various social forces which operated during the period of this canonical work to bring the life of an individual to an end in this mundane world.
1.2 Bhs, 2, 1, 91.
34

Page #291

266
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IV
Death-Ceremony
The Bhs throws some light upon the customs of the funeral ceremony observed by the people of its society as revealed in its stray references, but it does not present a complete picture of this important social function.
Thus it is said that king Śiva performed the work (worship) of gods and his dead father (i. e. manes) (Devayapitikayakajje),' plunging himself into the Gangeā, while taking bath during the stage of his Vānaprastha ascetic life.
In the case of death of a Nirgrantha monk, his fellow brethren of the order performed the kāyotsarga ceremony for the liberation of his soul (parinivvāna) and brought his begging bowl (patta) and robe (cīvara) with them to report this matter to their religious preceptor.
In this connection the two kinds of death as already explained, viz. Nihārima and Anīhārima throw some light upon the funeral ceremony of a monk. In the case of Nihārima death the dead body was disposed off by the performance of some funeral rite, but in that of Anīhārima the corpse was left out in the forest or any lonely place without burning it and observing any ceremony.
It appears that there was also a custom of taking out the dead body of a religious leader in a palanquin in a colourful funeral procession, after having given it a ceremonial bath and decorated it with the Gośīrşa sandal paste, silken robe and all kinds of ornaments, as it is said to have been observed by the Ajāvika monks in the case of their teacher, Gośāla Mankhaliputra, on his death according to his instruction.
A similar account of the manners and customs in regard
"Bhs, 12, 9, 417.
16, 2, 1, 96. Here Skandaka is meant. On his death his fellow ascetics brought his begging bowl and robe (patta & civar a) to
Lord Mahāvira after performing due funeral rite. 9 lb, 15, 1, 556.

Page #292

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
267
to bath,' auspicious moments and days, festivals, ceremonies of birth and marriage," and funeral rites', is also found in the other Jaina texts.
In addition, they provide informations regarding these and other manners and customs in great details."
Conclusion
The study of the above social conditions clearly reveals that the society of that period was based on the traditional Varnaśramı Dharma with the ideal of Moksa (liberation). But it was not rigid, as it is evidenced by the fact of the gradual absorption of different tribes and nationals into the wider social system, resulting in the racial synthesis.
Spiritualism dominated the whole individual, social, political, economic and cultural life of the people and the society. An equal attention was paid by them to both the secular and religious duties. Thus a balance was maintained to attain the goal of life which helped them to renounce the material enjoyments and desires and guided them towards the spiritual realization.
1 Cf. Nayādhammakahão 16, 181 ; 2, 51 ; See Raya. 148 ;
Kalpa, 4, 67. ; Nayadhammakahão, 1, 24, p. 23. 3 Ib, 1, 25, p. 24. 4 16,1,20, p. 20. 5 16, 1, 24, p. 23. 6 See Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons',
by Dr. J. C. Jain for various funeral rites as revealed in the
Jaina texts, pp. 241-42. 7 Ib, pp. 227-242.

Page #293

FIFTH CHAPTER
Economic Conditions
FIRST SECTION
Agriculture
The very material necessity of human life has led men to devote their time very much to the earning of their livelihood, accumulation and distribution of wealth in different forms in various ways from the time immemorial. Since then the whole economic activity of the human society has been concentrated on the production, consumption and preservation of food and other necessaries of life for the present and future days.
Thus the Science of Economics (Varta) evolved itself out of the economic pursuits (Vitti Vrtti)1 of men, such &S, agriculture (phoḍikamma Sphotiḥ-bhūmeḥ sphotanam halakudālādibhiḥ saiva karma sphotikarma. comm.), arts and crafts (sippa), industry, trade and commerce (vanijja), etc.
It is clear from the BhS and the other literary works that the main factors of production of the requisites of economic life are land (khetta), labour, capital (dhana), and organization (negama), which formed the basis of the 'Science of Economics' in the socio-economic evolution of human civilization in the distant past.
The text throws a welcome light upon the different aspects of the economic conditions as reflected in its stray references, beginning from the hunting and agriculture upto that of a developed economy of trade, industry and banking, organized and run by the private guild of merchants.
Thus the text presents a detailed account of various arts and crafts, trades and industries and professions adopted by the
1 BhS, 7, 6, 288. 3 lb, 17, 5, 525.

2 1b, 8, 5, 330. 4 Ib, 3, 5, 330.

Page #294

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
269
different sections of the people of its society for earning their livelihood, such as, hunting of deer (miyavittie)', fishery (macchakacchehim..... ...vittiin kuppemāņā)', charcoal-making (imgālakamme), cutting and selling of forest plants franakamme), making and selling of carts (sāļikamme), transport business (bhādikamme), cultivation (phoạikamme), ivory business (dartavānijje), lacbusiness (lakkhavānijje), traffic in hair (kesavānijje), e.g. woolbusiness", wine business (rasavānijje), poison-business (visavānijje), act of crushing (e.g. sugarcane, etc. with machine, jartapılana-kamme)", castration of bulls (nillam chanakamme), act of setting fire to the woods (davaggidāvanayā i.e. clearing off jungles), act of draining or drying up the big tank, lake, etc. (sara-daha-talāya-paris08aņayā) and act of running brothel (asaī posaņayā)".
Besides these, a flourishing trade was carried on by the merchants in gold, bell-metal, cloth, jewel, gem, pearls, conch, coral, red jewelo, etc.
These evidences clearly show that the economic structure of the society as depicted in this canonical work was based on agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and industry and banking business partially controlled by the state, as it is already discussed in connection with the aiscal administration in the sixth section of the third chapter that there were well-organized revenue and commerce departments with their various activities connected with finance of the Government, such as, the land settlement, taxation, raising the standard of weights and mea. sures, money-lending business, etc. Moreover, one rich merchant (Satthavāha) was always associated with the administration along with the other high dignitaries of the state, probably as economic adviser to the Government.
1 Bhs, 1, 8, 65; 67.
16, 7, 6, 288. 3 16, 8, 5, 330. (Abhaya Deva Sūri explains that Kesa
vānij ja means cattle-business "Kesavajjivānām gomahişistri
prabhrtikānām vikrayah") 4.5 1b, 8, 5, 330. 815, 8, 5, 328. ? IB, 2, 5, 107. 8 16, 7, 9, 300.

Page #295

270
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Agriculture
From the above list of trades and professions it appears that the agriculture (phodikamme) was the mainstay of a large section of the people for earning their livelihood.
[Ch. V
The centre of this agro-economy was in village consisting of ten thousand families (dasakulasāhassieṇaṁ gāmenam), cattle, cultivable land, pasture (goyara)3 tank, garden, forest, etc.
Beyond the arable land of the village lay the grazing field common for its cattle and those belonging to the state in some
4
cases.
Besides the pasture, the village had its own groves (ārāma) and gardens (ujjana) and ended in the unfrequented and uncleared jungles and forests (aḍavie)."
Thus it is clear that a village had both cultivated and uncultivated lands (goyara) for producing crops and grazing cattle respectively and also some waste lands and forests.
The text thus gives an idea of the face of the country as existing at that period.
Measurement and Survey of Land
In connection with the fiscal administration in the sixth section of the third chapter on 'Political conditions' it has already been discussed that the land was measured, surveyed, and recorded by a class of settlement officers as suggested by the words "(a) mijjam" and "(a) dijjam" occurring in the BhS.'
So this reference to the measuring and transfer of land in this canonical work throws an important light upon the system of land tenure as existing during its period.

1 Bhs, 8, 5, 330..
a Ib, 11, 11, 430. The population of ten thousand families in a village seems to be inconceivable and an exaggeration when it is compared with that of the modern village. It may be a popular figure used by the author of the BhS.
3 Ib, 12, 7, 457.
6 Ib, 14, 7, 525.
4 Ib, 11. 11, 430. 7 Ib, 12, 7, 457.
5 Ib, 18, 10, 647.
s Ib, 11, 11, 429.

Page #296

271
Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
But the picture of this problem is, however, incomplete, as these evidences are concerned only with the royal amnesty declared on the occasion of the birth ceremony of a new born prince.1
Moreover, it does not convey a clear idea of ownership of the land whether the particular individual or the whole village was the owner of the same.
But it is apparently clear from the evidences of the private possession of wealth and property by the individual householders, that the holdings of land by the cultivators were governed by a law which was a kind of tenure by which the purchaser obtained the right of permanent enjoyment over it and of selling or donating it, if he desired to do so at any time.
On the basis of these holdings of land by the tenants taxes were assessed and collected by the revenue officials of the Government from them in kind or cash.
Thus the stray references to the land settlement occurring in this canonical work give an idea of the presentdayproprietorship and of the officials who were concerned with the works of measuring and recording lands, collecting and sometimes remitting taxes under the royal orders.
Classification of Land
According to the BhS the land may be classified into three groups, viz. field (ksetra), garden (udyana), and forest (atavi or vana or käntāra) as distinguished by the names of different crops, flowers and fruits respectively, e. g. Asogavana, Sattavannavana, Campayavana, Cuyavana, Tilagavana, Chattovavana, Asanavana, Siddhatthavana, Bandhujivagavanas, Ambavana', etc.
Implement and Agricultural Operation
The BhS makes incidental references to some implements used in the cultivation of the fields and harvesting of the crops
1 BhS, 11, 11, 429. 3 b, 1, 1, 19.

2 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 3, 2, 144. Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #297

272
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA • [Ch. V and gives an idea of the method of agricultural operations, etc. as revealed in its scattered evidences. Agricultural Implements . The text mentions the following implements, viz. a newly sharpened and tempered sickle (navapajjanaenam asiyaenan) and a sharp axe (tikkheņa paras uņā).' Besides these, the plough and spade, the two main agricultural tools were also used in cultivation, as it is suggested by the denotation of the word 'Phoạikamma'' i. e. ploughing and spading. The plough was drawn by the bullocks as distinguished from the others employed in the service of drawing the carts."
The ripe crops were harvested with the sickle, while the trees were felled by the axe. Methods of Agricultural Operation
The agricultural operation consisted of ploughing the fields, sowing the seeds, transplanting the seedlings, reaping the ripe crops and storing the grains of corns in a well-built store-house." Ploughing
The act of ploughing and spading (cultivation) is denoted by the word 'Phoạikamma as used in the BhS in connection with the holy teachings of Lord Mabāvīra on the fifteen occupations disapproved by the Nirgrantha religion (karmādānas).
Besides these, there is a direct evidence of ploughing the land by the cultivators, as revealed in reference to the effects of Kriyās (actions) arising out of the accidental killing of some beings by a man, while digging the earth.? Sowing of Seeds
Some incidental references in this text to the storing of grains show that a great care was taken by the farmers for the
1 Bhs, 17, 7, 525. 3 16, 8, 5, 330.
16, 7, 6, 246. ? 1b, 7, 1, 263.
2 Ib, 16, 4, 573. 4 16, 9, 33, 380. 6 16,, 8, 5, 330. $ 11, 6, 7, 246.

Page #298

273
Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
preservation of the germination-capacity (yoni) of the seeds of rice, wheat, barley, pulses, etc. kept in a well-built store before sowing them by the broadcasting method in a cultivated field at proper time and season.
The mention of some crops, such as, sugarcane1, tuberous root, ginger etc. clearly suggests that the method of transplanting the germinated cuttings and seedlings was also adopted by the cultivators for growing certain crops whose plant life exists in their adventitious buds or roots.
Reaping
The terms Lavae' and 'Luejja" occurring in the BhS denote ear or stalk of corn and its reaping by a sickle respectively. When the crops, sali (rice), Vrihi (a kind of rice), Godhuma (wheat), Yava (barley), etc. became mature and ripe, they were reaped by the cultivator holding and compressing together the scattered stalks of those yellow-stemmed crops in arms with a newly sharpened and well-tempered sickle (navapajjanaenam asiyaenam) (datrena).
Storing
out.
A great precaution was taken by the cultivators to store the harvested corns, such as, different kinds of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and other grains for the future use, as already pointed The method of storing grains of these crops is described thus that they were kept in granaries made of the palya (grass), sack of corn, straw and bamboo on an elevated platform without walls (mamca) and also on the roof of the house (mālā) (abhittiko manco malaśca grhopari bhavati, comm.)", besmeared with the cowdung at the door together with the lid, and covered with the cowdung from all sides, closed (pihita) and completely sealed up with the mud and marked with the lines (lamchiya), in order to main
1 Bhs, 21, 5, 691,; 23, 6, 693.
2.3 Ib, 14, 7, 525.
4 Ib, 6, 7, 246
5 Ib, 6, 7, 246. Dr. J. C. Jain has translated the word 'Mamca' & 'Mala' as a granary standing on pillars (mañca) & the upper storey of the house (mala). But it appears that 'mala' was the granary made on the roof of a building as it is found in Bengal.
35

Page #299

274
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
tain their food value and to preserve their germination-capacities (or viability) upto the maximum periods of three, five and seven years respectively.1
[Ch. V
It appears from this evidence of the system of storing grains that the germination-capacities of the cereals, like rice wheat etc., those of pulses (kalai) and others, and those of oil-seeds like linceed (alasi), mustard (sarsapa) and others, lasted in the minimum for one antarmuhurta, and in the maximum for three, five and seven years respectively. After that (period) their individual germination-capacities withered and got destroyed and the seeds became unseeds."
It is to be carefully observed that the knowledge of the germination-capacities of these cereals, pulses and other oil seeds as revealed in this canonical work almost agree with the results of germination-capacities obtained by the experiments of the agricultural researches of the present day.3
Rainfall
The terms 'pausa' and 'vāsa" used in the BhS denote the rainy season and rain respectively, which are most essential for growing rice and other crops of this season.
The reference to the duration of Udakagarbha' (change or transformation of matter into water), upto one samaya in the minimum and six months in the maximum shows that the phenomena of Nature operated in causing the rainfall within a shortest period or after a long period of six months.
There is no direct evidence in the text to cite that the process of irrigation of the cultivated fields was adopted by the peasants for growing crops, but the allusion to the act of drying up (or draining) the big tank, lake, etc., (saradahataḍāya parisosanaya)" by a class of people clearly suggests that the system of irrigation was in operation as it was well-known in ancient India.
1 BhS, 6, 7, 246.
2 Ib, 6, 7, 246.
3 Plant physiology, 2nd. Ed. Bequard S. Myor and Donald S.
Anderson p. 715.
4 Bhs, 9, 33, 383.
"Ib, 2, 5, 101.
61b, 8, 5, 330,

Page #300

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÜTRA
275 Agricultural Produce
In connection with the topic "Different kinds of food' as already discussed in the sixth section of the fourth chapter, it has been pointed out that the BhS presents an account of staple foods, such as, cereals, pulses, other grains, vegetables, fruits, etc.
Here an attempt will be made to give a list of varieties of the field crops and other agricultural produces raised by the cultivators of the society of that period.
Both the accounts are almost the same, for the agricultural produce is consumed by the people as food for the sustenance of life.
So the varieties of field crops and other agricultural produces as presented in the BKS are given below :Cereals!
Sali (a kind of rice harvested in winter), Vihi (a best type of rice), Godhūma (wheat), Java (barley), Javajavā (a kind of jowar) and Nipphāva (a kind of wheat).' Pulses
Kalāya, Masūra, Mugga (Phaseolus Mungo), Māsa (a valued kind of pulse having seeds marked with black and grey spots, Phaseolus Radiatus), Kulattha (cabalikākāraḥ, a kind of pulse, Dolichos Uniflorus), Alisamdaga' (cabalakā prakārāḥ), Satīna (tubar cānā, Pisum Arvense) and Palimanthaga (matara), vrtta caņakā (round pulse). Other crops
Ayasi (bhangi), Linseed ; Kusunbhaga (latļā), Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius; Koddava (kodrava), a species of grain eaten
13 Bh8, 6, 7, 246 ; 21, 2, 691. Nipphava is also called Valla.
See Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 5.6049. According to Jacobi it is Dolichos Senensis (Jain Sūtras XIV, p. 374). According to Weber Alisamdaga was a grain imported from Alexandria after the name of which it is called Alisamdaga.
See Indian Antiquary Vol. XIX. 6 Bhs, 6, 7, 246.

Page #301

276 studies in THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. V by the poor people (Paspalum Scrobiculatum); Kangu (millet), a kind of parric seed ; Varaga (varatta) or tubari ; Rālaga (kanguvisesa), the resin of Shorea Robusta; Kodūsaga' (kodra višeşa); Sarisava’ (siddhārthakaḥ, mustard seed) and Tilas (sesa me), Sesamum indicum.
Vegetables
Aluga (Ebony, Arum Campanulatum); Mülaga (raddish) ; Singavera (ginger;^ ; Addae (āraka, ginger)?; Pindahalidda (yellow turmeric) ; Palandu (onion), Lhasana (garlic); Kandamüla (a kind of tuberous root)"; Lāuya (bottle gourd),13 Turbi (gourd),18 Tausī (a kind of cucumber)"$ ; Valurki (a kind of cucumber)15 and Vāingani (Vrntaki-brinjal).18
Other field crops - Ikkhu (sugarcane)?? and Tambola (betel).18
Fibre-Crops-Sana (a kind of hemp, cannabis sativa)19 and Kappāsa (cotton) 20.
Dye-produce -(1) Mamjittha (mafjistha, Indian Madder)81 and (2) Kanhadala (Indigo)".
It appears from the above list of the field crops that most of them were grown in Eastern India where there are still found positive evidences of their cultivation in abundance. Flora
The Bhs clearly shows that its author was well-acquainted with the plant kingdom of India, particularly that of North India, and her flora and developed horticulture and arboricul. ture, as it is revealed by the fact that this canonical work presents a colourful description of the forests, groves, and gardens, endowed with different varieties of trees, Creepers, grasses, flowers and fruits. These natural products of the
1 The Mahābhärata refers to Karalüsaka as best corn
(III, 193, 19). 2 Bh8, 6, 7, 246; 18, 10, 6+7 ; 23, 5.
Ib, 6, 7, 246; 15, 1, 547. $ 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1.
Ib, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324. 6 lb, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 ; 23, 1. 7-8 16,7, 3, 277. 9.10 16, 8, 5, 330. 11 Ib, 8. 5, 330; 22, 6, 12 16.1, 1, 19. 13.16 11. 22, 6, 17 16, 21, 5, 18 16, 9, 33, 383. 19.21 16, 8, 6, 334. 22 16, 21, 5,

Page #302

Sec. 17 STUDIES IN THE BAHGAWATI SUTRA
277 plant kingdom had enriched the wild beauty of the landscape and supplied the necessary economic needs of the society to some extent. Forests
The term “Vaņa'l used in the Bhs denotes two meanings, viz. the natural forest adavžand the well-cultivated groves and gardens full of trees, flowers and fruits.
Thus it gives a list of different classes of van 189 as already pointed out in the beginning of this section, such as, Asogavana, Sattavannavana (Saptaparņavana)........, upto Bandhujivagavana, Ambavaņa, etc.
A deep trackless forest is called 'aqavi' (ațavz),while the groves and gardens were known as ārāma and ujjāna respectively where the wandering monks sometimes used to take shelter for a short period of their stay.
The plant kingdom as found in this text may be classified into the following main groups, viz. trees, (rukkha), herbs, grasses (tana), creepers (layā), and field crops which have already been discussed. The natural products of the plants may be divided into two broad categories on the basis of the economic use, namely, eatable and non-eatable natural products. Eatablo Natural Products
Of the eatable natural products grown in the gardens and forests varieties of fruits and spices, as already mentioned in connection with the topic •Different kinds of Food' in the sixth section of the fourth chapter, are recorded in the Bhs. Fruits
Anba (mango)o (mangifera Indica), Jarrbu (rose apple or black berry)10 (Eugenia Jambolana); Kosanball; Kadali (banana or plantain)1* (Musa Sapientum); Püyaphala (Arecanut)+3; Khajjūrī
1 Bhs, 1, 1, 19; 8, 5, 330. ? 16, (Vana), 8, 5, 330; 15, 1, 517 (Adavi), 16, 18, 10, 647.
4.5 Ib, 1, 1, 19. 16, 11, 11, 428. 7 16, 15 1, 547.
8 16, 18, 10, 647. 9 16, 15, 1, 554 ; 22, 2, 10 16,8, 3, 324 ; 22, 2. il 16, 22, 2.
12 13 16, 22, 1.

Page #303

278
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. V (date)1 (Phoenix Sylvestris); Nalieri (cocoanut) Tala (Palm); Tetali (Tamarind); Nivayaga (Karanjaka)5 (Pongamia glabra or verbesina scondens); Atthiya (asthika guava); Timduga (tinduka) (Diospyros embryopteris) (Ebony); Bora (the jujube); Maulinga (citron); Billa (wood apple) (Aegle Marmelos); Amalaga (Emblic Myrobalan); Phanasa (Panasa bread-fruit or jack fruit) (Artocarpus Integrifolia); Daḍima (the Pomegranate); Satara (a kind of reddish grapes); Kakali (a kind of grape); Khira (Cucumber); Riṭṭha; Baheḍaga (the fruit of Terminalia Belerica); Haritaga (the fruit of Terminalia chebula) and Bhallaya (Bhallata) (the fruit of the marking-nut-plant, Semecarpus Anacardium)1o.
Spices
Jira (cuminseed)" (Panicum miliaceum), Mariya (pepper)12, Pippali (or long pepper)13 Lavanga (Clove), Ela (any species of cardamom), Jaru (a kind of spices) and Sunthi (dry ginger)17. Non-Eatable Natural Products
Besides the fruits and spices, the BhS presents a long list of different classes of the plant kingdom, such as, trees, plants having tuberous roots (kanda), shrubs, herbs, creepers, flowers, etc.
Some of them supplied the economic needs of the society in the forms of bark cloth (vagalavattha)18, raw stuffs of medicine, firewood, house-building materials, articles of decoration, lac, etc., while others added to the natural beauty of the land and gave shelter to the wild denizens.
As a whole they checked the soil erosion and also contributed to the cause of rainfall which has always been one of the most essential factors for agriculture in India.
13 BhS, 8, 3, 324; 22, 1. 5 Ib, 22, 3.
6 Ib, 22, 3. (Atthika to Tinduka). Ib, 22, 3. (from Bora to Satara),
9 Ib, 23, 5.
11 1b, 21, 8.
13 Ib, 21, 7. 15 Ib, 22, 6. 11 Ib, 21, 5.

4 Ib, 22, 2.
8 Ib, 22, 6.
10 Ib, 22, 2.
12 Ib, 21, 8.
14 1b, 22, 1.
16 Ib, 23, 1. 18 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #304

Sec. 1]
Trees
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
A list of trees, plants and flowers, etc. is given below:
Campaya (Michelia Campaka-a kind of tree bearing a yellow fragrant flower), Chattova, Asana (the tree Terminalia)', Bhandiya (Širisa tree) Asadhagas, Rohiyam, (Andersonia Rohitaka), Udumbara, Padalirukkha, Tamala (Xantho-chymus), Takkuli (Pictorius), Tetali (Tamarind tree), Sala, Surala (a species of pine tree)10, Masaragalla, Keyatz (the tree pondanus odoratissimus), Cammarukkha (the parchment tree, the bark of it is used for writing upon), Gumdarukkhas (Saccharum Sara, the plant pataraka), Hingurukkha1 (Ferula, Asa Foetida or cyporus rotundas), Lavangarukkhal (the clove tree), Tüyaphalale (arecanut tree), Khajjuri (the date tre, Phoenix sylvestris), Nalier718 (cocoanut tree), Salakallana, Jayai (a kind of flower tree, Jasminum grandiflorum), Bhuyarukkha, Saya (the Teak tree)10, Ambila (Tamarindus Indica)01, Jira22 (Cumin tree, Panicum miliaceum) and Saga. Nimba (Azadirachta Indica), Amba (Mango tree, Mangifera Indica), Jambu (black berry tree, Engenia Jambolana), Kosamba (Kosamra), Tala (Palmyra tree), Amkolla (the Plant Alangium, Hexa-petalum) Pilu (Careya Arbonea or Salvadora persica), Selu (cordia Myxa), Sallai, Moyai (Mopiringa-pterygosperma or Mussa Sapientum), Malluya (Ocimum Sanctum), Baula (Mimusops Elengi) Palasa (Butea frondosa), Karamja (the tree Pongamia glabra, a medicinal plant), Putramjiva (Roxburghii), Rittha (Sapindus Detergens), Baheḍaga (Terminalia Belerica) Haritaga (Terminalia Chebula), Bhallaya (the Acajou or Cashew-nut tree or the marking nut tree, esp. acid quicea for medicine), Khira (Asclepia rosea, Mimosa kauki), Nidhai Piyala (the tree Buchanania Latifolia, Commonly called piyala), Puiya (Bonduc), Nivayaga (Pongamia glabra), Senhaya (Slaksana,
1 Bhs. 1, 1, 19 (Campaya to Asana).
2.4 Ib. 21, 6, 528.
7.10 1b, 8, 3, 324; 22, 1, 692.
11.14 Ib, 22, 1.
15-18 Ib, 22, 1. 20.23 16, 21, 7.

279
5.6 1b, 14, 8.
19 Ib, (Salakallāṇa to Bhuyarukkā), 8, 3, 324, 24 Ib 22, 1.

Page #305

280
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
(Ch. V
Bauhinia Tomentosa), Pasiyu, S58aea (Simsapa, the tree Dalberagia Sis800 or Asaka), Punnāga, Nāgarukkha (Orange). Sivanna (Srāparna, Premna Spinosa or Longifolia), Asoga (the Jonesia Asoka). Atthiya (the guava), Tirduya (Diospyros embryopteris), Bora (vadara, zizyphus jujuba), Kavitha (kapistha, Feroma Elephan. tum), Ambadaga (the hogdrum or Spondias Mangifera)), Māuliinga (mātulinga, a citron), Billa (the wood apple tree, Aegle Marmelos), Amalagie (emblic Myrobatan), Phanasa (Jack fruit or bread fruit, Artocarpus Integrifolia), Dādima (the Pomegranate), Asuttha (asvattha, Ficus religiosa),, Vada (Vața, the Banyan, Ficus Indica, Indian figs), Naggoha (nyagrodha, Ficus bengalensis), Nandirulkha, (Cedrela Toona), Pippali (Long pepper, Piper Longum hav. ing the waved leaf), Pilakkharukkha (plaksavrksa, Figtree, Ficus Infectoria), Kāuivariya (Kadumvariku, the opposite-leaved fig, Ficus opposite folia) and Kucchumbhariya (Kaustombharika).
Devadali3 (Pinus Devadāru), Tilaga (Clerodendrum Phlo. moides or Symplocos racemosa), Lanya (a kind of bread fruit tree, Artecarpus Lacucha), Chattoha (Pterospermum Suberi folium), Sirīsa (Minosa sirisa), Sattavanna (Alstonia scholaris. Seven leaved tree), Dahivanna, Loddha (Symplocos Racemosa), Dhava (Grislea Tomentosa or Anogeissus Latifolia), Candana, Ajiuna (the tree terminatia, Arjuna). Niva (Nauclen kada mba). Kuduga, Kalamba (Kadamba) Ganja (Abrusprecatonius, gunijā), Pādala (the tree bearing the trumpet flower, Bignoma Suaveo. lens), Vasi (gendaruessa), An kolla (ańkota®, the plant vulgaris or Adhatoda vasica or Alangium Hexa patalum), Kālingi (the plant wrightia antidysen terica), Phollai, Akkavandina (arkavondika, the plant calotropis Gigantea). Kamariya (kaņțarikā, Kitthi, Mahu (Bassia Latifolia or Jonesia Asoka), Payalai, (Mahu) Singiniruha (Trapa Bispinosa), Sappa-suganddha (Sarpa-sugandhā, the ichneumon plant) Chinnaruha (clerodendrum phlomoides)? Āyākāya (Myrobalanus chebula), Kuhanı Rukkhai Olibanum or thorn apple, Mesua Roxfurghii), Uvvehalıyā, Saphāsajjā, Chatta (Andropogon or Mushroom), Niya, Kumāra (the teee capparis
2-3
i BhS, 22, 2. 6 16, 22, 4.
İh, 22, 3. 16.22, 6.
4 Ib, 22, 3. 7 Ib, 23. 1.

Page #306

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
281
trifoliata)." Pādhāmie (Pājhāmrga) Modhari, Danti, Cardi (Andropogon-aciculatus), Bhamgi (it may be bhanga-hemp ? Cannabis sativa), Nahi, Kimirāsi, Nangalai (Uraria, Lagopodioides), Peyuya, Kirnapauyala, Vāteha, Renuya (medicinal plant)36 Timira (a sort of acquatic plant), Sata (Anethum Sowa), Poraga (pome. granate tree), Samutava, Bhusa, Kurūbha (a Shrub), Karavada,” Vayana and Thurayak.
Abbharūha (Cnlamus Rotung or Cyperus Rotundus), Voyāna (Vodāna), Tanlul«jaga, Coragga, Majjarārayāi (Plumbago Rosea), Lalkha (lac), Dagapippaliya, Davvi, Sutthiya (ka) (Marsilea Quadrifolia), Mamdukki?, Tulsis (Roly-basil, a small shrub venerated by the Vaişnavas), Kanhadalla-(Indigo plant ?), Araļa, Phanejja, Ajjae (the plant Ocimum Gratissimum), Cora, Jirā (Panicum Miliceum), Damanā (Artemisia Indica ?) and Maruyā (Bignonia Suaveoleus 29 or a kind of flower plant). Plants having tuberous roots (Kandas)
Hirilī Sirili, Sissirili, Kitthiyā, Chiriyā, Chirivirāliyā, Kanhakanda, Vajjakanda, Süranalanda, (Amorphophallus Camp anulatus), Kheluda, Bhaddamutthā (a kind of Cyperus, a medicinal root), Lohi (Symplocos Racemosa), Nihū (a kind of medicinal plant), Thihi, Thirüyā, Muggakanni (Phaseolus trilotus), Assakanni (the tree Vatica Robusta, called from the shape of its leaves), Sihamąhi (the shrub Abrus precatorius) and Musumąh7.10
Herbs
Erinda (castor oil plant, Ricinus communis or Palma Christi), Haritaga, ( a green herb),'2 Taņa (any gramineous plant), Vatthula (a fibrous green plant)"3 Cilliyā (a kind of pot herb)14 and Kadali (the banana plant)15 (Musa Sapientum).
i Bhs, 23, 3.
? 16, 23, 4. 9 Ib,, 23, 5.
4 lb, 21, 5. 526 16, 21, 6. 1 16, 21, 7.
8.9 16, 21, 8. 10 16, 7, 3, 277 ; 8, 3, 324 (Lohi to Musundhi, 23, 2,) 11 12 16, 21; 7 (Terminalia Chebula also). 13_14 16, 21, 7 (it may be a kind of vegetable).
16 Ib, 8, 3, 324 ; 22, 1.
36

Page #307

282
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V
Different kinds of Bamboo plant?
Cāvavarsa (Shorea robusta), Venu, Kanaka or the plant Butea Frondosa or Cassia Sophora, Kakkāvarsa, Varuvarsa, Damdā, Kuļā (it is found in East Bengal, Aegle maremelos ?), Vimācandā (a kind of plant of the bamboo group, probably it is Andropogon aciculatus) and Venuya a kind of bamboo with poisonous fruit). Grasses
Viraņā (a kind of fragrant grass, Andropogon Muricatus), Ikkada (ekkada*), Nala (a species of reed, Ampbidonax Karka, 18-12 feet high: it is found in East Bengal). Sediva'. Dabbha" (Saccharum Cylindricum), Kartiyadabbha (another kind of Dabbha), Kusa (Kusa grass,' poa cynosuroides), Podai (Ponukz) Vibhangu, Sippiya and Sumkalitana, Reeds and creepers
Bhamasa, Vetta (Vetra),10 Satta," Allai (allaki)12 Go-poida?? Virālīlt and Rāyavalli (Momordica Charantia).16 Flowers
Utpala (the blossom of the blue lotus, Nymphaea caerubea)16, Pauma (padma, lotus, Nelumbium speciosum)'7, it closes towards the evening often confounded with water-lily, Nalina (water-lily, Nelumbium Speciosum)18 ; Udumbara flowep.19 (the flower of the tree Ficus Cilomerata) Pādali flower 20 (trumpetflower of Bignonia Suaveoleus); Banla (Bakula), the flower of Mimusops Elengi; Palasa (the blossom of the tree of Butea Frondosa)"l; Siriyaka, Nava-Nāliya (fresh lotus); Koranțaga ; Bandhujīvaga (red coloured-flower of Pentapetes phoenicea)23 ; Kunda (a kind of Jasmine, Jasminum Multiflorum), Avayā (alja,
i Bhs, 21, 4.
2.3 16, 21, 5, 5 10, 11, 9, 417 ; 12, 8, 459; 21, 6. ? 16, 11, 9, 417; 12, 8, 459 21 6 9 Ib, 21, 6.
10.11 16, 21, 5. 13 16, 21, 6.
14 16, 22, 1. 16.18 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, (1-8), 416.
19 16, 9, 33, 385 ; 14, 8, 528. 20 1b, 14, 8, 528
31 16, 22, 2. 23 16, 22,6 ; 23, 1.
4 I5, 21, 6. 8 II, 21, 6. 8 16, 22, 4. 12 10, 21, 4. 15 Ib, 23, 4.
22 16, 22,5

Page #308

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 283 lotus); Nanda; Kalambaga (kadamba); Indivara (the blossom of a blue lotus, the Nymphaea Stellata and Cyanea); Sayapuppha (Anethum Sowa)'; Maņojja (a kind of flower which opens at midday and withers away the next morning) and Padhā (a kind of red blossoms)
A critical study of the above list of flora reveals the economic resources of the society of its period as derived from the horticulture and arboniculture.
The reference to the occupations, Vanakamma', 'Ingālakamma' and 'Sāļikamma' adopted by certain sections of the people clearly shows that the trees, the natural products of the forests and gardens supplied the necessary woods for making charcoal, carts and other wooden articles required by the society in its economic life.
Forests
Forest was one of the important sources of the state income as mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures. Moreover, they were the abodes of the wild denizens some of which came to the service of the people after their domestication, e.g. wild elephants. They were also the places of serene and peaceful atmosphere for practising austerities and meditation, as it is evidenced by the fact that a number of the vānaprastha Tāpasas including the royal sage, Siva', practised asceticism, living in a forest on the bank of the Gangā.
Fauna
Since the hunting age of human civilization upto the present day both wild and domestic animals have supplied the economic needs of the society to a considerable extent in various forms, such as, flesh, milk, skin, bone, wool and other byproducts in the peaceful civil life as well as in times of war.
In the economic life of the period of the BhS also, the cattle have been considered by the householders and even by the
1 Bhs, 23, 1. 8 1b, 9, 33, 381. 6 16, 23, 1.
: 10, 11, 9, 417, 4 10, 21, 8. 7 Ib, 8, 5, 330.
8 Ib, 22. 5. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #309

284
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. V
kings as one of the most important parts of the wealth of an individual family, as it is clearly expressed in the self-deliberations of the rich householder, Tamali of Tamralipti1 and king Siva of Hastinapura thus, "I prosper by gold, wealth, rice, sons, cattle", etc.
The term 'Pasu' used in the BhS and other texts denotes both wild and domestic animals in a wider sense. Here in the BhS this term signifies the cattle-wealth in general which was most essential for the agricultural operation and the animal husbandry.
It appears from the BhS that the usefulness of the service of the domestic animals in the economic life was fully realized and valued by the people of its society. The text gives a list of the domestic and wild animals in its stray references.
Under the category of the first one come the elephants," horses, bullocks,' cows, buffaloes,' goats.10 sheep," dogs," etc.
8
6
The elephants and horses were used by the kings and nobles11 in war as the fighting instruments and in the peaceful civil life as means of conveyance in their journeys. On their deaths their tusks and bones, particularly those of the elephants were of great value for the ivory work, as it is evidenced by the fact that a class of merchants carried on the ivory-business (damtavanijja).15
The cows and buffaloes in general came to the service of the agricultural operation and the dairy farming for the production of milk and its by-products, while the bullocks in particular were utilized for the transport purpose to draw the carts, and the sheep and goats supplied wool and meat, skin and sometimes milk also.
1 Bhs, 3, 1, 134.
3.4 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 6 Ib, 7, 9, 303; 9, 33, 383. 8.9 Ib, 5, 3, 325. 13 Tb. 7, 9, 300.
15 Ib, 8, 5, 330.

2 Ib, 11, 9, 417.
5 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385. 71b, 9, 33, 380.
10.11 Ib, 12, 7, 457. 12 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 14 Ib, 9,33,385; 7, 9,303; 9,33,383.

Page #310

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
285
The hides of the dead cows and buffaloes were used in the leather work for making shoes, bags, etc. as it is suggested by the mention of these articles in the Bhs.
The word 'Kesavāņijja occurring in it denotes the traffic in hair in general, e. g. wool-business. Thus it is evidently clear that the cattle formed an important part of the economic life of the society as objects of trade for their hair (wool) also at that period. Cattle rearing
The text gives some idea of cattle-rearing by the people by making some indirect incidental references to this occupation of animal-husbandry. It is learnt from this canonical work that ten thousand cows formed one herd (vaya), while a flock of goats consisted of one hundred to one thousand heads.
It is learnt from these evidences that they were reared within some enclosure in a particular place provided with sufficient pastures and abundant water for their grazing and roaming, “Pauragoyarão paurapāniyāo.""
The text further reveals that the cows were kept in a well-built cowshed to protect them from the rain and scorching heat of the sunshine at mid-day. It was in one such cowshed belonging to Gobahula, where Gośāla Mankhaliputra was born.
Castration and piercing of noses of bulls
There is an incidental reference in tbis text to the acts of castration of bulls and perforating of their noses done by some people, definitely for taming and yoking them so that they could be controlled and utilized in the service of the agricultural operation and in drawing the carts for the transport purpose."
The evidences of castration of bulls as revealed in the BhS are also corroborated by the fifth pillar edict of Asoka where the king prohibits this act on certain days, such as, the eighth day
1 See Section on Arts & Crafts about leather works. ? Bhs, 8, 5, 330. 8 1b, 11, 11, 430. 4.6 Ib, 12, 7, 457. . 1b, 15, 1, 540
7 16, 8, 5, 330.

Page #311

286
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SÜTRA
[Ch. V
or the fourteenth day or the fifteenth day of the lunar halfmonth or the Tisya-punarvas u days or the three Cāturmāsī days or on auspicious days.
The following description of the two young bullockswhich were yoked to the cart of Rşabhadatta on his pilgrimage to Lord Mabāvīra at the Bahuśālaka Caitya throws a side light upon the rearing of the cattle with best care taken by the people of those days.
It is described that the two bullocks were endowed with the power of swiftness and yoked to the cart and they had equal hoofs, equal tails, equally polished horns and were more distinguished by golden ornaments round their necks, silverbells, the cotton naval ropes inlaid with gold and their heads furnished with the wreaths of blue lotuses. Wild Animals
The BLS presents a list of a number of wild animals. Some of them are injurious, ferocious and dangerous to life, while the others are non-injurious and playful and they are liked by the people.
Injurious wild animals—Siha (lion), Vaggha (tiger), Vaga (a class of ferocious animals), Diviyā (a class of tiger), Accha (bear), Taraccha (a class of tiger) and Paras sara (Sarabha or a fabulous wild animal which is stronger than the lion and elephant).
Non-injurious wild animals-Miya (deer)s and Golangüla (monkey).
Besides these, the text makes references also to a considerable number of other injurious and non-injurious lower animals of different species, both terrestrial and acquatic, birds, and insects. They are as follows:
Injurious Poisonous lower animals (Āśīvisa.Terrestrial)Vrścika-Jāti-āśāvişa (scorpion), Mandika.Jāti-āšīvisu (frog) and Uraga-Jāti-āśāvisa (snake).
1 Bh8, 9, 33, 380. 8 16, 1, 8, 65.
2 16, 7, 8, 288 ; 15, 1, 560. 4 Ib, 12, 8, 460. 6 Ib, 8, 7, 316

Page #312

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
287
Reptiles - Ahi (other class of snake), Ajagara (a species of snake of large size), Asāliya, Mahoragāt (allegator)' and Vilae (mouse)
Non-injurious lower animals (terrestrial)-Nakula (mongoose).
Acquatic animals-Jalaukā (leech)," Sisumāra® Kumma or Kacchava (tortoise) and Maccha (fish).
Birds--Birds are classified into four categories", viz. Canma pakkhī, e. g. valgulīprabhrtīnān, (bat, etc.),10 Lomapalkhi e.g. Hurissaprabhrtānān (swans, etc )", Samuggapakkhi (Samudya. kākāra paksavatān-Manusyuksetrabahirvarttināṁ) and Viyayapakkhi(Vistāritapakşavatām Samayakşetrabahirvarttināmeva)," e.g. Dhanka (crow), Kanka (Heron), Maggae (acquatic crow), Sikhi (peacock), Kukkuda (cock)"^, Bījabījaka, Paksi-virālika, Jivafijāvaka, Samuddavāyasa (sea-crow) and Vatta (Varttaka).16
Insects— Bhamara (bee), Masaga (mosquito), Damsa (injurious big type of fly)"?, Pottiya", Halle", Kunthu20 and Kulingacchāe (ant). Dairy Farming
As already discussed, the cattle constituted an important part of the household property on account of their economic value, as milk and its by-products, such as, curd, butter, etc. formed the most essential items of general food taken by the people of that period.
The evidences of cattle-rearing and the mention of the herd of cows consisting of ten thousand head," the cowshed of Gobahulao and the rows of cows and buffaloes clearly suggest
10.11
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 560.2 1b, 8, 3, 325; 15, 1, 560.3 16, 12, 8, 460. 4 1b, 8, 3, 325 ; 15, 1, 560. 5 I6, 13, 9, 598. 6 Ib, 15, 1, 560.
7 16, 8, 3, 325 ; 7, 6, 288. 8 16, 7, 6, 288 ; 15, 1, 560. 16, 15, 1, 560. Ib, 13, 9, 498.
12 1b, 15, 1, 560 (Comm.). 13 Ib, 3, 1, 134 ; 12, 8, 460,
Ib, 12, 8, 460. 15 Ib, 18, 8, 644.
Ib, 18, 6, 631. 17 16, 9, 33, 384.
18 Ib, 15, 1, 560. 19 16, 15, 1, 555.
20 16, 7, 8, 294. 21 16, 18, 8, 640.
22 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 29 16, 15, 1, 540.
24 Ib, 12, 7, 457.

Page #313

288 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. V that the dairy farming was a part of the agricultural economy of those days by which a section of the people earned their livelihood, as it is indicated by the incidental references to milk? (khīra), curd (dadhi), butter (navaniya), clarified butter (ghaya)" and jars of milk, of curd and of clarified butter respectively.
As regards the poultry farming the text does not give a clear idea about it, but the incidental references to the egg of hen (kukkuļi amdaga), chicken (kukkudapote), cock (kukkuda), pigeons (kavoya)," and swan or duck (hamsa)10 suggest that there was probably the cultivation of poultry carried on by the private management of some members of the society.
The picture of the agricultural economy as depicted in the BKS is also found in other Jaina works.
In addition, they give a clear idea of agriculture which was carried on by the peasants in a systematic way.
Thus the Brhatkalpa Bhāsyal shows that the arable land was the very basis of the rural economy and it was counted as one of the ten most valuable external possessions, viz. buildings, gold, seeds of grains, wood-fuel and grass, friends, relations, conveyance, articles of furniture, male and female slaves, and utensils.
It was classified into two groups, viz. Setu" (the agricultural field having mounds for irrigation from artificially made water sources) and ketuls (the land where crops may be grown during the rains) on the basis of the two different systems of irrigation, viz. artificial and natural as demanded by the exigencies of the geographical, physical and climatic factors of the region.
The Setu land was cultivated by the peasants witb the help of artificial methods of irrigation, such as by the Persian
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429 ; 16, 6, 581.
2 15, 16, 6, 581. 3 16, 18, 6, 631. 11b, 11, 9, 417 ; 15, 1, 541 ; 16, 6, 581. 6 16. 16, 6, 581.
Ib, 7, 1, 269. 7 16, 18, 8, 640. 3 Ib, 12, 8, 460. 9 I6, 15, 1, 557. 10 16, 13, 9, 498. 11 Brhatkalpa Bhāsya--1,825. Vide 'Life in ancient India', p. 89. 12 Avaśyaka Sūtra, 6. 13 Nāyādhammakahão, I. Țikā, 1, p. 1.

Page #314

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
289
wheels (arahatta) etc., while the irrigation of the Ketu land was done by the natural process of rainfall.1
The agricultural operation was carried on as usual by the man behind the plough in proper time and season with the expectation of getting the better harvests."
In this connection the festival of the ploughing-deity (Sitajanna) was celebrated by the peasants and thus the cultivation of land was sanctified by a religious performance with the hope of obtaining good results in the out-turn of crops.
It appears from other Jaina texts that the agricultural operation was carried on by the farmers on a large scale as it is evidenced by the fact revealed in the Uväsagadasão1 that Ananda, the wealthy householder of Vanijyagrama, had five hundred ploughs, each having the capacity of ploughing and preparing a field of one hundred acres (Niyattana).
As regards the agricultural implements they refer to three types of ploughs, viz. hala, kuliya and namgala. Spade (Kudala) and the fencing of cultivated plots of land were also known."
There are also references in some other Jaina texts to the pounding of varieties of corns in Ganjaśālā, a wooden mortar (udukhala) for cleansing rice and a threshing floor (Khalaya), a cattle-feeding-basket (ogokilanja) and winnowing sieve (suppa
kattara).10
Besides these, they make mention of the sugar-cane press
1 Brhatkalpa Bhāṣya, 1, 826.
2 Uttara. Ti. 1. p. 109.
3 Bṛhatkalpa Bhasya, 3, 3647.
4 Uvasagadasão, 1. p. 7. Nivartana is referred to by Baudha
yana. See The Economic History of Ancient India'-p. 190 S. K. Das. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' p. 90, f. n. 9.
5 Avasyaka Curni, p. 81.
Uvāsagadasão, 2. p. 23.
7 Vide 'Life in Ancient India', p. 90. Nisitha Curni, 9, p. 511. 9 Vyavahara Bhasya, 10, 23, Suya, 4, 2, 12.
10 Uvasagadasão, 2, p. 23; Suya 4, 7, 12 Vide Life in Ancient India' p. 90. 37

Page #315

290
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V (mahajanta: kolluka) and the house for pressing sugar-cane (jaṁtasālā).
ร
As regards the horticulture and arboriculture a similar picture as revealed in the BhS is also found in other Jaina works.
In addition, they make references to the collecting and piling up of fruits in a drying place (koṭṭaka) and despatching them to the city-markets for selling purpose. There is also an account of different processes of ripening fruits according to their varieties, such as, mangoes by covering them with the husk or straw (indhana), Tinduka (the fruit of ebony) by the heat treatment (dhūma), cucumber (cirabhata) and citron (bijapura) by mingling them with the ripe fruits (gandha) of their own kinds etc.'
A more definite account of the cattle-rearing and dairyfarming is found in other Jaina texts. It is stated there that the herds of cattle and goats were reared under the care and protection of the cowherds (gopalaka) and shepherds (ajāpalaka), appointed by the owners of these domestic animals which were regularly taken to the pasture grounds (daviya)" for grazing.
The Abhiras (Ahira), a particular class of the people of those days were well known for their profession of animal husbandry on a large scale..
In regard to the dairy farming, a picture of a developed state of this side of agro-economy is presented by other Jaina texts in which mention is made of the milk of cows, she-buffaloes, she-camels, she-goats etc., curd, butter, clarified butter and also the milk-house (khiraghara) where products were obtained.
these
1 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 19. 43; Brhatkalpa Bhasya Pithika 575.
2 Vyavahara Bhasya, 10, 484. Vide 'Life in Ancient India,' p. 91. Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 1. 872.
4 Ib, 1. 841 f.
5 Acaranga Sutra. II, 3. 2. 350.
6 Avasyaka Niryukti, 471: Ava. Cu, p. 280f.
7 Ava. Cù. II, p. 319.
8 Nisitha Curni, 9, p.

511.

Page #316

Sec. II]
291
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŐTRA
SECOND SECTION
Arts and Crafts
Arts and crafts have stood next to agriculture in importance and been correlated with it in the economic life of the society in every age of human civilization.
Agriculture produces the food stuffs and raw materials for the social consumption, but it cannot supply all the requirements of the people, such as, clothing, housing etc., nor can it absorb the entire population in its productive system.
So with the change in Nature, the growth of the population, and the social evolution, the very fundamental economic laws have led the surplus people on lands to discover some ways and means for finding out a solution of this grave problem of maintenance and to learn arts and crafts in order to earn their livelihood and consequently inspired them with a new zeal to render service to the whole society by their occupation in this field of economics.
The BIS throws much light upon these aspects of economic system by furnishing ample evidences regarding various arts and crafts which were the sources of earning livelihood of certain sections of the community during its period.
The list of these arts and crafts begins with the hunting operation and ends with the medical profession, the former involved the act of killing peaceful and playful lower animals, like deer, birds and other games for the sustenance of human life; while the latter was carried on to cure diseases, to relieve physical sufferings and to save life, particularly the human life for its continuance.
Thus the hunting of deer by trapping? and shooting arrows, bird.catching and fowling, and fishing“ formed the occupations of some classes of the people for earning their livelihood.
1 Bhs, 1, 8, 65.
2-8 16, 1, 8, 67.
4 Ib, 7, 6, 288.

Page #317

292
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA (Ch. V Hunting
The Bhs reveals that there was a class of professional hunters who lived on by the occupation of hunting deer and other games and probably selling their flesh also, as it is implied by the denotation of the word 'miyavittie'. Method of hunting
The text makes incidental references to two methods of hunting deer-the one by trapping them with the net? (küdapāsa) and the other by shooting them with the arrow (usum nisirai) in different hunting grounds, such as, hills, forests, etc.' Fowling
An indirect reference has been made to the fowling of birds in the Bhs where it is stated that some man holds the bow, ta kes the position, draws the arrow up to the ear and shoots it in the sky and kills beings in the air, etc. Fishery
The BKS shows that fishery, another occupation, was carried on by a certain section of the population of its society to earn their means of living, as it is evidenced by the fact of the art of making net and catching fish in the river by the people in times of economic crisis for the sustenance of their lives. The text makes an incidental reference to the art of manufacturing net thus :
"One net in which knots are tied in due order which are again gradually tied one after another without any gap and mutually tied with one another by its length, breadth and heaviness (weight), remains in a complete whole by the length, breadth and heaviness due to the tying of one knot with the other......... and thus one full production is made by the completion of knotting (Samudāya-racanā)..""
"Like the knotted net, thousands of particles of ‘āyuş karma' of many beings bound in many lakhs of births remain".
i Bhs, 1, 8, 65.
2.8 16, 1, 8, 67.
4_5 Ib, 5, 3, 183.

Page #318

Sec. 11]
TU BUAGAWATT SÜTRA STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
293
The text further reveals that the people had to live on by the occupation of fishery in the hard times of an economic crisis, as it is apparently clear from the statement that during the Dusama-Dusamākāla' in Bhāratavarsa the people, having come out of their dwellings at the time of sunrise and sunset would cause the fish and tortoise to reach the land from the axile-deep water of the river and bury them into the earth. Thus they would pass time upto twenty-one thousand years by carrying on livelihood with those lifeless fish and tortoises seasoned by cold and heat.
Besides tliese low professions, the BKS presents an account of a large number of artisans and tradesmen and various arts and crafts which formed an important part of the economic life of the people. Meaning of Sippa
The term 'Sippa' (Silpa)s used here and also in the Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical texts generally denotes a manual art or craft, or any handicraft or mechanical or fine art including proficiency in military art (Cheyāyariya).* Such arts or crafts sometimes called bāhyakalā "external' or practical arts are stated to be sixty-four in number, e.g. carpentering, architecture, jewellery, farriery, acting, dancing, music, medicine, poetry, etc., and sixty.four ābhyantarakalā secret arts' are also enumerated, e.g. kissing, embracing and various other arts of coquetry. The term Kala' bears the wider denotation, having included Silpa in it in wider sense, but it signifies any mechanical or fine art in particular and sixty-four kinds of kalā are also enumerated in the Saivatantra and other Brāhmaṇical works”, e.g. gîtam (vocal music), vādyar (instrumental music), nrtyar (dance) and the like.
The term 'Kārī' occurring in the text denotes a worker in handicraft, e.g. kumbhakārž (potteress).
1 Bhs, 7, 6, 288. 9 1b, 14, 7, 425. 6 Vâtsyāyana's Kama Sutra 1, 3, 17.
i 16, 7, 6, 288. 4 16, 7, 9, 300. 6 Bhs, 15, 1, 539.

Page #319

294
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. V Classification of artisans
The Bhs provides a list of the following artisans as distinguished by their respective arts and crafts, viz. Weaver (tamtuvāyu), Potter (Kumbhakāra) & Blacksmith®. Ivory business (damtavānijja) was carried on by some people who got the supply of ivory products from the ivory workers. Wheel-wright (Rathakāra), Wood-cutter°, Cook (mahāṇasīnī), Barber (kāsā. vaga)a and others are also mentioned.
The reference to these artisans and other professional men gives an idea of various arts and crafts taken up by certain sections of the people as occupations to earn their livelihood, such as, weaving, dying and cleaning, mining and metallurgy, blacksmithy, ivory work, pottery, building industry, fuel industry, leather work, perfumery and toiletting, etc.
Weaving
The art of spinning and weaving was one of the most important professions in the economic life of the people, as it produced and supplied yarns, cloths of various qualities and screens which have already been discussed in connection with the topic 'Dresses' in the sixth section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions'. Cloths were manufactured by this industry from cotton, wool, silk, dugulla bark, etc. in the weaver's workshop located in the towns and cities
It is stated that Lord Mahāvīra obtained his residence in one such weaver's workshop outside Nālandā to pass the rainy season during the second year of his asceticismo.
In connection with the holy teachings of the Master on the binding of karma-matter, given by way of an example, the Bhs presents an idea of the art of manufacturing cloth thus:--
As a cloth which is fresh from the loom
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541. 3 16, 6, 1, 229; 16, 1, 564. 6 16, 9, 33, 385.
16, 11, 11, 430. 9 16, 6, 3, 233.
? 10, 15, 1, 539. 4 16, 5, 8, 330. 6 Ib. 16, 4, 573.
Ib, 9, 33, 385. 16, 15, 1, 541.

Page #320

Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
295 (tartugayassa) and is enjoyed (used) binds matter (dirt), just like that karma-matters get stuck in the soul.'
Cleaning and Dyeing crafts
The Bhs throws some light on the arts of cleaning and dyeing cloths by making incidental references to them, while dealing with the karma-matter as explained by Lord Mahāvīra by way of an example.
Thus it is stated "As the matters (pudgal18) of a cloth which is full of dirt, mud, soft and hard dirts and dust get dissolved from all sides, when it is cleaned and washed with pure water, just like that karma-matters also get dissociated, by pure meditation, from the soul"?
Dyeing
The art of dyeing cloths is associated with that of cleaning them, as they flourish together side by side with the craft of weaving.
This canonical work gives some ideas about the process of dyeing cloths in a similar way like that of cleaning as already explained by way of analogy. Thus it is stated :
"As some man throws an unused or washed or fresh cloth just produced from the loom into a pot of colour of Indian Madder (mamjitthā loņże), that surely being thrown is thrown, being cast is cast, and being coloured is coloured,'8 just
e that a Nirgrantha or a Nirgrant hi becomes a worshipper (ārādhaka or āradhila) as soon as he or she resolves to perform an atonement for the crime committed by him or her during the journey from one village to the other.
Cloths were also dyed in red ochre (dhāturattavattha)", while towels were coloured in saffron (Gardhakājāie).
The Parivrājaku monks used to wear cloths dyed in red ochre (dhāturattavatthi).
1.3 Bh8, 6, 3, 233. 6 16, 2, 1, 90 ; 11,9, 417. 7 Ib, 2, 1, 90; 11, 9, 417.
9.4 16, 8, 6, 334.
6 16, 9, 33, 385.

Page #321

296
Dyeing Industry
It is learnt from the BhS that the dyeing industry was fully developed during its period, as it is evidenced by the fact of the process of dyeing cloth and the mention of three kinds of colour, viz. mineral colour (dhaturatta red ochre)', organic (mamjittha Indian Madder), and prepared colour (khamjanaragaratta collyrium).
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The term 'Raga' denotes both colour and dye-stuff. So the cloth dyed in red ochre was called 'dhaturattavattha' (dhaturakta vastra), while one coloured in collyrium was known as khamjanaragaratta.
The reference to 'Lakkhāvāṇijja' (Lac trade) in this canonical work clearly shows that Laksa (lac) was another dye-product of this industry.
Tailoring
The references to various kinds of dresses, as already mentioned in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', clearly show the development of the tailoring profession by which a section of the society as known to the BhS used to earn their livelihood.
[Ch. V
The existence and continuation of the art of tailoring are further supported by the fact that even the female attendants and waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign countries were dressed in their respective national
costumes.
"Sadesanevatthagahiyavesahim".
Mining and Metallurgy
The references in the text to trade in various metals, such as, gold, silver, bell-metal, gem, jewels, pearls, etc., many kinds of ornaments, utensils and weapons used by the people of its society clearly show a highly developed industry of mining and metallurgy of its period. It was one of the most essential parts of the economic structure based on the co-ordinated foundation
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 90. 8 Ib, 6, 1, 229,

2 Ib, 8, 6, 334. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 380.

Page #322

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
297
of agriculture, arts and crafts, industry and commerce and determined the scientific age marked by the development of metallic works.
The term 'Agara' occurring in this canonical work denotes the mine which was one of the most important sources of the state income as evidenced in all the Jaina, Brāhmaṇical and Buddhist texts.
It is clearly suggested by the denotation of this term that the mining industry was in operation to exploit the mines for extracting various kinds of metal ores, such as, iron (aya, loha)", silver (ruppa,", gold (8uvanna)', copper (tamba)", tin (tauya), etc.
Moreover, there occurs also an indirect reference in this canonical work to the exploitation of the mines of gold and jewel by the four merchants of Srāvastī in a forest, while searching for drinking water there, as it is related by Gośāla Mankhaliputra to Ananda, the disciple of Lord Mahāvīra?.
The study of the list of ornaments as already discussed in connection with the topic 'Dresses and ornaments' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', reveals that there was a great development of metallurgy and the art of goldsmithy during the period of the Bhs.
Besides these, there is mention of various products of metal works, such as, articles of furniture, utensils, etc. which have already been mentioned in the seventh section of the fourth chapter in details.
Even the bullocks, horses'', and elephants were decorated with the metallic articles of adornment, while the bullock.cart13 and pala nquins were inlaid with various kinds of precious jewels, and gems.16
i Bhs, 1, 1, 19; 7, 6, 287; 13, 6, 491; 15, 1, 547. 2 15, 16, 1, 564; 15, 1. 547.
3 16, 11, 11, 430; 18, 10, 647. Ib' 8, 5, 328; 11, 11, 430; 18, 10, 647. 5.6 Ib, 16, 6, 581. 7 16. 15, 1, 557. 8,9 10, 11, 11, 430. 10 Ib, 9, 33, 380.
11 11, 9, 33, 383. 11 16, 7, 9, 300; 9, 33, 385.
18 1b, 9, 33, 380. 14 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 15 I6, 9, 33, 380. 18 Ib, 9, 33, 385.
38

Page #323

298
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. V The ceiling and floor of the royal chamber also were studded with many kinds of jewels and gems, the lustre of which dispelled the darkness from it as already described in connection with the topic Houses' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter." Blacksmithy
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the occupation of blacksmith and his workshop (ahikaranī)s which consisted of iron (aya), iron furnace (ayakottha), pliers (sandāsaņam), charcoal (ingāla, ingālakaddhiń) furnace (bhatthā), leather strap or billowing bag (cammettha), mallet or hammer (murthie), wooden stands (adhikaranīkhodi) and waterpot (udagadoņi)".
The text presents also a vivid picture of the working process of blacksmithy. It is described that a man cast and recast some piece of iron ore into the iron furnace with the help of a pair of pliers (saradāsaenai) for heating it ; tben he took it out and placed on the anvil (adhikaranž) ; next he malletted, cut and tore and filed the mould ; then again he heated and allowed it to get cooled by dipping it into the water pot.
By this process the blacksmith tempered the iron-piece to bring its metallic property, specially the steel-element, to its surface-layer-thus to a state of working condition, as it is suggested by the reference to its dipping into the water pot.
The text further gives an account of the art of this trade by way of analogy thus :
As some man (blacksmith), striking a particle of iron with a great sound and indistinct noise is not able to remove a gross matter of that article, just like that the karma-matters of the infernal beings do not get easily dissociated.
It also throws light upon the process of tempering and normalizing a newly sharpened sickle by dipping it in the salt bath solution?
12 Bhs, 11, 11, 428. 6 16, 6, 1, 229.
8.4 II, 16, 1, 564.
5 lb, 16, 1, 564. 7 Ib, 14, 7, 525.

Page #324

Se
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
299
lance,
The text mentions various kinds of iron-products, such as, utensils, iron-pan, iron spoon, etc., agricultural impliments-sickle, etc., and other tools and weapons, axe, hammer, anvil, etc., lance, sword, arrow, coats of mail, etc.
Thus the above account reveals a picture of a developed state of the industry of mining and metallurgy, together with its associated crafts and reflects upon the flourishing economic conditions of the society of that period. Ivory work
The references to the Damtavānijja' (ivory-business) and trade in conch-shell (śamkha)' clearly show that the ivory work was a thriving cottage industry which was carried on by certain sections of the people for earning their livelihood. Pottery
Pottery was one of the most important handicrafts of the cottage industry taken up by a class of people called 'kumbhakāra's as distinguished by this occupation.
It produced various earthen wares, such as, earthen water jar (Chomejjānam kalasāņam)", earthen utensils, e. g. earthen plate (udakasthālaka... ...), thāli (earthen cooking vessel), etc.
The text also gives an idea of the potter's workshop which consisted of the working house, clay-pot lāyamcani), earth (mattiyā) and water (udae)". and other tools.
The mention of the rich potteress, Hālāhalā, the Ajivikaupāsikā of Srāvastī6 and the description of her workshop clearly show that pottery was a flourishing cottage industry of that period and it occupied an important position in the economic life of the society.
It was in this workshop of Hālāhalā where Gośāla Mańkhaliputra, having attained the round of twenty-four years of his initiation passed time by preaching the tenets of Ajīvikism and practising austerity and meditation according to the
i BhS, 8, 5, 330. 3 I6, 15, 1, 539. " Ib, 15, 1, 552.
1 Ib, 8.5, 328. 4 10, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417. 6 lb, 15, 1, 552.

Page #325

300
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. V Ajīvika doctrine (Ajīviyasamaenam) and breathed his last, after propounding the final principles of this religion to his followers'.
It is learnt from the Bhs that both the potter? and weaver* classes were the great supporters of the new movement of Sramana Dharma of those days. Carpentry and Masonry
In the economic field of the society the industries of carpentry and masonry were highly developed, as it is evidenced by the fact of a good account of many kinds of articles of furniture and various types of buildings which have already been discussed in connection with the topics "Houses and Articles of Furniture' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter in great details.
Besides the articles of furniture, the carpenter-class produced different types of vehicles, such as, bullock cart, chariot, open chariot, palanquino, boat (nāvam), etc.
The reference to "Śādīkamma's and Vanakamma' clearly reveals that a section of the carpenters carried on the occupation of making and selling cart (Sadikunma), while the other earned livelihood by cutting and selling woods (Vanakamma). Masonry
The evidences of the construction of palaces, lofty buildings, temples (Caityas)'', etc. and the colourful descriptions of the royal chambers studded with gems and jewels", the outer assembly hall (uvathānasāla)”, gymnasium (atfaņasālā)", bathroom (majjanaghara)?4, fort (dugga)16 and other houses show that a highly developed stage of masonry was attained by the architects and the engineering talents of the period of the Bhs. Fuel Industry
The mention of 'Imgālakammalo' (angārakarma) along with the other trades in the Bhs clearly shows that some people
1.2 Bhs, 15, 1, 539, 6 16, 15, 1, 541. 8 16, 8, 5, 330. 14 1b, 9, 33, 383.
1b, 15, 1, 556. 6 16, 11.11, 430. 9.10 I1, 11, 11, 429.
15 10, 15, 1, 551,
- 1b, 15, 1, 539.
? Ib, 1, 6, 55. 1118 10, 11, 11, 428.
16 16, 8, 5, 330.

Page #326

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
301
adopted the occupation of charcoal-making and selling it as a means of living at that period.
An account of different kinds of fuels used by the people of the society is found in the following references. They are :grass (tana), wood (kattha), leaf (patta), bark (tayā), chaff of grains (tusa), rubbish or refuse (busa), cowdung (gomaya), sweepings (avakara)”, charcoal (imgāla)”, sacrificial fire-wood (samidha), Saraka and Arani wood
Here a vivid picture of hewing wood by some man with an axe (parasuņā) is presented as revealed in its stray references made in connection with the religious discourse of Lord Mahāvira on the dissociation of Karma-matters of the infernal beings and of the houseless monks thus:
"As some old man having a body worn out owing to old age...... tired strikes a big, dry, twisted ......curved trunk of a Košāmra tree with a blunt (unsharp) axe by making a great sound, while striking it, but he cannot cut it into pieces and big logs, just like that the infernal beings do not become putters of an end to all miseries by dissociating their closely bound sinful Karma-matters".
Side by side, the BhS places the opposite picture thus : “As some young and strong man may cut and split a big, raw, untwisted, rough & straight trunk of a Sāmalī tree with a sharp axe into pieces without making any great sound, just like that the Sramaņa Nirgranthas become the putters of an end to all miseries by dissociating their Karma-matters which fall asunder".
The text describes also the method of kindling fire by rubbing the wood · Araņi' with 'Saraka', the other one. Other Small Cottage Industries :
The references to the mat of split up bamboos (viyalakid dan = vidalakatam), that of fragrant grasses, that of skin or cot interwoven with leather (cammakiddam = carmavyutan khatvādikam) and of blanket (kambalakiddam =ūrņāmayam kambalam)? clearly
1 Bh8, 15, 1, 553. 3 10, 11, 9, 417. • 10, 11, 9, 417.
16, 2, 1, 92; 8, 5, 330. 4,6 16, 16, 4, 573. 7 IO, 13, 9, 498,

Page #327

302 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. V indicate that the small cottage industries produced these articles as demanded by the social needs of the period of the Bhs.
The mention of flower basket made from bamboo (kiųhinasamkāiyaga)”, palm-leaf-fan (tāliyamtavżyanaga)', chowrie (vālavījana), umbrella (chattaya)", bambooo-stick (damda or latthi)", broom (rajaharana), etc., shows that the crafts of these articles flourished side by side with the other small cottage industries to produce them in order to supply the requirements of the society. Leather work
It is known from the text that the leather work was carried on by a class of people, as it is supported by the fact that there are found some incidental references in this canonical work to various kinds of leather-products, such as, shoes (vāhanão)?, leather bladder or skin-receptacle (vatthimadovei), blacksmith's tool (cammettha), cot interwoven with the leather (cammakiddam), musical drum (mrdamga)", gilli and thilli (seats used on the backs of elephant and horse respectively)". Arts of decorating and toileting as profession
It has already been pointed out in connection with the topic Art of decoration' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter on Social conditions' that the members of the rich aristocratic and royal families were very luxurious and fond of flowers, garlands, perfumes, cosmetics, etc.
The study of the references to various articles of decoration, toileting and luxury, the appointment of decorators and the entertainment of guests with garlands, etc., clearly reveals that there was a regular profession of decorating by which some people earned their livelihood.
1 Bhs, 11, 9, 417. 3 Ib, 9, 33, 385. 6 16, 2, 1, 90. ? 16, 2, 1, 90. 9 16, 16, 1. 554. 11 16 11, 11, 430.
2 1b, 9, 33. 384. 4 16, 2, 1, 90. 6 16. 9, 33, 385. 8 16, 1, 6, 93. 10 Ib, 13, 9, 498.

Page #328

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
303
Thus it throws light upon this aspect of the economic life of that period. Other occupations
Besides the above mentioned arts and crafts and industries, the BhS inakes references to different classes of intelligentsia and professional men as marked out by their respective occupations adopted as means of living, such as, teachers Kalācārya (teacher of arts)', Silpācārya (technical teacher or expert)", Upadhyāya (a class of religious teachers), physician (vegja)”, interpreters of signs of dream (suviņalakkhaṇapādhaga)", musician (gitavādita), actor (natta)?, female dancer (naffia), painter, picture-exhibitor (mankha)", clown (daviyakārī)"0, buffoon, (hāsa kāra) and Kandappiya', flatterer (cāfukara), and others who supported themselves by their service both to the royal family and the government, e. g. standard bearers (laffhiggāhā), sword-bearers (asiggāhā), spear-bearers (kuintaggāhā), foot soldiers (payāyie), fetter-careers (pāsaygāhā), bow.careers (caraggāhā), account book-careers (potthayaggalā), etc. 1*
THIRD SECTION
Labour and Capital Labour
In the first stage of human civilization physical labour was the main power to provide man with food, cloth and shelter for the continuance of his life.
It has already been discussed in connection with the origin of the state in the third chapter on 'Political conditions' that when the Kalpavrkças (the wish yielding trees) got destroyed owing to a sudden change in Nature, the people, being struck with fear, approached Nābhi, the fourteenth Kulakara, to have
1 Bhs, (Comm.), 11, 11, 423, 3 I6, 8, 8, 339 ; 9, 33, 389. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 29. 9 16 15, 1, 539, 12 16. 9, 33, 385.
? Ib, 7, 9, 303.
4 I5, 16, 3, 572. 6.8 16, 11, 11, 430. 10.11 10, 11, 11, 430 ; 9, 33, 385
(See Comm. also).

Page #329

304
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V
the explanation of the appearance of these natural phenomena, as, rain, thunder, etc. Nābhi told them that this change in Nature signified that from now on they were to earn their livelihood by the sweat of their brow, i. e. hard labour.
This human labour has produced food, made cloths and such shelters and brought into existence wealth and capital in the society. In a word they are the products of labour, the excess of which has taken the form of capital.
It has already been discussed in the second section of this chapter that certain sections of the people lived on by the occupation of different arts and crafts, such as, hunting, fowling, fishery, weaving, smithy, pottery, etc.
They supplied skilled labour for the production of particular economic requirements of the social consumption.
The evidences regarding the nature of various kinds of jobs of the family servants, female nurses, waiting maids as already mentioned, show that they formed the contingent of unproductive la bour.
Besides these, the fifteen disapproved occupations (karmā. dānas)' as referred to in the beginning of this chapter involved both physical and mental labour without which they could not be carried on for a day.
Capital
Capital, an important factor in the field of economics, is in a real sense the accumulated product of human labour in different forms, such as, land. cattle, house, wealth, money, precious metals, etc., which have been brought into a very useful state by men from the time immemorial.
It has already been discussed in connection with the origin of the state in the third chapter that with the change in Nature and growth in the population a social evolution began in regard to the earning of livelihood.
1 Bhs, 8, 5, 330.

Page #330

Sec. 111] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 305
The people gradually took to the occupations of agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and commerce to produce more necessaries of life by hard labour under the clemency of natural forces.
The instinct of possession combined with the necessity of sustaining and continuing their life guided them to accumulate and save their resources and products of labour for the future use in times of economic crisis.
Thus the conception of wealth and capital emerged in the age of the barter system of economics.
The invention of metal and coinage further facilitated the operation of the economic laws with the development of which there arose the problem of possession and inheritance of the earned and unearned wealth and capital in the shapes of land, corn, cattle, house, metal and coins inherited from generation to generation.
The Bhs presents such a picture of a fully developed economy in which the capital played an important part in the individual and social relations with regard to the material prosperity, power and enjoyments.
Thus it is learnt that the rich householder like Tāmals of Tāmralipti prospered by gold, money, corn, sons, cattle and other abundant wealths, such as, jewel, gem, pearl, conch, precious stones, coral, red jewel, etc.
While a class of merchants carried on trade in gold, bell-metal, cloth, jewel, pearl, conch, etc., the other group doubled its money by a flourishing banking business.
Like Tāmalī, king Siva' of Hastinārura also prospered by the same kinds of wealth as possessed by the former, in addition to his kingilom, army, treasury and city.
The opulence of the family wealth of the prince, Jamālīó inherited from his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, is
8 16, 2, 5, 107,
1 BhS, 3, 1, 134.
Ib, 11, 9.417.
2 I6, 8, 5, 328. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 384.
39

Page #331

306
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V
clearly revealed in the arguments of his mother to dissuade him from his resolution to undertake the state of houselessness. It was so great in quantity that if he enjoyed and distributed it according to his desire, it would not get exhausted even in the seventh generation from him.
It is further known that in the case of marriage in the royal family' one crore of gold pieces was the standard amount of dowry for the bride in addition to the other valuable articles. These evidences clearly show that both the earned and unearned wealths inherited from generation to generation formed the capital of an individual citizen in the economic organization and determined the individual and social relations with one another.
Besides these, the capital, combined with the labour power controlled the fields of agriculture, arts and crafts, industry and commerce, production and distribution of wealth of the entire economic system of the society.
Organization
Organization is a most important factor in the economic field, because it brings the capital and labour power into a mutual relation and employs their collective service in the production of the necessaries of social life and national wealth and their distribution among the people at large. Even a big industry or a flourishing business establishment with a large capital declines and ultimately leads to bankruptcy without its proper guidance.
The BhS throws a welcome light upon organization by testifying to the existence of a number of economic guilds and corporations formed of many merchants. They advocated private enterprise based on collective system which gave an impetus and an incentive to the growth of industry, trade and commerce and brought material prosperity to themselves and to the economic life of the people as a whole.
Thus it is learnt that a flourishing economic guild of the merchants, Sankha, Pokkhali and others existed in the city of
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 430,
2 Ib, 12, 1, 437.

Page #332

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 307 Srāvasti and played a prominent part in the material prosperity of its citizens.
There is also a mention of a large economic corporation of eight thousand merchants of Hastināpura under the presidentship of Kārttikadattal who exercised his authority over them in matters concerned with this great establishment.
Besides these two instances, an incidental reference occurs in the BhS to a private limited banking organization, as already pointed out, formed and run by the merchants of the city of Tungikā? who increased their wealth by money-lending business.
The story of the four merchants of Srāvastī as related by Gośāla Mańkhaliputra to Ananda, a disciple of Lord Mahāvīra, gives some idea of the co-operative mercantile organization of the high and low class merchants to carry on their inland trade.
Thus it is stated that four merchants of that city, being desirous of gaining wealth took many kinds of abundant saleable articles, sufficient food and drink and other provisions for the journey in bullock carts and went to the distant land and entered into a large forest having no village, no water pond but unfrequented path and struggled with their caravans of bullock carts through it to reach their destination.
The existence of such economic groups was represented by the first (chief) merchant (padhama satthavāha) who was always associated with the administration of the state, probably as financial adviser to the government, for his knowledge and experience in the economic affairs were considered most essential for the material prosperity of the state and the people at large.
Thus it appears that the important branches of the arts, crafts, industry, trade and commerce demanded some sorts of guilds for their successful running and development.
The reference to the existence of Negama' (trade-guild) in the BhS reminds one of the Negama coins of Taxila, or Pafica Nikama coins issued by the independent economic guilds of
Bhs, 18, 2, 437,
16, 2, 5, 107.
$ 16, 15, 1, 543.

Page #333

308
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. V
that city which enjoyed the privilege of self-autonomy in economic affairs.
So it is presumable from the mention of Vanijyagrāma,1 'Negama' (trade-guild) of the eight thousand merchants of Hastinapura under the guild-president, Karttikadatta, and 'Padhama Satthavaha" that there were some economic organizations based on trade rules and regulations, recognized and sanctioned by the state to carry on both the internal and external trade and commerce.
It was perhaps through the first merchant or the guildpresident and the guild, the king executed the trade and industrial policies of the government.
It was probably for this reason, the first merchant was assigned an important position among the high dignitaries of the state and was considered as a wealthy favourite in the royal court.
FOURTH SECTION Trade and Commerce
Along with the agriculture, arts and crafts and industries, trade and commerce play a vital role in the economic life of the people, the society and the state for the promotion of their respective material prosperities by causing the flow of various kinds of marchandise to every part of the country and to the foreign land. Thus they help the distribution of the necessary commodities of civic life among the people according to their needs based on the laws of supply and demand.
The BhS gives a good account of various kinds of trade and commerce carried on by the different classes of merchants on their private enterprise during its period.
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 424.
2 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 11, 9, 417; 13, 6, 491.
3 Ib, 7, 9, 300; 303.

Page #334

Sec. Iv]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
309
In this respect some business terms associated with trade, reveal the different aspects of the general trade and commerce as existing at that period.
The term “Vāņijja'used in the Bhs and other texts denotes the general trade, while the following ones, Vaniya' or Setthia, paņiya', appamahaggha", uvanīya and aņuvaṇīyao, sukka," paniyabhūmis, kuttiyāvana', apaņalo, katiyatl, vikkiņa", sātiejjāl}, (satyankara), dhana?“, āyogapayogals and lābha's, stand for merchant, saleable commodity, price, purchased article, taken and not taken, customs, market place, emporium, shop, purchase, sale, earnest money, currency or wealth, money-lending and profit respectively.
It is clear from the denotations of these terms that there was a regular system of trade based on some commercial laws and customs sanctioned by the state and observed by the society as depicted in this canonical work.
The main features of trade and commerce were the purchase and sale of goods of all kinds as demanded by social needs
In the matter of sale or purchase there appears to be a custom of paying the earnest money (8ātiejja)lt by the purchaser (kaiyassa) to the seller as a security of good faith or business agreement.
The Bhs clearly shows that the desire for gaining18 and increasing19 wealth was the dominating motive of the merchantile class, as it is evidenced by the fact that some high and low merchants of Srāvastā,40 "desirous of gaining wealth, greedy of wealth and thirsty for wealth" went abroad, having taken many
1 Bh8, 8, 5, 330. 8 1), 11, 11, 424; 18, 2, 608. 5 11, 9, 33, 380.
7 10, 11, 11, 429. 9.10 16, 9, 33, 385. 14 10, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. 16 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 18 I0, 15, 1, 547. 30 16, 15, 1, 547.
2 1b, 11, 11, 424; 15, 1, 547. 4 I), 15, 1, 547. 6 16, 5, 6, 206.
8 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 11.3 16, 5, 6, 205.
15 16, 2, 5, 107; 5, 6, 205. 17 16, 5, 6, 205. 19 16, 2, 5, 107.

Page #335

310
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V
kinds of abundant saleable articles and food, drink and other provisions for the journey in multitudes of bullock carts, while the merchants of Tungikā doubled their wealth by a flourishing banking business (āyogapayogena)." Trade routes
Thus it is clear that the trade and commerce were generally carried on by land routes, sometimes passing through dense forests. But the reference to the appearance of some foreign female slaves, e. g. Singhali, Arabi, Pārasi and others in the service of the royal and aristocratic families of North-Eastern India clearly suggests that water-routes were also followed by the merchants. A detailed discussion on this topic will be made later on in connection with the subject "External trade".
Trade centres
According to the Bhs all the capital cities and small towns appear to be the centres of trade and commerce, as they were closely connected with the economic life of the people.
So a number of these business centres figure in the text, such as, Campā, Rājagrha, Vaiśālī, and Vānijyagrāma,? Mithila, Srāvastī," Kaušāmb7,10 Hastināpura," Vītībhaya,"? Tungikā, 13 Ålabhikā," Vārāṇasī,16 Kajangalā, 16 Nālandā,? Siddhārtthagrāma, Kūrmagrāma, Kollāga, 28 Bebhela, 19 Satadvāra," Mendhikagrāma," Tāmralipti, etc."
Most of these trade centres are identifiable and are located in the geographical horizon of North-Eastern India, particularly in Bihar and Uttara Pradeśa, the rest are casually
i BhS, 2, 5, 107. 16, 15, 1, 547. 4 Ib, 9, 33, 386. 5 Ib, 1, 1, 4. ? Ib, 11, 11, 424. & 16, 9, 1, 312. 9 10, 12, 1, 437; 15, 1, 539. 11 10, 11, 9, 417. 12 1b, 13, 6, 491. 19 15, 2, 5, 107, 11, 11, 428; 16, 5, 557. 15 I6, 15, 1, 550. 16 16, 2, 1, 90. 19 16, 3, 2, 144. 20 I6, 15, 1, 559. 110, 3, 1, 134.
7 16, 9, 33, 380.
16, 12, 2, 441. 10 Ib, 12, 2, 441. 14 Ib, 11, 12, 433.
Ib, 15, 1, 541. 16, 15, 1, 557.

Page #336

Sec. IVI
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
311
mentioned outside this zone, eg. Vītībhaya and Tamralipti were situated in the far west (Sindhu) and far South-Eastern India (Midnapore in West Bengal) respectively. Their proper identi. fications will be dealt with later on in the geographical section of the eighth chapter.
Articles of trade
The Bhs provides a long list of articles of various kinds of trades carried on by the merchants of all classes. They are as follows :
(1) Food-stuffs--cereals' and pulses", vegetables and fruits,4 milk productsó (curd, butter and clarified butter), sweets (honey and molasses), and drinks (rasa, surā, majja= wine and liquor), and others.
(2) Clothes and dresses-cotton, silken and woolen stuff of various kinds as already referred to in connection with "Dresses" in the seventh section of the fourth chapter.
(3) Dye-stuffs"-—Indian madder, collyrium and lac. (4) Leather productsleather bladder, shoe, etc.
(5) Ornaments of various kinds as already mentioned in connection with the topic 'Ornaments' in section seven of the fourth chapter.
(6) Perfumes and toiletsle--aloe, incense, scented pills, sandal, etc.
(7) Utensils"—both earthen and metallic--such as, eartben jar, water pitch, iron pot, copper pot, iron pane, etc.
(8) Metal images of gods and goddesses."
(9) Articles of furniture of various kinds' as already referred to in the seventh section of the fourth chapter.
(10) Transports of different types", such as, palanquin, bullock-cart, chariot, boat, etc.
18 Bhs, 6, 7, 246.
4.6 Vide Supra Ch. IV. 6 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. ? Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. & Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. 9 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. 10 Bh8, 11, 11, 428 ; 9, 33, 385; Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 7. 11 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec. 6. 12 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. 13 Vide Supra Ch. IV, Sec, 7. 14 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 5.

Page #337

312
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. v
(11) Musical instruments of various kinds', such asSankha, Sriga, Laghusankha, etc. They will be discussed later on in connection with the topic Music' in the sixth chapter on 'Education' in details.
(12) Weapons of different classes."
(13) Agricultural implements and other tools.3
(14) Precious metals-such as, gold, bell-metal, etc.
Besides these, we come across references to other articles of trade, such as, ivory (damta), lac (lakkha), hair or wool (kesa), wine (rasa) and poison (visa) as they are clearly suggested by the denotations of the words damtavanijja, lakkhavanijja, kesavanijja, rasavānijja and visavānijja respectively.
Distribution of wealth
The distribution of social wealth and necessaries of
household life among the people according to their real
needs and demands is the next important factor of Economics on which largely depend the regulation and stabilization of the economic conditions of the society.
It is this process of distribution of the national products of all kinds which helps in bringing plenty and prosperity to an individual member, the public and the state at large by providing them with the essential requisites according to their necessities and demands.
It is sometimes found in the history of social economy that in spite of sufficient productions and storage of consumable goods the people in general suffered from the effects of economic distress, starvation and famine due to a defective commercial policy and maladministration of the government and the anti-social attitude of the mercantile class. Process of Distribution of wealth
According to the BhS the distribution

of
1 Vide Supra Ch. VI, section on fine arts.
2 Vide Supra Ch. VI, section on Military Science.
3 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 1 & 2. 4 Vide Supra Ch. V, Sec. 2. BhS 8, 5, 330.

wealth as

Page #338

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
313
produced in its society may be classified into four groups, viz. tax and customs, wage, interest, and profit.
Tax and customs-One portion of this national wealth went to the state-coffer in the shape of taxes and customs (karam and sukkam) collected by the government officials from the produces of land and commerce respectively at some rates, not specifically mentioned, as already pointed out in connection with the fiscal administration in the third chapter, while the remainder came to the social use and consumption of the people in general.
Wage-The officials and other servants of the state, family-attendants and different tradesmen received their portion in the form of salaries, according to the nature of their respective jobs and the hired labourers got wages for their labour, as it is suggested by the term 'bhayagattae" (hired labourer).
Interest A class of merchants earned their income by the banking business from the interest on the money invested by them at some rate, as it has already been mentioned that the Sramaṇopāsakas of Tungika increased their wealth by the money-lending profession."
Profit-Profit is the surplus wealth produced by the organized power of labour, skill and management of the industry and commerce over the actual cost of the production of goods.
It was the remuneration to the organizers of the industrial and commercial establishments, as it is evidenced by the fact that the merchants went abroad for trade with the desire to gain much wealth and returned home with a large amount of the same after a long period of sixteen years".
Measures and Weights
The BhS throws some light upon the system of measures and weights used in commercial transaction during its period.
8.4 Ib, 2, 5, 107.
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. Ib, 15, 1, 547. 40

2 Ib, 12, 7, 458. • Ib, 12, 6, 456.

Page #339

-314
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
[Ch. V
The reference to the word "Mānummāna'l used in this canonical work in connection with the royal amnesty declared by Bala, the king of Hastinapura on the occasion of the birth of his son, Mahābala, clearly suggests that the state took some steps to increase the standard of the measures and weights in order to give an economic relief to the people and an impetus to trade and commerce.
The term Mānummāna' as occurring here denotes both the cubic and gravitational measures. It was thought by the king to increase the standard of weights and measures, as it is clearly evidenced by the fact of the mention of kūďatulā and kudamäna (false weight and false measure)' in course of the holy teachings of Lord Mahāvīra on the binding of the āyuskarma of lower animals.
The references to false weights and measures as found in this canonical work are also made to in the Uvāsagadasão in connection with the taking of vow of Ananda, a wealthy householder of Vānijyagrāma that "he must know and avoid the following five typical offences against the law of abstention from gross taking of things not given, viz. receipt of stolen property, employment of theives, smuggling into a forbidden country, false weights and measures and dealing with adulterate wares".
Patañjali" explains that the term "Unmāna' denotes a measure of weight, while the other ones māņa', 'Parimāņa' and 'Pramāņa' stand for that of volume or capacity and a lineal measure or dimension respectively.
Urddhvamānam-kilonmānam Parimāņam tu sarvatah, Āyāmas tu Pramāṇam syāt samkhyā bāhyā tu sarvatah".
1 BhS, 11, 11, 429; mana-signifies both dimension (side, length,
height in space and time and weight also, while ummāna
only stands for measure and weight. 9 16, 8, 9, 351. 3 Uvāsagadasão, 1, 47, (Translated by Hoernle), pp. 23-24. - Patañjali's Bhāsya, V. 1. 19; II. 343. 6 16, Bhāsya, V.1. 19; II. 343. Vide 'India as known to Pānini'
by Dr. V. S. Agrawala, Ch. IV-Section-8, p. 258.

Page #340

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÓTRÁ
315
It appears from the Bhs that the government took some measure in regard to the measures and weights used in business transaction.
The text gives some idea about the weights and measures of length, volume, figure and time in its scattered statements.
The incidental reference to the "Suvannamāsa and ruppamāsa" (gold and silver māsas) suggests that this system of weight was also used in the business transaction. One māsa denoted a weight, which was equal to five rattis for gold and two for silver", but it also signified the name of a coin.
Besides these, there is the mention of different kinds of measures, e.g. angulippamāṇa (length) having the size of a finger", Icukkuļi.amdagappamāņa (size of an egg of a hen)", sanakhapamāņa (quantity contained in a nail)", purusappamāṇakāla (i.e. a prahara, the length of shadow having the size of a man,', yojana (a measure of length of four krośas = 4.54 British miles), etc.
Currency
The references to earnest money (sātiejjā)", wealth (dhaņa)10, in the Bhs clearly imply that there was a regular system of currency which facilitated business transaction and regulated the whole economic condition of its period by issuing legal coins as the medium of exchange, for it is suggested by the mention of the word "Suvannakodio'll which denotes wealth in terms of gold coins.
Moreover, it has already been pointed out that the Māsa19 may denote the name of a coin of specific weight.
1 Bhs, 18, 10, 647. : Arthasastra, 18, 10, 647. 8 Panini, V.1, 34. Vide, 'India as known to Pāṇini', Ch. IV,
p. 259. 4 Bh8, 9, 33, 385.
6 Ib, 1, 11, 424 Ib, 15, 1, 543.
7.8 16, 11, 11, 424. (See comm.) 9 Ib, 5, 6, 205.
10 Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 11 I., 11, 11, 430.
19 16, 18, 10, 647
.

