Jain Theism

Author(s): Hemant Shah
Publisher: Hemant Shah
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006509/1

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(Concept of God in Jainism) mediagallion intermedia For Private Psoma be Only w Wielbrer

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JAIN THEISM (Concept of God in Jainism) HEMANT SHAH ACADEMY OF PHILOSOPHY AHMEDABAD-380006

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Second Edition : January 1997 Copies : 1000 (c) Hemant Shah Published by : Hemant Shah Academy of Philosophy, Prakash Higher Secondary School, Ellisbridge, Ahmedabad - 380006 Phone : 463344-6740592 Printed by : Krishna Printery Harjibhai N. Patel 966, Naranpura Old Village, Ahmedabad - 380013 (Phone : 7484393)

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DEDICATION A Petal, With Theistic Obeisance, At the feet of....... THE HOLY PENTAD : Arihantas..... Siddhas....... Acaryas,...... Upadyayas...... Sadhus...... and To the Memory of My Parents

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maina Izvara bATa dinu ii.maa aimata lAkha prakAu naiaunonA Sear viSanA pAnakhena bhakdana spaSTa usI sApe ho yI choDe feecra nirmANa ytu viyayini zsabhA } trace mui ror yahi kyAre sekza aavAda mdh1zAsta sevA vize SNurI kAmaka anya dhAtizeSa dhazvarale mallAhulyatAko viSaya janAvara ghI gho cha, kyAro bhanosa W24 sunA sagrakhI Ahe he ke bhagasya nakta muga bhagatavara prAraNIyo karakA bheko esto harano kaNa mUrta razma na mujinin 28 S pema sadara yu ko bhara khAyuga yugA deUra sme se sIne ingia or kheDaH sAdhyArUna puNe sAyuko kAnoM ka dhAra viSeNa bhADasapanA saMpUrNa ho menaino nAtira cha-Valene maravatA nAthA sethIla kirAbATa upamA prabhAvita dheM, tnu jirAGyuga prastuta prasng uda khela 25226 bhAra ytrag bhArasya kadhI kAya cha halasuma mAnava zizayA 1-969 - * 1

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FOREWORD (First Edition) This book, "Jain Theism' by Dr. Hemant Shah clarifies Jaina's concept of God. The fact is that mentation has played a great role in creating various theories about God. Wheras the other religions have made God a subject of imagination by describing Him as Beginningless, Infinite, Eternal, Formless, Unknowable, the Jaina's concept of God is unique. In view of Jainism, God is not unknowable but he is one of us who lives and moves amongst us. Jain concept of God assures us that even we can become like Him. Jaina's, this concept of God is unique. The prevalent criticism that Jainas are atheist and do not believe in God is baseless. The present work refutes this criticism and places before us true philosophical position. It is because of this the work assumes great importance. -Dalsukh Malvania

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PREFACE (First Edition) Both, Jain Religion as well as Jain Culture are unique and independent systems. Jainism has contributed to the world that sublime doctrine of Ahimsa which has become the need of the day. Jainism, more than a religion or a school of thought, is a way of life. It is fully capable of raising an ordinary individual to the highest height of spiritual realization. Apart from being one of the oldest living religions, Jainism provides a very good example of a system that has the deepest magnitudeness of a religion and highest value of God in human soul. A detailed discussion and development of this theme, supported by canonical arguments and other Scriptural references, would certainly evolve into Theism. Yes, Theism, Jain Theism. But Then one may be curious to know, is Jain - Theism same as other Theistic systems ? Is it different? Is Jain theism a one" or even a The book, which is in fact a journey from Atheism towards Theism and ultimately to Jain Theism, discusses all such issues to answer the above mentioned questions. An utmost care has been taken to examine and understand the terms to different meanings and concepts of felt necessary to introduce Jain Philosophy and religion in brief, in general. After having done this in the initial two chapters, I have tried to discuss Jain Logic, Jain Ethics and Jain philosophy of Soul to bring out the theistic presuppositions and/or theistic implications that lie behind.

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vii The thesis gets more strengthened in chapter six and seven, where one finds canonical and scriptural arguments and references and the nature of Jain theism is evolved and discussed. I have tried to bring out most beautifully and most effectively the theistic color of the Popular Beliefs and Sadhana in Jainism. I earlier mentioned that the book is, infact, a journey. We start with Atheism and Theism, then Theism and Jainism, proceeding to Theism in Jainism and ultimately arriving at Jain Theism as conclusion. Other than canonical and scriptural references, I have referred to a number of great thinkers and philosophers, both Indian as well as foreigners, who directly or indirectly share with me. The aim of the work is to evolve Jain Theism, successfully and logically; and I wish the reader to find out how far this aim has been attained. The original thesis submitted to Gujarat University for the degree of Ph.D. was titled as Since at the end of the Thesis I present Jain Theism, thinking it to be more desired, I have titled this book as Jain Theism. As a Ph.D. student and as author of this thesis I have an expectation from such sincerest and research proned scholars to further explore this Theism. Jain Mysticism, which is one of the areas, along with this, that could be explored. In fact, in the modern days of science, a lot of scientific truths given by Jainism could be examined as scientific and yet Theistic. Even Jain Mythology could also be viewed as branch of a great Theistic system. Naturally, I will be highly contented if something in this direction goes on. -Hemant Shah

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viii PREFACE (Second Edition) I am really glad to see that the Second Edition of Jain Theism is coming out. It is mainly because quite a few groups and a lot of people at USA who are the followers and are interested in Jainism have liked this look. It will not be wrong to say that the second edition comes for such people associated with Jain Study Center of North Carolina, and Jain Academic Foundation of North America. I am very much thankful to Mr. Pravin Shah of Jain Study Center, U S A, for showing deep interest in bringing out this second edition. While pubblishing the Second edition. a detailed table of contents, list of abbrevation and a few corrections have been incorporated. The second edition has been transformed to U.S. Spellings as it is requested by the Jain Study groups of USA. I am sure the second edition, with of course no change in the text, will be of great help to all who are interested in Jain Philosophy, January, 1997. -Author

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FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION I am really very much pleased to write this foreword to the second edition of Dr. Hemant Shah's epoch making book on Jaina Theism. My pleasure is philosophically justified by the fact of ever increasing importance of both Jainism and Theism for bringing cut spiritual revolution for the prosperity and peace of the 21st Century mankind. Jainism occupies a uniquely singnifincant position among the eleven living religions of the world which are rightly supposed to be the custodians of cternal human wisdom. The universal elements in the Jaina philosophy of Soul, Samisara and Sadhana shine like three prominent jewels (ratnatraya) in this enlightening stock of human wisdom The laina philosophy of Soul teaches that each and every human being is essentially a transcendental sell which is an active substance possessing four infinitudes (ananta Catuslaya) of which the most important is infinite bliss (anantasukha). Any man, irrespective of the distinctions of caste. creed, gender, race, nationality etc., can realize his everblissful self during this very earthly life. The belief in the existence of soul is not just a theological dogma but a fact pointed out by modern science. The discoveries of many years of brain research made by Dr. Wilder Penfield and his associates at the Montreal Neurological Institute, M.Gill University has enabled Dr. Pensield to write : legitimately believe in the existence of the Spirit." (W. Penfield, The Mystery of Mind-A Critical Study of Consciousness and Human Brain, Princeton University Press, 1975, p. 61). The Jaina philosophy of Samsara teaches that this world of many individual souls and multitude of physical objects is morally governed by the law of Karma. Each man is free and responsible for his actions. The soul in Samsara or the Jiva has to enjoy or suffer the fruits of its actions during its journey through the cycle of Samsara. During this journey there are many births and deaths of the various gross bodies of an individual Jiva but its subtle body remains the same till the final release from Samsara through the realization of the transcendental self. We can say that the Jaina belief in the doctrine of rebirth and continuation of the same subtle body gets scienific support

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by modern psychical research. This statement of ours is justified by the fact that as N. M. Tyrell has observed. research (properly so-called) point strongly towards communications from the dead." (Tyrel N.M. : The Personality of Man, Pelican Books, 1946, P. 205) and these communications could be scientifically explained only through the hypothesis of rebirth and continuation of subtle body. Before we proceed to indicate the significance of Jaina Sadhana, it is necessary to clarify that our reference lo scientisic support 10 metaphysical beliefs regarding soul and Samsara is just to help those rationalists who receive knowledge only through the doors of science. There are however, other rationalists who have not closed their doorsto saving knowledge by wisely accepting intuition as a source of valid knowledge. For such highly rational persons scientific support to intuitively certain metaphysical truths is nothing more than an additional confirmation. Educational institutions all over the world are better advised to teach their students the distinction between "lower or uncritical rationality and higher or critical rationality' because the development of critical rationality resulting in morality and spirituality is the general aim of all educational institutions. The Jaina philosophy of Sadhana is essentially the philosophy of right conduct (Sanyak Caritra) based on clear intuitive vision or conviction (Samyak-darsana) and rationally validated knowledge (Samyak-Jnana). Intuitively and rationally justifiable right conduct prescribed by Jainism includes practice of a number of inter-connected virtues of which the practice of non-violence (ahiinsa) is most fundamental because all other virtues can be subsumed under it. This will be clear by the following observation of Hari Satya Bhattacharya : pramatta- yoga) and the actual act of violence consists in hurting either one's own subjective self (Bhava-Prana) or objects attached to that (Dravya-Prana), or another person's mentalities or objects connected with them". (Hari Satya Bhattacharya: Jain Morel Doctrine, Jain Sahitya Vika Mandal, Bombay, 1976, P. 54).. Not to help oneself or others is subtle form of hurting. Thus, the positive aspect of practicing non-violence is to help oneself and other in all possible ways including the highest spiritual way. This means that Jainism teaches humanity to raise its level to divinity through the practice of non-violence. Thus, the Jaina Sadhana is very relevant and necessary not only for transcendental self-relization but also for

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peace and prosperity of the 21st Century world. It has now become very evident, that just by the rule of 'survival of the fittest' the 21st century world will have to be spiritualistic and theistic. In this context, many scholars maintain that though Jainism is spiritualistic, its atheism is a major hurdle to its universal appeal. This charge against Janism have been shown to be baseless by Dr. Hemant Shah's present research work on Jain Theism. Hemantbhai has made substantial contribution to Jainology and Theology by effectively pointing our that Jainism and Theism are not incompatibles but close companions, because there is really such a thing as Jaina Theism. . Gujarat University has recognized the acadeinic sugnificance of Dr. Shah's research work by awarding him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. I congratulate the author for his achievement and earnestly appeal to the Jain Community ro recognize the practical importance of the work by making it widely known. 'Anand', 6-B, Highland Park, Gulbai Tekara, Ahmedabad 380015 December 14, 1996 J. A. Yajnik Prof. of Philosophy & Hon. Director Internation Institute for Value Education.

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xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is an unedited, original verson of my Ph.D. thesis, titled as Theism and Jainism, presented to Gujarat University for Ph.D. degree in 1990. With a foreword by a great Jain Scholar and authority Pdt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, it is now published in a book from. My gratitude goes to Shree Dalsukhbhai Malvania who not only took interest in my work but also guided me with some of the very sound suggestions. He has further obliged me for writing a foreword to this book. I am indeed very much thankful to him. I am deeply indebted to Dr. J. A. Yajnik, who was my guide. His critical evaluation and constructive suggestions have played a vital role in shaping both me and my work. I am thankful to him for his consent with blessings, to publish this work. I am immensely grateful to Dr. Suresh Vakil, Prof. C. V. Raval, Dr. Y. S. Shastri and other friends who have taken deep interes in this work. . I am also greatful to Gujarat University for the consent to publish the thesis as well as the members of the Board and the trustees of Academy of Philosophy for all the efforts and encouragement to make this publication possible. Lasi, but not the least, I wish to put on record, a lot of Minds, Bodies & Souls, a Lot of Blessings, directly or indirectly, who have paved the path and made the publication a fact. I am deeply and consciously thankful for the grace of God and all Great Souls for their Benedictions. -Author

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xiii N List of Abbreviation ADS : Adhyatmasara AS : Acaranga Sutra AUPS Aupapatika Sutra B. A Bhagawati Aradhana B. G Bhagwat Gita DVS Dasavaikalika Sutra D. S Dravya Samgraha EB Encyclopaedia Britannica Nyayavatara N. K. Naya Karnika N. S Nandi Sutra PNT Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara Saddarasana Samuccaya SM Syadvada Manjari SP : Sanmati - Prakarana Samana Suttam T. S Tattvarthasutra TSS Tattvanusasana UDS Upasakadasanga Sutra US Uttaradhyayan Sutra VS Visapahara Sutra YS Yogasara YSS Yogasastra SDS S. S

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XV 16 CONTENTS Chapter 10 INTRODUCTION Chapter 2.0 THEISM, ATHEISM AND JAINISM, 2.1 Theism 2.1.1 God in Theistic Philosophy 2.1.2 Kant's Postulates 2.1.3 God in Indian Theism 2.1.4 God in Western Theism 2.1.5 Conclusion 2.2 Atheism 2.2.1 Two Currents of Indian Thought 2.2.2 Emphasis on Emancipatory Self efforts 13 2.2.3 Exclusion of Divine Grace 2.2.4 Extreme Position of Law of Karma 2.2.5 Conclusion 19 2.3 Religion, God, Jainism 2.3.1 Religion 1. Religion as Worship of God 2. East and West in Religion 3. Religion in Buddhism and Jainism 4. History and Classification 5. Core of Religion 6. Need for Religion 7. Conclusion 2.3.2 God' 1. Conception 2. Two forms of Supreme Reality. 3. God's Relation to Soul and World 35 4. God and Human Freedom 2.3.3 Jainism 1. Introduction 2. Origin and Antiquity 21 25

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xvi DA 47 3. Jain Darshan 42 4. Jain Religion and Culture 5. A Critical Estimate 45 2.3.4 Conclusion 46 Chapter 3.0 JAIN LOGIC 3.1 Warrent of Jain Logic 3.1.1 Introduction 47 3.1.2 Jain Logic and Logicians 3.1.3 Aims and Subject Matter of Jain Logic 3.1.4 Jain Theory of Knowledge 3.1.5 Nyaya Logic and Jain Logic 3.1.6 Conclusion. 3.2. Theistic Import of Samgraha Naya 3.2.1 Pramana 3.2.2 Theory of Nayavada 3.2.3 Seven Nayas (Standpoints) 3.2.4 Significance of Samgraha Naya 58 3.2.5 Theistic Implication of Samgraha Naya 3.3 Syadvada 61 3.3.1 Introductory Remark 61 3.3.2 Anekantavada 3.3.3 Syadavada 3.3.4 Sevenfold Application of Syadvad 3.3.5 Syadvada : Critical Evaluation 3.3.6 Syadvada and Omniscience 69 3.3.7 Theistic Implication of Syadvada 3.3.8 Dr. Radhakrishnan's View 3.3.9 Pt. Dalsukh Malvania's View 3.3.10 Conclusion Chapter 4.0 JAIN ETHICS 4.1 Jain Ethics in Theistic Presuppositions 75 4.1.1 Historical Background 63 65 73 15 76

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xvii 16 77 82 90 99 4.1.2 Philosophical Background 4.1.3 Jain Ethics 4.1.4 Theistic Presuppositions 4.2 Law of Karma and its Theistic Implications. 4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Karma in Non-Jain Systems 4.2.3 Theory of Karma : Its Genesis 4.2.4 Jain Theory of Karam 1. Meaning and Significance 2. Karma, Matter and Soul 3. Types of Karmas 4.2.5 Critical Evaluation 4.2.6 Theistic Implication Chapter 5.0 SAIN PHILOSOPHY OF SOUL 5.1. Meaning and Existence of Soul 5.1.1 Introduction, 5.1.2. Meaning 5.1.3 Existence 5.1.4 Nature of Soul (Jiva) in Jainism 5.1.5 Classification of Souls 5.1.6 The Holy Pentad, 5.1.7 Conclusion 5.2. The Soul in State of Bondage 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Nature of Bondage 5.2.3 Causes of Bondage 5.2.4 Kinds of Bondage 1. Nature (Prakritis) 2. Duration (Sthiti) 3. Intensity (Anubhava or Rasa) 99 99 99 101 105 108 109 109 110 110 111 113 114 115 115 116

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xviii 116 127 4. Quantity (Pradesa) 116 5.2.5 Lesya 5.2.6 Conclusion 117 5.3 The Soul in State of Release 118 5.3.1 Remuval of Bondage 119 1. Samvara : Checking of the inflow of Karma 120 2. Nirjara : Shedding of the Karma 121 5.3.2 State of Liberation 122 5.3.3 Three fold Division of Atman (Soul) 123 5.3.4 Five Labdhis 124 5.3.5 The Gunasthanas 124 5.3.6 The State of the Release 126 5.4 The Jain Philosophy of Soul and its Theistic Implication Chapter 6.0 THEISTIC COLOR OF POPULAR BELIEF AND SADHANA 131 6.1 Introductory Remark 131 6.2 Popular Belief in Jainism 132 6.3 The Jain Sadhana 6.4 Conclusion 139 Chapter 7.0 SCRIPTURAL AND OTHER ARGUMENTS FOR THEISM IN JAINISM 141 7.1 Introductory Remark 7.2 Jain Literature 141 7.3 Scriptural Arguments (Canonical Literature) 144 7.4 Arguments form Quasi - Canonical Literature 150 7.5 Arguments from Non - Canonical Literature 158 7.6 Authors On Jain Philosophy and Religon 167 7.7 Conclusion 173 137 141

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xix Chapter 8.0 NATURE OF JAIN THEISM 8.1 Introductory Remark 8.2 Philosophic Nature of Jain Theism 8.2.1 Jain God 8.2.2 Prayer, Worship, Rituals 8.2.3 I-Thou Relationship 8.3 Conclusion Chapter 9.0 CONCLUSION 9.1 A Resume 9.2 A Jain Theism Appendix : Selected Biblography 175 175 176 176 178 179 181 185 185 186 191

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CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION Being a Jain by birth, since the very early years of my descrition I was given to understand that Jain philosophy is Atheistic - a Nastika-Darsana. The same continued, as a hammaring, even when I read books and articles on Jain philosophy. It was my day-to-day experience to observe the religious activities of Jains which included worship, prayers, vows restraints (Gupti), observances (Dharma), meditations (Anupreksa), right conduct (Caritra) and ethical practices all of which could consistantly go only with theism. On account of this direct experience of living Jainism, I could not reconcile with the idea of Jain philosophy being atheistic, Ultimately the widened religious horizons of my understanding, the deepened faith and a sound intuitive confirmity helped me to realise that Jainism is in tune with the fundamental unity of world-religions, The seeming contradiction between theory and practice of Jainism led me to undertake this research work. Thus, this small but important work is the outcome of a philosophical inquiry into Jainism : whether it is theistic or atheistic. General plan of work In order to be justified to the prime objective of inquiry, I have examined and explained the essentials of Jain philosophy and religion. Stating the general plan of this work, in the beginning with reference to the historical background and metaphysical position the roots of Jain atheism and Jainism as religion is discussed. Subsequently, Jain logic, Jain ethics and Jain philosophy of soul have been examined and explained. Recapitulating well with what is discussed in the proceeding chapters, finaliy an effort is made to show the nature and traits of Jain Theism. The work concludes with assertion that there should be no hesitation in considering Jain Darsana as anything but atheistic. Throughout; the inquiry has been conducted objectively, in the sense that. I have tried to keep prejudices of this way or that way, away from the work. It contains a thorough examination of concepts, comparisons and classifications as well as an analysis of certain basic theories - all in thier objective considerations lead to conclusion that Jainism has to be regarded as theism. 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (IIth, ed.) Vol - XXII. pp. 744

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2 Theism Atheism Though it is not the aim of this work to discuss and examine critically the terms Theism and Atheism, it is essential that a general view about the meaning of these terms with special reference to western and Indian context is noted in an utmost bravity. The term 'Theism' has many meanings', each one in detail could be obtained in any good encyclopaedia. But then the term "Theism" in its widest sense and literally means 'Belief in God'. As the term Theism has different meanings it is also used as synonym to different phrases such as Natural Theology, Natural Religion or Natural Law etc. Since the word 'God' is the key word in the meaning of term Theism and there are various concepts about the nature and number of God, there are various types of Theism. In 'Polytheism' the belief is in plurality of Gods, while Pantheism believes in the idea that only one God exists, and all that exists is God. From this idea of Pantheism the idea of Monotheism has evolved. Monotheism believes that there exists one and only one God; God as 'Supreme Personal Creator, the exclusive creator', the exclusive and universal creator of all things. Jain Theism As Theism, in its most popular and literal term means 'Belief in God', Atheism literally is a system of belief which denies the exsistence of God. It should be noted that the scholars and historians have observed that the terms 'Atheism' and 'Atheist' have been used "in the most haphazard manner to describe even the most trivial divergence of opinion." In support to this observation we find Socrates who was charged with "Not believing in the gods the city believes in'; we hear the cry in the Roman empire against Christians as : "Away with the Atheists" for the lack of idolatry in all Christian worship. Spinoza for whom God alone existed and who was known as the "God intoxicated", was prosecuted as an atheist, In Indian philosophy we find Jainism and Buddhism termed as 'Atheist' for not accepting Vedas as an authority; or rejecting soul or spirit. But then 'Atheism' in its apparent sense means, "Rejection of belief in God". Atheism in its most scientific and serious usages is applied to "the state of mind which does not find deity (either one or many Gods) in or above the physical universe." Like theism atheism can be further classified into different types. But then for us atheism based on intellectual or metaphysical

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Introduction in disbelief is of prime importance. In this connection we may find the dogmatic the sceptical and the critical atheism. From the approach point of view we may find striking differences even between the Indian and Western atheism and thus resulting into two different types. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan while discussing the Western and Indian, comments : "The western mind lays great stress on science, logic and humanism. Hindu thinkers, as a class hold with great conviction that we possess a power more interior than intellect by which we become aware of the real in its intimate individuality and not merely in its superficial or discernible aspects." He further says, "While the dominant feature of Eastern thought is in its insistance on creative intuition, the Western systems are generally characterised by a great adherence to critical intelligence." "Philosophy in India", he repeats, "is essentially spiritual.... The spiritual motive dominates life in India." Thus we find Western and Indian approaches very much different with regards to both Theism and Atheism. Most of the philosophers have dealt with 'Atheism' as one of the anti-theism theories. It is to a great extent true also, specially with reference to Indo-Christian religion. But then let us be clear, at this point, to lead our future discussions on Jainism, to a constructive and progressive stage. The point to be noted is this that Theism has alternatives to it. It has Atheism as against and opposite to it. What is worth brooding over is whether any system charged as 'atheism' is an alternative to theism or anti-theism, Everytime, the answer will depend on how you define the terms and what are the grounds it depends on.

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Shrimad Rajachandra* on Oneness of God and Uninterrupted Devotion to Him "Religiously great persons have thrown light on one 'Reality' referring to it by any name or any form. That Reality alone is worthy to be known and worthy to be felt inwardly. Mystical experience is revelatory of its nature. And that Reality alone is worthy to be worshipped with supreme love. We crave for uninterrupted devotion with singular love towards that 'Supreme Reality'. That Supreme Reality has been spoken of by infinite names like Purushottama, Hari, Siddha, Isvara, Niranjana, Alakha, Parabrahma, Paramatma and Bhagavana." *Shrimad Rajchandra (1866-1900), The most revered Jain Saint of 20th Century and the Spiritual Guide of many Jains as well as non-Jain Sadhakas including Mahatma Gandhi. *Shrimad Rajchandra vacanamrta 21.

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CHAPTER - 2 THEISM, ATHEISM AND JAINISM 2.1 Theism 2.1.1 God In Theistic Philosophy Theism, as we have seen basically, means belief in God and where God is believed, it is also believed that upon God everything else depends, and thus without the discussions of God, of world, of soul" theism is not justified. Theism . has been in the light of this broad consideration, approached differently by different thinkers. Amongst the thinkers of the western world Kant proved to be the most significant one. 2.1.2 Kant's Postulates Kant has swept away the "dogmatic metaphysics" and along with that, by imposing "rational theology", he swept away the old fashioned theism which was the part of the "dogmatic metaphysics". Kant himself "introduced in his own, more sceptical yet also more moral type of theistic doctrine, a new trichotomy-God, freedom, immortality, the three postulates of the practical reason.''! Almost every theistic system makes provision for Kant's three postulates. A detailed survey of the history of theism reflects approaches and attitudes towards human freedom. immortality and their conception of God. What is most interesting to note, in the medicval and modern times, is the fact that theism has been much simplified and the attention has been concentrated upon God. Subsequently to this, as second step, the question: Does God exist? has been to theistic proofs replied "yes". Theism deals with "What is God?" for the simplest reason that it believes in the existence of God. What then is God? Let us, sweepingly review at this point the leading types of philosophies in their application to conception of God. Empiricism beginning with certainties of everyday experience, "reaches theism at last by means of an analogical argument''? Objects in nature seem to resemble the works of human disign', therefore 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica : Vol. XXVI (1910) pp. 746. 2. Ibid., pp. 747

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6 Jain Theism there is a high probability that there is a designing mind behind nature. This argument claims nothing more than probability. In the misadventures of empiricism we find another philosophy, intuition. It reaches its climax in further arguing that "besides testimony from outer sense, we have testimony and teachings from consciousness within- "first principles "as Reid generally calls them." The difficulties of empiricism constitute the strength of intuitionalism. Intuitionalism being sound upon the intellectual and moral interests of humanity it does far better service to them. Unlike other philosophies who pay simply "a flying visit to theism", intuitionalism is at home there. The leading argument here is the cosmological, concluding to God as cause. In its "Great First Cause" we recongnize God. This argument, for the first time, is found well formulated in Aristotle's philosophy. This argument, though never considered isolatedly. was the main one for intuitionalism as well as for empiricist theism. From moral element point of view we findian "as against empiricism, intuitionalism is morally strong." Thus we find a conception of God as "Moral Law-Giver" amongst intuitionalism though intutionalist theism rest upon the conception of God as First cause. Let us go from intuitionalism to idealism as idealism not on the lines of Berkeley (matter does not exist) but of Plato (things obey an ascertainable rational necessity). In Hegel we find no dualism of fact and principle. "The element of givenness, which was dominant in empiricism and partially surviving through intuitionalism even into Kant, is sublimated in Hegel's thinking." --d It always remained doubtful whether Hegel was a theist, with large pantheistic elements. The ambiguities on religion, (of which no detailed discussion is necessary here) in Hegel, and the conclusions tempt us to go back to intuitionalistic theism. In our conclusion we may agree: "Certainly history shows that theism has generally been associated with some reduced or limited form of philosophy, usually with the intuitionalist scheme. It is not the first runnings of the stream of religious thinking which has given the world its theistic philosophies. Theism is an afterthought the reply to doubt the attempted refelective justification of what announced itself at first as a prophetic certainty. But no more is theism the first runnings of the of philosophy, it is 3. Encyclopaedia Britannica pp. 747 4 ibid pp. 748 5. Ibid pp. 750

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism philosophy called into court to answer the selected questions." Moreover, we can also conclude that theism has its most habitual attinities with intuitionalism. Empiricism. intuitionalism and idealism are three tendencies dealing with "what is", "partly with what is and partly with what must be', and with what must be" - respectively. They tend to be towards design argument and analogy, to the cosmological argument, and to the ontological argument. The design argument suggests a personal but limited God, or number of Gods, the cosmological argument points to pantheistic theism; and finally the ontological argument sums up the truth in the two previous arguments and given 'its vision of the philosophicai absolute', pointing to God's attribute of infinity. However, one needs very rightly to remember" Kant's hostile assumption, that it is incompetent for us to take the thought of God piccerneal". 2.1.3 God in Indian Theism Recalling the discussion about the comparative study of Indian theism and Western theism, theism or atheism for Indian thinkers is decided not by the acceptance or rejection of the authority of Vadas. Thus we find systems in Indian philosophy which are theistic and not believing in God in the traditional sense, as well as systems which are atheistic and yet believing in God as the perfect soul or being. However, let us see what is the concept of God in Indian theism. "The essence of the Vedic religion may be summerised as worship of the Devas (i.e.shining deities) who were regarded as manifestations of the supreme being, conceived as supreme power." In Hindu religion" God is the reality of the world, not the monopoly of this or that sect.'* He is 'Kavi' or the poet, the maker or the creator." God as person is deeply concerened in the affairs of this world. He is the friend, judge and redeemer of mankindian God is the absolute spirit, timeless and unchanging....." "Absolute assumes the form of God who is guiding the world.....""4 "God is not the figment of our minds. God is a real symbol of the absolute reality :. God himself is Sat, Cit and Ananda, reality, truth and bliss. Bhagavad-Gita has accepted the metaphysical creed of Samkhya philosophy, of course, with certain fundamental modifications. 6. Encyclopaedia Britannica pp. 750 7. Chaudhari H.K.D., God in Indian Religion (1969) p. 34. 8. Dr. Nagaraja Rao (ed.), Radhakrishnan reader - An Anthology (1988) p. 188. 9. Ibid., p. 190

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Jain Theism One of these modifications is that Gita accepts dualities of Samkhya, Purusa and Prakiti as the very nature of supreme principle God. In Indian Theism to believe in God does not mean to accept the proots and logical arguments in favour of the existence of God. To believe in God is to love Him, to be devoted to Him "to enter into Him" 10 At this position one finds "God becomes the ruling passion of the mind", he sees God in himself and himself in God", The same God is worshipped by all who is the rewarder to all who diligenly seek Him. Whatever God one worships is indentified with the supreme; he is all-in-all the creator, the protector, the distroyer." Thou only" as said to be in Atharva-Veda, "favour Brahma." Worship of God in the form of the chosen ideal and the recognition of the supreme is the main feature of the Hindu faith and its distinctive pait of the Indian atheism. Of course, Prof. S.C.Chatterjee, after a long discussion on nature of God in Hindu religion concludes that God which we find in it, we are to say that the Hindu conception of God is monistic, but not pantheistic. Western critics have sweeping favour of Hindu Philosophy and religion as pantheism....." God in Hinduism is not simply immanent but also transcendent, we favour call the Hindu theory of God favour, rather than pantheism,'' Apart from the general conception and notion of God, even with regards to freedom and immortality of soul, we find Indian theism has its clear wisdom which becomes the base of different theologies of different systems. God, in Indian theism, does not become only at issue in its metaphysical aspect. Indian theism, thus provides sufficient grounds to justify it having various shades all shaping into a way of life - an approach to reality - an acceptance of the supreme. 2.1.4 God in Westeru Theism In contrast to God in Indian theism, God in Western theism is more traditional and relegious. Unlike Indian theism Western theism deals theism with reference to belief in the existence of God. Of course, we come across various theories and proofs appealing the concept of God but almost all coming out of an emphasis on critical intelligence, as stress on logic and science. God in the Western theism is more 10 Dr. Nagaraja Rao (ed.), Radhakrishnan reader - An Anthology (1988), p. 253, 11 Chatterjee S.C., The Fundamentals of Hinduism (1970) p. 33-34. For Pri

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism determined by the argument through which His existence is proved. God is the 'First great cause for those who put the cosmological argument. He is the supreme mind' as per assumptions of the teleological argument. He is a "supreme being' according to the ontological argument and a 'moral God' according to the moral argument. Truth, beauty and goodness and such moral values moulding God into an absolute value, the supreme value is the axiological argument. Theism, like the philosophy of religion, must note the contribution paid by idealism and pragmatism. The main aim of the 19th century idealism was to disregard the inadequacy of the mechanistic view of the world to which science seemed more committeki then than now."? On the other side pragmatists have disclosed theisen in social life. But then, in the realm of philosophy in neral und philosophy of religion in particular, the new realism and emergent evolutionalism and their combination have proved to be the most remarkable during the present years. "The effect of these developments n to strengthen decidedly the case for a modified realistic theism.'13 A discriminatingly critical realism, therefore, that accepts the phases of idealism and pragmatism that are rationally and empirically justified in the light of present knowledge, is, the proper standpoint for a student of the philosophy of religion.") 2.1.5 Conclusion The concept of God in its traditional, religious or theological sense does not differ much between the Indian and the Western concept. Even the worship or the role of God as accepted and practised by the devotees in their theistic way has a great deal of resemblance. Moreover God, in view of the religious life, its asceticism, sacrifice, worship, etc. though treated differently by different people, enjoys, more or less, the same status. But then Indian concept leads the meaning to a wider and deeper sense. The central force here is that of spiritualism and intuionalism. God is attached, here, not to the critical intelligence but to the inner consciousness. Theism and even the place of God in it, is a logical pursuit in the Western theology - God is proved and then accepted. On the otherside, in Indian philosophy, God is to be realised, and for that one has to accept Him by faith. Not reason but faith, not 12 Wright W.K.,A Students Philosophy of Religion (1958) p. 463 13 Ibid p.462 14 Ibid p. 463

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10 Jain Theism intelligence but intuition, not concepts but consciousness is the way to realise God in Indian philisophy. God in the Western theism enjoys the status of a master or father or a great first cause or a moral law-giver or a creator. In Indian philosophy "Thou art that" God is totality of which you are a part, God is all-in-all, within and without. God is supreme spirit, omniscient, omnipotant, omnipresent. God is both personal and absolute. To love this supreme spirit Brahama or isavara or God, to believe Him, to be devoted of Him and to enter into Him is the message and mission of Indian theism. 2.2. Atheism 2.2.1 Two Currents of Indian Thought Jainism as practised and preached as a religion today was known as 'Nirgrantha Dharma' in days of Lord Parsya and Lord Mahavira. It was also known as Sramana Dharma. Shramana traditions had many other branches or schools. This Sramana tradition was different from the Brahamana tradition. The ancient Indian culture was multicolored and in that the most notable two trends, two currents of thought we find are: (1) brahamana and (2) Sramana. Let us not enter into a detailed history or status of these two traditions but note some points which all have agreed. Both these systems have quite a good number of differences, but then the basic and the most fundamental one is the "approach" on which the whole edifice rests. Pandit Sukhlalji, one of the greatest authorities on Indian Philosophy has very lucidly summed up the basic difference between the two currents and observes that "Brahamana system in its base is around the word 'Brahaman' while the Sramana system in its base is around the word sam. The word Brahaman has many meanings, two out of which are (1) prayer or worship and (2) Rituals. The word 'sam' represents Equality (samya), and hard life or Asceticism or (Srama)'. Both these currents of ancient Indian thought have sufficiently interacted and have influenced each other to a great degree in the area of Theology, Philosophy and even Socio-Cultural life. Pandit Sukhlalji observes that the insistence of Ahimsa and compassion towards one and all of samkhya, Yoga, Upanisad etc. is Sramana influence over the Brahmana, while on the other hand, the scriptures, ethics, prayers and rituals of Jainism and Buddhism is 15. Pandit Sukhialdi : Heart of Jainism (Jain Dharma no Pran)

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11 Theism, Atheism and Jainism Brahmana, influence over the Sraniana, But, he however, concludes that Jainism and Buddhism as systems of Sramana school of thought, have always remained opposed to Brahaman thought mainly the orthodox schools. Prof, S.N. Dasgupta in his forward to Jain philosophy of Non Absolutism by S.K. Mookherjee notes that, "It (Jainism) reveals an ideology entirely different from the Vedic." The Sramana School of thought is also as ancient as Brahmana school of thought. It has its survival and growth through the ages. Prof. S.N. Dasgupra futer notes, "According to the belief of the orthodox Jains, the Jaina religion is eternal.''!! The sramana school of thought in general and Jainism in particular appears before us as distinctly different and opposed to two facts : (1) it disapproves the vedic authority and (2) it revolts against vedic ritualistic sacrifices. Let us critically examine both. 1. Disapproval of Vedic authorities. The disapproval of the Vedic authority by Sramana, and particularly by the Jainas, is not only for the religious or Vedic ceremonies which advocated sacrifices. It was more on the metaphysical and epistemological level. Jainism, against Vedanta idealism, is realism. It does not believe in Advaita or monism but talks about pluralism of souls. Even epistemologically, Jainism very much differs from the Nyaya Vaisesika. But then the chief issue at which the disapproval becomes intense is the issue of God. Jainism and Sramanas do not believe in a'Creator God" or God that gives the fruits to your deed. Moreover to Samanas, the Universe is 'Anadi' (beginningless time) and not created by God. We find very similar thoughts even in orthodox schools like Samkhya and Purva Mimansa, and in some regard even in Nyaya School. But then these schools accept the Vedas as authority while Sramanas : Jainism and Buddhism disapprove it. The disapproval of Vedic authority automatically lead to disapproval of the Advaita philosophy, disapproval of monism, disapproval of many theistic elements which are accepted by other schools not because they are true but because Vedas say so. 2. Revolt Against Vedic Ritualistic Sacrifices The history of Indian Philosophy gocs e'lon Lan hefore the Vedic period. Even if we take into consideration the Vedic period of which sufficient literature and references are available to most of the scholars including Dr. S. Radhakrishanan and prof. S.N. Dasgupta, it goes to 1500 B.C. to 600 B.C. It was the time when we find (it) 11. S. N. Dasgupta History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 1. pp. 169

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12 Jain Theism "evolved the beginning of sublime idealism of India. We discover in it successive strata of thought, signified by Mantras or the hymns, the Brahmanas, and the Upanisads. The views put forward in this age are not philosophical in the technical sense of the term. It is the age of gropping where superstition and thought are yet in conflict.'12 The principle of sacrifice is, after all, 'the offering of one's all to God and doing of one's work in a spirit of dedication to God."'13 The old vedic religion included the sacrifice of five kinds of animals: goats, sheeps, cows or bulls and horses. It was later on mainly under the chief influence of Jainism, Buddhism and Visnavism," the practice become discredited."'!Thus we find, chiefly in the old Vedic period, sacrifice, as a ritual, a method to gain release quite popular amongst the Hindus. Of course, the "Vedic hymns declared that prayers and worships were the best means for gaining the favour of the Divine."': We know that the approach of the Sramanas was quite different from that of Brahmanas. They too were spiritual and wanted freedorn from the sufferings. But to them satya (truth) and Ahimsa (non-killing) were the most important principles. They revolted against the Vedic ritualistic sacrifices and advocated Ascetcism. "By means of temperance, chastity and mental concentration one can increase the force of thought and will.... Tapas or austerity is said to be better than sacrifices'16 and is regarded as the means for higher knowledge and Divine relief. The revolt against the Vedic ritualistic sacrifices has been expressed by different schools in different ways. The strongest, both morally and philosophically, is by Sramana Jainism and Buddhism both have revolted it positively. "For them all, duty of man would consist in ascetic practices by which the unchangeable essence could be freed from the changing trammels.''}} Both, Mahavira and Buddha tried to purify Hindu religion that, according to them, had such inipurites like the dogmatic approach and ritualistic sacrifices. Protests were uttered by both Mahavira and Buddha. Mahavira emphasized the philosophy of non-absolute for the contemplation and doctrine of ahimsa or nonviolence in human conduct. He insisted on a life of austerity and compassion. Mahavira said, "know it for certain that as you dislike pain so do the other animals. Knowing this show compassion to other 12. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan Indian Phil. Vol. I. pp. 57 13. Dr. Radhakrish Reader - ed. An Anthology Pub. Bhavan's pp. 195 14. Ibid pp. 199, 15. Ibid pp. 331, 16. Ibid pp. 332., 17. Ibid pp. 333

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 13 Jivas (souls)'* Even Buddha, like Mahavira, protested against certain practices and refused to acquiesce some of these Vedic ceremonialism. He said, "I do not approve of sacrifices for I do not care for happiness which is sought at the price of others' suffering.":19 So far we discussed the disapproval of Vedic authority and revolt against Vedic ritualistic sacrifices by the Sramanas or Jains, These reasons led Jainism, if not towards pure atheism, it definitely led it towards anti-theism of Veda and the other orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. But then these were not the only grounds that made Jainism quite distinct and original, In fact the above two grounds are the negative roots of the so called atheism of Jainism. The positive grounds were also there. They are its concept of Moksa or liberation and emphasis on emancipatory self efforts, exclusion of Divine Grace and extreme position of Law of Karma. Let us see these grounds, in brief. 2.2.2 Emphasis on Emancipatory Self-Efforts Everyone wishes a complete release from pain and sufferings the attainment of wisdom and Joy is considered to be the ultimate purpose of life. All Indian thinkers hold a common view that is of reality is the cause of our bondage and liberation form this cannot be achieved without knowledge of reality i. e. the real nature of the world and the self.' ?20 Moreover, all the systems, except Carvaka, accept the idea of 'Liberation (mukti or moksa) as the highest goal of life : it has been regarded as the highest value and ultimate purpose of the life of the individual?! (Moksa eva paramapurusartha.)'32 Indian philosophy, while dealing with the philosophy of soul, expresses the soul in state of 'Bondage' which is meant as "the process of birth and rebirth and the consequent miseries." The stoppage of this process is the breaking of the bondage and that is Liberation: 'cessation of miseries', As the systems of Indian philosophy have accepted the soul in state of bondage' or 'miseries' due to ignorance, they also accept the stage of liberation or state of perfection due to knowledge of reality. The method of attaining the knowledge of reality and thus 18. B.A. pp. 777 19. Dr. Radhakrishnan Reader (1988) pp. 361 20. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M.Dutta : An Introduction to Indian philosophy (1958) pp.18 21. Ramji Singh - Jain Concept of omniscience : pp. 21 22. Deshmukh C.D. Article on the concept of Liberation in Philosophy. Quarterly Vol. XIII No. 2 pp. 135

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14 Jain Theism attaining a state of perfection, is in Indian Philosophy, known as, way or path or marga. Since the systems conceive soul and salvation differently, they differ in their conception of Marga for Liberation or Moksa. In orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy in general and in Vedanta in particular, we find self absolutely identical with Brahman and that is Real. The body is nierely an illusory appearance and not real. Because of the soul's association with the body which is a product of ignorance, it becomes limited finite selt in 'bondage'. Moksa has been described as the annulment of avidya or nescience and the consequent dawn of knowledge. Knowledge. Found as an inevitable precondition of Moksa, in Vedanta, "reaches its climax in the Upanisads and Vedanta, where knowledge has been identified with emancipation as we find in the dictum : "To know is to become Brahman" By preparing oneself quite worthy of being a student and undertaking the study of Vedas and with preparation of intellect, emotion and will one should study the Vedanta, The seeker after liberation, one knows the Real. This realization will be realisation of the identity between the self and the Brahman, and it is liberation itself, For majority of the people who could not study the different text of Vedas and Vedanta, Gita advocates Bhakti-marga (the way of Devotion) and karma marga (the way of action) as the casier way open to all, the weak and the lowly, the illiterate and the ignorant. The sacrifice of Love is not so difficult as turning of the will to Divine purpose or ascetic discipline or the strenuous effort of thinking."?24 Jainism like other systems of Indian philosophy accepts the concept of liberation or Emancipation. In Jainism, too we find Jiva (soul) in state of bondage i.e. the cycle of birth and rebirth and its consequent miseries. The root cause of the bondage and miseries in life, according to Jainism is Karma. Even ignorance is also due to a Karmic veil which does not allow the soul to shine or to apprehend its own infinite capacities. 'In Jainism Soul is essentially a knowing substance and is potentially omniscient, omnipotent etc."25 So in the state of Moksa or emancipation when there is a "total destruction of all the Karmas and the consequent installation of soul in its state of essential purity i.e. as a being having the four Infinites of Immediate 23. Ramji Singh : Jain Concept of omniscience pp. 22 24. Dr. Radhakirishnan Reader, Anthology (1988) pp. 248. 25. Ramji Singh : Jain Concept of omniscience pp. 26.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 15 Apprehension, Cognition, Joy and Power, is its moksa or final Emancipation. But then Jainism does not believe in God: a fruit giver or in God, who it pleased, will shower upon all Joy and power. **The way (marga) to this Moksa is three fold-combination of "Samyak Darsan 'Samyak juana' and saniyak caritra"37 i.e. Right Faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct, of the last of which Ahimsa or noninjury is the corner stone. Here we find Jainism differing from other systems of Indian philosophy. "Some emphasise only faith, some emphasise knowledge and some conduct. Faith or act of 'Devotion or Bhakti alone is considered not enough to lead to salvation.''28 In short, "Jainism presupposes infinite capacity for spiritual progress in every individual. Infinite knowledge and joy is the innate character of every soul. What is needed is complete noninterference.... from outside...... Interference means spiritual dragging.... however, is not the ideal. Freedom from worldly pleasures and sufferings is the end... suffering is as much an evil as worldly pleasures."34 It hardly requires to be explained that in order to have total removal of the karmic veil, and thus to realise the Four Infinites, one has to severely try for it. The goal i.e. emancipation, in Jainism is not impossible but is certainly self-dependent and most difficult. "Complete release from all karma through nonexistence of causes of bondage and through 'Nirjara' is Moksa" 30 Jainism suggests a detailed information of the doctrine and rules to be practised to lead a life of purity. It advocates the duties of a householder which are in miniature those of a monk, In all such regards we find" it reveals an ideology entirely different from the Vedic''! The non-coinpromisive attitude of Jainas in practicing its creed, the doctrines "remarkable for their originality acuteness and subtlety"32 and more interested in overstraining the moral aspects" to achieve the goal rather than to depend on an outside agency or grace, are the chief fundamental aspects that lead to a Jain way of Life and Liberation. Not God or any Divine agency but the individual's sincerity of purpose and utmost seriousness for the minutest spiritual progress is the way to liberation for Jains. Jainism thus on one side 26. H. S. Bhattacharya : The philosophy of Jainas pp. 29. 27. Tattvarthasutra, pp. - 1.1. 28. Prof, A. chakravarti : Mahavira and his teachings : pp. 47 29. Nathmal Tatia : Studies in Jain philosophy pp. 21. 30. Tattvarthasutra, X-2 31. S.N Dasgupta : Forward; Monkerjee's Jain Philosophy of non absolutism pp. VII 32. Ibid VII 3

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16 Jain Theism excludes the need for Divine Grace or any Divine agency for Liberation and on the other side immensely emphasises solely on the emancipatory self-efforts of an individual to attain perfection by realising the Four Infinites which are the innate characters of every soul. 2.2.3 Exclusion of Divine Grace Religion is wider than its philosophy. In Fact, we find Theology as well as Mythology as componants of a systematically evolved religion. Divine grace, though more related to theology than philosophy, is one of the common characteristics of theistic religions." Theism means belief in God who. is both immanent and transcendent and is also a Person. God, here, is the object of worship and the goal of our religious aspiration. It is by pleasing God through prayer that we can obtain salvation through His mercy" According to Vedanta Philosophy as explained by Ramanuja," the soul that realizes God is liberated from the body for ever, without any chance of rebirth. We should remember, however, that liberation can not be attained simply by human efforts. God, pleased by devotion, helps the devotee to attain perfect knowledge by removing obstacles. God lifts from bondage and misery the man who flings himself at the mercy of God." We do find in other theistic systems a similar conception of God's mercy upon his devoter God's grace without which, even if human efforts are sincerest, nothing is possible. In Judi-christian as well as Islam the Grace of God or Divine Grace has been accepted. All these concepts subordinate everything before the wish of God and at the same time steer the importance of worship and devotion to please or to win the Love of God. In all these systems one might realise his unity with God or merger in Brahman, but it is so only and only if God's Grace is bestowed upon the individual. In Jainism, though karmas of man are constantly determining him various ways yet there is in him infinite capacity of power for right action (virya).... It is thus that by an exercise of this power man can overcome all karma and become finally liberated." According to Jainism every soul is" the repository of this indomitable power" which can never prevent him from attaining his highest goal. In Jain conception of emancipation the soul realizes its own Four Infinites, the soul is totally pure and devoid of the karmic Veil. There is, however, no 33. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M. Dutta; An Introduction to Indian Philosophy pp. 420 34. Ibid pp. 427-428 35. S.N. Dasgupta History of Indian Philosophy Vol.II pp. 207.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism realization of one's unity with God, as it is in Vedanta philosophy. Thus in Jainism, we find neither God, as an outside agency, nor God's Grace is required to attain the salvation. On the contrary one is led to conclude that "apart from theoretical difficulties of introducing God in the realm of nature and his occasional intervention etc. This leads to Fatalism and pessimism. The doctrine of Grace is indeed a disgrace to the idea of man as the maker of his own destiny. This loss of ethical autonomy takes away the very basis of own moral life... 36 2.2.4 Extreme Position of Law of Karma The term karma in its most general and simple sense means 'action'. The law or doctrine of Karma means that all deeds (actions). good or bad, physical of mental produce their proper consequences in the life of the individual who acts. It is founded on the simple law of cause and effect. No effect is without a cause, and one has to bear the fruits of his deeds, sooner or later. It is not possible to escape. The belief in Law of karma, in general, is a common character of the Indian systems of religion. "With its help, metempsychosis of transmigration of souls becomes a proven fact, and through it their continuity and immortality is established beyond doubt. Moreover, it provides a scientific and rational explanation for the diverse phenomena. **38 +39 The karma is the cause and explanation to what the effect is. Karma is the cause of bondage and it is the activity of the soul. "Karma is the material cause of bondage, While Jiva (soul) with passions is the efficient cause. We find karma and bondage sometimes referred to as synonym. But then, in Indian system there is room for free will and a way to end, to burn out or destroy the karmas. As the late Justice J. L. Jaini observed, "It is not fate, nor even predetermination; but it is the ever continuous balancing of the different accounts that we keep with the force of life." It is not a theory in which the human being is tied down to some one, bound down by the force of something outside himself.41 36. Ramji Singh Jain Concept of Omniscience pp. 107-108 37. S.C. chatterjee & D.M. Dutta: An int. To Indian philosophy pp. 15. 38. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and calture of Jains, pp. 40 17 39. Ramji singh Jain Concept of omniscience: 130. 40. J.L.Jaini: Outlines of Jainism pp. 41. V.R. Gandhi The Jain philosophy.pp. 58.

