Jain Theism

Author(s): Hemant Shah
Publisher: Hemant Shah
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006509/1

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(Concept of God in Jainism)
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For Private Psoma be Only
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JAIN THEISM
(Concept of God in Jainism)
HEMANT SHAH
ACADEMY OF PHILOSOPHY AHMEDABAD-380006

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Second Edition : January 1997
Copies : 1000
© Hemant Shah
Published by :
Hemant Shah Academy of Philosophy, Prakash Higher Secondary School, Ellisbridge, Ahmedabad - 380006 Phone : 463344-6740592
Printed by : Krishna Printery
Harjibhai N. Patel 966, Naranpura Old Village, Ahmedabad - 380013 (Phone : 7484393)

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DEDICATION
A Petal, With Theistic Obeisance,
At the feet of.......
THE HOLY PENTAD : Arihantas..... Siddhās....... Acaryās,...... Upadyāyas......
Sādhus...... and To the Memory of My Parents

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मैन ईश्वर‌ बाट दिनु ী.মা
ऐमत लाख प्रकाउ नैौनोना Sear विषना
पानखेन
भक्दन स्पष्ट उसी सापे हो यी छोडे feecर निर्माण যतु वियyini zसभा
} trace mui ror यहि क्यारे sekza
াवाद মধ1शास्त सेवा विशे ष्णुरी कामक अन्य धातिशेष धश्वरले मल्लाहुल्यताको विषय जनावर घी घो छ, क्यारो भनोस W24 suना सग्रখी आहे हे के भगस्य नक्त मुग भगतवर प्रारणीयो करका भेको एस्तो हरनो कण मूर्त razma na mujinin 28 S पेम सदर यु को भर खायुग युगा
देऊर
sme से सीने
ingia or खेडः साध्यारून पुणे सायुको कानों क धार विषेण भाडसप‌ना संपूर्ण हो
मेनैनो नातिर छ-Valeने मरवता नाथा सेथील किराबाट उपमा प्रभावित धें, त्नु जिराङ्युग प्रस्तुत प्रस्ng उद खेल 25226 भार ytrag भारस्य कधी काय
छ
हलसुम मानव शिशया
1-969

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1

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FOREWORD
(First Edition) This book, “Jain Theism' by Dr. Hemant Shah clarifies Jaina's concept of God. The fact is that mentation has played a great role in creating various theories about God. Wheras the other religions have made God a subject of imagination by describing Him as Beginningless, Infinite, Eternal, Formless, Unknowable, the Jaina's concept of God is unique. In view of Jainism, God is not unknowable but he is one of us who lives and moves amongst us. Jain concept of God assures us that even we can become like Him. Jaina’s, this concept of God is unique.
The prevalent criticism that Jainas are atheist and do not believe in God is baseless. The present work refutes this criticism and places before us true philosophical position. It is because of this the work assumes great importance.
-Dalsukh Malvania

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PREFACE
(First Edition) Both, Jain Religion as well as Jain Culture are unique and independent systems. Jainism has contributed to the world that sublime doctrine of Ahimsa which has become the need of the day. Jainism, more than a religion or a school of thought, is a way of life. It is fully capable of raising an ordinary individual to the highest height of spiritual realization.
Apart from being one of the oldest living religions, Jainism provides a very good example of a system that has the deepest magnitudeness of a religion and highest value of God in human soul. A detailed discussion and development of this theme, supported by canonical arguments and other Scriptural references, would certainly evolve into Theism. Yes, Theism, Jain Theism. But Then one may be curious to know, is Jain - Theism same as other Theistic systems ? Is it different? Is Jain theism a one” or even a
The book, which is in fact a journey from Atheism towards Theism and ultimately to Jain Theism, discusses all such issues to answer the above mentioned questions. An utmost care has been taken to examine and understand the terms to different meanings and concepts of felt necessary to introduce Jain Philosophy and religion in brief, in general. After having done this in the initial two chapters, I have tried to discuss Jain Logic, Jain Ethics and Jain philosophy of Soul to bring out the theistic presuppositions and/or theistic implications that lie behind.

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The thesis gets more strengthened in chapter six and seven, where one finds canonical and scriptural arguments and references and the nature of Jain theism is evolved and discussed. I have tried to bring out most beautifully and most effectively the theistic color of the Popular Beliefs and Sadhana in Jainism.
I earlier mentioned that the book is, infact, a journey. We start with Atheism and Theism, then Theism and Jainism, proceeding to Theism in Jainism and ultimately arriving at Jain Theism as conclusion. Other than canonical and scriptural references, I have referred to a number of great thinkers and philosophers, both Indian as well as foreigners, who directly or indirectly share with me. The aim of the work is to evolve Jain Theism, successfully and logically; and I wish the reader to find out how far this aim has been attained.
The original thesis submitted to Gujarat University for the degree of Ph.D. was titled as Since at the end of the Thesis I present Jain Theism, thinking it to be more desired, I have titled this book as Jain Theism.
As a Ph.D. student and as author of this thesis I have an expectation from such sincerest and research proned scholars to further explore this Theism. Jain Mysticism, which is one of the areas, along with this, that could be explored. In fact, in the modern days of science, a lot of scientific truths given by Jainism could be examined as scientific and yet Theistic. Even Jain Mythology could also be viewed as branch of a great Theistic system. Naturally, I will be highly contented if something in this direction goes on.
-Hemant Shah

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viii
PREFACE
(Second Edition) I am really glad to see that the Second Edition of Jain Theism is coming out. It is mainly because quite a few groups and a lot of people at USA who are the followers and are interested in Jainism have liked this look. It will not be wrong to say that the second edition comes for such people associated with Jain Study Center of North Carolina, and Jain Academic Foundation of North America. I am very much thankful to Mr. Pravin Shah of Jain Study Center, U S A, for showing deep interest in bringing out this second edition.
While pubblishing the Second edition. a detailed table of contents, list of abbrevation and a few corrections have been incorporated. The second edition has been transformed to U.S. Spellings as it is requested by the Jain Study groups of USA. I am sure the second edition, with of course no change in the text, will be of great help to all who are interested in Jain Philosophy,
January, 1997.
-Author

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FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION
I am really very much pleased to write this foreword to the second edition of Dr. Hemant Shah's epoch making book on Jaina Theism. My pleasure is philosophically justified by the fact of ever increasing importance of both Jainism and Theism for bringing cut spiritual revolution for the prosperity and peace of the 21st Century mankind.
Jainism occupies a uniquely singnifincant position among the eleven living religions of the world which are rightly supposed to be the custodians of cternal human wisdom. The universal elements in the Jaina philosophy of Soul, Samisāra and Sadhanā shine like three prominent jewels (ratnatraya) in this enlightening stock of human wisdom
The laina philosophy of Soul teaches that each and every human being is essentially a transcendental sell which is an active substance possessing four infinitudes (ananta Catuslaya) of which the most important is infinite bliss (anantasukha). Any man, irrespective of the distinctions of caste. creed, gender, race, nationality etc., can realize his everblissful self during this very earthly life. The belief in the existence of soul is not just a theological dogma but a fact pointed out by modern science. The discoveries of many years of brain research made by Dr. Wilder Penfield and his associates at the Montreal Neurological Institute, M.Gill University has enabled Dr. Pensield to write : legitimately believe in the existence of the Spirit.” (W. Penfield, The Mystery of Mind-A Critical Study of Consciousness and Human Brain, Princeton University Press, 1975, p. 61).
The Jaina philosophy of Samsāra teaches that this world of many individual souls and multitude of physical objects is morally governed by the law of Karma. Each man is free and responsible for his actions. The soul in Samsāra or the Jiva has to enjoy or suffer the fruits of its actions during its journey through the cycle of Samsāra. During this journey there are many births and deaths of the various gross bodies of an individual Jiva but its subtle body remains the same till the final release from Samsāra through the realization of the transcendental self. We can say that the Jaina belief in the doctrine of rebirth and continuation of the same subtle body gets scienific support

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by modern psychical research. This statement of ours is justified by the fact that as N. M. Tyrell has observed. research (properly so-called) point strongly towards communications from the dead." (Tyrel N.M. : The Personality of Man, Pelican Books, 1946, P. 205) and these communications could be scientifically explained only through the hypothesis of rebirth and continuation of subtle body.
Before we proceed to indicate the significance of Jaina Sadhana, it is necessary to clarify that our reference lo scientisic support 10 metaphysical beliefs regarding soul and Samsára is just to help those rationalists who receive knowledge only through the doors of science. There are however, other rationalists who have not closed their doorsto saving knowledge by wisely accepting intuition as a source of valid knowledge. For such highly rational persons scientific support to intuitively certain metaphysical truths is nothing more than an additional confirmation. Educational institutions all over the world are better advised to teach their students the distinction between "lower or uncritical rationality and higher or critical rationality' because the development of critical rationality resulting in morality and spirituality is the general aim of all educational institutions.
The Jaina philosophy of Sādhanā is essentially the philosophy of right conduct (Sanyak Cāritra) based on clear intuitive vision or conviction (Samyak-darśana) and rationally validated knowledge (Samyak-Jnāna). Intuitively and rationally justifiable right conduct prescribed by Jainism includes practice of a number of inter-connected virtues of which the practice of non-violence (ahiińsā) is most fundamental because all other virtues can be subsumed under it. This will be clear by the following observation of Hari Satya Bhattacharya :
pramatta- yoga) and the actual act of violence consists in hurting either one's own subjective self (Bhāva-Präņa) or objects attached to that (Dravya-Präņa), or another person's mentalities or objects connected with them”. (Hari Satya Bhattacharya: Jain Morel Doctrine, Jain Sahitya Vika Mandal, Bombay, 1976, P. 54)..
Not to help oneself or others is subtle form of hurting. Thus, the positive aspect of practicing non-violence is to help oneself and other in all possible ways including the highest spiritual way. This means that Jainism teaches humanity to raise its level to divinity through the practice of non-violence. Thus, the Jaina Sādhanā is very relevant and necessary not only for transcendental self-relization but also for

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peace and prosperity of the 21st Century world.
It has now become very evident, that just by the rule of 'survival of the fittest' the 21st century world will have to be spiritualistic and theistic. In this context, many scholars maintain that though Jainism is spiritualistic, its atheism is a major hurdle to its universal appeal. This charge against Janism have been shown to be baseless by Dr. Hemant Shah's present research work on Jain Theism. Hemantbhai has made substantial contribution to Jainology and Theology by effectively pointing our that Jainism and Theism are not incompatibles but close companions, because there is really such a thing as Jaina Theism.
. Gujarat University has recognized the acadeinic sugnificance of Dr. Shah's research work by awarding him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. I congratulate the author for his achievement and earnestly appeal to the Jain Community ro recognize the practical importance of the work by making it widely known.
'Anand', 6-B, Highland Park, Gulbai Tekara, Ahmedabad 380015 December 14, 1996
J. A. Yajnik Prof. of Philosophy & Hon. Director Internation Institute for Value Education.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is an unedited, original verson of my Ph.D. thesis, titled as Theism and Jainism, presented to Gujarat University for Ph.D. degree in 1990. With a foreword by a great Jain Scholar and authority Pdt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, it is now published in a book from.
My gratitude goes to Shree Dalsukhbhai Malvania who not only took interest in my work but also guided me with some of the very sound suggestions. He has further obliged me for writing a foreword to this book. I am indeed very much thankful to him.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. J. A. Yajnik, who was my guide. His critical evaluation and constructive suggestions have played a vital role in shaping both me and my work. I am thankful to him for his consent with blessings, to publish this work.
I am immensely grateful to Dr. Suresh Vakil, Prof. C. V. Raval, Dr. Y. S. Shastri and other friends who have taken deep interes in this work.
. I am also greatful to Gujarat University for the consent to publish the thesis as well as the members of the Board and the trustees of Academy of Philosophy for all the efforts and encouragement to make this publication possible.
Lası, but not the least, I wish to put on record, a lot of Minds, Bodies & Souls, a Lot of Blessings, directly or indirectly, who have paved the path and made the publication a fact.
I am deeply and consciously thankful for the grace of God and all Great Souls for their Benedictions.
-Author

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xiii
N
List of Abbreviation ADS : Adhyātmasāra AS : Ācārānga Sūtra AUPS
Aupapātika Sūtra B. A
Bhagawati Ārādhanā B. G
Bhagwat Gītā DVS
Daśavaikālika Sūtra D. S
Dravya Samgraha EB
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Nyāyāvatāra N. K.
Naya Karņikā N. S
Nandi Sūtra PNT
Pramāņa-Naya-Tattvālokālankāra
Şaddaraśana Samuccaya SM
Syādvāda Mañjari SP : Sanmati - Prakaraņa
Samaņa Suttam T. S
Tattvārthasūtra TSS
Tattvānuśasana UDS
Upāsakadaśanga Sūtra US
Uttarādhyāyan Sūtra VS
Visāpahāra Sutra YS
Yogasāra YSS
Yogaśāstra
SDS
S. S

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XV
16
CONTENTS Chapter 10 INTRODUCTION Chapter 2.0 THEISM, ATHEISM AND JAINISM,
2.1 Theism
2.1.1 God in Theistic Philosophy 2.1.2 Kant's Postulates 2.1.3 God in Indian Theism 2.1.4 God in Western Theism
2.1.5 Conclusion 2.2 Atheism
2.2.1 Two Currents of Indian Thought 2.2.2 Emphasis on Emancipatory Self efforts 13 2.2.3 Exclusion of Divine Grace 2.2.4 Extreme Position of Law of Karma 2.2.5 Conclusion
19 2.3 Religion, God, Jainism 2.3.1 Religion
1. Religion as Worship of God 2. East and West in Religion 3. Religion in Buddhism and Jainism 4. History and Classification 5. Core of Religion 6. Need for Religion
7. Conclusion 2.3.2 God'
1. Conception 2. Two forms of Supreme Reality. 3. God's Relation to Soul and World 35
4. God and Human Freedom 2.3.3 Jainism
1. Introduction 2. Origin and Antiquity
21
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ДА
47
3. Jain Darshan
42 4. Jain Religion and Culture 5. A Critical Estimate
45 2.3.4 Conclusion
46 Chapter 3.0 JAIN LOGIC
3.1 Warrent of Jain Logic 3.1.1 Introduction
47 3.1.2 Jain Logic and Logicians 3.1.3 Aims and Subject Matter of Jain Logic 3.1.4 Jain Theory of Knowledge 3.1.5 Nyaya Logic and Jain Logic
3.1.6 Conclusion. 3.2. Theistic Import of Samgraha Naya
3.2.1 Pramana 3.2.2 Theory of Nayavada 3.2.3 Seven Nayas (Standpoints) 3.2.4 Significance of Samgraha Naya
58 3.2.5 Theistic Implication of Samgraha Naya 3.3 Syadvada
61 3.3.1 Introductory Remark
61 3.3.2 Anekantavada 3.3.3 Syadavada 3.3.4 Sevenfold Application of Syadvad 3.3.5 Syadvada : Critical Evaluation 3.3.6 Syadvada and Omniscience
69 3.3.7 Theistic Implication of Syadvada 3.3.8 Dr. Radhakrishnan's View 3.3.9 Pt. Dalsukh Malvania's View
3.3.10 Conclusion Chapter 4.0 JAIN ETHICS
4.1 Jain Ethics in Theistic Presuppositions 75
4.1.1 Historical Background
63
65
73
15
76

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16
77
82
90
99
4.1.2 Philosophical Background 4.1.3 Jain Ethics
4.1.4 Theistic Presuppositions 4.2 Law of Karma and its Theistic
Implications. 4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Karma in Non-Jain Systems 4.2.3 Theory of Karma : Its Genesis 4.2.4 Jain Theory of Karam
1. Meaning and Significance 2. Karma, Matter and Soul
3. Types of Karmas 4.2.5 Critical Evaluation
4.2.6 Theistic Implication Chapter 5.0 SAIN PHILOSOPHY OF SOUL
5.1. Meaning and Existence of Soul
5.1.1 Introduction, 5.1.2. Meaning 5.1.3 Existence 5.1.4 Nature of Soul (Jiva) in Jainism 5.1.5 Classification of Souls 5.1.6 The Holy Pentad,
5.1.7 Conclusion 5.2. The Soul in State of Bondage
5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Nature of Bondage 5.2.3 Causes of Bondage 5.2.4 Kinds of Bondage
1. Nature (Prakritis) 2. Duration (Sthiti) 3. Intensity (Anubhava or Rasa)
99
99
99
101
105
108 109 109
110
110
111
113
114
115 115 116

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116
127
4. Quantity (Pradesa)
116 5.2.5 Lesya 5.2.6 Conclusion
117 5.3 The Soul in State of Release
118 5.3.1 Remuval of Bondage
119 1. Samvara : Checking of the inflow of Karma
120 2. Nirjara : Shedding of the Karma 121 5.3.2 State of Liberation
122 5.3.3 Three fold Division of Atman (Soul) 123 5.3.4 Five Labdhis
124 5.3.5 The Gunasthanas
124 5.3.6 The State of the Release
126 5.4 The Jain Philosophy of Soul and its
Theistic Implication Chapter 6.0 THEISTIC COLOR OF POPULAR BELIEF AND SADHANA
131 6.1 Introductory Remark
131 6.2 Popular Belief in Jainism
132 6.3 The Jain Sadhana 6.4 Conclusion
139 Chapter 7.0 SCRIPTURAL AND OTHER ARGUMENTS FOR THEISM IN JAINISM
141 7.1 Introductory Remark 7.2 Jain Literature
141 7.3 Scriptural Arguments (Canonical Literature) 144 7.4 Arguments form Quasi - Canonical Literature 150 7.5 Arguments from Non - Canonical Literature 158 7.6 Authors On Jain Philosophy and Religon 167 7.7 Conclusion
173
137
141

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Chapter 8.0 NATURE OF JAIN THEISM
8.1 Introductory Remark 8.2 Philosophic Nature of Jain Theism
8.2.1 Jain God 8.2.2 Prayer, Worship, Rituals
8.2.3 I-Thou Relationship
8.3 Conclusion Chapter 9.0 CONCLUSION
9.1 A Resume
9.2 A Jain Theism Appendix : Selected Biblography
175 175 176 176 178 179 181 185 185
186
191

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CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION Being a Jain by birth, since the very early years of my descrition I was given to understand that Jain philosophy is Atheistic - a Nāstika-Darśana. The same continued, as a hammaring, even when I read books and articles on Jain philosophy. It was my day-to-day experience to observe the religious activities of Jains which included worship, prayers, vows restraints (Gupti), observances (Dharma), meditations (Anupreksa), right conduct (Caritra) and ethical practices all of which could consistantly go only with theism. On account of this direct experience of living Jainism, I could not reconcile with the idea of Jain philosophy being atheistic, Ultimately the widened religious horizons of my understanding, the deepened faith and a sound intuitive confirmity helped me to realise that Jainism is in tune with the fundamental unity of world-religions, The seeming contradiction between theory and practice of Jainism led me to undertake this research work. Thus, this small but important work is the outcome of a philosophical inquiry into Jainism : whether it is theistic or atheistic. General plan of work In order to be justified to the prime objective of inquiry, I have examined and explained the essentials of Jain philosophy and religion. Stating the general plan of this work, in the beginning with reference to the historical background and metaphysical position the roots of Jain atheism and Jainism as religion is discussed. Subsequently, Jain logic, Jain ethics and Jain philosophy of soul have been examined and explained. Recapitulating well with what is discussed in the proceeding chapters, finaliy an effort is made to show the nature and traits of Jain Theism. The work concludes with assertion that there should be no hesitation in considering Jain Darśana as anything but atheistic. Throughout; the inquiry has been conducted objectively, in the sense that. I have tried to keep prejudices of this way or that way, away from the work. It contains a thorough examination of concepts, comparisons and classifications as well as an analysis of certain basic theories - all in thier objective considerations lead to conclusion that Jainism has to be regarded as theism.
1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (IIth, ed.) Vol - XXII. pp. 744

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2
Theism Atheism
Though it is not the aim of this work to discuss and examine critically the terms Theism and Atheism, it is essential that a general view about the meaning of these terms with special reference to western and Indian context is noted in an utmost bravity. The term 'Theism' has many meanings', each one in detail could be obtained in any good encyclopaedia. But then the term "Theism" in its widest sense and literally means 'Belief in God'. As the term Theism has different meanings it is also used as synonym to different phrases such as Natural Theology, Natural Religion or Natural Law etc. Since the word 'God' is the key word in the meaning of term Theism and there are various concepts about the nature and number of God, there are various types of Theism. In 'Polytheism' the belief is in plurality of Gods, while Pantheism believes in the idea that only one God exists, and all that exists is God. From this idea of Pantheism the idea of Monotheism has evolved. Monotheism believes that there exists one and only one God; God as 'Supreme Personal Creator, the exclusive creator', the exclusive and universal creator of all things.
Jain Theism
As Theism, in its most popular and literal term means 'Belief in God', Atheism literally is a system of belief which denies the exsistence of God. It should be noted that the scholars and historians have observed that the terms 'Atheism' and 'Atheist' have been used "in the most haphazard manner to describe even the most trivial divergence of opinion." In support to this observation we find Socrates who was charged with "Not believing in the gods the city believes in'; we hear the cry in the Roman empire against Christians as : "Away with the Atheists" for the lack of idolatry in all Christian worship. Spinoza for whom God alone existed and who was known as the "God intoxicated", was prosecuted as an atheist, In Indian philosophy we find Jainism and Buddhism termed as 'Atheist' for not accepting Vedas as an authority; or rejecting soul or spirit. But then 'Atheism' in its apparent sense means, "Rejection of belief in God". Atheism in its most scientific and serious usages is applied to "the state of mind which does not find deity (either one or many Gods) in or above the physical universe."
Like theism atheism can be further classified into different types. But then for us atheism based on intellectual or metaphysical

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Introduction
in
disbelief is of prime importance. In this connection we may find the dogmatic the sceptical and the critical atheism. From the approach point of view we may find striking differences even between the Indian and Western atheism and thus resulting into two different types. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan while discussing the Western and Indian, comments : “The western mind lays great stress on science, logic and humanism. Hindu thinkers, as a class hold with great conviction that we possess a power more interior than intellect by which we become aware of the real in its intimate individuality and not merely in its superficial or discernible aspects." He further says, “While the dominant feature of Eastern thought is in its insistance on creative intuition, the Western systems are generally characterised by a great adherence to critical intelligence." “Philosophy in India", he repeats, "is essentially spiritual.... The spiritual motive dominates life in India.” Thus we find Western and Indian approaches very much different with regards to both Theism and Atheism.
Most of the philosophers have dealt with 'Atheism' as one of the anti-theism theories. It is to a great extent true also, specially with reference to Indo-Christian religion. But then let us be clear, at this point, to lead our future discussions on Jainism, to a constructive and progressive stage. The point to be noted is this that Theism has alternatives to it. It has Atheism as against and opposite to it. What is worth brooding over is whether any system charged as 'atheism' is an alternative to theism or anti-theism, Everytime, the answer will depend on how you define the terms and what are the grounds it depends on.

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Shrimad Rajachandra* on
Oneness of God and Uninterrupted Devotion to Him
"Religiously great persons have thrown light on one 'Reality' referring to it by any name or any form. That Reality alone is worthy to be known and worthy to be felt inwardly. Mystical experience is revelatory of its nature. And that Reality alone is worthy to be worshipped with supreme love.
We crave for uninterrupted devotion with singular love towards that 'Supreme Reality'.
That Supreme Reality has been spoken of by infinite names like Purushottama, Hari, Siddha, Isvara, Niranjana, Alakha, Parabrahma, Paramātmā and Bhagavāna."
*Shrimad Rajchandra (1866-1900), The most revered Jain Saint of 20th Century and the Spiritual Guide of many Jains as well as non-Jain Sadhakas including Mahatma Gandhi.
*Shrimad Rajchandra vacanamrta 21.

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CHAPTER - 2 THEISM, ATHEISM AND JAINISM 2.1 Theism 2.1.1 God In Theistic Philosophy
Theism, as we have seen basically, means belief in God and where God is believed, it is also believed that upon God everything else depends, and thus without the discussions of God, of world, of soul" theism is not justified. Theism . has been in the light of this broad consideration, approached differently by different thinkers. Amongst the thinkers of the western world Kant proved to be the most significant one. 2.1.2 Kant's Postulates
Kant has swept away the "dogmatic metaphysics" and along with that, by imposing “rational theology”, he swept away the old fashioned theism which was the part of the "dogmatic metaphysics". Kant himself “introduced in his own, more sceptical yet also more moral type of theistic doctrine, a new trichotomy-God, freedom, immortality, the three postulates of the practical reason.''! Almost every theistic system makes provision for Kant's three postulates.
A detailed survey of the history of theism reflects approaches and attitudes towards human freedom. immortality and their conception of God. What is most interesting to note, in the medicval and modern times, is the fact that theism has been much simplified and the attention has been concentrated upon God. Subsequently to this, as second step, the question: Does God exist? has been to theistic proofs replied "yes". Theism deals with “What is God?" for the simplest reason that it believes in the existence of God. What then is God? Let us, sweepingly review at this point the leading types of philosophies in their application to conception of God.
Empiricism beginning with certainties of everyday experience, "reaches theism at last by means of an analogical argument''? Objects in nature seem to resemble the works of human disign', therefore
1. Encyclopaedia Britannica : Vol. XXVI (1910) pp. 746. 2. Ibid., pp. 747

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6
Jain Theism
there is a high probability that there is a designing mind behind nature. This argument claims nothing more than probability. In the misadventures of empiricism we find another philosophy, intuition. It reaches its climax in further arguing that "besides testimony from outer sense, we have testimony and teachings from consciousness within- "first principles "as Reid generally calls them." The difficulties of empiricism constitute the strength of intuitionalism.
Intuitionalism being sound upon the intellectual and moral interests of humanity it does far better service to them. Unlike other philosophies who pay simply "a flying visit to theism", intuitionalism is at home there. The leading argument here is the cosmological, concluding to God as cause. In its "Great First Cause" we recongnize God. This argument, for the first time, is found well formulated in Aristotle's philosophy. This argument, though never considered isolatedly. was the main one for intuitionalism as well as for empiricist theism. From moral element point of view we findian "as against empiricism, intuitionalism is morally strong." Thus we find a conception of God as "Moral Law-Giver" amongst intuitionalism though intutionalist theism rest upon the conception of God as First cause.
Let us go from intuitionalism to idealism as idealism not on the lines of Berkeley (matter does not exist) but of Plato (things obey an ascertainable rational necessity). In Hegel we find no dualism of fact and principle. "The element of givenness, which was dominant in empiricism and partially surviving through intuitionalism even into Kant, is sublimated in Hegel's thinking."
་་ད
It always remained doubtful whether Hegel was a theist, with large pantheistic elements. The ambiguities on religion, (of which no detailed discussion is necessary here) in Hegel, and the conclusions tempt us to go back to intuitionalistic theism. In our conclusion we may agree: "Certainly history shows that theism has generally been associated with some reduced or limited form of philosophy, usually with the intuitionalist scheme. It is not the first runnings of the stream of religious thinking which has given the world its theistic philosophies. Theism is an afterthought the reply to doubt the attempted refelective justification of what announced itself at first as a prophetic certainty. But no more is theism the first runnings of the of philosophy, it is
3. Encyclopaedia Britannica pp. 747 4 ibid pp. 748

5. Ibid pp. 750

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism philosophy called into court to answer the selected questions." Moreover, we can also conclude that theism has its most habitual attinities with intuitionalism. Empiricism. intuitionalism and idealism are three tendencies dealing with "what is", "partly with what is and partly with what must be', and with what must be" - respectively. They tend to be towards design argument and analogy, to the cosmological argument, and to the ontological argument. The design argument suggests a personal but limited God, or number of Gods, the cosmological argument points to pantheistic theism; and finally the ontological argument sums up the truth in the two previous arguments and given 'its vision of the philosophicai absolute', pointing to God's attribute of infinity. However, one needs very rightly to remember” Kant's hostile assumption, that it is incompetent for us to take the thought of God piccerneal". 2.1.3 God in Indian Theism
Recalling the discussion about the comparative study of Indian theism and Western theism, theism or atheism for Indian thinkers is decided not by the acceptance or rejection of the authority of Vadās. Thus we find systems in Indian philosophy which are theistic and not believing in God in the traditional sense, as well as systems which are atheistic and yet believing in God as the perfect soul or being. However, let us see what is the concept of God in Indian theism.
“The essence of the Vedic religion may be summerised as worship of the Devās (i.e.shining deities) who were regarded as manifestations of the supreme being, conceived as supreme power." In Hindu religion" God is the reality of the world, not the monopoly of this or that sect.'* He is ‘Kavi' or the poet, the maker or the creator." God as person is deeply concerened in the affairs of this world. He is the friend, judge and redeemer of mankindian God is the absolute spirit, timeless and unchanging....." "Absolute assumes the form of God who is guiding the world.....""4 “God is not the figment of our minds. God is a real symbol of the absolute reality :. God himself is Sat, Cit and Ananda, reality, truth and bliss. Bhagavad-Gitā has accepted the metaphysical creed of Sāmkhya philosophy, of course, with certain fundamental modifications.
6. Encyclopaedia Britannica pp. 750 7. Chaudhari H.K.D., God in Indian Religion (1969) p. 34. 8. Dr. Nagaraja Rao (ed.), Radhakrishnan reader - An Anthology (1988) p. 188. 9. Ibid., p. 190

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Jain
Theism
One of these modifications is that Gită accepts dualities of Samkhya, Puruşa and Prakiti as the very nature of supreme principle God. In Indian Theism to believe in God does not mean to accept the proots and logical arguments in favour of the existence of God. To believe in God is to love Him, to be devoted to Him "to enter into Him" 10 At this position one finds "God becomes the ruling passion of the mind”, he sees God in himself and himself in God”, The same God is worshipped by all who is the rewarder to all who diligenly seek Him. Whatever God one worships is indentified with the supreme; he is all-in-all the creator, the protector, the distroyer." Thou only” as said to be in Atharva-Veda, “favour Brahma." Worship of God in the form of the chosen ideal and the recognition of the supreme is the main feature of the Hindu faith and its distinctive pait of the Indian atheism.
Of course, Prof. S.C.Chatterjee, after a long discussion on nature of God in Hindu religion concludes that God which we find in it, we are to say that the Hindu conception of God is monistic, but not pantheistic. Western critics have sweeping favour of Hindu Philosophy and religion as pantheism....." God in Hinduism is not simply immanent but also transcendent, we favour call the Hindu theory of God favour, rather than pantheism,''
Apart from the general conception and notion of God, even with regards to freedom and immortality of soul, we find Indian theism has its clear wisdom which becomes the base of different theologies of different systems. God, in Indian theism, does not become only at issue in its metaphysical aspect. Indian theism, thus provides sufficient grounds to justify it having various shades all shaping into a way of life - an approach to reality - an acceptance of the supreme. 2.1.4 God in Westeru Theism
In contrast to God in Indian theism, God in Western theism is more traditional and relegious. Unlike Indian theism Western theism deals theism with reference to belief in the existence of God. Of course, we come across various theories and proofs appealing the concept of God but almost all coming out of an emphasis on critical intelligence, as stress on logic and science. God in the Western theism is more
10 Dr. Nagaraja Rao (ed.), Radhakrishnan reader - An Anthology (1988), p. 253, 11 Chatterjee S.C., The Fundamentals of Hinduism (1970) p. 33-34.