Page #341

316
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V.
In the history of coinage in ancient India it is found that various kinds of metals, such as, gold, silver, copper, lead, potin, etc., were used to make coins according to different standards of weight and value.
Here the text does not throw any light upon the standard of weight and value of the gold coin (suvarna). But it may be guessed on the evidences of the Kuşāņa and Gupta coins that the weight of one Suvarna coin was one hundred and twenty-three grains and had a value equal to that of the Roman gold coin Dinarious'. Banking and Loans
The Bhs throws some light upon the banking system as existing and working in the economic field during its period.
The term 'Dhana'l denotes wealth which is defined in terms of gold currency, e.g. "Suvannakodio”, but a new classical word (8āvayejja, svāpateya)' unknown to the Brāhmaṇas and the Aranyakas occurs here to signify property.
This word corresponds to the Pali word "Sāpateyya' and Pāṇini's Svapatau' to which he has attached a legal definition as "Svapatau sādhu'' – that is, the property in which the owner (svapati) has a valid title (sādhutā).
The Bhs classifies the wealthy people by attributing to them the distinguishing title 'add he's which corresponds to the Pali word 'addho', while the Asokan Edicts mention 'ibüha'' (Skt. ibhya) as a rich man who appears to belong to the same category of the addhas (well-to-do persons) of the Bhs. Banking
It has already been mentioned that there is a pointed reference to the private banking system organized and run by the Sramanopāsakas of Tungikā, as it is clear from the fact that
1 BKS, 3, 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417.
? 16, 11, 11, 430. & Ib, 3, 1, 134; 11, 9, 417. 4 Pānini, IV, 4, 104. Vide, India as known to Pānini' by Dr.
V. S. Agrawala, p. 274. * 10, 3, 1, 134.
Asokan Rock Edict-5th M.V.

Page #342

317
Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
India had a trade relation with Alexandria after the name of which the grain was known to be as 'Alisamdaga' in India where it was imported from that Greek city by way of foreign trade.
This commercial intercourse with Alexandria seems to be supported by the evidence of the Aśokan Edict' in which it is stated that king Aśoka established diplomatic and cultural relations with Alikasudara which was one of the five Greek Potentates.
The fact of foreign trade between ancient India and Greece is corroborated by the topographical account of the Periplus' of the Erythraean Sea in which it is recorded that the ships abound in the port of Muziris (modern Cranganore in SouthWestern India) from Arab, Greece and Persia.
Besides these, the mention of some waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign countries, such as Cilatikās Simghalis, Arabis, Pārasīs, etc., clearly suggests that India had a regular trade relation with those countries, as it is evidenced by the fact that those female attendants were dressed in their respective tribal and national costumes which also formed the articles of trade.
The evidences of external trade are also corroborated by those of other Jaina texts during their periods.
It is learnt from the Uttaradhyayana-Tika' that Ayala, a merchant of Ujjayini, carried on a regular foreign business with Parasa country (Persia) by the land and sea routes, having taken the merchandise from India for sale and purchased the commercial goods from that country.
The Buddhist works also throw much light upon the relation of ancient India with the foreign countries in this field of economic affairs.
Thus it is known from them that the overland Caravans, sometimes going east and west and also across the deserts, took
1 R. E. XIII. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 380. "Jātaka, 1, 98 f.

The 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' Schoff. 4 Uttaradhyayana. Tikā, 3. P. 64

Page #343

318
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. V
the help of a land pilot' (thala niyyamaka) to cross them over during the cooler periods of the night, being guided by the position of stars.1
Such caravans might have started from Banaras, the chief industrial and commercial centre as mentioned in the Buddhist works, across the deserts of Rajaputana westward to the seaport of Bharukaccha, the present Broach and the sea-port of Sovira and its capital city, Rorura or Roruka.
It was probably from these ports that the Indian merchants established their trade relation with Babylon or Baveru. This evidence is supported by the fact that the Milindapanha' has left an account of the main objective of India's oversea-trade at a later date.
FIFTH SECTION
Roads and Communications
Roads and communications are the most essential factors for the defence, economic development and material prosperity of a country, because they are the arteries of the state-body through which flows the volume of trade and commerce to its different parts and to the outside world.
Thus they bring the people of the society into a closer contact and help them in establishing the economic, political, social and cultural relations with the foreign countries by facilitating the exchange of mutual thoughts and ideas carried through the external affairs, trade and commerce of a state.
It is a well known fact in the history of ancient India how the caravans of Indian merchants and her sea-traders helped indirectly in spreading her religions and cultures to central Asia, China, Africa, Simhala, Suvarnadvipa and Kamboja respectively,
1 Jātaka, 1, 107. 2 Ib, III, 188; IV. 137. Ib, III, 470. 80, II, 235; Divyāvadāna, 544.
Milindapañha, 359; Trans. II, 269 (S. B. E. ) XXXVI.

Page #344

Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
319 by taking along with them the Indian monks to these countries on their great missions.
It appears from the references to 'Sirghādagatiyacaukkacaccara' (junctions of three, four and many roads)', 'paha' (road)", and Pahakara' (road-maker or road or traffic officer)', that there was a regular system of developed city traffic and well-constructed roads organized and maintained by the state during its period.
It is further evidenced by the fact that whenever Lord Mahāvīra appeared in any city, streams of people of that city flowed to him through its streets to attend his religious discourses and they talked about him and his holy teachings, standing at the crrossings of different roads.
Then the members of the rich and aristocratic and royal families went to the Master, driving in bullock-cartsó or in horsechariots' or in a royal procession consisting of cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry? to listen to his sermons as it is found in the cases of Rşabhadatta a rich Brāhmana of Brāhmanakunda. grāma, the prince Jamāli or Ksatriyakundagrāma, queen Mrgāvati and the princess Jayanti and king Udayana of Kausāmbi, and king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra who made pilgrimage to him at different Caityas.
These evidences clearly suggest that there was an organized city-traffic system run by every state of those days.
Besides these facts, the events of the two great wars, viz. Mahāśilākantakasangrāmul and Rathamusala-sangrāna', as already discussed in the third chapter on 'political conditions', further support the above evidences that the movements of the army consisting of cavalry, elephant, chariot and infantry to the battle field from the respective war bases of Magadha and Vaiśālī were made along some routes at that period.
1,7 Bh8, 9, 33, 385 ; 11, 9,418. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 418. 5 1b, 9, 3, 380 ; 12, 2, 442. ? 1b, 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6, 491. 8 Ib, 7, 9, 300.
$ 10, 9, 3, 383.
Ib, 9, 33, 384. • 16, 7, 9, 301.

Page #345

320
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. V
So it is presumable that there was a regular system of roads and communications for the transport and despatch of soldiers and military convoys.
An account of the country roads is found in the itinerary of Lord Mahāvīra1 and those of the other monks', parivrājakas3, and the common people who made journeys on foot to the different parts of India, particularly North India by crossing village after village to reach their respective destinations.
The merchants' went abroad to carry on the inland trade outside their city, having taken their merchandise and the other provisions for the journey, loaded in many bullock-carts, struggling with their caravans through the villages and forests to reach the centre of trade.
Moreover, the commodities, like fine cloths, curtains precious metals etc., had to be imported to and exported from the different business places through some routes.
Thus it is clear that the different parts of the country were well connected by roads with one another.
This fact is further supported by the reference to the presence of female attendants belonging to the different Indian tribes and foreign countries as already mentioned in the third section of the fourth chapter on 'Social conditions', viz. Kirātikā, Barbarika, Isiganika, Palhavika, Lhasika, Lausiya, Arabi Draviḍi, Singhali, Pulindi, Murundi (Saka-country), Puşkali, Sabari and Parasi (Parasa = Persia)*
The reference to the statement crossing the Ganges or a great sea by hands against the current of its water used as an analogy to explain the difficulties of observing the Nirgranthavow and the employment of the waiting maids belonging to ancient Ceylon and Arab, clearly suggests that the Indians were well acquainted with the sea and sea-voyage was common
1 BhS, 13, 6, 491. 4 Ib. 15, 1, 540.
7 Ib, 9, 33, 384.

2 Ib, 15, 1, 541. 5 Ib, 15, 1, 547.
8 Ib, 2, 1, 90-91. 6 Ib, 9, 33, 380.

Page #346

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
321
to them during the period of this canonical work. While the mention of the Chinese silken cloth shows that India had an overland traffic with China, maintained by her ancient merchants for external trade.
It appears from the knowledge of geographical places, such as, Rajag?ha, Vaišai7, Campā, Kajangalā, Srāvasti Kauáāmbi, Kāść, Hastinapura, Tâmrulipti, Vitībhaya, etc., that the Himalayan belts, the far north and south, the far east and west of India were well connected by some means of communications.
A close study of the itinerary of Lord Mahāvīra and those of the other wandering teachers and monks shows that they followed the familiar routes which were used by all peoples including the merchants.
As to the east-west routes the BhS tells of the journey of Lord Mahāvīra from Campā to the city of Vitībhaya' in Sindhu. Sauvīra and that of the Prince Abhijit from Vitābhaya to Campā,* on its way lay Kāśī and Kaušāmbi.
One north-south-east route ran from Srāvastī to Rājagrha and the other from Srāvastī to Kajangalā, the south-east to the north-east routes-were from Rājagļha to Campā Srāvasti to Campā; Vaiśāli to Campā; Vaišāli to Mithila; Vaiśāli to Pāvā; Kāšī to Vaiśālī, Košala to Vaisāli, RājagỊha to Tāmralipti. Others ran from Rajagrha to Vindhyagiri, Rājagrha to Alabhikā, Rājagrha to Hastināpura, Tungikā Kāmpilya, etc.
Besides these, there were small roads linked with Rājagrha as indicated by the evidences of this canonical work.
The references to the female attendants belonging to some Indian tribes and foreign countries as already pointed out clearly suggest that there were trade rocads and communications from Vaisāli to the Kirāta country in the north and north-east (Asama), to the Barbaradesa (the Himālayan belt from Kaśmira to north
i Bhs, 9, 33, 380, 4 Ib, 9, 33, 380.
I6, 13, 6, 491.
9 16, 13, 6, 492.
41

Page #347

322
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V Bihar according to the evidences of Paumacariu of Sayambhu)', to Puşkalavati (Peshawar), to the Tamil country in the far south, to the Sabaraland (Andhradesa), Pulindaland (Central province), Isika (or Rsika) region (Deccan), and Lhasiya (Nasika, Western coast of India).
While the oversea routes were connected with Ceylon, Arab and Alexandria as suggested by Weber, the overland ones ran to Sakasthāna, Parthia, Persia and China through Central Asia.
In addition to them, the river routes, e.g. those of the Ganges and the Indus were probably followed by the people for trade and commerce.
The account of the inland, overland and oversea-routes of India as suggested by the BhS is also corroborated by those of the other Jaina texts, Buddhist works, the Greek classical records and the Chinese sources.
Transport
The text gives a list of transports used by the people of its period for the economic, civil and military purposes.
The caravan of the merchants formed of many small twowheeled carts loaded with various kinds of abundant saleable articles, food, drink, and other provisions for the journey, each drawn by two bullocks was a distinct feature of that time.
For the private civil use a number of means of conveyance finds mention in this canonical work, such as, bullock-cart drawn by a pair of young-strong bullocks having their horns. (and heads) furnished with flowers, bells and cords made of cotton and inlaid with various kinds of gem, jewels. etc., horse-chariots pulled by four horses (caughamtaraha) generally used by the
1 In Paumacariu of Sayambhu-Ch. 21; it is stated that the Barbaras inhabiting the Himalayas infested the kingdom of king Janaka of Mithila along with the Sabaras and Pulindas who lived in the Vindhyas. BhS. 15, 1, 547.
3 b, 9, 33, 380; 12, 2, 442.
4 Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 430.

Page #348

Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŮTRA 323 members of the rich aristocratic, noble and royal families, horses and elephantså ridden by the nobles and kings,
Besides these, there are references to the other civil transports in this canonical work, viz. palanquin (siviyā) carried by the professional bearers, sedan chair (sandamānīya), open vehicles (viyadajānāin) and transport chariots for the royal ladies."
Horses,' elephants and war chariots (samgāmiya) also formed the parts of the military transports, as it is evidenced by the fact that they were used in the great wars Mahāśilākanjaka. sangrāma and Rathamusalasangrāma as already pointed out.
The incidental references to the terms "Nāva (boat) and Pota (ship) occurring in the Bhs.? clearly suggest that the boat and ship were the means of water-communications for use in rivers and seas.
In hus already been discussed that the making of carts (sāļikamma) and transport business (bhädikamma) were the occupations of certain sections of the people for earning their livelihood.
These evidences clearly reveal that there was a development of transport system which facilitated the quick movement of men and women in their journeys and the swift despatch of soldiers and military convoys during the period of this canonical work.
SIXTH SECTION
General Economic Conditions and Ethics of Economics
General Economic Conditions
The BHS throws sufficient light upon the general economic conditions of the people of its period and enables one to form
1 Bh8, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 430. 9 Ib, 11, 11, 430. * Ib, 7, 9, 300. 7 Ib, 1, 6, 51; 1, 6, 55.
16, 9, 33, 385; 11, 11, 430. 4 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301, 303. $ 16, 7, 9, 303; 11, 11, 430. 8 16, 8, 5, 330.

Page #349

324
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ćh. V
some ideas as to the purchasing power of the high, low and middle class families, i.e. of the well-to-do merchants and nobles, the poor, and the men of the professional class.
It is learnt that there was a limited number of wealthy persons as considered from the economic standard of that period and of the present day.
There appeared a few monarchs, like Bala, Siva, Udayana, Seņiya, Udāyana, Keśīkumāra, Kūņika and others whose wealth and prosperity were derived from land taxes and customs supplemented by other dues, such as, cattle, gifts and presents,' and wealth inherited from the forefathersø.
It has been pointed out in connection with the topic 'Capital in the third section of this chapter that one of the Ksatriya princes named Jamālī possessed so much accumulated wealth that it would not get exhausted even in seven generations, if it would have been spent and distributed according to bis desires.
Next came a number of nobles and rich aristocrats like Nāgaputra Varuņa of Vaišālis, Tāmali of Tāmralipti", and Rşabbadatta of Brāhmaṇakundagrāma? and the Sämantarājas' and Ganarājas', who were considered well-to-do, possessing abundant wealth of all kinds.
In the Bhs mention is made of a Padhama Satthavāha10 always associated with the government and a few millionaire merchants, like those of Tungikāl and Hastināpura” who led a very luxurious life.
Besides these, the vast majority of the population lived on agriculture and a considerable number on different arts and crafts and other trades, and had to work hard. While a section of the peoples both male and female earned their livelihood by serving the government and the royal and rich aristocratic families
1.2 Bhs, 11, 11, 429, 316, 9, 33, 389. 16, 9, 33, 384. • 16, 7, 9, 303.
8 Ib, 3, 1, 134. 7 I., 9, 33, 380. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 9I6, 7, 9, 303. 10 Ib, 9, 33, 385 ; 13, 6,491. 11 Ib, 3, 5, 107. 1216, 18, 2, 618.

Page #350

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
325
in different capacities, such as, government officials, palace-staff, servants and maids respectively. Their economic conditions can be determined from their respective occupations and social status.
Under the surface of so much opulence of the social wealth there flowed a current of poverty, as it is evidenced by the fact that a section of homeless people wandered from village to village and one of them, namely, Markha Mankhalid had to take shelter in a cowshed of the Brāhmaṇa, Gobahula with his pregnant wife, Bhadrā without obtaining any residence anywhere in the town of Saravana, while the other ones (tanuya-poor)' had to beg the means of subsistence and live on public charity and a section of women was forced by financial circumstances to take up the conditions of slavery and prostitution for sustenance and continuance of their lives.
Moreover, the economic condition of the Cāņdālas (Pānas)" as referred to in this canonical work was not good at all.
An incidental reference to the food prepared in the famine time (dubbikkhabhatta) clearly suggests that the country was sometimes visited by this phenomenon.
Thus here is presented a picture of the outlines of social economy as constructed from the fragmentary evidences furnished by the Bhs. It should be observed that the whole subject of the economic ideas as reflected in this work was based on the ethical principles which do not approve of the most important occupations.
Moreover, the division of labour made on a system of hereditary caste probably arrested the growth of economic progress of the society.
Behind these ethical precepts of the religious teachers and sectarian scruples of the caste, there is found a picture of economic conditions as reflected in the stray references of this canonical work that agriculture was the most natural and
1 BhS, 15, 1, 540. : 16, 1, 9, 77, 8 16, 9, 33, 380 ; 11, 11, 429. 4 16, 3, 1, 134.
5 16, 9, 33, 384.

Page #351

326
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. V
necessary pursuit diligently carried on by the vast majority of the people. While various kinds of arts and crafts, trades and commerce were highly organized by the private and collective leadership of the economic guild with the help of the service of labour, largely hereditary, and capital in a spirit of mobility, initiativeness and enterprise.
And the social economy was fully familiar with the money and credit ages.

Page #352

SIXTH CHAPTER
Education FIRST SECTION
Conception of Education as reflected in the BhS
Education is the light of human life, as it gives a clear vision of knowledge of the mundane world and Nature to man by dispelling the darkness of his ignorance, prejudices, false notions and ideas; and consequently it illuminates the entire society with its all prevading radiance.
It represents the ideals of a nation acting as its back bone and reveals the spirit of its culture and civilization by focussing its aim on the remotest and darkest corner of social life.
In a word, life is education which is manifested in its selfdevelopment and self-culture, as it is reflected in the famous teachings of ancient India.
“Yāvajjīvamadbīte viprah". I
Education touches upon all the phases of life of a man by sharpening his intellect and assisting him in controlling his senses, thoughts and actions, refines his cultural tastes and modifies his desires.
It instils a spirit of creative energy and faculties in him, developes his personality, quenches his thirst for spiritual urge, and paves the way of his emancipation from the worldly bondage, because wisdom, the fruit of its cultivation reigns supreme in all spheres of human life.
Thus proper education helps and guides an individual man from the first stage up to the last of his life in building up his higher character and developing his personality by removing all obstacles on his way to progress, and dissolving all contradictions
i Vide 'Education in Ancient India'-Dr. Altekar, p. 3.

Page #353

328
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VỊ
of life and differences between him and the society, and bringing about & harmonious relation between them to a successful
consummation.
The BhS gives the above conception of education of its period, although a complete picture of educational institutions, like the modern schools, colleges and universities is conspicuous by its absence in this canonical work.
It has placed the ideal of education based on the unity of thought and action thus that men can attain liberation and put an end to all miseries by intellect, the only sight, like a snake and by the only sharpness (kriya-action) like a razor blade.'
It has laid a great emphasis on the self-control, moral character, physical, mental and intellectual development, theoretical and practical knowledge in different arts and crafts to make an individual man capable of shouldering the responsibility of the worldly affairs by holding before him the goal of life-Mokṣa (liberation).
The conception of education as reflected in the BhS is well supported by the ancient literatures of India which throw much light upon its meanings, principles and importance in a very clear and systematic way.
Aims and Ideals of Education
The aims and ideals of education as embodied in this work are represented in the four stages of life which have already been discussed in the second section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions' in details.
Here they may be summed up in brief for recapitulation and dealing with the educational system of its period in a clea. rest possible manner.
They are as follows: Virtue, acquirement of knowledge, building up of character, development of personality, capability of shouldering the responsibilities of household life with a spirit of performing the individual and social, secular and religious
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 384.

Page #354

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
duties to oneself, the family and the society at large, promotion of the social relation and efficiency, preservation of culture, spiritual urge and aspiration after attaining liberation-the highest goal of life.
329
It is, therefore, apparently clear from the above discussion that there was the spiritual background of education which influenced the individual and social life and made oneself realize that the human body, material enjoyments, objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world, while his mind, intellect and soul to that of spiritualism, as it is evidenced in the arguments of the prince, Jamali advanced to his parents.
This conception of education governed one's life and conduct, developed his personality and held the noble ideals before him.
It was a picture of education with a religious and spiritual background, but the individual and secular aspects of life were not ignored. A balance was maintained to make an individual a worthy member of the society within the purview of its principles.
Educational System :
The BhS presents an account of a system of education, learning, literature, different branches of science and arts which were studied and cultivated by the people of its period.
It throws a welcome light upon the evolution of different types of educational institutions, the life of the students and teachers, the subjects of study, the development of literatures and the progress of science and arts.
The production of this very voluminous canonical work itself sufficiently testifies to the linguistic and literary development of a remarkable system of education at its age.
Primary Education :
It appears from the text that education began with a man in his boyhood and continued throughout his life up to the last
42

Page #355

330
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VI
stage without the stoppage of study, as it is evidenced by the fact that the householders of all classes and the monks of all sects mentioned in this text are found devoted to the studies of certain prescribed texts as a part of duty in their respective states of life ; because it was realized by them that knowledge was the supreme power to lead them to the path of spiritual liberation.
Mass education of modern days was not prevalent at that period, but the evidences of celebrating tonsure ceremony (colayanagar = cūdadharanań), initiation with the sacred thread (uvanayanan), or beginning of alphabet or learning (kalāgrahanan) of every new born child at the proper time and age gives an insight into the fact of admission of a large number of boys to the educational institution based on the principle of Brahmacarya (the life of celibacy) and a close relationship between the students and teachers. It is evidenced by the fact that even the boy like Gośāla Mankhaliputra though born in a poor family of Mankbali and Bhairā, was not deprived at least of this primary religious and literary education, the beginning of which was marked by his 'Upanayana' (investiture with the sacred thread).'
Thus it appears that this system of 'Upanayana' & 'Kala. grāhana' ensured the primary education to a great number of boys of those days.
It is further revealed that the parents generally educated their boys in the art of their traditional hereditary occupations to make them their worthy successors in these professions, as it is found in the case of Gośāla Mankhaliputra® and Mahābala 10 respectively. The former took up his father's vocation of painting picture and exhibiting them, while the latter ascended the throne of his father in Hastināpura at least for one day as a Ksatriya prince before renouncing the world.
BhS, 3, 1, 134 ; 9, 33, 380. · 10, 11, 11, 429, • Ib (common) 11, 11, 429. 7.0 T6, 15, 1, 540.
* 16 2; 1, 90; 9, 33, 382. 4 16, 15, 1, 540. # 10, 11, 11, 429. 10 10, 11, 11, 431.

Page #356

Sec. I)
STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATİ SÚTRA
331
The basis of this distinction in social education was the caste system prevalent at that period.
The significance of this education based on 'Brahmacarya' clearly suggests that marriage was inconsistent with the student's life for his physical and mental development till he was free from the childish state, became learned and firm, reached the stage of youth, and attained the capability of enjoying :be worldly pleasures and shouldering the responsibility of the worldly affairs.
Age of Education:
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the proper agelimit of a boy to begin his education by referring to the case of the prince Mahābala thus ; when he was a little more than eight years old,' his parents took him to a teacher of arts (kalāyariya) at an auspicious moment of a favourable day, after having caused him to bathe and performed the balikarma (the worship of house gods) and other expiatory rites, and adorned him with various kinds of decorations by offering rich entertainment, etc.
It was realized by the parents that in this tender age the mind of the child was pliable, his memory was sharp and intellect was receptive like the clay on which any impression made then, would remain throughout the life.
So this age of childhood was the best time to build up the character of a man, to develop his body, mind and personality and to infuse a spirit of the individual and social duties into his heart.
The evidence of commencing education at the proper age as revealed in the Bhs is also corroborated by the ancient Indian literatures which recommend an early age limit of five
1 Bh8, 11, 11, 429.
· 16, 11, 11, 429. 8 1b, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary

•

Page #357

332
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. Vi
or eight years, because the beginning of education at the age of sixteen would not produce good results as expected from the student.
"Nati-soḍaśa varṣamupanayīta prasṛṣṭavṛṣaṇo hyesa
vṛṣalībhūto bhavati"".
It is further said that the parents themselves are the enemies of their child who is not educated by them.
"Mātā satruḥ pitā vairī bālo yena na paṭhitaḥ3."
Education of Girls
As regards the female education the BhS throws some light upon the subject by refering to the cases of the princess, Jayanti', Utpala, the wife of Sankha Sresthi, Hālāhalā, the Ajivikopāsikā of Srāvastī, Āryā Chandana, the nun" and others
who were learned in the sacred lores.
It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Stages of Life' in the second section of the fourth chapter that one group of students continued their studies upto the time of their marriage, the other one remained unmarried throughout the life and the princess, Jayanti belonged to the latter, while the other girls were given in marriage at their proper age.
It appears from the above evidences that some private arrangements were probably made by the parents at home to impart education to the girls, particularly those of the rich aristocratic and royal families.
1 J. A. S. B., 1935, p. 294. Vide Dr. Altekar's 'Education in Ancient India' Appendix (A & B), p. 266, f. n. 2; p. 274, f. n. 2 (aṣṭame-āyuškāmaṁ navame......soḍaśe sarvakāmaiBaudh. Gr. S. II, 5. 5.
* J, Gr. S.1. 12. Vide 'Education in Ancient India,' p. 26. f.n. 4. 3 Subhashita, Vide 'Education in Ancient India', p. 26. f.n. 2. • Ib, 15, 1, 539.
4 Bhs, 12, 1, 441.
5 Ib, 12, 1, 437-8.
7 Ib, 9, 33, 382.
8 Ib, 15, 1, 557.

Page #358

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
333
But a definite account about this matter is not found in this canonical work whether the girls also were sent to the Kalācārya like the boys for education.
However, it is evidently clear that all the religious insti. tutions of that period, particularly the Nirgrantha Order made special arrangements for the nuns to teach the prescribed religious texts to them in a systematic manner so tbat they could advance towards the attainment of spiritual realization with their acquired knowledge of the Law. This fact shows that the women were also admitted to the Vedic and Bramaņic studies.
There was no caste bar nor sex-bar on the way of an individual male or female member of the society to get education, such a narrow outlook did not exist in the matter of learning. On the other hand, education iinparted by the religious intitutions was open to all whoever desired to study, learn and acquire knowledge.
Teacher:
Teacher is the fountain-head of knowledge, the flow of which irrigates the barren land of mind of the young students and transforms it into a shining field endowed with the richness of the products of education, learning and culture.
The text reveals that a great importance was laid on the noble position of the teacher to whose care the child was entrusted by his parents for his education. The reference to this fact clearly suggests a closer relationship between them. As a result of this direct contact the teacher could illuminate and transform the life of his student by teaching the prescribed subjects of learning to him, removing the darkness of his ignorance, opening the vision of knowledge about the worldly affairs, and holding the lofty ideals of human life before him.
Classes of Teachers
It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Other occupations' in the second section of the fifth
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. See comm.

Page #359

334
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. Vì
chapter on 'Economic conditions' that there were three classes of teachers in the society as depicted in this canonical work, viz. Kalācārya, Silpācārya' and Upadhyāya.3 Relation Between Teacher and Student
A great emphasis has been laid on the discipline of the students in regard to their behaviour and reverence towards their teacher. Any opposition to him was highly condemned,' because he has been called the spiritual and intellectual father in the ancient Indian texts.
"Acarya upanayamano Brahmacariņam kṛṇute garbhamantah."
The terms 'Ayariyapadinie' and 'Uvajjhayapaḍinie' express the censure attaching to the students who opposed their teacher.
The reference to the statement "defamers of the Acāryas and Upadhyayas" (ayariya-uvajjhāyānaṁ ayasakarā)' made in the BhS, reflects upon the general relation between the teachers and students in both religious and secular institutions of its period.
Students' life :
The text does not give a clear idea of the students' life, except that they continued their education till they became free from the childish state, reached the stage of youth, and attained the capability of bearing the burden of responsibilities of the household affairs and enjoying the worldly life.
Centres of Education :
Thus it appears that the above mentioned three classes of teachers were the main props of the educational institutions of its period.
Besides these, there were the other centres of education at different capital cities, holy places, Caityas (temples) and
1 Bhs, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary of Abhayadeva Suri. 8.4 Ib., 9, 33, 389.
Ib., 7, 9, 300.
Ib; Cf. Atharva-Veda, XI, 5. Acaryaḥ.
6. Bh8, 9, 33, 389.
8 Ib; 9, 33, 380.

Page #360

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
335
parivrājakava:atis (mathas). In this connection it should be observed that the place where this canonical work, along with the other religious texts was compiled was certainly a great centre of learning and culture.
But there is no reference to any type of public institutions organized and run by the society, like those of the modern days.
Every religious order of the Sramaņas was a travelling school for the progress of education, learning and knowledge in different branches of religious and philosophical studies which were the chief characteristic features of the cultural activities of that period.
Thus there is the mention of many religious assemblies of disputants belonging to heterodox sects, such as, other Tirthikas," Ajivikas, followers of Lord Pārsvanātba,' Parivrājakas, Vānaprasthas, Carakas," Brāhmaṇas,' and Nirgranthas who entered into discussion of subjects on religious and philosophical doctrines to attain the truth and knowledge.
So the teachers of all classes, monks of all sects, students, home, learned assemblies, religious discourses expounding the Law, and literatures were the agencies of learning which imparted education to the people in general.
The ideals of this education have played an important part in shaping the academic careers of the teachers and students and greatly influenced and inspired them with a spirit of literary and cultural mission and activities of their period.
An idea of the systematic educational institutions is found from the evidences of the temple colleges of the Nirgrantha Order where a newly initiated monk or nun had to study the prescrib. ed religious texts for a period of certain years to acquire the requisite knowledge in religion and philosophy along with the
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 90. ? 16, 1, 9, 75 ; 1, 10, 81 etc. 4 Ib, 1, 9, 76; 2, 5, 108.9. 5 Ib, 2, 1, 90. 1 lb, 1, 2, 25,
16, 1, 2, 25; 8, 5, 328 ; 15, 1, 539. 8 Ib, 11, 9, 417. 8.9 16, 18, 10, 647,

Page #361

336
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VI practice of austerities, as it is known from the cases of Skandaka,' Rşabhadatta, Devānandā,' Jamāli' and others. Financial condition of Educational Institutions
The BhS does not throw any light upon the financial con. ditions of the educational institutions and of the teachers who were devoted to the teaching profession. But it appears from the study of text that the three classes of teachers, namely, Kalācārya," Silpācārya," and Upādhyāya,' were financially helped by the state and the society. Courses of Studies
It is learnt from the text that the course of studies included the four Vedas, viz. Ķig, Atharva, Sāma and Yaju, Itihāsa (Purāna) the fifth Veda, Nighanțu the sixth Veda, six Vedāngas, Sankhāņa (arithmatic), Sikkhā (phonetics), Kappa (ritual), Vāgaruna (grammar), Chand 1 (metre), Nirutta (exegesis) and Joisāmaya (astronomy and astrology),' six Upāngas and Sathitamta. The six Upāngas which comprised the further elaborations of the subjects are dealt within the Vedāngas and the Satthitamta was an authoritative treatise on the Sankhya system of philosophy.
Besides these, the other Jaina texts make references to seventy-two kinds of arts which will be discussed later on.
The students might have studied all these subjects but specialized themselves in one or the other of these different branches of learning.
Similarly there might have been teachers who were specialists in particular subjects of studies, as it is evidenced by the fact of the Kulācārya, Silpācārya,9 and Svapnalaksanapūthaka (who were well versed in the Astāngamahānimitta)'.
These evidences indicate how specialization in a particular branch of knowledge fairly advanced at that period.
i Bhs, 2. 1, 91-96. ? 16, 9, 33, 382. 8 16, 9, 33, 385. 4 1b, 11, 11, 429. 5IB, 7, 9, 300. IV, 9, 33, 389. ? Ib, 2, 1, 90. See also Ovāiya Sütta 38, p. 172. 8 BhS, 11, 11, 429. Įb, 7, 9, 300, 10 Ib, 11, 11, 428.

Page #362

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
337
This reference to teachers and scholars endowed with special qualifications reveals that their creative faculties justified itself in producing the vast literary works and even in inventing the two war-engines - Mahāśilākantaka and Rathamusala and in contributing to the development of other sciences and arts which will be dealt with later on.
Art of writing
The art of writing is the vehicle of human thoughts and languages which are conveyed by its meaningful signs, words and lines from man to man in his day-to-day life.
This important part of education and learning was well known to the society of the Bhs, as it is evidenced by the significant invocation to “Brāhmilipi' and 'Sruta'.
"Namo Bunbhže livie" (Salutation to Brāhmīlipi).' "Namo Suyassa" (Salutation to the Sruta) and the reference to Kalagrahaņa' (learning of alphabet), Kalācāriya' (teacher of arts)*, *Potthaya' (book)", and the study of several texts.
The term 'Livi' (Skt. lipi))? used here denotes writing in general and stood for the same meaning in the Maurya period and earlier, as it is evidenced by the fact of the references to
Dhammalipi', 'Lipikara'' in the Asokan Edicts, 'Lipi' in the Arthaśāstral' and 'Yavanali pi' in Pānini's work. 11
In the Behistün Inscription'there is found the mention of Dipi' instead of Lipi' for engraved writing.
Thus it is clear that the Bambhz-lipi' referred to in the Bhs stood for name of the script which is distinct from language.18
i Bh8, 1, 1, 2 ? 16, 1, 1, 3. • Ib, 11, 11, 429. See Commentary. $ 16, 2, 1, 90.
Ib, 1, 1, 2. 9 Rock Edict, I. XIV. 11 Panini, VI, 3, 115. 12 Behistūn luscription of Darius III. 18 Bhs, 1, 1, 2.See Commentary.
3 10, 11, 11, 429. (comm. • 16, 9, 33, 385. 8 Rock Edict, I. XIV. 10 Arthaśāstra, 1, 5, 1.
43

Page #363

338
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VI
The evidences of the art of writing are also fully corroborated by the other Jaina texts which refer to 'Lekha' (writing) as one of the seventy-two arts (Kalā).1
The Rayapaseniya Suya gives a list of different kinds of writing stuffs, such as pattaga (leaves), kambiya (wooden board), dora (thread), ganthi (knots), lippasana (ink-pot), chandana (lid), samkala (chain), masi (ink), lehani (pen), akkhara (letters) and potthaya (book), while the reference to Lehariya occurs in the Avasyaka Bhasya" and in the Curni'.
In the commentary on the Samavayanga there are also the evidences of the art of writing and inscribing letters on different writing materials, such as, leaves, bark, wood, ivory, iron, copper, silver and of shaping them by cutting those stuffs according to their size and of combining them with one another (saŇkramana to have the correct formation of the sentences and their meanings.
Besides these, there occur references in the other Jaina texts to the despatch of diplomatic letters by the kings through their ambassadors before waging the actual war against their respective enemy-rulers, forged letter (kudaleha), love letters,10 sealed letters," etc.
1 Nayadhammakahão, 1. p. 11; Ovaiya Suya-40; Rayapaseniya Suya-211; Samavayanga, p. 177a. Jambu Su II-2. p. 136f. Vide 'Life in Ancient India'-p. 172, f.n. 27. 2 Rayapaseniya Suya, 131.
3 Avasyaka Bhasya, 76 (Niryukti Dipikā, 1, p. 90a.)
4 Ib, p. 248. See 'Life in Ancient India' p. 175.
There is the mention of writing on
P.
5 Avasyaka Curni, p. 530. See 'Buddhist India' the bhujjapatta in this work. 117. 6 The Vasudevahimdi (p. 189) refers to the writing of a book on the copper leaf. Besides, there are copper plate Inscriptions of many kings.
7 Commentary on the Samavayānga, p. 78.
8 Nirayavaliya Sutta.
10 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 13, p. 191a.
11 Bṛhat Kalpa Bhāṣya Pithikā, 135; Nisitha Curni, 5, p. 87 (Mss.)

9 Uvāsagadasa?, 1, p. 10.

Page #364

Sec. 1
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
339
In its commentary the Bhsi makes a reference to eighteen kinds of Brähmi script without naming them in clear terms. But they are specifically mentioned in the Samavāyānga Sūtra' as given below
(1) Bambhi, (2) Javanīliyā, (3) Dosāuria, (4) Kharotthia, (5) Kharasāviā. (6) Pahārāiā, (7) Uccattariā, (8) Akkharaputthiyā, (9) Bhogavayatā, (10) Venatiya, (11) Niñhaiyā, (2) Ankalivi, (13) Gaạialivi, (14) Gandhavralivi (Bhūyalivi), (15) A dañsalivi, (16) Mahesari livi, (17) Dāmi livi, (18) Bolindi livi.
In the Prajñāpanā Sūtral there are mentions of Javaņāliya, pukkhar isäriya and Arntakkhariyā in places of Javaniliyā, Icharagāvia and Uccattaria respectively, and the Sumavāyānga Sūtra connects Bhayalivi with Gandhavvalivi. It should be observed that these scripts are not derived from Brāhmi but they are alternates to it, e.g. Kharosthi has got its different origin.
Brāhini and Kharostlī, the two important scripts are also referred to in the Lalitavistara' along with the other sixty-four livis (lipis).
The Klaroșthi script came to India during the Achamenid rule and continued upto the Kusāna period, as it is evidenced by the fact that some of the inscriptions of the Kuşāna kings were inscribed in this script.
Brāhmi has played a great role in the evolution of the modern Indian scripts, all of which except the persian script of Urdu have originated from it, but the other scripts have disappeared into oblivion during the course of the development of Indian Palcography.
According to the Samavāyānga Sitra, Brāhmi consisted of forty-six 'māuyakkharas' (mātykākşaras) or the original letters without having the four liquid vowels viz. Ř, R., L., L., and LL.S
1 Commentary on the Bhs, 1, 1, 2. 2 Samaväyånga Sutra, 18. 3 Prajñāpanā Sutra, 1,51. p. 55a. · Lalitavistara, 125 f. • Panjtär stone inscription of a Kuşāna king (65 A.D.); Kalavan
copper plate Inscription (77 A.D.); and others. See 'Life in Ancient India', p. 176.

Page #365

340
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SOTRA [Ch. VI
Origin of Indian Scripts The origin of the Indian scripts, particularly that of Brāhmi has been dealt with by a number of scholars according to their respective theories based on different historical materials,
The Jaina Mahāpurāna' attributes the honour to Rşabbadeva for teaching first the art of writing (maşi) to his people out of economic necessity, along with the other arts and crafts.
In the Buddhist works there occurs a reference to "writing in a tract called Silas which are recorded in each of the thirteen Dialogues, forming the first chapter of the first division of the Suttantas. This tract may be assigned to a date circa 450 B, C.
Besides these, the mention of Akkharika (lettering) a game of guessing at letter traced in the air or on a play-fellow's back further supports the prevalence of the art of writing in the Buddhist and pre-Buddhist periods.
The origin of the Brāhmi script is attributed by the BhS3 to a different source according to the commentary of Śrī Abhyadeva Sūri.
It is explained thus that the name "Brāhmi lipi' is derived from that of Brāhmi, the own daughter of Rşabhadeva, the Jina, because he first showed her how to write letters with the right hand.
It is clear from the above references that the art of writing was in vogue and prevalent during the period of this canonical work, the compilation of which speaks itself for the conclusion,
Language Language is the symbolic expression to convey human thoughts and ideas in the form of sounds, words and writings from man to man. The more it is simple, the more it becomes
i Mahapurāna, Vol. 1, Parva-16, L. 179 ( Jñānapitha EI,!. ? Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. 1, pp. 326. 3 BhS, 1, 1, 2.
1 16, 1, 1, 2. (comm.)

Page #366

Sec. I
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
341
understand able to the people with all its meanings and reaches their hearts.
The BhS refers only to Arddha-Māgadhi, the language spoken by the gods and the human beings, thus it becomes distinguished.
“Devā ņam addhamāgahāe bhāsāe bliāsamti sāvi ya ņam
addhamāgahā bhāsā bhāsijjamāņā visissati"'?.
This prevalent language is also referred to in the Prajiāpamā Sutra”.
Besides these, the other Jaina texts bear testimony to the fact that Lord Mahāvira preached the Law in this very language to the people so that all of them including the men and women of all ages, the literate and illiterate* belonging to the different communities could grasp and understand the message and meanings of his holy teachings witbout any difficulty, for it was their common dialect current in the region in which the Master moved and carried on his religious activities.
The Niśitha.cūrņi" gives a quite different denotation of the word Arddha-Māgadhi' thus that it was either the language of half of Magadha or it consisted of the eighteen classes of Desībhāsā.
It appears from the Bhs that Arddha-Māgadhi was a language common and understandable to all the cultured and ordinary laities including the kings, nobles, officials, merchants, and the general people among whom Lord Mahāvīra and the other wandering religious teachers preached their respective Laws.
But it should be observed that Sanskrit also flourished side by side with Arddha-Māgadhi, as it is evidenced by the fact of
1 BhS, 5, 4, 191.
2 Pannavanā, 11, 37. 3 Samavāyānga Sutta, p. 57; Ovãiya Sutta 34. p. 146; Acārānga
Cūrni 7. p. 255. 4 Ācāranga Curne, 7. p. 255. 5 Nisitha Cūrņi, p. 733.

Page #367

342
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. Vi
the studies of a considerable number of the Vedic literatures1 which were in this language.
As regards the definition of Bhasa (Language or speech) this canonical work precisely explains that it is the carrier or instrument of understanding, i.e. vehicle of thought.
"Se nuņam bhamte manņāmīti ohāriņi bhāsā".
In this connection a scientific explanation of Bhasa (specch) is given here that speech is not the soul but it is other than the soul, i.e. matter.
"No āyā bhāsā annā bhāsā".
It is endowed with form, is unconscious and non-living, and belongs to the beings.
Bhāsā, before and after the speaking times is not the speech, but when it is being spoken, it is speech, because the speech before and after the speaking times does not break forth (get transformed), but when it is being spoken, it gets transformed.
"No puvvim bhāsā bhāsijjamāṇī bhāsā no
bhāsāsamayavītikkaṁtā bhāsā."
"No puvvim bhāsā bhijjati bhāsijjamāṇī bhāsā bhijjai no bhāsāsamaya vītikkaṁtā bhāsā bhijjati".
Literature
Literature is the reflection of human thoughts and ideas and the representation of education, learning and culture of the social life, made through the instrument of language and embodied in letters on the writing materials.
It carries the message of knowledge and the cultural heritage of a people or a country from the distant past upto the present day.
The extent of the literary works as revealed in the BhS clearly shows a great intellectual development of the people of its period and throws a welcome light upon the historical back
1 BhS, 2, 1, 90. Ib, 13, 7, 493.

2 Ib, 2, 6, 114.
4 Ib, 13, 7, 493; 1, 10, 80.

Page #368

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
343
ground of Indian culture and civilization froin the Vedic age up to that of this canonical work.
Behind this historical background there was a considerable number of the Brāhmana and Nirgrant ha literatures and other works as recorded in this canonical work.
In connection with the topic 'Courses of study' it has already been mentioned that the vedic branches of education and learning consisted of the studies of the following subjects as revealed by the titles of the works, viz. the Rg, Yaju, Sāma and Atharva Vedas, Itihāsa-purānas (the fifth Veda), Nigghantu (the sixth Veda, Nāmakosa), six Vedāngas, six Upāngas (Sadamgovanga) work on Rahasya, Şasthitantra (Kāpilya-śāstra), Sankhāna (arithmatic, gañitakhanda), Silckhā (phonetics), Kappa (ritual), Vāgaraña (grammar), Nirutta (exegesis), Jotisāmaya (Astronomy-Astiology) and also many other Nayas (Logic) and philosophy of the Brāhmaṇas and Parivrājalas?
This list of the Brālmana works is also found in the Aupapātiku Sūtra.
Here the fifth Veda is represented by the Itihāsa-Purāna, while the Anuyoyadvāra refers to the Bhārata and the Rāmāyana in its place.
TIT
The Upāngas' formed the explanatory parts of the sujects discussed in the four Vedāngas and the Şasthitantra was the work on the Sankhya system of thought dealing with the sixty terms or topics.
I BAS, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 380, 383; 11, 12, 436. * Aupaj ātika Sutra, Section-77,
Anuyogadvara Sūtra, Section, 41. The later Brāhmaṇical tradition says that the Upārgas were four and they consited of the Purānas, Nyāya treatises, Mimāvisā works and Dharmaśāstras. See R. Fick, 'Social organization in Noth-East India in Buddha's time' p. 203. Vide, Dr. B. C. Law's 'India as described in the Early texts of Buddhism and Jainism'.

Page #369

344
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪ SUTRA
[Ch. VI
According to the Uttaradhyayana Sūtra and the Anuyogadvāra Sutra, the Şasthitantra was an independent Sankhya treatise distinct from the Kāvila (Kapila's formulation) Kanagasattari (Kanaka saptati or Sankhya-kärikā) and Madhara (Mathara Vitti)."
The Bhs refers to the Astāngum zhānimitta," various classes of the Sāstras, the Kālikā (Kārikā) Sruta," Sippus (arts, and thirty-two kinds of drama without any specific mention of their titles.
Besides these literatures, there were following Jaina canonical texts, viz., fourteen Purvas, twelve Angas,' and Upāngas. A detailed discussion has already been made in regard to these works in connection with the topic 'Position of the Bhs in the Arddha-Māgadhi Canon' in the first section of the first chapter.
SECOND SECTION.
Science and Arts The BhS throws light on the development of the different branches of Science and Arts' during its period, such as, Medical Science, Biology, Physics. Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, Military Science, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music, Dance and Drama, and others.
Medical Science The text gives an account of the advancement of Medical Science, anatomy of human body, physiological functions, transformation of physical and psychical matters, process of conception and growth of the embryo and the subsequent
1 Aupapatika Sulta, Sec. 76. ? Bhs, 11, 11, 428 ; 15, 1, 539.3 16, 11, 11, 428. 4 Ib, 20, 8, 678.
5 1b, 7, 9, 300. 6 16, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 430. ? 16, 18, 2, 618 ; 20, 8, 678. & 15, 16, 6, 580; 20, 8, 682; 25, 3, 732. 9 16, 25, 3, 732.

Page #370

Sec. 117.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
345
stages of development of the child after its birth, various kinds of diseases and their treatment, medicinal and surgical. From this it appears that the Medical Science advanced on two lines, viz., medicinal treatment proper and surgery.
It is well-known from the Jaina, the Buddhist and the Brāhmanical works that the Medical Science was studied and practised in ancient India.
Ayuvveya or Tegicchaya is mentioned in the faina texts' as one of the black sciences (pāvasuya) and it is said to have been invented and introduced by Dhanvantari" wlio was a specialist in the eight groups of this branch of knowledge, viz, pediatrics (Kumārabhicca), surgery and midwifery (salāga), treatment of eye, ear, nose, and throat (sallahattha), that of bodily diseases (kāyatigicchā), toxicology (Jangola), demonology (bhūyavijjā), science and arts of recovering lost health in old age (rasāyana) and sexual rejuvenation (vājikarana or Ichāratanta).
The evidences of the Jain texts regarding the development of Ayurveda are fully corroborated by the Buddhist and the Brāhmaṇical" works which give information about the study and practice of this important science in its different branches.
· Thánānga Sutta, 9, 678.
Niśitha Curni, 15. p. 944; Cf. Milinda-Panha, p. 277 ; refer
also to Ayoghara Jataka No. 510, IV. pp. 496, 498. : Vivāga, 7, 41 ; Cf. Susruta Samhitā, Ch. 1-8, p. 4 f. • Cf. Milimda-panha-p. 272 ; refer to goghara Jataka (No.
510) IV. pp. 496, 498; Digha Nikaya 1. p. 12 ; 1. p. 9.: Majjhima 1, p. 265 f. See Mahāniddesa-p. 120; Milindapanha, p. 40 for the knowledge of the process of conception
and gradual development of the foetus in the womb. 6 Susruta Samhita; Sūtrasthāna, IV, 4, 4-8 (learning from
different experts). ; Caraka, Vimanasthana, 8, 4. (practical training in medicine). Sufruta Sútrasthāna, Ch. 9. Training in Surgery, Sufruta, Sarārasthäna, 5, 49,
44

Page #371

346
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VÌ
Birth of Child The BKS throws some light on fertilization and human embryology.
It explains that in one life one being becomes the father of of one or two or three issues in the minimum and of nine lakhs in the maximum. When there takes place the sexual union called 'mehunavattie' in the heated sex-orguns of the famale and the male, semen and blood combine and by this process one or two or three issues in the minimum upto nine lakhs in the maximum may be begotten.
Process of Conception It is explained that a Jiva, being born and existing in the body (mother's womb) is called Kayabhavastha, the duration of which is one antur muhūrta in the minimuni and twenty-four years in the maximum."
The sperm in case of the human beings and the fivesensed lower animals exists for one antarmuhürta in the minimum and twelve muhūrtas in the maximum, after entering the uterus.'
Fertilization of Embryo Next, the text throws light upon the fertilization and gradual development of the embryo by explaining the transformation of physical and psychical matters of the child. It states that the being which is conceived in the womb may be born with the sense-organs (sairdie) and not sense-organs (animdie).
"The being which is conceived in the womb is endowed with the body (saririye) and is non-bodied also (asarīriye), because from the point of view of gross physical transformation and translocation of bodies, a bodiless or incorporal being is born, while from the standpoint of fiery (luminous) and kārmic bodies, a bodied being is born'':
Being conceived in the mother's womb it takes first the matter of mutually mixed kalusam and leilvisar from both mother's blood and father's semen."
1 BhS, 2, 5, 105. 8 Ib, 2, 5, 103,
? 16, 2, 5, 102. 4.5 16, 1, 7, 61.

Page #372

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
347
11
It absorbs the mother's blood (ojam) with one part of many kinds of transformed food taken by her.'
There is no excrement nor urine nor spitting (or saliva) nor rheum (of nose) nor vomitting, in case of the being while it is in the womb, because it collects whatever it absorbs and transforms the same in the forms of ear, skin, bone, marrow, hair, beard, hair on the body (roma) and nails.
The being, existing there absorbs abundant food by the whole body but not by the mouth and transforms it, inhales and exhales again and again, for the Matrýīva-rasaharani (mother's naval string) and the Putrajīvarasaharani (child's naval string) are joined together."
There is also the other string bound by the putrajīva (child's being) and touched by the Mātrjava (mother's being) through which the child receives and accumulates the foodmatter,
The Mātrangas (limbs of mother) received and possessed by the child are known to be his flesh, blood and brain, while the Pitr-angas (limbs of father) are his bone, marrow, hair, beard, and hair on the body.
Position of the child in the mother's womb The child existing in the mother's womb remains like an umbrella or the side ribs of human body (gabbhagae samāne uttanae vā pā:illae), it is like a hump-backed (crooked) mango (ambakhajjae) and also stays standing, sitting and laying (tuyattejja).?
When the mother sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy and unhappy the child also sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy and unhappy respectively.8
Birth of the child--A child is born after the complete course of pregnancy of full nine months seven and half nights and days according to the Medical Science as explained by the BhS. At the time of delivery, if it comes out straight either head or feet emerging first, it is born) is safe, but attains death if it comes crosswise, i.e. obliquely.
1.9 BKS, 1,7,61. 16 16, 1, 7,61. 79 16, 1, 7, 62.

Page #373

348
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VÌ
The united body of the mother and the father in the child lasts as long as its worldly body exists, but it comes to an end with the end of the physique of the child at last after gradual decay.1
The above evidences clearly show a highly advanced knowledge of the process of conception, gradual development of the foetus, anatomy of human body, physiological functions, and the birth of a child, as acquired by the Medical Science of that period.
These principles of the conception, fertilization of human embryo and the birth of the child compare favourably well with
those of the modern Medical Science.
Diseases and Treatments
The BhS refers to various kinds of diseases, such as, ringworm (daddu), bilious fever (pittajara), sometimes accompanied by blood dysentry', piles (amsiyão,, rheumatic (vātaka), bilious (pittika) and phlegmatic (leşmika) diseases, typhoid (sānnipātika)', insanity (unmāda), etc.
It does not throw much light upon the causes of these diseases except in one or two cases. But it is presumable that they appeared in the human body generally owing to the state of the physical and mental disequilibrium and particularly to the disturbed condition of the three most important physical elements, viz. Vayu (rheum or air), Pitta (bile or heat) and Slesma (kapha phlegm or water).
-
Thus it is learnt from the text that insipid, dry and cold food and drink untimely cause bilious fever with which the monk Jamali suffered, while passing his time in Sravasti, because the normal function of the physical system was disturbed by the generation of more heat from the bile on account of unsuitable and untimely diet.
1 Bhs, 1, 7, 61.
8 Ib, 9, 33, 386; 15, 1, 557.
5 Ib, 16, 3, 572.
8 Ib, 14, 2, 503.

2 Ib, 7, 6, 288.
4 Ib, 15, 1, 557.
8.7 Ib, 18, 10, 647.

Page #374

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
349
In the case of the mental disease Insanity', a clear idea is given about its causes and symptoms. It is said to be of two kinds, viz. Yaksavesa and Mohaniyakarma (unmāda). The first one appears on account of the cause of possession of the whole body and mind by Yaksa (demi-god) and the second one occurs owing to the rise of Mohaniya Karma (faith and right-conduct obscuring Karma) in his mind.
The Yaksavesa-insanity brings the state of happiness (sukhavedanataraka) and its cure also is accompanied by happiness, while the Mohaniyakarma-insanity is full of suffering (duḥkhavedanataraku) and the cure or release from it is attained with pain (duḥkhavimocanataraka).'
Treatment
The BhS clearly shows that two kinds of treatment, viz. medicinal and surgical were applied to cure diseases according to their natures and classifications on the basis of diagnosis. A reference is found in the text to the taking of medicine (osahi) mixed with food by mouth.
In the case of a sudden swoon due to mental shock, the patient was brought to consciousness by sprinkling cold water on face and fanning air with a palm-leaf-fan, as it is evidenced in the case of the mother of the prince, Jamali, who swooned immediately after listening to the undesired, unpleasing, disagreeable and unheard words of request of her son for permission to undertake the state of houselessness."
Surgery
An evidence of the treatment of the disease 'piles' by the surgical operation is mentioned. A physician, having observed the piles of a meditating monk, hanging outside the rectum, caused him to lie down in a proper position and then operated on it.3
1 Bhs, 14, 2, 503.

2 1b, 9, 33, 384. 3 Ib, 16, 2, 572.

Page #375

350
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Diet
It appears from the denotation of the word 'gilāṇabhatta" used in the BhS, that the patient was served with a special kind of diet in the case of his disease.
[Ch. Vi
The evidences of the study and practice of the Medical Science are also fully corroborated by other Jain texts.
In addition, they provide information regarding the development of the different sections of this branch of knowledge in those days.
Thus, they give a long list of various kinds of diseases, such as, boils (gandi), leprosy (kuttha of eighteen types), consumption (rāyamsi), epilepsy (avamariya), blindness (kāniya), stiffness (jhimiya), lameness (kuniya), humpback (khujjiya), dropsy (udari), dumbness (mūya), swelling (sūniya), over-appetite (gilasani), trembling (vevai), disablement (piḍhasappi), elephantiasis (pilivaya), diabetes (madhumeha), asthama (sasa), cough (kasa), fever (jara), inflamation (daha), intestinal colic (kucchisula), fistula (bhagandara), piles (arisa), etc.5
According to those works various causes are attributed to the appearance of diseases in the human body, such as, overeating, taking of bad food, over-sleeping, over-walking, checking calls of nature, travelling, irregularity of taking food, indulgence in sexual intercourse".

1 BhS, 9, 33, 384.
Refer to Suśruta-Samhita, Nidanasthana, 5, 4, 5, p. 342; Caraka Ch. 7, pp. 2069-73 for eighteen kinds of Kusta,
3 Acaranga Sutra, 6, 1, 173. Vide 'Life in Ancient India, p. 179. Cf. Vivaga Suya 1, p. 7.
Refer to Jambu Sú (24. p. 120) which records family disease (kularoga), village disease (gamaroga), country disease (manda roga), etc.; see Nisitha Cu. II, p. 737 f.; Jivabhigama Sutra, 3, p. 153; Mbh. III, 230, 44 ff; Cf. History of Pali literature, p. 281
• Thānanga Suya, 9. 667. For all these references see 'Life in Ancient India', p. 180.

Page #376

Sec. II)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
351
As regards the medicine, treatment, diet and hospitalization, they give a detailed account on the two lines of treatment, viz. medicinal and surgical, as referred to in the Bhs.
Thus, there occur references to various kinds of treatment prescribed and given by the physician on the basis of the nature of the disease, such as, rubbing with oil (abbhanga) rubbing with powder (uvvattana), oil drinks (siņeha pāņı), vomitting (vamana), purging (vireyaņa), branding (avaddahaņa), medicated baths (avanhāna), oil eneina (aņuvāsana), head bath (batthikamma), purging by drugs (virūha), opening vejus (sirāveha), cutting (tacchana), scrapping (pacchana), bathing the head with oils (sirobatthi), nourishing the body with oils (tappana) by means of ingredients roasted on fire, by puța pāka method, barks, roots, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bitters (silikā), pills, drugs (08aha), etc.
Besides these, a long list of other kinds of treatmentboth medicinal and surgical, as prescribed by the physicians according to the nature of diseases is provided by the different Jaina texts, e.g. the use of hairy or hairless (saloma-nilloma) skin for the old monks and nuns thus, the lying down on the skin in the case of flatulence (uddhavāta) or paralysis (dhanuggāha) or of piles or severe pain or of the dislocation of foot or of the attack of wind on the whole or the part of the body of a nun, the wrapping of the affected part of the body with the skin of hyena (taraccha) in the case of her rheumatism (vāta) and the lying down on a tiger-skin (dīvicamima) in that of dog-biting, etc.
The other Jnina texts throw a welcome light upon the surgical treatment by refering to various kinds of instruments for operation and to the surgical cases treated by the surgeons.
i Vivāga Suya, 1. p. 8; Vide 'Life in Ancient India.' p. 179. ? Bihatkalpa Sutra, 3, 3, 6; Bhasya, 3839.41. 9 Bihatkalpa Bhāsya, 3816-18. 4 Vide, 'Life in Ancient India', p. 180. 5 Niśitha Cú, ll, p. 701.
Vivāga Suya, 8, p. 48; see Vinayavastu of Mulasaravāstivāda, pp. 27-43.

Page #377

352
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
Ch. VỊ
As regards the diet of the patients, there is the mention of meat and wine as prescribed by the physician in special cases of diseases.
It is learnt from the other Jaina texts that there were two classes of physicians, viz. the private and state physicians whose services were indispensable in the society.
In the case of the former, patients were brought to him for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and his medical advice or he was called in to the house of the patient, honoured and entertained with the present of food, valuable utensils and fees, while the latter was appointed and maintained by the king for the medical service of the royal family on a certain rate of salary.
There occurs also a reference in the Nāyādhammakahãok to the running of a public hospital where the patients were treated by a number of physicians and surgeons with different kinds of medicines and herbs according to the nature of their diseases.
THIRD SECTION
Biology
The BRS reveals that a remarkable progress was made by the scholars of its age in the science of Biology, as it is known by the fact that both the plant and animal kingdoms have been dealt with in the text, though in a brief manner.
Moreover, it should be observed that Ajīvikism” as propounded by Gośāla Mańkhaliputra contains some principles of Biology, the comprehensive accounts of which are revealed in
1 Nāyādhammakahão, 5, p. 80. Cf. Vivāga Suya, II.
Cf. Mahāvagga. VI. 10-2. ? Bihatkalpa Bhāsya, p. 1910-70. 3 Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, Pihikā 376 ; V yavahāra Bhäsya, 5, 21. 4 Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 1, 1910-70.5 Vyavahāra Bhāsya, 5, 21. 6 Nayādhammakahão, 13. p. 143. See 'Life in Ancient India'
p. 179. ? BhS, 15, 1, 539,

Page #378

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
353
the Digha Nikāyal and Sumangalavilāsinza which deal with the elements of Botany, Zoology, Geology, Anatomy, Physiology and Embryology.
Botany As regards the plant life, the BhS gives a clear insight into it by explaining the different stages of its development in a few scattered statements made in course of the sermons of the Master.
The life of all plants exists within the cover of seeds in a state of dormancy to be awakened at a proper time and season under the favourable conditions, though it is imperceptible to the naked human eyes. This life persists within the protective seed-coat for certain periods, resisting against all the forces of the natural phenomena.
In due time and season this dormant life springs up, bursting asunder the seed-coat and begins to grow gradually into a full plant like all beings, though in its immobile state, due to the transformations within itself.
It is explained that the plant also has the feeling experience of touch like all other beings as one-sensed being (ekendriya jäva).
In a dialogue of Lord Mahāvīra with Gośāla Mańkhaliputra on the reanimation of a Tilastambaka (Sesamum plant) the Bhs sheds light on the existence of the plant life.
Sir Jagadisha Chandra Bose also has proved this truth to the world by his proper scientific researches on the silent life of the plants in the nineteenth Century A.D. Germinating Capacity or visibility of different kinds of Seeds
The BKS gives some knowledge of the germinating capacity of different kinds of seeds of corps.
It has already been discussed in connection with the topic Agricultural operation in the first section of the fifth chapter
1 Digha-Nikaya, I, p. 53 f. 9 Sumangalavilusini, 1. p. 160 f. 8 Bhs, 15, 1, 544, 4 Plant Autographs and their Revelations' 1927, Sir J.C. Bose.
45

Page #379

354
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Ch. VỊ
that the germinating capacity, or viability of the cereals, such as, Sali (a kind of rice), Brihi (a kind of fine rice), Godhūma (wheat), Yava (barly), etc., if kept in a well protected granary, lasts in the minimum for one antarmuhurta and in the maximum upto three years; that of the pulses, like Kalaya, Masūra (lentil), Munga, etc., for one antarmuhūrta in the minimum and five years in the maximum; and that of Alusi, Kusumbhaka, Kodrava, Kangri, Sana, Sarsapa (mustard seed), Mülaga (raddish), etc., for one antarmukūrta in the minimum and seven years in the maximum, if stored up according to the above process. After the specified periods their respective germinating capacities (or viability) wither away and the seeds become unseeds.?
Plant life and Absorption of food by plants in different
seasons In the rainy season the Vanaspati-kāyika jīvas (plant-bodied beings) become much absorbers of their food, but after that in the seasons of Hemanta (autumn), Vasanta (spring), and Grīşma (Summer) all of them become less absorbers (sarvālpāhārā).
In Summer many Üsnayoniku beings (born in hot place) and Poggala (living organism) are born as plant-bodied beings in particular numbers and they increase and decrease (die) also in certain numbers, and they are born again ; for this reason in this season many plants endowed with leaves, flowers and fruits remain green, shining, beautiful and brilliant, having been adorned with these natural products and the wild beauty the forest.3
This account reveals the knowledge of the plant life and storage of its food for its sustenance and continuance against the clemency of the weather of the hot summer season.
Absorption of food by the Plants The BhS throws some light upon the process of absorption and assimilation of food-matter by the plants by explaining thus that the roots of the plants are touched (pervaded) by the root
i Bhs, 6, 7, 246.
98 16, 7, 3, 275.

Page #380

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SUTRA 355 beings (i.e. bacteria existing in roots) which are connected with the earth-bodied beings, for that reason they absorb food-matter from the soil and assimilate it.
Likewise the stems are touched (pervaded) by the stembeings and they are connected with the root beings; the seeds also are pervaded by the seed-beings and connected with the fruit beings; so they absorb and assimilate their food-matter.1
This process of absorption and assimilation of food-matter by the plants fully agrees with the law of osmosis of Botany.
This theory of osmosis explains that the plant absorbs nitrogen, pliospherous, potash, etc., by its auxiliary roots (not by the tape root) from the earth in the form of liquid substance and draws it up by the root pressure to the leaf where it gets cooked with the help of the heat of sunshine. Thence it passes in a transformed condition to every part of the plant, causing it to grow and to bear flowers and fruits.
Classification of Plants
In the BhS the plants have been classified into three natural orders on the basis of the number of beings existing in their bodies and the span of their life, viz. Sankhyāta jivita (the plant in which there are numerable beings), Asavikhyāta jīvita (the plant in which there are innumerable beings), and Anantajżvita (the tree in which there are infinite beings).
Under the first order of this classification come the following species of Savrchyātajivita plants, viz. Tāla (palmtree), Tamāla (dark-barked xanthochymus pictorius), Takkali (Pimenta acris ?), Tetali (Temarind tree), upto Nälieri (cocoanut tree), while under the second one there are two kinds of plants, viz. Ekāsthikā (one-seeded) and Bahubijakā (many-seeded), e. g. Nimba (neem tree), Amra (mango tree), Jambu (the rose apple), etc., are stated to be one-seeded and Asthika (guava), Tinduka (Diospyros embryopteris), Dādima (Pomegranate), etc., fall under the second category of Bahubījaka."
1 Bhs, 7, 3, 276.
? 16, 8, 3, 324.

Page #381

356
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VỊ
The third natural order contains the following species of plants, viz. Aluka (a kind of ebony), Mülaka (raddish), Singavera (ginger), upto Musundhi and others like them."
This analysis of the plant life and its classification on the basis of the existence of the germs of life fully corresponds to the theory of Botany about them and thus reveals the development of knowledge in this branch of learning at that period of the BhS to a considerable extent.
Zoology The references to various species of animals in the text, as already discussed in connection with the topic 'Fauna' in the first section of the fifth chapter on 'Economic Conditions', reveal that the science of Zoology developed to a considerable extent during its period.
Besides these, the very classification of beings on the basis of the possession of senses and sense-organs into five groups, viz. one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed beings, clearly shows the scientific progress of this branch of learning
The BhS divides the animal kingdom into three natural classes from the point of view of their respective habitations, viz. terrestrial (sthalacara), acquatic jalacara), and aerial (khecara or khahayara).
It mentions three processes of birth of the birds and of the other five-sensed lower animals, viz. andaja, potajā and sammür. cchimā, i. e. birth from an egg, birth from a foetus (womb) which has no enveloping membrane and birth without the union of the male and female (i. e. father and mother).
These evidences of the classification of animals and the processes of their births as revealed in the Bhs are corroborated by the Jivābhigama Sūtra where they are explained in details.
Thus it is stated that there are three kinds of yonisangraha (birth), viz.—Andajā, Potajā and Sarmūrochima.
i Bhs, 7, 3, 277. 3.4 16, 7, 5, 282,
• I6, 33, 1, 844. $ 16, 7, 5, 282.

Page #382

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA 357
They are again further divided into different groups thus : the Andajās and Potajās are of three classes, viz. female (stri), male (purusa) and third sex (napursaka), while the Sarmūrcchimās are stated to be only the third-sex.?
The Jivābhigama Sutra classifies the five-sensed lower animals into two main groups, viz. Sarimārcchima-tiryag-yonika and Garbhavyutkrāntika-Pancendriya-tiryag.yonikas, i. e. lower animals born without the sexual union of the male and female and those born from the foetus.
The first group is further divided into three natural categories, viz. acquatic (jalacara), terrestrial (sthalacara), and aerial (khe cara).
There are stated to be five kinds of the Sunmürcchima acquatic animals viz. fish, tortoise, crocodile, allegator (goha) Susumāra,and two kinds of terrestrial animals, viz. four footed terrestrial Samürcchina-five-sensed lower-animals and ParisarpaSammūrchima. The first group is further classified into four Categories viz. ekakhurā, dvikhurā, gandipadā and sanapakaya.
The second group (sthalacara sarmūrcchima) is divided into two classes viz. Uragaparisarpasanmūrochima and Bhujagaparisar. pasanmircchima, (i.e. those animals which move on their breast and those on arms), e.g. the snakes belong to the first group, while the allegator and mongoose, etc., to the second.
The five-sensed aerial lower animals are stated to be of four classes, viz, Carmapaksī, Lomapaksī, Samudgapaksī, and Vitatapaksi; the Bāguli (bat) etc., belonged to the first one, Hansa (swan), Dhankā (crow), Karkā (heron), etc., to the second, Samudgapaksī, (birds shaped like a round casket) to the third and Vitatapaksi (birds having extended wings) to the fourth respectively.
A very scientific study of the possession of poision by some beings in one particular part of their bodies shows a
1 Jivūbhigama Sütra, 3, 1, 96. 1b, 1, 33. 3 Ib, 1, 34.
4 16, 1, 35. * Ib, 1, 35.
6 Ib, 1, 36.

Page #383

358
STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATŤ SÚTRA
(Ch. Vi
stage of development of Zoology at that period of the BhS, as it is evidenced by the fact that it classifies the animals possessing poison in their teeth into four groups, viz. Vrścika-jāti-aśćvisa (scorpion, etc.), Manduka-jātī-āsīvişa (frog), Uraga-jātiāšīvisa (snake), and Manusya-jāti-āšīvişa (human beings).
This analysis of the existence of poison in the teeth of these four classes of beings fully agrees with the result of the scientific researches of the present day about the problem of the life of poisonous animals.
It is further explained that the scorpion and the frog are endowed with the power to inake the bodies equal to the sizes of the half of Bhāratavarśa affected by their poison and to rend them asunder individually.
And the snake and the human being possess the capacity to make the bodies equal to the sizes of Jambūdvāpa island and Samayaksetra (the human world) poisonous respectively.
But none of them applied or applies or will apply their powers in this regard.
These statements of the extent of the capacities of the four classes of beings to poison the bodies by biting require a scientific research to verify the truth lying in them.
It is found from the general observation that whenever a poisonous snake bites a man, the poison immediately spreads throughout his body.
Cause of the sound of a running horse The BKS throws light upon the physiological function of the body of a horse by explaining the cause of the sound of a running horse thus that there is born in between the heart and liver of this animal an air called Karbata (or Karkata) (while running) due to the presence of which the sound Khukhu' is heard."
The cause of this sound requires a proper scientific research to ascertain the truth of the above statement.
1 BKS, 8, 2, 316,
· 16, 10, 3, 407.

Page #384

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
359
359
Other Natural Sciences-Physics and Chemistry
It is learnt from the BhS that Natural Sciences-Physics and Chemistry-made a remarkable progress during its period, as it is evidenced by the fact of its scientific treatment of the theory of Matter, particularly the atomic theory and Metallurgy.
Here some ideas are given to show the scientific studies of the elements of Nature as made in this canonical work and to hold that they fully agree with the theories of the modern science, but these subjects will be dealt with in details later on in the chapter on Philosophy.
It is explained that Matter was, is, and will be infinite and eternal in the past, the present and the future.'
It was endowed with the dissimilar qualities like dryness and adhesiveness and got transformed into the states having many colours and forms by the applied and natural processes.
The skandhas (aggregate of atoms), after getting worn out underwent further transformation and disintegrated into the matter of one colour and one form i. e. an atom which is indivisible. impenetrable,“ infinite and eternal from the point of view of substance and non-eternal from that of the modes of colour, etc.8
The text throws a sidelight also upon the theory of light by making a scientific analysis of the burning of fire of a lamp.
It explains thus that a lamp, its stand, wick, oil, and cover do not burn, but fire in the wick buros.
It is the well-known theory that the oil of the lamp is sucked up by capillary action caused by the heat of fire burning at the tip of the wick.
In connection with the explanation of Lolasthiti (order of the Universe) this canonical text makes a scientific discussion on the action of air and water thus. Some man fiills a leather bladder with air and binds its mouth with a knot, fixes a knot in the middle of it and opens the upper knot (mouth). Then he
1.2 BhS, 14, 4, 510. 5 16, 25, 4, 740
16, 5, 7, 214.
3 16, 5, 7, 215. 6 16, 14, 4, 512.

Page #385

360
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. VI bleeds the air from the upper part and fills it up with water, then he opens the middle knot, after binding the mouth of the bladder. Ultimately the filled up water will rest on the uppermost portion of the air.1
All these evidences regarding the knowledge of science show that the ideas on the operations of the forces of Nature worked in the minds of the great thinkers of those days. But it is difficult to say how far those ideas were experimented in a practical scientific laboratory as they are done in modern days.
FOURTH SECTION
Astronomy and Mathematics. Astronomy
The Bhs reveals that the science of Astronomy made a remarkable progress during its period, as it is revealed by the fact of its treatment of different directions and the solar system.
Directions
The text mentions ten directions with their respective names, viz. East (Indrā), East-South (Āgneyi), South (Yamā), South-West (Naistī), West (Varuni), West-North (Vāyavyā), North (Somā), North-East (Aišānī = iśāni), Upper-direction (Vimalā) and Lower-Direction (Zamā)."
It also explains the existence and non-existence of beings and non-beings in the space of these ten directions.
The Bhs3 makes mention of many suns, moons, planets and stars existing in different hemispheres of the universe and they form the Jyotiskas (luminous heavenly bodies). Thus it is enumerated that there shone, shine and will shine two suns, two moons, fifty six Nakyatras (particular stars), ' one hundred seventysix planets, one lakh and thirty-three thousand stars in the
1 Bhs, 1, 6, 54. 1b, 10, 1, 394. Ib, 9, 2, 363-4. 4 In the Vedas the Naksatras are considered as abodes of the
gods or of pious persons after death. Sāyana on R.V.1.50,2 Vide, Skt. Dictionary-Monier-Williams, p. 524, Col. 2.

Page #386

Sec, IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
361
Jambūdvīpa island, four suns, four moons, one hundred and seventy-two Naksatras, three hundred and fifty-two planets, two lakhs sixty-seven thousand and nine hundred stars in LavanaSamudra (Salt sea), twelve suns, twelve moons, three hundred thirty-six Nakşatras, one thousand fifty-six planets, eight lakhs three thousund seven hundred crores of stars (tārāganakodikodīņań), forty-two suns, forty-two moons, one thousand one hundred and seventy-six Naleşatras, three thousand six hundred and ninety-six great planets, twelve thousand and twenty-eight (atthāvīsar bārasa ya taha sahas sāin), nine hundred fifty crores of stars in Kaloda; one hundred and forty-four suns, one hundred forty-four moons, four thousand thirty-two Nakşatras, twelve thousand six hundred and seventy-two great planets, ninety-six lakhs forty-four thousand and four hundred crores of stars in Puslarārdhadvīpa; seventy-two suns, seventy-two moons, two thousand and sixteen Naksatras, six thousand three hundred and thirty-six great planets and forty-eight lakhs, twenty-two thousand and two hundred crores of stars in Abhyantarapuskarārdha (Puşkaravaradvzpārdha), one hundred and thirtytwo suns, one hundred and thirty-two moons, three thousand six hundred and ninety-six Naksatras, eleven thousand ninety-six great planets and eighty-eight lakhs forty-thousand and seven hundred less by one crores of stars in Manusyaloka (human worlu).
It is difficult to explain how far the numbers of the suns, the moons, the Naksatras, the planets and the stars given here are correct without the proper astronomical research studies at the present state of inowledge. But one thing is clear from the above evidences that they formed the Jyotişkas according to the Jaina texts.
Solar System The Sun
The sun (Sura) is called Aditya because it is the first of all the members of the solar system, such as, the moon, the planets, the Naksatras, the stars, etc., upto the unit
| BhS, 9, 2, 363. See Comm.
46

Page #387

362
studies in THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA (Ch. VI of time, such as, samaya, avalikā upto utsar piņās, avasarpiņās, etc. It is the first cause of all.
The Moon
The moon is called Sasi for there are in its heavenly house (Mrgānka-vimāna) beautiful gods and goddesses, nice seat, bed, pillars and other articles, and it is also placid, lovely, charming, pleasant, good-looking and handsome. It is the conception of the celestial abode of the gods." Courses of the Sun
It is explained in this canonical work that in the Jambūdvípa island two suns are seen far and near (though far) at the rising and setting times due to the non-diffusion (resistance) of their light, and near and far (though near) at the moment of midday due to the cause of extreme heat of light.3
It is further stated that they are equal in altitude every. where at the above mentioned three moments.
The two suns pervade' and illuminate the present space of the Universe but not its past and future spaces.
They make bright the space touched by their respective rays (tejasă sprstar) but not the untouched one as a rule in the six directions.
Thus they cause to shine and make hot and lustrous the present space pervaded by their rays in six directions.
They shine upon a space of one hundred yojanas above, that of eighteen hundred yojanas below and that of forty-six thousand two hundred and sixty-three and more by 1/21st part yojanas horizontally.?
Then it is explained that the setting sun soon comes in view from the very intervening space from which the rising sun comes.
1 Bhs, 12, 6. 455. 11, 12, 6, 454. 8 16, 8, 8, 344. 4.5 16, 8, 8, 344.
Ib, 8, 8, 344. Here the touching of the space by the rays of the sun means that space
where the sun rays fall, enter and pervade. 7 1b, 8, 8, 344.
8 16, 1, 6, 50.

Page #388

Sec. 1V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 363
The setting sun illuminates, causes to shine, makes hot and lustrous the space which is illuminated, etc., by the rising sun with its rays on all sides in all directions.
It illuminates, causes to shine, makes hot and bright the space which is touched by its rays as a rule in six directions.
Thus whatever space is touched by the rays of the sun during the touching time in all directions, may be called the touched space and the sun touches the touched space but not the untouched space in all directions.3
In these statements whatever may be the scientific truth regarding the existence of two suns etc., the thought and experience of the learned society of the scholars of that age, as revealed in the study of the course of the sun and illumination of the space of the Universe by its rays lead one to probe into the knowledge of Astronomy acquired and applied by them in the field of education.
Lunar Eclipse
It was the popular belief at that period that when Rähu, the heavenly demon, seized and devoured the moon, the lunar eclipse took place in the Universe.
Against this popular belief of the society it is explained in the Bhs that Rāhudeva is endowed with great prosperity and attributed with the following nine names :- Srngataka, Jațilaka, Ksambhaka (Ksatraka), Kharaka, Dardura, Maraka, Matsya, Kacchapa, Krşņasarpa and he is possessed of five vimānas (heavenly houses), having five colours, viz. black (Krşņa), blue (nāla), red (lohita), yellow (haridrā) and white (sukla).
When Rāhu, coming or going or assuming various shapes, or enjoying sexual intercourse crosses to the west by covering the moonlight in the east, then the moon becomes visible in the east and Rahu in the west.
1,9 BIS, 1, 6, 50.
* Ib, 12, 6, 453.

Page #389

364
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. VI When he crosses to the east by covering the moonlight in the west, then the moon shows itself in the west and he appears in the east.
Like this two divisions should be known in regard to each movement of Rāhu to the north and south, north-west and south-west, south-east and north-east and north-west and southwest respectively.
When Rāhu, coming or going etc., stays (exists) by covering the moonlight, then in this world the human beings tell thus :
"Surely Rāhu devours the moon and when he crosses by the side of the moon" they say, "Surely the belly of Rāhu
is pierced by the moon"?.
When he returns by covering the moonlight, then the human beings say, "Surely the moon is vomitted by Rāhu" and when he stays by covering the moonlight in the lower region and in front, they tell that the moon is captured or devoured by him.
It is further explained that there are two Rāhus, viz. Dhruva Rāhu and Parva Rāhu. The former stays by covering the fifteenth part of the moonlight by his own fifteenth part of body since the Pratipadā of Krinapaksa (the first duy of the dark half of a month), e. g. the first part by his first, the second part by his second upto the fifteenth by his fifteenth part ; thus at last time the moon becomes completely covered.
Again the moon becomes partly covered (rakta) and partly uncovered (virakta), unshowing and showing itself in the Suklapaksa (the bright half of the month), when Rāhu stays by uncovering the first part of the moonlight by his first upto the fifteenth by his fifteenth part.
At last the moonlight becomes completely uncovered (virakta) and again covered and uncovered.
Parva-Rāhu exists by covering the moonlight after six months in the minimum, after forty-two months in the maximum and the rays of the sun after forty-eight years in the maximum.
1.2 Bhs, 12, 6, 453.

Page #390

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
365
That is, this lunar eclipse takes place after six months and forty-two months in the minimum and maximuin respectively and the solar eclipse after forty-eight years in the maximum.
According to Varāhamihira!, Rāhu resembles the shape of a snake, baying its mouth and tail divided, for the head of the demon was cut by Vişņu with his Cukra as a punishment of tasting the nectar by him secretly along with the gods.
He also propounds the theory that the eclipse takes place owing to the covering of the light of a luminous body by the presence of another body.
In the science of Astronomy an eclipse has been defined as the interception of the light of a luminous body (the sun, the moon, etc.) by the intervention of another body between it and the eye or between the luminous body and what illuminates it. This eclipse is annual, partial and total.
So there is an agreement between the theory as embodied in the Bhs and that of the modern Astronomy on the fundamental principle of eclipse that it takes place due to the interception of the light of a luminous body by the intervention of another body between it and the eye or it and the source of its light.
Time (Kāla) According to the Bhs time is one of the six fundamental substances of the Universe which will be discussed later in the chapter on Philosophy".
There are stated to be four kinds of time as explained from the four points of view, viz. Pramāņakāla (standardized time), Yathāyurnirorttika-kāla (time when the binding of ayur. karma takes place), Maranakala (death-time), and Addhākāla (time associated with Nature).
Vol-X-pt. 1)
i Varāhamihira. Rāhucāra (Brhat Samhita
(p. 160-161.)-3. * 16
-1 (p. 116)

Page #391

366
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
VI
Pramānakāla is subdivided into two classes, viz. Divasapramānakāla and Rātripramānakāla. The day of four praharas becomes the night of four praharas. "Cauporisie divase cauporisiyā rāi bhavati".! Addhakāla is determined by the travelling of the sun and it is divided into many units of time, the smallest indivisible part of which is Samaya; Avalikā' is the next unit of time which is formed of ihe union of innumerable Samayas ; numerable Avalikās become one Ucchvāsa-kāla and one Nihávāsa. kāla respectively, one Ucchvāsa-Nihávāsa (inhale and exhale) of one young, healthy, stout and diseaseless animal is called one Prāņa ; seven Prānas make one stoka ; seven stokas constitute one Lava ; seventy-seven Lavas are stated to form one Muhurta which is equal to forty-eight minutes and there are three thousand seven hundred and seventy-three Ucchvāsus in one Muhūrta as found by all men possessed of infinite knowledge.
By this unit of measurement of Muhūrta, one day and one night are formed of thirty Muhūrtas ; fifteen days and nights make one Pakşa (fort-night), two Pakşas-one Māsa (month); two Māsas (2 months)-one Rtu (season), three Rtus (seasons)one Ayana ; two Ayanas-one Samvatsara (year); five Sarmvatsaras (years)-one Yuga (age); twenty Yugas-one Varşakata (century); ten hundred years (ten Centuries)-one Varşasahasra (one thousand years); hundred thousand years-one lakh years ; eighty-four lakhs of years-one Pürvānga; and eight lakhs of Pūrvangas form one Pūrva."
By this order of the measurement of Purva, Truţitānga, Truţita, Ațatānga, Ataţa; Apapānga, A papa (Avava); Hūhūyanga, Hūhūya; Utpalanga, Utpala; Padmānga, Pudma ; Nalinānga, Nalina ; Acchanikurānga (Arthanupurānga), Acchanikura (Arthanu. pura); Ayutānga, Ayuta ; Prayutānga, Prayuta ; Nayutānga, Nayuta ; Cūlikānga, Cūlikā; Sīrşaprahelikānga and Sīrşaprahelikā are counted. This is the measurement of time by the process of the mathematical calculation. After this there is another method of measuring time, viz. Aupamika (measurement by comparison or analogy). i Bhs, 11, 11, 424.
? Ib, 11, 11, 426. 3 Ib, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.

Page #392

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
367
Aupamika-kāla is divided into two kinds, viz. Palyopama and Sāgaropama.
Atom is the last indivisible unit of matter occupying : certain imperceptible point of space.
One UschlakşnaSlaksnika is formed by the union of infinite atoms, eight Ucchlaksna-Slakşnika make one Ślakşņa-Slakşnikā; eight Slakana-Slaleşnikās constitute one Urdhvarenu (atom of dust or rising grain of dust), eight Urdhvarenus one Trasareņu (moving grain or atom of dust raised by wind); eight Trasarenus one Ratharenu (grain of dust raised by the movement of a chariot), eight Ratharenus-one Vālāgra of men of Devakuru and Uttarak ru.
Thus there becomes one tuft of hair (Vālāgra) of men of Harivarșa and Ramyaka from the eight Vālāgras of men of Devakuru and Uttarakuru ; One Vālāgra of men of Haimavata and Airāvata from the eight Vālāgras of men of Harivarsa and Ramyaka ; and one Vālāgra of men of Pūrvavideha from the eight Vālāgras of men of Haimavata and Airāvata.
One Liksā is made by the union of eight Vālāgras of men of Pírvavideha ; one Yuka (or Yuvas) by that of eight Liksās ; one Yavamadhya by that of eight Yukus (or Yuvas); and one Angula by that of eight Yavamadhyas.
By the unit of measure of Angula (finger) the further calculation is made thus :
Six Angulas make one Päda; twelve Angulas one Vitasti; twenty-four Angulas one Rayani (one cubit); forty-eight Angulas one Kukşi; ninety-six Angulas one Dunda or Dhanūşa or Yuga or Nālikā or Akşa or Muşalı.
By this measure of Dhanușa one Krosa (gauyam) is formed by the area of two thousand Dhanusas and one Yojana by that of four Krosas.
By this unit of Yojana one Palya (a storing place), being one Yojana in length, one Yojana in breadth and one Yojana in
1 BKS, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.

Page #393

368
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VI
depth is filled with crores of Valagras (tufts of hairs) of children of the age of one, two, three upto seven days of Devakuru and Uttarakuru to the brim in such a way that fire cannot burn those Valagras, air cannot carry them off and they cannot get destroyed and soon attain the putrid state.
The time which is required to make that Palya emptied, dustless, dirtless, cleaned by removing these l'alāgras (tufts of hairs) one by one at every hundredth year (i. e. after the intervening space of 100 years) is called one Palyopama and ten Kotikotis (crore x crore) of Palyopama make one Sagaropama.
By the unit of Sagaropama one Susamasuşamakala is formed by the total time of four Kotikatis of Sagaropama, one Suṣamā by that of three Kotikoṭis of Sagaropama; one Suṣama-Dusama by that of two Kotikotis of Sagaropamas, and one Duşama-Susama by that of one Kotikoți less by forty two thousand years.
Duşama is equal to the time of twenty-one thousand years, and Dusama-Dusama has the same quantity of time.
Ten Kotikotis of Sāgaropamakālas make one Avasarpiņī-kāla and also one Utsarpini-kala and twenty Kotikoṭis of Sāgaropamakālas form one Kalacakra (wheel of time) of Avasarpini and Utsarpini.1
The longest period of time is conceived and denominated as Pudgala-Parivarttana or Pudgala-paravarta."
The BhS contains a mathematical analysis of the continuity of the past, present and future times and draws a line of demarcation between them.
Thus it is explained that the future time is one Samaya more than the past time and the past time is one Samaya less than the future time.
The Sarvaddha (i.e. present time) is a little more than the past time, while the past one is one Stoka less than the present time (Sarvaddha).
1 BhS, 6, 7, 247.

27b, 12, 4, 446.

Page #394

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
369
T
:
It is two times more than a duration less by one Stoka than the future time and the future one is a little more length of time than the present one.
A similar account of the measurement of time is found in the Şaškhandāgama' where the subject has been dealt with in great details from different aspects.
In the introduction to the Şaškhandāgama, Vol. III, a table of the measurement of time has been given thus :
Ahorātra or Divasa = 30 muhūrtas = 24 hours. Muhūrta
= 2 nāli = 48 minutes. Nali
= 384 lava = 28 minutes. Lava
= 7 Stoka = 37 Seconds.
539
Stoka
= 7 Ucchvāsa = 5 186 Seconds. Uechvāsa or Prāņa = Sainkhyāta Āvalikā = 2009 Seconds
3773 Avalikā = Asankhyāta Samaya (innumerable
Samayas). Samaya is the time which is taken by an atom to go by slow movement from one part of space to the other part of space."
Year, Months and Seasons According to the BhS a year consists of following twelve months, viz. Vaišākha, Jyestha, Āsādha, Srāvana, Bhadra, Ăśvina, Kārttika, Mārgaśīrsa, (Agrahāyaṇa), Pausa, Māgha, Phälguna and Caitra.
It is divided into the following six seasons viz. Prāvrt (Pāusa) Rainy season (Srāvanādih), Varsārāttra (Aívayujādih), Sarat (Mārgasīrsādiņ)Autamn, Hemanta (Maghādih) Winter, Vasanta (Caitrādih) spring and Grīsma (Jyesthādiḥ) Summer."
1 Satkhandāgama, Vol. IV, pp. 313-488 ; Ed. by Dr. H, L. Jain;
see Introduction, pp. ii, iii; & Vol. III, introduction, pp. 33-34. ? Şafkhandāguma, Vol. III, Introduction, pp. 33-34. 8 Bhs, 18, 10, 647. 4 16, 9, 33, 383.
47

Page #395

370
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VI
This table of the months and seasons fully agrees with that of the modern Indian months and seasons based on the calculation of Nakşatras as recorded in the ancient literature of India.
Day and Night The Bhs throws an important light upon the revolution of the day and night, their astronomical divisions, the causes of the longest day and shortest night and those of shortest day and longest night,
Thus it is conceived here that the "Day is bright and Night is dark (Divā ujjoe rāim andhayāre), because in day time there is auspicious matter the transformation of which is auspicious, while at night there takes place the transformation of inauspicious matter.)
Revolution of Day and Night The revolution of day and night takes place due to the travelling of the sun in its orbit.
It is explained in the Bhs that in the Jambūdvi pa island two suns rising in the north-east come to the east-south ; again rising in the east-south come to the west-south; rising in the southwest come to the west-north ; rising in the west-north come to the north-east.
Occurrences of the day and night in the southern and northern halves of Jambūdvīpa and in the region to the east of Mandāra mountain are treated thus :
"When in the southern half of Jambūdržpa it becomes day, in its northern balf also it becomes day; when it becoines day in the northern half of Jambūdvīpa, then it becomes night in the east and west of Mandāra mountain."
When it bccomes day in the east of Mandāra mountain, it becomes day also in west, when in the west it becomes day, then in Jambūdvipa it becomes night to the north and south of Mandāra mountain".'
i Bhs, 5, 9, 224. 9 I6, 5, 1, 187.
· Ib, 5, 1. 176. 4 16, 5, 1, 177.
.