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Jain Theism The Law of karma occupies a distinct place both in Indian philosophy and in Indian theology. It is known as karma marg, karma vada. Law or Doctrine of karma etc. But then it is found at its highest degree of minuteness and in its best form of preciseness in Jainism. To Jainas, in fact, the science of karma is the real science of spirituality, in so far as it tries to unfold the real nature of spirit or self." In Jainism every aspect related to karma and 'karma-vada' has been explored in its full details. Unlike the brahmanical notion that "karma is subservient to God and hence what is more important is not karma but compassion of God." to Jainas freedom from karma is the uncompromising condition for salvation. Jainism does not simply put the law of karma, or the meaning and classification of karmas only. It goes deep into the discussion of certain process to explain how the Karma attach to the soul i.e. the process of karma-bandha. Jainism accepts the postulate of nescience or 'mithyatva' without which the karma cannot be explained. It also discusses some of the vital issues like whether karma has beginning or is beginingless, whether karma is prior to self or self is prior to karma, how soul is considered as the possessor of material karma, the process of Asrava means' 'influx' or flowing' of karmic matter into the soul, as well as samvara, means the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul. All these issues I have discussed at great length in chapter 4 in this work. What is of utmost significance is to note "the reasons behind the jainas putting greater emphasis on the doctrine of karma and working out a science of karma in greater details than what has been done by other systems. 18 Out of the reasons, the chief one is, rejection of a belief in God's grace as well as God regarded as the dispensor of fruits of action. It maintains that every soul in its pure form is God, having four infinites. The Jain approach to deal with karma through penances and austerities and its uncompromising sincerity and unshakable faith in the doctrine of karma opens the way to salvation. As the Law of karma is the explanation to the bondage, its total climination through spiritual practices is the attainment of emancipation. "Jainism does not preach that there is any special power ruling over the destinies of men from behind or above. On the contrary, it teaches that every individual works out his own destiny by his own mental and physical exertions 42. Ramji singh The Concept of omniscience pp. 109 43. Cp. Rg.veda X 19.3 Taitraya Upanisad III.1, Manu Smrti I:5;.9 44. Ramji Singh Jain Cencept of ommisciece pp. 107. 44

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Theism, Atheism and Jaini 19 45 which, by themselves generate energies that bring to him agreeable or disagreeable experiences." Thus the entire emphasis is to thwart and annihilate the force of the karma "and in this way to effect a gradual spiritual evolution leading to the ultimate goal, the very Godhood, whence there is no return to the samsara. 46 2.2.5 Conclusion We may conclude, therefore that according to jainism it is the human soul alone which can reach the highest degree of perfection. And that all souls are possessed of fullness and perfections. "The infinite is inherent in the finite. That is why the finite is ever struggling to break down its finiteness and reach out to the fullest freedom''47 Moreover, it maintains that "God is only the highest, noblest and fullest manifestation of the power which lie latent in soul.' What one requires is to put utmost self-efforts to see that attachments cease, and personal love is "burnt in the glow of asceticism." It insists that every one, like a true victor, should defeat one's own enemies, his own passions and sense cravings. "Fight with yourself. Why fight with external foes? He who conquers himself, through himself will obtain happiness. +48 This fundamental acceptance and approach is reflected in the discussions, explantations and solutions of issues which are metaphysical, ethical, epistemological or logical. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says "strictly speaking there is no room for devotion or bhakti in the jain system... The liberated have no longer any connection with the world and exert no influence on it."49 This central current or stream of thought operates even when the issue of vedic authority or ritualistic sacrifice is there or even when the issue of karma or emancipatory self-effort or Divine grace is there. The extreme insistence on one's own effort, the uncompromising nature of Low of karma and the soul posessing all fullness and perfection in its pure form, put Jainism to a unique position whether it does not need to claim any nonhuman or Divine source. These could be considered as some of the roots of jain Atheism where atheism means rejection of a belief in World-Creating God, or rejection 45. Dr. Hiralal Jain Article 'What is Jainism' in 'Jainism' pub. Sr. Vallabhsuri smarak samiti pp. 12-13. 46. Dr. J.P.Jain Religion and culture of Jains, pp.42 47. Dr. Radhakrishnan Indian Philosophy, Vol. I pp. 399 48. Uttaradhayayana sutra Ix. 35 49. Radhadrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol I, pp.-331.

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Jain Theism 20 of a belief in God as a dispensor of fruits of actions. 2.3 RELIGION : GOD : JAINISM 2.3.1 RELIGION Let us understand the term 'Religion in its etymological sense. What does the term mean, linguistically ? The word religion has its root in Latin religis" or" religin" "derived from" "relegere' which means to gather together, and religare' which means to bind back, fasten. Relegere meant to gather together, collect, hence to go over a subject again in thought from re and legere," ..... "men were called religions' because they reconsidered carefully and, as it were, went over again in thought all that appertained to the worship of Gods: 50 Max Muller, building on philosophy and mythology affirmed that.'' Religion consists in the perception of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of manosi Mr. J.G. Frazer Regards religion as, superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. ***? But then these are the thoughts concerned more about the primitive religions. The purpose of the present chapter is to set forth a deeper and wider meaning of the term religion based upon what it means when taken with certain refereneces, inclusive both of primitive religions, and of higher religions. W.K wright in his famous book "A student's philosophy of religion" discusses at full length and concludes: "religion is an endeavour to secure the conservation of socially recognized values through specific action that are believed to evoke some agency different from the ordinary cgo of the individual, or from other mcrely human beings, and that imply a feeling of dependence upon this agency.***} (1) Religion as Worship of God Many eminent thinkers of the west have defined religion as worship or adoration of God. For example William Tempie defined it as" Religion is not an opinion about God... It is a personal relation with God.*5+ Even Julian Huxley writes," It is frequently taken for granted that religion is essentially a belief in a god or gods.*?** 50. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) Ilth ed. Vol. XXII p. 61. 51. Max Muller, Natural Religion (1899) p. 188 52. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) Ilth ed. Vol. XXIII p. 62 53. W.K Wright : a student's philosophy of Religion (1958) p. 42-47 54. R.B. Lal, Religion in the light of reason and science (1978) p. 18 55. Ibid 18.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 21 The great pioneer anthropologist Tylor proposed, a belief in spiritual beings' as what he called a minimum definition of religion. This approach can best be summed up in the words of J.A.T. Robinson : "Worship and prayer would seem to be the expression of religion, from an irreligious. '**"The popular religion of India consists in the worship of a personal God through prayer, devotion and dedication." (2) East and West in Religion Dr. S Radhakrishnan, unquestionably the foremost and most scholarly thinker on the subject of our generation, expresses his views in these words :" There is no reason to believe that there are fundamental differences between the East and West. Human beings are everywhere human and hold the same deepest Values. The differences which are, no doubt, significant, are related to external, temporary social conditions and are alterable with them.""** In his very famous book titled 'East and West in Religion' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes : "The Western mind is rationalistic and ethical, while the Eastern mind is more inclined to inward life and intuitive thinking." Speaking in General term we may say that the dominant feature of Eastern thought in its insistence in certain creative intuition, while the western systems are characterised by a greater adherence to critical intelligence. This basic difference both in approach and in emphasis has resulted into differences in essentials of religion, "A natural consequence of this difference in emphasis is that in the East, religion is more a matter of spiritual culture than scholastic learning. We learn the truth not by criticism and discussion but by deepening life and changing the level of consciousness. God is not the highest form to be known but the highest being to be realized.... Eastern religions lay stress on the patience of spirit and the gentleness of soul which are born not of fear but of strength which refuses to push its way in crowd."61 (a) Indian View Right from the very early days of ancient period till now, India has passed through the various stages, 'of rise, development and 56. R.B. Lal, Religion in the light of reason and science (1978), 18 57. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, The present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 38. 58. Ibid p. 27 59. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan -An Idealist View of life (1932) Ch. IV 60. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, An Idealist View of Life (1932) Chap. IV 61. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and west in Religion (1933) pp. 52-53.

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22 Jain Theism metamorphosis of various trends of religious culture.' In fact, "Hinduism is an amorphous indeterminate mass of diverse religious creeds and faiths..."62 These religions may be differing with ambiguous conceptions of God, the Universe, the Self etc. or some may be without any specific conception. But then "in their essence all types of Indian religions are o their great extent, mystical so far as the nature of profound religious experience as distinct from that of the virtuous life is concerned: and they stress the cultivation of virtue for all types of people and look upon ritual or ceremonial institution as secondary:"6,3 Like almost in all the branches of philosophy, even in ethics and religion, the word 'Indian stands as antonym to west or as to East.-" The late Mr. Lowes Dickenson in his essays on the civilization of India, China and Japan observed that India is the only country that typifies the East. In the matter of rcligion, India typifies the East.' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes," In the East religion is more the life of spirit. It is the perception of oneness of men with the spirit of truth, love and beauty in the universe.'65 In India religion and philosophy go hand in hand, and the enphasis on right conductor Samyak caritra' as Jainas say hold a fundamental importance as no religion talks about highest knowledge (jnana) or highest wisdom (Darsan) withonit right conduct. According to Manu, the first of law givers." Morality or right conduct (sadacar) is the highest Dharma... the sages regard right behavior as the very root of all austerity.'966 The Bhagavata has given the following as the basic requirements of Dharma : "Non-Violence in thought, word and deed: to abide by the truth, not to commit theft, to control desire, anger and avarice and to do only such works as are pleasant and beneficial to all living creatures.' In Bhagvadgita one finds a great stress on the identity of Dharma (righteousness) and karma (conduct, duty or action). The jnana marga (The way of knowledge), Bhakti Marga (The way of deotion) and karma Marga (The way of action) of Bhagvadgita are the three approaches to religion, any one could be stressed which does not mean total exclusion of the other two. In fact "work, knowledge and devotion are complimentary both when we scek the goal and after we attain it. 62. H.K. De Chaudhari, God In Indian Religion (1969) p. -7 63 Ibid p. 6 64 Ibid p. 46 65 Ibid p. 51 66. R.B.lal, Religion in light of reason and science (1978) p.21-22.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism . 23 We may climb the mountain from different paths but the view from the summit is identical for all.'*67 (b) Western View For us, as we thoroughly know that, Upanisads are complimentary to Vedas, full of Philosophy precisely and subtly expressed. The Western Scholars do not agree to this, They maintain that-" the authors of the Upanisads lost faith, the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices and that they realized the conception of one God discarding the conception of many gods which is to be found in the earlier vedas."?68 shri B.K. Chattopadhyaya in his famous book "The Teachings of the Upanisads' quotes number of western scholars expressing the same View. Even Max Muller writes; "In these Upanisads the whole ritual or sacrificial system of the Vedas is not only ignored but directly rejected as useless, nay as mischievous. The ancient gods of Vedas are no longer recognised.''69 similarly we find Prof. Macdonald writes that the Upanisads form a new religion which is" In Virtual opposition to the ritual or practical side.":70 Such were also the hasty conclusions even by Dr. Robert Earnest Hume, Dr. Winternitz, Deussen etc. According to B.K. Chattopadhyaya the conclusions arrived by the western scholars are not acceptable. He says that because the Upanisads declare that there is one God (Brahman) it does not mean that the author of upanisads did not believe in minor Gods. In the same way the attainment of salvation through the knowledge of Brahman does not mean that the authors of the Upanisads did not believe in the efficacy of sacrifices in securing heaven. According to him both these conclusions inferred by the western scholars are illogical. Here we may make a note that even some of the prominent modern scholars of India, like Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Das Gupta, Prof. Hiriyanna, Prof. R. D. Ranade, Dr. R. K. Mukherji and so on, also more or less bend towards what the western scholars have observed regarding the upanisads. To cut short, we may certainly are not rejecting, or refuting or contradicting the Vedas. The Upanisads certainly come before us as an entirely different type from the rest of the Vedic literature as indicating the path of knowledge (Jnanamarg) 67. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan; Radhakrishnan Reader Anthology (1988) p.260. 68. B.K. Chattopadhyaha. The Teachings of the Upanisads (1952) p.26 69. Max Muller, origin of vedanta p.16 70. Prof. Macdonald, History of Sanskrit Literature p. 215.

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24 Jain Theism as opposed to the path of work (Karmamarg)'71 The Upanisads held that "immortality could be attained by realization of Atman, but other mystics and ascetics believed that release from carthly bondage i.e freedom of self could be achieved by practicing yoga and/or various kinds of tapas."??? (3) Religion in Buddhism and Jainism Technically speaking both Jainism and Buddhism, being the heterodox systems of Indian Philosophy in the sense that both reject the vedas as authority, are atheistic. Both do not believe in the traditional Vedic or Upanisadic concept of God, personal or absolute. But then both recognize the possibility of attaining the highest goal of life. Buddhism For Buddhism complete cessation of misery (dukkha) is possible and its suggests its eightfold noble paths namely right veiws, right determination, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right endeavour, right mindfulness and right concentration. The remov ignorance and desire, which are the main causes of misery, through these eight-fold paths. Brings the perfect enlightenment and tranquility. The attainment of this state of perfection, in Buddhism, is nirvana. Buddhism has many schools differing from each other either philosophically or theologically. It has its own theology, mythology as well as ethics. "But then both Lord Buddha and Buddhism in its true spirit, are not interested in the metapliysics. Lord Buddha spent years in deep thinking, penance and meditation to discover the origin of human sufferings and means to overcome them.???! Jainism : Jainism as religion is an original system existing from beginnings time. It becomes important for the study of the philosophical thought and religious life in ancient India. I restrain myself before I write about Jain philosophy, Jain Ethics, Jain logic and philosophy of nonabsolutism, as all these topics we are going to discuss in full details in the forth coming chapters. Here what is important is to glance at the 71. Dr. S.N. Das Gupta, A History Of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975) p. 28 72. Dr. H.K.D. Chaudhari, God In Indian Philosophy (1969) p. 10-11. 73. Chatterjee s. C. and D.M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 30

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 25 Religion in Jainism. What we find as the most striking feature is its approach. Jaina religion gives great cmphasis on Ahimsa and Anekant. Ahimsa (non-injury) relates to day-to-day activity of a house holder as well as ascetic, while Anckant relates to the approach towards reality. By nature Jainism is Acarapradhan' and is realistic in the sense that it accepts the objects of the world as real. What is most note-worthy is jain concept of Soul which according to Jainism, in its pure form possesses all the qualities in infinite. The soul in its pure form is God and the embodied soul 'jiva' is an impure soul. The impurity is the layer of karma. Jain religion proves to be a way or path that shows how to remove the dirt or layer of karma which is on soul and thus to make it free from all the bondage and chain of birth and rebirth. For this, what is necessary, according to Jainism, is perfect faith, correct knowledge and right conduct. Thus we find "Jainism as an important, fully developed and well established religious and cultural system, is purely indigenous to India."74 It is a system with its own metaphysics, epistemology, mythology, ethics, rituals etc. It possesses all the elements to represent itself as religion unique in so many ways. (4) History and Classification History The Encyclopaedia Britannica says that "there is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in its prominent aspect a History of Religions.'75 As such it has become almost impossible to know the exact time when the belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution." Mr. J.G. Frazer regards religion as superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. In the Tree of life, Mr. E. Gawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its first manifestation with the process of the organic life.... The origin of religion, however, can never be determined archeologically or historically.'76 Neither it is necessary nor it is apt here to go into a great details about the evolution and continuous development of religion right from its ancient primitive stage till its development into the modern perspective point of view. We may just make a note that there was a very long period, we may call a long period of darkness - a period of primitive kind of religion providing philosophy, both of man and nature to intellectuals. Existed 74. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of Jains (1977) p. 1 75. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) ed. II Vol. XXII p. 62 76. Ibid pp. 62.

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26 Jain Theism before the dawn of Higher Religions. Amongst the numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested what is proposed as a "minimum definition" of religion "the belief in spiritual being","? The spiritual being is sacred and some of the chief aspects of the nature of sacred are : the sacred as the secret, the sacred as the potent, the sacred as the ancient. In India we can call this as the very early vedic period, and the chief gods were conspicuous objects of nature such as the Sun, Sky, Earth, Air, Light, Wind, Rain, and Dawn" 78 In its early stage these objects were simply personified, then the conspicuous object of nature and gods associated with them were differentiated from which, "a large variety of myths developed about each important God.'"74 The second or the subsequent period is the period of Higher Religions. The development of animism, the transition to polytheism, polytheism, transition to monotheism, are some of the features of the higher religion. This is the period when India we find the development known as Brahmism and the Upnisads and the Vedanta effected by the thinkers of India, the theologians and philosophers. This second phase of the history of religion, as we call Higher Religion, is distinguished from the former one in its intellectual and rationalistic, interest which is "an expression of the demand of the mind for unity, for the reduction of all facts to one common principle of explanation.??$0) In the final stage of religion in process, or we may call religion in modern times, inspite of a great development achievements of science and technology, religions have been thriving as an organic part of the life of an entire people." We are here not to discuss the life of an entire people." We are here not to discuss the status and weak points one might observe in the Modern Religion. It is not the point to discuss and arrive at a conclusion regarding the fate of today's religion. What we take note is simply of certain stages of its evolution. Classification As we find in most of the fields or areas of knowledge related to social and philosophical aspects, we also find in Religion a great difficulty of classification. We neither find any watertight compartments in its historical development nor we see distinctive, clearly classifiable elements. On the contrary "the different stages constantly appear to 77. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) ed. II, VOI. XXIII p. 63. 78. W.K. Wright, A Students Philosophy of Religion (1958) p.70 79. Ibid., p. 70 80. Ibid., p. 73 nal

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27 Theism, Atheism and Jainism shade off into one another, and any one of the higher seems to contain elements of all the rest. Again we find all religions are in constant tlux and there is no uniforinity amongst the different development at different places. Even then efforts have been done to classify religion-its evolution and development. "The 18th century divine (who) divided religions into True and False."'Philosophy, in the person of Hegel, classified religion in threefold forms (a) the Religion of Nature, (b) the Religion of Spiritual individuality (c) the Absolute Religion.'>>82 This was further distinguished into three periods or phases by K.F.A Wuttke (i) the objective, producing the religions of nature (ii) the subjective, God as comprehended in the individual mind; and (iii) God .as absolute spirit. "In the same way Dr. Edward Caird recognizes three similar stages (i) objective consciousness, the divine in nature : (ii) self consciousness, the divine in man (iii) God consciousness, where God is above the contrast of subject and object, yet is revealed in both."83 As we find the study of religion through different religions creates number of variety in classification, we find the study of religions through different aspects and approaches new classifications. We find J. Clyton Fever as one of the editors of his famous book" Religion in philosophic and Cultural Perspective" tries to classify the content into two perspectives (i) Philosophical and (ii) Cultural. Similarly Prof. W.K Wright in his book, "A students' Philosophy of Religion" discusses religion with reference to values, self and reality. Dr. S. Radhakrisnan, while discussing and commenting on religion- specially comparative religion-talks in term of East and West in Religion. Max Muller proposed to group religions ethnologically by tests of language, resulting into two great families, the Sematic and the Indo-Germanic. The brief sketch we tried to draw of the history and classification of religion, makes us to conclude that religion has its origin as back as the origin of human life. Religion is a product of the social life, and just like the human beings, living a social life, the s are also in a flux, they are ever changing and ever transforming in accordance with the changing values of the social life. 81. Briughton, Dictionary of all religions (1945) preface. 82. Hegel, Philosophy of Religion (Eng.Transt) p. 266. 83. Dr. Edward Claird, Evolution of Religion (1893) Lect.vii.

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28 Jain Theism (5) Core of Religion A comparative study of religions, their interrelationship and scientific approach cnables us to feel that Religion is real only in religions. All the vital differences among the living faiths of mankind become just casual before the fundamental unity of vision and purpose which embraces all mankindian This is the core of all religions a common substratum of religions. "All religions affirm that man is confronted by something greater than himself which, in contrast to human nature and all other phenomena, is . Absolute Reality. It is transcendent, the Divine, the other, the true being behind the world of events..... and the many ways to reach the real are found in all religions.'**The 'Absolute Reality of which all religions talk is also God the highest truth, righteousness, beauty and love which is man's highest good. This transcendent Reality according to all religions is immancnt in the human soul. Thus we find, the grounding of the human spirit in godhead, as one of the most impressive phenomenon in all religions. This is reflected in Upanisad when it says "That Thou art', or when we say "the essence of the Buddha is present in every being," or Jesus saying "The kingdom of God is within you". For St. Paul 'the human spirit is the temple of the Divine Spirit. For St. Augustine 'God is more inward than my innermost being'. The Quran says that God is nearer to us than our artery in the neck.''85 All Religions are a way of life'. All talk about Moksa, emancipation or cternal life by the realisation of the self. "Religion is not only the way to God, but the way to man."*$6 We find all religions prove to be a way of active service, a way to God through Man, to Divine Spirit through Human Spirit. All religions talk about its doctrines, myths, rites, cult and worship. In fact these things and much more other things, form the outer side of the religion. Not merely religions amongst themselves differ in these objectives or outer features but even the different sects of the same religion also differ very greatly with one another. But then behind all these differences what is seen is the tendency for the inward piety to attain spiritual insight and thus to attain religious wisdom. 84. Dr S. Radhakrishnan, The Present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 51. 85. Ibid., pp. 51-52 86. Ibid., p. 53.

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Theism, Atheisin and Jainism 29 Speaking about the basic insights of religions, Dr.S.Radhakrishnan said, Religion at their highest adopt a view of positive appreciation of other faiths." Rg. Veda has the following words : "Walk together, speak in concord; let your minds comprehend alike, let your efforts be united; let your hearts be in agreement, let your minds be united, that we all may be happy.'*$? (6) The Need for Religion Religion, the moment we study and analyses the human predicament as well as the crisis of values and its result, appears to us as uncompromisingly most inevitable. Its role, further confirms, its importance. It will be quite fair and agrecable to all to say that "mankind is today in the midst of the greatest crises in history. It is an undisputable fact that science has liberated the mankind from sertitude to nature, from poverty and ignorance. The world of machines has brought comforts and conveniences. The vast world has become a small family. Scientific inventions, the use of electricity, telephone, radio, television and computers have brought a revolution in human history. The discovery of solar and nuclear energy present a great possibilities of human progress. It is true that the scientific progress and development has brought a great relief and change." Yet what we find is a mankind much suffering from an inward loneliness. All growth is marked by pain...... tragedy. Humanity today faces the challenge of destiny. The progress in the material world has failed to bring mental peace and spiritual bliss. It has failed to make man feel contented and satisfied. Inspite of all the achievements in economical, social, cultural and scientific world, we see one and all perplexed at its failure to find love and satisfaction. "Only a living faith in God will enable man to overcome the paralysing sense of despair and create a less imperfect society.""$8 "The human individual consists of body, mind and spirit. Each requires its proper nutriments. The body is kept trim by food and exercise, the mind is informed by science and criticism, and the spirit is illumined by art and literature, philosophy and religion." In a way, for the proper and creative moulding of the human society, the role 87. Reg-Veda (x-191). 88. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, The present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 15. 89. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East & West in Religion (1933) p. 45

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30 Jain Theism and need for religion is in no way, less important than science. We have already seen that religion is not a heap of doctrines and myths or rites and cults. "Religion is not mere intellectual conformity or ceremonial piety, it is spiritual adventure. It is not theology but practice.'*90 "religion is a life to be lived, not a theory to be accepted or a belief to be adhered to "!! Man is always eager to see that every aspect of his personality, his existence and his character, is raised to its highest extent. For this what is needed is a 'change of consciousness'. a rebornness', 'an inner evolution'. This is all possible through religion which is a fulfilment of man's life. "All religions train us to accept life as an opportunity for self realisation : atmanastu kamaya". The modern world, with all its progress and unity, ultimately necds a new cultural basis, While discussing this issue Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says that the modern world cannot be guided by the economic and the pragmatistic mindian It requires the spiritual one. He says, "Religion is the inside of a civilization, the soul as it were of the body of its social organisation. Scientific application, economic alliance, political institutions may bring the world together outwardly : but for a strong and stable unity the invisible but deeper bonds of ideas and ideals to be strengthened."92 Religion in this sense will be the binding force which will deepen the solidarity of human society.''43We cannot think of any activity, any practice devoid of tolerance and humbleness. All great religions preach respect for other ways of life. "It (religion) induces in us not an attitude of mere tolerance which implies conscious superiority, not patronizing pity, not condescending charity, but genuine respect and appreciation.'*94 The most significant role of religion is its spiritual education of the race and the culture of an individual's heart. So long as we need the race to be spiritual and not materialistic, an acute need to widen the narrowness of our horizons, a way out from the paradoxes and perplexities of life, we need Religion. "Religion is not only life transcending but also life transforming. 95 What could be there in the service of the suffering humanity but a true religion and its true worship. 90. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Religions (1947) p. II 91. Ibid p. 24 92. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion (1933) p. 45 93. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Religions (1947) p. 15 94. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion (1933) p. 32 95. Ibid p. 69

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31 Theism, Atheism and Jainism (7) Conclusion Religion, from some of the prominent point of views, comes before us as a movement, a growth. It has sources of its strength and the springs of its vitality. All religions, if we adopt neutrality in our approach, come to us with varieties. But then the differenes are only outward. Behind them all we see a clear stream of units, and purpose. Behind religions there is Religion. This religion or that religion is not the point. What matters is, in words of Max Muller, ....... there is a divine element in every one of the greatest religions of the world. 396 It is religion by which we 'cleanse our thoughts, purify our emotions and let the seeds of spirit grow.' Of course, to have all about what religion is, would be more like an encyclopaedia than a few pages and stray thoughts. "Religion has been defined in many and conflicting fashions, but one description of it embodies what is certainly a feature that is practically universal in all the various modes of its expression. It has been described as the highest forin of man's consciousness of himself in his relation to all other things and beings.' 1197 2.3.2 GOD According to some philosophers of religions the concepts regarding God or Deity are considered to be the presiding ov concepts and are therefore of great importance. Basically there are two questions : One, the term God, its definition or meaning its existence : and the second is the significance of the term God. However, to some the significance of the term God is the primary question. Let us discuss both to grasp the nature of God. (1) Conception The meaning of the term God may very much differ from individual to individual, It even differs from religion to religion or from culture to culture or from time to time. To some God denotes a Supreme Being, to others Nature, Universal principle, Universal Self, Moral Law or Absolute. If people are asked to define God everybody's God would be the value, thought or object he considers to be the most precious one. God will be either a Father or Supreme Creator or Personal Deity in whom everyone responses his faith and confidence. But even then in philosophy of religion we come across certain concepts which and 96. The Life and Letters of F. Max Muller, Vol.ii p. 464 97. N. Macnicol, Indian Theism, (1968) p. 8.

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32 Jain Theism have become quite dominant. These concepts are concepts of God in Polytheism, Henotheism. Pantheism, Deistic Supernaturalism, Humanism and so on. Let us have a brief account of the conception of God in these different theistic schools. (a) Polytheisus It is a belief in many Gods. There is a Plurality of Gods, and a God is defined as any one among a group of deites, each representing a unique personal value. Thus, there are gods of love, war, fertility and so on. One who believes in a single system of moral law or in unity redicules Polytheism. Anyway, we just take an account to know the conception of God without entering into a critical discussion of its merits and demerits as it is not needed here. (1) Henotheism The term "Henotheism has been coined by Max Muller and it refers to the belief in one God, yet not excluding the other gods. It depicts "God as personified national spirit, a national God."98 Such was the role of 'Zeus' among the Greeks and that Jahwe among the Israelites. (c) Pantheism It means all that exists is God. This means that only God exists. It has different forms the most common emphasizes the totality of reality. The western scholars and Philosophers of religion consider the concept of Hindu God as Pantheistic. Of course this is a very controversial point. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee in his 'The Fundamentals of Hinduism' writes that "the Hindu conception of God is monistic, but not pantheistic". "We should call Hindu theory of God Panentheism, rather than Pantheism."*99 (d) Monotheism There are many religions based on Monotheism having a central belief that there exists one and only one God. He is the supreme personal creator, the exclusive and universal creator, of all things. The philosophers of religion, in the historical perspective, believe this idea of one God to have been evolved from Polytheism through Henotheism. 98. W. S. Sahakian & M.L. Sahakian, Ideas of the great Philosophers (1966) p. 87. 99. Prof. S.C. Chatterjee, The Fundamentals of Hinduism, (1970) p. 33-34.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism (e) Theism Theism, from its emphasis upon the personal nature of God differs from that of Monotheism. It conceives of a God as a "Conscious mind immanent in physical nature, man, and values of which he is either the source or creator. "100 "Panthcists identify God with nature for them nature includes God, where as Theist regard God's being as distinct from and independent of nature."10? (1) Deism Here we find the acceptance of one God of Monotheism as well as the emphasis of Theism upon a personal God who is the creator of the universe, and is outside the world which he has created. Thus for Deists, God having created the world, "divorsed himself from, the world and merely contemplates it from beyond as a disinterested bystander, or absentee' deity, who neither heeds prayer nor choose to perform miracles."!62 Deists' God is the antithesis of the Pantheist deity (8) Deistic Supernaturalism Here God is viewed as transcendent, external to the world he created and yet super human and supernatural revealer of values This belief goes with the name of Soren Kierkegaard, the father of Existentialism and Neo-Orthodoxy. (h) Humanism Humanism regards "God as man's highest aspirations, reflecting man's persuit of ideal values and embodying the sum of humanity: **:413, He is known as the 'Grand Being' (le Grande Etre) as Comte called him. We should here take note of Ludwiug Feuerbach, who was also a leading Humanist, reducing objective existence of God to Man's mindian In 'The Essence of Christianity' he wrote " Man has his highest being, his God in himself." "God is man, man is God."} (i) Panentheism It differs from both Deism, in the sense that God is not only transcendent here, and from Pantheism, in the sense that God does not identify with nature. Here the concept of God is that he is "'immanently 100. Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas of the great Philosophers (1966), p. 89 101. Ibid., p. 89 1 02 Ibid., p. 89 103. Ibid., p. 90 104. Ibid., p. 91

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34 Jain Theism interpenetrating all nature, yet distinct from it." In addition to the above mentioned conceptions, there are many minor ones. One can consider Animism, Pansychism. etc. These conceptions are unsystematic as well as obscure and not required to be discussed here. But then whatever the different conceptions of God in theistic systems we have seen. what becomes noteworthy is the fact that the Nature of God is a problem for both philosophy and religion. Philosophy wants the rational knowledge of God and religion wants the realisation or direct experience of God. "In the one we seek to arrive at an intellectual understanding of God's nature, in the other we strive to attain an immediate experience of His existence and nature. In religion man wants to have a beautific vision of God, while in philosophy he tries to form a rational idea or consistent conception of God's existence, nature and attributes."IUS In Hindu religion God is the Supreme Person (Purusottama). In the famous Puusa Sukta of the Rg-Veda we are told that the Supreme person is all that is, all that was and all that will be, and that He pervades the whole world by quarter of His being, while three fourths of Him stand over as immortal in the sky."106 It is also said that, "All this-in the past, present and future is the Supreme Person."?|07 God is thus both transcendent and immanent throughout the Upanisads. Moreover, God, as viewed in Hindu religion, "is the Moral Governor of the world of living beings and He is the impartial dispenser of the fruits of their deeds (karma-phalapradata) and He is the Supreme arbiter of their joys and sorrows."'!$ According to B.G., "God also comes down to the world and incarnates Himself to set the world right when the forces of evil threaten to disrupt and destroy the eternal religion of the world. God overpowers, and reestablishes the religious order of the world."109 Further, "God in His transcendent nature is the absolute existence, consciousness, bliss (Sat-Cit-Anand) and is one without a second."'ilAs to the Svarupa lakshana of Brahman, the Upanisads say that "He is truth, knowledge and joy."UT 105. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee, Fundamentals of Hinduism, (1970) p. 12. 106. Cf. Rg-Veda, 10. 90. 2-3 107. Cf. Svetasvataraa Upanisads, 3.15 108. CF. Nyaya - Satra and Bhasya, 4.1-21 109. Bhagavad Gita, 4. 7-8 110. Vide Sarkara's Comentary on Brahma-Satra 2.1, 14.20 & Chandogya Upanisad 6.2 1-2 111. Tai. Upanisad, 2-1

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35 Theism, Atheism and Jainism (2) Two Forms of the Supreme Reality The Supreme is conceived in a twofold way (dvirupam hi brahmavaganyate). "There are two forms of Reality : Nirguna and Saguna, Qualities and Qualified."*"12 In the Mahopanisad "Brahman is described as void as trivial as unmanifested unseen, inconceivable and qualityless." St. Augustine defined the Absolute in negative terms. God is not even to be called ineffable, for to say this is to make assertion about him. The Real is an unconditional transcendent and can be grasped by a language without symbols."113 Any organized religion cannot ignore the common man with a faith in the existence of God as described in the religious system. It also suggests the path or the Marga by which one can reach the supreme. After all God, the supreme Reality, is above all the religious systemis. It will be almost beyond the general competence of reason, for the common man, to grasp Reality in its qualityless, 'nirguna' form as void. The popular religion consists in the worship of a personal God, through prayer, devotion and dedication. Metaphysical idealism concerning the Absolute has to be transformed into a theistic religion, providing room for love, faith, prayer and devotion. So long as we do not have the vision of the Absolute, we have to work on the side of the emphirical world. A personal God-Qualified Reality or let lis say saguna iswar is a must, for, without that worship is not possible." Devotion to the supreme is possible. only with a personal God, a concrete individual tull of bliss and beauty.?! (3) God's Relation to Soul & World God and Soul The relationship between God and Soul, or as Hinduism says between Atma and Paramatma, or as Jainism would say between Jiwatma and Parmatma is a very distinct one. R.B. Lal in his famous work Religion" in the light of Reason and Science" explaining this relationship says"' One fruitful view of the relationship between God and man (soul and body) regards them as partners in the business of maintaining and developing the world order not only in prayer and 112. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, The Present Crisis of Faith, (1987), p. 37 113. Ibid., 37-38. 114. Dr. S. Radhakrisnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, (1977) p. 559

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36 Jain Theism meditation but also in rough work essential for life."'!15 The relationship can very aptly be understood by interpreting the scene at the begining of the Bhagavat-Gita and its two main characters. The scene consists of Lord Krisna (God) driving the war-chariot and Arjuna (soul) seated in it with bow and arrows, ready to fight. Both have a common mission, to destroy or to kill the evil, and for that both have a clear understanding which reflect each others relationship." The arrangement between them was that Arjuna would do all the fighting, while Sri Krisna would drive his chariot but would not take up arms at all during the course of war. This is very briefly the true nature of the partnership (relationship) between God and Man"]16 The symbolism of this scene if translated it would mean that God is always there to guide and inspire the soul, but then efforts, it may be a fight or struggling, will have to be done by the Soul. Moreover, we also find here that on one side Soul has freedom of the will to act and on other side the complete control over the chariot, in which Arjuna (soul) is and which symbolizes the Life, is in the hands of God. Referring the same symbolic companionship of God and soul, Sri Aurobindo in his 'Essays on Gita' says that both Arjuna and Krisna stand together as human and divine, in the chariot of battle. In his book" The Real Enjoyment of Living "H. J. Schachtel says, "To me one of the most rewarding concepts in the teaching of Judaism is the description of man as God's partner in working out our world's salvation." We may call this relationship the supreme partnership between God and soul working towards the thrilling goal of life. The relationship between God and soul is, in brief, that of partners or colabourers. But then this relationship in some theistic religions is that of a master (God) and servant (Soul). As a result of this, automatically, the essence of such religion is seen in servant's (Soul's) loyalty, fidality, obedience in carrying out master's (God's) order or message. God is conceived here as a master who rewards or punishes his servants as per their work. But then this relationship, we find, superbly modified by Jesus Christ. 115. R. B. Lal, Religion in the Light of Reason and Science, (1978) p. 76 116.. Ibid., p. 76

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 37 In Christianity, God is not the master but the father, and we all are his sons and daughters. There is one supreme God, wrote maximum of Madaura to Augustine about A.D.390, "Without natural offspiring, who is, as it were, the God and Mighty Father of all."' The relationship between God and soul, often is interpreted by the theistic philosophers of religion as that of a creator and creation. One more type of relationship we come across in Sufism. A Sufi mystic Dheil Nun of Egypt being quoted by G. Parinder in his book "Mysticism in the world's Religions", says ".....not only love but passionate longing as the means of journey to God..... and love as the gift of divine grace....18 The relationship between God and the soul in Sufism is that of a beloved (God) and the lover (Soul). "The groaning and the yearning of the lover of God will not be satisfied until it is satisfied in the beloved." This theme of love continued by many Sufis amongst whom we may note Junayd and his pupil Hallaj as well as famous Persian mystic and philosopher Omar and Ghazali. Hallaj stressed the love of God and expressed in one of his most famous verses : writes : "I have become He whom I Love, and He has become in myself, We are two spirits in one body, When you see me, you see Him." Another well-known Sufi poet expresses this relationship and "I have not studied the book of knowledge, Nor have I studied even the alphabets, I have only studied the name of, My beloved in the school of love." 120 117. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion, (1933), p. 31. 118. Geoffrey Parinder, 'Mysticism in the World's Religions' (1976), pp. 131-132. 119 N. Smith, Rabiya the Mystic.' (1928), p 98.. 120. par3he na ilmakI pothI, alifa be pe hama na sIkhe / hama to makatabe ulfatameM nAme sanama sIkhe //

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38 Jain Theism Here God has been addressed as 'Sanam which means beloved. The relationship between God and soul through erotic longing or love is also seen in 'Prema Laksana' Bhakti of Hindu religion where God is the only male and all the souls, like a lady lover (Priyatama) crave for Him. As Mira, a famous Hindu lady mystic and poet expresses in one of her verses "O ! Mohan (Lord Krisna). I have been very much enchanted by your lovely complexion. Ever since I have witnessed your beauty The world has lost all attraction for me. 121 The Upanisads describe Brahman (God) as "That (being) from which all beings (souls) are born by which they live and into which they finally merge." 122 In the final summing up, about the relationship between God and soul we find whatever the relationship described and whatever the symbols used but it is between the supreme and the spirit or between the perfect and imperfect between pure and impure. Moreover, we find the supreme or the pure (God) divine in his love and mercy upon the impure and imperfect, souls. We also find each soul as part of the spirit, a drop of the ocean, miniature, (Vibhu) form of the sublime (Virat). God and World The world or the universe or as we say 'Jagat' also indicates its relationship with God. In the philosophical perspective the problem of the world raises two questions: (i) Whether the world or the universe is created or is there since the beginningless of time and (ii) Whether the world is real or illusion? The nature of God's relationship to world depend solely upon the answers one arrives at on the above questions. If the universe is 121. 122. mukhaDAnI mAyA lAgI re, mohana tArA, mukhaDuM meM joyuM tAruM, sarva jaga to thayuM khAruM / Taitreya Upanisad 3-1. - mIrAM

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 39 created and is not 'Anadi' God alone can create it. Thus we find God the creator and universe His creation. God here appears as a great creator, great designer or architeet. Some theistic schools believe God simply to be the creator and after having created the universe it runs on its natural laws without God's interference. While to other God has created the universe, He is in it and beyond it. He maintains it and if necd he he will destory it. God, thus, is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe. But then there is substantial discussion running into volumes whether the universe is real or a dream. Philosophers like Sankara and Plato and some idealists believe the world to be illusory. In Indian philosophy Sankara Vedanta is also of the same belief. To them all world is just a dream, an illusion and not Real. Plato calls it an imitation of the real. Vedanta asserts the falsity of the world and considers nescience or Avidya as the cause of the illusion. But to a great majority the world is real, and to the theists among them it is the creation of God. Sometimes we find God being understood from his two forms: God as Purusa and God as Prakriti. Both personal God or supreme self and Prakriti or the universe are the two aspects of divinity. Thus, here, the world appears as God's creation just as the soul. It is governed by the laws as set and arranged by the supreme. The universe, comes to us as a master system, a great device or a mysterious mechanism, provided by the God to his souls. (4) God and Human Freedom In the realm of philosophic world in general, and amongst the philosophers of ethics and religion in particular it has become a very debatable issue concerning the freedom of the human will and moral responsibility of man in relation to "the support of a being so powerful as the directing force in the purposive development of the universe." However, it is neither the intention nor required here to go into a full length of the discussion of the issue, we may, however, take note of the main points of view without any assertion, critical or logical, on it. Traditional theism asserts that God created man. God is transcendent and immanent. God is omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent." Here man's will is free so that he is morally responsible for what he does.24 Moreover the conception of the nature of God 123 Taitreya Upanisad, p. 402

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40 Jain Theism can "best accord with" the human freedom as appears to be in our experience as interpreted by ethics, psychology and natural science."**After a long discussion on determinism and indeterminism, as well as on indeterminism and God, W.K." Wright in his famous book 'A student's Philosophy of Religion' concludes by writing that, "whatever theories may be favored regarding determinism and indeterminism, there can be no doubt that there is a very real and practical sense in which human freedom has actually been advancing with the progress of civilization. This is 'frecdom of opportunity."?! 25 "A life of religious devotion and communion with God will aid an individual in such efforts.'*126 2.3.3 JAINISM (1) Introduction We have sufficiently discussed 'religion as well as 'God'. We saw different theistic approaches regarding their interpretation of the meaning and nature of God. Now we will see Jainism, of course in general, with this reference. We have earlier examined Jainism with reference to God and the entire chapter 3,4, and 5 of this work discuss the Jain logic, Jain ethics and Jain philosophy of soul, in full details. Let us just go through a brief summary of Jain religion, in general. (2) Origin & Antiquity "Jainism" is the religion as well as one of the nine main systems of the Indian philosophy. It is the religion of jains, a path practiced and preached by 'Jinas' which means the conquerors of self. "It is an important, fully developed and well established religious and cultural system."127 Jainsm, now no longer is considered as one founded by Lord Mahavira. Its antiquity, as told to us by the Western as well as Indian Scholars, goes back to pre-Aryan and may be even pre-Vedic period. Given below are some of the views throwing light upon the antiquity of Jainism,. Dr. Harmann Jacobi says : "In conclusion let me assert my conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent from all others; and that therefore it is of great importance for the study of philosophical" thought and religious life in ancient 124. Taitreya Upanisad, p. 404 125. Ibid., p. 421 126. Ibid., p. 428 127. Ds. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 1.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 41 India.''} 28 Major General J.G.R. Forlong observes that, "Lofty ideas and high aescetic practice are found in jainism. It is impossible to know the beginning of Jainism."*134 He also wrote, "Instead of Jainism being as was formerly supposed an offshoot of Buddhism, it is shown to extend as far back as 3000 B.C. It is found flourishing alongside the nature worship of the rude tribes in Northern India.''130 Amongst the Indian scholars Dr. S.Rahdhakrishnan said, "There is nothing wonderful in my saying Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed."*}31 Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak writes," We learn from Sastras and commentaries the Jainism is existing from beginningless time. This fact is indisputable and free from, difference of opinion. There is much historical evidence on this point.''!32 The late Sri Kumarswami Sastri, chief justice of the madras High Court, asserts that, "The beginning of Jainism and its history are much older than the Smruti Sastras and thair commentaries. Jainism is completely different from Hinduism and independent of it.'*133 Justice Ranglekar of Bombay High Court says, "From modern historical research we come to know that long before Brahmanism developed into Hindu Dharma, Jainism was prevalent in this country."*}34 Swami Rammisraji Shastri, Professor, Sanskrit College, Banaras says, "We are reminded of the antiquity of Jainism when we study the things obtained from the excavation at Mohan-Jo-Dero ancient inscriptions, caves and many ancient ruins..... Jainism began when this world began. I am of the opinion that Jainism is much older than the Vedic Darsana." Dus The above mentioned are some of the views by the great scholars of the West and East. Moreover the reference in Yajur Veda (ch. 19 Mantra 14) or in Yoga vasistha (ch. 15, verse 8) and a lot of other evidences discussed and presented by Dr. J.P. Jain in his highly scholarly book, "Jainism the oldest Living Religion' tell us of a clear fact that Jainism is very old and certainly not an offshoot of any religion or in revolt to any religion: It is an independent system, "a complete system with all the necessary branches such as dogma or 128. Harisatya Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1957), p. -(ix). 129. Harisatya Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1957), p. (x) 130. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and culture of Jains (1977) p. 2. 131. H.S. Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1958) p. (xiv) 132. Ibid., p. (xii) 133. Ibid., p. (xii) 134. Ibid., p. (xii) 135. Ibid., p. (xiii)

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42 Jain Theism ontology, metaphysics, philosophy, epistemology. mythology, ethics, ritual and the rest..."*1.36 According to the belief of the orthodox Jains, the Jain religion is eternal and it has been revealed again and again in every one of the endless succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthankaras.'1,37 (3) Jaina Darshan In order to lead the reader to have a proper grasp about what Jainism is and to understand it in a theistic perspective, which is the aim of the work, let us have a glance of it in a broader outlook. Ot course, we are going to deal with its logic, its ethics and its philosophy of soul in a greater details. I have simply made to be incorporated in the succeeding chapters. Jainism does not believe in a personal God as traditionally the popular Hinduism believes, It does not believe God to be creator of the universe as well as to be the moral dispenser of Karma, Jainism considers the universe to be from the beginningless of time or Anadi. The world is real and is eternal. without beginning or end. What Jain metaphysics mainly discusses are the following topics : (i) Soul & Non-Soul. (ii) Substance and Attributes (iii) The Karmas or Actions (iv) The Seven Principles (Tattvas) (v) The Nine Padathas. (Categories). And (vi) Stages in the Evolution of the Soul. (i) Soul & Non-Soul Jainism discusses two great categories : soul, Jiva; and nonsoul, Ajiva. "The whole universe falls under this division, which is logically perfect, it is division by dichotomy."].38 The souls are further divided as Sthavar (immobile) and Trasa (mobile). The mobile souls differ from those that are immobile mainly in the sense that one can move at its own will, while the other can not. It discusses nine qualities of the soul out of which the chief one is consciousness or Chetana. Soul in its pure form has limitless powers. The whole universe is its scope. (ii) Substance and Attributes Substance, technically called Satta has three states : Utpada 136. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 2. 137. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1975) p. 169. 138. J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism (1979), p. 7.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 43 (origination), Vyaya (perishing) and Dhrauvya (continuance). The first two relate to Paryaya (modification). In Jainism soul is a substance, it has Satta and it cxists with soul-ness. Jain metaphysics discusses six substances, namely, 'The soul, matter, Dharma, Adharma, space and time; into a great detailed classification. (iii) The Karmas or Actions Amongst all the systems of Indian philosophy. Jainism is known for its detailed Karmavada-the science of Karma. In Jainism soul is living, matter is not. Matter is without consciousness. "The connection of soul and matter is material, and it is effected by soul's activity. The bondage is called "Karma... It is material forming a subtle bond of extremely refined Karmic matter which keeps the soul from flying up to its natural abode of full knowledge and everlasting peace."'\.39 The Karmas are also further divided into Ghatiya (destructive) and Aghatiya (nondestructive) Karmas. Each one is again having four kinds. Thus we have eight kinds of Karmas. The philosophy of Karma becomes more important because it is the basis of the doctrine of reincarnation or transmigration of souls. It is the Karma that brings bondages to the soul. Till the bondage is there the soul is embodied and there is birth and rebirth and so the suffering. The Karmavada or the science of Karma, of Jainism shows the method of falling away of Karmic matter. Soul in its pure state is the soul without Karmic matter and such a soul is a liberated one. (iv) The Seven Principles (Tattvas) The principles of Jainism are seven : Jiva (soul), Ajiva (nonsoul); Asrava (in-flow of Karma); Bandha (bondage); Sanvara (check) Nirjara (falling off); and Moksa (liberation). These principles help us to understand the process of Karma-bandhan (Bondage) and Karma-ksaya (Release). (v) The Nine Padarthas. (Categories) The above seven principles together with Punya (merit or virtue) and Papa (demerit or vice) are the nine Padarthas. Punya is good deeds, the meritorious kind of Karma such as love, devotion, piety, charity, ctc. Papa or vices is the sinful deeds of man. It includes 139. J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism (1979), p. 26

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44 Jain Theism violence, negligence, killing, hunting, stealing, etc. The pain caused to others by mind, by words or by action is Papa. Both Punya and Papa are material and cause the necessary effect but "both are the means of bondage; therefore they are one, and are certainly by themselves the cause of bondage."*140 (vi) Stages in the Evolution of the Soul_ The philosophy of soul in Jainism has been in detailed discussed in the chapter No.5. However, we take note that the embodied soul, according to Jainism is a soul in bondage; a soul having Karmic matter on it, an impure soul. Soul in its pure form is full of infinite powers. Soul essentially is all powerful, all knowledge, all wisdom and all bliss. In Jainism there are fourteen stages or Guna-Sthanas. These are the stages through which the soul progresses from No.1 to 14 or from most impurified state to complete purified or liberated state. The way to progress or to purify the soul is "the three jewels : (1) Samyag Darsana (right conviction) (2) Samyag Jnana (right knowledge) and (3) Samyag Caritra (right conduct)" - Jainism has its epistemology, its logic as well as its ethics. Since these sections are elaborately discussed and sufficient chapters are allotted to them, it is just a mention here that Jain philosophy becomes all the more rich in its theory of knowledge and ethics. Basically, like most of the Indian religions, it has 'Realism' in the approach and 'Ahimsa' in the dealings. It will not be wrong to observe that the whole of Jainism is found mainly to rest on its rich theology. sound philosophy and concrete ethics. (4) Jain Religion and Culture Religion does not consist so much in dogmas, theories and meanings. It is, as Dr. S. Radhakrishanan says, 'the inside of a civilization', 'the soul of social organization'. It is not only life transcending but life transforming. Jain religion consists of its own worship, rituals and festivals. The Jina the conqueror or the Tirthankara is the object of worship, and to him every Jain goes to seek the inspiration. The Jain worship and rituals have a popular appeal and "it 140. Amritachandra Sari, Samaya Sara Kalasa, IV, 1-3 in J.L.Jaini's book Outline of Jainism (1979) p. 102 141. T.S.I-1

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism 45 is through these religious rites and ceremonies that religious fervor, individual, social and communal, finds cloquent expression." 142 Moreover, worship, in Jainism means Dharma-Dhyana, 'the auspicious contemplation'. It also means an act of selfless devotion done with joy and due humility."143 The objects of worship in Jain religion are the 'five worshipful ones' (Panca Paramesthin); the Arhantas, the Siddhas, the Acarys, the Upadhyayas and the Sadhus. The nature of the worship is the salutation or obeisance and homage paid to these great souls. Purely from this research work point of view, what becomes of utmost importance is to note Jainism's philosophy of soul which itself in its pure form is God, The root of theism or we may say the hidden theism of Jainism lies in the Godhood of soul. A pure soul, a soul in perfection, a liberated soul, or a soul with all the infinite powers and knowledge and bliss becomes the object of worship. Jainism has freedom of the will and immortality of soul and in Tirthankaras: the perfected souls we find God. Thus all the three postulates to become a system a religion, according to I. Kant, we find in Jainism. (5) A Critical Estimate As Jain religion is an unique independent system so is Jain culture. In the words of the late Dr. Rajendra Prasad. the first president of free India," Jainism has contributed to the world the sublime doctrine of Ahimsa, No other religion has emphasised the importance of Ahimsa and carried its practice to the extent Jainism has done."'144 Prof. A.L. Basham says, "Of all the religious groups of India, Jainism has always been the most fervent supporter of nonviolence (Ahimsa) and undoubtedly the influence of Jainism in the spread of that doctrine throughout India has been considerable.''145 "In this conception lies the secret of the success which Jainism has achieved in moulding the lives of countless people to a higher plane of mental discipline, purity of thought, and spiritual evolution. It is a way of life which is fully capable of raising an ordinary individual to the highest height of spiritual realisation."146 It has proved to be 142. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jain (1977), p. 105 143. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jain (1977), p. 105. 144. Ibid., p. 169-170. 145. Ibid., p. 170 146 Ibid p.170

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46 Jain Theism quite successful and quite a practical one to help a person in day-today affairs of life. It is a living faith, a living religion "that has preserved in a large measure the originality and integrity of its system." To sum up, in the words of the late J.L. Jaini, an erudite thinker, "I am convinced that in its spirit and cssential doctrines Jainism has that in it which satisfies the deepest and the most varied wants - mental and spiritual of the men and women of our age.")+7 2.3.4 Conclusion It will be well to summarize briefiy the outcome of the points and issues we have seen in this section under religion, God and Jainism, Religion as we have seen, projects before us a wider perspective. It does not become limited to only rites and rituals. The core of it lies in its worship which again is a way of life leading the devotee to the fulfilment of the highest goals of life. God, in the same sense, becomes much more than what an orthodox theologians would explain. In its highest philosophic expression God is soul (man) and soul is God. Soul in its pure form is divine and possesses all the infinite, limitless powers which we are told to be otherwise God's attributes. Jainism provides a very good example of a system that has the deepest magnitudeness of a religion and highest value of God in human soul. If we could develop this theme, which I have tried in the succeeding chapters, we evolve theism in Jainism : may be this theism might appear as a 'modified one', one as Dr. S. N. Dasgupta says, as a 'hidden' one as the Jain scholars say or even 'Cripto theism'. But then certainly Jainism appears to us as anything but atheism. 147. J.L Jaini, Outline of Jainism (1979) Preface p. xiv.