For Pri

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism determined by the argument through which His existence is proved. God is the 'First great cause for those who put the cosmological argument. He is the supreme mind' as per assumptions of the teleological argument. He is a “supreme being' according to the ontological argument and a ‘moral God' according to the moral argument. Truth, beauty and goodness and such moral values moulding God into an absolute value, the supreme value is the axiological argument. Theism, like the philosophy of religion, must note the contribution paid by idealism and pragmatism. The main aim of the 19th century idealism was to disregard the inadequacy of the mechanistic view of the world to which science seemed more committeki then than now."? On the other side pragmatists have disclosed theisen in social life. But then, in the realm of philosophy in neral und philosophy of religion in particular, the new realism and emergent evolutionalism and their combination have proved to be the most remarkable during the present years. “The effect of these developments
n to strengthen decidedly the case for a modified realistic theism.'13 A discriminatingly critical realism, therefore, that accepts the phases of idealism and pragmatism that are rationally and empirically justified in the light of present knowledge, is, the proper standpoint for a student of the philosophy of religion.") 2.1.5 Conclusion
The concept of God in its traditional, religious or theological sense does not differ much between the Indian and the Western concept. Even the worship or the role of God as accepted and practised by the devotees in their theistic way has a great deal of resemblance. Moreover God, in view of the religious life, its asceticism, sacrifice, worship, etc. though treated differently by different people, enjoys, more or less, the same status.
But then Indian concept leads the meaning to a wider and deeper sense. The central force here is that of spiritualism and intuionalism. God is attached, here, not to the critical intelligence but to the inner consciousness. Theism and even the place of God in it, is a logical pursuit in the Western theology - God is proved and then accepted. On the otherside, in Indian philosophy, God is to be realised, and for that one has to accept Him by faith. Not reason but faith, not
12 Wright W.K.,A Students Philosophy of Religion (1958) p. 463 13 Ibid p.462
14 Ibid p. 463

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10
Jain Theism intelligence but intuition, not concepts but consciousness is the way to realise God in Indian philisophy. God in the Western theism enjoys the status of a master or father or a great first cause or a moral law-giver or a creator. In Indian philosophy “Thou art that” God is totality of which you are a part, God is all-in-all, within and without. God is supreme spirit, omniscient, omnipotant, omnipresent. God is both personal and absolute. To love this supreme spirit Brahama or īsavara or God, to believe Him, to be devoted of Him and to enter into Him is the message and mission of Indian theism. 2.2. Atheism
2.2.1 Two Currents of Indian Thought
Jainism as practised and preached as a religion today was known as 'Nirgrantha Dharma' in days of Lord Pārsya and Lord Mahavira. It was also known as Sramaņa Dharma. Shramaņa traditions had many other branches or schools. This Śramaņa tradition was different from the Brahamana tradition.
The ancient Indian culture was multicolored and in that the most notable two trends, two currents of thought we find are: (1) brahamana and (2) Sramana. Let us not enter into a detailed history or status of these two traditions but note some points which all have agreed. Both these systems have quite a good number of differences, but then the basic and the most fundamental one is the “approach" on which the whole edifice rests. Pandit Sukhlalji, one of the greatest authorities on Indian Philosophy has very lucidly summed up the basic difference between the two currents and observes that “Brāhamana system in its base is around the word 'Brahaman' while the Sramana system in its base is around the word sam. The word Brahaman has many meanings, two out of which are (1) prayer or worship and (2) Rituals. The word 'sam' represents Equality (sämya), and hard life or Asceticism or (Srama)'. Both these currents of ancient Indian thought have sufficiently interacted and have influenced each other to a great degree in the area of Theology, Philosophy and even Socio-Cultural life. Pandit Sukhlalji observes that the insistence of Ahimsa and compassion towards one and all of sámkhya, Yoga, Upanisad etc. is Śramaņa influence over the Brahmana, while on the other hand, the scriptures, ethics, prayers and rituals of Jainism and Buddhism is
15. Pandit Sukhialdi : Heart of Jainism
(Jain Dharma no Prān)

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11
Theism, Atheism and Jainism Brāhmana, influence over the Sraniana, But, he however, concludes that Jainism and Buddhism as systems of Sramana school of thought, have always remained opposed to Brāhaman thought mainly the orthodox schools. Prof, S.N. Dasgupta in his forward to Jain philosophy of Non Absolutism by S.K. Mookherjee notes that, “It (Jainism) reveals an ideology entirely different from the Vedic.” The Sramaņa School of thought is also as ancient as Brāhmaṇa school of thought. It has its survival and growth through the ages. Prof. S.N. Dasgupra futer notes, “According to the belief of the orthodox Jains, the Jaina religion is eternal.''!! The sramana school of thought in general and Jainism in particular appears before us as distinctly different and opposed to two facts : (1) it disapproves the vedic authority and (2) it revolts against vedic ritualistic sacrifices. Let us critically examine both. 1. Disapproval of Vedic authorities.
The disapproval of the Vedic authority by Sramaņa, and particularly by the Jainas, is not only for the religious or Vedic ceremonies which advocated sacrifices. It was more on the metaphysical and epistemological level. Jainism, against Vedanta idealism, is realism. It does not believe in Advaita or monism but talks about pluralism of souls. Even epistemologically, Jainism very much differs from the Nyāya Vaišeşika. But then the chief issue at which the disapproval becomes intense is the issue of God. Jainism and Sramaņas do not believe in a'Creator God" or God that gives the fruits to your deed. Moreover to Samaņas, the Universe is 'Anādi' (beginningless time) and not created by God. We find very similar thoughts even in orthodox schools like Samkhya and Pūrva Mimānsă, and in some regard even in Nyāya School. But then these schools accept the Vedās as authority while Sramaņas : Jainism and Buddhism disapprove it. The disapproval of Vedic authority automatically lead to disapproval of the Advaita philosophy, disapproval of monism, disapproval of many theistic elements which are accepted by other schools not because they are true but because Vedās say so. 2. Revolt Against Vedic Ritualistic Sacrifices
The history of Indian Philosophy gocs e'lon Lan hefore the Vedic period. Even if we take into consideration the Vedic period of which sufficient literature and references are available to most of the scholars including Dr. S. Radhakrishanan and prof. S.N. Dasgupta, it goes to 1500 B.C. to 600 B.C. It was the time when we find (it) 11. S. N. Dasgupta History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 1. pp. 169

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Jain Theism
"evolved the beginning of sublime idealism of India. We discover in it successive strata of thought, signified by Mantras or the hymns, the Brāhmaṇas, and the Upanisads. The views put forward in this age are not philosophical in the technical sense of the term. It is the age of gropping where superstition and thought are yet in conflict.'12
The principle of sacrifice is, after all, 'the offering of one's all to God and doing of one's work in a spirit of dedication to God."'13 The old vedic religion included the sacrifice of five kinds of animals: goats, sheeps, cows or bulls and horses. It was later on mainly under the chief influence of Jainism, Buddhism and Viśnavism," the practice become discredited."'!Thus we find, chiefly in the old Vedic period, sacrifice, as a ritual, a method to gain release quite popular amongst the Hindus. Of course, the “Vedic hymns declared that prayers and worships were the best means for gaining the favour of the Divine."':
We know that the approach of the Sramanas was quite different from that of Brāhmaṇas. They too were spiritual and wanted freedorn from the sufferings. But to them satya (truth) and Ahimsā (non-killing) were the most important principles. They revolted against the Vedic ritualistic sacrifices and advocated Ascetcism. “By means of temperance, chastity and mental concentration one can increase the force of thought and will.... Tapas or austerity is said to be better than sacrifices'16 and is regarded as the means for higher knowledge and Divine relief.
The revolt against the Vedic ritualistic sacrifices has been expressed by different schools in different ways. The strongest, both morally and philosophically, is by Sramana Jainism and Buddhism both have revolted it positively. “For them all, duty of man would consist in ascetic practices by which the unchangeable essence could be freed from the changing trammels.''}} Both, Mahāvīra and Buddha tried to purify Hindu religion that, according to them, had such inipurites like the dogmatic approach and ritualistic sacrifices. Protests were uttered by both Mahavira and Buddha. Mahāvira emphasized the philosophy of non-absolute for the contemplation and doctrine of ahimsā or nonviolence in human conduct. He insisted on a life of austerity and compassion. Mahāvira said, "know it for certain that as you dislike pain so do the other animals. Knowing this show compassion to other 12. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan Indian Phil. Vol. I. pp. 57 13. Dr. Radhakrish Reader - ed. An Anthology Pub. Bhavan's pp. 195 14. Ibid pp. 199,
15. Ibid pp. 331, 16. Ibid pp. 332.,
17. Ibid pp. 333

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism
13
Jivas (souls)'* Even Buddha, like Mahavira, protested against certain practices and refused to acquiesce some of these Vedic ceremonialism. He said, “I do not approve of sacrifices for I do not care for happiness which is sought at the price of others' suffering.":19
So far we discussed the disapproval of Vedic authority and revolt against Vedic ritualistic sacrifices by the Śramaņas or Jains, These reasons led Jainism, if not towards pure atheism, it definitely led it towards anti-theism of Veda and the other orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. But then these were not the only grounds that made Jainism quite distinct and original, In fact the above two grounds are the negative roots of the so called atheism of Jainism. The positive grounds were also there. They are its concept of Moksa or liberation and emphasis on emancipatory self efforts, exclusion of Divine Grace and extreme position of Law of Karma. Let us see these grounds, in brief. 2.2.2 Emphasis on Emancipatory Self-Efforts
Everyone wishes a complete release from pain and sufferings the attainment of wisdom and Joy is considered to be the ultimate purpose of life. All Indian thinkers hold a common view that is of reality is the cause of our bondage and liberation form this cannot be achieved without knowledge of reality i. e. the real nature of the world and the self.' ?20 Moreover, all the systems, except Cārvāka, accept the idea of 'Liberation (mukti or mokşa) as the highest goal of life : it has been regarded as the highest value and ultimate purpose of the life of the individual?! (Moksa eva paramapurusārtha.)'32
Indian philosophy, while dealing with the philosophy of soul, expresses the soul in state of 'Bondage' which is meant as “the process of birth and rebirth and the consequent miseries." The stoppage of this process is the breaking of the bondage and that is Liberation: 'cessation of miseries', As the systems of Indian philosophy have accepted the soul in state of bondage' or 'miseries' due to ignorance, they also accept the stage of liberation or state of perfection due to knowledge of reality. The method of attaining the knowledge of reality and thus
18. B.A. pp. 777 19. Dr. Radhakrishnan Reader (1988) pp. 361 20. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M.Dutta : An Introduction to Indian philosophy (1958) pp.18 21. Ramji Singh - Jain Concept of omniscience : pp. 21 22. Deshmukh C.D. Article on the concept of Liberation in Philosophy. Quarterly
Vol. XIII No. 2 pp. 135

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Jain Theism
attaining a state of perfection, is in Indian Philosophy, known as, way or path or mārga. Since the systems conceive soul and salvation differently, they differ in their conception of Märga for Liberation or Mokşa.
In orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy in general and in Vedānta in particular, we find self absolutely identical with Brahman and that is Real. The body is nierely an illusory appearance and not real. Because of the soul's association with the body which is a product of ignorance, it becomes limited finite selt in 'bondage'. Moksa has been described as the annulment of avidyā or nescience and the consequent dawn of knowledge. Knowledge. Found as an inevitable precondition of Moksa, in Vedanta, “reaches its climax in the Upanisads and Vedānta, where knowledge has been identified with emancipation as we find in the dictum : “To know is to become Brahman" By preparing oneself quite worthy of being a student and undertaking the study of Vedas and with preparation of intellect, emotion and will one should study the Vedānta, The seeker after liberation, one knows the Real. This realization will be realisation of the identity between the self and the Brahman, and it is liberation itself, For majority of the people who could not study the different text of Vedas and Vedanta, Gita advocates Bhakti-marga (the way of Devotion) and karma marga (the way of action) as the casier way open to all, the weak and the lowly, the illiterate and the ignorant. The sacrifice of Love is not so difficult as turning of the will to Divine purpose or ascetic discipline or the strenuous effort of thinking."?24
Jainism like other systems of Indian philosophy accepts the concept of liberation or Emancipation. In Jainism, too we find Jiva (soul) in state of bondage i.e. the cycle of birth and rebirth and its consequent miseries. The root cause of the bondage and miseries in life, according to Jainism is Karma. Even ignorance is also due to a Karmic veil which does not allow the soul to shine or to apprehend its own infinite capacities. 'In Jainism Soul is essentially a knowing substance and is potentially omniscient, omnipotent etc."25 So in the state of Moksa or emancipation when there is a "total destruction of all the Karmas and the consequent installation of soul in its state of essential purity i.e. as a being having the four Infinites of Immediate 23. Ramji Singh : Jain Concept of omniscience pp. 22 24. Dr. Radhakirishnan Reader, Anthology (1988) pp. 248. 25. Ramji Singh : Jain Concept of omniscience pp. 26.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism
15 Apprehension, Cognition, Joy and Power, is its moksa or final Emancipation. But then Jainism does not believe in God: a fruit giver or in God, who it pleased, will shower upon all Joy and power. **The way (märga) to this Moksa is three fold-combination of “Samyak Darsan 'Samyak juāna' and saniyak caritra"37 i.e. Right Faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct, of the last of which Ahimsā or noninjury is the corner stone. Here we find Jainism differing from other systems of Indian philosophy. “Some emphasise only faith, some emphasise knowledge and some conduct. Faith or act of 'Devotion or Bhakti alone is considered not enough to lead to salvation.''28 In short, “Jainism presupposes infinite capacity for spiritual progress in every individual. Infinite knowledge and joy is the innate character of every soul. What is needed is complete noninterference.... from outside...... Interference means spiritual dragging.... however, is not the ideal. Freedom from worldly pleasures and sufferings is the end... suffering is as much an evil as worldly pleasures."34 It hardly requires to be explained that in order to have total removal of the karmic veil, and thus to realise the Four Infinites, one has to severely try for it. The goal i.e. emancipation, in Jainism is not impossible but is certainly self-dependent and most difficult. "Complete release from all karma through nonexistence of causes of bondage and through ‘Nirjarā' is Moksa" 30 Jainism suggests a detailed information of the doctrine and rules to be practised to lead a life of purity. It advocates the duties of a householder which are in miniature those of a monk, In all such regards we find" it reveals an ideology entirely different from the Vedic''! The non-coinpromisive attitude of Jainas in practicing its creed, the doctrines “remarkable for their originality acuteness and subtlety”32 and more interested in overstraining the moral aspects" to achieve the goal rather than to depend on an outside agency or grace, are the chief fundamental aspects that lead to a Jain way of Life and Liberation. Not God or any Divine agency but the individual's sincerity of purpose and utmost seriousness for the minutest spiritual progress is the way to liberation for Jains. Jainism thus on one side
26. H. S. Bhattacharya : The philosophy of Jainas pp. 29. 27. Tattvārthasutra, pp. - 1.1. 28. Prof, A. chakravarti : Mahavira and his teachings : pp. 47 29. Nathmal Tatia : Studies in Jain philosophy pp. 21. 30. Tattvārthasutra, X-2 31. S.N Dasgupta : Forward; Monkerjee's Jain Philosophy of non absolutism pp. VII 32. Ibid VII
3

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16
Jain Theism
excludes the need for Divine Grace or any Divine agency for Liberation and on the other side immensely emphasises solely on the emancipatory self-efforts of an individual to attain perfection by realising the Four Infinites which are the innate characters of every soul.
2.2.3 Exclusion of Divine Grace
Religion is wider than its philosophy. In Fact, we find Theology as well as Mythology as componants of a systematically evolved religion. Divine grace, though more related to theology than philosophy, is one of the common characteristics of theistic religions." Theism means belief in God who. is both immanent and transcendent and is also a Person. God, here, is the object of worship and the goal of our religious aspiration. It is by pleasing God through prayer that we can obtain salvation through His mercy" According to Vedanta Philosophy as explained by Ramanuja," the soul that realizes God is liberated from the body for ever, without any chance of rebirth. We should remember, however, that liberation can not be attained simply by human efforts. God, pleased by devotion, helps the devotee to attain perfect knowledge by removing obstacles. God lifts from bondage and misery the man who flings himself at the mercy of God." We do find in other theistic systems a similar conception of God's mercy upon his devoter God's grace without which, even if human efforts are sincerest, nothing is possible. In Judi-christian as well as Islam the Grace of God or Divine Grace has been accepted. All these concepts subordinate everything before the wish of God and at the same time steer the importance of worship and devotion to please or to win the Love of God. In all these systems one might realise his unity with God or merger in Brahman, but it is so only and only if God's Grace is bestowed upon the individual.
In Jainism, though karmas of man are constantly determining him various ways yet there is in him infinite capacity of power for right action (virya).... It is thus that by an exercise of this power man can overcome all karma and become finally liberated." According to Jainism every soul is" the repository of this indomitable power" which can never prevent him from attaining his highest goal. In Jain conception of emancipation the soul realizes its own Four Infinites, the soul is totally pure and devoid of the karmic Veil. There is, however, no
33. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M. Dutta; An Introduction to Indian Philosophy pp. 420 34. Ibid pp. 427-428
35. S.N. Dasgupta History of Indian Philosophy Vol.II pp. 207.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism
realization of one's unity with God, as it is in Vedanta philosophy. Thus in Jainism, we find neither God, as an outside agency, nor God's Grace is required to attain the salvation. On the contrary one is led to conclude that "apart from theoretical difficulties of introducing God in the realm of nature and his occasional intervention etc. This leads to Fatalism and pessimism. The doctrine of Grace is indeed a disgrace to the idea of man as the maker of his own destiny. This loss of ethical autonomy takes away the very basis of own moral life... 36
2.2.4 Extreme Position of Law of Karma
The term karma in its most general and simple sense means 'action'. The law or doctrine of Karma means that all deeds (actions). good or bad, physical of mental produce their proper consequences in the life of the individual who acts. It is founded on the simple law of cause and effect. No effect is without a cause, and one has to bear the fruits of his deeds, sooner or later. It is not possible to escape.
The belief in Law of karma, in general, is a common character of the Indian systems of religion. "With its help, metempsychosis of transmigration of souls becomes a proven fact, and through it their continuity and immortality is established beyond doubt. Moreover, it provides a scientific and rational explanation for the diverse phenomena. **38
+39
The karma is the cause and explanation to what the effect is. Karma is the cause of bondage and it is the activity of the soul. "Karma is the material cause of bondage, While Jiva (soul) with passions is the efficient cause. We find karma and bondage sometimes referred to as synonym. But then, in Indian system there is room for free will and a way to end, to burn out or destroy the karmas. As the late Justice J. L. Jaini observed, "It is not fate, nor even predetermination; but it is the ever continuous balancing of the different accounts that we keep with the force of life." It is not a theory in which the human being is tied down to some one, bound down by the force of something outside himself.41
36. Ramji Singh Jain Concept of Omniscience pp. 107-108
37. S.C. chatterjee & D.M. Dutta: An int. To Indian philosophy pp. 15.
38. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and calture of Jains, pp. 40
17
39. Ramji singh Jain Concept of omniscience: 130. 40. J.L.Jaini: Outlines of Jainism pp.
41. V.R. Gandhi The Jain philosophy.pp. 58.

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Jain Theism
The Law of karma occupies a distinct place both in Indian philosophy and in Indian theology. It is known as karma märg, karma väda. Law or Doctrine of karma etc. But then it is found at its highest degree of minuteness and in its best form of preciseness in Jainism. To Jainas, in fact, the science of karma is the real science of spirituality, in so far as it tries to unfold the real nature of spirit or self." In Jainism every aspect related to karma and 'karma-vada' has been explored in its full details. Unlike the brahmanical notion that "karma is subservient to God and hence what is more important is not karma but compassion of God." to Jainas freedom from karma is the uncompromising condition for salvation. Jainism does not simply put the law of karma, or the meaning and classification of karmas only. It goes deep into the discussion of certain process to explain how the Karma attach to the soul i.e. the process of karma-bandha. Jainism accepts the postulate of nescience or 'mithyātva' without which the karma cannot be explained. It also discusses some of the vital issues like whether karma has beginning or is beginingless, whether karma is prior to self or self is prior to karma, how soul is considered as the possessor of material karma, the process of Asrava means' 'influx' or flowing' of karmic matter into the soul, as well as samvara, means the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul. All these issues I have discussed at great length in chapter 4 in this work. What is of utmost significance is to note "the reasons behind the jainas putting greater emphasis on the doctrine of karma and working out a science of karma in greater details than what has been done by other systems.
18
Out of the reasons, the chief one is, rejection of a belief in God's grace as well as God regarded as the dispensor of fruits of action. It maintains that every soul in its pure form is God, having four infinites. The Jain approach to deal with karma through penances and austerities and its uncompromising sincerity and unshakable faith in the doctrine of karma opens the way to salvation. As the Law of karma is the explanation to the bondage, its total climination through spiritual practices is the attainment of emancipation. "Jainism does not preach that there is any special power ruling over the destinies of men from behind or above. On the contrary, it teaches that every individual works out his own destiny by his own mental and physical exertions
42. Ramji singh The Concept of omniscience pp. 109
43. Cp. Rg.veda X 19.3 Taitraya Upanisad III.1, Manu Smrti I:5;.9 44. Ramji Singh Jain Cencept of ommisciece pp. 107.

44

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19
45
which, by themselves generate energies that bring to him agreeable or disagreeable experiences." Thus the entire emphasis is to thwart and annihilate the force of the karma "and in this way to effect a gradual spiritual evolution leading to the ultimate goal, the very Godhood, whence there is no return to the samsara.
46
2.2.5 Conclusion
We may conclude, therefore that according to jainism it is the human soul alone which can reach the highest degree of perfection. And that all souls are possessed of fullness and perfections. "The infinite is inherent in the finite. That is why the finite is ever struggling to break down its finiteness and reach out to the fullest freedom''47 Moreover, it maintains that "God is only the highest, noblest and fullest manifestation of the power which lie latent in soul.' What one requires is to put utmost self-efforts to see that attachments cease, and personal love is "burnt in the glow of asceticism." It insists that every one, like a true victor, should defeat one's own enemies, his own passions and sense cravings. "Fight with yourself. Why fight with external foes? He who conquers himself, through himself will obtain happiness.
+48
This fundamental acceptance and approach is reflected in the discussions, explantations and solutions of issues which are metaphysical, ethical, epistemological or logical. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says "strictly speaking there is no room for devotion or bhakti in the jain system... The liberated have no longer any connection with the world and exert no influence on it."49 This central current or stream of thought operates even when the issue of vedic authority or ritualistic sacrifice is there or even when the issue of karma or emancipatory self-effort or Divine grace is there. The extreme insistence on one's own effort, the uncompromising nature of Low of karma and the soul posessing all fullness and perfection in its pure form, put Jainism to a unique position whether it does not need to claim any nonhuman or Divine source. These could be considered as some of the roots of jain Atheism where atheism means rejection of a belief in World-Creating God, or rejection
45. Dr. Hiralal Jain Article 'What is Jainism' in 'Jainism' pub. Sr. Vallabhsuri smarak samiti pp. 12-13.
46. Dr. J.P.Jain Religion and culture of Jains, pp.42
47. Dr. Radhakrishnan Indian Philosophy, Vol. I pp. 399
48. Uttaradhayayana sutra Ix. 35
49. Radhadrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol I, pp.-331.

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20 of a belief in God as a dispensor of fruits of actions. 2.3 RELIGION : GOD : JAINISM 2.3.1 RELIGION
Let us understand the term 'Religion in its etymological sense. What does the term mean, linguistically ? The word religion has its root in Latin religis" or" religin" "derived from" "relegere' which means to gather together, and religare' which means to bind back, fasten. Relegere meant to gather together, collect, hence to go over a subject again in thought from re and legere," ..... "men were called religions' because they reconsidered carefully and, as it were, went over again in thought all that appertained to the worship of Gods: 50 Max Muller, building on philosophy and mythology affirmed that.'' Religion consists in the perception of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of manosi Mr. J.G. Frazer Regards religion as, superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. ***? But then these are the thoughts concerned more about the primitive religions. The purpose of the present chapter is to set forth a deeper and wider meaning of the term religion based upon what it means when taken with certain refereneces, inclusive both of primitive religions, and of higher religions. W.K wright in his famous book "A student's philosophy of religion" discusses at full length and concludes: "religion is an endeavour to secure the conservation of socially recognized values through specific action that are believed to evoke some agency different from the ordinary cgo of the individual, or from other mcrely human beings, and that imply a feeling of dependence upon this agency.***} (1) Religion as Worship of God
Many eminent thinkers of the west have defined religion as worship or adoration of God. For example William Tempie defined it as" Religion is not an opinion about God... It is a personal relation with God.*5+ Even Julian Huxley writes,” It is frequently taken for granted that religion is essentially a belief in a god or gods.*?** 50. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) Ilth ed. Vol. XXII p. 61. 51. Max Muller, Natural Religion (1899) p. 188 52. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) Ilth ed. Vol. XXIII p. 62 53. W.K Wright : a student's philosophy of Religion (1958) p. 42-47 54. R.B. Lal, Religion in the light of reason and science (1978) p. 18 55. Ibid 18.

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21
The great pioneer anthropologist Tylor proposed, a belief in spiritual beings' as what he called a minimum definition of religion. This approach can best be summed up in the words of J.A.T. Robinson : "Worship and prayer would seem to be the expression of religion, from an irreligious. '**"The popular religion of India consists in the worship of a personal God through prayer, devotion and dedication." (2) East and West in Religion
Dr. S Radhakrishnan, unquestionably the foremost and most scholarly thinker on the subject of our generation, expresses his views in these words :” There is no reason to believe that there are fundamental differences between the East and West. Human beings are everywhere human and hold the same deepest Values. The differences which are, no doubt, significant, are related to external, temporary social conditions and are alterable with them.""** In his very famous book titled 'East and West in Religion' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes : "The Western mind is rationalistic and ethical, while the Eastern mind is more inclined to inward life and intuitive thinking." Speaking in General term we may say that the dominant feature of Eastern thought in its insistence in certain creative intuition, while the western systems are characterised by a greater adherence to critical intelligence. This basic difference both in approach and in emphasis has resulted into differences in essentials of religion, "A natural consequence of this difference in emphasis is that in the East, religion is more a matter of spiritual culture than scholastic learning. We learn the truth not by criticism and discussion but by deepening life and changing the level of consciousness. God is not the highest form to be known but the highest being to be realized.... Eastern religions lay stress on the patience of spirit and the gentleness of soul which are born not of fear but of strength which refuses to push its way in crowd."61 (a) Indian View
Right from the very early days of ancient period till now, India has passed through the various stages, 'of rise, development and 56. R.B. Lal, Religion in the light of reason and science (1978), 18 57. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, The present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 38. 58. Ibid p. 27 59. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan -An Idealist View of life (1932) Ch. IV 60. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, An Idealist View of Life (1932) Chap. IV 61. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and west in Religion (1933) pp. 52-53.

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Jain Theism metamorphosis of various trends of religious culture.' In fact, “Hinduism is an amorphous indeterminate mass of diverse religious creeds and faiths..."62 These religions may be differing with ambiguous conceptions of God, the Universe, the Self etc. or some may be without any specific conception. But then “in their essence all types of Indian religions are
o their great extent, mystical so far as the nature of profound religious experience as distinct from that of the virtuous life is concerned: and they stress the cultivation of virtue for all types of people and look upon ritual or ceremonial institution as secondary:"6,3
Like almost in all the branches of philosophy, even in ethics and religion, the word 'Indian stands as antonym to west or as
to East.-" The late Mr. Lowes Dickenson in his essays on the civilization of India, China and Japan observed that India is the only country that typifies the East. In the matter of rcligion, India typifies the East.' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes," In the East religion is more the life of spirit. It is the perception of oneness of men with the spirit of truth, love and beauty in the universe.'65 In India religion and philosophy go hand in hand, and the enphasis on right conductor
Samyak caritra' as Jainas say hold a fundamental importance as no religion talks about highest knowledge (jñāna) or highest wisdom (Darśan) withonit right conduct. According to Manu, the first of law givers." Morality or right conduct (sadācār) is the highest Dharma... the sages regard right behavior as the very root of all austerity.'966
The Bhāgavata has given the following as the basic requirements of Dharma : “Non-Violence in thought, word and deed: to abide by the truth, not to commit theft, to control desire, anger and avarice and to do only such works as are pleasant and beneficial to all living creatures.'
In Bhagvadgitā one finds a great stress on the identity of Dharma (righteousness) and karma (conduct, duty or action). The jñāna mārga (The way of knowledge), Bhakti Mārga (The way of deotion) and karma Mārga (The way of action) of Bhagvadgitā are the three approaches to religion, any one could be stressed which does not mean total exclusion of the other two. In fact "work, knowledge and devotion are complimentary both when we scek the goal and after we attain it.
62. H.K. De Chaudhari, God In Indian Religion (1969) p. -7 63 Ibid p. 6
64 Ibid p. 46
65 Ibid p. 51 66. R.B.lal, Religion in light of reason and science (1978) p.21-22.

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23
We may climb the mountain from different paths but the view from the summit is identical for all.'*67 (b) Western View
For us, as we thoroughly know that, Upanisads are complimentary to Vedās, full of Philosophy precisely and subtly expressed. The Western Scholars do not agree to this, They maintain that-" the authors of the Upanişads lost faith, the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices and that they realized the conception of one God discarding the conception of many gods which is to be found in the earlier vedās."?68 shri B.K. Chattopadhyaya in his famous book “The Teachings of the Upanişads' quotes number of western scholars expressing the same View. Even Max Muller writes; “In these Upanisads the whole ritual or sacrificial system of the Vedas is not only ignored but directly rejected as useless, nay as mischievous. The ancient gods of Vedās are no longer recognised.''69 similarly we find Prof. Macdonald writes that the Upanişads form a new religion which is" In Virtual opposition to the ritual or practical side.":70 Such were also the hasty conclusions even by Dr. Robert Earnest Hume, Dr. Winternitz, Deussen etc. According to B.K. Chattopadhyaya the conclusions arrived by the western scholars are not acceptable. He says that because the Upanişads declare that there is one God (Brahman) it does not mean that the author of upanişads did not believe in minor Gods. In the same way the attainment of salvation through the knowledge of Brahman does not mean that the authors of the Upanisads did not believe in the efficacy of sacrifices in securing heaven. According to him both these conclusions inferred by the western scholars are illogical.
Here we may make a note that even some of the prominent modern scholars of India, like Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Das Gupta, Prof. Hiriyanna, Prof. R. D. Ranade, Dr. R. K. Mukherji and so on, also more or less bend towards what the western scholars have observed regarding the upanişads. To cut short, we may certainly are not rejecting, or refuting or contradicting the Vedās. The Upanişads certainly come before us as an entirely different type from the rest of the Vedic literature as indicating the path of knowledge (Jnānamārg)
67. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan; Radhakrishnan Reader Anthology (1988) p.260. 68. B.K. Chattopadhyaha. The Teachings of the Upanisads (1952) p.26 69. Max Muller, origin of vedanta p.16 70. Prof. Macdonald, History of Sanskrit Literature p. 215.

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Jain Theism as opposed to the path of work (Karmamärg)'71 The Upanisads held that "immortality could be attained by realization of Atman, but other mystics and ascetics believed that release from carthly bondage i.e freedom of self could be achieved by practicing yoga and/or various kinds of tapas."??? (3) Religion in Buddhism and Jainism
Technically speaking both Jainism and Buddhism, being the heterodox systems of Indian Philosophy in the sense that both reject the vedas as authority, are atheistic. Both do not believe in the traditional Vedic or Upanisadic concept of God, personal or absolute. But then both recognize the possibility of attaining the highest goal of life. Buddhism
For Buddhism complete cessation of misery (dukkha) is possible and its suggests its eightfold noble paths namely right veiws, right determination, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right endeavour, right mindfulness and right concentration. The remov ignorance and desire, which are the main causes of misery, through these eight-fold paths. Brings the perfect enlightenment and tranquility. The attainment of this state of perfection, in Buddhism, is nirvāņa.
Buddhism has many schools differing from each other either philosophically or theologically. It has its own theology, mythology as well as ethics. “But then both Lord Buddha and Buddhism in its true spirit, are not interested in the metaplıysics. Lord Buddha spent years in deep thinking, penance and meditation to discover the origin of human sufferings and means to overcome them.???! Jainism :
Jainism as religion is an original system existing from beginnings time. It becomes important for the study of the philosophical thought and religious life in ancient India. I restrain myself before I write about Jain philosophy, Jain Ethics, Jain logic and philosophy of nonabsolutism, as all these topics we are going to discuss in full details in the forth coming chapters. Here what is important is to glance at the
71. Dr. S.N. Das Gupta, A History Of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975) p. 28 72. Dr. H.K.D. Chaudhari, God In Indian Philosophy (1969) p. 10-11. 73. Chatterjee s. C. and D.M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968)
p. 30

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25 Religion in Jainism. What we find as the most striking feature is its approach. Jaina religion gives great cmphasis on Ahimsa and Anekānt. Ahimsä (non-injury) relates to day-to-day activity of a house holder as well as ascetic, while Anckänt relates to the approach towards reality. By nature Jainism is Ācārapradhan' and is realistic in the sense that it accepts the objects of the world as real. What is most note-worthy is jain concept of Soul which according to Jainism, in its pure form possesses all the qualities in infinite. The soul in its pure form is God and the embodied soul 'jiva' is an impure soul. The impurity is the layer of karma. Jain religion proves to be a way or path that shows how to remove the dirt or layer of karma which is on soul and thus to make it free from all the bondage and chain of birth and rebirth. For this, what is necessary, according to Jainism, is perfect faith, correct knowledge and right conduct. Thus we find “Jainism as an important, fully developed and well established religious and cultural system, is purely indigenous to India.”74 It is a system with its own metaphysics, epistemology, mythology, ethics, rituals etc. It possesses all the elements to represent itself as religion unique in so many ways. (4) History and Classification History
The Encyclopaedia Britannica says that "there is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in its prominent aspect a History of Religions.'75 As such it has become almost impossible to know the exact time when the belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution.” Mr. J.G. Frazer regards religion as superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. In the Tree of life, Mr. E. Gawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its first manifestation with the process of the organic life.... The origin of religion, however, can never be determined archeologically or historically.'76 Neither it is necessary nor it is apt here to go into a great details about the evolution and continuous development of religion right from its ancient primitive stage till its development into the modern perspective point of view. We may just make a note that there was a very long period, we may call a long period of darkness - a period of primitive kind of religion providing philosophy, both of man and nature to intellectuals. Existed
74. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of Jains (1977) p. 1 75. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) ed. II Vol. XXII p. 62 76. Ibid pp. 62.

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before the dawn of Higher Religions. Amongst the numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested what is proposed as a "minimum definition" of religion “the belief in spiritual being","? The spiritual being is sacred and some of the chief aspects of the nature of sacred are : the sacred as the secret, the sacred as the potent, the sacred as the ancient. In India we can call this as the very early vedic period, and the chief gods were conspicuous objects of nature such as the Sun, Sky, Earth, Air, Light, Wind, Rain, and Dawn” 78 In its early stage these objects were simply personified, then the conspicuous object of nature and gods associated with them were differentiated from which, “a large variety of myths developed about each important God.'”74
The second or the subsequent period is the period of Higher Religions. The development of animism, the transition to polytheism, polytheism, transition to monotheism, are some of the features of the higher religion. This is the period when India we find the development known as Brāhmism and the Upnişads and the Vedānta effected by the thinkers of India, the theologians and philosophers. This second phase of the history of religion, as we call Higher Religion, is distinguished from the former one in its intellectual and rationalistic, interest which is “an expression of the demand of the mind for unity, for the reduction of all facts to one common principle of explanation.??$0)
In the final stage of religion in process, or we may call religion in modern times, inspite of a great development achievements of science and technology, religions have been thriving as an organic part of the life of an entire people.” We are here not to discuss the life of an entire people.” We are here not to discuss the status and weak points one might observe in the Modern Religion. It is not the point to discuss and arrive at a conclusion regarding the fate of today's religion. What we take note is simply of certain stages of its evolution. Classification
As we find in most of the fields or areas of knowledge related to social and philosophical aspects, we also find in Religion a great difficulty of classification. We neither find any watertight compartments in its historical development nor we see distinctive, clearly classifiable elements. On the contrary "the different stages constantly appear to
77. Encyclpaedia Britannica (1910) ed. II, VOI. XXIII p. 63. 78. W.K. Wright, A Students Philosophy of Religion (1958) p.70 79. Ibid., p. 70
80. Ibid., p. 73

nal

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism shade off into one another, and any one of the higher seems to contain elements of all the rest. Again we find all religions are in constant tlux and there is no uniforinity amongst the different development at different places. Even then efforts have been done to classify religion-its evolution and development. “The 18th century divine (who) divided religions into True and False."'Philosophy, in the person of Hegel, classified religion in threefold forms (a) the Religion of Nature, (b) the Religion of Spiritual individuality (c) the Absolute Religion.'»82 This was further distinguished into three periods or phases by K.F.A Wuttke (i) the objective, producing the religions of nature (ii) the subjective, God as comprehended in the individual mind; and (iii) God .as absolute spirit.
“In the same way Dr. Edward Caird recognizes three similar stages (i) objective consciousness, the divine in nature : (ii) self consciousness, the divine in man (iii) God consciousness, where God is above the contrast of subject and object, yet is revealed in both.”83 As we find the study of religion through different religions creates number of variety in classification, we find the study of religions through different aspects and approaches new classifications. We find J. Clyton Fever as one of the editors of his famous book” Religion in philosophic and Cultural Perspective" tries to classify the content into two perspectives (i) Philosophical and (ii) Cultural.
Similarly Prof. W.K Wright in his book, "A students' Philosophy of Religion” discusses religion with reference to values, self and reality. Dr. S. Radhakrisnan, while discussing and commenting on religion- specially comparative religion-talks in term of East and West in Religion. Max Muller proposed to group religions ethnologically by tests of language, resulting into two great families, the Sematic and the Indo-Germanic.
The brief sketch we tried to draw of the history and classification of religion, makes us to conclude that religion has its origin as back as the origin of human life. Religion is a product of the social life, and just like the human beings, living a social life, the
s are also in a flux, they are ever changing and ever transforming in accordance with the changing values of the social life.
81. Briughton, Dictionary of all religions (1945) preface. 82. Hegel, Philosophy of Religion (Eng.Transt) p. 266. 83. Dr. Edward Claird, Evolution of Religion (1893) Lect.vii.