Page #396

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
371
Whatever may be the astronomical truth behind this revolution of the day and night, it is apparently clear that the occurrences of the day and night are caused by the course of the sun in its own or bit.
Division of Day and Night The text further explains the division of the whole day and night into thirty muhurtas which operate in different regions of this world according to the unit of time.
Thus it is stated that when in Jumvudvī pa in the southern half there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhūrtas, then in the northern half also there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas."
When in the northern half it becomes the longest day of eighteen mukūrtas then in Jambūdvīpa it becomes the shortest night of twelve muhūrtas to the east and west of Mandāra mountain.
There occurs the longest day of eighteen muhurtas simultaneously in the regions lying to the east and west of Mandara mountain. When it becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas to the west of Mandāra mountain then it becomes the night of twelve muhurtas to the north of Mandāra mountain. In both the southern and northern halves of Jambūdvëpa it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhūrtas simultaneously.
• When in the northern half it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas, then it becomes the night of little more than twelve muhūrtas to the east and west of Mandara mountain. In the eastern and western halves of Jambūdužpa there occurs the day of little less than eighteen muhurtas at the same time. When in the western hemisphere it becomes the day of little less than eighteen muhūrtas, then it becomes the night of little more than twelve muhurtas to the south of Mandāra mountain.
By this order the length of the day and that of the night decrease and increase respectively. Thus when it becomes the day
1 BhS, 5, 1, 177.

Page #397

312
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. Vi
of seventeen muhūrtas, it becomes the night of thirteen mukūrtas ; when it becomes the day of little less than seventeen muhurtas, it becomes the night of little more than thirteen muhurtas and so on.
In the southern and northern hemispheres of Jambūdvīpa there occurs the shortest day of twelve muhurtas simultaneously. When in the northern hemisphere it becomes the day of twelve muhurtas, then it becomes the longest night of eighteen muhürtas to the east and west of Mandara mountain in Jambūdvi pa ; when it becomes the shortest day of twelve muhurtas to the east of Mandāra mountain, there becomes the longest night of eighteen muhūrtas in the northern and southern hemispheres of Jambidvīpa.
Next, the Bhs deals with the question of different seasons and its divisions according to different regions, e. g., when in Jambūdvīpa in its southern hemisphere it becomes the first time of the rainy season, then in its northern hemisphere also it becomes the first time of the same season, when in the northern half the first time of the rainy season approaches, then there becomes also the first time of this season having an interval of one Samaya in the region lying to the east and west of Mandāra mountain and so on."
The BhS explains the rising and setting of the suns, the occurrence of day and night, the passing of time, etc., in different regions of the world, such as, Lavana.Samudra, Dhātakżkhanda, Kalodadhi, Abhyantara Puskarārdha, etc., like the account of Jambūdvīpa.
Causes of the longest day and shortest night and viceversa, and of equal day and night.
The BhS explains the cause of the longest day or night and that of the shortest day or night, and also those of equal day and night in the year.
There is the longest prahara of four and a half muhūrtas of day or of night and the shortest prahara of three muhūrtas of day or of night.
"BhS, 5, 1, 177.
? 16, 5, 1, 178.
8 16, 5, 1, 179.

Page #398

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
373
When there becomes the longest prahara of four and a half muhūrtu8 of day or of night, there takes place the shortest prahara of three mukūrta8 of day or of night, getting decreased and decreased by one hundred and twenty second part of a muhūrta.'
When there is the shortest prahara of three mukūrtas of day or of night, there becomes the longest prahara of four and a half muhūrlas of day or of night, getting increased and increased by one hundred twenty second part of a muhurta.
When there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhürtas and the shortest night of twelve muhūrtas, then there takes place the longest pruhara of four and a half muhurtas and the shortest prahara of three muhûrtas.
In the case of the night also the whole account should be known like that of the day.
In the year on the Āsādha Púrnimā day (the day of the full moon) there becomes the longest day of eighteen muhurtas and the shortest night of twelve muhürtas while on the day of Pauşa-Pūrạimā there take place the longest night of eighteen muhürtas and the shortest day of twelve muhūrtas.
On the day of Caitra and Asvina-Pürnimās (full moon) both the day and night become equal, having fifteen muhūrtas each and there becomes the prahara of three and three-fourth muhūrtas of the day and night.”
These evidences clearly show the remarkable development of Astronomy at that period and throw an important light upon the mathematical foundation of this branch of knowledge, a comparative discussion of which may be made with the modern Astronomy.
It is a well-known fact in the Astronomical Science that there occur two Solstices, viz. Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice at about the 21st June and 22nd December respectively. At these times the sun is furthest from the equator and appears to pause before returning,
BhS, 11, 11, 425. ? Ib, 11, 11, 425.

Page #399

374
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VI
At the time of Equinox the sun crosses the Equator and thus the day and night become equal on the 20th March (Vernal equinox) and September 22nd or 23rd (Autumnal equinox).
The comparative study of the causes of the longest day and shortest night, of the longest night and shortest day, and of the equal day and night at those specific times clearly reveals the scientific basis of the analysis of these subjects.
The evidences of the study of Astronomy as revealed in the Bhs are fully corroborated by the Sūriyapannatti' and the Camdapannatti:— the fifth and the seventh Upāngas of the Jain canonical literature in which this subject is dealt with in details.
As regards the development of Astrology as already mentioned in connection with the topic "Courses of study' in the first section of this chapter, the testimony of the Bhs is well supported by the three texts, viz. Vivāhapadala, Jonipāhuda, and Cūdāmaņiwhich treat of this branch of knowledge elaborately.
Mathematics The Bhs clearly shows that Mathematics (Sarkhāna) was one of the important branches of learning and it attained a remarkable stage of development, as it is evidenced by the calculation of numerals from one upto crore?; Yugmas,8 Mahāyugmas, etc., and of the measurement of time and space" from one Samaya upto one Sīrşaprahelikā, and from one atom upto one yojana respectively. The reference to the following figures (sansthāna), viz. Parimandala (round), Vịtta (circular), Tryasra (triangular), Caturasra (square), Ayata (oblong), Anitthanstha (other than these five) throws a welcome light upon the advancement of Geometry along with Mathe. matics during that period.
i Suriyapannatti.
? Candapannatti. 8 Nisitha Cūrni, 12, p. 854. 4 Brahatkalpa-Bhasya, 1, 1303, o Ib, 1, 1313; Vide 'Life in Ancient India', p. 177. & Bhs, 2, 1, 90.
1 Ib, 11, 11, 430. & 10, 25, 4, 734.
91b, 35, 1. 10 I6, 6, 7, 247; 11, 11, 426.11.13 16, 6, 7, 247.

Page #400

Sec. V]
375
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The evidence regarding the progress of this branch of learning is also corroborated by other Jaina texts in which it is stated that 'Ganiya' (arithmetic) was one of the seventy two arts and one of the four topics of discourse (anuyoga).
There is also the reference in the Thananga3 to ten kinds of science of numbers, viz. parikamma (fundamental operation), vavahara (subject of treatment), rajju ("rope" meaning Geometry), rasi ("heap" meaning measurement of solid bodies), Kalasavanna (fractions), Jāvaṁ tāvaṁ ("as may as", meaning simple equations), vagga ("square" meaning quadratic equation), ghana ("cube" meaning cubic equation), vaggavagga (liquidratic equation), and vikappa (permutation and combination)..
FIFTH SECTION
Military Science
It appears from the BhS that Military Science, particularly the science of archery, the art of mechanised fighting and the strategy of war planned by military experts reached a remarkable stage of development.
Archery
The archer held the bow, took the position, drew the arrow upto his ear and discharged the arrow with full strength at the target.'
1 Avasyaka Curni, p. 156. 2 Dasa Cürni, p. 2.
3 Thananga Sutra, 10, 747. Refer to the Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society, Vol. XXI, p. 115 ff. (1929), "The Jaina school of Mathematics,' Bibhutibhusana Datta; Indian Historical Quarterly, 1931, 'A short chronology of Indian Astronomy', Sukumar Ranjan Das; 'Introduction to Ganitatilaka' (G. O. S. No. LXXVIII)-L. R. Kapadia; Annals of the Bhandarkar Institute, 1926-7, pp. 145 ff.-D. M. Roy: See also 'Life in Ancient India' p. 178, f.n. 36. 4 BhS, 7, 9, 303,

Page #401

376
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VI
It has already been mentioned in connection with the topic 'Hunting' in the second section of the fifth chapter on 'Economic Conditions' that the hunter earned his livelihood by killing deer in forests and other places.1
Art of War
The text presents a graphic account of the art of war, together with alliances, plans, stratagem, diplomacy, and new war-engines, while depicting a vivid picture of the two devastating wars, viz. Mahāśilākaṇṭaka Samṁgrāma and Rathamusala Sangrama.
It is learnt from the text that in these two long drawn contests, military alliances and total mobilization of all forces were made by both the states, Magadha and Vaisali, according to some war plans designed by very skilful military technical experts.*
It is stated in the Nirayavaliya Sutta3 that king Cetaka arrayed his army in the waggon-formation (sagaḍavuha), while king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru formed the eagle-array (garuḍaviha) of his army in the battle field.
References are also made in some other Jain texts' to cakka, danda and sucivüha as the names of battle array formed by the army.
As regards plans and designs of war, the Arthusastra" has discussed various battle-formations and tactics of fighting in great details.
The plan of protracted war and siege of enemy's fort was another feature of the military science of that period.
1 BhS, 1, 8, 67.
Nirayavaliya Sutta-1. p. 28,
See Arthasastra-pp. 403f. Manu VIII, 187f; MahabharataVI, 58; 75; Refer to 'The Art of War in Ancient India' p. 72ff.-Date. See 'Life in Ancient India,' p. 78. 49f.
Ovaiya Sutta-40, p. 186; Panha 3, p. 44.
Arthasastra 376, pp. 403ff. (Book X, Ch. VI).
4
2 Ib, 7, 9, 300.

Page #402

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
377
It is already known from the second section of the third chapter that the war between Magadha and Vaiśāli continued for more than sixteen years.
The Avašyaka-Cūrņil provides informations that the city of Vaiśāli was besieged by king Kūņika for a long period.
It appears that strategy and diplomacy also played a great part in the warfare of that time.
It is learnt from the Buddhist work that Vassakāra, the prime minister of king Kūņika-Ajātasatru, was entrusted with the secret mission of sowing seeds of dissension among the Vaišālians. His diplomatic effort was crowned with success after three years, when the unity of those people was totally lost due to their mutual distrust and quarrelling caused by his machination and the king of Magadha dealt a deadly blow at Vaišālī.'
The Avakyaka Cūrņis also furnishes the evidences that the hermit Kulavālaya was charged by king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru with the task to cause the citizens of Vaisāli to demolish the mound erected by this state for its defence so that he might win an easy victory over king Cetaka.
The evidences provided by the BhS and the Āvašyaka Cūrni show that fort (Dugga)" was constructed by the belligerent powers for the defensive and offensive warfare of that time.
Arms Victory in war depends to a considerable extent on the effective latest weapons and their proper use by well-trained soldiers.
The terms Āyudha and Praharana'' occuring in the BhS denote non-throwing and throwing weapons respectively.
The Bhs provides a list of various kinds of arms used in the two devastating wars Mahāśilālantaka and Rathamusala and
1 Âvašyaka Carni-II. p. 173.
Dighanikaya (Mahā parinirvāna Suttanta). • Avasyaka Cirni--11. p. 174. * BIS, 3, 2, 141. 35 I6,7,9, 300,
48

Page #403

378
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
1. VI
on other occasions, such as, amoghavāna, bow and arrow (dhanu & usu), club (or stick), sword (asi), lance (kunta),' mace (musala), big iron-rod-like weapons, big stone catapult (Mahāśilākantaka)," a mace fitted to the chariot (Rathamusala), impregnable armour (abhedyakavacar vajrapratirūpakar),' and coat of mail (sanna. ddhabaddha vammiyakavae),' and other equipments, such as, flag, (cimdhaddhaya padāga) marked with discus or disc (cakra), umbrella (chattar), etc.
Flags, trumpets and drums etc., as the marks of distinctions of different contending parties infused a fighting spirit and instilled courage and morale into the hearts of the soldiers belonging to both the warring camps, so they fought with undaunted courage to keep up the honour of their respective flags but tried to cut off and capture those of their rival force with arrows. If the banner of one party was lost, the war was also lost to it, because the victory was inter-related with the honour of this war insignia representing the state.
The introduction and use of two war engines called Mahāśilākaạtaka and Rathamusala by king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru in the two great wars against the confederate army of Vaiśālī, Kasi, Kośala, nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis clearly show the invention of most effective mechanized weapons at that period.
In the Mahāśilākantakasangrāmao some mechanism was probably devised to throw musket ball of stone which caused great atrocities and destructions in the camp of the confederate army.
Bhs, 7, 9, 300.
: Ib, 9, 33, 85. 3 16, 7, 9, 301.
+ 16, 7, 9, 300. 5 Ib, 7,9, 300,
6 16, 7, 9, 300. ? 16, 7, 9, 300-303.
8 16, 7, 9, 300. 16, 7, 9, 300. This reminds one of the Sataghni of the Rāmāyaṇa. Mahāśilā is a kind of weapon (a sataghni with iron nails)-Monier-Williams : Sanskrit Dictionary. See also Harivamsa-II, 42. 21 ; II 39, 75.

Page #404

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪ SŪTRA
379
He, whoever, whether horse or elephant or soldier or charioteer was killed, knew (or thought) "I am killed by Mahasila (large stone)". That is why it was called Mahasila kantaka Sangrama.
While in the Rathamusala Sangrama one chariot, having no horse, no charioteer, no soldier but having a club (or mace) ran to all directions, causing destruction of a large number of peoples, chieftains, etc., and making mud of blood (in the battle field).'
These two devastating wars were immortalized by the association of the names of these two weapons like the atomic warfare of the second great war of global magnitude in which two atom bombs were dropped by the American Air Force on Hirosima and Nagasiki, the two island cities of Japan in 1945.
The introduction of these two new engines as mentioned in the BhS shows the unique importance attached to weapons in the history of warfare of ancient India, though they were not widely known, as there was no mention of such weapons anywhere else in the ancient world.
The reference to these two war-engines reveals that they were a surprise to the confederate army of Vaisāli which was winning in the first phase of the war. They were invented by the engineering genius of 'Military Science' of Magadha.
Probably they remained as secrets of the military art of that state and died a natural death for further use in future war, as the useless destructive thing did not survive, while the useful always did in the evolution of human civilization.
Several Jaina texts also provide the following list of different kinds of arms used in the wars of ancient India, viz. muggara (Indian club or mace), musundh3 (octagonal club), karakaya (saw), satti (spear), hala (plough), gadā (mace or heavy
1 Bhs, 7, 9, 301.
2 Panhavāgaraṇa. pp. 17a, 44. etc.
8 Musundi is also referred to in the Mahabharata-II. 70, 34.

Page #405

380
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
(Ch. VI
club), musala (pestle), cakla (discus), Kunta (lance), tomara (javelin), süla (trident-spit), lauda (light club), bhindipāla (a small javelin thrown from the hand) savvala (an iron spear), paffisa (battle axe), cammettha (stone covered with leather), duhana (hatchet), mutthiya (dagger), asikhe daga (sword with a shield), khagga (sword), cāpa (bow), nārāca (iron-tipped arrow), kanaka (arrow), kappiņi (a kind of scissors), vāsi (adze), parasu (axe)' and sayagghi, magical missiles, viz. nāgabāņa, tāmasabāņa, paumabāņa, and vahnibānabesides flags, drums and trumpets.
Four types of drums of Kanhavāsudeva are mentioned in the Brhatkal pa-Bhāsya, viz. Komudika', Sangāniyā, Dubbhuiyā, Asivopasaminzó and Sannāhiya.
1 Panhavägarana-pp. 17a, 44 ; Uttaradhyayana 19, 51, 55, 58, 61 f; Ref. to Abhidhānacintā mani 3.446 451 ; Arthaśāstra, p. 110 f.; Rāmāyana, III. 22. 20 ff; See Prsalkur, BhāsaA study' Ch. XVI, p. 414; Mehta-p. 13. 1. p. 171.; Date, G. T.-The Art of war in Ancient India ; Oppert Gustav, Weapons and Armoury Organisation, See the Allahabada Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta for
the reference to a few arms. ? Uttarādhyayana-918; Rāmāyana (1,6.11); Arthaśāstra
p. 110, according to which it is a huge pillar having numerous sharp points on the surface of its body and set up on the top of a fort wall. See also the Mahābhārata --III, (29) 24; Hopkins-J.A.O.S., Vol. 13 p. 300, says Sataghni which was adorned with bulls and shining and hollow was flung and split to pieces by arrows like a sword or a spear. Jovabhigama Sutra-3, p. 152 f; Jambu Sutra Tika-24. p. 124
a ; also refer to the Rāmāyana_1.27. 50. 4 Mahābhārata-1.251, 28. Kaumudi which was referred to as
a mace of Krşqa, had the destructive powers of slaying
every daitya (demon). 6 Pithikā – 356. Asjvopa samini could banish the diseases for
six months by its beating. & Nāyā—16. p. 190. See also Mahābhārata, 1. 244. 38.
Krisna mobilised his forces by beating this drum to march against king Padmanābha.

Page #406

Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 381
SIXTH SECTION
Fine Arts Architecture
The BLS provides a good deal of information regarding the development of Architecture' which included the planning and founding of cities, towns and villages, the erection of buildings of different types, palaces, council halls, forts, gateways, decorative designs, selection of sites, examination of the soil, preparation of building materials with proper selection, and laying out the foundation and the like. Carpentry, wood carving, stone masonry, etc., were also associated with the art of house-building.
In connection with the topic 'Houses' it has already been pointed out in the seventh section of the fourth chapter that 'Architecture' as one of the branches of Fine Arts was highly developed and patronized by the kings and nobles of that period.
The evidences of the architectural development as revealed in this canonical work are fully corroborated by those of other Jaina texts which refer to Vatthuvijja (art of house building) as one of the important arts studied and cultivated by the Vatthupādhagas." There an architect (vaddhai) was regarded as one of the fourteen Jewels'.
It is stated that in the case of constructing a new building in a city a proper examination of the land and its levelling were made before digging the earth and laying the foundation on a well pressed ground; then it was erected by the mason with the building materials, such as, bricks, rings, (undiyão) cast on different places, etc.
The text throws some light upon the construction of buildings, walls, etc., by making incidental references to
1 Avasyaka Cūrņi, II, p. 177. • Jambi Sutra, 3, 55, p. 229. Vide 'Life in Ancient India'
by Dr. J.C.Jain, p. 187. : Brhatkalpa Bhasya Pithikā 331 3; also Cf. Digha Nikāya-1,
p. 9; Milindapanha, pp. 331. 345.

Page #407

382 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA (Ch. VI Sleşanābandha and Samuccaya-bandha'. The first one is caused by the flaccid substances like those of peak (kūta), floor inlaid with jewel (maņibhūmika), pillar (stambha), palace (prāsāda), etc., with lime, mud, hard-besmearing (vajralepa), lacs, wax, gum and other flaccid substances. The second one is that binding which is made by the collection of the same materials in the cases of the construction of well, tanks, temples, council houses, stūpas, walls, buildings, gates, doors, palaces, sheltering houses, shops, market, esplanade, crossway of roads, etc."
The Rājapraśniya Sūtra® gives some ideas about the architectural development of its period by describing the different parts of the Vimāna of Sūryābhadeva. This building was surrounded by a rampart (pāgāra), embellished with beautiful cornices (kavisīsaga). Its gates (dāra) with cupola (thūbhiya) were adorned with the images of wolf (ihāmigal, bull (usabha) horse with a man's head, crocodile (magara), bird, oinaga), serpent (vaingan), kennara (a mythical being having a human body and a head of a horse), deer (rurx) sarabha (a species of wild animals), yak (camara', Elephant (lufjara), creeper (vaņalayā) and lotus creeper.
Their capitals (veiyā) were beautified with the figure of a pair of the vidyādharas (a kind of supernatural being possessed of magical powers); the doors were fitted with landings (nimma), pedestal (paitthāņa), pillars (Khambha), thresholds (eluyā), bolts (indakīla), door-posts (ceda), lintels (uttaranga), small door bolts (suz), joints (sandhi), sockets (samuggayal, wooden cross bolt pin (aggalā), sockets for wooden pin (aggalapāsāya), hinges (āvattaņa. pedhiyā), and left wings (uttarapāsaga).
Besides, there is the mention of closely fitted heavy doors, (nirantariyaghaņakavādā), having globular bases (bhittiguliyā) and cushions (gomānasiyā) in their panels (bhitti). The doors were adorned with the carved figures of sālabhanjika: in various sportive postures and were provided with pinnacles (kūļa), elevation (usseha), the tops (ulloya), lattices (bhoma), pinions
? 16, 8, 9, 347.
1 BhS, 8, 9, 347. 9 Rājaprafniya Sutra, 97f.

Page #408

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
383
(paklcha), pinion supports (pakkhabāhā), cross beams (vamsa), ribbings (varsakavelluya), panels (pattiyā), thatches (ohāļaņī), and thatches under the ribbings (uvari pufchani).'
The other Jaina works also throw a good deal of light upon the architectural technique and its development." Sculpture
The study of the references to some images of the Goddesses, Sri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi, and Lakşmi, which were presented by king Bala to his newly married daughters-inlaw as marrige gifts clearly shows that Sculpture was a branch of learning and was patronized by the kings and the nobles. Art of Painting
The art of painting also was highly developed, as is evidenced by the fact of the mention of a costly painted curtain, decorated with many devotional pictures and figures of beasts, birds and creepers.
Moreover, the reference to the painting of pictures and exhibiting them by Markha Maňkhali and his son Gośāla Munkhaliputra, for earning their livelihood throws more light upon the cultivation of this art of painting during the period of the Bhs.
The evidences of the art of sculpture and painting as revealed in the Bhs are also found in other Jaina texts in great details.
As regards the cultivation of the art of sculpture there are references to the wooden figure of the sage Vārattaka, made and worshipped by his son,” images of plaster (puttha), ivory (danta),
i Rajapraśniya Sūtra, 97 f. ; Nāyādhammakahão, 1, p. 3 f; Brhat. K. Bhāşya Pithikā, 582 ff.
Bhs, 11, 11, 430. 4 10, 11, 11, 428.
6 16, 15, 1, 540. & Nāyādhammakahão, VIII, 78, p. 106 ; Brhat Kalpa Bhāsya,
1. 2429 ; Āva. Cu, II, p. 165; Nayadhammakahão, 8, p. 95. ? Vyavahāra Bhāsya, 2, 11.

Page #409

384
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VI and stone isela),' a golden image of Malli,' a mechanical image vantapadimā) of a human beings and mechanical elephant."
The art of painting as mentioned in the other Jain texts appears to have made a great progress, as is evidenced by the fact that one of the painters referred to in the Nāyādhammakahão could sketch the complete figure of bipeds (dupaya), quadrupeds (caupaya) and footless (apaya) beings, even having seen only a part of their bodies.
The objects of painting were trees, mountains, rivers, seas, houses, creepers, beasts and birds, etc. Music, Dance and Drama
The Bhs reveals that the art of music, dance and drama was well developed and it formed an integral part of education and culture of the society.
It was greatly cultivated and patronized by the kings? and princess who not only enjoyed themselves music, dance and drama, but entertained the general people with the performance of these arts made by courtesans and other artists at the public gatherings on auspicious occasions, such as, the celebrations of birth and marriage, etc.
There are references to both vocalo and instrumental music, dance and thirty-two kinds of dramalo staged by the best actors and actresses.
In the wider sense the art of music contains four subjects, viz. singing (giya), dancing (natta), playing on instruments (vādita), and dramatic performance (peccha).
! Bịhatkalpa-Bhāsya, 1, 2469. ! Nāyādhammakahão, 8, p. 95. 3 Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 4, 4915. 4 Äva. Cūrni, II, p. 161. Vide 'Life in Ancient India' by Dr. J. C.
Jain, p. 187. o Nāyādhamakāho, VIII, 78, p. 106. 6 BỊhat Kalpa Bhāsya, 1. 2429. ? Bhs, 1, 11, 429, 430. 8 1b, 9, 33, 383 ; 11, 11, 431. 1b, 9, 33, 383. 10 Į6, 11, 11, 429 ; 11, 11, 430,

Page #410

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
385
In connection with the topic Amusement' in the eighth section of the fourth chapter, it has already been pointed out that the dance-dramas were performed generally by the actresses, highly accomplished in the art of music, dance and dramatic skill, at the palace and public theatre hall for the social entertainment of the people.
Vocal music was accompained by the playing of musical instruments, such as Mrdanga and Viņā, etc.
In relation to the instrumental music (vadita) the BhS. provides a list of instruments, viz. sankha (conch). singa (horn), laghu sankha (small conch), kharamukhi (kāhalā), poyā (large kharamukhi), paripiriya (khuvai) panava (bhanda pataha) pataha (dhola, a kind of drum), bambha (nagārā) horaṁbha (rūḍhigamayā, a kind of drum), bheri (mahaḍhakka, large drum), jhallarī, dundubhi (a kind of drum), tayāņi (tatāni, a kind of stringed instrument), vitatāni (a stretched musical instrument), ghaṇāni (concussion instrument), jhuşira (wind instrument)', mrdanga (drum), viņa (a stringed instrument), and vamś (flute).'
The sublimation of the art of singing and dancing was made by the Ajivikas for creating probably a devotional feeling towards their religion, as is evidenced by the fact that there is the mention of Gitamarga and Nrtyamarga, as the two spiritual paths of Ajivikism. Moreover, Gośāla Mańkhaliputra himself sang and danced before his death by pronouncing thus, "play the vina O little man."5"
These evidences clearly show that the art of music, dance and drama occupied an important place in the educational and social life of the people of that period.
A similar account of the art of music, dance and drama as presented in this canonical work is also found in other Jaina texts.
•
1 Bhs, 5, 4, 185.
Ib, 9, 33, 383; 11, 11, 429,
3 Ib, 9, 33, 385; 15, 1, 555.
4
Ib, 15, 1, 555. 5 Ib, 15, 1, 55.
6 Anuyogadvāra Sutra, 127; Sthanaiga Sutra, 7,553; JivaTika. 3. p. 193; Cf. Anu. Cù, p. 175; also refer to Saranga. deva's Sangita-Ratnakara, Ch. 1, etc.
49

Page #411

386
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VI In addition they throw a good deal of light upon the origin of the musical notes, the performance of different types of dance and the staging of the religious drama.
Thus it is recorded in the Anuyogudrāra Sūtra that there are seven musical notes (supta svaras), viz. sadja, rṣabha, gandhāra, madhyama, panicama, raivat (dhairat) and nişāda, Sajje risahe gandhāre, majjhime pamcame sare revae (ühevae) ceva nesae sarā satta viāhiā" (i. e. sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni)].
The seven places of origin of these notes (Saratthāna) are given as follows : sadja is made by the tip of tongue, rṣabha by the breast, gandhāra by the throat, madhyama by the middle of the tongue, paricama by the nostril, dhaivata by the tooth and lip and nişāda by bhrüksepāvastamabha (bhamuhakkheva) by contracting eyebrows.
These seven notes are described as resembling respectively the notes of peacock, duck, goat, cuckoo, curlew or heron and elephant."
Seven musical instruments, such as, Mrdanga, etc., also give rise to these seven notes.
As regards the resemblance of gabha' there is a difference of opinion about the explanation found in the ancient works of India that it sounds the note of bull (vrsabha).
Besides these, the Anuyogadrāra Sítra further explains the theory of music by permutation and combination of different notes with reference to three musical scales (gāmas) twentyone mūrochanās (modulation or melody or the rise and fall of sound) and forty-nine tānas (tones):
There is the mention of thirty-two kinds of dance-drama, the first of which was performed with the playing of orchestral music representing the eight symbols, viz. svastika, śrīvatsa. nandiyāvatta, varddkamānaka bhadrâsana, kalaka, mataya and
1-3 Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, 127.

Page #412

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
387
darpana, while the last one represented all the stages of the life of Lord Mahāvīra.
Conclusion
Thus it is clearly known from the BhS that the system of education was both academic and vocational.
It was so organized as to furnish the learners with proficiency in the general as well as special knowledge, and also in the doctrinal knowledge.
So it included in its courses of studies the following subjects, viz. Itihasa (History), Vyakarana (Grammar), Chanda (Metre), Nirukta (Exegesis), Sankhana (Arithmetic), Jyotisa (Astronomy and Astrology), and the like in order to achieve the first objective and it imparted education in the Medical Science, Military Science, and Art of Warfare, Fine Arts, etc., to attain the second one, while the study of the Vedas and the other religious and philosophical treatises provided knowledge of their doctrines and spiritualism,
Each of the religious orders of that period was a travelling school of thought which introduced the rules of conduct and mental training based on its ideals and imparted education to its followers in the subjects of religion and philosophy.
The method of teaching the principles of knowledge and truth by discussion to the people was a remarkable characteristic of the educational and cultural activities of those days.
In conclusion the preachings of the doctrines of truth, the social and moral elevation of men and women, the development of the spoken language, science and arts and the democratization of learning were the distinguished features of the educational system as revealed in the BhS.

Page #413

SEVENTH CHAPTER Various leaders of thought, their philosophies & religious systems mentioned and described in the Bhs.
FIRST SECTION.
Śramaņa-Nirgrantha-Dharma The objectives of human life are Dharma (virtue), Artha (wealth or material possession), Kāma (pleasure or gratification of desires) and Moksa (spiritual liberation). In a real sense they can be reduced to two objectives, viz. Kāma and Moksa (pleasure and spiritual liberation), because Artha (wealth) is the means of Kāma (pleasure) for its gratification, while Dharma (virtue) is the way to Moksa (liberation).
These aims of life distinguish two types of men, viz. extroverts and introverts--the first one looks to the pleasure of the physical world, while the second looks into the inside of the world for searching out something tangible in life and nature. So Kāma (pleasure) which is the gratification of desires creates new desires, but Dharma (virtue) is a means to achieve the goal of human life, i. e. liberation (Moksa) from all bondages. From this point of view philosophy is religion.
So religion constitutes a sphere of individual and collective existences in which human activities are devoted to the two-fold pursuits, viz. Dharma (virtue) and Moksa (liberation), i. e. perfection of conduct and perfection of personality, as the auspicious and pure conduct is guided by the auspicious and pure thoughtactivity. Human mind searches out something universal which can be attained only by supersensuous consciousness. It is this su persensuous consciousness which reigos supreme as the reali. zing vision of the universal reality as the subject-matter of religion. The reaction of human mind to such a reality absorbs his whole self-entity with a feeling of devotion for the personal deity and intellectual faith in the divine universal reality and

Page #414

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
389
finally pure emotion, cognition and conation. The aim of religion is self-realization of the universal and absolutely Real embodying the highest qualities re-oriented into the ultimate objective values—truth (satyam), goodness (sivan) and bliss (śānti) Obiect of worship & meditation in Sramaņa-Nirgrantha Dharma
According to the doctrine of Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma as embodied in the BhS, soul (ātmā;' is the ultimate object of worship, meditation and spiritual realization. It is also revealed in the Samayasāra' that soul (Jiva) which rests on right conduct, self-awareness and knowledge is the real self.
"Jivo cāuittadamsaņaņāņaţthido tam hi sa samayam jāņo".
The self which has realized its oneness is the beautiful ideal in the whole Universe.
“Eyattaņicchaya gado samao savvattha sumdaro loge''s.
To know this ultimate reality there should be right attitude of mind (Samyagdysti) and absence of wrong attitude of mind (mithyadrșți) about the self. Again this Samyaktva consists of sañvega (desire for liberation), nirveda (disregard of worldly objects), anukampā (compassion or sympathetic feeling), while mithyātva contains in it viparyaya (preversicn), ekānta (exclusive. ness), sansaya (doubt) and ajñāna (wrong knowledge).
The following statement throws a welcome light upon the conception of Sramaņa Nirgrantha religion.
Desire for liberation (samvega), disregard of worldly objects (nirveda), attendance upon preceptor and co-religionists (guru. sāhammiya-8u88ūsaņā), self-analysis and self-confession of all faults committed (aloyanā), self-blame (nimdaņayā), self-censure (garahaņā), forgiveness (khamāvanā), assistance to the scriptural study (suyasahāyatā), observance of vows (such as, renunciation of anger, etc.) (viu samaņayā=vyavasamanatā), absence of obstruction (unimpededness) in thought (bhāve appadibaddhayā),
2 Samayasära, Gatha 1, 2, p. 2.
i Bhs. 2, 1, 92. 8 Ib, Gatha 1, 3, p. 3.

Page #415

390
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SūTRA
Ch. VII
desisting from the not-self-control, i.e. sinful acts (viņivattaņayā
=vinivarttanatā), indifference to comfortable and discomfortable beds in a lonely place, use of bel and seat free from woman, worm, etc. (vivittasayaņāsaņasevanayā), control of all senses (soirdiya-jāra phāsimdiya-samvara), vows of renunciation of activities (i.e. harmful and voilent activities, yogapaccakkhāna), renunciation of body (sarirapaccakkhānı), that of passion (i.e. anger upto greed) (kasāya-paccalckhānı), that of sensual enjoyment (sambhoga paccakkhāna), that of articles (uvahi paccakkhāna) and that of food (bhattapaccakkhāna), pardon (khamā), detachment (virājayā), (i.e. absence of love and hatred), truth in thought (bhāvasacca) and truth in activities (jogasacca), i.e. truth in mental, vocal and physical activities, truth in doing (karanasacca) the act of complete control of mind, speech and body (manasamanņāhuruņıyā upto lcāyasamnnāharaṇayā), cornplete renunciation of anger, pride, deceitfulness, greed and other eighteen kinds of sinful deeds upto wrong attitude of mind (kohavivega-jāva-micchādamsanasallavivega', attainment of knowledge (ņānasam pannayā), that of self-awareness or intuition (daņsanasampannayā) and that of conduct (carittasampannayā), forbearance of pain (vedanı-ahiyā. sanayā) (i.e. pain of hunger, etc., twenty-two parisahas) and that of the last part of death (māraṇamțiya-ahiyās anayā)-all these ultimately lead to perfection (i.e. liberation).
There are two aspects of this Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma, viz. Āgāra-Dharma or Srāvaka-Dhurma and Anāyāra. Dharma (religion of the house-holders and that of the houseless monks) which are based on the conditions of the individuals.
Accordingly there are two broad divisions of the followers of this religion, viz. Srāvakas and Sramaņas (lay worshipers and ascetics) who are classified into four varnas on the basis of sex, namely, Srāvakas and Srāvikā8 (the male and female lay worshippers) and Sramanas and Sramanīs (the monks and nuns).'
The Bhs throws important light upon Anāgāra-Dharma (monasticism), causes of renunciation of the world by individual
Bhs., 17, 3, 601,
: Ib, 16, 6, 580.

Page #416

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
391
householders, practice of austerities, studies, meditation, religious vows, duties and rules, Sramaņa-Sangha, ideals of the Nirgranthus, their classification and that of the Sanyatas (selfcontrolled) and Āgāra-Dharma (religion of the householders).
Anāgāra-Dharma The introverts in the human society realize the truth of the futility and transitoriness of this worldly life and its material enjoyments which ensnare men with their temporary charms at the outset but lead them to miseries in the end. Their ioner urge inspires and guides them to follow the path of monasticism by renouncing the worll for the realization of the highest truth and knowledge and for the attainment of spiritual liberation-the ultimate goal of life.
This truth was realized by the introvert prince Jamālī, who expressed his feelings of non-attachment towards life thus :
"Human life is aggrieved by many births, old age, death, disease, plıysical and mental desires, suffering, danger, crime. hundred misfortunes and calamities ; it is uncertain, non-permanent, non-eternal. Like the evening colour of the sky, the water bubble, it is inconstant and unfixed having the nature of disso. lution, fall and destruction ; before or later this life will certainly be abandoned". “Human body is the house of suffering, the standing bones like the woods enveloped by veins, etc. it is the house of oldness, flesh (lead body), having the character of decay and fall ; soon or late, it will be given up".
“Human sensual gratifications of desires are impure, noneternal like the discharge er flow of vomitting always condemned by the saints and Arhats, the causes of infinite worldly bondages accompanied by unlimitted sufferings and hindrances to the attainment of liberation." "Wealths, such as, gold, bell-metal, etc., are consumed by the fire, thief, king, death and sons and are thus commion to them ; (they are) non-eternal; soon or late they will be abandoned.''
1 BIS, 9, 33, 384,

Page #417

392
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
This represents the whole attitude of the introverts towards the mundane world of materialism. They reveal the Sramanic outlook on life on which detachment to the world (vītarāgatā) is based and thus they arouse a feeling of non-attachment towards life. In one word they are the basis of the Sramanic philosophy.
The pessimistic attitude towards the world has been shared almost by all systems of Indian philosophy and its intense mani. festation is expressed in Sankchya-Yoga and Buddhism.
The four noble truths (catvāri Ārya-Satyāni), “Life is full of suffering, there is a cause of this suffering. it is possible to stop suffering and there is a path which leads to the cessation of suffering" formed the basis of Buddhism (Duḥkha, duḥkhasamudaya, duh kha-nirodha f duhkhanirodha-mārga).
What appear as pleasures are fraught with pain, "birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, grief, wish, despair, in short all that is born of attachment is misery".?
Like Buddhism, Sankhya and Yoga embody the principle 'all experience is sorrowful' ; Tamas is the representation of the pain-substance. As it exists in all combinations in some degree, all intellectual operations are fraught with some amount of painful experience. Even the state of temporary pleasure is accompanied by sorrow at the previous moment of its solicitation and at the time of its enjoyment lest it may be lost. So the amount of sorrow is thus much more than that of pleasures which only strengthen the holds of sorrow.S Rajas' is also the cause of all painful experiences of life, being itself of the nature of pain (duḥkha)".
1 Digha-Nikāya Sutta-22 (Warren-p. 368). ? A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, p. 75-76, Dr. S, N.
Dasgupta. 3 Tativavaisäradi and Yoga Värttika-II, 15; & Tattvakaumudi.
Vide History of Indian Philosophy Dr. S. N. Dasgupta,
p. 264. 4 Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 301, Dr. Datta &
Chatterjee,

Page #418

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
393
In contrast with Jainism, Buddhism and Samkhya-Yoga, the Vedic religion shows optimism and preaches the doctrine of the realization of life through the enjoyment, as it is explained that sacrifice leads to happiness 1
This is the fundamental difference existing among the three main systems of religion, Jainism, Buddhism and Vedic religion in regard to their approach and attitude towards the mundane life and the world. Preparatory Ceremony for initiation to Monkhood and
Asceticism The Bhs presents a graphic account of the preparatory ceremony for initiation to monkhood and asceticism of the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks coming from different sections of the society, from the royal families down to the common social stratum and other religious sects, by making reference to the cases of prince Jamāli, king Udāyina and princess Jayanti, Ķşabbadatta and Devānandā, Skandaka (a Parivrājaka) and others.
A description of such ceremony has already been given in the topic 'Bath' in the seventh section of the fourth chapter by citting the case of prince Jamāli's initiation ceremony. After the performance of consecration a great procession organized by his father followed his departure from his palace at Ksatriya.. kundagrāma to the Bahubalaka Caitya for his initiation to be conducted by Lord Mahāvīra there. His parents, having placed him in front, approached the Master and addressed him by circumambulating thrice thus : "Our only son like waterlily... (being) frightened by the fear of the world...desires to undertake the initiation of houselessness... thus we offer this one as alms of Devānupriya...please accept...the highest alms as disciple (Sisab hilkhari). Then Lord Mahāvīra said to Tamāli thus: “As you please, no objection". Initiation
Then the prince, being pleased with this consent of the Master saluted him thrice and himself took off all his decorations,
1 History of Indian Philosophy, p. 20-21,
50

Page #419

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII garlands and ornaments; having gone to the north-eastern quarter. His mother received them in a piece of pure cloth and advised him, shedding tears thus: "Son, self-control should be practised, passion should be conquered, exertion should be made", with these words the parents of prince Jamali retired to their palace. Then the prince, having pulled out five handfuls of tuft of his hair approached Lord Mahāvīra and got initiated by the Master (pavvaio), together with his five hundred followers. He studied eleven Angas and practised various acts of austerities and meditations.1
394
A similar account of the preparatory ceremony, initiation and taking to ascetic life is presented in the case of king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira In the cases of other householders like Rṣabhadatta and Sudarsana', the Parivrajaka Skandaka" and others, a simple ceremony of initiation was observed by the act of pulling out five handfuls of tuft of hair and it was followed by the formal initiation. In this connection it is to be noted that a special attention was paid by the Master in regard to the initiation of women to asceticism, as it is evidenced in the undertakings of the state of houselessness by Devananda' and Jayanti.8
Ascetic Life
The BhS presents a vivid picture of ascetic life as observed by the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks by making references to the acts of austerities practised by Skandaka and others.
A Nirgrantha monk stays like a snake with its concentrated sight (buddhi intellect) or like a razor with absolute sharpness, by chewing the words of the Nirgrantha teachings hard as ironbarley and tasteless as particles of sand."
Practice of Asceticism
The Bh presents a graphic account of the practice of
1 BhS, 9, 33, 385.
.
4 Ib, 11, 11, 432.
7 Ib, 9, 33, 382.

2 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 5 Ib, 2, 1, 92.
8 Ib, 12, 2, 443.

Ib, 9, 13, 382.
6 Ib, 11, 9, 418. 9 Ib, 9, 33, 384,

Page #420

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
395
asceticism as revealed in the performance of various acts of austerities and meditation by Skandaka' and other monks."
It is stated that the Universe (Loka) is burnt by (the fire of) old age and death. "Alitte nam bhamte loe jarâmaraņeņa ya."
Here in the Skandaka Uddešaka it is clearly revealed that soul is the only object of worship and meditation according to Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma. Thus Skandaka, the Parivrājaka said to Lord Mahāvīra "As some householder, having his house on fire, steps down into the burning house and tries to save the precious and light articles from it, because that article will be beneficial to him in future, just like that my soul is a kind of article dear.........highly valued ornament box". So it must first be saved by him before any mishap happens to it, lest it is affected by cold, heat, etc., upto misfortune. If his soul was saved it would be beneficial......good in his future life.
So, on his express desire Lord Mahāvīra himself initiated him to Sramaņa-Nirgrantha Dharma and instructed him in its practice, (or performance, i e. äcāra), begging tour (gocara=bhiksātanam), discipline (vinaya), result of discipline (vainayika = vinayaphala), vows (caraņa), purity of meal (karma = pindavisuddhyādi), practice of self-control (yātrā=sañyama), measure of food to be taken (mātrā), practice or mode of moral conduct (urttika = vinas yādināṁ vșttiḥ varttanam yatrāsa u) and religion (dharma)."
Then Skandaka observed carefulness in going (walking), standing, sitting, lying down, taking food, speaking, exertion, protecting beings by self-control according to the instructions of the Master. Thus he became a houseless monk careful in walking (iryasamita), speech (bhāsāsamita), taking meal (eşaņāsamita), receiving, possessing and putting limited articles (ādānabhāņda-mātra-niksepaņa-samita), passing stool, urine, spit, phlegm of nose, etc. (uccărapāsavanakhela.simghāņa -jalla-parițțlāvaniyasamie), self-restrained in mind (manasamita), speech (vāksamita)
; I6, 9, 33, 382.
3 16, 2, 1, 90.
.1 Bhs. 2, 1, 91-96. 4 Ib, 2, 1, 92.

Page #421

396
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII and body (i.e. physical activity) (kayasamita), self-controlled in senses (indriya) and continence (brahmacarya), renouncer (tyāgi➡ ca), straight-minded like rope, attainer of religion (dhamma), forgiving in nature (khamtikhama), conqueror of senses (jitendriya), pure (sodhita), desireless (aniyane)-less curious (appussue), introvert (abahilesse), well-devoted to Sramanahood (susāmannarae) and controller of anger, etc., (damta). He passed time by holding the Nirgrantha teaching (Niggamtham pavayanam purao kāuṁ viharati) before him as ideal and studying eleven Angas in the presence of other Sthaviras of the Master.
Next, he practised the following acts of austerities with the permission of Lord Mahāvīra in succession. He performed the vow of Bhiksupratimā (Bhikkhupaḍima, a kind of vow) of one month, of two months (domāsiyam), of three months (temāsiyam) of four months (cāummāsiyaṁ), of five months, of six months and of seven months (pamca-chasattamāsiyaṁ) by taking food at proper time according to rule, observing, awakening (paleti), purifying or making his soul auspicious, having taken the remains of food given by his Guru (religious teacher) on the day of conclusion of his fast, crossing the time of vow and staying a little while, (tireti), fulfilling completely the (pureti), announcing (kitteti) its completion on the paranaka day and practising thus the complete vow (anupaleti) by physical action (kayena) according to the Srutas ahasuttaṁ), pratimākal pa (vow ahakappa), the path of knowledge, conduct, etc., i.e. liberation (ahāmaggam), Bhiksupratima or real truth (ahātaccam) and equanimity of mental state (ahāsammam).
VOW
=
After this he observed the vows of Astami (paḍhamaṁ sattaraiṁdiyam). of Navami (doccam sattaraimdiyam), and of Dasami (taccam sattaraim diyam) by taking the fourth meal (caturthabhaktena) and that of Ekadasi (ahoraiṁdiyam) and lastly that of Ekaratriki by taking or enjoying the sixth (sasthabhaktam) and eighth (astama) meals respectively.
Next, he practised the acts of Gunaratna Samvatsara tapas (austerities) with the permission of Lord Mahāvīra in the following manner.

Page #422

391
Sec. ij ŠTUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
In the first month he performed this austerity by observing the vow of continuous fast of one day by one day, i.e. alternate day (cautthan-cautthenań), sitting upon his hands in the day time at the meditating place (ātā panabhūmi), where the sunrays fell and facing the scorching sun. In the night he practised it, sitting in the vīrāsana posture (a kind of yogāsana) without putting on any piece of cloth.
In this way this austerity was performed by him in the second month with the observance of two consecutive fasts, i. e. two days' fast (chathan.charthenar), in the third month with three-three (atthamari-althamenan), in the fourth month with four-four (dasaman-dasamenan), in the fifth month with five-five (vārasamaria-vārasamenam), in the sixth-month with six-six (coddasamar.coddasamenam), in the seventh month with seven-seven (solasamarin-8olasameņam), in the eighth month with eight-eight (atthārasamarı-atthārasamenar), in the ninth month with nine-nine (vžsatiman-vīsatimenan), in the tenth month with ten-ten (bāvi. samam bāvisamenar), in the eleventh month with eleven-eleven (cauvvisatiman.cauvvisatimena), in the twelfth month with twelve-twelve (chavvīsatimar-chavvīsatimenari), in the thirteenth month with thirteen-thirteen (atthāvīsatimaṁ-atthāvīsatimenam), in the fourteenth month with fourteen-fourteen (tīgaimantīsaimenar), in the fifteenth month with fifteen-fifteen (battīsatimam-battīsatimenam), and in the sixteenth month with the observance of sixteen-sixteen fasts (cottīsai man-cottīsaimenań).
In the performance of this Gunaratnasamvatsara austerity total period of thirteen months and seventeen days is taken for the observance of the vow of fasting and that of seventy-three days for Pāranaka (day of conclusion of fast).
Thus after having practised this act of austerity, Skandaka performed various penances by observing many continuous fasts, such as, two, three, four, five, etc., and by meditation on his soul.1
1 Bhs, 2c 1, 93.

Page #423

398 . STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII
It is permissible to Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma that when the physical condition does not allow a monk to practise religion any more he should give up his body voluntarily by Samlekhanā tapa (austerity of renouncing the body), i. e, scratching out the body to save his soul.
As a result of his performance of acts of severe austerities the body of Skandaka became dry, rough and reduced to a skeleton, but it got transformed into a high elevated, noble, illustrious and great physique endowed with spiritual power (tapateja) acquired by penance. He walked and sat by the help of the inner strength of his soul (atmasakti), but he stopped and felt tired, while delivering religious discourse. So he thought it wise to give up his perishable body by the Samlekhanā tapa with the permission of his Guru, Lord Mahāvīra.
Accordingly, he, having taken five great vows and begged pardon of the Sramanas and Sramaņis, slowly climbed up the Vipula mountain along with the other fellow-inonks (KytayoginSthaviras) and cleansed the black stone of cloud colour, the place of passing excrement and urine, then spread the layer of the Durbha grass and sat there in the Padmāsana position (lotus-likesitting pose) facing the east. Then having folded his both hands and touched his head by making anjali (pose of salutation), he said thus: “Salutation to Arhats and Lords...... Lord Mahävira. I, being seated here, worship, and salute Lord Mahāvīra who is seated there." "In the past in the presence of Lord Mahāvīra all acts of killing upto perverted attitude of mind (i.e. eighteen sinful acts) were given up by me for the whole life.” “The rules (know. ledge of matter as the matter is), do like that, but do not do the opposite to that", were also taken up by me to observe for the whole life." Now again, "I accept all the rules in the presence of Lord Mabāvīra, and give up food and drink, etc., for the whole life. I renounce my desired beautiful and charming dear body which is not capable of giving me trouble at the last moment of life."
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 94.

Page #424

Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
399 Having observed the austerity of Samlekhanā of one month by giving up food and drink, he began to purify his soul by meditation in an immobile state like a tree without wishing death. He studied eleven Angas in the presence of the other Sthaviras and observed śramaņahood for full twelve years. After making self-analysis and self-confession and repentance for his past faults in their presence, he embraced death by renouncing his body in Samadhi state (abstract meditation),
Thus this account of the practice of asceticism by Skandaka presents a vivid picture of the ascetic life of the Nirgrantha Inonks at that period.
SECOND SECTION
Religious Vows and Austerities
In addition to the religious vows and acts of austerities practised by Skandaka, the BhS makes mention of worship, various kinds of vows, external and internal austerities and rules prescribed by the Nirgrantha order for the Jain Srāvakas and Sramanas for the attainment of their spiritual realization. They are discussed below.
Ārādhanā (worship) .
Worship is one of the most essential factors for spiritual realization and liberation which can be attained jointly by right knowledge (jgāna) right attitude of mind (darśana) and moral conduct (cāritra). Knowledge is the revealer of truth, austerity is the purifier of soul and self-control is the restrainer of mind, speech and body. 8
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 95. 3 Ib, 8, 10, 355. 31b, 8, 10, 354 (comm.). The worship
and the vows Silavrata to Jagarikā are also observed by the householders,

Page #425

400
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII According to the BKS there are prescribed three kinds of Ārādlană (worship), viz. Jtānārādhanā (worship by knowledge), Darsanārādhana (worship by right attitude of mind), and Caritrā. rādhanā (worship by conduct), i. e. sāmāyileādi niraticâratā by the observance of five great vows and five Samitis. Vows -Sīlavrata
It is the vow of virtue, a moral conduct, i. e, five anuvratas non-violence, truth, non-stealing, continence and non-possession.
Guņavrata
It is the vow of secondary importance consisting of digvrata, etc. These with the five aņuvratas and four sikša-padas make twelve duties of the laymen devoted to the Nirgrantha religion (Mūla-guņavratāni). Pausadha
It is the custom of observing festival days (parvadinopavāsanam). There appear to be two kinds of Pausadhas, the first one was observed on the fortnightly days (pakkhiya) by enjoying abundant food and drink, while the second one was observed by giving up jewel, gold, garland, etc., being alone, spreading the bed of darbha grass and observing the fortnightly vow as Brahmacarin, as it is evidenced in the case of Sankha who observed the second one in bis Pausadhaśālā, while his fellow Sramanopās akas performed the first one, having enjoyed abundant food and drink."
Jāgarikā
It is the vow of keeping awake by one's religious thought. Buddhajāgarikā is the wakefulness of the enlightened (kevalin). Abuddhajāgarikā is the wakefulness of the chadmastha (unliberated) houseless monk and Sudakkhujāgarikä is that of a Sramanopāsaka, having right attitude of mind. Those who are Arhats, Lords and bearers of manifest knowledge and intuition upto omniscient, omniseer and enlightened perform Buddhajāgarikā. Those who
1 Bh8, 8, 5, 328 ; 11, 9, 417 ; 11, 12, 435. ; [b, 12, 1, 438,

Page #426

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
401
are the houseless monks, Lords, careful in walking, speech upto Gupta-Brahmacarin (self-controlled) and are not enlightened, observe the religious vow of awaking of the Abuddha (Chadmastha) in absence of Kevalajana (omniscience). Those who are the Sramanopasakas, knowers of Jivajiva (being and non-being), observe the vow of awaking (Sudukkhujāgarika) by religious thought and giving up negligence (or spiritual inertia) and sleep.
Besides these, the unflinching faith in and devotion to the truth of teachings of Guru (religious teacher), and those of the Jinas' and their practices by disciple and his reversion from the other opinions (i. e. non-predilection for others' teachings) formed the part of worship.'
Vyavahara"
It is a particular knowledge consequent upon exertion towards the spiritual realization and cessation from the worldly acts of striving after the material gain and it is also exertion made for spiritual realization.*
There are stated five kinds of Vyavahāra, viz. (1) Ágama (Purvas, Angas, etc.), (2) Sutta (Sutra-literature), (3) Aṇā (ajna), the rules prescribed by the Acarya, (4) Dharaṇā-purification of faults according to their respective corresponding injunctions of purification from the point of view of substance, space, time and condition and (5) Jita-expiation prescribed according to the physical power of the monk from the same aspects of substance upto condition, having taken them into consideration. "Agame, Sue Aṇa, Dharaṇā, Jie."
One should practise the Law according to the instruction of any one of these five Vyavaharas whichever of them is available (i.e. known) to him there, whatever his Agama, Sutra, Ajna, Dharana and Jita may be.
Pratisenvana (Enjoyment of prohibited things or entertaining of anti-religious feelings)
1 BhS, 1, 3, 30. Ib, 1, 3, 31. Ib, 8, 8, 340. 51

4 Ib, (comm.).

Page #427

402
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
There are stated to be ten kinds of Pratisevanās which should be given up by a monk for the attainment of his spiritual progress, viz. Darpa (pride or conceit), Pramāda (spiritual inertia or negligence), Anābhoga (wrong attention), Atura (suffering or sickness in body and mind or from hunger and thirst etc.), A padi (misfortune), Sankīrṇa (mental confusion), Sahasākāra (suddenness or unexpectedness), Bhaya (fear), and Pradvesa (hatred or jealousy).
Faults
Similarly there are ten kinds of faults of confession which should be corrected and given up by the monks for the practice of religion, viz. faults of ākampya (a confession after pleasing the preceptor in advance by service), confession of anumānya (by observing light punishment in anticipation of preceptor's approval), Yaddrsta (confession of what has been exposed to the preceptor), of bādaram (confession of the gross transgressions), of Sikşmam (confession of some select minor transgressions in order to conceal other major and minor ones), of channa (confession in secrecy), of sabdākulam (confession aloud within the hearing of the unexperienced monks), of bahujana (confession of the same transgression before more than one preceptors), avyakta (confession before an unexperienced preceptor), and of tatsevž (confession of a transgression before a monk who is himself guilty of the same fault.
The houseless monk endowed with the following ten qualities is worthy to discuss his own faults and to make self-analysis, viz. (if) he is of good birth (or caste) and family and endowed with moral training, knowledge, right attitude of mind, conduct, patience, restraint, guilelessness and nonrepentance after self-analysis of guilt. And also the houseless monk who is practiser of rules of conduct, i.e. virtuous (ācāravān), holder of the vow with promise not to do again the self-analysed guilts (ādhāravān), practiser of five Vyavahāras, viz. Agama, Sruta, Ājnā, Dhāraņā and Jita as already mentioned, unashamed to conceal the faults (apavrīdaka), able to purify himself by

Page #428

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
atonement after self-analysis of faults (pratikurvaka), non-teller of or discloser of the discussed faults to others (aparisravi), performer of partial atonement (niryapaka) (if unable to perform at a time) and visualizer of the future destruction or calamity or the next world (Avayadarsi).
Sāmācārī (Customary practice)
The BS, mentions ten kinds of Samācāri (customary practice of the monks), viz (1) Iccha (desire or inclination), (2) Mithya (perversion of right attitude), (3) Tathakara (blind following, as yes man), (4) Avaśyaki (religious duty), (5) Naisadhika (renunciation of sinful deeds or prohibitive conduct or practice), (6) Aprechana (asking question in the work), (7) Pratiprechana (reasking question about the previous prohibited work), (8) Chandana (request for meal accepted in the past), (9) Nimantrana (invitation to food), and (10) Upasampacca (Kala) the act of entering or joining the order of monks (Buddhas) coming to the other Acarya for attaining knowledge.
403
Expiation (Prayaścitta)
There are prescribed ten kinds of expiation for the purification of oneself who has committed sinful deeds so that he may attain the state of equanimity and mental peace and progress in his path of spiritualism. They are as follows:(1) Alocana (expiation by confession, discussion and self analysis of sinful act committed), (2) Pratikramana (retracing from sinful deed and repentance), (3) Tadubhaya (the acts of both discussion and self-analysis and retracing from the sinful act and repentance), (4) Viveka (giving up impure food, etc.), (5) Vyutsarga (complete detachment from the body), (6) Tapah (the act of austerity), (7) Cheda (reduction of monastic seniority), (8) Mula (complete re-initiation) (9) Anavasthapya (a kind of hard expiation for the serious crime committed by a person who cannot be initiated again) and (10) Parañcika (the expiation which demands suspension of monkhood).'
1 Bhs, 25,7,801.

Page #429

404
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA (Ch. VII Austerity (Tapah)
There are stated two kinds of austerity, viz. external (bāhirika) and internal (abhyantarilca), which are again divided and subdivided into different kinds.
External Austerity
External austerity is divided into six kinds, viz. (1) Anasana (fasting), (2) Avamodarikā (general reduction of food, articles, passion, etc.), (3) Bhiksācaryā (begging of alms), (4) Rasatyāja (abstension from drink, liquor, ghee, etc.), (5) Kāyallesa (physical mortification or suffering) and (6) Pratisamlinatā (complete retirement to a lonely place for the sake of meditation and mortification of flesh), or control of senses, passions, activities and non-enjoyment of seat, bed, etc.).
According to the Tattvārtha Sutra: the external austerity consists of Anašana (fasting), Avamodarya (general reduction of food, etc.), Vrittiparisankhyāna (limit of various articles of food and drink), Rasaparityāga (abstention from drinks, etc.), Viviktasayanāsana (indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed in a lonely place) and Kayakleśa (mortification of flesh). The difference between the two definitions lies in the fact that the
Tattvärthasūtra prescribes Vitti-parisankhyāna and Vivikta ayanāšana in place of Bhiksācaryā and Pratisanlinatā respectively of the Bhs. In the definition of the latter Viviktasayanāsanasevanatā (indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed in a lonely place) is one of the four kinds of Pratisanlinatā.
Anasana
It is stated to be of two kinds, viz. Itvarika (short lived or temporary) and Yāvatkathika (lifelong till death). Itvarila Anasına is again divided into the following categories, viz. caturthabhakta, sașthabhalta, upto six-monthly fast's, as already explained in the previous section in connection with the practice of asceticism by Skandaka.
1 BhS, 25,7,802.
2 Tattvārtha Sutra, 9, 19.

Page #430

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Yavatkathika Anasana is of two kinds, viz. Padapopagamana (observance of fast by sitting like a tree) and Bhaktapratyakhyāna (observance of fast by giving up food up-to death). The Padapopagamana fast is stated to be of two kinds, viz. Nihärima and Aniharima, as explained in the eighth section of the fourth chapter on 'Social Conditions'.
Avamodarikā
It is a kind of austerity which enjoins upon the monks to reduce their articles, food and evil passions etc., for spiritual progress. There are stated to be two kinds of Avamodarika tapaḥ, viz. Dravyavamodarika (taking of less articles, food, etc.), and Bhāvāvamodarika (less passion, less evil thought, etc.). The first one is sub-divided into two groups, viz. Upakaranadravyā vamodarika (taking of less articles) and Bhaktapānadravyāvamodarika (taking of less food and drink). The austerity practised by the acceptance of one cloth, one pot and enjoyment of articles that are discarded and rejected by others is called U pakaraṇadravyāvamodarikā, while that which is called Bhaktapānadravyāvamodarikā is observed by taking less food and drink, e. g. a morsel of food equal to the size of th part of an egg of hen upto 1/32 part of an egg.1 Bhavavamodarika austerity is of many kinds, such as, reduction of anger (alpa-krodha), reduction of greed (alpa-lobha), less talk and the like.
405
Bhiksacarya
There are stated to be many kinds of Bhiksacarya (the practice of begging alms under restriction) in respect of the article (Dravyabhigraha-caraka), the place of origin (Ksetrabhigraha-caraka), time (Kalabhigraha-caraka) and mental & physical conditions of the alms given (Bhāvābhigraha-caraka), etc.
Rasaparityaga
There are stated to be many kinds of austerity of giving up dainties, such as, abstension from nirvikrtika (delicious) and
1 BhS, 7, 1, 269.

Page #431

406
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
[Ch. VII
pranīta (rich) food prepared with ghee, ayanbila, āyāmasitthābhoga, arasahāra, virasāhāra, antähāra, pantāhāra, ruksāhāra, etc.
Kāyakleśa Tapah
Kayakleía-tapaḥ is a self-torturing asceticism which involves many kinds of physical sufferings for the concentration of mind, as it is thought that the attachment to the body is the bar to the purification of soul by meditation and attainment of spiritual realization. It consists in different kinds of postures, such as, sthānasthitikāsanika (kāyotsarga=standing position), utkutukāsanika, pratimāsthāyī, vīrāsana, naisadhikah, lakuțāsanika, etc. It is difficult to explain all these physical postures taken by the monks in the practice of their austerities and meditation without proper practical training in this yogic process.
Pratisamlīnatā tapaḥ
Pratisamlīnatā tapaḥ is the austerity known as control or restraint of senses, passions, activities and enjoyments of bed and seat (indriyapratisarlīnatā, kasāyasarlīnatā, yogasamlinatā, viviktasayanāsanasevanatā). These four kinds of pratisamlinata are further divided into different groups according to their respective numbers.
The control of senses is stated to be of five kinds, viz. control of the sense of hearing the desired and undesired sounds, sense of smell, sense of taste, and the sense of touch. The control of passion is of four kinds, viz. control of the rise of anger or the suppression of the risen anger and similar control of the other three, viz. pride, deceit and greed. The control of activities is divided into three groups, viz. control of mental, vocal and physical activities. They are again sub-divided into different kinds, e.g. the control of mental activity is threefold, viz, control of inauspicious activity of mind, the rise of auspicious activity of mind and the act of concentrating mind. Similarly the control of vocal activity is of three kinds like those of manasarlīnatā. Kāyasamlinata is a kind of control of physical activity which is practised by one having his hands

Page #432

Sec. II)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
407
and feet well composed and contracted like a tortoise, i.e. control of body and sense-organs.
Viviktaśayanāsanasevanata
It is the practice of austerity, having indifference to comfortable and discomfortable bed and seat in a lonly place. Internal Austerity
Internal austerity is divided into six categories, viz. prāyascitta (expiation), vinaya (moral training or discipline), vaiyāvrtya (service), svādhyāya (study), dhyāna (meditation) and vyutsarga (complete renunciation). Prayascitta
It is the expiation of sin committed by anyone for his internal purification so that he may progress in the path of spiritualism. The ten kinds of expiation have already been discussed in this section.
Vinaya
It is the moral training or discipline in regard to knowledge, right attitude of mind, conduct, activity and general behaviour, attendance or service, etc. There are stated to be seven kinds of Vinaya viz. Jhānavinaya (discipline in knowledge) Darśanavinaya (moral discipline or training in right attitude of mind to truth), Căritravinaya (discipline in conduct), Manavinaya (mental discipline), Vāgvinaya (discipline in speech), Kayavinaya (physical discipline), and Lokopacāravinaya (moral training or discipline in regard to the behaviour of the people). These seven kinds of Vinaya (discipline) are further classified into different divisions according to their respective numbers.
Thus Jhānavinaya is prescribed to be of five kinds, viz. Åbhinibodhikajñānavinaya, Srutajatānavinaya, Avadhijñāngvinaya, Manah paryayajñānavinaya and Kevalajñānavinaya.
Darsanavinaya is divided into two categories, viz. Sušrūşanāvinaya (moral dicipline in attendance or service) and Anatyā. sātanävinaya (discipline in reverence). There are many kinds

Page #433

408
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
of Suárūsanāvinaya, such as, abhyutthāna (getting up from seat), āsanapradāna (offering of seats), satkāra (hospitality with presents), etc.
Anatyāśātanāvinaya is prescribed to be of different kinds, such as, non-repudiation of religion (Dharma explained by Arhats), of Acāryas, Upādhyāyas, Sthaviras, cominunity, assembly (Gana), clergical community (Sanghu), action (kriyā), equal enjoyment or mutual acceptance of fruits or gifts of religion of co-religionists, etc. Caritravinaya
It is the moral discipline in conduct which is of vital importance in the acts of austerity to attain spiritual realization. It is of five kinds, viz. (1) Sāmāyika-cāritravinaya, Chedopasthäpaniyacāritravinaya, parihāravisuddhika-cāritravinaya, Sūksma-sâmparāyacāritravinaya and Yathākhyāta-cāritra-vinaya, i. e. (1) equanimity by giving up all harmful activities, (2) reinitiation after lapse from monastic duties or confirmation (upasaņpadā)after a period of apprenticeship (pravrajjyā), (3) special purification by means of specific kinds of austerities and services to one's preceptor, (4) a spiritual state in which all the passions are suppressed excepting a subtle form of greed and (5) perfect conduct where no kind of passion can ever arise.
Manavinaya (mental discipline)
There are stated to be two kinds of Manavinaya, viz. prasasta-manavinaya (auspicious mental discipline) and aprašastamanavinaya (inauspicious mental discipline). They are also further sub-divided into different groups according to the forces of virtue and vice operating in one-self. Thus the prasastamanavinaya is classified into seven divisions, viz. apāpakam (sinless), asāvadyam (uncensurable or angerless), akriyam (actionless), nirupakramam (free from the cause of misery without the act of killing, etc.), anāšravakaram (not causing pain to any one, or free from aśrava), aksa pikaram (blameless or not lazy) and abhūtābhisankanam (not alarmed about the evil spirit). Aprašastamanavinaya is prescribed to be of seven kinds which are opposite

Page #434

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
409
to the first one, viz. pāpakam (sinful) upto bhūtābhisarkanam (alarmed about the evil spirit).
Vägvinaya (moral discipline of speech or vocal discipline)
It is also divided into two main categories, viz. prasasta (auspicious) and aprašasta (inauspicious) vāgvinayas, which are sub-divided into seven groups like Manavinaya.
Kāyavinaya (discipline in behaviour done through the body or physical discipline)
It is also classified into two groups like Manavinaya and Vāgrinaya, viz. praśasta and aprašasta. Auspicious physical discipline is prescribed to be of seven kinds, viz. careful in going, careful in standing, sitting, stretching out limbs, crossing, recrossing, and controlled activity of all senses. Ina uspicious physical discipline is also stated to be of seven kinds which are opposite to the auspicious ones.
Lokopacāravinaya (discipline in general behaviour)
It is of seven kinds, viz. abhyās avarttitvam (tutelage under preceptors), paracchandānuvarttitvam (obedience to teachers). kāryahetum facilitating means and ways for preceptor's functions), krta pratikrtatā (gratefulness), arttagavesanatā (nursing of diseased monks), desakālajšiată (performance of duties according to the conditions of time and place), and sarvärthesu-a pratilomatā (sympathetic attitude in all functions).
Vaiyāvrtya (moral discipline in service or attendance)
It is of ten kinds, viz. services to Ācāryas, Upadhyāyas, Sthaviras, ascetics, patients, disciples, the family of monks, the community or assembly of monks, order, and fellow-monks respectively.
Svadhyāya (study)
It is divided into five groups, viz. vācanā (recitation), prati prcchanā (question), parāvarttanā (repetition of the studied
52

Page #435

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII
subject), anupreksa (deliberation on the subject of study) and dharmakatha (religious discourse).
410
Dhyana (meditation)
It is divided into four categories according to different stages of human thought, viz. Arttadhyana (concentration of mind on account of anguish; in moments of deep sorrow and anger mind fixes itself temporarily on the objects of such passions; these have been recognised as kinds of inauspicious meditations), Raudradhyana (concentration consequent upon anger and rath), Dharmadhyāna (meditation on religious thoughts) and Sukladhyana (pure meditation). These four kinds of meditation are further divided and sub-divided into different groups.
Arttadhyana
This kind of meditation is achieved when a man is in utter anguish on account of his association with an undesirable object or his being deprived of the desirable one. It is accordingly of four kinds, viz. (1) Meditation accompanied by the association with the undesirable (Amanoja-samprayogasamprayukta) and a sustained desire for getting rid of it (Viprayaga-smrti-samanvāgata); (2) Meditation accompanied by the association with the desirable (Manoja-samprayogasamprayukta) and a sustained desire for not being deprived of it (Aviprayoga-smrti-samanvāgata); (3) Meditation accompanied by a sense of fear, disease, etc. (Atanka-samprayoga-samprayukta) and a constant desire for getting rid of it (Viprayogasmrti-samanvāgata); and (4) Meditation accompanied by the memory of past enjoyments (Pariyusita-kamabhoga samprayukta) and an ardent desire for not getting rid of the memory (Aviprayogasmrti-samanvāgata). The following are the characteristics of these dhyānas-bewailing, a sense of poverty, weeping, and affliction. Raudradhyāna
It is of four kinds, viz. Himsanubandhin (meditation consequent upon violent thought), Mrṣanubandhin (that which is connected with falsehood), Steyanubandhin (meditation connected

Page #436

Sec. 1
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
411
with stealing) and Samraksānubandhin (that which is connected with the protection of one's possession). This Raudradhyāna is endowed with four characteristics, viz. (1) utsannadosa (unhindered sinful activity and possession), (2) bahudoga (multiplicity of sin), (3) ajšā nadoša (perversion, i. e. misguided activity, and (4) maraņāntikadosa (lifelong sinning),
Dharmadhyāna
There are stated to be four kin Is of Dharmadhyāna (meditation on religious thoughts) viz. Ājftāvicaya (thought on the holy scripture), (2) Apāyavicaya (avāyavijaya = thought on the bad results of attachment and hatred), (3) Vipalcavicaya thoughts on the fruits of karmns) and (4) Sansthānavicaya (thoughts on coufiguration of the Universe).
Dharmadhyāna bears four characteristics viz. (1) ajñāruci (faith in the holy scripture), (2) nisargaruci (faith in truth or reality), (3) sūtraruci (faith born of scriptural study) and (4) avagādharuci (faith born of a critical appreciation of the scripture).
This ineditation is endowed with four alambana: (repetition of prayer), viz. vācana (recitation), (2) prati pracchanā (asking of questions again and again), (3) parāvarttanā (repeatition of the studied subjects and (4) dharmakatha (religious talk).
Besides these, there are four anupreksās (deliberations) of Dharmadhyāna, viz. ekatvānu prekşā (deliberation on oneness), (2) anityānupreksā (deliberation on transitoriness), (3) ašaraṇānupreksii (deliberation on shelter lessness) and (4) sarasārānupreksā (deliberation on the world).
Sukladhyāna (Pure meditation)
It is of four kinds of four pratyavatāra (disembarkation), viz. (1) p?thakatva-vitarka-savācāra (meditation with analysis, judgement, of many debates or dissensions), (2) ekatva-vitarka-avīcāra (meditation without judgement of a single discussion), (3) sūksmakriyaanivartta (meditation with desirelessness in the suttle acts of mind, speech and body), i.e. not inclined to the subtlest mental,

Page #437

412
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Ch. VII
vocal and physical acts and (4) Suminucchinna-riya.aprāpti pati (meditation having completely cut off all ties of action by the self-controlled activities of mind, speech, and body).
Sukladhyāna is endowed with four characteristics, viz. kşānti (forgiveness), mukti (non-attachment), ārjara (straightforwardness or simplicity), and mārdava (freedom from pride), and it has also four alambanas (objects of meditation), viz, avyatha (freedom from fear), asammoha (110n-delusion), viveka (distinction between soul and body) and vyutsarga (renunciation of body).
In addition to these, there are also four anupreksās (deliberations), viz. (1) anantavrttitānu preksa, (2) vipariņāmānu preksā, (3) aśubhānu preksā and (4) apāyānupreksā, i.e. deliberations (i) on the eternity of worldly existence, (ii) on the incessant transformation of things, (iii) on inauspiciousness of the world and (iv) on the evils of violence and the like.
Vyutsarga' (complete renunciation)
It is divided into two categories, viz. Dravya-vyutsarga (renunciation of physical objects), etc., and Bhāvaryutsarga (renunciation of mental states and objects). They are subdivided into different groups according to different objects of renunciation. Dravyavyutsarga is stated to be of four kinds, viz. renunciation of Gana (society), of body, of articles, and of food and drink. While Bhāvavyutsarga is classified into three divisions, viz. renunciation of four passions (anger upto greed), of the four forms of life (human, hellish, divine and brutal), and of eight karma-prakrtis (knowledge obscuring larma upto energy. hindering karma).
THIRD SECTION Religious rules for the Šramaņa-Nirgrantha Monks and Nuns
The BhS lays down some rules for the Nirgrantha monks and nuns to be observed by them in their daily life.
1. BhS, 25, 7, 803.

Page #438

Sec. III)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
413
The first criterion of all the rules is endurance of the following twenty-two parişahu(for bearances) because they are correlated with Karma-prakrtis which bind the soul by covering its inherent state of perfection. They are as follows:- Hunger (ksudhā), thirst (pipāsā), cold (sita), leat (uşņa), flies (damsa), mosquitos (masakā), clothlessness (acelu), dislike (arati) (mohaniyajo manavikāraḥ), woman (stri, i. e. liking for woman's society), walking or staying (caryā, i. e. the monk must not stay in one place for long), the most unpleasant spot (naisidhiki-svādbyāya. bhūnim-sũnyāgārāli-r@pa-tat parisahanam), bed (bagga, i. e, indifference to a comfortable or discomfortable bed), reviling with hard words (akroša), beating with stick (vadha), begging alms (yācunā), non-obtaining of alins (alābha), disease (roga), touch of grass (tìņas parku, i. e. endurance of pain caused by the touch of the pointed tip of grass), dirt (jalla or mala) on body (i, e. monk must not allow his mind to think on the refreshment and joy of bath), honour with gift or praise (satkāra) and standing in reverence, etc., by the kings and others (puraskāra), intellect (prajna) (i. e. the feeling of own intellectual accomplishment or lack of intellect), knowledge (fāna) (i. e. the feeling of pride in knowledge or the feeling of inferiority for want of knowledge), right attitude to own religious truth (darśana) (i. e. a monk must not have doubt in the truth of his own religion and predilection for other faith).
Samitis (rules of conduct)
Besides the five samitis, as already mentioned in the first section of this chapter, there is also the mention of three other gamitis along with them, viz, manasamiti, vāg-samiti, and kāya-samiti (.e. restraint in mental, vocal, and physical activities).
iti
* BAS, Comm., 8, 8, 343. Granthāntare tu ājñāparişaha
pathyate. * 16, 8, 8, 343. See Uttarādhyayana Sutra xlv., p. 11. # 16, 2, 1, 92.

Page #439

414 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA [Ch. VII The other rules of conduct for the Nirgrantha monks
The following rules are prescribed for the monks and nuns in the BIS in connection with worship and non-worship.
In case an improper action is done by a Nirgrantha monk entering into the house of a householder for food, a thought arose in his mind "Just now, I discuss, confess, repent, blame (censure) this sinful act, desist from it by purifying myself with the performance of expiation, exert myself by not doing (such act). I practise proper act of a usterity, then later on I shall discuss, confess it to the sthavira upto practise act of austerity (tapahkarma)." He went out of that house but did not find the sthavira, for he died before his arrival or became dumb, in that Case he is arādhaka (worshipper), or if he himself dies or becomes dumb before his arrival, then he is a worshipper, not a nonworshipper (virādhalca) in that case.
The same religious rules are applicable to the case of a Niragranthi committing some improper actions. If she resolves to make self-analysis, confession and repentance, to censure these and, to perform expiation and to practise austerity or she actually observes these rules, she becomes a worshipper.
If a monk, having committed any prohibited sinful deed, dies without making self-analysis, confession and repentance for it, he has no worship, but if he dies by making self-analysis, confession, etc., he is a worshipper.
Similarly one has no worship, if he resolves to observe that vow of expiation in the last part of his life, but he dies without performing it or if he thinks thus : "If the Sramanopāsakas also, dying at the appointed time are born in heaven as gods, what again, shall I not incarnate even as a demigod ?", and he dies, having said this without observing that vow.'
Rules for begging alms
The BLS prescribes the following begging rules for the
i Bhs, 8, 6, 334.
• 16, 10, 2, 400.

Page #440

Scc. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
415
the monks and nuns in addition to those mentioned in the first section of this chapter. They are as follows:
On the day of conclusion of fast a monk is to study the religious text (Dharma-Sastra) in the first part of the day (prahara), to meditate in the second prahara and to go out in the third prahıra with the permission of his Guru, having taken his mukhavastra (mouth-covering piece of cloth), bowl and clothes for begging alms from the high, low and middle class families. After returning from this begging tour, he is to show his food and drink obtained by him to his religious teacher.'
A Nirgrantha monk, being invited by a householder to meal should take his share only and carry the other portion given for another ascetic according to the instruction of the householder and offer it to his fellow monk after searching him out. But if that ascetic (sthavira) is not found, his share should not be taken by the former nor should it be given to others, rather it should be left out on the ground free from living beings in a desolate place by cleansing and wiping off the earth. The same rules should be followed by a Nirgrantha monk in regard to the acceptance of three to ten portions of food offered by a householder and in the cases of receiving other articles, viz. pot (pratigraha', a cleaning piece of cloth (gocchaka), duster (rajaharana), clothes (colapataka), blankets (kambala), sticks (lathi), and bed (santhāraga), respectively.'
Rules of taking food prescribed for the Nirgrantha Monks & Nuns
The Bhs prescribes some rules for nirgrantha monks and nuns in regard to their taking of food and drink. Food and drink are classified into two categories, according to the monastic rules viz. Sadosa (faulty) and Nirdosa (faultless), i. e. impure and pure from the point of view of asceticism.
Faulty or impure food and drink are classified into the following groups, viz. sāngāra-pānabhojana, sadhūma-pānab hojana,
? BhS, 2, 5, 111
· 16, 8, 6, 333.
$ 16,

Page #441

416
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
sanyojanadosadustapānabhojana, while faultless or pure food and drink are divided into three kinds, viz vītāngāra-pānubhojana, vītadhūma-pānabhojana and sanyojanavipramuktapānabhojana.
Food and drink which are taken by a Niryrantha or a Nirgranthi with infatuation, deep attachment, after receiving them, is called sāngāra pānabhojana, that which are taken by him or her, having a mind consuined with hatred and anger are Sadhüma-pānabhojana, and that which are taken by mixing them with other things for making them tasteful are Sarayojanad93adusta, i.e. polluted by the fault of mixing.
But if they are taken by him or her, without being infatuated or deeply attached to and swayed by hatred and anger and without mixing them with other things for making them palatable, they are called vītāngāra, vītadhūma and saryojana-vipramukta-panahhojana respectively.
Besides these, the taking of the following kinds of food and drink by the monks or nuns involves the act of committing fault on their part, viz. ksetrātikrānta-pānub hojana (food and drink taken before sunrise), kālātikrānta-pānabhojana (that received in the first part of the day and taken in the last part of it), mārgāntikrānta-pānabhojana (that received and taken after crossing the length of half a yojana) and pramāṇātilcrāntapānabhojana (that taken more than the standard measure, i.e. only thirty-two morsels equal to the size of an egg of a hen)."
A Sramana-Nigrantha or a Nirgranthi is to take gastrātīta, sastra-pariņāmita, esita, vesita and samudānika-pānabhojana for practising self-control and asceticism like a snake existing in a hole. The food which is offered by a householder who has given up weapon, mace, garland, (the act of) besmenring his body with sandal paste, (which is free from all kinds of bacterias and lifeless, (which is) not prepared or to be prepared for a monk and not intended for him, uninvited, unpurchased, prepared
1 Bhs., 7, 1, 268.
Ib, 7, 1, 269.

Page #442

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
417
without any intention, (which is) navakoți-parisuddha (pure from the points of nine acts of preparing food, i.e. (1) to kill, (2) to cause to kill (3) to approve killing, (4) to cook, (5) to make cook, (6) to approve to cook, (7) to buy, (8) to make buy, (9) to support purchasing food, (which is) free from ten faults (i.e. doubt (or fear, etc.), pure in udgama (origin) or production (adhakarmādi), utpādana (the act of producing), esaņā (pindavisuddhi= purity of meal), and also free from the faults of angāra (in. fatuation), dhūmra (hatred and anger) and savyojana (mixing), (which is) offered without making sound, haste, and delay and leaving any portion of it-that is called susirātīta, sastra parināmita, exitu, vesita and samudānika-pānabhojana.?
Besides these, it is not proper for a Šramana-Nirgrantha to take adhākarmika lood (which is prepared for another monk), uddesaka (which is intended for), or misrajāta (mixed), or adhyavapūraka (more food prepared for monk beforehand), or pūjita (worshipped), or Icrita (purchased), or a pamitya (loaned food), acchidya (forcibly taken food from someone), or anisșśţa (unassented to) i. e, alms whose owners are many persons and which is not given with the consent of all, or abhihịta (brought in front or before), or kāntārabhaktı (food prepared in forest), or durbhikṣabhukta (food prepared in famine time), or glānabhakta (patient's dict), or vārddalikabhakta (food prepared during the rain), or sayyātarapinda (meal given by the owner of upāśraya), or rājapiņda (meal given by the king), or mūlubhojana (taking of root), or kandabhojana (taking of tuberous root), or phalabhojana (taking of fruit), or vījabhojana (taking seed), or havyabhojana (taking of clarified butter).'
FOURTH SECTION Classification of Sramaņa-Nirgrantha Monks
The Bhs classifies the Sramana-Nirgrantha monks into five categories on the basis of their knowledge, conduct, and
2 I6, 9, 33, 384.
1 Bhs, 7, 1,269.
53

Page #443

418
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII spiritual attainment, viz. Pulāka, Bakuša, Kušila, Nirgrantha and Snataka, 1
This classification of the Jain monks as found here is also made in the Tattvārtha-Sūtra "Pulāka-Bakuša-Kuśīla-NirgranthaSnāta kā-Nirgrantbāh.""
They represent asceticism as manifested in the stages of their spiritual progress made by them through their meritorious acts of austerities and meditation.
Śri Abhayadeva Sūri explains that a Pulāka-monk is like a Pulāka (a species of edible plant or sapless) from the point of view of self-control (i.e. cccassinally he is subject to moral lapses), a Bakusa is endowed with spotted self-control (i.e. occassionally he yields to worldly objects and associates himself with worldly people and violates moral rules); a Kusila is a monk who sometimes deviates from the minor rules of conduct; a Nirgrantha is a monk free from all ties of deluding Icarmas and is destined to attain omniscience in immediate future ; and Snätaka is a monk who is purified or bathed (snāta) from the dirt of ghātikarmas, i. e. Jrānāvaraniya (knowledge obscuring), Darsanāvaranżya intiution obscuring), Molanżya (belief and conduct obscuring) and Antarāyika (power-hindering) karmas and has attained omniscience which is known as Jivianmukti in other schools of Indian thought.
They are again sub-divided into different groups according to their respective attributes from various aspects, such as, knowledge (fāna), application (or acquisition) of knowledge (abhoga) and non-application (anābhoga), enjoyment of prohibited things (pratisevanā), passion (Icasāya), intuition or attitude of mind (daršana), conduct (câritra), attachment (rāga = sarāga), non-attachment (vītarāga), etc.
The Pulākas are divided into five groups, viz. Jitānapulāka, Darsana-pulāka, Cãritra pulāka, Linga-pulāka and Yathās üksma.
i Bhs, 25, 6, 751.
Tattvartha-Sitra, 9, 48.

Page #444

Sec. IV?
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
419
Pulāku nāma. Similarly the Bakušas are divided into five classes, viz. Ābhoga, Anābhoga, Sarsvrta (self-disciplined), Asarıvrta (nonself-disciplined) and Yathāsūksma; the Kuśīlas into two, viz. Pratisevanā-Kusila (a monk who violates the minor rules of conduct under the influence of his senses) and Kašāya-Kušila (a monk who is sometimes swayed by subtle passion) and the Nirgranthas into five, viz. Prathamasamaya-Nirgrantha, A prathamasamaya-Nirgrantha, Carima-samaya.Nirgrantha, Acarima samaya. Nirgrantha and Yathāsülcsma-Nirorantha. As already stated a Nirgrantha is a monk who is sure to attain omniscience in immediate future. This time interval is about 48 minutes in the maximum. In the first instant of this period the monk is known as Prathamasamaya Nirgrantha. Such monks during the rest of interval belong to the second category. Similarly the monks during the last instant belong the third category and the remaining to the fourth. The fifth category is comprised by such monks in general. The Snātakas also are classified into five groups, which are rather five different aspects of the person who has attained Arhatship viz. Acchavika (who is free from all injurious physical activities-avayathaka), Ašavala (spotless, i. e. absolutely pure), Alarmársa (free from ghātikarmas), Sarsuddha-jhāna. darśanudhara-Arhat-Jina-levalin (who is the bearer of complete pure knowledge and intuition) and Aparisrāvin (free from all karmic influx-abandhaka).
Classification of Samyatas (self-controlled monks)
Like the Pulākas, the Sanyatas (self-controlled) are classified into five groups, viz. Sāmāyiku-Samyata, ChedopasthāpanikaSanyata, Parihāra-viếuddhika-Samyata, Sūksma-sāmparāyika-Sanyata and Yathākhyāta-Sanyata.1
The BhS explains the respective positions of these classes of Samyata, thus that the monk who observes best CaturvämaDharma (four-fold religion) by mental, vocal and physical activities in the undertaking of Sāmāyika-Sanyama (primary
1 BKS, 25, 6, 786.

Page #445

420
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII stage of self-control) is called the Samayika-Samyata; he who establishes the self in Pancayama-Dharma (five fold-religion) by cutting off the previous old state is the ChedopasthapanikaSamyata; he who, observing pure best Pañcayama-Dharma by mental, vocal and physical activities, renounces all things and observes particular types of austerities, is the PariharaviśuddhikaSamyata; he who, experiencing only Suksma kasaya (i. c. subtle greed) exists in Upasamika or Kṣapaka Sreni (the state of suppression or destruction of deluding karma) is known as the Suksmasamparaya-Samyata (i. e. a little below the stage of Yathakhyata) and a Chadmastha or a Kevali who exists, having his Mohaniyakarma suppressed (in the case of the former) and annihilated is Yathakhyata Samyata.
These five classes of Samyatas are further sub-divided into different groups according to various aspects. Thus the Samayika-Samyatas are classified into two divisions from the point of view of time, viz. Itwarika (temporary) and Yavat-kathika (permanantly for life) self-controlled and the Chedopasthapanika-Samyata into two, vjz. Saticara and Niraticara the first is endowed with conduct with the transgression of moral laws of self-control, and the second is possessed of conduct without break and transgression of self-control. The Parihara-Visuddhika Samyatas are divided into two groups, viz. Nirvisamanaka (Practiser of special types of austerities mainly consisting of fasting spread over a long time), and Nirvistakayika (attendant on the former). This austerity is observed by groups of monks. A group of nine monks observes this austerity-one of them being the head and the other eight divided into two sub-groups. The four monks of one of these two groups serving as attendants to the rest. The attendants are called Nirvista-Kayikas and others are known as Nirvišamānakas. The Suksma-samparāyika-Saṁyatas are divided into Samklisyamanaka and Visuddhamanaka (i.e. one who is falling back down the ladder of suppression-Upasama-Sreni) and one
* Ib, 25, 7, 788.