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CHAPTER - 3 JAIN LOGIC 3.1 WARRENT OF JAIN LOGIC 3.1.1 Introduction Logic, as understood by us all, in its most popular term, broadly means the study of the structure and principles of reasoning or of sound argument. In West, it refers to the above meaning, as well as to certain other meanings all related to different meaning of 'logos' a Greek word. An equivalent to logic in Indian philosophy is Nyaya' or "Pramana-Mimamsa' both in meaning and scope much wider than what it stands in the Western sense. Logic, as one of the branches of philosophy, enjoys a very important status. But then, as we all know, the 'togetherness of philosophy and religion is a peculiar characteristic of Indian philosophy logic becomes of prime importance, in Indian philosophy, to both philosophy and religion. The knowledge of logic is a must for one who wants to understand the religion and its philosophy. Moreover, all the systems of Indian philosophy, except Carvaka, believe in the concept of Moksa or liberation. "It has been held by all the systems that no liberation is possible without knowledge"? Thus the theory of knowledge, which includes its conception, sources and classification, becomes an independent branch of philosophy or a Sastra or a Mimansa. Some scholars consider 'logic' a part of epistemology also. Whatever the case be but its importance and history both are since ancient period. What is most remarkable to note about logic in Indian philosophy, and also true for Jain logic, is that unlike the West it is "not only as the lump of ali sciences but also helpful to practical affairs and the sustaining principles of Dharma. It is this faith of the Indian mind that logic, when divorced from life becomes barren and useless. After all, logic is not an end in intselt but a means for this ideal life.''? With reference to Jainism the Jain logic is warranted for a 1. Rute Joanan Mukti. Rg-Veda. 2. Ramji Singh, The Jain Cencept of Omniscience p-137

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48 Jain Theism special reason. The real and deep understanding of Jain philosophy of non-absolutism, the theory of manyfoldness and Nayavada (standpoint) would mean unfolding the fact that in number of ways Jainism is not atheism but theistic in its implication and presuppositions. It is here, to understand Jainism and its doctrine that Jain logic is warranted. It being sound and scientific, leads to such conclusions that bring us right into the inner core of Jainism which is highly ethical, highly religious and therefore highly theistic in color. 3.1.2 Jain Logic & Logicians History of Jain logic and Jain epistemology goes as back as its canonical literature. We find the doctrines and the discussions as well as reasoning on the doctrines even in the philosophical works by Umasvati and Kundakundacharya. But then, logic, in its proper form, becomes evident with Siddhasena Divakar's Nyayavatara and SanmatiTark. Dr. A.N. Upadhye, in his 'Introduction to Siddhsena's Nyayavatara and other works' says, "The Nyayavatara, as far as we know, is the earliest manual on logic composed for the benefit and training of the Jain authors who till its time studied Nyaya possibly from other sources available to them.''3 Siddhasena Diwakar has been accepted as the first Jain writer on pure logic' who belonged to the Svetambara sect as mentioned by Pradyumansuri. This has been supported by scholars, like R.G. Bhandarkar, P. Peterson, S.C. Vidyabhushan, Jinavijay, H. Jacobi, P.L. Vaidya, Pt. Sukhlalji, and others, Thus with 'Nyayavatara' and 'Sanmati-Tark' by Siddhasena Diwakara, we find an inauguration of Jain logic in its most formal and systematic exposition of the doctrines. Dr. A.N. Upadhye has discussed in a full length all about Jain logic, as well as about Siddhasena and his time in his most illustrious work "Nyayavatara" and other works." With regards to time he concludes that the date of Siddhasena, earlier was assigned as between the 1st and 7th century, which, after Pt. D.M. Malvania's Survey of Jain Darshan was accepted as not later than 5th century." The history of Jain logic is the history of eminent Jain logicians from Siddhasena to Yashovijayaji. Of course, Umasvati and Kundakunda hold a high place but were earlier than Siddhasena. To Pt. Malvania and some others "Kundakunda cannot be put earlier than 5th Century." Without entering much into the history and dates, let us simply mention some of the noteworthy Jain logicians from Siddhasena to Yashovijayaji. They are Mallavadi, 3. A.N. Upadhye : 'Siddhasena's Nyayavatara and other Works (1971) p. xxiii

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Jain Logic Haribhadra, Akalanka, Virasena, Vidyanandi, Vadi Devsuri, Hemachandracarya, and Yashovijayaji. This is the period between 5th and 16th century. 3.1.3 Aims and Subject matter of Jain Logic Neither I wish nor it is the aim of this work to give and discuss a detailed account of the Jain logicians, their works and the critical estimate of them all, I wish a short picture of the logical background of Jain philosophy, that is being attempted, should enable the reader to understand Jain logic in its true perspective. Though there is' 'love for his faith and zeal for its aggrandizement' behind every author's work, we also find some other aims behind the Jain logicians. With reference to Diwakar in the words of Dr. A.N.Upadhye : "to provoke thoughtfullness and develop understanding on the strength of logic in one's Sampradaya" and "to secure respectibility for the basic principles of Jainism among the learned of the non-Jain schools" were the aims of the early Jain logicians. Moreover, the Jain scholars had emphatically accepted that in order to have a thorough understanding of the noble and profound principles of Mahavira, it is inevitable, that one is prepared for "diving deep into the meaning of the Sastras intelligently and logically." Besides, it also requires to be noted that a Jain logician hits hard at the vanity of pretended and vocal scholarship. "His challenge to blind faith and inherited orthodoxy full of inconsistency" is a hidden aim behind his creation. But then to sum up we can say that the chief aim is to understand the scriptures and the doctrine which again is not possible without the correct knowledge of Pramanas and Nayas, To Jains, "universal is a fact which can be understood by logical thought alone." The subject matter of Jain logic includes all such topics as are resulting from the Jain theory of knowledge and reality. Apart from the Pramanas as sources for knowledge the 'Nayavada' and Saptabhangivada' the 'Dravyastika' and 'Paryayastika' views, the enumeration and classification of Naya, the Jneya, are some of the quite interesting topics included in Jain logic.. 3.1.4 Jain Theory of Knowledge According to Jainism knowledge is one of the attributes of 4. A.N. Upadhye : Siddhasena's Nyayavatara and other Works (1971) p. 20 5. Satkari Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. -of Non Absolutism (1978) p. xiv

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50 Jain Theism soul. The cognition is to the soul. Jainism maintains that our knowledge of things and of their relations starts from experience and reason can at best serve to organise it. In other words the fundamental source of knowledge is "direct acquaintance furnished by observation.'' "The Jains admit five kinds of knowledges Mati, Sruti, Avadhi, Manahparyaya and Kevala"? (1) "Mati is ordinary cognition, obtained by normal means of sense perception.... (2) Sruti or testimony is knowledge derived through signs, symbols or words... Avadhi is direct knowledge of things, even at a distance of time or space. (4) Manaharpyaya is direct knowledge of the thoughts of others, as in telepathic knowledge of others' minds. Keval or perfect knowledge comprehends all substances and their modifications,'? The five kinds of knowledge, Jainas classify into 'Paroksa' i.e. mediate and 'Aparoksa' i.e. immediate. The mediate knowledge is further classified into Mati and Sruti and immediate knowledge into Avadhi, Manahparyaya and kevala. Mati, includes remembrance (memory), recognition, induction based on observation and deductive reasoning. There are three kinds of Matijnana viz' Upalabdhi' or perception, Bhavana' or memory, and Upayoga' or understanding."9 Matijnana is knowledge by means of the senses and mind. "Srutajnana" is of four kinds : viz Labdhi or association, Bhavana or attention, Upayoga or understanding and Naya or aspects of the meanings of things")0 About Kevalajnana' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes : "It is omniscience unlimited by space, time or object. To the perfect consciousness the whole reality is obvious, This knowledge, which is independent of the senses, which can only be felt and not described, is possible only for the purified souls free from bondage.""!! 6. Satkari Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of Non Absolutism (1978) p. 1 7. T.S. 1.9, Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vol. I-(1977) p. 293. 8. Dr. Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vo. I. (1977) p. 294, 295, Umasvati's Tattvartha Satras. 1. 29. 30. 9. Panchastikaya Samayasara- 42 10. Ibid., p. 43 11. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) IP. 295

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51 Jain Logic According to Jain theory of knowledge, "the laws (laws of thought) can be true and valid only if they are laws of reality..." The problem of truth is a logical problem and must be determined with logical means. "The criterion of falsity is contradiction."]2 The subjective experiences in a dream, when we wake up, are rejected by us as false because they are contradicted by our waking experiences." "The problem of falsity is thus ultimately a question of experience. The problem of truth is no less a matter of experience and a priori logic is absolutely incompetent to deal with it'3. Unlike the other realist systems of Indian philosophy, Jainism, proves to be more liberal in using the word 'experience' (Anubhava) as it includes even memory within the fold of experience. Here the term 'experience includes both internal and external cognitions." Valid knowledge, is a faithful representation of objects, and is therefore practically useful. Invalid knowledge represents things in relation in which they do not exist."'!4 The knowledge characterised by 'Samsya' or doubt, "Viparyaya' or mistake, and 'Anadhyavasaya' or wrong knowledge due to carelessness are erroneous knowledge. "We have eight kinds of knowledge, the five right and the three wrong ones. Only one kind of knowledge is active at a time.''}" From a brief narration of Jain theory of knowledge, what is most remarkable to note is that a Jain does not believe in the a-priori validity of the laws of thought. To him, "the fund of experience, is the ultimate source of knowledge and the final court of appeal in dispute about the nature of things."'16 Thus, in Jain theory of knowledge, we find that the nature of real can be understood from experience while the reflective thoughts are simply helpful to clarify our conception. All the three popular, 'laws of thoughts' : (i) The law of identity, (ii) The law of contradiction, and (iii) The law of excluded middle, all these, according to Jainism, are absolutely vague, useless and misleading. "If things were absolute, particulars having no character apart from its own self identity and if the predication of characteristics were only a figment of intellect, it would not be possible to explain the emergence of different concepts and their affiliation to different entities."7 The 12. S. Mookejee, The Jain Phi. of Non-Absolutism (1978) p. 4 13. Ibid., p. 4 1 4. Dr. Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vol.I (1977) p. 295. 15. Tattvarthasutra, 130 16. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 7 17. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 11

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52 Jain Theism main emphasis being on 'experience' or say being empiricism so far as the knowledge of reality is concerned, the Jain though accepts the validity of laws of thought yet does not believe in its aprioristic character.' They are the laws of reality and 'therefore can be discovered by experience alone.' So far, we endeavored to be very clear that valid knowledge. in Jainism, is valid knowledge of reality without contradiction. It is possible only through experience. "The Jain is a realist out and out."]8 On one side it's stand is against all sorts of scepticism and abstract speculation and on the other side it presents the complete antithesis of Vedanta which is the perfect philosophy from the idealistic point of view. Further to its theory of knowledge, Jainism asserts that knowledge attained is knowledge of real object. What is known is not all the aspects of the reality of an object, but only one or some. In Jainism knowledge depends on experience and experience is always partial, in the sense that the reality in totality is never revealed. Under the circumstance whatever is known is known in relation to a standpoint and therefore "absolution is to be surrendered."19 This is the root of Nayavada and Syadvada. We are going to discuss both in the succeeding chapters, and therefore here we simply make a note that what after all a Jain pleads for is the insistance on determining the nature of reality in confirmity with experience. 3.1.5 Nyaya Logic and Jain Logic Before we end the chapter, let us also note some important points of Nyaya logic and Jain logic with reference to theism. Here the most important and common in both is the instrumentality of logic. In Nyaya as well as in Jainism we find logic as a means to an end and not an end in itself. The purpose, in both the systems, is valid knowledge, or attainment of knowledge for which logic is an aid, Moreover, both the Nyaya system as well as Jainism, accept realism, which means that the physical objects of the world have their independent existence, To Jainism the substance of these objects- the world is 'Anadi' and not created by God. One may find differences with regards to the topics covered and their interpretations or classifications, in Nyaya as well as in Jainism, But then these are structural differences. With reference to theism, what we would like to note is a very serious and faithful effort to attain knowledge with the 18. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 21 19. Ibid., p. 23

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Jain Logic 53 help of logic and thus to attain liberation. All the detailed classifications, lengthy discussions, arguments and counter arguments, theories and doctrines that we find in Jain logic as well as Nyaya logic, are to guarantee the ability or capacity to know. There are a lot of issues agreed and accepted by Nyaya and refuted by Jain logicians and vice-a-versa. But then considering independently both have their value in their methodology or theory of knowledge. Both express "a common sense view of the world as a system of many independent realities"20 which are related to one another. One more resemblances we find between the Nyaya and Jain logic is that according to both, the individual self is a substance. Of course, in Jainism this self is both : existence as well as consciousness, while to Nyaya the self is "a substance which is not essentially conscious and intelligent but is so accidentally. "Nyaya conception of God is reduced to the position of a human being", while Jain concept of soul is glorified to the position of a supreme being. 3.1.6 Conclusion Jain logic, its long history and development, its methodology and theories have established its own place in Indian logic. By using Sanskrit, mainly after the 5th century of Vikram era, Jain logic could bring Jain philosophy to a distinct position. Jain logic has never lost its way into a morose, disinterested intellectual exercise. It has always remained practical and purposeful. It is this quality of Jain logic, say: its concern with life that has made even scholars forced to note Jainism as unique independent and original. With reference to theistic approaches, Jainism, believes in soul and its liberation. Moreover, it accepts and agrees to the fact that no liberation is possible without the true knowledge of reality; and logic or Pramana-Mimansa is the aid to such knowledge. What is theistic behind the logic is its use and purpose. Which is neither an intellectual exercise nor a game of arguments to refute, but to know and sharpen the understanding for the spiritual development towards liberation. 3.2 THEISTIC IMPORT OF SAMGRAHA NAYA In the previous section we discussed the Jain logic, its tradition and value in general. We also examined the Jain theory of knowledge and its consistency with Jain realism. Let us in this chapter take the Jain logic a little further. In fact, Nayavada, Anekantavada and Syadvad 20. Chatterjee & Dutta : An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p." -

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54 Jain Theism are interrelated. One is bound to misunderstand if proper attention is not given. The fundamental approach and acceptances in metaphysics bring Jainism to frame a particular theory of knowledge. This metaphysical background is the root on which the Jain logic rests and develops. Nayavada or the doctrine of Nayas again become the base for the Anekantavada and Syadvada. Let us examine the doctrine of Nayavadin detail to see its theistic implications. 3.2.1 Pramana (Valid Knowledge) Siddhasena Diwaker, the first Jain writer on pure logic, in his book Nyayavatara' which is a primer of logic, at the end sums up by saying, "This system of Pramana etc. is beginningless and endless though familiar to all persons in everyday practice, it is yet explained here."'! In the same book he begins with the definition of Pramana and says: "Pramana (valid knowledge) is the knowledge which illumines itself and other things without any obstruction. It is divided as Pratyaksa (direct knowledge or perception) and Paroksa (indirect knowledge) as knowables are ascertained in two ways." In Jainism we also find Pramana defined as "valid knowledge about the self and the nonself."'? This implies that to Jains the Pramana does not consist in a perception of pure existence (Sanmatra) or in 'an unconscious contact (Sannikarsa) of sense organ with the object.' "The Pramana is valid knowledge, regarding the self and the nonself; because Pramanahood cannot be met with otherwise."'+ Since 'Pramana is capable of making us accept the agreeable things and discard the disagreeable ones; it is but knowledge." Knowledge is either fallacious or true. Fallacious knowledge (Samaropa) is "superimposition which consists in determining a matter to be what it is not.'*6 It is of three kinds, viz. Viparyaya or illusion, Samasya or doubt and Anadhyavasaya or inattention."? Valid knowledge, as we have earlier said is either Pratyaksa or Paroksa. Pratyaksa or direct knowledge is 'clear' knowledge. It has "two modes : viz. practical 1. Upadhye A.N., Siddhasena Diwakar's Nyayavatara (1971) P. 32 2. Ibid 1 3. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara I. 2 4. H.S. Bhattacharya, Pramana Naya - Tattvakokalamkara commentary (1967 ) p. 17 5. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara I., 3 6. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara 1.7 7. Ibid., I. 8

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55 Jain Logic (Samvyavaharika) and the transcendental (Paramarthika).'The Paroksa Parmana is one that is wanting in 'clearness'. "It is of five kinds in as much as it may be recognition (Smarana), conception (Pratyabhijna), induction (Tarka), deduction (Anumana) and authoritative knowledge (Agama). The object of valid knowledge, according to Jains, is always a unity of number of aspects or characteristics, such as general and the particular, the existent and the nonexistent etc. "The object of that (i.e. the Pramana) is a thing having a nature which has many aspects, viz. the general and the particular and so on." The Jain theory, here, is found opposed to those for whom a thing or object of valid knowledge is only general essence or is only the particularity. So far we have seen the nature, the number and the object of 'Pramana'. Let us also see what 'Pramana is meant for. Of course, Pramana being valid knowledge' or 'pure knowledge' is the total or partial destruction of ignorance. The fruit of Pramana is of two sorts : direct and indirect," Direct fruit of all Pramanas is the annihilation of ignorance. As regards the indirect fruit of the pure knowledge is (a spirit of) indifference.''! It is also said that, the immediate effect of Pramana is the removal of ignorance; the mediate effect of the absolute knowledge is bliss and equanimity. While that of the ordinary practical knowledge is the facility to select or reject."!!! "The subject of all forms of valid knowledge is the self, as known by direct perception.")2 The spirit (soul or Jiva) is the knower, doer and enjoyer, illumines self and others, undergoes changes of condition, is realised only inself consciousness, and is different from the earth etc."}3 The soul, in Jaina philisophy, has knowledge and so it is different from that of Sankhya, Nyaya and Vaisesika philosophy. The soul as described in Jainism, is permanent but undergoes changes of condition. 3.2.2 Theory of Nayavada Valid knowledge in Jain philosophy, is divided into two modes : Pramana and Naya. Both, Pramana and Naya, are valid knowldege." Pramana is knowledge of a thing as it is, and Naya is knowledge of 8. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara II 4 10. Ibid., VI 3.4 12. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara VII 55 9. Ibid., V. I 11. Nyayavatara, 28 13. Nyayavatara, 31

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56 Jain Theism a thing in its relation. Naya means a standpoint of thought from which we make a statement about a thing."4 Siddhasena Diwakar in Nyayavatara writes. "Since things have many characters they are the object of all sided knowledge (omniscience); but a thing conceived from one particular point of view is the object of Naya (or one-sided knowledge)." It may be noted here that Naya is Pramana because it gives us valid knowledge of its object. Naya being a particular standpoint determines only a part of its object. The Jain logicians, reply to a charge that Naya becomes a forn of false knowledge as it determines the knowledge not of an object but part of an object. They say that false knowledge is knowledge about something which is not a real object or in confirmity to what it is, 'the part of an object and not non-object. The knowledge determined by Naya of an object is valid knowledge from that point of view, it does yield certain valid knowledge about the part of the object. 3.2.3 Seven Nayas (Standpoints) There are seven Nayas. They are Naigama' (non-distinguished) 'Samgraha' (the collective generic) 'Vyavahara' (the practical) "Rujusutra? (the straight expression) Sabda' (the verbal) Sambhirodha' (the subtle) 'Evambhata' (the such like)16 The Jain philosophy asserts that all objects possess two types of properties : Samanya or the general and 'Vesesa or the perticular or special. Both 'Samanya' and 'Visesa' are not outside the Dravya and Paryaya. Therefore, there are two sub-classes of these above named seven Nayas viz. "Dravyarthika' and 'Paryayarthika'. The first three Nayas i.e. "The Naigama, the Samgraha, and the Vyavahara are Dravyarthika Naya."'17 The other four are Paryayarthika. 14. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (1976) p. 49. 15. Nyayavatara, 29. 16. Naya Karnika, 2 17. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII 5, 6

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Jain Logic 57 "The Non-distinguished i.e. Naigama regards an object as possessing both the aforesaid (general and special) properties; (because) no particular thing in nature is possessed of a general property unaccompanied with some specific property, nor even of a specific property unaccompanied with the general one common to its class.''18 The generic or the Sangraha Naya takes account of the common or the general aspects only." "The practical or Vyavahara Naya is that view-point by which matters which are the objects of Samgraha Naya are systematically divided.":20 "The straightly expressed or the Rujusutra Naya consists in a tendency to fix on or emphasize only the mode which is straight, i.e. existent for the present:''21 "The varbal or the Sabda Naya attributes different meanings to a word in accordance with the difference in tense etc."22 "The subtle or the Samabhiradha Naya consists in attributing different meanings to synonyms according to their derivations."23 The such like or the Evambhata Naya maintains that words signify those objects which have the activities denoted by them."24 "The main difference between Pramana and Naya is this that" Pramana considers an object in its entirety, Naya in its particular aspect and part.''25 It is unfortunate that most of us are unacquainted with Nayavada, Syadvada and Anekantavada. In fact its value lies in its necessity to make any real progress in knowledge. "The philosophy of Nayas (standpoints) is an integral part of Jain Mataphysics."26 Nayavada takes care to see that one does not become a victim of imperfect information and being misled by it, Moreover, it should not be supposed that there are only seven Nayas or standpoints of views. In fact it can 18. Naya Karnika, 5 19. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII 13 20. Ibid., VII 23 21. Ibid., VII 28 22. ibid., VII 32 23. Ibid., VII 36 24. Ibid., VII 40. 25. H.S, Bhattacharya, Commentary on P.N.T. (1967) p.538 26. M. D: Desai, Introduction to Naya -Karnika in Nyayavatara and other works, (1971). p. 195 I do. .

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58 Jain Theism go to as many as seven hunderd or even more. The affirmations or judgements as expressed from any Naya or point of view can never be absolute one, but true only in relation to that point of view or Naya, Thus we find Judgements true from some point of view and false from another in order to be precisely correct, as a safety measure, therefore, each affirmation should be preceded by the phrase" Syat" which means 'may be' or 'soine how.' This clearly indicates that the judgement expressed is only relative and not absolute. 3.2.4 Significance of Samgraha Naya We have already seen that Sargraha Naya generic standpoint takes account of the common aspects only. The discussion presupposes a broad familiarity with the philosophical understanding of Samanya and Visesa - specially with reference to Indian philosophy. By 'Samgraha" we mean a standpoint which takes into account the numerous particularities as one identical aggregated whole a unity, a harmony. Here the particular or special aspect is reconciled to the common feature, When we consider generic view-point or the Samgraha we concentrate upon the generalities. The significance of Samgraha Naya lies in its scope, "The scope of such samanya or generality, as Satta' or pure being, is the widest possible and accordingly it is called the Maha-Samanya or ultimate generality.''27 "Thus we may speak of all individual things from their most general and fundamental aspect as "being". This according to Jains is the Vedanta way of looking at things."28 A student of Indian philosophy must be familiar that the concept of universal is nominalistic and conceptualistic in Buddhism while to Naiyayika it is objective. The Jain conception of universal is a well developed concept evolved from the most eminent logicians of the Jain logic like Samantbhadra, Siddhasena, Akalanka, Vidyanndi and Yashovijayji. Their views, as Prof. S. Mookerji observes in his book 'The Jain philosophy of non-absolutism', have created uniform tradition in subsequent Jain speculations. While interpreting the position of Samantbhadra, Prof. S. Mookerji writes, "Samantbhadra seems to be quite explicit that all 27. H. S. Bhattacharya- Commentry Of P.N.T. ( 1967) p. 521 28. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 1. (1975) p. 177

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Jain Logic 59 entities are unified by one common existence running through them all. That things are different numerically and qualitatively from one another is undeniable. But this numerical difference does not conceal their unity in respect of the universal characteristic viz., existence."29 All things, spiritual and material alike, are united by their participation in one common existence, though, they differ from one another as substance, quality and so forth.'30 The Jain concept of universal very much differs from Naiyayika's conception of universal. In the Jain conception, existence is not excluded and belief in an unchanging principle is totally rejected. "The universal is regarded, by Jains, as also dynamic. But the dynamic constitution does not make away with its unity in spite of variation of the media. The Jain can only affirm that the universal is not an unchanging unity existing as uniform and unaffected by the plurality of its substances."}In Jainism unity is emphasised as the unity of all reals in spite of their infinite variations being not ignored or rejected. This conception of universal clears that the world is not only a world of plurality but it is aslo a unity." It is one universal that the Jain metaphysic gives us. But the oneness is not secured at the secrifice of the many, nor are the many left in unsocial indifference. The Vedantist immolates the plurality at the altar of unity and the Buddhist fluxist sacrifices the unity to preserve the plurality...... In it (in Jainism) neither the unity nor the plurality is slaughtered, but both are preserved and kept in harmony.''32 3.2.5 Theistic Implication of Samgraha Naya We have seen that samgraha Naya deals with the general properties of an object. In its pure form, it is only concerned with the simple statement 'It is'. "The Jains admit that things are one in their universal aspect and many in their particular aspect."}} The things are infinite and are all different. They are different due to Visesa. But then alongwith the difference, alongwith the Visesa, if we accept the element of universal which is in it also, then it becomes the pure being or 'Sat' from Samgraha Naya point of view. We may call this 'Maha Samanya'. 29. S. Mookerjee, 'The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism' (1978) p. 266 30. Samantabhadra, 'Aptamilansa'p. 34 31. S. Mookerjee, 'The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism' (1978) p. 268 32. Ibid p. 272 33. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I. (1977) p. 177

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60 It may be called 'Maha Sat' or 'Param Sat' Which is the supreme self or God or Brahman, or absolute. Dr. Radhakrishnan says: "A plurality of reals is admittedly a relative truth. We must rise to the complete point of view and look at the whole with all the wealth of its attributes, If Jainism stops short with plurality, which is at best a relative and partial truth, and does not ask whether there is any higher truth pointing to one which particularises itself in the object of the world, connected with one another vitally, essentially and immanently, it throws overboard its own logic and exalts a relative truth into an absolute one." 34 Thus, as we have seen, the Samgraha-Naya leads to a theistic implication, and 'Maha Samanya' becomes Jain absolute. "The universal as a unitive principle is not regarding as figment of speculative thought, but as an immanent principle having a co-ordinate status with the individualities inherent in things."35 There is a unity cosmos with infinite plurality always gives us its partial picture, the Visesa can never reveal the whole nature of reality. "The whole gamut of reality, however, reveals its universal unitive nature as one existence when it is envisaged from the synthetic. angle of vision (Dravyarthika Naya)." 36 Thus by extending Samgraha Naya to a logical end what we derive is the" universe as one existence which manifests itself, as substance (Dravya) as it unifies the modes and attributes. This very existence is revealed as space, time or "evolves as phases and modes, attributes and states." All these are evolved from the same existence. "The different categories, (thus), viewed as functional variations of one principle, are no longer in a position of antagonism or indifferent isolation."'37 Jain Theism The Maha Samanya as we have seen earlier of 'one existence' or the universal as 'immanent principle' leads us to a theistic implication of Samgraha Naya and we arrive at the Jain absolute in whose relation only the Jain philosophy of non-absolutism becomes conceivable. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan observes, "One thing. however. is clear that it is only by stopping short at a half way house that Jainism is able to set forth a pluralistic realism."38 34. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I. (1977) p. 305-306. 35. S. Mookerji, The Jain Philosophy of Non -Absoltism (1978), p. 270. 36. Ibid., p. 271. 37. Astasahasri p. 113. 38. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977), p. 340.

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3.3 SYADVADA 3.3.1 Introductory Remark In the previous two sections we have seen the logical background of the Jain philosophy. "To those familiar with the conception of philsophy as a criticism of categories, we need not say that this doctrine of Nayas of standpoints is a logical one."34 Looking to the central theme of the present work, one may think the full exposition of Anekantavada and syadvada is not required. "But then considering anekantavada to be the heart of Jain metaphysics%40 and the real clue to understand and appreciate Jainism in its right spirit, I wish to have a full length discussion and exposition of all the issues which are related to Anekantavada. Syadvada and Nayavada. This creates the scope of discussion of the doctrine, its importance and philosophical significance, the objection and refutations, the critical evalution and so on. But then all these detailed exposition is to see that it confines itself consistantly with the aim of the present study. This we find being realized in our discussion of the doctrine of Syadvada with reference to Sarvajnata (omniscience) and the theistic implication of Syadvada. 3.3.2 Aneakantavada Let us first understand the term literally and then what it means philosophically. The term Anekantavada consists of three terms : 'anek', 'anta', and 'vada', The term 'Anek', means 'many', 'Anta', means "aspects', or 'attributes' and 'Vada' means 'ism' or 'theory'. In its simple sense, to Jains, it is a philosophy or a doctrine. It is a theory of manyfold aspects, It has been described and translated by modern scholars variously. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta expresses it as 'relative pluralism' against the 'extreme absolutism' of Upanisads. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma translates it as "doctrine of manyness of reality". Dr. Satkari Mookerjee expresses it as philosophy or doctrine of 'non-absolutism'. Closely associated to 'Anekantavada' is Syadvada. which is also expressed as theory of 'conditional predication' or "theory of relativity of propositions." Since the doctrine of 'Anekantavada' is opposed to absolutism or monism (Ekantavada) we would prefer "doctrine of 'non-absolutism" to convey the meaning of Anekantavada. 39. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy. I (1977) p. 301 40. Dr. Y. ). padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality and Knowledge. (1963) p. 273.

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62 Jain Theism Let us now understand what the philosophy or the theory of non-absolutism is the Jain theory of reality from its metaphysical point of view. The Jain approach to ultimate reality can be expressed in two words: realistic and relativistic. The universe is full of innumerable material atoms and innumerable individual souls. They are separately and independently real. Again each thing (Vastu) and each soul possesses innumerable aspects of its own. "A thing has got an infinite number of characteristics of its own."'! Thus according to the metaphysical presupposition of Jainism, a thing with infinie characters exists independently. . The Jain term for 'existent' is 'Sat? It designates an entity comprised of substance (Dravya), attributes (Guna) and mode (Paryaya). The qualities are free from qualities of their own and they invariably and continuously undergo modifications or changes. The substance and attributes are inseparable and the attributes being the permanent essence of the substance cannot remain without it. Modes, on the other side, are changing. There are modifications in the form of acquiring (Utpada) new modes (Paryaya or Bhava) and losing (Vyaya) old modes at each moment."'12 Thus a thing or "the conception of being as the union of pemanent and change brings us naturally to the doctrine of Anekantavada or what we niay call relative pluralism as against the extrme absolution of the Upanisads and the pluralism of the Buddhists.'' In view of the fact, "Jainism points out that both : the permanent (the one, the real of Bramanism) and the changing' (the many, the unreal of Buddhism), are the two sides of the same thing," ** Considering on one side the human limitations to acquire the knowledge of a thing with its all the infinite attributes and on the other side three characteristics of knowledge" possessing the three charcteristics of production, Destruction and permanence."45 nothing could be affirmed absolutely, as all affirmations could be relatively true under certain aspects or point of view only. "The affirmations are true of a thing only in a certain limited sense, and not absolutely."46 41. BriHEATEC at Saddarasana Samuccaya - 55 42. Frungarstaro pa iureface can! 43. Prof. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian philosophy Vol. I (1975) p. 175. 44. Dr. Chandradhar Shama, A Critical survey of Indian philosophy (1976) p. 51. 45. STAIGO tar a I Tattvarthasutra V-29 46. Tattvarthasutra & Saddarasana Samuccaya

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Jain Logic 63 Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah in his famous book 'The Jain theories of Reality and knowledge' says that "the metaphysical presupposition of Anekantavada, animating all the spheres of Jain philosophical thinking, recognises the objectivity of the material universe. The objectivity of the universe signifies the fact that the univese is independent of mind or consciousness. This independence, or the duality of consciousness and the material universe. necessarily presupposes the principle of distinction, which exerts a compulsive force until the logical goal of this principle is reached in the form of the development of the Jaina concepts of reality and knowledge into the comprehensive scheme of Anekanta realism... The claim that Anekantavada is the most consistant from of realism lies in the fact that Jainism has allowed the principle of distinction to run its full course until it reaches its logical terminus, the theory of manifoldness of reality and knowledge." 47 The theroy of non-absolutism clears that "reality, according to Jainism is not merely multiple but each real, in its turn, is manifold or complex to its core. Reality is thus complex web of manyness (Anek) and manifoldness (Anekanta). "'48 3.3.3 Syadvada We have already seen that according to Jainism the manyness and manifoldness is the metaphysical side of the reality. The theory of Anekantavada is the metaphysical theory of reality. But then Jainism brings out another aspect of reality and that is its relativistic pluralism. While Anekantavada explains the reality metaphysically, Syadvada explains it epistemologically. Both are the two aspects of the same Reality. We have alreaady seen how human knowledge is relative and limited which ultimately makes all our judgements relatively or partially true, and not absolutely. Syadvada is also called Sapta-bhangi Naya. Syadvada is known as the theory of relativity of propositions or theory of relativity of judgements. Some critics called it theory of relativity of knowledge. We can say that if Syadvada is the epistemological explanation of reality. Sapta-bhangi naya is the method or the dialectic of the theory of seven-fold judgement. It is the logical side of the theory. "The doctrine of Syadvada holds that since a thing is full of most contrary charactari stics of infinite variety, affirmation made is 47. Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality & Knowledge, (1963), p. 274. 48. Ibid., 275 6

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64 Jain Theism only from a particular standpoint or point of view, and therefore it may be correct or true. But the Same assertion may be wrong or false from some other standpoint or point of view. Thus assertion made cannot be regarded as absolute. All affirmations in some sense, are true, and are, in some sense, false. Similarly all assertions are indefinite and true in some sense, as well as indefinite and false in some other sense. Assertions could be true and false and indefinite. Thus Jainism, proposes to grand the non-absolute nature of reality and relativistic pluralism of the object of knowledge by using the word 'Syat' (or syad) before the assertion or Judgement. The word 'Syat' literally means 'may be' It is also translated by some authors and critics as 'perhaps', 'some how', 'relatively' or in a certain sense'. "The word 'Syat' or its equivalent in English, used before the assertion makes the proposition true but only under certain conditions i.e. hypothetically."49 What is to be noted is that the word 'Syat' is not used in the sense of probability leading to uncertainty. Probability again hints at scepticism and Jainism is not scepticism. Since reality has infinite aspects our judgements are bound to be conditions. Thus Syadvada is the theory of relativity of knowledge The Jains quoted quite a good number of parables which are conventionally used by Jain writers to explain the theory. It is beyond the scope of the present work to give a full account of these parables and explain the symbols. Dr. J. P. Jain in his book 'Religion and Culture of Jains' has mentioned quite a few. We may just mention one, the most famous one for the grip over the core of the theory. It is the famous parable of six blind men who happened to come accross an elephant. Each one touching differemt parts of the elephant's body conclude it to be as to what the animal was like "he who happened to touch the side of the elephant said it was like a wall, the one touching its foot said it was like a pillar, the third touched the trunk and said it was like the branch of a tree, the fourth touched the tail and said the animal a thick rope, the fifth touched the ear and held it to be like a winning fan and the last touched the tusk and believed it to be like a spear. Each one was sure and asserting about his own description alone to be correct. Though each one was correct, though contrary to each other, from his point of view. "Thus the Jains hold that no affirmation or judgement is absolute in its nature, each is true 49. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. Indian Philosophy Vol.I (1977) p. 302

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65 Jain Logic in its own limited sense only."The affirmations will tell either about the existence, or non-existence or about the existence and non-existence, or about the inexpressible. Combining these again the first three with the fourth we derive the seven alternatives technically known as Saptabhangi-Naya or the seven-fold Judgements." 3.3.4 Sevenfold Application of Syadvada (Conditional Assertion) The sevenfold applications are known as Sapta-bhangiNaya. In our previous discussion about the Syadvada we have taken note of the fact that the knowledge of reality is bound to be partial and therefore only relatively true but can never be absolute. To express the knowledge the proposition should begin with the word 'Syat'. In fact, "every Naya in order to become Pramana or valid knowledge must be qualified by Syat. "Syat is said to be the sumbol of truth."51 It is relative and successive knowledge."'52 "To reject Syat is to embrace unwarranted absolution which is directly contradicted by experience."53 Now the seven forms or predications and their characteristics may be treated with reference to the stock example of a pot (Ghata):1. In a certain sense, the pot is . (Syadasti Ghatah) 2. In a certain sense, the pot is not. (Syadnasti Ghatah) 3. In a certain sense, the pot is and is not. (Syadastinastica Ghatah) i 4. In a certain sense, the pot is inexpressible. (Syadavaktavyam Ghatah) 5. In a certain sense, the pot is and is inexpressible. (Syadastyavaktvyasaca Ghatah) 6. In a certain sense, the pot is not and is inexpressible (Syadnadstyavaktavyasca Ghatah) 7. In a certain sense, the pot is, is not and is inexpressible. (Syadastinasti cavaktavyasca Ghatah) 50. Prof. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975) P. 180 51. Apta Mimans.-X-112. 52. Ibid., X-101. 53. Ibid., I. 7

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66 Jain Theism in the above mentioned propositions, the word 'In a certain sense' is most significant. Words like "relatively' 'may be', 'some how' etc. are also used. But then by using any of these phrases for 'Syat' every proposition bears the the stamp of relativity, by which the notion ot' absolutism is refuted. "The gist of the seven-fold judgement of Jain dialectic is as under 1. Thesis (Positive) 2. Anti-thesis (Negative) 3. Aggregation (both positive and negative respectively) Synthesis (both positive and negative simultaneously) Thesis and synthesis (positive and both positive and negative simultaneously) 6. Anti-thesis and synthesis (Negative and both positive and negative simultaneously) Aggregation and synthesis (both positive and negative respectivly and both positive and negative simultaneously). 1. Existence 2. Non-existence 3. Existence and non-existence 4. Inexpressibility 5. Existence and Inexpressibility (1+4): 6. Non existence and Inexpressibility (2+4) 7. Existence, non-existence and Inexpressibility (3+4) This is the general view of the method of the Jain dialectic. Syadvada can be represented only by this type of dialectical nethod."***"The theory of sevenfold predication, is treated as ynonymous with Syadvada owing to the fact that, the number of Jossible or alternative truths under the conditional method of Syadvada ire seven only." 4. Mohanlal Mehta, Outlines of Jain philosophy. (1954) p. 121, 122 5. Dr. Y.J. Padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality and Knowledge. (1963) p. 334

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67 Jain Logic 3.3.5 Syadvada : Critical Evaluation The Jain theory of non-absolution or is also called the philosophy of Anekanta, is the very foundation of the Jain system of philosophy. In evaluating this philosophy let us first examine some of the main objection and comments as discussed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in his Indian Philosophy Vol. I, Prof. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M.Datta in their Introduction to Indian Philosophy and Prof. M.L. Mehta in his Outlines of Jain Philosophy. Followed by this will be the general appreciations by great personalities. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan writes "Sankara and Ramanuja criticised the Saptabhangi view on the ground of the impossibile contradictory attributes coexisting in the same thing."56 This change is mainly due to misunderstanding. In fact the Jains admit that thing cannot have selfcontrary attributes at the same time and at the same place. What Jainism emphasizes is the manyness and manifoldness of a thing the complex nature of reality. Dr. Radhakrishanan himself answers and says, "Since reality is multiform and ever-changing, nothing can be considered to be existing everywhere and at all times and in all ways and places and it is impossible to pledge ourselves to an inflexible creed." The late Dr.Ganga Nath Jha, a great Sanskrit and erudite Vedantist, remarked, "When I read refutation of this Syadavada by Samkaracarya, I came to the conclusion that the doctrine of Syadvada was very sound and that the Acaryas of Vedanta failed to understand it. I am sure if Samkara had taken the trouble to study the Jain scriptures, he would not have taken the pains to criticise this docrtine."58 Prof. Chatterjee and Datta discuss Jain doctrine of Syadvada often falsely compared with the pragmatism of the West or with theory of relativity or as agnosticism or scepticism. Prof. Chatterjee says that inspite of some similarity between the pragmatism and Jainism, it should be noted that, "Jains are realists, but the pragmatists have a distinct idealistic bias. According to the Jains, the different judgements about an object are not simply different subjective ideas of the object, but they reveal the different real aspects of the object. The Jains would 56. Dr.S.Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 304 57. Ibid., p. 304 58. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979) p. 71

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68 Jain Theism accept, therefore, a realistic view of truth which is rejected by all thorugh going pragmatists."59 The Jain Syadvada is sometimes compared to the Western theory of relativity. In Western philosophy we come accross two types of relativity idealistic and realistic. The idealistic is represented by Protagoros, Berkeley, Schiller etc., and the realistic is represented by Whitehead or Boodin. "If at all, the Jain is to be called a relativist, he must be understood to be of the realistic type." There is also a great degree of misunderstanding due to the term 'Syat' which means somehow, or perhaps, or may be, some thinkers form a sort of sceptic or agnostic view about the theory. "But it would be noted that Jain is not a sceptic. It is not the uncertainty of a judgement, but its conditional or relative character, that is expressed by the addition of the qualifying participle 'Syat'... There is, therefore, no room for scepticism"61 Prof. M. L. Mehta also gives a detailed refutation to some objections against Syadvada in his 'Outlines of Jain Philosophy.' He discusses the objections regarding affirmation and negation, regarding locus and identity, regarding identity and difference etc. and says that "there is no logical justification for the emergence of doubt in a matter which has been difinitely established."62 The positive and appreciative side of the theory of Syadvada could be realised through the words of some of the great philosophers and thinkers, both of East and West. We find Anekantavad even in Einstein's explanation as well as in Hegel: 'All nature is a reconciliation of opposites'. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan said ". but he who follows the Jain concept of Anekantavada, Sapta-bhangi-Naya or Syadvada will not adopt that kind of cultural regimentation". "Mahatma Gandhi is reported to have once said that he had a very high regard for the doctrine of Syadvada, and that he practised it in his life." Jawaharlal Nehru said, "We have to realise that truth is many-sided and it is not monopoly of any group formation." Dr. Rajendraprasad, the first president of 59. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & D. M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p. 86. 60. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & D. M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p. 86 61. Ibid., p. 86 62. Mohan Lal Mehta, Outlines of Jain Philosophy. (1954) p. 132

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69 Jain Logic India, observed, "The doctrine of Syadvada is a valuable contribution of Jainism to Indian religions and world philosophy." Prof. A.B. Dhruva puts as, "Syadvada is not a doctrine of speculative interest, one intended to solve a mere ontological problem, but has a bearing upon man's psychological and spiritual life."' Dr. H.S. Bhattacharya says, "Syadvada is a theory presenting things as they really are : it is not a set of formal propositions, divorced from and unconnected with matters of experience." Dr. A.N. Upadhhye writes, "It has supplied the philosopher with catholicity of thought, convincing him that Truth is not anybody's monopoly with tariff walls of denominational religion, while furnishing the religious aspirant with the virtue of intellectual toleration which is the part of that Ahimsa which is one of the fundmental tenents of Jainism." Lastly, in the words of Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah "Anekantavada is the heart of Jain metaphysics and Nayavad and Syadvada (or i) are its main arteries. or, to use a happier metaphor, the bird of anekantavada flies on its wings of Nayavada and Syadvada." 3.3.6 Syadvada and Omniscience The Jain metaphysics and epistemology with its logic or dialectic method has greately contributed to Indian thought. It is more so, perhaps, due to its doctrine of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada. The very foundation of these theories is Jain maintaining the reality to be dynamic and can consist only with relative or conditional predication. The theory of non-absolution is not simply a refutation or attack on absolution. It is a solution to many problems due to absolution. Dr. S. Mookerjee in his "The Jain philosophy of non-absolutism says, "If things were real in an absolute sense there would be no causation, as it is possible if only an event which was non-existent is brought into existence''63 "Again if things were held to be existent in an absolute sense, and if non-existence were denied the result would be equally disastrous. There would be no distinction of one thing from another, there would be no beginning, no end, there would be nothing like individualality. In other words, things would be nothing, entity would be reduced to non-entity."64 Thus we find that in Anekantavada and Syadvada Jains bring a solution to the age old controversy between the absolutism and nihilism or between the one and the many or the real and the unreal. 63. Dr. S. Mookerjec, The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism, (1978) p. 24 64. Ibid., p. 29

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70 Jain Theism The theory of non-absolutism, which is the foundation of Jain philosophy, holds that every proposition or assertion could be true, but only under certain condition hypothetically. It, thus suggests that every proposition or assertion could be false, under certain other conditions. This apparantly leads us to a contradiction when we think with reference to the concept of Omniscience or Sarvajnata. Sarvajnata or omniscience is the complete or perfect knowledge, knowledge of all (Sarva) the modes or attributes. Dr. Ramji Singh in his thesis on 'The Jain concept of Omniscience" observes that, "the Jain theory of relativism does not go against the Jain theory of Omniscience''65 What is of utmost importance to us and a worth noting point is the fact that inspite of the great value of the theory of Anekantavada and Syadvada. the Jains have not ended or wounded up all with it, Truth, as a truth, must be in its totality a whole truth. The Jains have attempted at Keval Jnana' the whole truth. And it is here that we find a vital difference between the Syadvada and Sarvajnata, inspite of both revealing the truth, "In the case of Keval Jnana', the knowledge is simultaneous'?66 The omniscient knowledge "is regarded as simultaneous rather than successive.'*67 Again we find that the immediate result of the absolute knowledge (Kevalajnana) is bliss and equanimity (Sukha, Upeksa), while that of practical knowledge (ie. Syadvada) is the facility to select or reject what is conductive or not, to self realisation.''68 One more difference, between the two though not a major one, is that one depends on sense perception the other i.e. Kevala Jnana, "arises only after destruction of abstructions."69 Such knowledge is directly acquired by the soul without the intervention of sense or signs. But then the most fundamental difference as Dr. Ramji Singh tells us, is that Syadvada "leads us to relative and partial truth whereas omniscience to absolute truth.'70 In short, to sum up, we can say that "while syadvada illumines the reality indirectly, the Kevala Jnana docs it directly.'71 besides one reveals the partial truth while the other reveals the whole truth. 65. Dr. Ramji Singh, The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974) p. 164 66. Aptamimamsi 101 67. Kumudcandra * Nyaya Vol. I-p. 88 68. pramANasya phalaM sAkSAdananivartanam / kevalasya sukhopekSe shesssyaadaanhaanthii:|| 69. sAmagrI vizeSa vizleSitAkhilAvaraNamatIndriyamazeSato mukhyam // Pariksamukham II. 11 70. Haribhadra, Anekanta Jaya Pataka - Vol II, p. cxx 71. Apta Mimamasa 105

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71 Jain Logic 3.3.7 Theistic Implication of Syadvada Syadvada inspite of its vital importance as a solution to metaphysical and epistemological problems, has great significance to the moral life of a Jain. In fact Jain logic is not simply a mental or intellectual exercise. It leads to a way of life, to an approach to reality which would be conducive to the ultimate aim of life. The spiritual of this approach, however, guards him at all times from extreme viewpoints, especially illusionism (mayavada, the basis of many Hindu sects), determinism (Niyativada, in which Jair. includes all forms of theism) and annihilationism (Ucchedavada, best represented by modern materialism"72 A person, having an Anekanta outlook, remains away from the extremes. This leads him to be sober and considerate towards others even if they do not agree or corelate. To consider temporary as permanent, false as true, and vice as virtue is extreme. It leads a person to a life of dogmatic cruelty and vices. The theistic implication of Syadvada ir that he is saved from such extremes if he practices Anekantavada mentally, physically and vocally. One of the theistic implications of Syidvada, as observed, is the tolerance it brings to one who adopts it. Dr. Rajendra Prasad says, "it consists of catholic views along with the capability to appreiate others' approaches to reality73 Thus Syadvada of Jains has been the greatest fosterer of mutual toleration. Morever, one who follows the Jain concept of Anekantavada" will have the spirit to discriminate between right and wrong in his own and in the opposite views and try to work for a greater synthesis"74 Thus the spirit to understand the other and other's standpoint and to learn to tolerate the conflicting or contrary situation helps a lot towards the higher development of right conduct (Symyak Caritra). It broadens the mind and makes person quite objective and open in his thinking. Such a person. like Jain monks, read extensively the treatises of other schools. It proves to be a good training to identify extreme views and to apply the proper corrections."75 Thus here also, we find Syadvada a great help towards right knowledge ( Samyak jnana), and right conduct. The first one is not possible without the rest two. Syadvada by moulding a person towards better conduct and higher knowledge, proves to be of great theistic significance. 72. P. S. Jaini, Jain path of Purification (1979) p. 96 73. Dr, I P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 72 74. Ibid., P. 71 75. P. S. Jaini, The Jain Path of Purification (1979) p. 96

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72 Jain Theism One of the aims of life is to make the earth, if not heaven at least, a better and worthier world, Syadvada in spite of "its dry dialectic and forbidding use of logic is not without a lesson for the practical men of the world. "The Jain conception of the dynamic constitution of reality and the-eternity of existence may be applied in the various fields of human activity to ensure our progress towards the "Summum Bonum", which is the goal of our destiny."76 Syadvada thus helps in understanding the nature of reals through experience which is the very first step of any progresssive theism. Pt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, an authority on Jainism in one of his essays on Anekantavada explains that the most of Anekantavada is. Ahimsa and that is the prime reason that Jain philosophy is based on Anekantavada. The very idea of not to hurt the others but to be kind sympathetic towards others' views and thus to be friendly, is the logical outcome of Ahimsa. Ahimsa in its positive concept becomes love and compassion. A perfect theism, not in its narrow rigid sense, but in the sense where broad religiousness, deep spirituality and high knowledge are thought of for the soul's ultimate libreration from the bondage, required syadavada as its valid approach to have an objective vision of truth, to be tolerant, to be synthetic and to have an attitude of impartiality, without all these no theism in its actual practice is possible. Syadvada shapes a personality into a theistic one. After all, "all that we are is the restult of our own thought' said Lord Mahavira and what we think as well as how we think refers to our biliefs and experiences. In the light of their great truth Syadvada has tremendous implication on moral and spritual aspects of life. And at the end, in the words of Sri P. S. Jaini, "the Jain with his teaching of Anekanta and its corollaries, Nayavada and Syadvada, escapes the doctrinal necessity of having to follow a single restricted path. All paths can be seen as valid in some respect: thus a Jaina is able to co-ordinate (Samuccaya) various methods into his path of purification (Moksa Marga) which is defined as a combination of insight (Darsana) into the nature of reality (along with faith in this view), critical knowledge (Jnana) as outlined in the scripture, and pure conduct (caritra). This for the Jain, is the comprehensively valid path of salvation,"77 76 Dr. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Philosophy. of Non-Absolutism (1978) p. 48 77. P. S. Jaini, The Jain Path of Purification (1979) p. 97.