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(5) Core of Religion
A comparative study of religions, their interrelationship and scientific approach cnables us to feel that Religion is real only in religions. All the vital differences among the living faiths of mankind become just casual before the fundamental unity of vision and purpose which embraces all mankindian This is the core of all religions a common substratum of religions.
"All religions affirm that man is confronted by something greater than himself which, in contrast to human nature and all other phenomena, is . Absolute Reality. It is transcendent, the Divine, the other, the true being behind the world of events..... and the many ways to reach the real are found in all religions.'**The 'Absolute Reality of which all religions talk is also God the highest truth, righteousness, beauty and love which is man's highest good. This transcendent Reality according to all religions is immancnt in the human soul. Thus we find, the grounding of the human spirit in godhead, as one of the most impressive phenomenon in all religions. This is reflected in Upanisad when it says “That Thou art', or when we say "the essence of the Buddha is present in every being," or Jesus saying “The kingdom of God is within you". For St. Paul 'the human spirit is the temple of the Divine Spirit. For St. Augustine 'God is more inward than my innermost being'. The Quran says that God is nearer to us than our artery in the
neck.''85
All Religions are a way of life'. All talk about Moksa, emancipation or cternal life by the realisation of the self. “Religion is not only the way to God, but the way to man.”*$6 We find all religions prove to be a way of active service, a way to God through Man, to Divine Spirit through Human Spirit.
All religions talk about its doctrines, myths, rites, cult and worship. In fact these things and much more other things, form the outer side of the religion. Not merely religions amongst themselves differ in these objectives or outer features but even the different sects of the same religion also differ very greatly with one another. But then behind all these differences what is seen is the tendency for the inward piety to attain spiritual insight and thus to attain religious wisdom.
84. Dr S. Radhakrishnan, The Present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 51. 85. Ibid., pp. 51-52
86. Ibid., p. 53.

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29
Speaking about the basic insights of religions, Dr.S.Radhakrishnan said,
Religion at their highest adopt a view of positive appreciation of other faiths." Rg. Veda has the following words : “Walk together, speak in concord; let your minds comprehend alike, let your efforts be united; let your hearts be in agreement, let your minds be united, that we all may be happy.'*$? (6) The Need for Religion
Religion, the moment we study and analyses the human predicament as well as the crisis of values and its result, appears to us as uncompromisingly most inevitable. Its role, further confirms, its importance.
It will be quite fair and agrecable to all to say that "mankind is today in the midst of the greatest crises in history. It is an undisputable fact that science has liberated the mankind from sertitude to nature, from poverty and ignorance. The world of machines has brought comforts and conveniences. The vast world has become a small family. Scientific inventions, the use of electricity, telephone, radio, television and computers have brought a revolution in human history. The discovery of solar and nuclear energy present a great possibilities of human progress. It is true that the scientific progress and development has brought a great relief and change." Yet what we find is a mankind much suffering from an inward loneliness. All growth is marked by pain...... tragedy. Humanity today faces the challenge of destiny. The progress in the material world has failed to bring mental peace and spiritual bliss. It has failed to make man feel contented and satisfied. Inspite of all the achievements in economical, social, cultural and scientific world, we see one and all perplexed at its failure to find love and satisfaction. “Only a living faith in God will enable man to overcome the paralysing sense of despair and create a less imperfect society.""$8
“The human individual consists of body, mind and spirit. Each requires its proper nutriments. The body is kept trim by food and exercise, the mind is informed by science and criticism, and the spirit is illumined by art and literature, philosophy and religion.” In a way, for the proper and creative moulding of the human society, the role
87. Reg-Veda (x-191). 88. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, The present Crisis of Faith (1987) p. 15. 89. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East & West in Religion (1933) p. 45

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and need for religion is in no way, less important than science. We have already seen that religion is not a heap of doctrines and myths or rites and cults. “Religion is not mere intellectual conformity or ceremonial piety, it is spiritual adventure. It is not theology but practice.'*90 “religion is a life to be lived, not a theory to be accepted or a belief to be adhered to "!! Man is always eager to see that every aspect of his personality, his existence and his character, is raised to its highest extent. For this what is needed is a 'change of consciousness'.
a rebornness', 'an inner evolution'. This is all possible through religion which is a fulfilment of man's life. “All religions train us to accept life as an opportunity for self realisation : ātmanastu kāmāya".
The modern world, with all its progress and unity, ultimately necds a new cultural basis, While discussing this issue Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says that the modern world cannot be guided by the economic and the pragmatistic mindian It requires the spiritual one. He says, “Religion is the inside of a civilization, the soul as it were of the body of its social organisation. Scientific application, economic alliance, political institutions may bring the world together outwardly : but for a strong and stable unity the invisible but deeper bonds of ideas and ideals to be strengthened."92 Religion in this sense will be the binding force which will deepen the solidarity of human society.''43We cannot think of any activity, any practice devoid of tolerance and humbleness. All great religions preach respect for other ways of life. “It (religion) induces in us not an attitude of mere tolerance which implies conscious superiority, not patronizing pity, not condescending charity, but genuine respect and appreciation.'*94
The most significant role of religion is its spiritual education of the race and the culture of an individual's heart. So long as we need the race to be spiritual and not materialistic, an acute need to widen the narrowness of our horizons, a way out from the paradoxes and perplexities of life, we need Religion. “Religion is not only life transcending but also life transforming. 95 What could be there in the service of the suffering humanity but a true religion and its true worship.
90. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Religions (1947) p. II 91. Ibid p. 24 92. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion (1933) p. 45 93. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Religions (1947) p. 15 94. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion (1933) p. 32 95. Ibid p. 69

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism (7) Conclusion
Religion, from some of the prominent point of views, comes before us as a movement, a growth. It has sources of its strength and the springs of its vitality. All religions, if we adopt neutrality in our approach, come to us with varieties. But then the differenes are only outward. Behind them all we see a clear stream of units, and purpose. Behind religions there is Religion. This religion or that religion is not the point. What matters is, in words of Max Muller, ....... there is a divine element in every one of the greatest religions of the world. 396 It is religion by which we 'cleanse our thoughts, purify our emotions and let the seeds of spirit grow.' Of course, to have all about what religion is, would be more like an encyclopaedia than a few pages and strạy thoughts. “Religion has been defined in many and conflicting fashions, but one description of it embodies what is certainly a feature that is practically universal in all the various modes of its expression. It has been described as the highest forın of man's consciousness of himself in his relation to all other things and beings.' 1197 2.3.2 GOD
According to some philosophers of religions the concepts regarding God or Deity are considered to be the presiding ov
concepts and are therefore of great importance. Basically there are two questions : One, the term God, its definition or meaning its existence : and the second is the significance of the term God. However, to some the significance of the term God is the primary question. Let us discuss both to grasp the nature of God. (1) Conception
The meaning of the term God may very much differ from individual to individual, It even differs from religion to religion or from culture to culture or from time to time. To some God denotes a Supreme Being, to others Nature, Universal principle, Universal Self, Moral Law or Absolute. If people are asked to define God everybody's God would be the value, thought or object he considers to be the most precious one. God will be either a Father or Supreme Creator or Personal Deity in whom everyone responses his faith and confidence. But even then in philosophy of religion we come across certain concepts which
and
96. The Life and Letters of F. Max Muller, Vol.ii p. 464 97. N. Macnicol, Indian Theism, (1968) p. 8.

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have become quite dominant. These concepts are concepts of God in Polytheism, Henotheism. Pantheism, Deistic Supernaturalism, Humanism and so on. Let us have a brief account of the conception of God in these different theistic schools.
(a) Polytheisus
It is a belief in many Gods. There is a Plurality of Gods, and a God is defined as any one among a group of deites, each representing a unique personal value. Thus, there are gods of love, war, fertility and so on. One who believes in a single system of moral law or in unity redicules Polytheism. Anyway, we just take an account to know the conception of God without entering into a critical discussion of its merits and demerits as it is not needed here. (1) Henotheism
The term “Henotheism has been coined by Max Muller and it refers to the belief in one God, yet not excluding the other gods. It depicts "God as personified national spirit, a national God."98 Such was the role of ‘Zeus' among the Greeks and that Jahwe among the Israelites. (c) Pantheism
It means all that exists is God. This means that only God exists. It has different forms the most common emphasizes the totality of reality. The western scholars and Philosophers of religion consider the concept of Hindu God as Pantheistic. Of course this is a very controversial point. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee in his 'The Fundamentals of Hinduism' writes that "the Hindu conception of God is monistic, but not pantheistic". "We should call Hindu theory of God Panentheism, rather than Pantheism."*99 (d) Monotheism
There are many religions based on Monotheism having a central belief that there exists one and only one God. He is the supreme personal creator, the exclusive and universal creator, of all things. The philosophers of religion, in the historical perspective, believe this idea of one God to have been evolved from Polytheism through Henotheism.
98. W. S. Sahakian & M.L. Sahakian, Ideas of the great Philosophers (1966) p. 87. 99. Prof. S.C. Chatterjee, The Fundamentals of Hinduism, (1970) p. 33-34.

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism (e) Theism
Theism, from its emphasis upon the personal nature of God differs from that of Monotheism. It conceives of a God as a “Conscious mind immanent in physical nature, man, and values of which he is either the source or creator. "100 “Panthcists identify God with nature for them nature includes God, where as Theist regard God's being as distinct from and independent of nature."10? (1) Deism
Here we find the acceptance of one God of Monotheism as well as the emphasis of Theism upon a personal God who is the creator of the universe, and is outside the world which he has created. Thus for Deists, God having created the world, "divorsed himself from, the world and merely contemplates it from beyond as a disinterested bystander, or absentee' deity, who neither heeds prayer nor choose to perform miracles."!62 Deists' God is the antithesis of the Pantheist deity (8) Deistic Supernaturalism
Here God is viewed as transcendent, external to the world he created and yet super human and supernatural revealer of values This belief goes with the name of Soren Kierkegaard, the father of Existentialism and Neo-Orthodoxy.
(h) Humanism
Humanism regards “God as man's highest aspirations, reflecting man's persuit of ideal values and embodying the sum of humanity: **:413, He is known as the 'Grand Being' (le Grande Etre) as Comte called him. We should here take note of Ludwiug Feuerbach, who was also a leading Humanist, reducing objective existence of God to Man's mindian In 'The Essence of Christianity' he wrote " Man has his highest being, his God in himself.” “God is man, man is God."} (i) Panentheism
It differs from both Deism, in the sense that God is not only transcendent here, and from Pantheism, in the sense that God does not identify with nature. Here the concept of God is that he is "'immanently
100. Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas of the great Philosophers (1966), p. 89 101. Ibid., p. 89 1 02 Ibid., p. 89 103. Ibid., p. 90 104. Ibid., p. 91

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interpenetrating all nature, yet distinct from it."
In addition to the above mentioned conceptions, there are many minor ones. One can consider Animism, Pansychism. etc. These conceptions are unsystematic as well as obscure and not required to be discussed here. But then whatever the different conceptions of God in
theistic systems we have seen. what becomes noteworthy is the fact that the Nature of God is a problem for both philosophy and religion. Philosophy wants the rational knowledge of God and religion wants the realisation or direct experience of God. “In the one we seek to arrive at an intellectual understanding of God's nature, in the other we strive to attain an immediate experience of His existence and nature. In religion man wants to have a beautific vision of God, while in philosophy he tries to form a rational idea or consistent conception of God's existence, nature and attributes."IUS
In Hindu religion God is the Supreme Person (Purusottama). In the famous Puuşa Sūkta of the Rg-Veda we are told that the Supreme person is all that is, all that was and all that will be, and that He pervades the whole world by quarter of His being, while three fourths of Him stand over as immortal in the sky."106 It is also said that, “All this-in the past, present and future is the Supreme Person."?|07 God is thus both transcendent and immanent throughout the Upanisads. Moreover, God, as viewed in Hindu religion, “is the Moral Governor of the world of living beings and He is the impartial dispenser of the fruits of their deeds (karma-phalapradātā) and He is the Supreme arbiter of their joys and sorrows."'!$ According to B.G., “God also comes down to the world and incarnates Himself to set the world right when the forces of evil threaten to disrupt and destroy the eternal religion of the world. God overpowers, and reestablishes the religious order of the world."109 Further, “God in His transcendent nature is the absolute existence, consciousness, bliss (Sat-Cit-Anand) and is one without a second."'ilAs to the Svarūpa lakshana of Brahman, the Upanişads say that "He is truth, knowledge and joy."UT
105. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee, Fundamentals of Hinduism, (1970) p. 12. 106. Cf. Rg-Veda, 10. 90. 2-3 107. Cf. Svetāśvataraa Upanişads, 3.15 108. CF. Nyāya - Satra and Bhãşya, 4.1-21 109. Bhagavad Gita, 4. 7-8 110. Vide Sarkara's Comentary on Brahma-Satra 2.1, 14.20 & Chändogya
Upanisad 6.2 1-2 111. Tai. Upanişad, 2-1

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism (2) Two Forms of the Supreme Reality
The Supreme is conceived in a twofold way (dvirupam hi brahmävaganyate). “There are two forms of Reality : Nirguna and Saguna, Qualities and Qualified."*"12 In the Mahopanisad “Brahman is described as void as trivial as unmanifested unseen, inconceivable and qualityless." St. Augustine defined the Absolute in negative terms.
God is not even to be called ineffable, for to say this is to make assertion about him. The Real is an unconditional transcendent and can be grasped by a language without symbols."113
Any organized religion cannot ignore the common man with a faith in the existence of God as described in the religious system. It also suggests the path or the Mārga by which one can reach the supreme. After all God, the supreme Reality, is above all the religious systemis. It will be almost beyond the general competence of reason, for the common man, to grasp Reality in its qualityless, 'nirguna' form as void. The popular religion consists in the worship of a personal God, through prayer, devotion and dedication. Metaphysical idealism concerning the Absolute has to be transformed into a theistic religion, providing room for love, faith, prayer and devotion. So long as we do not have the vision of the Absolute, we have to work on the side of the emphirical world. A personal God-Qualified Reality or let lis say saguņa īśwar is a must, for, without that worship is not possible." Devotion to the supreme is possible. only with a personal God, a concrete individual tull of bliss and beauty.?! (3) God's Relation to Soul & World
God and Soul
The relationship between God and Soul, or as Hinduism says between Ātmã and Paramātmā, or as Jainism would say between Jiwātmā and Parmätma is a very distinct one. R.B. Lal in his famous work Religion" in the light of Reason and Science" explaining this relationship says"' One fruitful view of the relationship between God and man (soul and body) regards them as partners in the business of maintaining and developing the world order not only in prayer and
112. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, The Present Crisis of Faith, (1987), p. 37 113. Ibid., 37-38. 114. Dr. S. Radhakrisnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, (1977) p. 559

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meditation but also in rough work essential for life."'!15 The relationship can very aptly be understood by interpreting the scene at the begining of the Bhagavat-Gitā and its two main characters. The scene consists of Lord Krisna (God) driving the war-chariot and Arjuna (soul) seated in it with bow and arrows, ready to fight. Both have a common mission, to destroy or to kill the evil, and for that both have a clear understanding which reflect each others relationship." The arrangement between them was that Arjuna would do all the fighting, while Śri Krişna would drive his chariot but would not take up arms at all during the course of war. This is very briefly the true nature of the partnership (relationship) between God and Man"]16 The symbolism of this scene if translated it would mean that God is always there to guide and inspire the soul, but then efforts, it may be a fight or struggling, will have to be done by the Soul. Moreover, we also find here that on one side Soul has freedom of the will to act and on other side the complete control over the chariot, in which Arjuna (soul) is and which symbolizes the Life, is in the hands of God.
Referring the same symbolic companionship of God and soul, Sri Aurobindo in his 'Essays on Gitā' says that both Arjuna and Krisna stand together as human and divine, in the chariot of battle.
In his book" The Real Enjoyment of Living "H. J. Schachtel says, “To me one of the most rewarding concepts in the teaching of Judaism is the description of man as God's partner in working out our world's salvation.” We may call this relationship the supreme partnership between God and soul working towards the thrilling goal of life. The relationship between God and soul is, in brief, that of partners or colabourers.
But then this relationship in some theistic religions is that of a master (God) and servant (Soul). As a result of this, automatically, the essence of such religion is seen in servant's (Soul's) loyalty, fidality, obedience in carrying out master's (God's) order or message. God is conceived here as a master who rewards or punishes his servants as per their work. But then this relationship, we find, superbly modified by Jesus Christ.
115. R. B. Lal, Religion in the Light of Reason and Science, (1978) p. 76 116.. Ibid., p. 76

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism
37
In Christianity, God is not the master but the father, and we all are his sons and daughters. There is one supreme God, wrote maximum of Madaura to Augustine about A.D.390, "Without natural offspiring, who is, as it were, the God and Mighty Father of all."'
The relationship between God and soul, often is interpreted by the theistic philosophers of religion as that of a creator and creation. One more type of relationship we come across in Sufism. A Sufi mystic Dheil Nun of Egypt being quoted by G. Parinder in his book "Mysticism in the world's Religions", says ".....not only love but passionate longing as the means of journey to God..... and love as the gift of divine grace....18 The relationship between God and the soul in Sufism is that of a beloved (God) and the lover (Soul). “The groaning and the yearning of the lover of God will not be satisfied until it is satisfied in the beloved." This theme of love continued by many Sufis amongst whom we may note Junayd and his pupil Hallaj as well as famous Persian mystic and philosopher Omar and Ghazali. Hallaj stressed the love of God and expressed in one of his most famous verses :
writes :
"I have become He whom I Love, and He has become in myself, We are two spirits in one body,
When you see me, you see Him."
Another well-known Sufi poet expresses this relationship and
"I have not studied the book of knowledge,
Nor have I studied even the alphabets,
I have only studied the name of,
My beloved in the school of love." 120
117. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, East and West in Religion, (1933), p. 31.
118. Geoffrey Parinder, 'Mysticism in the World's Religions' (1976), pp. 131-132. 119 N. Smith, Rabiya the Mystic.' (1928), p 98..
120.
पढ़े न इल्मकी पोथी, अलिफ़ बे पे हम न सीखे ।
हम तो मकतबे उल्फ़तमें नामे सनम सीखे ॥

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Here God has been addressed as 'Sanam which means beloved.
The relationship between God and soul through erotic longing or love is also seen in 'Prema Lakṣaṇa' Bhakti of Hindu religion where God is the only male and all the souls, like a lady lover (Priyatama) crave for Him. As Mira, a famous Hindu lady mystic and poet expresses in one of her verses
"O ! Mohan (Lord Krisna).
I have been very much enchanted
by your lovely complexion.
Ever since I have witnessed your beauty
The world has lost all attraction for me. 121
The Upanisads describe Brahman (God) as "That (being) from which all beings (souls) are born by which they live and into which they finally merge."
122
In the final summing up, about the relationship between God and soul we find whatever the relationship described and whatever the symbols used but it is between the supreme and the spirit or between the perfect and imperfect between pure and impure. Moreover, we find the supreme or the pure (God) divine in his love and mercy upon the impure and imperfect, souls. We also find each soul as part of the spirit, a drop of the ocean, miniature, (Vibhu) form of the sublime (Virāt).
God and World
The world or the universe or as we say 'Jagat' also indicates its relationship with God. In the philosophical perspective the problem of the world raises two questions: (i) Whether the world or the universe is created or is there since the beginningless of time and (ii) Whether the world is real or illusion?
The nature of God's relationship to world depend solely upon the answers one arrives at on the above questions. If the universe is
121.
122.
मुखडानी माया लागी रे, मोहन तारा,
मुखडुं में जोयुं तारुं, सर्व जग तो थयुं खारुं ।
Taitreya Upanisad 3-1.

-
मीरां

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Theism, Atheism and Jainism
39 created and is not 'Anādi' God alone can create it. Thus we find God the creator and universe His creation. God here appears as a great creator, great designer or architeet. Some theistic schools believe God simply to be the creator and after having created the universe it runs on its natural laws without God's interference. While to other God has created the universe, He is in it and beyond it. He maintains it and if necd he he will destory it. God, thus, is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe.
But then there is substantial discussion running into volumes whether the universe is real or a dream. Philosophers like Sankara and Plato and some idealists believe the world to be illusory. In Indian philosophy Śāņkara Vedānta is also of the same belief. To them all world is just a dream, an illusion and not Real. Plato calls it an imitation of the real. Vedānta asserts the falsity of the world and considers nescience or Avidyā as the cause of the illusion.
But to a great majority the world is real, and to the theists among them it is the creation of God. Sometimes we find God being understood from his two forms: God as Purusa and God as Prakriti. Both personal God or supreme self and Prakriti or the universe are the two aspects of divinity. Thus, here, the world appears as God's creation just as the soul. It is governed by the laws as set and arranged by the supreme. The universe, comes to us as a master system, a great device or a mysterious mechanism, provided by the God to his souls. (4) God and Human Freedom
In the realm of philosophic world in general, and amongst the philosophers of ethics and religion in particular it has become a very debatable issue concerning the freedom of the human will and moral responsibility of man in relation to "the support of a being so powerful as the directing force in the purposive development of the universe." However, it is neither the intention nor required here to go into a full length of the discussion of the issue, we may, however, take note of the main points of view without any assertion, critical or logical, on it.
Traditional theism asserts that God created man. God is transcendent and immanent. God is omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent." Here man's will is free so that he is morally responsible for what he does.24 Moreover the conception of the nature of God 123 Taitreya Upanişad, p. 402

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can "best accord with” the human freedom as appears to be in our experience as interpreted by ethics, psychology and natural science."**After a long discussion on determinism and indeterminism, as well as on indeterminism and God, W.K." Wright in his famous book ‘A student's Philosophy of Religion' concludes by writing that, “whatever theories may be favored regarding determinism and indeterminism, there can be no doubt that there is a very real and practical sense in which human freedom has actually been advancing with the progress of civilization. This is 'frecdom of opportunity."?! 25 “A life of religious devotion and communion with God will aid an individual in such efforts.'*126 2.3.3 JAINISM (1) Introduction
We have sufficiently discussed ‘religion as well as 'God'. We saw different theistic approaches regarding their interpretation of the meaning and nature of God. Now we will see Jainism, of course in general, with this reference. We have earlier examined Jainism with reference to God and the entire chapter 3,4, and 5 of this work discuss the Jain logic, Jain ethics and Jain philosophy of soul, in full details. Let us just go through a brief summary of Jain religion, in general. (2) Origin & Antiquity
"Jainism" is the religion as well as one of the nine main systems of the Indian philosophy. It is the religion of jains, a path practiced and preached by 'Jinas' which means the conquerors of self. “It is an important, fully developed and well established religious and cultural system."127
Jainsm, now no longer is considered as one founded by Lord Mahāvira. Its antiquity, as told to us by the Western as well as Indian Scholars, goes back to pre-Aryan and may be even pre-Vedic period. Given below are some of the views throwing light upon the antiquity of Jainism,. Dr. Harmann Jacobi says : “In conclusion let me assert my conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent from all others; and that therefore it is of great importance for the study of philosophical" thought and religious life in ancient
124. Taitreya Upanisad, p. 404 125. Ibid., p. 421 126. Ibid., p. 428 127. Ds. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 1.

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41 India.''} 28 Major General J.G.R. Forlong observes that, “Lofty ideas and high aescetic practice are found in jainism. It is impossible to know the beginning of Jainism."*134 He also wrote, “Instead of Jainism being as was formerly supposed an offshoot of Buddhism, it is shown to extend as far back as 3000 B.C. It is found flourishing alongside the nature worship of the rude tribes in Northern India.''130 Amongst the Indian scholars Dr. S.Rahdhakrishnan said, “There is nothing wonderful in my saying Jainism was in existence long before the Vedās were composed."*}31 Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak writes,” We learn from Šāstras and commentaries the Jainism is existing from beginningless time. This fact is indisputable and free from, difference of opinion. There is much historical evidence on this point.''!32 The late Sri Kumarswami Sāstri, chief justice of the madras High Court, asserts that, “The beginning of Jainism and its history are much older than the Smruti Sāstras and thair commentaries. Jainism is completely different from Hinduism and independent of it.'*133 Justice Ranglekar of Bombay High Court says, “From modern historical research we come to know that long before Brahmanism developed into Hindu Dharma, Jainism was prevalent in this country."*}34 Swami Rammisraji Shastri, Professor, Sanskrit College, Banaras says, “We are reminded of the antiquity of Jainism when we study the things obtained from the excavation at Mohan-Jo-Dero ancient inscriptions, caves and many ancient ruins..... Jainism began when this world began. I am of the opinion that Jainism is much older than the Vedic Darsana." Dus
The above mentioned are some of the views by the great scholars of the West and East. Moreover the reference in Yajur Veda (ch. 19 Mantra 14) or in Yoga vāsistha (ch. 15, verse 8) and a lot of other evidences discussed and presented by Dr. J.P. Jain in his highly scholarly book, “Jainism the oldest Living Religion' tell us of a clear fact that Jainism is very old and certainly not an offshoot of any religion or in revolt to any religion: It is an independent system, "a complete system with all the necessary branches such as dogma or
128. Harisatya Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1957), p. -(ix). 129. Harisatya Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1957), p. (x) 130. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and culture of Jains (1977) p. 2. 131. H.S. Bhattacharya, The Philosophy of the Jains (1958) p. (xiv) 132. Ibid., p. (xii)
133. Ibid., p. (xii) 134. Ibid., p. (xii)
135. Ibid., p. (xiii)

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Theism
ontology, metaphysics, philosophy, epistemology. mythology, ethics, ritual and the rest..."*1.36
According to the belief of the orthodox Jains, the Jain religion is eternal and it has been revealed again and again in every one of the endless succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthankaras.'1,37 (3) Jaina Darshan
In order to lead the reader to have a proper grasp about what Jainism is and to understand it in a theistic perspective, which is the aim of the work, let us have a glance of it in a broader outlook. Ot course, we are going to deal with its logic, its ethics and its philosophy of soul in a greater details. I have simply made to be incorporated in the succeeding chapters.
Jainism does not believe in a personal God as traditionally the popular Hinduism believes, It does not believe God to be creator of the universe as well as to be the moral dispenser of Karma, Jainism considers the universe to be from the beginningless of time or Anādi. The world is real and is eternal. without beginning or end. What Jain metaphysics mainly discusses are the following topics : (i) Soul & Non-Soul. (ii) Substance and Attributes (iii) The Karmas or Actions (iv) The Seven Principles (Tattvas) (v) The Nine Padathas. (Categories). And (vi) Stages in the Evolution of the Soul.
(i) Soul & Non-Soul
Jainism discusses two great categories : soul, Jiva; and nonsoul, Ajiva. “The whole universe falls under this division, which is logically perfect, it is division by dichotomy.”].38 The souls are further divided as Sthāvar (immobile) and Trasa (mobile). The mobile souls differ from those that are immobile mainly in the sense that one can move at its own will, while the other can not. It discusses nine qualities of the soul out of which the chief one is consciousness or Chetanā. Soul in its pure form has limitless powers. The whole universe is its scope.
(ii) Substance and Attributes Substance, technically called Satta has three states : Utpāda
136. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 2. 137. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1975) p. 169. 138. J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism (1979), p. 7.

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43 (origination), Vyaya (perishing) and Dhrauvya (continuance). The first two relate to Paryāya (modification). In Jainism soul is a substance, it has Sattā and it cxists with soul-ness. Jain metaphysics discusses six substances, namely, 'The soul, matter, Dharma, Adharma, space and time; into a great detailed classification.
(iii) The Karmas or Actions
Amongst all the systems of Indian philosophy. Jainism is known for its detailed Karmavāda-the science of Karma. In Jainism soul is living, matter is not. Matter is without consciousness. “The connection of soul and matter is material, and it is effected by soul's activity. The bondage is called “Karma... It is material forming a subtle bond of extremely refined Karmic matter which keeps the soul from flying up to its natural abode of full knowledge and everlasting peace.”'\.39
The Karmas are also further divided into Ghātiya (destructive) and Aghātiya (nondestructive) Karmas. Each one is again having four kinds. Thus we have eight kinds of Karmas. The philosophy of Karma becomes more important because it is the basis of the doctrine of reincarnation or transmigration of souls. It is the Karma that brings bondages to the soul. Till the bondage is there the soul is embodied and there is birth and rebirth and so the suffering. The Karmavāda or the science of Karma, of Jainism shows the method of falling away of Karmic matter. Soul in its pure state is the soul without Karmic matter and such a soul is a liberated one.
(iv) The Seven Principles (Tattvas)
The principles of Jainism are seven : Jiva (soul), Ajiva (nonsoul); Asrava (in-flow of Karma); Bandha (bondage); Sanvara (check) Nirjara (falling off); and Moksa (liberation). These principles help us to understand the process of Karma-bandhan (Bondage) and Karma-ksaya (Release).
(v) The Nine Padarthas. (Categories)
The above seven principles together with Punya (merit or virtue) and Pāpa (demerit or vice) are the nine Padārthas. Punya is good deeds, the meritorious kind of Karma such as love, devotion, piety, charity, ctc. Papa or vices is the sinful deeds of man. It includes
139. J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism
(1979), p. 26

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violence, negligence, killing, hunting, stealing, etc. The pain caused to others by mind, by words or by action is Papa. Both Punya and Papa are material and cause the necessary effect but "both are the means of bondage; therefore they are one, and are certainly by themselves the cause of bondage."*140
(vi) Stages in the Evolution of the Soul_
The philosophy of soul in Jainism has been in detailed discussed in the chapter No.5. However, we take note that the embodied soul, according to Jainism is a soul in bondage; a soul having Karmic matter on it, an impure soul. Soul in its pure form is full of infinite powers. Soul essentially is all powerful, all knowledge, all wisdom and all bliss. In Jainism there are fourteen stages or Guna-Sthanas. These are the stages through which the soul progresses from No.1 to 14 or from most impurified state to complete purified or liberated state.
The way to progress or to purify the soul is "the three jewels : (1) Samyag Darśana (right conviction) (2) Samyag Jñāna (right knowledge) and (3) Samyag Caritra (right conduct)"
-
Jainism has its epistemology, its logic as well as its ethics. Since these sections are elaborately discussed and sufficient chapters are allotted to them, it is just a mention here that Jain philosophy becomes all the more rich in its theory of knowledge and ethics. Basically, like most of the Indian religions, it has 'Realism' in the approach and 'Ahimsa' in the dealings. It will not be wrong to observe that the whole of Jainism is found mainly to rest on its rich theology. sound philosophy and concrete ethics.
(4) Jain Religion and Culture
Religion does not consist so much in dogmas, theories and meanings. It is, as Dr. S. Radhakrishanan says, 'the inside of a civilization', 'the soul of social organization'. It is not only life transcending but life transforming. Jain religion consists of its own worship, rituals and festivals. The Jina the conqueror or the Tirthankara is the object of worship, and to him every Jain goes to seek the inspiration. The Jain worship and rituals have a popular appeal and "it
140. Amritachandra Sari, Samaya Sara Kalasa, IV, 1-3 in J.L.Jaini's book Outline of Jainism (1979) p. 102
141. T.S.I-1

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45
is through these religious rites and ceremonies that religious fervor, individual, social and communal, finds cloquent expression." 142 Moreover, worship, in Jainism means Dharma-Dhyana, 'the auspicious contemplation'. It also means an act of selfless devotion done with joy and due humility."143
The objects of worship in Jain religion are the 'five worshipful ones' (Panca Parameṣṭhin); the Arhantas, the Siddhas, the Acārys, the Upadhyayas and the Sadhus. The nature of the worship is the salutation or obeisance and homage paid to these great souls.
Purely from this research work point of view, what becomes of utmost importance is to note Jainism's philosophy of soul which itself in its pure form is God, The root of theism or we may say the hidden theism of Jainism lies in the Godhood of soul. A pure soul, a soul in perfection, a liberated soul, or a soul with all the infinite powers and knowledge and bliss becomes the object of worship. Jainism has freedom of the will and immortality of soul and in Tirthankaras: the perfected souls we find God. Thus all the three postulates to become a system a religion, according to I. Kant, we find in Jainism.
(5) A Critical Estimate
As Jain religion is an unique independent system so is Jain culture. In the words of the late Dr. Rajendra Prasad. the first president of free India," Jainism has contributed to the world the sublime doctrine of Ahimsa, No other religion has emphasised the importance of Ahimsă and carried its practice to the extent Jainism has done."'144
Prof. A.L. Basham says, "Of all the religious groups of India, Jainism has always been the most fervent supporter of nonviolence (Ahimsa) and undoubtedly the influence of Jainism in the spread of that doctrine throughout India has been considerable.''145
"In this conception lies the secret of the success which Jainism has achieved in moulding the lives of countless people to a higher plane of mental discipline, purity of thought, and spiritual evolution. It is a way of life which is fully capable of raising an ordinary individual to the highest height of spiritual realisation."146 It has proved to be
142. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jain (1977), p. 105 143. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jain (1977), p. 105. 144. Ibid., p. 169-170. 145. Ibid., p. 170
146 Ibid p.170

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Theism
quite successful and quite a practical one to help a person in day-today affairs of life. It is a living faith, a living religion “that has preserved in a large measure the originality and integrity of its system." To sum up, in the words of the late J.L. Jaini, an erudite thinker, “I am convinced that in its spirit and cssential doctrines Jainism has that in it which satisfies the deepest and the most varied wants - mental and spiritual of the men and women of our age.")+7 2.3.4 Conclusion
It will be well to summarize briefiy the outcome of the points and issues we have seen in this section under religion, God and Jainism, Religion as we have seen, projects before us a wider perspective. It does not become limited to only rites and rituals. The core of it lies in its worship which again is a way of life leading the devotee to the fulfilment of the highest goals of life. God, in the same sense, becomes much more than what an orthodox theologians would explain. In its highest philosophic expression God is soul (man) and soul is God. Soul in its pure form is divine and possesses all the infinite, limitless powers which we are told to be otherwise God's attributes. Jainism provides a very good example of a system that has the deepest magnitudeness of a religion and highest value of God in human soul. If we could develop this theme, which I have tried in the succeeding chapters, we evolve theism in Jainism : may be this theism might appear as a 'modified one', one as Dr. S. N. Dasgupta says, as a 'hidden' one as the Jain scholars say or even 'Cripto theism'. But then certainly Jainism appears to us as anything but atheism.
147. J.L Jaini, Outline of Jainism (1979) Preface p. xiv.