1 BhS, 25, 7, 786.

Page #446

Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
421 who is ascending the Upašama-Śrenī or Ksapaka-Śreni, the ladder leading to the annihilation of Karma). The YathākhyātaSamyata is classified into two categories, viz. Chadmastha (a monk endowed with finite knowledge) and Kevali (a selfcontrolled monk having infinite omniscience).
There exists an inter-relation among the five classes of Sariy atas and the five divisions of the Nirgranthas on the basis of self-control and the stages of spiritual development. For example, it is explained that a Sāmāyika-Sariyata may be a Pulaka or a Bakuša upto a Kasāya-Kuśila; but not a Nirgrantha nor a Snātaka and so on.
FIFTH SECTION Āgara-Dharma or Śrāvaka-Dharma (Religion of Lay
Worshipper or Householder) The BNS throws a welcome light upon Agāra-Dharma or Srāvaku-Dharme? which is quite distinct from that of Anāgāra Dharma (monasticism). It was realized by Lord Mahāvīra and his disciples that the uniformn religious vows and rules of conduct should not be prescribed for the monks and householders, for they would defeat the mission of the Nirgrantha-Dharma and would be fruitless. They would help neither the monks nor the laymen, so separate vows and rules of conduct were set forth for the householders by considering all the conditions of their life, as it is known from the fact of some relaxations made in the observance of the religious vows and rules of conduct to which they were required to conform.
This Srävaka-Dharma is the most essential counterpart of monasticism of the Nirgrantha-Dharmu. It is the twelve-fold Law of laymen (duvālasavihan savagadhamman) consisting of five lesser vows (pancānuvatiyan) and seven disciplinary vows
1 BKS, 25, 7, 788.
: 16, 18, 10, 648.
316.

Page #447

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII (sattasikkhavaiyam). They are as follows: (1) Renouncement of all gross ill-usuage of living beings in two forms and in three ways (i.e. not to do oneself nor cause to be done by others either in thought or in word or in deed), (2) renouncement of all grossly lying speech in two forms and three ways like the previous one, (3) renouncement of all gross taking of things not given, (4) renouncement of every other kind of sexual intercourse excepting with one's own wife, and (5) limitation of possession of one's wealth by renouncing all other possessions.
422
Some relaxations have been made for the householders in regard to the observance of the religious vows and rules. Thus it is explained that the act of killing a mobile being by some Sramanopāsaka in the past has been renounced, but his act of killing the earth-bodied being is partially given up. For instance, if he, while digging the earth kills any mobile being, he does not violate (or transgress) the vow of non-killing, because he is surely not intent upon its killing. It is an accidental and unintentional act of killing beings. Thus in the cases of his accidental and unintentional injury to the life of plant-bodied beings also, while ploughing the land (i.e. digging the earth), he does not transgress the vow of non-killing, as he was not intent upon its killing.1
The seven disciplinary vows consist of three Gunavratas and four proper Sikṣāvratas as given below:
The three Gunavartas are stated to be Digvrata (vow of the quarters), Anarthadamda (vow of abstention from unprofitable employment) and Bhogopabhogaparimāna (vow of limitation of the measure of enjoyment), while the four proper Sikṣaviratas are Sāmāyikavrata (vow of inward peace), Pausadhavrata (vow of fasting, abstinence from bodily attentions, sexual intercourse and daily work), Atithisamvibhaga (vow of right distribution of alms and worshipping the guests) and Sallekhana (vow of a
1 BhS, 7, 1, 263.

Page #448

423
Sec. V]
determined self-mortification by the last mortal emaceration to save the soul by scratching out the body).
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The offering of gifts by a householder to the Sramanas and Brahmanas was considered as a part of the vow of Sravaka-Dharma the merit of which led him towards the attainment of spiritual realization. Thus it is explained in the text that if a Śramanopasaka helps a Sramana or a Brahmana in the practice of his austerity, meditation and deep concentration of abstract thought (Samadhi) by offering gifts to him, he also attains that very state of Samadhi and finally he gives up food and drink, performs difficult act (of austerity), attains anivṛtti-karana (a spiritual process by which one attains a stage from which he never falls down) or experiences enlightenment or right attitude and later on attains liberation by putting an end to all miseries.1
the
It is further stated that a Sramano pasaka, offering presents to such a self-controlled Śramana or Brāhmaṇa with acceptable eatable food, drink and dainties completely dissociates his karma and his sinful act previously committed does not touch (i.e. affect) him, while by giving unacceptable food and drink, etc., to him he annihilates his karma (nirjara) much and the effect of his sinfnl deeds less. But as a result of his offering gift to a not-self-controlled and not-self-disciplined Sramana or a Brahmana, having unchecked and non-renounced sinful act with acceptable or unacceptable, eatable or uneatable food, etc., he binds sinful deed and not a little amount of dissociation of his karma takes place."
Aśrutvä-Kevali & Śrutvä-Kevali
The BhS throws a welcome light upon the attainment of Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma (religion explained by a Kevali) by some persons without listening to it from a Kevali and others (i.e. Asrutva Kevali), and by some having attended to it (i.e. ŚrutvāKevali) and also upon the attainment of right attitude of mind
1 BhS, 7, 1, 264.

2 Ib., 8, 6, 332.

Page #449

424
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII to truth (samyag-darśana), chastity (brahmacarya), self-control (samyama), stoppage of influx of karma (samvara) and five kinds of knowledge by some without listening to it and its causes, and by some, having attended to it, as also the non-attainment of it by some, even having listened to it, etc.
Thus it is explained that some person attains the religion, experiences pure enlightenment (bohi), undertakes the state of houselessness in pure chastity, controls his senses, stops the influx of karma and attains five kinds of knowledge (perceptual upto omniscience), without listening to the religion explained by a Kevali or a Kevali-Sravaka or a Kevali-Sravika or Kevali Upasaka or a Kevali-Upasikā or a Tadpaksika-Srāvaka (svayam-buddha) upto or a Tadpakṣika-Upāsika (svayam buddhikā), then he is an Airutva Kevali; while someone does not attain it nor experiences enlightenment, etc., upto the five kinds of knowledge without attending to the religion explained by a Kevali but attains the religion after hearing to it as explained by a Kevali, then he is a Śrutva Kevali. Because he, the partial annihilation and suppression (sayopasama) of whose Jhānāvaraniya (knowledge obscuring), Darsanavaraṇīya (intuitionobscuring), Caritrāvaraṇīya (conduct obscuring) and yatanavaraṇīya (exertion-obscuring), Adhyavasanavaraṇīya karmas (tenor of mind) upto those of five kinds of knowledge have not taken place (krtabhavati), does not attain the Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma, etc. But he, the partial annihilation of whose Jänāvaraṇīya karma, etc., have occurred, attains the same even without listening to it.1
From the same points of view it is explained that some person attains the Kevaliprajnapta-Dharma, Samyag-Darsana (right attitude), Brahmacarya (chastity), Samyama (self-control), etc., upto five kinds of knowledge by listening to religious teachings of a Kevali upto Tadpākṣika-Upāsikā; while someone does not attain them even by attending to the religion explained by a Kevali and others.
1 BhS, 9, 31, 366,

a

Page #450

Sec. VI
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
425
SIXTH SECTION
Ajīvika Sect.
Along with the Nirgranthas there existed heterodox sects in the society as depicted in the text such as, the Ājēvikas, Vainayikas, Vānaprasthas, Parivrājakas, Carakas, other Tirthikas, etc. Of all these sects the Ājivikas appear to be the most rival in their relation to the Nirgrantha order and their leader, Gośāla-Mańkhaliputra proclaims himself as Jina by challenging the spiritual leadership of Lord Mahāvīra.
The Bhs shows that they were originally associated with each other till they came to the parting of ways on the ground of doctrinal differences. Meaning of the name 'ājīviya': Skt. Ājīvika
The word 'Ājīviya' (Skt. Ājzvika) denotes one who follows special rules with regard to livelihood or live by profession (aživati), as it is derived from the term 'Ajiva (livelihood) of any class of people whether they are householders or religious mendicants,
Sri Abhayadeva Sūri? explains that those who live (ājivanti) by the practices of austerity and the worship of faculties as avivekilokatā (want of judgament as usual) are called Ajivikas and they were the disciples of Gośāla Maikhaliputra.
"Ajīvanti vā ye avivekilokato labdhipūjākhyātyādibhistapa
scaraņādibhiḥ te Ājīvikāḥ astitvenājīvikāḥ."
In the Buddhist texts there occurs the reference to Samyag-ājiva (right livelihood) as one of the eight paths (astāngikamārga) to be followed by the monks. It appears from these facts that the word 'Ājiviya signified a class of religious mendicants who originally lived by profession with regard to their livelihood. This view is supported by the significance of the word "Mankhatva', the profession of exhibiting
i Sanskrit : English Dictionary, Monier-Williams, p. 133; col. 1st ? Bhs (comm.), 1, 2, 25.
54

Page #451

426
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
pictures as used in the text in connection with the earning of livelihood of Mankha Mańkhali, and that of his son, Gośāla by this vocation of Mankhatva.
"Cittaphalagahatthagae
mankhattanenaṁ.
bhāvemāņe....... gāmāṇugāmaṁ... ...'1
Sri Abhayadeva Sūri explains that the word 'Mañkha' denotes a class of beggars (or mendicants) that tries to extract alms from the people by exhibiting pictures of malignant' deities (citraphala kavyagrakaro bhiksukaviśéşab), while Hemacandra in his commentary on the Abhidhāna Cintāmaṇ equates it with the word 'Magadha' (a bard). There is also reference to Mankhas in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana.'
The tradition of earning livelihood by displaying religious pictures is also recorded in the Harsacarita of Banabhaṭṭa. There it is stated that King Harsa, while entering his capital-city after returning from his hunting operation saw a Yamapaṭṭika (one who lives by Yamapaṭṭa, i.e. by displaying a piece of cloth on which Yama, the god of death with his attendants and punishments of hell are represented), surrounded by greatly excited and curious boys on the traffic road, relating with a shaft of an arrow the accout of the other world as depicted on a spread out cloth (or canvas) decorated with the painting of Yama seated on a terrible buffalo, which was fixed on a raised The king also listened to the verse sung by that very Yamapaṭṭika thus: "Thousands of mothers and fathers and hundreds of sons and wives passed away (i.e. dead) in ages, whose are they or whose are you.'
staff held in his left hand.
995
appāņaṁ
1 BhS, 15, 1, 540-41.
2 Ib. (comm), 15, 1, 540. Abhidhana-cintamani comm. to V 795, 1-365 (Böht Linck
& Rien edn).
4 Rajatarangini-viii. 969, 995, 3354. See also V. Anatagadadasão L. Barnett.
p. 2, 43 and Ardha-Magadhi
Dictionary.
5 Harśacarita, Ucchväsa 5, p. 153.

Page #452

Sec. VÍ] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 427
The same tradition of earning livelihood by exhibiting the patas (a piece of cloth) depicted with religious pictures and other incidents of social life, such as Yamapata, Gājārpaţa, etc., has continued up to the present day in Bengal and in other parts of India. Charpentier is of opinion on the evidence of a Sutra of Pānini that Mankhali was a mendicant, carrying a picture board having the painting of a representation of the god Śiva.?
It appears from all these facts that the Ājivika-Mańkbas did not like to become an economic burden on the society, but they earned their livelihood by means of this profession of exhibiting pictures.
Life of Gošāla Mankhaliputra
It is related in the 15th Sataku of the Bhs that one day some time Maókba Mankhalı', together with his pregnant wife, Bhadrā took shelter in the cowshed of a Brālmana named Gobahula at Saravana after their journey without obtain. ing any dwelling residence anywhere in that quarter of the town. It was here Bhadrā gave birth to a very tender and beautiful male child. The Mankhali couple christened their new-born son as Gośāla on the ground that he was born in the cowshed. Pāṇini also explains, "Gośāla as one born in a cowshed.”
In some respects this incident of the birth of Gośāla shows a happy coincidence with that of Jesus Christ who is also said to have been born in a cowshed, as it is recorded in Saint Luke's Gospel.
With the attainment of the stage of maturity and youth Gośāla himself made each painting and earned his livelihood by carrying on the profession of Mankhatva (exhibition of pictures) like his father, Mankha Mankhali.
I J. R. A. S., 1913, pp. 671-2. Vide 'History & Doctrine of
Ājīvikas', p. 36. ? BAS, 15, 1, 540. 3 Panini Sutra, IV, 3. 35. Vide 'India as known to Päņini', by
Dr. V. S. Agrawala, p. 383.

Page #453

428
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
The account of his birth as given in the BhS is supported by the evidence of the Sumangala-Vilasini1 which agrees with the former in stating that the name 'Gośāla' was attributed to him on the ground of his birth of a slave-girl in a cowshed.* It is recorded there that one day, while walking with an oil pot in his hand on a patch of muddy ground, he stumbled off and fell down, and thus broke it due to his carelessness despite his master's warning, "My dear man, take care lest you stumble, "T'ata-ma-khaliti." So fearing the chastisement from his angry master he ran up, but he was overtaken by his master who caught him by the edge of his garment. Letting his cloth go behind him, he fled away naked to a village the people of which offered him clothes out of kindness. But he refused to put them on, hoping to be honoured as a holy man or naked Arhat.
Thus he was known as Mankkhali the name derived from the last words 'Ma khali' used by his master to take care of the oil pot.
In the Grammar of Paninis there appears Maskarin as a Parivrājaka (Maskara-maskariņau veņu-parivrājakayoḥ) who has been identified with Maskarin Gośala on the following grounds as explained by Patanjali that "A Maskarin Parivrājaka is not so-called, because there is a Maskara (bamboo-staff) in his hand......Do not perform action, but seek peace as the highest end. This is their teaching, who are therefore called Maskarin (Mā kṛita karmāņi mā kṛita karmāņi, śāntirvaḥ śreyasityāhāto Maskarī parivrājakaḥ)."
The evidence of Panini as! supported by the Divyāvadāna where Gośāla Mańkhaliputra appears by the name of Maskari
1 Sumangalavilāsinī (Samaññaphala Sutta) - Buddhaghosa's comm, on the Dighanikaya, II, 3, pp. 143 ff.
2 Ib, II, 3, pp. 143 ff.
3
Panini, iv, 1, 154. Vide 'India as known (to Paṇini,' p. 381. 4 Patanjali Bhāṣya, III, 96.
5 Divyāvadāna-p. 143. See C. D. Chatterjee, 'A. Hist. charac
ter in the Reign of Asoka', Bhandarkar commemoration Vol. p. 331.

Page #454

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
429
Gośālaputra, i. e. he was a Maskari ascetic. The Äjivika leader is also connected with Manki of the Mahabharata on the ground of preaching the doctrine of peace (nirveda) and destiny, giving up the principle of Pauruşa (deed) Suddham hi daivamevedam hathe naivāsti pauruşam."
These facts clearly reveal that there existed a class of religious mendicants called Maskari-Parivrājakas, having the belief in the doctrine of Niyativāda (determinism) during the periods of Panini and of the Mahabharata respectively.
Meeting of Gošala with Lord Mahāvīra
The account of the first meeting of Gośāla Mankhaliputra with Lord Mahāvīra in a weaver's workshop at Nalanda and his association with the Master as an ascetic-disciple and dissociation from himn on account of the doctrinal difference arisen out of his reflection on the reanimation of a sesamum plant is discussed in the first section of the eighth chapter in details in connection with the topic 'The ascetic life of Lord Mahāvīra.'
Gosāla as religious teacher
Next, Gośāla Mankhaliputra, having attained the round of twenty-fourth year of his initiation (cauvvīsavāsapariyāe) appears as the teacher and leader of the Ajivika sect in the workshop of the potteress Hālāhalā in the city of Srāvastī. There he, being attended upon by the Ajīvika-Sangha passed time by practising austerity and by explaining and expounding the doctrine of six inviolable principles, viz. acquisition and nonacquisition, happiness and suffering, birth (or life) and death to his followers amongst whom there were the following Dikcaras, namely, Sana, Kalanda (Kanāda ?), Kaniyāra, Acchidda, Aggivesāyaṇa and Ajjuņa Gomāyuputta.'
1 Mahābhārata Sāntiparvan–Ch. 177, vv. 1-14.
Vide India as known to Pāņini' p.383. 2 Bhs, 15, 1, 539.

Page #455

430
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VII
The evidences of the BhS regarding the position of Geśāla Maňkhaliputra as the Ajivika leader are fully corroborated by those of the Uvasagadasão where he is depicted as a religious teacher, having a host of followers one of whom was Saddalaputta of Polasapura.
In the Pali texts Gośäla appears to be a great dangerous rival leader of Lord Buddha, and he is depicted in a blackest manner thus that "he was a stupid (moghapurisa), knew no other persons, born to the detriment, grief and disadvantage of so many people or to such disadvantage and sorrow of gods and men, Makkhali was like a fisherman casting his net at the mouth of a river for the destruction of many a fish."
The teachings of Gośala are criticized by the Blessed one in a very strong language thus that "Just as a hair-blanket (Kesakambala) is the worst of all fabrics in texture, appearance and utility, so of all unorthodox doctrines (samana-ppavalanaṁ) that of Makhali is the worst."
Last meeting of Gośala with Lord Mahavira at the Kosthaka Caitya in Śrāvasti and his spiritual due! with the Master"
The revelation of the birth-incident of Gośāla in a low family of Mankha Mańkhali and Bhadra and that of the account of his past life as made by Lord Mahāvīra in the assembly of his followers at the Kosthaka Caitya enraged the Ajivika leader very much. One day he threatened the Master with total destruction through his disciple Ananda who happened to pass by the neighbourhood of Halāhala's house on his begging tour by relating the story of the fate of the four merchants of Šrāvastz, if his teacher indulged in such acts of vilification and spoke anything against his person. As soon as Ananda was telling this matter to the other monks after his return and
1 Aiguttara Nikaya 1, p. 33 ; cf. ng. 1.
2 Anguttara Nikaya I p. 286, Vide, History & Doctrine of Ajivikas' by Dr. Basham, p. 54-55.
3 BhS, 15, 1, 547-53.

Page #456

Sec. Vil
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
431
report of this dreadful warning of Gośāla to Lord Mahāvīra, the Ajzvika leader, followed by his disciples appeared at the Kosthaka Caitya to challenge the veracity of the so-called statements of the Master with regard to his birth and life. Here a serious verbal duel took place between the two leaders reviling each other. Gośāla tried to prove thus by explaining and justifying the doctrine of re-animation (Parivrtya parihāra) that he was not that Gośālo Mańkbaliputra who was the latter's disciple. The Ajavilca leader related that he was born as a male child named Udāyin in the first birth. Having attained the power of intellect and intelligence by observing the vows of ubstinence and practising chastity, he abandoned the body of Udāyin of Kaundinya Gotra outside the city of Rajagrha and entered into that of Aineyaka and he experienced thus the first Purivrtya-parihāra for twenty-two years. Having given up the body of Ainey aka be entered into that of Mallarāina at the Candrāvaturana Caitya outside the city of Uddandapura and bore it for twenty-one years in the second parivștya-parihāra. In the tbird he entered into the body of Mandika by abandoning that of Mallarāma in the Anga-Mandira outside the city of Campā and bore it for twenty years. In the fourth he took birth into the body of Roha by giving up that of Mandika in the Kāmamahāvana Caitya outside Vāņārasi (Vāraṇasī) and carried it upto nineteen years. In the fifth he entered into the body of Bbāradväja by abandoning that of Roba in the Prāptakāla Caitya outside the city of Alabhikā and enjoyed it for eighteen years. In the sixth he took birth into the body of Arjuna Gautainiputra by giving up that of Bhāradvāja in the Kaundikāvana Caitya outside the city of Vaiśāli and bore it up to seventeen years. In the seventh and last Parivrtya-parihāra he entered into the body of Gośāla Mankhaliputra by giving up that of Arjuna just in the premises of the potteress Hālāhalā in Srāvasti, having learnt it firm, constant, durable and fit to bear enduring cold, heat, hunger and different kinds of natural troubles, such as, flies, mosquitos, etc., and endowed with the firmness of joints, and he bore this body at present,

Page #457

432
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
A critical study of the account of Parivrtya-parihāra undergone by the Ajivika leader in the form of his autobiography throws an important light on the history of Ajivikism that it began 133 years before him.'
Besides, it might imply, as in the Jatakas, that life is continued through the virtue of the former births. In this case of Parivṛtya-Parihara of Gośāla the principle of Buddhavada or Tirthankaravada is applied, for he proclaims himself as the twenty-fourth Tirthankara.
The tradition is recorded in the Jātakas that the Gautama Buddha, took many incarnations as bodhisattva, while the Jainas admit that the soul assumes numerous births for the well-being of this world before being born as Tirthankara. There were twenty-four such Tirthankaras amongst whom Lord Mahāvīra was the last.
Spiritual dual between Gośāla and Lord Mahavira
At the denial of discipleship of Lord Mahavira by Gośāla the Master rebuked him thus "You are not worthy of it, Gośāla and you are the self-same person, not anybody else." Then the Ajivika leader, inflamed with the fire of wrath cursed and reviled the Master again and again, "To-day you are no more. There is no happiness of yours from me, etc." Being unable to bear this insult hurled at their teacher, two disciples of Lord Mahāvīra named Sarvãnubhuti and Sunakṣatra got up and requested Gośāla in succession not to revile and curse the Master in such a manner and they repeated the same rebuke to him as made by their teacher. At this reproach the Ajivika leader, being very angry reduced Sarvanubhuti to a heap of ashes and burnt Sunakṣatra to death one by one by releasing his fiery energy on their bodies. Lord Mahavira again abused
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 550.

2 BhS, 15, 1, 552,

Page #458

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Gośāla by using the same censuring terms for his unworthy cruel acts of killing two Śramanas. At this rebuke the Ajivika leader released his fiery energy on the body of the Master to kill him. But it got warded off by the superior spiritual power of Lord Mahavira and entered into the body of that very Gośāla, burning and burning it gradually. Being possessed of his own fiery energy, the Ajzvika leader again cursed the Master thus: "You Ayuşman Kasyapa, being occupied by my fiery energy (and) having the attack of bilious fever will die as Chadmastha at the end of six months."1
At this curse Lord Mahavira fretorted to Gośāla thus: "Not certainly I, Gośāla,......shall die at the end of six months, I shall pass time as Jina for another sixteen years, you, just yourself Gośāla......will die as Chadmastha at the end of seven nights."
It is stated that some of the followers of Gośāla went over to the side of the Master at this moment, having left their leader, while the others remained with him. After this spiritual defeat the Ajivika leader left the Kosthaka Caitya without achieving his purpose, having cast a fiery glance at Lord Mahāvīra.
Last part of his Life
Then Gośāla passed time in the premises of Halahala by chewing raw-mango-fruit, drinking liquor, singing and dancing again and again and making overtures (anjalikarma) to the potteress & sprinkling his body with cold clay water of the potter's pot in a state of mental disequilibrium. In such a condition of his, one day he was approached by Ayampula, an Ajivikopāsaka who came to have the explanation of the shape of Hall (an insect) from his teacher. He, being ashamed to find the Ajivika leader in such a state was slowly returning to his house with a
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 553.
55
433

2 Ib, 15, 1, 553

Page #459

434
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII great disappointment, but approached his teacher again on the request of the Ajivika-Sthaviras to have the answer to his question about Halla. It is stated that on receipt of the signal from them in the meantime Gośāla left the raw-mango-fruit in a solitary place and then he gave an explanation of his chewing the raw mango to Ayampula thus that it was the rind of mango, but not the mango. Next, he described that Halla had the shape like that of Vamsimula (lower part of a flute) and addressed himself thus "O dispassionate sage, play the flute"-"Viņamvaehi re viraga." Being pleased and satisfied with this explanation to his question given by his teacher, Ayampula retired to his home after paying due respect to his preceptor.
Own
Having known and realized the approach of his death by intuition, Gośāla instructed his disciples, the AjivikaSthaviras on the performance of his funeral ceremony after his death thus: They were to cause him to bathe (i.e. his corpse) with fragrant water, to besmear his limbs with Gosirsa sandalpaste, to dress him (his dead body) with costly garments and ornaments and to take out a procession of his corpse in a palanquin carried by one hundred men by proclaiming him as the last of the twenty-four Tirthankaras."
It is stated that at the end of seven nights from the day of this incident Gośāla again summoned his followers and told them that he was not Jina, etc., but Lord Mahāvīra was Jina. And he expressed his repentence and sorrow for his misdeeds, such as, the killing of Sarvanubhuti and Sunakṣatra, the two disciples of Lord Mahāvīra by applying his fiery energy Then he (tejolesya) on them at the Kosthaka Caitya, etc. instructed them to perform his funeral ceremony with all sorts of dishonour, such as, by tying his left leg with a rope of bark, spitting thrice upon his mouth, dragging his dead body through
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 554.

2 Ib,

15, 1, 554.

Page #460

Sec. VIT
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
435
the city of Śrāvasti and declaring him Jinapralāpin (false Jina) and Sramanaghātaka (killer of Sramaņas), etc. Having said thus, he breathed his last with these words.
It is clear from a comparative study of all these evidences furnished by the Bhs, other Jaina texts and Buddhist works regarding the life of Gośāla Mankhaliputra that they were coloured with the sectarian bias borne against the Ājžvika sect led by him to a certain extent, though they differ in details. Certain facts emerge out of these evidences regarding the life of Gośāla that he was the greatest rival leader to Lord Mahāvira and Lord Buddha and he was an outstanding spiritual leader of the Äjivika sect, as it is admitted by the Master himself. Moreover, the study of the references to his practice of severe austerities on the Atāpanabhīmi during his stay in the premise of Hālāhalā, his fiery energy (tapateja) acquired by penance, his personality and the character of the potteress should not be taken to throw any shade of doubt upon his chaste life, though some Jain texts level the charge of unchastity against him and his followers.
It is an attempt made by the rival sects of the Ajēvikas who are motivated and guided by the sectarian bias to paint their leader and his doctrine in a blackest possible way, to establish their own religion in the society of those days. But this manner of their presentation of the life of Gośāla has placed him on the highest pedestal of glory along with the other leaders of thought of his period.
Predecessors of Gosāla Mankhaliputra
It has already been pointed out that the account of the cycle of births undergone by Gosāla shows the existence of the Ājivika sect 133 years before him. Moreover, his proclamation
1 BhS, 15, 1, 555. 1 Jaina Sutra, ii, vii, pt. 1 & Il in S.B.E. Vol. xxii & xxiji. & Ib, II, 270; II, 245.

Page #461

436 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA (Ch. VİL as the last Tirthankara in Avasarpiņā-kāla indicates that there were other predecessors of this great Ajīvika leader, though this statement seems to be an interpolation of the author of the Bhs. According to this canonical work Udāyan, Aiņeyaka, Mallarāma, Mandika, Roha, Bhāradvāja and Arjuna Gautamaputra appear to be his seven predecessors including Arjuna, as the list of these personalities shows that there was a line of ascetic teachers of the Ajāvika order, though the progressive diminution by one year of the period of each Parivritya parihāra raises a doubt about the artificiality of the plan inserted by some hand
The association of these ascetics with different Caityas outside various cities as the centres of their activities and the variance of the Gotra names, e. g. Kaunddikāyana Gotra of Udāyin and Gautana Gotra of Arjuna support the contention of the real existence of these teachers prior to the period of Gośāla. The evidence of the Bhs regarding the existence of line of the Ajivika teachers is also corroborated by the Buddhist work? where Gośāla appears as one of the six religious teachers of his age including himself, namely, Pūrāņa Kassapai, Ajitakesakam. bali, Pakudha Kaccāyana, SanjayaBelaţthiputta and Niggantha Nātaputta.
Besides, the occurence of the names of Nanda-vaccha and Kisa-samkicca along with that of Makkhali Gosāla in the Buddbist texts clearly reveals that they were the Ājivika leaders. Now there arises the question of priority in time of these three teachers. Dr. Hoernle is of opinion that Nanda and Kisa were probably the two contemporaries of Gosāla on the ground that “there were indeed other groups of ascetics of a similarly dubious character who also bore the name of Azīvika,
1 E.G. Jātaka, 1. 509; Digha, II, 150.
Sāmaññaphala Sutta of the Digha-Nikāya, 1, pp. 47ff.
Ville ‘History & Doctrine of Ajivikas' Dr. Basham, p. 11. ? Anguttara Niküya, III, p. 382 ; Majjhima Nikāya, 1,
p. 238, p. 524.

Page #462

Sec. VIT
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
437
but they lived apart under separate leaders, the names of two of whom Nanda-Vaccha and Kisa-saṁkicca are recorded in the Buddhist scriptures."1
While Dr. B. M. Barua? holds the view of Jacobio that Nanda-vaccha and Kisa-Samkicca were the predecessors of Gosāla Makkhali in succession, although the Bhs mentions Arjuna and Bhäradväja as his immediate predecessors,
It is clear from these facts that there was a line of Ājzvika teachers prior to Gośāla according to the tradition recorded in this canonical work.
Followers of Gosāla Mänkhaliputra
The text gives a list of the followers of Gośāla Mankhaliputra, namely six Dikcaras-Sāņa, Kalanda, Kaņņiyāra, Acchidda, Aggivesāyaṇa, Ajjuna Gomāyuputta, Hālāhalā, the Potteress of Srāvasti, Ayampula and Ajīvika ascetics.
Besides these, there were other twelve Ājīvikopāsakas, namely, Tāla, Tālapalamba, Uvviha, Samviha, Avaviha, Udaya, Nāmudaya, Namudaya, Anuvālaya, Samkhavālaya, Ayambula, and Kāyaraya who regarded their Arhunta (Gośāla) as God (Arihantadevatāyā).
Date of Gośāla
In connection with the chronology of Lord Mahāvīra in the second section of the eighth chapter it is discussed that the great demise of the Master took place sixteen years after the death of Gośāla. So according to the calculation made therein the date of the death of the Ajīvika leader may be assigned to a period about 500 B.C., and that of his birth approximately to the first quarter of the sixth century B.C. as he appears to be
1 E. R. E., 1, p. 265; refer also to Bhāratiyavidyā, II, p. 202,
Gopani. * J. D. L., II, p. 2. 3 Introduction to Jaina Sutra, II, S. B. E., xlv, p. xxxi. 4 Bhs, 8, 5, 330.

Page #463

438
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
a senior contemporary of Lord Mahāvīra as recorded in the BhS.1
A short history of the Ājīvika Sect
Besides the literary sources, the earliest archæological evidences of the existence of the Ajivikas are found in the Barbara Hill cave Inscriptions of king Aśoka and Nagarjunī Hill cave Inscriptions of Dasaratha.3
The
In the sixth Century A. D. they appear also in the two astrological works of Varāha-mihira, viz. Bṛhajjātaka and Layhujātaka" as one of the seven classes of ascetics, viz the Sakyas or Raktapatas (i.e. Buddhists), the Ajzvikas upto the Carakas. existence of the Ajivikas in the ninth century A. D. is borne out by the evidence of the great Jaina commentator Šilanka® (C. 876 A.D.), while they figure in the Abhidhāna Ratnamālā1 of Halayudha (950 A.D.) as Ajivas in the tenth century A.D. The Ajivikas existed also in the thirteenth century A. D. as it is revealed by the land-grant made by the Cola king, Rājārāja to the temple, together with 'tax on the Ajivikas' in 1238, 1239, 1243, 1259 A.Ds.
SEVENTH SECTION
Doctrine of Ajīvikism
The BhS reveals that the fundamental doctrine of Ajīvikism was parivarttavāda (the doctrine of reanimation) which propounds that all beings are born after death and foster. "Evam Khalu
1 Vide, Sec. 2, Chap. IX.
2 Nos. 38, 39 & 40 Barbara Hill cave Inscriptions, Indian Ant. XX, p. 168 ff.
3 Ib.
Brhajjataka-XXf, Varāhamihira.
4
5 Laghujataka, IX-12. Varāhamihira. Silanka,-See Sütrakṛtānga.
Abhidhana-Ratnamala II-189, 190 Halayudha. South Indian Inscriptions Nos. 88, 89, 92 & 108.

Page #464

Sec. VII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
439
savvajīvāvī pauṭṭaparihāraṁ pariharaṁti."1 There are six inviolable laws which govern the life of all beings, viz. Labha (gain), Alabha (loss), Sukha (happiness), Dukha (suffering), Jivita (birth or life) and Marana (death).
They are explained by Gośāla with a reference to the statement of Aṣṭangamahanimitta (the principle of eight great causes) embodied in the Purva (10th pūrva), viz. Divyam (heavenly), utpatum (portent), Antariksam (sky or atmosphere), Bhaumam (earthly), Angam (that relating to body), Svaram (sound), Laksanam (mark or sign) and Vyanjanam (manifestation).
A critical study of these eight great causes reveals that Ajīvikism was founded on science which propounded the theory of causation. This law of cause and effect pervades the whole Universe and governs all events of phenomenal and noumenal aspects of life and nature. For example, the science of Laksana and Vyanjana dealt with the distinguished marks of a great man as well as the way of testing and selecting the best type of men and women, horses, gems, jewels and the like. Music and dance formed the two märgas (paths) of Ajīvikism called Gitamarga and Nrtyamarga. Besides these principles, it is stated to be the explanation of the - Ajivika doctrine that all beings are uninterrupted enjoyers (akkhinapaḍibhoino savve sattä), SO they take food by killing, cutting, piercing, taking out the skin of beings and destroying other beings. According to the doctrine of parivarttavada anyone whoever attained or attains or will attain emancipation will have to enter into eighty-four lakhs Mahakalpas (period of time), seven celestial births, seven samjnigarbhas (womb of human embryo, i. e. sentient birth & seven parivṛtya-parihāras (or parivartta-parihara, i.e. entrance or birth of beings into seven other bodies). He attains enlightenment and liberation by anni
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 544. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 539.

2 Ib, 15, 1, 539. 5 Ib, 8, 5, 350.
3 Ib, (Comm.).

Page #465

440
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. VII
hilating gradually the divisions of five lakh sixty thousand six hundred and three karmas and thus he puts an end to all miseries by making (causing) complete extinction of all rebirths.
The study of all these data of the doctrine of Ājīvikism reveals that this system of thought was based on the eight principles of causation. Biology in the widest sense, containing the elements of Botany and Zoology, Cosmology, Anatomy, Physiology and Embryology, Physics and Chemistry, etc., with in its sphere.
The reference to the Gitamārga and Nityamārga, the two paths, suggests that music and dance were the two ways for creating devotion in the hearts of the devotees of the Ājivika sect.
The doctrine of Parivarttavāda (re-animation) contains the seed of Niyativāda determinism), which is the motive factor of the Universe and the absolute agent of all phenomenal and noumenal changes. The principles of Niyativāda as advocated by Gośāla Mankhaliputra are clearly embodied in the Uvāsagadasão which explains thus : "There is no such thing as exertion or labour or power or energy or human strength,' all things are unalterably fixed."'1
A more clear conception of this doctrine of determinism is found in the Buddhist works, particularly in the Digha-Nikāya* where it is stated thus “There is no cause either proximate or remote for depravity of beings; they become depraved without reason or cause. “N'atthi hetu...... n'atthi paccayo sattāņam samkilesāya."
It is further explained “There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the purity of beings; they become pure without reason or cause. Nothing depends either on one's own effort or on the efforts of others......everything that lives is destitute of force, power or energy. These varying conditions at any time
1 Uvāsagadasão, 7, 199, p. 132. Dr. Hoernle. · Digha-Nikāya-1. p. 53 Dialogue-71.

Page #466

Sec.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
441
are due to fate......that men experience base or pain." Likewise the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil karma was without cause or basis "Ahetu-apaccayo sattā visujhanti". I
It is further recorded that the forceful, the courageous like the weakling, the idler and the coward were all completely destined to the one, i. e. Niyati. "N'atthi purisakāre, n'atthi balam ....Sabbe sattā avasā...... niyati sangati-bhāva-pariņatā.”
Eterminism of the Ājīvika system of thought did not exclude the idea of karma completely from its doctrine, as it is evidenced by the fact of its belief in the transmigration of soul and its final liberation as a result of annihilation of all Karmas. Moreover, the relation of cause and effect has not categorically been precluded from its doctrine as it appears that the individual conduct of a being may affect his future state of life in numerous possible ways of karma in the worldly stage of truth, though ultimately his life is regulated and guided by the Niyati, the absolute destiny. Because it is already pointed out that 500,000 Karmas, 60,000, 600 and 3 parts of karmas must be destroyed by one before the attainment of final liberation."
This evidence regarding the number of Karmas as mentioned here is also supported by that of the Pali texts which have divided Karma into five hundred five, three and one and one-half a Karma'. Buddhaghoșainterprets the figure 'five hundred by the explanation "a useless heresay (Takkamallakena niratthakam ditthim dipeti); the five as actions according to five senses or appendages to the five hundred (ādisu pi es' eva nayo, keci pan-āhu pañca kammān' iti pañca-indriyavāsena bhanati) and the three as the act, speech and thought, the one as either act or word, the half as thought'."
1 Ib., : BhS, 15, 1, 550. 3 Pāli texts--See below. 4 Sumangala Vilāsini I, pp. 461-49, Buddhaghosa's commen
tary to Digha-Nikāya. (The interpretation of the addhakamma is supported by a statement in the commentary to the Abhidhāna-Kosa).
56

Page #467

442
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII Dr. Basham suggests that the figures 60,000 and 600 as recorded in the BIS may be the total numbers of 'yoni pamukkha' of the Pāli texts and Karmansa or part of larma may correspond to the act, speech and thought of Buddhaghoșa. Thus three parts of karma (tinni kammān?) of this cannonical work may be identical with the addha-kamna of the Sāmaffiaphala Sutta.?
Conception of Soul
The conception of soul is intimately related to the doctrine of Karma and transmigration of being from one life to another and its final liberation. The study of the references to the many rebirths of an individual in different forms and bodies by Gośāla and to the Karmas occurring in the Bhs clearly reveals that Ajīvikism believed in the existence of soul, though a clear conception of its nature, etc., is not found in this work.
The evidence of the idea of soul according to the doctrine of Ajīvikism as revealed in the text is well supported by the Buddhist works where it is stated that all the six mendicant leaders alike taught in opposition to Lord Buddha that the conscious soul continues to exist after death. They had difference of views in regard to the exact mode of its existence; Gośāla is said to have expounded that it is endowed with form (rūpī), while Lord Mahāvīra explained that it was formless (arūpī).
"Rūpī attā hoti arogo param maraṇā saññi (Dīgh. N. 1.
p. 31)."
Conception of Immeasurable length of time involved in the process of transmigration of Soul
The BHS throws some light upon the measurement of time according to the doctrine of Ajīvikism by giving an account of immeasurable length of it, involved in the process of trans
1 History & Doctrine of Ajivikas-Dr. Basham p. 242. * Majjhima Nikāya-IV.398 (explained in Dīgha-N, 1. p. 303 ;
Di. 44-45).

Page #468

Sec. VII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
443
migration of soul as discussed below. As the Gangās is five hundred yojanas in length, half a yojana in breadth and five hundred dhanūsa in depth (yojana =41 miles, 1 dhanūşā=6 feet), so by this unit of measurement of space of the Gangās, seven Gangās make one great Gangās (Mahāgangā), seven Mahāgangā:= one Sādīņa-Gangā, seven Sādina-Gangā:=one Mrtyu Gangā, seven Mityu Gangūs = one Lohitā Gangā, seven Lohitā-Gangās = one Avanti Gangā and seven Avanti Gangā:=one Pāramāva(n)tī Ganga: thus there become 117,649 Gangās in all with the first and last Gangās.1
There are stated to be two kinds of particles (grains) of sand in these Gangās, viz. sūkşmavondikalevara (having the fine form of body), and vādaravondikalevara (endowed with gross form of body). The first one is sthāpya (thāppa-not explained. If in every hundred years each one gross particle of sand gets diminished, the time by which the store of the seven Gaugās becomes empty of gross particles of sand would be one Saras (a period of time). By this unit of Sara one Mahākalpa is formed of 300,000 of such Saras and eighty-four Mahākalpas make one Mahāmānasa."
This definition of Mahakal pa (the period of transmigration) is supported by the evidences of the Sumangalavilāsini,s where it is stated that the Mahākal pa is the time required to empty a great lake seven times larger than one Sara (i.e. equal to 7 Saras) by removing water by the measure of one drop in every hundred years.
The BhS and the Sumangalavilāsinī agree on this point that time is measured by introducing a Sara in both the cases, but they differ on this that Mahākalpa of the former is formed of 300,000 Saras in place of seven Suras of the latter.
1 It is not clear from the study of the comm, what is meant by
the number of these Gangās except the one river-Gangäs, ? Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 3 Sumangaluvilāsini 1, p. 164 (Buddha gosa's Commentary).

Page #469

444
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
Besides this system of Mahakal pas of Ajivikism as revealed in this canonical work, it also contains the theory of cosmic progress and decay of time (i.e. measurement of time upto Sagaropama) similar to that of the Nirgrantha religion, for Gośāla proclaims himself as the twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the Avasarpini age (or aeon of decline).1
Sannigabbha (Saṁjñīgarbha = Sentient birth)
It has already been pointed out that soul transmigrates through eighty-four Mahakalpas, seven celestial births, seven heavenly bhavanas (samyuthas), seven sentient or human births (sannigabbhas) and seven reanimations till the attainment of its final emancipation.
Thus it is explained that soul (or being), giving up the body is born from infinite samyuthas (devabhava) as god in the upper Manasasamyutha (devabhava) where it passes time by enjoying the celestial enjoyments. After the decay of the span of its life and duration it is born from there in the first human womb as five-sensed human being; from there immediately after its death it is born as god in the Manasa-Samyutha (devabhava), having Manasa-Sara-pramāṇa-āyuṣ (span of life having the period of Manasa-Sara) from that celestial world again it is born as human being in the second Samjnigarbha; from that state of existence after its death, it is born in the lower Samyutha (devabhava), having Manasa-pramāṇa-äyus. Then falling from that celestial state of existence it it born in the third Samjni-garbha as human being, from there after death it is born in the highest Samyutha (devabhava) having Manuṣottarasara-pramāṇa-length of life; having fallen from that celestial state of existence it is reborn in the fourth Samjnigarbha as human being; from there immediately after death it is born in the middle Samyutha (devabhava), having Manusottura-Sara-pramana-length of life; having fallen from that divine state of existence it is reborn in the fifth Samjnigarbha as human being; from that state of existence it is reborn in the lower Manusottara Samyutha, there
1 BhS, 15, 1, 554.

Page #470

445
Sec. VII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
having enjoyed the divine enjoyment, it is reborn from that celestial state in the sixth Samjnigarbha as human being; from this state of existence it is born as god in the Kalpa called Brahmaloka, having the length of life of ten-Sagaropamas, having fallen from there it is reborn as human being in the seventh Samjnigarbha; after full course of pregnancy of nine months seven and a half nights and days it is born as a boy. In this process of Samjnigarbha fourteen births are involved. Gośāla is said to have entered into these seven Samjnigarbhas and seven parivrtya-pariharas (re-animations) as already mentioned in connection with the account of his life.
Conception of Liberation
According to the doctrine of Ajivikism as revealed in the Bhs there is no short cut for a being to attain the final liberation without undergoing the process of so many births and rebirths till its Karmas get annihilated.
This conception of liberation in Ajivikism as embodied in the Bhs is also found in the Buddhist works where it is explained that there is no short-cut door to bliss without transmigration. Thus it is explained "Bijaka, wait on Destiny, whether (a man has) joy or sorrow, it is obtained through Destiny. All beings are purified through transmigration, (so) do not be eager for that which is to come."
"N' atthi daram sugatiya Niyatim kańkha Bijaka; Sukham va yadi va dukkham Niyatiya kira labbhati; Samsarasuddhi sabbesaṁ mā turittho anagate."
Eight Finalities2
It is recorded in the BhS that Gośāla propounded the doctrine of eight lasts, viz. the last drink, the last song, the last dance, the last solicitation (or salutation), the last great tornado,
1 Jataka, V1, p. 229, Cf. Ime satta. Samsara Suddhikā;
Jātaka, V, p. 228.
2 Bhs, 15, 1, 554.

Page #471

446
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. Vit
the last sprinkling (secanaka) elephant, the last Mahāśilākantaka Sangrāma and the last Tīrthanlara (i. e. Gaśāla himself) in the Avasar pini kāla. In addition to these the Ajīvika leader preached the doctrine of four potables (drinks) and four Impotables (condrinks) (cattāri pāņagāiṁ and cattāri apāņagāim). They are as follows :
Four Drinks—(1) Goputthae (Goprotha=cow's urine), (2) Hatthamaddiyae (hastamarditaka = water soiled by hand), (3) Atavatattae (āta patapta=drink heated by the sunshine) and (4) Silāva. bbhatthae (Silāprabhrasta=water dripped from a rock). Four non-drinks
(1) Thālapānaya (sthālapānaka = water kept in wares like earthen jars etc., these cold and wet earthen pots are touched by hands, the water kept there-in is not drunk). (2) Tayāpānaya (Tvak.pānaka - juice squeezed out of unripe mango by putting it into the mouth, or out of the edible fruit of jujubee or young shoots of darbha grass, since its juice is not drunk), (3) Simbalipānaya (Simbalipānaka = water or juice chewed from the raw pulses under teeth, such as Kalāya, Munga, etc.) and (4) Suddhapāņaya (Suddhapānaka= the touch of limbs of dying monk by Pūrņıbhadra and Maņibhadra with their cold and wet hands).
It is explained that if the dying monk on the last night of his full six months' penance, experiences (or submits to) the touch of the cold and wet hands of these two gods on his limbs, he binds Karma which turns into deadly poison, if he does not pay attention to it, fire gets generated in his body and it gets consumed by this fire, and he attains perfection and puts an end to all miseries.
Initiation
The Bhs throws some light upon the initiation of the Ājivika monk by refering to the process of initiation, the observance of chastity, study and acquired knowledge of Gośāla in one of his former births as described by himself.8
1 Digha-Nikāya (Sumangalavilā sini 162, translated in Uvā.
sagadasão, appendix II, p. 21. • Anguttara Nikāya, IV. 3 BhS, 15, 1, 550.

Page #472

Sec. VIIT
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
447
Austerity
As regards the Ājivika austerity the text gives some ideas about it by describing the practice of severe penance of Gośāla, raising his hands high in the sunshine, giving up six con. secutive meals, living on a handful of lump of kulmāsa (benn or rice gruel) and one sip of water in the initial stage of his asceticism. Thus he attained the faculty of condensed sufficient fiery energy at the end of six months. He is also found to have performed the acts of austerities and meditation on the Ātāpanabhūmi during his stay in the premises of his female disciple, Hālāhalā, the potteress in the city of Šrāvastī."
The evidences of the practice of austerities and meditation as revealed in the Bhs are also fully corroborated by other Jainas and Buddhist works and other works in details.
Thus the Sthānānga Sūtra presents an account of their severe penances by describing the four kinds of their austerities, viz, uggatava, ghoratava (ghorata pa), rasa-nijjuhanatā (absention from liquids-rasa .ghrtādi) and jihvendriya pratisamlinatā (indiffe. rence to pleasures of sense of taste).
The account of the practice of severe austerities by Bodhisattva born as an Ājivilea, in the peaceful atmosphere of a denseforest tlirows light upon the nature of asceticism and meditation of this sect. According to the Tamila Civañāna-cittiyāra the Ājivika doctrine ordains self-torturing asceticism to all souls as the road to spiritual liberation.
The evidences of the Tittira Jātaka suggest the practice of secret magical rites of a repulsive tantric type which is also implied by the last behaviour of Gośāla.
| BhS, 15, 1, 545 : Ib, 15, 1, 530; 546 3 Sthānānga Sutra, IV. 309 ; Aupapātika Sūtra. 4 Lomahaisa Jataka, 1. p. 390, Jāt. 1. p. 493. Also see
Nigamttha Jātaka; Tittira Jataka-III pp. 541-2. 5 Civañāna Cittiyāra ; ed. Mudāliyar-p. 235. v. 1.; Sugiura :
"Hindu-Logic as prescribed in China and Japan-p. 16, quoting Hyaku-ron soi 22. Dr. Hoernle identifies the Alibekas with the Digambara Jaivas E.R.E. 1. p-269. 6 BhS, 15, 1, 553,

Page #473

448
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VII
Customs
It is recorded in the BNS that the Ājāvika layman observed the principles of non-violence as approved by the Nirgrantha religion. They regarded their leader Gośāla as god and attended upon their parents and they were non-eaters (or takers) of five kinds of fruits, viz. udunbara (udumbara fruit), vata (banian fruit), vora (jujube), satara (afijīra) fruit, pilankhu (a kind of fruit) and renouncer of onion, garlic and bulbous roots. They passed their time by the occupations without castrating domestic cattle (cows), branding them and perforating their noses with the thought free from the act of killing moving beings.
Difference between Ajīvikism and Sramaņa-Nirgrantha Dharma
The fundamental difference between Ajīvikisin and Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma as recorded in the BhS lies in the doctrine of reanimation as propounded by Gośāla in opposition to the established theory of Lord Mahāvīra on the birth and rebirth of beings.
Besides, there were other religious disputes between the Ajīvika Sramañopāsakas and the Niryranthu Sramaño pasakas over the observance of Sâmāyika-vrata and other vows. For example, it is stated that a N. Sramaạopāsaka observing Silavrata, Guņavrata, Viramanavrata, Pratyālchyānavrata and Paușadhavrata becomes free froin the thought of attachment to the worldly objects, wife and wealth as a result of his performance of these vows.
The N. Sramaņapāsakas practise the following vows, viz. renunciation of three kinds of acts of killing (to kill, to cause to kill and to approve to kill), that of telling lie ; that of sexual union, and that of possession together with their divisions and pratikramana (self-analysis), retrace from the past acts, confession and repentance), stoppage of the present act and renouncement of the future act by mental, vocal and bodily activities.' But the Ajrviku-Sramanopāsakas do not observe them.
i Bhs, 8, 5, 329.
? 16, 8, 5, 328-29.

Page #474

Sec. VIII]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
449
These statements appear to be self-contradictory and suffer from the sectarian bias, for it has already been pointed out that the twelve Ajivika laymen observed the principle of non-violence preached by Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma by worshipping their Arhat as god, attending upon their parents, renouncing five kinds of fruits and vegetables containing germs of life and carrying on occupation without castrating domestic cattle (cows) perforating their noses, etc., with the thought free from the act of killing mobile beings,
These facts clearly show that the Ajavika doctrine of reani mation or Niyativada, determinism in another form, the denial of Lord Mahavira's discipleship by Gośāla and the laxity of morals1 are the real causes of difference betwen Ajīvikism and Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma. But one should be cautious to draw a conclusion from the statements which suffer from the sectarian bias, for the BhS and other Jaina texts and Buddhist works have revealed that Ajivikism was based on the solid ground of the eight principles of causation.
EIGHTH SECTION
Other Schools and Sects
Besides the Ajivikas, there existed other schools of thought and heterodox sects in the society as depicted in the BhS, such as, four heretical schools of Kriyāvādins, Akriyāvādins, Ajñānavādins & Vinayavadins,' the Parivrājakas, the Vanaprasthas, the Carakas, other Tirthikas, the followers of Lord Parsvanatha's order, those of Jamālī, etc.
Kriyāvādins
According to the doctrine of Kriyavada soul exists, acts and is affected by acts. The Kriyavadins may be identified
1 Vide, Sutrakṛtānga, J. S. II-267, for fourrestrictions. Bhs, 30, 1, 824.
57

Page #475

450
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
with the followers of the Nyāya and Vaiseșika systems along with the Sramaņa Nirgranthas, for they admit the existence of soul and its action,
Akriyāvādins
They deny the existence of soul and its action as an agent and they may correspond to the Buddhists who believed in the doctrine of Ksanikavāda (momentariness). Aj änavādins
They do not admit the importance of knowledge for attaining spiritual liberation, because many contradictory theories assert themselves in the system of knowledge to establish their views on the attainment of salvation.
Vinayavādins
The Vinayavādins observed the principle of reverence for all beings as the highest virtue to attain spiritual realization and perfection. The Sūtra-Kytānga' treats of these four schools and their systems of thought in details and mentions 180 schools of the Kriyāvādins, 84 schools of the Akriyāvādins, 67 of the Ajñānavādins, and 32 groups of the Vinayavādins. The text throws a welcome light upon the system of thought and practice of religion of the Vinayavādins by presenting two cases of the two Vinayavādins, namely, Tāmali of Tāmralipti and Pūraņa of Bebhela Sannivesa.
Initiation
It is stated that Tāmalî got initiated by Prānāmā pravrajya (pāņāmāpavvajjā= dikšā) with the permission of his friends, kinsmen, own people, brother-in-law, attendants and his first born son.
On the day of conclusion of his fast he begged alms of pure rice from the high, low and middle class families of the city of
1 Sutra-Kritānga, 1. 12 ; 1. 12. p. 208 ; 1. 12. p. 223 a ; 11. 240 ;
Sú-Ti 1. 12. p. 208 a. See-12-5. 8; Anu. Su. 20 (Viruddhas); Sū. Tika-1. 12 p. 209-1. 12. 2; Sú. Ți. 1, 12, p. 209; Şü. Te. 1. 12. p. 209 a.

Page #476

Sec. VIII) STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
451 Tāmralipti and took that food after washing it with water twenty.one times. It is called "Prāņāmā-Pravrajyā', because he, being initiated, saluted any one high or low, whomever and wherever he saw, whether he perceived (the image of) Indra, or Skanda, or Rudra, or Siva, or Vaiśramaņa (Kuvera), or Aryā (Pārvati), or Kotta kiriyā (Candikā), or a king, or a merchant, or a crow, or a dog, or a pāna (Candāla), or an honourable person.'
Tāmali, having realized his shattered physical condition as a result of his practice of austerity left this worldly life by observing the pādapopagamana samlekhanā tapa' like Skandaka,
Pūraņa of Bebhela Sannivega', the other Vinayavādin got initiated by Dānāmā Pravrajyā to monkhood. According to this system he divided his alms into four parts—the first portion of which was given to the travellers, the second to the crows and dogs, the third to the fish and tortoise and the remaining part was kept for his use. For this reason it is called Dānāmā Pravrajaya. Pūraņa also left the mundane world by observing the austerity of Samlekhanā like Tamali.
The evidences of the existence of the Vinayavādins are also found in other Jaina texts."
Parivrājakas
The Parivrājakas were the wandering teachers who moved in a group with the object of mutual discussion on ethical and philosophical subjects of studies. They also resided sometimes in monasteries (matha) which were out of bounds for women according to the rule of their monastic order. It is stated in the BhS that Skandaka a Parivrājaka was profoundly learned in the hidden knowledge of the four Vedas–Rig., Yaju., sama., Atharvan, Itihāsa, Purāņa, Nighantu, Sasthitantra (Kāpilašāstra), Sankhyāna (Mathematics), Siksa (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (Grammar), Chanda (Metre), Nirukta (Exegesis),
i Bhs, 3, 1. 134.
Ib, 3, 1, 135.
16, 3, 2. 144. See Ovõiya Suya, 38, p. 169; Nāya Ti. 15- p. 194-a. 6 Bh8, 2, 1, 90. 11, 12, 436; 14, 8, 529-30.

Page #477

452
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII Jyotiņāmayana (Astronomy and Astrology), Naya (Logic) and Philosophy of the Brāhmanas and Parivrājakas.'
The monks of this sect used the following articles in their ascetic life, viz. Tridaņda (three staves) Kundikā (Kamandalu
water-pot) Kafcuika (Rudrāksamālā-rosary), Karoţikā (earthen vessel), Bhróikā (a grass seat), Kesyrikā (sweeping duster), Sadnālaka (teapoy), Ankusa (axe or hook), Pavitraka (ring), Gantrikā (a rosary) Kalācikā (fore-arm-ornament), Chatra (umbrella), Upānaha (shoes), Pādukā, (wooden sandals), Dhātu. raktavastra (red-coloured garment)!*
Practice of Asceticism
Poggala (Pudgala), another Parivrājakas is said to have practised the unbroken act of Şastha-Şastha-tapa (austerity), residing at a near distance of the Sarkhavana Caitya in the city of Alabhikā, while the third Parivrājaka, Ammada“ by name lived with a retinue of his seven hundred followers in the city of Kampilyapura by peforming acts of penance. A detailed treatment of the account of the monastic life of Ammada and his disciples is found in the Aupapātika Sūtra.".
Thus it is stated there that this Parivrājaka leader practised austerity by observing sastha-sastha fast, raising his arms high in the sunshine to absorb it. He did not take food prepared, or brought, or earmarked for him, or that kept for famine-striken people or rich men, nor did he take roots, bulbous fruits, seeds, and green vegetables. His followers begged alms from hundred houses (gharasac).
According to the evidence of the text, the Parivrājaka doctrine consisted of the following principles, viz. charity, (danadharma), purity (saucadharma), and bath at holy places (tirthabhiseka). It was their faith and practice to purify the impure body by using mud on it and then washing it with water and to take bath at the holy places with the hope and belief of
12 BhS, 2, 1, 90. 3 16, 11, 12, 436. * Aupapātika, Sütra, p. 27-8 80. 59 f.
16, 14, 8, 529-30. . Bhs, 14, 8, 530.

Page #478

Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTŘÅ 453 attaining heaven. "Tanuam udaeņa ya mațțiãe pakkhāliyam sui bhavati."
They observed the rules of not using any kind of conveyances in travelling, such as, cart or a litter, etc., nonentering a lake or a river for bathing, nor riding on a horse or an elephant, nor visiting (i.e. attending) the dancing performance or that of a bard, etc.
Vānaprastha Tāpasas (Forest recluses)
As already mentioned in the second section of the fourth chapter in connection with the topic 'third stage of life,' a large number of Vānaprastha-tā pasas (forest recluses) lived in the society of the Bhs by practising different kinds of austerities on the bank of the Ganges. They are as follows:
(1) Hottiyā (Agnihotrikas = offerers of fire-sacrifice), (2) Kottiyā (Bhūmiśāyikas = who slept on the ground), (3) Pottiya (Vastradhāriņaḥ=wearers of clothes), (4) Jannaî (Yajña-yajinaḥ= performers of sacrifice), (5) Saddhaž (Sraddhāka=Devotional class of ascetics), (6) Thalał (Grhitabhānda=carriers of all their belongings), (7) Humva-uțţia (Kundika-Śramaņādi = those who carried, a vessel with them), (8) Dantukkhaliyā(Phalabhojinaḥ= fruit eaters using teeth as mortar), (9) Ummajjakā (Unmajjakā= They bathed by only a dip into water), (10) Sammajjaka (They bathed without dipping into water), (11) Nimmajjakā (They remained in the water only for a short while), (12) Sar pakkhālā (They rubbed and cleansed their bodies with mud), (13) Dāhinakülaka (They dwelt only on the south bank of the Ganges), (14) Uttarakülakā (They dwelt only on the north bank of it), (15) Samkhadhamakā (They used to take their meals after blowing a conch-shell to keep the people away), (16) Küladhamaka (They blew a conch.shell on the river bank to keep the people away at the time of taking their meal), (17) Mrgalubdhakā (They killed
| Bhs, 11, 9, 417 ff. 2 The Rāmāyana also refers to the Dantilulhalim and Unmaj
jaka hermits III, 6.3 ; see also Digh. Com. Vol. 1- p. 270.

Page #479

454
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
animals), (18) Hastitāpasas (They killed an elephant with arrows and lived on its flesh for a long time. According to their faith they committed one sin only by killing an elephant in a year or so, their sinful deed was atoned by the effect of the merit acquired by them through the observance of non-violence to other beings during this period).' (19) Uddandagā (They always walked about with their staff raised high and they are also referred to in the Ācārānga Cūrnia along with Boạiya and Sasarakkha ascetics), 20) Jalābhiseka-kidhinagātrā (They did not take food by taking bath), (21) Ambuvāsinas (They lived in water), (22) Väyuvāsinas (They lived in or on air), (23) Jalavāsinas (They submerged themselves in water), (24) Celavāsinas or Velavāsinas (They lived on the sea-coast), (25) Ambubhaksinas (They lived by drinking water), (26) Vāya (or w)-bhaksiņas (They lived by inhaling air), (27) Saivālabhaksinas (They lived by eating moss)," (28) Mülāhārā (They lived on roots of trees), (29) Kandahārā (They lived on bulbous roots), (30) Patrāhārā (They lived on leaves), (31) Puspa. hārā (They lived on flowers), (32) Phalāhārā (Those who lived on fruits), (33) Bijāhārā (They lived on seeds), (34) Parisadiyakamilamülapāņờupatra puspaphalāhārā (They lived on rotten roots, bulbous roots, skin, leaves, flowers and fruits“), (35) Rukkhamūliyā (They lived under trees), (36) Vālavāsinas or Vilavāsinas (They lived in caves), (37) Vakkavāsinas (They put on bark-cloth), (38) Disāpokkhiyā (They sanctified all sides by sprinkling water and then collected flowers and fruits),
These Vānaprastha tāpasas passed time by making their souls burnt (i.e. purified) by the heat of five fires of austerity (pancaggitave him) like charcoal or cooked as charcoal, perched in a pan and burnt as fire-wood.
1 See Suyagadanga. II, 6 (comm.), they appear as Buddhists;
refer also to Lalitavistara-p. 248 for Tastivrata a scetics. 2 The Rāmāyana III. 2, 13. refers to Māņdakarņi, a hermit who
lived on air; also see Mahābhārata, 1. 96-42. 8 Cf. Lalitavistara--p. 248. 4 Cf. Digha-Nikaya-1. pp. 166 f.
6 Bhs, 11, 9, 417-18.

Page #480

Sec. VIII] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 455
These ascetics also find mention in other Jaina texts. A full account of the system of Vānaprastha asceticism, particularly that of the Diśāproksiņa forest recluse as practised by the royal sage Śiva, has already been given in the second section of the fourth chapter in connection with the third stage of life. Carakas
The Carakas of the Bhs also figure in the Anuyogadvāra Sütras and Brhadaranyaka Upanisad" as wandering monks. It is stated in the Anuyogadvāra Sūtra that these ascetics, while moving in group begged alms (Dhāțibāhakā) or moved on, while taking food (Dhātibhaiksopajivinastridandinas). They wore loin cloth (kacchafaka) and they are said to have been the sons of Kapila Muni (Kapilamunisūnavo). It is recorded in the Āvasyaka Tikā that they worshipped 'Skanda' and other dieties by burning incense in temples, after having risen early in the mor. ning and besmeared them. Other Tīrthikas
It appears from the Bhs that other Tirthikas (Anya-yüthikas) were one of the rival sects of the Nirgranthus, but many of them were converted by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramana Dharma and absorbed into his order. They cannot be identified with certainty. Among them the following appear in this canonical work, namely Kālodāyin, Selodāyin, Sevālodāyin, Udaya, Namudaya, * Selavālaya, Samkhavālaya and Suhatthi the house. holder."
The other Tarthikas held different thoughts and ideas on religious and philosophical problems contrary to those of Sramaņa Nirgrantha Dharma preached by Mahāvīra. For
1 Niraya-3. pp. 39 ff. (Somila); Āva. Cũ. p. 457 (king Prasanna
candra and his queen). ? Bhs, 1, 2, 25. Anuyogadvāra Sütra, 20 ; Nāyā-Tī, 15. 4 Vedic Index-1. p. 256. 5 Panna Ti.-II, 20 p. 405 ; of Ava-Cú. p. 265. 6 Ava T2--p. 87. Bhs, 7, 10, 305. *Namudaya seems to have been an Ājivikopāsaka, Editor.

Page #481

456 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA (Ch. VII example, they maintained that Jiva (soul) of the being (dehi) existing in the acts of killing, telling lie upto wrong attitude of mind (i. e, eighteen sinful acts) was other than the soul and Jivātmā was another, etc.
Followers of Lord Pārsvanātha's order
There existed a number of monks of Lord Pārsvanātha's order following Cāturyāma Dharma during the time of Lord Mahāvīra who absorbed them into his order by converting them to his doctrine of Paficamahāvratas (five great vows). Among them Kālāsavesiyaputta Gāngeya', Kāliyaputta, Mehila, Anandarakṣita, Kāsava, Keśīsvāmin' and others find mention as wandering teachers preaching the religion of Cāturyāma to the people. Dissension and First Schismi in the Nirgrantha Order led by Jamali
The Bhs throws an important light upon the first schism in the Nirgrantha order and the birth of Jamāli's sect out of his doctrinal difference with his Guru, Lord Mahāvīra in his life time. During his stay together with five hundred followers at the Kosthala Caitya in Srāvasti, Jamālī fell ill and asked for a bed from them. He thought that he could not yet use tbis bed which was being prepared, so was action, when it was being done, it was not done. But Lord Mahāvīra explained that all actions, as soon as they were begun, were as good as already done. This doubt led the prince-ascetic to entertain ideas different from that of the community and finally this doctrinal difference resulted in the first schism led by Jamāli" in the Nirgrantha order.
9 I6, 9, 32, 371.
i Bhs, 7, 2, 597. 4 16, 2, 5, 110.
· Ib, 1, 9, 75. 51b, 9, 33, 386-7.

Page #482

Sec. IX]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
457
NINTH SECTION
Deities
The Bhs provides a list of the Brähmanical deities worshipped by the people of its society who celebrated festivals in their honour, as already pointed out in connection with the topic Manners and Customs' in the eighth section of the fourth chapter on Social conditions'. They are as follows:
Indra, Skanda, Mukunda, Nāga, Yaksa, Bhūta, Rudra, Siva, Ajjā (Pārvati, the consort of Siva),' Kottakiriyā, Soma (the lord of the Eastern quarter), Yama (the lord of the Southern quarter) Varuna (the lord of the Western quarter), and Vaiára. mana (the lord of the Northern quarter), Vai avānara (the firegod)," Pūrnabhadra and Mūnibhadra, the two Ajīvika gods, the goddesses-Sri (the goddess of Luck), Hrî (the goddess of Modesty), Dhyti (the goddess of resolution or satisfaction), Kirti (the goddess of fame), Buddhi (the goddess of learning or intelligence) and Laksmi (the goddess of wealth).
There was the prevalence of image worship of gods and goddesses, as it is revealed by the fact of the salutation and worship to the images of Indra, Skanda, Rudra, Siva and Ajjā? (Āryā, Pārvatī or Candikā), Kostakiriyā (the Mahişāsuravadhikā), made by Tāmals of Tāmralipti, while practising the Prānāma austerity and that of the presentation of marriage gifts of the images of the female deities Sri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi and Laksmi,s to the eight wives of prince Mahābala by his father, king Bala of Hastināpura for the purpose of their worship.
It appears from the reference to these goddesses that the trend of the worship changed from the abstract conception of the five or six attributes or virtues to their personifications from the Vedic period up to that of the Bhs, as they are typically Vedic goddesses.
Bhs, 9, 33, 383; 3, 1, 134.
10, 3, 1, 134. s 1b, 11, 9, 417. Ib, 3. 1, 134 ; 11, 9, 417. • Ib, 15, 1, 550. 8 Ib, 11, 11, 430. 7 16, 3, 1, 134. 810, 11, 11, 430.
58

Page #483

458
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
In the Buddhist Jatakas1 there appear the four Indian graces, viz. Asa (hope), Saddha (faith), Siri (Luck) and Hri (Modesty) as the four daughters of Sakka (Sakra), the king of gods.
Vedic gods:
The Vedic gods, such as, Indra, Varuna, Agni (Vaiśvānara), etc., appear as the personalities and characters endowed with the element of mental conditions, joys, and sorrows, richness, power and prosperity like the human beings, having their original character as hypostatic powers of Nature. But they are depicted as impersonal in nature, for the powers of Nature, such as, the storm, the rain, the thunder, the fire, the water, etc., are still closely associated with them, as it is evidenced by the fact revealed in their characters, e. g. Indra is the possessor of the thunder bolt, Vaiśvānara is that of fire, Varuna is that of water, etc.
The evidences of the plurality of gods and goddesses, the worship of demons (Yaksa, Bhutas), trees, etc., show the faith of the people of its society in polytheism and many obscure cults of the primitive stage of belief which was the fountain-head of many cults emerged in course of the religious evolution in India.
TENTH SECTION.
Supernatural powers of the houseless Monks &
Supernatural Elements
Supernatural power of the houseless monks
The BhS gives some ideas about the supernatural powers of the houseless monks by introducing the miraculous things demonstrated by them. It is stated that some of the houseless monks, meditating on soul perceive the goddess and a vehicle,
2 Bhs, 3, 2, 145 (Vajjam).
1 Jataka, V. p. 393 f, 3.4 76, 11, 9, 417.

Page #484

459
Sec. X] Studies IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA some perceive the vehicle but not the god and goddess ; some perceive both and some do not perceive any of them at all by the process of Vaikriya-Samudghāta (Process of expansion of body and soul;.
It is further recorded that a houseless monk can fly into the sky by assuming the form of a man with a sword and a shield in hand, etc., but he did not assume nor does nor will do it. He can go many Yojanas by assuming many forms of a horse by his own strength, self-action and self-application. But he is not certainly the horse.
The text throws further light upon the supernatural powers of the monks by explaining Caranāt (a faculty of movement) possessed by them and classifying it into two kinds, viz., Vidyācāraņā and Janghācāraņā. The faculty of Vidyācaraṇā is born in a monk as a result of his practice of consecutive Şastha-tapa-karma with the attainment of Uttaragunalabdhi (faculty) and that of the learning of the Pūrvagata Sruta, i. e. the tenth Pūrva. By the acquired power of the faculty of Vidyācāraņā he may fly to different places and return to his original place within the twinkling of an eye. The faculty of Janghācāranā of a monk, meditating on the self is born in him as a result of his consecutive Astama-Astama-tapa-karma. By the power of this faculty of Janghācāraņā he may go to the horizontal and upward directions and return to his original place within an instant.
Supernatural Elements
In the Bhs the author has introduced some supernatural elements to teach the law of morality to the people in general for their proper guidance and conduct in following the path of religion and attaining spiritual realization by creating the fear of sin (pāpa), hells and the sufferings of infernal beings as the consequences of their former sinful acts and by holding before them a picture of heaven, an abode of enjoyment and happiness
| Bhs, 3, 4, 156. 3 Ib., 13, 9, 498.
2 Ib, 3, 5, 161. 4 Ib., 20,?,684-85.

Page #485

460
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VII
of gods and goddesses as the results of their meritorious acts in the previous births.
It is explained that the bondage of Ayuskarma (age-determining karma) of infernal beings caused by the result of a great amount of act of killing and possession, meat-eating, act of killing five-sensed beings and the rise of infernal ayuṣ-kārmaṇaśarīraprayoga-namakarma (the karmabandha caused by the action of the infernal kārmaṇaśarīra). While that of celestial ayuṣ-kārmaṇasarira-prayoga is effected by the act of self-control with attachment, i.e. self-control-cum-not-self-control, the unsaintly austerity (bala-tapakarma), the dissociation of karma with akāma (without internal self exertion) and the act of bearing the suffering or enduring from the unfulfilled desire, troubles like hunger, etc., and the rise of the celestial ayuṣkārmaṇa-śarīra-prayoga-nāmakarma.' Infernal beings'
The infernal beings are deformed evil beings of the third sex, having a fine transformation body. They suffer from various kinds of physical pains, such as, cold, hunger, thirst, etc., in hells, They who are consumed by passions and hatred, torment one another with hellish thought, feeling and action. They enter into this infernal state of existence through upapāta (manifestation) as a result of their karmas and this state comes to an end with the decay of their span of life.
The infernal beings are endowed with cognition-mati,śruta-avadhi-jñāna or ajñāna (as the case may be); intuitioncaksu-acaksudarsana; activities-4 mental, 4 vocal and vaikriya, vaikriya-miśra and kārmaṇa-kāya (physical) activities; conditions of soul-black, dark, blue and grey (lesyas), attitudes of mindperverted (mithyatva), mixed (mithyatva-samyaktva), right (samyaktva) attitude; and conduct (caritra) not self-discipline. They dwell in the numerous hells of the seven successive descending lower regions of the Universe, viz. Ratnaprabha upto Tamas-tamaḥ-prabhā.
1 BhS., 8, 9, 351.
Ib., 1, 5, 45; 5, 6, 209.
5.7 Ib, 1, 5, 46.

2 Ib., 15, 1, 470-71. 4 Ib, 1, 2, 21; 5, 9, 224. 8 Ib, 1, 5, 43.

Page #486

461
Sec. X]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The infernal state of existence has been dealt with in the Bhs from different aspects, such as, their birth' and death, etc.3
Celestial beings
The celestial beings are the gods and goddesses endowed with transformation bodies, a great longevity of life in comparison with that of the worldly beings, and great prosperity and power, splendour, enjoyment and happiness during their state of existence in heaven. With the exhaustion of Devayus (celestial span of life) they fall from the heaven and are reborn as human beings. Like the worldly human beings, there are stated to be developed and undeveloped gods (i. e. those whose sense-organs are fully developed and those whose sense-organs are not fully developed)."
They are possessed of cognitions-mati,-sruta,-avadhi-jñāna or ajñāna (as the case may be); intuitions-caksur-acaksur-avadhidarśana; activities-4 mental, and 4 vocal activities and vaikriya (transformation); vaikriya-miśra and kārmaṇakāyayoga; 6 lesyās (with some difference among different classes of gods); attitudes of mind-perverted (mithyātva), sāsādanā-samyaktva (mixed) and right attitude (samyaktva); and conduct-not-self-control (no-samyata).
They are reborn as human beings or as animals. They do not find celestial and infernal states of existence (gati), anupärvi, ayus, transformation-body and limbs, translocation-body and limbs, undeveloped, common body, two to four-sensed lower animal's ayus-karma, fine body.
Classification of Gods
Gods are classified into four species, viz. Bhavanavāsīs (or patis), Vanavyantaras, Jyotiskas and Vaimanikas." The Bhavanavāsīs who are the lowest of them are divided into ten classes, viz. Asurakumāra, Nāgakumāra, Vidyut-kumāra, Suparṇa-kumāra,
Ib, 20, 10, 687.
1 Bhs, 26, 8, 805 (birth); 20, 10, 685. 8.4 Ib, 1, 7, 57, 58, 59.
Ib, 2, 7, 115; 5, 9, 227; 13, 2, 473.

Page #487

462
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA h. Vit Agni-Kumāra Vāyu-kumāra, Stanita-kumāra, Udadhi-kumāra, Dvi pa-kumara and Dik-Kumāra.
The Asura-kumāra gods live in the upper part of Ratnaprabhā, while the other Bhavanavāsī gods dwell in the earth.? They are like princes in stature and appearance, power, prosperity and splendour and enjoyment & happiness.
It is stated that Camaru-Asurendra rules over 40 lakhs heavenly palaces, 64 thousand Sāmānika gods, 33 lakhs Trāyastrimsaka gods and 256,000 body guards. He is capable to assume various shapes with his divine power, such as, the figure of Asura. kumāra-gods, etc. Two Indras rule over each class of these Bhavanavās2-gods with their respective Lokapālas in the following order-Camara and Bali rule over the Asurakumāras ; Dharana and Bhūtānanda over the Naga-kumāras ; Venudeva and Venudāli over the Su parna-Kumāras; Harikānta and Harisaha over the VidyutKumāras ; Agni-Simha and Agnimānava over the Agnikumāras ; Pūraņa and Visistha over the Dvīpakumāras ; Jalakānta and Jala prabha over Udadhi-Kumāras ; Amitagati and Amitavāhana over the Dik-Kumāras ; Velarva and Prabhafijana over the Vāyu-Kumāras ; Ghosa and Mahāghosa over Stanita-Kumarās respectively.
Their sexual desire is satisfied by coition. They are endowed with black, dark, blue, grey and red conditions of soul.? Vyantaras
The Vyantara gods are divided into eight classes, viz. Kinnara, Kimpurusa, Mahoraga, Gandharva, Yaksa, Raksasa, Bhūta and Piśāca. They live in all the three worlds. Each of these classes has two overlords in the following order. Kāla and Mahākāla are two overlords of the Pisāca-Kumāras. Surūpa and Pratirūpa are those of the Bhūtas ; Púrnabhadra and Maạibhadra
i Bhs, 13, 2, 473. 8 16, 3, 6, 16+. *Ib, 3, 8, 169.
Ib, 16, (11-12), 590.
Ib, 2, 7, 115 ; 3, 2, 142. 4 Ib, 3, 1, 126. 6 10, 2, 10, 82 8 16, 2, 7, 115. 16, 3, 8, 169.

Page #488

Sec. X]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
463
are those of the Yaksas; Bhima and Mahābhima are those of Rākşasas ; Kinnara and Kimpuruşa are those of the Kinnaras ; Satpurusa and Mahāpurusa are those of Kimpurusas, Atikāya and Mahālāya are those of the Mahoragas ; and Gitarati and Gitayasa are those of the Gandhakāyas or (Gandharvas)? Pūrṇabhadra and Māņibhadra are also mentioned as the Ajēvika gods. Their sexual desire, conditions of soul and karman are like those of the Bhavanavāsi gods.
Jyotiskas
The Jyotiskas consist of five classes of gods, viz. suns, moons, planets, Naksatras and fixed stars. Two gods rule over them viz. the moon and the sun. They have been dealt with in the sixth chapter in connection with the topic Astronomy'.
Vaimānikas
There are stated to be two classes of the Vaimānikas, viz. Kal popapan nas (residents of kal pas) and Kalpātītas (abodeless). The first group lives in the twelve Kalpas, viz. Saudharma upto Acyutakalpa as mentioned in the second section of the ninth chapter. The duration of life power, enjoyment, happiness, splendour, purity of the leśyās, strength of the senses, the sphere of activity of the avadhi-jñāna of the resident gods of each Kalpa, is increasing in each case, but the circumference of sphere of their travelling, the size of body, the possession and pride are growing less. There are different grades of these gods. One Indra rules over each of the group of these gods, for instance, Sakra, rules over Saudharma-Kalpa and Tšānas over Aisanakalpa.
Kalpātīta
The Kalpātītas are the gradeless gods having auspicious leśyās but no carnal desire in the slightest degree. They are
i Bhs, 3, 8, 169. 8 16, 3, 8, 169; 17, 7, 473.
Ib, 3, 1, 131.
Ib, 15, 1, 554. 4 16, 2, 7, 115,

Page #489

464
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VII classified into two divisions, viz. Graiveyaka and Anuttara gods and sub-divided into different groups. The Graiveyakas are stated to be nine classes, viz. Sudarsana, Supratibandha, Manorama, Sarvabhadra, Suviśāla, Somanasa, Sumanlasa, Priyankara and Nandikara. The Anuttara gods are classified into five groups, viz. Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparājita and Sarvārthasiddha. They are endowed with Samyagdrști and affected by the fourth stage of spiritual development. The first four classes undergo two births at the utmost and the fifth is born once more, then they attain liberation,

Page #490

EIGHTH CHAPTER
History
FIRST SECTION
Life of Lord Mahāvīra as depicted in the BhS
The Bhs, throws a welcome light upon various aspects of the history of its period, particularly the development of men and the society as revealed in its scattered evidences.
The political and social, economic and educational, and religious aspects of it have already been dealt with in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh chapters respectively, while the evolution of philosophical thought will be discussed later on. Here an attempt will be made and devoted only to the study of the development of personalities like Lord Mahāvīra and others, and that of the historical bearings of kings, clans and tribes during that period.
Life of Mahāvīra as depicted in the BhS
In the Bhs Lord Mahāvīra appears as a great ascetic, a teacher, a philosopher. a religious reformer and the last of the twenty-four Tirthařkaras? wandering with the retinue of his monk-disciples from village to village, city to city throughout North India extending from Eastern Bihar upto the united kingdom of Sindhu-Sauvīra, and preaching religion to the people of all social grades belonging to heterogeneous faiths, expounding and interpreting, developing and systematizing the metaphysical aspects of the Nirgrantha religion by refuting the arguments of his own followers and those of the other sects, and of the people at large on the religious and abstruse philosophical doctrines through his holy teachings partly in the form of questions and
1 BhS, 20, 8, 677.
59

Page #491

466 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. VIII answers, partly in that of dialogues, legends, numerous parables. familiar similes, analogies and incidents of their daily lives.
Here he is found to have developed and systematized the fundamental principles of the doctrines of Jainism laid down by his predecessors on a firm ground by making some improvements on them, as their moral precepts demanded a deeper metaphysical foundation necessitated by the religious conditions of his time.
It is revealed in the question of Kebi put to Gautama Indrabhūti as recorded in the Jaina Sätras' that there were no fundamental differences between the Laws preached by Lord Pārsvanātha and Lord Mahāvira, because both of them pursued the same end. So the development of the metaphysical side of Nirgrantha religion was a historical necessity due to the existence of other strong oppositions of heterodox religious sects having different faiths, such as, Brāhmaṇism, Ajīvikism, those of the Carakas, Parivrājakas, Vānaprasthas, other Tirthikas, etc., and the followers of Lord Pārsvanātha, and the first schism led by Jamālī, his own disciple.
In such a condition of religious firmament Lord Mahavira reformed and consolidated the whole Nirgruntha Sangha on a solid ground of metaphysical principles by absorbing the followers of Lord Pārsvanātha and strengthened it by converting, initiating, and admitting those of the other sects and the common people to his order.
In this respect he only followed in the foot steps of Lord Pārsvanātha and erected a great edifice of Nirgrantha religion on the foundation laid by his great predecessor.
He persisted in carrying out his mission with best effort, attention and undaunted courage against a heavy opposition. He brought it to a successful conclusion, and passed away with glory, entrusting his work to be continued by his devoted followers to perfection.
IS. B. E. Vol. XIV. p. 122, Pt. II. Jacobi's Jaina Sūtras,

Page #492

467
Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
In the BhS there is presented such a vivid picture of his life and work, his association with his disciples, contemporaries, his miraculous powers and magnificent personality.
Parentage of Lord Mahāvīra
The text throws a unique light upon the parentage of Lord Mahāvīra as revealed in course of his sermons delivered at the Bahusalaka Caitya and Brahmanakundagrama in the assembly of Rṣabhadatta, his wife Devānandā, Gautama
Indrabhuti and others.
On the first sight of Devananda at the Master just after her arrival at this Caitya, together with her husband from their house, milk gushed forth from her breast and she stood gazing at him with unwinking eyes.
Having observed these striking physical and mental conditions of Devānanda, Gautama Indrabhuti, the first disciple of Lord Mahavira requested his Guru to explain the cause of the flow of milk from her breast.
In that great assembly of his followers the Master made the sensational revelation of the incident of his birth in the Brahmana family of Rṣabhadatta and Devānanda and told Gautama Indrabhuti and others thus, "surely Goyama, Devānandā is my mother, I am the son of Devananda, the Brahmani, then that Devananda......having the flow of milk from her breast and being overwhelmed with joy stands gazing at me due to the attachment for the former son."1
Now this incident of the flowing of milk from her breast on the sight of her former son reveals the natural human trait of a mother for her son and gives a new turn to his birth-story and parentage.
This fact leads one to think fresh and to examine the account of the transfer of his embryo from the womb of Devānanda to that of Trisala, the Ksatriyani and vice versa,
1 Bhs, 9, 33, 381.

Page #493

468 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. Vifi caused by the God, Indra through Harinegamesī, as it was not desirable that an Arhat or a Cakravarttin or a Baladeva or a Vasudeva or a Tirthankara should be born in a Brahmana family or a poor family."
The echoes of the same story of the transfer of the embryo as recorded in the Kalpa Sūtra' is also heard in the Bhs in connection with the holy teachings of the Master on the function of Harinegamesī.
In this connection it should be observed that Lord Mahāvīra is attributed with the epithets Kāsavā'' (Kāšyapa),
Samana' *Niganthanāta (or nāya) putta' (Sramaņa Nirgranthajñātrputra)" by which he was also known to the Buddhists of his time.
The epithet “Nāyaputta' denotes that he was the scion of the Nāya-Nāta or Jnātr clan of the Ksatriyas, just as Lord Buddha was known by the epithet Sākyaputra', for he was a son of the Sākya clan, while the attributive title .Kāsavā' signifies that he belonged to the Kāśyapagotra.
Thus one evidence of the Bhs reveals that Lord Mahāvīra was born in the Brāhmana family of Rşabhadatta of Brāhmanakundagrāma, while the other shows that he belonged to the Jaātr clan of the Ksatriyas' and the third one suggests the transfer of his embryo from the womb of Devānandā, to that of Trisalā, the wife of king Siddbārtha belonging to that clan, as it is recorded in the Kalpa Sútra.?
But the Digambara tradition does not believe in the story of the removal of his embryo by Harinegames and tells that he was born in the Jhātr Ksatriya family of king Siddhārtha.
1 Kalpa Sütrá 17. lb, 28. 8 Bhs, 5, 1, 187. 4 Ib, 15, 1, 540. 6 16., 15, 1, 547. 6 Dialogues of the Buddha S, B, E. II. p. 60, (Sāmaññaphala). 7 Kalpa-Sutra, 28. 8 Apabhrança Mahapurāna-Sandhi 95-102 (Life of Mahāvīra).

Page #494

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SUTRA
469
Lord Mahāvīra was also known to the Buddhist works as Nigantha Nātaputta? but they do not explain why he was attributed with the name Nātaputta'.
It is apparently clear from the study of these conflicting evidences of the BhS and the other sources that the Master belonged to the Jhātkra Ksatriya clan. But the solution of the problem of his parentage hinges upon the reconciliation of the evidences of his Brāhmaṇa and Ksatriya origins, as recorded in the BKS and the Kalpa Sūtra respectively.
So there are two traditions of his birth, running side by side in the Svetāmbara Canons. It may be an effort of some authors to reconcile these conflicting traditions by introducing the story of the transfer of the embryo and tracing the origin of Lord Mahāvīra to a Brāhmana family in later times when the social distinction and rigidity between the Brāhmaṇa and Ksatriya castes became well-marked.
Taking the facts of Nature into consideration, several explanations to the problem of the parentage of the Master are possible to be made in this regard.
It may be associated with the Krşņa-legend to magnify his personality, as recorded in the Purāņa” that Lord Krşņa, though born of Devakī, was transferred by Vāsudeva to the family of Nanda and Yasodā, just after the moment of his birth to be brought up there, having apprehended the danger of the destruction of his life by Kassa.
The views of some scholars that Lord Mahāvīra was adopted by the childless Trisalā as son do not agree with the fact, because he had his eldest brother named Nandivarddhana."
i Digha Nikaya, 1. pp. 47 Foll; Samaññaphala Sutta ;
Sāmagāma Sutta, M. N. II, pp. 243, Foll: Vinaya texts,
S. B. E. Vol. XVII, pp. 108, Foll. · Bhāgavat Parāra, pt. II, 3rd Adhyāya, 10th Skandha,
vv. 48-53, pp. 137-39. * Mrs. Stevenson's 'Heart of Jainism'; Bühlar : The Indian Sect of the Jainas.
4 Kalpa Sūtra.

Page #495

Siman
470 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SŪTRA [Ch. VIII
Similarly the opinions of a few scholars' that Devānandā was the foster-mother (nurse) may be rejected on the ground that she appears in the Bhs as a rich aristocratic lady, followed by a retinue of servants and waiting maids belonging to different Indian tribes and foreign nationalities.
It seems plausible on the evidences of the Bhs that Lord Mahāvīra may be the son of Devānandā or he was the son of Trisalā according to the Digambara tradition which does not believe in the story of the transfer of his embryo.
Birth-place of Lord Mahāvīra
The determination of the exact location of the birth-place of Lord Mahāvīra is interlinked with the solution of the problem of his parentage.
The genuine evidences of purely human trait as depicted in the scene of the accidental meeting of the Master with his mother Devänandā, i.e. the flow of milk from her breast on the recognition of her former son in him, and the sensational self-revelation of the incident of his birth in the Brāhman, family, suggest that he was born in Brāhmaṇakundagrāma to the west of which lay Ksatriya-kundagrāma.
But according to the Kalpa Sūtra he was born in the Ksatriya family of king Siddhārtha of Ksatriyakundagrāma.
In connection with these conflicting statements the epithet *Vesālie's occuring in two places of the Bhs is of great importance in reference to the designation of Lord Mahāyīra himself.
Thus it is said in the Skandaka Uddeśaka that there lived a Nirgrantha Vaiśālika Srāvaka named Pingalaka in the city of Srāvasti.
There is the other statement of historical colouring that the Sramanopāsikā, the princess Jayanti, the aunt of king
i See 'Darśava and Cintana'; Bühler : The Indian Sect of the
Jainas. ? Bhs, 2, 1, 90; 12, 2, 441.
3 16, 2, 1, 90.