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Jain Logic 73 Syadvada with all its implication and significance, is a must for any theistic approach in its true sense and spirit. 3.3.8 Dr. Radhakrishnan's View Pandit Dalsukh Malvania in his essay on Ankantavada in Jain Dharma Chintan' has examined Dr. Radhakrishnan's view. He says that "Dr. Radhakrishnan is known for his comparative religion of East and West. It is quite possible that he may not have any objection with nonabsolutism of Jainism, but he has been highly impressed by the Advaita Vedanta. Dr. Radhakrishnan in criticising non-absolutism says that if at all there is any fault with non-absolutism it is only this that Absolute has no place in it. To this Pandit Dalsukh Malvania very humbly replies that to discard absolute from non-absolutism is not a fault but a feature. After all non-absolutism is meant to oppose absolute of so many different types and kinds. Moreover, one can not say that absolute has no place in non-absolutism. The concept of Brahman as propagated by Advaita Vedanta the absolute has been accepted by Jains as a partial truth in their Sangraha. Naya. The theory of non-absolutism evolves only from such different imaginative absolutes, and it determines their place in the whole truth or absolute truth. In fact, Anekanta does not evolve if such absolutes are not to be synthesised. Thus one can interpreat, Dr. Radhakrishnan's criticism only as his love for Brahman as explained by Advaita Vedanta.'78 3.3.9 Pandit Dalsukh Malvania's View Let us also take note of Pandit Malvania's view as reflected in the above referred essay. He says, "It is true that controvercy is mainly due to the use of language, and in the higher state of Dhyana or meditation, where thought or logic has no scope, and where there is only self or only realised goal object, there is a realisation of "whole' which is described as absolute. But the same absolute, when described, its alternatives (relatives) arise. Thus relative and absolute both are accepted in non-absolutism. In other words, non-absolutism accepts both effability as well as the ineffability of an object. From this point of view also, as per iny (Pandit Malvania) humble opinion, it is worth considering before saying that absolute has no place in non-absolutism. In the theory of non-absolutism, absolute has its own place, but it is not so that only absolute has place. It becomes so only because of the 78. Pt. Malavania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) p. 188-189

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74 Jain Theism nature of the theory of non-absoltism. Not to reject the reality of the object of meditative state of mind or the object of sensuous experience is the speciality of the theory of non-absolutism. To it the Niscaya Naya is true and so is the Vyavahara Naya also..... In Jainism Parama Brahma is accepted under Niscay Naya and Prapanca is accepted under Vyavhara Naya. And both, Niscaya as well as Vyavahara, are accepted as true by the Jainism. Thus from Niscaya Naya point of view absolute has a place in Jainism, but it is not absolute only that has a place. Non-absolute has also a place in Jainism because it also accepts Vyavahara Naya as equally true." 5579 3.3.10 Conclusion The logical background of Jaina phiosophy, as earlier said, is not simply dry dialectics and uninterested intellectual exercise. It leads to a very happy solution between "the nihilism on one hand and absolute monism on the other, as well as between the shallow realism of materialism and the ludicrous stand of the idealists. It fosters a rational outlook and an appropriate attitude of looking at things, conditions and relations, gives a breadth of vision, and helps a right and proper evaluation of ultimate realities."80 Moreover, "Jain logic of Anekanta is based not on abstract intellectualism but on experience and realism. In fact "the integrity of truth consists in this very variety of its aspects, Within the rational unity of an all comprehensive and ramifying principle. To Jain logic in general and Syadvada in particular, "a thing is neither an absolute unity nor split up into an irreconsilable plurality. It is both unity and plurality all the time. There is no oppsition between unity of being and plurality of aspects." If we agree that we have to be kind and tolerent to counter points or counter views. Syadvada takes away the dogmatic onesidedness and makes room for the view that theism may be perhaps more suitable view to understand and to make more effective Jainism as religion and ethics. It is this characteric of Jain Logic that draws our attention at its highly theistic implications. 83 79. Pt. Malavania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965), p. 188-191. 80. Dr. J. P. Jain Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) P. 73-74 81. Dr. Ramji Singh, The Jain Concept of omniscience (1974) p. 165 82. M. D. Desai, Nyaya Karnika, P. 25 (introduction) 83. Dr. S. Mookerjee, The Jain philosophy. of Non Absolutism (1978) p. 27.

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CHAPTER - 4 JAIN ETHICS 4.1 Jain Ethics In Theistic Presuppositions The mataphysics and epistemology are the theoretical foundation of philosophy. "The third branch-ethics-may be regarded as its technology.""! All the great religions of the world have emphatically considered ethics to be a very important code of rules to govern man's conduct in the society. Ethics has been defined as "the study of what is right or good in conduct. It is the general theory of conduct and considers the action of human beings with reference to their rightness or wrongness, their tendency to good or to evil."'? In Indian philosophy, "Purvamimamsa defines Dharma (ethics) as rules laid down by Vedas."3 According to Jainism" Dharma (ethics) is made up of non-violence, self-control and austerity." In the West, ethics is the study of what is right or good in conduct. Internationally aclaimed thinker, novelist and author of many books on philosophy Ayn Rand says, "Ethics does not apply to everything that exists, only to man, but it applies to every aspect of man's life : his character, his actions, his values, his relationship to all of existence. Ethics or morality defines a code of values to guide man's choices and actions the choices and actions that determine the course of his life."" The problem of ethics as seen in the varions systems of Indian philosophy is the attainment of "a state of complete mental pose, free, from discords and uncertainties of life.'*6 Jainism holds that all worldly pleasure is suffering in the ultimate analysis. All "Singing is but prattle, all dancing is but mocking, all ornaments are but a burden all pleasures produce but pain."'? The Jain ethics is concerned the most at the point 1. Ayn Rand, Philosophy Who Needs It. (1984) p. 3/4. 2. Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics, (1946) p. 1 3. Mimamsadarsana, (1929) I, 1.2 4. at H eng 3 HT Ficht gati D.S.V 17. 5. Ayn Rand, Philosophy Who Needs It. (1984) p. 3 6. prof. Dayanand Bhargava, Jain Ethics, (1968) p. 9 7. "Hoc facifari titi, Hool Tg fusferi Ho 3119TUTT HITT, HO OTAT GATCET II U.S. 13. 16

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76 Jain Theism : "By what act can I escape a sorrowful lot in this unstabe, ineternal Samsara, which is full of misery ?"? There are more points concerning ethics to be remembered. Ethics, as we have already seen, being an application of the theory, being technology of philosophy it is determined by the answers and solutions arrived by metaphysics and epistemology. "Before you come to ethics, you must answer the questions posed by metaphysics and epistemology.' In Jainism, we find ethics, theories of conduct in accordance with its metaphysics and epistemology. 4.1.1 Historical Background of Jain Ethics Regarding the origin of Jain ethics Jacobi is of the opinion that the Jains have borrowed the rules of ascetic life from the Brahmans. This opinion has been rejected by Prof. K. C. Sogani. He discusses in full length and quotes a number of authorities in support to his observations, that "Jain monachism does not seem to have originated from Brahmanical idea of Samnyasa."'10 He also quotes Dr. Upadhye and says, "Before the advent of the Aryans in India, we can legitimately imagine that a highly cultivated society existed along the fertile banks of the Ganga and Jamuna and it has its religious teachers. Vedic texts have always looked with some antipathy at the Magadhan country where Jainism and Buddhism flourished, and these religions owe no allegiance to the vedic authorities."'\\ Prof. K. C. Sogani concludes by saying that Jain ethics is Magadhan in origin. 4.1.2 Philosophical Background of Jain Ethics By philosophical, I mean, metaphysical and epistemological background, the background on which ethics depends, Jainism has been discussed at sufficient length from its metaphysics as well as epistemology and logic point of view in the previous chapters. Jainism, in its metaphysics, accepts the theory of "pluralistic realism, and adopts a theory of "Bhedabheda" or difference in identity."'!? The realism of 8. 3rd GITARAUFH, Harris quoque ! fa uns out paupi, Jug gong of To It U.S. 8.1 9. Ayn Rand Philosophy Who Needs It, (1984) p. 3 10. Prof. K. C. Sogani, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, (1967) p. 12 11. Ibid. p. 12 12. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.I (1977) p. 313

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Jain Ethics 77 Jainism is very much different from that of Carvaka's realism and also different from the realism of the other systems of Indian philosophy. Jainism accepts everthing to be 'real' i.e, everything exists independently and the universe, which is full of substances (Dravya), is since the beginningless time (Anadi). Again matter is infinite in number and each one has infinite qualities. The matter (Dravya) being "a combination of attributes (Guna) and modes (Paryaya)")} is "either real and or unreal, either existant and /or non-existant."?4 This makes the matter 'many' and 'manifold'. Jainism asserts that "reality has infinite aspects which are all relative and we can know only some of these aspects."15 Knowledge of a thing thus becomes partial or. conditional and true from a certain standpoint. Due to infinite qualities possessed by substance which are of contrary nature and due to human limitation, knowledge of the 'real' or 'truth' is always relative. Jainism, from metaphysical and epistemological point of view, is both 'Realistic' and 'realativisitic'. It has "pluralistic realism" and "theory of non-absolutism as chief assertions that governs the other philosophical issues, including its ethics. One more issue to be observed in Jainism, unlike the other systems of Indian philosophy, is its, "equal emphasis on both knowledge and conduct."lo This puts 'conduct' (Samyak Caritra) on a very formidable status in equal degree to knowldege and faith. 4.1.3 Jain Ethics If salvation is to be attained, the poluted soul is to be purified, the soul loaded with Karma should be made free from the weight. Man's inner nature has to undergo a radical change and for that morality is inevitable. "Belief in real existence or Tattvas is right faith; knowledge of real nature without doubt or error is right knowledge. An attitude of neutrality without desire or aversion towards the object of the external world is right conduct."7 The three (right faith, right knowledge and right conduct) together form one path, and are to be simultaneously pursued."18 Pt. Dalsukh Malvania has, at one place, described Jainism as "an ethical system."14 and "the summum bonum of the Jain religion 13. "quietar zamy" | T.S.-5.37 14. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (1976) P. 54 15. Ibid P. 52 16. Ibid P. 54 17. Tratef staari Hell gytam 1 T.S. 1.2, P. 115 18. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 325 19. "Though an ethical system Jainism is a religion" it approaches to the study of religion (seminar paper) p.93

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78 Jain Theism is the attainment of salvation or Moksa."20 Ethical discipline (AcaraDharma) brings about both the spiritual purification and social fitness and thus it becomes an important aspect of Jainism. "Righteous conduct has two forms: (1) with partial nonattachment (2) with complete non-attachment. Former is observed by the nonks (Sadhus)."?! Apart from minor differences, virtually the two forms of code of conduct differ only in its intensity. The Jain Tirtharkaras were aware of human weaknesses. They knew that the path of renunciation is not easy for all to follow. Hence they preached and propagated two sets of rules of conduct- one for househo the other for monks. We will, of course, for the sake of brevity and preciseness, discuss these rules in general to get the real nature and signficance of Jain ethics. Good conduct is briefly described in Jainism as refraining from what is harmful and doing what is beneficial. In other words, a good conduct is "what helps the self to get rid of Karmas that lead him to bondage and suffering."2 The code of rules for the stoppage of the influx of Karmas and for the eradication of the old one to purify the soul, are composed and named as (1) Panch-Mahavrata' or five great vows (2) Practice extreme carefulness (Samiti) in walking, speaking, receiving alms and other things, and answering call of nature so as to avoid any harm to any life, Practice restraint (Gupti) of thought, speech and bodily movements, (4) Practice Dharma of ten different kinds, namely, forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truthfulness, cleanliness, self-restraint, austerity (internal and external). sacrifice, non-attachment and celibacy. (5) Meditate on the cardinal truths taught regarding the self and the world. 20. Prof. P. R. Jain, Fundamentals of Jainism, Essay pub. in Jainsm', p. 36 21. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansurishverji Maharaj, Atma Tatva Vichara or Phi. of Soul, (1963) p. 516 22. azubhAt vinivRtti zubhe pravRtti ca jAnITi cAritram / Wafufufa fa Qar FC Z fwfOTA 11 D.S. 45 23. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 106

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Jain Ethics 79 (6) Conquer, through fortitude, all pains and discomforts that arise from hunger, thirst, heat, cold etc. and Attain cquanimity, purity, absolute greedlessness and perfect conduct." 24 Jain ethics includes different Gunvratas and Siksavratas."25 The five great vows aim at 'virtue consists in five-fold conduct of one who has knowledge and faith. These five vows are (1) Ahimsa or non-injury in thought, speech and deed, (2) Satya or truth, (3) Asteya or not to steal, (4) Brahmacharya or chastity in words, thought and deed, and (5) Aparigraha or renunciation by thought, speech and action. Ahimsa "If Jainism has been described as an ethical system par excellence', Ahimsa is the keynote of the system...... and, it pervades the entire length and breadth of the Jain code of right conduct, the path, The chief criterion with which to judge the rightness and goodness of a thought, word or deed is Ahimsa."26 Ahimsa in its simple meaning means non-injury to life. Life according to Jainism exists in the moving being (Trasa) as well as in some non-moving (Sthavara) ones such as plants. This makes the practice of Ahimsa to its minutest exactness, almost impossible. Ordinary lay men are advised, therefore, to begin with the partial observance of ahimsa as "anuvrata. Jain metaphysics ascribes equal importance to all souls. All souls are potentially equal. "If every soul, however lowly now, can become as great as any other soul, then one should recognize the value and the claims of every life as his own. "Respect for life whereever found' becomes then an irresistable duty."27 Since all our actions are 24. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 106 vratasamitiguptayaH dharmAnaprekSAM parISahajayaH ca / afsi ate an air fagtat: il D.S.-35 25. See, Prof. K. C. Sogani Ethical Doctrines in Jainism (1967) p. 91-92 26. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Calture of Jains, (1977) p. 99 27. Prof. S. C. Chatterji & Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 107

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80 Jain Theism generated from thoughts and sppech, Ahinsa does not mean only not to kill; one should not even think of injury or speak something that would hurt, nor even allow some one to do so, nor encourage others to do so. In the words of Dr. J. P. Jain "In almost every civilized religion sanctity of human life has been recognised, but few go beyond it. Jainism, however, recognises the sanctity of all life, including beasts, birds, fish, fowl and the smaller creatures down to the lowliest of the lowly. With it, life is sacred in whatever form it is found to exist."28 Thus "the chief feature of Jainism is Ahimsa. "29 "The value of five great vows (Panch Mahavrata) is recognized by the Upanisadic thinkers as well as the Buddhas (who teach the Panch-sila). The principles of most of these are recognised also in the commandments of the Bible. But the Jains try to practice these with a regour scarcely found elesehwere."30 Jain ethics explains the concept of "Punya' and Papa. "Punya' or merit is an action that brings peace to the mind e.g. giving food to the deserving, water to a thirsty, clothes to poor etc. Sin or Papa is inflicting injury or suffering or Hinsa; even untruthfulness, dishonesty, unchastity are also sins. "The ethical system of Jains is more rigorous than that of the Buddhists."31 It looks upon patience as the highest good and pleasure as a source of sin."32 What is expected from a householder is that he becomes indifferent to both pleasure and pain. "The Jiva, which through desire for outer things experiences pleasurable or painful states, loses his hold on self and gets bewildered, and led by outer things. He becomes determined by the other "33 "That Jiva, which being free from relations to others and from alien thoughts through its own intrinsic nature of perception and understanding perceives and knows its own eternal nature to be such, is said to have conduct that is absolutely self determined."34 28. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of Jains, (1977) p. 101 29. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 327 30. Prof. Chatterjee & Dutta, An Int. to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 106 31. Dr. S. Radhakrisbanan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 326 32. A.S., Sacred Book of East, xxii p. 48 3. Pa chastikayasamaysara, 163 34. Ibid 165

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Jain Ethics 81 In the words of Lord Mahavira. "Man, thou art thine own friend, why wishest thou for a friend beyond thyself ?"35 There is also a place and importence for meditation and Yoga in Jainism. In fact, terms Yoga and Dhyana are synonymous in Jainism. It talks about four kinds of Dhyana. (Arta Dhyana, Raudra-Dhyana, Dharma-Dhyana, Shukla-Dhyana) two bad Dhyanas and two good ones. According to Jainism one is never in a state of noDhyana. The Dharma Dhyana and Sukla Dhyana are the higher ones. The Sukla Dhyana is the sublimest and the subtlest. "Dhyana, or meditation is to be enjoyed, since it enables us to acquire strength for fulfilling the vows."36 What is worth noting is that Jainism accepts possibiltiy of "non-Jains attain salvation if only they follw the ethical rules laid down. "37 Thus, in our final conclusion over the structural part of the Jain ethics, we observe that it uplifts an individual in his spirituality as well as moulds him into a worthy moral and social being. Again the conception of morality in Jain ethics is to be interpreted with reference to law of Karma. "Emancipation from mundane existence, which is the ultimate aim of life, can not be attained by mere observance of virtue."3 Perfection, according to Jainism, is possible with the total annihilation of Karmas, "It is a state beyond vice and virtue. One may become worse or better by vicious or virtuous activities, but not perfect. :39 "What is necessary is a considered balance between the two, the supramoral plane of life and the practical code of morality." Practical code of morality is meaningless if it does not lead to the higher supra- moral plane of life. 1140 35. Sacred Book of East xxii p. 33 36. hiMsA ddiSvihAmutra yApAyAvadyadarzanam // 4 // duHkhameva vA // 5 // maitrI prabhAyakAraNamAdhyatyAni sattvaguNAdhikaklizyamAnA vineveSu // 6 // jagatkAyasvabhAvau ca savaigavairAgyArtham // 7 // T.S.VII. 4.7 37. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 328 38. 39. 40. Pravachansara- 3-56 Prof. Dayanand Bhargava, Jain Ethics, (1968) p. 74 Samanyasarakalasa. (1959) p. 267

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82 Jain Theism 4.1.4 Theistic presuppositions To sum up what has been discussed as the structual part of Jain ethics what we clearly notice is the fact that Jain ethics deals with certain definite codes (Acara) both for the householder as well as for the monk. They are rigorous because ultimately it insists on self-effort. The Keynote of the system is Ahimsa.' All the numerous rules, woven into a systamatic ethical code of right couduct, revolve round this central doctrine of Ahimsa. The sanctity of life, including that of birds and beasts, itself is holy and religious. The full recognition of this sanctity, in any form, turns out to be religious. To a Jain, Ahimsa is not just an ethical code but much more than that. To him Ahimsa is an approach which is highly religious and highly theistic as it is through Ahimsa he aspires to achieve the highest goal of life. Dr. J. N. Sinha in his 'A History of Indian philosophy' (Vol.II) Writes "The Jain ethics stresses meditation on love (Maitri) for all creatures, compassion for the distressed (Karunya), delight (Pramoda) at the virtuous, and indifference (Upeksa) to the vicious. These are social virtues. They make for social harmoy. But they are regarded as the means of selfculture. Their significance is not emphasized. Social welfare is not the goal of morality. self perfection or self-realization is the highest good. Complete eradication of emotions and passions is indispensable for self-realization for they disturb the tranquillity of the soul. Even devotion to the Arhat, which is a kind of noble attachment, should be eradicated. Complete passionlessness and inactivity of the mind, body, and speech are necessary for perfection. Thus the Jain ethics is rigoristic and ascetic, though it recognizes the social virtues of benevolence, charity and love. But it cannot be said to be egoistic. It upholds eudaemonism as to the 'summum bonum' and rationalism and asceticism as to the means of its attainment, It regards transcendental purity (Visuddhi) of the soul as the highest good, beyond virtue and vice which generate beneficial and harmful karma particles or impurities. This is purism or rationalism. The Jain ethics of ahimsa and universal love and goodwill is a grand contribtion to ethical thought. These should be the foundation of the new order.' Even the other great vows like, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacarya and Aparigraha, proclaim highest morality which is operative to immortality. Jain ethics, thus envisages the salvation of all living beings,

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Jain Ethics 83 irrespective of any such barriers of sex, age, color, caste, creed, class, status. This makes Jain ethics a very effective one and its objective validity and the sanctity of the high morals, in one way or the other, lead to the acceptance of a divine law giver. Pt. Dalsukh Malvania has described Jainism "though an ethical system is a religion."?+! He has listed the reasons for considering Jainism as a religion. Prof. L.M. Joshi in this regard writes that, frankly speaking the word Dharma is much more meaningful and comprehensive than the word 'religion"? "Nevertheless, Dharma whether of the Jains or Buddhas, has inspired a profound conception of supreme holiness,'?43 which, in its essential nature proves to be anything but atheistic. Thus the Jain system of ethics comes out as a religion of holiness which cannot escape thestic color. Moreover, Jain ethics is nothing but an Acate-Dharma. Its goal is Samyak-Caritra or right conduct. The 'righteousness' of any thought, speech or action, or say, of any conduct is an ethical quality. This righteousness in Jainism is expected to be result-oriented i.e. leading to a spiritual upliftment. The spiritual upliftment in Jainsim would mean the soul purer than before. It means the soul progressing towards achievements aspired by the religion. Spiritual upliftment is the result which is not possible without the practice of religion its codes and vows. Thus the spiritual upliftment logically leads to a theistic position. Moreover, we have seen how Jain ethics, not only dependent on but is derived from and is consistent with Jain metaphysics and Jain epistemology whose theistic implication we have already examined in our previous chapters. Jain ethics being quite consistent with the philosophy of Jainism must be consistent with theism. Here, we should also take note of those theistic elements that peep out from the window of certain Jain Acara. Pandit Dalsukh Malvnia, in one of his essays on 'The Fundamental doctrine of Jain ethics', 44 discusses some of the original doctrines, in the sense that, 41. Pt. Malvania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) 42. Prof. L. M. Joshi, Facets of Jain Religiousness in Comprative Light, (1981) p. 40 43. S. A. Reality, p. 298 44. Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) p. 52-66

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84 Jain Theism they are found in Jain ethics only. Pandit Dalsukh Malvania throws light upon the logical consistency in the practice of Acara, attitude to reject conduct that is not acceptable and agreeable to me if others inflict upon me (Atmaupamya drsti) and activeness (Apramada) He, in his support quotes Acarangsutra, which defines idleness to be violence and conduct without 'right knowledge' (Samyak Jnana) as meaningless.' According to Jainism rigid rituals and conduct devoid of right knowledge (Samyak Jnana) resulting from the meaningful practice of the great vows and penance, and the constant efforts to stop the influx of evil Karmas together with cautiousness, celibacy, awakeningness and compassion results from 'Activeness' (Apramada). These fundamental moral doctrines of Jainism are ultimately leading its practitioner towards self-realisation attainment of salvation, Again the meaning, purpose, and dignity of these moral doctrines pose before us nothing but the acceptance of supreme being and also the acceptance of full scope to become supreme being by raising the soul in its purest form, Jain religion and ethics, through which a Jain tries to attain this, becomes theistic, both in theory and in practice. The concept of morality with reference to Jain religion is also a good clue to disclose its theistic presupposition. Sound morality is not possible without religion. It appears that Jain leaders were very much interested in emphasiing the freediom and responsibility of the individual soul which is very much necessary for ethics, and ethics is an integral part of theism. When the relationship between Karma and God is emphasized beyond a limit then the Sadhakas try to lean more on 'grace' than on individual effort. Hence sometimes, it is very necessary in the interest of ethics to suspend or bracket this aspect of God's nature so that the Sadhakas work with individual effort and accept personal responsibilities. It can be compared with a metaphysical silence of 'Buddha'. Jainism, as we have seen, is a religion having an ethical system. What could be the point of view of religion and morality? Ultimately one has to think of partiality and point of view. While thinking about the Jainism as religion and system of ethics we are led to think from its concept of the holy pentad viz. the Arhats, the Siddhads, the Acaryas, the Upadhyas and the Sadhus. The concept of the holy pentad "has functioned as the foundation of faith and centre of devotion in Jain community... The nature of this 'faith' which 45. 'AtmanaH pratikUlAni pareSAM na samAcaret / (4

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Jain Ethics 85 the western writers have called 'Jainism', the Jains themselves call it 'Dharma." 46 Thus we find a clear assertion of Jain form of morality and religiousness in the religious faith' towards the five classes of holy beings through the practice of Jain moral code or ethics. It brings out nothing but a theistic vision of the ultimate truth and "the fact remains that it represents a kind of faith or human quality which has successfully engaged a section of humanity- the Jaina community in the task of growig in holiness in quest of transcendental perfection.""? On the strength of the above mentioned reasons and discussion on then, we conclude that the Jain ethics presupposes a kind of theistic authority for the objective sanction of its code and its leaning towads 'Holy pentad' for ethical practice are very clearly theistic. 4.2 The Law of Karma and its Theistic Implications 4.2.1 Introduction The doctrine of Karma is of great importance for every student of religion and philosophy. 'Karma, a central, if not fundamental, doctrine in most of the world's religions,"48 The doctrine of Karma is one of the most significant tenets of Indian philosophy. "It has profoundly influenced the life and thought of the people in India." In general it means that all actions, good or bad, produce their effects. It helps us to understand certain difference amongst the individuals as well as desparities observed in life. "The law of Karma is the general moral law which governs not only the life and destiny of all individual beings, but even the order and arrangement of the physical world. "Su In modern society incorruptible men suffer immensely and the dishonest prosper. This kind of personal and social inequalities have been a perennial problem of provident and social justice."SlThe doctrine of Karma is a philosophic solution to this problem. It is the basic postulate of Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism. "One finds an unanswerable truth 46. Dr. L. M. Joshi, Facts of Jain Religiousness in Comparative Light, (1981) P. 38 47. Dr. L. M. Joshi, Facts of Jain Religiousness in comparative Light, (1981) p. 39 48. R.Zimmermann S.J.,F. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy by Glasenapp. (1942) p. Viii. 49. Cave (Sidney), Living Religions of the East p. 31 50. Prof. S.C.Chatterjee and D.M.Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 15-16. 51. Prin. T. G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth, Ahmedabad, (1972)

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86 Jain Theism in the theory of Karma not necessatly in the form the ancients gave to it, but in the idea at its centre which at once strikes the mind and commands the assent of the understanding.... There is a solidity at once of philosophic and practical truth supporting the idea, a bed-rock of the deepest universal undeniable verities against which the human mind must always come up in its fathomings of the fathomless, in this way indeed does the world deal with us, there is a law here which does so make itself felt and against which all our egoistic ignorance and selfwill and violence dashes up in the end... There is the secret of an eternal factor, the base of the unchanging action of the just and truthful gods, Devanam dhruvavratam, in the self-sufficient and impartial law of Karma."?? "The doctrine of Karma is the central dogma of the Indian religions. It means : every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect-the Karman : every action produces, if one may so express it, certain potential energies which under given conditions are changing themselves into actual energies, forces which, either as reward or punishment, enter sooner or later into appearance."933 The doctrine of Karma has been, in Buddhism, explained thus: "As in the case of a bond which, although the amount borrowed may long ago have been spent, continues to exist and only loses its validity on the repayment of the capital sum, so also the invisible effect of an action remains in existence long after the visible one has disappeared.'*54 The present life is, in its duration and condition, the result of the past actions, and actions performed during the presint existence are the causes of future existence. Everybody's existence and life is determined as per the previous Karma. "Thus the natural difference between individuals finds an explanation which is so plausible that inversely it is adduced as a proof of the truth of the Karman theory.''55 The doctrine of Karma has been intimately connected with the doctrine of the reincarnation of soul. "Karma and rebirth are the two concepts which cannot be considered by themselves in isolation. The 52. Aurobindo, the Problem of Rebirth, (1952) p. 84 53. Dr. Giasenepp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. XI 54. Nagatjuna, Madhyamaka Sastra, XVII 13 55. Sankara Ad, Brahmasutra II 1, 34, Samkhyasutra V. 20 Vi. 4. Karmagrantha I.P. 29

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Jain Ethics 87 two are causally connected.''56 Thus the doctrine Karma involves the idea of an eternal metampsychosis; for not only new existence, actions which are to be realised in future life but every present existence presupposes the past actions. so it is with our beginning. "The common basis of all the religious systems of India is the dogma of retribution, causality of the deed (Karma) and conditioned by this the beginningless chain of existence following one another."57 This very knowledge of painful reincarnation due to Karma led to the endeavour to end the cycle of birth and rebirth and to eradicate the power of Karma. Here lies the origin of the logning after salvation. In Indian philosophy, "it is surprising to note that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization (liberation) were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems.''55 4.2.2 Karma in Non-Jain Systems "Rebirth and Karma are the two most important presuppositions of all schools of Indian philosophy with the solitary exception of the system of Carvaka.''59 The Karma theory has been expressed in a various different standpoints, as we find Karma as regarded by realism is a complexity of material particles infecting the soul; while to the most extreme idealism it is a "newly produced invisible force. The Samkhya-Yoga, the Nyaya, Vaisesika and the Vedanta virtually belong to the same group as the Jain and the Buddhist. The Mimamsaka belongs to the other group. In the Upanisads it is said that "Jivas are bound by Karma.'60 "A man becomes good by good deeds and bad by bad deeds"61 The Mahabharata emphatically expresses that" One has to experience the fruits of Karma''62 "Karma is created due to the Vasana (desire) and Vasana is created and intensified due to the force of Karma; and there is thus the beginningless cycle of causation,"63 Even Manusmriti talks at length about bodily (Kayika) verbal (vacika) and mental (Manasika) actions of men."64 Vedantasutra also mentions different kinds of Karma and discusses the distinction between the Prarabdha and Anaranbha Karya."65 56. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth, (1972) p. 4 57. Dr. Glasenapp, Immortatily and Salvation in Indian Religions, p. 25 58. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (1975) Vol. I. p. 71 59. Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jain philosophy, p. 220 60. Sanyas Upanisad-ii-18 61. Bihadaranyaka Upanisad, ui. 2. 13 62. Shanti Parva, 181 63. Ibid., 211 64. Manusmriti 12. 5, 7 65. Vedanta Sutra 4.1, 13. 15

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88 Jain Theism In Buddhism there is no soul. But then Buddhism believes in rebirth. Here what "transmigrates is not a person but Karma."'66 4.2.3 The Theory of Karma: Its Genesis Quite a good number of scholars and authorities have tried to find out when and where the Karma doctrine has had its origin in India. It is difficult to say when and where the concept of Karma originated in India."67 Some traced back the origin of Karma in the principle of Rta as described in Rg-Veda. Rta pervades the whole world, and gods and men must obey it. It is the cosmic principle in anticipation of law of Karma. After a long discussion Prin. T.G.Kalghatgi says, "it is difficult to say that Karma must have originated from Rta. The doctrine of Karma does not appear in the old hymns of RgVeda."'68 Karma doctrine has been widely accepted in the ancient Indian thought.' ." It is probable that karma and rebirth must have been preAryan doctrines which were important in the Sramana culture and later assimilated in the Aryan thought by the time Upanisads were clearly formulated."'69 The Indian view of Karma was doubtless of non Aryan provinance and it was a kind of natural law."70 Dr. Glassenapp. in his famous book "The doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy', quotes number of authorities that tell "when and were the doctrine has had its origin in India we do not know." But then he says.... "only is it sure that it existed at least a thousand year before the beginning of the Christian Era, and has since become the basis and centre of religious thought.""The conception first mentioned, the most realistic of all that have had the origin in India, is that of the Jains, of that Indian religious community which has existed from pre-Buddhistic times down to the present day.' 72yy The doctrine of Karma can not be proved. In fact it does not require any proof. It is a self-evident theory established as an important postulate to almost all the religions of the world. Even no philosopher, thinker a moral teacher or a revolutionist has found it necessary to prove. However "the real proof of the truth of Karma theory is to be 66. Abhidhama Kosa Bhasya-III 24. 67. Dr. Glasenapp. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. xi-xii 68. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth (1972) p. 8 69. Ibid p. 8 70. Ninian Smart, Doctrines and Arguments in Ind, Philosophy (1964) p. 163 71. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) xi-xii 72. Ibid., xii

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89 Jain Ethics found in the words of revealed scriptures or in the utterances of the great enlightened ones. It is undisputed theory, in the sense that, neither the theists nor the atheists have ever ventured to dispute "the force of Karma that operates with iron necessity. God is not able to rule arbitrarily without the law of Karma on the contrary, Karma is the guiding force to which he must confirm for the creation and the governance of the world."74 Let us now examine the Jain doctrine of Karma, its nature, its relation to soul, its types and classification etc. to find out its significance and implications. 4.2.4 Jain Theory of Karma (1) Meaning and Significance Karma, literally, means "action' or 'activity' or 'deed'. Whatever is done is Karma. Thus we find 'Karma' is hinted at the after effect of action. The 'action' or 'deed' is not to be understood in its ordinary or popular sense as used for business, work or profession. In fact every living being is constantly engaged in some activity or deeds. Here activity does not mean only physical. The deeds include all the threefold functions of body, speech and mind. The Jains still go minutely by further including three different modes directly done, done through some one, and encouraged others to do. Thus 'Karma', etymologically, means 'deed' or 'action' - done physically (bodily or vocally) or mentally, actively, passively or instigatingly. The wider denotation of the term given by Sastras include all types of actions voluntary or nonvoluntary, of human beings or other beings. The Mimamsakas use it in the sense of "rites and rituals"? while the Smritikaras use it in the sense of duties of the "four- fold occupations (varnas) and stations (Asramas). "It is used in the sense" religious vows and disciplines by the puranikas; and the Grammarians use it as 'object or the second case', The Nyaya-Vaisesika use it in the sense of 'movement; and not voluntary action or the law of moral causation, residing only in one substance devoid of qualities and direct and immediate cause of conjunction and disjunction"76 The word Karma is used in the sense of "function of Rajas aspect of Prakriti''?? in Samkhya and yoga. What 13. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi : Karma and Rebirth (1972) p. 17 74. Dr. Glasenapp, Immortality and Salvation in Indian Religion, p. 34 15. Dr. Ramji Singh: The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 110 16. Kanada, Vaisesikasatra I 1.17 77. Tavara krisna, Samkhya Karika, 13

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90 Jain Theism is important for us to note is that the word Karma, as a philosophic term means, not only action but also its actual potential effects. "In Jainism, this means the activity of soul which invites and enables matter to flow into it, as also the matter which does flow into it."7% According to Jainism, most of the souls are not pure, but are infected by something foreign which veils their natural faculties. This foreign element is Karma. Karma does not here mean 'deed, work', nor invisible, mystical force (adrasta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which enters into the soul and causes great changes in it."??! "Oh Gautama, just as a sprout has a seed for its Hetu, as there is a Hetu for happiness and misery; since it is Karya, that Hetu is Karma. '*** "Mysery comes in unequal ways; this difference cannot be without any Hetu which is not seen. This very unseen Hetu is Karma??! Dr. Ramji singh while discussing the basic postulate of the Karma theory with reference to Karma and omniscience gives reasons for the Jains putting great emphasis on this doctrine. It is so significant to them that they work out a science of Karma (Karma Vijnana). According to him the reasons for the emphasis are : (i) To substantiate the sovereignty and independence of the soul over matter. This was mainly in reply to Carvaka who had reduced the soul to an epiphenomenon of matter and had rejected rebirth and salvation. (ii) To give a counter emphasis to Vedantists like Sankara who would place Karma in the realm of Maya, which is unreal as a metaphysicalentity, (iii) As refutation to the one-sided fluxism of Buddhism where there is no identity of a permanent soul. (iv) To improve upon Brahmanical notion that "Karma is subservient to God and hence what is more important is not Karma but the compassion of God'82 which would, as Jains rightly feared, lead to fatalism and passimism""%3 78. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 110 79. Dr. Glasenapp: The Doctrine of Karma, (1942), p. 3 80. VisesavasyakaBhasya : Ganadharavada 1611-12 and Commentary 81. Ibid. 82. Rg-Veda X-19. 3, Tait, Upanisad III, 1, Manusmgiti. I. 5-9 83. Read Dr. Ramji Singh's :' The Jaina Concept of Omniscience (1974), p. 107 & 108

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Jain Ethics 91 Apart the reasons discussed by Dr. Ramji Singh, we may add one very important point of view, the Jainas had, that would make them give utmost emphasis to the doctrine of Karna. This is their very fundamental metaphysical concepts of soul and salvation. It does not believe in anything but in 'self effort' as the only way to make the soul free from the bondage of Karma, and to attain its pure form, which is liberation. This, and this alone, will be consistent with their metaphysical, logical, ethical and spiritual outlook. Perhaps, in giving utmost significance to Karma theory, the Jainism wants to affirm that the ethical autonomy and moral potency of Karta is far more dignified to human life than receiving the grace from a merciful God. (2) Karma, Matter and Soul The doctrine of Karma is a special feature of special peculiarity of Jainism, Its theory of Karma is altogether different from the other systems of Indian philosophy. It is based on such a sound logic and scientific approach that it becomes impossible to refute any of its aspects rationally. Its base is simple metaphysical truth. It is founded on the simple theory of causation. Every cause is bound to have its corresponding effect and no effect is without a cause. One has to read as he has sown, has to bear the consequences of his Karmas, sooner or later, here in this life or next life. Escape from the effect of Karmas done is totally impossible. As the realisation of the consequences of all Karmas is not possible in one span of life, what logically and positively follows is a future birth to enable their frutation. This is how the cycle of birth and rebirth goes on. From this also follows a rational explanation to the natural difference between individuals. Karma according to Jainism is material in nature. "The doctrine is a direct corollary of the Jain conception of matter which is described as being amenable to multifarious modifications'*84 The entire world is surrounded by sense layers of five everlasting, imperishable substances (Dravya) which produce the multifarious world processes. Karman, as we have earlier said, does not mean the deed but the foreign elements of which the souls are infected and veil the natural faculties of the souls. "The Karman then is something material (Karma Paudgalam), which produces in the soul certain conditions, even as a medical pill which, when introduced into the body, produces therein manifold effects. 84. Dr. J.P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 38

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92 Jain Theism This fine matter which can become Karman, fills the entire cosmos.'*85 Before we say about the process of material bondage or karmabandh let us say about the Jain concepttion of Jiva or Soul. Jainism believes the soul to be a substance, of course, distinguished from the other types of substances. Besides, there are innumerable souls who are totally independent from one another and in no way connected to a higher reality or higher unity like Brahman in Vedanta. Jiva or soul being a substance (dravya) possesses infinite qualities (guna) Out of which the main eight are (i) Omniscience (Kevala Jnana) (ii) Absolute undifferentiated congnition (kevaladarsana) (iii) Bliss or Superiority over joy & grief (avyabadha) (iv) Religious truth and moral conduct (Samyaktva and Caritra) (v) Eternal life (Aksayasthiti) (vi) Complete formlessness (Amurtatva) (vii) Complete equality with other Jivs (Samyaka Drsti) (viii) Unrestricted energy (Virya) According to Jainism all the above mentioned qualities belong by nature to every soul. Thus the soul is potentially pure and perfect. In the world we find all Jivas having restricted of capacities; full of pain and suffering instead of pleasures and bliss; having incomplete knowledge. immoral conduct; embodied in form of an insect, bird, animal or human; weak and sick instead of infinitely energetic. The question as to how it happens is answered by Jainism through its theory of Karma. "The idea of the pollution of the soul due to Karma has been largely allegorical in other religious philosophies in India, while the Jains have adopted it in the real sense of the word and have worked out into an original system.''86 Now the soul, from pure and ultimate point of view is pure and perfect. It is simple and without parts, it is immaterial and formless.'*$? It is pure consciousness. But then from phenomenal point of view, the soul is infected with four-fold passions, namely: wrong belief (Mithya Darsana) 85. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy (1942), P.3 86. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy (1942), p. 15 87. D.S. 2

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Jain Ethics 93 vowlessness (Avirati), carelessness (Pramada) and passions (Kasaya). "The soul, not directly, but through its psychic conditions and state of consciousness which find expression in the vibrations (Yogas) caused by its own mental, vocal and bodily activities. These vibrations of the mundane soul, being already tinged with emotions and passions, cause the Karmic influx. Thus the soul when in conjunction with matter, develops a sort of susceptibility which finds expression in the soul's passional states; the latter, in their turn, cause the soul to establish a relationship with matter and let itself be held in bondage.""88 "These Karmic Particles attached to the soul are called Karmas.'deg89 "Matter (Pudgala) is a non-soul substance (Ajiva Dravya),"90 which has got form and qualities."91 "Matter is eternal, uncreated and has got form and magnitude.92 The Karmic matter which is very fine and imperceivable" is capable of becoming gross matter."*93 The Jain position about the conception and nature of soul (Jiva) is completely unambiguous. The only crucial question before Jainsm is that if the soul is potentially divine, innately perfect and completely free, how and why it gets infected. The Jaina reply is that both nescience and Karma are beginningless and so is their relationship to self has to be postulate as beginningless. (3) Types of Karmas In the whole game of Karma and bondage we find the particles of Karma on one side and the mental state. The Jain scriptures talk about two aspects: (i) the physical aspect : 'Dravya Karma' and (ii) the psychic aspect: 'Bhava Karma'. Jainism has given a detailed classification of these Karmas and its subdivisions. Jainism enters into the minutest details of each of these Karma from four points of view : its manner, its duration, its intensity and its quantity Karma has three stages, namely, Bondage (Bandh), Existence (Satta) and realisation (Udaya). "The soul is extremely infected by matter; its union with the Karma has no 88. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 39 89. Devendra Sari, Karma Grantha (1958) p. 1 90. Dravya Samgraha 15., 91. Tattvartbasutra V. 5 9 2. Kundakundicarya, paticastikayasara 4 93. Ibid : 83 94. Dr. Glasenapp. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 3.4

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94 Jain Theism beginning and, at every moment it is gathering new matter, it has in the natural course of thing no ending."94 The full deliverance of the soul from Karma is therefore possible by a severe ascetic practice, by "Ahimsa, self-control and penance'. One who is able to do so is indeed heroic conqueror - a Jina. There are 8 chief or fundamental Karmas, namely 1. jnanavarana Karma : the Karma that obscures knowledge 2. Darsanavarana Karma: the Karma that obscures undifferentiated cognition 3. Vedaniya Karma : the Karma which produces the feeling of joy and grief 4. Mohaniya Karma : the Karma which obstruct belief and conduct. 5. Ayus Karma the Karma which determines the duration of life. 6. Nama Karma the Karma which gives the various factors of individuality 7. Gotra Karma the Karma which destines family surroundings. 8. Antaraya Karma : the Karma which hinders the Jiva in his ability to resolve and enjoy. The above mentioned eight types of Karinas are Dravya Karma and they have one hundred and forty eight subclasses. Of the eight primary class no. 1,2,4, and 8 are called 'Ghatis' because they affect spiritual faculties and capacitites. Till they, or any of them is there the soul cannot attain liberation or become an arhat, kevalin. The remaining four are known as Aghatis'. since they do not damage or obstruct spiritual qualities. They have their effect in body or physical condition only. Karma has been also classified as auspicious and unauspicious i.e Subha and Asubha Karma. The auspicious are those that bring happiness and pleasure while the unauspicious are those that bring suffering and grief. 4.2.5. Critical Evaluation We have so far given a brief picture of Karma, the Jain theory of Karma, its meaning, significace and types. I have purposely not