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CHAPTER - 3
JAIN LOGIC 3.1 WARRENT OF JAIN LOGIC 3.1.1 Introduction
Logic, as understood by us all, in its most popular term, broadly means the study of the structure and principles of reasoning or of sound argument. In West, it refers to the above meaning, as well as to certain other meanings all related to different meaning of 'logos' a Greek word. An equivalent to logic in Indian philosophy is Nyāya' or “Pramāņa-Mimāmsā' both in meaning and scope much wider than what it stands in the Western sense.
Logic, as one of the branches of philosophy, enjoys a very important status. But then, as we all know, the 'togetherness of philosophy and religion is a peculiar characteristic of Indian philosophy logic becomes of prime importance, in Indian philosophy, to both philosophy and religion. The knowledge of logic is a must for one who wants to understand the religion and its philosophy.
Moreover, all the systems of Indian philosophy, except Carvaka, believe in the concept of Moksa or liberation. “It has been held by all the systems that no liberation is possible without knowledge"? Thus the theory of knowledge, which includes its conception, sources and classification, becomes an independent branch of philosophy or a Sastra or a Mimānsā. Some scholars consider 'logic' a part of epistemology also. Whatever the case be but its importance and history both are since ancient period.
What is most remarkable to note about logic in Indian philosophy, and also true for Jain logic, is that unlike the West it is "not only as the lump of ali sciences but also helpful to practical affairs and the sustaining principles of Dharma. It is this faith of the Indian mind that logic, when divorced from life becomes barren and useless. After all, logic is not an end in intselt but a means for this ideal life.''?
With reference to Jainism the Jain logic is warranted for a 1. Rute Jõānan Mukti. Rg-Veda. 2. Ramji Singh, The Jain Cencept of Omniscience p-137

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special reason. The real and deep understanding of Jain philosophy of non-absolutism, the theory of manyfoldness and Nayavāda (standpoint) would mean unfolding the fact that in number of ways Jainism is not atheism but theistic in its implication and presuppositions. It is here, to understand Jainism and its doctrine that Jain logic is warranted. It being sound and scientific, leads to such conclusions that bring us right into the inner core of Jainism which is highly ethical, highly religious and therefore highly theistic in color. 3.1.2 Jain Logic & Logicians
History of Jain logic and Jain epistemology goes as back as its canonical literature. We find the doctrines and the discussions as well as reasoning on the doctrines even in the philosophical works by Umāsvāti and Kundakundācharya. But then, logic, in its proper form, becomes evident with Siddhasena Divākar's Nyāyāvatāra and SanmatiTark. Dr. A.N. Upadhye, in his ‘Introduction to Siddhsena's Nyāyāvatāra and other works' says, “The Nyäyāvatāra, as far as we know, is the earliest manual on logic composed for the benefit and training of the Jain authors who till its time studied Nyāya possibly from other sources available to them.''3 Siddhasena Diwakar has been accepted as the first Jain writer on pure logic' who belonged to the Svetāmbara sect as mentioned by Pradyumansuri. This has been supported by scholars, like R.G. Bhandarkar, P. Peterson, S.C. Vidyabhushan, Jinavijay, H. Jacobi, P.L. Vaidya, Pt. Sukhlalji, and others, Thus with 'Nyāyāvātāra' and 'Sanmati-Tark' by Siddhasena Diwākara, we find an inauguration of Jain logic in its most formal and systematic exposition of the doctrines. Dr. A.N. Upadhye has discussed in a full length all about Jain logic, as well as about Siddhasena and his time in his most illustrious work “Nyāyāvatāra" and other works." With regards to time he concludes that the date of Siddhasena, earlier was assigned as between the 1st and 7th century, which, after Pt. D.M. Malvania's Survey of Jain Darshan was accepted as not later than 5th century." The history of Jain logic is the history of eminent Jain logicians from Siddhasena to Yashovijayaji. Of course, Umāsvāti and Kundakunda hold a high place but were earlier than Siddhasena. To Pt. Malvania and some others “Kundakunda cannot be put earlier than 5th Century." Without entering much into the history and dates, let us simply mention some of the noteworthy Jain logicians from Siddhasena to Yashovijayaji. They are Mallavadi,
3. A.N. Upadhye : 'Siddhasena's Nyāyāvatāra and other Works (1971) p. xxiii

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Jain Logic Haribhadra, Akalanka, Virasena, Vidyānandi, Vādi Devsuri, Hemachandrācārya, and Yashovijayaji. This is the period between 5th and 16th century. 3.1.3 Aims and Subject matter of Jain Logic
Neither I wish nor it is the aim of this work to give and discuss a detailed account of the Jain logicians, their works and the critical estimate of them all, I wish a short picture of the logical background of Jain philosophy, that is being attempted, should enable the reader to understand Jain logic in its true perspective.
Though there is' 'love for his faith and zeal for its aggrandizement' behind every author's work, we also find some other aims behind the Jain logicians. With reference to Diwākar in the words of Dr. A.N.Upadhye : "to provoke thoughtfullness and develop understanding on the strength of logic in one's Sampradāya" and "to secure respectibility for the basic principles of Jainism among the learned of the non-Jain schools” were the aims of the early Jain logicians. Moreover, the Jain scholars had emphatically accepted that in order to have a thorough understanding of the noble and profound principles of Mahāvira, it is inevitable, that one is prepared for “diving deep into the meaning of the Sastras intelligently and logically." Besides, it also requires to be noted that a Jain logician hits hard at the vanity of pretended and vocal scholarship. “His challenge to blind faith and inherited orthodoxy full of inconsistency” is a hidden aim behind his creation. But then to sum up we can say that the chief aim is to understand the scriptures and the doctrine which again is not possible without the correct knowledge of Pramāṇas and Nayas, To Jains, “universal is a fact which can be understood by logical thought alone."
The subject matter of Jain logic includes all such topics as are resulting from the Jain theory of knowledge and reality. Apart from the Pramāṇas as sources for knowledge the ‘Nayavāda' and Saptabhangivāda' the 'Dravyāstika' and 'Paryāyastika' views, the enumeration and classification of Naya, the Jñeya, are some of the quite interesting topics included in Jain logic.. 3.1.4 Jain Theory of Knowledge
According to Jainism knowledge is one of the attributes of
4. A.N. Upadhye : Siddhasena's Nyåyåvatåra and other Works (1971) p. 20 5. Satkari Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. -of Non Absolutism (1978) p. xiv

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soul. The cognition is to the soul. Jainism maintains that our knowledge of things and of their relations starts from experience and reason can at best serve to organise it. In other words the fundamental source of knowledge is "direct acquaintance furnished by observation.''
"The Jains admit five kinds of knowledges Mati, Śruti, Avadhi, Manahparyaya and Kevala"? (1) “Mati is ordinary cognition, obtained by normal means of sense
perception.... (2) Śruti or testimony is knowledge derived through signs, symbols
or words... Avadhi is direct knowledge of things, even at a distance of time
or space. (4) Manaḥarpyāya is direct knowledge of the thoughts of others, as
in telepathic knowledge of others' minds. Keval or perfect knowledge comprehends all substances and their modifications,'?
The five kinds of knowledge, Jainas classify into 'Parokşa' i.e. mediate and 'Aparoksa' i.e. immediate. The mediate knowledge is further classified into Mati and Sruti and immediate knowledge into Avadhi, Manahparyāya and kevala.
Mati, includes remembrance (memory), recognition, induction based on observation and deductive reasoning. There are three kinds of Matijñāna viz' Upalabdhi' or perception, Bhāvanā' or memory, and Upayoga' or understanding."9 Matijñāna is knowledge by means of the senses and mind.
"Srutajñāna" is of four kinds : viz Labdhi or association, Bhāvanā or attention, Upayoga or understanding and Naya or aspects of the meanings of things”)0
About Kevalajñāna' Dr. Radhakrishnan writes : "It is omniscience unlimited by space, time or object. To the perfect consciousness the whole reality is obvious, This knowledge, which is independent of the senses, which can only be felt and not described, is possible only for the purified souls free from bondage.""!!
6. Satkari Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of Non Absolutism (1978) p. 1 7. T.S. 1.9, Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vol. I-(1977) p. 293. 8. Dr. Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vo. I. (1977) p. 294, 295,
Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha Satras. 1. 29. 30. 9. Panchăstikaya Samayasāra- 42 10. Ibid., p. 43 11. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) IP. 295

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According to Jain theory of knowledge, "the laws (laws of thought) can be true and valid only if they are laws of reality..." The problem of truth is a logical problem and must be determined with logical means. "The criterion of falsity is contradiction."]2 The subjective experiences in a dream, when we wake up, are rejected by us as false because they are contradicted by our waking experiences." "The problem of falsity is thus ultimately a question of experience. The problem of truth is no less a matter of experience and a priori logic is absolutely incompetent to deal with it'3. Unlike the other realist systems of Indian philosophy, Jainism, proves to be more liberal in using the word ‘experience' (Anubhava) as it includes even memory within the fold of experience. Here the term 'experience includes both internal and external cognitions.” Valid knowledge, is a faithful representation of objects, and is therefore practically useful. Invalid knowledge represents things in relation in which they do not exist."'!4
The knowledge characterised by 'Samsya' or doubt, “Viparyaya' or mistake, and 'Anadhyavasāya' or wrong knowledge due to carelessness are erroneous knowledge.
“We have eight kinds of knowledge, the five right and the three wrong ones. Only one kind of knowledge is active at a time.''}"
From a brief narration of Jain theory of knowledge, what is most remarkable to note is that a Jain does not believe in the a-priori validity of the laws of thought. To him, "the fund of experience, is the ultimate source of knowledge and the final court of appeal in dispute about the nature of things."'16 Thus, in Jain theory of knowledge, we find that the nature of real can be understood from experience while the reflective thoughts are simply helpful to clarify our conception. All the three popular, 'laws of thoughts' : (i) The law of identity, (ii) The law of contradiction, and (iii) The law of excluded middle, all these, according to Jainism, are absolutely vague, useless and misleading. “If things were absolute, particulars having no character apart from its own self identity and if the predication of characteristics were only a figment of intellect, it would not be possible to explain the emergence of different concepts and their affiliation to different entities."7 The
12. S. Mookejee, The Jain Phi. of Non-Absolutism (1978) p. 4 13. Ibid., p.
4 1 4. Dr. Radhakrishnan, I.P. Vol.I (1977) p. 295. 15. Tattvarthasutra, 130 16. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 7 17. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 11

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main emphasis being on 'experience' or say being empiricism so far as the knowledge of reality is concerned, the Jain though accepts the validity of laws of thought yet does not believe in its aprioristic character.' They are the laws of reality and 'therefore can be discovered by experience alone.'
So far, we endeavored to be very clear that valid knowledge. in Jainism, is valid knowledge of reality without contradiction. It is possible only through experience. “The Jain is a realist out and out."]8 On one side it's stand is against all sorts of scepticism and abstract speculation and on the other side it presents the complete antithesis of Vedānta which is the perfect philosophy from the idealistic point of view. Further to its theory of knowledge, Jainism asserts that knowledge attained is knowledge of real object. What is known is not all the aspects of the reality of an object, but only one or some. In Jainism knowledge depends on experience and experience is always partial, in the sense that the reality in totality is never revealed. Under the circumstance whatever is known is known in relation to a standpoint and therefore “absolution is to be surrendered."19 This is the root of Nayavāda and Syādvāda. We are going to discuss both in the succeeding chapters, and therefore here we simply make a note that what after all a Jain pleads for is the insistance on determining the nature of reality in confirmity with experience. 3.1.5 Nyāya Logic and Jain Logic
Before we end the chapter, let us also note some important points of Nyāya logic and Jain logic with reference to theism. Here the most important and common in both is the instrumentality of logic. In Nyāya as well as in Jainism we find logic as a means to an end and not an end in itself. The purpose, in both the systems, is valid knowledge, or attainment of knowledge for which logic is an aid, Moreover, both the Nyāya system as well as Jainism, accept realism, which means that the physical objects of the world have their independent existence, To Jainism the substance of these objects- the world is ‘Anādi' and not created by God. One may find differences with regards to the topics covered and their interpretations or classifications, in Nyāya as well as in Jainism, But then these are structural differences. With reference to theism, what we would like to note is a very serious and faithful effort to attain knowledge with the
18. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Phi. of non-Absolutism (1978) p. 21 19. Ibid., p. 23

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53 help of logic and thus to attain liberation. All the detailed classifications, lengthy discussions, arguments and counter arguments, theories and doctrines that we find in Jain logic as well as Nyāya logic, are to guarantee the ability or capacity to know.
There are a lot of issues agreed and accepted by Nyāya and refuted by Jain logicians and vice-a-versa. But then considering independently both have their value in their methodology or theory of knowledge. Both express "a common sense view of the world as a system of many independent realities"20 which are related to one another.
One more resemblances we find between the Nyāya and Jain logic is that according to both, the individual self is a substance. Of course, in Jainism this self is both : existence as well as consciousness, while to Nyāya the self is “a substance which is not essentially conscious and intelligent but is so accidentally. "Nyāya conception of God is reduced to the position of a human being”, while Jain concept of soul is glorified to the position of a supreme being. 3.1.6 Conclusion
Jain logic, its long history and development, its methodology and theories have established its own place in Indian logic. By using Sanskrit, mainly after the 5th century of Vikram era, Jain logic could bring Jain philosophy to a distinct position. Jain logic has never lost its way into a morose, disinterested intellectual exercise. It has always remained practical and purposeful. It is this quality of Jain logic, say: its concern with life that has made even scholars forced to note Jainism as unique independent and original.
With reference to theistic approaches, Jainism, believes in soul and its liberation. Moreover, it accepts and agrees to the fact that no liberation is possible without the true knowledge of reality; and logic or Pramāņa-Mimänsă is the aid to such knowledge. What is theistic behind the logic is its use and purpose. Which is neither an intellectual exercise nor a game of arguments to refute, but to know and sharpen the understanding for the spiritual development towards liberation. 3.2 THEISTIC IMPORT OF SAMGRAHA NAYA
In the previous section we discussed the Jain logic, its tradition and value in general. We also examined the Jain theory of knowledge and its consistency with Jain realism. Let us in this chapter take the Jain logic a little further. In fact, Nayavāda, Anekāntavāda and Syādvad 20. Chatterjee & Dutta : An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p." -

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are interrelated. One is bound to misunderstand if proper attention is not given. The fundamental approach and acceptances in metaphysics bring Jainism to frame a particular theory of knowledge. This metaphysical background is the root on which the Jain logic rests and develops. Nayavāda or the doctrine of Nayas again become the base for the Anekāntavāda and Syādvāda. Let us examine the doctrine of Nayavādin detail to see its theistic implications. 3.2.1 Pramāņa (Valid Knowledge)
Siddhasena Diwāker, the first Jain writer on pure logic, in his book Nyāyāvatāra' which is a primer of logic, at the end sums up by saying, “This system of Pramāņa etc. is beginningless and endless though familiar to all persons in everyday practice, it is yet explained here."'! In the same book he begins with the definition of Pramāņa and says: “Pramāņa (valid knowledge) is the knowledge which illumines itself and other things without any obstruction. It is divided as Pratyakşa (direct knowledge or perception) and Paroksa (indirect knowledge) as knowables are ascertained in two ways." In Jainism we also find Pramāņa defined as "valid knowledge about the self and the nonself."'? This implies that to Jains the Pramāņa does not consist in a perception of pure existence (Sānmātra) or in 'an unconscious contact (Sannikarsa) of sense organ with the object.' "The Pramāņa is valid knowledge, regarding the self and the nonself; because Pramāṇahood cannot be met with otherwise."'+ Since 'Pramāņa is capable of making us accept the agreeable things and discard the disagreeable ones; it is but knowledge."
Knowledge is either fallacious or true. Fallacious knowledge (Samāropa) is "superimposition which consists in determining a matter to be what it is not.'*6 It is of three kinds, viz. Viparyaya or illusion, Samasya or doubt and Anadhyavasāyā or inattention."? Valid knowledge, as we have earlier said is either Pratyaksa or Paroksa. Pratyaksa or direct knowledge is 'clear' knowledge. It has “two modes : viz. practical
1. Upadhye A.N., Siddhasena Diwakar's Nyāyāvatāra (1971) P. 32 2. Ibid 1
3. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara I. 2 4. H.S. Bhattacharya, Pramana Naya - Tattvākokālamkāra commentary (1967 ) p. 17 5. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara I., 3 6. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara 1.7 7. Ibid., I. 8

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Jain Logic (Samvyavahārika) and the transcendental (Pāramārthika).'The Paroksa Parmāņa is one that is wanting in 'clearness'. "It is of five kinds in as much as it may be recognition (Smaraņa), conception (Pratyabhijña), induction (Tarka), deduction (Anumāna) and authoritative knowledge (Agama).
The object of valid knowledge, according to Jains, is always a unity of number of aspects or characteristics, such as general and the particular, the existent and the nonexistent etc. “The object of that (i.e. the Pramāņa) is a thing having a nature which has many aspects, viz. the general and the particular and so on." The Jain theory, here, is found opposed to those for whom a thing or object of valid knowledge is only general essence or is only the particularity.
So far we have seen the nature, the number and the object of ‘Pramāņa'. Let us also see what ‘Pramāņa is meant for. Of course, Pramāņa being valid knowledge' or 'pure knowledge' is the total or partial destruction of ignorance. The fruit of Pramāņa is of two sorts : direct and indirect," Direct fruit of all Pramānas is the annihilation of ignorance. As regards the indirect fruit of the pure knowledge is (a spirit of) indifference.''! It is also said that, the immediate effect of Pramāna is the removal of ignorance; the mediate effect of the absolute knowledge is bliss and equanimity. While that of the ordinary practical knowledge is the facility to select or reject.”!!!
"The subject of all forms of valid knowledge is the self, as known by direct perception.")2 The spirit (soul or Jiva) is the knower, doer and enjoyer, illumines self and others, undergoes changes of condition, is realised only inself consciousness, and is different from the earth etc."}3 The soul, in Jaina philisophy, has knowledge and so it is different from that of Sānkhya, Nyāya and Vaiseșika philosophy. The soul as described in Jainism, is permanent but undergoes changes of condition. 3.2.2 Theory of Nayavāda
Valid knowledge in Jain philosophy, is divided into two modes : Pramāņa and Naya. Both, Pramāṇa and Naya, are valid knowldege." Pramāņa is knowledge of a thing as it is, and Naya is knowledge of
8. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara II 4 10. Ibid., VI 3.4 12. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokankara VII 55
9. Ibid., V. I 11. Nyayavatara, 28 13. Nyayavatara, 31

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a thing in its relation. Naya means a standpoint of thought from which we make a statement about a thing."4 Siddhasena Diwakar in Nyāyāvatāra writes. “Since things have many characters they are the object of all sided knowledge (omniscience); but a thing conceived from one particular point of view is the object of Naya (or one-sided knowledge)." It may be noted here that Naya is Pramāņa because it gives us valid knowledge of its object. Naya being a particular standpoint determines only a part of its object. The Jain logicians, reply to a charge that Naya becomes a forn of false knowledge as it determines the knowledge not of an object but part of an object. They say that false knowledge is knowledge about something which is not a real object or in confirmity to what it is, 'the part of an object and not non-object. The knowledge determined by Naya of an object is valid knowledge from that point of view, it does yield certain valid knowledge about the part of the object. 3.2.3 Seven Nayas (Standpoints)
There are seven Nayas. They are
Naigama' (non-distinguished) ‘Samgraha' (the collective generic) 'Vyavahāra' (the practical) "Rujusutra? (the straight expression) Sabda' (the verbal) Sambhirodha' (the subtle)
'Evambhata' (the such like)16
The Jain philosophy asserts that all objects possess two types of properties : Sāmānya or the general and 'Veśesa or the perticular or special. Both 'Sāmānya' and 'Višesa' are not outside the Dravya and Paryāya. Therefore, there are two sub-classes of these above named seven Nayas viz. “Dravyārthika' and 'Paryāyārthika'. The first three Nayas i.e. “The Naigama, the Samgraha, and the Vyavahāra are Dravyārthika Naya."'17 The other four are Paryâyarthika.
14. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (1976) p. 49. 15. Nyayavatara, 29. 16. Naya Karnika, 2 17. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII 5, 6

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57 “The Non-distinguished i.e. Naigama regards an object as possessing both the aforesaid (general and special) properties; (because) no particular thing in nature is possessed of a general property unaccompanied with some specific property, nor even of a specific property unaccompanied with the general one common to its class.''18
The generic or the Sangraha Naya takes account of the common or the general aspects only.”
“The practical or Vyavahāra Naya is that view-point by which matters which are the objects of Samgraha Naya are systematically divided.”:20
“The straightly expressed or the Rujusutra Naya consists in a tendency to fix on or emphasize only the mode which is straight, i.e. existent for the present:''21
“The varbal or the Sabda Naya attributes different meanings to a word in accordance with the difference in tense etc."22
“The subtle or the Samabhiradha Naya consists in attributing different meanings to synonyms according to their derivations."23
The such like or the Evambhata Naya maintains that words signify those objects which have the activities denoted by them.”24
“The main difference between Pramāṇa and Naya is this that" Pramāņa considers an object in its entirety, Naya in its particular aspect and part.''25
It is unfortunate that most of us are unacquainted with Nayavāda, Syādvāda and Anekāntavāda. In fact its value lies in its necessity to make any real progress in knowledge. “The philosophy of Nayas (standpoints) is an integral part of Jain Mataphysics."26 Nayavāda takes care to see that one does not become a victim of imperfect information and being misled by it, Moreover, it should not be supposed that there are only seven Nayas or standpoints of views. In fact it can
18. Naya Karnika, 5 19. Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII 13 20. Ibid., VII 23 21. Ibid., VII 28
22. ibid., VII 32 23. Ibid., VII 36 24. Ibid., VII 40. 25. H.S, Bhattacharya, Commentary on P.N.T. (1967) p.538 26. M. D: Desai, Introduction to Naya -Karnika in Nyāyāvatāra and other works,
(1971). p. 195
I do.
.

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go to as many as seven hunderd or even more. The affirmations or judgements as expressed from any Naya or point of view can never be absolute one, but true only in relation to that point of view or Naya, Thus we find Judgements true from some point of view and false from another in order to be precisely correct, as a safety measure, therefore, each affirmation should be preceded by the phrase" Syāt" which means ‘may be' or 'soine how.' This clearly indicates that the judgement expressed is only relative and not absolute. 3.2.4 Significance of Samgraha Naya
We have already seen that Sargraha Naya generic standpoint takes account of the common aspects only. The discussion presupposes a broad familiarity with the philosophical understanding of Samanya and Visesa - specially with reference to Indian philosophy. By 'Samgraha" we mean a standpoint which takes into account the numerous particularities as one identical aggregated whole a unity, a harmony. Here the particular or special aspect is reconciled to the common feature, When we consider generic view-point or the Samgraha we concentrate upon the generalities. The significance of Samgraha Naya lies in its scope, “The scope of such sāmānya or generality, as
Satta' or pure being, is the widest possible and accordingly it is called the Maha-Samanya or ultimate generality.''27 “Thus we may speak of all individual things from their most general and fundamental aspect as “being”. This according to Jains is the Vedānta way of looking at things.”28
A student of Indian philosophy must be familiar that the concept of universal is nominalistic and conceptualistic in Buddhism while to Naiyāyika it is objective. The Jain conception of universal is a well developed concept evolved from the most eminent logicians of the Jain logic like Samantbhadra, Siddhasena, Akalanka, Vidyānndi and Yashovijayji. Their views, as Prof. S. Mookerji observes in his book 'The Jain philosophy of non-absolutism', have created uniform tradition in subsequent Jain speculations.
While interpreting the position of Samantbhadra, Prof. S. Mookerji writes, “Samantbhadra seems to be quite explicit that all
27. H. S. Bhattacharya- Commentry Of P.N.T. ( 1967) p. 521 28. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 1. (1975) p. 177

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59 entities are unified by one common existence running through them all. That things are different numerically and qualitatively from one another is undeniable. But this numerical difference does not conceal their unity in respect of the universal characteristic viz., existence."29 All things, spiritual and material alike, are united by their participation in one common existence, though, they differ from one another as substance, quality and so forth.'30 The Jain concept of universal very much differs from Naiyāyika's conception of universal. In the Jain conception, existence is not excluded and belief in an unchanging principle is totally rejected. “The universal is regarded, by Jains, as also dynamic. But the dynamic constitution does not make away with its unity in spite of variation of the media. The Jain can only affirm that the universal is not an unchanging unity existing as uniform and unaffected by the plurality of its substances."}In Jainism unity is emphasised as the unity of all reals in spite of their infinite variations being not ignored or rejected. This conception of universal clears that the world is not only a world of plurality but it is aslo a unity." It is one universal that the Jain metaphysic gives us. But the oneness is not secured at the secrifice of the many, nor are the many left in unsocial indifference. The Vedāntist immolates the plurality at the altar of unity and the Buddhist fluxist sacrifices the unity to preserve the plurality...... In it (in Jainism) neither the unity nor the plurality is slaughtered, but both are preserved and kept in harmony.''32 3.2.5 Theistic Implication of Samgraha Naya
We have seen that saṁgraha Naya deals with the general properties of an object. In its pure form, it is only concerned with the simple statement 'It is'. "The Jains admit that things are one in their universal aspect and many in their particular aspect."}} The things are infinite and are all different. They are different due to Visesa. But then alongwith the difference, alongwith the Visesa, if we accept the element of universal which is in it also, then it becomes the pure being or 'Sat' from Saṁgraha Naya point of view. We may call this 'Māhā Sāmānya'.
29. S. Mookerjee, 'The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism' (1978) p. 266 30. Samantabhadra, 'Aptamilãnsă'p. 34 31. S. Mookerjee, 'The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism' (1978) p. 268 32. Ibid p. 272 33. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I. (1977) p. 177

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It may be called 'Maha Sat' or 'Param Sat' Which is the supreme self or God or Brahman, or absolute. Dr. Radhakrishnan says: "A plurality of reals is admittedly a relative truth. We must rise to the complete point of view and look at the whole with all the wealth of its attributes, If Jainism stops short with plurality, which is at best a relative and partial truth, and does not ask whether there is any higher truth pointing to one which particularises itself in the object of the world, connected with one another vitally, essentially and immanently, it throws overboard its own logic and exalts a relative truth into an absolute one." 34 Thus, as we have seen, the Samgraha-Naya leads to a theistic implication, and 'Mahā Sāmānya' becomes Jain absolute.
"The universal as a unitive principle is not regarding as figment of speculative thought, but as an immanent principle having a co-ordinate status with the individualities inherent in things."35 There is a unity cosmos with infinite plurality always gives us its partial picture, the Visesa can never reveal the whole nature of reality. "The whole gamut of reality, however, reveals its universal unitive nature as one existence when it is envisaged from the synthetic. angle of vision (Dravyarthika Naya)." 36 Thus by extending Samgraha Naya to a logical end what we derive is the" universe as one existence which manifests itself, as substance (Dravya) as it unifies the modes and attributes. This very existence is revealed as space, time or "evolves as phases and modes, attributes and states." All these are evolved from the same existence. "The different categories, (thus), viewed as functional variations of one principle, are no longer in a position of antagonism or indifferent isolation."'37
Jain Theism
The Mahā Sāmānya as we have seen earlier of 'one existence' or the universal as 'immanent principle' leads us to a theistic implication of Samgraha Naya and we arrive at the Jain absolute in whose relation only the Jain philosophy of non-absolutism becomes conceivable. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan observes, "One thing. however. is clear that it is only by stopping short at a half way house that Jainism is able to set forth a pluralistic realism."38
34. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I. (1977) p. 305-306.
35. S. Mookerji, The Jain Philosophy of Non -Absoltism (1978), p. 270.
36. Ibid., p. 271.
37. Astasahasri p. 113.
38. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977), p. 340.

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3.3 SYĀDVĀDA 3.3.1 Introductory Remark
In the previous two sections we have seen the logical background of the Jain philosophy. "To those familiar with the conception of philsophy as a criticism of categories, we need not say that this doctrine of Nayas of standpoints is a logical one."34 Looking to the central theme of the present work, one may think the full exposition of Anekāntavāda and syądvāda is not required. “But then considering anekāntavāda to be the heart of Jain metaphysics%40 and the real clue to understand and appreciate Jainism in its right spirit, I wish to have a full length discussion and exposition of all the issues which are related to Anekāntavāda. Syādvāda and Nayavāda. This creates the scope of discussion of the doctrine, its importance and philosophical significance, the objection and refutations, the critical evalution and so on. But then all these detailed exposition is to see that it confines itself consistantly with the aim of the present study. This we find being realized in our discussion of the doctrine of Syādvāda with reference to Sarvajñatā (omniscience) and the theistic implication of Syādvāda. 3.3.2 Aneākantavāda
Let us first understand the term literally and then what it means philosophically. The term Anekāntavāda consists of three terms : 'anek', 'anta', and ‘vāda', The term 'Anek', means 'many', 'Anta', means “aspects’, or 'attributes' and 'Väda' means 'ism' or 'theory'. In its simple sense, to Jains, it is a philosophy or a doctrine. It is a theory of manyfold aspects, It has been described and translated by modern scholars variously. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta expresses it as 'relative pluralism' against the 'extreme absolutism' of Upanisads. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma translates it as "doctrine of manyness of reality”. Dr. Satkari Mookerjee expresses it as philosophy or doctrine of 'non-absolutism'. Closely associated to 'Anekāntavada' is Syādvāda. which is also expressed as theory of 'conditional predication' or “theory of relativity of propositions." Since the doctrine of ‘Anekāntavāda' is opposed to absolutism or monism (Ekāntavāda) we would prefer "doctrine of ’non-absolutism” to convey the meaning of Anekāntavāda.
39. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy. I (1977) p. 301 40. Dr. Y. ). padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality and Knowledge. (1963) p. 273.

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Theism
Let us now understand what the philosophy or the theory of non-absolutism is the Jain theory of reality from its metaphysical point of view. The Jain approach to ultimate reality can be expressed in two words: realistic and relativistic. The universe is full of innumerable material atoms and innumerable individual souls. They are separately and independently real. Again each thing (Vastu) and each soul possesses innumerable aspects of its own. “A thing has got an infinite number of characteristics of its own."'! Thus according to the metaphysical presupposition of Jainism, a thing with infinie characters exists independently.
. The Jain term for 'existent' is 'Sat? It designates an entity comprised of substance (Dravya), attributes (Guna) and mode (Paryāya). The qualities are free from qualities of their own and they invariably and continuously undergo modifications or changes. The substance and attributes are inseparable and the attributes being the permanent essence of the substance cannot remain without it. Modes, on the other side, are changing. There are modifications in the form of acquiring (Utpāda) new modes (Paryāya or Bhāva) and losing (Vyaya) old modes at each moment."'12 Thus a thing or "the conception of being as the union of pemanent and change brings us naturally to the doctrine of Anekantavāda or what we niay call relative pluralism as against the extrme absolution of the Upanisads and the pluralism of the Buddhists.''
In view of the fact, “Jainism points out that both : the permanent (the one, the real of Bramanism) and the changing' (the many, the unreal of Buddhism), are the two sides of the same thing," ** Considering on one side the human limitations to acquire the knowledge of a thing with its all the infinite attributes and on the other side three characteristics of knowledge" possessing the three charcteristics of production, Destruction and permanence."45 nothing could be affirmed absolutely, as all affirmations could be relatively true under certain aspects or point of view only. “The affirmations are true of a thing only in a certain limited sense, and not absolutely."46
41. BriHEATEC at Saddarasana Samuccaya - 55 42. Frungarstaro pa iureface can! 43. Prof. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian philosophy Vol. I (1975) p. 175. 44. Dr. Chandradhar Shama, A Critical survey of Indian philosophy (1976) p. 51. 45. STAIGO tar a I Tattvarthasutra V-29 46. Tattvarthasutra & Saddarasana Samuccaya

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63
Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah in his famous book 'The Jain theories of Reality and knowledge' says that "the metaphysical presupposition of Anekantavāda, animating all the spheres of Jain philosophical thinking, recognises the objectivity of the material universe. The objectivity of the universe signifies the fact that the univese is independent of mind or consciousness. This independence, or the duality of consciousness and the material universe. necessarily presupposes the principle of distinction, which exerts a compulsive force until the logical goal of this principle is reached in the form of the development of the Jaina concepts of reality and knowledge into the comprehensive scheme of Anekanta realism... The claim that Anekantavāda is the most consistant from of realism lies in the fact that Jainism has allowed the principle of distinction to run its full course until it reaches its logical terminus, the theory of manifoldness of reality and knowledge." 47 The theroy of non-absolutism clears that "reality, according to Jainism is not merely multiple but each real, in its turn, is manifold or complex to its core. Reality is thus complex web of manyness (Anek) and manifoldness (Anekānta). "'48
3.3.3 Syādvāda
We have already seen that according to Jainism the manyness and manifoldness is the metaphysical side of the reality. The theory of Anekāntavāda is the metaphysical theory of reality. But then Jainism brings out another aspect of reality and that is its relativistic pluralism. While Anekantavāda explains the reality metaphysically, Syādvāda explains it epistemologically. Both are the two aspects of the same Reality. We have alreaady seen how human knowledge is relative and limited which ultimately makes all our judgements relatively or partially true, and not absolutely. Syadvāda is also called Sapta-bhangi Naya. Syädväda is known as the theory of relativity of propositions or theory of relativity of judgements. Some critics called it theory of relativity of knowledge. We can say that if Syādvāda is the epistemological explanation of reality. Sapta-bhangi naya is the method or the dialectic of the theory of seven-fold judgement. It is the logical side of the theory.
"The doctrine of Syadvāda holds that since a thing is full of most contrary charactari stics of infinite variety, affirmation made is
47. Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality & Knowledge, (1963), p. 274. 48. Ibid., 275
6

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only from a particular standpoint or point of view, and therefore it may be correct or true. But the Same assertion may be wrong or false from some other standpoint or point of view. Thus assertion made cannot be regarded as absolute. All affirmations in some sense, are true, and are, in some sense, false. Similarly all assertions are indefinite and true in some sense, as well as indefinite and false in some other sense. Assertions could be true and false and indefinite. Thus Jainism, proposes to grand the non-absolute nature of reality and relativistic pluralism of the object of knowledge by using the word 'Syat' (or syad) before the assertion or Judgement.
The word 'Syat' literally means 'may be' It is also translated by some authors and critics as 'perhaps', 'some how', 'relatively' or in a certain sense'. "The word 'Syat' or its equivalent in English, used before the assertion makes the proposition true but only under certain conditions i.e. hypothetically."49 What is to be noted is that the word 'Syat' is not used in the sense of probability leading to uncertainty. Probability again hints at scepticism and Jainism is not scepticism. Since reality has infinite aspects our judgements are bound to be conditions. Thus Syādvāda is the theory of relativity of knowledge The Jains quoted quite a good number of parables which are conventionally used by Jain writers to explain the theory. It is beyond the scope of the present work to give a full account of these parables and explain the symbols. Dr. J. P. Jain in his book 'Religion and Culture of Jains' has mentioned quite a few. We may just mention one, the most famous one for the grip over the core of the theory. It is the famous parable of six blind men who happened to come accross an elephant. Each one touching differemt parts of the elephant's body conclude it to be as to what the animal was like "he who happened to touch the side of the elephant said it was like a wall, the one touching its foot said it was like a pillar, the third touched the trunk and said it was like the branch of a tree, the fourth touched the tail and said the animal a thick rope, the fifth touched the ear and held it to be like a winning fan and the last touched the tusk and believed it to be like a spear. Each one was sure and asserting about his own description alone to be correct. Though each one was correct, though contrary to each other, from his point of view. "Thus the Jains hold that no affirmation or judgement is absolute in its nature, each is true
49. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. Indian Philosophy Vol.I (1977) p. 302

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Jain Logic in its own limited sense only."The affirmations will tell either about the existence, or non-existence or about the existence and non-existence, or about the inexpressible. Combining these again the first three with the fourth we derive the seven alternatives technically known as Saptabhangi-Naya or the seven-fold Judgements." 3.3.4 Sevenfold Application of Syādvāda (Conditional Assertion)
The sevenfold applications are known as Sapta-bhangiNaya. In our previous discussion about the Syādvāda we have taken note of the fact that the knowledge of reality is bound to be partial and therefore only relatively true but can never be absolute. To express the knowledge the proposition should begin with the word 'Syāt'. In fact, "every Naya in order to become Pramāņa or valid knowledge must be qualified by Syāt. “Syāt is said to be the sumbol of truth."51 It is relative and successive knowledge."'52 "To reject Syät is to embrace unwarranted absolution which is directly contradicted by experience."53
Now the seven forms or predications and their characteristics may be treated with reference to the stock example of a pot (Ghata):1. In a certain sense, the pot is
. (Syādasti Ghatah) 2. In a certain sense, the pot is not.
(Syādnásti Ghatah) 3. In a certain sense, the pot is and is not.
(Syādastinastica Ghatah) i 4. In a certain sense, the pot is inexpressible.
(Syädavaktavyam Ghataḥ) 5. In a certain sense, the pot is and is inexpressible.
(Syādastyavaktvyaśāca Ghatah) 6. In a certain sense, the pot is not and is inexpressible
(Syādnādstyavaktavyaśca Ghatah) 7. In a certain sense, the pot is, is not and is inexpressible.
(Syädastināsti cāvaktavyaśca Ghataḥ)
50. Prof. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975) P. 180 51. Apta Mimāns.-X-112. 52. Ibid., X-101.
53. Ibid., I. 7