Page #496

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
471
Udayana of Kaušāmbi was the first donor of abode to the Vaišalika Srāvakas and monks.
In both the cases Sri Abhayadeva Sūrio explains the epithet Vesālie' (Vaisālika) by Lord Mahāvīra and in fact a matronymicum "Viśālā Mahāvīra-Janani tasyāḥ apatya miti Vaiśälikah Bhagavän tasya vacanam śrņoti tadrasikatvāt iti Vaiśālika Srāvakah."
Thus it is evidently clear that the epithet Vesālie' attributed to Lord Mahāvīra reveals his historic association with Vaiáāli, i.e. he was a citizen of the ancient city of Vaisāli.
The geographical data furnished by the BHS shows that Vaiśāli was divided into three quarters, viz Brāhmaṇakundagrāma, Ksatriyakundagrāma, and Vānijyagrāma" with which the Master was associated in connection with his religious activities.
As regards the exact location of the birth-place of Lord Mahāvīra, Dr. A. F. Rudolf Hoernlea was the first scholar to identify it with Varukunda, a village in Basarh (Vaikāli) in the district of Muzaffarpur, North Bihar, and he has subsequently been supported by Hermann Jacobi' and other scholars.8 Boyhood of Lord Mahāvīra
The Bhs makes only one brief statement that Lord Mahā. vīra, having lived in the household life up to the age of thirty vears, got initiated and undertook the state of houselessness from that of houseness by taking one piece of divine cloth (devadūsa) with the attainment of godhood of his parents?. Except this information it does not throw any light upon bis boyhood.
1 Bh8, 12, 2, 441.
? 16, 2, 1, 90. 8 Indian Antiquary-Vol. XVII., Weber. See-Sutra Krtanga,
1, 2, 3, 22. 4 BhS, 2, 1, 90. See Commentary. 5 B.C. Law: Some Ksatriya tribes of Ancient India, p. 38. 0 Uvāsagadasão, (p. 3-5-6). Lec. 8. ? Hermann Jacobi, S.B.E. Vol. XXII, pp. X-XIII, B See--Homage to Vaişāli, p. 85-90,

Page #497

4
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VIII
In this respect other Jaina texts present a picture of his family life, revealing two stages-the one of boyhood and the other of household.
Thus it is recorded in the Kalpa Sutra that his birth was celebrated by his parents for ten days, together with the citizens of Ksatriyakunḍagrama with great pomp and grandeur in a very colourful way, like that of Mahabala of the BhS.
According to the Svetambara tradition Lord Mahavira married Yasoda, a Ksatriya girl of Kaundinya gotra who bore him a daughter named Anojja". She was given in marriage to Jamāli, a Ksatriya prince who became his disciple later on and led the first schism in the Nirgrantha order on account of his doctrinal difference with the Master in regard to the theory of Karma.®
Both the Acaranga and the Kalpa Sutra" fully corroborate the evidence of the Bhs that Mahavira left the world at the age of thirty after the death of his parents.
Ascetic Life of Lord Mahavira as revealed in the BhS
The text reveals that in the first year of his asceticism Lord Mahavira having observed the vow of fast of half a month by half a month, passed time in his first intermediate residence at Asthikagrama during the rainy season.
In the second year he practised austerity by observing the fast of one month by one month during the rainy season, having taken shelter in a weaver's workshop at outer Nalanda in the neighbourhood of Rajagṛha.
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 541
2 Kalpa Sutra-Fifth lecture, 99-106, 107.
3 Bhs, 11, 11, 429.
45 Acārānga Sutra, 15 (Fifteenth lecture). Vide 'Mahavira' by
Dr. B. C. Law 5. 21.
BhS, 9, 33, 386.
Acaranga Sutra, 1, 158, 15. 17.
8 Kalpa Sutra, Fifth lecture-109-110, 111, 112. See Jacobi's Jain Sutras.

Page #498

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
473 It was here in the corner of the same workshop that Gośāla Mankhaliputra took residence to pass the rainy season without getting any shelter elsewhere at outer Nalanda.
On the conclusion of his first one month's fast, Lord Mahā. vīra was greatly welcomed, honoured and worshipped by Vijaya, a householder of Rajagrha according to the prevailing customs and was entertained by him with abundant food, drink and other presents, when the Master approached the latter's house for begging alms.
As a result of this act of honouring and entertaining such a saint like Lord Mahāvīra, five kinds of celestial things appeared in the house of Vijaya, revealing the supernatural power of the Master viz. rains of streams of wealth (Vasudhārāvutthā), droppings of five-coloured flowers (dasaddhavanne kusume nivāie), tossing up of garmments by the gods (oelukkhevkae), beating (playing) of divine drum (āhayāo devadundubhio), in the sky the sound “Aho dāne (ob gift), aho dāne (oh gift)” was proclaimed by the gods.
Having heard of this incident in the presence of many people of that locality Gośāla Mankhaliputra also went out of that weaver's workshop to see the miraculous things and found them true in accordance with the story spread among the people. It is said that he entreated Lord Mahāvīra to accept him as his disciple, after worshipping and saluting him. But the Master remained silent and returned to that weaver's workshop without regarding and recognizing the request of the former.
Similarly Lord Mahāvīra observed the vows of the second, third and fourth as one month's fast in succession, while staying in that workshop during the rainy season. On the conclusion of these fasts he went out on begging tours to the houses of Ananda and Sudarśana of Rājagrha and to that of Bahula of Kollāga Sanniveía lying at a near distance of outer Nālanda respectively.
Everewhere he was accorded welcome, worshipped, honoured and entertained by these individual householders with
60

Page #499

474
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. VIII
abundant food and drink according to the prevailing social customs. As a result of these acts of honour and entertainment offered by them to the Master the same miraculous incidents as happened in the case of Vijaya took place in their respective houses also.
On the second and third occasions also Gośāla Mankhaliputra made the same request to Lord Mahavira to accept him as his disciple, but it was turned down by the Master in silence without paying any regard to it.
On the day of the conclusion of his fourth one month's fast Lord Mahāvīra, being prayed by Gośāla again at Kollāga Sannivesa accepted him as his disciple and practised the austerity of 'Anityajagarana' (thinking on non-enternality) for six years in the market-place of that town (Paniyabhumi) by experiencing gain and loss, happiness and sorrow, honour and dishonour.1
In the next scene the BhS throws a side light upon the doctrinal difference between Gośāla Mankhaliputra and Lord Mahavira on the problem of the reanimation of a Tilastambhaka (Sesamum Indicum plant).
One day in the first part of Autumn, while going along with Gośala Mańkhaliputra to Kurmagrama from Siddharthagrama the Master explained the question raised by the former on the sight of a sesamum plant, standing at a place by the side of their way, whether it would grow or not and where would its seven seeds (Tilapuspajivas) be born after its death. Mahavīra said that the plant would not get destroyed, it would certainly grow and its seven seeds would be born in one capsule of the plant still again.
Gosala Mankhaliputra did not believe in this explanation of Lord Mahāvīra, and so he, slowly falling back, pulled it out by
See also the Kalpa Sutra for 'Paniyabhumi and its identi. fication. It is doubtful whether Lord Mahavira stayed in one place for six years as ascetic, it may be that he passed six rainy seasons.
Bhs, 15, 1, 541.

Page #500

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SŪTRA
475
poules.
the roots and threw it in a corner of the field at the same moment. Immediately there appeared a shower of rain by which it was again revived to life and those seven seeds were reborn as seven tilas (sesames) in one of its capsules.
Next, is presented an account of the superior spiritual power of the Master, as it is revealed in its application by him to save the life of Gośāla from the effect of the fiery energy (tejoleśyā), released by Vaiśyāyana, a Balatapasvin of Kūrmagrāma, on Gośāla for the act of his insulting behaviour towards that ascetic. Vaišyāyana, being inflamed with the fire of wrath at the provocative and mocking questions of Gośāla in the midst of his meditation climbed down from his meditating place, expanded and released his physical fiery energy on the latter to kill him. But his life was saved by Lord Mahāvīra by warding off the fiery energy of that ascetic with his own cold spiritual energy.
The Master narrated the whole fact to Gośāla on his asking to know the reason of the painful utterance of that ascetic, “This is gone, O Lord, this is gone” (se gayameyam Bhagavaṁ se gayameyam Bhagavam), as he knew his hot fiery energy checked, warded off and ineffective and withdrew it, having found no trouble or injury or dismemberment of the body of his insulter.
So, Lord Mahāvira, being requested by Gośāla to teach him the process of acquiring the faculty of condensed abundant fiery energy (samkşipta vipula tejoleśyā) revealed and explained its secrecy thus: "He who passes time by taking sanakha kulmāsa pindika (smallest quantity of bean or rice gruel), and vikatāšana (viyadāsae i.e. fermented food), observing the vow of sasthasastha (two consecutive days' fast) and practising continuous acts of austerities, raising his arms high, facing the sun, heating his body with the sunshine in the meditating place (ātā panab hūmi), becomes endowed with the faculty of Sanksipta vipula tejolesya' at the end of six months.''
• 16 15, 1, 543.
i BhS, 15, 1, 543. 3 16, 15, 1, 543.

Page #501

476
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SŪTRA [Ch. VIII One day some time on his way to Siddharthagrāma from Kūrmagrāma Lord Mabāvīra, being accompanied by Gośāla Mankhaliputra arrived at the same spot where was standing the sesamum plant. · Having come to that place, the latter told the former that his previous explanation about it was false and incorrect, because it did not grow and had got destroyed and its seven seeds were not reborn in one of its fruits after their deaths.
On this statement of Gośāla Mankhaliputra the Master narrated the whole fact regarding the re-animation of that plant, uprooted by the former previously, due to an immediate shower of rain.
But Gośāla Mankhaliputra would not still believe in the statement of Lord Mahāvīra about its re-animation and those of other plants that they fostered the same body in which they were reborn after their deaths. So he went back to that Sesamum plant and plucked out one capsule from it; while counting seven sesa mum seeds, which were splitted up by him from the capsule, by placing them on his palm, this kind of thought arose in his mind 'thus surely, all beings also are born after death and foster."
This was the doctrine of Parivarttavāda' (re-animation) of Gośāla Mankhaliputra which has already been dealt with in the seventh chapter in details in connection with the topic • Ajīvikism'. This is the cause of his dissociation from Lord Mahāvīra, and he left the Master for ever, after having received from him the instruction in the process of acquiring the fiery energy."
The evidences of the association between Lord Mahāvira and Gośāla Mankhaliputra at this period of asceticism are also corroborated by the Avaśyaka Cūrņi of Jinadāsa' in which a more detailed account of their ascetic life is found.
» Bh8, 15, 1, 544. • Āvasyaka Cúrni of Jinadāsa (7th Cen. A. D.)

Page #502

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
477
Next, Lord Mahāvīra appears as a Chadmastha ascetic (he who has not yet attained omniscience), practising the astama-tapa (a kind of austerity) in the eleventh year of his asceticism to attain (i. e. perform) the ekarātrimahāpratima-vrata (the vow of great pratima of one night) in the Asokavana (Aśoka garden) of the city of Susumārapura.
The scanty evidences of the practice of austerity and meditation of Lord Mahavira, furnished by the BhS, are supplemented by the Acaranga Sutra and the Kalpa Sutra which throw much light upon his severe asceticism.
It is to be observed that the accounts of his austerity as given in the Acārānga Sutra and the Kalpa Sutra do not bring in Gośala Mankhaliputra to form an episode in these works and the names of the places where he obtained residence during the first twelve years of his asceticism do not agree with those referred to in the BhS except the one, namely Asthikagrama. Lord Mahavira as religious teacher and his itinerary
as
The BhS clearly reveals that Sramana Mahāvīra an omniscient religious teacher travelled over different places of Northern India, extending from Eastern India (West Bengal) up to Sindhu-Sauvira, preaching and expounding the doctrine of the Nirgrantha religion to the people of all classes and his own followers and those of the other sects and converting and initiating them to this Śramana Dharma. He was well acquainted with the great sixteen states (Solasa Mahajanapadas), existing and flourishing in his time.
The following places visited by him appear to be the scenes of his religious and spiritual activities among the people of all social grades, viz. Rajagrha, (Gunaśilaka Caitya), Nālandā, Campa (Purnabhadra Caitya), Kajangala (Chatrapalasaka Caitya), Vanijyagrāma (Dūtipalāsaka Caitya), Šrāvasti (Kosthaka Caitya), Hastinapura (Sahasrāmravana), Ālabhikā, Kausambi, Vitibhaya (Sindhu-Sauvira), Kampilyapura, Ullukatira (Ekajambuka Caitya), Visakha, Saravana and Mendhikagrāma.
Bhs, 3, 2, 144.

Page #503

478
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Cc. VIII
Besides these, there are other places which were well known to Lord Mahavira, such as Kasi, Kosala, Prācīnajanapada, Vindhyagiri, Punḍra. Šatadvāra, Tāmralipti, etc.
Of all these places Rajagṛha appears to be the main centre of his religious activities, where he appeared more than sixty times to deliver his sermons and to expound the Law in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical problems raised by his first disciple, Gautama Indrabhūti and others.
Next in importance comes Vanijyagrama which was visited by him four times in the course of his religious tours, while Campā stands next to Vanijyagrama in regard to his sacred visit to this city where he passed time thrice at the Purnabhadra Caitya.
He paid two visits to each of these cities, viz. Srāvastī, and Alabhika and one to each of these places, viz. Brahmanakundagrama, Moya, Kajangala, Mithila, Nālandā, Hastinapura, Kausāmbi, Vitibhaya, Kampilyapura, Visakha and Mendhikagrāma.
It is not possible to construct an itinerary of Lord Mahāvīra in a successive and systematic order on the basis of the scattered geographical data provided by the BhS except in one or two cases. His activities as religious teacher among the people at different places as revealed in the Bhagavati Sūtra
Lord Mahāvīra's visit to Alabhikā
Lord Mahavira paid two visits to the city of Alabhika where he stayed at the Sankhavana Caitya. On the first occasion he settled the religious dispute between Rṣibhadraputra and other Sramanopāsakas over the celestial state by approving the explanation given by Rṣibhadraputra on this subject.1 While on his second visit to this city the Master converted Poggala, a Parivrajaka to Sramana Dharma on his express desire by explaining to him the question of the duration of the life of the gods in Brahmaloka.
1 Bhs, 11, 12, 433.

Ib, 11, 12, 436.

Page #504

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA 479 The Master at Brāhmaṇakundagrāma
During his visit to this place Lord Mahāvira stayed at the Bahuáalaka Caitya. It is here he delivered his sermons on different topics in the great assembly of his followers like Gautama Indrabhūti, Aryā Candanā and others and initiated Rşabhadatta. and Devānandā,' and Jamālī, together with his five hundred followers, to asceticism on their express desire to undertake the state of houselessness. The Master handed over Devānandā to the charge of the nun, Arya Candanā, to teach and guide her in learning the prescribed religious texts, practising austerities and meditation, and thus attaining Śramaņa hood and final liberation.
It is stated that one day Jamālī, being followed by his five hundred fellow-nonks left the Bahuśālaka Caitya for Srāvastī without the permission of his religious teacher and passed time there in the Kosthaka Caitya by practising austerities and meditation, Lord Mahāvīra also left this Caitya for Campā where he passed time in the Pūrņubhadra Caitya.
It is here the Master explained to Jamālī the questions put to him by Indrabhūti to silence his pride whether the Universe was eternal or non-eternal or whether soul was eternal or noneternal, out of pity, when the prince-ascetic failed to answer to them but declared himself as Kevalin (omniscient) in their presence after his arrival at this Caitya from Srāvasti.
But Jamālī left his teacher for the second and last time without believing in his doctrinal interpretations of these problems.“
Lord Mahāvīra appeared twice more in Campā and stayed at the Purnabhadra Caitya. Here he explained the questions of Gautama Indrabhūti on the astronomical and cosmological subjects.
On the last occasion the Master came to this place from the Gunašīlaka Caitya of Rājagtha and after a short while he left
Bh8, 9, 33, 380 ; 382. 8.4 16, 9, 33, 386.
· 16, 9, 33, 383-385. 6 16, 5, 1, 176,

Page #505

480
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VIII for the city of Vitibhaya, the capital of Sindhu-Sauvira ruled over by king Udayana.1
It is here in the Mrgavana garden he initiated the king to Sramana Dharma on his inner urge to undertake the state of houselessness from the worldly life.
His visit to Vāṇijyagrāma
It is recorded in the BhS that Lord Mahavīra paid his four sacred visits to Vanijyagrama and delivered his religious discourses in the assembly of his followers on different religious and philosophical subjects at the Dutipalasaka Caitya.
It is here the Master converted Gängeya, a follower of Lord Parsvanatha's sect to his Pañcayama Dharma and absorbed him into his order by explaining the questions whether all beings were born and would die at an interval or without an interval, birth and its divisions with reference to the combination of one, that of two, upto that of innumerable numbers of different kinds of beings and four kinds of birth and their respective causes."
On another occasion Lord Mahāvīra explained the questions raised by his disciple, Sama hastin on the existence and total number of Trayastrimsaka gods of Camara upto those of Sakra, those of Isanendra and those of Sanat-Kumara, when Gautama Indrabhuti failed to give a satisfactory answer to the same problems put by his brother-monk to him.
Here again on the third occasion the Master expounded the theory of time and its divisions, the cause of the longest day and shortest night, that of the shortest day and longest night on the request of Sudarśana, a merchant of Vanijyagrama. He, being reminded of his former life as prince Mahabala in the family of king Bala of Hastinapura and his initiation conducted by Sramana Dharmaghosa, the disciple's disciple of Vimala, the thirteenth Tirthankara, etc., undertook the state of houselessness, having his inner urge for emancipation doubled, after getting initiated by
1 Bhs, 13, 6, 491. Ib, 10, 4, 404.

2 Ib, 9, 32, 339.
4 Ib, 10, 4, 404.

Page #506

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
481
Lord Mahāvīra to Šramana Dharma on his advice. On the fourth occasion the Master had a religious and philosophical debate with a proud Brāhmana of Vānijyagrāma named Somila at the Dutipalasaka Caitya on the following questions : whether he had Yātrā (auspicious activity of life), Yāpaniya (observance or exertion), and Avyābādha (disenselessness); whether Sarsapa, Māsa and Kulattha were eatable or ineatable to the Sramana-Nirgranthas, and whether he was one or two, imperishable, undecaying and constant in many past, present, and future transformations of life. The Brāhmana was fully convinced of the holy teachings of explanations of Lord Mahāvīra to these questions and was finally converted by the Master to Sramaņa Dharma as a Sramanopăsaka on his express desire."
Lord Mahāvīra appeared once on the scene laid at Vaišali in connection with the result of the participation of soldiers in the two great wars called Mahašilākaạtaka Sangrāmas and Rathamusala Sangrāma" as already discussed in the first section of the third chapter. His visit to Kajangalā
It is stated that during his stay at the Chatrapalāšaka Caitya lying outside the city of Kajangalā, Lord, Mahāvīra converted Skandaka, a Parivrājaka of Srāvastī to Sramaņa Dharma on his express desire by explaining the questions to him "Is the Universe finite or infinite ?, is Siddha (the perfect) finite or infinite ?, by what kind of death does the dying being increase or decrease the Universe ?, when Skandaka, having failed to explain these subjects put to him by Pingalaka (a Sramaṇopasaka of Srāvastī) came to this Caitya from there and requested the Master to have their correct answers.
Lord Mahāvīra in Kāmpilyapura
Here in Kampilyapura Lord Mahāvīra initiated and conver
i Bhs, 11, 11, 424. 8 16, 18, 10, 647, 016, 2, 1, 90, 91-92.
61
16, 11, 11, 432. 4 10, 7, 9, 300; 7, 9, 301-3. 6 16, 14, 8, 530.

Page #507

482
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VIII
ted Ammada, a Parivrājaka together with his seven hundred followers to Sramana Dharma. His visit to Kausāmbi?
During his august visit to Kausāmbi the Master delivered his religious discourse in the assembly of Jayantī, her nephew king Udayana, his mother Mrgāvati and others at the Candravatarana Caitya. It is here that he initiated the princess to asceticism as nun on her express desire, after a great discussion on the abstruse religious and philosophical doctrines between her and the Master.
His;visit to Mithilā
On one occasion Lord Mahāvira appeared at the Mānabhadra Caitya in the city of Mithilā and explained the questions raised by Gautama Indrabhūti on the location and shape of Jambūdužpa island. Lord Mahāvīra at Moya*
During his stay at the Nālanda Caitya situated outside the city of Moyā the holy teachings of explanation took place between Agnibhūti, the second Ganadhara and the Master and between Agnibhūti and Vāyubhūti, the third Ganadhara on the topics of the prosperity, power and ability of the gods and the goddesses to assume various shapes, the union of two Indras of the northern and southern hemispheres, their quarrel, etc. The Master in Hastināpura"
In the Sahasrāmravana (mango-grove) of Hastināpura Lord Mahāvīra converted Śiva, a Vānaprastha ascetic (forest recluse) to Sramaņa Dharma on his express desire by explaining to him the question of the number of islands and seas in the Universe, etc. His activities in Rājagsha
It has already been pointed out that Lord Mahāvīra appeared sixtyfour times on the scenes laid at the Gunaśīlaka
Bh8, 12, 2, 441, 442. $ 16, 3, 1, 126.
16, 9, 1, 362. 4 Ib, 11, 9, 417-18.

Page #508

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
483
Caitya in Rājagrha and that most of his teachings as embodied in the BIS were delivered at this place on various subjects in the assembly of his followers, for it was a great centre of his activities.
Here came king Seņiya-Bimbisāra and queen Cellanā, followed by their retinue of officials, servants, etc., to attend his holy teachings. At this Caitya the Master made a reference to the monk-disciples of Lord Pārsvanātha's order," living at the Puspavati Caitya in the city of Jungikā in his time.
It is here again that Lord Mahāvīra converted some followers of Lord Pārsvanātha's order to his doctrine of Paficamahāvrata Sapratikramana Dharma from that of Cāturyāma Dharma by his holy teachings of explanation on the number of worlds, its shape and multitudes of people, infinite nights and days and their revolution.
At this Gunasilaka Caitya he initiated and converted the other Tirthikas, namely, Kālodāyin, Selodāyin, Sevālodāyin, Udaya, Nāmudāya, Tammudāya, Annavālaya, Selavālaya, Sankhavālaya and Subatthi on their express desire to Sramaņa Dharma by his religious discourse on the doctrine of Astikāya'.' His visit to Srāvasti
Lord Mahāvīra paid two august visits to the city of Srāvasti and stayed there at the Kosthaka Caityu with his followers. On the first occasion he initiated Sankha to asceticism on his express desire by explaining the significance of the observance of Pausadha Vrata (vow of fast) and the binding of eight Karmaprakstis by beings under the sway of passions, viz. anger, pride deceitfulness and greed."
On the second occasion Lord Mahāvīra revealed in the assembly of his followers there at the Kosthaka Caitya the incident of the birth of Gośāla Mankbaliputra in the cowshed of Gobahula at Saravana and the account of his life and association with the Master as his disciple, when the Ājivika leader passed time in the premises of Hālahalā, the potteress, in that city by proclaiming
: 10, 5, 9, 226.
i Bhs, 1, 1, 4.
16, 7, 10, 305.
? 16, 2, 5, 107. 6 Ib, 12, 1, 437-38-39.

Page #509

484
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VIÍI himself as Jina and practising austerities, having been surrounded by his followers.
As already pointed out in connection with the topic 'Gośāla Mankbaliputra as teacher' in the sixth section of the seventh chapter, this matter of disclosure of his birth in a low family and the revelation of his past life, made by Lord Mahāvīra enraged him very much and finally led to a spiritual duel between him and the Master at the Kosthala Caitya, resulting in the death of Saryānubhūti and Sunakṣatra, two disciples of the Master, caused by the fiery energy released by the Āzīvika leader on them, while defending their teacher's honour, and his own spiritual defeat, as his fiery energy became ineffective in the case of the Master who was endowed with more spiritual power than he possessed. Then Gośāla Mankhaliputra cursed Lord Mahāvīra that he would die as Chadmastha at the end of six months, having the attack of bilious fever due to the effect of fiery energy released by him. At this curse the Master retorted to the Ājīvika leader that he himself would die as Chadmastha at the end of seven nights.
After the departure of Gośāla from the Kosthaka Caitya with spiritual defeat Lord Mahāvīra gave the account of the power of his fiery energy by which he could reduce sixteen great states, viz, Anga, Vanga and others to ashes and that of the last stage of his life and death, etc.'
His visit to Mendbikagrāma?
Having left the Kosthaka Caitya, Lord Mahāvīra appeared at Mendhikagrāma, together with his retinue of followers. It is here in the Sālakosthaka Caitya the Master suffered from the bilious fever, accompanied by the passing of blood stool. He allayed the fear of his disciples, Simha and others against the street-talk of the four castes that this disease was the effect of the fiery energy released by the Ajīvika leader, Gośāla on his body, and told them that he would live for another sixteen and a half years as Jina unharmed. He got cured of this serious
1 Bh8, 15, 1, 553.
16, 15, 1, 557.
:
1b, 15, 1, 553-561,

Page #510

Sec. 11
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
485
disease by taking cooked cock's flesh (kukkuța mārsa)*, brought by his disciple, Simha from the house of Revatī, a female householder of Mendhikagrāma on his instruction.
Lord Mahāvīra in Ullukatīra
The Master paid two sacred visits to the town of Ullukatīra, and stayed at the Ekajambuka Caitya. During the first one he explained the question raised by Gautama Indrabhūti whether the physician, operating on the piles of a meditating houseless monk or the said monk was effected by Kriya, while on the second occasion he dealt with the subject : prosperous gods, matter, transformed matter, the account of the former life of Gangadatta. devu as the king of Hastināpura, his initiation by Munisuvrata to Sramana Dharma, his rebirth as god in the heaven and his final liberation.' His visit to Visakha*
During his stay at the Bahuputrika Caitya in the city of Visakha Lord Mahāvīra narrated the accounts of the initiation of Kārttikadatta, the guild-president of Hastinapura, together with his eight-thousand fellow merchants, conducted by Munisuvrata to Sramana Dharma and their undertaking of the state of houselessness and attainment of monkhood, etc.
The life of Lord Mahāvīra as wandering teacher is also depicted in other Jaina texts4 where further accounts of his religious activities among the people are found in a graphic manner. He carried on his sacred mission by developing and systematizing the Nirgrantha religion on metaphysical grounds, preaching religion to the people, elevating and leading them to the path of freedom and liberation.
It is said that after thirty years of his missionary activities as venerable wandering religious teacher, he left this mundane world cutting asunder all the bondages of birth, decay and death,
1 BhS, 16, 3, 572.
23 Ib. 16, 3, 574. 4 Uvāsa gadasão. Vide 'Mahāvira'--His Life and Teachings'
Dr. B. C. Law, pp. 37-38. * The commentators explain the words as a particular kind of
vegetable - Editor.

Page #511

486
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI Sutra
[Ch. VIII
in the fourth month of the rainy season in the seventh fortnight of Kārttika on its fifteenth day in the last watch of the night in king Hastipāla's office of the writers in the town of Pāvā.
The account of the life of Lord Mahāvīra as depicted in the Bhs, and the other Jaina texts is also corroborated by the Buddhist works which mention him as the head of the Nirgrantha order, a man of experience, a great ascetic, old and well-striken (bent in years), revered by the people of all classes."
It appears from the study of the evidences of the Buddhist texts that the Master was a senior contemporary of Lord Buddhas and predeceased him..
The teachings of Lord Mahāvīra as embodied in the Bhs reveal that the bold flight of human imagination in the absence of adequate varifying data at the time of this text is the most thoughtprovoking and wisdom-evoking, as it has rightly been said by Gomperz” that inexperience is the mother of wisdom. This truth is amply and brilliantly expressed in the speculative daring, not sacrificing the logical subtlities, in the thoughts evolved by the religious and philosophical ideas of the Master.
He brought an immortal and eternal life with him and left it in his demise to be worshipped by mankind.
SECOND SECTION Chronology of Lord Mahāvīra
It is recorded in the Bhs that Lord Mahāvīra renounced the world with the attainment of godhood of his parents, having lived the life of a householder for thirty years (tīsam vāsāim āgāravāsamajjhe vesittā).
1 Jaina Sūtra p. 264; (Kalpa Sutra), 1, 22-23, ? Dialougues of the Buddha--S. B. E. 11 (3) p. 66,
Samaññaphala Sutta, Dighā-Nikāya, 1. p. 491. 8 Cf. Sambhuya Sutta, Sutta Nipāta, pp. 92- foll. • Samagãma Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 243 foll. * Gomperz : Greek thinkers, Vol. I. 6 Bhs, 15, 1, 541.

Page #512

487
Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
In the first year of his asceticism he passed the first rainy season in Asthikagrāma and the second in a weaver's workshop at outer Nālandā in the second year.
By this year Gośāla Mankhaliputra also took shelter in the same workshop without obtaining any residence elsewhere and was accepted by the Master as his disciple after his repeated earnest requests on four occasions as already mentioned
It is further learnt from this work that Lord Mahāvīra passed six years with Gośála Mankhaliputra in the Market place (Paniyabhūmi) of Kollāga Sanniveía as it is already discussed.
After this period the latter left the former on the doctrinal difference arisen out of the problem of the birth and rebirth of a sesamum plant.
Next, he is found to pass time at the premises of the workshop of Hälahalä, the potteress in the city of Srāvasti, having attained the round of twenty-four years of his initiation when the spiritual duel took place between him and Lord Mahāvira at the Kosthaka Caitya on the revelation of the story of his birth and life, made by the Master in a reviling manner.
It is stated that when Gosala Mankhaliputra cursed Lord Mahāvīra by saying that he would die within six months due to the effect of the fiery energy released by him on his body, the Master replied that he would live as Jina for another sixteen years, but the Ājīvika leader himself would die within seven days.
During the time of his suffering from the bilious fever at Mendhikagrāma he made the same statement to his disciple, the houseless monk Sība, to allay his fear, that he would live for another sixteen years and a half as Jina, unharmed.
The calculation of these numbers of years (30 +2 +6 +18 (24) +16) amounts to a figure of seventy-two years which is the total length of the life of Lord Mahāvīra.
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 557.

Page #513

488
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
(Ch. VIII
This account of the total span of life of the Master is also fully corroborated by the Kalpa Sūtral which states that he left the world at the age of thirty and passed time as ascetic, practising austerities for more than twelve years in the state of Chadmastha and some thing less than thirty years as Kevalin and religious teacher, forty-two years as recluse, and seventy-two years on the whole. He breathed his last at the age of seventytwo in the writers' office of king Hastipāla in the town of Pāvā.
The solution of the problem of the Chronology of Lord Mahävira hinges upon the fixation of the date of his demise (Nirvāna).
The text reveals that the Master was contemporary of the kings, Seņiya-Bimbisāra', and his son, Kūņika-Ajātaśatrul of Magadha, Cetaka of Vaiśālz“, Udayana of Kaušāmbā," Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra, and Mahāsena of Avantī.?
It has already been discussed in connection with the topic *Political Conditions' in the first section of the third chapter that the two great wars called Mahäsilā kantakasangrāma and Rathamusalasangrāma were known, heard and remembered by Lord Mahāvīra.
Moreover, in the BhS Gośāla Mankhaliputra also refers to the sprinkling scent-elephant, the last Tirthankara and the last Mahāśilākantaka Sangrāmalo, after the sixteen years of which the Master is said to have died. He also knew the existence of sixteen great states flourishing during his life time.
The evidences of these two great events are also fully corroborated by those of the Nirayávaliyā Suttall as already discussed in the first section of the third chapter. While in the Buddhist works? Lord Mahāvīra appears as a contemporary of
i Kalpa Sutra, 5, 122. Vide Jacobi's Jaina Sūtras Pt. I. p.
256-264. 2 Bh8, 1, 1, 4.
3 16, 7, 9, 300. 4 Ib, 12. 2, 441. Ib, 12, 2, 441. 6 16, 13, 6, 491. ? Ib, 13, 6, 491. 8 16, 7, 9, 300.
9 16, 7, 9, 301. 10 1b, 15, 1, 554, 11 Nirayāvaliya Sutta, 1. 1: E.g. Jataka I, 509; Digha Nikaya II, 150,

Page #514

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
489
Lord Buddha along with the other five teachers, viz. Pūraņa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajitakesakambali, Pakudha Kaccāyana and Sanjaya Belațțhiputta, as it is evidenced by the fact that Upālī and Simha, the general, were converted by Lord Buddha to his faith.
The kings, Seniya-Bimbisāra, Kūņika-Ajātasatry and Prasenjit were also associated with both the teachers.
Moreover, the Majjhima Nikāyal records the demise of Niggantha Nāta putta as taking place at Pāvā and being followed by a serious confusion and quarrelling among his folfowers in the life time of Lord Buddha.
When this message was conveyed by one of his disciples to him, he apprehended the same fate of his order after his death,
These evidences of the BhS, the other Jaina texts and Buddhist works show the synchronism between Lord Mahāvīra and the above mentioned kings, Gośāla Mańkhaliputra and Lord Buddha in the sixth-fifth Century B. C.
Now, according to the Buddhist records Lord Mahāvīra predeceased Lord Buddha, while the study of the references to the two great political events, viz. Mahasilåkanţaka-Sangrāma and Rathamusala-Sangrāma as recorded in the Bhs and a complete silence of the Pāli canons about them suggests that the latter predeceased the former who was alive at the time of the occurrences of these two wars and was associated with the court of Magadha, as it is evidenced in the Nirayāvaliya Sutta.
But it is to be observed that the evil designs of king Kūnika-Ajātsatry on Vaisali and the Vaijs were well known to Lord Buddha as pointed out in the first section of the third chapter. Besides these facts, there is a gap of some years between
1 Majjhima Nikaya-1. Samagama Sutta.
Vide ‘Mahāvīra— His Life and teachings' Dr. B.C. Law, pp. 6-7. ? Majjhima Nikaya--II, pp. 243 ff, 8 Ib, II, 243; Patika Sutta, Digha. N. III. * Nirayavaliya Sutta-1.
62

Page #515

490
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. VIII
these two great events according to the statement of Gośāla Mankhaliputra' as recorded in this canonical work, because he knew only about the first war on the eve of his death, after the sixteen years of which the demise of Lord Mahāvira, by whom tbe event of second one also was known, heard and remembered, took place at Pāvā. Even then the alliance between the Mallakis and the Licchavis existed, as it is evidenced by the fact of the celebration of the great decease of the master by their joint illumination of lights.
Dr. Hoernles has attempted to reconcile the two opposite views on the question of the pre-decease of Lord Mahāvīra and that of Lord Buddha as recorded in the Pāli Records and suggested 484 B. C. for the death of the Master and 500 B. C. for that of Gośāla Mankhaliputra and the occurrence of the Mahāśilākaạtaka Sangrāma and the defacto accession of king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru and the date of decease of Lord Buddha in 482 (or 483) B.C. in the eighth regnal year of the Magadhan king.
This interpretation of the chronology of the war that it took place in the first year of Ajātasatru's reign cannot be accepted on the ground that the Nirayāvaliyā Sutta makes it apparently clear that it occurred after the death of king SeņiyaBimbisara.
Further, it is pointed out by Jacobi* that the traditional date of the demise of Lord Mahāvīra is 470 years before the Vikrama Era (58 B. C.), i.e. 528 B.C. according to the Svetambaras and 605 years according to the Digan baras (i.e. 527 B. C.) on the suggestion that this Vikrama of the latter is meant for $ālivāhana (78 A.D.) Era.
Another tradition quoted by HemachandraS says that
i Bhs, 15, 1, 554, Kalpa Sūtra 128. Vide, Jaina Sūtras–S.B.E XXII of Jacobi
p. 266. 8 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ājivikism pp. 259 ff. 4 S.B.E. XXII (2.66), para 128, Kalpa Sūtra 6 ff. Vide, Political
History of Ancient India. p. 213 f. note no. 3. fifth Ed. 5 $thaviravalīcarita, Parisista Parva, VIII, 339.

Page #516

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
491
Maurya Candragupta became king one hundred and fifty-five years after the liberation of Lord Mahāvīra.
So according to this tradition the liberation may be assigned between 481 king Candragupta ascended the throne 312 B. C.
date of the Master's and 467 B.C., because at a date between 326
But the Buddhist works record the demise of Lord Mahāvīra before that of Lord Buddha as already mentioned.
According to the cantonese tradition the Parinirvāṇa of the Šakya sage took place in 486 B. C.', while the Ceylonese writers record this event of Parinirvana in the eighth regnal year of Kuņika-Ajātaśatru."
On the basis of the Cantonese date of Lord Buddha's decease, the date of accession of Ajātaśatru would fall in 493 B.C.
A gap of sixteen and odd years is found to exist between the date of accession of Kuņika-Ajataśatru and that of the demise of Lord Mahāvīra, while according to the Buddhist works it will be less than eight years on the ground that the Master died before the Blessed one.
A reconciliation of the divergent views on the chronology of Lord Mahāvīra as recorded by the Jaina and Buddhist works can be made, if it is supposed that the former accepts the date of accession of Kūņika as the king of Campa as the starting point and the latter make their calculation from a date of his actual ascendancy to the throne of Rajagṛha.
Dr. Hiralal Jain has tried to throw light upon the chronology of Lord Mahāvīra in his article on 'Date of Mahavīra's Nirvana" to show that "all the Jaina traditions boil down to this that there were 155 years from Mahāvīra's Nirvana to Candragupta's coronation, 410 years up to Vikrama's coronation, and 470 years up to Vikrama's death, and that the Vikrama Era
1 Early History of India of V. Smith, fourth Ed. 179. Mahavamsa, Ch. II.
Nagapur University Journal, December, 1940. No. 6. Date of Mahavira's Nirvana by Dr. Hiralal Jain, pp. 50-54.

Page #517

492 studies IN THE BHAGAWATT SÚTRA (Ch. VIII began with the death of Vikrama". But the interval of 155 years between Lord Mahāvīra's Nirvāņā and Chandragupta's coronation would put the Master's demise in circa (320 + 155), i. e. 475 B. C.
Having taken into consideration all these evidences it may be suggested on the basis of the above analysis of the facts furnished by the Jaina and Buddhist works that the demise of the Master took place in the eighties of the fifth Century B. C. although much reliance cannot be placed on the traditional chronology in the absence of further evidences about it.
THIRD SECTION
Kings Political History
The BhS throws some light upon the political history of its period by making a few statements of historical colouration, e. g. the incidental references to king Seņiya Bimbisāra and queen Cellanā of Magadha', the two great wars called Mahasilakantaka Sangrāma* and Rathamusala Sangrāmas, fought between king Vajjividehaputta Kūņiya (Ajātaśatru) of Campā and the Vaiśālian Confederacy of nine Mallakīs, nine Licchavīs, Kāší, Košalu, and their eighteen Ganarājas and the final victory of the Magadhan king over them at the time of Lord Mahāvīra, the mentions of king Udayana, the son of king Śatānīka and queen Mrgāvatī, the daughter of king Cetaka of Vaiśālī and the grandson of king Sahasrānīka, the nephew of princess Jayantī, king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra, his son, Abhijit Kumāra and his nephew, Keśikumāra and his coronation, king Mahāsena, king Siva of Hastināpura and some Ksatriya clans, such as, the Ugras, the Bhogas, the Kauravyas, the Ikşvākus, the Rājanyas, etc.?
It has already been discussed in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political Conditions that India was divided into sixteen great states--both monarchical and non-monarchical.
1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4. • Ib, 7, 9, 300. 4 11, 12, 1, 441. 6 16, 13, 6, 491. ? 16, 9, 33, 383; 20, 8.
3 16, 7, 9, 301.
16, 11, 9, 417.

Page #518

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
493
flourishing side by side with their respective political ideals of imperialism and republicanism during the time of Lord Mahāvīra.. And there was no political unity among these states under one paramount sovereign, so a political struggle went on between Magadha under king Kuņika-Ajātaśatru and Vaisali and its allies for establishing their political and economic supremacy over the North-eastern region of India and it ended in the final victory of the Magadhan king over the combined forces of his rival camp led by king Cetaka. Thus the ancient republicanism of Vaisāli had to bow down its head to the aggressive imperialism of Magadha
The effect of the two wars was far-reaching, as it went a long way to pave the way for the expansion of Magadha to all directions and to bring about the political unification of India under the leadership of its rulers of the successive dynasties-the Nanda and the Maurya till the Kalinga war which changed the whole character of its foreign policy of war to that of peace. So the political conditions will not be dealt with again in details in this section.
As regards the other historical kings, the Ksatriya clans, Indian tribes and foreign peoples an attempt will be made here to form an exact idea of their political life and position in the history of those days and of the extent of the country on the basis of the BhS.
With regard to the monarchies the text makes mention of the kingdom of Magadha with its capital at Rajagṛha, presided over by Seņiya-Bimbisāra1 and his son, king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru, ruling at Campa in succession, to the west and north-west lay the kingdoms of Kasi and Kosala with their capitals at Vārāṇasī and Srāvasti respectively, still further to the north-west there was the kingdom of Hastinapura ruled over by king Siva". There lay to the south of Kosala the kingdom of Vatsa with its capital at Kausambz on the Yamuna under the kingship of Udayana, the
1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4. 8.4 Ib, 7, 9, 300. Ib, 12, 2, 441.

2 Ib, 7, 9, 300, 301. Ib, 11, 9, 417.

Page #519

494 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA [Ch. VIII son of Satānika, still farther in the south there was the kingdom of Avantī of Mahāsenal with its capital at Ujjayini. To the far west lay the country of Sindhu-Sauvīra with its capital at Vītībhaya under the rulership of king Udāyana and his nephew Keśikumāra in succession.
In the north there lay the republican states of the Licchavīs of Vaiśāli and of the Mallakīs of Pāvā and Kusinärā.
It appears that the royal family of Kaušāmbi and that of Cetaka, the president-king of Vaišāli were united by a matrimonial alliance, as it is revealed by the fact that queen Męgavatī, the wife of king Satānīka, the mother of king Udayana of Kaušāmbi was the daughter of Cetaka."
Similar relations were established by him with the royal houses of Sindhu-Sauvīra and Magadha by offering his other two daughters, Prabhāvati and Cellanā to king Udāyana of Vītībhaya and king Seņiya-Bimbisāra® of Răjagrha respectively.
It is stated in the Avašyaka Cūrni? that Cellanā, the youngest of the seven daughters of king Cetaka of Vaišāli was carried off by king Seņiya-Bimbisāra privately from the female apartment of the palace of the republican president in the presence of his son, Abhaya, born of his queen Sunandā and then she was married by him, King Seniya
In the Bhs king Seņiya of Magadha only once appears together with his queen, Cellanā on the scene laid at the Gunaärlaka Caitya in Rajagrha in connection with his pilgrimage to Lord Mahāvīra to attend his religious discourse delivered there. It is also recorded in the Uttaradhyayana Sūtrao that the lion of kings visited the lion of the houseless ascetics.
14 BhS, 13, 6, 491. Ib, 7, 9, 300-303. 4 Ib, 12, 1, 441. 5 I6, 13, 6, 451. & 16, 1, 1, 4. ? Avasyaka Cūrni, II, p. 165 f. 8 lb, 1, 1, 4.
Uttaràdhyayan, Sutra, 20. 58.

Page #520

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
495
Except this brief statement this canonical work does not throw any light upon the life and career of this king and his political achievements.
In this respect other Jaina' and Buddhist works and the Puranas provide a good deal of information regarding the genealogy of the dynasty of Seniya, his private life and reign, and the contemporary history of his time."
It is said in the Ava yaka Curnis that he was born in the Vahiya clan. According to the Puranas Seniya-Bimbisāra belonged to the Saisunaga dynasty, while Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar is of opinion that he was born of the Sisu-Naga dynasty.
But Asvaghosa, the author of the Buddha Caritas connects him with the Haryanka family as its scion, while the Mahavaṁsa® refers to Sisunaga as a founder of a separate line of kings which ruled after that of Seniya-Bimbisāra.
The Vayu-purāna10 states that Sisunaga will take away the glory of the Pradyotas who were contemporaries according to the Jaina and Buddhist works."1
According to this statement Sisunaga must come after the first Pradyota called Canda who was the contemporary king of Avanti of Seniya-Bimbisara and Kūņika-Ajātaśatru, as it is evidenced in the BhS, other Jaina texts and Buddhist works and supported by the ancient Sanskrit poets and dramatists of India.12
1 Avaśyaka Carni, II, p. 165 f. p. 158; Nayadhammakahão, 1; Antagadadasão, 7, p. 43 f.
2 Jataka Nos. 239, 283, 492; Samyutta Nikaya, Books of Kindred sayings 110.
8 Vayu-purana, 99-314. See Dynasties of the Kali Age (Pargiter 68-9) for the Puranic account.
See P.H.A. I. 6th Ed. Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhury, pp. 205-209. Avasyaka Curni, p. 165. Vide, I. A. I., p. 378.
7 Vide, Age of Imperial Unity, p. 19,
D.K.A., 68-9.
8 Buddha Carita, XI, 2, Asvaghosa.
9 Mahavamsa; Vide, Age of Imperial Unity, p. 19.
10 Vayupurana, 99, 314.
11 Vayupurana, 99, 314.
12 Indian Culture, VI, 411.

Page #521

496
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VIII
Late Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury also has tried to show that Seniya-Bimbisara did not belong to the Saisunaga dynasty but to that of Haryanka-kula of Asvaghosa."
So the view of Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury may safely be accepted by taking into consideration the above facts, though the statement of the Puranas that Šiśunāga was an ancestor of Bimbisara remains uncorroborated by independent evidences.
It is stated in the Mahavamia that Bimbisāra was anointed king by his own father at the age of fifteen.
This statement cuts across the view of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar who inferred from the epithet "Śreņika' that he was previously a general probably of the Vajjis, having sway over Magadha and later on he carved out a kingdom and founded his own dynasty.*
It should also be observed that he is known to the BhS, as king Seniya (Śreņika), while in the Buddha Carita he is called Śreņika-Bimbisāra. It is to be noticed that the Mahāvamia does
not mention the name of his father at all.
According to Turnour and N. L. Dey the name of his father was Bhatiyo Bhattya," while the Tibetans call him as Mahāpadma.
This new king endowed with political sagacity and foresight launched the small state of Magadha to the career of conquest and aggrandizement by following a policy of expansion in regard to the inter-state relation which has been dealt with by late Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury and other scholars in great details on the basis of the evidences furnished by the Jaina and Buddhist sources about his political career and political achievements.
1 Political History of Ancient India, Dr. H, C. Ray Chaudhury, Fifth Ed., p. 115.
Buddha Carita of Asvaghosa, XI, 2, P.H.A.I., p. 115 f. etc. 3 Mahāvamsa (translated by Geiger, p. 12).
4 Carmical Lecture 1918. 1.67 ff. See Dynasties of Kali Age: Pargiter pp. 68-9 for the purăṇic account.
5 Turnour, Mahavamsa 1. p. 10; J. A. S. B. 1872, i. 298, 1914, 321; Essay on Gunadhya p. 173. The Purāṇas name Hemajit, Ksemajit, Kṣetroja or Kṣetraujā as the father of Bimbisāra. Refer to P. H. A. I. p. 117 f. n. 5. P. H. A. I. pp. 205-209,

Page #522

Sec. III]
King Kūnika
As already discussed in the third chapter on 'Political Conditions' King Kūņika of Campā appears here as the victor in the political struggle over his rival confederate army of nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kāši and Kosala and their eighteen Ganarajas led by Ceṭaka, the president-king of Vaisali Republic.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Kūņika, the son of king Seniya-Bimbisāra, was attributed by the names of Kunika1 and Asogacanda as derived from the incidents of the tearing of his little finger by a cock's tail, when thrown on a dung hill according to one tradition and the illumination of the garden of Aśoka tree where he was cast according to another tradition, just after his birth. The third epithet Vajjividehaputta or Videhaputta was attributed to him because of his maternal relation with Videha.
Both the Jaina" and Buddhist works record the accounts of Kūņika's ascendancy to the throne of his father, Seniya-Bimbisara by putting him into the prison where he breathed his last with painful tortures at the hands of his own son.
It is said that Kūņika transferred his capital to Campa from Rajagṛha only to forget this unbearable tragic incident and sorrow."
It appears from the Jaina and Buddhist works that king Kūņika-Ajataśatru was intimately associated with the Nirgrantha order as well as with the Buddhist church and had predilection for both religions, as it is revealed by the fact that he was claimed as a devoted follower of both the faiths.
1 Ovaiya Sutta 6. 3 Bhs, 7, 9, 300.
497
p.

20.
2 Avasyaka Curni p. 166.
4 Comm. on Digha Nikaya 1. p. 139.
Nirayavaliya Sutta 1; Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171.
See Comm. on the Digha Nikaya p. 135 ff for the Buddhist
verson.
7 Nirayavaliya Sutta 1; Avasyaka Curni II, p. 171.
8 Aupapatika Sutra 12. 27. 30; 6 p. 20; Hemachandra's PariSista Parvan Canto IV; Avasyaka Sutra pp. 684, 687 Samaññaphala Sutta; Digha Nikaya 1.50; Digha-Nikaya
11. 168.
63

Page #523

498
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VIII
King Cetaka
In the Bhs Cețaka, the president-king of Daisāli figures as the father of queen Mrgāvatī, the wife of king Satānīka and the mother of king Udayana of Kaušāmbī as already mentioned in the beginning of this section.
According to the Bșhatkathākoša* he was the son of Keka and Yasomati and was the scion of the Haihaya clan. It is recorded in the Mahāpurāņa that he was the maternal uncle of Lord Mahāvīra.
In the political struggle of the confederacy of Vaišāli with Magadha, Cetaka sustained defeat together with his allies at the hands of king Kūņika due to the superior technical military strategy and skill planned and demonstrated by his military experts with the introduction of the two war-engines - Mahäšilakantaka" and Rathamusala", combined with the forces of treachery of the ascetic, Kulavālaya and the courtesan, Māgahiyā. The city of Vaiśāli fell to the hands of the Magadhan king after a long drawn war and a siege laid by him; Cetaka committed suicide by throwing himself into a well with an iron image suspended on his neck to avoid the surrender and capture, torture and dishonour at the hands of his enemy, king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru. King Satānīka and king Udayana
The BhS throws some light upon the dynastic history of king Udayana of Kaušāmbī by giving a genealogical list of his family.
Thus it is recorded that king Udayana was the son of king Satānīka and queen Mrgāvatī, the daughter of king Cetaka,
1 BhS, 12, 2, 441. ? Brhat Kathakosa, 55, 165. 3 Mahāpurāņa - Puşpadanta. Vide, Life in Ancient India :
Dr. J. C. Jain p. 382. • Nirayāvatiya Sutta - 1; BhS, 7, 9, 300.. 6 Bhs, 7, 9, 301. * Avašyaka Cūrni II. pp. 164 ; Bhs, 7, 9, 300, 301 ; Vyavahāra
Bhāsya - 10-535 f. See, Digha Nikāya-Mahāparinirvana Suttanta & its comm.

Page #524

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA 499 and the grandson of king Sahasrānīka and Cetaka, and the nephew of Jayanti.
This genealogical list of this royal family as found in the Bhs' is also corroborated by the Purānas and Bhāsa.
The particular difference between these two sources is that the Purāņas' name Vasudāna as the father of Satānīka, while Bhāsa' mentions Sahasrānīka as the father of Śatānīka who was also known as Parantapa." King Satānika
According to the Svapnavāsavadattā” king Satānika is said to have married a princess of Videha, for his son was designated Vaidehīputra. It is stated that he made an expedition against Campā, the capital of Anga, at the time of reign of its king Dadhivāhana.
King Udayana
The Bhs', other Jaina texts and Buddhist works' show that king Udayana was a contemporary ruler of king Cetaka, king Seņiya-Bimbisāra," king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru,12 king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīrals and king Pradyota Mahāsena of Avanti.
A critical discussion of the reference to the pilgrimage of queen Mrgāvatī placing her son, king Udayana before her to Lord Mahāvīra at the Candrāvatarana Caitya in the city of Kaušāmbi in accompaniment of Jayantī with a large royal retinue clearly suggests that the king was still probably minor and his mother was widow at that time during which she acted as the queen
i Bhs, 12, 2, 441. 2 The Perānas : Harivamsa Purana-p. 29, 73. Vide P. H. A.
I. p. 132. : Svapnavāsavad atta, Act VI, p. 129.
Buddhist India : Rhys Davids p. 2.
Svapnavāsavadattā, Act VI, p. 129. & J. A, S. B. 1914 - p. 321. i Bhs, 12, 2, 441. 8 Âvašyaka Cūrņi – p. 88 f. 9 Commentary on Dhammapada, 21-23. 10 Bhs, 12,2, 441.
11 Ib, 1, 1, 4. 19 1b, 13, 6, 491
13 16, 7, 9, 300 14 16, 13, 6, 491. See Svapnavāsavadatti also.

Page #525

500
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATŤ SŪTRA
[Ch. VIII
regent to govern the state of Vatsa in his name. This suggestion is supported by the evidences of the Avašyaka Cūrņia in which it is recorded that on the sudden death of her husband, king Satānika, the royal sceptre of Vatsa fell on her and she acted as the queen-regent of her minor son, Udayana.
Queen Mrgavati cleverly rejected the renewed demand of Pradyota to marry him by requesting him to allow her postpone her consent till Udayana attained his youth and became capable enough of governing the kingdom independently without her regency, as the Avanti king became unsuccessful in his attempt to secure her by following the path of war with her husband, king Śatānika, being enamoured with her beauty.
After this event one day queen Mrgāvati joined the Nirgrantha order of Lord Mahāvīra as nun with the permission of Pradyota in the presence of the Master before whom it was impossible for the Avanta king to refuse her request. At the same time she very cleverly entrusted her son, Udayana to the care of king Pradyota. Thus she outwitted him and saved her chastity and dignity of womanhood like a queen.
There are many popular legends about king Udayana, his captivity by king Pradyota Mahāsena with a clever feat made through a wooden camouflaged elephant, his love affairs with Vāsavadattā, the daughter of the Avantz king and elopment of the princess and his war with Avanti, etc., which are running in the Jajna, Buddhist* and Brahmaņical' works. It is difficult to find out the kernel of the historical truth from these messes of popular fables.
It appears from all these facts that king Udayana was a great king who earned glory by his victory over some of his contemporary rulers and made matrimonial alliances with the
1 Bhs, 12, 2 442.
Ävasyaka Curni, p. 88f. 3 Avaśyaka Cūrni-II; Vide, Life in Ancient India : Dr. J. C.
Jain. p. 399. 4 Commentary on Dhammapada, vv. 21-23. 6 Svapnavasavadatta of Bhāsa.

Page #526

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SŪTRA
501 royal families of Avantī,” Anga,' and Magadha. His career was short and meteoric. King Siva
King Siva was the ruler of the small kingdom of Hastināpura". After having installed his son, Sivabhadra on its throne the king took to the Vånaprastha ascetic life by getting himself initiated by the Dišāproksina ascetics. Later on he was converted by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramaņa Dharma with proper initiation from Vănaprastha stage of life. King Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra
King Udāyana® ruled over the united kingdom of SindhuSauvīra with its capital at Vitibhaya by exercising his authority over sixteen states, three hundred and sixty-three cities, Mahāsena and other ten unnamed subordinate kings and the dignitaries of the state, such as, Rājeśvara, Talavara, etc.
As already mentioned in connection with the topic 'Royal Succession' in the second section of the third chapter the king undertook the state of houselessness, getting himself initiated by Lord Mahāvīra, after having placed his nephew, Keśīkumāra in the affairs of the kingdom instead of his own son, Abhijit-Kumāra on the ground of his spiritual welfare. This evidence of joining the ascetic order by king Udāyana is also corroborated by that of the Āvašyaka Cūrni.?
The study of the references to sixteen states not specifically mentioned, Mabāsena and other ten unnamed kings, the matrimonial relation of king Udāyana with the president-king of Vaišālī and the political asylum of the prince, Abhijit Kumāra in the court of Kūņika of Campā throws a welcome light upon the interstate relation as existing during that period.
1 Commentary on Dhammapada, vv. 21-23. : The Priyadarsikā of Sri Harsa; Vide P.H.A.I. 5th Ed. p. 203. : P.H.A.I. 5th Ed. p. 203.
- Bhs, 11, 9, 417-18. 6 Ib, 11, 9, 418.
6 Ib, 13, 6, 491. 7 Âvasyaka Cūrni, ll, p. 171 f. See also p. 36 (he was poisoned
to death by minister's son later on).

Page #527

502
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA [Ch. VIÍI If the identification of Mahāsena with Pradyota of Avanti is accepted, then the evidence of the BHS gives a new turn to the contemporary history that the Avanti ruler was a crowned vassal of Sindhu-Sauvīra.
This fact is corroborated by the other Jaina texts that king Udāyana inflicted a crushing defeat on Pradyota in his own kingdom and branded his forehead with a frontlet legend dāsī pai(husband of slave girl) by marching on Ujjayinī with his ten vassals on the issue of a sandal-wood image of Lord Mahāvīra which was taken away by the Avantī king along with its care-taker, a slave girl named Devadattā from Vitibhaya to Ujjayinž. But on the approach of Pajjusana the Sindhu king set him at liberty by granting him pardon and investing him with a gold plate (sovanna-patta) in order to cover the letters dā82-pai' and restored his former kingdom to him. It is said that from that time the kings were invested with the golden plate."
The other Jaina texts, the Purānas,' and the Buddhist works throw much light upon the life and political career and character of the Avantī king and his relation with SeņiyaBimbisāra of Magadha, Śatānīka and his son, king Udayana of Vatsa, Puskarasārin of Taxila, and Mathura”.
FOURTH SECTION Clans
As already pointed out in the beginning of this chapter that the Bhs makes incidental references to the following Ksatriya clans, viz. Ugras, Bhogas, Rājanyas, Iksvākus, Jaātris, Kauravyas and Ksatriyas.
1 Uttaradhyayana Tika, 18, pp. 253 ff. ; Âvasyaka Cürri, p. 400. 9 16. 3 Avašyaka Cūrni, p. 88 ff. Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 396. 4 See P.H.A.I. Fifth Ed. p. 204. o S. B. E. XVII, p. 187. (Comm. on Dhammapada, 21, 23.)
Majjhima Nikaya, III. 7. 6 Essay on Guņādhya, 176. 7 Vide, P. H. A. India-Fifth Ed. p. 204. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 383.

Page #528

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
503
The members of these Ksatriya clans were associated with the Government along with the other high dignitaries of the state and enjoyed an important status in the society and occupied a place in the contemporary history of the period of the Bhs. They are also recorded in other Jaina texts as the Ksatriya clans.
Ugras
The Ugras of the Bhs are mentioned in the Uvāsagadasão,* while in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikāya they are found as being associated with Vaisāli and Hatthigāma." The earliest reference to the Ugras occurs in the Vedic literature which states, "Rule here a mighty benevolent (king) upto tenth decade of thy life” “Dasamimugraḥ sumanā vaseha”.5
The evidences regarding the identification of the Ugras, furnished by all the Jaina, Buddhist,' and Brahmaņical sources show that they were a Ksatriya clan settled over different parts of Northern India during the time of Lord Mahāvīra. The existence of this clan may still be traced in the Ugas of Rajputānā” and the Ugra-Ksatriyas of Burdwan (West Bengal) commonly known as Āguri. Bhogas
The Bhogas were one of the Ksatriya clans occupying an important position in the state as well as in the society according to the evidences of the Jaina" and Buddhist"a works.
i Ovaiya Sutta, 23, 38; Kalpa Sutra, S. 211; Uvāsagadasào,
II, p. 139 etc. ? Uvāsagadasão, II, p. 139. * Anguttara Nkaya, 1.26 (gao-gahapati Petaloko-Nipāta,
1.14.6.). 4 Nipātu, 1. 14. 6, IV. The Dhammapada commentary refers
to a city of Ugga. . Atharva Veda, III, 4.7. Vide, Hindu Polity : K. P. Jayaswal,
p. 189 f., note 9. 6 U vasagadasão, II, p. 139. 7 Angutara Nikāya, 1, 26 (Nipāta, 1.14.6). 8 Atharva Veda, ili, 4. 7, Vide, Hindu Polity p. 189 f., note 9;
Manusmrti X, 9; See Abhidhāna-Cintāmani, V, 896. 9 The Rajputana Gazetteer, p. 275 ; Vide, Sherring's Hindu
Tribes and castes Vol. III, p. 46. 10 Vide, Uvāsagadasão, II, p. 139. 11 Uvasagadasão, II, p. 139. 13 Mahaparinivvāna Suttanta, 1, (Digha Nikaya) 122-26; Cf. also
Sutta Nipāta, 194.

Page #529

504
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. VIII
Rājanyas
The Rājanyas are also mentioned in the Brāhmaṇical works and the numismatic legends. The term 'Rajanya' appears to be a synonym with Ksatriya' in the Purusa Sūkta hymn of the Rg-Veda' where reference is made to the four social orders, viz. Brāhmana (priest), Rājanya (prince or warrior), Vaiấya (commoner), Sūdra (servile class).
A class of nobles, being of the kingly family formed the Ksatriya class of the later times in a nascent form. In the periods of Pāṇini" and the Mahabhāratu” the Rajanyas appear as a distinct ruling republican Ksatriya clan.
The numismatic evidences support the literary accounts as recorded in the above mentioned works that they were a ruling republican Ksatriya clan, as it is revealed by the legend of their coins in Brāhmi and Kharosthi scripts: "Rājanya Janavadasa”.
Obv. Humped bull to L. Rev. Rājanya Janavadasa standing figure.
These coins may be assigned to the later half of the first century B. C. It appears from the find spots of their coins that they were probably settled over Mathurā and some region in the Mathurā and some region in the western or north-western Rājpūtānā.?
A critical study of all these literary and numismatic evidences shows that the Rajanyas of the Bhs were a Ksatriya clan in Vaisali and other regions at the time of Lord Mahāvīra.
Ikşvākus (Ikkhāgā)
The Iksvākus appear also in the Brāhmaṇical and Buddhist works as the celebrated Ksatriya clan which produced many
1 Rgveda, X, 90; Pāṇini, IV.2. 104; Mbh. Sā. Parva, Ch. 81. 2 Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1, p. 485. 9 Rgveda, X, 90, V, 12. 4 Panini, IV, 2. 104; See also Katyāyana. 6 Mahābhārata-Santi Parva, Ch. 18. & Cambridge History of India Vol. 1, p. 485, ? Age of Imperial Unity, p. 160 ;.

Page #530

Sec. IV)
STUDIBS IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
505
legendary personalities. The first reference to a prince, Iksvāku by name is found in a passage of the Rg-Veda. Both the Vedic and Purāņica literatures furnish a long list of kings belonging to the Aiksvāka dynasty from Iksvāku himself down to king Prasenjit of Košala, the contemporary ruler of king SeņiyaBimbisāra. The evidences of the Vedic and Purānic works are also supported by the Rāmāyaṇa' in which the royal family of Košala is said to have discended from a king named Ikşvāku, while in the Buddhist works the branches of this family are found ruling at Kusinārā and at Benaras respectively. The epigraphic records also reveal that a Iksvāku dynasty reigned in the south in the 2nd and 3rd century A. D.
Thus it appears that this famous Ksatriya clan spread over different parts of India with the process of Aryanization of the country upto the far south. The Iksvākus of the Bhs were one of its branches as being associated with Vaiśālī. Jñātrika (Nāyā)
The Jhātrikas became celebrated by the birth of Lord Mahāvīra in the family of its chief Siddhārtha, in Ksatriyakundagrāma. It was the Master who raised the status of this clan to a high pedestal of honour and glory by bringing them into prominence as the last Tirthankara.
According to the Uvāsagadasãos, the Jhātrikas settled over Kundagrāma, Kollāga aud Vānijyagrāma, the three quarters of Vaiśālī which are identified with the present villages Vāsukunda, Kolhuă, and Baniyāgaon respectively of Basārh (Vaiśālā) in the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar. The association of the Jaātrikas with Vaikāli is well supported by the epithet Vesālie', attributed to Lord Mahāvīra, a scion of this clan.
1 Rg-Veda, X. 60. : Atharva-Deda XIV, 39-9; Gopatha Brahmana 1-2-10 et, seg. 8 Vayupurāna 1. 47. 11.
4 Rāmāyana 1. 47. 11. $ Kusa Jataka No. 531; Mahāvastu 111. 8. & Nagar junikunda Inscription, En. Indica XX p. 16, 19 f. ? Kalpa Sutra (Jaina Sūtra II pt. II S. B, E. Vol. XIV p. 416. 8 V vasagadasão II. p. 4 f. 4. 9 Bhs 2, 1, 90; 12, 2, 441.
64

Page #531

506
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Kauravyas (Korovvā)
The Kauravyas appear to be one of the branches of the famous Kuru clan as mentioned in the Brahmanical1 and Buddhist works and epigraphic records. The first reference to this famous clan occurs in the Rg-veda which alludes to king Kuruśravānasa (the glory of the Kurus, or as the hearer of the Kurus). But this king was also known as Trasadasyava (descendant of Trasadasyu) who was the king of Purus inhabiting the region on the Sarasvati,
The merging of these Trtsu Bharatas and their rival clan, the Purus resulted in the formation of the Kurus later on the land of the Sarasvati which came to be known as Kuruksetra, the field of the Kurus, the centre of Indo-Aryan Culture.? In the Buddhist Records the land of this clan appears as one of the sixteen great states where they ruled. In the Arthasastra of Kautilya the Kurus are mentioned as a Ksatriya clan, having the republican form of government, still holding the title 'raja' ('rājasabda-upajivinah'). They also played some active part in North Indian politics during the rule of king Dharmapala of Bengal1o who installed his protégé, Cakrayudha on the throne of Kannauja with the consent of the elders of the Kurus and Pancalas, after defeating Indrāyudha.
[Ch. VIII
These evidences show that the Kauravyas of the Bhs were an eastern branch of the famous Kuru clan..
Kṣatriyas (Khattiya)
The Ksatriyas of the BhS may be a clan of that name
1 Rg-Veda IX. 33. 4.; Aitareya Brahmana VIII. 14 (tra, Keith Rgveda, Brahmanas p. 331, Cf. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad III, 1, 1. foll. Manu-Smrti II, 17. 19; Bhagavat, Gita 1st verse; Mahabharata (Vanaparva) Ch. 129, pp. 394. 5.
2 Anguttara Nikaya Vol. 1. p. 213. Vol. IV pp. 252, 256 and 260; Digha Nikaya II, pp. 200. 201 & 203.
* Khalimpura Inscription of Dharmapala of Bengal.
4 Rg-Veda, IV, 38, 1; VII, 19, 3; etc.
Vedic Index, 1.327.

6 Vedic Index, 1.167
7 Ib. 1, 167, 8. Vide, Cambride History of India, Vol. 1, p. 117. Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. 1, p. 213. 9 Arthasastra, p. 455. 10 Khalimpura Inscription of Dharmapala of Bengal.

Page #532

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŮTRA
507
which is also mentioned in the Grammar of Pāṇini' in association with the Gotras, Janapadas and Sanghas, where they, as the original founders, gave their names to the region where they settled down.
"Janapadaśabdāt Kșatriyadān".
They may be identified with the Kathaioi or Cathaeans of the Greek writers some of whom place “Cathaia and the country of Sopheithes, one of the monarchs, in the tract between the rivers, Hydas pes (Jhelum) and Acesines (the Cenāba); some on the other side of the Acesines and of the Hydaratis (the Rāvī) on the confines of the territory of the other Poras, the nephew of Poras who was taken prisoner by Alexander”.*
The Kathaians were well-known and renowned for their bravery and skill in the art of warfare. It is stated by Onesikritos that the most beautiful man among them was chosen as king in Kathaia. The Ksatriyas of the Bhs may be one of the branches of that famous Ksatriya clan of that name who probably migrated to the east and settled over the Vaisalz region in course of time,
FIFTH SECTION
Tribes and Races
As already pointed out in the first and third sections of the fourth chapter the BhS,' while giving a list of female servants and slaves makes mention of their respective tribal, racial and country names. They are as follows: Cilaiyā, Babbariyā, Tsiganiyā, Vāsaganiya, Joņhiyā, Pallaviyā, Lhāsiya, Lausiyā, Arabi,
i Panini, 1. 168. Strabo, H. and F's translation III. p. 92. See Jolly S.B.E. VII, 15: Ep. Ind. III, 8. Ct. Pāṇini II, 4, 20, Mahābhārata, VIII, 85, 16. Vide, P.H.A.I., Dr. Ray Chaudhury, 5th Ed. p. 251 for the identification and location of the Kathaioi ; Cambridge
History of India, Vol. 1. 371. 8 Mc. Crindle : Ancient India as described in classical literature
p. 38. Bhs, 9, 33, 380.

Page #533

568
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SUTRA
(Ch. VIII
Damili, Singhali, Pulindi, Pulkhali, Bahalı, Murundi, Sabari and Pārasi. Most of these names occur also in other Jaina texts, the Purānas and foreign accounts and are well-known and can be identified with certainty, while the others are obscure and unidentifiable.
Cilāiyās (Cilātikās)
The Cilāiyās (Skt. Kirātas) are also mentioned in other Jain texts," Brāhmanical works," epigraphic records and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe. In the Nāgārjunīkunda Inscription the Cilātas are branded as dishonest traders. Of the foreign sources the Skyrites of the account of Magasthenes, having merely orifices instead of nostrils probably represent the Kirātas. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions "the Cirrahadae -- a race of men with flattened noses, very savages" among many barbarous tribes settled over a region beyond Bengal towards the north.
Ptolemy places Kyrrahadae among the tribes of Sogdian (modern Soghd) which is separated from Bactrianā by the river Oxus.
Thus it is known that the Cilātas were settled over the regions along with greater parts of the southern side of the Himālayas and they also inhabited the eastern region of India near the river Brahmaputra in Assam, eastern parts of Tibet (Bhota), eastern Nepal and Tiperah.
Babbariyās (Barbarikās)
The Babbariyās are the peoples of the
Barbara
tribe
1 Jambuddiva Pannatti, 56. p. 23. ? Mbh., XII, 207; Vienu purāna (Wilson's edition, pp. 156-90.
Srimat Bhagavat Gitā, II. 4.18. 9 Nagarjunakunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal
year. 4 Magasthenes India ; Periplus of Erythraean Sea Schoff ;
Ptolemy-Mc. Crindle-Ancient India, p. 277. 5 Lé Nepāl. II. pp. 72-8, Sylvain Levi. & J. A, S. B. XIX. Leong-Chronicles of Tripură p. 536,

Page #534

Sec. V] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 509 which finds mention in other Jaina texts, the Mahābhāratas, the Purāņas' and foreign records.
All the evidences from the Indian and foreign sources show that the Barbaras were settled over the Himālayan belt from Kāšmīra upto North Bihar” as well as in Sindha Isiganiyās (īsikas or Rsikaņikas or Rsikas)
The Tsiganiyās may be identified with the Tsikas of the Matsya Purāņa" and the Vāyu Purāņa, in the former they are associated with the Kārusas, Ātavyas, Sabaras etc., while in the latter they are mentioned along with the Ābhīras, Ātayas, etc. They may be .located in the Hyderabad region in the Deccan. Vāsagaņiyās
The Vāsaganiyā: (Vāsagaạikās) may probably be identified with the Nāmavāsakas of the Mārkandeya Purānalo and the Vanavāsakas of the Vayu Purāṇall and the Harivarasa Purāna."
The term "Vasaganiyā'may denote the peoples of the kingdom of Vanavāsī the name of which still exists as the name of a town near the north-western border of Mysore.18 It is also mentioned in the Nāgārjunīkunda Inscription of Vīrapurisadatta as a distinct territorial unit. Vanavāsi may be identical with
1 Pauma Carin of Sayambhū, Sandhi, 21. ? Mahabharata (Sabhāparva), Ch. 31-99; XII, 207, 43. & Mark. Purāna, 57, 59; Matsya Purana, XXI, 45, 51. 4 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ; Ptolemy, Mc. Crindle, p. 148. 6 Paumacariu of Sayambhū, Sandhi, 21. It is said here that
the Barbaras of the Himalayas attacked the country of Janaka from the north in league with the Pulindas & the
Sabaras. 6 C. A, G. I. pp. 692-4. Early History of India, p. 110; 11th ed. ? Matsya Purāna, III. 46-48. 8 Dāyupuräna, 45-126; see also Moh. IX, 365.
Bhs (Comm.), 9, 33, 380. 10 Mārkandeya Purana, 57.
Vayu Purana, XLV, 125. 19 Harivamsa Purāna, XIV, 52. 13, 523, 33. 18 Rice, Mysore and Coorg (1. pp. 89,95). 14 Nāgārjunikunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal
year.

Page #535

510 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA (Ch. VIII ancient Vaijayantī,' Busantion of the Periplus and Banaousii of Ptolemy.
Jonhiyās (Joņhikās = Yaunas - Yavanas-Greeks).
The Jonhiyās may be identical with the Yaunas (Yavanas = Greeks) of the Mahābhāratu" and other Brāhmaṇical works, who are mentioned along with the Kambojas, Gandhāras, etc.
Pallaviyās (Palhavas Pārthians)
The Pallaviyās are the Palhavas which find mention in the Purāṇase, the two epics?, epigraphic and numismatic records and foreign accounts. Prof. Rapsono thinks that the word
Palhava' is a corruption of "Pārthava' the Indian name for the Parthians. So the Palhavikās may definitely be identified with the female members of the Pārthians who were originally an Iraniam people settled on the frontiers of Mazandarān and Khurāsān, circa 249-8 B. C.
The establishment of the rule of the Pārthians in the 1st Cen. A. D. in North-West India is evidenced by the numismatic" and epigraphic records and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 23
1 Satavāhana Inscription, Năsika cave Inscription of Gautami
putra Sātakarni, 18th regnal year. · Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Schoff). ; Mc. Crindle: Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 129. 4 Mahabhārata, XII, 207. 6 Visnu Purana (Wilson's edition), pp. 156. 90. 6 Vayu Purana ; Vide Tribes in Aucient India p. 93, Samskrit
English Dictionary: Monier-Williams. P. 612. 7 Rāmāyana, Adikanda, LIV 1018-20 (B) Mahabharata, XII;
207 (?) 8 Nāsika caye Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarņi. Vide, Select Inscriptions Jünāgadha R, 1. of Rudradāman, 150 A. D. Also see, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar; Parthian coins, C.H.I. Vol. 1. 9 Periplus of the Erytraean Sea. 10 Cambridge History of India Vol. 1, Rapson ; see Takt-i,
Bāhi Inscription of Gondopharnes, 11 Pārthian Coins-C.H.I. Vol. 1, Rapson. 12 Takt-g-Bāhi Inscription of Gondopharnes. 18 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Page #536

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
511
Lbāsiyās (Nāsikyas ?)
The Lhāsiyās may correspond to the Násikyas of the Purānas! who were located in the Nāsika region of the present Mahārāstra state. But there is still uncertainty about their identity without further evidences.
Lausiyās (Lausikās)
The Lausiyās are not yet identified. Can they be the people of modern Laos in South-East Asia ?
Ārabīs (Arabs)
The Arabīs were the people of Arabia (Arab) whose relation with India may be traced even in the first Century A. D. and even earlier on the basis of the evidence of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to the Nausāri grant of Avanījanāśraya' the Governor of Pulakeśī II, the Cālukya king of Vātāpī repulsed the incursion of the Arabs into Thānā (near Bombay), Broach, the Gulf of Debal and Al-kikān (the district round Kelat) by inflicting a defeat on them in the 7th Century A. D. It is a well-known fact that they conquered Sindhu in 637 A. D. under the generalship of Md. Bin Käsim by making war on Dâhira, the then ruling king of the state.
The appearance of the Arabs at the time of Lord Mahāvīra seems to be a matter of historical controversy without further corroborative evidences, though the Periplus suggests their early relation with India in the B. Cs.
Damilīs (Drāviļas)
The Damilīs were the famous south Indian race, having the same name now known as the Tāmilas. They are also
Puranas-Markandeya Purāna LVII, 48, 51; LVIII, 24 ;
Väyu-Purana XLV; Matsya Purana CXIII, 50. 9 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 8 Nausäri grant of Avani-Janāśraya ; see also Aihole Ins
cription of Pulakesin II. Refer to Bombay Gazetteer Vol. 1. • Advance History of India - Dr. R. C. Mazumdar.

Page #537

512
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. VIII mentioned in other Jaina, Buddhista and Brāhmaṇical works, epigraphic records and foreign accounts. The land of the Damilas is referred to in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as Damirica which is the same as Limirike of Ptolemy, that is, Tāmilakam, a region lying to the south of the river Tungabhadrā extending upto Cape-Comorin.
This clearly reveals that the Damilas were the Dravidian: of the past and the Tamilas of the present day.
Simhalis (Ceylonese)
The Sinhalīs were the people of ancient Ceylon with its capital at Anuradhapura They are also mentioned in the ancient Buddhist texts and epigraphic records' as a distinct race living in an island country.
According to the tradition recorded in the Mahāvarías and Dipavansa this island country is known as Sīhaladdīpa after the name of Vijayasimha, the famous Indian adventurer from Simhapura in Lăta, and her people are called Simhalīs (Lion-tribe).
The Simhalese chronology commences also with the landing of Vijayasimha which synchronizes with the demise of Lord Buddha in 483 B. C.
It appears from the above facts that there had been waves of immigration to Sinhala from ancient India and her cultural and commercial relation with that country since a long time. In course of this relation some slave girls might have been imported from there to India to be employed in the service of the royal and rich aristocratic families of North-Eastern India,
1 Brhatkalpa-Bhasya 1. 123. · Dipavamsa ; Mahāvamsa ; Cullavamsa ; Sasana-vansa--33. 9 Mahabharata-Ch. 118. 4; Bhāgavat Purāna--IV. 28. 30. 4 Nagarjunikunda Inscription of Virapurisadatta, 14th regnal
year. & Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : Ptolemy's Ancient India. . Mahavamsa, VI-VIII; Dipavamsa, IX. ? Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta ; Vide, Select
Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar. 8 Mahavamsa, VI-VIII, 9 Dipavamsa, IX.

Page #538

Sec. V]
Pulindis (Pulindas)
The Pulindis are also mentioned in other Jaina texts1, Brāhmaṇical' and Buddhist works, epigraphic records, and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
The earlist reference to the Pulindas occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana where they are associated with the Andhras, the Pundras, the Sabaras, etc., who belonged to the clan of Visvamitra but were essentially constituted of the Dasyus. In the Aśokan Edict' they are also mentioned along with the Andhras who were settled on the frontier of his empire. Their name is interpreted in the Tibetan Mahavyutpatti by Gym Po as "outcaste and in Chinese by Tukva the race which kills the beasts for their food."" The Pulindas appear also in the geography of Ptolemy10 as Poulindai with the epithet 'agriophagoi' which means wild-eaters.
513
It appears from all the sources" that they were a wellknown non-Aryan tribe settled over the region extending from Malwa to the Godavari.12
Pukkhalis (Puskalis)
The Pukkhalis may be the Puskalas of the Märkandeya Purana.13 They were associated with Puskalavati, the old capital of Gandhara which is also recorded in the foreign accounts by different variations of this name, such as, Greek forms-Peukelaotis,
1 Panhavagarana, St. 332, 397; Pannavana Sutta, 1. ; Pauma-Cariu of Sayambhu, S., 21.
Aitareya Brahmana-7. 18; Markandeya Purana--57. 45-8; Matsya Purana, III 46-8; Vayu Purana, 5, 12, 6; Mbh, III, 188; Rāmā. 4, 43. 103; 44, 129; Raghuvamsa, XV, 32. 3 Mahavamsa, 1. 68. 4 Asokan R. E. XIII. Ptolemy's Ancient India-VII. 164.
Aitareya Brahmana-7. 18. See Mbh, 175, 6685 and Mahavamsa, 1, 68 for their different origins.
7 R. E. XIII.
8 Mahāvyutpatti, 188, 15.
Vide, Pre-Aryan, Pre-Dravidian in India pp. 88-91, Sylvain Levi. 10 Ptolemy's Ancient India VII. 164.
11 Märkandeya. Purana, 57, 45-8; Matsya P. III, 46-8; Paumacariu, S. 21, etc.

12 Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian India pp. 88-91; translation by Dr. P. C. Bagchi.
18 Märkandeya Purana, 57.
65

Page #539

514
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÕTRA
[Cb. VIII
Peukalaos, Proclais of Ptolemy' etc. The first of these names is probably derived from the Prāksta 'Pakkhalavadi' occurring in the legend of a piece of gold-coin of the Indo-Scythic period in Kharosthi "Pakkhalavadi devatā" (the deity of Pakhalavati or Puskalāvatî)”. It is Pu-se-ke-la-fa-ti of Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese transliteration of Puskalāvatī or Puşkarāvatī, the Skt. form of the name of the city founded by Puskara, the son of Bharata. It corresponds to the modern villages of Carasādà and Prag in Hastanagar group in the Peshawar district (N. W. P.)".
The above discussion shows that the Pulkhalis of the BhS were the people of Puşkalāvati region. Bahalis (Vāhlikas)
The Bahalīs of the BhS may be identical with the Vāhlikas, the people of Bactria (modern Balkh in Afganistan). The Vählikas are mentioned in the Meharauli Iron pillar Inscription of king Candra where it is recorded thus, "Tīrtvā saptamukhāni yena samare Sindhor-jitā Vählikāḥ.”
This epigraphic evidence shows that they inhabited a region beyond the river Indus by crossing which king Candra inflicted a defeat on them.
According to the Avaíyaka Cūrnis, Takkhasilā was the capital of the Bahali country which was given to Bahubali by Rşabhadeva before his renunciation of the world.
The literary and numismatico evidences show that the Vāhlikas (Bactrian Greeks) established their rule in the NorthWest India under the leadership of Demetrius in the second
1 Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 115. 8 Indo.Scythic coins, Gardener. 8 Wattars on Yuan Chwang, 1, 214; Vide C. A. 1. p. 105. 4 See Visnu Purana, (Wilson's edition, Vol. V. Ch. 4). • C. A. G. I., p. 105. & Bhs (Comm.), 9, 33, 380. 7 Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra. 8 Âvas yaka-Cūrni, ś. p. 180 9 Turn's Greeks in Bactria and India ; Patañjali Mahābhāsya
(Indian Antiquary, 1872, p. 300). 10 Indo-Greek coins,

Page #540

Sec. V]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
515
century B. C. The Indo-Greek relation began long before
Demetrius since the time of Indian invasion of Alexander in the fourth Century B. C. It may be presumed that some Bactrian female slaves might have been imported to India in course of trade to be employed in the service of the royal and rich aristocratic families in North-Eastern India.
Murundis (Murundas)
The Murundis of the BS also appear in other ancient works of India, epigraphic records and foreign accounts as a distinct foreign race who migrated from outside and settled over different parts of India by establishing their rule which continued upto the period of Candragupta II, the Gupta king. In the Vayu Purāna1 they are described as a Mleccha tribe known by the name 'Marunda', while Ptolemy mentions them as Moroundai and places them on the Western border of the Gangaradai. The Abhidhana Cintamani of Hema candras identifies the Murundas with the Lampakas, the Lambatas of Ptolemy who are located in the vicinity of the fountain head of the modern Kabul river in the region around Laghaman (Langhana). In the Allahabad pillar Inscription of Samudragupta' the Saka-Murundas are mentioned along with the other foreign potentates who came of their own accord to pay their homage to the Gupta king while a MurundaSwamin is referred to in a Central India Inscription of the 6th Century A. D. Sten Konow thinks that the word 'Murunda' signified 'Lord' as the later form of the word 'Saka'. It appears from the study of these evidences together with the epigraphic' and numismatic records of the Sakas that the Murundas were a
1 Vayu Purana; Vide, Tribes in Ancient India p. 94. Ptolemy's A.I.-M.C. pp. 215-6.
8 Abhidhana Cintamani, IV, 26.
4 Allāhābād Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.
6 Vide, Tribes in Ancient India: B. C. Law. 94.
Cf. Allahabad Pillar Inscription; Vide, Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar.
7 Taxila Silvar Scroll. Ins. of Patika; Mathura Ins. of Soḍāsa,
etc.
8 Coins of Indo-Scythic rulers (Gardener); Andhra coins: Rapson.

Page #541

$16 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Cb. VIII branch of the Sakas. But their existence at the time of Lord Mahāvīra seems to be a historical absurdity without further evidence.
Sabaris (Sabaras)
The Sabarīs also find mention in other indegenous and foreign accounts as a distinct non-Aryan tribe. The Paumacariu of Sayambhū locates them in the Vindhyas, while Cunningham suggests the identity of the Sabarai with the Suari of Pliny and holds that both of them are identical with the Sabaras of the Sanskrit works-a wild tribe spreading over the region to the south of Gwalior and Marwar where they are still styled as Sนช่น8.
Parasis (Pārsīs = Persians)
The Pärasīs of the Bhs were the people of Pārasa country (modern Persia) who are also referred to in other Jain texts, foreign accounts and epigraphic records' as a distinct race. The relation between India and Persia dates back to the hoary past of the Indo-Iranian unity when the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and Perso-Aryans formed the common racial group till the final comptete historical separation of these two peoples took place through the process of migration into different countries. But a certain community of interest, both political and economic brought about the relation of the two Nations again in the North-West of
* Aitareya Brāhmana VII. 18; Matsya Purāna 144. 46-9; Rāma.
1. 1. 55. etc. 2 Ptolemy's Ancient India--Mc. Crindle, Ed. S. N. Mazumdar--
p. 173. 8 Pauma Cariu: Sayambhū, S. 21. 4 Vide, Tribes in Ancient India : Dr. B. C. Law-p. 172. 5 Avaśyaka Curni-p. 448; Uttarādhyayana [ika ; Kālaka
cāryakathanaka. & Herodotus' accounts 1. 177; Hdt. II, 94. Cf. ch. III, 89;
III, 94 II, 44 ; cf. III, 102. 7 Darius, Persepolis Edict (15-18). 518-515 B. C.; Nākshi
Rustam (NK 9-23-26) after 515 B. C. Behistun Inscription, 1. 14-17; sar rese. Cf. 10-18. N. R. 9-22-30, Persian coins ; Vide, C. H. I. Vol. 1, Plato, 1. Ch. XIV. pp. 285-308.

Page #542

Sec. V
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
517
India during the Achamenjd rule over this region, as it is evidenced in the classical Greek accounts and the epigraphic and numismatic records of the Achamenids. The Indo-Persian trade-relation established by the Indian merchants is mentioned in the Avašyaka Cūrni, the Uttarādhyayana Tikā and it is also supported by the account of Kālakācārya-Kathānaka. The presence of the female attendants of Pārasa in the North-East of India during the time of Lord Mahāvīra appears to be a historical fact in the Light of the evidences furnished by the classical Greek accounts and Persian records—both epigraphic and numismatic. The Ajhole Inscription of Pulakeśī? II, shows that the diplomatic relation with Persia was established by him late in the 7th Century A. D.
Bhuttuyās
The Bhuttuyās may be identified with the people of ancient Bhota country the name of which is still preserved in that of modern Bhūtān.
1 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II, See Bombay Gazetteer Vol.1. : Bhs, 3. 2. 143

Page #543

NINTH CHAPTER Cosmology, Cosmography, and Geography
FIRST SECTION
Cosmology In the Bhs the entire Universe is conceived of as comprising Loka (the inhabited Universe) and Aloka (Non-Universe-uninhabited by beings), both of which were eternal and without succession.
"Dovi ee sāsayā bhāvā, aņāņupuvvi”l.
There are prescribed to be four kinds of the Universe (Loka), viz., Dravyaloka (the Universe of substane), Ksetraloka (the Universe of space), Kālaloka (the Universe of Time), and Bhāvaloka (the Universe of state).
The Ksetraloka is divided into three regions, viz. AdhaḥlokaKetraloka (lower region), Tiryagloka-Ksetraloka (horizontal region) Urddhvaloka-ksetraloka (upper region); they are further sub-divided into different worlds.
Thus there are stated to be seven kinds of AdhaḥlokaKŘetraloka viz. Ratnaprabhā-prthivi, Sarkarā prabhā, Vālukāprabhā, Parkaprabhā, Tamā, Tamaḥtamā (i.e. Adhah-Saptamā),' innumerable Tiryagloka-Ksetra-loka, such as, Jambūdvīpa island upto Svayambhū ramana island and sea, and there are fifteen Urddhvaloka-Ksetralokas, viz. (1) Saudharma, (2) Aišāna, (3) Sanatkumāra, (4) Mahendra, (5) Brahmaloka, (6) Lāntaka, (7) Mahāśukra, (8) Sahasrāra, (9) Anata, (10) Pränata, (11) Arana, (12) Acyuta, (13) Graiveyakavimāna, (14) Anuttara-V imana, (15) Isadprāgbhāraprthivi-Urddhvaloka."
It is stated that the border of the Non-Universe (Alokānta) is touched by that of the Universe (Lokänta), while the borders of the Universe are connected by the following stages (sthānas) one after another, viz. the intervening space (avakāśāntara),
1 Bhs,1, 6, 53. : 10, 11, 10, 420. 10, 11, 10, 420.