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Jain Ethics . 95 entered into a detailed explanation of its operation as well as method of annihillation of Karma as it has very little relevance with reference to what we want to arrive, at. Being cautious of the fact that we are more concerned about what is seen behind the curtain or the underneath current, we now evaluate the Jain doctrine of Karma. The charge that comes to Karma theory is that the Jain theory of Karma leads to a belief in determinism, fatalism or blind destiny. As the late Justice J. L. Jaini observed, "It is not fate nor even predestination, but it is the ever continuous balancing of the different accounts that we keep with the force of life" "One may call this doctrine of Jainism almost spiritual mathematics."96 The theory does not lead to the fact that events and conditions are absolutely predetermined, by some unknown destiny. It does not treat a human soul as helpless and in slavery to Karma. The freedom of soul is there, and from it only the emphasis on strong willpower and conscious personal effort (purusartha) comes. "He is the master of his destiny and can make it or mar it accordingly as he wills. This optimism is based on a rational conviction and profound faith in the intrinsic purity and perection of the self (soul) and its capacity and capacity to realise, recover and retain for ever its essential nature (Dharma) that i through philosophical enlightenment and a rigorous course of moral and spiritual self-discipline. is the key note of Jainism".97 Jains should also be given credit "to preserve their fundamental non-absolutistic attitude with regard to the conception of the nature of Karma. Karma for them is neither absolutely identical with Pudgala nor completely distinct and different from it."48 As some of the Western thinkers have felt, the theory implied a hedonistic outlook in life, and a grip of legalism upon the soul. In fact such comments are the result of ignorance or love for traditional theism. The theory of Karma is not and can not be a 'law' as we use in the legal sense. The doctrine explains the higher trenscedental and emancipatory state of soul. It does not limit man's freedom but organises man's freedom. It makes life more meaningful and more dignified by excluding divine grace and establishing human effort. The judicial aspect of the doctrine of Karma is this non compromisiveness or absolute 95. J. L. Jaini : Outline of Jainism, (1979), p. 29 96. Dr. J. P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979), p. 41 97. Dr. I. P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979), P. 42 98. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 116

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96 Jain Theism judiciousness that makes the doctrine "an explanation of the moral justice in the universe"? It is this affirmed and assured reliability that inculcates faith - faith is actual practice of the moral rules and becoming more and more free from the bondage; becoming more and more light. On the whole Jain. doctrine of Karma as a moral principle proves to be quite consistent with its own metaphysics and epistemology, becomes a great satisfaction to one's sense of justice and sound solution to the problem of "seemingly unmerited suffering : 'and besides all these a very powerful moral force pushing the human conduct towards a high spiritual plane. 4.2.6 Theistic Implications We have so far understood and examined as the aspects of the theory of Karma in general as well as the doctrine of Karma in Jain pholosophy in particular. The, Jain doctrine of Karma as we have seen emerges out as a profoundly fundamental in its base and highly scientific in its operation. What is more importanrt is its ultimate motive. It, after all, serves itself as a means to an end, as a tool or instrument; altiinate end is to enable one to break the chain of the Karmic bondage and to lead to the final attainment of salvation. In my humble opinion, it is this very reason that would make the doctrine a moral or ethical one, though it has a strong metaphysical foundation. The doctrine of Karma if viewed from its moral or ethical aspects does reveal some theistic elements, and theistic presuppositions. Let us discuss some of them. Jainism is, as we know, realism, Its morality is also a rational morality. "The reasons why man needs a moral code will tel you that the purpose of morality is to define man, proper values and interests, that concern with his own interests is the essence of a moral existence, and that man must be the beneficiary of his own moral action"99 I quote from Galt's speech : "There is only one fundamental altemative in the universe : existence or non-existence and it pertains to a single class of entities : to living organisms. The existence of inanimate matter is unconditional, the existence of life is not; it depends on a specific course of action. Matter is indestructible, it changes its forms, but it cannot cease to exist. It is only a living organism that faces a constant alternative; the issue of life or death. Life is a process of self-sustaining and self-generated action. If an organism fails in that action, it does; its chemical elements remain, but its life goes out of existence, It is 99. Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness, (1970), introduction p. ix

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Jain Ethics 97 only the concept of 'life' that makes the concept of 'value' possible."100 But then what is religion? A distinguished Danish philosopher, Harold Hoffding defines religion as "the belief in the conservation of values "This we find any moral code is bound to be concerned with values, religion and life." It is mainly such belief that raises Jainism to the status of religion in spite of the absence of a belief in God"01 Jainism proves to be quite justified in its stress on moral values, Its doctrine of Karma aims at total annihilation of Karma to attain perfect freedom. It is based on immortality of soul and freedom of will. The entire doctrine proves to be more ethical than metaphysical only because it is centered round the soul. Alongwith the justifiability of the doctrine of Karma and freedom of will, the soul and spirituality is aso there and this gives the theistic color to the theory. Dr. Ramji Singh rightly observes, "But unless, the Karma is associated with the soul it cannot produce any effect because it is only the instrumental cause and it is the soul which is the efficient cause of all experiences. Hence the Jains regard the soul as the possessor of material Karma."102 This very stress in regaining the original, the pure and perfect form of the soul and its spirituality is nothing but a theistic attitude towards higher moral purpose. It is already a known fact it is the acceptance of God or supreme being that makes a system theistic. But then the concept of God or supreme being needs a little broader or wider interpretation. It will be in all the way mire in fitness to say truth is God, love is God, perfection is God or righteousness is God rather than to say God is love God is truth etc. If we try to understand, we will find God, being formless, an idea it is more appropriate to call any perfection God, any Righteousness or truth God. From this point of view, Jainism has accepted every soul to be potentially pure and perfect. Every Soul thus is potentially God, The doctrine of Karma becomes meaningful only till the lost Godhood is not attained, Since the attainment of this Godhood or liberation or salvation is not possible in one life, it makes the reincarnation or transmigration of soul possible. The doctrine that aims at spiritual development and ultimately the attainment of Godhood cannot be anything but theistic. In all the traditional theism there is devotion. The expression of devotion is through prayers, rites and rituals, as well as deeds as commanded by the scriptures. If we go little deep into the Jain doctrine 100. Vide Ayn Rand's The Virtue of Selfishness (1970) p. 15-16 101. Prof. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M. Datta, An Intro. to Indian Philosophy (1968), p.17 102. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 122

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98 Jain Theism of Karma we will find that all these have been covered up under karma. In fact 'Karma' is wider than any particular devotional act. Through Bhava Karma and Dravya Karma, the Bhakti or prayer or any form of devotion has been accepted by the Jains. Jainism aims at "the scientific development of the character, the process of separating soul from matter."10? It gives great emphasis to concentration- concentration to improve the sensing faculty, to improve and develop the spiritual nature, to attain equanimity of mind and consequent spiritual illumination. Meditation of purity of mind in four ways : Love in the form of friendship. in the form of compassion, in the form of joy and in the form of indifference or forgiveness : results into a sort of devotion towards the highest and the noblest truths as well as towards the great tirthankaras. The theory of Karma ensures one "the life of a God in heaven, which is one of the forms that soul might assume by accumulation of merit. The greater power and perfection belonging to the divine body and organism are the rewards of the good deeds of a former life. The liberated souls are above the Gods."10 We may conclude therefore, with the remark that the doctrine of Karma in Jainism proves to be a very important moral doctrine. It is neither mechanical nor mathematical. It is neither legalism nor fatalism. The doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy, inevitably and invariably, is theistic, In the words of Dr. J. P. Jain, "The entire emphasis is on the development of strong will-power and conscious personal effort (purusartha) in order to thwart and annihilate the various adverse influences, internal and external. subjective and objective, psychic and physical the forces of the Karma, Bhava as well as Dravya and in this way to effect a gradual spiritual evolution leading to the ultimate goal, the very Godhood, whence there is no return to the Samsara. This transformation of the atman into paramatman, of man into God, is the ultimate aim and realisable goal for him who is a sincere seeker after the truth."rus This rational conviction and profound faith in the intrinsic purity and perfection of the soul, and the capacity and capability to realise, recover and retain for Godhood through philosophical enlightenment and a rigorous course of moral and spiritual self discipline,"106 is the keynote of Jain theism. 103. H. Warren, Jainism (1968), p. 120 104 Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (1977) p. 133 105. Dr. J. P. Jain, Raligion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 42 106. Ibid., p. 42. 106. Dr. J. P. Jain, Raligion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 42

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CHAPTER - 5 JAIN PHILOSOPHY OF SOUL 5.1. MEANING AND EXISTENCE OF SOUL 5.1.1 Introduction Traditionally, jainism is known to be atheism. Is Jainism atheistic ? Is Jainism theistic ? If Jainism is 'an ethical system', and if Jainism fulfills all the requirements to be named as religion, how could it be atheistic ? If Jainism is theistic, what is the nature of its theism ? One can easily see that all these issues are metaphysical, as theism deals with God or supreme being or ultimate reality and its nature. if the soul in its purest form is all 'Perfection', the meaning, the existence, the nature and classification of soul will naturally uncover the metaphysical aspects of soul. And after all it is the metaphysical aspect that is the fundamental one. Again, Jain system enjoys a respectable place within the systems of Indian philosophy for being a complete one. For every problem of Indian philosophy, may it be regarding the world, the God or the soul, the Jain system has a solution of its own, theories and doctrines peculiar to the selves. It becomes, of prime importance for us to examine Jain conception of soul, mainly from its metaphysical point of view, and to find out whether the conception when observed and examined leads us to anything that is apparently or latently theistic. Let us try to understand the Jain conception of soul, which is the central and the most fundamental of its metaphysical aspects. 5.1.2. Meaning As earlier already seen Jainism recognizes nine categories of the fundamental truths. They are (1) Jiva (2) Ajiva (3) Punya (4) Papa (5) Asrava (6) Samvara (7) Bandha (8) Nirjara and (9) Moksa, The whole universe is also analysed into two eternally independent categories of jiva and Ajiva. The Jiva is 'Chetan' or the enjoyed and Ajiva is Jada' or the objects enjoyed. The Jiva has consciousness while the Ajiva is devoid of consciousness. The division between "Jiva and Ajiva does not correspond to I and Not I. It is an objective classification of things in the universe that underlies the distinction of Jiva and Ajiva."! 1. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 314-315

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100 Jain Theism "Roughly speaking what is 'Purusa' in the Samkhya and the Yoga system of philosophy, "Atma" in the Nyaya, the Vaisesika and the Vedanta thoughts, is Jiva in the Jain philosophy. Yet there is difference between the 'Purusa' of the Samkhya and the Yoga and the Jiva of the Jain; the Atma of the Nyaya and the Vaisesika philosophy is not quite the same as the Jiva of the Jain system of philosophy; "the Atma of the Vedanta again, is different from the Jiva of the Jain system."? In Jainism "the difference between Jiva and Ajiva is not absolute one. They are related to each other as subject and object. They are not incompatible. They are related to each other in an organic unity. "Soul is a subtle substance..... Pudgala matter has weight and fills the space; but the essence of soul is conceived in self consciousness absolutely devoid of any materiality." The Dasavaikalika Satra asks "One, who does not know the self and the non-self, how can he know the path to self-control (Saiyama)."* In non-Jain or other system of Indian philosophy, as well as in Jainism, the knower is the soul, The knowledge is apprehended by the soul. It is a usual traditional or colloquial usage to say that the eye sees' or 'the ear listens' or 'the hand feels the touch'. In fact, what it is and what should be is : I see with eyes, 'l' listen with ears and so on. The pronouns used as T or 'you' or 'he' or 'she' etc. are for the individual's soul. The soul is knower and senses are simply tools to know. "The subject of all forms of valid cognition is the self as known by direct perception etc." "The soul is not an exclusive possession of human beings, according to Jainism. It allows the soul principle to extend to all the living things of the universe." With reference to this range of existences of the soul Nahar writes, "It is these souls in plasma that lie scattered in every nook and corner of the universe and each is the doer of good or bad deeds to reap the consequences of which each takes the repetition of births and deaths according to the merits of its own Karma, and thus traverses through the various grades of Samsara. Heaven, hell a purgatory of ultimately release itself from the fetters of bondage by the dissipation of its own Karma whereupon it becomes pure and perfect 2. H.S.Bhattacharya, Reals in the Jain Metaphysics, (1966) p. 269 3. Nahar and Ghosh, An Epitome of Jainism p. 279 4. Dasavaikalika Sutra : 4.12 5. TAT vezana ufHas YT I P.N.T.VII-55 6. Dr. G. N. Joshi, Atma and Moksa, (1965) p. 229

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 101 and fixed as it were in the region of Aloka.""? The Jain scriptures in general and Gasadharavada (Lord Mahavira's last discourse with his chief disciples) in particular describes "this soul as 'traversing in this transitory world." It is called a great traveller who sails his ship (body) into the ocean (Samsara). The life is the journey and the liberation is the destination." As we come across systems like Carvaka and Buddhism that does not believe in existence of soul, to us "the existence of soul will to be considered first, as the nature of soul is not conceivable without being convinced of the existence of soul. Branch knowledge is not possible without rudimentary knowledge."10 5.1.3 Existence of Soul "Existence of a substance or any entity is an ontological status. It is of great importance because fundamentally all the discussions about the nature, the characteristics and classification of a thing becomes tenable only and only if it exists. This ontological status called existence is proved directly by experience, e.g. we see the world and prove the existence of the world and so on. But then there are also a lot of things that exist but we cannot directly see them or touch them. The existence of such things which are not possible to be proved by the perception are proved indirectly, through Logic (through inference, comparison and testimony), through language etc. Though 'existence' as it is, is an ontological status, its proofs become an epistemological problem as we want to know whether a thing exists or does not exist. Soul or Jiva is a very 'subtle substance and its direct perception is not possible. Gautamasvami, one of the chief disciples of Lord Mahavira, when doubted the existence of soul, Lord Mahavira proved its existence logically and was at last convinced. Let us examine some of the proofs for the existence of the soul as found in Jain Ganadharavada. Preliminarily the proofs include some verses from Vedas and Upanisads that talk about the self or soul. According to Chandogyopanisad "the basic problem of ethics - removal of misery can be solved only by self-realisation."!! The BIhadaranyakopanisad 7. Nahar and Ghosh : An Epitome of Jainism p. 279 8. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansari; Philosophy of Soul, (1963). p. 1. 9. Muni Sri Arun Vijayaji : Sacitra Ganadharavada, (1984), Book-2. 10. Srimad Vijaya Laxmansari : Philosophy of Soul, (1963), p.1.

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102 Jain Theism clearly says that "it is the self which we should perceive, hear, of which we should meditate."12 Moreover 'soul is the subject of all the forms of valid cognition thus soul is the knower. The senses are aid or media through which the soul gets the knowledge. Even when the sense becomes ineffective or damaged or totally destroyed the previous knowledge remains. A man who becomes blind does not forget all that he saw in the past. Even when we use phrases like the departed soul', left for ever', etc, proves the existence of soul in the body. Let us also make a mention of some of the logical arguments that prove the existence of soul. The existence of soul can be proved by its effective operation. "We do accept the existence of an invisible entity if its operative effect is visible" e.g. air, wind, electric current etc. The soul or. Jiva is invisible but its operative effects are visible. We ourselves - our very self is the operative effect. Life activities full of consciousness, which is the essence of soul, is the most glaring evidence of the existence of soul. The existence of soul can be proved by negation. Negation proves the existence. Of course, in logic, we do not consider the negation as an independent Pramana but then we all use the language of 'is' and 'is not'. The negation hints non-existence at a particular place or time eg. the director is not in his office, or the body without soul etc. In fact, negation of an entity is only possible if it exists, otherwise, it is not possible. The negation of soul also proves the existence of soul. Even the word atheist (Nastik) proves the existence of soul. One who says "is not' (Nasti) if he is asked 'what is not ?' (Kim Nasti ?) he would answer the soul is not. In Jainism there are four suggested by negation: the Samyog Nisedha, the Samavaya Nisedha, the Samanya Nisedha and the Visesa Nisedha. We should not go into the details of these different modes of expressing a negation, but what we note is the fact that none of these negations proves the non-existence. Just like the negation, the opposite also proves the existence. The opposite word proves the existence of the object e.g. happiness and unhappiness, conscious and unconscious, Jiva and Ajiva etc. 11. Trefa pitaharafar I -Chandogyopanisad 7.1.3 12. BICHT AR geen scan than fifcenfeo: - Bihadaranyakopanisad 245

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 103 Just like the negation and opposite words, there is one more proof to prove the existence and that is the relation between the utterer and utterance (Vacaka and Vaccya) whatever that is uttered : words, sentences etc., presupposes the utterer, The soul is the utterer because every utterance is a cognitive activity and cognition is an attribute of the soul. This brings before us even the presupposition of substance through quality. Knowedge is the quality, which is not possible without the substratum of substance. Knowledge is the quality of soul and therefore the existence of soul is proved even metaphysically. One more proof, is the use of words like 'T', 'my', 'mine' etc. The famous philosopher Descartes when says 'Cogito Ergo Sum : (I think therefore I am). the thinking quality of the soul proves the existence of soul. In all the above referred cases, even if someone doubts, the very doubt also proves the existence. Who doubts? And obviously we know it is the soul that doubts. Let us now see some of the arguments based on different Pramanas to prove the existence of soul. The existence of soul can be proved by many Pramanas." As far as the direct experience is concerned, I never doubt my existence. I know I exist and therefore soul becomes self-evident. The soul being subtle can't be sensuously experienced, however the happiness and unhappiness is its direct evidence. The existence of an object can also be proved through inference. Inference is considered as a valid source of knowldege (Pramana) by almost all the systems of Indian thought including Jainism. "Just like the gold in earth, curd in milk, and oil in oilseeds, the soul is there in the body.'14 Thus through the pleasures and pains of the body we can infer the soul. The existence of soul can logically be inferred with the help of a metaphysical principle. We very well know that an object is substance and qualities. What is perceived or felt by us are the qualities. Both substance and qualities are inseparable. Substance is always in form or with the qualities and qualities in their pure form i.e. without substance can not exist. Thus from the qualities like, knowledge, happiness, unhappiness etc, we infer the substance. This substance is the soul. Again every action or deed presupposes the doer of the deed. 14. Tratura fami98 4, grey Jen gai i 79 ti, 46487 791 Fita 1 - Ganadharavada III, p. 6.

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104 Jain Theism The doer of the Kriya or Karman is the soul, The body, mind or sense, are the tools through which the soul does the deeds. Senses or body can't do anything when soul is not there. eg. A dead body is inactive and unaffected. Thus we can infer the soul, as the doer of actions exists. The existence of soul can also be proved through testimony. Testimony or Sabda Pramana is also a valid source of knowledge. In Jainism testimony is the Agama Pramana. Agama or the unimpeachable authoritative texts also establishes the real existence of soul. Agama is the knowledge from Apta Purusas and 'Apta' is one who gives the meaningful (Yathartha) real truths. Thus Agama in Jainism is the knowledge of the truth given by an omniscient. There are two types of authorities the worldly and the other worldly. According to Jainism the parents and teachers are the worldly athorities. while the omniscients, the Tirthankaras are the other worldly. Let us see what Jain scriptures say about the existence of soul. Lord Mahavira in Acarangsutra says, "One who knows one knows all."Is If we know the soul we know everything. In Uttaradhyanasutra, in his last teachings Lord Mahavira says, "Soul is the doer and destroyer of deeds. Soul is the friend and soul is the enemy"16 It is said in the Sarvadarsana Samgraha that "Jiva alone is conscious and the Ajiva has no consciousness."!? Vadi Devasuri in Pramana-naya-tattva-lokalankara says, "The subject of all forms of valid cognition is the self as known by direct perception etc."'18 Acarya Haribhadrasuri in Sastravartasamuccaya says, "The doer of the deeds and fruits enjoyer as well as the traverser from heaven to hell and the destroyer of the deeds with help of faith, knowledge and conduct is the soul."19 Thus we find that the Jain system recognizes the existence of Jiva or soul like the other schools of Indian thought. We know, Carvaka and Buddhism do not accept the existence of soul. The rest accept as Jainism accepts. The acceptance of the existence of soul is the very 15. Tri mug #Hadi Gus II - Acaranga Sutra 16. apyA kattA citkA ya, dukkhANa ya suhANa ya // apyA mittamaMmitta ya, duppaTTiya supaTTio // - Uttaradhyayan Sutra 17. a ateratant wita: 1 grateten attravita: 11 Sarvadarsana Samgraha, p. 67 18. Wat Tranfaufweisen TT 11 -Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII - 55 19. u: cal anar a ateri af uffrafan AT 7A TUT: 11- Haribhadrasari- Sastravartasamuccaya 10

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 105 fundamental plank in the spiritual science or for the concept of liberation. But then with regards to the nature of soul Jainism is quite distinct. The nature of Jiva or soul, its characteristics, qualities, classifications, status etc. all these will give an accurate picture of the Jain conception of soul. It is not possible to know thoroughly what does Jainism mean by Jiva without knowing all these aspects. We therefore try to see some of the main features related to the nature of Jiva or soul according to Jainism. 5.1.4 Nature of Soul (Jiva) in Jainism Vadi Devasuri in his Pramana-nay-tattva-lokalankara describes the soul as, "That (i.e. the soul) is essentially consciousness; undergoes modifications; is a doer (of acts); is the direct enjoyer (of the fruits of its acts); is of the same extent as its body; is different in each individual and being attached to material elements has births and rebirths."20 Through this verse, Vadi Devasuri has mentioned some of the very important characteristics of the soul which enable us to understand its nature. The most important characteristic of soul is its consciousness. In fact, consciousness is the essence of soul. The same consciousness in our daily affair we call 'life' and "the sacred scriptures have declared, soul is characterized by life."21 Thus the soul consists in consciousness and conscionsness is congnition of all things having forms or no forms. Without consciousness the soul cannot know, cannot discriminate, and cannot will. Knowledge or Jnana, though a very important characteristic of the soul."22 depends upon the particular state (of consciousness) in which the soul appears. "23 Thus consciousness (Chaitanya) is the natural and essential characteristic of the Jiva. This is the reason for the variability and relativity of the knowledge possessed by the Jiva or the soul. Such a variable quality cannot be called the permanent or essential quality of soul. In fact the soul is neither entirely identical nor entirely different from knowledge."24 Therefore, according to Jainism the Jiva or soul is said to be "Bhinnabhinnah."25 Its relation with knowledge "is 20. GTART4: ufunfa af FTATCHAT FacEYFUTUT: 1 ufaretai fwa: tanfctanggalin II P.N.T.VII.56 21. Shrimed Vijaya Laxmansari, Philosophy of Soul, (1963). p. 4 22. "117STAT" 23. Dr. G.N. Joshi, Atma and Moksa (1965) p. 231 24. STET ET 7 Et fa c eret #1 -Sarvadarsanasamgrah p. 69 25. Ibid., p. 69

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106 Jain Theism not one of Samavaya (inherence)."26 The soul is the doer of acts and none else, but the same soul is to reap the fruits of its deeds. So the soul is the doer and enjoyer of its deeds. Doing and enjoying presuppose knowing, it is in the this sense that consciousness is the essential characteristic of the soul. J. L. Jaini explaining the nature and characteristic, writes about the Jiva or soul, "The soul is a Dravya, therefore, like every other Dravya it is eternal. Its peculiar attributes are perception and knowldge. It is different from Karma or matter and therefore immaterial. It has identified itself with matter, therefore it assumes a body, to which it must fit. It is responsible for its Karmas, because it has the power to get rid of them all. It must reap the harvest of all seeds that it has sown; and therefore, must remain in the field of Samsara, or a cycle of existence. And still all these evils are self-assumed; and in its pure condition the soul is Siddha."27 .: Lord Mahavira, explaining the nature of soul to his chief disciple Gautamasvami, says, "This Jiva (or soul) is since the beginningless (Anadi) time, it is immortal, indestructible, eternal and permanent. "28 According to Jainism, "Jiva is possessed to cognition; is formless; is a doer; is of the same extent as its body; is an enjoyer; migrates (in its state of bondage) in the Samsara or the series of existence; is free (in the essence); and has an upward motion."29 The Jiva is distinguised from other substances in the sense that it possesses consciousness and intelligence. "There are innumberable souls who, in fact, can influence one but who, according to their nature are quite independent from one another and not connected in some higher unity (Brahman)."30 Every soul in its essence possesses infinite qualities (Guna) the following eight are the chief of them (1) The faculty of omniscience (Keval Jnana) (2) The faculty of absolute undifferentiated cognition (Kevala Darsana) 26. Syadvada. Manjari - 9 27. J. L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism (1979) p. 18 28. wat us, 3fagut, faucit, ut fred. - Sri. Bhagwatisatra 29. ma gutie: '3rfa: cal perfTUT ATT FART: Har: #: fafata drifa: D.S.2 30. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 2

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 107 (3) The superiority over joy and grief (Avyabadha) (4) The possession of complete religious truth (Sanyaktva) and irreproachable moral conduct (Caritra) (5) The possession of eternal life (Aksayasthiti) (6) Complete formlessness (Amurtatva) (7) Complete equality in rank with other Jivas (Agurulaghutva) (8) Unrestricted energy (Virya)."31 The above mentioned characteristic of the soul in its pure form is described differently by saying that the pure soul possesses four infinites as : infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss (Ananta Darasana, Ananta Jnana, Ananta Virya and Ananta Sukhas : Ananta Catustaya). However, the soul in its impure stage, as enumerated by J.L.Jaini, possesses the following nine properties : (1) The soul lived in the past, is living now, and shall live for ever. (2) It has perception and knowledge. (3) It is immaterial, i.e. it has no touch, taste, smell or colour. (4) It is the only responsible agent of all its actions. (5) It completely fills the body which it occupies. (6) It enjoys the fruits of all its Karmas. (7) It wanders in Samsara (8) It can become in its perfect condition Siddha (9) It goes upward."}? The soul, according to Jainism, as we have seen completely fills the body. This means the size of the soul changes according to the size of the body which it occupies. In Jainism the soul substance is regarded as so much subtle that it is infinitely compressible and infinitely expansible. This has become a very important and a noteworthy feature of the Jain doctrine of soul."33 With reference to number, as we have seen, Jainism believes in pluralism of souls. According to Jainism there are infinite Jivas or souls. Not only human beings, but each animate being, each living organism possesses a soul. About the innumerablc number of the Jiva Nahar writes, "This soul substance of the Jains is not a single all 31. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 2. 3. 32 J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism, (1979) p. 17. 18. 33. Dr. G. N. Joshi, Atma and Moksa, (1965), p. 232.

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108 Jain Theism pervading reality without a second of its kind to stand by it. There is an infinity of these souls. And though it is true that an infinite number of these has become free from the turmoils of the world; yet there remains an infinite number struggling for freedom; for if infinity is taken from infinity the remainder is infinite itself."'34 The Jains do not reduce all the particular finite souls to one single spiritual principle or universal self; they, on the contrary maintain the existence of infinite independent souls. Mrs. S. Stevenson writes, "They (Jains) also differ, of course, from the Vedantists, who believe in one all-soul not in numberless individual souls like this."35 5.1.5. Classification of Souls The Jivatma, according to Jainism is not a soul in its pure form. It is a polluted one. The souls are innumerable and all souls, again as per the degree of its pollutedness bear the consequences and status. This creates quite a considerable scope to classify the souls (Jivas) from various standpoints. Thus the Jains make an exhaustive classification of Jivas on the basis of various physical differences. The infinite number of Jivas are classified by the Jain philosophers in the following way : "With reference to its common essence, the Jiva is of one kind. It is of two kinds in as much as it may be in bondage or emancipated. The Jiva may be imperfect or nearly perfect or perfect and thus be of three modes. With respect to its state of existence, the Jiva may be divided into four classes viz central being. internal being, human beings, and subhuman beings, In consideration of its five-fold conditions viz: mitigation, annihilation, partial annihilation and partial mitigation, modification and genesis or rising, the Jiva is of five kinds. The six modes of the cognition divide the Jiva into six classes. The seven ways of predication make seven classes of Jiva. In consideration of the eight essential attributes of the soul or the eight modes of the eight Karma, the Jiva may be divided into eight classes. Nine catagories make the Jiva nine. Ten kinds of life divide Jiva into ten classes. 36 34. Nahar and Ghosh, An Epitome of Jainism p. 279. 35. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism p. 98. 36. Tattvarthasutra II 1 to 10

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 109 What is mainly to be noted is the main division of souls into Mukta (emancipated) and Baddha (in bondage) all Samsari Jivas. Dr. G.N. Joshi observes that, "the division of the Jiva is not a real metaphysical division, it has no bearing on the substantial nature of the Jiva, but these differences are differences of the physical bodies in which the Jiva is embodied. There is a very complicated and detailed classification of the Jivas - but it is not of use for our metaphysical purpose. 37 In my humble suggestion, if someone wants the classification of souls on a metaphysical ground, one can get it from the Gunasthana point of view, i. e. Jivas divided into fourteen divisions or fourteen ranks, each depicting the soul in its metaphysical status - from utmost polluted to perfectly pure. Of course, here also the question of deciding the Gunasthana and its verification is not possible. However, in principle, it can save the purpose of ranging the innumerable souls form its lowest level to the highest possible. 5.1.6 The Holy Pentad The austerities and sincerest self-effort is a very major aspect of the ascetic spirituality revealed and propagated by the Jain Munis and Aramanas. The real Jain faith is reflected in the Jain form of religiousness where the central theme is the obeisance or adoration to the holy pentad : five (types of holy souls. Here the classification is of souls who have achieved the spiritual progress in some good, considerable degree to the highest degree. These souls are all the Arhats, all the Siddhas, all the Acharyas, all the Upadhyayas and all the Sadhus. This classification, however, does not involve all the souls existing in the world. It is the classification of souls who, on a spiritual ladder, are at much higher stage than we the ordinary Samsaris. In Jain faith, even then, the conception of this holy pentad is much popular because the five-fold salutation, which destroys all sins has became the part of Jain worship and devotion. 5.1.7. Conclusion We have tried to understand the Jain conception of Jiva or soul, what does it mean and what is its nature. Soul being a subtle substance, its existence needs to be proved very logically and scientifically. I feel the Jains have excelled in their expertship at logic 37. Dr. G.N.Joshi, Atma and Moksa, (1965). 239

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110 Jain Theism and deeply brooded conteniplation on Jiva, and practically on all the categories, through austerity, penance and yoga. The nature of soul, the properties and characteristics of soul, all these reflect the originality of Jain system. Whether one agrees or disagrees, but it is certain that the Jain conception of Jiva is distinct from the rest. Moreover the Jain conception of Jiva is found quite in accordance with their own metaphysical doctrines. There is an obvious simplicity even in the midst of a great multiplicity of ideas regarding the meaning, nature and classification of soul. The soul in its essence is pure, perfect and all powerful. These potentialities are hindered by the Karmic veil and its original purity is sullied. "According to Jainism the Jiva is constitutionally free and potentially divine." This does not merely suggest the way to salvation as way to regain its original pure form by removing the veils or Karma, but also hints that the Jiva or soul should be understood thoroughly in its two states : the state of bondage and the state of release. Both these stages we will analyse and explain in our next two forthcoming sections. Let us also make a mention, before we conclude this section, that "the Jains invest all the things of the universe with the spirit of Jiva. All the things of nature which appear to and are called inanimate by an ordinary man, seem to be possessed of Jiva to a Kevali and thus Jainism holds a kind of "pan-spiritualism" the whole with spirits. To me, perhaps, there is no other point more striking than this which distinguishes Jain conception of soul from the other concepts of souls in Indian philosophy. 5.2 The Soul in State of Bondage 5.2.1 Introduction One cannot give full justice to Jain conception of soul only by knowing what the soul essentially or potentially is. The concept of soul and its nature in its pure state would mean only a partial understanding. Jainism also explains the soul in its bondage state- soul that is embodied. It comes forward to explain all the aspects- the cause- the origin- and the process which ultimately results into a bondage. Jainism does not say that the bondage is for ever and ever. It has a solution too. It proves to be quite optimistic; quite meaningful in its solution for the bondage of the soul, Jainism gives a way - a Marga- to be followed to get rid of the bondage, to release the soul and attain liberation.

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 111 The word 'bondage' presupposes duality or plurality. There cannot be bondage if the object is one and only one. Here the bondage is bondage of Karma. The soul in state of bondage is in opposition to soul in state of release or libration. Thus the soul in state of bondage is the soul not in state of liberation. Soul in its pure form is immortal, eternal, indestructible and even indivisible. It is potentially all powerful and all knowledgeable. Soul in its pure form is free. The soul in state of bondage is not free and therefore is not in its pure form. The soul in state of bondage is a soul that is polluted, that has become impure and so ineffective too. The 'bondage' of the soul is a state of soul. It is due to its union with Karma. The Karma has polluted the soul and made it ineffective to its original essential qualities. The question that arises is whether by developing a state of bondage through the union with Karma the essential qualities of the soul destroyed or lost for ever or weakened or diffused due to the outer interference viz. The veil of Karma ? In other words, what is the nature of the bondage ? I think the word "polluted' proves to be significant in the sense that it hints at the purification. Bondage and release are interdependent terms. There cannot be a release without bondage and bondage without release Both the bondage and release are relative terms. But they are also symbolic. Afterall what do we mean by 'bondage' and 'release' ? Let us understand these symbols also. Bondage means Jivatma, means the soul with a veil of Karma. The veil of Karma, as per the doctrine of Karma, is the cause of births and rebirths. Thus bondage means Samsara. Release means the Jiva is released from its union with Karma. The Jiva in state of release is pure soul, is devoid of any Karma and so there is no cycle of births and rebirths. The soul in state of release thus means Moksa. Bondage is the Samsara and release is the Moksa. 5.2.2 Nature of Bondage Jain metaphysics recognizes both soul and Karma as matter. Soul is a subtle matter and so is Karma. Unlike the Karma, soul is potentially pure, perfect and powerful. Karma, on the other hand is an outside material interference to soul. Moreover, consciousness is the essence of the soul while Karma is just 'Karmic particles' polluting and hindering the soul in its progress. One of the important characteristics of soul is its responsibility for the Karma, as the soul is the doer of the Karina and soul is the enjoyer of Karma. Sri

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112 Jain Theism Haribhadrasuri in his Sastravarta Samuccaya says, "The doer of the Karma, the fruits enjoyer of the Karma, the transmigrator into the cycle of infinite (8.4 million) Jivas due to the deeds done and annihilator of the Karma through faith, knowledge, conduct and austerities is the worldly soul (Samsari Jiva), is the Atman."38 Thus the soul is the doer of the deeds and not the body or the senses or the mind. The deeds done by the soul are Karmas. Karma is an outside matter sticking the soul and creating a veil, a layer on the soul. In order to understand the nature of the bondage, we need to know all about the Karmas. Since we have discussed these aspects in detail in the previous section let us only note that Karma is full of Karma - Vargana or the Karma particles. The whole of the universe, according to Jainism is full of Karma-Vargana (Karma particles). Just like the dust particles that stick to our skin when we perspire, the Karma-Vargana sticks on the soul which results into a veil or layer on the soul, Quoting Gunaratna, Prof. S. N. Dasgupta expresses the relation between the two in the following words: "The actual connection of the Karmas with the soul are like the sticking of dust on the body of a person who is besmeared all over with oll."39 The soul when is involved in activity, vibrations take place. These vibrations, just like the magnet, attracts the innumerable Karma Vargana which stick on the Jiva. The soul inspite of being all powerful with infinite knowledge and infinite faith, gets polluted by the Karma Vargana when it is full of passions and aversions.40 Thus incoming of the Karma Vargana and its union with the Jiva is known as 'Karma Bandha' or Karma bondage. In bondage the Karmic matter unites with the soul by intimate interpenetration, Just as water unites with milk "or fire unites with the red hot iron ball." There are forty two main channels, which are called Asrayas through which the Karma enters the Jiva : among these forty two, seventeen are considered the major ones. "The various kinds of Asravas are nothing but those ways by which one comes to be attached to the things of earthly life, which create in him attachment and false impressions. It makes him experience pleasurable or painful experiences, and thus, he moves continuously in 38. u: chat tani, til at fonament al naaf uffrafal HEYAT TRITHIUT: 11 - Acarya Haribhadrasari Sastravartasamuccya 39. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I p. 194 40. irritant 31-406FUT: 1

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 113 the circle of birth and death. The original peace and tranquility of the Jiva is lost, and thus he continues to exist in bondage."42: The soul in state of bondage according to Jainism, means an embodied soul. Thus the soul in state of bondage is not a free soul but an embodied one, which is, literally, also expressed as an imprisoned soul. Bondage, thus, is the state in which the soul is not in its pure form but in its polluted form. The bondage is therefore, the union of the soul with matter. A soul in state of bondage is a soul diffused in its light, weakened in its powers, miserable and unhappy for it suffers the consequences of the Karma, and is unhappy because it is constantly in the cycle of births and deaths till all the Karmas are totally annihilated"43 and it regains its original pure, perfect and powerful form. Thus the bondage state is not the natural state of the soul, it is again not a desired state as nobody wants bondage and everybody wishes liberation. Bondage is suffering (Duhkha) and liberation is release from it. We have seen that the bondage is the result, it is the effect and there can be no effect without cause. Let us see what are the causes. according to Jainism, that brings the soul into a bondage. 5.2.3 Causes of Bondage According to Jainism, the intimate interpenetration of matter into the soul and the transformation of it into Karman proceeds through the activity of the Jiva. The five causes of bondage are (1) subreption or unbelief (Mithyatva). (2) non-observation of the vows and commandments (Avirati) (3) idleness (Pramada) (4) passions (Kasaya) and (5) activity. (Yoga)*4 These five causes are known as the chief causes (Mula Hetu) and each one of these is further divided into a number of subdivisions, the secondary causes (Uttara Hetu). Every chief cause (Mula Hetu) causes the binding of certain Karman species. There are four passions : "anger (Krodha), pride (Mana). 41. nafot 3: fousad 42. Dr. G. N. Joshi : Atma and Moksa, (1965) p. 245 43. Start than 12: 44 fustafafayetgani Trenta: -T.S. VIII. 1.

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114 Jain Theism delusion (Maya) and greed (Lobha). These four are known as passions or Kasaya. Passions attract the flow of Karmic matter into the soul."45Passions and subreption (Kasaya and Mithyatva) are the root causes of the bondage. Passions are due to ignorance and so is subreption. Thus in Jainism ignorance is the real cause of the bondage, "Here Jainism, agrees with Sankhya, Buddhism and Vedanta"46 Prof. Nahar and Ghosh says that, "It is in reality neither fettered nor tainted with any of the blemishes; neither it is in reality the agent of any deed nor the enjoyer of any fruits thereof, but by subreption it becomes an object to itself through the other media of organism."'47 "This subreption is itself Ajnana, and that it can be removed not by good Karma or any kind of Karnias, since Karma can generate only Karma and nothing else. "48 So ignorance is the root cause of the bondage, the Jains call this influx of the Karma into the soul `Asravas.' Explaining the Jain view Mrs. S. Stevenson mentions these ways of entrance of the Karmic matter into the soul, "A Karma may be good or bad' but every Karma produces attachment to the object of experience into the soul and thus ultimately it makes one indulge into those experiences for ever. Finally it leads to unbroken fetters and thus, the Jiva cannot enjoy its original blissful nature". Stevenson mentions "the flow of Karmic matter into the soul through the ear, eye. nose, tongue and skin respectively",19 5.2.4 Kinds of Bondage We have seen that the entire cosmos is full of material particles which are very fine and imperceptible to the senses. It enters into the soul and produces change in it, "Therefore, first of all there is an influx of Karmic particles and then there occurs certain activities of mind which are responsibile for the actual bondage. In this state of bondage, soul and Karma are more intimate than milk and water."*50 The bondage is of four kinds. They are according to its (1) nature (Prakriti), (2) Juration (Sthiti) (3) intensity (Anubhava or Rasa) and (4) quantity (Pradesa)."51 45. Harransvita: font orang TETIGA 46. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma : A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 1976, p. 65 47. Nahar and Ghosh : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 548 48. Ibid., p. 616 49. Stevenson Sinclair : The Heart of Jainism, p. 139-140 50. M. L. Mehta : Outlines of Jain Philosophy, 1954, p. 135 51. uefafferraraud i arari: 1 - T.S. VIII.4

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Jain Philosophy of Soul (1) Nature (Prakritis) There are eight fundamental or chief species (Mula Prakritis ). The nature of Karma refers to the eight classes of Karma"52 as already mentioned previously, namely the Jnanavaraniya Karma, which obscures knowledge : Darsanavaraniya Karma, which obscures the undifferentiated cognition of the soul; Vedaniya Karma, which obscures the feeling of pleasure and pain in the soul; Mohaniya Karma, which so infatuates souls they fail to distinguish what is right from what is working; 115 Ayuh Karma which determines the duration of life; Nama Karma which gives the various factors of individuality; Gotra Karma, which destines family surroundings; and Antaraya Karma, which tends to oppose or hinder the Jiva in his capability of resolution and enjoyment. Such of these chief species (Mula Prakritis) are further divided into 148 subspecies (Utter Prakrits)"53 The Jains have given an exhaustive classification of the chief and subordinate species. In Jainism the Karma is explained to have its four states, namely. 'Bandha', 'Udaya', 'Udirana', and 'Satta'. Bandha is the first state when soul unites with Karma, 'Udaya' is the realisation of the fruit or the result of Karma. 'Udirana' is the premature realisation and 'Satta' is existence in potentia. Considering these states of Karma, the number of chief species and sub-species differ. (2) Duration (Sthiti) The word duration suggests the duration of the Karma or time. The Jain concept of time is also to be considered. According to Jainism "the lowest unit of time is Samaya." ." Innumerable Samayas make one Avalika; and 16,777,216 Avalikas equal to one Muhurata which is of 48 minutes. Thirty Muhuratas make one day; and then days into weeks and months and years. The number of years can be expressed in words 52. Adyo jJAnadarzanAvaraNIvayanIyamohanIyApuSkanAmagotrAntarAyAH / T.S. VIII.5 53. Dr. Glasenapp: The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy 1942, p. 6.10

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116 . Jain Theism upto a number containing 77 cyphers. Beyond that is Asamkhyeya.''S Thus .every Karma has the dution of its stay in the soul. The Sthiti or duration of time is decided on the intensity with which the Karma has been executed by soul. There are two types of duration : short lived (Jaghanya) and long lived (Utkrusta). (3) Intensity (Anubhava or Rasa) As we have seen that the duration of the Karma depends upon the intensity with which it is done by the soul, the intensity also depends upon the weakness or strength of the passions (Kasayas). Jainism, in accordance with the four types of passions (anger, pride, delusion and greed) recongnizes four degrees of the intensity. "The more sinful a Jiva is, the longer the duration of his Karman, the stronger the effect of his bad Karma, the weaker that of his good Prakritis, whilst with an increased purity, the duration of the bound Karman and the intensity of the bad Prakritis decrease and the Rasa of the good Prakritis grow."55 (4) Quantity (Pradesa) Quantity or 'Pradesa' means the quantity of Karma Vargana which differs from one another. "The Jiva assimilates Karman matter which is within his own Pradesas, not matter lying outside of them, just as fire only seizes inflamable material which is lying within its reach."'56 "The duration of stay of any Karma and its varying intensity are due to the nature of the Kasayas or passions of the soul, whereas the different classification of Karmas as Jnanvaraniya etc. are due to the nature of specific contact of the soul with Karma matter."57 5.2.5. Lesya "According to the moral value of their activity and corresponding also to the kind of Karma which they bind the Jivas can be divided into 6 categories. The first is characterized by the possession of the greatest sinfulness, whilst each following one improves, and the last in finally standing in the state of the highest attainable purity. The appertainment to one of these 6 classes shows itself in the soul externally 54. M. L. Mehta : Outlines of Jain Philosophy, 1954, p. 147 55. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942), p. 24 Karmagrantha II 43. 56. Ibid., p. 25 57. usafafergaragautara I grau: 72: 1 Celayagit ferragamit aburra: 11: 11 - D.S. 33

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 117 : the soul which is free by nature from all distinctions perceptible by the senses, receives color, smell, taste and touch; in short, it becomes a defined type, which distinguishes it from other souls, although in a manner not recognizable by our senses. This type of soul is called Lesya."58 The different Lesyas, distinguished according to the colors which they give to the souls, are 1. black (Krsna), 4. fiery red (Tejas) 2. dark (Nila) 5. lotus-pink (Padma) and 3. grey (Kapota), 6. white (Sukla). The possessors of the Lesyas are also described in great details in Jain scriptures: and the Lesyas have been explained through number of parables. 5.2.6 Conclusion In our final conclusion to this very important chapter on the soul in state of bondage let us note certain very important points as are being observed during our discussions. we have seen that the cause of Samsara or the suffering is the Karma. The soul being polluted due to Karma is in bondage of Karma. We have seen the reasons for the bondage of Karma, The reason behind all the different causes is ignorance or nescience. This view of Jaina is in quite agreement to Samkhya, Buddha and Vedanta. Jainism uses the word "Mithyatva' for nescience, "which means perversity of outlook. It leads one to wrong perception. He perceives non-soul as soul, irreligion as religion, wrong way as the right way etc."So As a solution to many problems arising from the basic question as to why and how the soul, which is completely free, potentially divine and innately perfect, gets infected, the Jains hold that both Mithyatva or nescience and Karma are beginningless. Morover we see that "The Jains have tried very hard to presreve their fundamental non-absoluted attitude with regards to the conception of the nature of Karma. Karman for them is neither absolutely identical with Pudgala nor completely distinct and different from it. This standpoint is not shared by the other systems of Indian philosophy."60 58. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy, 1942, p. 47 59. Dr. Ramjee Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1947), p. 118 60. Ibid., p.116

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118 Jain Theism Regarding the priority between the soul and the Karman, the Jains are not ready to regard Karma as prior to self as the self cannot be the product of Karma when Karma is material. But then Karma cannot be conceived as posterior to self for in that case pure, perfect and divine soul would be made responsible for it. We cannot consider both of them, the soul and the Karma, came together. Nor can we bring God to solve this problem for it will bring a lot of problems due to the contradictions with basic metaphysical theories of jainism. "Hence the jainism find it more reasonable to postulate a rela beginningless conjunction between the soul and the Karma. This view is not based on logical considerations alone, but also on religious and moral considerations." Before we close our concluding discussions let us note that the doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy and its detailed working as an explanation of the soul in state of bondage, asserts very powerfully and rationally that the entire present has not come to us from destiny (Bhagya) but has been logically derived from the infinite past (Atita). The same view if further extended, we find no fatalism because tomorrow depends on our today. As we sow so shall we reap, and in such case we are the masters of our life whether we make it or mar it. The entire analysis, explanation and assertion, by the Jains regarding the bondage of the soul leaves an impression of a perfectly logical, a perfectly consistant to its metaphysics and ethics, and a perfectly scientific one. 5.3 The Soul in State of Release The authors of the sacred scriptures have declared sixty seven postulates on Samyaktva (right faith). Out of them six relate to the location of right faith : They are, (1) The Soul exists (2) It is eternal (3) It is the agent of all actions (4) It enjoys the fruits of actions (5) Liberation is possible (6) The means of liberation is also available62 61. Dr. Ramjee Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1947), p. 119 62. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansuri : The Philosophy of Soul, Bombay, 1963 p. 1.

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 119 Release means release from the bondage of Karma. Release is liberation or Moksa. "Moksa is the emancipation of the soul from the snares of Karma (Karmapasa)"63 According to Jainism the Jiva is constitutionally free and potentialy divine. In its pure form it is fully pure, completely perfect and all powerful. The soul in its pure form in fact, is not the real enjoyer of the pleasures and pains. But then the Jiva is an embodied soul. The soul that is polluted and is having veil of Karma on it due to subreption, passions etc. and thus the Jiva appears as "Bhokta and Karta."64 We also saw that the Karma is beginningless. A thing can have its beginning somewhere in past (Sadi) or it may be since beginningless (Anadi). In the same way a thing can have its end in future (Santa) or it may be infinite (Ananta). Thus from the beginning and end point of view, there could be four possibilities a thing could be (i) Anadi + Ananta (from beginningless to infinite (ii) Anadi + Santa (since beginningless with an end.) (iii) Sadi + Ananta (fixed beginning but no end.) and (iv) Sadi + Santa (fixed beginning and fixed end.) According to Jainism, Karma, from the above four possibilities falls under the second one. This means that Karma, which is the cause of the bondage is since beginningless but is not permanently for ever or for infinite period. It has its end. Thus the bondage is not for ever, liberatiion is possible. Like all the other systems of Indian philosophy, except Carvaka, Jainism accepts the concept of liberation or Moksa and it has the means of liberation for its followers. 5.3.1 Removal of the Bondage Karma, according to the Jains is of material nature (Pudgalika). It has a peculiar property of developing the effect of merit and demerit. Being a matter, Karma has three stages, namely the bondage (Bandha), the realisation (Udaya) and exisence in potentia (Satta) from assimilation to the realization. This means even if nothing is done, the Karmas are going to be realized as they have their definite end. According to Jain doctrine of Karma, the duration of the Karma is fixed right at the time of its bondage, The duration may be a larger one which is considered stronger and bad. But then "with an increased purity the duration of the bound Karma and the intensity of the bad Prakytis decrease and the 63. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 617 64. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 548

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120 Jain Theism Rasa of the good Prakrits grows." Thus Karma and Karmabandha' (bondage) is not in principle endless, and "the real Moksa is the Moksa from Karma. "66 In short there is no release or liberation possible till the bondage is not broken off. The soul is capable to do so, but then what is immediately required is the stoppage of the inflow of Karmic matter. The entire process of attaining liberation is two-fold : stoppage of the new Karmic matter and elimination or annihilation of bound Karma. The first one, i.e. stoppage is known as "Samvara."67 Samvara is derived from 'Samvriyate', i.e. meaning that which checks the causes of Karma. This is the opposite principle of Asrava."68 The second one is the annihilation of Karma. This is known as "Nirjara." When the Karmic flow is checked and stopped what remains to be done is "the purging out of all Karmic matter stored up from before, through austerities. "69 Though it is more difficult to dissipate the already accumulated Karma than to stop the fresh Karma, yet what is most important is the checking and stopping the inflow of the fresh Karma. Liberation is not possible if the accumulated Karmas are destroyed but the fresh Karma is allowed to flow in. Let us examine both Samvara and Nirjara in detail. (1) Samvara : Checking of the Inflow of Karma Samvara means the checking or stoppage of the inflow of the fresh Karmic matter. It is the very first step towards the removal of misery and pain. It is quite rational to say that the controlling of the inflow of fresh Karmic matter can best be done by not allowing those causes to work which are responsible for the inflow. "The supression of the inflow of new Karman is called "impeding' (samvar)."70 It is attained by six means. They are (a) Gupti or control, i.e. three-fold discipline of the activity of body, speech and mind. (b) Samiti or vigilance in walking, speaking, collecting alms, in the lifting up and laying down a thing, and in the discharging of the body. (c) Dharma : the ten duties of a monk namely : forbearance, humility. purity, self-abnegation, truthfulness, self-control, asceticism, abstinence, voluntary poverty and spiritual obedience. 65. Karmagrantha, II 436 66. si tafiti fannyrita: 67. 3 aa : a: Tattvarthasatra IX. 1 68. Fra ufugat: Fal: Sthapanga Satra Adhyayana I 69. 777 faster ai T.S. IX. 3 70. Dr. Glassenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942), p. 65

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 121 (d) Parisaha, the patient endurance of the 22 troubles. (e) Caritra or conduct'"' . (2) Nirjara : Shedding of the Karma Nirjara is so important that often it is understood as another word for Moksa. But then Nirjara and Moksa are not the same. Had both of them to be the same there would be only eight Tattvas instead of nine, Nirjara is the elimination or annihilation of the accumulated Karma. Nirjara does not mean getting freedom from the effects of the Karma already bound to the soul. Nirjara means an effort to realize the Karma much before they realize in their natural course. This, according to Jainism, can be done by austerities."?? The austerities prescribed as Nirjara are not to be treated isolatedly. It is in continuation to or alongwith the Samvara. The austerities are of two types : External and Internal. Again each of these two consists of six kinds of austerities. External austerities include (i) fasting, (ii) eating less, (iii) taking a secret vow regarding food (iv) renouncing delicacies, (v) sitting and sleeping in a lonely place, and (vi) mortifying the body with mental equanimity."}} Internal austerities include (i) expiation, (11) reverence (iii) service (iv) study, (v) detachment, and (vi) renunciation."74 Moreover, Jainism insists for the practice of penance for shedding of the previous accumlated Karmas. The Jain conception of penance and the motive behind it is highly psychological and scientific one. The practice of penance is based on the psychological law or habit, It talks 71. Tattvarthasutra IX. 2 72. Tattvarthasutra LX. 3 73. Tattvarthasutra IX. 19 74. Tattvarthasutra LX. 20.