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in the above mentioned propositions, the word 'In a certain sense' is most significant. Words like “relatively' 'may be', 'some how' etc. are also used. But then by using any of these phrases for 'Syat' every proposition bears the the stamp of relativity, by which the notion ot' absolutism is refuted. “The gist of the seven-fold judgement of Jain dialectic is as under
1. Thesis (Positive) 2. Anti-thesis (Negative) 3. Aggregation (both positive and negative respectively)
Synthesis (both positive and negative simultaneously) Thesis and synthesis (positive and both positive and negative
simultaneously) 6. Anti-thesis and synthesis (Negative and both positive and
negative simultaneously) Aggregation and synthesis (both positive and negative respectivly and both positive and negative simultaneously).
1. Existence 2. Non-existence 3. Existence and non-existence 4. Inexpressibility 5. Existence and Inexpressibility (1+4): 6. Non existence and Inexpressibility (2+4)
7. Existence, non-existence and Inexpressibility (3+4)
This is the general view of the method of the Jain dialectic. Syādvāda can be represented only by this type of dialectical nethod."***"The theory of sevenfold predication, is treated as ynonymous with Syādvāda owing to the fact that, the number of Jossible or alternative truths under the conditional method of Syādvāda ire seven only."
4. Mohanlal Mehta, Outlines of Jain philosophy. (1954) p. 121, 122 5. Dr. Y.J. Padmarajiah, Jain Theories of Reality and Knowledge. (1963) p. 334

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Jain Logic 3.3.5 Syādvāda : Critical Evaluation
The Jain theory of non-absolution or is also called the philosophy of Anekānta, is the very foundation of the Jain system of philosophy. In evaluating this philosophy let us first examine some of the main objection and comments as discussed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in his Indian Philosophy Vol. I, Prof. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M.Datta in their Introduction to Indian Philosophy and Prof. M.L. Mehta in his Outlines of Jain Philosophy. Followed by this will be the general appreciations by great personalities.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan writes "Sankara and Rāmānuja criticised the Saptabhangi view on the ground of the impossibile contradictory attributes coexisting in the same thing."56 This change is mainly due to misunderstanding. In fact the Jains admit that thing cannot have selfcontrary attributes at the same time and at the same place. What Jainism emphasizes is the manyness and manifoldness of a thing the complex nature of reality. Dr. Radhakrishanan himself answers and says, "Since reality is multiform and ever-changing, nothing can be considered to be existing everywhere and at all times and in all ways and places and it is impossible to pledge ourselves to an inflexible creed."
The late Dr.Ganga Nath Jha, a great Sanskrit and erudite Vedantist, remarked, "When I read refutation of this Syādāvāda by Samkaracarya, I came to the conclusion that the doctrine of Syādvāda was very sound and that the Acaryas of Vedānta failed to understand it. I am sure if Saṁkara had taken the trouble to study the Jain scriptures, he would not have taken the pains to criticise this docrtine."58
Prof. Chatterjee and Datta discuss Jain doctrine of Syādvāda often falsely compared with the pragmatism of the West or with theory of relativity or as agnosticism or scepticism. Prof. Chatterjee says that inspite of some similarity between the pragmatism and Jainism, it should be noted that, "Jains are realists, but the pragmatists have a distinct idealistic bias. According to the Jains, the different judgements about an object are not simply different subjective ideas of the object, but they reveal the different real aspects of the object. The Jains would
56. Dr.S.Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 304 57. Ibid., p. 304 58. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979) p. 71

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accept, therefore, a realistic view of truth which is rejected by all thorugh going pragmatists."59
The Jain Syadvāda is sometimes compared to the Western theory of relativity. In Western philosophy we come accross two types of relativity idealistic and realistic. The idealistic is represented by Protagoros, Berkeley, Schiller etc., and the realistic is represented by Whitehead or Boodin. "If at all, the Jain is to be called a relativist, he must be understood to be of the realistic type."
There is also a great degree of misunderstanding due to the term 'Syat' which means somehow, or perhaps, or may be, some thinkers form a sort of sceptic or agnostic view about the theory. "But it would be noted that Jain is not a sceptic. It is not the uncertainty of a judgement, but its conditional or relative character, that is expressed by the addition of the qualifying participle 'Syāt'... There is, therefore, no room for scepticism"61
Prof. M. L. Mehta also gives a detailed refutation to some objections against Syādväda in his 'Outlines of Jain Philosophy.' He discusses the objections regarding affirmation and negation, regarding locus and identity, regarding identity and difference etc. and says that "there is no logical justification for the emergence of doubt in a matter which has been difinitely established."62
The positive and appreciative side of the theory of Syädvāda could be realised through the words of some of the great philosophers and thinkers, both of East and West. We find Anekāntavād even in Einstein's explanation as well as in Hegel: 'All nature is a reconciliation of opposites'. Dr. S.Radhakrishnan said ". but he who follows the Jain concept of Anekantavāda, Sapta-bhangi-Naya or Syadvāda will not adopt that kind of cultural regimentation". "Mahatma Gandhi is reported to have once said that he had a very high regard for the doctrine of Syadvāda, and that he practised it in his life." Jawaharlal Nehru said, "We have to realise that truth is many-sided and it is not monopoly of any group formation." Dr. Rajendraprasad, the first president of
59. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & D. M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p. 86.
60. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & D. M. Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. (1968) p. 86 61. Ibid., p. 86
62. Mohan Lal Mehta, Outlines of Jain Philosophy. (1954) p. 132

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Jain Logic India, observed, “The doctrine of Syādvāda is a valuable contribution of Jainism to Indian religions and world philosophy." Prof. A.B. Dhruva puts as, “Syādvāda is not a doctrine of speculative interest, one intended to solve a mere ontological problem, but has a bearing upon man's psychological and spiritual life.”' Dr. H.S. Bhattacharya says, “Syādvāda is a theory presenting things as they really are : it is not a set of formal propositions, divorced from and unconnected with matters of experience.” Dr. A.N. Upadhhye writes, “It has supplied the philosopher with catholicity of thought, convincing him that Truth is not anybody's monopoly with tariff walls of denominational religion, while furnishing the religious aspirant with the virtue of intellectual toleration which is the part of that Ahimsa which is one of the fundmental tenents of Jainism." Lastly, in the words of Dr. Y. J. Padmarajiah “Anekāntavāda is the heart of Jain metaphysics and Nayavād and Syādvāda (or
i) are its main arteries. or, to use a happier metaphor, the bird of anekāntavāda flies on its wings of Nayavāda and Syädväda." 3.3.6 Syādvāda and Omniscience
The Jain metaphysics and epistemology with its logic or dialectic method has greately contributed to Indian thought. It is more so, perhaps, due to its doctrine of Anekāntavāda, Syādvāda and Nayavāda. The very foundation of these theories is Jain maintaining the reality to be dynamic and can consist only with relative or conditional predication. The theory of non-absolution is not simply a refutation or attack on absolution. It is a solution to many problems due to absolution. Dr. S. Mookerjee in his “The Jain philosophy of non-absolutism says, “If things were real in an absolute sense there would be no causation, as it is possible if only an event which was non-existent is brought into existence''63 “Again if things were held to be existent in an absolute sense, and if non-existence were denied the result would be equally disastrous. There would be no distinction of one thing from another, there would be no beginning, no end, there would be nothing like individualality. In other words, things would be nothing, entity would be reduced to non-entity."64
Thus we find that in Anekāntavada and Syādvāda Jains bring a solution to the age old controversy between the absolutism and nihilism or between the one and the many or the real and the unreal.
63. Dr. S. Mookerjec, The Jain Philosophy of Non-Absolutism, (1978) p. 24 64. Ibid., p. 29

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The theory of non-absolutism, which is the foundation of Jain philosophy, holds that every proposition or assertion could be true, but only under certain condition hypothetically. It, thus suggests that every proposition or assertion could be false, under certain other conditions. This apparantly leads us to a contradiction when we think with reference to the concept of Omniscience or Sarvajñatā. Sarvajñatā or omniscience is the complete or perfect knowledge, knowledge of all (Sarva) the modes or attributes. Dr. Ramji Singh in his thesis on ‘The Jain concept of Omniscience" observes that, "the Jain theory of relativism does not go against the Jain theory of Omniscience''65
What is of utmost importance to us and a worth noting point is the fact that inspite of the great value of the theory of Anekāntavāda and Syādvāda. the Jains have not ended or wounded up all with it, Truth, as a truth, must be in its totality a whole truth. The Jains have attempted at Keval Jñāna' the whole truth. And it is here that we find a vital difference between the Syādvāda and Sarvajñatā, inspite of both revealing the truth, "In the case of Keval Jñāna', the knowledge is simultaneous'?66 The omniscient knowledge “is regarded as simultaneous rather than successive.'*67 Again we find that the immediate result of the absolute knowledge (Kevalajñāna) is bliss and equanimity (Sukha, Upeksā), while that of practical knowledge (ie. Syādvada) is the facility to select or reject what is conductive or not, to self realisation.''68 One more difference, between the two though not a major one, is that one depends on sense perception the other i.e. Kevala Jñāna, "arises only after destruction of abstructions."69 Such knowledge is directly acquired by the soul without the intervention of sense or signs. But then the most fundamental difference as Dr. Ramji Singh tells us, is that Syādvāda "leads us to relative and partial truth whereas omniscience to absolute truth.'70 In short, to sum up, we can say that “while syadvada illumines the reality indirectly, the Kevala Jñāna docs it directly.'71 besides one reveals the partial truth while the other reveals the whole truth.
65. Dr. Ramji Singh, The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974) p. 164 66. Aptamimamsĩ 101
67. Kumudcandra • Nyāya Vol. I-p. 88 68. प्रमाणस्य फलं साक्षादननिवर्तनम् । केवलस्य सुखोपेक्षे शेषस्यादानहानथी:॥ 69. सामग्री विशेष विश्लेषिताखिलावरणमतीन्द्रियमशेषतो मुख्यम् ॥
Parikşāmukham II. 11 70. Haribhadra, Anekānta Jaya Pataka - Vol II, p. cxx 71. Apta Mimamasa 105

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Jain Logic 3.3.7 Theistic Implication of Syādvāda
Syādvāda inspite of its vital importance as a solution to metaphysical and epistemological problems, has great significance to the moral life of a Jain. In fact Jain logic is not simply a mental or intellectual exercise. It leads to a way of life, to an approach to reality which would be conducive to the ultimate aim of life. The spiritual of this approach, however, guards him at all times from extreme viewpoints, especially illusionism (māyāvāda, the basis of many Hindu sects), determinism (Niyativāda, in which Jair. includes all forms of theism) and annihilationism (Ucchedavāda, best represented by modern materialism"72 A person, having an Anekānta outlook, remains away from the extremes. This leads him to be sober and considerate towards others even if they do not agree or corelate. To consider temporary as permanent, false as true, and vice as virtue is extreme. It leads a person to a life of dogmatic cruelty and vices. The theistic implication of Syādvāda ir that he is saved from such extremes if he practices Anekāntavāda mentally, physically and vocally.
One of the theistic implications of Syıdvāda, as observed, is the tolerance it brings to one who adopts it. Dr. Rajendra Prasad says, "it consists of catholic views along with the capability to appreiate others' approaches to reality73 Thus Syādvāda of Jains has been the greatest fosterer of mutual toleration. Morever, one who follows the Jain concept of Anekāntavāda” will have the spirit to discriminate between right and wrong in his own and in the opposite views and try to work for a greater synthesis"74 Thus the spirit to understand the other and other's standpoint and to learn to tolerate the conflicting or contrary situation helps a lot towards the higher development of right conduct (Symyak Cāritra). It broadens the mind and makes person quite objective and open in his thinking. Such a person. like Jain monks, read extensively the treatises of other schools. It proves to be a good training to identify extreme views and to apply the proper corrections."75 Thus here also, we find Syādvāda a great help towards right knowledge ( Samyak jñāna), and right conduct. The first one is not possible without the rest two. Syādvāda by moulding a person towards better conduct and higher knowledge, proves to be of great theistic significance. 72. P. S. Jaini, Jain path of Purification (1979) p. 96 73. Dr, I P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 72 74. Ibid., P. 71 75. P. S. Jaini, The Jain Path of Purification (1979) p. 96

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Jain Theism One of the aims of life is to make the earth, if not heaven at least, a better and worthier world, Syādvāda in spite of "its dry dialectic and forbidding use of logic is not without a lesson for the practical men of the world.
"The Jain conception of the dynamic constitution of reality and the-eternity of existence may be applied in the various fields of human activity to ensure our progress towards the "Summum Bonum”, which is the goal of our destiny."76 Syādvāda thus helps in understanding the nature of reals through experience which is the very first step of any progresssive theism.
Pt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, an authority on Jainism in one of his essays on Anekāntavāda explains that the most of Anekāntavāda is. Ahimsā and that is the prime reason that Jain philosophy is based on Anekāntavāda. The very idea of not to hurt the others but to be kind sympathetic towards others' views and thus to be friendly, is the logical outcome of Ahimsā. Ahimsā in its positive concept becomes love and compassion. A perfect theism, not in its narrow rigid sense, but in the sense where broad religiousness, deep spirituality and high knowledge are thought of for the soul's ultimate libreration from the bondage, required syādavāda as its valid approach to have an objective vision of truth, to be tolerant, to be synthetic and to have an attitude of impartiality, without all these no theism in its actual practice is possible. Syadvāda shapes a personality into a theistic one.
After all, "all that we are is the restult of our own thought' said Lord Mahāvira and what we think as well as how we think refers to our biliefs and experiences. In the light of their great truth Syādvāda has tremendous implication on moral and spritual aspects of life. And at the end, in the words of Sri P. S. Jaini, "the Jain with his teaching of Anekanta and its corollaries, Nayavāda and Syādvāda, escapes the doctrinal necessity of having to follow a single restricted path. All paths can be seen as valid in some respect: thus a Jaina is able to co-ordinate (Samuccaya) various methods into his path of purification (Moksa Mārga) which is defined as a combination of insight (Darśana) into the nature of reality (along with faith in this view), critical knowledge (Jñāna) as outlined in the scripture, and pure conduct (cāritra). This for the Jain, is the comprehensively valid path of salvation,"77
76 Dr. S. Mookerjee, The Jain Philosophy. of Non-Absolutism (1978) p. 48 77. P. S. Jaini, The Jain Path of Purification (1979) p. 97.

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73 Syādvāda with all its implication and significance, is a must for any theistic approach in its true sense and spirit. 3.3.8 Dr. Radhakrishnan's View
Pandit Dalsukh Malvania in his essay on Ankāntavāda in Jain Dharma Chintan' has examined Dr. Radhakrishnan's view. He says that "Dr. Radhakrishnan is known for his comparative religion of East and West. It is quite possible that he may not have any objection with nonabsolutism of Jainism, but he has been highly impressed by the Advaita Vedānta. Dr. Radhakrishnan in criticising non-absolutism says that if at all there is any fault with non-absolutism it is only this that Absolute has no place in it. To this Pandit Dalsukh Malvania very humbly replies that to discard absolute from non-absolutism is not a fault but a feature. After all non-absolutism is meant to oppose absolute of so many different types and kinds. Moreover, one can not say that absolute has no place in non-absolutism. The concept of Brahman as propagated by Advaita Vedānta the absolute has been accepted by Jains as a partial truth in their Sangraha. Naya. The theory of non-absolutism evolves only from such different imaginative absolutes, and it determines their place in the whole truth or absolute truth. In fact, Anekānta does not evolve if such absolutes are not to be synthesised. Thus one can interpreat, Dr. Radhakrishnan's criticism only as his love for Brahman as explained by Advaita Vedānta.'78 3.3.9 Pandit Dalsukh Malvania's View
Let us also take note of Pandit Malvania's view as reflected in the above referred essay. He says, “It is true that controvercy is mainly due to the use of language, and in the higher state of Dhyāna or meditation, where thought or logic has no scope, and where there is only self or only realised goal object, there is a realisation of “whole' which is described as absolute. But the same absolute, when described, its alternatives (relatives) arise. Thus relative and absolute both are accepted in non-absolutism. In other words, non-absolutism accepts both effability as well as the ineffability of an object. From this point of view also, as per iny (Pandit Malvania) humble opinion, it is worth considering before saying that absolute has no place in non-absolutism. In the theory of non-absolutism, absolute has its own place, but it is not so that only absolute has place. It becomes so only because of the
78. Pt. Malavania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) p. 188-189

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nature of the theory of non-absoltism. Not to reject the reality of the object of meditative state of mind or the object of sensuous experience is the speciality of the theory of non-absolutism. To it the Niscaya Naya is true and so is the Vyavahāra Naya also..... In Jainism Parama Brahma is accepted under Niscay Naya and Prapanca is accepted under
Vyavhara Naya. And both, Niścaya as well as Vyavahāra, are accepted as true by the Jainism. Thus from Niścaya Naya point of view absolute has a place in Jainism, but it is not absolute only that has a place. Non-absolute has also a place in Jainism because it also accepts Vyavahara Naya as equally true."
5579
3.3.10 Conclusion
The logical background of Jaina phiosophy, as earlier said, is not simply dry dialectics and uninterested intellectual exercise. It leads to a very happy solution between "the nihilism on one hand and absolute monism on the other, as well as between the shallow realism of materialism and the ludicrous stand of the idealists. It fosters a rational outlook and an appropriate attitude of looking at things, conditions and relations, gives a breadth of vision, and helps a right and proper evaluation of ultimate realities."80 Moreover, "Jain logic of Anekānta is based not on abstract intellectualism but on experience and realism. In fact "the integrity of truth consists in this very variety of its aspects, Within the rational unity of an all comprehensive and ramifying principle. To Jain logic in general and Syādvāda in particular, "a thing is neither an absolute unity nor split up into an irreconsilable plurality. It is both unity and plurality all the time. There is no oppsition between unity of being and plurality of aspects." If we agree that we have to be kind and tolerent to counter points or counter views. Syādvāda takes away the dogmatic onesidedness and makes room for the view that theism may be perhaps more suitable view to understand and to make more effective Jainism as religion and ethics. It is this characteric of Jain Logic that draws our attention at its highly theistic implications.
83
79. Pt. Malavania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965), p. 188-191.
80. Dr. J. P. Jain Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) P. 73-74
81. Dr. Ramji Singh, The Jain Concept of omniscience (1974) p. 165
82. M. D. Desai, Nyaya Karnika, P. 25 (introduction)
83. Dr. S. Mookerjee, The Jain philosophy. of Non Absolutism (1978) p. 27.

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CHAPTER - 4
JAIN ETHICS 4.1 Jain Ethics In Theistic Presuppositions
The mataphysics and epistemology are the theoretical foundation of philosophy. “The third branch-ethics-may be regarded as its technology.""! All the great religions of the world have emphatically considered ethics to be a very important code of rules to govern man's conduct in the society. Ethics has been defined as "the study of what is right or good in conduct. It is the general theory of conduct and considers the action of human beings with reference to their rightness or wrongness, their tendency to good or to evil."'? In Indian philosophy, “Pūrvamīmāmsā defines Dharma (ethics) as rules laid down by Vedas."3 According to Jainism" Dharma (ethics) is made up of non-violence, self-control and austerity." In the West, ethics is the study of what is right or good in conduct. Internationally aclaimed thinker, novelist and author of many books on philosophy Ayn Rand says, "Ethics does not apply to everything that exists, only to man, but it applies to every aspect of man's life : his character, his actions, his values, his relationship to all of existence. Ethics or morality defines a code of values to guide man's choices and actions the choices and actions that determine the course of his life.""
The problem of ethics as seen in the varions systems of Indian philosophy is the attainment of "a state of complete mental pose, free, from discords and uncertainties of life.'*6 Jainism holds that all worldly pleasure is suffering in the ultimate analysis. All “Singing is but prattle, all dancing is but mocking, all ornaments are but a burden all pleasures produce but pain."'? The Jain ethics is concerned the most at the point
1. Ayn Rand, Philosophy Who Needs It. (1984) p. 3/4. 2. Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics, (1946) p. 1 3. Mimāmsādarśana, (1929) I, 1.2 4. at H eng 3 HT Ficht gati D.S.V 17. 5. Ayn Rand, Philosophy Who Needs It. (1984) p. 3 6. prof. Dayanand Bhargava, Jain Ethics, (1968) p. 9 7. "Hoc facifari titi, Hool Tg fúsferi
Ho 3119TUTT HITT, HO OTAT GATCET II U.S. 13. 16

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: “By what act can I escape a sorrowful lot in this unstabe, ineternal Samsāra, which is full of misery ?”?
There are more points concerning ethics to be remembered. Ethics, as we have already seen, being an application of the theory, being technology of philosophy it is determined by the answers and solutions arrived by metaphysics and epistemology. “Before you come to ethics, you must answer the questions posed by metaphysics and epistemology.' In Jainism, we find ethics, theories of conduct in accordance with its metaphysics and epistemology. 4.1.1 Historical Background of Jain Ethics
Regarding the origin of Jain ethics Jacobi is of the opinion that the Jains have borrowed the rules of ascetic life from the Brāhmaṇs. This opinion has been rejected by Prof. K. C. Sogani. He discusses in full length and quotes a number of authorities in support to his observations, that "Jain monachism does not seem to have originated from Brahmanical idea of Samnyāsa."'10 He also quotes Dr. Upadhye and says, “Before the advent of the Aryans in India, we can legitimately imagine that a highly cultivated society existed along the fertile banks of the Ganga and Jamuna and it has its religious teachers. Vedic texts have always looked with some antipathy at the Magadhan country where Jainism and Buddhism flourished, and these religions owe no allegiance to the vedic authorities."'\\ Prof. K. C. Sogani concludes by saying that Jain ethics is Magadhan in origin. 4.1.2 Philosophical Background of Jain Ethics
By philosophical, I mean, metaphysical and epistemological background, the background on which ethics depends, Jainism has been discussed at sufficient length from its metaphysics as well as epistemology and logic point of view in the previous chapters. Jainism, in its metaphysics, accepts the theory of “pluralistic realism, and adopts a theory of “Bhedābheda" or difference in identity."'!? The realism of
8. 3rd GITARAUFH, Harris quoque !
fa uns out paupi, Jug gong of To It U.S. 8.1 9. Ayn Rand Philosophy Who Needs It, (1984) p. 3 10. Prof. K. C. Sogani, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, (1967) p. 12 11. Ibid. p. 12 12. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.I (1977) p. 313

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77 Jainism is very much different from that of Cārvāka's realism and also different from the realism of the other systems of Indian philosophy. Jainism accepts everthing to be 'real' i.e, everything exists independently and the universe, which is full of substances (Dravya), is since the beginningless time (Anādi). Again matter is infinite in number and each one has infinite qualities. The matter (Dravya) being "a combination of attributes (Guna) and modes (Paryāya)")} is "either real and or unreal, either existant and /or non-existant."?4 This makes the matter 'many' and 'manifold'. Jainism asserts that "reality has infinite aspects which are all relative and we can know only some of these aspects."15 Knowledge of a thing thus becomes partial or. conditional and true from a certain standpoint. Due to infinite qualities possessed by substance which are of contrary nature and due to human limitation, knowledge of the 'real' or 'truth' is always relative. Jainism, from metaphysical and epistemological point of view, is both 'Realistic' and 'realativisitic'. It has "pluralistic realism" and "theory of non-absolutism as chief assertions that governs the other philosophical issues, including its ethics. One more issue to be observed in Jainism, unlike the other systems of Indian philosophy, is its, "equal emphasis on both knowledge and conduct."ló This puts 'conduct' (Samyak Caritra) on a very formidable status in equal degree to knowldege and faith. 4.1.3 Jain Ethics
If salvation is to be attained, the poluted soul is to be purified, the soul loaded with Karma should be made free from the weight. Man's inner nature has to undergo a radical change and for that morality is inevitable. "Belief in real existence or Tattvas is right faith; knowledge of real nature without doubt or error is right knowledge. An attitude of neutrality without desire or aversion towards the object of the external world is right conduct."7 The three (right faith, right knowledge and right conduct) together form one path, and are to be simultaneously pursued."18 Pt. Dalsukh Malvania has, at one place, described Jainism as "an ethical system."14 and "the summum bonum of the Jain religion
13. "quietar zamy" | T.S.-5.37 14. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (1976) P. 54 15. Ibid P. 52
16. Ibid P. 54 17. Tratef staari Hell gytam 1 T.S. 1.2, P. 115 18. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 325 19. "Though an ethical system Jainism is a religion" it approaches to the study of
religion (seminar paper) p.93

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Jain Theism is the attainment of salvation or Moksa."20 Ethical discipline (ĀcāraDharma) brings about both the spiritual purification and social fitness and thus it becomes an important aspect of Jainism.
"Righteous conduct has two forms: (1) with partial nonattachment (2) with complete non-attachment. Former is observed by the nonks (Sādhus)."?! Apart from minor differences, virtually the two forms of code of conduct differ only in its intensity. The Jain Tirtharkaras were aware of human weaknesses. They knew that the path of renunciation is not easy for all to follow. Hence they preached and propagated two sets of rules of conduct- one for househo the other for monks. We will, of course, for the sake of brevity and preciseness, discuss these rules in general to get the real nature and signficance of Jain ethics.
Good conduct is briefly described in Jainism as refraining from what is harmful and doing what is beneficial. In other words, a good conduct is "what helps the self to get rid of Karmas that lead him to bondage and suffering."2 The code of rules for the stoppage of the influx of Karmas and for the eradication of the old one to purify the soul, are composed and named as (1) Pañch-Mahāvrata' or five great vows (2) Practice extreme carefulness (Samiti) in walking, speaking,
receiving alms and other things, and answering call of nature so as to avoid any harm to any life,
Practice restraint (Gupti) of thought, speech and bodily movements, (4) Practice Dharma of ten different kinds, namely, forgiveness,
humility, straightforwardness, truthfulness, cleanliness, self-restraint, austerity (internal and external). sacrifice, non-attachment and
celibacy. (5) Meditate on the cardinal truths taught regarding the self and the
world.
20. Prof. P. R. Jain, Fundamentals of Jainism, Essay pub. in Jainsm', p. 36 21. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansurishverji Maharaj, Atma Tatva Vichāra or Phi. of Soul,
(1963) p. 516 22. अशुभात् विनिवृत्ति शुभे प्रवृत्ति च जानीटि चारित्रम् ।
Wafufufa fa Qar FC Z fwfOTA 11 D.S. 45 23. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968)
p. 106

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79 (6) Conquer, through fortitude, all pains and discomforts that arise
from hunger, thirst, heat, cold etc. and Attain cquanimity, purity, absolute greedlessness and perfect conduct." 24 Jain ethics includes different Guņvratas and Śikṣāvratas."25 The five great vows aim at 'virtue consists in five-fold conduct of one who has knowledge and faith. These five vows are
(1) Ahimsā or non-injury in thought, speech and deed, (2) Satya or truth, (3) Asteya or not to steal, (4) Brahmacharya or chastity in words, thought and deed, and
(5) Aparigraha or renunciation by thought, speech and action. Ahimsā
"If Jainism has been described as an ethical system par excellence', Ahimsā is the keynote of the system...... and, it pervades the entire length and breadth of the Jain code of right conduct, the path, The chief criterion with which to judge the rightness and goodness of a thought, word or deed is Ahimsā."26 Ahimsă in its simple meaning means non-injury to life. Life according to Jainism exists in the moving being (Trasa) as well as in some non-moving (Sthāvara) ones such as plants. This makes the practice of Ahimsā to its minutest exactness, almost impossible. Ordinary lay men are advised, therefore, to begin with the partial observance of ahimsă as "aņuvrata.
Jain metaphysics ascribes equal importance to all souls. All souls are potentially equal. "If every soul, however lowly now, can become as great as any other soul, then one should recognize the value and the claims of every life as his own. “Respect for life whereever found' becomes then an irresistable duty."27 Since all our actions are
24. Prof. S. C. Chatterjee & Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 106
व्रतसमितिगुप्तयः धर्मानप्रेक्षां परीषहजयः च ।
afsi ate an air fagtat: il D.S.-35 25. See, Prof. K. C. Sogani Ethical Doctrines in Jainism (1967) p. 91-92 26. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Calture of Jains, (1977) p. 99 27. Prof. S. C. Chatterji & Dutta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968)
p. 107

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Jain Theism generated from thoughts and sppech, Ahinsă does not mean only not to kill; one should not even think of injury or speak something that would hurt, nor even allow some one to do so, nor encourage others to do so. In the words of Dr. J. P. Jain "In almost every civilized religion sanctity of human life has been recognised, but few go beyond it. Jainism, however, recognises the sanctity of all life, including beasts, birds, fish, fowl and the smaller creatures down to the lowliest of the lowly. With it, life is sacred in whatever form it is found to exist."28 Thus "the chief feature of Jainism is Ahimsā. "29
"The value of five great vows (Pañch Mahāvrata) is recognized by the Upanişadic thinkers as well as the Buddhas (who teach the Pañch-sila). The principles of most of these are recognised also in the commandments of the Bible. But the Jains try to practice these with a regour scarcely found elesehwere."30
Jain ethics explains the concept of "Punya' and Pāpa. “Punya' or merit is an action that brings peace to the mind e.g. giving food to the deserving, water to a thirsty, clothes to poor etc. Sin or Pāpa is inflicting injury or suffering or Hinsā; even untruthfulness, dishonesty, unchastity are also sins.
"The ethical system of Jains is more rigorous than that of the Buddhists."31 It looks upon patience as the highest good and pleasure as a source of sin."32
What is expected from a householder is that he becomes indifferent to both pleasure and pain. "The Jiva, which through desire for outer things experiences pleasurable or painful states, loses his hold on self and gets bewildered, and led by outer things. He becomes determined by the other "33 "That Jiva, which being free from relations to others and from alien thoughts through its own intrinsic nature of perception and understanding perceives and knows its own eternal nature to be such, is said to have conduct that is absolutely self determined."34
28. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of Jains, (1977) p. 101 29. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 327 30. Prof. Chatterjee & Dutta, An Int. to Indian Philosophy (1968) p. 106 31. Dr. S. Radhakrisbanan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 326 32. A.S., Sacred Book of East, xxii p. 48
3. Pa chāstikāyasamāysära, 163 34. Ibid 165

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In the words of Lord Mahavira. "Man, thou art thine own friend, why wishest thou for a friend beyond thyself ?"35
There is also a place and importence for meditation and Yoga in Jainism. In fact, terms Yoga and Dhyana are synonymous in Jainism. It talks about four kinds of Dhyana. (Arta Dhyana, Raudra-Dhyana, Dharma-Dhyana, Shukla-Dhyāna) two bad Dhyānas and two good ones. According to Jainism one is never in a state of noDhyāna.
The Dharma Dhyana and Śukla Dhyana are the higher ones. The Sukla Dhyana is the sublimest and the subtlest. "Dhyana, or meditation is to be enjoyed, since it enables us to acquire strength for fulfilling the vows."36
What is worth noting is that Jainism accepts possibiltiy of "non-Jains attain salvation if only they follw the ethical rules laid down. "37
Thus, in our final conclusion over the structural part of the Jain ethics, we observe that it uplifts an individual in his spirituality as well as moulds him into a worthy moral and social being.
Again the conception of morality in Jain ethics is to be interpreted with reference to law of Karma. "Emancipation from mundane existence, which is the ultimate aim of life, can not be attained by mere observance of virtue."3 Perfection, according to Jainism, is possible with the total annihilation of Karmas, "It is a state beyond vice and virtue. One may become worse or better by vicious or virtuous activities, but not perfect. :39 "What is necessary is a considered balance between the two, the supramoral plane of life and the practical code of morality." Practical code of morality is meaningless if it does not lead to the higher supra- moral plane of life.
1140
35. Sacred Book of East xxii p. 33
36. हिंसा द्दिष्विहामुत्र यापायावद्यदर्शनम् ॥४॥
दुःखमेव वा ॥५॥ मैत्री प्रभायकारणमाध्यत्यानि सत्त्वगुणाधिकक्लिश्यमाना विनेवेषु ॥६॥ जगत्कायस्वभावौ च सवैगवैराग्यार्थम् ॥७॥ T.S.VII. 4.7
37. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 328
38.
39.
40.
Pravachansara- 3-56
Prof. Dayanand Bhargava, Jain Ethics, (1968) p. 74 Sāmānyasarakalaśa. (1959) p. 267

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Jain Theism 4.1.4 Theistic presuppositions
To sum up what has been discussed as the structual part of Jain ethics what we clearly notice is the fact that Jain ethics deals with certain definite codes (Ācāra) both for the householder as well as for the monk. They are rigorous because ultimately it insists on self-effort. The Keynote of the system is Ahimsă.' All the numerous rules, woven into a systamatic ethical code of right couduct, revolve round this central doctrine of Ahimsā.
The sanctity of life, including that of birds and beasts, itself is holy and religious. The full recognition of this sanctity, in any form, turns out to be religious. To a Jain, Ahimsā is not just an ethical code but much more than that. To him Ahimsa is an approach which is highly religious and highly theistic as it is through Ahimsā he aspires to achieve the highest goal of life. Dr. J. N. Sinha in his 'A History of Indian philosophy' (Vol.II) Writes
“The Jain ethics stresses meditation on love (Maitri) for all creatures, compassion for the distressed (Kārunya), delight (Pramoda) at the virtuous, and indifference (Upeksa) to the vicious. These are social virtues. They make for social harmoy. But they are regarded as the means of selfculture. Their significance is not emphasized. Social welfare is not the goal of morality. self perfection or self-realization is the highest good. Complete eradication of emotions and passions is indispensable for self-realization for they disturb the tranquillity of the soul. Even devotion to the Arhat, which is a kind of noble attachment, should be eradicated. Complete passionlessness and inactivity of the mind, body, and speech are necessary for perfection. Thus the Jain ethics is rigoristic and ascetic, though it recognizes the social virtues of benevolence, charity and love. But it cannot be said to be egoistic. It upholds eudaemonism as to the ‘summum bonum' and rationalism and asceticism as to the means of its attainment, It regards transcendental purity (Visuddhi) of the soul as the highest good, beyond virtue and vice which generate beneficial and harmful karma particles or impurities. This is purism or rationalism. The Jain ethics of ahimsā and universal love and goodwill is a grand contribtion to ethical thought. These should be the foundation of the new order.'
Even the other great vows like, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacarya and Aparigraha, proclaim highest morality which is operative to immortality. Jain ethics, thus envisages the salvation of all living beings,