Page #544

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
519
air (vāta), a highly rarified air (tanuvāta), a thick atmosphere (ghanavāta) a cloudy atmosphere (ghanodadhi), earth, islands, seas and continents (Vargas).
In the cases of Lokanta and Alokānta, the Lokānta and the Seventh intervening space, the Lokanta and the seventh world, tanuvāta and ghanavāta, ghanodadhi and the seventh world there is no succession.' Shapes of the Universe and the Non-Universe
The Universe is of the shape of a well-placed lid (sarā) on a water-pitcher; its lower region is wide apart standing as if on two legs; the middle one is narrow; the upper one is shaped like the mouth (face) of a standing drum.
The Non-Universe is stated to have a round shape with perforation in the centre.
The shape of the Adhahloka (lower region) is said to be like that of a lid of a vessel; that of the Tiryagloka (horizontal region) is like that of a cymbal (Jhallari santhie) and that of the Urddhvaloka (upper region) is like that of a standing drum."
According to the BhS there are infinite living, non-living and living-cum-non-living substances in the lower, horizontal and upper regions of the Universe from the point of view of substance, while they do not exist in the Non-Universe from the same point of view, but there is one part of non-living substance (ajīvadravyadesa) i.e. space which is the infiniteth part of the whole space (Akāša).
In those three regions of the Universe, Time is eternal from the point of view of time and there are infinite states of colour, smell, etc., upto the infinite states of not-heaviness-cumlightness in the Universe, while in the Non-Universe there are no states of colour, etc., but only space. Extent of the Universe and Non-Universe
The text deals with the question of immeasurable largeness of the Universe and the Non-Universe with the help of
1_Bhs, 1, 6, 53. 4.6 10, 11, 10, 420.
8 16, 7, 1, 261; 11, 10, 420

Page #545

520
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IX examples of the inability of ten swiftest gods to reach the end of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe with their fastest divine speed. But the uncrossed space of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe of those gods are much more than their Crossed space of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe.?
Thus the Universe is stated to be very spacious ; in the east it is countless Kotikoți yojanas (crores & crores of leagues); in the west it is countless, etc., likewise it is in the south and the north : thus with regard to the upper and lower regions also it is countless crores of leagues in length and breadth."
In this extensive Universe there is no part, having the size of an atom, where this soul (or being) was not born nor died from the point of view of the state of eternality of the Universe, its beginningless state, the eternality of Jiva (soul), manifoldness of Karma, and many births and deaths.
. It is explained by a familiar analogy of one large enclosure and one hundred he-goats, kept therein by some man that as within six months every part of that enclosure, having the size of an atom, becomes touched with the excrement, or urine, or phlegm, or mucus of nose, or vomit, or bilious humour, or pus, or semen, or blood, or skin, or hairs, or hoofs, or nails of those he-goats, just like that in every part of the Universe having the dimension of an atom, the soul was born and died." Existence of Beings in the Universe
All beings from the one-sensed being upto the quasi-sensed beings (anindriya) exist in the part of Space of the Universe without causing any trouble to one another like the female dancer and spectators witnessing the performance of dance-drama by her in a theatre hall.
As she or they cannot cause any pain, or trouble, or injury, or dismemberment of the body of one another with their respective looks, so the beings exist in one part of Space of the Universe without binding, touching and causing pain to one another."
1 Bhs, 11, 10, 421. 8 Ib, 12, 7, 457.
· 10, 12, 7, 457, • 16, 11, 10, 422.

Page #546

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
521
Centres of the Universe
Having gone deep into the innumerable parts of the Space of Ratnaprabhāp?thivi—here comes the centre of the Universe. After having crossed a little more than the half of the intervening space of the fourth infernal world Parka prabhā, here is stated to be the centre of the lower region.
Above the Sanatkumāra-Māhendrakalpas and below the Brahmaloka-kal pa, is Ristavimāna, here lies the centre of the upper region.
In the Jambūdvīpa island, just in the middle part of the Mandāru-mountain there are above and below the Ratnaprabhāprthivi two smaller parts of elevation (or width), here is located the centre of the horizontal region called Rucaka, having eight parts, because from this point flow the ten directions—East, EastSouth' etc.
It is stated that the seven skies are not heavy, nor light, not-heavy-cum-light, but are neither heavy nor light.
Similarly the seven tanuvātas rarified air) are not heavy, not-light but heavy cum-light and not neither heavy nor light. Thus the seven ghanavātas, (thick atmosphere!, ghanodadhi (cloudy atmosphere), and the skies of the seven worlds should be known like the seven skies as neither heavy nor light." Order of the Universe (Lokasthiti)
There are eight kinds of Lokasthiti (order of the Universe), viz. (1) Ākāxapratisthitavāta (air resting on the support of space), (2) Vātapratisthita--udadhi (sea resting on the support of air), (3) U dadhipratisthita-prthivă (earth resting on the support of the sea), (4; Pithivż-pratisthita-trasa-sthāvara-prāņa (mobile and immobile beings resting on the support of the earth), (5) Ajīva-jīva pratisthita (non-living substances resting on the living substances), (6) Jiva Karmapratisthita (beings resting on the support of Karma), (7) Ajiva-jīvasaňhrīta (non-living substances collected by the beings (or souls) and (8) Jiva-Karmasanhrta (souls of beings collecting Karma-matters (i.e. souls affected by Karmas). 1 Bhs 13, 4, 479. 10, 1, 9, 73. & 1b, 1, 6, 54.
66

Page #547

522
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IX
The Lokasthiti is explained by an example thus, "as some person fills a leather bladder with air and binds its mouth with a knot; then he ties a knot in the middle of it and opens the upper knot (i.e. mouth) and bleeds the air from its upper part and fills it with water, Next he, binding the mouth of the bladder opens the middle knot; as a result of this action the filled up water will rest on the uppermost portion of the air."
"Or some man fills the bladder with air, ties it to his waist and enters into very deep water with the superhuman power, but he will rest on the upper surface of the water with the help of the upward force of this filled up bladder without getting immersed into the water."
Cosmography
The BhS throws some light upon the Cosmography, but it does not give a complete account of the conception of the world.
SECOND SECTION
According to it the world is conceived of as comprising innumerable island-continents, each being separated by one encircling sea which increases double and double as compared with each preceding one, such as, Jambudvipa island, Lavana-Samudra (salt sea), Dhataki-khanda, Kalodadhi, Puskaravaradvipa, Abhyantara-Puskararddha-Manusyaksetra, Puskararddha Samudra, etc...... upto Svayambhuramana island and sea."
The Jambudvipa-island is the smallest of all islands and seas and is situated in the centre of all "Ayam Jambuddvive...... samuddāņam savvabhamtare"."
The BhS makes incidental references to Bharata, Airavata, Mahavideha, Haimavata, Hairanyavata, Harivarsa, Ramyakavarṣa, Devakuru and Uttarakuru as sub-continents in connection with the discussion on fifteen Karmabhumis and thirty Akarmabhumis.5
1 Bhs, 1, 6, 54. Ib, 11, 9, 418.

Ib, 6, 8, 251; 9, 2, 363-4.
4 16 2, 9, 117; 6, 5, 241. Ib, 20, 8, 676.

Page #548

Sec. II)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
523
The BhS states that Bhāratavarsa lies in the Jambūdvi pa island and mentions some mountains, such as, Culla-Himavanta, Varsadhara, Vaitādhya, etc. and the rivers—Ganga and Sindhu, etc.
Besides these descriptions, it does not give a clear systematic account of cosmography, but it refers to the JambūdvīpaPrajfiapti and the Jivābhigama Sūtra for the detailed treatment of the conception of the world, the location of Jambūdvīpa island and its shape, etc.?
According to the Jambūdvipa Prajftapti also the Jambūdužpa island is in the centre of all islands and seas and smallest of all; it is circular like the shape of apūpa (cake) soaked (or seasoned) with oil, that of a wheel of a cart, that of a pericarp of a lotus, that of the full moon ; it is one lakh Yojanas (leagues) by length and breadth, three lakhs two thousand and sixteen Yojunas, three hundred twenty-seven krošas, twenty-eight hundred dhanus and more than thirteen and half angulas by circumference."
It is further stated that the Jambūdvīpa consists of seven Kretras (or Vargas), viz. Bhārata, Haimavata, Harivarsa, Videha, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airāvata.
These seven Kşetras are separated from one another by six Kulaparvatas, viz. Himavāna, Mahāhimavāna, Nişadha, Nīla, Rukmi and Sikhari.
of the above lands and mountains situated in the Jambudvzpa island the dividing mountain is double the preceding land; the next land is double the preceding mountain due to its circular shape.
This order is followed upto Videha which is in the centre of this island continent, the extension of the forward mountain is half of Videha, that of the next forward land is half of the
1 Bhs, 9, 1, 362. See Jambud diva Pannati. % Jambud diva Pannati, 1, 1, 3,

Page #549

524
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IX
preceding mountain; thus this order should be known upto Airāvata land.1
According to this arrangement there are 190 divisions of Jambudvipa island, Bharata 1+ Himavana 2+ Haimavata 4+ Mahāhimavana 8+ Harivarsa 16+ Nisadha 32+ Videha 64 + Nila 32+ Ramyaka 16+ Rukmi 8+ Hairanyavata 4+ Šikhari 2+ and
Airavata 1.
In the Jambuddiva Pannatti, Harivarsa is located to the north of Bharatavarsa; the Himalayan range is divided by the Himalayan mountain into two, viz. Mahahimavanta or greater Himalayan and Culla-Himavanta or lesser Himalayan-the first one extending eastwards upto the eastern sea and the second westwards and then southwards below the Varsadhara mountain upto the sea".
Further it is described that Bharatavarsa lies to the south of the Himalayas and between the eastern and western seas.
Nomenclature of Bharatavarsa
According to the Jambuddiva-Pannatti the name of Bharatavarsa is derived from that of king Bharata, the first sovereign king of India'.
Shape of Bharatavarsa
Bharatavarsa resembles the shape of a bed-stead (couch) from the north and a bow from the south "uttarão pālankasamṭhānasamthie dahinão dhanupittha-samthie."
It is divided into six parts by the Ganga, the Sindhu and the Vaitaḍhya mountain-range and it is 526 leagues in area."
12 Jambuddiva Pannati Samgaho-2nd Uddesaka-2, 10 (gāthā). See also Introduction p. 113 (Jivarāja Jain Granthamālā). "Jambuddiva Pannatti 1. 9. Vide Dr. B. C. Law's India as
described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism. p 4. 4 Jambuddiva Pannatti, III, 41. 5 Jambudvipa-Prajñapti, 1, 9. Ib. It is described that Bharatavarsa is divided by the Vaitadhya into two halves, viz. the northern half and the southern half (Jambu. 1. 12). Vide, Dr. B. C. Law-India as described in the early texts

Page #550

Sec. 11]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
525
It is further stated that there is in the Cwla Himavanta a large lotus lake from the four outlets of which flow the four great rivers, viz. Gangā, Rohita (Brahmaputra), Sindhu and Harikāntā (not definitely identified).'
A similar account of the conception of the world, Jambūdvīpa and Bhāratavarsa as given in the Bhs and the Jambuddīvapannatti is also found in the Brāhmanical and Buddhist works with some differences.
According to the Brāhmaṇical works the world is conceived of as containing seven concentric island-continents (Saptadvīpā Vasumatī),* (Saptadvīpāvati Mahī), demarcated by the encircling seas which increased double as compared with each preceding one (dviguņair věddhyā sarvataḥ pariveșțitāḥ)."
In some texts the number is increased to nine "Sasāgarā navadvīpā dattā bhavati Medinī” or to thirteen (trayodaśā samudrasya dvīpānaśuan purūravā”) or decreased to four.?
According to the earlier and later texts and commentaries the world consists of four islands, viz. Jambūdvīpa, Pūrvavideha, Aparagodāna, and Uttarakuru.8
Jambūdvīpa appears with Sineru (Sumeru) in the centre of all Pîrvavideha (eastern continent) is situated to the east of
Sineru, Aparagodāna (the western continent) to the west, Uttarakuru or northern continent to the north and the Jambūdvipa (southern continent) to the south.
1 Jambuddiva-Pannatti, IV 34. 35; Vide, Dr. B, C. Law's
India as described in the early texts of Buddhism & Jainism. Patanjali Mahābhāsya, Kielhorn's Ed. Vol. 1, p. 9; Vide,
Studies in Indian Antiquites, 6th Ch. P. 65. 8 Brahmānda Purāna.-37. 13; Vide, Studies in Indian Anti
quties, Ch. VI; P. 65. Märk. P. Ch. 54.7. 4 Vide, Studies in Indian Antiquities, Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhuri, 6th Ch., P. 65.
5 Padmapurana. Sarga, VI, I, 26. 8 Mahābharata, 1, 74, 19 with Nilakantha Sastri's commentary. 7 Mahabharuia, VI, 6, 13., Vide, Studies in Ihdian Antiquities,
6th Ch., P. 65. 8 Vide, India as described in the early texts of Buddhism &
Jainism. 9 Dr, B. C. Law: Geography of Early Buddhism p. xvi.

Page #551

526
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
(Ch. IX
In the Buddhist texts Jambūdvipa signifies the continent of India. Comparative Study of the evidences furnished by the above three sources regarding Jambūdvīpa
According to the Jaina conception there are nine Varsas of Jambūdvipa in the centre of which lies the mount Meru, to the south of which are located Himavāna, Mahāhimavāna and Nişadha, the three mountains by which Bharata, Himavata and Harivarşa are demarcated respectively.
By the same order Nila, Rukmi, Sikhari, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airāvata Kretra are placed ; in between the Nisadha and Nila mountains Videha is situated, while Deva is placed in between two mountains, viz. Saumanasa and Vidyutprabha and Uttarakuru in between Gandhamādana and Mālyavāna.
Just like this Jambūdvīpa is discribed in the Brāhmaṇical works as an island having a space of 1,00,000 Yojanas and a shape like a lotus with Meru as its Karnikā (Pericarp) and the Varsas or Mahādvīpas, viz. Bhadrāíva, Bhārata, Ketumāla and Uttarakuru, as its four petals.
The elevated land around Meru is known as Ilāvsta to the east of which lies Bhadrāśva in between Mālyavāna mountain and the eastern sea ; to the west of Ilāvịta, Ketumala in between Gandhamādana and the western sea ; to the north of this tract lie Ramyaka, Hairanyavata, and Uttarakuru ; Ramyaka in between Nila and Sveta ; Hairanyavata in between Sveta and Srågavāna, and Uttarakuru in between $rngavāna and the north sea.
On the south of this tract are Bhārata, Kimpurusa and Harivarsa ; Harivarsa lies in between Nisadha and Hemakūta ; Rimpurusa in between Hemakūta and Himavāna, and Bhārata, being the most southern Varsa lying in between the Himavāna and the southern sea extending upto the ocean.
Thus taking Bhadrāíva and Ketumāla and Ilāvrta there are nine Varšas in the Jambūdvzpa island.
1 Geographical Essays p. 5; M, R. E. of Asoka R. E. xiii,

Page #552

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
527
As in Jaina Geography the Jambū tree is situated in the region to the north of Mandāra mountain, so in the Brāhmaṇical Geography also it is mentioned as lying to the east of Meru on Mandāra, Gandhamādana-Supäriva.
The particular difference is that there are innumerable islands and seas encircling each other, while in the Brāhmaṇical Geography there are seven islands and seven seas, viz. Jambūdvzpa, Lavana-Samudra, Plaksadvīpa, Ikşurasa-Samudra, Sālmalidvipa, Sura-Samudra, Kušadvipa, Kšīra-Samudra, Sakadozpa, DadhiSamudra, Puskaradvīpa and Suddha-Samudra.
It is difficult to identify all these islands, seas, continents, sub-continents, mountains and rivers, etc., with accuracy in the light of the modern knowledge of Indian Geography at the present state of informations.
Here and there a few identifications of them are possible.
So far as India is concerned, the account of its shape, size, nomenclature, mountains, rivers, etc., seems to be accurate,
THIRD SECTION
Geography
Janapadas (States) It has already been pointed out in the first section of the third chapter on 'Political Conditions that India was politically divided into sixteen great states during the time of Lord Mahāvīra, viz. Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malaya, Mālavaka, Accha, Vatsa, Kautsa, (Kaccha) Pādha (Patha), Lāta, Vajji (Vaija) (Videha), Moli, Kāśž, Košala, Abādha (Avāha) and Sunbhuttara.?
Besides these, there is the mention of Sindhu-Sauvīra, sixteen unnamed small states and many cities.
Most of these great states and cities are well known to the other ancient texts of India and can be identified with certainty.
i Bhs, 15, 1, 554.
Ib, 13, 6, 491.

Page #553

528
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IX
Anga
Anga is also mentioned in other Jain texts', Brāhmaṇical' and Buddhist works, and epigraphic records as a state of ancient India with its capital at Campā which stood at the confluence of the river of the same name and the Gangā.
The original name of the city was Mālini as recorded in the Mahābhārata? and the Purānas.
The earliest reference to Anga occurs in the Atharva Veda where the Angas are described as a distinct people in association with the Magadhas, the Mujavantas and the Gandharvas without locating their habitats, and they are also branded as Vrātya, a despised people who were outside the pale ob orthodox Aryanism.10
There are different legends grown round the origin of the name of Anga. According to the Aitareya Brāhmana" the people of Anga were called Angas after the name of an eponymous king Anga Vairocana, who is mentioned in the list of consecrated kings. The Rāmāyana" tells that it was called Anga because it is here that Ananga, the cupid god left his body (anga) after taking shelter in this country to save himself from the fire of wrath of Rudra. The foundation of this country is attributed by the Mahābhūrata and the Purāna:18 to a prince, Anga by name.
Ancient Anga corresponds to modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr and comprised the western part of the district of Purnea and extended northwards upto the river Kausikż or Kosz14.
i Pannavana, 1, 37. p. 55a.
Atharva Veda, v. 22. IV; Pānini, VI, 1, 170; 11, 4, 62 Mbh.
1, 104 ; Rámā, 47, 14 : (J A.S.B. 1914, 317), * Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S. 213. 4 Häthigumpha Inscription of Khäravela ; Belāva grant of Bhoja
Varman (Inscriptions of Bengal Vol. III. pp. 15ff, etc.). 6 Jataka, 506. 6 Mahabharata, III. 84. 163; 307, 26. ? Mahābhārata, II, 5, 6, 7. XIII, 42, 16. 8 Matsya Purana, 48, 97; Vayu P. 98, 105; Hari. P. 31, 49. 9 Atharva Veda, 22, 14. 10 J. R. A. S. 1913, 155 ff. J.A.S.B. 1914. p. 317 ff. 1 Aitareya Brahmana. 1,23, 14. 12 Rāmāyana 1, 23, 14; J.A.S.B. 1914 p. 317. 18 Moh. 1, 144, 55, 54 ; Matsya Pu. p. 48, 19.
See, Epi. I. XXVV. pt. 3, July 1937; Vide, B.C. Law : India as described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism.

Page #554

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
529
Vanga
Vanga also finds mention in other Jajna?, Brāhmaṇical, and Buddhist works and several epigraphic records along with Anga, Magadha and other Janapadas.
In the Jaina Pannāvanā Sutta the people of Vanga are placed in the first rank of the Aryans along with those of Magadha, Anga and others.
The earlist appearance of Vanga is found in the Aitareya Aranyaki® as well as in the Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtra where the Vangas are branded as impure people along with the Pundras, Kalingas and others.
According to the collective evidences furnished by the Sakti Sangama Tantra”, the commentator of Vatsyāyana KāmaSutra", the Pannāvaņā Sulta, the Mahābhārata', the Raghuvarsa and Dašakūnāra carita", Vanga, in the wider sense, was the vast territory extending from the eastern bank of Lauhitya upto Kapisa (Kāśāi river in Midnapore, West Bengal), while in the limited sense, it was the land including Vikrama pur (East Bengal) and its adjoining regions lying to the eastern bank of the Brahmaputra comprising Eastern Bengal, “Vanga Lohityāt Pūrvena".
1 Pannavana Sutta, 1, 37, 55a. ? Aitareya Āranyaka, II, 1, 1, 1, Pāṇini's Aștādhyāyi (4,170);
Mbh. XII ; Rāmā. Book II, etc. 9 Anguttara Nikaya, III, pp. 57 ff. • Meharauli Iron pillar Inscription of king Candra, C.I.I. Vol.
III. pp. 141 ff; l'irumalai los. of Rājendra Cola, Goharwa
plate of Lakşmikarņa, E. I. XI. 112, etc. 6 Pannavunā šutta, 1, 37. & Aitareya Āranyaka, II, 1, 1, 1. Cf Keith, Aitareya Aranyaka
600; Bauhāyına Dharma Sutra, (1, 1, 14). Sakti Sangang Tantra (Ratnakarath samārabhya Brahmaputrāotagah Sive Vaðgadese sayā proktah sarvasiddhi pradarsakah); sce Yoginītantra 2. 2. 119, Vide, H. G. A.
p. 268. 8 Yasodhara-Varga Lohityāt pūrvena.
Mahābhārata (Vangurāja...). Sabhāparvan, Ch. XXX. 23-5. 10 Raghuvam sa (Vangānutkhāya tarasá), Canto IV. 35-6. 11 I. H. Q. Vol. VII. No. 3, p. 533,
67

Page #555

530
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IX
Magadha
Magadha is also recorded in other Jaina texts', Vedic and Buddhist' works and in several epigraphic documents' as one of the great states of ancient India with its capital at Rājagsha.
It is regarded as one of the holy places of the Jainas, because it is closely associated with the lives and works of Lord Pārsvanātha and Lord Mahāvīra for several centuries after their demises.
The earliest mention of the name of Magadha is found in the Atharva Veda" where the Magadhas appear along with the Gandhāras, etc., as despised people outside the pale of the Aryan society, but in the later Vedic works they are incorporated into the Aryan fold.
As regards the location of Magadha it is to be observed that this state pushed up its frontiers to all directions in different periods. According to the views of all scholars, Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya of South Bibar, to the east of Anga demarcated by the river Campā, having the Gangā on its north, the Vindya mountain to the south and the the river Sone to the west.
Malaya
Malaya is also mentioned in other Jaina texts' as one of the sixteen great states and one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan lands with its capital at Bhaddilapura which corresponds to the Kuluhā hill in the Hazaribagh district to the south of Patna and south-west of Gaya in Bihar.
Pannavaņā Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55a. • Atharva Veda, v. 22, 14. 8 Anguttara Nikāya 1II. pp. 57ff; p. 57 ff ;P. T. S. 1.213.
Bhābrā Edict of Asoka; Hathigumphā Inscriptions of Khāra
vela E. I. p. X 12f, Vide, Select Inscriptions. 6 Atharva Veda, 22-24.
Brhat Sanhita Kūrmavibhāga; Vide, C. A. G. 1. p. 6. A. G. 1. pp. 518 ff ; Ancient India, p. 166; P. H. A. Iodia, fifth ed.
p. 53; Buddhist India, p. 14 ; see C, H. I., A. I. p. 182. ? Pannavana Sutta, 1-37, p. 55a. 8 Ş. B. M. p. 381. Jalore V. S. 1988.
.

Page #556

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
531
But there was a country named Malaya located in the south, having the mountain Malaya lying there.' It is identified with the country which corresponds to the present Malabar region with Travancore-Cochin.2
Malavaka
Malavaka is recorded in other Jaina texts as one of the sixteen great states with its earlier and later capitals at Avanti or Ujjayini and Dharanagara at the time of king Bhoja. Malavaka may be identified with Avanti of the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya.
This state also finds mention in several epigraphic records' and in the itinerary of Hiuen Tsang as Mo-la-paR which corresponds to modern Malwa.
6
Attha (Accha)
Attha appears also in other Jaina texts as one of the great sixteen states with its capital at Varana or Varuna. It may be identified with the place centring about Bulandshahr in the Uttara-Pradesh.10
Vattha (Vaccha=Vatsa)
Vattha (Vatsa) finds mention in other Jaina texts," Buddhist1*
1 Brhatkathakośa. 75. 1.
2 Geographical Dictionary, N. L. Dey. p. 122. Vide, L. A. I. p. 310.
8 Pannavana, 37; Nisitha Cürni, 16. p. 110; Brṛhatkalpa Bhasyavritti. 47.
4 Geographical Dictionary, p. 122.
Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 310; Anguttara Nikaya, P. T. S. 1. 213.
Vide, Political History of Ancient India p. 96; 4th ed. Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury.
Sagartala (Gowalior Prasasti) Inscription of Pratihāra king, Bhoja, Paithana plate of the Rastrakuta king, Govinda III; Madhuvana and Banskhera Inscriptions of Harsa-Varddhana. 8 Watters on Yuan Chwang II. pp 242.
9 Pannavana Sutia, p. 37. 55a.
10 Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 264.
11 Pannavana, 1. 37; Uvasagadasão, 11, Dr. Hoernle Vol. 1 Appendix 1. p. 7. Here Vaccha is referred to as people.
12 Anguttara Nikaya, P. T. S. 1. 213 (Here Vamsa is mentioned in stead of Vaccha or Vatsa).

Page #557

532
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IX
and Brahmanical' works as a distinct territorial unit with its capital at Kausāmbi (Kośām).
According to the tradition recorded in the Harivamia Purāna the origin of the Vatsas and the building up of their land (Vatsabhumi) are attributed to a prince of Kasi and the foundation of the city of Kosambi or Kausambi to a Cedi king, Kośamba by name according to the Rāmāyaṇa. Probably Fatsa corresponds to the region lying to the north-east of Avanti along with the bank of the Yumuna southwards from Kosala to the west of Allahabad" and the south of the Ganga."
Kottha (Koccha - Kautsa)
Kottha may correspond to Kausikikaccha lying to the east of the river Kausiki in the district of Purnea (N. Bihar)."
This Kaccha or Kautsa may probably be identical with Kautsa of the Udayagiri Inscription of Candragupta II, whose minister is called Kautsa-saba i.e. a boy or man of Kautsa.8
Ladha (or Radha)
Ladha is also mentioned in other Jaina texts Buddhist works,10 and several epigraphic records" as a separate unit of territory.
According to the Acaranga Sutra it was a pathless land comprising two sub-divisions, viz. Subbhabhumi and Vajjabhumi where lived the rude people who set their dogs on Lord Mahāvīra
1 Aitareya-Brahmana, VIII. 14. 3. It mentions the people of Vatsa as Vasas.
2 Harivamsa, p. 29-73.
* Rāmāyaṇa, 1, 32.
4 Buddhist India p. 3.
5 N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary p. 100.
6 Rāmāyaṇa, 52, 101.
? N.L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary p.97. Vide, Life in Ancient India p. 298.
8 Udayagiri Inscription of Candragupta II. Vide, Select Inscriptions: Dr. D. C. Sarkar p. 272, A. D. 401.
9 Acaranga Sutra, 1, 8, 3-4.
10 Majjhima Nikaya, 1. 79 Vide, H.G. of Ancient India p. 254, 11 Bhuvanesvara Inscription of Bhaṭṭa-Bhavadeva; Terumalai Rock Inscription of Rajendra Cola, etc.

Page #558

Sec. III] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SUTRA 533 and his followers. The Terumalai Rock Inscription of Rājendra Cola records two Lādhas, viz. Uttara-Lādha and Daksiņa-Lādha (Takkana-lādam) as two independent teritorial units.
It may be that in the earlier times Lādha or Rādha was a large unit which included. Subbhabhūmi and Vajjabhūmi, it is also found in later stage that the name Suhma gradually gave place to Rādha which was its synonym.
Lādha may correspond to the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah. Burdwan, Bankura and major portion of Midnapore and some portions of Murshidabad districts.
Padha (Pandya)
Pādha of the Bhs may be identified with Pādham in the district of Mainpuri in Uttara Pradesha.
There is also a reference in the Asokan Edict to another Padha (pāda) along with Coda, Sātiyaputta. and Keralaputta which are located in the south. This Padha is identical with the Pandya country which finds mention in Indian and foreign records as distinct territorial unit with its capital at Madura.
Vajja
Vajja was the land of the Vajjīs (Vrijās) of the Buddhist works which lay with its capital at Vaiśālī to the north of the Gangā and extended as far as the Nepal hills; on the west it was probably demarcated by the river Gandaka from the territory of the Mallas and perhaps also the Košalas : on the east by the forests that bordered the rivers, Kośi and Mahānandā."
Vajja may also correspond to the greater Videha with its capital at Mithilā round Darbhangā.
1 John Allan-The Ancient India coins, p. 1. HR. E. S. II. XIII. 8 Astādhyāyi of Pānini 4, 1, 171 ; S.J.I. 1. 1. pp. 5, 59, 63, etc.
Mbh. Sabhā. P. Ch. 31. v. 17. ; Rāmā. IV, Ch. 41 ; Mark. P.
Ch. 57. V. 45. 4 A. I. Megasthenes & Arrian-pp. 162-163 ; Periplus ; Ptolemy
p. 183. * P.H.A.1, fifth Ed. p. 118. 6 Satapatha Brāhmaṇa, X1, 6.2.1. etc., Jātaka-6. 30–68, etc.

Page #559

534
Moli (Malla)
Moli of the BhS is the Malla country of the Anguttara Nikaya. This Malla territory is also mentioned in the Mahabharata as the Malla-Rastra which was divided into two partsMalla proper and the southern Malla." This evidence of two units of Malla is also corroborated by the Buddhist works which state that it was partitioned into two zones with their respective capitals at Kuśāvati or Kuśinārā (modern Kasia) and Pāvā.
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
The Malla territory was hallowed by the sacred visits of Lord Mahāvīra and Lord Buddha respectively. The Mallakis and the Licchavis were closely united in their war with king Kunika-Ajātasatru of Magadha."
[Ch. IX
These evidences show that Moli (Malla) lay on the mountain slopes to the east of the Sakya land and to the north of the Vajji Confederacy.R
Avāha
Kāśī
Avaha has not yet been identified.
Kasi figures also prominently as a distinct territorial unit with its capital city as Varanasi in other Jain texts, Brāhmaṇical10 and Buddhist" works and epigraphic records" which throw much light ubon its political, social, economic and cultural history.
1 Anguttara Nikaya (P. T. S. 1.213; IV. 252, 256, 260). Mahabharata, VI, 9, 34.
Ib, II, 33, 3 and 12.
4 Kusa Jataka, No. 531; etc.
5
Kalpa Sutra, Jaina Sutras, pt. 1, p. 264.
Vide, Hindu Polity, p. 43 (Jat. 111, 157; 1, 2, 127. 4, 198-99, p. 44, f.n 12, M. P.S. 6. 23).
7 Bh8, 7, 9, 300-301
8 Buddhist India, p. 16., see also C. A. G. 1 (1924) 714, Vide, P.H.A. I, 5th Ed., p. 12; C. A. G. I., pp. 430-3.
9 Nirayavaliya Sutta 1, Uvasagadasão II, 90-8.
10 Vedic Index, II, 116. n. (Atharva Veda) Samkhyayana Srauta Sutras, XVI, 29.5. Satapatha Brahmana, XIII, 5, 4, 19, Panini, 4, 2, 116; Rama. Adikanda, 13th Sarga, etc., Mbh. Udyogaparva, Ch. 117, p. 746.

11 Anguttara Nikaya, 1. 213. Digha Nikaya II, 1. 46. 13 Madhainagara grant of Lakṣmaṇa Sena. Cf. E. I., XXVI, pt. I India office plate of Lakṣmaṇa Sena.

Page #560

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
535
Ancient Kāśi corresponds to the region round Benares district which was demarcated by Kašala on the north, Magadha on the east and Vatsa on the west.
In the days of Lord Mahāvīra Kāíi was one of the members of the Vajj Confederacy which was formed to fight with king Kūņika-Ajātaśatru. Kosala
Košala also appears in other Jaina texts, Brāhmaṇical' and Buddhist,“ works as an independent state having two zones, namely, Northern Kokala with its capital at Săvatthi (Srāvasti) and Southern Košala with Sāketa as its capital.
It was probably bounded by the Gangā on the south, the mountains on the north, the Gandaka Sadānīrā' on the east and Gomatā on the west and it may be identical with the present Oudha (Ayodhyā). Košalapura (or Košala), was associated with the birth of the fifth Tirthankara’ and the activities of Ajīvikism, Jainism and Buddhism, as it is evidenced by the fact that its capital city Srāvastī was hallowed by the presence of Gośāla Mankhaliputra, Lord Mahāvīrao and Lord Buddhato respectively.
In the time of the Master, Košala also joined the Vajjī Confederacy against Magadha and sustained defeat at the hands of king Kūņika-Ajātasatru".
Sumbhuttara (Suhma)
Sumbhuttara?? appears to be identical with Subbhabhūmi of
1 Buddhist India, p. 21, Rhys Davids. ? Bh8, 7, 9, 300. 9 Pannavanā Sutta, 1, 37, 55a. 4 Satapatha Brāhmana, 1, 4, 11; Panini (Astādhyayi). VI. 1.17;
Visnu, P. Ch. 4; Rāmāyana, II, 68, 13; Moh. ll, 30, 2, 3;
31. 12. 13. * Anguttara N4kaya, 1. 213. . 6 Buddhist India p. 21, Rhys Davids 7 Avasyaka Niryukti, 382. Vide, Life in Ancient India p. 300. 8 Bhs, 15, 1, 539 ff. | 16, 15, 1, 539 ff. 10 Dialogues of the Buddha, I. pp 108, 288 11 Bhs 7, 9, 300.
13 16, 15, 1, 554.

Page #561

536
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. IX the Acaranga Sutra1 and Suhma of the Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical3 works. Śri Nilakantha Sastri equates Suhma with Radha in his commentary on the Mahabharata.
Thus it appears that the centre of Sumbhuttara (Suhma) corresponds to Triveni-Saptagrama-Paṇḍua area in the Hooghly district (West Bengal), as it is supported by the existence of the famous shrine of Murārī, of Raghu-Kulaguru (the Sun) and Arddhanarisvara (conjoint form of Siva and his consort Parvati) as recorded in the Pavanaduta of Dhoyi. Its boundaries also extended upto Tamralipta (Tamaluk) at one time and it formed the part of greater Radha.
Sindhu-Sauvīra
Sindhu-Sauvīra was one of the sixteen small states with its capital at Vitibhaya ruled over by king Udayana who was matrimonially related to the president-king, Cetaka of Vaišālī.
It appears that Sindhu-Sauvira formed one united kingdom, but Sovira or Sauvira is mentioned as a separate territorial unit in the early Buddhist works', Aṣṭādhyāyz and Patanjali Mahabhāṣya.
These two lands figure conjointly in the epics' and Purānas11 and also in the Junagadha Rock Inscription of Rudradamana." The unification of two territorial units suggests that the two peoples were considered as one and the same.
1 Acaranga Sutra (S B.E. Vol. XXII, pp. 84-5), Pannavanā, 1.17 Talapatta Jataka, No. 96, Vol. 1. p. 393.
3 Mahabharata, Ch. 30,16 (Sabha P.); Raghuvamsa 49-35, 49, 38; Raghu-IV. 3, 5, 6.; Dasa-Kumara Carita 6th Ucchvāsa p. 102; Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara, Ch. 17; Harsacarita, 6th Ucchväsa; Pavanaduta of Dhoy i-V. 27.
Nilkantha's commentary on the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata Suhmaḥ-Radhaḥ'
5 Pavanduta of Dhoy1, V. 27.
7 Mahagovinda Suttanta (Digha
8 Astadhyayi (4. 2. 76; 4.1.143.)
Mahabhasya, 4. 2. 76.
10 Mbh. (Bhisma-Parva) 5, 1, 14. Ch. 18. 13. 14. Adiparva 4. 139. 21-3.
4
BhS, 13, 6, 491. Panna. 1, 37. N. II p. 235).
11 Mark. P. Ch. 57, 36; 58, 30; Visnu P. Book II, Ch. III. 1 J.R.I. of Rudradamana-150 p. 7.

Page #562

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
537
Sindhu-Sauvira corresponds to the region comprising the whole valley of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea including the delta and the island of Cutch.1
Punda (Pundra)'
Punda was a small state situated at the foot of the Vindhyagiri with its capital at Sayaduvara (Satadvāra). It is also mentioned in the other Jaina texts. Its identity has not yet been traced.
FOURTH SECTION
Geography
Some Towns and Cities
Atthiyagama (Asthikagrāma)'
It was
Aṭṭhiyagama is also mentioned in the Kalpa Sutra3. the place where Lord Mahāvīra passed his first rainy season during the period of his austerity.
According to the commentary on the Kalpa Sutra the earlier name of Varddhamana (Burdwan, West Bengal) was Asthikagrāma where a temple was erected on the bones of the dead people" killed by a Yakṣa Šulapāņi, while Dr. B. C. Law suggests the identification of Aṭṭhiyagama with Hatthigama Hastigrama) which lay on the high road from Vaisali to Pāvā. It is not yet definitely identified.
Alabhiya (Alabhikā)
Alabhiya was a city inhabited by Rṣibhadraputra and other Sramano pasakas. It also finds mention in other Jaina
and

1 C.A.G.I. p. 284.
3 Thananga, 9, 693; Antagada, 5, p.
4 Bhs, 15, 1, 541.
• Commentary on the Kalpa Sutra.
7 Mahavira; His Life & teachings: B. C. Law. p. 33. 8 BhS, 11, 12, 423.
9 U vasagadasão, II, p. 103; Appendix p. 51-53; Niryukti, 516.
68
2 BhS, 15, 1, 559.
26.
5 Kalpa Sutra, 5, 122.

Avasyaka

Page #563

538
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX Buddhist works as a city sanctified by the sacred visits of Lord Mahāvīra and Lord Buddha. It is here in the Sankhavana Caitya Lord Mahāvīra converted Pudgala, a Parivrājaka to Sramana Dharma. It is said that this city was also visited by Gośāla Mankhaliputra in one of his former births."
It is identical with Alavi of the Buddhist Records which lay between Sävatthi and Rajugrha, thirty Yojana: from Srävasti and twelve Yojanas from Benaras. It has been identified by Cunningham and V. Smith with the Ghazipura regions, U. P. Campā
Campā was the capital city of Anga which was ruled over by king Kūņika as already pointed out in connection with the identification of Anya. It is also referred to in other Jain texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical' works, and Chinese Records as an important city having its political, social, economic, religious and cultural history. Campā was intimately associated with the development of Jainism and Buddhism. It was so celebrated in ancient India that its name was attributed by the Indian colonists in Cochin-China to one of their important colonies." The city has been identified by Cunningham" with two villages, viz.Campānagara and Campā pura in the neighbourhood of Bhagalpur in Bihar. Hastinäpura 13
Hastināpura was the capital city of king Šiva, the royal sage who was converted by Lord Mahāvīra to Sramaņa Dharma
Sutta Nipāta; The Book of Kindred Sayings Vol. 1 p. 275,
Ch. XI. 17 etc. : Bh8, 15, 1, 556. 8 Watters op Yuan Chwang II. pp. 61. 340. 4 Bh8, 5, 1, 176; 5, 10, 222. 6 Pannavana, 37 ; Nayadhammakahão, 8. p. 92 ff. & Jataka, 506. ? Mahābhārata, 111, 84, 163; 307 26, Dasakumāracarita II. 2. 8 Watters on Yuan Chwang, II. 181. 9 Avaśyaka Niryukti, 307, 383 (It was the birth place of
Vāsupujja, the 12th Tirthankara, and the place of his Nirvana. 10 Dialogues of the Buddha, 1, 144. 11 I-tsing's travels, p. 58; Vide, Buddhist India, p. 21: Rhys Davids. 19 Geography of Early Buddhism, London, 1932. 18 Bhs, 11, 9, 417; 11, 11, 428 ; 16, 5, 577,

Page #564

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
539
from his Vanaprastha asceticism during the short stay of the Master in the Sahasramravana garden. It finds mention also in other Jaina1 and Brāhmaṇical works as the city of the Kurus. It is stated that Rṣabhadeva the first Tirthankara was an inhabitant of this city.
The Vividha-tirtha-Kalpas attributes the foundation of Hastinapura to king Hasti after whose name it came to be known Hastinapura.
It stood on the Ganges in the Meerut district of Uttara Pradesh and is identified with the modern town of the same name in Mawana Tahsil.*
Kayangalā (Kajangalā)"
Kayangala was a town outside of which lay in the northeastern quarter the Chatrapalasaka Caitya where Lord Mahāvīra once appeared from Rajagṛha and converted the Parivrājaka named Skandaka to Sramana Dharma.
It is also mentioned in the Buddhist works and the account of Hiuen Tsang.' According to the Mahavaggas and the SumangalaVilasini, Kajangala formed the eastern boundary of Madhyadesa (middle country) during the Buddhist period.
Rahul Sankṛtyayan10 identifies it with Kankajola (or Kakajola) in Santhal Paragana in Bihar. It may correspond to the region in the Rajamahal area.
1 Sthānanga Sutra, 9, 691.
Märkandeya Purana, Ch, 57. 91, Bhagavat Purana, 1, 3, 6; 1, 8, 45; Cf. Ramayana, II, 68, 13; Mbh. 1, 128. Vividhatirtha-Kalpa: Jinaprabhasūri, Bombay 1934. See also Harivamsa Purana, 20, 1053-4, etc.
4 C.A.G I., p. 707.
5 BhS, 2, 1, 90.
Angultara Nikaya, V, 54; Majjhima Nikaya, III, 298. 7 Watters on Yuan Chwang, II. 8 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E. II. 38. 9 Sumangala Vilasini, II, 429.
10 Vinayapitaka, p. 213n.: Rahul Sänkṛtyāyan, Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 295.

Page #565

540
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Kampillapura (Kāmpilyapura)1
Kampillapura appears also in other Jaina texts, Buddhist3 and Brāhmaṇical works. The earliest reference to it occurs in the Taittiriya Samhita." It is here Lord Mahāvīra converted Ammaḍa, a Parivrājaka, together with his 700 followers Sramana Dharma. It was the birth place of Vimalanatha, the thirteenth Tirthankara.7
to
[Ch. IX
Ancient Kampillapura lay on the bank of the Ganges and it corresponds to modern Kampil which stands on the same river lying between Budayun and Farrukkhabad in Uttara Pradesh at a distance of twentyeight miles north-east of Fatehgaḍh."
Kummagāma (Kūrmagrāma)10
Kummagama was a town which was visited by Lord Mahāvira along with Gośāla Mankhaliputra during the period of his austerity. It is not yet definitely identified, but it appears to be situated in South Bihar according to the evidence of the BhS.
Kāyandi11
It was a city where lived some Sramano pasakas. It has not yet been identified.
Kollaya (Kollaḍa or Kollaga1)
Kollaya was a small town in the neighbourhood of Nālandā. It is here Lord Mahāvīra is said to have accepted Gośāla
1 BhS, 14, 8, 530.
2 Ovaiya Sutta, 39-40; Avasyaka-Niryukti, 383.
3 Jataka, 11. 214 (Kumbhaka Jāt.).
4 Taittiriya Samhita, VII. 4.19.1; Satapatha Brahmana, xiii, 2.8.3.; Ramayana, Adikanda, Sarga, 33, V. 19; Mahabharata, 1, 138, 73-74; Panini, Kasikavṛtti, 4.2.121.
Taittiriya-Samhita, VII, 4. 19, 1.
• Bh8, 14, 8, 430. 8 C.A.G.I. 413; A.S.R I. 255. 9 Geographical Dictionary, p. 88: N. L. Dey.
7 Avasyaka Niryukti, 383.
10 Bhs, 15, 1, 542, (There seems to be a printing mistake in one latest Vol. of the BhS, where Kundagama appears in place of Kummagama which is found in all the Mss.

11 Bhs, 10, 4, 404. (It may perhaps be identified with Kākandi Refer to Jain Shilalekha Samgraha, Pt. I, edited by P. C. Nahar-Editor).
12 BhS, 15, 1, 541.

Page #566

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
541
Mankhaliputra as disciple after his repeated earnest request. It is not yet definitely identified. It may correspond to a village called Koligama lying eight or nine li (1 miles = 1 li) south west of the Nalanda monastery.'
Kosambi (Kauśāmbi)
Kosambi was the capital city of Vatsa kingdom (VatthaVaccha). It was hallowed by the august visit of Lord Mahāvīra and it is here in the Candravatarana Caitya the Master initiated the princess, Jayanti to ramana Dharma and admitted her to the Nirgrantha order on her express desire.
Kosambi also finds mention in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical" works foreign accounts' and epigraphic records. The foundation of this city is attributed by the Epics to a Cedi prince named Kosamba, the third son of the Cedi king, UpacaraVasu.9 It is said that it was the birth place of the sixthTirthankara and was also visited by Lord Parsvanatha."
Kosambi correspods to modern Kosam on the Yamuna about 30 miles south-west from Allahabad.1
Khattiyakuṇḍagāma (Kṣatriyakundagrāma)13
It was
Khattiyakundagāma also finds mention in other Jain texts14 where it is recorded as the birth-place of Lord Mahavira. a suburb of ancient Vaisali and it is identified by the scholars
1 Watters on Yuan Chwang II. 171. It is said that Koligāma (Kollaga) was the place of birth and death of Moggallana P.T.S. Vol. 1 p. 89. (Dhammapada Commentary).
BhS, 12, 2, 441. Ib, 12, 2, 442. 4 Pannavana, 1, 37. Jataka, 4, 28, Vide, Buddhist India, p, 22. XXII. 2. 2. 113. Satapatha Brahmana, Cf. Weber Ind. Hist. p. 123; Vedic India 1-193; Mahabharata, Adiparva, 63, 31; Rāmāyaṇa, 1, 32, 1-6.
7 Legge Fa-hien p. 96; Watters on Yuan Chwang 1 p. 365. 6; Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 72.
8 Asoka's Kosambi, pillar Edict; Allahabad pillar Ins. C. II. Vol. III.
Mbh. 1, 63, 31.
10 Ava. Nir. 382. 11 Naya, 10, p, 230.
1 C. A. G. I. p. 709.
18 BhS, 9, 33, 383.
14 Kalpa Sutra, 1; Avasyaka Cúrni, p. 243; Avasyaka Niryukti, 384.

Page #567

542
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX
with the present village, Vasukunda in Basarh region in the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar.'
Mahanakunḍagāma (Brāhmaṇakundagrāma)
Mahanakunḍagama was also a quarter of ancient Vaisali and lay to the east of Ksatriyakuṇḍagrāma, as it is evidenced in the BhS. It appears that there were two Kundagrāmas, viz. Ksatriyakundagrāma and Brāhmaṇakundagrāma; the prince, Jamalī hailed from the former quarter, while Ṛsabhadatta, the Brahmana from the latter locality.
It is here in the Bahukalaka Caitya of Brahmanakundagrāma Lord Mahavira initiated Rṣabhadatta, his wife Devanandā, and the prince Jamali to asceticism. It may correspond to a place lying somewhere to the east of Vasukunda.
Mahesariya
It was an ancient city in the Vindhya region. It finds mention in other Jaina texts' and may correspond to Mahiṣmati or Mahesa on the right bank of the Nerbuda (Narmada) forty miles to the south of Indore."
Mihila (Mithila)"
Mihila appears as the capital city of Videha in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brahmaņical works with the historical background of its culture. The Rāmāyaṇa10 attributes the name 'Mithila' to the city as well as to the country itself. According, to the Puranas, Mithi, the son of Nimi popularly known as Janaka was the founder of this celebrated city.
Here lay the Manabhadra Caitya which was hallowed by the august visits of Lord Mahāvīra." It is recorded in the Jaina
1 Homage to Vaišali. p. 85-90. Ib, 14, 8, 528.
5 G. D. pp. 119, 120.
2
Bhs, 9, 33, 380. Ava. Ti. p. 249, a; Ava. Cu. 2, 1, p. 333.
Bh8, 9, 1, 312.
8 Jataka, 3, 365, 4, 316; 6, 246; etc.
Ramayana. 1, 48, 11; Mbh. III, 210, Vanaparva, 254; etc. 10 Ramayana, Adikanda, XLIX, 9, 16. 11 Bhagavat Pu. IX, 13, 13.
12 BhS, 9, 1, 312.

Pannavana, 1, 37; Kalpa Sutra, 5, 123.

Page #568

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
543
texts that Mithila was the place of birth and salvation of the nineteenth and twenty-first Tirthařkaras.
It corresponds to modern Janakapur,' a small town within the border of Nepal as it was called Janakapuri in the Rāmāyana.
Mendhiyagāma (Mendhikagrāma)'
Mendhiyagāma was a town which was visited by Lord Mahāvīra after his departure from Srāvastī. It is here in the Salakoshaka Caitya he suffered from the bilious fever and got cured of it by taking well seasoned Kukkuta-Māriosa, presented by Revati, a female householder of this town. It is not yet identified.
Moya"
Moyā was hallowed by the sacred visit of the Master who once took his temporary abode there at the Nalanda Caitya lying to the north-eastern quarter of this city. It is not yet identified. May it correspond to the region round the present Mokamah in Bihar ?
Nalanda
Nalanda was a suburb town of Rūjagrha where Lord Mahāvira took his temporary residence in a weaver's workshop in the second year of his asceticism. It is here the first meeting between Gośāla Mankhaliputra and the Master took place.
Nalandă also finds mention in other Jaina texts,? Buddhist works, Chinese accounts and epigraphic records.10 It was intimately associated with the development of Jainism and Buddhism. It is identified with modern Baragaon situated at a
1 Avasyaka-Niryukti, 383.
2 C. A. G. I, p. 718. 3 Rāmāyana, 1, 48, 11.
4 Bhs, 15, 1, 557. 6 16, 3, 1, 126.
& Ib, 15, 1, 126. ? Süyagadanga Țī, 7, 68. 8 Samyutta, Nikaya II, p 220; Digha Nikaya, 1, p. 211;
Majjhima Nikaya, Vol 1, 371 ff.. 9 I-tsing-Record of the Buddhist religion-Introduction, p. xvii ;
Watters on Yuan Chwang II. pp. 164, 166. 10 Shahpur Stone Image Inscription of Adityasena ; Nalanda :
Vagīśvari stone Image Inscription in the 1st year of Gopala (J.A.S.B- 1908, VI. pp. 105-6 new series), Nalanda copper plate of Devapāla.

Page #569

544 STUDIES in the BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IX distance of seven miles north-west of Rajgir in the district of Patna on the archaeological evidences. Palāsaka
It was a settlement where lived some Srāmaṇopāsakas. It has not yet been identified.
Padaliputta (Pātaliputra)
Pāďaliputta was the capital city of Magadha after Rājagļha as mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical" works, foreign accounts and epigraphic records with different variatious of its name, such as, Pāțaliputra. Kusumapura, Kusumadhvaja, Puspapura, Puspābhaya (A.P.I.), Polimbothra (Gk.), Pa-lintou (Chinese), etc. The foundation of this city is attributed by the Jaina works' to Udāyin, the son of Darśaka, while the Buddhist tradition mentions Kūņīka-Ajātasatru as its real founder at Pãtaljgrāma on the southern side of the Ganges during the life time of Lord Buddha by fortifying it as a military base of operation against Vaiśālī with the help of his two ministers, named Sunidha and Vassakāra.''
It appears from the Bhs, that this city was not the capital of Magadha at the time of Lord Mahāvīra.
It is here the first council of the Jaina church was held under the presidency of Sthūlabhadra to collect the orally transmitted canons about 200 years after the demise of the Master.11
ICA.G.I p. 537. ? Bhs. 10, 4, 404 9 Ib, 14, 8, 529 4 Āvašyaka Cūrni, II. p. 179; Avaśyaka Niryukti, i279. 5 Digha Nikaya, II, 86 ff; Sumangala-Vilasinī, p. 540 ; See
Ivašyaka jana, II, 86 ff $18. Sushita (Kern), P Modern Review unabhāşya ; rasa, Sloka? by Magastheneuan
& Patañjali's Mahābhāsya; Brhat Samhita (Kern), p. 37 ;
Dasakumāra-Carita-1st Ucchvāsa, Sloka 2. 7 Mc. Crindle -- Ancient India as described by Magasthenese :
and Arrian, p. 65. Legge, Fa-hien-pp. 77-78 ; Watters on Yuan
Chwang-11. p. 87. 8 Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. 9 Avaśyaka Cūrni, II, p. 179. 10 Modern Review, March-1918 ; See also Digha N. II, 86 ff.;
Sumangala-Vilāsini, II, p. 540. 11 Sthavir ārali Carita, Sarga 9.

Page #570

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
545
Ancient Pătali putra has been identified with Kumra har in the neighbourhood of Patna in Bihar. Rājagrha (Rājgīr)!
Rayagiha (Rājayrha) was the celebrated capital city of Magadha ruled over by Śreņika-Bimbisāra. It is also mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhists and Brāhmaṇical' works and Chinese Records.
It was known as Giribbaja in the Buddhist records, for it was surrounded by five bills, viz. Pandava, Gijjhakūța, Vebhāra, Isiyili und Vepulla ; and according to the Mahāl hārata-Vaibhāra, (the ground rock), Varaha, Vršabha Ķsigiri and Caityaka.'
It is here at the Gunakilaka Caitya, situated in the northeastern quarter of Rajayrha, Lord Mahāvīra appeared more than sixty times and delivered most of his sermons on different topics in the assembly of his followers. It was a famous centre of Jainism and Buddhism and it was also sanctified by the sacred visits of Lord Pārsvanātha and Lord Buddha® respectively. It was the birth place of the twentieth Tirthankara. According to the Bhs, the location of the hot spring in the Veb hāra hill, Rayagihu can safely be identified with the present Rājgīr. Sayaduvāra (Satadvāra)
Sayaduvāra was a town in the Pundra Jana pada at the foot of the Vindhyagiri where Gośāla Maókhaliputra was said to have been born in one of his births in the royal family of Sumati and Bhadrã and was known as Mahāpadma. It is not yet identified.
1 Bhs, 1, 1, 4; etc.
Nāyādhammakahāo, II, 10, p. 230; Pannavana, 1, 37 ; etc. 9 Vimānuvattha (Commi) p. 87; Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. IV,
pp. 116-117. 4 Mahābhārata, III, 84. 104 ; see Luder's list No. 1345. 6 Watters on Yuan Chwang II, p. 148. . Mahāvngga, (S. B. F. XII-150); D. P. P. N.II, 721.
Commentary on the Sutta Nipāta, II, p. 382. ? Mahabharata II, 21.2. & Nayādhammakhão, II, 10. p. 230; Nirayāvaliya, 4. • Vinaya Pitaka, IV, p. 267 ; II, 36 ff. ; Digha, II, pp. 76-81, etc. 10 Avasyaka Niryukti, 325, 383.
11 Bh8, 2, 5, 113. 11 Ib, 15, 1, 559; see Thānānga Sutta, 9, 663 ; Antagada,
5, p. 26.
69

Page #571

546
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
Ch. IX
Saravaņa
Saravana was a small town where Gośāla Mankhaliputra was born in a cowshed of Gobahula. It is not yet definitely identified. Sävatthi (Śrāvasti)?
Sāvatthì was the capital city of Košala (North) which was celebrated by the association of Pingalaka---a Sramaṇopāsaka, Skandakama Parivräjaka, Jamālī, Lord Mahāvīra and Gośāla Mankha liputra. Outside the city there lay in the north-eastern quarter a Caitya called Kosthaka where a spiritual duel took place bet ween the Ājivika leader and the Master, resulting in the defeat of the former.
Srāvastī also finds mention in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical works, Chinese accounts and epigraphic records? as a capital city with its political, social, economic, religious and cultural history.
It was the birth place of Sambhavanātha and Candraprabhanātha, the two Tirthankaras8 and it was sanctified by the visits of Lord Pārsvanātha and his disciple Kesikumāra".
Šrāvastż stood on the bank of Acirāvati (modern Rāptī) 10 and is identified with the present Sāhet-Māhet on the basis of archaeological evidencesll.
1 Bhs, 15, 1, 340 : Ib, 2, 1, 90; 9, 33, 386; 15, 1, 539-556. 8 Avasy aka Niryukti, 323 ; 382; Nāyādlhammakahão, II, 9. 19.
p. 229; Niraya. 3,1; Raya-Paseniya S. --- 146 ff. 4 Vinaya : Mahåvagga, pp. 190-191, 293, etc. 6 Visnu Pu, Ch. II, Arsa, 4; Matsya Pu. XII, etc. 6 Legge: Travals of Fa-Heien, 55-56; Watters on Yuan Chwang,
1, 377; II. 200. 7 Soghaura copper plate, I.A. XXV, 216 ff. Vide, H.G.A. I. p. 125. 8 Jain Harivamsa Purana, p. 717. Vide, Jainism in North
India, C. J. Shah, p 26. 9 Rayapaseniya Sutta, 146 ff; Uttaradhyayana Tikā, p. 35a ;
Nayadhammakahão, II, 9. 10 p. 229; Nirayāvuliyā, 3. 1. 10 Vinaya : Mahāvagga, pp. 190-191, 293. 11 J. R A. S. 1903 1098 ff. A. S. 1, R. 1, 330 ff; XI. 78 ff;
A. R. A. S. 1. 1907-8, 81 ff; 1910-11, pp. 1'ff; C. A. G. I. p. 469; H, G. A. I. p. 125.

Page #572

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
547
Siddhatthagāma (Siddhārthagrāma)'
Siddhatthagāma was a small town where Lord Mahāvīra appeared at Kūrmagrāma, being accompanied by Gośāla Mańkhaliputra during the days of his austerity. Siddhatthagāma may correspond to Siddhārthagrāma in the Bīrbhūm district of West Bengal'. Susamārapura
Susamārapura also appears in other Jaina texts and Buddhist worksø as a city.
It is here in the Asoka garden Lord Mahāvīra passed the eleventh year of his asceticism in the state of Chadmastha (state having finite knowledge) by practising the austerity of lekarātrikan mahāpratinā-vratar' (taking only the eighth meal). According to the Buddhist records Susamārapura.was the capital of the Bhaggas (Bhargas). It is identified with modern Cunār in the Mirzāpura district in Uttara Pradesh.6
Tāmalitti (Tämralipti=Tāmralipta=Tamaluk?
Tāmalitti is also mentioned in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical works and foreign accounts" as an important city and emporium with different variations of its name, such as, Tāmalipta, Dāmulipta, Tāmalipti, Tamālinī (by Hemachandra), Tamalites (by Ptolemy), To-mo-liti (by Fa-Hien), Tan-mo-li-ti (by Huien Tsang), etc.
According to the Prajñāpanā Sūtrala Tāmalitti, was the capital city of Vanga in the list of the Aryans of the first order.
Bhs, 15, 1, 542.
? History of Bengal Vol. 1, p. 22. 3 BhS, 3, 2, 144.
4 Avaśyaka-Curni, il, p. 199 ff. Majjhima Nikaya, 1, 332-8; Vide, H. G. A. I. P. 129. • Ghosa : Early History of Kausambi, p. 32; Majjhima Ni.
p. 6ln. by Rahul Sätökstyāyan; Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 339f. f.11. 303. Bh8, 3, 1, 134.
& Pannavanā Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55 a. 9 Kathasarit-Sāgara, Ch. 14 ; Mahavamsa, XI, 38; XIX, 6. 10 Mahābhārata, Bhismaparva, Ch. 9; Sablāparva, Ch. 29.
1094 1100, Raghuvamsa, IV, 38. 11 Ptolemy, VII, 1, 76; Beal : Buddhist Records of the Western
world II, 200. 13 Pannavanā Sutta, 1, 37. p. 55a.

Page #573

548
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IX
"Rayagiha-Magaha-Campā-Aǹgā taha Tāmalitti-Vanga ya", while the Dasakumara Carita' mentions it as a city of Suhma, together with the temple of Binduvasini which was visited by Fa-hien' and Hiuen Tsang.
It was from here the mission of king Aśoka consisting of Sanghamitra and Mahendra embarked for Ceylon. Fa-Hien also left for the same country on his way to China, while I-Tsing disembarked here after coming from China by the sea-route and embarked for Sri-Vijaya (in Sumātrā) on his return journey. Tamalitti is identified with modern Tamaluk which stands on the bank of the river Rupanarayana in the Midnapore district (West Bengal).*
Tungiya (Tungikā)
Tungiya was a native town of a large number of Sramanopasakas who flourished by banking business. It was here in the Puspavati Caitya a religious discussion took place between those Šramanopāsakas of Lord Mahāvīra and followers of Lord Parsva
nātha's order.
It may be identified with the present Tungi which is lying two miles from Bihar-Shariff."
Udandapura'
Udandapura was a small town which is said to have been visited by Gośāla Mańkhaliputra in one of his births. Outside this town lay a Caitya called Candravatarana. Udandapura is identical with the town of Bihar-Shariff in the Patna district, which is also known as Dandapura or Udandapura, for it was the centre of the Dandins, a class of ascetics."
1 Dasakumara-Carita: Dandin (6th A.D.) Fa-Hien's travels in India.
I-Tsing, Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 263. 4 Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 263. 5 BhS, 2. 5, 107.
Pracina-Tirthamālā-Sangraha,
Bhavanagar, V. S. 1978.
pt 1, p. 16 Introduction. Vide, Life in Ancient India, p. 345. 7 Bhs, 15, 1, 55.
8 Arch. Survey of India, Vol. VIII, p. 75. Vide, Life in Ancient India. p. 345.

Page #574

Sec. Iv] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 549 Ulluyatīra (Ullukatīra)'
Ulluyatīra was a small town in the north-eastern quarter of which was situated a Caitya called Ekajambuka. It was hallowed by the two visits of Lord Mahāvīra. It has not yet been identified.
Vāņārasī (Vārāṇasī)?
Vānārasz was the celebrated city of Vārānasz or Kāsi, which finds mention also in other Jaina texts, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical works, and Chinese recordsø as a great centre of culture with its political, social, economic and religious life. It is said to have been visited by Gośāla Mankhaliputra in one of his former births when he abandoned the body of Mandika possessed by him and entered into (i.e. took birth) that of Roha there at the Kāmamahāvana Caitya lying outside the city.'
Vārānasî was the birth place of the seventh and twentythird Tirthankaras Lord Supārśva and Lord Pārsvanātha. It was intimately associated with the development of Brāhmaṇism, Jainism and Buddhism, Vārānasz is identified with the present city of Vārāṇasī itself.
Viibhaya (Vitībhaya)
Vizbhaya was the capital city of Sindhu-Sauvīra. It is here in the Mrgavana garden Lord Mahāvīra initiated its king U dāyana to monkhood. This city is also mentioned in other Taina textslo as the capital of tne same united kingdom which was one of the twenty-five and a half-Aryan countries.
It is identified with Bhera which stands on the left bank of the river Jhelum in the Dhahapura district in West Punjab."
* Bhs, 16, 3, 502; 16, 5, 574.
Ib, 15, 1, 540. 8 Pannavaņā Sutta, 1, 37 ; Uvāsagadasão, Ed. Hoernle pp. 909,
etc. 4 Digha Nikaya, !I, 146; III, p. 141, etc. 0 Visnu Purana, 5th Amsa, Ch. 34; Kävya Mimāṁsā of Rāja
sekhara (Vārāṇasyāh paratah) & Beat's Records of the western world, II, pp. 45 ff. ? Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 8 Āvaśyaka Niryukti, 382, 384, 1302.
Bhs, 13, 6, 491. 10 Pannavanā Sutta, 1, 37, p. 55a. 11 Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. II, p. 385.

Page #575

550
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. IX
Visāhā (Visakha)
Visāhā was a city which was sanctified by the sacred visit of Lord Mahāvīra. It is identified with modern Ayodhyā by Cunningham."
Vesāli (Vaišāli)
Vesāli was the celebrated capital city of the Licchavī Republic and the head quarter of the Vajji Confederacy at one time. It is also recorded in other Jaina' and Buddhist works, the Rāmāyaṇa and Chinese accounts' with the history of its administrative system, society, economic. educational, religious and cultural aspects.
Vaigāli was a great centre of Jainism and Buddhism. It is identified with modern Basărh' in the the Muzaffarpur district of North Bihar.
Vebhela"
It was a settlement (Sannivesa) located at the foot of the Vindhyagiri. It has not yet been identified.
Rivers
The Bhs, makes the specific mention of only two rivers, viz. Gangā and Sindhu. They also appear in other Jaina texts, 13
BhS, 18, 2, 618.
: C. A. G. l., p. 460. 3 Bh8, 7, 9, 303; 15, 1, 559. 4 Kalpa sutra, 5, 123 (Jaina Sūtras, S. B. E., pt. 1, Intro. XI). "Cf. Lalita-Vistara : Leafmann-Ch. III, p. 21. & Vinaya texts, S.B.E.II, p. 171; Rāmāyana, Ch. 47, VV. II. 12.
See Visnu-P. (Wilson's, Vol. III, p. 246). 7 Legge : Fa-hien's travels, p. 72; Watters on Yuan Chwang,
Vol. II, p. 63. 8 Kalpa Sūtra, 122-123; (Ivāsagadadão.
Anguttara Nikāya, P.T.S. II, 190-94, 200-02; Vide, H.G.A.I.,
p. 266-267. 10 Arch. Survey Report, Vol. I, pp. 55-56 & Vol. XVI, p. 6;
A. S. I. A. R., 1903-4, p. 74 11 Bhs, 3, 2, 142; 10, 4, 404. 11 Bh8, 7, 6, 288; 15, 1, 550. 18 Jambuddiva Pannatti, IV, 34. 35

Page #576

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
551
Buddhist and Brahmanical works, and foreign accounts as the most celebrated rivers of India.
Ganga
The earliest reference to Gangā occurs in the Nadı-stuti verse of the Roveda" (Imam me Ganga Yamunā......Susomayā). This river figures in a number of later texts with different variations of its name, such as Alakanandā, Dyudhuni, Bhagirathi", Jānhavze, etc.
Gośāla Mankhaliputra mentions seven Gangas®, viz. Gangā, Maha Gangā, Maccu Gangā, Lohita Gangā, Āvanti Ganga and Paramāvati Gangā. It is not possible to identify all of them except the first one at the present state of knowledge without fresh information. They may represent the legendary rivers or the local names of this river.
Gangā is the famous river Ganges which rises up in the Gangotri in the Garhwal district of Uttara Pradesh and falls into the Bay of Bengal, flowing southwards from Hardwar to Bulandshahr, from there to the south-eastern direction upto Allahabad, where it is met by the Yamuna, thence eastward up to Pamahal in Bihar ; from there enters into West Bengal and joins the sea passing by Calcutta.10
Sindhu
Sindhu is also mentioned in other Indian texts", foreign
i Pañcasüdani, Il, p 586; Vide, India as described in Early texts,
of Buddhism and Jainism. ? Rg-Veda, X, 75, VI, 45, 21, Satapatha-Brāhmana, XIII. 5. 4.
11, Mark. Pu. 56. 1. 12; Mbh. 6. 43, 44. ; Rāma. II, 50-12fF. 3 Mc Crindle : Ancient India pp. 190-91; Vide, H.G.A.I. p. 78.
Ro-Veda, X, 75. 6 Bhagavat Purāna, IV, 6, 24. XI, 29. 42. « Bhāgavat Purāna, III, 23, 39. 7 Raghuvamsa, VII, 36; VIII, 95 ; X. 26. 69.
9 Bhs, 15, 1, 550. 10 Geographical Dictionary, N. L. Dey-p. 79; See H.G.A.T. -- · B.C. Law, p. 78. 11 Thánānga Sutta, 10, 717 ; Rg-Veda, X. 75; Pānini. 4. 3. 32
33 ; 4. 3.93) Astādhyāyī, M. Bhāsya 1. 3. 1. pp. 588-589; Brhat Samhätā -XIV. 19.
8
Ib.

Page #577

552
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA [Ch. IX accounts and epigraphic records as a celebrated river having seven streams under different names, such as Sindhu'. Hindu', Sintu', etc.
It is the trans-Himālayan river which flows from the slopes of the Himālayas through North-West-Frontier-Province, the Punjab and Sindh and joins the Western Indian sea.
The classical Greek accounts refer to the seven tributaries of Sindhu, viz. the Hydraotes (Rāvī), the Akesines (Cenāb), the Hypasis (Vipāśā-Beās), the Hydaspes (Vitasta-Jhelum), the Kophon (Kabul), the Parenos, the Saparnos and the Saonos.
The list of the seven streams of the Sindhu does not fully tally with that of its seven tributaries mentioned in the Rgveda, viz. Sutudri (Sutlej), Parusni (Rāvī) Asiknī (Cenāb), Marudvrddhā (a small Kāšmīrian river), Vitstā (Jhelum) and Susamā (Sohan)."
The Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra also refers to the seven mouths of Sindhu (Tirtvā saptamukhāni Sindhoh). They also find mention in the Periplus of the Erythraean sea.9
Mountains
The Bhs makes mention of the following mounts, viz. Himavata,to Vindhyagiri,"? Vipula" and Velhāra, but it does not give a clear account of the mountain system of India as recorded in other Jaina texts, Brāhmņical and Buddhist works.
Behistūn Inscription of Darius; Vendād (Hindu); Beal's Buddhist Records of the Western world I, p. 69 ; Cf. J.A.S.B.
1886 (II. p. 323); Legge : Fa-Hien, p. 26. * Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candra. 8 Rg-Veda, VIII, 24.27 etc. 4 Hi(v) du or Hindu (Behistūn Inscription of Darius), C. H. I.
Vol. 1 p. 324; 5 Legge : Fa-Hien, p. 26. 6 H. G. A. I. p. 127, B.C. Law. 7 Rg-Veda, X, 75. 8 Me harauli Iron Pillar Inscription of king Candara; Vide,
Select Inscriptions of Dr. D. C. Sirkar. p. 275. 9 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 10 Bhiš, 9, (3-30), 364. 11 16, 3, 2, 144 ; 14, 8, 528. 1[6, 2, 1, 94.
13 lb, 3, 4, 160.

Page #578

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
553
Himavata
Himavata finds mention also in other Jaina texts, Brähmại. cals and Buddhist* works and foreign accounts."
It is the great Himālayas lying on the north of India and stretching from the eastern to the western sea like the string of a bow (Kārmukasya yathāgunah).
Vindhyagiri
Vindhyagiri appears as one of the Kula-Parvatas in otber Indian texts and it is identical with Ptolemy's ouindion? w is the origin of the rivers Namados (Narmadā) and Nanagouna (Tāptī). The evidences from the Purāņic records and Ptolemy show that the Vindhya was a mountain of central India, having three distinct divisions, viz. Pāripätra, Vindhya proper and Riksa in the limited sense. But in wider sense the long range of the Vindhya corresponds to the whole chains of hills from Gujerāt to the Gayā district, stretching on both sides of the Narmadā.
Vipula
Vipula-Parrata is identical with Vepulla mountain of the Pali texts® which was one of the five hills protecting the city of Girivraja (Rājagrha). It corresponds to the Vipulācala of Rājgir (Bihar).
Vebhāra (Vaibhāra)
Vebhāra mountain was one of the five hills surrounding the ancient city of Girivraja as recorded in the Buddhist works and
1,Jambuddiva Pannatti, 1, 9. ? Rg-Veda, X, 121, 4; Atharva-Veda, XII, 1, II; Mark. Pu, 54,
24 ; 57. 59; Mbh. Vanaparva, 253. 3 Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 66; Malalasekara, Dict. of the Pāli
proper names 1. p. 1325. * Ptolemy's (Imãos) Ancient India, p. 19. 6 Mārkundeya Purana, 54, 24 ; 57, 59,
Markandeya Purana, 54, 21; 57, 59. ? Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 77. 8 Pali texts (D.P.P.N. 11, 721); See also the Mahabharata, 1,
113, 27 ; 1.H.Q. 1939. 9 Pāli texts (D.P.P.N, II, 721).
70

Page #579

554 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. IX the Mahābhārata! which mentions Vipula instead of Vebhāra. This hill was intimately associated with Jainism and Buddhism as a sacred place, for many saints belonging to the two orders attained emancipation here. According to the Bhs it was situated at the outskirt of Rājagrha and had the hot spring from which hot water always flowed.
“Sayā samio usine āuyāe abhiņissa vai."
This Vebhāra hill is identified with the Vaibhāragiri of modern Rājgir.
Besides these mountains there is also mention of some mountains, such as, Vaitādhya, Citra-Vicitra-Yamaka mountains, Kancana mountains, etc. where Jrmbhaka gods live.s
It is difficult to identify them correctly at the present state of knowledge of Indian Geography.
It is stated in the Jambuddiva Pannatti* that the Vaitādhya mountain range divides Bharatavarga into two halves, viz. the northern half and southern half. May it be identical with the Vindhya mountain ?.
i Mahabharata, 1, 113, 77 ; See LHQ, Keith, 1939, 163-64. * Bhs, 2, 5, 113.
SI6, 14, 8, 533, • Jambuddiva Pannatti, 1, 12.

Page #580

TENTH CHAPTER.
Contribution of the Bhs to the evolution of Jaina.
Philosophical thought.
FIRST SECTION.
Jaina Metaphysics
At the dawn of civilization man began to ponder over the problem of life and phenomena of Nature with a feeling of admiration, awe and wonder which animated him to religious acts and to probe into them with a speculative thought to interpret and explain the deeper' meanings of life and Nature. His thirst for knowledge born out of his spiritual urge led him to understand things relying upon his internal senses.
These were the haunting questions to his inquist tive mind ; what is life, what is Nature, how have they originated and evolved, etc. ? His admiration was the first expression of sentiments which revealed themselves as the aesthetic idea at a more advanced stage, while wonder and inquisitiveness guided him later to develop "his philosophy, his religion and science”. Since then in every country the quest for knowledge of these problems of life and Nature started among the thinkers and thus different systems of philosophy evolved out of their self-consciousness, thoughts and experiences to interpret and explain the underlying fundamental principles which govern life and the Universe.
In India this quest for knowledge of life and Nature started in the Rgvedic age and it has continued upto the present day, contributing to the evolution of philosophical thoughts with speculative daring of many sages. Thus these questions on life and the Universe haunted the speculative mind of the Vedic sage of Nāsadiya hymn "From whence did it spring forth, from whence was
i Religion and Rational outlook- Dr. S. N. Dasgupta, p. 44

Page #581

556
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
this creation ?" "Kuta ajātā kuta iyarh visṛstih" ? He himself answers "Nasad āsīn no sad āsīt tadānīm". Next, he asks the question to himself. "Was there deep abysmal waters"? "Ambhaḥ kim āsīd gahanam gabhiram"? He asserts that "there was no death, nor was there anything immortal"." But immediately his mind reacts thus "That one breathed by Itself without breath, other than It there was nothing-"Ānid avātaṁ svadhayā tad ekam tasmad dha'nyan na parah kiñcanā sa". "There was absolute darkness and a sea without light. That one was born by the power of austerity (tapah). The sages (rsis) searching in their heart discovered in non-existence the connecting bond of existence Sato bandhum asati nira vindan hrdi pratīşya kavayo manīṣā."
Thus the Indian Philosophical thought began in the Rgvedic age and passed through the different phases of its evolution, giving birth the six orthodox systems of philosophy, viz. Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta and the unorthodox systems of philosophy, viz. Carvākīsm, Jainism and Buddhism in different ages.
In the domain of knowledge the
ramana-Nirgrantha-Dharma also made a great contribution to the evolution of the metaphysical thought by systematizing the teachings of the leaders of religion as it is revealed in the BhS. The study of this canonical work shows that Metaphysics is something which is correlated with Physics, though the former goes beyond the latter.
Cosmogony
The BhS throws a welcome light upon Cosmogony, i.e. origin, evolution and continuation of life and the Universe by explaining the fundamental principles of Nature that there takes place the transformation of the state of existence (astitva) into that of existence which means the existence of a thing in the form in which it is and that of non-existence into that of non-existence (nastitva), i.e. when a thing undergoes transformation into the
1 Rg-Veda X, 129, 6. N. Tatia. p. 1 Ib, X, 129-.1.
16, X, 129, 4. page no. 2.
Vide 'Studies in Jaina Philosophy', Dr.
3.4 Ib, X, 129, 2.

Page #582

Sec. 1] Studies in THE BHAGAWATİ SUTRA
557 other state than its own (anyāpoha). "Atthittañ atthitte patiņamai natthittam natthitte pariņamai”. For example, the entity or being of earth as lump exists in the being of a jar in the transformed state "(ya thā mrddravyasya pindaprakārena sattā ghataprakāra sattāyām iti)”. It is a case of astitva, while that of nāstitva is explained by the example of the state of darkness due to the state of absence or destruction of light, "dīpādivināšasyāpi. tamisrādirūpatayā pariņamāt.”:
These principles of astitva and nāstitva are co-related with each other from the points of view of eternality of the Universe (inhabited portion, and the Non-Universe (uninhabited portion), living and non-living substances without the priority of existence of any one of them. Thus it is explained that both the Universe and the Non-Universe, living and non-living substances are eternal without succession.
The BhS expounds that finiteness and infiniteness, eternality and non-eternality are co-related from different aspects of substance, space, time, condition, etc., in relation to the Universe and soul. For example, the substance-world (dravyaloka) and spaceworld (ksetraloka) are finite and non-eternal from the points of view of substance and space, and infinite and eternal from those of time and condition, i. e. temporal dimension and model expression. Similarly soul (Jiva) is finite and non-eternal from the aspects of substance and space, and infinite and eternal from those of time and condition (thāva) respectively. Conception of Substance (Dravya) or Reality and its Nature
According to the metaphysical principles laid down in the BhS the Universe is a system of Reals all inter-related with one another with regard to dravya (substance), ksetra (space), kāla (time) and bhāva (condition), having a fundamental unity comprising the plurality of inter-dependent and inter-connected substances, Dravya is endowed with gūnas (qualities), inifinite' in number. From the Vyavahāra Naya (practical or empirical standpoint) the flowing molasses is endowed with sweet taste and from that of
i Bhs, 1, 3, 32.
Ib, (comm.).
3_4 Ib, 2, 1, 91.

Page #583

558
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X Niscaya Naya (noumenal standpoint), it has got five colours, two smells, five tastes and eight touches.1
So Dravya is that which possesses gunas and paryayas (attributes as well as modes) and reveals permanence and change inherent in it to be real. It is Reality endowed with three potent factors, viz. permanence, origination and decay. There had been an evolution of this conception of Reality with the development of philosophical thought. In the Tattvartha Sutra', Umāsvāti conceives 'Sat' (existence) as the mark of Dravya i.e. Reality (Sat-dravya-lakṣmaṇam) and explains that this 'Sat' is endowed with three factors, viz. origination, decay and permanence (Utpada-vyaya-dhrauvya-yuktaṁ sat, which characterize Reality. Accordingly in a substance there are its origin and decay of its changing modes (paryāyas) and permanence the unchanging essence. It is further explained that Dravya is endowed with guna and paryaya (essential and accidental characters) "Gunaparyayavad-dravyam."
4
So there is no fundamental difference between the two definitions of Dravya as embodied in the BhS and Ta. Sū. respectively. Only the definition of Reality has been made more clear in the Ta, Su. with the evolution of philosophical thought.
6
The principle of Dravya is of two kinds, viz. Jīvadravya and Ajivadravya (living and non-living substance)." These living and non-living substances are infinite and they have infinite modes. Living substance is formless (arūpē), while non-living substances are classified into two groups, viz. rūpē-ajīvadravyas (corporeal non-living substances which are tangible to senses) and arupi-ajiva-dravyas (formless non-living substances which intangible to senses), "Rūvi ya arūvī ya." It is explained that matter (pudgala) is corporeal non-living substance, while the formless non-living substance consists of Dharmastikāya (principle of motion), Adharmāstikāya (principle of rest), Ākāśāstikāya (space)
are
257
1 Bhs, 18, 6, 631. 8 Ib, 5, 30.
Ib, 7, 10, 305.
-

2 Tattvärtha Sutra, 5, 29 Umāsvāti. 4 Ib, 5, 38.
7 Ib, 2, 10, 121.
5 Ib, 25, 2, 720. 8_9 Ib, 7, 10, 305.

Page #584

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
559 and Addhāsamaya (time).' But at the same place of the Bhs Arūpī. Ajīvadravya is also divided into five kinds, viz. Dharmāstikāya, Dharmāstikāya-pradeša (element of the principle of motion), Adharmāstikāya, Adharmāstikāya-pradesa (element of the principle of rest) and Addhāsamaya.” Here Akāśāstikāya is omitted.
This canonical work makes a study of the relation between living and non-living substances. The former receives the latter from all sides and effects the formation of the gross physical, transformation - and translocation-bodies and all the five sense organs, three activities (mental, vocal and bodily) and inhaling and exhalings Conception of the Universe
The Universe is conceived of as comprising Pancastikāyas (five extensive substances), viz. Dharmāstikaya, Adharmāstikāya, Ākāśāstikāya, Jivāstikāya, and Pudgalāstikāya."
But on the basis of the divisions of Dravya it is explained in one place of the Bhs that there are six fundamental substances in the Universe, called Sarva dravyas, i.e. Postive Realities characterized by attributes and modes (guna and paryāya), viz. Dharmastikāya, Adharmāstikāya, A kāśāstikāya, Jivāstikāya, Pudgalāstikāya, and Addhāsamaya. The last substance-Addhāsamaya, appears also in other places as a distinct eternal real substance. So far as conception of the Universe as comprising five extensive substances is concerned, time is not included in it as the sixth substance, because it does not form one organic extension.
Nature of these six fundamental substances
The BKS throws an important light upon the nature of all these six fundamental substances of the Universe by explaining them from different aspects. It is expounded that Dharmāstikāya? and Adharmāstikāya are single substances from the point of view of Dravya, equal to the extent of the Universe inhabited portion) 1 Bhs, 2, 10, 121.
$ 16, 25, 2, 721. 4 Ib, 2, 10, 118; 7, 10, 305; 13, 4, 481. 6 I, 13, 4, 482-483.
o 1b, 11, 11, 424, 16, 2, 10, 118-119.

Page #585

56.0
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. X
from that of space, eternal from that of time, and colourless, Smell-less, tasteless and touchless from that of condition. But the former is signified by the motion of other bodies, while the latter by their rest. Dharmāstikāya is the medium which causes all the moving states, e.g. coming, going, etc., to be set in motion, because the characteristic of movement presupposes Dharmāstikāya.' It helps the motion of the moving objects. In reality it is one extensive non-living substance pervading the cosmic Universe and it is of innumerable points,' as it is co-extensive with spacehaving innumerable points.
Adharmāstikāya is signified by the attribute of rest of otherbodies. It is this principle of rest which causes all the nonmoving states, such as, standing, sitting, fixed state of mind, etc., because the static state of bodies points to its existence (thānalakkhaņe-ņam ahammatthikāye). This eternal substance consists of innumerable points, because it is co-extensive with space having infinite points. Akāšāstikāya (Space)
Äkāśāstikaya is a single substance from the aspect of dravya, equal to the extent of the Universe (inhabited portion) and NonUniverse (uninhabited portion), i.e. all pervasive from that of space, eternal from that of time, and colourless, smell-less, tasteless, and touchless from that of condition, and it is endowed with the attribute of extension (avagāhanā) i.e. it gives room for the existence of all the extended and non-extended substances-Dharma, Adharma, Jiva, Pudgala and Addhāsamaya. Space consists of infinite points (pradeśa anantā?) and it is the receptacle of living and non-living substances and is filled or occupied by one to infinite atoms, because the attribute of extension is space (avagā banā. lakkhaṇe nam āgāsatthikāye)s. Jīvāstikāya
Soul is colourless, smell-less, tasteless, touchless, formless, living, eternal and permanent substance of the Universe, having
i Bhs, 13, 4, 481. 4 Ib, 13, 4, 481.
16, 2, 10, 119. 6.7 16, 2, 10, 119.
8 Ib, 2, 10, 118. 8 16, 13, 4, 481.

Page #586

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
561
the attribute of consciousness. There are many synonymous words of soul, such as, jīva or jīvāstikāya, pāņa, bhūya, satta, vinnu, ceyā, jeyā, āyā etc.? Definition of Soul
The definition of soul becomes clear by the meanings of its synonymous words, e. g. the term "Jiva' denotes that the soul is consciousness and consciousness also is invariably the soul (Jīve tāva niyamā jīve jīvati jīve)." He who ever breathes is invariably jiva (being), but jiva (soul) breathes in some respect and does not breathe in other respect. (Jīvati tāva jīve, jīve puņa siya jīvati siya no jīvati). It is to be observed that the word 'Poggala' sometimes stands as synonym for soul. It is so called because of the integration and disintegration of its bodies (Puranād-galanāccaśarīrādināṁ pudgalah).
It is explained that soul is infinite from the aspect of substance, co-extensive with the Universe from that of space (kesetra), eternal from that of time and colourless, smell less, tasteless and touchless from that of condition.”
It is single eternal substance having infinite points (pradešas), for it is co-extensive with space possessing infinite points.
Nature of Soul Proof of Existence of soul
In the human body one feels the experience of another agency which defies the laws of Nature, time and space ; there is something, not analysable nor subject to physical analysis but is distinct from the object. Thus it is explained that the soul is endowed with exertion, action, strength, energy, effort and vigour and it manifests its jivabhāva (the state of consciousness) by its ātmabhāva? (the state of the self) i.e. the act of rising, lying, going, acting etc. Because the soul, having the attribute of consciousness attains consciousness of infinite modes of all kinds of knowledge, wrong knowledge and undifferentiated cognition (or self-awareness) (jñāna, ajñāna and daršana).
1 Bhs, 20, 2, 665. 23 Ib, 6, 10, 256. Ib, (Comm.), 20, 2, 665. 6 16, 2, 10, 118. 6 lb, 2, 10, 119. 7 I6, 2, 10, 120 ; 13, 4, 481.
71

Page #587

562
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Ch. x
As regards the equality of the soul the BIS reveals that the soul of an elephant and that of a Kunthu (insect) are equal."
Soul pervades the body in which it exists, e. g. the whole bodies of tortoises, allegators, cows, men, buffaloes, etc., and even their inner parts, cut into two to innumerable pieces.' It may in some respect exist in every point of space of the Universe and even in an atom or may not exist in them in other respect, because they are endowed with soul in reference to its presence (sva-ādista) and with not-soul in reference to the presence of not-soul (para-ādista).
Soul is imperishable, immortal and impenetrable ; no man can cause pain or destruction to it or cut its inner points by touching with hand or cutting them asunder with a sharp weapon or burning them with fire. It is eternal from the point of view of time and non-eternal from that of the State of existences (gati), because it was, is, and will be ; and it undergoes transmigration from one birth to another.
Soul is finite from the aspects of substance and space, for it is a single substance possessed of innumerable points and immersed in innumerable points of space, but it is infinite from that of condition, because it is endowed with infinite modes of knowledge, of self-awareness, of conduct, etc.?
As a changing entity soul always vibrates in different forms, moves further and goes to all directions; then it enters into the world, agitates, rises up and transforms itself into different conditions.
Soul is the agent of all actions of beings, for without it eighteen kinds of sinful acts (act of killing upto the perverted attitude), and the act of desistence from them, different states of the soul (bhāva), perception (avagraha), speculation (ihā), i.e. desire to know, determination (avāya), retention (dhảraņā), exertion,
1 Bhs, 7, 8, 294. 4 Ib, 8, 3, 325. 8 16, 3, 3, 153.
2 15, 8, 3, 325. 5 Ib, 9, 33, 387.
3 Ib, 12, 10, 469, _7 16, 2, 1, 91.