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122 Jain Theism about breaking the old, strong and grounded habit by acting against it forcibly and purposely. In Jainism liberation is possible by no other way or method but by self-efforts, and the efforts are also to make soul totally pure, totally devoid of Karma. This makes Nirjara very important and Nirjara means, in practice, hard austerities. There is one more classification of Nirjara, into two types. Sakama Nirjara (wilful) and Akama Nirjara (unwilfull). The Sakama Nirjara is willingly done, with strong desire and with one's own effort executed. While the Akama Nirjara is done under compulsion or unwillingly. In fact, the external and internal Nirjara, as we have seen, are the sub-divisions of Sakama Nirjara only. In Jainism, besides penance and austerities, meditation has also been regarded as a necessary condition of Nirjara."?When the Karmas are eliminated, the soul shines forth in its original purity. "It is through the acquisition of five-fold attainment (Labdhis) that the potentially free soul (Bhavyatma) attains the three jewels of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. 5.3.2. State of Liberation The means of liberation, as explained and suggested by Jainism, if properly carried out, results into an attainment of Moksa which means soul regains the powers : infinite knowledge, perception, potency and bliss. "Jainism, thus, pictures the state of Moksa not as something which is created a new by human efforts; but it is something like the recovering or regaining of a lost object. Moksa according to Jainism means self-finding; it consists in recovering one a consciousness of soul which had been forgotten or had become obscure due to delusion or subreption (Mithyatva). It consists in regaining one's lost self."76 in state of liberation the soul is in its enternal purity, in its original blissful and omniscient state. It is a state of eternal rest-bliss, where no futher Karmas are possible and so the possibilities of rebirth are completely brought to an end. Prof. Nahar and Ghose describe it as, "For the Jains it is a kind of Swarajya, self rule, a state of autonomy, e and simple, which every Jiva instinctively aspires after to realize by tearing asunder the veil or the covering in and through the process of which the ideal is realized and complete deliverance from the veil 75. Tattvarthasutra LX. 21 to 44 76. Dr. G.N. Joshi, : Atma and Moksa, (1965), p. 251

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 123 and covering of Karma is called Moksa."7 Shri J.L.Jaini, beautifully expresses and says, "The last day of Jainism is the day when the last Karma falls oft; matter bids good-bye to the soul, and the Jiva enters Niivana. It is a day of perfect calm, of serene being, of everlasting happiness."78 In order to undetstand the state of liberation as conceived by the Jains, we should also know the three-fold division of the soul. Five Labdhis, the two Sreni (approaches ) and the fourteen Gunasthana or the stages of spiritual development as explained by the Jain scripture. But then what is very clearly to be noted is that, according to Jainism, the main enemy or the greatest obstruction of the spiritual progress is delusion (Moha). It has two aspects : (i) that which prevents attitude of soul (Darsana-Mohaniya) and (ii) that which obstructs right conduct in the form of mental pollution (Caritra-Mohaniya). It is after subsidence or annihilation of Darsana-Mohuniya the real spiritual development starts."79 5.3.3 The Three-fold Division of Atman (Soul) | Ataman, in Jainism, is divided into the three categories, according to the position occupied in the ladder of spiritual development. They are: (1) Extrovert Soul (Bahiratman) (2) Introvert Soul (Antaratman) and (3) Super Soul (Paramatman).80 Bahiratman or the extrovert soul is the stage of impulsive life of lust and worldly enjoyments. Here the soul is also ignorent of its real goal. It is just like "Samsarapragbhara" of Yoga or 'Prathgjana' of Buddhism. The first three Gunsthana consist of extrovert soul. Antaratman or introvert soul or introversion is the means to the goal of the supraethical stage, which is the Paramatman."81 The introvert soul corresponds to Kaivalyapragbhara' of Yoga or 'Srotapanna' of Buddhism, "Here the soul distinguishes the self and non-self."82 "He relinquishes all the eight types of pride."83 The goal of all spiritual exertion is to attain Paramatman stage. Here all the sufferings disappear, and the soul shines forth in its natural qualities. It is a stage of complete 77. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 609 78. J.L. Jaini : Outlines of Jainism, (1979), p. 29 79. Bhargava Dayanand, Jain Ethics, (1968), p. 206 80. Paramatmaprakasa, 1.12 81. Moksapahuda- 5.8 83. Kartikeyanupreksa - 104 82. Ibid., 17

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124 Jain Theism harmony, in the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, "He is in the world but not of the world." This stage is comparable to Jivanmukta and Mukta of Hinduism and Anagamin and Arhatship of Buddhism."34 5.3.4. Five Labdhis We have seen that the fourth Gunasthana is the real beginning of the spiritual development. A soul before coming to this stage passes through certain stages which are five. The first one is called "Ksayopasama, which means destruction cum-subsidence of the Karmic matter."'85 As a result of the first one the soul involves into good actions and leads to happiness. This is the second stage called "Visuddha Labdhi.''86 "The third Labdhi is Darsana Labdhi where the soul with the help of a teacher leads into the nature of six Dravyas and nine Padarthas."87 "The fourth Labdhi is called Prayogya Labdhi. means the capacity to reduce the duration of Karmas. All these four Labdhis are important only if they lead to the fifth, Karma Labdhi. It is attainable by Bhavya Jiva only.""88 Before we discuss the stages of spiritual development, let us mention that the aspirint ascends the stages either by subsidence (Upasama) or by annihilation (Ksaya) of Karmas.'89 These are known as two ladders or Srenis of spiritual development. 5.3.5 The Gunasthanas or Stages of Spiritual Development "From the state of complete dependence upon the Karman to the state of complete detachment from it, 14 stages, the so called, Gunasthanas (states of virtue) can be distinguished."(r) These fourteen stages are marked by the gradual subsidence of eight Karmas, "There are stages of development in which the soul gradually delivers itself, firstly from the worst, then from the less bad, and, finally, from all kinds of Karman, and manifests the innate faculties of knowledge, belief and conduct in a more and more perfect form."91. The following are the different stages. "92 84. Bhargava Dayanand, : Jain Ethics, (1968), p. 208 85. Labdhisara, Bombay, (1976), p.4 86. Ibid. p. 5. 87. Ibid., p. 6 38. Gommatasara : Jivakanda 651 39. Virasena on Satakbandagama, 1.2-8,14 (Vol. VI p. 317) 70. Karmagradtha I, 56a, also see Glasenapp's The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942), p. 68. 91. Ibid., p. 68 92. Ibid

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Jain Philosophy of Soul 125 1. Mithyadrsti the unbeliever 2. Sasvadana Samyagdrsti the one who has only a taste of the true belief. 3. Samyag-mithya-drsti (or Misra) the one who has a mixed belief. 4. Avirata Samyagdrsti the one who has true belief but has not yet self-control. 5. Desvirata the one who has partial self-control. 6. Pramatta Samyata the who has complete self-control, sametimes, however brought into wavering through negligence. 7. Apramatta Damyata the who has self-control without negligence. 8. Apurva Karana (or Nivratti Badara Samparaya) the one who practices the process called Apurva Karana in whom, however, the passions are still occuring in a gross form. 9. Anivrti Badara-Samparaya the one who practices the process called Anivratti- Karana in whom, however, the passions are still occuring in a gross form. 10. Saksma Samparaya the one in whom the passions still only occur in a more subtle form. 11. Upasanta Kasaya Vitaraga-Chadmastha (or shortly Upasanta Moha) the one who has supressed every passion, but who does not yet possess omniscience. 12. Ksina Kasaya : Vitaraga- Chadmastha (or Ksina Moha) the one who has annihilated every passion, but does not yet possess omniscience. 13. Sayogi Kevalin the omniscient one who still practices an activity (Yoga). At this stage Mohniya and the three other forms of Ghatiya Karmas drop off from the soul completely.

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126 Jain Theism 14. Ayogi Kevalin the omniscient without Yoga. It is in this final stage that the already pure, perfect and all knowledge self becomes free from the other non-destructive (Aghati). Karmas. It is immediately . antecedent to the disembodied state of liberation , 1. Preliminary Survey of the Gunasthanas The following points come to our notice through a preliminary survey of the stages of spiritual development, (i) The Gunasthanas are arranged in a logical order, "according to the principle of the decreasing sinfulness and the increasing purity. 93 (ii) Subsequently to the above we find that "with the advance in spirituality the self becomes less and less troubled by the privations, "94 (iii) The 14 Gunasthanas as from the annihilation of causes of Karma point of view, could be classified into five groups 1. First Gunasthana where all the 4 causes of Karma are operating. 2. In 2nd to 5th only 3 causes are operating; unbelief is absent. 3. In 6th to 10th only 2 causes are in operation i.e. passions and activity. The unbelief and lack of self-control are absent. 4. in 11th to 13th only activity-cause operates, the other three are absent. 5. In the last Ganasthana a bondage of Karma no longer takes place. (iv) "The order of the Gunasthana is logical and not chronological.'*y} 5.3.6. The State of the Release The soul when totally free from the Karmas, when all the Karman is entirely annihilated, is released from the bondage of the Karma which is the cause of samsara. Such a released soul now does not need to be embodied. The released one, according to Jainism, goes to the end of the world. "Relieved of all matter, the soul ascends in a straight line during a Samaya to the summit of the world, as a gourd 93. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (194 p. 69. 94. Dr. Bhattacharya H. S., Jain Moral Doctrine (1976) p. 71. 95. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 69.

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127 Jain Philosophy of Soul freed from all filth sinks no longer to the bottom but rises to the zu rface of the water. 96 "High above the Sarvarthasiddhi-heaven close to the border between world and non-world, lies the magnificent region Isatpragbhara in shape like an unfolded sun-shade. Without visible shape bodiless, but a dimension in space (immaterial ) of 2/3 of that which they had during their last existence, they dwell there thenceforward into all eternity, and enjoy the infinite, incomparable, indestructible supernatural happiness of salvaton."97 The released or the liberated or as Sains say the Siddha without being affected by the doings of the world, "remains in his serene rest, freed from the torments of the bodily existence, released from the cycle of births and never returning to it.""98 "The orbs of day and night, the wandering stars, again to sight their heavenly courses bend; the soul, released from grasp of earthly bars, soaring in highest space doth ne'er descend.''99 According to Jainism, soul released is a soul in state of Siddhahood. In this state the soul is free and enjoys Anantcatustaya i.e Ananta Jnana (infinite knowledge), Anata Darsana (infinite perception), Ananta Virya (infinite energy) and Ananta Sukha (infinite bliss). The released soul is a conqueror- a Jina and is thus the hero. He possesses all the attributes of God, Such released souls have become the objects of worship not with an expectation of grace or mercy from them, but as source of inspiration and impetus for the spiritual development of the soul. 5.4. The Jain Philosophy of Soul and its Theistic Implication We have tried to cover up all the major issues and points concerning the Jain philosophy of soul in our previous sections. We examined Jain conception of soul, its meaning, existence and nature; we described the soul in state of bondage the causes and types of bondage; and, we also quite elaboratively saw the means to release the soul i.e. the soul in state of release, the stages of spiritual development and the nature of soul in state of liberation. Let us see some theistic implications that directly or indirectly peep out from these points. 96. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 93. 97. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 93 98. Ibid. p. 93 99. Sarvadarsanasangraha p. 33

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128 Jain Theism (1) The Jain philosophy of soul 'begins with the assertive judgement : "The soul exists'. Jainism is an Atmavadi Darsana. Further it recognizes the soul to be pure and divine in its natural state. It has infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite power or onergy and infinite bliss and turns out to be all divine, supreme and absolute. Soul thus, in Jainism in its pure form is absolute. But then, Jainism does not stop here. It comes forward with its metaphysical background and puts before us the theory of pluralism of souls. In fact the 'soul' is so a wide concept in Jainism that we find it not restricted to human beings or birds and beasts only, it expands right up to insects and plants. This results into pan-spiritualism, i.e. all is soul. Now if we interpret God as the manifestation of the highest values, highest virtues and highest morals then we find Jainism is full of high values, full of ethics. full of stress on right knowledge, right faith and right conduct. In fact if these high values and high morals are taken away from Jainism it will be reduced to nothing. Therefore we can say that Jainism is theistic even from high spiritual values point of view. (2) Following, logically, from the above we see the soul in bondage. But then bondage, though beginningless is not endless. Jainism explains the mechanism of bondage and schematism of the liberation. It means for release centres round Ahimsa (non-injury) Samyama (selfcontrol) and Tapa (austerities). Here we are reminded of Srimad Bhagwat Geeta expressing Jain theistic spirit : "With faith one attains knowledge, and with knowledge one attains self restraint and such a person attains bliss with self-Knowledge."100 Not merely the acceptance of soul and liberation makes Jainism theistic in its approach but even the path to salvation makes it all the more theistic. Professor Padmanabh S. Jaini in his book "The Jain Path of Purification discusses at length the Jain way and approach to salvation. He writes : "Perhaps more than any other religious tradition, Jainism is imbued with an emotional commitment to self-reliance. Thus Jains have found both theistic and fatalistic doctrines repugnant, for these doctrines not only negate the efficacy of the Tirthankara's path, but they totally deny the soul's ability to influence its own future, Although Jain philosophers have made much of the burden of Karma, this burden is not to be construed as an inescapable, unalterable, externally imposed effect."101 The Jains believe in the innate divinity of each soul. The perfection of the soul 100. Bhagwat Gita IV-39. 101. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jain Path of Purification, (1979) p. 138.

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Jain Philosophy of Soul is a logical outcome or presupposition, one can derive from the unlimited spiritual treasure a soul has. Thus, in Jainism perfection is not only a potentiality but an actuality. God is after all the highest ideal of spiritual perfectness and from this point of view we find Jainism theistic. (3) We may very well know how we call the modern age, as an age of moral crisis. In fact poverty of moral virutes is more detrimental than poverty of wealth, In the light of this fact the Jain conception of soul and its salvation talks about the spiritual treasure. The two distinguishing qualities of the treasure of soul, as a Jain monk says, are its safety, in the sense, that it can't be stolen or broken, and its easy transferability means you can easily carry with you wherever you go. This conception of spiritual treasure of the soul leads to a presupposition of a kind of perfection - a state any soul with self-help can attain an actuality. Now God being the symbol of highest spiritual treasure, Jainism comes before us as theistic when it talks about the spiritual treasure. (4) "For a Jain the knowledge, bliss and energy of the soul can never be totally extinguished, where as the Karmic influence is subject to complete elimination. Hence the soul possesses a sort of built-in advantage, an everpresent tendency to develop its qualities and temporarily reduce the influence of Karmas."102 This conception of Jains is highly optimistic. Passimism normally implies atheism which views the world as hostile to physical partial values and is incapable of explaining the presence of 'Good' in the world. Jainism accepts the 'good' and the 'perfect.' This kind of approach is thoroughly optimistic and theistic. Hence we can say that though some Jain scholars consider Jainism to be atheistic, it is very much theistic in the light of its thoroughly optimistic approach. 129 (5) The Samyak Darsana and the detailed picture of the ladder, one must climb as he progresses from the depth of delusion till the ominiscience and freedom, is called Gunasthans, stages of purification. The purfication, ultimately, leads the soul to a state of divinity - its natural state. "Each soul, when completely immune from Karmic influences, becomes itself Svayambhu, and is transformed into divinity."103 Divinity, thus in Jainism, comes out as the state of highest spiritual evolution. The liberated souls are full and perfect divinity in 102. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jain Path of Purification, (1979) p. 141 103. Jain Jyoti Prasad, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) p. 46.

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130 Jain Theism itself and by itself. "This is the conception of God in Jainism, which as a type is the ideal to all the devoted seekers and aspirants. The Siddhas and Arhats represent the two types of divinity or Godhood. This conception of divinity is the best illustration of the often quoted axiom that the air of religions is the realisation of the potentially divine in man."104 Such colours of the Jain philosophy of soul make it more theistic then anything else. (6) In our final conclusion we can say that the entire stress is on right conduct, Caritra, the concept of Labdhis and Bhavyatva. Moreover, belief in the moral governance of the world and freedom of will of soul are most important ingradiants of theistic world view. No theism can write even its 'T' without these two, and Jainism very much stands for both of these. So Jainism is very much ahead in the line of theistic thinking. It ceases to be theisitic or it seems to have ceased to be theistic only when 'Creator God' talk begins and this also can be interpreted as device for confirming moral governance and feedom of the will of soul. 104. Jain Jyoti Prasad, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) p. 46.

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CHAPTER - 6 THEISTIC COLOR OF POPULAR BELIEFS AND SADHANA 6.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARK Throughout the previous chapters an effort has been done to put before the reader the Jain Darsana, its metaphysics, its theory of knowledge and logic, its ethics, its philosophy of soul etc. But then Jainism is not simply one of the systems of Indian philosophy, or simply a Darsana, Jainism is this and still is much more to the people of India, to Jains as well as non-Jain, Jainism as religion and thought, is a way of life. It has its religious and cultural background at the root of its faith. It does not merely express its acceptance in the existence of soul but extends a very high status and attitude towards the essence of the soul. Jainism basically is, though it is too analytical and quite rational, religious in its attitude. The religious attitude of the Jains could be expressed in the words of William James, "Were one asked to characterize the life of religion in the broadcast and most general term possible, one might say that it consists of the belief that there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto. This belief and this adjustment are the religious attitude in the soul." If we take Jainism with special reference to its philosophy of soul and theory of non-absolutism or Anekantavada, the religious tolerance and willingness to accept the other's views. and a strong insistence of Ahimsa or non-injury to any living beings, we certainly find a powerful religious attitude at the core of Jainism. The popular beliefs have also their own status and importance, at least, in religion and philosophy. Many thinkers including "Immanual Kant held a curious doctrine about such objects of belief as God, the design of creation, the soul, its freedom, and the life hereafter. These things, "he said," are properly not objects of knowledge at all. Our conceptions always require a sense content to work with, and as the words 'soul', 'God', 'immortality', cover no distinctive sense content whatever, it follows that theoretically speaking they are the words devoid of any significance. Yet strongly enough they have a definite meaning 1. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, (1952) p. 53

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132 Jain Theism for our practice'. We can act as if there were a God; feel as if we were free; consider Nature as if she were full of special designs layplans as if we were to be immortal; and we find then that these words do make a genuine difference in our moral life. Our faith that these unintelligible objects actually exists proves thus to be a full equivalent in "Practischer Hinsichat", as Kant calls it, or from the point of view of our action, for a knowledge of what they might be, in case we were permitted positively to conceive them. So we have a strange phenomenon, as Kant assures us, of a mind believing with all its strength in the real presence of a set of things of no one of which it can form any notion whatsoever."? As there is a field of theory there is also a field of practice. The doctrines in its content and theory form one aspect, though important, of the system its practice and faith actually constitute the other aspect, equally important, of the system. One hardly needs to reemphasize the point that in a system like Jainism, which is a religion and a thought, the popular belief has its own considerations. 6.2. Popular Belief in Jainism In order to give full justice to the popular belief what is required is to take note of the background whereupon the philosophical as well as practical (ritualistic) superstructure of Jainism is raised, In the words of Tatia, "The main emphasis of Jainism is on Ahimsa, noninjury. The attitude of Jainism is more due to rational consciousness than emotional compassion, It is not based on social fellow feeling, but on individual responsibility. Jainism presumes infinite capacity for spiritual progress in every individual. Infinite knowledge and joy is the innate character of every soul. What is needed is complete noninterference from outside, Given freedom of development, every individual is bound to progress, Interference means spiritual dragging. A truth is not to be forced, but is only to be preached... Deep spiritualism was the characteristic of the age of Mahavira. It is not for an improved life that exertion is recommended, but it is for a transformed existence that penances are prescribed, Heaven is not the ideal. Freedom from worldly pleasures and sufferings is the end. The Jain attitude is not in the least pessimistic. It is realistic and optimistic..... Deep faith in spiritual freedom inspires self-imposed suffering. The end is not envisaged. The means stands justified by itself..."3 "He (the 2. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, (1952) 54-55 3. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 21

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Theistic Color of Popular Beliefs and Sadhana 133 Jain) makes the individual the architect of his fortune and the maker of his destiny. The individual is alone responsible for his degraded status and it is upto him to work out his salvation by his unaided efforts.": This is just the background whereupon the philosophical superstructure of Jainism was raised. In the light of the above mentioned attitude and in consistency with this background, a Jain Sadhu (monk) as well as a Sravaka (householder) is required to be very cautious about his speech." He is prohibited against making unwarranted categorical assertions or negations.''6 "The nonviolent and tolerant attitude of the Jains was responsible for their uttermost carefulness regarding speech which was required to be unassaulting as well as true."? "It is this attitude of tolerance and justice that was responsible for the original of the doctrine of non-absolutism (Anekanta)." The entire list of the truth can be put in this way: Every soul in its pure form is divine and that is God, he is not to be understood but to be achieved by removing all the impurities of Karma attached to the soul. The soul, more soul, a larger, higher, richer and more illuminating soul, is, in the last analysis, the goal of Jainism. The love of this spiritual progress at any and every level of development, is the religious impulse, and therefore theistic too. In his essay on Jain religion, Prof. V. G. Apte says, "The Jains believe God to be omniscient, unchanging and holy.", The popular belief and the strong faith with which Jains follow their creed is far away from the metaphysical or ontological technicalities. To them Tirtharkaras and Siddhas are Gods. Their temple (Jain Prasada) is the seat of such idol- worship. A Jain layman who is a true follower of the Jina is as much a soul as the God he is worshiping. "Thinking from this point of view some souls are worshippers (Sadhakas) and some are worshipped or liberated (Siddhas)"!0 Some of the popular beliefs on which we find devotion (Bhakti) becomes possible are: (i) God is the lord, master and saviour of all the living beings.. (ii) No achievement is possible without the grace of God. 4. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 218 5. Acaranga Sutra II - 4 6. Ibid II 4.1 7. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 22 8. Ibid. p. 229. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan, (1965), p. 116 10. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan' (1965). p. 116

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134 Jain Theism (iii) I-thou relationship (of Bhakta & Bhagvana) remains even after liberation. (iv) God is the ultimate shelter of all souls. (v) Devotion is an end and not means." These beliefs or principles also shape the Jain path of devotion. Of course, Jains do not believe in creator God or in God's grace. But then the popular belief to have full faith in God, both God's creation as well as grace does play its role in the devotion. Jainism, quite ritualistic and theistic in its devotion-path, does not consider devotion as an end but a means to an end. "According to Jainisn the goal of life is liberation. All his efforts will be for the liberation. Amongst these efforts, to a certain limit, even the devotion has its own place."12 The popular belief can be classified under four groups : worship, rituals, fasts and festivals.13 Let us see them in detail. According to Jainism, everybody has to bear the consequences of his good or bad actions and has thus to either enjoy of suffer, in accordance with the inexorable law of Karma. And yet, the worship of the Divinity is recommended. "As a matter of fact every religion must have popular appeal if it is to survive, and worship together with the allied ceremonial is one of the most patent means of popular appeal."14 Common men and women, "do not possess the requisite capability, and they are not free from earthly wants, desires, ambitions, fears, anxieties, worries and other human frailties. Facing life with calm indifference and resignation with an eye on higher values, is often too much for them. They want an easy and ready remedy, and the institution of worship supplies this need."15 But then worship could also be a form of 'Dharmadhyana'. The most extraordinary again of achievement is the joy, the peace, and the equanimity which pervade his or her soul. Worship is therefore, though recommended, found as a strong force in Jainism. Just like worship there are certain rituals regularly observed by the Jain. The lay aspirant, regularly in the early morning goes to the temple with a peaceful mind and pious thoughts. He may take with him few flowers or a ripe fruit by way of token offering. He recites some verses and Namaskara- Mantra as an adoration or obeisance to the holy pentad. The verses he recites are eulogies in praise of the 11. Ibid., p. 116 to 127 12. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan' (1965). P. 128 13. Read chapter VII of 'Religion and Culture of the Jains' by Dr. J. P. Jain. 1975. 14. Ibid., p. 104-105 15. Ibid., p. 105

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Theistic Color of Popular Beliefs and Sadhana 135 Divinity. This is known as Darsan (looking on) which is the shortest form of the Deva-Paja. Some Jains who are religiously, comparatively more staunch and they immediately after taking the bath and putting on the special Puja-dress (mostly silken) go to the temple. They first perform the Darsana and then they perform the full Dravya Puja ritual before the image or images of the Jina into the temple. The complete Deva-Puja rituals as described by prof. P. S. Jaini is like this: "As a Jain enters the temple, he typically wears only three simple pieces of clothing and carries a plate filled with flowers, fruit, camphor, uncooked rice and incense. Having approached the main shrine, he will bow down, utter the Namaskara litany. And circumambulate the image and, using rice grains, forms a Svastika on a plate or wooden plank. (This ancient symbol, as we have seen, signifies the four possible Samsaric destinies.) Above it he places three dots, standing for the "three jewels" (Ratnatraya): true insight (Samyak-Darsana), right knowledge (Samyak-Joana). And proper conduct (Samyak Caritra). These three provide the means of escape from the cycle of bondage represented by the Svastika. Finally, at the very top, he makes a small crescent with a dot mounted upon it; thus is suggested the uppermost portion of the universe, with the liberated soul resting just within its edge. The completed figure appears below. ::. By forming these symbols prior to actual worship of the Tirthankara, one shows that his Puja has as its ultimate purpose the attainment of liberation. Such preliminaries completed, he performs the Anapana or Abhiseka ceremony, in which holy water is sprinkled over a small image placed near the foot of the main one for this purpose. The water thus used for "bathing" the Jina must first have been sterilized

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136 Jain Theism pure, either by boiling or by the use of a "sterilizing" substance such as cloves. (It is thought that nonsterile water still harbors water- bodies; its use should therefore, entail violence, making unfit for a sacred act.) While engaging in Abhiseka, the devotee visualizes himself as Sakra (a Sandalwood paste mark on his forehead signifies this role); thus his action becomes, as in the Pancakalyana ceremony, are-enactment of the baby Jina's ritual bath atop mount Meru After the holy water, he pours sandalwood paste and milk over the image: the latter substance reminds him of the pure, milky-white color which suffuses the Jina's body as he sits in the Samavasarana. The Abhiseka is concluded with purified water and a shower of blossomes. Thereafter, the worshipper wipes the image dry and begins the second phase of Dev-Puja, a ritual called Arcana invoking the name of the particular Tirtharkara" represented he pays homage by offering up eight substances : (1) Water (Jala), for the attainment of cleanliness Sandalwood paste (Candana), for the attainment of purity (3) Uncooked rice (Aksata), for the attainment of immortality Flowers (Puspa), for the attainment of freedom from passion (5) Sweets (Caru), for the attainment of contentment (6) A lamp or camphor light (Dipa), for the attainment of omniscience (7) Incense (Dhupa), for the attainment of the great fame, and (8) Fruits (Phala), for the attainment of fiuit of liberation, Moksa. Next, small amount of all eight substances are offered together on a single plate. This gesture, called Arghya, completes the second portion of the Puja. The third involves a recitation known as Jayanala, the garland of victory. Here, one repeats the names of all twenty-four Tirthankaras, sits in silence for a few moments, and then chants the Namaskara litany as he did prior to beginning the entire ceremony At last the worshipper moves to the fourth and final portion of Deva-Puja, a waving of lamps before the image; this process is designated by the term Arati (Sanskrit Aratrika). having thus completed his worship, the lay devotee returns home and takes his first food of the day."16 16. Jaini P. S., The Jain Path of Purificaiton, (1979), P. 199-201.

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Theistic Color of Popular Beliefs and Sadhana 137 Fasting or a control on food in whole or part as a religious duty is found almost, in all the religions. But then, fasting has its own importance in Jainism. In Jainism fast (Upavasa) means a vow to abstain from food and drink, It is a form of austerity (Tapa) and its chief aim is self-purification and spiritual meditation. During the year, almost every month there is one or more Sain holidays, fast days, or festivals. These festivals may be broadly divided into five classes : periodical, Tirthankara Kalyanaka, historical, local and special."'? These religious festivals play a great role in "breaking the monotony of the humdrum daily routine of life, and give it an added zest." The strictness of the religion, the uncompromising nature of the metaphysics and the sole emphasis on self effort to gain salvation, and such disciplines, is to be carried out in its pure form, might become, psychologically also, untolerable for the majority of the lay worshippers. The other side of this situation, is taken care of festive occasions which bring life to religious activities and sociocultural meaning to these all. The decoration of the places, people in new dresses, dancing and singing, processions and communal gathering, and all such rejoicing though having no place in laws and doctrines, become remarkable features to transform a pure system of laws and theory into a religion and culture. Apart from the worship, rituals, fast and festivals, the Jains have socio-religious ceremonies, the Yoga and Dhyana, confession (Pratikramana) and renunciation (Pratyakhyana), the attainment of equanimity (Samayika), pilgrimage to holy places and the holy death (Sallekhana) which transform the Jainism into a living religion and culture. 6.3 The Jain Sadhana According to Jain scriptures, friendliness (Maitri), activity (Pramoda), compassion, (Karuna) and neutrality (Madhyastha) are four qualities (Bhavana) basically required in the foundation of religion."18 Sri Haribhadrasuri, gives a great importance to equanimity or right faith (Samyakkarana). According to him the five inevitable attributes of the soul can alone make the soul attain right vision (Samyakkarana). These five are 17. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1975) p. 119. 18. "Luguta Mosf sfat otta" -Lalita Vistara Vol. I Sri Haribhadrasori, Commentary by Sri Bhanuvijayaji P. 20

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138 Jain Theism (i) recitation of verses (Sutrorkti) (ii) concentration of mind while worshipping (Upayoga) (iii) doubtlessness (Asarka Tyaga) (iv) equanimity (Samyak Drsti), and (v) devotion (Bhakti)' Thus devotion or Bhakti is one of the five attributes required to attain right faith or Samyak Darsana. All these five attributes and activities to make the soul possess these attributes form Jain Sadhana or Jain Aradhana. Again according to Jain Scriptures the Jain conception of Bhakti or Aradhana consists in ten sections or parts. They are : (i) faith (Sraddha) (ii) holy communion (Satasanga) (iii) eulogy or religious song (Bhajan, Stavana) (iv) renunciation (Niviti) (v) sinceerity (Nistha), (vi) special interest (Ruci Visesa) (vii) firmness (Drdha Anuraga), (viii) love (Premotpatti), (ix) emotional state (Bhavanubhuti), and (x) strong devotion (Para Bhakti)."20 Thus we find devotion, in Jainism, has its own place in the wider structure of Aradhana or Sadhana. According to Jainism, Sadhana, Seva or Upasana, all these three words convey almost the similar meaning. The three modes of Upasana are Mantras (hymns). Murti (image) and Puja (rituals and worship)."?! Here also with Mantra, Murti and Puja, worship and rituals becorne possible, through an extraordinary followup (Anupama Aradhana). An extraordinary worship is possible in three ways : (1) soul (2) teacher, and (3) scripture."?? These are the means through which the worship could be realized, and the actual worship could also 19. "tathAhi prAyo'dhikRtasUtrokte naiva vidhinopayukta syAzaMsAdoSarahitasya samyagdRSTebhaktimata eva samyakkaraNaM, nAnyasya, anadhikAritvAt anadhikAriNaH Hoa in FREUTATAIT, I Lalita Vistara Vol. I Page 30-36 20. Bhaktirasamstabindu 1 & 2 21. Sr. Bhadrankara Vijayaji : Tattvadohana (1980), p. 155.

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Theistic Color of Popular Beliefs and Sadhana 139 be of three kinds (i) discouraging sins (Duskrtagarha) (i) encouraging good acts (Sukrtanumodana), and (iii) submission (Sarana). 23 Thus here also we find one of the very common characteristic of devotional mode of religion, the submission to God. In Jain conception of Aradhana or Upasana, this attitude is out and out theistic in color. In Jain conception of Sadhana, prayer has its significant meaning and role. The Jain prayer, apparently one might feel a contradiction with its metaphysics and ethics, is certainly quite meaningful and consistent with its basic philosophy. Prayer, traditionally, is asking for something (Yacana) or a request to God. Mostly the prayer is for the removal of the suffering, the unhappiness that prevails in life. But in Jainism, suffering being the effect to Karma and there is no remedy to the effect once cause has been operated, the prayer does not mean freedom from the suffering. A Jain prayer is for the removal of the cause of, the removal of sins : Papanivarana. It considers a true prayer to be all powerful and God is always the subject of such prayer. It says, "by praying Thee, let my unhappiness and Karma be annihilated, let me have true knowledge and holy death."24 6.4 Conclusion Thus we find Jainism provides all the essential characteristics of a system that believes in devotional way or Bhaktimarga. It may once again be cleared that worship or devotion in the sense Bhakti or Aradhana, in Jainism, is a way and not the goal. It is a means to an end but not an end in itself. Whenever a path is treated, as the destination or the means as an end, one can very well think what the results would be. One may critically observe the prevailing Jain society or community all lost in the rituals and religious festivals as if that is the end and thus the real goal- the liberation of the soul from its bondage with matter-either being ignored or totally forgotten. Whatsoever it be, but what I propose, here is to emphasize the theistic nature, the 22. Visesavasyaka-Bhasya "AyA guravo satyaM, tipaccayA vA''imocciya Nissa / sapattakkhataNao sIsANa u tippadAze vi // 23. Faghai con TET, Hendi 15quae 777 I ackpunt na, PROT puitfasta: 11 -Sri Hemacandracarya 24. et HCO3T AHHui a afectetur

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140 Jain Theism theistic color and the theistic presuppositions on which the entire religion and its religious activities rest. Such a system, a religion and thought, ever if differing in its structure or mode in comparison with other theistic systems, does not become atheistic. It presents itself as a perfect theistic system and its popular belief as well as Sadhana, lead it to a very sound position.'

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CHAPTER - 7 SCRIPTURAL AND OTHER ARGUMENTS FOR THEISM IN JAINISM 7.1. Introductory Remark The nature of reality, its relativistic character and the nature of soul were sufficient to lead to a position where absolute becomes inevitable. But then in establishing absolute, against the common notion of non-absolute, like one swimming against the current, I feel what is discussed logically or rationally, in the previous chapters is not enough. In order to present Jainism not as atheistic but theistic, it is quite necessary that the cause is made more sound with the help of more supporting arguments. When we think of still more arguments, and arguments that are logically sound and philosophically meaningful, naturally, we would search for testimonial arguments. Jainism, in fact like Nyay-Vaisesika and other systems of Indian philosophy, accepts testimony (Sabda Pramana) as a source of valid knowledge, The testimonial arguments, generally, falls under two groups : scriptural and personal. Scriptural arguments, form a group of such arguments which are quoted from the scriptures where the thesis is supported. But then, like every system, in Jainism we have the writers of such works who were no ordinary persons but great thinkers and seers. What they have written and said is the result of their own realization and bears a mark of authenticity. In short we have arguments taken from the scriptures as well as arguments supported by great philosophers and seers in their individual capacity. When we go to scriptural and personal arguments, it would be quite in fitness to give a brief picture of Jain literature that contains its scriptures as well as such names that have been acclaimed and accepted as authority. So let us have a glance over the Jain scriptures and other literature. 7.2 Jain Literature Dr. S. Radhakrishnan has rightly said, "The faith was preserved in .man's mind, as usual. The knowledge of the scriptures was slowly decaying, till in the fourth century B. C. the need for fixing the canon

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142 Jain Theism was keenly felt."" Jainism being the oldest living representative of that ancient Sramana current of Indian culture, being one of the earliest home of religions of India,'being 'shown to extend as far back as 3000 B. C. and being described as "a very original, independent and systematic doctrine', it has, to its great credit, proved to be a complete system with all the necessary branches of philosophy, theology, mythology and cosmology, each one very rich in its dogmas and literature, there is very 'big bulk of literature produced by or under the patronage of the Jain in ancient and mediaeval times'? The literature is primarily and essentially religious in character. Professor P. S. Jaini gives a classification of the canonical literature (Agama) in his famous book "The Jain path of perfection'. The canonical literature is known variously as Nigantha-Pavayana (Sermons of the Nirgarantha, Gani-pidaga (basket) of the Ganadhara) suya-nana. (scriptural knowledge), of merely Siddhanta (doctrine)'8 It consists of some sixty texts divided into three groups of works known as Purva, Anga, and Angabahya, all handed down in an ancient Magadha language called Ardhamagadhi." Agama Purva Anga Angabahya (14 texts : all extinct) (12 texts : one extinct) (34 texts) The 34 texts classified as Angabahya are further classified in five groups as (i) Upanga (12 texts), (ii) Chedasutra (6 texts), (iii) Mulasutra (4 texts), (iv) Prakirnakasutra (10 texts). (v) Calikasutra (2 texts).'" 1. Dr. Radhakrishnan S., Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 288 2. Dr. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977), p. 2. 3. Prof. Ramaswami Ayanger 4. Maj. Gen. J. G. R. Furlong 5. Dr. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977). p. 2 6. Ibid., p. 2 7 . Ibid., p. 150 8. Jaini P. S., The Jain Path of Purification (1979), p. 47 9. Ardhamagadhi was employed only in the most ancient times; the language of extant svetambara texts is very close to Maharastri Prakrit and is often referred to as Jain Mabarastiri by modern scholars. Digamaras adopted another dialect called Sauraseni Prakrit of the Satkhandagama and other works. See Ibid., p. 47 10. Ibid., p. 47

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 143 Thus here also excluding the 14 texts under Purva and one text under Anga being extinct we have 45 scriptures (Agamas) as the canonical literature of the Jains. The canonical and other quasi-canonical literature belong to the ancient period is written in the Ardha-Magadhi or Prakrit language as the Tirtharkaras wanted their preaching to appeal the common people. Jainism believes the Agama (traditional canon) to be the ultimate source of all knowledge. They are also known as the Dwadasanga sutra or the twelve limbed scriptures. In fact over and above mentioned 12 Angas, there are 11 *Upanga'. 10 Painna (iniscellanea), 6 Cheda Sutras, 4 Mula Satras, and 2 Chulika Sutras. "This makes 45 valuable Agamas.'!! It may just be mentioned that regarding the exact number of canonical scriptures a great controversy prevails not only amongst the scholars but also amongst the two main sects of Jainism : the Digambaras and the Svetambaras. The canonical literature of the Jains is very rich in its content and include almost all the areas pertaining to philosophy, religion, cosmography, cosmology, mythology, mathematics, sociology, etc. Each scripture has its definite subject discussed in full details e.g. the Acaranga Satra discusses Jiva Tattva as well as the nature of soul; or the Sutrakrutanga discusses the doctrine of non-absolutism (Anekantavada), the theory of manifoldness (Syadavada) and the Jain dialectics : the seven alternatives technically known as Saptabhangi Naya, in great details. Since our subject is not the Agamas or Jain literature its detailed survey, I would like to be very brief in saying that though they are religious in nature they offer a wide range of variety of subjects exposed with a detailed analysis, minutest details and highly logical arguments. Status-wise, the entire religious literature may be classified into three groups : canonical, Quasi-canonical and non-canonical. We also come across another classification where the entire literature is divided into four Anuyogas or divisions: viz; (1) Prathamanuyoga consists of the Jain Puranas (mythologies) Kavyas (poetry) and Caritras (biographies) (2) Carananuyoga contains ethical literature il. "Agama-ni Aradhana'- an article, Acarya Sri Manatungasri, Kalyan' (July. Aug., 1985), p. 183 to 188

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144 VIUVUYVE Jain Theism (3) Karananuyoga, deals with the cosmology, cosmography, Karma and intricate mathematical calculation (4) Dravyanuyoga, which deals with the Jain metaphysics and ontology. Moreover we find a huge number of works dealing with theology i.e. ritualistical and Paja-literature with numerous devotional hymns, eulogies, and lyrics composed in praise of the worshipful ones" ?? Over and above the canonical as well as quasi-canonical literature we find a large literature glosses and commentaries grown up round the sacred texts as well as upon the independent treatises. 'One of the oldest of these treatises is, Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigamasatra (185 A.D.)"}3 Some of the most important later Jain works are "Nemicandra's Dravyasrniagraha, Siddhasena Diwakar's Nyavatara (533 A.D.) Anantavirya's Pariksamukhasutra Laghuvetti (1039 A.D.) Syadvadamanjari of Mallisena (1292 A.D.) Yogasastra of Hemacandracarya (1088-1172 A.D.)., Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalamkara of Vadi Dev Suri (1086-1169 A.D.)!* I have not the least intention to provide an upto date, perfect and exhaustive list of Jain literature. The idea behind the brief picture of the Jain literature, as given above, is to acquaint the reader before they are quoted as supporting authority for argument under the condition, one may find a lot of important treatises and quite a good number of writers not mentioned. Again in the modern times, we come across some personalities worth taking note for the subject of this work. Amongst these, Srimad Rajcandra, Acarya Nyayavijayaji, Bhadrankar Vijayaji, Dr. J. P. Jain, Dr. H. S. Bhattacharyaji, Sri J. L. Jaini, Prof. P. S. Jaini, Pandit Sukhlalji, Pandit Dalsukh Malvania are some of the main ones. 7.3 Scriptural Arguments .(Canonical Literature) (1) Arguments from Sri Acaraoga Satra Infinite number of Tirthankaras, according to Jainism, results 12. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977), P. 163 13. Dr. Dasgupta S. N., The History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I, (1975), p. 171. 14. Ibid., P. 172

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 145 into an infinite number of the chief disciples known as Ganadharas. They wrote twelve Angas (Agamas) of which the very first one is Acaranga Sutra which discusses the five main rules of conduct (acara) for the monks. It also discusses the Jain metaphysics and specially the nature of Jiva (soul). The Acaranga Sotra provides number of instances where Mahavira has been addressed as God.''! Moreover, in its 24 th chapter, it describes Mahavira attaining omniscience and thus attaining Godhood. He is the Jain God being worshipped by Devas, human beings and others. He is the Lord (Bhagawana), the Arihant (one who has destroyed all his weakness), the Jina (the conqueror) The Kevali (Omniscient) and the Sarvajna (Having all knowledge)"16 Even if we read all the four sub-sections (Uddes) of its 9th chapter under the title Upadhana-Sutra it narrates all about Lord Mahavira and we find the conception of God the Almighty and Lord of the world in him. (2) Arguments from Sri Upasakadasaaga Satra This Agama describes the conduct and character of ten householders (Sravaka). It contains beautiful discourse and dialogues between Lord Mahavira and his chief disciples. Here we find aphorisms like 'super human being' ('Maha-Manava) progenitor of great religion' or great regulator' (Maha Dharmikathi)'a mystery to us (Mahagopa) etc. Moreover at number of places Mahvira has been addressed as Lord,"18 This Agama deals with many aspects related to the theistic 15. Acaranga Sutra 991-92-93. 16. se bhagavaM arahA jiNe jAe kevalI savaNNU satvabhAvadarisI savagaNu yAsurassa loyassa pajjAe jANai, taMjahA: Agati, gati Thiti cavaNaM uvavAyaM, bhuttaM, pIyaM, kaI, paDiteviye, AvIkammaM, rahakammaM rahokammaM laviyaM, kahiyaM, maNomANasiyaM, savvaloe savvajIvANaM, savvabhAvAiM jANamANe pAtamANe evaM ca Na viharaI / jaNNaM divasaM tamaNassa bhagavao mahAvIrassa NivvANe kasise jAva samuppuNNe taNNaM divasaM bhavaNavaivANamaMtara-joisiya-vimANavAsi devehi ya devIhi ya ukhkhayaMtehiya jAva apyaMjalagabhUra yAvi hotthA / 17. "samaNe bhagavaM mahAvIre mahAgove" / "sadAlaputtA / samaNe bhagavaM mahAvIre mahAsatyavAhe" "samaNe bhagavaM mahAvIre mahAdhammakahI" / "samaNe bhagavaM mahAvIre mahAnijjAmae" /

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146 Jain Theism aspects of a religious life c.g. it tells how Lord Mahavira is praised and worshiped by others. (3) Argument from Nandi Sutra Nandi satra, in fact, is not one of the twelve Anga. It falls under the group of Chulika, Sutra. But then Nandi Sutra is known as the 'balance-sheet of all the Agamas, 19 It enjoys its own importance. It contains the detailed description of the worship to Lord, the characteristic of the community (Sangha), the five types of knowledge etc. In order to stress the 'theism' as reflected in Jain scriptures, let us take its very first verse which is a prayer to the Jain God (Jinesvara Bhagawana). Here the Lord Jinesvara of Tirthankara is addressed as the 'knower of all generating states, 'grand and glorious (Bhavya), The saviour of all beings (Jagannatha), father of all fathers (Pita) and is ever victorious (Sada Jayi)'20 In the beginning we also find a hymn or Stuti for Lord Mahavira for twenty four Tirthankaras, and for the chief Disciples i.e. Ganadharas. In all nearly 50 verses of its very beginning is full of theistic color. A variety of phrases and aphorisms are used all reflecting the reverence and sense of worship towards Tirthankara who is the Jain God, the divine, the pure, the perfect and the powerful. (4) Argument from Anuyogadvara Satra Like Nandi Sutra, Anuyogadvara, Sutra is also a Chulika Sutra. It is known as "the key to all agamas."?! It is full of many metaphysical as well as the logical issues discussed in great details. It describes the four doors (entry or openings) to enter into Anuyoga. Anuyoga means to be consistent with whatever preached by Lord Mahavira. This scripture is comparatively more technical and tougher to understand. What is most important for us to note is the theism peeping out from such discussions. Its main thesis is based on a powerful conviction that one who follows this Sutra will be able to attain all the infinite capacities of the pure soul. It also narrates gods and goddesses of the different worlds (Devas of Naksatras). 18. Pi, ia 19. "Agama -ni Aradbana -an article Acarya Sri Manatungasari, "Kalyan' (July Aug. 1985), p. 183 to 188 20. JUS Nagiluft fallurit 15 TUNGTI jagaNAho jagabandhU, jayai jagappimaho bhagavaM // 21. "Agam -ni Aradhana' -An article Acarya Sri Manatungasuri, Kalyan' (July - Aug., 1985), p. 183 to 188