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irrespective of any such barriers of sex, age, color, caste, creed, class, status. This makes Jain ethics a very effective one and its objective validity and the sanctity of the high morals, in one way or the other, lead to the acceptance of a divine law giver.
Pt. Dalsukh Malvania has described Jainism "though an ethical system is a religion.”?+! He has listed the reasons for considering Jainism as a religion. Prof. L.M. Joshi in this regard writes that, frankly speaking the word Dharma is much more meaningful and comprehensive than the word 'religion"? "Nevertheless, Dharma whether of the Jains or Buddhas, has inspired a profound conception of supreme holiness,'?43 which, in its essential nature proves to be anything but atheistic. Thus the Jain system of ethics comes out as a religion of holiness which cannot escape thestic color.
Moreover, Jain ethics is nothing but an Acāte-Dharma. Its goal is Samyak-Cāritra or right conduct. The ‘righteousness' of any thought, speech or action, or say, of any conduct is an ethical quality. This righteousness in Jainism is expected to be result-oriented i.e. leading to a spiritual upliftment.
The spiritual upliftment in Jainsim would mean the soul purer than before. It means the soul progressing towards achievements aspired by the religion. Spiritual upliftment is the result which is not possible without the practice of religion its codes and vows. Thus the spiritual upliftment logically leads to a theistic position.
Moreover, we have seen how Jain ethics, not only dependent on but is derived from and is consistent with Jain metaphysics and Jain epistemology whose theistic implication we have already examined in our previous chapters. Jain ethics being quite consistent with the philosophy of Jainism must be consistent with theism.
Here, we should also take note of those theistic elements that peep out from the window of certain Jain Acāra. Pandit Dalsukh Malvnia, in one of his essays on 'The Fundamental doctrine of Jain ethics', 44 discusses some of the original doctrines, in the sense that, 41. Pt. Malvania D., Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) 42. Prof. L. M. Joshi, Facets of Jain Religiousness in Comprative Light,
(1981) p. 40 43. S. A. Reality, p. 298 44. Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Jain Dharma Cintan (1965) p. 52-66

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they are found in Jain ethics only. Pandit Dalsukh Malvania throws light upon the logical consistency in the practice of Acara, attitude to reject conduct that is not acceptable and agreeable to me if others inflict upon me (Atmaupamya drști) and activeness (Apramāda) He, in his support quotes Acărăngsutra, which defines idleness to be violence and conduct without 'right knowledge' (Samyak Jñāna) as meaningless.' According to Jainism rigid rituals and conduct devoid of right knowledge (Samyak Jñāna) resulting from the meaningful practice of the great vows and penance, and the constant efforts to stop the influx of evil Karmas together with cautiousness, celibacy, awakeningness and compassion results from 'Activeness' (Apramada). These fundamental moral doctrines of Jainism are ultimately leading its practitioner towards self-realisation attainment of salvation, Again the meaning, purpose, and dignity of these moral doctrines pose before us nothing but the acceptance of supreme being and also the acceptance of full scope to become supreme being by raising the soul in its purest form, Jain religion and ethics, through which a Jain tries to attain this, becomes theistic, both in theory and in practice.
The concept of morality with reference to Jain religion is also a good clue to disclose its theistic presupposition. Sound morality is not possible without religion. It appears that Jain leaders were very much interested in emphasiing the freediom and responsibility of the individual soul which is very much necessary for ethics, and ethics is an integral part of theism. When the relationship between Karma and God is emphasized beyond a limit then the Sadhakas try to lean more on 'grace' than on individual effort. Hence sometimes, it is very necessary in the interest of ethics to suspend or bracket this aspect of God's nature so that the Sadhakas work with individual effort and accept personal responsibilities. It can be compared with a metaphysical silence of 'Buddha'. Jainism, as we have seen, is a religion having an ethical system. What could be the point of view of religion and morality? Ultimately one has to think of partiality and point of view. While thinking about the Jainism as religion and system of ethics we are led to think from its concept of the holy pentad viz. the Arhats, the Siddhads, the Acaryas, the Upadhyās and the Sadhus. The concept of the holy pentad "has functioned as the foundation of faith and centre of devotion in Jain community... The nature of this 'faith' which
45.
'आत्मनः प्रतिकूलानि परेषां न समाचरेत् ।
(4

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the western writers have called 'Jainism', the Jains themselves call it 'Dharma." 46 Thus we find a clear assertion of Jain form of morality and religiousness in the religious faith' towards the five classes of holy beings through the practice of Jain moral code or ethics. It brings out nothing but a theistic vision of the ultimate truth and "the fact remains that it represents a kind of faith or human quality which has successfully engaged a section of humanity- the Jaina community in the task of growig in holiness in quest of transcendental perfection.""?
On the strength of the above mentioned reasons and discussion on then, we conclude that the Jain ethics presupposes a kind of theistic authority for the objectivė sanction of its code and its leaning towads ‘Holy pentad' for ethical practice are very clearly theistic. 4.2 The Law of Karma and its Theistic Implications 4.2.1 Introduction
The doctrine of Karma is of great importance for every student of religion and philosophy. 'Karma, a central, if not fundamental, doctrine in most of the world's religions,"48 The doctrine of Karma is one of the most significant tenets of Indian philosophy. "It has profoundly influenced the life and thought of the people in India." In general it means that all actions, good or bad, produce their effects. It helps us to understand certain difference amongst the individuals as well as desparities observed in life. “The law of Karma is the general moral law which governs not only the life and destiny of all individual beings, but even the order and arrangement of the physical world. "Su In modern society incorruptible men suffer immensely and the dishonest prosper. This kind of personal and social inequalities have been a perennial problem of provident and social justice."SlThe doctrine of Karma is a philosophic solution to this problem. It is the basic postulate of Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism. “One finds an unanswerable truth
46. Dr. L. M. Joshi, Facts of Jain Religiousness in Comparative Light, (1981) P. 38 47. Dr. L. M. Joshi, Facts of Jain Religiousness in comparative Light, (1981)
p. 39 48. R.Zimmermann S.J.,F. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy by
Glasenapp. (1942) p. Viii. 49. Cave (Sidney), Living Religions of the East p. 31 50. Prof. S.C.Chatterjee and D.M.Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
(1968) p. 15-16. 51. Prin. T. G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth, Ahmedabad, (1972)

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Jain Theism in the theory of Karma not necessatly in the form the ancients gave to it, but in the idea at its centre which at once strikes the mind and commands the assent of the understanding.... There is a solidity at once of philosophic and practical truth supporting the idea, a bed-rock of the deepest universal undeniable verities against which the human mind must always come up in its fathomings of the fathomless, in this way indeed does the world deal with us, there is a law here which does so make itself felt and against which all our egoistic ignorance and selfwill and violence dashes up in the end... There is the secret of an eternal factor, the base of the unchanging action of the just and truthful gods, Devānām dhruvavratam, in the self-sufficient and impartial law of Karma."??
"The doctrine of Karma is the central dogma of the Indian religions. It means : every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect-the Karman : every action produces, if one may so express it, certain potential energies which under given conditions are changing themselves into actual energies, forces which, either as reward or punishment, enter sooner or later into appearance."933
The doctrine of Karma has been, in Buddhism, explained thus: “As in the case of a bond which, although the amount borrowed may long ago have been spent, continues to exist and only loses its validity on the repayment of the capital sum, so also the invisible effect of an action remains in existence long after the visible one has disappeared.'*54 The present life is, in its duration and condition, the result of the past actions, and actions performed during the presint existence are the causes of future existence. Everybody's existence and life is determined as per the previous Karma. “Thus the natural difference between individuals finds an explanation which is so plausible that inversely it is adduced as a proof of the truth of the Karman theory.''55
The doctrine of Karma has been intimately connected with the doctrine of the reincarnation of soul. "Karma and rebirth are the two concepts which cannot be considered by themselves in isolation. The
52. Aurobindo, the Problem of Rebirth, (1952) p. 84 53. Dr. Giasenepp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. XI 54. Nagatjuna, Madhyamaka Śåstra, XVII 13 55. Sankara Ad, Brahmasutra II 1, 34, Sāṁkhyasutra V. 20 Vi. 4. Karmagrantha
I.P. 29

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two are causally connected.''56 Thus the doctrine Karma involves the idea of an eternal metampsychosis; for not only new existence, actions which are to be realised in future life but every present existence presupposes the past actions. so it is with our beginning. “The common basis of all the religious systems of India is the dogma of retribution, causality of the deed (Karma) and conditioned by this the beginningless chain of existence following one another."57 This very knowledge of painful reincarnation due to Karma led to the endeavour to end the cycle of birth and rebirth and to eradicate the power of Karma. Here lies the origin of the logning after salvation. In Indian philosophy, “it is surprising to note that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization (liberation) were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems.''55 4.2.2 Karma in Non-Jain Systems
“Rebirth and Karma are the two most important presuppositions of all schools of Indian philosophy with the solitary exception of the system of Cārvāka.''59 The Karma theory has been expressed in a various different standpoints, as we find Karma as regarded by realism is a complexity of material particles infecting the soul; while to the most extreme idealism it is a “newly produced invisible force. The Sāmkhya-Yoga, the Nyāya, Vaiseșika and the Vedānta virtually belong to the same group as the Jain and the Buddhist. The Mimāmsaka belongs to the other group. In the Upanişads it is said that "Jivās are bound by Karma.'60 “A man becomes good by good deeds and bad by bad deeds”61 The Mahābhārata emphatically expresses that" One has to experience the fruits of Karma’’62 "Karma is created due to the Vāsanā (desire) and Vāsanā is created and intensified due to the force of Karma; and there is thus the beginningless cycle of causation,"63 Even Manusmriti talks at length about bodily (Kāyika) verbal (vācika) and mental (Mānasika) actions of men.”64 Vedāntasūtra also mentions different kinds of Karma and discusses the distinction between the Prārabdha and Anāranbha Kārya."65
56. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth, (1972) p. 4 57. Dr. Glasenapp, Immortatily and Salvation in Indian Religions, p. 25 58. Prof. S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (1975) Vol. I. p. 71 59. Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jain philosophy, p. 220 60. Sanyās Upanisad-ii-18
61. Bịhadāraṇyaka Upanisad, üi. 2. 13 62. Shanti Parva, 181 63. Ibid., 211 64. Manusmriti 12. 5, 7
65. Vedānta Sutra 4.1, 13. 15

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In Buddhism there is no soul. But then Buddhism believes in rebirth. Here what "transmigrates is not a person but Karma."'66 4.2.3 The Theory of Karma: Its Genesis
Quite a good number of scholars and authorities have tried to find out when and where the Karma doctrine has had its origin in India. It is difficult to say when and where the concept of Karma originated in India."67 Some traced back the origin of Karma in the principle of Rta as described in Rg-Veda. Rta pervades the whole world, and gods and men must obey it. It is the cosmic principle in anticipation of law of Karma. After a long discussion Prin. T.G.Kalghatgi says, "it is difficult to say that Karma must have originated from Rta. The doctrine of Karma does not appear in the old hymns of RgVeda."'68 Karma doctrine has been widely accepted in the ancient Indian thought.' ." It is probable that karma and rebirth must have been preAryan doctrines which were important in the Śramana culture and later assimilated in the Aryan thought by the time Upanisads were clearly formulated."'69 The Indian view of Karma was doubtless of non Aryan provinance and it was a kind of natural law."70 Dr. Glassenapp. in his famous book "The doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy', quotes number of authorities that tell "when and were the doctrine has had its origin in India we do not know." But then he says.... "only is it sure that it existed at least a thousand year before the beginning of the Christian Era, and has since become the basis and centre of religious thought.""The conception first mentioned, the most realistic of all that have had the origin in India, is that of the Jains, of that Indian religious community which has existed from pre-Buddhistic times down to the present day.'
72יי
The doctrine of Karma can not be proved. In fact it does not require any proof. It is a self-evident theory established as an important postulate to almost all the religions of the world. Even no philosopher, thinker a moral teacher or a revolutionist has found it necessary to prove. However "the real proof of the truth of Karma theory is to be
66. Abhidhama Kosa Bhasya-III 24.
67. Dr. Glasenapp. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. xi-xii 68. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi, Karma and Rebirth (1972) p. 8
69. Ibid p. 8
70. Ninian Smart, Doctrines and Arguments in Ind, Philosophy (1964) p. 163 71. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) xi-xii 72. Ibid., xii

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Jain Ethics found in the words of revealed scriptures or in the utterances of the great enlightened ones. It is undisputed theory, in the sense that, neither the theists nor the atheists have ever ventured to dispute "the force of Karma that operates with iron necessity. God is not able to rule arbitrarily without the law of Karma on the contrary, Karma is the guiding force to which he must confirm for the creation and the governance of the world."74
Let us now examine the Jain doctrine of Karma, its nature, its relation to soul, its types and classification etc. to find out its significance and implications. 4.2.4 Jain Theory of Karma (1) Meaning and Significance
Karma, literally, means “action' or 'activity' or 'deed'. Whatever is done is Karma. Thus we find 'Karma' is hinted at the after effect of action. The 'action' or 'deed' is not to be understood in its ordinary or popular sense as used for business, work or profession. In fact every living being is constantly engaged in some activity or deeds. Here activity does not mean only physical. The deeds include all the threefold functions of body, speech and mind. The Jains still go minutely by further including three different modes directly done, done through some one, and encouraged others to do. Thus ‘Karma', etymologically, means 'deed' or 'action' - done physically (bodily or vocally) or mentally, actively, passively or instigatingly. The wider denotation of the term given by Sāstras include all types of actions voluntary or nonvoluntary, of human beings or other beings. The Mimāmsakas use it in the sense of “rites and rituals"? while the Smritikāras use it in the sense of duties of the “four- fold occupations (varņas) and stations (Aśramas). “It is used in the sense" religious vows and disciplines by the purāņikas; and the Grammarians use it as 'object or the second case', The Nyāya-Vaiseșika use it in the sense of 'movement; and not voluntary action or the law of moral causation, residing only in one substance devoid of qualities and direct and immediate cause of conjunction and disjunction"76 The word Karma is used in the sense of "function of Rajas aspect of Prakriti''?? in Sāṁkhya and yoga. What 13. Prin. T.G. Kalghatgi : Karma and Rebirth (1972) p. 17 74. Dr. Glasenapp, Immortality and Salvation in Indian Religion, p. 34 15. Dr. Ramji Singh: The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 110 16. Kaņāda, Vaiseşikasatra I 1.17 77. Távåra krisna, Sāṁkhya Kärikā, 13

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is important for us to note is that the word Karma, as a philosophic term means, not only action but also its actual potential effects.
“In Jainism, this means the activity of soul which invites and enables matter to flow into it, as also the matter which does flow into it."7% According to Jainism, most of the souls are not pure, but are infected by something foreign which veils their natural faculties. This foreign element is Karma. Karma does not here mean 'deed, work', nor invisible, mystical force (adrasta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which enters into the soul and causes great changes in it."??! "Oh Gautama, just as a sprout has a seed for its Hetu, as there is a Hetu for happiness and misery; since it is Kārya, that Hetu is Karma. '*** “Mysery comes in unequal ways; this difference cannot be without any Hetu which is not seen. This very unseen Hetu is Karma??! Dr. Ramji singh while discussing the basic postulate of the Karma theory with reference to Karma and omniscience gives reasons for the Jains putting great emphasis on this doctrine. It is so significant to them that they work out a science of Karma (Karma Vijnana). According to him the reasons for the emphasis are : (i) To substantiate the sovereignty and independence of the
soul over matter. This was mainly in reply to Cārvāka who had reduced the soul to an epiphenomenon of matter and
had rejected rebirth and salvation. (ii) To give a counter emphasis to Vedantists like Śankara who
would place Karma in the realm of Māyā, which is unreal
as a metaphysicalentity, (iii) As refutation to the one-sided fluxism of Buddhism where
there is no identity of a permanent soul. (iv) To improve upon Brahmanical notion that “Karma is
subservient to God and hence what is more important is not Karma but the compassion of God'82 which would, as Jains rightly feared, lead to fatalism and passimism""%3
78. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 110 79. Dr. Glasenapp: The Doctrine of Karma, (1942), p. 3 80. ViseşāvaśyakaBhāsya : Ganadharavāda 1611-12 and Commentary 81. Ibid. 82. Rg-Veda X-19. 3, Tait, Upanisad III, 1, Manusmgiti. I. 5-9 83. Read Dr. Ramji Singh's :' The Jaina Concept of Omniscience (1974), p. 107 & 108

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Apart the reasons discussed by Dr. Ramji Singh, we may add one very important point of view, the Jainas had, that would make them give utmost emphasis to the doctrine of Karna. This is their very fundamental metaphysical concepts of soul and salvation. It does not believe in anything but in ‘self effort' as the only way to make the soul free from the bondage of Karma, and to attain its pure form, which is liberation. This, and this alone, will be consistent with their metaphysical, logical, ethical and spiritual outlook. Perhaps, in giving utmost significance to Karma theory, the Jainism wants to affirm that the ethical autonomy and moral potency of Karta is far more dignified to human life than receiving the grace from a merciful God. (2) Karma, Matter and Soul
The doctrine of Karma is a special feature of special peculiarity of Jainism, Its theory of Karma is altogether different from the other systems of Indian philosophy. It is based on such a sound logic and scientific approach that it becomes impossible to refute any of its aspects rationally. Its base is simple metaphysical truth. It is founded on the simple theory of causation. Every cause is bound to have its corresponding effect and no effect is without a cause. One has to read as he has sown, has to bear the consequences of his Karmas, sooner or later, here in this life or next life. Escape from the effect of Karmas done is totally impossible. As the realisation of the consequences of all Karmas is not possible in one span of life, what logically and positively follows is a future birth to enable their frutation. This is how the cycle of birth and rebirth goes on. From this also follows a rational explanation to the natural difference between individuals.
Karma according to Jainism is material in nature. "The doctrine is a direct corollary of the Jain conception of matter which is described as being amenable to multifarious modifications'*84 The entire world is surrounded by sense layers of five everlasting, imperishable substances (Dravya) which produce the multifarious world processes. Karman, as we have earlier said, does not mean the deed but the foreign elements of which the souls are infected and veil the natural faculties of the souls. “The Karman then is something material (Karma Paudgalam), which produces in the soul certain conditions, even as a medical pill which, when introduced into the body, produces therein manifold effects.
84. Dr. J.P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 38

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Jain Theism This fine matter which can become Karman, fills the entire cosmos.'*85
Before we say about the process of material bondage or karmabandh let us say about the Jain concepttion of Jiva or Soul. Jainism believes the soul to be a substance, of course, distinguished from the other types of substances. Besides, there are innumerable souls who are totally independent from one another and in no way connected to a higher reality or higher unity like Brahman in Vedānta. Jiva or soul being a substance (dravya) possesses infinite qualities (guna) Out of which the main eight are
(i) Omniscience (Kevala Jñāna) (ii) Absolute undifferentiated congnition (kevaladarśana) (iii) Bliss or Superiority over joy & grief (avyābadha) (iv) Religious truth and moral conduct (Samyaktva and Căritra) (v) Eternal life (Aksayasthiti) (vi) Complete formlessness (Amurtatva) (vii) Complete equality with other Jivs (Samyaka Drsti) (viii) Unrestricted energy (Virya)
According to Jainism all the above mentioned qualities belong by nature to every soul. Thus the soul is potentially pure and perfect. In the world we find all Jivas having restricted of capacities; full of pain and suffering instead of pleasures and bliss; having incomplete knowledge. immoral conduct; embodied in form of an insect, bird, animal or human; weak and sick instead of infinitely energetic. The question as to how it happens is answered by Jainism through its theory of Karma. "The idea of the pollution of the soul due to Karma has been largely allegorical in other religious philosophies in India, while the Jains have adopted it in the real sense of the word and have worked out into an original system.''86 Now the soul, from pure and ultimate point of view is pure and perfect. It is simple and without parts, it is immaterial and formless.'*$? It is pure consciousness. But then from phenomenal point of view, the soul is infected with four-fold passions, namely:
wrong belief (Mithya Darśana)
85. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy (1942), P.3 86. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy (1942), p. 15 87. D.S. 2

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vowlessness (Avirati), carelessness (Pramāda) and passions (Kaşāya).
"The soul, not directly, but through its psychic conditions and state of consciousness which find expression in the vibrations (Yogas) caused by its own mental, vocal and bodily activities.
These vibrations of the mundane soul, being already tinged with emotions and passions, cause the Karmic influx. Thus the soul when in conjunction with matter, develops a sort of susceptibility which finds expression in the soul's passional states; the latter, in their turn, cause the soul to establish a relationship with matter and let itself be held in bondage.""88 “These Karmic Particles attached to the soul are called Karmas.'°89 "Matter (Pudgala) is a non-soul substance (Ajiva Dravya),"90 which has got form and qualities."91
“Matter is eternal, uncreated and has got form and magnitude.92 The Karmic matter which is very fine and imperceivable" is capable of becoming gross matter."*93
The Jain position about the conception and nature of soul (Jiva) is completely unambiguous. The only crucial question before Jainsm is that if the soul is potentially divine, innately perfect and completely free, how and why it gets infected. The Jaina reply is that both nescience and Karma are beginningless and so is their relationship to self has to be postulate as beginningless. (3) Types of Karmas
In the whole game of Karma and bondage we find the particles of Karma on one side and the mental state. The Jain scriptures talk about two aspects: (i) the physical aspect : 'Dravya Karma' and (ii) the psychic aspect: 'Bhāva Karma'. Jainism has given a detailed classification of these Karmas and its subdivisions. Jainism enters into the minutest details of each of these Karma from four points of view : its manner, its duration, its intensity and its quantity Karma has three stages, namely, Bondage (Bandh), Existence (Satta) and realisation (Udaya). "The soul is extremely infected by matter; its union with the Karma has no
88. Dr. J.P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) p. 39 89. Devendra Sari, Karma Grantha (1958) p. 1 90. Dravya Samgraha 15., 91. Tattvartbasutra V. 5 9 2. Kundakundicărya, paticăstikayåsára 4 93. Ibid : 83 94. Dr. Glasenapp. The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942)
p. 3.4

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beginning and, at every moment it is gathering new matter, it has in the natural course of thing no ending."94 The full deliverance of the soul from Karma is therefore possible by a severe ascetic practice, by "Ahimsā, self-control and penance'. One who is able to do so is indeed heroic conqueror - a Jina. There are 8 chief or fundamental Karmas, namely 1. jñānāvaraņa Karma : the Karma that obscures knowledge 2. Darśanāvaraņa Karma: the Karma that obscures
undifferentiated cognition 3. Vedaniya Karma : the Karma which produces the feeling
of joy and grief 4. Mohaniya Karma : the Karma which obstruct belief and
conduct. 5. Ayuş Karma
the Karma which determines the
duration of life. 6. Nāma Karma
the Karma which gives the various
factors of individuality 7. Gotra Karma
the Karma which destines family
surroundings. 8. Antarāya Karma : the Karma which hinders the Jiva in
his ability to resolve and enjoy. The above mentioned eight types of Karinas are Dravya Karma and they have one hundred and forty eight subclasses. Of the eight primary class no. 1,2,4, and 8 are called 'Ghātis' because they affect spiritual faculties and capacitites. Till they, or any of them is there the soul cannot attain liberation or become an arhat, kevalin. The remaining four are known as Aghātis'. since they do not damage or obstruct spiritual qualities. They have their effect in body or physical condition only.
Karma has been also classified as auspicious and unauspicious i.e Subha and Aśubha Karma. The auspicious are those that bring happiness and pleasure while the unauspicious are those that bring suffering and grief. 4.2.5. Critical Evaluation
We have so far given a brief picture of Karma, the Jain theory of Karma, its meaning, significace and types. I have purposely not

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entered into a detailed explanation of its operation as well as method of annihillation of Karma as it has very little relevance with reference to what we want to arrive, at. Being cautious of the fact that we are more concerned about what is seen behind the curtain or the underneath current, we now evaluate the Jain doctrine of Karma.
The charge that comes to Karma theory is that the Jain theory of Karma leads to a belief in determinism, fatalism or blind destiny. As the late Justice J. L. Jaini observed, "It is not fate nor even predestination, but it is the ever continuous balancing of the different accounts that we keep with the force of life" "One may call this doctrine of Jainism almost spiritual mathematics."96 The theory does not lead to the fact that events and conditions are absolutely predetermined, by some unknown destiny. It does not treat a human soul as helpless and in slavery to Karma. The freedom of soul is there, and from it only the emphasis on strong willpower and conscious personal effort (puruşārtha) comes. "He is the master of his destiny and can make it or mar it accordingly as he wills. This optimism is based on a rational conviction and profound faith in the intrinsic purity and perection of the self (soul) and its capacity and capacity to realise, recover and retain for ever its essential nature (Dharma) that i through philosophical enlightenment and a rigorous course of moral and spiritual self-discipline. is the key note of Jainism".97
Jains should also be given credit "to preserve their fundamental non-absolutistic attitude with regard to the conception of the nature of Karma. Karma for them is neither absolutely identical with Pudgala nor completely distinct and different from it."48
As some of the Western thinkers have felt, the theory implied a hedonistic outlook in life, and a grip of legalism upon the soul. In fact such comments are the result of ignorance or love for traditional theism. The theory of Karma is not and can not be a 'law' as we use in the legal sense. The doctrine explains the higher trenscedental and emancipatory state of soul. It does not limit man's freedom but organises man's freedom. It makes life more meaningful and more dignified by excluding divine grace and establishing human effort. The judicial aspect of the doctrine of Karma is this non compromisiveness or absolute
95. J. L. Jaini : Outline of Jainism, (1979), p. 29 96. Dr. J. P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979), p. 41 97. Dr. I. P. Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1979), P. 42 98. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 116

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judiciousness that makes the doctrine “an explanation of the moral justice in the universe"? It is this affirmed and assured reliability that inculcates faith - faith is actual practice of the moral rules and becoming more and more free from the bondage; becoming more and more light.
On the whole Jain. doctrine of Karma as a moral principle proves to be quite consistent with its own metaphysics and epistemology, becomes a great satisfaction to one's sense of justice and sound solution to the problem of "seemingly unmerited suffering : 'and besides all these a very powerful moral force pushing the human conduct towards a high spiritual plane. 4.2.6 Theistic Implications
We have so far understood and examined as the aspects of the theory of Karma in general as well as the doctrine of Karma in Jain pholosophy in particular. The, Jain doctrine of Karma as we have seen emerges out as a profoundly fundamental in its base and highly scientific in its operation. What is more importanrt is its ultimate motive. It, after all, serves itself as a means to an end, as a tool or instrument;
altiinate end is to enable one to break the chain of the Karmic bondage and to lead to the final attainment of salvation. In my humble opinion, it is this very reason that would make the doctrine a moral or ethical one, though it has a strong metaphysical foundation. The doctrine of Karma if viewed from its moral or ethical aspects does reveal some theistic elements, and theistic presuppositions. Let us discuss some of them.
Jainism is, as we know, realism, Its morality is also a rational morality. “The reasons why man needs a moral code will tel you that the purpose of morality is to define man, proper values and interests, that concern with his own interests is the essence of a moral existence, and that man must be the beneficiary of his own moral action"99 I quote from Galt's speech : "There is only one fundamental altemative in the universe : existence or non-existence and it pertains to a single class of entities : to living organisms. The existence of inanimate matter is unconditional, the existence of life is not; it depends on a specific course of action. Matter is indestructible, it changes its forms, but it cannot cease to exist. It is only a living organism that faces a constant alternative; the issue of life or death. Life is a process of self-sustaining and self-generated action. If an organism fails in that action, it does; its chemical elements remain, but its life goes out of existence, It is
99. Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness, (1970), introduction p. ix

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only the concept of 'life' that makes the concept of 'value' possible."100
But then what is religion? A distinguished Danish philosopher, Harold Hoffding defines religion as "the belief in the conservation of values "This we find any moral code is bound to be concerned with values, religion and life." It is mainly such belief that raises Jainism to the status of religion in spite of the absence of a belief in God"01 Jainism proves to be quite justified in its stress on moral values, Its doctrine of Karma aims at total annihilation of Karma to attain perfect freedom. It is based on immortality of soul and freedom of will. The entire doctrine proves to be more ethical than metaphysical only because it is centered round the soul. Alongwith the justifiability of the doctrine of Karma and freedom of will, the soul and spirituality is aso there and this gives the theistic color to the theory. Dr. Ramji Singh rightly observes, "But unless, the Karma is associated with the soul it cannot produce any effect because it is only the instrumental cause and it is the soul which is the efficient cause of all experiences. Hence the Jains regard the soul as the possessor of material Karma."102
This very stress in regaining the original, the pure and perfect form of the soul and its spirituality is nothing but a theistic attitude towards higher moral purpose. It is already a known fact it is the acceptance of God or supreme being that makes a system theistic. But then the concept of God or supreme being needs a little broader or wider interpretation. It will be in all the way mire in fitness to say truth is God, love is God, perfection is God or righteousness is God rather than to say God is love God is truth etc. If we try to understand, we will find God, being formless, an idea it is more appropriate to call any perfection God, any Righteousness or truth God. From this point of view, Jainism has accepted every soul to be potentially pure and perfect. Every Soul thus is potentially God, The doctrine of Karma becomes meaningful only till the lost Godhood is not attained, Since the attainment of this Godhood or liberation or salvation is not possible in one life, it makes the reincarnation or transmigration of soul possible. The doctrine that aims at spiritual development and ultimately the attainment of Godhood cannot be anything but theistic.
In all the traditional theism there is devotion. The expression of devotion is through prayers, rites and rituals, as well as deeds as commanded by the scriptures. If we go little deep into the Jain doctrine
100. Vide Ayn Rand's The Virtue of Selfishness (1970) p. 15-16 101. Prof. S.C. Chatterjee & D.M. Datta, An Intro. to Indian Philosophy (1968), p.17 102. Dr. Ramji Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1974), p. 122

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of Karma we will find that all these have been covered up under karma. In fact 'Karma' is wider than any particular devotional act. Through Bhāva Karma and Dravya Karma, the Bhakti or prayer or any form of devotion has been accepted by the Jains. Jainism aims at "the scientific development of the character, the process of separating soul from matter."10? It gives great emphasis to concentration- concentration to improve the sensing faculty, to improve and develop the spiritual nature, to attain equanimity of mind and consequent spiritual illumination. Meditation of purity of mind in four ways : Love in the form of friendship. in the form of compassion, in the form of joy and in the form of indifference or forgiveness : results into a sort of devotion towards the highest and the noblest truths as well as towards the great tirthankaras. The theory of Karma ensures one "the life of a God in heaven, which is one of the forms that soul might assume by accumulation of merit. The greater power and perfection belonging to the divine body and organism are the rewards of the good deeds of a former life. The liberated souls are above the Gods."10
We may conclude therefore, with the remark that the doctrine of Karma in Jainism proves to be a very important moral doctrine. It is neither mechanical nor mathematical. It is neither legalism nor fatalism. The doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy, inevitably and invariably, is theistic, In the words of Dr. J. P. Jain, “The entire emphasis is on the development of strong will-power and conscious personal effort (puruṣārtha) in order to thwart and annihilate the various adverse influences, internal and external. subjective and objective, psychic and physical the forces of the Karma, Bhāva as well as Dravya and in this way to effect a gradual spiritual evolution leading to the ultimate goal, the very Godhood, whence there is no return to the Samsára. This transformation of the ātman into paramātman, of man into God, is the ultimate aim and realisable goal for him who is a sincere seeker after the truth."rus This rational conviction and profound faith in the intrinsic purity and perfection of the soul, and the capacity and capability to realise, recover and retain for Godhood through philosophical enlightenment and a rigorous course of moral and spiritual self discipline,"106 is the keynote of Jain theism. 103. H. Warren, Jainism (1968), p. 120 104 Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (1977) p. 133 105. Dr. J. P. Jain, Raligion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 42 106. Ibid., p. 42. 106. Dr. J. P. Jain, Raligion and Culture of the Jains, (1977), p. 42

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CHAPTER - 5 JAIN PHILOSOPHY OF SOUL 5.1. MEANING AND EXISTENCE OF SOUL 5.1.1 Introduction
Traditionally, jainism is known to be atheism. Is Jainism atheistic ? Is Jainism theistic ? If Jainism is 'an ethical system', and if Jainism fulfills all the requirements to be named as religion, how could it be atheistic ? If Jainism is theistic, what is the nature of its theism ? One can easily see that all these issues are metaphysical, as theism deals with God or supreme being or ultimate reality and its nature. if the soul in its purest form is all 'Perfection', the meaning, the existence, the nature and classification of soul will naturally uncover the metaphysical aspects of soul. And after all it is the metaphysical aspect that is the fundamental one. Again, Jain system enjoys a respectable place within the systems of Indian philosophy for being a complete one. For every problem of Indian philosophy, may it be regarding the world, the God or the soul, the Jain system has a solution of its own, theories and doctrines peculiar to the selves. It becomes, of prime importance for us to examine Jain conception of soul, mainly from its metaphysical point of view, and to find out whether the conception when observed and examined leads us to anything that is apparently or latently theistic. Let us try to understand the Jain conception of soul, which is the central and the most fundamental of its metaphysical aspects. 5.1.2. Meaning
As earlier already seen Jainism recognizes nine categories of the fundamental truths. They are (1) Jiva (2) Ajiva (3) Punya (4) Pāpa (5) Asrava (6) Samvara (7) Bandhá (8) Nirjarā and (9) Moksa, The whole universe is also analysed into two eternally independent categories of jiva and Ajiva. The Jiva is 'Chetan' or the enjoyed and Ajiva is Jada' or the objects enjoyed. The Jiva has consciousness while the Ajiva is devoid of consciousness. The division between "Jiva and Ajiva does not correspond to I and Not I. It is an objective classification of things in the universe that underlies the distinction of Jiva and Ajiva."!
1. Dr. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (1977) p. 314-315

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"Roughly speaking what is ‘Purusa' in the Samkhya and the Yoga system of philosophy, "Atmā" in the Nyāya, the Vaišeșika and the Vedānta thoughts, is Jiva in the Jain philosophy. Yet there is difference between the 'Purusa' of the Samkhya and the Yoga and the Jiva of the Jain; the Atmā of the Nyāya and the Vaiseșika philosophy is not quite the same as the Jiva of the Jain system of philosophy; "the Atmā of the Vedānta again, is different from the Jiva of the Jain system."? In Jainism "the difference between Jiva and Ajiva is not absolute one. They are related to each other as subject and object. They are not incompatible. They are related to each other in an organic unity. “Soul is a subtle substance..... Pudgala matter has weight and fills the space; but the essence of soul is conceived in self consciousness absolutely devoid of any materiality." The Daśavaikälika Sätra asks "One, who does not know the self and the non-self, how can he know the path to self-control (Saiyama)."*
In non-Jain or other system of Indian philosophy, as well as in Jainism, the knower is the soul, The knowledge is apprehended by the soul. It is a usual traditional or colloquial usage to say that the eye sees' or 'the ear listens' or 'the hand feels the touch'. In fact, what it is and what should be is : I see with eyes, 'l' listen with ears and so on. The pronouns used as T or 'you' or 'he' or 'she' etc. are for the individual's soul. The soul is knower and senses are simply tools to know. "The subject of all forms of valid cognition is the self as known by direct perception etc.”
"The soul is not an exclusive possession of human beings, according to Jainism. It allows the soul principle to extend to all the living things of the universe." With reference to this range of existences of the soul Nahar writes, “It is these souls in plasma that lie scattered in every nook and corner of the universe and each is the doer of good or bad deeds to reap the consequences of which each takes the repetition of births and deaths according to the merits of its own Karma, and thus traverses through the various grades of Samsāra. Heaven, hell a purgatory of ultimately release itself from the fetters of bondage by the dissipation of its own Karma whereupon it becomes pure and perfect
2. H.S.Bhattacharya, Reals in the Jain Metaphysics, (1966) p. 269 3. Nahar and Ghosh, An Epitome of Jainism p. 279 4. Dasavaikalika Sutra : 4.12 5. TAT vezana ufHas YT I P.N.T.VII-55 6. Dr. G. N. Joshi, Atma and Mokşa, (1965) p. 229

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and fixed as it were in the region of Aloka.""?
The Jain scriptures in general and Gasadharavāda (Lord Mahavira's last discourse with his chief disciples) in particular describes “this soul as 'traversing in this transitory world." It is called a great traveller who sails his ship (body) into the ocean (Samsăra). The life is the journey and the liberation is the destination."
As we come across systems like Cārvāka and Buddhism that does not believe in existence of soul, to us “the existence of soul will
to be considered first, as the nature of soul is not conceivable without being convinced of the existence of soul. Branch knowledge is not possible without rudimentary knowledge."10 5.1.3 Existence of Soul
"Existence of a substance or any entity is an ontological status. It is of great importance because fundamentally all the discussions about the nature, the characteristics and classification of a thing becomes tenable only and only if it exists. This ontological status called existence is proved directly by experience, e.g. we see the world and prove the existence of the world and so on. But then there are also a lot of things that exist but we cannot directly see them or touch them. The existence of such things which are not possible to be proved by the perception are proved indirectly, through Logic (through inference, comparison and testimony), through language etc. Though 'existence' as it is, is an ontological status, its proofs become an epistemological problem as we want to know whether a thing exists or does not exist. Soul or Jiva is a very 'subtle substance and its direct perception is not possible. Gautamasvāmi, one of the chief disciples of Lord Mahāvīra, when doubted the existence of soul, Lord Mahāvira proved its existence logically and was at last convinced. Let us examine some of the proofs for the existence of the soul as found in Jain Gañadharavāda.
Preliminarily the proofs include some verses from Vedās and Upanişads that talk about the self or soul. According to Chāndogyopanişad “the basic problem of ethics - removal of misery can be solved only by self-realisation."!! The BỊhadāraṇyakopanişad
7. Nahar and Ghosh : An Epitome of Jainism p. 279 8. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansari; Philosophy of Soul, (1963). p. 1. 9. Muni Sri Arun Vijayaji : Sacitra Ganadharavada, (1984), Book-2. 10. Srimad Vijaya Laxmansari : Philosophy of Soul, (1963), p.1.