Page #588

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
563
action, etc., upto determinate and inderminate consciousness of beings do not take place."
Plurality of soul
The Bhs believes in the plurality of souls, having a unity running on the ground that two sentient beings are individual absorbers (pratyekāhārā) and transformers of food and they bind separate bodies, and assimilate matters or form bodies independently. Further they differ in regard to their respective senses, conditions of soul, attitudes of mind, knowledges and activities.
Classification of soul
Soul is studied from eight points of view, viz. substance (dravya), passion (kasāya), activity (yoga), consciousness (upayoga), knowledge (jnana), self-awareness (darsana), conduct (caritra), and energy (vīrya). Accordingly there are stated to be eight kinds of soul, viz. dravyātmā (soul existing as substance), kasāyātmā (soul having passion), yogātmā (soul endowed with activity), upayogātmā (soul endowed with consciousness), Jrānātmā (soul endowed with knowledge), darkanātmā (soul endowed with self-awareness), cāritrātmā (soul in conduct) and vīryātmā (soul endowed with energy).
There exists psychologically a mutual relation among these eight kinds of soul, for they are inter-connected as the different aspects of one substance, namely, soul. For example, he who has dravyātmā has in some respect kasāyātmā and he has not it in other respect. But he who is endowed with kasāyātmā has invariably dravyātmā.' Characteristics of Soul
The BhS explains that the soul is jfiānı (i.e. endowed with right knowledge) in some respect and also ajñāna (i.e. endowed with wrong knowledge) in other respect, but knowledge itself is invariably the soul, because consciousness (upayoga) is the attribute of the soul.
1 Bh8, 20, 3, 666.
16, 12, 10, 468.
? Ib, 20, 1, 663. 6 16, 12, 10, 468.
3 Ib, 12, 10, 464.

Page #589

564
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
[Ch. X
"Āyā siya ņāņe siya aņņāņe ņāņe puna niyamamāyā.”
Self-consciousness and outside objects are correlated. As the soul is endowed with the capacity of taking note of natural objects, it is the knower. It is also invariably self-awareness (darśana) and self-awareness is invariably the self itself (āyā niyamam daṁsaņe damsaņe niyamam āyā)." Relation of soul with speech, mind and body
This canonical work throws important light upon the relation of the soul with speech, mind and body by explaining their different characteristics. Speech and mind' are non-souls (i. e. matter) because they are endowed with form (corporeal) and are non-conscious (acitta) and non-living (ajiva). They are only intimately associated with the soul. But body is both soul and non-soul (matter) conscious and non-conscious, living and nonliving matter of beings and non-beings. This dual nature of body is due to its association or absence of association with the soul. The body undergoes various transformations such as (1) the gross physical (2) gross physical-mixed with translocation, (3) transformation (veuvvie), (4) transformation-cum-translocation, (5) translocation (āhārae) (6) translocation-cum-karmic and (7) karmic bodies.
It is further explained that the jiva (soul) engaged in eighteen kinds of sinful acts is not different from the jivātman, as some heretics who distinguished between jīva and jivātman were used to hold.
Pudgalāstikāya (Matter)
Ajīvadravya (non-living substance) is of various kinds the most visible form of which is matter (pudgala) which exists in different forms, such as, earth, water, fire, plant, physical bodies, etc. It is a tangible reality which exists along with the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in visible and invisible conditions. Its finest form is atom. There are many synonymous words of
1 Bhs, 13, 7, 493.
· 16, 13, 7, 494.
- 16, 17, 2, 597.

Page #590

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
565
pudgalastikaya, such as, poggala or paramaņupoggala (atom),
etc.1
The word 'poggala' (Skt. pudgala) is formed of two terms 'pud' and 'gala', the first one denotes to combine, while the second signifies to dissociate. According to the commentary of Śrī Abhayadeva Sūri the word pudgala, stands for matter which is subject to intergration and disintergration of bodies, etc. involving the process of transformation."
So pudgala is a corporeal non-living eternal and fixed (or permanent) substance of the Universe, having five colours, five tastes, two smells and eight touches." It is infinite (substances) from the point of view of substance, equal to the extent of the Universe from the standpoint of space, eternal from that of time and endowed with colour, taste and touch from that of condition and with the attribute of reception from that of quality.*
Matter causes the receiving (i.e. formation) of five kinds of bodies, viz. gross physical body upto Karmana body, five senseorgans, viz. ear upto skin, three kinds of activities (mental, vocal and bodily) and breathing in and out, because the characteristic of receiving is inherent in it.
"Veuvviya-āhārae......gahaṇaṁ pavattati ......gahanalakkhane nam poggalatthikaye."
Nature of Matter
Matter is heavy-cum-light (guruya-lahue) with regard to heavy-cum light substances and neither-heavy nor light with regard to substances which are neither heavy nor light (aguruyalahuya).
It
It is endowed with parts (or points i.e. sapradeśa) and is partless also (apradesa) from the point of view of substance. is infinite from those of space, time and condition respectively," as being co-extensive with space.*
1 Bhs, 20, 2, 665. Ib, 13,4,481.

37b, 2, 10, 118. Ib, 1,9,73.
4 Ib, 2, 10, 118. " Ib, 5,8,221. 8 Ib, 2,10,119.

Page #591

566
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SUTRA
Ch. X
“Anamtā khettādesenavi evam ceva kālādesenavi bhāvadesenavi evām."
Classification of matter
Matter is classified into three categories from the point of view of transformation, viz. prayoga-parinata-pudgala (matter, transformed into the physical form by the action of beings) miśraparinata-pudgala (matter-transformed by the action-cum-natural innate disposition) and visrasā-parinata-pudgala (matter transformed by nature or the natural srate). They are again divided and sub-divided into different groups from various aspects. For example, there are five kinds of prayoga parinata-pudgala, viz. ekendriya upto pañcendriya-prayoga-parinata-pudgala (i. e. matters transformed by the action of one-sensed upto five-sensed beings). Visrasā-pariñata-pudgalas are divided into five groups, viz. varnaparinata upto saństhāna-pariņata-pudgala (i. e. matters transformed by the process of the natural states of colour upto figure.
Forms of Matter
Matter eonsists of two forms, viz. paramāņu (atom) and skandha (aggregate of atoms) from the physical aspect of Nature. Here the problem arises how do they exist in the spatial Universe. Formation of Atoms
It is explained in the Bhs that matter was, is, and will be dry and adhesive in the infinite eternal past, present and future times respectively. It underwent, undergoes, and will undergo transformation and got, gets, and will get changed into the states having many colours and forms as a result of the applied and natural processes. Then those states again get worn out (i. e. disintegrated) and become matter, having one colour and one form, i. e, atom.
“Esanam bhamte poggale tītamaņamtam sāsayam ...samayam lukkhi samayam alukkhí.... egavanne egarūve."
1 BLS, 8, 1, 310.
16, 8, 1, 312.
Ib, 14, 4, 510.

Page #592

Sec. I] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA 567
This theory of the formation of atoms as embodied in this canonical work is also explained in the T. Sū. The atoms are produced by the division of matter, while the origination of skandha is caused by the division and union of matters (bhedasamghātebhyaḥ utpadyante),' i. e. it takes place owing to the disintegration, integration and disintegration-cum-integration of atoms with one another as a result of internal and external causes.
Definiton of Atom
An atom is defined as endowed with one colour, one smell, one taste and two touches. "Para māņupoggalle nam egavaņņe egagandhe egarase duphāse paņņatte."
It may be black or upto white; it may have the property of pleasant or unpleasant smell; it may be bitter or upto sweet; and it may be cold and adhesive, or cold and dry or warm and adhesive or warm and dry. It is to be observed that the qualities of hardness and lightness are not inherent in an atom. Kundakunda also propounds in regard to the properties of an atom that "of the eight kinds of touch, hardness and softness, heaviness and lightness are not the qualities of the individual atoms." The Tattvärtha Sūtra also explains that a paramāņu (atom) is the smallest material unit of substance, devoid of any further divisible points (pradešas) (nānoh).
A skandha (aggregate of atoms) possesses two to infinite parts and properties of colour, smell, taste and touch in varying numbers according to the number of its constituent parts, e.g. a skandha, having two parts of atoms may be endowed with one or two colours, etc.?
Characteristics of Atom and aggregate of Atoms
One atom is equal to another atom from the point of view of substance. It is impenetrable and indivisible, incombustible
1 Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 27.
* 1b, 5, 26. 3 Bhs, 18, 6, 632.
4 I0, 20, 5, 669. Pañcāstikāyasära, 88. Vide, 'Outlines of Jaina philosophy' by Mohanlal Mehta, p. 72.
& Tattvartha Sutra, 5, 11. 7 Bhs, 20, 5, 670.
8 ]6, 14, 7, 523.

Page #593

568
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA [Ch. X and non-receivable (agājjha)'; anardha (without half part), amadhya (having no interior part) and apradeša (having no points or only one point);" while a skandha is sārdha or anardha, amadhya or samadhya and sapradesa, e. g. skandhas having two, four, six and eight parts are sārdha ; but those, having three, five, seven and nine parts are anardha. Skandhas, having numerable, innumerable, and infinite parts may be sārdha and anardha also.
An atom may be a single substance or a part of a substance. It is so fine in form that it is touched by air, but it does not touch air. An atom and an aggregate of atoms are infinites in numbers, while the former is eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of modes of colour, taste, smell and touch. It is the not-last (acarima) from the point of view of substance and it may be the last and not-last from that of space, time and state. Classification of Atoms
Atoms are studied and classified from the points of view of substance, space, time and state as they are inter-related to one another. Thus there are stated to be four kinds of atoms, viz. dravyaparamāņu (atom of substance), ksetraparamāņu (atom of point of space), kālaparamāņu (atom of time, i. e. samaya) and bhāvaparamānu (atom of state, e. g. colour, etc.). They are further divided into different kinds on the basis of their respective characteristics and the state in which they exist. Thus there are four kinds of dravyaparamānu, viz. indivisible, impenetrable, incombustible and non-receivable ; four kinds of ksetra paramānu, viz. anardha (without half or equal part), amadhya (without inner part), apradesa (partless) and avibhājya (indivisible); four kinds of kālaparamāņu, viz, colourless, smell-less, tasteless, and touchless and four kinds of bhāva paramānu (the state in which it exists) viz. varnavān (endowed with colour), gandhavan (endowed with smell), rasavān (endowed with taste) and sparsavān (endowed with touch).10
i Bhs, 5, 7.214; 20, 5, 671. 16, 5, 5, 215. 8. Ib, 25, 4, 743. 16, 8, 10, 357.
Ib, 18, 10, 645. & 16, 25, 4, 740. Ib, 14, 4, 512. 8 lb, 14, 4, 513. 9_10 Ib, 20, 5, 671.

Page #594

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
569
Physical contact of Atoms and Aggregates of Atoms
Atoms and aggregates of atoms exist mutually touching one another. An atom touching the other one touches its whole by the whole of it, while touching a skandha, having two parts, it touches the part and the whole of that skandha by its whole." The duration of touching of one atom by the other one is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum.
Vibration of Atoms
Atoms are stated to be in a state of flux, always vibrating, moving and combining with other atoms to get transformed into skandhas (aggregate of atoms). Thus it is explained that an atom may or may not vibrate and get transformed into the state of vibration, etc.
Movements of Atoms
Atoms are moving and non-moving from the point of view of time (siya sēe siya nirēe).' The duration of moving of an atom is one samaya in the miuimum and innumurableth part of an āvalikā in the maximum and that of its non-moving is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum. An atom is sauveya and nireya (wholly moving and non-moving), while skandha, having two to infinite parts may be desuija (partly moving), sarvaija (wholly moving) and nireja (non-moving).
The Bhs throws light upon the intermediate times of the vibration of matter, atom and aggregate of atoms, e. g. matter immersed in one point of or innumerable points of space exists vibrating for one samaya in the minimum and innumerableth part of an avalikā in the maximum in the case of vibration and innumerable samayas in the case of non-vibration from the point of view of time, etc.?
It is stated that an atom goes from one last border of the Universe to its other last border by one samaya. The movement
i Bhs, 5, 7, 216. 4 Ib, 23, 4, 744. 7 16, 5, 7, 217.
72
· Ib, 5, 7, 217. $ 16, 5, 7, 217. 8 I6, 16, 8, 585.
3 16, 5, 7, 213.
16, 25, 4, 744,

Page #595

570
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
of matter is explained scientifically thus that the cavity of smell of a ketakż flower does not flow nor does the flower flow in the favourable wind from one place to another. But the matter gone (endowed) with smell blows.!
Union of matter
The union of matters takes place as a result of the existence of the proporties of different degrees. viz. adhesiveness and dryness and adhesiveness-cum-dryness inherent in atoms and aggregates of atoms, having two upto infinite parts. It lasts for one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum."
The combination of atoms originates owing to the presence of the property of oily-body (sinehakāe) i. e. ad hesiveness inherent in them. Thus two atoms may combine together into a skandha because of their property of adhesiveness (sinehakāya).
Aggregates of atoms (or skandhas) also get united and separated into two and three parts, etc. 4
The ideas of the union of dissimilar matters, having pro perties of different degrees are also found in the Tattvārtha Sūtra and the Gommatasāra. The first states that the matters may combine by the virtue of their qualities of adhesiveness or smoothness and dryness or roughness inherent in them, “Snigd harukşatvādbandhah.'5
The second book also holds the same view that adhesiveness (or smoothness) and dryness (or roughness) are the causes of bondage of atoms into an aggregate of atoms, "Ņiddhattam lukkhattam bamdhassa ya kāraṇam tu eyādī." It further explains that the smooth and rough atoms combine with each other.
"Ņiddhalukkhā ya bajjhasti rūvārūvi ya poggalā."?
An atom with the minimum degree of smoothness or roughness is never fit for union in its own place or in the other,
1 Bhs, 16, 6, 582.
Ib, 8, 9, 345. 3.4 16, 1, 10, 80.
6 Tattvārtha Sutra, 5-33. 8 Gommațasāra-Jiva-Kānda, 609, (Ed.J. L. Jaini). ? 16, 612.

Page #596

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATT SÜTRA 571 It unites, if there is a proper change in its degree of smoothness or roughness owing to external and internal causes.
In the case of aggregate of numerable, innumerable and infinite atoms with great degrees of smoothness or roughness when uniting they alter the atoms of lesser degree to their own kind."
The BhS embodies both the theories of the Gommatasāra that not only the atoms, having dissimilar properties unite, but also the atoms, having similar properties but of different degrees combine together into a skandha. After union atoms may get disintegrated into different parts. Atoms and aggregates of atoms, having two upto infinite parts get integrated and disintergrated, e. g. two atoms combine together and get transformed into a skandha, having two parts. That skandha, while getting splitted up gets disintegrated into atoms by oneness."
Transformation of Matter
There are five kinds of transformation of matter, viz. varnaparināma (transformation of colour), gandha parināma (transformation of smell), rasa parināma (transformation of taste) and sparkapariņāma (transformation of touch) and saristhānapariņāma (transformation of figure). They are again subdivided into different groups according to their respective numbers, e. g. there are five kinds of varnapariņāma, viz. black. upto white, etc." Pudgala Parivartta (union of atoms with matter)
It is explained in the Bhs, that there take place infinite pudgala-parivartta: owing to the process of integration and disintegration of atoms.? The pudgala-parivarttas are divided into seven kinds viz. audārika, vaikriyika, taijasa, kārmaņa, mana, vāk, and anaprāņa-unions of atoms with the gross physical matter, with the transformation body, with the firy-body, with the karmic body, with matter of mind, matter of speech and matter of breathing in and out. They are explained with regard to all beings from different aspects, such as, time, etc. Matters, atoms and aggre
1 BhS, 618. 16, 619. 6 16, 8, 10, 356.
% 16, 1, 10, 80. 8_7 1b, 12, 4, 446.
16, 12, 4, 445. 8 16, 12, 4, 446-448.

Page #597

572
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SŪTRA
(Ch. X
gates of atoms of all categories, immersed in one to innumerable points of space of the Universe are infinite in number. Matter and Soul
It is explained in the Bhs that souls and matters exist in the Universe, being mutually bound, touched, immersed and tied to each other by attachment (or oiliness) and getting mixed (or immersed) like a jar and water or a sunken boat and water of a lake."
Addhāsamaya (Time)
Addhāsamaya is an eternal fundamental formless non-living independent substance,but it is devoid of organic extension. In the Sthānanga Sūtra time is called living or non-living substance according as it is the determination of a living or non-living substance. “Samayāti vā āvaliyāti vā jīvā ya ajīvā ti ya
pavuccati."4
It appears from the BhS that there were two traditions, running side by side to regard and not to regard time as an independent real-substance of the Universe, because the Universe is characterized in one place 'Pañcâstilāyaloku.''
The occurrence of the Sūtra ‘Kālasca' or Kālascetyeke, etc. after the Sūtra 'Guņaparyayavad-dravyam' in the Tattvārtha Sūtra indicates that time was not first accepted as a separate real substance of the Universe, but latter on it was admitted to the category of the fundamental substances with the evolution of the philosophical thought.
Kundakunda®, while accepting Paricāstikāya-loka regards time as one of the six real substances. According to Gunaratnao
1 Bhs, 25, 4, 740.
3 Ib, 1, 6, 55. 8 16, 2, 10, 21; 11, 11, 425; 13, 4, 482-83.
Also see Pannavaņā, 1 and Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 28-10. 4 Sthānānga Sútra, 95, 6 Bhs, 13, 4, 481 ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 28-7. 6 Tattvārtha Sutra, 5, 38. * 16, 5, 37. 8 Samayasāra, Kundakunda, . Şaddarśana Samuccaya, p. 163-3, of Guğaratna, Haribhadra's
Comm. Vide, Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Datta & Chatterjee,

Page #598

Sec. 1]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
573
one school of teachers did not admit it as a separate entity but regarded it as mode (paryāya) of the other substances. Thus it appears that the tradition to accept time as a separate entity is not old, and for this reason there is some difference between the Svetāmbara and the Digambara schools on the point of the nature of time."
The term 'addha' denotes distance (or length) of time as well as that of space, while 'samaya' signifies point of time (moment). Kāla (time) is the substantial cause of samaya."
The Dravya-Sarngrahas explains that it does not form an organic extension (kāya), though it has got existence like the heaps of jewels (ratnarāsīva) in each point of space of the Universe, for every space-point contains time-unit in it.
In the Bhis time is called kāla-paramāņu which is colourless, smell-less, tasteless and touchless. This theory reveals the atomic growth of time that one substance (atom) moves in time and space, for the passive element of space is samaya which is the continuum of kāla. The unit of a samaya is the time taken by an atom to traverse one unit of space by slow movement.
. It is explained also in the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra that the movement or continuity (or rolling) is the mark of time, "Varttanā. lakṣaṇaḥ kālah." While the Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti defines that time as an agency helps the continuity, modification, movement, newness and oldness of substances and the action of transformation of new qualities in things. “Varttanā-pariņāma kriyāḥ paratvāparatve ca kālasya.”
The BhS mentions two kinds of time, viz. addhākāla and pramānakāla, the first one is associated with Nature and is evolved by the travelling of the moon and the sun, while the second is the standardized time (i.e. samaya, āvalikā muhārtas, day, night, fortnight, month, year, yuga, palya, sāgara, utsarpiņā, parāvartta).
1 Karmagrantha, p. 158. 3 Dravya-Sangraha, 22. • Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 28, 10.
Bhs, (Comm.), 2, 10, 121. 4 Bhs, 20, 5, 671.
Tattvārtha Sūtra, 5, 22.

Page #599

574
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
“Pramīyate paricchidyate yena varşaśatādi tat pramāņam sa cāsau kālasceti pramāņakālah."
According to the Dravya-Sangrahal there are two kinds of kāla, viz. pāramārthika-kālu (real time) and vyāvanārika-kāla (empirical or conventional time or samayu), as they are studied from the points of view of continuity and changes of all kinds or ordinary point of view respectively. The pāramārthika-kāla is formless and eternal, while the vyāvahārika-kāla is bound by a beginning and an end and it is conventionally divided into moments, hours, etc., as it is produced by imposing conventional limitations and distinctions on real-time. So time is a substance (dravya) having samaya as its modes (paryāya). Inter-relation of six fundamental substances
The six fundamental substances of the Universe, Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Ākāśa (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Addhāsamaya (time) are interrelated to one another, because they exist mutually touching (pervading) by their respective points and getting immersed into one another, e.g. one point of Dharmāstikāya is touched in the minimum by its three points and four of Adharmāstikāya, and in the maximum by its six points and seven of Adharmāstikāya, and also by seven points of space, infinite points of soul and infinite parts of matter. It is also pervaded by time in some respect and it is not done so in other respect, if touched, it is invariably touched by infinite units of time and so on."
The study of Jaina Philosophy as revealed in the BhS shows that it believes in the reality of souls and matter in agreement with the Nyāya and Vaišeşika. But it differs from the Vedānta which believes in only one Reality (Sat), (Sarvamkhalu, idas Brahman). The Vedānta asserts the unity of soul and
1 Bhs 11, 11, 424. · Dravya-Sangraha, 21; Pide, Introduction to Indian
Philosophy p. 113. 8 Bh8, 13, 4, 482-3. Chăndogya Upanisad, 6, 2, 1; Vide, Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 406, f. n. 1.

Page #600

Sec. I]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
575
denies its plurality (neha nānāsti kiñcana)', while Jainism holds that souls exist in all living beings. Its doctrine of plurality of souls is in accord with those of the Nyāya, Vaišesika and Sankhya Schools which propound the theory that there exist different souls in living bodies.
As regards the activity of the soul. Jaina Philosophy maintains the view of Kriyāvāda (i, e. soul exists, acts, and is affected by karmas) in common with the Nyāya and Vaibesika Systems. According to the Nyaya, the soul, being impelled by desire, aversion and infatuation (rāga and dvesa) acts as an agent for good and bad ends and enjoys the fruits of its karma which leads it to undergo the process of birth and rebirth in the mundane world.
In respect of pudgala (matter), such as, earth, water, fire, and air, Jaina Metaphysics bears some similarity with the Vaiseșika which propounds nine categories of real substances, viz, earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind. The particular difference between them is that Jainism does not regard earth, water, light and air as ultimate substances as admitted by the Vaiớesika, but the theory of space, time and soul as ultimate substances is accepted by both the Schools.
-LOOIS.
Beings
Soul is the principle of life of all beings. It is asserted that there exist as many jīvapradešas (smaller points of individual souls) as there are space--points in the Universe.
This view of the BhS is explicitly expressed in the Tattvārtha Sutra thus-"If the space is divided into innumerable points, the size of a soul can be so small as to occupy one or more of these
parts."
"By the contraction and expansion of pradešas, the soul occupies space like the light from a lamp."
“Pradeśasaṁhāra-visarpābhyām pradīpavat."
i Bhs 8, 10, 358 ? Tattvārtha Sutra, V, 15. 8 ]6, V, 16 ; See Rāja. Su and comm, to BhS,

Page #601

576
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. X The minute living beings in the Universe are the Nigodas: which are the collections of infinite number of souls, making minutest groups, having common breathing in and out and experience of pain. They, longing for development continue their evolution of life through the successive jivaparyāyas (modes of soul) and they provide an infinite supply of souls. Thus the Universe does not and will not be empty of living beings.*
There are two kinds of souls, viz. liberated souls and worldly souls, having its purity and power convered with a veil of karma-matters which are accumulated into them. The worldly souls are classified into two categories, viz. trasa moving) and 8thāvara (non-moving). These two classes are further divided into different species in accordance with the number of senseorgans possessed by them, viz. one-sensed-(ekendriya), two sensed (dvindriya), three-sensed-(trindriyu), four-sensed-(caturindriya) and five-sensed beings (pañcendriya jīvas). One-sensed beings come under the category of the non-moving beings and they are divided into five classes, viz. earth-bodied (prthvīkāya), water-bodied (apakāya), air-bodied (vāyukāya), fire-bodied (tejakāya) and plantbodied beings (vanas patikāya).
Thus it is revealed that four-elements of Nature, viz. earth, water, air and fire are animated by souls. Some plants are ekajīvas (endowed with one soul or one germ of life) ; some are samkhyātajīvita (animated with numerable souls or germs of life); some are asankhyātajivita (animated with inumerable germs of life or souls) ; and some are anantaj,vita (endowed with infinite souls or germs of life).*
The moving beings (trasas) are classified into four divisions, viz. two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five sensed beings according to the number of senses possessed by them, e. g. worms, having two-senses, viz. touch and taste ; and ants endowed with three senses of touch, taste and smell ; bees, having four senses of touch, taste, smell and sight (vision) ; the vertebrates
i BhS, 25, 5, 749, 3 Ib, 33, 1, 814.
2 lb, 12, 2, 443. 4 16, 8, 3, 324.

Page #602

Sec. 17
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
577
endowed with five senses of touch, taste smell, sight and hearing. Of these five-sensed beings, human beings, infernal beings and gods possess rational mind. One-sensed beings
There are two classes of one-sensed beings, viz. fine or subtle (sūksma) and gross (vādara) one-sensed beings, which are again sub-divided into developed and undeveloped, fine and gross one-sensed beings. The developed fine one-sensed beings are invisible to senses as they inhabit the earth, water, air, fire and plant. They have been studied from the aspects of sex, cognition, darśana (self-awareness) activity, condition of soul, attitude, conduct, the binding of karmus, state of existence, etc., e. g. they belong to the third sex. There are also the undeveloped one.sensed beings which differ from the developed ones in regard to activity and rise of Nāma-karma. The developed and undeveloped gross one-sensed beings are visible to the eyes and they are dealt with from the same aspects of the fine one-sensed beings; they differ from each other in regard to lesya, etc.
Vikalendriya-Jīvas (Beings having two, three & four
sense-organs) The vikalendriya-jivas are classified into two categories, viz, paryāptaka (developed) and aparyā ptaka (undeveloped). They are studied from different aspects, such as, cognition, activity, condition of soul (leśyā) attitude of mind (drati), conduct, binding of karma, etc. Five sensed beings
They are classified into three species, viz. jalacara (acquatic), e. g. fish etc., sthalacara (terrestrial), e. g. elephant, etc., and khahacara (aerial', such as bird, etc. They are further divided into two groups, viz. sanjħi (endowed with rational mind) and asanja (endowed with irrational mind) and also into two other categories, viz., paryāptaka (developed) and aparyāptaka (undeveloped). They are classified into four divisions on the basis of their birth, viz. andaja (born from egg), potajā (born from a foetus)
73

Page #603

578
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
and sammurchima (born without the union of the male and female). The five-sensed-beings are also studied from the same aspects of the vikalendriya beings, such as, cognition, etc.
Human beings
Human beings are classified into two groups, viz. developed (paryāptaka) and undeveloped (aparyāptaka), like the five-sensed lower animals. They are further divided into sammurechima and garbhaja (i.e. those born without the union of the male and the female and those born in the womb after their union). They are studied from aspects, such as, cognition, activity, etc.
SECOND SECTION
Jaina Psychology as revealed in the Bhagavati Sūtra
Psychology is one of the necessary aspects of philosophy, as it is the scientific study of soul which is the central theme of knowledge, It is the whole scheme of experience which helps one understand Ontology as well as Materialism (the problem of being and matter).
There is a self-distinct bodily structure which is the basis of Psychology as found in the BhS.
In the evolution of life and the Universe as revealed in this canonical work there are two traditions, viz. atom-tradition (paramāņu) and self-tradition (ayā-âtmā) i. e. materialistic and spiritualistic. Atom and ātmā (soul) are eternal substances and exist mutually bound together in the Universe."
It is explained that upayoga" (conscionsness or application) which is inherent in soul is the most fundamental characteristic of life. It is divided into two kinds, viz. darsana (self-awareness and jñāna (knowledge), as the application of the psychic process comes in the form of darsana and jñana. Darsana is self-consciousness, self-awareness while jaana is the taking note of external
1 BhS, 2, 10, 118; 2 Ib, 1, 6, 55.

14, 4, 510; 18, 10, 647. s Ib, 2, 10, 118.

4 16, 18, 8, 642.

Page #604

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA
579
objects in details. It is revealed in the light of life and Nature that soul exhibits itself the state of being by its own-self (Jive āyabhāveņas jīvabhāvam uvadamseti')'.
The same view on the principle of upayoga (consciousness) is expressed in the Dhavala Tikā that the consciousness of soul is called 'cit' which is revealed in the forms of bahirmukhacit (external consciousness) and antarmukhacit (internal consciousness), i.e. knowledge and self-awareness.'
It is the principle of psycho-physical activities that all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the body, as it is the dual form, i. e. the psycho-physical structure which takes into consideration the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings, viz. prāņas (breath), indriyas (sense-organs), bala (strength), vīrya (energy), mana i. e. (mind=thought force), vak (speech) and kāya (body) (vocal and bodily activities), āyus (span of life) and ānaprāņa (breathing or life-expanding).
There are two aspects of the psycho-physical activity, viz. natural (visrasā or pure) and applied (prāyogya); the latter is due to the delusion which leads to deviation from its normal position when all activities are not in pure form, i.e. it is delusive transformation, and there are two conditions of such process, viz. räga (attachment-feeling of attraction) and dvesa (dislike, hatred). These are the two fundamental psychological tendencies as revealed in the Bhs.
Soul tends to maintain itself, and whatever is conducive to its preservation (or identity) is liked by it ; what is not helpful, is disliked by it. These are rāga and dvesa which are divided into four kasāyas (decoction or liquour), i. e. passions, viz. krodha (anger), māna (pride), māyā (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed)."
i Bh8, 2, 10, 120. Dhavalā Tikā, 1st Khanda, p. 145. 8 Bhs, 9, 33, 385.
Ib, 18, 4, 625. Also refer to Kasaya Pahuda (Pejja-DosaVihatti) of Gunadharācārya, edited by Pt. Phoolchandra Siddhanta Shastri, Vārāṇasī, p. 257 (No. 207), p. 258 (No. 208 pp. 364.69 ff. for detailed treatment of rāga (pejja) and dvesa (dosa).

Page #605

580
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRÀ
fch. X
Nature is qualitative, while the psychological development is quantitative. If one goes inward there is the natural psychology, if he goes outward, he reaches the natural manifestion, i.e. instinct, This instinct needs stimulus from the outside world (i.e. psycho-physical), as it is revealed in the psycho-physical phenomena according to the conditions of soul.
As already explained soul has been studied and classified from eight points of view, viz, substance (dravya), passion (kasāya), activity (yoga), consciousness (upayoga), knowledge (intāna), selfawareness (darśana), conduct (cāritra) and energy (vīrya), as they are the different forms of manifestation of soul. Physical basis of mental life
A being enters the womb with sense-organs (saiņdie) in one sense and also without these (anindie) in another. With regard to the configuration and constituting matters of the physical senseorgans (dravyendriyani) it is without them, while with regard to the faculty of cognition, i.e. psychical mind (bhāvendriya) it is endowed with sense organs.
A jīva (soul) while entering the womb is corporeal (sasarīrz) with regard to the luminous (taijas) and karmic bodies, it is noncorporeal (asarīrī) with regard to the gross physical, transformation, and translocation bodies. It is explained that when a pregnant mother sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy or unhappy, the child born in her womb also does, and feels the same emotions."
Thus psychology originates with the birth of a child in the mother's womb in course of the process of transformation of its physico-psychical matters. Sensation and Modes of stimulus of Sense-organs
Sensation in the human brain is caused by the stimulus of the five sense-objects received from outside when the sense organs come into contact with them.
This process involves the factors of discrimination assimilation, association and localization of the sense-objects and leads
i Bh8, 1, 7, 61. 16, 1, 7, 62. 3 Ib. 3, 9, 170. (Jiva Jyotiska Uddeśaka).

Page #606

Sec. II]
581
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
to perceptual knowledge. Thus it is explained in the BhS1 and the Prajnapana Sutra' that the ear hears the touched and entered sounds; the eye sees the touched and entered objects (i.e. the image of objects); the nose smells the touched and entered smells; the tongue tastes the touched and entered objects and the skin experiences the touches of the touched and entered objects.
The principles of the theory of sensation as laid down herein agree with those of the modern psychology to a great extent. For example, it explains that the sensation of sound is created in the brain when sound-waves, being converged by the outer ear, strike upon the outer membrane of the ear-drum and make it vibrate and the vibrations are transmitted to the auditory nerve through the chain of bones, the inner membrane and the contents of the labyrinth. Next, the disturbance of vibration is carried by the auditory nerve to the brain causing finally the sensation of sounds.
Sense-Perception
It is explained in the BhS that the following psychological factors are involved in this process of perceptual knowledge (abhinibodhika-jñāna) or sense-perception, viz. avagraha (perceptual judgement of generality of object), zha (desire to know or speculation), avaya (determination) and dhāraṇā (retention or memory).* Memory and Imagination
Memory and imagination involve the process of tha (speculation or mental desire to know), apoha (exclusion), maggana and gavesanā (searching and fathoming by thought). In the process of memory the images of the past sensible experiences accompanied by a belief are revived and recognized by an individual, i. e. having familiarity of characteristics of images, as it is evidenced in the case of Devananda" who recognized in Lord Mahāvīr as her former son.
1 BhS, 2, 4, 99.
2 Prajñapana 15, 1, 191, 194, 195. 3 Ib. Indriyapada 15, 1, 194, 195. 4 Bhs,12, 5, 450; 8, 2, 318. Ib, 9, 33, 382.

5 Ib. 11,11, 432.

Page #607

582
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATÍ SÚTRA Ch. * Thought (Cintā or mental activity)
The process of mental activity (manoyoga) is thought which is inter-connected with memory and imagination of the past events, objects, etc., and the imagination of the present and future activities of life, as the mind acts and reacts to new objects of thought at every moment. As already explained mind is matter (manadravya) and is associated with the spiritual being. Its activities are the passing phases of matter. Mind, when operating is mind (maņemaņijjamāņemaņe), for it breaks forth while operating (maņijjamāṇe mane bhijjati)".
Thus it is the organ of apprehension of all sense objects and knowledge', while thought implying comprehension is abstract representative mental activity involving analysis in the form of abstraction and synthesis, in that of comparison and expressing itself through speech or language.
Dream
The Bhs throws a welcome light upon the principle of dream by explaining five kinds of dream-vision, viz. yathātathya, pratāna, cintāsvapna, tadviparīta and avyakta darsana,' i.e. (1) dreamvision in accordance with truth or reality, (2) ramified dreamvision, (3) dream-vision according to the thought in the waking state, (4) dream vision opposite to realities and (5) indistinct inexpressible-dream-vision.
It is further explained that only a sleeping-cum-waking man experiences a dream-vision. These broad principles of dream touch upon all the combined theories on dream propounded by Dr. Freud, Jung and Adler, and other scholars.
According to Dr. Freud a dream is the fulfilment of a repressed desire which does not peaceably leave the organism but sinks to a level of unconscious state in which it is still active and apt to appear in the disguised and symbolic ways. Abnormal
1 Bh8, 16, 6, 578.
' Ib, 13, 7, 494. 3 Pramānamimaisā, 1, 2, 24, 4 BKS, 16, 6. 578-81. 5 Interpretation of Dreams-Dr. Freud, pp. 344, 388.

Page #608

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
583
worry', a queer idea haunting a nervous person, 'hysterical paralysis, etc., sometimes are the effects of this disguise. In the case of a normal man the repressed desires come up in the garb of an innocent appearing symbolism. Adler holds the view that a dream is not the revival and reappearance of the suppressed wish of the distant past, but a rehearsal for some impending action of an individual man to perform, and it reveals his characteristic mode of dealing with his new problem. Jung* thinks that a dream is associated with the present difficulties of an individual and shows his unconscious attitude of mind towards the problem of his life.
According to the theory of dream as embodied in the BhS, yathatathya svapna (dream-vision in accordance with reality) and cintā-8vapna (dream according to the thought in the waking state) agree with those of the theories propounded by Adler and Jung, as they are the results of the process of thoughts to deal with the present and future problems of life. While the pratāna (ramified dream vision), tadvi parāta (dream-vision-opposite to reality), (i. e. object of thought) and avyakta-darsana (indistinct or inexpressible dream vision) touch upon the theory of Dr. Freud, as they are associated with some desires repressed by thought and they appear in some garbs of symbolism.
From this analysis it may be defined that "dream whether awake or asleep is a free, passive, incoherent and constructive imagination often due to recent experience. But it is an imagination confounded with perception."
Belief or Attitude of Mind (Drşti)'
In the process of thought the attitude of mind or belief is the central theme which is characterised by truth (samyaktva) or falsehood (mithyātva) in regard to the objects of thought. Thus it is endowed with the union of the intellectual, emotional and conational elements and is inter-related with knowledge.
i Vide, Psychology, Robert S. Wood worth, pp. 567-68. ? Vide, Psychology-Robert S. Woodworth, p. 563. * Psychology-Suresh Chandra Datta, p. 165. Bh8, 1, 9, 73.

Page #609

.
584
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. x Vedana (Feeling in general)
Vedanā (feeling) is a relatively subjective and passive state of consciousness manifesting itself in the form of pleasure or pain or pleasure-cum-pain (sātā, asātā, sātāsātā-vedanā), happiness or suffering (sukha or duhkha or sukha-cum-duḥkha) or some mental agitation. They are eternal.' Sense-feeling
As a result of sensation accompanied by simple feeling of pleasure or pain there takes place the sense-feeling which is cognitive and affective. It can be divided into two kinds, viz.' organic feeling and special sense-feeling. Of the ten feelings mentioned in the BhS, viz. hunger, thirst, burning sensation, fever, itching, servility, fear and sorrow come under the category of the organic feeling, as they are connected with the discordant working of internal organs, while the feelings of cold and warmth belong to the special sense-feeling, for they are related to touch. Besides these, there are stated to be other sense-feelings of hearing, smell, taste and touch.
Kāmabhoga (Desire and Gratification of Desire)
Kāmas (desires) and bhogas (gratifications of desires) are explained on the principle of the psychophysical activities thus that they are corporeal (rūpī) and endowed with both consciousness and unconsciousness, because they are associated with the spiritual beings. There are stated to be two kinds of kāma (mental enjoyment or desire), viz. sound (sabda), and object of beauty (rūpa), while bhoga (gratification of desire or physical enjoyment) is of three kinds, viz. smell, taste and touch as they involve the mental and physical enjoyments respectively.
Emotion
As already explained in the beginning there are two transformations of the psychic process, viz, rāga (feeling of attraction)
1 Bhs, 5, 5, 202 ; 6, 10, 255; 14, 4, 511. 16, 14, 4, 511.
3 I6, 7, 8, 296. 4 lb, 12, 5, 557.
5 10, 7, 7, 290.

Page #610

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
585
and dvesa (dislike or hatred). Rāga and dvesa are divided into four kinds of kasāyas (passions), viz. kerodha (anger), māna (pride), māyā (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed). This analysis shows the emergence of emotions in the form of passions and quasipassions, appearing in different degrees due to the rise of karma. Passion is correlated to colour which is associated with feeling, because there is the material colour of the karmic matter of the body,' e. g. the karma-pudgalas of these four kinds of passions are endowed with five colours, five tastes, two smells and four touches. Here the psychic analysis of the correlation between the karma-matters and physical colour throws light upon the relation of the soul with the physical matter.
Krodha is the self-expression aggravating the mind ; the first repulsive reaction of it is resistance and resentment to any attempt from outside to flout it. Māna is the consciousness of self-respect to measure the self to maintain dignity, and to show itself distinct from others, i. e. self-maintenance. Māyā is the expression of inner-self and self-display and it attracts something to have. The self wants to express its nature and magnitude, but it is obstructed, so it takes the course of deceitfulness. Māyā is thus self-exhibition, Lobha tries to appropriate everything. Leśyā (condition of Soul)?
As already mentioned the psychological phenomena manifest themselves into six colourations of the soul, viz. kroņa (black), nila (blue), kāpota (grey), teja (red), padma (lotus) and šukla (white). They are the names to represent the conditions of the soul, as if
persons want to enjoy the fruit of a tree. The worthy one of them thinks that the fruit would come and fall on the ground in due course. This is a suklaleśya man, while a gross materialist is a man endowed with the black condition of soul. These leśyās have been studied from different aspects, such as, colour, smell, taste, touch, transformation, etc. e. g. kroņa-leśyā is stated to be of cloud colour, of bitter taste like that of Nimba,
1 Bhs, 12, 5, 449.
: 10, 1, 2, 22 ; 12, 5, 1, 450.
74

Page #611

586
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
Instinct (Samjñā)!
Instinct is the natural manifestation of a being which is caused by the stimulus received from the outside world of sensation according to the conditions of soul. It involves the process of an inter-linked chain of actions, directed to some definite and distant objective which is conducive to self-preservation, etc.
According to the BhSa there are stated to be ten kinds of instinct (samjna), viz. āhārasanjna (instinct of eating), bhayasarjñā (fear-instinct), maithuna-samjia (sex-instinct), parigrahasamjna (possessing instinct or appropriating instinct); krodha-sanjñā (instinct of anger), māna-sarjñā (pride-instinct), māyā-sarjā instinct of deceitfulness), lobha-samjñā instinct of greed), loka-samjna (conscious knowlege of particular objects) and oghasarnjna (that of self awareness of general objects).
It appears from the study of these ten instincts that there were originally only four instincts and six more were added to the list of the original four with the subsequent development of psychology. These ten instincts are closely related to emotions, as it is evidenced in the case of fear, anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed.
The classification of instincts into ten categories agrees with that of the modern psychology as advocated by the scholar like McDougall."
According to his theory there are fourteen kinds of instinct, including laughter which belongs to human beings, viz. (1) parental or protective instinct (such as that of a mother ape), (2) Instinct of combat (the mother will fight in defence of her young kiddies), (3) Instinct of curiosity, (4) Food-seeking Instinct, (5) Instinct of repulsion (avoidance or disgust), (6) Instinct of escape (escape from danger), (7) Gregarian Instinct (8) Instinct of selfassertion, (9) Instinct of submission, (10) Mating Instinct, (11) Acquisitive Instinct (12) Constructive Instinct, (13) Instinct of appeal, and (14) Instinct of laughter.
10, 12, 5, 450,
1: Bhs, 7, 8, 296. 8 1b, (comm.), 7, 8, 296. 6 An outline of Psychology-p. 110, McDougall.

Page #612

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
587
The first four instincts of the BhS, viz., āhāra (food), bhaya (fear), maithuna (sexual union) and parigraha (possession) and also lobha (greed) are the same as the food-seeking instinct, escaping instinct, mating instinct and acquisitive instinct of McDoughall respectively, while krodha (anger), māna (pride) and māyā (deceitfulness) correspond to the instincts of combat and repulsion and that of self-assertion, and the protective instinct respectively. The remaining instincts as defined by McDougall come under The the category of Loka-samjna and oghasamjna of the BhS. scheme of instinct as laid down herein appears to be more sound than that of McDaugall's theory, because some instincts, such as, instinct of repulsion, parental instinct, instinct of submission and instinct of appeal are not found among all beings (or animals). Conation
The process of thought and feeling leads to will or action owing to the presence of karma-matter in the corporate body. They manifest themselves into the form of mental, vocal and bodily activities' of various kinds, for all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the psycho-physical structure. The characteristic mark of activity is its causing the movement of the particles of the soul. The mental, vocal and bodily activities are subdivided into fifteen kinds according the nature of objects of realities, viz. satya-mana-yoga (mental activity relating to true thing) upto karmaṇa-sarira-kayayoga (activity of the karmana body).
The study of these principles of psycho-physical activities brings to light the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings which form the basis of Jaina Psychology as revealed in the BhS.
THIRD SECTION
Epistemology
Epistemology is the integral part of Philosophy, as it is the study of realities - the main object of knowledge. It is also
1 Bhs, 17, 1, 593.
3 Ib, 25. 1, 719.

Page #613

588 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
h. X intimataly connected with Psychology, Logic and Ethics, for it deals with the consciousness of soul, the nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity of knowledge and the conduct and values of life respectively, Nature of knowledge
As already discussed, upayoga (consciousness) is the attribute of soul and it is classified into two categories, viz. sākāropayoga (determinate consciousness) and anākāropayoga (indeterminate consciousness). Sākāropayoga is jñāna (knowledge) and anākāropayoga is darsana (self-awareness).
Soul is knowledge and knowledge is soul," for upayoga (consciousness) is the essential quality of soul. It is the knower (stanz)and the object of knowing (jicya).
Kundakuda also holds the same view on the relation between soul and knowledge. There exists a difference between soul and knowledge from the empirical point of view, but soul is the knower and nothing else in its transcendental aspect. In the Pravacanasāra it is defined that absolute bliss and absolute knowledge are one and the same thing," while the Samayasāra explains that there lies no difference, between the knower and his knowledge, for the omniscient knows and perceives the whole reality from the empirical standpoint and the self from the transcendental point of view.? Theory of knowledge (Jnāna)
According to the theory of knowledge as embodied in the Bhs there are five categories of knowledge, viz. ābhinibodhika-jfåna (sensuous knowledge), śruta-jntāna (knowledge acquired by interpreting signs, i.e. words, writings, gestures), avadhi-jñāna (transcendental knowledge of material things), manaḥparyaya-jñāna (transcendental knowledge of the thoughts of others or intuition of mental modes), and kevala-jhana (omniscience).
i Bhs, 18, 8, 642. , 16, 12, 10, 468. 3 16, 8, 2, 318. * Samayasara, 6, 7. 5 Pravacanasāra, 1, 50-60,
& Samayasara, 10, 11, 433. 7 Niya masara, 158.
8 Bhs, 8, 2, 318.

Page #614

Sec. 111]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
589
Abhinibodhika-jnana is the sensuous knowledge acquired through the sense-organs and quasi-sense, i.e. mind, and áruta-jñāna is the knowledge derived from the interpretations of signs or hearing. Avadhi-jñāna is transcendental knowledge of that which has form; manaḥparyaya-jñāna is the knowledge of mental modes or thoughts of others; and kevala-jnana is omniscience the only pure knowledge free from the covering of karma-pudgala.1
These five kinds of knowledge are divided and sub-divided into different groups according to their respective nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity. Thus abhinibodhika-jñāna involves four stages, viz. avagraha (perception or general knowledge), iha (desire to know or speculation), avaya (determination i. e. removal of doubt, and ascertainment of the object) and dhārāna (retention of the accepted knowledge).
These four stages of sensuous knowledge are studied from different aspects. Thus avagraha (perception or general knowledge) is divided into two kinds, viz., arthāvagraha (object-perception) and vyanjanavagraha (contact-awareness).
Tha (desire to know or speculation), avāya (determination) and dharana (relention) are classified into six divisions as they are caused by the activities of five sense-organs and mind.
Śruta-juana is of two-kinds, viz. añgapravista (internal) and angabahira (external); avadhi-jñana is classified into two categories, viz. bhavapratyayika (by virtue of birth) and kṣayopaśamika (that of human beings and five-sensed lower animals on accont of the destruction-cum-subsidence of relevant karmic neather. It is born as a result of the destruction of anger, destruction-cum-suppression of the knowledge-obscuring risen karma and suppression of the not-risen karma".
Ajnana (wrong knowledge)
an
There are three kinds of wrong knowledge, viz. mati-ajñāna (wrong knowledge acquired by ajñānī and mithyādṛṣṭi), śruta-ajnana (wrong interpretation of signs, by an ajani and mithyadrṣti), and vibhanga-jnana (perverted avadhijñāna ).o
1 BhS, (comm).
Nandi Sutra 134 to 140, 3 Bhs, 8, 2, 318.

Page #615

590
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÓTRA
Ch. X
Knowledge is further classified into two categories, viz. pratyaksa (immediate knowledge) and paroksa (mediate knowledge). The former is further subdivided into two kinds, viz. indriya-pratyaksa (immediate knowledge acquired through sense-organs) and noindriya-pratyaksa (that attained through mind). Indriyapratyaksa-jñāna is of five kinds, viz. śrotrendriya-pratyaksa, caksurīndriya-pratyaksa, ghränendriya-pratyaksa, jihvendriya-pratyakesa, and sparģendriya-pratyaksa, (immediate knowledge acquired through the sense-organs-ear, eye, nose, tongue and skin). Noindriya pratyaksa Grāna) is of three kinds, viz. avadhi-jñānapratyaksa (clair voyance) manah-paryāya-jñāna pratyaksa (telepathy) and kevala-jftāna-pratyaksa (omniscience)?
Relation between Jñāna and Darśana (knowledge and
self-awareness) Relation between jatāna and darsana is explained thus. Darsana (self-awareness) is the stepping stone to jñāna (knowledge) and they are inter-related to each other as the two aspects of consciousness, the attributes, of soul. They do not take place simultaneously, because säkāropayoga (determinate consciousness) is jāna (knowledge), while anākaropayoga (indeterminate consciousness) is darśana (self-awareness). It is clearly explained that even a paramāvadhika and a kevalin do not know and perceive an atom or a skandha at a time.
FOURTH SECTION
Ethics Ethics is the continuation of the metaphysical and psychological aspects of studies. Metaphysics deals with life and Nature and Psychology explains how the mind reacts to the objects of Nature, while Ethics is the moral consideration of all forces of life and Nature. It gives an insight how man started the estimation of the value of life from the first stage of civilization.
1 BKS, 8, 2, 318,
· Ib, 11, 8, 642.

Page #616

Sec. IV)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
591
The term 'Ethics' is derived from the Greek ethikos which is related to ethos, characteristic spirit of community, people or system.
The first thing in human life is food the more of which is good. But Nature has set some limit to man's demand to enjoy more things, because it becomes harmful to him in its excessive degree. The entire idea of the moral standard is founded on the basis of this individual and social demand. But materials are limited in space and the physical personality of man in comparison with the natural forces is also limited. Only a limited quantity of food is good but beyond that it is harmful.
Desire which is the main factor of the economic life is guided by the instinct of possession, but the unbridled forces of desire and enjoyment ensnare the human mind and lead it to the path of mad lust for the acquisition of the worldly objects and wealth at the expense of others and finally to the consequent sufferings and unhappiness.
So the unlimited amassing of wealth and its unrestricted enjoyments have not been commended as final in the ethical principles laid down in the Bhs but rather they have been condemned by the saints. So a great emphasis has been put on the principle of non-possession (aparigraha), one of the five great vows of the Nirgrantha Dharma.
Pleasure or happiness is the goal of the material life of man and the ethical ideas are directly and indirectly connected with happiness and physical pleasure which are fulfilled by means of wealth. But beyond the particular point of pleasure or happiness there is harm, because non-pleasure arises. So the quantitative restriction comes to a limit-nivítti (return or ceasing from wordly acts), yama (restraint), 8anyama (self control) and niyama (fixed moral rule). Nature has got a belt and it does not allow men to go beyond that, though goodness is wanted in more quantity. Goodness and badness of a thing are to be
1 Bhs, 9, 33. 384.

Page #617

592
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
Сь ll.
X
I
determined from the aspects of substance, space, time, and condition - the mental approach of the person concerned. As they are of relative value, so ethics is not absolute. It is the personal approach determined by the utility which is decided by one's own mind in different modes at different times from the practical point of view.
In the social organization men require standardization of the sources of material objects in conformity with the natural condition. In this standardization samyama is an important factor, as it contains doubt, e.g. do not do that, observe it, etc.' Jainism as embodied in the Bhs starts with the prohibitive principle of non-violence or non-injury (pānāti pātaviramana or ahimsa). It is comprehensive in meaning from the social, ethical and religious standpoints. Distinction is made between dravyahińsā and bhāvahińsā (violence committed in act and violence committed in thought).
Virtue of non-violence arises out of self-preservation, because men are socially related to one another. One must not do injury to the social life for self-preservation and self-development. Thus this prohibitive principle leads to vītarāgatā (non-attachment or detachment) and to the higher interest as one must consider the value of others and to self-sacrifice, because attachment leads men to clashes, while detachment to peace and asceticism.
There are two aspects of ethics as advocated in the Bhs, the first consists of non-violence, non-lying, non-stealing, nonsexual union, and non-possession", which constitute the core of morality and the second comprises the restricted twelve principles of Srāvaka Dharma".
So long as one does not intend to do the act of killing, it is positive virtue from the individual, social and spiritual aspects of virtue and non-violence ; control of senses is the positive virtue which inculcates an ideal in one's spirit to follow the path of spiritual progress. Natural and unnatural troubles and old age
1 BhS, 2, 1, 92-93.
: 16, 2, 1, 92, 95.
16, 18, 10, 648.

Page #618

Sec. IV]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
593
come in life which should be maintained by practising external and internal austerities and by scratching out the body (samlekhana) to save the soul in order to attain the highest goal of life-liberation'.
Religion attaches fear to its tenets by showing the attainment of heaven and hell' for meritorious and sinful acts of men respectively in connection with the individual, social and religious aspects of life. So one should retrace his steps (pratikramana) from the unvirtuous acts and make others forgive him, if he has done any wrong to any body. Actual value of life of an individual depends on self-imposed punishment and expiation (prāyaścitta) which are there to induce virtue in him. Self-analysis (alocanā) and the retracing of steps (pratikramana) come next to be made for what has been done in the case of an educated person, while in that of the illiterate people confession of guilt to their religious teacher is the best way to retrace from the sinful deeds, for the goal of happiness has changed its connotation into supreme bliss and liberation. Relativity of goodness and badness
The Bhs explains the relativity of goodness and badness. The state of sleep of some beings is good and that of sleeplessness is also good. The state of sleep of those beings, who are unrighteous and earn livelihood by the act of unrighteousness is good, for they, being slept, do not live for the sufferings of many beings and do not become the binders of inauspicious karmas. The state of sleeplessness of the virtuous beings who earn their livelihood by the righteous act is good, because they live without causing suffering to many beings and become the binders of auspicious karmas by their religious acts and thought."
As regards the stanardization of life which induces men to conform to natural condition, this canonical work lays a great emphasis on self-control by warning that the beings under the sway of five senses and passions travel again and again in the
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 91-96. • 16:12, 2, 443.
? 16, 8, 9, 351. 5 I6, 2, 1, 92.
8 16, 2. 1, 94-95.
75

Page #619

594
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
mundane world.1 It advocates that one should practise selfcontrol in respect of all beings, i.e. the observance of non-violence. Categories of sin (papasthanas)
There are eighteen categories of sin, viz. act of killing, untruthfulness, stealing, sexual intercourse, act of possession, anger, pride, deceitfulness, greed or avarice, attachment to worldly objects and interests, hatred and jealousy, quarrelsomeness, slandering, telling of stories to discredit anyone, criticism and finding fault with others, disliking, hypocrisy and perverted attitude of mind to truth (prāṇātipāta upto mithyadarsana salya).
The sinful acts of all beings are the causes of their sufferings, while the annihilation of sinful acts is the cause of happiness.
Classification of violent action
There are five kinds of violent action" which are the causes of bondage, viz. kāyikī kriyā (physical action), adhikaranikriya (act of preparation for killing beings by collecting murderous materials, such as, poison, net, instruments, and the act of producing weapons, etc., or subordination), pradveşikī kriyā (act of hatred and jealousy) pāritapaniki kriya (act of causing pain) and prānatipata-kriya (act of killing) by one's own hand and that by
other's hand.
The BhS makes analysis of the effects of these five kinds of action from the ethical standpoint, on a person involved in hunting a deer. For example, when a person who earns his livelihood by killing a deer, intends upon its killing and endeavours to kill it, and having gone to a game forest, marks the deer and makes trap for its killing, he is called the performer of three or four or five actions. Because as soon as that person lays out the net but does not bind or kill the deer, he is effected by three actions (kāyiki, adhikaraṇī and pradveṣiki), and by four actions (i. e. kayiki upto pāritāpaniki), if he captures or binds the
3 Ib, 1, 6, 52.
1 BhS, 12, 2, 443. 4 Ib, 10, 2, 396.

Ib, 2, 1, 92. 5 lb 3, 3, 150.

Page #620

Sec, Iv]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
595
deer with the net but he does not kill it, and by five (i. e. kāyiki upto prāņātipāta kriyā)", if he kills it. Another example explains the effect of these five actions. A person, having gone to a game forest for hunting deer, remains standing by drawing his bow up to his ear with the intention to kill it, while another person armed with a sword cuts the head of the standing man with it, having come from behind. Now, the arrow drawn by the former springs up and wounds the deer. The person who kills it is affected by the act of enemity towards the deer and the person who kills the standing bowman is touched by that of enemity towards the man.
The action, being done is (equal to) the action done. “Kajjamāne kade." If the dying animal dies within six months from the time of its injury, then that killer is affected by five actions (kāyiki upto prānātipāta kriyā), if it dies after six months, he is affected by four actions.
These ethical principles of five actions tally with the sections of the Indian Penal Code No. 299, 300 & 302, dealing with culpable homicide and its charge and punishment.
It is note-worthy that the BMS advocates the ethical principles of dispassionate defensive war to be followed as a duty to the state, when its sovereignty is threatened by an enemy power, as it is evidenced by the fact of the dispassionate fighting of Varuņa", a citizen of Vaišāli in the Rathamusala Sangrāma against the forces of king Kūņika at the call of his state. The act of violence is divided into the following groups, viz. ārambhiki (act of killing), udyogi (preparatory), virodhi (opposing) and sankalpa (intentional or deliberate), according to the transaction, profession, self-protection and deliberate killing.
Besides these acts of violence committed on beings, there is the thought of violence which is equally sinful. For instance, a man, while killing another person kills him and also others. He kills many beings by his thought, as he is affected by the act of enemity.' 1 Bs, 1, 8, 65.
* 16, 1, 8, 68. $ 16, 7, 9, 303.
4 Ib, 9, 33, 391,

Page #621

596 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÜTRA [Ch. X Renunciation
Act of renunciation in respect of all beings is the most important factor in the moral conduct which should be practised by one, having complete knowledge about beings and non-beings.
The study of all these evidences furnished by the BhS reveals that the unrighteous acts produce bad effects in the long run by grinding slow and cutting and disintegrating the very roots of life which is engulfed and overtaken by the disastrous evil consequences of bad actions. So this canonical text puts a great emphasis on the observance of the five great vows which constitute the very core of morality and the ideal of renunciation which leads to the path of asceticism, attainment of spiritual liberation. ultimate peace and happiness-the aim of human life.
FIFTH SECTION Jain Logic as found in the Bhagavati Sūtra Logic is the formal and scientific exposition of a system of thought evolved out of formulation of thought going on for some time; when it is formulated, it governs the future thought, Religion, Philosophy, Psychology, Epistemology and Ethics. Apart from this position in relation to different branches of knowledge it appears as an independent study later on.
Besides Jain Logic, there are traditions of other Indian systems of Logic, viz. Nyāya, Vaišesika, Sänkhya, Mimāṁsā and Vedānta. The BKS throws some light upon Jain Logic.
The word 'pamāņa” (Skt. 'pramāņa") used in this canonical work stands for the system by which the validity of any kind of knowledge is determined, as it is explained by the Anuyogadvära— "Nanagunappamāņo': This pramāna is divided into four kinds, viz. pratyaksa (direct perception), anumana (inference) upamāna or aupamya (analogy) and āgama (scripture or authority)."
i Bhs, 7, 2, 271 ff, 3 Anuyogadvāra Sutra, S. 144.
16, 5. 4, 193. 4 Bhs, 5, 4, 193,

Page #622

Sec. V]
Studies in the BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
597
Pratyaksa pramāņa is the knowledge determined by the senses and mind. It is indriya-pratyaksa (valid knowledge acquired through five sense-organs) and non-indriya-pratyaksa-pramāņa (knowledge determined by mind).
Empirical knowledge is incomplete and it does not convey the correct knowledge of the object. Accordingly the object is judged from two standpoints, viz. vyavahāra-naya and niscaya-naya (empirical and transcendental standpoints) as already discussed in the first section of this chapter and there is the form of judgement called anumāna (inference) to determine the validity of knowledge.
Anumāna-pramūna (inference--syllogism-deduction) is that by which an object is known by means of the knowledge of the problems and the memory of universal concomitance, and the like (Linga grahanasambandhasmaranādeh pascānmiyati anenetyanumānam). There are three kinds of anumāna-pramāņa, viz. pūrvavat, sesavat and dystasādharmya. The first one is determined by any former sign, e. g. when the mother recognizes her son, who was lost in his childhood, and returns after a lapse of long period, by the sign of some scar on his body. The second is determined by kārya (action), kārana (cause), guna (quality), avayava (feature) and aśraya (receptacle), e. g. sankha (conch) is known by its sound i. e. action, thread is the cause of cloth (kārana), gold is known by nikasa (test-stone) (i. e. guna), buffalo by horn (avayava) and fire by smoke (āšraya). The third (drstasādharmya) is determined by the general and particular views (sāmānya-drsta and višesadysta). Aupamya or Upamāna (Analogy or Similarity)
It is the empirical nature of objects which helps to have the idea of things by way of similarity, figure of speech or analogy. There are two kinds of aupamya (analogy), viz. sādharmya and vaidharmya (similarity and dissimilarity), e.g. as is mandāra, (thorn-apple), so is mustard, as is mustard, so is mandāra, etc., are examples of kificit-sādharmya, as sāmalero (calf) is, bāhulero
Bhs, (Comm.), 5, 4, 193.

Page #623

598
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
is not; as bāhulero is, sāmalero is not; are examples of (kifcit vaidharnya). Agama (Scripture)
ama is the sacred literature embodying the experiences of the Apta-purusas characterized by disinterestedness (vītarāgatā). There are two kinds of Agama, viz. laukika and lokottarikathe first one consists of the Bhārata, the Rāmāyaṇa upto the four Vedas, etc., while the second comprises the twelve Angas composed by the Arhats." Relativity of Judgement
The logical system as formulated in the Bhs throws a welcome light upon the relativity of judgement, while giving exposition of the metaphysical thoughts from the stand-point of non-absolutism?, e g. souls are eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of mode or state. "Jīvā sāsayā asāsaya davvatthayāe sāsayā bhāvatthayāe asāsayā."
The Acārānga Sūtra gives a more clear conception of the relativity of judgement by explaining that he who knows one object with its qualities knows all things, he who knows all things with their qualities knows one thing.
"Je egam jāņai se savvam jāņai"
"Je savvam jāņai se egam jāņai.” Things are not same at different moments, because there is the evolution of beings, origination, continuation and decay of the substances of the Universe with the march of time. The qualities continue in things so long as they exist, but the modes (paryayas) change; these characterize the things. Thus the value of a substance is determined from different aspects, e.g. soul is knowledge, knowledge is souls
The study of the nature of substance reveals that infinite malities and modes of it exist in it as the cause and effect. To
1 Anuyogadvāra Sutra, pp. 194 to 200. 9 Non-Absolutism, Dr. Satkari Mookerjee. * Acaranga Sutra, 1, 3, 4; 122.
8 Bh8, 7, 2, 274, 5 Bhs, 12, 10, 468.

Page #624

Sec. VI] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 599 make the nature of things clear one uses 'bhangi', such as, pramāṇabhangi, syādvādbhangi, etc. That is, the style or mode of expression by taking care of other aspects of the thing in mind, which must be conveyed to others, is used to give exposition of thoughts and ideas about it. One particular aspect of Reality which has infinite qualities is expressed by 'syād'.
The BKS does not specifically deal with this syādvāda theory of judgement, but it is evidently clear from the study of its contents that the system of saptubhangż-naya (seven fold judgement) governs the thoughts of religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology and ethics as embodied in this canonical work.
SIXTH SECTION.
Doctrine of Karma. All forces of life and Nature are associated together in the principle of cause and effect--the central theme of studies of all branches of knowledge. This fundamental law of causation pervades the entire sphere of physical and psychical worlds, governing the process of origination, continuation and decay of substances--living and non living, gross and fine, developed and undeveloped.
The Bhs throws light upon this principle of causation by explaining it from the five positive and negative aspects that jiva (soul or being) knows, perceives realizes and attains cause (hetu) and dies a chadmastha marana (death of a man endowed with finite knowledge), having cause and by cause also. From the negative point of view jžva does not know, perceive and attain cause, but dies an ignorant death, having cause and by cause. Significance of Karma
Thus a universal law of causation explains and interprets the psycho-physical actions and reactions of beings manifested in the forms of thoughts, feeling and behaviour.
i Viseşāvasyaka-bhāsya, pp. 895 ff. and Syādvāda-mañjari,
pp. 170 ff. " BhS, 12, 10, 469. 8 Ib, 5, 7, 220.

Page #625

600
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
[Ch. X
· As already discusssd in the first section of this chapter soul is endowed with consciousness, infinite knowledge, infinite selfawareness, infinite conduct", power, energy, etc., in its perfect eternal state. But the worldly souls are imperfect, for their innate faculty is clouded by a very fine foreign element imperceptible to the senses, which is called karma and is an aggregate of material particles. This karma-matter, entering into the mundane soul through the physical vocal and bodily actions causes certain conditions in it as a result of the modifications of consciousness comprising four passions viz. anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed.
Thus karmabandha of soul takes place owing to the penetration and assimilation of karma-particles into it. Liberation of soul from this bondage can be attained by the two-fold processes, viz. the stoppage of the influx of karma-matters and their dissociation.
Karmabandha is studied from four points of view, viz. its nature (prakrti-bandha) duration (sthiti-bandha) intensity (anubhāgabandha) and quantity (pradesa-bandha). According to its nature, karma is classified into eight fundamental species (mula praktis), viz. jnānāvaraniya-karma (knowledge obscuring karma), daršahāvarniyakar ma intuition obscuring karina), vedaniya-karma (feeling producing Icarma), mohanīya-karma (deluding karmu which obscures the right attitude of soul to faith and conduct), ayus karma (longevity-determining karma) ; nāma karma (body-making or personality-determining karma with its general and special qualities and faculties), gotra-karma (status-determining karma, e. g. family clan, caste, nationality, social, standing, etc.) and antarāya-karma (soul's energy-hindering karma). They are divided and sub-divided into 158 kinds of karmas.
Nature of Karma
Karmas are bound by consciousness of soul (ceyakaļā kammā kajjanti), because they get transformed into bad place,
1 Bhs, 2, 1, 91. i Io, 1, 4, 38. See also Pannavanā, uddesaka I, and Karma
grantha, s Bhs, 16, 2, 570.

Page #626

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
etc., like the matters of beings, accumulated as food and collected as the physical structure, and in one's mind there arise fear, and definite intention for the killing of a being and its ending in death. Thus karma is the cause of the bondage of the soul.
States of Soul (Bhāva)1
Karmas produce six kinds of states in the soul, viz(1) audayika (the state of soul caused by the unhindered realization of the eight karma-prakṛtis-it consists of all accidental attributes of soul, (2) aupaśamika (the state is produced by the suppression of the karmas, though they still continue to exist and may be overcome by proper efforts of self-control). (3) pāriņāmika (the essential state comprising the qualities attributed to the soul in itself the qualities in which nothing is changed through the karma), (4) kṣayika (the state produced as a result of annihilation of the karmas, in the perfection this state liberation is attained), (5) kṣayopasamika (the mixed state in which some karmas still exist, but some are neutralized and some annihilated; so the existing karma does not realize itself and possesses no intensity) and (6) sānnipatikabhava (the state which consists in the concidence of several states).
Faculty of cognition or capacity of soul (Labdhi)'
Labdhi is the faculty of cognition or capacity of soul by the power of which it is capable of recognizing every thing in the present, past and future-all substances and their conditions. There are ten kinds of labdhi, viz., jñānalabdhi (faculty of knowledge), darsanalabdhi (faculty of self-awareness), caritralabdhi (faculty of conduct), caritra-caritralabdhi (that of conduct-cum-nonconduct), danalabdhi (that of giving), labhalabdhi (that of receiving), bhogalabdhi (that of enjoyment), upabhogalabdhi (that of experience), viryalabdhi (that of energy of soul) and indriyalabdhi (that of the senses). These ten kinds of labdhis are further sub-divided according to their respective classification, e. g. there are five kinds of jñānalabdhi, viz. abhinibodhika upto kevalajñānalabdhi (faculty of sensuous knowledge upto that of omniscience).
21b, 8, 2, 320.
1 Bhs, 17, 1, 594.
76
601

Page #627

602
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
[Ch. X
Samudghāta (Expansion of Soul)
Samudghāta is the expansion of soul outside the body for some particular purpose, without leaving the body, and retraction to the original shape after the purpose is served. This process is a means of the premature fruition and the consequent exhaustion of the karmas of longer duration Samudghāta is of seven kinds, viz. six chădmasthika-samudghātas namly vedanā, kasāya, māranāntika, vaikriya, taijasa and ahārakasamudghātas and one kevali.samudghāta. Vedanā-samudghāta is the process of expansion of soul by which it shakes off a huge quantity of the material particles of vedaniya karma (pain-producing). Kasāyasamudghāta is that by which it shakes off the prrticles of the kasāyapudgala (i. e. cāritramohaniya karma). Māraṇāntika-samudghāta is the retraction or expansion of the soul by which it exhausts the last ayuskarma-pudgalas. In vaikriya samudghāta, the soul stretches itself in straight line in order to shake off the unwanted material particles and collect finer particles in order to assume various shapes according to its own desire. By means of taijasa samudghāta, an ascetic launches tejolesya in order to consume an object. By the āhāraka samudghāta, an ascetic versed in the fourteen Pūrvas can assume a subtle body in order to approach to a tirthankara in a distant region for the solution of his doubts. By kevali-samudghāta is meant the expansion of his soul by the kevalin (omniscient) in order to equalize the duration of his other karmas with the āyuşlarman.
The States and Processes of Karma : Karaņa” (process of energy of soul)
The karma-matter gets associated with soul on account of its passions and activities and at certain states of the soul the passions get completely destroyed, but the mental, vocal and bodily activities still exist (or continue) in causing consequent influx and bondage of karma which require some energy of soul for their origination.
i Bhs, 2, 2, 97; 13, 10, 409, and Studies in Jaina Philosophy,
p. 280. • fb, 6, 1, 230.

Page #628

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
603
Thus it is explained that there are four kinds of karana (process or organ of energy of soul), viz, mana, vāk, kāya and karma-karanas. The karma-karana is the process of energy by which the karma matter undergoes various processes as a result of different conditions of the activities. The processes of ene have been divided into eight kinds, viz. bandhana (bondage), the condition of the energy responsible for bondage'; sankramana (transformation of one karma into another) the condition of the energy, responsible for transformation'; udvarttanā (increased realization of kar mas), 'the condition of the energy responsible for increased realization'; apavarttanā (decreased realization of karma), 'the condition of the energy responsible for decreased realization’; udirană (premature realization of karmas), the condition of the energy responsible for premature realization'; upašamana (subsidence), “the condition of the energy responsible for subsidence'; nidhatti (the condition that is capable of making the karmas incapable of all the processes (karanas) other than increased realization and decreased realization; and nikācanā the condition that is responsible for making the karmas incapable of all the processes."
"Jivavīryam bandhanasankramaņādinimittabhūtam · karma-karaṇam.
The process of energy produces a corresponding karmic process and vice-versa. Thus karaña is explained from the aspects of substance, space, time, life, condition, body, sense-organ, speech, mind, passion, expansion of soul, instinct, condition of soul, attitude of mind, sex-passion, act of killing, matter and its modes—colour, smell, taste, touch and figure. Here karana is the means of action-"Kriyate anena iti karaṇam." Āśrava (Influx of Karma into Soul)"
Aśrava is the influx of karma-matters into the soul which takes place as a result of mental, vocal and bodily activities accompanied by passions.
1 Vide, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Dr. Nathmal Tatia, p. 254. ? Bhs, (Comm.), 6, 1, 230. 8 Ib, 19, 9, 661. * 16, (Comm.). 616, 6, 3, 233.

Page #629

604
STUDIES IN THE VBHAGAWIŤ SÜTRA
(Cb. X
"Tiviheņam paogeņam jīyāņam kammovacae payogasā."
As the four sides of a new piece of cloth when used, in due course bind dirts (matters) which get collected and accumulated into it and consequently it becomes dirty and full of bad smell, just like that the conditions of the soul get transformed into an ugly form and its purity is tarnished by the influx and accumulation of karma-matters from all sides and directions.
"Se jahāņāmæ-vatthassa-ahayassa-āņupuvvie paribhujjamāṇassa savvao poggalā vajjhamti
jāva pariņamamti.'' Classification of Aśrava
There are stated to be two kinds of general action of beings or influx of karma technically known as iryāpathikā (nonaffecting) and sāmparāyikā (affecting) kriyas. They may be classified into two kinds of asravas, viz. bhāvāśrava and karmagrava, the former signifies the channel of thought activities through which the karma-matters enter into the soul and the latter denotes their actual entrance into it.' Tryā-pathikākriya is not accompanied by passion (kaşāya), but sâmparāyikā kriya is associated with it according to the mental disposition of human beings. Bondage (Bandha)
Bondage is the penetration and assimilation of particles of karma-matters into the soul the purity of which is sullied by their veil. There are stated to be five causes of bonage, namely, mithyātva (delusion or wrong attitute of mind), avirati (absence of self-control), pramāda (spiritual inertia or inadvertence), yoga (activity)a and kasāya (passion)." Classification of Bondage
Bondage is divided into two categories, viz. dravyabandha (material bondage conditioned by the action of the soul) and bhāvabandha internal bondages conditioned by the thought activities) on the basis of karma and mental condition. Dravya
1 BhS, 6, 3, 234. ? 16, 6, 3, 233. 16, 7, 1, 262; 7,7, 289. 4 Dravya-Sangraha, SI, 29. 6 Bhs, 7,1,262; 7,7,289; 10,2,396, . 10, 3, 3, 152, 1 16, 7, 7, 289. 8 16, 18, 3, 621.

Page #630

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
605
bandha is divided into two groups, viz. prayogabandha (bondage caused by the action of jīva (soul or being) and visrasāban (that which takes place by the natural process). They are further sub-divided into different kinds and discussed from various aspects, such as, its causes, duration, intensity, quantity, etc. with regard to all beings.
Bhāvabandha is of two kinds, viz. mūlaguņapraksti-bandha (bondage of the eight fundamental species of karma) and uttaragunaprakrti-bandha (that of the sub-species of karma) on the basis of the result of the reprehensible thought activities which are the causes of the actual influx of karmu affecting the soul. These two kinds of bhāvabandha are sub-divided into different groups according to their respective numbers, e. g. there are stated to be eight kinds of mūlaguna-prakrtibandha, viz. jñānāvaraniya upto antarāyika-kar mabandha."
Liberation
Liberation is the freedom of the soul from the bondage of karma and thereby the stoppage of its rebirth. It can be achieved by two processes, viz. samvara (the stoppage of the influx of new karma--matters into the soul) and nirjarä (the dissociation of the accumulated karma-matters in the soul).
Samvara (Stoppage of the influx of karma-matters)
Samvara can be attained by the observance of (1) the five great vows, viz. non-injury upto non-possession, (2) that of samitis (self-control) in walking, speech, taking of food, etc., (3) that of three guptis (restraint of mind, speech and body and control of senses), (4) that of dharmas consisting of continence, renouncement (straight-forwardness, attainment of virtue), forgiveness, conquering of senses, purity, desirelessness, well devotion to sramanahood, controlling of passion, penance, etc., (5) anupreksā (deliberation or meditation about the transitoriness of the mundane world, truths, process of birth, one's own responsibility for good and evil deeds,
1 Bh8, 8, 3, 345.
16, 18, 3, 621.
8 16, 2, 1, 92, 9, 33, 384.

Page #631

606
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA [Ch. IX distinction between the soul and the non-soul (jivājīva), uncleanliness of body, influx of karma-matters and its stoppage and the dissociation of those karma-matters accumulated and stuck into the soul, matter, substances of the Universe, etc., (6) the conquering of the twenty parişahas (forbearances) and (7) right conduct.1
Nirjarā (Dissociation of Karma-matters)?
It is the change in the soul and the dissociations of karmamatters brought about by the external and internal austerities. As the matters of a piece of dirty cloth get dissolved from all sides, if it is gradually cleansed and washed with pure water, just like that the soul, having been freed from the dust of karmamatters becomes pure and attains the beautitude, perfection and happiness as a result of austerities and meditation.
Gunasthāna (Stage of spiritual development)
The Bhs throws a side light upon the stage of spiritual development (gunasthāna) by making incidental reference to the sixth, seventh and eighth gunasthānas, viz. pramatta-saiyata, apramatta-sanyatas and apūrva-karana," which are conditional upon the elemination of the mohaniya-karmas.
In the stage of pramatta-sarnyata--a complete self-control is attained in spite of the disturbance caused through the spiritual inertia or negligence (pramāda), produced, through the realization of the flaming up passions, of sleep, etc. The duration of the stay in this stage is, in the minimum one samaya with regard to one jīva (soul or being) and in the maximum less than a pūrvakoțī and all times with regard to different jīvas (beings or souls). In the stage of apramatta-samyata a complete self-control without negligence (pramāda) exists lasting only for one antarmuhūrta with regard to one being or soul in the minimum and less than a pūrvakotī in the maximum and all times (sarvaddhā) with regard to different souls or beings (nānājīvas). In the stage of a pūrva-karana
BhS, 2, 1. 92; 9, 33, 384. 8 16, 3, 3, 154.
• Ib, 6, 3, 233. * 16, 9, 31, 367.

Page #632

Sec. VI]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGA WATI SOTRA
607
the soul which is on the upašamasrenī remains in the minimum one samaya and in the maximum one antarmuhurta and the one who is on the ksaa pakasreni altogether one muhūrta."
The State of Liberation
Soul attains perfection, when the renouncement of thought (bhāvavyutsarga) and that of articles, body, passion, world and action etc., (dravyavyutsarga) take place as a result of the joint action of right knowledge, right attitude of mind and right conduct. Being freed from the karma-matters, the soul gets a propulsion like the movement of an arrow released from the bow towards the target and it goes up in a straight line to the top of the Universe.
In that state it stays permanently in Tsat Prāgbhāra which is lying close to the border of the Universe and that of the Non-Universe high above the Sarvārtha-siddhi heaven and enjoys eternal perfect bliss with freedom from the worldly bondage and suffering of the physical existence.
1 The Doctrine of karma in Jain Philosophy-Dr. S.V. Glasenapp
pp. 82, 83, 84. • Bhs, 25, 7, 803. : 16, 8, 10, 355. • 16, 7, 1, 255.

Page #633

ELEVENTH CHAPTER
Value of the Bhs from the literary, historical and philosophical points of view.
FIRST SECTION Literary value of the work
Literature is to be judged by its value to humanity. An estimation of it is determined by the principles to what extent does it contribute to the progress of mankind by enabling it to live with more happiness. more intensity. more profoundness more wisdom and more freedom in the mundane world. Next comes up the question of technique used in the work for proper criticism which distinguishes its subject-matter, guiding one to a finer appreciation of writing and making him realize more clearly and completely what the author has meant there.
Literature is the reflection of human life, thoughts, ideas and activities and Nature, and the representation of education, learning and culture of a developed civilized society. It carries the message of knowledge and cultural heritage of a people or of a country from the distant past up to the present and preserves the treasure of different branches of learning of to-day for the future human generations through the successive stages of the social evolution.
So a fully developed literature touches upon all aspects of individual and social life, such as, family, social, political and economic conditions, education, all branches of knowledge arts and sciences, technology, religion, history and philosophy with all phenomenal and noumenal aspects of Nature. All beings and non-beings and peoples of all walks of life with their different roles in the larger society appear on the stage of a true literature endowed with the richness of developed human thoughts and ideas about the self and not-self. It vitalizes and

Page #634

Sec. 1] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
609 revitalizes the individual, social, national and international life, shapes and reshapes, adjusts and readjusts, transforms and retransforms the human society to a considerable extent by conveying the message of its knowledge and truth preserved in it with great care.
From this angle of vision on literature the Bhs testifies sufficiently to the linguistic and literary development of its age and its value to mankind by conveying various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the form of conversation between Lord Mahāvīra and his disciples.
The Bhs touches upon different phases of life and Nature, beings and non-beings and their evolution, more particularly human life and society and their progress in all conditions from the time of birth up to that of death, covering the four stages of life and the world past, the world present and the world beyond. It reveals the underlying fundamental principles governing the forces of life and Nature, the evolution of beings and the states of non-beings, the development of man and the society in the cosmic process of the Universe.
Besides these literary contributions, the Bhs throws light upon the political, social and economic conditions, education, science and arts, religious evolution - various leaders of thought and their systems, particularly Ajīvikism and the history of its period, cosmology, cosmography, geography and Jaina Philosophy and History within its purview as they are revealed in course of the holy teachings of the Master, imparted to his disciples in a brilliant manner in the form of questions and answers. Thus it fulfils the very mission of a true literature.
In regard to the language and style of the Bhs it may be said with reservation that they represent an age different from the present, in which all monastic orders and religious teachers used to impart the holy teachings to the people in general and their followers in particular to make them intelligible in the
1 Vide, Ch. II, Sec. 3 & 4, 77

Page #635

610 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA [Ch. XI spoken language in the form of conversation. Though its stereotyped descriptions and linguistic style sometimes appear to be dry and unagreeable to the mind, it does not lack embellishment in any way. The total effect of the texture and spirit of the language of the Bhs, enriched with some literary flourishes, explaining the thoughts and ideas of Lord Mahāvīra inspires one to dive deep into its subject matters with more energy, vigour, patience and effort to collect the hidden treasure of knowledge and truth preserved in it. It is remarkable to observe how the richness of its vocabularies produces an equal effect on the minds of its readers by truly expressing, explaining and interpreting all aspects of its varied contents it has touched upon without faltering, slowness and haziness by presenting a clear and concise conception about them with logical nicety. As regards the technique of style, the Bhs originates with prose embodying the thoughts, ideas and activities of various religious leaders and conveys them through the language of the people in their own natural style in prose, for here the purpose is to teach religion to the people.. .
In the Bhs the author has used three styles, viz. descriptive explanatory and emotive in the presentation of its varied contents and explaining its subject matters in a clear, concise and explicit manner so that the message of the Law, embodied herein may be comprehended and realized by the people. He has lessened the continual repetitions of its contents by refering to them as occur. ring in its different places and in other works with the connecting word "Java'. A little variation has been made in its form by alternating questions and answers without long continuation. Thus he has relieved the monotony of the sermons by deliberately interposing dialogues and by presenting its varied subjects.
The literary value of the BhS lies in the fact that its rich language expresses clearly by its proper terminologies the thoughts and ideas of its creative genius, dealing with various aspects of Jaina Philosophy and History in the field of knowledge.
Thus this canonical work stands supreme as an outstanding encyclopædic literary work in the list of the Jaina Agamas produced by the creative genius of its age.

Page #636

Sec. fl]
611
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
SECOND SECTION
Historical value of the work
The BhS is of great historical value, for it throws important light upon various aspects of history, such as, political, social and economic conditions, education, religious evolution, heterodox sects and their systems of thought, different personalities, kings, clans and tribes of its period, etc., in general and the development of men and the society in particular, as they appear in its incidental references.
It reveals that there was no political unity of India under one sovereign ruler during the time of Lord Mahāvīra. The country was divided into a large number of independent and semi-independent monarchical and non-monarchical states as evidenced by the fact of the mention of sixteen great states viz. Anga, Vanga and others' and also that of Sindhu-Sauvīra and other sixteen small states.
Thus it refers to the kingdom of Magadha with its capital at Rajagrha ruled over by king Seņiya, Anga with its capital at Campā governed by king Kūņika, the kingdoms of Kāší and Košala with their respective capitals at Vārāṇasī and Srāvasti respectively lying to the west of Magadha, that of Hastināpura ruled over by king Śiva and his son Śivabhadra in succession, Vatsa under the rule of king Udayana, having its capital at Kaušāmbī lying to the south of Košala on the Yamunā, the united kingdom of Sindhu-Sauvīra with its capital at Vītībhaya ruled over by king Udāyana and his nephew, Keśīkumāra after his abdication, that of Avantī under the kingship of Mahāsena in central India and the republic of the Licchavis with its capital at Vaiśālī under the presidentship of king Cetaka and that of the Mallakis of Pāvā and Kusinārā in the north of the Ganga.”
Of the above mentioned states the kingdoms of Kaśī, Košala and Magadha and the republic of Vaišāli followed a policy of aggrandisement and expansion for establishing their respective
1 Vide, Ch. III & VIII.
2 Vide, Ch, VIII.
.

Page #637

612 STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA Ch. XI political and economic supremacies over North-Eastern India. This policy of aggressive imperialism formulated by their statecraft led to the two great devastating wars called Mahāśilākanțaka Sangrāma and Rathamusala Sangrāma between two fighting camps, the one led by king Kūņika of Magadha and the other by king Cetaka of Vaisāli, united together with the forces of Kāšī and Kašala. These two great wars set the seal of final victory on the forehead of the Magadhan king, crushed the age old republicanisın of Vaišāli and paved the way for the future expansion of Magadha in all directions to bring about the political unification of India under the vigorous leadership of the imperialist rulers of the Nandas and the Mauryas.?
The study of these two political events and other historical data provided by the BhS reveals that the guiding principle of every independent sovereign state of its period was the achievement of its highest political power and material prosperity at the expense of its neighbours, as it is clearly evidenced by the fact of the corner-stone of the external policy of Magadha to crush its strongest neighbouring state of Vaiśāli with a view to achieving its political and economic supremacy by turning the lower courses of the Ganges into a Magadhan lake, having ousted that republic from the field of commerce and trade.
In regard to the inter-state relation the Bhs, throws light upon the policy of statecraft that a state should avoid the path of war as far as possible and follow that of peace to achieve its objectives by applying one of the first three means, viz. Sāma (conciliation), Dána (gift) and Bheda (dissension) through the diplomatic mission led by its ambassador. On the failure of these means it may go to war to settle its issue with its enemystate in the battle field. It is revealed that a state should maintain its inter-state relations by making alliance with other states or by observing complete neutrality in times of war and peace, as it is evidenced by the fact that king Cetaka made political alliance with nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kāśi and Košala and their
i Vide, Ch. III, Sec. 1 & 2.

Page #638

Sec. 11)
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA.
613
eighteen republican chiefs to put up a stubborn resistance to the impending wars declared by king Kūņika in defence of the republic of Vaisāli, while Vatsa, Sindhu-Sauvīra and other states maintain ed complete neutrality in these struggles, though king Udayana of Vatsa and king Udāyana of Sindhu-Sauvīra were matrimonially related to king Cetaka.
The BhS further reveals that the foundation of every state was based on its military strength and peaceful feudal relation with a number of princes, feudal lords and republican chiefs under the suzerainty of their sovereign ruler.
Besides the political conditions, the Bhs furnishes a good deal of valuable informations regarding the polity and administration of both monarchical and non-monarchical forms of government, running side by side during its period. The former was based on the divine kingship and the latter on the social contract theory, as they are reflected in the monarchical state of Magadha and the republic of the Licchavis of Vaikäli and that of the Mallakis of Pāvā and Kuśīnānā. It throws light upon the origin, nature and sovereignty of the state, kingship, conception of the state, its organs and functions. According to the political ideas as embodied herein the state was an organic whole consisting of a king (or a president-king), government, economic selfsufficiency, defence and its recognition by other states. It is revealed that the state was totalitarian in character, for its sphere of activities covered the political, social, economic, spiritual and cultural development of the people.
The Bhs also provides many informations regarding the social conditions-social organization, caste system, four stages of life, social structure, family and social relation, social belief in dreams, etc., birth ceremony of a new born male child, his education, marriage, position of women in its society, food and drink, dresses and ornaments, art of decoration, houses, articles of furniture, social manners and customs, sports and amusements, and funeral ceremonies.
The society as depicted in this canonical work was based on the traditional Varnāśrama Dharma and it was divided into

Page #639

hin.
614 STUDIES İN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA (Ch. XI four orders, viz. Brāhmaṇa, Ksatriya, Grhapati or Vanik (i.e. Vaisya) and the fourth order (i.e. Šūdra) on the basis of distinction of social relationship.
The gradual absorption of various Indian tribes and foreign nationals in the social organization, such as, the Kirātus, Barbaras, (Indian tribes), Pārasīs, Arabīs, Simghalis, Pahlavas, Murundas, etc., (foreign nationals) was one of the most important characteristics of the social evolution of that age, marked by the racial synthesis and the Catholic spirit of the people. So the social organization' was like the federation of castes and sub-castes mixed together and brought into the same spiritual and cultural system. · The Bhs reveals that the spirit of Varņāírama Dharma illustrated itself in the system of the individual life as regulated into four stages of the Vedic texts, viz. Brahmacarya, Gārhasthya, Vänaprastha and Sannyāsa according to the evolving capacity of human life, for spiritualism dominated the individual, social, economic, political, religious and secular aspects of the life of the people of its period.
The BhS presents an account of a social structure consisting Janapada (state), Varna (social order), Jāti (caste), Gotra (origin), Jhāti (kinsmen), Kula (family), Vamía (lineage) and Gähāvai (head of the family, and a picture of wider sphere of family relationship which was extended to the friends, kinsmen, relatives and even to the attendants of the family who were included in its gradation in the larger social circle. A happy relation existed among the different members of the family, friends, kinsmen blood relations and others. The conjugal life of the husband and wife was endowed with mutual love, faith, devotion and honour to each other and the glow of their hearts in work and worship. Between the parents and the son there existed a sweet and happy relation based on their reciprocal love, natural duties and moral obligations called upon by the secular life.
Vide, Ch. V, Sec. 2.
1 Vide, Ch. IV. & Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 3.
3

Page #640

Sec. II] STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA 615
In regard to the position of women' it is revealed that they occupied three positions in the society in which they appeared in different capacities pertaining to the family and civic life. The first one was the exalted position of honour and dignity as maiden, wife, mother, queen-regent, religious student, teacher and nun ; the second was inferior to the first one as members of the palace-staff belonging to all grades, including the female slaves and courtesans ; and the third was the most humiliating status as prostitute in the larger civic life.
The BhS gives a graphic account of popular belief of the people in dreams, the course of nursing the embryo of a future child, followed by a mother during her pregnancy, celebration of the birth ceremony of a new born son, his education and marriage performed with all social rites and customs.
As regards food and drinks it is found that two kinds of general meal were commonly enjoyed by the people, viz. eatable solid and drinkable liquid food under the category of which come the four classes of food, viz. asana (solid food), päņa (drink), sāim and khāima (sweets & dainties).
This canonical work provides a list of various kinds of food and drink produced and consumed by the people of its society, such as, cooked food—íuddhodana (pure rice), astādaśavyanjana (eighteen kinds of sauce), paramānna (best rice cooked with ghee and honey), etc., uncooked food-fruits, milk, butter, clarified butter, honey, etc.
It presents an account of dresses and ornaments, bath, art of decoration and toilet generally used by the members of the royal and rich aristocratic families. The observance of cleanliness of the body was a regular practice with the people, as it is evidenced by the fact of their taking bath before starting any kind of work. The BS provides a long list of houses and articles of furniture and presents a pictorial description of town. Lastly, it gives an
i Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 4, s Vide, Ch. IV, Seç. 6.
i Vide, Ch. IV, Sec. 5. u Pide, Ch. IV, Seç. 7, :

Page #641

616
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Cb. XI
account of various kinds of sports and amusements, manners and customs of the people.
The Bhs throws much light upon different aspects of the economic conditions of the people. In the social economy agriculture was the most natural and necessary occupation adopted by the major section of the population, while there flourished side by side various kinds of arts and crafts, trade and commerce, and banking business, organized by the private and collective enterprise of the economic guild but partially controlled by the state.
In regard to the general economic conditions of the society it reveals that there was a small number of rich persons in comparison with the economic standard of the people of those days and that of the present time. A current of poverty flowed beneath the surface of much opulence of the social wealth and prosperity, as it is evidenced by the fact of the existence of the houseless family of Mankha-mankhali and Bhadrā, the parents of Gośāla.
The Bhs throws an important light upon the ethics of Economics by revealing the fact that the human desire is the main factor of the economic life which is guided by the instinct of possession, and the forces of desire and the material enjoyments tie human-life to the worldly attachments and lead one to the mad lust for wealth at the cost of others and to the consequent sufferings, because Nature has set some limit to his demands. Moreover, wealth is non-permanent and belongs to fire, king, thief and sons. So this canonical work advocates the principle of non-possession (aparigraha), one of the five great vows of Sramana-Nirgrantha-Dharna preached by Lord Mahāvīra.
As regards education the BhS reveals that it was based on the unity of thought and action, knowledge, right attitude and right conduct and the attainment of liberation by intellect (sight) and action (kriyā or sharpness). The system of education was academic and vocational as organized to impart teachings in
i Vide, Ch. IV, Seç. 8.
: Vide Ch. V.