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 147 (5) Argument from Sri Aupapatika Satra : As we find Acaranga Sutra being the first amongst the twelve angas. so is the Aupapatika Sutra first amongst the twelve Upangas. It is also known as Sri Uvavai Sutra. This scripture is more a narrative one and gives an account of the great honor and reverence offered to Lord, Malavira by the king Konika, the monks and the people. It also discusses the issues regarding penance, meditation, worship, nature of heaven, and at the end the nature of Siddhas who are Jain Gods. The twentieth verse of this upanga is a famous Jain hymn (Stuti) which is full of the attributes of God : Tirtharkara.?? Some of the attributes here are : Divine and pure God, self-eminant, the master of the world, 24 the welwisher of the world2s, the path shower of the world,26 the illuminator, 27 the emancipator,28 the omniscient, the good," the absolute motionless, the pure,l the perfect,32 the Unlimited,33 the changeless, one who is at the state of divine perfection (Siddha),# to such Lord Tirthankara, who is the Jain God,36 prayers and obeiscence is offered, Moreover, this Upanga describes the Upasna of the Lord." It explains the three types of worship (Upasana) viz. physical worship, phonic (speech) or vocal worship and mental worship. At the end, the Aupapatika Sutra gives the nature of a soul that has attained the state of Siddhahood, one who is totally liberated from the bondage of Karma. It describes the location where Siddhas world reside permanently, the infinite number of Siddhas are merged into one other38 forming 'Monism' - the soul is one. The Aupapatika Sutra proves to be very significant 22. Aupapatika Sutra 20 23 to 37. NamotthuNaM arihaMtANaM bhagavaMtANaM AigarANaM titthayarANaM sayaMsaMbuddhANaM purisuttamANaM purisasohANaM purisavarapuMDarIyANaM purisavaragaMdhahatthoNaM loguttamANaM loganAhANaM logahiyANaM logaIvANaM logapajjoyagarANaM abhayadayANaM cakkhudayANaM maggayAdANaM taraNadayANaM jIvadayANaM bohidayANaM dhammadayANaM dhammasayANaM dhammasAraho dhammanAyagANaM dhamma-caracAraMta cakka vaTTINaM tIvo yANaM saraNagai paiTTA apaDiha -bara-nANa-basaMNa-dharANaM viyadRcchaumANaM jiNANaM jAvayANaM tiNANANai tArayANI buddhANaM bohayANaM muttANaM moyagANaM savvaNNUNaM savvadarisINaMsiva-mayala-masya-maNaMta-makakhayamavvAvAha mayuNarAvitti-siddhigainAmadheyaM ThANaM saMpattANaM, namotthu NaM samaNassa bhagavao mahAvIvarassa Adigarassa titthagarassa jAva saMpAviukAmassa mama dhammAyariyassa dhammovadegassa tithyagarassa vaMdAmi NaM bhagavaMtaM........ 38-39. " ANNoNNasamomogADhA, puTTA sabve ya logatai // -teo ekabIjAmAM vyApIne rahelA che ya ege AyA - Aupapatika Sutra-5

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148 Jain Theism as it does not only bring out the Jain theism but also solves the metaphysical problems arising out of plurality of infinite liberated souls and their residence being a mundane place. The solution to the answer ultimately leads Jainism not only to theism but to Monism. (6) Argument from Dasavaikatika Satra The Dasavaikalika Satra is one of the four Mula Sutras of the Jain canonical literature. It is a mini-Agama, in the sense, it contains the essence of the Agamas described in ten chapters. It has become an ideal one for the Jain Monks and nuns of the present day period as it wonderfully shows how amidst all the unfavouable situation one can best perform the Aradhana and attain spiritual progress. The very first line of its very first verse is the famous aphorism served as Jain definition of Dharma : "Religion is the highest bliss. It is made up of non-injury (Ahimsa), self restraint (Samyama) and penance (Tapa); even Gods bow down to him who has his mind always firm in religion is the highest bliss. And penance (Tapa); even Gods bow down to him who has his mind always firm in religion."40 The chapter 4 of this Mula Sutra through verses no. 14 to 25, logically proves how one who knows life and nonlife passes through the stages in gradation and goes higher and higher, in his spiritual development, till at last he becomes an eternally perfect being." Thus we see here the content reflecting the religious, ethical and spiritual progress towards the state of perfection. It is therefore, highly theistic in its presuppositions and in its approach. (7) Argument from Uttaradhayayan Satra The Uttaradhyayan Satra is also one of the four Mala Sutras of the Jain canonical literature like the previous one. It is also very popular amongst the non-Jain scholars of Jainism. It contains the last sermons of Lord Mahavira, constituted into 36 chapters. It has a very big variety of subjects belonging to Jain metaphysics, ethics, theology, and, mythology. It is the last expression of the last Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira. One of the characteristics of a theistic system is its worship of the Lord. Worship contains the rituals, the prayers and offerings to 40. dhammo maMgalamuniLaM ahiMsA saMjamo tavo / dan fa 74fa ofta en quit lll 811 Dasavaikalika Sutra ry 14 to 25 Dasavaikalika Sutra - 1

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 149 Lord. Worship of the Lord. We have dealt the issue of Jain prayer separately in the previous chapter. But then to bow down with reverence expresses the faith of the devotee. The acceptance of the Lord, as our master, and faith in Him, is expressed with reverence through the act of bowing down (Vandana). In chapter 29 of the Uttaradhyayan Sutra Lord Mahavira explains the significance and benefit of such acts as bowing (Vandana), singing eulogy (Stuti), confession (Prayascitta), forgiveness (Ksmapana), concentration and meditation (Anupreksa and Dhyana), penance (Tap) etc.42 The complete explanation as given by Lord Mahavira is simply impossible and unconceivable if Jainism is atheism. On the contrary it presupposes theism and has all theistic implications. Again, here in this scripture also, we find at number of places Mahavira has been addressed as Lord or God. At the end of the Uttaradhyayana Satra i.e. after the last chapter no 36, in reply to Sri Jambusvami's question, his Guru and the 5th chief disciple amongst the eleven of Lord Mahavira, Sudharma ganadhara, gives an eulogy after Mahavira (Virathui). It is composed of twenty-nine verses expressing the attributes of Lord Mahavira, He says, "Mahavira was omniscient. has unlimited (absolute) knowledge, was a great master who was steadfast in his own self, devoid of all passions and having no acquisitions or possessions, fearless, timeless, perfect knower of all the objects of the world. He possessed great wisdom, and was unobstructed though active; he was the saviour, liberator and emancipator having great peace and serenity; he was the destroyer of ignorance and illuminator, his wisdom was pure and unfathomable like that of the ocean; he was devoid of all passions and was beyond Karina, always shining; he was the best amongst all souls and was the creator of happiness and bliss in all living beings; he performed the highest meditation known as Sukladhyana, and attained the state of tiberation which has beginning but no end. He understood and carefully considered all the isms or philosophies of action and non-action; of agnosticism, etc. and showed an utmost control and equinonimousness. The entire eulogy (Virathui) is an example of the Jain conception of God and its theistic approach towards life and reality. 42. Uttaradhyayan Sutra Ch. 29, 10 to 23 43. to 52. Read U.S. Ch. 29 no. 10 to 23 53 to 68. Read U.S. Ch. 36 "Virthui"

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150 Jain Theism 7.4 Arguments from Quasi-Canonical Literature Let us also examine those works which are technically not belonging to the canonical group. But then they are considered highly important and significant and are included amongst the sacred texts of the Jains. Let us examine a few of them to show the theistic nature of Jainism. (1) Argument from. Yogasara This is an authentic text comprising of 206 verses into five sections. The central theme of this scripture is the soul that imerges out as absolute in its pure form and the way or path to attain such a state of soul. In its very first section the nature of Jain God is described; and in the very first line of its third verse it says : "This very soul in its pure form is God"69 It also says, "When the inner vices like attachment and aversion (Raga Dvesa) are destroyed, when the equinonimousness is attained, then the soul realizes absolute.' it tells us that the plurality of souls is only till they are embodied, and are in the bondage of Karma. Unembodied and souls free from Karma are the Gods having no difference.''l Form Nyaya-Vaisesika point of view all liberated souls are one. Such Gods (liberated souls) thought numerically many are all having infinite power and infinite bliss and thus are qualitatively only one."?? It narrates the nature of God and says, "this God is worshipped, mentally through the fulfillment of vows and physically through 'Bhakti' and 'Pooja'.73 To such a pure 69. zuddhasphaTikasaMkAzo, niSkalmaSAtmanAtmani / -Y. S. 3 paramAtmeti saMjJAtaH pradatte parama padam // 3 // 70.. rAgadveSamayeSveSu hateSvAntasvairiSu / sAmye sunizcale yAyAdAtyaiva paramAtmatAm // 3 // -Y. S. 13 ___ AtmAno dehino minnAH karmapaMkakalaMkitAH adehaH karmanirmuktaH paramAtmA na bhiMdate // 6 // -Y. S. 72. saMkhyayA nekarUpo'pi guNatastveka eba saH / anantadarzanajJAnavIryAMnandaguNAtmakaH // 17 // jAtasyaM yathA jAtyaM vahurUpamapi sthitam / sarvatrApi tadevaikaM paramAtmA tathA prabhu : // 18 // 73. ArAdhito stvasau bhAvastevena brahmacaryayA / satya pUjAdinA davyastavena tu tarAgatA // 29 //

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 151 form of soul-the Lord Tirthnkara, whether you call him Lord Buddha or Visnu or Brahma or Mahadeva or you call him Jinendra, it makes no difference."*74 Thus Yogasara provides number of instances supporting Jain concept of God and Jain's nature of theism. (2) Argument from Adhyatmasara Just like in Sthananga-Satra? which is one of the twelve Angas of the Jain canonical literature, here the central theme is "soul is one')6 It discusses the nature of soul, soul in its polluted form, soul in its pure form, importance of prayer etc. Here through verse no. 714 to 774 the absolute has been described just as we find in Bhagawadgita. It further categorically the pure soul is existence (Sat). knowledge Cit) and bliss (Ananda) !" The Adhyatmasara at the end defines God and says, "One who has attained absolute knowledge, detached from the worldly activities, annihilated all the Karmas and has attained Siddhhood is God."** Thus we find Adhyatmasara giving sufficient support to Jain conception of God as well as Jain theism. (3) Argument from Samana-Suttam This sacred text of the Jains convey the essence of Jain religion. It has four sections: the first one (Jyoti-mukha) tells about Jains and the Jain religion and its main doctrines; the second one (Moksa Marga) talks about path of perfection; the third one (tattvadarsana) deals with Jaina metaphysics and the last and the fourth one (Syadvada) deals with the non-absolutism of Jainism, it opens with a holy hymn as a prayer to five holy pentad : the God (Arihanta), the absolute (Siddha), the great preachers (Acaryas), the monks (Upadhyayas), and all the good persons (Sadhus) with reference to Jain God it says that, "it is 74. godt at ofc ar fabulerai CENTI$R: Juleni a fortat at Frefutarefa fe 113&11 75. 7 3174 - PATTIN F- QUIFI 76. eka Atmeti sUtrasyApyayamevAzayo mataH / pratyag pUjyotiSamAtmAnamAhu : legir un ll 77. duHkhaismayobhinnastenAtmA puNyapApayoH / zuddhanizcayataH satyacidAnandamayaH sadA II 9811 Also see (1) Samayasara 45 (2) Pravacanasara 1-78 78. jJAnaM kevalasaMjJa yoganirodhaH samagrakarmahatiH / siddhi nivAsazcayadA, ACAT PATTIGI : 117811 A. D. S. 79. Namaskaramantra : Samana Suttam 1 & 2

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1 152 Jain Theism the commandment of the Jain God that one should give up the soul's outer activities of the mind, of the speech and of the body and should enter into the inner world of the soul and should thus concentrate on God." It also says, "One who knows the Jain God knows the soul." Here also, at the end, there is an eulogy for Lord Mahavira. Its very first verse says that 'Just like the knowledge, the wisdom, the self restraint and penance Lord Mahavir is also my protector, and shelter."" It further describes how Lord Mahavira was the greatest amongst the liberated, the best in the world and 'Almighty Father' of the whole universe. The Samana Suttam is not merely an essence of all the great scriptures but is also a noncontroversial text that has been agreed and accepted by all the sects of the Jains. The Samana Suttam also reflects the most deep rooted theistic approaches of the Jains and Jainism. (4) Argument from Syadavadamanjari This scripture, in fact, is the commentary on Sri. Hemcandrasuri's 'Mahavira Stuti-dvatrimsika, which was written by Sri Mallisenacarya in 1293 A.D. and reflects the author's deep study of the other systems of Indian philosophy. It mainly discusses the epistemological problems. But even then, while commenting upon the 17th verse, Sri Mallisenacarya discusses the "omniscience" and logically proves that the Jain god (Vitaraga Bhagavana) is Omniscient. At the end of the work, in the last five couplets, there is an culogy expressing God's capacity to know the reality in its pure form and he has thus saved the mankind from fallacies or false standpoint (durnaya).'84 This text, basically, is not metaphysical or pertaining to theology. Even then 80. Astrahapi aMtaraNyA, bahiraNyo chaMDiaNa tiviheNa / jhAijjai paramapyA, uvaiTuM jiNavaridairhi 1 81. jo jANAdi arahaMtaM, davvattaguNattapajjayattehiM / Samana Suttam so jANAdi appANaM, moho khalu jAdi tassa layaM 11 11 16-17 S. 82. NANaM saraNaM me, daMsaNaM ca saraNaM ca cariya saraNaM ca / tava saMjamaM ca saraNaM, bhagavaM saraNo mahAvIro // // jJAnaM zaraNaM, mama, darzanaM ca zaraNaM ca cAritra zaraNaM ca / tapaH saMyamazya zaraNaM bhagavAn zaraNo mahAvIraH // // 83. / TIkA / atha anAditvAda rAgAdInAM karma prakSayaH iti cet / na / upAyatastadAvat / anAderapi suvarNa - S. S. 44.1 malasya kSArabhUtpuTapAkAdinA vilayopalambhAt / tadvadevAnAdInAmapi rAgAdidoSANAM pripakSabhUmaratnatrayAbhyAsena vilayopapatteH / kSINadoSasya ca kevalajJAnAvyabhicArAt sarvajJatvam // S. M. 17 84. Syadvada Manjari 28

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 153 it does reflect the theistic presuppositions as well as the general theistic approach by the Jain religion and Jain community at number of places. Moreover it narrates the liberation and the nature of liberated soul, its capacity and characteristics. (5) Argument from Yogsastra Acarya Hemachandra has his own place in the history of the Jain religion. He enjoys a very respectable status mainly due to his multifaced personality and his services in various fields, like religion, Yoga, literature, grammar, politics and sociology. All the three traditions of ancient India; the Vaidic. The Bauddha and the Jain, have accepted Yoga as a solution and a way of life to attain the highest spiritual happiness. In the third section (Kiran Sa) it tells that one who is practicing Yoga should concentrate on his own soul as not different (Abhinna) from God's Through the last three verses of this section it has been explained how the meditator becomes totally free from the sins and attains Godhood. This entire discussion throws sufficient light on Jain's faith in the supreme and their approach even in Yoga. Again the fourth section, through the verses 40 to 54 he discusses the state of liberation and for that how one should attain equanimity (Samabhava). In the same section it discusses penance and its different types, 86 religion, 87 ten religions (duties), liberation, ** how and when attained and at the end the companionship or friendship i.e. 'Maitribhavana"89 All these issues are dealt in a theistic background. Like Jnana and Bhakti, Yoga is treated as a way (a Marga) to release the soul from the bondage and attain highest. unity with the Siddhas. 85. 31 Ari ya 44 3451 SART! -Y.S.S., P. 199. 86. anazanamaunodarya vRtteH sakSepaNaM tathA / rasatyAgastanuklezo lInateti bahistapaH // 89 // Yogasastra IV - 89 87. 194: i pita fahari a4: I farfdaya tanpa astaHIN 8311 Yogasastra IV - 93 88. mokSaH karmakSayAdeva sa cAtmajJAnato bhavet / dhyAnasAdhyaM mataM tacca taddhayAnaM fed477477: 1188311 Yogasastra IV - 113 , mA kApIt ko'pi pApAni mA ca bhUt ko'pi duHkhitaH / mucyatAM jagadapyeSA matimaitrI fre 1188611 Yogasastra IV-118

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154 Jain Theism (6) Argument from Dravyasangraha The Dravyasamgraha by Sri Nemicandra is considered to be one of the authentic treatises on Jain metaphysics and philosophy. Here, again we find the author begins with a prayer and praises. Lord Tirthankara with full faith and devotion, out and out in a theistic spirit.90 In the third chapter of this work, which deals with 'Path of Salvation' (Moksa-Marga), through the verses no. 50 and 51 the nature of Jain Tithankara and Siddhas is described.91 We find the Jain God in its conception of the Tirthankar and Jain Para-Brahman in its Siddhas. Both the Arihanta and siddha are souls who have attained liberation and perfection and are divine Gods, who should be the object of meditation, 92 On Sri Nemichandra's Dravyasamgraha Sri Brahmadeva has written a commentary in which he gives a detailed explanation on the nature of God.93 90. jIvamajIvaM davvaM jiNavaravasaheNa jeNa Nidircha / deviMdaviMdavaMdaM vaMda taM savvadA sirasA // 1 // jIvamajIvaM davyaM jinavaravRSabheNa yena nirdiSTam / devendravRndavaMdyaM vande taM sarvadA ziratA // 2 // . Dravya Samgraha 1 & 2 91. gaTupadudhAikammo daMsaNasudaNANavIriyamaio / suhRdehattho apyA suddho ariho viciMtijjo // 50 // naSTacaturdhAtikamAM darzanasukhajAlAnavIryamayaH / . zubhadehasthaH AtmA zuddhaH arhan vicintanIyaH // 50 // - D. S. 50 92. NatRtRkammadeho loyAloyassa jANao dar3hA / purisAyAro apyA siddho jJApaha loyasiharatyo // 51 // naSTASTakaTammadaihaH lokalokasya jJApakaH daSTA / puruSAkAra: AtmA siddhaH dhyAyeta zokazikharasthaH // 51 // . D. S. 51 paramAtmalakSaNaM kathyate sakalavimalakevalajJAnena yena kAraNena samastuM lokAlokaM jAnAti vyApnoti tena kAraNena vissnnurbhnnyte| paramabrahma saMjJanijazuddhAtmabhAvanAsamutpannasukhAmRtatRptasya sata urvazIrambhAtilottamAbhirdevakanyAbhirapi yasya brahmacaryavrataM na khaNDitaM sa parabrahma manyate / kevalajJAnAdiguNocaryayuktasya sato devendrAdayo'pi tatpadAbhilASiNa: santo yasyAjJAM kurvanti sa IzvarAbhidhAno bhavati / kevalajJAnazabdavAcyaM gataM jJAnaM yasya sa sugataH athavA zobhanamavinazvaraM suktidaMpade gataH sugataH / "zivaM paramakalyANaM nirvANaM" jnyaanmkssym| prAptaM muktipadaM yena sa zivaH parikIrtitaH / / nizcayena svataH siddhatvAtparakAraNanirapekSA, ta caivAvinazvaratvAnnityaH / paramopokSammAyatvArabhyarapaprakAzanasamarthaH, anAyananAsyAdA-dimadhyAntanirmalA, paramacaitanyavilAtalakSaNatvAducchalananirbharaH, svAbhAvikaparamAnandaikalakSaNatvAtparamasukhamUrti, nirAstravasahajastvabhAvatvAtsarvakarmasaMvaraheturityuktalakSaNaH paramAtmA / 93.

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 155 It describes the world of the liberated souls (Moksa-Sila),94 the Siddhas or the liberated souls, the nature of their blisss and. at the end, it talks about the transcendental meditation or Parama-Dhyana,96 Both Sri Nemicandra and Sri Brahmadeva have treated the issues most theistically. (7) Argument From Naya-Kariika and Sanmati Prakarana Both, Naya Karmika and Sanmati Prakarana, are the creation of Siddhsena Diwakara. The Naya Karnika opens with a prayer to Lord Mahavira whose gospel is an ocean, with all kinds of Nayas as so many streams flowing into it.....97 The Naya Karnika deals with Jain logic, while the Sanmati Prakarana gives an elaborative view of Jain epistemology, specially the Jain theory of non-absolutism (Anekantavada). Pandit Sukhlalji observes in his own comments that both Siddhasena and Samantabhadra, in less or more degree, in a typical Jain style, try to suggest to the people that the trinity of Brahma, Visnu and Mahesa is in fact, none else but the Jain Tirthankara." It also contains a short life-sketeh of Lord Mahavira and his spiritual achievements. (8) Argument from Saddarsanasamuccaya It is one of the most popular philosophical treatise mainly amongst the scholars of Indian philosophy. It is written by Sri Haribhadra Suri in which the author has given a classification of the systems of Indian philosophy. It also reflects Sri Haribhadra Suri's deep knowledge 94. tataH paraM tatraiva dvAdazayojaneSu gateSvaSTayojanazvAhulyA manuSyalokavavatpaJcAdhika catvAriMzallakSayojanavistArA mokSazilA bhavati / tasyA upari dhanodadhidhanavAtatanuvAtitrayamasti / tatra tanuvAtamadhye lokAnte kevalajJAnAdyanantaguNatarhitA: sivadAH tiSThanti / 95. sarvasya karmaNaH yaH kSapahetuH AtmanaH hi pariNAmaH / jJeyaH saH bhAvamokSaH dravyavimokSaH ca karmapRthagbhAvaH // 37 // tasya muktAtmanaH sukhaM kathyate / "AtmopAdAnasiddhaM svayamatizayavadvitadArdha // vizAlaM vRddhihAsavyapetaM viSayavirahitaM ni:prtidvndvbhaavm| anyadavyAnapekSaM nityamamamitaM zAzvataM sarvakAlamutakRSTAnaMtasAraM paramasukhamatastasya siddhasya jAtaM // "96 96. mA ceSTata mA jalpata mA cintayata kim api yena bhavati sthiraH / AtmA Atmani rataH idaM eva paraM dhyAnaM bhavati // 56 // -D. S. 97. vardhamAnaM stumaH sarvanayanayaraNavAgamam / sadoSatastadunnItanayabhedAnuvAdataH // 1 // 98. Pt. Sukhlalji & Pt. Doshi B. Sanmati - Prakaran ed. (1952), p. 181

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156 Jain Theism of the other systems of Indian Philosophy and the attitude of Jain monks towards the other systems. Sri Haribhadra Suri describes Jain God as one who is free from all attachments, who has destroyed all th ations, who has attained omniscience, who is worshipped by the gods, and one who has, after annihilating all the Karmas, attained liberation.o Sri Gunaratna Suri, in his commentary on Sadarasanasamaccaya, discusses even the issue of Avataravada. He also quotes Sri Siddhasena in this connection and at the end says that the Jain God in his state of liberation is going to be like that for an infinite period; Jinendra (The Jain God) is the real God and to him only one should treat as God.100 (9) Argument from Visapahara Stotra This stotra by Mahakavi Dhananjaya is more a literary work which describes God through different figures of speech e.g. it uses paradoxes (opposites) in saying "God (Lord Ksabhadeva) to be nothing but a pure soul and yet it is omnipresent, known to all possessions and yet possesses nothing, living for an infinite time and yet never old."tol Again it says : "You (Lord Rsabhadeva) see all but is seen by none, know all but not known to all, you are how many and how is not predictable and so my prayer is the story of my inability to express. "102 It further says "O Lord ! you are omniscient and you are the Lord of all, the three worlds."?lu3 It also tells regarding the worship and devotion. It says, "Mere talking is not enough, in order to achieve the desired goal worship (Bhakti), memory (Smiti) and obeisance (Namaskrti) is required. So I devotedly, daily worship you (Bhajami, Smarami, 99.379 Sari FWUT916 jinendro devatA tatra rAgadveSavivarjitaH / hatapohamahApallaH kevalajJAnadarzanaH // 45 // surAsurendrasaMpUjya: sadbhUtArthaprakAzakaH / kRtsnakarmakSayaM kRtyA saMprAptaH paramaM padam // 46 // -S. D. S. IV 45-56 100. Jain, Dr. Mahendrakumar, ed. SDS - (1970), p. 165 101. Farrafera: Herra: #fredet fattain: 1 uagantseerim atua: urugurareysu yout: Il - V. S. 1 102. Feat faugyar Frantiere fagragoi faftertida: arforditeeri spugnant: Agfarten siftirnar - V. S. 4 103. fragicard agafattarella Hen fornitura i atacuri ufa reforma Asaisfuacamparty 1 - V. S. 16

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157 Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism Pranamami). 104 "Regarding the nature of absolute it says, "O Lord! You have no form, no taste no smell, no touch, no sound, You are abstract and yet you know them all. These are some of the examples to show the writer's treatment towards Tirthankara as Lord and the object of worship. (10) Argument from Sri Lalita Vistara The two volumes of Sri Lalita Vistara by Sri Haribhadra Suri is full of spiritual discussions. In fact the Lalita Vistara is a commentary on "Sri Caityavandan Sutra' yet it is an independent sastra. Here Haribhadra Suri has taken each attribute of the Siddhas or Arihant and has discussed each one in a great detail. It is also known the "great light" (Parama Tej). It is full of the mystery that lies behind the worship that brings success. 106 In its first part it discusses the four fundamentals (Bhavana) of the Jain religion viz. friendliness (Maitri), activities (Pramoda), compassion (Karuna) and equanimity (Madhyastha). These are also called the substratum on which a religion exists. Moreover it discusses the five inevitables' to attain the purity and liberation of the soul and a state of righteousness (Samyaktva). These five inevitables are (i) religious follow up of procedures explained in texts or hymns (ii) while undergoing religious rituals to concentrate on it, (iii) never to keep doubts, (iv) to keep neutral attitude and equanimity, and (v) to be devotional. Again it explains in detail why should we worship. A devotional worship, as it says, is the right conduct (Sistacara) for attaining the good (Sreya), 109 and the true prayer is always useful to attain what is unattainable Thus we find number of details and elaborative discussions on issues related to Jain theism in these two volumes (commentary) on Sri Haribhadra Suri's Lalita Vistara. (11) Argument from TattvanuSasana 107 Tattvanusasana is a small treatise comprising of 259 couplets on meditation (Dhyana) and nature of a liberated soul. It is written by 104 stutyA paraM nAbhimataM hi bhakatyA, smRtyApraNamyA ca tato bhajAmi / smarAmideva / praNamAminityam, kenApyupAyena phalaM hi sAdhyam / - V. S. 31 105. azabdamasparzamasyagandhaM tvAM nIrasa tadviSayAvabodham / sarvasvamAtAramaneyamanyaijinendramampAryamanusmarAbhi // 34 // - V. S. 34 106. Sri Bhanuvijayaji ed. Lalita-Vistara Vivechana (Parama-Tej 1959), Book I p.3 107. Ibid., p. 20 109. Ibid., p. 86 108. Ibid., p. 30 110. Ibid., p. 178

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158 Jain Theism Srimannagasenacarya; and does not merely accept God but categorically asserts the real existence of God." It also defines good conduct as one where sinful activities (by mind, speech and body) are given up.112 At the end of the work it describes the nature of a liberated soul that has attained Siddhapada- Godhood'. Thus we find here in this scripture the entire approach to the subject is not merely religious but theistic. Nothing is being discussed without considering the supreme or the God. This is a definite theistic presupposition on which the content of the treatise rests. We have seen some of the quasi-canonical scriptures of the Jain literature. What we saw is the acceptance of the conception of God or the supreme or the absolute. Moreover, one finds a belief in the concrete and effective existence of the absolute. We have also seen how almost in all these works, the nature of Jain God (Arihanta and Siddha) is described, which virtually does not differ from the theistic concepts of the other systems of Indian philosophy. One of the most striking characteristics, commonly found in all the treatises is its beginning. All these scriptures begin with a prayer and the prayer is invariably to Lord or Tirthankara (Mahavira or Rsabhdeva) addressing him, as his God. The spirit is highly devotional and the feeling with which God is approached is full of humility and submission. The prayer reflects the faith and reverence and thus becomes an act of worship (Bhakti). In short, all these scriptures, have an underneath current of strong theism which is not unnoticable. 7.5 Argument from Non-Canonical Literture Introduction We have seen some canonical as well as quasi - canonical scriptures to show the Jain theism as being reflected through them. But then we have also with us the non-canonical literature on Jain philosophy. The writers of these texts are of two kinds : Jain and nonJain. To us what is important is the view that affirms our thesis that 111. 31 aranasi: poriafurafen: 1 ghAtikarmakSayodbhUtaspaSTAnantacatuSTayaH // 92 // - T.S.S. 2 Buddhisagarji ed. Anandaghanapadasamagraba (1954) pada : 84 P. 281 112. a aa aar, qarga chafia: 1 Trufaruri : Helferqafar tal 16 - T.S.S. 27

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 159 Jainism is theistic and Jain theism is obviously seen overflowing in a great number of texts and their writers. One thing more, uptil now we have taken some of the works of the texts, but in this non-canonical literature we will take a few authors and thinkers representatives of a class : and thus will deal with their names rather than the text or ngst such representatives I have selected Srimad Rajcandra Sri Anandaghana, Sri Nyayavijayaji, Sri Bhadrankarvijayaji, Pandit Sukhlalji, Prof. P. S. Jaini, Pandit Dalsukh Malvania, Dr. J. P. Jain, Dr. $. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Dasgupta, Prof. H. S. Bhattacharya, Dr. Ram Jee Singh, Dr. G. N. Joshi and others. (1) Srimad Anandaghanaji The eighteenth century gave quite a good number of great monks who were highly learned and strictly spiritual. Srimad Anandaghanaji was one of them. He was a great poet and wrote innumerable poems mainly in Hindustani, Marvadi and Gujarati languages. The subject of his poems was always the pure soul- the religious thought, an expression of his devotional and sincerest worship of the lord Tirtharkara. He wrote eulogies for the twenty four Tirthankaras as well as many couplets having the spiritual thought. Srimad Anandaghanaji, his life and works, is quite sufficient enough for and independent research work. What we are here, concerned is to examine some of the poems or couplets to conclude Jain theism as it is in the religion of Jains as well as in the writings of, one of its greatest, purest and wisest of the monks. Like Sufi poets, he expresses his immense love for God and in one of his couplets (pada) he says. "O Lord ! I am in love with you. I don't care for the crazy world. Just like an addicted person, intoxicated by the substance he is addicted and is always in his own mood, I am addicted to pure Love of yours."113 Again he says, "Just like a Yogi in his deep meditation concent the desired goal and experiences the bliss, I have fixed my entire mind on Vitaraga (Lord) which gives me a great peace,"!!!4 But then in one of his poems he directly advises to all the living beings to concentrate on none but the God of the Jains (Jinesvara Bhagavana), The purity of 113. myrit npora gutt, for t he ait to il mito zani. kAhuke kahe kabahI na chuTe, loka lAja saba DArI, jaise amali amala karatasame, lAga rahI jyu khumArI // jinraaj0|| 114. Hunt ut saga, Han era afy zo | taise Anandaghana anuhArI, prabhuke huM balihArI // jina0 // 2 // Jail Education International

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160 Jain Theism soul is not possible without loving and remembering the Lord with great devotion and worship. Let the attention be only after eulogizing the great qualities of the Lord."lis Moreover, his eulogy on Rsabhadeva!!6 clearly reveals the theistic approach found in Jains. Commenting upon this Acarya, Buddhisagarji says that, "Srimad Anandaghanaji is always confident to cross the ocean of the world only with the power of his prayer for the Tirthankara."117 There are many poems that end with an expression of Srimad Anandaghanaji's strong theistic passion to worship God and to be blissful.ins In his eulogy on Lord Neminatha he sa Jaina is one who by becoming Jina worships jina."119 Thus we have seen a great presentative of the Jain literature whose eulogies and poems overflow with strong and powerful theistic feelings to worship God and to attain the highest bliss. (2) Srimad Rajacandra Srimad Rajacandra belonged to the early twentieth century, He was a great ascetic and a mystic. His name hardly requires any introduction to Jains as well as non-Jains. He was the spiritual guide of Mahatma Gandhiji whose name Gandhiji refers as one of the three persons (and the only Indian), who moulded his life and thoughts. According to a short summary of a speech given by Gandhiji, we learn 115. Buddhisagarji, ed. Anandaghanapadasangraha, (1954), Pada-95, p. 321 116. prathama tIrthaMkara prathama naresara, prathama yativratadhArA // rikhama0 // 1 // nAbhirAyA masdevIko nandana, jugalAdharma nivArA. // rikhama0 // 2 // kevala laI prabhu pugate pohotA, AvAgamana nivArA // rikhama0 // 3 // Anandaghanaprabhu itanI vinati, A bhava pAra utArA, // rikhama0 // 4 // - Ibid - Pada 101, p. 392.. 117. bid., p. 393 118. - mere e prabhu cAhIe, nitya darisana pAuM // Anandaghana prabhu pAsajI, meM to aura na dhyAuM // 3 // -Ibid., p. 420 eka araja zevakataNI re, avadhAro jinadeva, kRpA karI muja dIjIye re, AnaMtaghanapada teva // vimala0 // dI0 17 // -Ibid., p. 433 prabhumukhathI ema sAMbhalI, kahe AtamarAmare / tAhare darisaNe nistoM, muja sidhyAM savi kAmare // shaaNti0||12|| -Ibid., p. 435, jinavaramAM saghaLAM darzana che, darzane jinavara bhajanA reH sAgaramAM saghaLI taTInI sahI, taTinImAM sAgara bhajanA re. 119. jinasvarUpa thaI jina ArAdhe, te sahi jinavara hove re: - Ibid., p. 440 .

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 161 the following four things from the life and teachings of Srimad Rajacandra : (i) Engrossed in the eternal (soul) substance (ii) Simplicity of life (iii) Dealing with every being of the world with the same feelings of love and compassion and (iv) Truth and Ahimsa in life." 120 Srimad Rajacandra's writings (letters) is full of religiousness and theism, He either explains, or answers or tries to remove the faulty notions ab the real meaning that lies behind the fundamental doctrines and Jain Agamas. His answers or explanations are not his opinions or views. He has a thorough study of the canonical and other scriptural literature, whose authorities, make his saying more authentic and logical. Let us examine Srimad Rajacandra on some of the issues which directly deal with the classical or tradtional concept of theism. God : Srimad's Literature is very wide and he addresses the supreme or God in different contexts. He uses various words'121 to convey the idea of the absolute or God, most of which we find very commonly used in the other theistic schools of Indian philosophy. Moreover, he uses the phrases which convey the ultimate supremacy of the lord; e. g. he uses so many times : if God's wish be so 'or' if the grace from Jinesvara is there.' He very logically explains in one of his letters, that the substratum of the universe has been erased by the people who were mistaken by the traditional approach. He says that according to him the world can't be an existing reality without its substratum; and the substratum of the world is God, (Hari Bhagavana). 122 Thus Srimad proves the conception of God, Even in one of the letters he talks about one absolute.123 He says that "the absolute, may you call the 'Omniscience', may you call the 'pure love' or may you call the 'existence' (Sat), the 'consciousness' (Cit) and the 'bliss' (Ananda); may you call 'soul' or 'all soul', may you call the 'one' or the 'many' but the absolute is absolute. Such Absolute has been addressed as God (Hari), the attained (Siddha), lord (Iswara), almighty (Paramesvara Paramatma or Bhagvana) and such infinite names."'! 24 120. Sri Punyavijayaji Muni Srt, Jivan-Jyoti (St, 2018), p. 28 121. istant, $av, ft, para, TAIMI, , ea, da, st , sitara 951774, wg, fa, VOK, Fintaa, atauha, 7. 122. Srimad Rajcancha Ashram (pub. & ed.): 'Srimad Rajcandra' (1976) Vol. I, p. 273 & 274 123. Ibid. Vol. I. p. 271 124. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanamrta" (1952), p. 31

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162 Jain Theism He defines God as one who has perfectly known all the objects, all the places, all the times in their all the modes; and one who has completely destroyed his passions and attachments. 125 To have full faith in God, according to Srimad, is a happy path.26 Such a God, the Tirthankara or Siddha is omnipotent (Samartha) and be prays, to him for the solution.127 He even praises the Lord and his infinite power and other attributes by saying that "where there is God the blinds regain their vision and the deals start listening, the cripples start walking and those who totter speak fluently. Lord is simply fantastic."128 Worship : Srimad advocates for worship (Bhakti) and that too of Arihanta Bhagvan. He says that "the worship of Lord Arihanta is useful to cross the ocean of the world.... capable enough to destro four states of embodiedment existence (Gati). 129 He, at one place says; "Ultimately I want the absoluteness (Sunya), if not that at least the saint, if not that at least religious-discourse (Satasnga), if not that at least right conduct (Aryacarena), if not that then full concentration with complete purity in the Jain worship. If even Jain worship (JinaBhakti) is not possible, I want nothing,"130 Srimad Rajacandra has discussed about the worship, its meanings and benefits at so many places. He, very emphatically, says that worship has very definite place in Jain religion and thought, According to him the liberated souls : the Tirthankars and Siddhas should be worshipped which brings a lot of wonderful benefits to the devotee.!!! Even he talks about the absolute worship i.e. Parabhakti and uses the phrases like the savior of the world.132 (Jagaupakaraka), the base of the three world, 133 (Tribhuvana Adhara), and 'beneficial as the sun'. 134 (Hitakari); as 'the light and so without the lord it is all darkness. 135 In one of his poems he says, "practise the worship of the Jina, make your incarnations end by 125. Hemcband Tokarshi Mehta, : 'Srimad Rajcandra Atmakatha' (1989), p. 101 126. Ibid., p. 15 127. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanamrata' (1952), p. 20 128. Ibid., p. 201 129. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanamasta' (1952), p. 204 130. Mehta H. T., : 'Srimad Rajcandra Atmakatha (1979), p. 20 131. Shah M. C.: Pub., "Moksamala (1961), p. 19 to 22 See Lesson 13 & 14 on 'Jinesvarni Bhakti'. 132. Govardhandasji, Prajnavabodha, (1966), ) 7 & p. 549 133. Ibid., P. 609 134 Ibid., P. 611 135. Ibid., p. 609

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 163 worshiping the lord. 136 He categorically says that "onc attains the light of the soul through the worship of the lord Jinesvara. 137 Grace : Srimad's thoughts about worship also disclose his strong faith in the divine grace. He accepts, though at first seems to be paradoxical or contrary to law of Karma, the divine grace. 1.38 In one of his poems he says that even the laws of the world and the effect of good or bad Karmas are not possible without God.139 In Short we find Srimad Rajacandra opens our eyes towards the Jain conception of God. The nature of God, God's grace, God's worship, the nature and benefits of such worship etc., He clearly shows the prevailing relationship between the divine and the devotee or let us say the land 'Thou' relationship in Jain religion and thought, This puts Jainism on a strong theistic footings. (3) Sri Nyayavijayaji Muni Sri Nyayavijayaji, a great logician, is known for his valuable book 'Jain Darshana'. He considers Jainism to be highly secular. Sri Nyayavijayaji says that according to Jain scripture God is one whose Karmas are totally annihilated. 1441 The state of liberation, as he says, is not different from the state of Godhead. To be liberated is to be God.14! He explains that the meaning of the word Isvara (God) is Samartha (all capable) and so the soul that has attained its pure form with all the four infinites is properly addressed as Isvara or God. 1+2 Muni Sri Nyayavijayaji also brings before us monism in Jainism. He says since there is no qualitative difference amongst the Siddhas the concept of one God' is not totally illogical. He also says that the spiritual progress of both the Siddhas and the Tirthankaras is of the same quality, both the Siddhas as well as the Tirthankaras are God. 943 Even Pandit Dalsukh Malvania, in one of his books. says that there are no particular differences found amongst the liberated souls.44 Quoting Umasvati from Tattvarth-Sutra, he says that the soul that is liberated 136. Deasi R. C. (ed. & pub. ) : 'Srimad Rajcandra' Vol. I (1976), p. 68 137. Ibid., Vol. I p. 67 138. Sri Puayavijayaji Muni Sri, : 'Jivana Jyoti' (St. 2018), p. 35 139. Shah J. M., Ed. 'Rajvani', p. 49 140. "ufatur Hoof $7:"-Nyayavijayaji Muni, Jain Darsana (St. 2020), p. 36 141. Ibid., p. 36 142. Ibid., P. 36 143. Ibid., P. 37 144. Malvania Dalsukhabhai, : 'Jain Dharma Chintan (1965) P. 118

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164 Jain Theism does not need to enter into the cycle of births and deaths. This Moksa, once attained, is eternal. 45 He advocates for the worship of the Lord. and says that the main objective of worship is not to please God but to attain purity of the mind and soul.146 The root causes of all the sufferings in Karma are due to attachments and aversions. The worship of the Lord creates vibrations in the soul which inspires on towards spiritual progress. 147 Thus the worship becomes quite meaningful and inevitable. In the same way he finds the image of the Lord a great source of inspiration and thus very much helpful to attain a state of mind to enter into the divine religiousness. Sri Nyayavijayaji also talks about the divine grace'. He says, "Whatever is, is due to the grace of God. Thus it is also spoken by the lay Jains. But there is nothing wrong in saying so. In fact, such utterings make us more humble and more devotional. Moreover, logically one can argue that the nature of God is such that his if grace alone would have been the cause of happiness, all would have been equally happy. He says, self efforts are also required. The very fact that one is able to have devotion and sincerity towards the Lord and yet tries for the spiritual progress, is itself the grace of God.148 Thus in Sri Nyayavijayaji's argument we also find a clear theism taking its shape and he also tries to show the theistic elements grounded in the Jain religiousness. (4) Sri Bhadrankaravijayaji Shri Bhadrakaravijayji has written quite a good number of books on Jain religion. The most striking characteristics of his writing is his deep study of the canonical scriptures, strong theistic faith in Jain path of perfection and bold exposition of the issues relevant in the prevailing circumstances. In his "Jain Margani Piccana' he devotes a separate chapter on the nature of the Jain God'. Here he describes in detail the conception and nature of the Jain God.149 In the same book he also 145. Nyayavijayaji Muni, 'Jain Darsana', (St. 2020), P. 38 146. Ibid., P. 42 147. Ibid., P. 42 148. Read Nyayavijayaji's 'Jain Darsana' Page 225 to 227 149. "Halalt fettricaletrifft: 1 afratsetaich a talset RH: 118 11 antarAyA dAnalAbhabhogavIryopabhogagAH / hAso styatI bhItirjugupsA zoka eva ca // 2 // kAmo mithyAtvamajJAnaM niMdA cA'viratistathAyA / . rAgo dveSazca no doSAsteSAmaSTAdazA'ppamI // 3 // Bhadrankarvijayaji, : 'Jain-Margani-Piccana' (St. 2033) Read Chapter 7, page 93 to 96 on The Nature of Jain-God

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 165 discusses the worship and chanting (Japa) of the names and hymns of Lord Tirthankaras. He comprises the entire worship into four sections : (i) chanting (Japam) (ii) worship (Puja, Darsana) (iii) listening (Katha Sravana), and (iv) practising what is preached. (Palana) In his another book "Tattvadohana! he explains asceticism (Vairagya) and worship (Bhakti) as two paths for the self-realization. But then while asceticism or Vairagya stops from the worldly attachments, worship or Bhakti diverts the soul towards the absolute.151 Bhakti on one hand removes the passions and attachments and on the other hand helps in attaining and experiencing the innate qualities of the soul.152 Sri Bhadrankaravijayaji says that, "the firm conviction that the total release of the soul from the bondage of the Karma is possible and right vision (Samyak Darsana) etc. are its available remedies, is the base of Jain theism,''153 He gives an additional, but quite necessary, importance to faith; and the six locations of faith.154 He beautifully explains the three modes of worshiping God. Worship or Upasana is through an image (murti), through religious hymns (mantra) and through penance or practice (Agama Ajna).155 He also discusses the Jain prayer and the pure form of a prayer. Here he discusses the subject and object (the divine and devotee) of the prayer as well as the content of the prayer. He very logically convinces us that the prayer is most essential. 186 He also discusses Jain Sadhana and Isvarabhakti in his another book "Parame-sthi Namaskara and Sadhana' written in Gujarati language, Thus in Sri Bhadrankaravijayaji's writings we find one more source that comes before us with the theism that is there in Jain principles and practices. (5) Sri Vijayendrasori The Jain God is also found being discussed by one more Jain monk Vijayendrasuri. In his book 'Jagat and Jain Darsana' he has discussed Ishvara (God) in Jainism, '57 He quotes Hemachandracarya's 150. Ibid., p. 82 151. Bhadrankarvijayji, : "Tattvadobana' (1980), p.65 and p.161 152. Ibid., p. 71-72 153. Bhadrankarvijayji, : 'Tattvadohana' (1980), p.76 154. Ibid., 77-78 155. Ibid., p. 157 156. Ibid., p. 277-278

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166 Jain Theism explanation about the nature of God as given in his Yogasastra. He also gives Haribhadrasuri's Mahadevastaka, He boldly says, "All the Siddhas who have attained perfection, having no qualitative difference amongst them, there is nothing wrong, if they all, though collectively, are called as one God." (6) Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghavi Under the auspicious of Sri Sayajirav Gayakavada Hon. Lecture series, Pandit Sukhlalji gave five lectures on Indian Philosophy in 1958, which later on came out in a printed form under the title 'Bharatiya Tattvavidya.159 This book contains an independent chapter on God (ssvaratattva) through which I wish to highlight Panditji's ideas about Jain theism. First of all, he expresses his view that, there is no group or class of people who in one or the other form, in one or the other name does not accept an element (spirit) higher than himself."!6 Further he says that the belief in God seenis to be quite ancient and so it is grounded even in the common people's mind.161 After a long discussion God in Saddarasana, he says that Jainism does not treat God as an independent person: while Madhava, Nyaya and Vaisesika considers god as an independent person through an incidental cause. (Nimittakaranarupa). He says that "Jainism believes in the spiritual development, The seed of the entire development is the Jiva or the embodied soul. One who develops this seed fully attains the highest achievement, such souls who have attained the highest spiritual achievement (liberation) being perfect are themselves Gods."162 Thus according to Panditji also Jainism is not a system or religion without God. It has God, worship of the God and thus divine-devotee relationship which make Jainism theistic. 157. "Hasit famiglottoprasta: 1 Teferansefarct gaatsen T: - Yogasastra 158. Vijayendra Surij: Jagat ane Jain-Darsana' (1935), p. 37-38 159. Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi,: 'Bharatiya Tattvavidya, (p. 103, 1958) 160. Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi,: 'Bharatiya Tattvavidya, p. 71 161. Ibid., p. 72 162. Ibid., p. 77

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 167 (7) Pandit Dalsukh Malvania He is one of the most scholarly authorities on Jainism, existing in the today's world. He has also supported Jain theism through number of his essays and articles. In 'Jain Dharma Cintan' he discusses the path of worship (Bhakti marga) in Jainism. Here he gives the original principles of Jain Sadhana, as well as those of Bhakti Marga. He gives number of examples to show that like the Vaisnavas, Jains have also given due importance to devotion. 163 "He says that some have even prayed for devotion all throughout the incarnations for the liberation."164 In Jainism the real Bhakti, as he says, is the practice of whatever that is said by the Tirthankaras, 165 According to Pandit Datsukh Malvania, the significance of Jain devotion lies in its insistence for right conduct (Samyak caritra). 166 But then, whatever the significant cause be, even to Pandit Malvania, Jainism bears, in theory as well as in practice, the full environment of theism. 7.6 The Authors on Jain Philosophy and Religion If not very many, there are quite a few authors who have contributed to Jain philosophy and Religion. Amongst these, as I. remember, Sri J.L. Jaini, Prof. P.S. Jaini, Dr. H.S. Bhattacharya, Dr. Dayanand Bhargava, Dr. J.P. Jain, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Dasgupta etc. Are the main ones. Of course the list I have given, does 163. "tava pAdau mama hRdaye mama hRdaye tava padvadvaye lInam / tiSThatu jinendra tAvadyAvanirvANasaMprAptiH // " "jinavANIsaMgraha pR0 108, 263 // "tribhuvanaguro jinezvara paramApadaikakAraNa kuMtva / mayi kikatra kasgA yathA tathA jAyate muktiH // "tatvaM kAruNika : svAmI tvameya zaraNaM jineza:'" // jinavANIsaMgraha, pR0 109 // "jagadekazaraNa bhagavan naumi zrIpadmanaMditaguNaudha / kiM bahunAbahu kuraru karuNAmatra jane zaraNamAnne // " // jinavANosaMgraha, pR0 90 // " janma jarA mithyAmata mUla janmamaraNa lAge ta~ha phUla / so kabahu~ bina bhakti kuThAra, kaTe nahIM duHkha phala dAtAra // " jinavANIsaMgraha, pR0 262 // "yaha saMsAra apAra mahAsAgara jinasvAmI / tAteM tAre bar3I bhaktinaukA jaganAmI // // jinavANIsaMgraha, pR0 91 // "tuma bhaktivakA je cahe, te bhaye bhavodadhiM pAra hI / // jinavANIsaMgraha, pR0 64 / 164. Pt. Malvania, D., : 'Jain-Dharma-Chintan', (1965), p. 129 165. Ibid., p. 131 166. Ibid., p. 129

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168 Jain Theism not claim to be all exhaustive. Let us see what is the general approach of these authors towards the issue of this work. (1) Sr. J. L. Jaini In his famous book 'Outlines of Jainism' he has devoted a chapter on 'Jain theology and gives a lot of information about the Jain theology, Sri J. L. Jaini is "convinced that in its (Jainism's) spirit and essential doctrines Jainism has that in it which satisfies the deepest and the most varied wants-mental and spiritual-of men and women of our age."!67 In the introductory pages of the book Sri J.L. Jaini says, "The greatest happiness of the greatest number is only a practical paraphrase of the Jain doctrine, absolute and eternal happiness for all living beings'. So in the highest ideal happiness and virtue are identified. The Jain God is the soul at its best, i.e. when, freed from all (Karmas), it has attained perfect knowledge, faith, power and bliss."168 He discusses Jain Metaphysics and ethics, but he also discusses the rituals and he says, Jain rituals, like all priestly matters are very elaborate and complicated, but its principle is in confirmity with the simplicity of the whole creed Its practical aspects are two : the devotional and the ascetic,'*169 Regarding the Jain conception of God and its theism Sri As compared with most other religions, it is important to notice that Jainism has a definite and uncompromising attitude towards the conception of God. It is accused of being atheistic. This is not so, because Jainism believes in Godhood and in innumerable Gods."170 Regarding the Jain worship he says, "But it must never be forgotten that it is no one person in particular that the Jains worship. They worship the ideal and nothing but the ideal, namely, the soul in its perfect condition. This ideal may be Christ, Sankara, Visnu, Brahma, Mohammed, Jehovah or any other type of perfection; and this indicates at on the rational basis and the catholic breadth of the Jain doctrines."17) Thus we find J.L. Jaini is very clear about the theistic position of Jainism and expresses his clear view that Jainism, as accused of being atheistic, is in reality not so. It has its God, its theology, its ethics, its rituals and definite mode of devotional worship. 167. Jaini J. L: : 'Outlines of Jainism (1979), preface p. XIV 168-169. Ibid., p. XXIV 170. Jaini J. L., Outlines of Jainism (1979), p. 4 171. Ibid., p. 75