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clearly says that "it is the self which we should perceive, hear, of which we should meditate."12 Moreover ‘soul is the subject of all the forms of valid cognition thus soul is the knower. The senses are aid or media through which the soul gets the knowledge. Even when the sense becomes ineffective or damaged or totally destroyed the previous knowledge remains. A man who becomes blind does not forget all that he saw in the past. Even when we use phrases like the departed soul',
left for ever', etc, proves the existence of soul in the body. Let us also make a mention of some of the logical arguments that prove the existence of soul.
The existence of soul can be proved by its effective operation. "We do accept the existence of an invisible entity if its operative effect is visible” e.g. air, wind, electric current etc. The soul or. Jiva is invisible but its operative effects are visible. We ourselves - our very self is the operative effect. Life activities full of consciousness, which is the essence of soul, is the most glaring evidence of the existence of soul.
The existence of soul can be proved by negation. Negation proves the existence. Of course, in logic, we do not consider the negation as an independent Pramāņa but then we all use the language of 'is' and 'is not'. The negation hints non-existence at a particular place or time eg. the director is not in his office, or the body without soul etc. In fact, negation of an entity is only possible if it exists, otherwise, it is not possible. The negation of soul also proves the existence of soul. Even the word atheist (Nāstik) proves the existence of soul. One who says “is not' (Nāsti) if he is asked 'what is not ?' (Kim Nāsti ?) he would answer the soul is not. In Jainism there are four suggested by negation: the Sāmyog Nisedha, the Samavāya Nisedha, the Sāmānya Nişedha and the Višeşa Nişedha. We should not go into the details of these different modes of expressing a negation, but what we note is the fact that none of these negations proves the non-existence.
Just like the negation, the opposite also proves the existence. The opposite word proves the existence of the object e.g. happiness and unhappiness, conscious and unconscious, Jiva and Ajiva etc.
11. Trefa pitaharafar I -Chāndogyopanişad 7.1.3 12. BICHT AR geen scan than fifcenfeo: - Bịhadāranyakopanişad
245

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103 Just like the negation and opposite words, there is one more proof to prove the existence and that is the relation between the utterer and utterance (Vācaka and Vaccya) whatever that is uttered : words, sentences etc., presupposes the utterer, The soul is the utterer because every utterance is a cognitive activity and cognition is an attribute of the soul. This brings before us even the presupposition of substance through quality. Knowedge is the quality, which is not possible without the substratum of substance. Knowledge is the quality of soul and therefore the existence of soul is proved even metaphysically.
One more proof, is the use of words like 'T', 'my', 'mine' etc. The famous philosopher Descartes when says 'Cogito Ergo Sum : (I think therefore I am). the thinking quality of the soul proves the existence of soul.
In all the above referred cases, even if someone doubts, the very doubt also proves the existence. Who doubts? And obviously we know it is the soul that doubts.
Let us now see some of the arguments based on different Pramāṇas to prove the existence of soul. The existence of soul can be proved by many Pramāņas.” As far as the direct experience is concerned, I never doubt my existence. I know I exist and therefore soul becomes self-evident. The soul being subtle can't be sensuously experienced, however the happiness and unhappiness is its direct evidence. The existence of an object can also be proved through inference. Inference is considered as a valid source of knowldege (Pramāna) by almost all the systems of Indian thought including Jainism. “Just like the gold in earth, curd in milk, and oil in oilseeds, the soul is there in the body.'14
Thus through the pleasures and pains of the body we can infer the soul. The existence of soul can logically be inferred with the help of a metaphysical principle. We very well know that an object is substance and qualities. What is perceived or felt by us are the qualities. Both substance and qualities are inseparable. Substance is always in form or with the qualities and qualities in their pure form i.e. without substance can not exist. Thus from the qualities like, knowledge, happiness, unhappiness etc, we infer the substance. This substance is the soul. Again every action or deed presupposes the doer of the deed.
14. Tratura
fami98
4, grey Jen gai i 79 ti, 46487 791 Fita 1 - Ganadharavāda III, p. 6.

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The doer of the Kriya or Karman is the soul, The body, mind or sense, are the tools through which the soul does the deeds. Senses or body can't do anything when soul is not there. eg. A dead body is inactive and unaffected. Thus we can infer the soul, as the doer of actions exists.
The existence of soul can also be proved through testimony. Testimony or Śabda Pramāņa is also a valid source of knowledge. In Jainism testimony is the Āgama Pramāņa. Agama or the unimpeachable authoritative texts also establishes the real existence of soul. Agama is the knowledge from Apta Purusas and 'Apta' is one who gives the meaningful (Yathartha) real truths. Thus Agama in Jainism is the knowledge of the truth given by an omniscient. There are two types of authorities the worldly and the other worldly. According to Jainism the parents and teachers are the worldly athorities. while the omniscients, the Tirthankaras are the other worldly. Let us see what Jain scriptures say about the existence of soul. Lord Mahāvira in Ācārangsūtra says, "One who knows one knows all."Is If we know the soul we know everything. In Uttarādhyanasūtra, in his last teachings Lord Mahāvira says, “Soul is the doer and destroyer of deeds. Soul is the friend and soul is the enemy”16 It is said in the Sarvadarśana Samgraha that "Jiva alone is conscious and the Ajiva has no consciousness."!? Vädi Devasūri in Pramāņa-naya-tattvā-lokālankāra says, “The subject of all forms of valid cognition is the self as known by direct perception etc."'18 Ācārya Haribhadrasuri in Sāstravártásamuccaya says, “The doer of the deeds and fruits enjoyer as well as the traverser from heaven to hell and the destroyer of the deeds with help of faith, knowledge and conduct is the
soul."19
Thus we find that the Jain system recognizes the existence of Jiva or soul like the other schools of Indian thought. We know, Cārvāka and Buddhism do not accept the existence of soul. The rest accept as Jainism accepts. The acceptance of the existence of soul is the very 15. Tri mug #Hadi Gus II - Acaranga Sutra 16. अप्या कत्ता चित्का य, दुक्खाण य सुहाण य ॥ अप्या मित्तमंमित्त य, दुप्पट्टिय सुपट्टिओ ॥
- Uttaradhyayan Sutra 17. a ateratant wita: 1 grateten attravita: 11 Sarvadarsana Samgraha, p. 67 18. Wat Tranfaufweisen TT 11 -Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalankara VII - 55 19. u: cal anar a ateri
af uffrafan AT 7A TUT: 11- Haribhadrasari- Śástravārtāsamuccāya 10

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105 fundamental plank in the spiritual science or for the concept of liberation. But then with regards to the nature of soul Jainism is quite distinct. The nature of Jiva or soul, its characteristics, qualities, classifications, status etc. all these will give an accurate picture of the Jain conception of soul. It is not possible to know thoroughly what does Jainism mean by Jiva without knowing all these aspects. We therefore try to see some of the main features related to the nature of Jiva or soul according to Jainism. 5.1.4 Nature of Soul (Jiva) in Jainism
Vādi Devasūri in his Pramāņa-nay-tattvā-lokālankāra describes the soul as, “That (i.e. the soul) is essentially consciousness; undergoes modifications; is a doer (of acts); is the direct enjoyer (of the fruits of its acts); is of the same extent as its body; is different in each individual and being attached to material elements has births and rebirths.”20 Through this verse, Vadi Devasûri has mentioned some of the very important characteristics of the soul which enable us to understand its nature. The most important characteristic of soul is its consciousness. In fact, consciousness is the essence of soul. The same consciousness in our daily affair we call 'life' and "the sacred scriptures have declared, soul is characterized by life.”21 Thus the soul consists in consciousness and conscionsness is congnition of all things having forms or no forms. Without consciousness the soul cannot know, cannot discriminate, and cannot will. Knowledge or Jñāna, though a very important characteristic of the soul."22 depends upon the particular state (of consciousness) in which the soul appears. "23 Thus consciousness (Chaitanya) is the natural and essential characteristic of the Jiva. This is the reason for the variability and relativity of the knowledge possessed by the Jiva or the soul. Such a variable quality cannot be called the permanent or essential quality of soul. In fact the soul is neither entirely identical nor entirely different from knowledge."24 Therefore, according to Jainism the Jiva or soul is said to be “Bhinnābhinnaḥ."25 Its relation with knowledge "is
20. GTART4: ufunfa af FTATCHAT FacEYFUTUT: 1
ufaretai fwa: tanfctanggalin II P.N.T.VII.56 21. Shrimed Vijaya Laxmansari, Philosophy of Soul, (1963). p. 4 22. "117STAT" 23. Dr. G.N. Joshi, Atmā and Mokşa (1965) p. 231 24. STET ET 7 Et fa c eret #1 -Sarvadarśanasamgrah p. 69 25. Ibid., p. 69

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Jain Theism not one of Şamavāya (inherence)."26 The soul is the doer of acts and none else, but the same soul is to reap the fruits of its deeds. So the soul is the doer and enjoyer of its deeds. Doing and enjoying presuppose knowing, it is in the this sense that consciousness is the essential characteristic of the soul. J. L. Jaini explaining the nature and characteristic, writes about the Jiva or soul, “The soul is a Dravya, therefore, like every other Dravya it is eternal. Its peculiar attributes are perception and knowldge. It is different from Karma or matter and therefore immaterial. It has identified itself with matter, therefore it assumes a body, to which it must fit. It is responsible for its Karmas, because it has the power to get rid of them all. It must reap the harvest of all seeds that it has sown; and therefore, must remain in the field of Samsāra, or a cycle of existence. And still all these evils are self-assumed; and in its pure condition the soul is Siddha."27
.: Lord Mahāvira, explaining the nature of soul to his chief disciple Gautamasvāmi, says, “This Jiva (or soul) is since the beginningless (Anādi) time, it is immortal, indestructible, eternal and permanent. "28
According to Jainism, "Jiva is possessed to cognition; is formless; is a doer; is of the same extent as its body; is an enjoyer; migrates (in its state of bondage) in the Samsāra or the series of existence; is free (in the essence); and has an upward motion."29
The Jiva is distinguised from other substances in the sense that it possesses consciousness and intelligence. “There are innumberable souls who, in fact, can influence one but who, according to their nature are quite independent from one another and not connected in some higher unity (Brahman)."30 Every soul in its essence possesses infinite qualities (Guņa) the following eight are the chief of them
(1) The faculty of omniscience (Keval Jñāna) (2) The faculty of absolute undifferentiated cognition (Kevala
Darsana)
26. Syadvada. Manjari - 9 27. J. L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism (1979) p. 18 28. wat uş, 3fagut, faucit, ut fred. - Sri. Bhagwatisatra 29. ma gutie: '3rfa: cal perfTUT
ATT FART: Har: #: fafata drifa: D.S.2 30. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 2

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107 (3) The superiority over joy and grief (Avyābādha) (4) The possession of complete religious truth (Sanyaktva) and
irreproachable moral conduct (Cāritra) (5) The possession of eternal life (Aksayasthiti) (6) Complete formlessness (Amurtatva) (7) Complete equality in rank with other Jivas (Agurulaghutva) (8) Unrestricted energy (Virya)."31
The above mentioned characteristic of the soul in its pure form is described differently by saying that the pure soul possesses four infinites as : infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss (Ananta Daraśana, Ananta Jñāna, Ananta Virya and Ananta Sukhas : Ananta Catustaya). However, the soul in its impure stage, as enumerated by J.L.Jaini, possesses the following nine properties :
(1) The soul lived in the past, is living now, and shall live for ever. (2) It has perception and knowledge. (3) It is immaterial, i.e. it has no touch, taste, smell or colour. (4) It is the only responsible agent of all its actions. (5) It completely fills the body which it occupies. (6) It enjoys the fruits of all its Karmas. (7) It wanders in Samsāra (8) It can become in its perfect condition Siddha (9) It goes upward."}?
The soul, according to Jainism, as we have seen completely fills the body. This means the size of the soul changes according to the size of the body which it occupies. In Jainism the soul substance is regarded as so much subtle that it is infinitely compressible and infinitely expansible. This has become a very important and a noteworthy feature of the Jain doctrine of soul."33
With reference to number, as we have seen, Jainism believes in pluralism of souls. According to Jainism there are infinite Jivas or souls. Not only human beings, but each animate being, each living organism possesses a soul. About the innumerablc number of the Jiva Nahar writes, “This soul substance of the Jains is not a single all
31. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 2. 3. 32 J. L. Jaini, Outline of Jainism, (1979) p. 17. 18. 33. Dr. G. N. Joshi, Atmã and Moksa, (1965), p. 232.

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pervading reality without a second of its kind to stand by it. There is an infinity of these souls. And though it is true that an infinite number of these has become free from the turmoils of the world; yet there remains an infinite number struggling for freedom; for if infinity is taken from infinity the remainder is infinite itself."'34
The Jains do not reduce all the particular finite souls to one single spiritual principle or universal self; they, on the contrary maintain the existence of infinite independent souls. Mrs. S. Stevenson writes, "They (Jains) also differ, of course, from the Vedantists, who believe in one all-soul not in numberless individual souls like this."35
5.1.5. Classification of Souls
The Jivātmā, according to Jainism is not a soul in its pure form. It is a polluted one. The souls are innumerable and all souls, again as per the degree of its pollutedness bear the consequences and status. This creates quite a considerable scope to classify the souls (Jivas) from various standpoints. Thus the Jains make an exhaustive classification of Jivas on the basis of various physical differences. The infinite number of Jivas are classified by the Jain philosophers in the following way :
"With reference to its common essence, the Jiva is of one kind. It is of two kinds in as much as it may be in bondage or emancipated. The Jiva may be imperfect or nearly perfect or perfect and thus be of three modes. With respect to its state of existence, the Jiva may be divided into four classes viz central being. internal being, human beings, and subhuman beings, In consideration of its five-fold conditions viz: mitigation, annihilation, partial annihilation and partial mitigation, modification and genesis or rising, the Jiva is of five kinds. The six modes of the cognition divide the Jiva into six classes. The seven ways of predication make seven classes of Jiva. In consideration of the eight essential attributes of the soul or the eight modes of the eight Karma, the Jiva may be divided into eight classes. Nine catagories make the Jiva nine. Ten kinds of life divide Jiva into ten classes. 36
34. Nahar and Ghosh, An Epitome of Jainism p. 279.
35. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism p. 98.
36. Tattvarthasutra II 1 to 10

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109 What is mainly to be noted is the main division of souls into Mukta (emancipated) and Baddha (in bondage) all Samsāri Jivas. Dr. G.N. Joshi observes that, "the division of the Jiva is not a real metaphysical division, it has no bearing on the substantial nature of the Jiva, but these differences are differences of the physical bodies in which the Jiva is embodied. There is a very complicated and detailed classification of the Jivas - but it is not of use for our metaphysical
purpose. 37
In my humble suggestion, if someone wants the classification of souls on a metaphysical ground, one can get it from the Guñasthāna point of view, i. e. Jivas divided into fourteen divisions or fourteen ranks, each depicting the soul in its metaphysical status - from utmost polluted to perfectly pure. Of course, here also the question of deciding the Guņasthāna and its verification is not possible. However, in principle, it can save the purpose of ranging the innumerable souls form its lowest level to the highest possible. 5.1.6 The Holy Pentad
The austerities and sincerest self-effort is a very major aspect of the ascetic spirituality revealed and propagated by the Jain Munis and Áramaņas. The real Jain faith is reflected in the Jain form of religiousness where the central theme is the obeisance or adoration to the holy pentad : five (types of holy souls. Here the classification is of souls who have achieved the spiritual progress in some good, considerable degree to the highest degree. These souls are all the Arhats, all the Siddhas, all the Achāryas, all the Upădhyāyas and all the Sādhus. This classification, however, does not involve all the souls existing in the world. It is the classification of souls who, on a spiritual ladder, are at much higher stage than we the ordinary Samsāris. In Jain faith, even then, the conception of this holy pentad is much popular because the five-fold salutation, which destroys all sins has became the part of Jain worship and devotion. 5.1.7. Conclusion
We have tried to understand the Jain conception of Jiva or soul, what does it mean and what is its nature. Soul being a subtle substance, its existence needs to be proved very logically and scientifically. I feel the Jains have excelled in their expertship at logic 37. Dr. G.N.Joshi, Atmā and Moksa, (1965). 239

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and deeply brooded conteniplation on Jiva, and practically on all the categories, through austerity, penance and yoga. The nature of soul, the properties and characteristics of soul, all these reflect the originality of Jain system. Whether one agrees or disagrees, but it is certain that the Jain conception of Jiva is distinct from the rest. Moreover the Jain conception of Jiva is found quite in accordance with their own metaphysical doctrines. There is an obvious simplicity even in the midst of a great multiplicity of ideas regarding the meaning, nature and classification of soul. The soul in its essence is pure, perfect and all powerful. These potentialities are hindered by the Karmic veil and its original purity is sullied. “According to Jainism the Jiva is constitutionally free and potentially divine." This does not merely suggest the way to salvation as way to regain its original pure form by removing the veils or Karma, but also hints that the Jiva or soul should be understood thoroughly in its two states : the state of bondage and the state of release. Both these stages we will analyse and explain in our next two forthcoming sections.
Let us also make a mention, before we conclude this section, that "the Jains invest all the things of the universe with the spirit of Jiva. All the things of nature which appear to and are called inanimate by an ordinary man, seem to be possessed of Jiva to a Kevali and thus Jainism holds a kind of “pan-spiritualism” the whole with spirits. To me, perhaps, there is no other point more striking than this which distinguishes Jain conception of soul from the other concepts of souls in Indian philosophy. 5.2 The Soul in State of Bondage
5.2.1 Introduction
One cannot give full justice to Jain conception of soul only by knowing what the soul essentially or potentially is. The concept of soul and its nature in its pure state would mean only a partial understanding. Jainism also explains the soul in its bondage state- soul that is embodied. It comes forward to explain all the aspects- the cause- the origin- and the process which ultimately results into a bondage. Jainism does not say that the bondage is for ever and ever. It has a solution too. It proves to be quite optimistic; quite meaningful in its solution for the bondage of the soul, Jainism gives a way - a Mārga- to be followed to get rid of the bondage, to release the soul and attain liberation.

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111 The word 'bondage' presupposes duality or plurality. There cannot be bondage if the object is one and only one. Here the bondage is bondage of Karma. The soul in state of bondage is in opposition to soul in state of release or libration. Thus the soul in state of bondage is the soul not in state of liberation. Soul in its pure form is immortal, eternal, indestructible and even indivisible. It is potentially all powerful and all knowledgeable. Soul in its pure form is free. The soul in state of bondage is not free and therefore is not in its pure form. The soul in state of bondage is a soul that is polluted, that has become impure and so ineffective too.
The 'bondage' of the soul is a state of soul. It is due to its union with Karma. The Karma has polluted the soul and made it ineffective to its original essential qualities. The question that arises is whether by developing a state of bondage through the union with Karma the essential qualities of the soul destroyed or lost for ever or weakened or diffused due to the outer interference viz. The veil of Karma ? In other words, what is the nature of the bondage ? I think the word “polluted' proves to be significant in the sense that it hints at the purification. Bondage and release are interdependent terms. There cannot be a release without bondage and bondage without release Both the bondage and release are relative terms. But they are also symbolic. Afterall what do we mean by 'bondage' and 'release' ? Let us understand these symbols also. Bondage means Jivātmā, means the soul with a veil of Karma. The veil of Karma, as per the doctrine of Karma, is the cause of births and rebirths. Thus bondage means Samsāra. Release means the Jiva is released from its union with Karma. The Jiva in state of release is pure soul, is devoid of any Karma and so there is no cycle of births and rebirths. The soul in state of release thus means Mokşa. Bondage is the Samsāra and release is the Mokşa. 5.2.2 Nature of Bondage
Jain metaphysics recognizes both soul and Karma as matter. Soul is a subtle matter and so is Karma. Unlike the Karma, soul is potentially pure, perfect and powerful. Karma, on the other hand is an outside material interference to soul. Moreover, consciousness is the essence of the soul while Karma is just 'Karmic particles' polluting and hindering the soul in its progress. One of the important characteristics of soul is its responsibility for the Karma, as the soul is the doer of the Karina and soul is the enjoyer of Karma. Sri

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Jain Theism Haribhadrasuri in his Sāstravārta Samuccaya says, “The doer of the Karma, the fruits enjoyer of the Karma, the transmigrator into the cycle of infinite (8.4 million) Jivas due to the deeds done and annihilator of the Karma through faith, knowledge, conduct and austerities is the worldly soul (Samsāri Jiva), is the Atman."38 Thus the soul is the doer of the deeds and not the body or the senses or the mind. The deeds done by the soul are Karmas. Karma is an outside matter sticking the soul and creating a veil, a layer on the soul.
In order to understand the nature of the bondage, we need to know all about the Karmas. Since we have discussed these aspects in detail in the previous section let us only note that Karma is full of Karma - Vargaņā or the Karma particles. The whole of the universe, according to Jainism is full of Karma-Vargaņā (Karma particles). Just like the dust particles that stick to our skin when we perspire, the Karma-Vargaņā sticks on the soul which results into a veil or layer on the soul, Quoting Gunaratna, Prof. S. N. Dasgupta expresses the relation between the two in the following words:
“The actual connection of the Karmas with the soul are like the sticking of dust on the body of a person who is besmeared all over with oll."39 The soul when is involved in activity, vibrations take place. These vibrations, just like the magnet, attracts the innumerable Karma Vargaņā which stick on the Jiva. The soul inspite of being all powerful with infinite knowledge and infinite faith, gets polluted by the Kārma Vargaņā when it is full of passions and aversions.40 Thus incoming of the Karma Vargaņā and its union with the Jiva is known as 'Karma Bandha' or Karma bondage. In bondage the Karmic matter unites with the soul by intimate interpenetration, Just as water unites with milk “or fire unites with the red hot iron ball.” There are forty two main channels, which are called Asrayas through which the Karma enters the Jiva : among these forty two, seventeen are considered the major ones. “The various kinds of Asravas are nothing but those ways by which one comes to be attached to the things of earthly life, which create in him attachment and false impressions. It makes him experience pleasurable or painful experiences, and thus, he moves continuously in
38. u: chat tani, til at fonament al naaf uffrafal HEYAT TRITHIUT: 11 -
Acārya Haribhadrasari Šāstravārtāsamuccyā 39. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I p. 194 40. irritant 31-406FUT: 1

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113 the circle of birth and death. The original peace and tranquility of the Jiva is lost, and thus he continues to exist in bondage."42:
The soul in state of bondage according to Jainism, means an embodied soul. Thus the soul in state of bondage is not a free soul but an embodied one, which is, literally, also expressed as an imprisoned soul. Bondage, thus, is the state in which the soul is not in its pure form but in its polluted form. The bondage is therefore, the union of the soul with matter. A soul in state of bondage is a soul diffused in its light, weakened in its powers, miserable and unhappy for it suffers the consequences of the Karma, and is unhappy because it is constantly in the cycle of births and deaths till all the Karmas are totally annihilated"43 and it regains its original pure, perfect and powerful form.
Thus the bondage state is not the natural state of the soul, it is again not a desired state as nobody wants bondage and everybody wishes liberation. Bondage is suffering (Duhkha) and liberation is release from it. We have seen that the bondage is the result, it is the effect and there can be no effect without cause. Let us see what are the causes. according to Jainism, that brings the soul into a bondage. 5.2.3 Causes of Bondage
According to Jainism, the intimate interpenetration of matter into the soul and the transformation of it into Karman proceeds through the activity of the Jiva. The five causes of bondage are
(1) subreption or unbelief (Mithyātva). (2) non-observation of the vows and commandments (Avirati) (3) idleness (Pramāda) (4) passions (Kaşāya) and
(5) activity. (Yoga)*4 These five causes are known as the chief causes (Mula Hetu) and each one of these is further divided into a number of subdivisions, the secondary causes (Uttara Hetu). Every chief cause (Müla Hetu) causes the binding of certain Karman species.
There are four passions : "anger (Krodha), pride (Māna).
41. nafot 3: fousad 42. Dr. G. N. Joshi : Atmā and Moksa, (1965) p. 245 43. Start than 12: 44 fustafafayetgani Trenta: -T.S. VIII. 1.

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Jain Theism delusion (Māyā) and greed (Lobha). These four are known as passions or Kasāya. Passions attract the flow of Karmic matter into the soul."45Passions and subreption (Kaşāya and Mithyātva) are the root causes of the bondage. Passions are due to ignorance and so is subreption. Thus in Jainism ignorance is the real cause of the bondage, “Here Jainism, agrees with Sankhya, Buddhism and Vedānta”46 Prof. Nahar and Ghosh says that, "It is in reality neither fettered nor tainted with any of the blemishes; neither it is in reality the agent of any deed nor the enjoyer of any fruits thereof, but by subreption it becomes an object to itself through the other media of organism."'47 “This subreption is itself Ajñāna, and that it can be removed not by good Karma or any kind of Karnias, since Karma can generate only Karma and nothing else. "48 So ignorance is the root cause of the bondage, the Jains call this influx of the Karma into the soul `Asravas.' Explaining the Jain view Mrs. S. Stevenson mentions these ways of entrance of the Karmic matter into the soul, “A Karma may be good or bad' but every Karma produces attachment to the object of experience into the soul and thus ultimately it makes one indulge into those experiences for ever. Finally it leads to unbroken fetters and thus, the Jiva cannot enjoy its original blissful nature". Stevenson mentions "the flow of Karmic matter into the soul through the ear, eye. nose, tongue and skin respectively”,19 5.2.4 Kinds of Bondage
We have seen that the entire cosmos is full of material particles which are very fine and imperceptible to the senses. It enters into the soul and produces change in it, “Therefore, first of all there is an influx of Karmic particles and then there occurs certain activities of mind which are responsibile for the actual bondage. In this state of bondage, soul and Karma are more intimate than milk and water."*50 The bondage is of four kinds. They are according to its (1) nature (Prakriti), (2) Juration (Sthiti) (3) intensity (Anubhāva or Rasa) and (4) quantity (Pradeśa)."51
45. Harransvita: font orang TETIGA 46. Dr. Chandradhar Sharma : A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 1976, p. 65 47. Nahar and Ghosh : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 548 48. Ibid., p. 616 49. Stevenson Sinclair : The Heart of Jainism, p. 139-140 50. M. L. Mehta : Outlines of Jain Philosophy, 1954, p. 135 51. uefafferraraud i arari: 1 - T.S. VIII.4

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(1) Nature
(Prakritis)
There are eight fundamental or chief species (Mūla Prakritis ). The nature of Karma refers to the eight classes of Karma"52 as already mentioned previously, namely the
Jñānāvaraṇiya Karma, which obscures knowledge :
Darśanavaraniya Karma, which obscures the undifferentiated cognition of the soul;
Vedaniya Karma, which obscures the feeling of pleasure and pain in the soul;
Mohaniya Karma, which so infatuates souls they fail to distinguish what is right from what is working;
115
Ayuh Karma which determines the duration of life; Nama Karma which gives the various factors of individuality; Gotra Karma, which destines family surroundings; and Antaraya Karma, which tends to oppose or hinder the Jiva in his capability of resolution and enjoyment.
Such of these chief species (Mūla Prakritis) are further divided into 148 subspecies (Utter Prakrits)"53 The Jains have given an exhaustive classification of the chief and subordinate species. In Jainism the Karma is explained to have its four states, namely. 'Bandha', 'Udaya', 'Udirana', and 'Satta'. Bandha is the first state when soul unites with Karma, 'Udaya' is the realisation of the fruit or the result of Karma. 'Udirana' is the premature realisation and 'Satta' is existence in potentia. Considering these states of Karma, the number of chief species and sub-species differ.
(2) Duration (Sthiti)
The word duration suggests the duration of the Karma or time. The Jain concept of time is also to be considered. According to Jainism "the lowest unit of time is Samaya." ." Innumerable Samayas make one Avalika; and 16,777,216 Avalikas equal to one Muhurata which is of 48 minutes. Thirty Muhuratas make one day; and then days into weeks and months and years. The number of years can be expressed in words
52. आद्यो ज्ञानदर्शनावरणीवयनीयमोहनीयापुष्कनामगोत्रान्तरायाः । T.S. VIII.5 53. Dr. Glasenapp: The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy 1942, p. 6.10

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.
Jain Theism
upto a number containing 77 cyphers. Beyond that is Asamkhyeya.''S Thus .every Karma has the dution of its stay in the soul. The Sthiti or duration of time is decided on the intensity with which the Karma has been executed by soul. There are two types of duration : short lived (Jaghanya) and long lived (Utkrusta). (3) Intensity (Anubhava or Rasa)
As we have seen that the duration of the Karma depends upon the intensity with which it is done by the soul, the intensity also depends upon the weakness or strength of the passions (Kasayas). Jainism, in accordance with the four types of passions (anger, pride, delusion and greed) recongnizes four degrees of the intensity. “The more sinful a Jiva is, the longer the duration of his Karman, the stronger the effect of his bad Karma, the weaker that of his good Prakritis, whilst with an increased purity, the duration of the bound Karman and the intensity of the bad Prakritis decrease and the Rasa of the good Prakritis grow."55 (4) Quantity (Pradesa)
Quantity or ‘Pradeśa' means the quantity of Karma Vargaņā which differs from one another. “The Jiva assimilates Karman matter which is within his own Pradeśas, not matter lying outside of them, just as fire only seizes inflamable material which is lying within its reach."'56 “The duration of stay of any Karma and its varying intensity are due to the nature of the Kasayas or passions of the soul, whereas the different classification of Karmas as Jñānvaraniya etc. are due to the nature of specific contact of the soul with Karma matter."57 5.2.5. Leśyā
“According to the moral value of their activity and corresponding also to the kind of Karma which they bind the Jivas can be divided into 6 categories. The first is characterized by the possession of the greatest sinfulness, whilst each following one improves, and the last in finally standing in the state of the highest attainable purity. The appertainment to one of these 6 classes shows itself in the soul externally 54. M. L. Mehta : Outlines of Jain Philosophy, 1954, p. 147 55. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942), p. 24
Karmagrantha II 43. 56. Ibid., p. 25 57. uşafafergaragautara I grau: 72: 1 Celayagit ferragamit aburra:
11: 11 - D.S. 33

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117 : the soul which is free by nature from all distinctions perceptible by the senses, receives color, smell, taste and touch; in short, it becomes a defined type, which distinguishes it from other souls, although in a manner not recognizable by our senses. This type of soul is called Leśyā."58 The different Leśyās, distinguished according to the colors which they give to the souls, are 1. black (Krşņa),
4. fiery red (Tejas) 2. dark (Nila)
5. lotus-pink (Padma) and 3. grey (Kapota),
6. white (Sukla). The possessors of the Leśyās are also described in great details in Jain scriptures: and the Leśyās have been explained through number of parables. 5.2.6 Conclusion
In our final conclusion to this very important chapter on the soul in state of bondage let us note certain very important points as are being observed during our discussions.
we have seen that the cause of Samsara or the suffering is the Karma. The soul being polluted due to Karma is in bondage of Karma. We have seen the reasons for the bondage of Karma, The reason behind all the different causes is ignorance or nescience. This view of Jaina is in quite agreement to Sāṁkhya, Buddha and Vedānta. Jainism uses the word “Mithyātva' for nescience, "which means perversity of outlook. It leads one to wrong perception. He perceives non-soul as soul, irreligion as religion, wrong way as the right way etc."So As a solution to many problems arising from the basic question as to why and how the soul, which is completely free, potentially divine and innately perfect, gets infected, the Jains hold that both Mithyātva or nescience and Karma are beginningless.
Morover we see that “The Jains have tried very hard to presreve their fundamental non-absoluted attitude with regards to the conception of the nature of Karma. Karman for them is neither absolutely identical with Pudgala nor completely distinct and different from it. This standpoint is not shared by the other systems of Indian philosophy."60
58. Dr. Glasenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy, 1942, p. 47 59. Dr. Ramjee Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1947), p. 118 60. Ibid., p.116

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Jain Theism Regarding the priority between the soul and the Karman, the Jains are not ready to regard Karma as prior to self as the self cannot be the product of Karma when Karma is material. But then Karma cannot be conceived as posterior to self for in that case pure, perfect and divine soul would be made responsible for it. We cannot consider both of them, the soul and the Karma, came together. Nor can we bring God to solve this problem for it will bring a lot of problems due to the contradictions with basic metaphysical theories of jainism. “Hence the jainism find it more reasonable to postulate a rela beginningless conjunction between the soul and the Karma. This view is not based on logical considerations alone, but also on religious and moral considerations."
Before we close our concluding discussions let us note that the doctrine of Karma in Jain philosophy and its detailed working as an explanation of the soul in state of bondage, asserts very powerfully and rationally that the entire present has not come to us from destiny (Bhāgya) but has been logically derived from the infinite past (Atita). The same view if further extended, we find no fatalism because tomorrow depends on our today. As we sow so shall we reap, and in such case we are the masters of our life whether we make it or mar it. The entire analysis, explanation and assertion, by the Jains regarding the bondage of the soul leaves an impression of a perfectly logical, a perfectly consistant to its metaphysics and ethics, and a perfectly scientific one.
5.3 The Soul in State of Release
The authors of the sacred scriptures have declared sixty seven postulates on Samyaktva (right faith). Out of them six relate to the location of right faith : They are,
(1) The Soul exists (2) It is eternal (3) It is the agent of all actions (4) It enjoys the fruits of actions (5) Liberation is possible (6) The means of liberation is also available62
61. Dr. Ramjee Singh, : The Jain Concept of Omniscience, (1947), p. 119 62. Shrimad Vijaya Laxmansuri : The Philosophy of Soul, Bombay, 1963 p. 1.