Page #642

Sec. II]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
617
general as well as special branches of knowledge and also in the law. So it incorporated into the course of studies--Itihāsa (History), Vyàkarana (Grammar) and Chanda (Metre) in order to achieve the first objective and imparted education in Medical Science, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, Military Science, Art of warfare, and Fine Arts, etc., to attain the second, and the Vedas and other religious and philosophical treatises like the Angas, etc., to provide knowledge in their doctrines and spiritualism. So a balance was maintained to make an individual a worthy member of the society. The principles of truth, the social and moral elevation of men and women, the development of the spoken language, science and arts and the democratization of learning without any social bar to the caste or sex were the remarkable features of the system of education as reflected in the text.
There was the spiritual background of this education which made itself realize that the human life and body and material enjoyment of objects of Nature were transitory and belonged to the mundane world and the soul to that of the spiritual. This conception of education governed both the individual and social life and conduct, developed personality and held the noble ideal of liberation before the people.
It is of great historical value that the BhS reveals the religious conditions of its period by furnishing a good deal of informations regarding the existence of various leaders of thought and their activities and systems of religion, obscure cults and the life and teachings of heterodox sects in a manner of unsympathetic criticism of one sect against the other in their relation to Sramana Nirgrantha Dharma. But this way of presentation of the religious firmament has brought to light the half-known and unknown life of those sects with historicity. Of the hetrodox sects the Ajivikas under the spiritual leadership of Gośāla, Vainayikas, Vānaprasthas, Parivrājakas, Carakas and other Tirthikas, etc., come in the lime light along with the followers of Lord Pārsvanātha and the Nirgranthas under Lord Mahāvīra.
1 Vide, Ch. VII, 78

Page #643

618
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
[Ch. XI
The BhS reveals Sramana Nirgrantha-Dharma with all its aspects in a consolidated manner which is rarely found in any of the Āgamas in the form of conversations between Lord Mahāvīra and his disciples.
In this work he is found to have developed and systematized the fundamental principles of Sramaņa-Niryrantha-Dharma laid down by his predecessors and placed them on a solid metaphysical basis by making some improvement on them, as it was a historical necessity demanded by the religious conditions of his time.
In regard to the conception of Sramaņa Nirgrantha Dharma the BhS explains that soul (ātmā) is the ultimate object of worship and meditation and spiritual realization. To know this reality there should be the right attitude of mind (samyaktva) to truth and the absence of perverted attitude (mithyātva) of one-self.
• As already discussed in the first section of the seventh chapter, this canonical work gives a full conception of this religion in a nut-shell in one Sūtra thus that the desire for liberation (sañvega), disregard of worldly objects (nirveda) upto complete renouncement of four kinds of passions and eighteen kinds of sinful acts, forbearance of pains (twenty-two parāsahas) and that of the last part of death--all these ultimately end in perfection.
It reveals two aspects of Sramana-Nirgrantha Dharma, viz. Āgāra-Dharma or Srāvaka-Dharma consisting of twelve vows and Anāgāra-Dharma (monasticism), based on the conditions of the individuals. It deals with different phases of the monastic life, such as, initiation to asceticism, practice of austerities and meditation, observance of religious vows and rules, external and internal austerities, classification of monks into five categories, viz. Pulāka, Bakuša, Kuśīla, Nirgrantha and Snātaka. The BhS reveals that the aim of religion is self-realization of the Universal and absolutely Real, embodying the highest qualities reorientated into the ultimate objective values—truth, goodness and eternal bliss.
i Bhs, 17, 3, 601.

Page #644

Sec. 111] STUDIES IN THE BĦAGAWATI SUTRA 619
This canonical work makes a valuable contribution to the study of Cosmology, Cosmography and Geography' which compare well with those of the Brāhmaṇical and Buddhist works.
THIRD SECTION
Philosophical value of the work?
The Bh S stands supreme and shines aloft in glory as the most valuable philosophical treatise among all the Āgamas. In this respect it is an analytical work, dealing with the principles of Metaphysics and gives a subtle critical exposition of them in general and that of the doctrine of Matter' in particular containing an idea of the atomic theory, as ever propounded by any system of Indian Philosophy in a comprehensive manner.
This canonical work embodies the principles of life and the Universe and explains and interprets them with logical niceties. It reveals the relation of Metaphysics with Physics and shows that the metaphysical inquiry goes beyond the aspects of Physics.
The BLS throws an important light upon cosmogony--order, permanence and continuation of life and the Universes by explaining the principle of transformation of astitva (the state of existence) into astitva (that of existence) and that of nāstitva (non-existence) into that of nāstitva (non-existence). It expounds the law of eternality of the Universe and Non-Universe, of beings and non-beings without succession and deals with the evolution of spirit operating through the process of birth and rebirth. Because the Universe is a system of reals, all inter-related with one another from the aspects of substance, space, time and condition respectively, having a fundamental unity in diversity.
Reality is conceived as Dravya (substance) which is endowed with infinite qualities (gunas) as well as modes (paryāyas),
? Vide Ch, X.
1 Vide, Ch. IX. 3 Vide, Ch. x. Sec. 1.

Page #645

620
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
having origination, permanence and decay as there is a substratum in which substances exist in the Universe with their noumenal and phenomenal aspects.
Dravya (substance) is classified into two categories, viz. Jivadravya (living substance) and Ajivadravya (non-living substance).
The Universe is conceived of as comprising six fundamental substances, viz. five Astikāyas-- Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Ākāśa (space), Jiva (soul) and Pudgala (matter), and (non-extensive) Addhāsamaya (time) i. e. six positive realities characterized by qualities (gunas). The study of the Bhs shows that time has been incorporated into the conception of reality as an eternal substance later on in course of the evolution of Taina philosophical Thought. The text gives an exposition of the principles of the nature, characteristics and inter-relation of these six fundamental substances and makes their classification from different aspects.
The BhS makes a great contribution to the theory of "Matter' by giving the conception of it as a tangible reality existing in different forms, such as, earth, water, fire, air, plant, physical bodies, etc., within the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in visible and invisible states to the senses. This canonical work treats of the nature of matter, its parts, classification, forms into atom (paramāņu) and aggregate of atoms (skandha), conception of atom, its characteristics, physical contact of atoms, their vibration, movement, division and union, transformation of matter, union of atoms with matter, etc.
The Bhs throws a new light upon Jaina Psychology as an essential part of Philosophy by giving an exposition of the problems of Ontology (Philosophy of being) and Materialism (i.e. the problem of matter) and by revealing a self-distinct physical structure forming the basis of psychology with the background of two
1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 2.

Page #646

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
621
traditions in the evolution of life and the Universe, viz. atomtradition and self-tradition, as they remain emanating each other.
This canonical work explains that Upayoga (agential spirit or consciousness) is the fundamental instinct of life-the inherent attribute of the soul which exhibits itself by itself. This Upayoga (consciousness) is divided into two categories, viz. Darśana (self-awareness) and Jana (knowledge). It is the principle of psycho-physical activities that all reactions of the soul are conditioned by the body, for it is the dual form, i. e. psycho-physical structure which takes into consideration the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of beings, namely, prāņa (life) indriya (sense), bala (strength), virya (energy), ayus (length of life), and aṇaprāna (life-expanding or breathing in and out-the action to maintain the psycho-physical structure).
The BhS explains Raga (feeling) and Dvesa (dislike) as the two forms of the delusive transformation of mind by showing two fundamental tendencies in Jaina Psychology. Raga and Dvesa are classified into four Kasayas (decoction or passions), viz. krodha (anger), māna (pride), māyā (deceitfulness) and lobha (greed). Instinct of life manifests itself in the psycho-physical phenomena according to the conditions of soul. Thus they reveal themselves into six conditions (lesyas) in different degrees, viz. Krsna (black), nila (blue), Kapota (grey), teja (fiery or red), padma (lotus) and sukla (white).
Besides these aspects, the BhS throws important light upon the physical basis of mental life, the process of thought, imagination, memory, attitude of mind, the principles of dream, perception, sense-feeling, conation-activities of soul, relation of mind with the soul, kama-bhoga (desire and enjoyment) with a psychic basis in a comprehensive manner.1
This canonical work makes a valuable contribution to Jaina Epistemology which is an integral part of philosophy by explaining the nature, origin, conditions, factors, limits and validity
1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 2.
Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 3.

Page #647

622 SÍUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATİ SÜTRA [Ch. XÍ of knowledge. Knowledge is soul and soul is knowledge, for it is the determinate consciousness (sākāropayoga), which is inseparable from the conception of soul as a part of its attribute, life, nature and emancipation.
The Bhs shows two stages of the development of the theory of knowledge the first is the classification of it into five categories, viz. abhinibodhika (sensuous knowledge) upto kevalajnana (omniscience). They are again classified into two categories, viz. pratyaksa (direct) and paroksa (indirect) knowledges.
It throws an important light upon the relation between Darsana and Jhāna by explaining that the first is self-awareness and the second is knowledge. Darsana is the stepping stone to Jhāna and they are inter-related to each other for they form together the consciousness (upayoga) of soul. But Dariana and Jhāna do not take place simultaneously, because sākāropayoga (determinate consciousness) is Jnana (knowledge) and anākāropavoga (indeterminate consciousness) is Dargana (self-awareness).
The Bhs stands as a great valuable treatise of ethics which is the continuation of the metaphysical and psychological aspects of studies, as it is the subject of moral consideration of all forces of Life and Nature. Ethical principles are directly and indirectly connected with happiness and pleasure which are the good of the material life, satisfied by means of wealth. But when a particular point of pleasure is crossed, there arises a harm as a result of the rise of unpleasure. Nature has got a belt of limitation beyond which it does not allow man to cross it over, for all are not co extensive ; materials are limited in space; and the physical personality of man is limited in comparison with the natural forces. So the quantitative restriction comes to a limit-Nivrtti, Yama, Sanyama and Niyama. Accord. ing to this general maxim the unrestricted possession and enjoyment of wealth have not been commended as final in the Bhs. There it stresses upon the principle of non-possession.
1 Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 4.

Page #648

Sec. III
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
623
The BhS explains that the relativity of goodness and badness depends on the circumstances, i.e. the aspects of substance, space, time and state (mental approach of a person). For example, sleepness and sleeplessness are good from different aspects and conditions in the case of different persons, because a saintly man will perform more meritorious acts by his sleeplessness, while an unsaintly person will avoid the sinful acts by his sleepness. So ethics is not absolute according to this moral precept embodied herein.
The principle of ethics as laid down in the Bhs commences with non-injury to the individual and social life, for the virtue of non-violence arises out of self-preservation of socially inter-related men. This maxim of prohibitive mode of life leads one to detachment and higher interest, self-sacrifice and peace.
The Bhs reveals two aspects of ethics, viz. negative and positive ; the negative side consists of non injury, non-telling lie, non-stealing, non-sexual union and non-possession which form the core of morality in Jainism. So long one does not intend to do the act of violence it is positive virtue from the individual, social and spiritual aspects of his life. It is the general maxim that the sinful acts affect the formless soul by their ripe bad fruits, while the meritorious acts are followed by the auspicious results as a natural order of things.
It is to be observed that the BhS preaches the ethics of war to be fought dispassionately for a righteous cause in self-defence, when the liberty and sovereignty of a state are threatened by the attack of a foreign power, as it is evidenced by the fact of the dispassionate fighting of Varuņa, a citizen of Vaišāli in the Rathmusala-Sangrāna against the forces of king Kūņika of Magadha at the call of his republican state.
The BhS advocates that the control of senses is the positive virtue which inculcates in one's spirit an ideal to follow the path of spiritualism, for his detachment to the worldly objects leads him to avoid warfare and seek liberation and supreme bliss. So one should retrace his step (pratikramana) from the sinful acts,

Page #649

624
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
XI
observe self-imposed punishment, expiation, make self-analysis, (ālocanā), practise external and internal austerities and samlekhanā to maintain life (or to save his soul).
The BhS reveals that the unrighteous acts produce bad effects with the march of time by grinding the wheel of life. So it advocates the observance of the five great vows which form the kernel of ethics and the ideal of renunciation which leads to the path of asceticism, attainment of spiritual liberation, ultimate peace and happiness-the aims of human life.
The text throws an important light upon the field of Logic by making a formal and scientific exposition of the entire system of thought, religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology and ethics through the linguistic expressions. It divides Pramāna the system by which the validity of any knowledge is determined) into pratyaksa (direct perception), anumāna (inference) upamāna (analogy) and Agama (scripture). Jainism as revealed in the BKS has modified the view of pratyaksa-pramāna by explaining that it is conditioned by the senses and mind.
As the empirical knowledge is incomplete and does not convey the correct knowledge of the object, so the Bhs classifies Naya (Judgement) into two categories, viz. Vyavahāra Naya and Niscaya Naya (phenomenal or empirical judgement or logic and noumenal or ascertaining judgement or logic).
The text makes a formal and scientific exposition of the relativity of judgement from the stand-point of non-absolutism, e.g. souls are eternal from the aspect of substance and non-eternal from that of state. It explains the principle of cause and effect as manifested in the infinite qualities and modes of substances, the value of which is determined from different aspects. Though the text does not clearly deal with the Saptabhangi-Naya (sevenfold judgement), it is apparently clear from the study, exposition and analysis of its subject-matters that the whole system of thought, religion, philosophy, psychology, epistemology, and
...1. Vide, Ch. X, Sec. 5.

Page #650

Sec. III]
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
625
ethics of Janism as embodied herein is based on the SaptabhangiNaya of Syādvād theory.
The Bhsi makes a great contribution to the doctrine of Karma from different aspects, as it is inter-related with ethics. It throws light upon the principle of causation by explaining the operation of cause and effect in relation to soul from the positive and negative points of view.
The doctrine of Karma as advocated herein is not action but an aggregate of very fine imperceptible particles of matter which, entering into the soul through the actions of mind, speech and body covers its inner faculties and produces certain conditions in it.
This canonical work gives an exposition of the fundamental laws of Life and Nature by explaining the theory of Karma from various aspects, such as, its division, nature, states of soul (bhāva), faculty of soul (lubdhi), expansion of soul (samudghāta), states and processes of karma-karana (process of energy of soul), influx of karma, (āárava), bondage by karma, stoppage of influx of karma (sarirvara), dissociation of karma (nirjarā), a side light on the stages of spiritual development (gunasthānas) and liberation (Moksa).
The greatest value of the Bhs as literary, historical and philosophical treatise lies in the fact that the daring flight of human imagination in the absence of critical verifying data in its period is the most thought-provoking anl wisdom-evoking. The truth of Life and Nature has amply and brilliantly been expressed in the speculative daring, not sacrificing the logical aspect of knowledge in the thoughts, evolved by the rational ideas of Lord Mahāvīra to Philosophy. It reveals that the evolution is a part of the whole evolution in the Universe,
1 Vide, Ch, X, Sec. 6,
79

Page #651

Page #652

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jaina Works Abhidhāna Cintāmaņi --Hemachandra. Bhavanagar, Veer Era,
2441. Abhidhāna Ratnamālā-Halāyudha. Antagadadasao-Comm. by Abhayadeva Ed. M. C. Modi,
Ahmedabad, 1932. „ Translated by L. D. Barnett, London, 1907. Anuyogadvāra. Comm., Haribhadra, Rutlam, 1928. ,
, , Maladhāri Hemacandra, Bhavanagar,
1939. , Cūrņi. Jinadāsagani, Rutlam, 1928. Anuttaropapātika Sūtra-Comm. by Abhayadeva. Ed. M. C. Modi,
Ahmedabad, 1932. Arddha-Māgadhi Dictionary - Ācārānga Sūtra Comm. by Silānka, Surat, 1835.
Niryukti–Bhadrabāhu.
„ Translated by H. Jacobi, xxii, 1884. , Cūrņi,
Jinadāsagaņi, Rutlam, 1941. Aura PaccakkhānaAvaśyaka Sūtra-Comm. by Haribhadra, Agamodaya Samiti,
Bombay, 1916. , Cūrņi---Jindāsagaņi, Rutlam, 1928.
» Niryukti--Bhadrabāhu. Bhagavati Sūtra-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Agamodaya Samiti,
Bombay, 1921. Bhatta-PariņņāBrhat Kalpa Sūtra-Comm. Malayagiri and Ksemakīrti, Atma.
nanda Tain Sabha, Bhayanagar, 1933
1938. , , Bhāşya-Sanghadāsagani. Brhat Kathā-Kosa --Harisena, Ed. A.N. Upadhye, Bombay, 1943. Candapannatti

Page #653

628
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Candā-vijjhayaCau-saraņa --Avacūrņi, Virabhadra, Devachand Lalbhai. DevindatthavaDlavalā Tikā—1st Vol. of Şațkhandīgama-Dr. H. L. Jain. Dravya-Sangraha-Nemicandra. Doctrine of Karma in the Jain Philosophy--Glasenapp. Ganivijjā— Gommața-Sära-Jivakāņda and Karmakāņda---Nemicandra.
Ed. by J. L. Jaini. Ileart of Jainism-Mrs. Stevenson. S. Hindu Tales (Trans.) — Meyer J. J. London, 1909 Indian Sect of the Jaimas-Büller, London, 1903. Introduction to Satkhandāgama--Dr. H. L. Jain. Tambuddīvapaņņatti, Comm.-Sänticandra. Bombay. 1920. Jambuddīva Pannatti Samgraha-Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Jain Harivamsa PurāņaJaina Sūtras (S. B. E.) I & II--H. Jacobi. Jainism in North India—C. J. Shah. Kathākośa-Translated by Tawney, London, 1895. Karakanda-Cariu--Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Kalpa Sūtra, Comm. by Samayasundara, Bombay, 1939.
, , Translated by H. Jacobi (S. B. E.) xxii 1884. Kappāvadamsião - Kasāya Pāhudam-Bhāga-1. (Pejjadosavihattī)—Gūnadharācārya,
Ed. by Pandit Phulchandra Siddhanta
Shastri. KālakācāryakathānakaKāvya-Mimāṁsā-Hemacandra. Mahāniśītha-Ed. Schubring, Berlin, 1918. Mahāpaccakkhāņa. Mahāpurāna (Apbh.) ---Puşpadant. Mahapurāņa (Skt.)---Jwānapītha Edition. Nandi Sūtra Comm. - Haribhadra, Rutlam, 1928.
-- Malayagiri, Bombay, 1924. Nāyādhammakahão, Comm.--- Abhayadeva, Agamodaya Samiti,
Bombay, 1919. -Ed. by N. V. Vaidya, Poona, 1940.

Page #654

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRÁ
Nirayavaliya Sutta, Comm.-Candra Suri, Ahmedabad, 1922. Ed. by Gopani and Chokshi, Ahmedabad 1934.
99
93
Nisiha Sutta
""
Curņi-Jinadāsagani. Ed. by Vijaya Prema Surishvara
V. S. 1995.
Niyamasära
Kundakunda.
Ovaiya Sutta (Aupapātika Sūtra) Comm. by Abhayadeva, Second Edition, Surat V. S. 1914.
Padma Purāṇa-Raviṣeņa. Paumacariyam-Vimala Sūri.
Paumacariu Sayambhu.
Pañcakalpa
-
Pañcāstikāyasāra-Kunda kunda.
Pannavana (Prajñāpann) Sutta-Comm. Malayagiri, Bombay
629
1918-1919.
Panhavägarana-Comm. Abhayadeva, Bombay, 1919.
Paiyasadda-Mahānṇava-Pandit Hargovindadas Trikamchand Seth
Parisiṣṭaparvan ---Hemacandra.
Pinda Niryukti Comm. Malayagiri, Surat, 1918.
Pupphão.
Pupphaculão
Pravacanasara-Kundakunda.
Pramāņa Mimāṁsā-Hemacandra.
Pracina Tirthamālā Sangraha. Pt. 1, Bhavanagar. Sam. 1978. Rayapaseniya Sutta (Rajapraśnīya Sutra) Comm. by Abhayadeva,
Ahmedabad, 1938.

Samtharaga.
Satkhandagama-Vols. III, IV & VIII Ed. by Dr. H. L. Jain. Şad-darśana Samuccaya-Haribhadra (Gunaratna's Commentary). Samavāyānga Sutra Comm. Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1938. Samayasara-Kundakunda.
Śramana Bhagavān Mahāvīra.
Suriyapannatti-Comm. Malayagiri, Bombay, 1919. Suyagaḍanga (Sūtrakṛtānga )-Comm.
Silanka,
Samiti, Bombay, 1917.
Trans. by H. Jacobi, S. B. E. XLV, 1895.

Agamodaya

Page #655

630
Sthaviravalicarita
Sthānanga Sutra-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1937. Syādvād-Mañjarī-Mallisena (Anyayoga-vyavaccheda-dvātrimśikā) Taṇḍula-Veyaliya-Comm. by Vijayavimala-Devachandra
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Tatvartha Sūtra-Umāsvāti
Uttaradhyayana Sutra-Comm. by Śantisūri, Bombay, 1916; Nemicandra, Bombay, 1937.
دو
37
Lalbhai
95
Uvāsagadasão-Comm. Abhayadeva.
Trans. H. Jacobi S. B. E. XLV, 1895.
Trans. by Hoernle, Calcutta, 1888. Vasudevahindi-Sanghadāsagani-Vacaka, Atmananda Sabha,
Bhavanagar, 1930-31.
Vyavahāra Sūtra-Comm. by Malayagiri, Bhavanagar, 1926. Bhāṣya.
"1
Vīratthava (tthui)
Viseṣavasyaka Bhāṣya-Jinabhadra.
Viväga Suya-Comm. by Abhayadeva, Baroda, V. S. 1922. Vividha-Tīrthakalpa-Jinabhadra Suri, Bombay, 1934.
Yoga Sastra-Comm. by Hemacandra.

Brāhmaṇical Works
Aitareya Brahmaṇa
Arthaśastra of Kautilya-Trans. by Shamashastri, Mysore, 1908.
Aṣṭadhyayī of Panini.
Atharva-Veda
Baudhayana Dharma Sutra
Bṛhadaranyaka Upanisad
Bṛhajjātaka-Varāhamihira. Bṛhat Pārāśara Smṛti
Bṛhat Samhita (xiv)-Varāhamihira, Ed. Sudhakar Dvivedi,
Banaras.
Brahmanda Purāṇa
Bhāgavata Purāṇa
Caraka-Samhita-Trans. by Jayadeva Vidyalankar, Lahore, S. V.
1991-93.

Page #656

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Chandogya Upanisad
Daśakumāra Carita-Dandi, Kale, Bombay, 1926. Dasopanisad-Ed. by the Pandits of the Adyar Library.
Gītā
Gopatha BrāhmaṇaHarivamsa Purāṇa
Harṣa Carita Bāṇabhaṭṭa. Jaimini Grhya Sūtra-
Katha-sarit-sagara-Somadeva, Trans. by Tawney.
Kamanda kiya Nītisāra-Ed. by R. Mitra (B.In.), Calcutta,
1849-84.
Kamandakiya Nītivākyāmṛtam-Somadeva Suri.
Kavya-Mīmāṁsā-Rājasekhara. Laghujataka-ix-Varahamihira.
Mahabharata-Ed. by T. R. Krishnacharya & T. R. Vyasacharya, Nirnaya Sagara Press, Bombay, 1906-9.
Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali.
Manu Smṛti
Matsya Purāṇa
Markandeya Purāṇa
Mṛccha katika-Sūdraka. Ed. R. D. Karmarkar, Poona, 1937.
Nārada Smṛti
631
Nidanasthana
Patanjali's Bhāṣya (19-11).
Pavanaduta of DhoyiPanini Vyakaraṇa. Priyadarsika of Śrī Harşa Raghuvamsa,-Kālidāsa.
Rajatarangini-Kalhana.
Rāmāyaṇa-Valmiki. Ed. T. R. Krishnacharya & T. R. Vyasa
charya, Bombay, 1911.
Rg-Veda Sayana Bhāṣya. Sakti Sangama Tantra.

Sangita Ratnakara-Sarangadeva.
Satapatha Brāhmaṇa.
Subhasita (Vide, Education in Ancient India, Dr. A.S. Altekar).

Page #657

632
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
Svapana Vasavadatta-Bhāsa.
Tattvakaumudî.
Tattva Vaiśaradī.
Thirteen Principal Upanisads-Robert Ernest Hume.
Vasistha Dharma Sūtra.
Vājasaneya Samhita.
Vayu Purāṇa
Vedic Index-Macdonald and Keith, 1912.
Vīramitrodaya, Pt. II of Mitramishra: Jivananda's Edition.
Viṣṇu Purāṇa
Yajurveda
Yajnavalkya Smṛti--Vijñānesvara, 4th Ed. Bombay.
Buddhist Works
Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S. London-1885-1900.
Aṭṭhakatha P. T. S. Ed. by Walleser & Harmann Kopp, London,
1924-1940.
Avadāna Sataka Ed. by Dr. J.S. Speyer St. Petersburg, 1906. Ayoghara Jataka—
Arya-Mañjuśri-Müla kalpa-Ganapati Shastri.
Book of the kindred Sayings-Rhys Davids. Buddha Carita-Aśvaghosa.
Buddhist Nikaya
Commentary on Digha-Nikaya.
Cullavagga
Culavamsa-Ed. by W. Geiger, London, 1925.
Darimukha Jātaka
Dhammapada (Comm.)-Harvard, P.T.S. 1906-1915.
Dhonasakha Jātaka—
Dialogues of the Buddha-(S.B.E. Pt. II)-Rhys Davids.
Dictionary of Pali-Proper Names -Malalasekara.
Digha-Nikaya-Ed. Rhys Davids & J. E. Carpenter, P.T.S.,
London, 1889-1911.
Dīpavamsa
Divyāvadāna-Ed. E. B. Cowell & R. A. Neil Cambridge, 1886.

Page #658

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
633
Jātakas-Fousböll, London, 1877-97. Kuņāla Jātaka. Kusa Jataka. Kurudhamma Jataka. Lalitavistara--Ed. S. Lefmann. Halle A. S., 1902-1908. Lomahamsa Jātaka. Mahājana ka Jātaka. Mahāsīlava Jātaka. Mahāvamsa-Ed. by W. Geiger, London, 1908. Mahāvastu. Majjhima-Nikāya-Ed. V. Trenckner, and R. Chalmers, London,
1888-1899. Milinda-Pañha--Ed. V. Trenckner, London, 1880.. Mugga-Pakkha JātakaMūsika JātakaNiggaittha Jataka. Nidānakatņām Papañca Sūdani-- PañcadivyādhivāsaPaặcagaruka JatakaPātika SuttaPetavatthuRathalațțhi Jātaka-(No. 352) III. Samyutta-Nikäya—M. Leon Feer, London, 1880. Samkicca Jataka . Suttanipāta–Ed. Rahul Sankrityayana, Rangoon, 1937, Sacred Books of the East (11) Rhys Davids. Sāsana-Vamsam Sumangala VilāsiniTelapatta JatakaTittira JatakaThusa Jãtaka Udāna--Ed. by Rahul Sankrityayana, Rangoon, 1937. Vimāna-Vatthu-of Mülasarvāstivāda. Vinaya Texts of Mūlasaryāstivāda Ed. by Oldenberg, London,
1870-1884.
80

Page #659

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
General Works
Advance History of India-Dr. R. C. Mazumdar, Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury & Dr. K. K. Datta. Age of Imperial Unity- Dr. R. C. Mazumdar, Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan.
634
Amara Kosa-Amara Singha.
Annals of the Bhandarkar Institute-1926-27.
Ancient Geography of India-Cunningham.
Ancient India-Ptolemy-M'Crindle.
Ancient India as described in the classical literature. M'Crindle
Archaeological Survey of India Reports.
Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India.
The Art of War in Ancient India-Date G. T., London, 1929. Buddhist India-Rhys Davids.
Buddhhist Studies-Dr. B. C. Law.
Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society-Vol. xxi, 1929. Bhagavan Buddha-Dharmananda Kaushambi.
Bombay Gazetteer Vol. 1.
Cambridge History of India Vol. I. Rapson. Carmichael Lectures-1918 Bhandarkar.
Caste and Race in India-G, S. Ghurye.
Civanana Cittiyar-Ed. Mudaliyar Vol. I.
Corporate Life in Ancient India-Dr. R. C. Mazumdar.
Chronicles of Tripura-Leong.
Darshana and Cintana-Pandit Sukhlalji.
Die Kosmographie Der Inder.-W. Kirfel. Early History of India-V. Smith.
Economic History of Ancient India- S. K. Das. Education in Ancient India-Dr. A. S. Altekar.
Elements of Hindu Iconography-Gopinath Rao. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.
Epic Mytheology-Hopkins.
Fa-Hien-Legge
The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval IndiaN. L. Dey, Calcutta, 1899. The Greek City and Its Institutions Cambridge History-Glotz.

Page #660

śřUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA 635 Greeks in Bactria and India-Turn. Greek Thinkers, Vol. I.-Gomperz. Hindu Civilization-R. K. Mukerjee. Hindu Polity-Dr. K. P. Jayaswal. Hindu Tribes and Castes, Vol. III, Surring. Hindu Administrative Institutions--Dikshitar, V.R. Ramachan:
dra, Madras, 1929, History of Bengal, Vol. 1--Dr. R. C. Mazumdar. History of Buddhist Thought-E. J. Thomas. History and Doctrine of the Ajīvikas-Dr. Basham. History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I--Dr. S. N. Dasgupta. History of Indian Literature, Vol. II-Winternitz. History of Northern India--Dr. H. C. Ray. Historical Geography of Ancient India - Dr. B. C. Law. Homage to Vaisāli-Ed. J. C. Mathur. Hymns of Rig-Veda-Manning. Imperial Gazetteer of India-Vol. I. (Ancient) India -Alberuni. (Ancient) India–Magasthenes. India as described in the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism
Dr. B. C. Law. India as known to Pāṇini--Dr. V. S. Agrawal. Indian History-F. Weber. Indian Invasion of Alexander-Diodorous. Indian Culture, Vol. 1. . Indian Antiquary, Vols. XVII-XXI. Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XX, 1931, Interpretation of Dreams-Dr. Freud. Introduction to Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Language
Dr. Pischel. Introduction to Indian Philosophy--Dr. Chatterjee and Dr. Dutta. Introduction to Prakrit Grammar-Dr. Woolner. Journal of the American Oriental Society.
of Asiatic Society of Bengal.
of Royal Asiatic Society. , of the Indian Society and of the Oriental Art.

Page #661

636
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
Journal of the Department of Letters II, Calcutta University. Karpūramañjari-Ed. Dr. M. M. Ghosh. Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India-Dr. B. C. Law. Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Canons
Dr. J. C. Jain. Mahāvīra-His Life and Teachings-Dr. B. C, Law. Manu--A Study in the Hindu Social Theory-Kewal Motwani. Mannual of Ethics--Mackenzie. Middle Indo-Aryan Language-Dr. S.K. Chatterjee. : Modern Review (1918 July, 1919). Monier-Williams--Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Mysore and Coorg-Rice. Nagpur University Journal-Dec. 1940. An Out Line of Psychology-McDougall. Outlines of Jaina Philosophy.--Mohan Lal Mehta. Oxford Concise Dictionary. Plant Autobiographs and their Revelations—1929, Sir J.C. Bose. Plant Physiology--Bernard S. Meyer, & Donald B. Anderson. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea-Schoff. Philosophy of Non-Absolutism-Dr. Satkari Mookerjee. Philosophy of Religion-Galloway. Political History of Ancient India Dr. H.C. Ray Chaudhari. Psychology-Robert S Woodworth Pusalkar's Bhāsa-- A Study, Lahore, 1940: Pre-Ariyan and Pre-Dravidian-Sylvain-Trans. by Dr. P.C. Bagchi. Pre-Buddhistic India-Mehta. Racial Synthesis— Vishvanathan. Rajputana Gazetteer. Religion and Rational Outlook-Dr. S.N. Dasgupta. Social Organization in North-East India in Buddha's time-Fick. R. Some Historical Aspects of Inscriptions of Bengal-Dr. B. C. Sen. Studies in Vātsyāyana's Kāmasūtra, 1929, Haran Cakladar. Studies in Indian Antiquities- Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury,
Calcutta--1932. Tribes in Ancient India--Dr. B. C. Law.. Vedic Age-Bharatiya Vidya-Bhavan,

Page #662

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAVATI SŪTRA
637
Watters on Yuan Chwang-II. Weapons and Armoury Organization-Oppert Gutav.
Inscriptions Corpus Inscriptionam Indicarum-Vol. III, Dr. Fleet. Epigraphia Indica (III).
(IV) Inscriptions of Asoka II--Dr. B.M. Barua.
of Bengal Vol. III-N.G. Mazumdar. Select Inscriptions—Dr. D. C. Sirkar. South Indian Inscriptions-Sewell.
Coins
Ancient Indian Coins-John Allan. Andhra Coins--Rapson. Coins of Indo-Scythic Rulers--Gardener.

Page #663

Page #664

Abhaggasena, notorious robber,
109
Abhaya, 494
Abhayadeva Suri, 39, 40, 425, 426, 471 Abhayakumāra, prince 204 Abhīcī kumāra, prince, 86, 89,
158
Abhidhanacintamani, 426, 515 Abhidhana Ratnamala, 438 Abhijit Kumara, 46, 194, 321, 492, 501
Akhiras, 509
INDEX
A
Acaranga Curri, 245, 454 Acaranga Sutra, 4, 12, 134, 246,
472, 532, 536
Accha, 62, 531 Acchidda, 437
Acchidya, 417
Acesines (the Cenaba), 507
Aciravati, 546
Adhakarmadi, 417
Adharimam, 100 Addhasamaya, 572 adijjam, 100 aduyabandhana, 113 adhyavapuraka, 417 Africa, 318 Agadadatta 226
Agara Dharma, 390, 421 Aggivesayana, 437
Agnibhuti, 42, 45, 482 Aguri, 503
Aiņeyaka, 436 Aitareya Aranyaka, 529 Aitareya Brahmana, 513, 528 Ajitakesakambali, 436, 489 Ajivika, 3, 13, 385, 425, 438; the meaning of, 425 Ajivikism, 448
Ajiviya, meaning of, 425

Ajja, Parvati, 457 Ajjhadharini, 92, 95 Ajjuna Gomayuputta, 437 Ajnanavadins, 449, 450 Ajñānikas, 4
Ajnanikavadins, 17 Akesines (Cenaba), 552 Akkharika, 340
Akriyavadins, 4, 17, 449
Alabhika, 44, 45, 310, 321, 431, 452, 477, 478 Alabhiya, 537 Alavi, 538 Alexander, 507, 515 Alexandria, 317, 322 Alisamdaga, 317 Al-kikan, 511 Aloka, 518 Amarakosa, 135 amatya, 116
Ambubhaksinas, 454 Ambuvasins, 454
amijjam, 100 amkadhato, 95
Ammaḍa, the Parivrajaka, 24,
43, 452, 482, 540
amosa, 110 Amrapali, 223 Amtarangi, 5
Amusements, 257
Ananda, 5, 54, 138, 151, 163, 175, 307, 430, 473 Anandarakṣita, 456 anasakayana, 168 Anasana, 404
Andhras, 513
Anga, 62, 501, 528, 621 angamaddiyão, 95 Anga-Mandira, 431 angāra, 417
Anagara-Dharma, 390, 391, 421

Page #665

640
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Angas, 344 Angavairocana, king, 528 Anguttara Nikaya, 62, 503, 531,
534 anissata, 417 Annautthiyā, 7 Annavālaya, 483 Antagada, 6 Anurādhāpura, 512 Anusūcakas, 98 Anuttarovavõiyadasão, 6 Anuvāla ya, 437 Anuyogadvāra Sūtra, 11, 245,
343, 344, 386 Anviksaki, 77 apamitya, 417 Arab, 322 Arabi, 34, 37, 38, 310, 317, 320,
511 Arādhanā, three kinds of, 400 aranyāyana, 168 Arddhanārīšvara, 536 Arddha-Māgadhi, Ariţthanemi, 228 Arjuna, 123 Arjuna Gautamīputra, 341, 436 Arthašāstra, of Kautilya, 77, 79,
81, 82, 93, 96, 106, 115, 116, 119, 120, 124, 126, 128, 133, 136, 145, 180,
184, 188, 196, 376, 506 Āryā, 7 Arya Satyāni, 392 Asādha, 5 Asamitta, 57 Asana, 232 āsana, 128, 131 Asana pannā paka, 141 asati posanayā, 101 Asikni (Cenāba), 552 Asoka, 37, 65, 124, 438 Asokan Edicts, 196 Asokavana, 477 Aśrama, 166 Aśrava, 603, 604 Asrutvā-Kevali, 423 Assaka, 62
Astādhyāyz, 536 Astakula, 141 Astakulaka, 145 Astāngamahanimitta, 439 Asthikagrāma, 472, 477, 487, 537 Asurukkha, 106 Ašvaghosa, 495, 496 Atavatattae, 446 Ațavyas, 509 Atharva, 336, 528, 530 Atimukta-Kumāra-Sramana, 45
170 Atom, definition of, 567 Attha, 531 Atthakulaka, 144, 145 Atthiyagama, 537 Au papātika Sūtra, 343, 452 Aura-paccakkhāna, 9 Avaddhiya, 5 Avāha, 62, 534 Avamodarikā, 405 Avanījanāśraya, 511 Avanījñāśraya, Nausāri grant
of, 38 Avantī, 62, 63 131, 494, 499,
501, 502, 531 Avasar piņi, 368, 444 Avasarpiņi Kāla, 436 Avakyaka Bhāsya, 338 Āvasyaka Cūrņi, 98, 104, 114,
154, 157, 202, 204, 221, 377, 476, 494, 495, 500,
501, 514, 517 Avasyaka Sūtra, 12 Avakyaka Tikā, 455 Avaviha, 437 Avvattiyā, 5 Ayala merchant, 103, 317 Ayambula, 437 Ayampula, 434, 437 Āyaradasão, 11 Ayodhyā, 535 Ayoghara Jataka, 91
Babbariyās, 508

Page #666

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SOTRA
641
ma, 1209
Balik
Babylon, 318
.: Bactria, 514 Bahalis, 514 Bahubalī, 514 Bahula, 152, 156, 263, 473 Bahuragā, 7 Bahurayā, 5 Bakuša, 17, 418, 419 bala, 116 Bala, King, 78, 91, 156, 158,
171, 190, 200, 201, 205, 206, 209, 217, 218, 219,
223, 224, 324, 480 Baladeva, 197, 468 Balarāma, 9 Bālata pasvin, 169 Balikamma, 170 Balikāri, 92 balikārio, 95 Bambhi, 7 Bambhīlivi, 5, 52 Báṇabhațţa, 426 Banaousii, 510 Bandha, 604 Baniyāgāon, 505 Barabara Hill, 438 Bārāva7, 9 Barbaradega, 321 Barbarikās, 37, 320 Barua, Dr. B. M. 437 Basārh, 471, 505 Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtra, 529 Bāveru, 318 Bebhela, 310 Bebhela Sanniveka, 189, 450, 451 Behalla, 69, 119, 125, 130 Beņņāyaṇa, 87, 103, 109 Bhada, 121, 137 bhādīkamme, 101. Bhadrā, 191, 194, 208, 217,
219, 427, 430 Bhadrabāhu, 32 Bhadrāvatī, elephant, 119 Bhaggas, 547 Bhambhiya, 106 Bhāndāgārika, 139 Bhandāgāriņão, 95.
Bhandāgārini, 92 Bhandara kar, Dr. D. R., 495,
496 Bhāradvāja, 431, 436 Bharata, 90, 157, 216 Bhārata, 343 Bhāratavarsa, 523; nomenclaturę
of, 524; shape of, 524 Bhaddila pura, 530 Bhadrā, 330, 545 Bhargas, 547 Bharukaccha, 318 Bhāsa, 499 Bhāsā, the definition of, 342 Bhata, 94, 105. Bhātiyo Bhatta, 496 Bhattaparinnā, 9 Bhāva, 601 Bheda, 128 Bhiksācaryā, .405 Bhiksupratimā, 396. Bhima, 463 Bhogas; 492, 503 Bhoja, king, 531. Bhota, 517 Bhrgu, 145 Bhūtāna, 517 Bhūtānanda, war elephant, 118 Bhuttuyās, 517. Bindusāra, king, 112 Binduvāsini, temple of, 548 Bodiya, 454 Brāhmaṇa, 115, functions and.
social position, 151 ; duties,
153 Brāhmaṇakundagrāma, 44, 190, - 319, 324, 467, 468, 470,
471, 478, 479, 542 Brahmaputra, 508, 529 Brāhmi, 504 Brāhmilipi, 337 Brāhmi script, eighteen kinds
of, 339 Bịhajjātaka, 438 . Brhatkalpa-Bhāsya, 82, 225, 228,
239, 244, 246, 256, 288, 380
81

Page #667

642
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Brhatkal pa-Bhāsya Pathika, 97 Brhatkal pa-Sutra, 11 Brhatkathākosa, 498 Broach, the Gulf of Debala and
Al-kikāna, 511 Buddha, 138, 486 Buddha-Carita, 495, 496 Buddhi, 97 Buddhism, 392 Burdwan, 537 Busantion, 510 Business centres, 310
Campā, 34, 44, 46, 73, 89, 196,
230, 256, 310, 321, 431, 477, 479, 491, 492, 493, 497,
499, 501, 528, 538, 611 Cāņakya, 112 Canda, 495 Caņdajasa, 119. Candanā, 6; Āryā 221, 332,
479 Candapannatti, 8 Candapiyana, 204 Candāvij jhaya, 10 Candikā, 457 Candra, king, 514 Candragupta, Maurya, 112, 491, Candragupta II, 515, 532 Candraprabhanātha, 546 Carakas, 13, 425, 438, 449, 455,
466
Candava, 4576.514 urevash
Cadagara, 121, 137 Caitya, 319, 436; Bahu putrika, 44, 485; Bahušālaka, 2, 44, 59, 155, 182,
191,224,258, 260, 393, 467,
479, 542 ; Candrāvataraña, 44, 220, 431,
482, 499, 541, 548; Chatrapalāsaka, 44, 182, 477,
481, 539; Dūtipalāšaka, 44, 60, 155, 477, 480, 481; Ekajambuka, 44, 477, 485, 549; Gunaśīlaka, 44, 190, 477, 479,
482, 483, 494, 545; Kamamahāvana, 431, 549; Kosthaka, 44, 45, 172, 430,
431, 433, 434, 456, 477,
479, 483, 484, 487, 546; Kaundikāyana, 431 ; Mānabhadra, 44, 482, 54 Nalanda, 482, 543; Nandana, 44 ; Prāptakāla, 431; Pürnabhadra, 44, 477, 478, 479; Puspavati, 44, 173, 483, 548; Salakosthaka, 44, 484, 543; Sankhavana, 44, 452, 478, 538. Cakravartin, 197 Calukya, 511 Camaradhārio, 95
Cārasādā, 514 Caru, 177 caste, 150; of lower grades, 164 Catakara, 94 Cathaeans, 507 Caturviméatistava Vandanās, 9 Cāturyāma Dharma, 419, 456,
483 Cāurantacakkavatti, 78 Caūsarana, 9 Cedaga, of Vaisāli 159 Celavāsins, 454 Cellanā, queen, 34, 69, 114, 189,
204, 219, 483, 492, 494 Cereals, 233 Cetaka, King, 36, 65, 69, 72,
122, 125, 130, 131, 134, 137, 376, 377, 488, 492,
493, 494, 497, 498, 499 Cetiya, 62 Chalua, 5 Chanda, 336 Chåndogya Upanisad, 168 Chattadhario, 95 Chattanti, 99 Cheda Sutras, 10 cheyāyariya, 94, 121
c

Page #668

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
China, 318, 322 Cilāiya, 7, 508 Cilatas, 508 Cilātikās, 37, 317 Cilāya, 109 Cinārasuya, 38 Cirrahadae, 508 Citra-Vicitra-Yamaka, 554 Civanāna cittiyara, 447 Coda, 533 Cola-Rajendra, 533 colapattaka, 415 Colayanagan, 169, 207 Confession, ten kinds of faults
of, 402 Council, of monks, 31; Pätali-
putra, 47, 49; Vallabhi, 47,
48, 49 Cullavagga, 227 cunnaga pesio, 95 Cunningham, 538, 550
D
Dasaratha, 438 Dasasuyakkhanda, 11 Dasavaikālika, 12 Dasyu8, 513 Davaggidāvanayā, 101 davakario, 95 Death, 264 Debala, 511 Demetrius, 515 Desibhāsā, 341 Devadatta, 502 Devakī, 469 Devānandā, 2, 59, 152, 155, 188,
191, 217, 219, 221, 222, 228,
230, 393, 467, 468, 470, 479 Devarddhi Ganin, 32, 33, 47, 52 Devindatthava, 10 Dey, N. L. 496 Dhammalipi, 337 Dhārānagara, 531 Dhāriņi, queen, 24, 202, 203,
204, 208, 211 Dharmaghoșa, 3, 156 Dharmapāla, king, 506 Dhavalā, 3, 4, 32, 33 Dhoyi, 536 Dhrti, 8 dhūmra, 417 Dhyāna, 410 Digambaras, 4, 32 Digha-Cārāyana, 74 Dagha-Nikaya, 143, 353 Dikcaras, 429, 437 Dipavamsa, 512 Disāpokkhiyā, 454 Dišāproksina, a graphic account
of, 176, 455, 501 Diseases, 348, 450 Ditthieão, 32 Ditthivāya, 5 Dokiriyā, 5, 7 drammas, 102 Drāvidi, 37, 320 Dravidians, 512 Dravya, 4 Dravya-Sangraha, 574 Dream, 197
Dadhivāhana, 499 Dāhinakülakā, 453 Dāhira, king, 511 Daksina-Lādha, 533 dāma, 128 Damilzs, 511, 512 dantavānijje, 101 Darntukkhaliyā, 453 dāna, 128 Danāmā, 163 Dānāma Pravrajyā, 451 Danda, 76, 77, 79, 128 dandanāyaga, 107, 121. 137 dandanayaka, 90, 94 Dandanīti, 77, 79; of kaundinya,
106
Dandapura, 548 Dantīpura, 88 Darbhanga, 533 Darsaka, 544 Dašā Cūrni, 112 Dasakumāracarita, 529, 548 Daša pura, 5

Page #669

644
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
Dresses, 241, 243 ; of the
monks 243 Drink, 238 Drums, four types of, 380 Drotivāda, 2, 4, 227 durbhiksabhakta, 417 Durd harā, queen 112 durga, 116 dūta, 90 daya, 94, 121, 127, 137 dvaidhābhāva, 128
esanā, 417
F Fa-Hien, 547, 548 Family Relations, 187 Festivals, 264 Fruits, 234 Furniture, 252, 255
Gangās, 443 Gārgeya, 42, 45, 456, 480 Ganivijjā, 10 ganthibheya, 110 . garudavuha, 376 Gautama Indrabhūti, 42, 45, 124,
181, 466, 467, 478, 482, 485 Gaya, 530 Gijjhakūta, 545 Giribbaja, 545 Girinagara, 33 Girivraja, 553 Gītā, 123, 124, 126, 127, 149 Gitamārga, 385, 439, 440 glānabhakta, 417 Gobahula, 152, 156, 191, 208,
325, 427, 483, 546 gocchaka, 415 Godāvari, 513 Gods, classification of, 461 Gomati, 535 Gommatasāra, 41, 570 Gomperz, 486 Goputthae, 446 Gosāla, 14, 426, 432, 433, 434,
439, 445,446, 475, 480 Gośäla Mankhaliputra, 3, 34, 43,
54, 75, 119, 208, 219, 225, 307, 330, 352, 383, 385, 425, 427, 428, 429, 431, 435, 473, 474, 476, 477, 483, 484, 487, 488, 490,
535, 538, 546 Gosamkbī, 163 Ghosh, Dr. Manmohan, 50 Gotra, 186 Gotthāmāhila, 5 Gunaratnasarvatsara, 397 Gunaratnasamvatsara ta pas, 396 Gunasthāna, 606 Gunavrata, 400, 422 Gwalior, 516
Gaggali, 86 Gāhāvai, 160; duties of 161 ; 187 gama, 84 Gamga, 5 Gaņa, 134, 135, 136; functions
of the 141 gananāyaga, 121, 137 gananayaka, 90, 94 Ganapūraka, 142 Ganarāja, 134, 136, 141 Ganarājā, 135 ganarājās, eighteeen republican
chiefs, 64, 65, 117, 122, 130,
131, 134, 137, 144, 223 ganarāyāno, 134 Gandhāra, 62, 510 Gandharvas, 528 Gangā, 551 Gangadatta, 161 Gangadattadeva, 485 Gangāradai, 515
H
hadibandhana, 113

Page #670

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
645
ista, 168 Itihasa, 336
Jan
Häla, 47 Hālāhalā, 332, 430, 433, 437,
483, 487 Halayudha, 438 Halla, 69, 119, 125, 130 Hallā, 434 Harinegamesi, 468 Harivansa Purāņa, 509, 532 Harsa, king, 426 Harsacarita, 426 Haryanka-Kul1, 496 Hastanagar, 514 Hastinapura, 23. 34, 44, 78, 89,
91, 189, 256, 258, 259, 307, 308, 310, 321, 324, 330, 457, 477, 478, 480, 482,
485, 492, 493, 501, 538, 611 Hastitā pasas, 454 Hastigrāma, 537 Hatthamaddiyae, 446 Hatthigama, 503, 537 Hatthivāla, 104 Hazaribagh, 530 Hemacandra, 415 Herbs, 281 Himavata, 552, 553 Hiuen Tsang, 514, 531, 539,
547, 548 Hoernle, 490 Houses, 252 Hri, 8 Hursva-uttiä, 453 Hydas pes (Jhelam), 507, 552 Hydraoles (Rāvi), 552 Hypasis (Vipāía-Beās), 552
Jacobi, 49, 437, 471, 490 Jāgarikā, 400 Jalābhiseka-kidhinagātrā, 454 Jalavāsins, 454 Jamālī, 5, 14, 45, 85, 158, 171,
183, 189, 192, 193, 196, 215, 216, 224, 259, 263, 319, 329, 349, 391, 393,
394, 456, 479, 542, 546 Jamālī's sect, 13, 456 Jam!uddiva pannalti, 8, 90 Jambūdvīpa, 523, 526 Jambūdvipa Prairia pti, 523 Jamgola toxicology, 345 Jarta pilanakamme, 101 Janaka, 542 Janapada, 116, 132, 185, 527 Jaņavaya, the etymological
meaning of, 76 Jätakas, 91, 106, 134, 136 Jāti, 185 Javana, 6 Jayadhavala, 32 Jayaghosa, 154 Jayanti, 43, 45. 169, 214, 319,
332, 393, 482, 492, 499 jemamaņa, 207 Jinadāsa, 476 Jivābhigama, 7, 523 Jivapadesiyā, 5, 7 Jiyasattu, king, 92, 98, 154 Jnäna, 588 Jpāti, 186 Jñātri, 175 Jnātrikas, 505 Jhatrksatriya, 468, 469 Joisāmaya, 336 Jonhiyās, 510 Jonhikās, 37 Jūnāgadha, 536
I
Ikkāi, 105 Iksvālus, 492, 505 Indrāyudha, 506 Indus, river, 514 ingālalamme, 101 Isiganikā, 37, 320 Isiganiyās, 509 Isigili, 545 Isiku, 322

Page #671

646
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Kappāvadansiā, 8 Karakandu Cariu, 88 Karana, 602 Karma, doctrine of, 599 karodiyadhārio, 95 Karpūramaljari, 50 Kārttikadatta, the president of
an economic guild of eight thousand merchants of the town of Hastinapura, 162,
164, 174, 189, 307, 308, 485 Karušas, 509 Kašāi, 529 Kasia, 534 Kāsava, 16, 456 Kasaya-Pāhuda, 32 Kaát, 36, 62, 65, 73, 116. 118.
122, 130, 131, 133, 137, 321, 378, 478, 492, 493, 497, 534,
535
к Kaccha, 532 Kajangala, 310, 321, 477, 478,
481, 539 Kāla, prince, 8 Kāla, 125 Kalāgrahanan, 169 Kalakācārya-Kathānaka, 517 Kalanda, 437 Kālāsa vesiyaputta, 42, 44, 456 Kālidāsa, 159. 170 Kālika-bruta, 2 Kalinga, War, 65; Edict 124 Kalingas, 529 Kāliyaputta, 45, 456 Kālodāyin, 455, 483 Kalpa Sutra, 10, 11, 104, 137,
154, 197, 202, 239, 468, 469,
470, 472, 488, 537 Kalpātīta, 463 Kal pāvatarsaka, 8 Kal pavrk:08, 303 Kalpikā, 8 Kāmandakiya-Natisāra, 78, 82 Kāma Sutra, 188 Kamboja, 62, 318 Kambojas, 510 Kamma-Pähuda, 32 Kampilla pura, 540 Kāmpilya, 321 Kāmpilyapura, 44, 452, 477,
478, 481, 540 Kamsa, 469 Kanagasattari, 344 Kanaka Saptati, 344 Kancanapura, 88 Karcuijje, 94 Kanhavāsudeva, 1 Kankajola, 539 Kannauja, 506 Kannavehanan, 207 Kanniyāra, 437 Kantārabhakta, 417 Kapila Muni, 455 Kapilašāstra, 451 Kapiśā, 529 Kappa, 336
Kasmira, 321 Kathaians, 507 Kathaioi, 507 Katyāyana, 145 Kauravyas, 492, 506 Kaušāmbi, 34, 44, 45, 119, 220,
256, 310, 321, 471, 477, 478,
482, 493, 498, 499, 532, 541 Kausiki, river, 528 Kausikīkaccha, 532 Kautilya, 128, 506 Kautsa, 532 Kautukamangala, 170 Kāyakleśa, 406 Kāyandi, 540 Kayangalā, 44, 539 Kāyaraya, 437, Keka, 498 Kerala putta, 553 kesavānijje, 101 Kesi, 466 Kesīkumāra, prince, 86, 89, 158,
194, 250, 251, 324, 492, 494,
501, 546 Keśísyāmin, 456 Ketu, 288 Khāima, 232
380

Page #672

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA
647
Kulavālaya, ascetic, 498 Kulika, 145 Kuluha, 530 Kumārabhicca, pediatrics, 345 Kummagāma, 540 Kumrahar, 545 Kundagrāma, 505 Kūņika king, 8, 64, 65, 69, 71,
72, 74, 79, 114, 129, 130,
134, 324, 497, 498, 501 Kūnika-Ajātasatru 64, 118, 120,
122, 125, 377, 378, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 495, 499, 534, 535; of
: 534. 12, 493
Kinlampa
Kharosthi, 339, 504, 514 Khattiyakundagāma, 541 khiradhāio, 95 khujjão, 95 Khurasan, 510 Kirāta, 321 Kirātikā, 320 Kirātas, 508 Kis-sankicca, 436, 437 Koccha, 62 koduñvinio, 95 Kolhuā, 505 Koligāma, 541 Kollāda, 540 Kollāga, 175, 310, 505, 540 Kollāga Sanniveía, 473, 474 Kollāya, 540 Kollāya Sanniveia, 487 Kophen (Kabul), 532 Kosa, 116 Košala, 36, 62, 65, 116, 118,
122, 130, 131, 133, 137, 321, 378, 478, 492, 493,
497, 505, 532, 533, 535 Košala Devi, 73 Košala pura, 535 Kośām, 532 Kosārbi, 541 Kosi, river, 528, 533 Kotta-Kiriyā, 451, 457 Kottha, 532 Kotthāgārio, 95 Kottiyā, 453 Krita, 417 Kriyāvādins, 4, 17, 449 Kysipārāsara, 163 Krsna, 9, 123, 469 Ksinikavāda, 450 Ksatriyu, 115, 158, 159 Ksatriyakundagrāma, 22, 23, * 189, 193, 258, 259, 319,
393, 470, 471, 472, 505, 541 Kūiyaņņa, 163 Kula, 145, 186 Külıdhamaka, 453 Kulakara, 303 Kula-Parvatas, 553
Kūņiya, 34 Kunti, 6 Kūrmagrāma, 169, 310, 474,
475, 476. 540, 547 Kuru, 62, 145, 506 Kuruksetra, 506 Kuśāvātī, 534 Kuśīla, 418, 419 Kusinārā, 137, 145, 505, 534,
611 Kusumadhvaja, 544 Kusuma pura, 554 Kyrrahadae, 508
Labdhi, 601 Lādha, 62, 532, 533 Laghamān, 515 Laghujātaka, 438 lakkha-vānijje, 101 Laksana, 439 Lalita Vistara, 135, 136, 339 Lambațas, 515 Lampakas, 515 Langhāna, 515 Lata, 512 Lauhitya, 529 Lausiyā, 37, 320, 511 Law Dr. B. C., 537 Lekyā, 585 Lhāsikā, 320,

Page #673

648
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Lhasiyās, 37, 322, 511 Liochavis, 36, 65, 71, 118, 122,
132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 143, 145, 378, 490, 492, 497, 534 ; Consititution of
the, 137, 139 Limirike, 512 lipi, 337 Livi, 337 Logic, 624 Loka, 518 lomahara, 110
M
Maccha, 62 Madhara, 344 Madraka, 145 Madruka, 46 Madurā, 533 Madhyadesa, 539 Magadha, 62, 116, 131, 132,
133, 319, 377, 501. 528,
530, 524, 535, 611 Māgadhiyā, courtesan, 498 Magasthenes, 508 Mahabala, 14, 78, 156, 158,
169, 171, 193, 196, 207, 210, 214, 216, 219, 223, 224,250,
251, 258, 259, 263, 330, 331 Mahābhārata, 82, 91, 123, 126,
127,135, 136, 144, 216, 429, 504, 509, 510, 528, 529,534,
536, 545 Mahābhima, 463 Mahāgovinda Suttanta, 143 Mahājana padas, Solasa, 62 Mahākal pa, 439, 443, 444 Mahākcsala, king, 63 Mahamanti, 96 Māhanakudagama, 542 Mahānandā, 533 Mahānisiha, 10, 87 mahānasiņio, 95 Mahānimittas, 3 Mahānisadha, 9. Mahāpaccakkhāna, 10 Mahāpadma, 496, 545
Mahā parinivvāna Suttanta, 70 Mahāpurāņa, 90, 91, 148, 153,
157, 159, 340 Mahārăstra, 511 Mahārāstri, Jaina, 49 Mahāsāla, 86 Mahāsena, king, 132, 158, 488,
492, 494, 501, 502 Mahasilākantala, war 66 ; war
engine, 120, 130, 337, 377,
378, 498 Mahasižākantaka Sangrāma, 8, 15,
17, 65, 67, 75, 118, 122, 125, 133, 160, 319, 323, 376, 446,
481, 488, 489, 490, 492 Mahāsu pina Jataka, 202 Mahattaka, 141 mahattare, 94 Mahāvagga, 70, 539 Mahāvana, 495, 496, 512 Mahāvīra, life of Lord, 465 Mahāvyut patti, 513 Mahesariya, 542 Māhismati, 542 Majjhima Nikaya, 489 Mākandikaputra, 46 Makkhali Gośāla, 436, 489 Mālavaka, 62, 63, 531 Malaya, 62, 530,531 Malini, 528 Malla, 62, 136, 145, 533, 534 Mullakis, 36, 65, 118, 122, 130,
131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137,
378, 490, 492, 494, 534 Mallarāma, 431, 436 Malla Rāstra, 534 Malli, 228 ; a golden image of
384 Málva, 513, 531 Manti, 96 Māndalika, 197 Mandika, 431, 436 Mandiya, notorious robber, 109 Manibhadra 457, 463 Mankha, 426 Magkhali, 191, 194, 208

Page #674

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
649
137, 13 Hill, 4388, 509
Mankha Madkhali, 219, 325, Mrgalubdhakā, 453 383, 426, 427, 430
Mrgavana, 190, 549 Mantri, 97
Mrgāvati, queen, 188, 220, 319, Manu, 128
482, 492, 494,498, 499, 500 Manusmrti, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, muhapattiya, 244
96, 106, 115, 125, 126, 133, Mujavantas, 528 150, 211, 213, 225
mulchavastra, 415 Mārkandeya Purāna, 509, 513 Müladeva, 88 Marriage, 208
Mülasarvāstivāda, 223 Marudurddha, 552
Mula Sutras, four, 12 Marunda, 515
Munisuvrata, 485 Marwar, 516
Murāri, famous shrine of, 536 Mathara Vitti, 344
Murunda Swamin, 515 Mathurā, 32, 502, 504
Murundi, 320 mātrilcā padās, 5
Murundis, 37, 515 mātrkāksaras, 339
musundhi, 379 Matsyanyāya, 77, 83 Matsya Purana, 509 matter, 564 mauna, 168
Nābhi, 91, 303 Mauryas, 65
nādaijjão, 95 māuyalckaras, 339
Nāganattua (Nāgaputra) VaruMāyā, mother, 202
ņa, 67, 121, 123, 124, 125, Mayanamañjari, the wife of 137, 138, 161, 324
prince Agadadatta, 227 Nāgārjuni Hill, 438 Mazandaran, 510
Nāgārjunīkunda, 508, 509 Meat-eating, 237
Nalagiri elephant, 119 Meghakumāra, 202, 208, 211, Nālandā, 310, 429, 472, 473, . 216
477, 478, 487, 540, 543 Meharauli, 514
Namados (Narmada), 553 Mehila, 456
Nāmavāsakas, 509 Mendhikagrāma 44, 46, 217, Nami, 119
310, 477, 478, 484, 487, Namudaya, 437, 455 543
Nāmudaya 437 Mendhiyagama, 543
Nāmudāya, 483 Milikkha, 6
Nanagouna (Tapti), 553 Milindapañha, 318
Nanda, a merchant of Rajagrha, misrajata, 417
163; the family of N. and Mithila, 5, 44, 310, 321, 478, Yasodā, 469 484, 533, 542, 543
Nandas, 65 Mleccha, 7, 5, 15
Nanda-Vaccha, 436, 437 Mola-pā, 531
Nandi Sūtra, 3, 11 Moli, 62, 63, 534
Nandivarddhana, 469 Monarchism, 133
Nāradaputra, 45 Moroundai, 515
Narmadā, 542 Moyä, 44, 478, 482, 543
Nasadiya, 555 Mrcchakatika, 106
Nasikyas, 511 82

Page #675

650
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
tata, 17.469 511
Nātaputta, 469 Nausāri grant, 511 navakoți-parisuddha, 417 Nāyādhammakahão, 5, 90, 91,
103, 114, 126, 195, 202, 203, 208, 211, 228, 230,
239, 352, 384 Nayaka, 143 Nayaputta, 16 Negama, 84, 307 Nerbuda, 542 Nhāviyadāsa Nanda, 88 phãi vão, 95 Nigantha Nataputta, 436 Nighantu, 336, 451 Nijjutti, 12 Nīlakantha Šāstrī, 536 Nillanchanakamme, 191 Nirayāvaliyā Sutta (Sūtra), 8,
72, 118, 125, 131, 376, 488,
489, 490 Nirgrantha, 17, 418, 419 Nirgranthiputra, 45 Nirjarā, 606 Nirutta, 336 Niryukti, 12 Niscaya Naya, 558 Nisīha, 10 Nišitha Cūrni, 102, 157, 341 Nitisāra, of Māthara, 106 Niyati, 441 Niyativāda, 429, 440, 449 Nrtyamārga, 385, 439, 440
Pajjoya, king, 119 Palckhalavati, 514 Pakkhalavadi, 514 Pakudha kaccāyana, 436, 489 Palace, 253 Palasaka, 544 Palhvas, 510 Palhavikas, 37, 320, 510 Pallaviyas, 510 Pal lin-tou, 544 Pāna, 232 pānabhojana, esita, 416; mār
gātikrānta, 416; kālāti. krānta, 416; koetrātikrānta, 416 ; pramānātikrānta, 416; sadhūm, 415; samudānika, 416 ; samyojana-dosadusta, 416 ; sanyojana-vipramukta, 416; sāngāra, 415 ; bästraparināmita, 416 ; śāstrātīta, 416 ; vitadhūma, 416 ;vita
ngāra, 416 pānagāin 446 Paņāmā, 163 Pāņāmā pavvaijā, 450 Pancāla, 62, 145, 506 Pāñcamahāvratas, 456 Pañcayāma-Dharma, 420, 480 Pāndava, 545 panditamarana, 9 Pandya, 533 Panhavāgarana, 6 Pāṇini, 93, 96, 134, 188, 428,
429, 504, 507 Paniyabhūmi, 474 Pannavanā Suya, 7, 529 pāpasthānas, 594 Parangāmana, 207 Pārasa, 317, 320, 516 Pārāśara, 163 Pārasī, 34, 37, 310, 317, 320,
516 Parenos, 552 paržsahas, twenty two, 413 pārisão, 95 parivarttavāda, 438, 439, 440,
476
O
Ovaväiya Sutta, 79
Pada, definition of the term, 41 Padaliputta, 88, 544 Padha, 62, 533 Padihărio, 94 Padmapurāna, 179 Painnās, ten, 9 pajjapāvanar, 207

Page #676

651
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SŪTRA Parivrājakas, 13, 425, 449, 451, Polāšapura, 5, 430 466
Polimbothra, 544 Parivrtya-parihāra, 431, 432, Polindi, 7 436, 439
Poras, 507 Parivvāyagā, 7
Pottiya, 453 Parivvāyage, 180
Poulindia, 513 Pārsvanātha, 335, 466, 541 Prabhāvati (Devī), queen, 58, Pārsvanatha’sorder, 13, 466, 483 156, 171, 190, 200, 203, 205, Pārthava, 510
206, 207, 209, 217, 218, 494 Parthia, 322
Prācinajanapada, 472 Parthians, 510
Pradyota Mahāsena, king, 499, Parusni (Rāvi), 552
500, 502 pasāhiyão, 95
Pradyotas, 495 Pasenadi, 202
Prāg, 514 Pataligrāma, 70, 544
Prajna pama Sutra, 339, 341, 547 Pāțaliputra, 31, 34, 47, 49, 544, Prāņāmā prayrajya, 450 545
Prasenjit, king, 6, 73, 74, 505 Patañjali, 314
Pratigraha, 415 Patañjali Mahābhāsya, 536 Pratikeramana, 9 Patna, 530
Pratisamlīnatā, 406 Paumacariu, 322, 516
Pratisevanās, ten kinds of, 402 Pausadhas, two kinds of, 400 Pratisūcakas, 98 Pausadha Vrata, 423
Pravаcапа, 2 Pāvā, town, 104, 137, 14:
Pratyākhyāna, 9 486, 488, 489, 490, 494, Prāyaścitta, 170, 407 ; ten kinds 534, 537, 611
of 403 Pavanadūta, 536
Proalais, 514 Paveņipotthaka, 144
Ptolemy, 508, 510, 512, 513, Payacańkamanan, 207
514, 515 Periplus, 508, 510, 512
Pudgala a Parivrājaka of Penkalaos, 514
Alabhikā, 182, 538 Persia, 317, 320, 322, 516 Pudgala-parāvarta, 368 Pesanakārio, 95
l'udgala Parivartta, 571 Peukelaotis, 513
Pūjita, 417 Phodicamme, 101
Pukkhalis, 37, 513, 514 Pindavaddhanań, 207
Pulāka, 17, 418 Pindaniryukti, 12, 103, 205, 211 Pulākas, 418 Pingalaka, 43, 45, 161, 182, Pulkesī II, 511, 517 470, 546
Pulindis, 37, 320, 513 Pichel, 49
Pulses, 233 Pitthi-Campā, 68
Punda, 537 Plants, classification of, 3 Pundra, 478, 513, 529, 537, 545 different species of, 28
Pupphacūlāo, 8 Pliny, 516
Pupphacūliä, 8 Poggala, a Parivrājaka, 45, 478 Pupphao, 8 Pokkali, 161, 172
Pupphiyā, 8 Pokkhalī, 306
Purāna, 336

Page #677

652
Pūraṇa, 161, 163, 189, 450, 451 Purana kassapa, 436, 489 Puranti, 97
Purimatala, 109 Purnabhadra, 457, 463 Purus, 506
Purusa Sukta, 504 Purvagata Śruta, 2
Purvas, 4, 32, 34, 344; table of the contents of the, 3 Pusanandi, king 195 Pu-se-ke-la-fa-ti, 514 Puskalavati, 322, 573, 514 Puskali, 320 Puskarasarin, 502 Puskaravati, 514 Puspapura, 544
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Raktapatas, 438
Rāmāyaṇa, 91, 216, 343, 505,
528, 532, 542 Rapson, Prof., 510 Rasaparityaga, 405 rasavānijje, 101 rāṣṭra, 116 Ratthakuda, 105 Rathamusala, war engine, 120, 130, 337, 377, 378, 498 Rathamusala Sangrama, 15, 65,
66, 67, 75, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 133, 138, 160, 319, 323, 376, 481, 488, 489, 492, 495
R
Radha, 532, 533, 536 Raghu-kulaguru, 536
Raghuvamsa, 159, 170, 529 Rahanemi, 228
Rahassiya, 97
Rahudeva, 363
Rahul Sankṛtyāyana, 539 raisara, 94
Raja, 135, 136, 139, 145 Rajagrha, 34, 44, 74, 190, 204, 256, 310, 321, 431, 472, 477, 479, 483, 491, 493, 494, 497, 530, 538, 543, 545, 553, 611 rajaharana, 415 Rajaka, 135 Rajamahal, 539 Rajanyaka, 135 Rajanyas, 492, 504 rajapinḍa, 417
Rājārāja, Cola king, 438, 472
426
Rajatarangini, Rajesvara, 501 Rajgir, 545 Rājīmatī, 228 Rajja, 78 Rajjuyasabha, 104

Raychoudhary, Dr. H. C., 496 Rayapaseniya, 7, 338, 382 Republicanism, 133
Revati, a female householder of Mendhikagrama, 161, 217, 219, 485
Rg-veda, 336, 505, 506
Roha, the queens of, 44; 431,
436 Roruka, 318
Rorura, 318 Rṣabhadatta,
152, 155, 165, 190, 191, 217, 221, 319, 324, 393, 394, 467, 468, 479 Rṣabhadeva, 2, 92, 340 Rsabhapura, 5
Rṣibhadraputra, 45, 161, 537 Rsigiri, 545 Rsika, 322
Rukkhamulilyä, 454 Rupadakkha, judge, 106 Rupajakkha, judge, 106 Rupanarayana, river, 548
S
Sabarai, 516
Sabaras, 509, 513, 516 Sabaris, 37, 320, 516
sacrifice, seven articles of, 177
Sadānīrā, 535 Sad-avasyaka, 9

Page #678

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATĪ SŨTRA
653
Saddālaputta, 5, 430 sădikamme, 101 Saga, 6 sagad avūha, 376
Sahasarbavana, 181 'Sahasrāmravana, 477, 482 Sahasrānīka, king, 492, 499 Sāhet-Māhet, 546 Sāima, 232 Saivālabhaksinas, 454 Saka-Murundas, 515 Sakas, 516 Sakasthāna, 322 Säleta, 535 Sakti Sangama Tantra, 529 Sakyas, 438 Sāla, 86 Sālāļavā, 109 Salākāgrāhāpaka, 142 Sama, 128, 336 Samācāri, ten kinds of, 403 Samahastin, 45, 430 Samantarājās, 82, 116 Samuvāyānga Sūtra, 5, 338, 339 Samayasāra, 389 Sāmāyika, 9 Sambhavanātha, 546 Sandlivāla, 94, 121, 132, 137 Samitis, five, 413 Samjna, 586 Samrigarbha, 444, 445 Saṁkha, 191 Samkhdhamakā, 453 Saṁkhavālaya, 437, 455 Sankhya-Yoga, 392 Sarlekhana, 6, 399 Samlekhanā tapa, 398 Sampakichālā, 453 samsraya, 128 Santhāgāra, 141 Santhāraga, 9, 415 Samucchciyā, 5 Samudghāta, 602 Samudragupta, 515 ; Allahabad
Pillar Inscription of, 37 savnavaccharapadilehanar, 207 Sanvara, 605
Samviha, 437 Samyatas, 17 ; classification of.
419 Samyojana, 417 Sanyūthas, 444 Sāņa, 437 sandhi, 128 sandhi pāla, 90 Sangha, 134 Sanjaya Belatthiputta, 436, 489 Sankha, 161, 162, 172, 306 Sankhāna, 336 Śankha Sresthi, 45, 217, 332 Sankhavālaya, 483 Sanlchya-Karikā, 344 Sannyāra, 181, Saonos, 552 Suparnos, 552 Sapartikramana Dharma, 483 saradahatalāyaparisosanayā, 101 Sarasvatī, 506 Saratthāņā, 386 Saravana, 325, 427, 477, 483,
546 Sarvànubhūti, 432, 434, 484 Sarvasūcakas, 99 Sasarakkha, 454 Şasthitantra, 343, 344, 451 Satadvāru, 310, 478, 537, 545 Satānīka, king, 210, 492, 494,
498, 499, 500, 502 Sātiyaputta, 533 Şatkhandāgama, 369 satthaväha, 94 Satthitamta, 336 sattrāyana, 168 Satyavati, queen, 204 Sauvira, 536 Sapatchẽ, 535, 538, 546 Suyaduvära, 537, 545 Sayambhū, 516 Sayyātara pinda, 417 schims, seven, 5, 7 script, eighteen kinds of, 5;
origin of Indian, 340 Secanaka, the Magadhan state
elephant, 118, 125, 130

Page #679

654
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÚTRA
Scatole da 60 kin
?
Selavālaya, 455, 483 Selodāyin, 455, 483 Senā pati, 139, 144 senāvai, 94, 121 Seņiya, 216, 324 Seniya-Bimbisara, 8, 34, 68, 73,
114, 119, 158, 189, 483, 488, 489, 490, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 499,
505, 545 Setth7, 160 Setu, 288 Sevālodãyin, 455, 483 Seyanaga, 68 Siddhārtha, king, 468, 505 Siddhārthagrāma, 310, 474, 476,
547 Siddhatthagama, 547 Sīhaladdipa, 512 Sikkhā, 336 Siksāvratas, 422 Silanka 438 Silā pabbhatthae, 446 Silavrata, 400 Simha, 244, 484, 485, 489 Sinhala, 318, 512 Sinhali, 310, 512 Simhapura, 512 Sindhu, 311, 511, 551 Sindhu-Sauvīra, 34, 86, 89, 131,
132, 190, 194, 250, 319, 321, 394, 465, 477, 480, 492, 494, 499, 501, 502,
536, 537, 549, 611 Singhali, 34, 37, 317, 320 Sisu-Naya, dynasty, 495 Siva, king, 23, 24, 34, 89, 1
158, 172, 176, 178, 180, 181, 250, 266, 284, 305, 324, 492, 43, 501; royal sage, 262; Vanaprastha tāpasa, 45; Vanaprastha
ascetic, 482 Śivabhadra, 23, 85, 89, 158, 172,
176, 219, 250, 251, 501 Siyabiyā, 5
Skandaka 16, 43, 45, 56, 180,
182, 244, 393, 394, 395,
399, 451, 481, 539, 546 Skandilācārya, 32 Skyrites, 508 Smith, V., 538 Snātaka, 17, 418, 419 Soma, 196 Somabhūti, 196 Somadatta, 196 Somila, 43, 152, 155, 481 Soul, proof of existence of, 561 Sovira, 318, 536 Spices, 234, 278 Sports, 257 Sramanas, 390 Srāvakas, 390 Srāvaka-Dharma, 390, 421 Srāvastī, 5, 44, 46, 74, 192, 256,
307, 309, 310, 3?1, 332, 348, 430, 431, 435, 437, 456, 470, 477, 478, 479, 481, 483, 487, 493, 535,
538, 546, 611 Śreņika, king, 204, 208 Sresthi, 161
Šri, 8 Śrī-Vijaya, 548 Śrutvā-kevali, 424 Stâmãnga Sutra, 4, 195, 447 Sthaviravali Carita, 31 Sthūlabhadra, 31, 544 Suari, 516 Suhbhabhūmi, 532, 533, 535 Subhadrā, 229 Sūcakas, 98 sūcivūha, 376 Sudarśana, 43, 161, 164, 394
473 Sudra, 115 Suhatthi, 483, 455 Suhma, 533, 536 suhrt, 116 Sukumāliyā, queen, 98 Sumangalavilāsini, 69, 353, 428 Sumbhuttara, 62, 535, 536 Sumati, 545

Page #680

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
655
Sunakşatra, 432, 434, 484 Sunanda, 161 Sunandā, queen, 494 Sunidha, 70 Sūrasena, 62 Sūriyapannatti, 8 Susamā (Sohan), 552 Susumāra pura, 477, 547 Sutrakrtānga, 4, 13, 450 Suttadharas, 143, 144 Sutudri (Sutlej), 552 Suvarnadvzpa, 318 Svādhyāya, 409 Svāmī, 116 Svapnašāstra, principles of the,
201 Svapnavāsavadattā, 499 Svetāmbara, 4, 32, 33 Syadvādb hangi, 599
Taxila, 307, 502 Terasiya, 5, 7 Terumalai Rock Inscription, 533 Thālaī, 453 Thānā, 511 Tirthankara, 197 Tirthikas, 449, 466 Tīsagutta, 5 Tittira Jataka, 447 To.mo-liti, 547 Town-Planning, 256 Trade routes, 310 Trades and professions, a list of,
162 Trāsa dasyava, 506 Trees, 279 Tribes, a list of, 164 Trisalā, 467, 468, 469, 470 Triveni-Saptagrāma Panduā, 536 Trtsu Bharatas, 506 Tukva, 513 Tungabhadrā, river, 512 Tungi, 548 Tungikā, 44, 45, 222, 307, 310,
316, 321, 324,483, 548 Tungiyā, 548 Turnour, 496
T
U
Taittirīya Samhitā, 540 Takkana-lādam, 533 Takkara, 110 Takkhasilā, 514 Tāla, 437 Tālapalamba, 437 Talavara. 90, 94, 107, 501 tāliyantadhārio, 95 Tāmalī, 161, 163, 189, 284, 305,
450, 451 Tāmalitti, 547 Tamaluk, 536, 547 Tāmil, 322 Tāmilakam, 512 Tāmilas, 511, 512 Tammudāya, 483 Tämralipta, 236, 547 Tāmralipti, 189, 256, 284, 310,
311, 321, 324, 450, 451,
478, 547 Tandulaveyāliya, 9 Tan-mo-li-ti, 547 Tapaḥ, 404 Tāpasas, 13 Tattvārtha-Sutra, 558
Udandapura, 548 Udaya, 437, 455, 483 Udayagiri, 532 Udayana, king, 34, 119, 158,
169, 220, 319, 324, 436, 471, 482, 488, 492, 493 494,
498, 499, 500, 502 Udāyana king, 34, 46, 86, 89,
132, 158, 189, 190, 194, 250, 319, 324, 394, 480, 494,
499, 501, 502, 549 Udāyin, king 393, 431, 544 ;
war elephant, 118 Uddandagā 454 Uddandapura, 431 Uddešaka, 417 Ugras, 492, 503

Page #681

656
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
stent of the 5197 he 5.9
Vajzabno 124. 489, 496,
Ujjayini, 317, 494, 502, 531 Ujjeni, 119 Ukkarain, 100 Ulkittan, 100 Ullukatīra, 5, 44, 477, 485, 549 Ulluyatira, 549 Umāsvāti., 558 Ummaddiyāo, 95 Ummānam, 100 Universe, centres of the 521;
extent of the 519; order of
the 521; shape of the, 5.9 Upacara Vasu, 541 Upāli,489 Upangas, twelve 6, 344 U parājā, 139, 144 U pasakas, 5 U payoga, 621 Ussukkan, 100 Utensils, 240 ut pādana, 417 Utpalā, 191, 217, 218, 219 332 Utsar pini, 368 Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 12, 86,
87, 109, 153, 154, 201, 204,
222, 238, 246, 344, 494 Uttarādhyayana Tikā, 88, 103,
119, 157, 230, 317, 517 Uttarakulakā, 453 Uttara-Lädha, 533 uvanayanan, 169, 207 Uvāsagadasão, 5, 157, 175, 239,
248, 289, 430, 440, 503, 505 uvatthānasālā, 99 uvatthāniyāo, 95 Uvavāiya, 6 Uvviha, 437
Vaišālī, 34, 65, 71, 116, 118,
129, 130, 132, 133, 230, 256, 310, 319, 321, 324, 377, 378, 431, 471, 489, 493, 494, 497, 498, 501,
503, 505, 507, 533,537, 550 Vai avānara, 177, 457, 458 Vaisya, 115, 160 Vaiśyāyana, 475 Vaiyāvsiya, 409 Vajja, 62, 533 Vajjabhumi, 532, 533 Vai, 62, 134, 489, 496, 533 Vajjians, 130, 134 ; constitution,
138 Vakkavāzinas, 454 Valavāsinas, 454 Vālhikas, 37, 514 Vallablī, 32, 34, 38, 47, 48 Vallal hi-vācana, 31 Varsa, 62, 186 vanakarme, 101 Vānaprastha Hastitā pasas (Hatthitāvasā), 237 Vānuprasthas, 13, 178, 180, 425,
449, 466 Vānaprostha Tāpasas, 23, 43,
176, 454 Tānapatthā Tāvasā, 176 Vāņārasi, 431, 549 Vanavāsakas, 509 Vanavāsī, 509 Vanga, 529, 611 Vanhidasão, 8, 9 Vānijyagrāna, 5, 43, 44, 46,
175, 289, 308, 310, 314, 471,
477, 478, 480, 481, 505 Vanika, 160 vannaga pesão, 95 Vannao, 19, 35, 52 Varāha, 545 Varāha-mihira, 438 Varana, 531 Vārāṇasī, 256, 310, 493, 534,
549, 611 Vardhamāna, 16, 537 Vārddalikal hakta, 417
Vaccha, 62 Vāgarana, 336 Vāhiya, 495 Vaibhāra, 204, 545, 553 Vaijayanti, 510 Vainayikas, 13, 425 Vainayikavādins, 4, 17

Page #682

STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SÜTRA
657
varisadhare, 94 Varna, stages in the evolution of,
147, 185 Vārtā, 77, 268 Värttaka, wooden figure of the
sage, 383 Varuņā, 531 Vasaganiyas, 509 Vasantapura, 98 Vāsavadattā, 119, 500 Vassa kāra, 70, 71, 130, 138, 377 Vasudāna, 499 Vasudeva, 197, 468 Vāsukunda, 471, 505, 542 Vätāpī, 511 Vatsa, 131, 500, 502, 531, 432,
535, 541 Vātsyāyana, 188 Vātayāyana Kama Sutra, 529 Vattha, 531 Pattlนยาว์a, 381 Vavahāra, 10 Vaya-bhaksinas, 454 Vāyubhūti, 42, 45, 482 Vāyu-purāņa, 495, 509, 515 Vebhàra, 545, 552, 553 Vebhela, 204, 550 Vegetables, 234 Velavāsins, 454 Vepulla, 545 Vesāli, 550 Vesālie, 185 Vesiyāyaṇa, 169 Viahapannatti, ten defferent
meanings of the title, 39 Videha, 63, 533 Vidūdābha, 74 vigraha, 128 Vrībhaya, 549 Vijaya, a householder of
Rajagrha, 161, 473, 474 ; notorious robber, 109; the
scent-elephant 119 Vijayaghosa, 154 Vijaya Sisha, 37, 512 Vikramajasa, 216
Vikramapur, 529 Vilavāsinas, 454 Vimāna, of Süryā hadeva, 382 Vinaya, 407 Vinay ivādins, 449, 450, 451 Vindhyagiri, 321, 478, 537, 5.15,
552, 553 Vindhyas, 516 Viniccay.t-Mahāmittās, 143, 144 violence, 595 Vipula, 552, 553 Vipulācala, 553 Virutthava, 10 Visāhā, 550 Višākhā, the city of, 44, 477,
478, 485, 550 Visvāmitra, clan of, 513 visavānijje, 101 Vitībhaya 44, 89, 132, 190, 256,
310, 311, 321, 477, 478,
480, 494, 501, 502, 549 Vitstā (Jhelum), 552 Vivāja Suya, 6, 92, 105, 114,
154, 204, 205 Vividha-tirtha-Kalpa, 539 l'iviktakayanāsnasevanata, 407 Vohārikas, 143, 144 Vrátya, 528 Vrijis, 533 Vrijika, 145 V rjjis, 134 l'rsabha, 545 Vyanljana, 439 Vyantaras, 462 Vyavahāra, five kinds of, 401 V yavahāra Bhāsya, 88, 102, 106,
204, 226 Vyavahāra Naya, 557 Vyutsarga, 412
Vijay
marha,
obber,
w Weber, 4, 322 Women, position of, 213 Woolner, 49 Writing Stuffs, 338

Page #683

658
STUDIES IN THE BHAGAWATI SUTRA
Yajna, 168 Yaju, 335
'aksa Sülıpāni, 537 Yama pattika, 426 Yamunā, 532 Yāna, 128
Yasodā, 469 Yašomati, 498 Yaunas, 510 Yavanalipi, 337 Yavanas, 510 l'ugın, 5 Yugmas, 17

Page #684

CORRECTION SLIP
1.
Page 38.
According to other tradition the redaction of the canon was simultaneously effected some time between Vira Samvat 827 and 840 at the hands of a council in Mathurā under the presidency of Skandilācārya and at the Valaihi Council under the chairmanship of Nāgārjuna.
Foot note no. 3
Comm. on Yoguśāstra, 3 p. 207. Vide, Vīra Nirvāna Samyat
Aur Jain kāla Gañanā, p. 110, Muni Kalyāņa Vijaya. 2. For the correction of diacritrical printing mistakes in the
volume,please refer to the Index given.

Page #685

Page #686
_