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 169 (2) Prof. P. S. Jaini . Sri Padmanabha Jaini is a professor at the university of California at Berkeley, U.S.A. In his 'The Jain Path of Purification' he discusses certain difficulties that come in way of elimination of ignorance and removal of suffering. I do not take you to all these problems and it is not required also, But then Prof. P.S. Jaini says, "Most Indian traditions, with a notable exception of the monistic (Advaita) Vedanta, have dealt with these problems by recourse to a theistic doctrine : the intervention of some divine agency is here seen to provide the 'helping hand' that lifts human souls from the mire of transmigration,"172 In this regard he discusses the Jain solution and says, "Perhaps more than any other Indian tradition, Jainism is imbued with an emotional commitment to self-reliance. "173 But then he also discusses the worship of the hankaras (DevaPuja), The great ceremony of the five auspicious ccasions (Panca-Kalyanaka) in the life of a Tirthankara (conception, birth, renunciation, attainment of omnicience and nirvana). Further he discusses even the DevaPaja ritual, its fundamental features, actual performance and the adoration of the Jin with various ornaments called the Anga-puja. Again Prof. Jaini gives an account of the auspicious days, during the year, the Jains celebrate. He has explained all these in quite an elaborative way,174 so much so, that he even writes about the jain pilgrimages or holy places, annual rite of confession .. (Pratikramana) and renunciation (Pratyakhyana), the attainment of equanimity (Samayika), and the holy death (sarllekhana) what is important is to note the numerous devotees worship their Lord Tirthankara by observing all the rituals and ceremonies most sincerely. For them, they are the devotees and their divine God is the Tirthankaras and Siddhas who are the liberated souls. They are out and out theistic in their spirit, trying to express their utmost faith and devotion towards the sacred religion and holy God. Besides this the medicant's path of the Jains to attain the goal can be also added as the symbol of their ardent religiousness. 172. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jaina Path of Purification (1979), p. 135 173. Ibid., p. 138 174. Read Chapter VII : Jaina Rituals and Ceremonies in Prof. P.S. Jaini's The Jaina Path of Purification. 175. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Prayer (1964), p. 22

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170 Jain Theism (3) Dr. H. S. Bhattacharya Dr. H.S. Bhattacharya of the university of Calcutta has substantially contributed to Jainism, His "Reals in the Jain metaphysics", "The Philosophy of the Jains," : "The Jain Prayer and "Jain Moral Doctrines" are some of the notable works. In "The Jain Prayer' he discusses the term God, God's attributes and then the problem of creator God. With reference to Jainism and Jain prayer he says, "Religion establishes a close connection between those revered object and a believer, To establish, effectuate or realize that connection, a religion prescribes various rites, formulas and practices. Accordingly, The goodness or soundness of any of these must ultimately be judged by its efficacy regarding that God-man connection, which is the supreme goal of a rational religion to bring about,"175 He finds in the NamaskaraMaha Mantra, an insight in the nature of Jain religion. According to him the conception of God as found in rational religion is the true and the purest conception." The Jain religion is certainly a rational religion of this type and its faith in such a God saves it from the charge of atheism; for the Jain religion is assuredly not atheistic, Its God or Gods are the five groups of high souled beings and in revering them, the Jain really reverses the divinities which are their essential attributes. The offering of the prayers to and the meditations of the God in the highest forin, of a rational religion, are perfectly disinterested. No favors are sought from the God or the Gods and the result of the divine worship is simply the development and perfecting of one's own self... This does not mean that faith in God is unnecessary.176 In the same book he says, "The Jain religion dispenses with the idea of a creator God on logical grounds but does not do away with the real God or perfect being to whom reverence can profitably be paid, although it does not seek any favors, whatsoever from them."177 Thus we find Dr. Bhattacharya also supporting the view that Jainism is not atheism. It has God, worship, and all the required characteristics to claim itself to be theistic. In his Jain Moral Doctrines' he says that "the conception of God in Jainism with infinite apprehension. infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite joy are the features, attributed to God in every religion." In the light of the fundamental basis of all religions and 176. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Prayer (1964), p. 116 177. Ibid., p. 117 178. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Moral Doctrine (1976), p. 2

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 171 morality he tries to make an estimate of Jainism as religion and a code of moral practices, and says that "Jainism is nevertheless a God believing religion."179 Jainism, apart form being a rational religion, as Dr. Bhattacharaya says, is also an ethical system. Considering the Jain religion and thought from these points it appears before us as theistic par excellence. (4) Dr. Bhargava Dr. Dayanand Bhargava in his 'Jain Ethics' says Jains do not accept hypothesis that God made this world. "This, however, does not mean that there is no God.. Human souls themselves attain Godhood or Siddhahood by shedding away all impurities... These Siddhas are far more above gods or deites.""}80 While discussing the salient features of Jain ethics, one of the features as he says is, that Jain ethics does not confuse the science of spirituality (moksasastra) with science of social righteousness (dharmasastra)... It lays emphasis on the unity of faith, knowledge and conduct. Thus Jaina ethics is not merely a system giving certain code of morality, but it is a religion to be lived in practice.181 Thus we find in Jainism a definite place for ethics and morality. The path of three jewels, the conduct of a householder as well as a monk, penances, stages of spiritual development etc, are very justifiably discussed by Dr. Bhargava where one finds the theistic presuppositions clearly visible in the background of the discussions of these issues. (5) Dr. J. P. Jain : " Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain is much known for his 'Jainism the Oldest Living Religion' where he proves the antiquity of Jainism. But then I am concentrating on his another book, 'Religion and Culture of the Jains, 182 Concentrating upon the two chapters : "The Path' and 'worship, Ritual, Fasts and Festivals', we can say that Dr. J. P. Jain is also of the opinion that the basic spirit of Jainism is 'to live and let live', to live a life of understanding, tolerance, sympathetic cooperation, and peaceful coexistence, may, the still fuller and nobler corealisation."183 179. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Moral Doctrine (1976), p. 17 180. Bhargava Dayanand, Jain Ethics (1968), p. 25-26 181. Ibid., p. 37-38 182. Religion and Culture of the Jains by Dr. J.P. Jain, Bharatiya Jnanapith Publications, New Delhi, (1977), p. 196 183. Ibid., p. 102-103

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172 Jain Theism About the worship in Jainism he says that, "Worship in Jainism, is the expression of sincere devotion (Bhakti) of the aspirant for the spiritual values he esteems most hence for the personage or the soul who has fully realised, attained and manifested those values, properties, attributes and qualities.... The purpose is to get inspiration and guidance from the example of the worshipful."}4 The Jain religion is a way of life "which offers much that is permanent and eternal, and has stood the test of time."185 About the state of liberation, Dr. J.P.Jain says that Moksa means "the bound becomes the liberated, the slave becomes the master, the Atman becomes the Paramatman, self come to self, the pure entity, the very God."186 "Moreover, with Jainism, liberation is essentially a religious concept, being recounted as the last and the highest of the seven Tattvas."187 Thus we can very conveniently conclude that Dr. J.P. Jain finds Jainism, in more than one regard out and out theistic. (6) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan : Dr. S. Radhakrishnan discusses Jainism as one of the systems of Indian philosophy in his Indian Philosophy Vol. I. He calls Jainism as 'pluralistic religion'. After discussing the Jain methaphysics, theory of knowledge, logic and ethics, he discusses Jain's attitude to theism. He agrees to certain Jain objection to conceive a creator God of the material out of which the world is created is difficult to answer."188 Regarding the Jain theism he says, "Though there is no divine creative spirit, still every soul when it reaches it's highest perfection becomes a Paramatman or supreme soul. God is only the highest, noblest and fullest manifestation of the powers which lie latent in the soul of man. All perfect men are divine, and there is no rank among them, since all are equal."189 Dr. Radhakrishnan feels that "strictly speaking there is no room for devotion or Bhakti in the Jain system." He says so because his logical argument is that since all attachment and love is to be burnt up in the glow if asceticism'! and no Bhakti or devotion is possible without the personal love or attachment. Dr. Radhakrishnan though logically sound in his argument, 184. Religion and Culture of the Jains by Dr. J.P. Jain, Bharatiya Jnanapith Publications, New Delhi, (1977), p. 106 185. Ibid., p. 170 186. Ibid., p. 173 187. Ibid., p. 46 188. Radhakrishanan S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. I (1979), p. 330 189 Ibid., p. 331 190. Ibid., p. 331

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 173 what we find in Jainism, people develop a sort of devotion towards the great Tirthankaras, gods an goddesses. The Jins cannot and do not return answers to the prayers, but there are gods who watch and control true discipline. They hear the prayers and bestow favor. So far as Jains are concerned, the best mode of worshiping them is to adopt their advice."191 But then Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his final conclusion, at the end, says, "One thing, however, is clear, that it is only by stopping short at a half way house that Jainism is able to set forth a pluralistic realism."192 This thought, if further elaborated, it can be said that ultimately, in its final analysis, we find all liberated souls as one (monism) and the devotion and worship of this one is the Jain theism. (7) Dr. S. N. Dasgupta Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta like Dr. Radhakrishanan is known for his five volumes on the history of Indian philosophy a great contribution. He discusses Jainism in his Vol. I, and covers all the important issues and aspects pertaining to Jain philosophy,193 including Jain atheism'. He relies more or less on Gunaratna's criticism on Hindu concept of God in Tarkarahasyadipika, What is worth noting here is the feeling that a great scholar like Dr. Dasgupta could have discussed this problem more from the practical and realistic approach rather than purely theoretical one. He could have, like Dr. Radhakrishnan taken into consideration the fact that Jains believe in God, They have their own conception of a supreme or a perfect being, though they do not accept the supreme or Paramatma to be the creator of the world. Even if the mode of worship, prayer, rituals, pilgrimages and temple Pujaif all these are considered as part of the Jain religion and thought, one certainly comes to the conclusion that Jainism is certainly anything but atheism. If the theism of Jainism, in its nature is different from that of the traditional or classical nature, as found in sematic religions like Christianity, Islam etc, we can say that Jain theism is a type by itself - a variety. But it certainly is all in all, theism and theistic. 7.7 Conclusion So far, in this chapter, I feel, we have quite sufficient authorities-canonical, quasi- canonical, non-canonical, scriptural and 191. Radhakrisbanan S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. I (1979), p. 332 192. Ibid., p. 340 193. Dasgupta S. N., A Histrory of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975), p. 169-207

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174 Jain Theism personal-all leading to some very important conclusion regarding the issue of Jain theism. From all these authorities what could be stated is (1) That Jainism is not atheistic. (2) That Jainism does not believe in creator - God but does believe in God, That the Jains have their own conception of God. God to them is the liberated soul or souls, God i.e. liberated souls, all being qualitatively same, one can interpret them all as one. The soul in its pure form is divine and perfect. The pure soul is the God. (6) God, though does not reply the prayer, the scope of prayer is there. Prayer in Jainism is more a source of inspiration and devotion. Grace of God, though not directly, but through gods and goddesses , become part of the Jain rituals. In Jain mode of worship, the relationship between 'I and Thou' or devotee and Divine' or Bhakta and Bhagawana' or 'Atma (Jiva) and Paramatama' is quite evident. Jainism is quite rich in its theology as well as mythology that is based on its theism. (10) Jainism, as religion and thought, is theistic; and it provides a unique color, a variety of theism, The above derived are some of the important conclusions. They are logical and substantial as they bear a testimonial support (sabda Pramana) either canonical or non-canonical.

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CHAPTER - 8 NATURE OF JAIN THEISM 8.1 Introductory Remark We have almost covered up all the main issues pertaining to the philosophy of Jainism, we examined all its metaphysical doctrines and presuppositions. We saw its logic, its ethics and its philosophy of soul. What we see behind all these areas and the doctrines is a clearcut theism. At the end of the previous chapters, as an important conclusion we have arrived at a decision that Jainism is not atheistic. We saw the theistic presuppositions and theistic attitude behind the Jain metaphysics, Jain logic and Jain ethics,. Even the Jain Philosophy of soul opens the way to worship and prayers and we find soul, in its pure form, is God. But then, one of the valid sources of knowledge, as Nyaya-Vaisesika says, and even Jainism also accepts is testimony. Naturally, regarding the problem we have undertaken in this work, we would certainly like to know, what have the scriptures and other canonical literature has to say. Thus in our previous two chapters, very much based on the scriptures and canonical literature,, we have seen the Jain concept of God and the theistic color of Jainism, Moreover, we also took a serious note of the popular belief and sadhana in Jainism; and then we also considered the Jain literature. Jain literature, being quite wide, for our convenience, we divided into canonical quasicanonical and non-canonical works. Sufficient references have been put before the reader, from these works, to show that even the Jain scriptures and works by the authentic writers consider Jainism not as atheistic but theistic, In short, through its metaphysical, logical and ethical doctrines, through its philosophy of soul and the theory of spiritual development through its popular belief and Sadhana or path and through a number of testimonial references from the canonical, quasi-canonical and noncanonical works, we have strongly advocated both the hypothesis, i.e. that Jainism is not atheistic and that Jainism is theistic, and have made the position quite sounder. Now, if Jainism is not an atheistic d if Jainism is a theistic system, naturally the issue that subsequently follows is the Nature of Jain Theism. If Jainism is theistic what is the philosophical nature of Jain theism. We must have some conception of what theism ought to be if we are to determine the philosophic nature of Jain theism. It is true 13

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176 Jain Theism that it must at least have room within itself for the three great postulates of God, freedom of will, and immortality of the soul. Besides keeping the theistic conjectures of Indian system of theism the 1-thou' relationship or the relationship between the devotee and the divine or between the 'Bhakta' and 'Bhagavan' must also be observed in the theistic nature. Before we evaluate the Jain theism' let us see the philosophical nature of Jain theism. 8.2. Philosophic Nature of Jain Theism The philosophic nature of Jain theism might raise a question from the very word 'philosophic' what do I mean by the word philosophic nature? Let me clear that the use of the word philosophic is quite significant as I do not wish to depict the nature in its most general sense in which a lot that is not philosophic may also be included. I wish to highlight those qualities or characteristics which are observed in Jain system as theistic and yet fundamentally related to philosophy of religion e.g.. God, prayer, worship, soul, salvation, path etc. Let us discuss these theistic elements as are found in Jainism, and constitute, ultimately, what we may call, a philosophic nature of Jain theism. 8.2.1. Jain God Subjectively speaking religion is consciousness and its main function is transcending man's ordinary empirical self. We very well know, religion being a way of life, a path to reach the goal, it is not one. "Amidst the variedness of religions, it is certainly difficult to pick out the fundamental features which can be found in all religions. The concept of some sort of God as a being superior to the finite beings is, of course, the central doctrine in all forms of religion but differences crop up when we look to the positive contents of this idea of God." If we consider all the religions and their most basic doctrines connected with the theories of God, we could attribute 'power' to god or gods. "God is thus in all religions, essentially a powerful being. Another fundamental characteristic of the God in all religions is that he has the immediate apprehension of all things. A third similar divine feature is the 'omniscience' of God i.e. the fact of his truly knowing all things and phenomena. The last attribute that is ascribed to God in every religion is that he is essentially a being in 'uninterrupted joy'. So, these four infinite power, infinite apprehension, infinite knowledge and

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Nature of Jain Theism infinite joy are the features, attributed to God in every religion."? Earlier we have also mentioned that in Jainism God is certainly the man, "An ordinary animal or being suffering from the vicissitudes of the ordinary life, is not God, it is only his pure nature to which divinity can be attributed, and in this sense it is but natural to look upon the high-souled beings, -the super ordinary persons who by their self-culture and self-development have realized their pure selves, as divine beings.... we must recognize, in other words, that every conscious creature is a God in potentiality and that when thus developed to perfection, this potential God. In a living being appears in its true light, i.e. as a full fledged God with his fourfold attributes."'3 "According to the Jains, "one who is omniscient, who has won over attachments and repulsions, one who is worshipped in all the three worlds and one who is the visualizer of all things as they are in themselves is the God, the Arhat." The God i.e. Arhat is free from eighteen defilements." God, according to Jainism is not only free from defilements but has also the following four qualities (i) He knows past, present and future (Sarvajnata) (ii) His speech' has neutralcy His preachings have no extremes (iii) He is unaffected by the matter and helps those who are affected by the matter (iv) All the deities and gods and goddesses who are worshiped in the world, worship Him. He is worshiped by all those whom we worship." Dr. H. S. Bhattacharya says. "According to Jains, all religious and moral injunctions do emanate from God but the eternal merit of their philosophy consist in their revolutionizing the very conception of God. According to them, God is the Arhat, who was not a transcendental mystery being but was one among and like other men and who becomes 1. Bhattacarya H. D., Jain Moral Doctrine, p. 2 2. Bhattacarya H. S., Jain Moral Doctrine, p. 2 177 3. Ibid., p. 6 4. "sarvajJo jitarAgAdidozastrailokyapUjitaH / yathAsthitA'rthavAdI ca devo'rhan paramezvaraH // -Bhadrankarvijayaji, Jain Margani Piccana (st.2033), p. 93 5. antarAyA dAnalAbhabhogavIryopabhogagA : | hAso ratyatI bhItirjugupsA zoka eva ca // kAmo mithyAtvajJAnaM nidrA cA'viratistathA / rAgo dveSazca no doSAsteSASTAdazA'pyamI // Ibid., p. 93 6. Ibid., p.96

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178 Jain Theism all knowing through his self-culture and supreme moral efforts..... This conception of God, not only as an omniscient being but as a man, struggling for and finally attaining through continuous efforts, both subjective and external, self-perfection, is unique in Jainism."? Even in the BIuhad Dravyasmgraha by Nemicandra whose commentary is written by Sri. Bhramadeva, the nature of God is discussed, and it has been shown how he becomes Vishnu, Para-Brahma, Isvar, Sugata, Jiva, Jina etc." The Jain Yogsastra describes God as omniscient, blissful, unconditional, pure, unperceptible, and full of infinite virtues." The Dravyasamgraha describes God as the soul who is totally free from the four Karmas that destroy the qualities of completely or partially (i.e. Ghati Karmas) and one who has attained infinite apprehension, infinite power, infinite omniscience and infinite bliss i.e. 'Ananta catustayas' (the four infinites), without body from Niscaya and free from the eighteen defilements."10 Thus we find the Jain God all powerful, having infinite apprehension, infinite knowledge and infinite joy. Besides it is pure in the sense that it is free from all the defilements and is worshipped by all. Like all the rational religions, Jainism maintains that man alone is the creator of his own destiny and dispenses with the hypothesis of the world creator. 8.2.2. Prayer, Worship, Rituals Of course the central idea in any system that claims itself to be 'theism' will be God." The power of theism can only be revealed where the idea is revealed of a God whose will, which is supreme, is love and righteousness."! A Jain God, Arhat as we call, is full of compassion for every soul. "For theism to be possible man must be cognized as a self- determining agent, whose character is not eternally fixed, but for whom the future may be a land of hope and promise. He must be one who can, God helping him, break the bonds of habit, and enter into the experience of a moral victory that is really his, and the God who he knows must be one who can bring him into such an 7. Bhattacaryaji, H.S. Jain Moral Dectrine, (19 ) P. 75-76 8. Nemicandra's Brubad, D.S. : Commentary by Brahmadeva p. 55. 9. Yogasastra - 69 10. Dravya Samgraha - 50 11. Macnicol N., Indian Theism, p. 227

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Nature of Jain Theism 179 experience. There must be windows in his sky through which the light of divine forgiveness can stream into his penitent heart."12 In this connection we have to note that Jainism, by including all these and satisfying its due recognition becomes theism, In the chapter on popular beliefs and Sadhana we have seen in detail how the Jain prayer plays a very important role in the life of a devotee who observes its rituals and worships God with passionate devotion. Jain prayer, though it is not to please God, is certainly an important moral act. It expects inspiration to the soul, peace to the mind and purity to the active life a Jain is living. Same is the case with worship, rites and rituals fasts and religious festivals, holy pilgrimages and Yoga. On one hand the metaphysics, the doctrines and theories, enjoy due importance in Jainism as a system. But then, on the other hand, Jainism being theistic in more than one aspect, the God of its theism, the Arhat and Siddha, always triumphs completely over all the legalism of its doctrines and theories. It is not fully correct that there is no 'divine grace' or 'God's grace' in Jainism. In fact one may get numerous evidences in support of the grace if we survey the Jain Yoga and Aradhana. As Destiny could be shaped, destiny could be changed. What is required is the purity of the heart and spiritual development of the soul. Thus we find Jainism, alongwith its conception of God, from the point or view of its prayer, worship. Rituals and such practices, expresses a very high order of passionate devotion, men's hearts yearning for the divine life, a victory of life over death, of the spirit over matter. Philosophically Jain Theism provides a superb example for any system which claims to be rational in its base and aspires to be morally and spiritually theistic in its final phase. 8.2.3. I- Thou Relationship This relationship is the relationship between the being and God. To use the phraseology which Clement C. J. Webb found convenient to use, "a combination of ultimacy with intimacy")) is a dstinctive note of all that we should call "religious'. The religious experience, since mysticism has sufficiently opened a number of issues, has become a very important feature of a theistic system. "In some types of religious experience, the desire of the worshipper may be 12. Macnicol N., Indian Theism, p. 229 13. Webb, Clement C. J., Theism and Absolutism, p. 387

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180 Jain Theism rather to speak with, in others rather to be united with his God, the later type of religion being that which is often designated by the word 'mystical'.... In Hinduism, emphasis on union with the divine, as the goal of spiritual endeavor, is more marked then in the religion of most Christians."14 Let us examine, in this regard, what is the position in Jainism. In Jainism the soul attains perfection and becomes God. A Jain God is a perfected soul. But then the worshipper is not a perfected soul but an embodied Jiva -a polluted soul. The Jiva or a Jain who worships does not worship his own soul but Arhat or Siddha who has now become God. Again the worshipper's soul in its pure form is same as that of Arhat or Siddha but on his path or Sadana he is a worldly soul in bondage. Such a soul or such a Jain worshipper when too much passionate in his devotion what is his desire, specially with reference to his relationship with the divine. To put the same problem in more simple terms, we can ask what is the religious experience to a passionate devotee in Jainism. If we look to the Jain metaphysics it gives a detailed theory of matter. Jainism talks of self realizations. But then the self itself is material. Again Jainism has accepted the soul to have infinite power. This means the soul, according to Jainism is capable enough to experience anything and everything. The soul that experiences is to be experienced. One who experiences i.e. the soul, is to be experienced i.e. its pure nature, in its essence is to be experienced. On the other side, in Jainism, the soul is also having its attributes (Guna) as well as modes (Parayaya). This means whenever, according to Jainism, one has realization, he will have the realization of this or that mode of self but not the whole or pure self. One may experience only an aspect of the soul and not the soul in its totality. This is what I call self-realization or Atma Darsana. Now in Jainism, the modes are infinite (anantananta) and Kevala Jnana. In Ananta Darsan the experience is of infinite modes. All these modes are relative and so it is the experience of infinite relativeness. While Kevala Jnana is absolute. There is no mode in it. Everything is related to it. Kevala Jnanna is nothing but an absolute knowledge without relativity. It knows the whole and it is known as infinite knowledge. This is so very difficult and so it can't be attained in one life. Thus if you attain Kevala Jnana (absolute 14. Webb, Clement C. J., Theism and Absolutism, p. 387

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Nature of Jain Theism 181 knowledge) you will have the knowledge of the matter or if you know all the modes of matter (complete matter) you will attain Kevala Jnana. We do come across a number of poets who could be called mystic poets. But then we hardly could come across such descriptions where the mystic experience is expressed. A passionate feeling as part of devotion is seen in the poems of Sri Anandaghanaji and even in paanyaya Yasnovijayaji, or even some mystic writings in the letters of Srimad Rajchandra. But I have not come across such writings where the religious experience, may be of Tirthankar, or of Siddha, or even of any substance or law of Karma, is experienced and is described. This also does not coine in our way to prove Jainism a Theism as in Jainism the deep spiritual experience is always there. Since it is of none else but one's own soul-may be from one Gunsthana to another and the soul in its pure form is God, the religious experience in Jainism brings a lot of openings before us. 8.3. Conclusion Through the general characteristics of theism, the nature of the Jain God, the Jain prayer, the Jain rituals and worship and the religious experience in Jainism I have tried to give a philosophic nature of Jain theism. William James says, "Theism, whenever has erected itself into a systematic philosophy of the universe, has shown a reluctance to let God be anything less than all in all. In other words, philosophic theism has always shown a tendency to become pantheistic and monistic, and to consider the world as one unit of absolute fact....."15 Needless to say, even in Jainism as per the Samgraha Naya God is established and since there are no qualitative differences amongst the liberated souls even the canonical works support the idea of one God, one Soul. Thus whatever William James had expected the philosophical nature of theism having God nothing but all in all and so pantheistic and monistic we find the same in Jain theism. We have tried to picture the nature of Jain theism in two ways. First of all we took note of all the theistic concepts, presuppositions as well as implications that are found in Jainism. Second. was the conscious effort to take note of certain theistic conceptions of Jainism and to compare them with the traditional conception of theism or traditional theistic religions. It is true that in no case we found even the slightest truth in estimating or concluding Jainism to be atheistic. 15. William James, The Vareties of Religious Experience (1952), P. 129.

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182 Jain Theism We all, by now, have become quite sure that Jainism is not atheistic but theistic. Now the point before us is whether the theism of Jainism as we have seen, appeared to be the same as those that found in the religions which are having traditional theism, like that of Christianity, Islam, etc, If an attempt to evaluate the value of Jain theism is made. it will necessarily imply the standards by which it can be evaluated. These standards naturally will be the standards concerning the conception of what theism ought to be. It is true that the Jain theism, to its credit, has much to claim itself theistic, but then the following points are also to be considered which are if not atheistic are not theistic in its conventional sense. (i) The Jain theism, as we have seen, has God in it. But then the God in Jainism, inspite of all powerful and all blissful like the God of other religions, is a soul that was once embodied and has become God by self-effort. We do not find such a situation in the conventional theism. (ii) According to Jainism, God is not the world-creator. God can not be conceived as one who deals in such activities as the creation of the world. The world, according to Jainism, is since the beginningless of time (Anadi). In the conventional theism we find God as the worldcreator. (iii) According to some, in Jainism there is no scope for prayer as well as the divine grace, We have already in our previous chapter shown how this is not true. As a matter of fact, the Jain theism has prayer as well as divine grace both quite significant and quite meaningful. But then the nature of the Jain prayer and the divine grace is not the nature of the same as we find in Christianity and Islam. Jainism being a rational religion and realistic in its approach, though it contains prayer its nature is different, with regards to the problem of divine grace, it is always derived indirectly or inferred. The Yoga and Sadhana, of -course, speak of the divine grace directly upon the meditating soul. (iv) Regarding the religious experience in Jainism we did discuss what could be the nature of such experience in Jainism. But then we do not find any details describing or discussing such mystic experiences that would throw more light on the supreme or the ultimate reality. We do find such experiences in other conventional theism.

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Nature of Jain Theism 183 The above mentioned points clearly differentiate Jain theism from the conventional ones. Of course these points do not prove Jainism to be not theistic. This bring the Jain theism to a peculiar position where the Jainism appears to be quite theism but its theism becomes a latent or a hidden one. The effect of these developments has decidedly strengthened the case of Jain theism as a modified realistic theism. Such a theism which is, "discriminatingly critical realism, therefore, that accepts the phase of idealism and pragmatism that are rationally and empirically justified in the light of the present knowledge, is, the proper standpoint"6 and the Jain theism, thus, becomes apparent by itself. 16. Wright W.K., A Student's Philosophy of Religion, (1968), p. 463

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"..... God is being-itself is the only direct and nonsymbolic statement that can be made about God. God is the name for the infinite and inexhaustible depth and ground of all being..... Since God is depth, you cannot then call yourself an atheist or unbeliever." "The fundamental symbol for our ultimate concern is God. It is always present in any act of faith, even if the act of faith includes the denial of God. Where there is ultimate concern, God can be denied only in the name of God.... he who denied God as a matter of ultimate concern affirms God, because he affirms ultimacy in his concern.' - Paul Tillick w Jainism, in its final conclusion, is Theism. There are thinkers and philosophers who have expressed this or such theism as "modified theism" (Prof. W. K. Wright) or "Variety of theism". Jainism, as a matter of fact, has theism which is Latent or Hidden. What is required is to bring it out, as it has been tried here in this book. -Author

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CHAPTER - 9 CONCLUSION 9.1 Resume In the preceeding chapters we have made a detailed study of the Jain philosophy and theology in the perspective of Jain theism. We studied the various conceptions of the Jain metaphysics, Jain Logic, Jain ethics and Jain theology. The terms theism, atheism, God etc. The discussion in the early chapters logically bring us to the final part of the work. In the beginning I have tried to examine and express the meaning of the term theism, Atheism, God etc. And have taken note of the roots of Jain atheism', and then I discussed religion, God and Jainism in general. with this background we examined Jain logic. I am sure one is bound to take note of Jain logic as a very valuable contribution to world philosophy. Here we have discussed in detail the Jain philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekantavada), Syadavada and Nayavada and we have taken note of the theistic implications that are apparent behind the Jain logic. A special reference. Once again, is made to the theistic import of Samgraha Naya which proved to be a very base to erect Jain theism. Then we discussed Jain ethics. Jainism being fundamentally an ethical system, through the discussion of its doctrine of Karma and meaning and existence of soul, we could see Jain ethics in the perspective of its theistic presuppositions. And after this we come to a very important part which deals with the Jain philosophy of soul, where the existence, meaning and nature of soul is discussed. This one may find the journey that has begun with theism and Jainism, very logically through the first five chapters results into theism in Jainism. The last three chapters of the work deal with Jain theism. These chapters prove to be quite substantial in leading the work, ultimately, to Jain Theism. The popular belief and Sadhana in Jainism and the scriptural and other arguments, do not merely prove Jainism to be not atheistic but positively establish Jainism as a theistic system. If we find Jainism to be theistic, naturally we have to examine what is the nature of Jain theism. And that we did see in the previous chapter. If we take a bird's eye view on all these previous chapters, I am sure, the reader will find the development of the subject in a definite direction. One will find how from theism and Jainism we come to theism in Jainism and ultimately into the conception of Jain Theism.

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186 Jain Theism So that was a short resume of the previous chapters and their main contents. But still I do not claim to have made concept completely clear by complete arguments. In fact as I have visualized, during the course of this research work, two important aspects, very significantly discussed by William James, to be noted. First, I felt, in the light of the present day world and in light of the development of science and philosophy there is a strong need of the identification of religion and theism. And the second significant aspect that I noted is the fact that for certain issues in religion or theism the evidence lies not in logical interpretations or metaphysical discussions but into the inner personal experiences'. 9.2 Jain Theism A reader on listening the phrase 'Jain theism, at first, might feel as swimming against the current. But then, after having gone through the contents of the previous chapters, I am sure, the reader will agree that the current is 'so-called' and not real, the current is conventional and not substantial. If this work, at least awakens the reader to think on the problem before making any categorical statement which could mean Jainism to be atheism, I think, I have achieved something. In fact, to convince the rational mind I have discussed the theistic implications and theistic presuppositions of the Jain metaphysics, ethics and logic. This could satisfy a rational mind. But then, as I felt, this won't be enough. In society, and specially amongst Jain community, there is a very big number of those to whom testimony (Sabda Pramana) is more forceful than inference or reasoning. I have also taken care of such conventional minds. The scriptural and other arguments comprise of the canonical, quasi- canonical and non-canonical arguments, all affirming the truth that Jainism is all-in-all theistic. The following are the main arguments that strengthen the thesis that Jainism is not atheism but theism (1) Relativism is not possible without absolutism, We find absolute in Sangraha Naya - a generic standpoint. The 'Samanya' becomes Sat or Mahasat. (2) From Syadvada point of view truth is partial and relative. It is relative with reference to absolute, The 'absolute' is the 'Sat' of the Samgraha-Naya. (3) Jainism believes in absolute knowledge (Nirvikalpa Jnana).

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Conclusion 187 Absolute knowledge means undeferential knowledge or unconditional knowledge (Abheda Jnana) absolute knowledge implies absolute. (4) Jainism, unlike Vedanta, accepts Visesa as not Avidya but real. But this does not affect their concept of Samanya. (5) Once you accept generic truth (Samanya Sat) then all particulars (Visesa) simply become the manifestations of that one. Particular remains real only at the empirical level, at the spiritual level Visesa becomes insignificant and what remains is Mahasamanya. Thus we find Jainism close to Samkara than Madhva in this regard. (6) The concept of absolute knowledge (Kevala Jnana) is an admission of Absolutism. Absolute knowledge is not sum total of relative truths. Absolute truth is not mathematical. It is absolute. (7) Kundakunda'carya, in samayasara": appears to approach absolutism. He clearly makes distinction between the empirical and the absolute viewpoints. Vyavahara is empirically true and ultimately false. It is only SuddhaNaya (suddanao) that is ultimately, true. (8) Kundakundacarya goes to the extent of saying that even faith, knowledge and conduct (Darasana) Jnana and Caritra are true only from cmpirical standpoint. From the absolute standpoints there is neither faith; nor knowledge, nor conduct because the ultimate pure self. He also says, "without Vyavahara (empirical) parama (absolute) can not be taught."3 (9) Jainism believes in soul and in liberation of soul from the bondage of birth and death. In the state of liberation the soul has infinite apprehension, infinite power, infinite knowledge and infinite joy. All liberated souls are 'Gods' as they are all powerful and omniscient. All liberated souls qualitatively are the same and so only one absolute. There is no Dvaita but only Advaita. (10) The three postulates to judge a theistic system : God, freedom of will and immortality of soul, strengthen Jainism as a theistic system. 1. Samayasara 2. Samayasara 7 3. Samayasara 8

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188 Jain Theism (11) The philosophy of soul, existence of soul, soul in different states, the holy pentad all these make Jainism a sound ethical system with theistic pesuppositions. (12) Jain theology which contains prayer, rites, and rituals, temple worship, fast and festivals, holy pilgrimage etc. Opens the facets of religiousness and conception of God in Jainism, it gives a path or a way for Sadhana, or Bhakti. The " devotee-deity" relationship or the 'I- Thou' relationship through Ahimsa, (non-injury to living beings) Samyama (restraint) and Tapa (penance) are noteworthy characteristics of Jain theism. (13) The concept of absolute is derived through the philosophy of non-absolutism, through the concept and nature of pure soul, from Jain faith and religiousness. Worship of the absolute proves to be of a very high rank. (14) Through the concept of the holy pentad, concept of omniscience, concept of Moksa and ethical doctrines of Jainism for right conduct, we have seen the theistic elements and theistic presuppositons that are there behind these concepts. (15) Even the doctrine of Karma, and the philosophy of soul also unfold the theistic approaches. It talks about the changeless behind the change, the absolute behind the non obsolete, the one behind many and the pure and perfect behind the polluted and imperfect. (16) Again the Jain worship, Upasana or Sadhana, the popular belief, the Jain literature and scriptures also lead us to a typical Jain way of life. That life reflects the full theistic spirit quite in accordance with the philosophy and religiousness of Jainism. The above mentioned are some of the important noteworthy points that supports the Jain Theism. It will definitely pinch my heart if at this stage I fail to make a mention of some of the issues, which I have found, either unexplored or ambiguous or controversial and they need sincere attention. Amongst such issues, as per my choice of course, I would like to put the religious experience in Jainism in the perspective of Jain mysticism as very important. Moreover, if distinct clarity regarding the theological aspects like creation activity, nature of Siddhasila as mundane place, the Siddhas and their ultimate moral unity leading to monism etc. should be brought before the masses. Even the concept of modes or change (Paryaya) in the state of salvation,

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Conclusion and the Jain concept of omniscience with possibility of graded knowledge create confusions and contradictions. What I simply hint is more serious efforts to make such philosophical and theological issues clear, at least, to those who are very eager to know Jainism in its real spirit. Dr. Radhakrishanan tells us that, "the worshippers of the absolute are the highest in rank; second to them are the worshippers of the personal God; then come the worshippers of incarnations like Rama, Krisna, Buddha: Below them are those who worship ancestors, deities and sages; and lowest of all are the worshipers of the petty forces and spirits"4 189 Let me clear that Jainism, unlike some other religions, Christianity among them is not a form of thought, a doctrine or a creed, but like Hinduism, 'a way of life'. One is bound to be unjustified to Jainism if not clear in the terms 'theism' and 'Absolutism'. One may recognize a fundamental contrast between the religion as representative of 'theism' and that which, although not excluding 'theism' attribute an intrinsic superiority to 'absolutism'. Theism and absolutism should be more clear and consistent. Jainism as a religion which, though finding room for devotion to a God conceived under the form of a personal object of worship, decidedly regards the quest for absorption in the absolute (the Siddhas) as a higher form of purity and piety and as, on this account, better suited to be a religion then a school of philosophy (Darsana), I fully agree to often discussed and often quoted view of Dr. J.A.Yajinik that if a person in his life practises theism purely metaphysically. He is found to be true Jain. In other words Jainism is a metaphysical theism. After having gone through all the discussions and arguments, when a researcher starts thinking whether Jainism directly comes before us as theism in its pure sense; or some philosophers might react and say Jainism tends more towards spiritualism or polytheism than theism. But to such critics we can say that it is shown that Jainism seems to be so theistic that it is impossible to describe it as atheism. If, in this way, we are in a position to say that Jainism is anything but atheism, then are we not entitled to say that if Jainism is seen to be not atheistic it would be very reasonable to regard it as theistic, or not very much different from it not only with regard to Jain practices and Sadhana but also in the light of authentic scriptural evidences. 4. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, A Hindu View of Life, P. 32.

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190 Jain Theism Jainism, in our final conclusion is theism. There are thinkers and philosophers who have expressed this or such theism as 'modified theism (Prof. W. K. Wright) or, 'towards theism' (Dr. Radhakrishanan) or a 'variety of theism' (Dr. J. A. Yagnik), I myself feel, Jainism being theism, it may not be proper at this stage to call it a variety of theism though the scope to prove Jain theism a variety is open to any enthusiastic scholar,. In my final summing up I would like to say that if one thinks in continuation to this work, one can say Jainism has all the characteristics of theism and Jainism is theism. If Jainismi would have been theism as Christianity and Islam are, one would naturally question the scope of this thesis. Jainism, as a matter of fact has theism which is latent or hidden. What is required is to bring it out, and I hope, I have sincerely tried to do the same.

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Appendix 191 APPENDIX SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A bibliography of selected works (mostly in English), dealing with different aspects of the religion, philosophy, literature and culture of the Jains, is given herein below. These books have been used, wherever necessary in preparing and writing out the present work, apart from the original texts and other works in Indian languages. The bibliography is moreover, intended to serve as a handy list for those readers whose curiosity is aroused by the perusal of this work and who, therefore, wish to contribute by making a deeper and detailed study of Jain & Jainism. 1. 4. Abhyankar K.V. (Prot) (ed. & Tr.) Dasvealiya Sutta (Dasavaikalika Suttram) (1938) The Khadayata Book Depot. Ahmedabad. Arunavijayji Muni Sacitra Ganadharavada (1984) Shree Visa-Srimali Tapagacca Inati Sangh, Bhavnagar. Ayn Rand Philosophy who needs It (1984) New American Library, N.Y. Bhadrankar Vijayaji Jain Margni Picchana (St.2033) Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya', Ahmedabad. Tattavadohana (1980) Vimal Prakashana, Ahmedabad. Parmesthi Namaskara and Sadhana (1980) Shree Namaskara Aradhana Kendra Palitana (Gujarat) Bhanuvijayaji (Muni) Parama Tej - Commentary on 'Lalit Vistara Vol. I & II (1959) Divyadarsana Sahitya Samiti, Ahmedabad. Dr. Bhargava Dayanand Jain Ethics (1968) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Jain Tark Bhasa Motilal Banarasidass Delhi. 14

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192 Jain Theism 11. 12. 10. Bhattacharya H.S. The Philosophy of the Jains (1958) Shree Jain Literature Society, Bombay. Bhattacharya H.S. The Jain Prayer (1964) University Of Calcutta, Calcutta. Bhattacharya H.S. Reals in Jaina Metaphysics (1966) The Sheth Shantidas Khetsy Charitable Trust, Bombay. 13. Vadi Dev Suri's Pramana- Naya- Tattava lokalamakara (1967) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 14. Jain Moral Doctrine (1976) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. -15. Brahmacariji Govardhanadasji (Pub & Tr.) Samadhi Sopana (1952) Shrimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas, (Gujarat) Pragnavabodha (1966) Shrimad Rajcandra Mandal, Agas, (Gujarat) 17. Brahmadev Bruhd-dravyasmagraha and Laghu- Dravya Samgraha shree Turakhia trust, Rajkot. Broughton A Dictionary of all Religions (1945) Buddhisagar Surisvarji Maharaj (ed.) Shree Anandghana pada samgraha - Bhavartha -1954 Shree Adhyatmjnana Prasaraka Mandal, Bombay. 0 Chakravarti A. (Prof.) Mahavira and His Teachings University of Calcutta. Chandarasekhar Vijayaji - Muni (Tr.) Adhyatmasara (St.2023) Kamal Prakashan Ahmedabad. 22. Chatterjee S.C. The Fundamentals Of Hinduism (1970) University of Calcutta, Calcutta.

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Appendix 193 23. Chatterjee S.C. & Datta D.M. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) University of Calcutta, Calcutta. 24. Chattopadhyaya B. K. The Teaching of Upanisads 1952 Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad Indian Atheism (1983) People's Publishing House, New Delhi. Chaudhari H.K.D. God In Indian Religions (1969) Calcutta. Clay C.F. (Gen. Mgr.) The Encyclopaedia Britanica (1910) Cambridge University press, Cambridge. 28. Dasgupta S. N. A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. (1975) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Desai R.C. (Pub. & Ed.) Shrimad Rajcandra Vol. I & II (1976) Shrimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas, Gujarat. 30. Devachand Damaji Sheth (ed.) Jain Darsana (1914) Bhavanagar, Gujarat 31. Dhananjaya (ed.) Visppaharastotra Virendrakumar D. Jain, Bombay. Doshi Amritlal kalidas sheth (ed.) Yogasastra (1967) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 33. Yogasastra (1969) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 34. Doshi Ratanlal (ed.) Uttaradhyayan Sutra (Hindi) (1962) Shri A.B.. Sadhumargi Jain Samskriti Rakshak Sangh, Sailana (M.P)

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194 Jain Theism 35. Flew Antony (ed.) A Dictionary of Philosophy (1980) Pan Books, Great Britain 36. Gandhi V. R. The Jain Philosophy (1924) Shree Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay. Dr. Glasenapp The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1948) B. V. J. P. Charity Fund, Bombay. 38. Gopani A. S. (Tr.) Samanasuttam (1976) Yajna Prakashana Samiti, Baroda. 39. Herbert Warren Jainism (1968) Shree Vallabhasuri Samarak Nidhi Publication, Bombay. 40. J. Clayton Fever & W. Horosz Religion in Philosophical and Cultural Perspective (1971) Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Dr. Jain Jyoti Prasad Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) Bharatiya Jnanapith Publication, New Delhi. Dr. Jain Mahendrakumar (ed.) Saddarsanasamuccaya (1970) Bharatiya Jnanapith Prakashana, Varanasi. 43. Jaini J. L. Outlines of Jainism (1979) 44. Jaini Padmanabha S. The Jain Path of Purification (1979) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. 45. Joshi G. N. (Dr.) Atma and Moksa (1965) Gujarat University, Ahmedabad. 46. Dr. Joshi H. R. (Tr. & Ed.) Mahavira Vani (St. 2040) Bhagawana Mahavira 2500 Nirvan Mahotsava Samiti, Surat.

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195 Appendix 47. Dr. Joshi L. M. Facets of Sain Religiousness in Comparative Light (1981) L. D. Insti. of Indology, Ahmedabad. 48. Dr. Kalghatgi T. G. Karma and Rebirth (1972) Sri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay. 49. Khushaldas J. (Ed.) Yogasastra (1965) Sri Mahavir Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay 50. Lal R. B. Religion in the Light of Reason and Science (1978) Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. 51. Macnicol N. Indian Theism (1968) Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 52. Mackenzie J. S. A Manual of Ethics (1946) University Tutorial Press Ltd., Cambridge. 53. Malvania Dalsukhbhai (Pandit) Jain Dharma Chintan (1965) Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya, Ahmedabad. 54. Max Muller Natural Religions (1899) 55. Mehta M. L. Outlines of Jaina Philosophy (1954) Jain Mission Society, Bangalore. 56. Dr. Misra Kamesvarnath (ed.) Saddarsanasamuccaya (1979) Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi 57. Dr. Mookerji Satkari The Jaina Philosophy of Non-absolutism (1978) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. 58. Dr. Nagaraja Rao and Others (ed.) Radhakrishnan Reader - An Anthology (1988) Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay.

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196 Jain Theism 59. Nemicandra Dravya-Samgraha (St. 2024) Shri Digambar Jain Swadhyaya Mandir Trust, Songadh. 60. Nyayavijayaji (Muni) Jain Darsana (St. 2020) Shi Hemchandracharya Jain Sabha, Patan (Gujarat) 61. Dr. Padmarajiah Y. J. Jain Thiries of Reality and knowledge (1963) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay 62. Parrinder Geoffrey Mysticism in the World's Religions (1976) Punyavijayaji (Muni Sri) (St. 2018) Jivan Jyoti Sri Jivan-mani Sadvachanmala Trust, Ahmedabad. 64. Dr. Radhakrishnan S. Indian Philosophy Vol. I & II (1977) George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London. Dr. Radhakrishnan S. The Present Crisis of Faith (1987) Orient Paperbacks, Delhi. 66. Dr. Radhakrishnan S. Indian Religions (1987) Orient Paperbacks, Delhi. 67. Dr. Radhakrishnan S. An Idealist View of Life George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London. 68. Dr. Radhakrishnan S. East and West in Religion (1933) George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London. 69. Rajcandra Shrimad Shrimad Rajcandra - Atmakatha (1929) Shrimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas, (Gujarat) 70. Rajcandra Shrimad Moksamala (St. 2017) Shrimad Rajchandra Joanapracaraka Trust, Ahmedabad.

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Appendix 197 71. Shah J. M. (Ed. & Pub.) Raj Vani and Amirasa Zarana Shrimad Rajcandra Munuksu Mandal, Rajkot. 72. Sahakian W. S. & Sahakian M. L. Ideas of the Great Philosophers (1966) Barnes & Noble Books, London. Dr. Sharma Chandradhar A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (1976) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. 74. Shobhacandra Bharilla - Pandit (ed.) Shree Aupapatika Sutra (1977) Prem-Jinagama Prakashan Samiti, Bombay. 75. Sri Nandi Sutra (1977) Prem Jinagama Prakashana Samiti, Bombay. 76. Shree Upasakadasanga Satra (1977) Prem - Jinagama Prakashana, Bombay. Dr. Singh Ramjee The Jain Concept of Omniscience (1974) L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 78. Sinha Jadunath A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I & II (1956) Sinha Publishing House, Calcutta. 79. Smart Ninian Doctrines and Arguments in Indian Philosophy- (1964) 80. Sogani K. C. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism (1967) Jain Samskriti Samskara Sangh, Sholapur. Sukhalalji Sanghavi (Pandit) Darsana Aur Chintan Part 1 & 2 (1957) Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad. 82. Tattvarthasutra (1977) Shree Jain Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad Siddhasena Diwakar's Sanmati-Prakarana (1952) Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. 84. Bharatiya Tattvavidya (1958) M. S. University, Baroda. 81. 83.

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198 Jain Theism 85. Jain Dharmano Prana (1978) (ed. by Pt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania) Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya, Ahmedabad. 86. Sulocanasri Sadhvi (ed.) Syadvada Manjari Navrangpura Jain Sangh, Ahmedabad. 87. Tatia Nathmal Studies in Jain Philosophy 88. Tattvanandavijayaji Muni (Tr.) Tattvanusasana (1961) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 89. Tukol T. K. 'Compendium of Jainismo (Jain Darsan Guj. Tr. By C. P. Shukla), (1978) S. P. University, Vailabli Vidyanagar, Gujarat. 90. Upadhye A. N. Nyayavatara (1971) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. VijayendraSuri Maharaj Jagat ane Jain-Darsana (1935) Shree Yashovijaya Jain Granthamala, Bhavnagar (Gujarat) Vijaya LaxmanSurishvarji Maharaj Philosophy of Soul (1963) Atma-kamal Labdhi Surisvarji Granthamala, Bombay 93. Vinaya Vijayaji The Nyaya-Karnika (1971) (ed. By M. D. Desai) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. William James The Varieties of Religious Experiences (1952) Longinan Green & Co., N. Y. 5. Williams Jaina Yoga 96. Wright W. K. A Students Philosophy of Religion (1958) The Macmillan Company. 91.

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