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119 Release means release from the bondage of Karma. Release is liberation or Mokşa. "Moksa is the emancipation of the soul from the snares of Karma (Karmapāśa)"63 According to Jainism the Jiva is constitutionally free and potentialy divine. In its pure form it is fully pure, completely perfect and all powerful. The soul in its pure form in fact, is not the real enjoyer of the pleasures and pains. But then the Jiva is an embodied soul. The soul that is polluted and is having veil of Karma on it due to subreption, passions etc. and thus the Jiva appears as “Bhoktā and Kartā."64 We also saw that the Karma is beginningless. A thing can have its beginning somewhere in past (Sādi) or it may be since beginningless (Anadi). In the same way a thing can have its end in future (Santa) or it may be infinite (Ananta). Thus from the beginning and end point of view, there could be four possibilities a thing could be
(i) Anādi + Ananta (from beginningless to infinite (ii) Anādi + Sānta (since beginningless with an end.) (iii) Sādi + Ananta (fixed beginning but no end.) and (iv) Sādi + Sänta (fixed beginning and fixed end.)
According to Jainism, Karma, from the above four possibilities falls under the second one. This means that Karma, which is the cause of the bondage is since beginningless but is not permanently for ever or for infinite period. It has its end. Thus the bondage is not for ever, liberatiion is possible. Like all the other systems of Indian philosophy, except Cārvāka, Jainism accepts the concept of liberation or Mokşa and it has the means of liberation for its followers. 5.3.1 Removal of the Bondage
Karma, according to the Jains is of material nature (Pudgalika). It has a peculiar property of developing the effect of merit and demerit. Being a matter, Karma has three stages, namely the bondage (Bandha), the realisation (Udaya) and exisence in potentia (Sattā) from assimilation to the realization. This means even if nothing is done, the Karmas are going to be realized as they have their definite end. According to Jain doctrine of Karma, the duration of the Karma is fixed right at the time of its bondage, The duration may be a larger one which is considered stronger and bad. But then “with an increased purity the duration of the bound Karma and the intensity of the bad Prakytis decrease and the
63. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 617 64. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 548

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Jain
Theism
Rasa of the good Prakrits grows." Thus Karma and Karmabandha' (bondage) is not in principle endless, and "the real Moksa is the Mokşa from Karma. "66 In short there is no release or liberation possible till the bondage is not broken off. The soul is capable to do so, but then what is immediately required is the stoppage of the inflow of Karmic matter. The entire process of attaining liberation is two-fold : stoppage of the new Karmic matter and elimination or annihilation of bound Karma. The first one, i.e. stoppage is known as “Samvara."67 Saṁvara is derived from ‘Samvriyate', i.e. meaning that which checks the causes of Karma. This is the opposite principle of Asrava."68 The second one is the annihilation of Karma. This is known as "Nirjarā.” When the Karmic flow is checked and stopped what remains to be done is "the purging out of all Karmic matter stored up from before, through austerities. "69 Though it is more difficult to dissipate the already accumulated Karma than to stop the fresh Karma, yet what is most important is the checking and stopping the inflow of the fresh Karma. Liberation is not possible if the accumulated Karmas are destroyed but the fresh Karma is allowed to flow in. Let us examine both Samvara and Nirjară in detail. (1) Samvara : Checking of the Inflow of Karma
Samvara means the checking or stoppage of the inflow of the fresh Karmic matter. It is the very first step towards the removal of misery and pain. It is quite rational to say that the controlling of the inflow of fresh Karmic matter can best be done by not allowing those causes to work which are responsible for the inflow. "The supression of the inflow of new Karman is called "impeding' (samvar)."70 It is attained by six means. They are (a) Gupti or control, i.e. three-fold discipline of the activity of body,
speech and mind. (b) Samiti or vigilance in walking, speaking, collecting alms, in the lifting
up and laying down a thing, and in the discharging of the body. (c) Dharma : the ten duties of a monk namely : forbearance, humility.
purity, self-abnegation, truthfulness, self-control, asceticism, abstinence, voluntary poverty and spiritual obedience.
65. Karmagrantha, II 436 66. si tafiti fannyrita: 67. 3 aa : a: Tattvārthasatra IX. 1 68. Fra ufugat: Fal: Sthāpānga Satra Adhyayana I 69. 777 faster ai T.S. IX. 3 70. Dr. Glassenapp : The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942), p. 65

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121 (d) Parisaha, the patient endurance of the 22 troubles.
(e) Cáritra or conduct'"' . (2) Nirjarā : Shedding of the Karma
Nirjarā is so important that often it is understood as another word for Moksa. But then Nirjară and Moksa are not the same. Had both of them to be the same there would be only eight Tattvas instead of nine, Nirjarā is the elimination or annihilation of the accumulated Karma. Nirjarā does not mean getting freedom from the effects of the Karma already bound to the soul. Nirjarā means an effort to realize the Karma much before they realize in their natural course. This, according to Jainism, can be done by austerities."?? The austerities prescribed as Nirjarā are not to be treated isolatedly. It is in continuation to or alongwith the Samvara.
The austerities are of two types : External and Internal. Again each of these two consists of six kinds of austerities. External austerities include
(i) fasting, (ii) eating less, (iii) taking a secret vow regarding food (iv) renouncing delicacies, (v) sitting and sleeping in a lonely place, and
(vi) mortifying the body with mental equanimity."}} Internal austerities include
(i) expiation, (11) reverence (iii) service (iv) study, (v) detachment, and
(vi) renunciation."74 Moreover, Jainism insists for the practice of penance for shedding of the previous accumlated Karmas. The Jain conception of penance and the motive behind it is highly psychological and scientific one. The practice of penance is based on the psychological law or habit, It talks
71. Tattvarthasutra IX. 2 72. Tattvarthasutra LX. 3 73. Tattvarthasutra IX. 19 74. Tattvarthasutra LX. 20.

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Jain
Theism
about breaking the old, strong and grounded habit by acting against it forcibly and purposely. In Jainism liberation is possible by no other way or method but by self-efforts, and the efforts are also to make soul totally pure, totally devoid of Karma. This makes Nirjarā very important and Nirjarā means, in practice, hard austerities.
There is one more classification of Nirjară, into two types. Sakāma Nirjarā (wilful) and Akáma Nirjarā (unwilfull). The Sakāma Nirjarā is willingly done, with strong desire and with one's own effort executed. While the Akama Nirjará is done under compulsion or unwillingly. In fact, the external and internal Nirjarā, as we have seen, are the sub-divisions of Sakāma Nirjară only.
In Jainism, besides penance and austerities, meditation has also been regarded as a necessary condition of Nirjarā."?When the Karmas are eliminated, the soul shines forth in its original purity. “It is through the acquisition of five-fold attainment (Labdhis) that the potentially free soul (Bhavyātma) attains the three jewels of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. 5.3.2. State of Liberation
The means of liberation, as explained and suggested by Jainism, if properly carried out, results into an attainment of Moksa which means soul regains the powers : infinite knowledge, perception, potency and bliss. “Jainism, thus, pictures the state of Moksa not as something which is created a new by human efforts; but it is something like the recovering or regaining of a lost object. Moksa according to Jainism means self-finding; it consists in recovering one a consciousness of soul which had been forgotten or had become obscure due to delusion or subreption (Mithyātva). It consists in regaining one's lost self.”76 in state of liberation the soul is in its enternal purity, in its original blissful and omniscient state. It is a state of eternal rest-bliss, where no futher Karmas are possible and so the possibilities of rebirth are completely brought to an end. Prof. Nahar and Ghose describe it as, “For the Jains it is a kind of Swarājya, self rule, a state of autonomy,
e and simple, which every Jiva instinctively aspires after to realize by tearing asunder the veil or the covering in and through the process of which the ideal is realized and complete deliverance from the veil
75. Tattvarthasutra LX. 21 to 44 76. Dr. G.N. Joshi, : Atma and Moksa, (1965), p. 251

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123 and covering of Karma is called Mokşa."7 Shri J.L.Jaini, beautifully expresses and says, “The last day of Jainism is the day when the last Karma falls oft; matter bids good-bye to the soul, and the Jiva enters Niivāņa. It is a day of perfect calm, of serene being, of everlasting happiness."78
In order to undetstand the state of liberation as conceived by the Jains, we should also know the three-fold division of the soul. Five Labdhis, the two Śreņi (approaches ) and the fourteen Guņasthāna or the stages of spiritual development as explained by the Jain scripture. But then what is very clearly to be noted is that, according to Jainism, the main enemy or the greatest obstruction of the spiritual progress is delusion (Moha). It has two aspects : (i) that which prevents attitude of soul (Darsana-Mohaniya) and (ii) that which obstructs right conduct in the form of mental pollution (Cāritra-Mohaniya). It is after subsidence or annihilation of Darśana-Mohuniya the real spiritual development starts."79 5.3.3 The Three-fold Division of Atman (Soul)
| Ataman, in Jainism, is divided into the three categories, according to the position occupied in the ladder of spiritual development. They are: (1) Extrovert Soul (Bahirātman) (2) Introvert Soul (Antarātman) and (3) Super Soul (Paramātman).80
Bahirātman or the extrovert soul is the stage of impulsive life of lust and worldly enjoyments. Here the soul is also ignorent of its real goal. It is just like “Samsāraprāgbhāra” of Yoga or ‘Prathgjana' of Buddhism. The first three Gunsthāna consist of extrovert soul. Antarātman or introvert soul or introversion is the means to the goal of the supraethical stage, which is the Paramātman."81 The introvert soul corresponds to Kaivalyaprāgbhāra’ of Yoga or 'Srotāpanna' of Buddhism, “Here the soul distinguishes the self and non-self."82 “He relinquishes all the eight types of pride."83 The goal of all spiritual exertion is to attain Paramātman stage. Here all the sufferings disappear, and the soul shines forth in its natural qualities. It is a stage of complete
77. Nahar and Ghosh, : An Epitome of Jainism, p. 609 78. J.L. Jaini : Outlines of Jainism, (1979), p. 29 79. Bhargava Dayānand, Jain Ethics, (1968), p. 206 80. Paramātmaprakāśā, 1.12 81. Mokşapāhuda- 5.8 83. Kärtikeyānuprekşå - 104
82. Ibid., 17

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Jain Theism harmony, in the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, “He is in the world but not of the world." This stage is comparable to Jivanmukta and Mukta of Hinduism and Anāgamin and Arhatship of Buddhism."34 5.3.4. Five Labdhis
We have seen that the fourth Gunasthāna is the real beginning of the spiritual development. A soul before coming to this stage passes through certain stages which are five. The first one is called “Kșayopaśāma, which means destruction cum-subsidence of the Karmic matter."'85 As a result of the first one the soul involves into good actions and leads to happiness. This is the second stage called “Visuddha Labdhi.''86 “The third Labdhi is Darsana Labdhi where the soul with the help of a teacher leads into the nature of six Dravyas and nine Padārthas."87 "The fourth Labdhi is called Prayogya Labdhi. means the capacity to reduce the duration of Karmas. All these four Labdhis are important only if they lead to the fifth, Karma Labdhi. It is attainable by Bhavya Jiva only.""88
Before we discuss the stages of spiritual development, let us mention that the aspirint ascends the stages either by subsidence (Upasama) or by annihilation (Kșaya) of Karmas.'89 These are known as two ladders or Sreņis of spiritual development. 5.3.5 The Guñasthānas or Stages of Spiritual Development
“From the state of complete dependence upon the Karman to the state of complete detachment from it, 14 stages, the so called, Guņāsthanas (states of virtue) can be distinguished.”® These fourteen stages are marked by the gradual subsidence of eight Karmas, “There are stages of development in which the soul gradually delivers itself, firstly from the worst, then from the less bad, and, finally, from all kinds of Karman, and manifests the innate faculties of knowledge, belief and conduct in a more and more perfect form."91. The following are the different stages. "92
84. Bhargava Dayanand, : Jain Ethics, (1968), p. 208 85. Labdhisära, Bombay, (1976), p.4 86. Ibid. p. 5. 87. Ibid., p. 6 38. Gommatasära : Jivakåņda 651 39. Virasena on Satakbandagama, 1.2-8,14 (Vol. VI p. 317) 70. Karmagradtha I, 56a, also see Glasenapp's The Doctrine of Karma in Jain
Philosophy (1942), p. 68. 91. Ibid., p. 68
92. Ibid

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125 1. Mithyādrsti
the unbeliever 2. Sasvadana Samyagdrsti
the one who has only a taste of the true belief. 3. Samyag-mithya-drsti (or Misra)
the one who has a mixed belief. 4. Avirata Samyagdrsti
the one who has true belief but has not yet self-control. 5. Deśvirata
the one who has partial self-control. 6. Pramatta Samyata
the who has complete self-control, sametimes, however brought
into wavering through negligence. 7. Apramatta Damyata
the who has self-control without negligence. 8. Apūrva Karana (or Nivratti Bādara Samparāya)
the one who practices the process called Apūrva Karaņa in whom,
however, the passions are still occuring in a gross form. 9. Anivrti Bādara-Samparāya
the one who practices the process called Anivratti- Karana in
whom, however, the passions are still occuring in a gross form. 10. Saksma Samparāya
the one in whom the passions still only occur in a more subtle
form.
11. Upaśānta Kasāya Vitarāga-Chadmastha (or shortly Upaśānta Moha)
the one who has supressed every passion, but who does not yet
possess omniscience. 12. Kșiņa Kaṣāya : Vitarāga- Chadmastha (or Kșiņa Moha)
the one who has annihilated every passion, but does not yet
possess omniscience. 13. Sayogi Kevalin
the omniscient one who still practices an activity (Yoga). At this stage Mohniya and the three other forms of Ghātiya Karmas drop off from the soul completely.

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the omniscient without Yoga. It is in this final stage that the already pure, perfect and all knowledge self becomes free from
the other non-destructive (Aghāti). Karmas. It is immediately
. antecedent to the disembodied state of liberation , 1. Preliminary Survey of the Gunasthānas
The following points come to our notice through a preliminary survey of the stages of spiritual development, (i) The Guņasthānas are arranged in a logical order, "according to the principle of the decreasing sinfulness and the increasing purity. 93 (ii) Subsequently to the above we find that “with the advance in spirituality the self becomes less and less troubled by the privations, "94 (iii) The 14 Gunasthānas as from the annihilation of causes of Karma point of view, could be classified into five groups
1. First Guņasthāna where all the 4 causes of Karma are
operating. 2. In 2nd to 5th only 3 causes are operating; unbelief is absent. 3. In 6th to 10th only 2 causes are in operation i.e. passions
and activity. The unbelief and lack of self-control are absent. 4. in 11th to 13th only activity-cause operates, the other three
are absent. 5. In the last Gaṇasthāna a bondage of Karma no longer takes
place. (iv) “The order of the Gunasthāna is logical and not chronological.'*y} 5.3.6. The State of the Release
The soul when totally free from the Karmas, when all the Karman is entirely annihilated, is released from the bondage of the Karma which is the cause of samsāra. Such a released soul now does not need to be embodied. The released one, according to Jainism, goes to the end of the world. “Relieved of all matter, the soul ascends in a straight line during a Samaya to the summit of the world, as a gourd
93. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (194
p. 69. 94. Dr. Bhattacharya H. S., Jain Moral Doctrine (1976) p. 71. 95. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 69.

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Jain Philosophy of Soul freed from all filth sinks no longer to the bottom but rises to the zu rface of the water. 96 “High above the Sarvärthasiddhi-heaven close to the border between world and non-world, lies the magnificent region Işatprāgbhāra in shape like an unfolded sun-shade. Without visible shape bodiless, but a dimension in space (immaterial ) of 2/3 of that which they had during their last existence, they dwell there thenceforward into all eternity, and enjoy the infinite, incomparable, indestructible supernatural happiness of salvaton."97
The released or the liberated or as Sains say the Siddha without being affected by the doings of the world, "remains in his serene rest, freed from the torments of the bodily existence, released from the cycle of births and never returning to it.""98
"The orbs of day and night, the wandering stars, again to sight their heavenly courses bend; the soul, released from grasp of earthly bars, soaring in highest space doth ne'er descend.''99
According to Jainism, soul released is a soul in state of Siddhahood. In this state the soul is free and enjoys Anantcatustaya i.e Ananta Jñāna (infinite knowledge), Anata Darśana (infinite perception), Ananta Virya (infinite energy) and Ananta Sukha (infinite bliss). The released soul is a conqueror- a Jina and is thus the hero. He possesses all the attributes of God, Such released souls have become the objects of worship not with an expectation of grace or mercy from them, but as source of inspiration and impetus for the spiritual development of the soul. 5.4. The Jain Philosophy of Soul and its Theistic Implication
We have tried to cover up all the major issues and points concerning the Jain philosophy of soul in our previous sections. We examined Jain conception of soul, its meaning, existence and nature; we described the soul in state of bondage the causes and types of bondage; and, we also quite elaboratively saw the means to release the soul i.e. the soul in state of release, the stages of spiritual development and the nature of soul in state of liberation. Let us see some theistic implications that directly or indirectly peep out from these points.
96. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 93. 97. Dr. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1942) p. 93 98. Ibid. p. 93 99. Sarvadarśanasangraha p. 33

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Jain Theism
(1) The Jain philosophy of soul 'begins with the assertive judgement : “The soul exists'. Jainism is an Ātmavādi Darsana. Further it recognizes the soul to be pure and divine in its natural state. It has infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite power or onergy and infinite bliss and turns out to be all divine, supreme and absolute. Soul thus, in Jainism in its pure form is absolute. But then, Jainism does not stop here. It comes forward with its metaphysical background and puts before us the theory of pluralism of souls. In fact the ‘soul' is so a wide concept in Jainism that we find it not restricted to human beings or birds and beasts only, it expands right up to insects and plants. This results into pan-spiritualism, i.e. all is soul. Now if we interpret God as the manifestation of the highest values, highest virtues and highest morals then we find Jainism is full of high values, full of ethics. full of stress on right knowledge, right faith and right conduct. In fact if these high values and high morals are taken away from Jainism it will be reduced to nothing. Therefore we can say that Jainism is theistic even from high spiritual values point of view.
(2) Following, logically, from the above we see the soul in bondage. But then bondage, though beginningless is not endless. Jainism explains the mechanism of bondage and schematism of the liberation. It means for release centres round Ahimsā (non-injury) Samyama (selfcontrol) and Tapa (austerities). Here we are reminded of Śrimad Bhagwat Geetā expressing Jain theistic spirit : “With faith one attains knowledge, and with knowledge one attains self restraint and such a person attains bliss with self-Knowledge."100 Not merely the acceptance of soul and liberation makes Jainism theistic in its approach but even the path to salvation makes it all the more theistic. Professor Padmanabh S. Jaini in his book “The Jain Path of Purification discusses at length the Jain way and approach to salvation. He writes : “Perhaps more than any other religious tradition, Jainism is imbued with an emotional commitment to self-reliance. Thus Jains have found both theistic and fatalistic doctrines repugnant, for these doctrines not only negate the efficacy of the Tirthankara's path, but they totally deny the soul's ability to influence its own future, Although Jain philosophers have made much of the burden of Karma, this burden is not to be construed as an inescapable, unalterable, externally imposed effect."101 The Jains believe in the innate divinity of each soul. The perfection of the soul
100. Bhagwat Gita IV-39. 101. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jain Path of Purification, (1979) p. 138.

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is a logical outcome or presupposition, one can derive from the unlimited spiritual treasure a soul has. Thus, in Jainism perfection is not only a potentiality but an actuality. God is after all the highest ideal of spiritual perfectness and from this point of view we find Jainism theistic.
(3) We may very well know how we call the modern age, as an age of moral crisis. In fact poverty of moral virutes is more detrimental than poverty of wealth, In the light of this fact the Jain conception of soul and its salvation talks about the spiritual treasure. The two distinguishing qualities of the treasure of soul, as a Jain monk says, are its safety, in the sense, that it can't be stolen or broken, and its easy transferability means you can easily carry with you wherever you go. This conception of spiritual treasure of the soul leads to a presupposition of a kind of perfection - a state any soul with self-help can attain an actuality. Now God being the symbol of highest spiritual treasure, Jainism comes before us as theistic when it talks about the spiritual treasure.
(4) "For a Jain the knowledge, bliss and energy of the soul can never be totally extinguished, where as the Karmic influence is subject to complete elimination. Hence the soul possesses a sort of built-in advantage, an everpresent tendency to develop its qualities and temporarily reduce the influence of Karmas."102 This conception of Jains is highly optimistic. Passimism normally implies atheism which views the world as hostile to physical partial values and is incapable of explaining the presence of 'Good' in the world. Jainism accepts the 'good' and the 'perfect.' This kind of approach is thoroughly optimistic and theistic. Hence we can say that though some Jain scholars consider Jainism to be atheistic, it is very much theistic in the light of its thoroughly optimistic approach.
129
(5) The Samyak Darśana and the detailed picture of the ladder, one must climb as he progresses from the depth of delusion till the ominiscience and freedom, is called Gunasthāns, stages of purification. The purfication, ultimately, leads the soul to a state of divinity - its natural state. "Each soul, when completely immune from Karmic influences, becomes itself Svayambhu, and is transformed into divinity."103 Divinity, thus in Jainism, comes out as the state of highest spiritual evolution. The liberated souls are full and perfect divinity in
102. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jain Path of Purification, (1979) p. 141 103. Jain Jyoti Prasad, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) p. 46.

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Jain Theism itself and by itself. “This is the conception of God in Jainism, which as a type is the ideal to all the devoted seekers and aspirants. The Siddhas and Arhats represent the two types of divinity or Godhood. This conception of divinity is the best illustration of the often quoted axiom that the air of religions is the realisation of the potentially divine in man."104 Such colours of the Jain philosophy of soul make it more theistic then anything else.
(6) In our final conclusion we can say that the entire stress is on right conduct, Cāritra, the concept of Labdhis and Bhavyatva. Moreover, belief in the moral governance of the world and freedom of will of soul are most important ingradiants of theistic world view. No theism can write even its 'T' without these two, and Jainism very much stands for both of these. So Jainism is very much ahead in the line of theistic thinking. It ceases to be theisitic or it seems to have ceased to be theistic only when 'Creator God' talk begins and this also can be interpreted as device for confirming moral governance and feedom of the will of soul.
104. Jain Jyoti Prasad, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1977) p. 46.

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CHAPTER - 6 THEISTIC COLOR OF POPULAR BELIEFS
AND SADHANA
6.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARK
Throughout the previous chapters an effort has been done to put before the reader the Jain Darsana, its metaphysics, its theory of knowledge and logic, its ethics, its philosophy of soul etc. But then Jainism is not simply one of the systems of Indian philosophy, or simply a Darśana, Jainism is this and still is much more to the people of India, to Jains as well as non-Jain, Jainism as religion and thought, is a way of life. It has its religious and cultural background at the root of its faith. It does not merely express its acceptance in the existence of soul but extends a very high status and attitude towards the essence of the soul. Jainism basically is, though it is too analytical and quite rational, religious in its attitude. The religious attitude of the Jains could be expressed in the words of William James, “Were one asked to characterize the life of religion in the broadcast and most general term possible, one might say that it consists of the belief that there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto. This belief and this adjustment are the religious attitude in the soul.” If we take Jainism with special reference to its philosophy of soul and theory of non-absolutism or Anekāntavāda, the religious tolerance and willingness to accept the other's views. and a strong insistence of Ahimsā or non-injury to any living beings, we certainly find a powerful religious attitude at the core of Jainism.
The popular beliefs have also their own status and importance, at least, in religion and philosophy. Many thinkers including "Immanual Kant held a curious doctrine about such objects of belief as God, the design of creation, the soul, its freedom, and the life hereafter. These things, “he said,” are properly not objects of knowledge at all. Our conceptions always require a sense content to work with, and as the words 'soul', 'God', 'immortality', cover no distinctive sense content whatever, it follows that theoretically speaking they are the words devoid of any significance. Yet strongly enough they have a definite meaning
1. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, (1952) p. 53

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Jain Theism for our practice'. We can act as if there were a God; feel as if we were free; consider Nature as if she were full of special designs layplans as if we were to be immortal; and we find then that these words do make a genuine difference in our moral life. Our faith that these unintelligible objects actually exists proves thus to be a full equivalent in “Practischer Hinsichat", as Kant calls it, or from the point of view of our action, for a knowledge of what they might be, in case we were permitted positively to conceive them. So we have a strange phenomenon, as Kant assures us, of a mind believing with all its strength in the real presence of a set of things of no one of which it can form any notion whatsoever."? As there is a field of theory there is also a field of practice. The doctrines in its content and theory form one aspect, though important, of the system its practice and faith actually constitute the other aspect, equally important, of the system. One hardly needs to reemphasize the point that in a system like Jainism, which is a religion and a thought, the popular belief has its own considerations. 6.2. Popular Belief in Jainism
In order to give full justice to the popular belief what is required is to take note of the background whereupon the philosophical as well as practical (ritualistic) superstructure of Jainism is raised, In the words of Tatia, “The main emphasis of Jainism is on Ahimsā, noninjury. The attitude of Jainism is more due to rational consciousness than emotional compassion, It is not based on social fellow feeling, but on individual responsibility. Jainism presumes infinite capacity for spiritual progress in every individual. Infinite knowledge and joy is the innate character of every soul. What is needed is complete noninterference from outside, Given freedom of development, every individual is bound to progress, Interference means spiritual dragging. A truth is not to be forced, but is only to be preached... Deep spiritualism was the characteristic of the age of Mahāvīra. It is not for an improved life that exertion is recommended, but it is for a transformed existence that penances are prescribed, Heaven is not the ideal. Freedom from worldly pleasures and sufferings is the end. The Jain attitude is not in the least pessimistic. It is realistic and optimistic..... Deep faith in spiritual freedom inspires self-imposed suffering. The end is not envisaged. The means stands justified by itself..."3 “He (the
2. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, (1952) 54-55 3. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 21

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133 Jain) makes the individual the architect of his fortune and the maker of his destiny. The individual is alone responsible for his degraded status and it is upto him to work out his salvation by his unaided efforts.": This is just the background whereupon the philosophical superstructure of Jainism was raised.
In the light of the above mentioned attitude and in consistency with this background, a Jain Sadhu (monk) as well as a Srāvaka (householder) is required to be very cautious about his speech." He is prohibited against making unwarranted categorical assertions or negations.''6 "The nonviolent and tolerant attitude of the Jains was responsible for their uttermost carefulness regarding speech which was required to be unassaulting as well as true."? "It is this attitude of tolerance and justice that was responsible for the original of the doctrine of non-absolutism (Anekānta)." The entire list of the truth can be put in this way: Every soul in its pure form is divine and that is God, he is not to be understood but to be achieved by removing all the impurities of Karma attached to the soul. The soul, more soul, a larger, higher, richer and more illuminating soul, is, in the last analysis, the goal of Jainism. The love of this spiritual progress at any and every level of development, is the religious impulse, and therefore theistic too.
In his essay on Jain religion, Prof. V. G. Apte says, “The Jains believe God to be omniscient, unchanging and holy.", The popular belief and the strong faith with which Jains follow their creed is far away from the metaphysical or ontological technicalities. To them Tirtharkaras and Siddhas are Gods. Their temple (Jain Prāsāda) is the seat of such idol- worship. A Jain layman who is a true follower of the Jina is as much a soul as the God he is worshiping. "Thinking from this point of view some souls are worshippers (Sadhakas) and some are worshipped or liberated (Siddhas)"!0 Some of the popular beliefs on which we find devotion (Bhakti) becomes possible are:
(i) God is the lord, master and saviour of all the living beings.. (ii) No achievement is possible without the grace of God.
4. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 218 5. Acaranga Sutra II - 4 6. Ibid II 4.1 7. Tatia Nathmal, Studies in Jain Philosophy p. 22 8. Ibid. p. 229. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan, (1965), p. 116 10. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan' (1965). p. 116

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(iii) I-thou relationship (of Bhakta & Bhagvāna) remains even after
liberation. (iv) God is the ultimate shelter of all souls. (v) Devotion is an end and not means."
These beliefs or principles also shape the Jain path of devotion. Of course, Jains do not believe in creator God or in God's grace. But then the popular belief to have full faith in God, both God's creation as well as grace does play its role in the devotion. Jainism, quite ritualistic and theistic in its devotion-path, does not consider devotion as an end but a means to an end. “According to Jainisń the goal of life is liberation. All his efforts will be for the liberation. Amongst these efforts, to a certain limit, even the devotion has its own place."12 The popular belief can be classified under four groups : worship, rituals, fasts and festivals.13 Let us see them in detail.
According to Jainism, everybody has to bear the consequences of his good or bad actions and has thus to either enjoy of suffer, in accordance with the inexorable law of Karma. And yet, the worship of the Divinity is recommended. “As a matter of fact every religion must have popular appeal if it is to survive, and worship together with the allied ceremonial is one of the most patent means of popular appeal."14 Common men and women, “do not possess the requisite capability, and they are not free from earthly wants, desires, ambitions, fears, anxieties, worries and other human frailties. Facing life with calm indifference and resignation with an eye on higher values, is often too much for them. They want an easy and ready remedy, and the institution of worship supplies this need."15 But then worship could also be a form of 'Dharmadhyāna'. The most extraordinary again of achievement is the joy, the peace, and the equanimity which pervade his or her soul. Worship is therefore, though recommended, found as a strong force in Jainism. Just like worship there are certain rituals regularly observed by the Jain. The lay aspirant, regularly in the early morning goes to the temple with a peaceful mind and pious thoughts. He may take with him few flowers or a ripe fruit by way of token offering. He recites some verses and Namaskāra- Mantra as an adoration or obeisance to the holy pentad. The verses he recites are eulogies in praise of the
11. Ibid., p. 116 to 127 12. Malvania Dalsukhbhai : Jain Dharma Cintan' (1965). P. 128 13. Read chapter VII of 'Religion and Culture of the Jains' by Dr. J. P. Jain. 1975. 14. Ibid., p. 104-105 15. Ibid., p. 105

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135 Divinity. This is known as Darśan (looking on) which is the shortest form of the Deva-Pajā. Some Jains who are religiously, comparatively more staunch and they immediately after taking the bath and putting on the special Pujā-dress (mostly silken) go to the temple. They first perform the Darśana and then they perform the full Dravya Pūjā ritual before the image or images of the Jina into the temple. The complete Deva-Pūjā rituals as described by prof. P. S. Jaini is like this:
"As a Jain enters the temple, he typically wears only three simple pieces of clothing and carries a plate filled with flowers, fruit, camphor, uncooked rice and incense. Having approached the main shrine, he will bow down, utter the Namāskāra litany. And circumambulate the image and, using rice grains, forms a Svastika on a plate or wooden plank. (This ancient symbol, as we have seen, signifies the four possible Sāmsăric destinies.) Above it he places three dots, standing for the "three jewels" (Ratnatraya): true insight (Samyak-Darśana), right knowledge (Samyak-Jõāna). And proper conduct (Samyak Cāritra). These three provide the means of escape from the cycle of bondage represented by the Svastika. Finally, at the very top, he makes a small crescent with a dot mounted upon it; thus is suggested the uppermost portion of the universe, with the liberated soul resting just within its edge. The completed figure appears below.
::.
By forming these symbols prior to actual worship of the Tīrthankara, one shows that his Pūjā has as its ultimate purpose the attainment of liberation. Such preliminaries completed, he performs the Anapana or Abhiseka ceremony, in which holy water is sprinkled over a small image placed near the foot of the main one for this purpose. The water thus used for "bathing" the Jina must first have been sterilized

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pure, either by boiling or by the use of a “sterilizing" substance such as cloves. (It is thought that nonsterile water still harbors water- bodies; its use should therefore, entail violence, making unfit for a sacred act.) While engaging in Abhiseka, the devotee visualizes himself as Sakra (a Sandalwood paste mark on his forehead signifies this role); thus his action becomes, as in the Pañcakalyāņa ceremony, are-enactment of the baby Jina's ritual bath atop mount Meru After the holy water, he pours sandalwood paste and milk over the image: the latter substance reminds him of the pure, milky-white color which suffuses the Jina's body as he sits in the Samavasarana. The Abhiseka is concluded with purified water and a shower of blossomes.
Thereafter, the worshipper wipes the image dry and begins the second phase of Dev-Pūjā, a ritual called Arcană invoking the name of the particular Tirtharkara" represented he pays homage by offering up eight substances : (1) Water (Jala), for the attainment of cleanliness
Sandalwood paste (Candana), for the attainment of purity (3) Uncooked rice (Aksata), for the attainment of immortality
Flowers (Puspa), for the attainment of freedom from passion (5) Sweets (Caru), for the attainment of contentment (6) A lamp or camphor light (Dipa), for the attainment of
omniscience (7) Incense (Dhupa), for the attainment of the great fame, and
(8) Fruits (Phala), for the attainment of fiuit of liberation, Moksa. Next, small amount of all eight substances are offered together on a single plate. This gesture, called Arghya, completes the second portion of the Pūjā.
The third involves a recitation known as Jayanālā, the garland of victory. Here, one repeats the names of all twenty-four Tirthankaras, sits in silence for a few moments, and then chants the Namaskāra litany as he did prior to beginning the entire ceremony
At last the worshipper moves to the fourth and final portion of Deva-Pujā, a waving of lamps before the image; this process is designated by the term Arati (Sanskrit Arātrika). having thus completed his worship, the lay devotee returns home and takes his first food of the day."16
16.
Jaini P. S., The Jain Path of Purificaiton, (1979), P. 199-201.

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137 Fasting or a control on food in whole or part as a religious duty is found almost, in all the religions. But then, fasting has its own importance in Jainism. In Jainism fast (Upavāsa) means a vow to abstain from food and drink, It is a form of austerity (Tapa) and its chief aim is self-purification and spiritual meditation.
During the year, almost every month there is one or more Sain holidays, fast days, or festivals. These festivals may be broadly divided into five classes : periodical, Tirthankara Kalyānaka, historical, local and special."'? These religious festivals play a great role in “breaking the monotony of the humdrum daily routine of life, and give it an added zest." The strictness of the religion, the uncompromising naturė of the metaphysics and the sole emphasis on self effort to gain salvation, and such disciplines, is to be carried out in its pure form, might become, psychologically also, untolerable for the majority of the lay worshippers. The other side of this situation, is taken care of festive occasions which bring life to religious activities and sociocultural meaning to these all. The decoration of the places, people in new dresses, dancing and singing, processions and communal gathering, and all such rejoicing though having no place in laws and doctrines, become remarkable features to transform a pure system of laws and theory into a religion and culture. Apart from the worship, rituals, fast and festivals, the Jains have socio-religious ceremonies, the Yoga and Dhyāna, confession (Pratikramana) and renunciation (Pratyakhyāna), the attainment of equanimity (Sāmāyika), pilgrimage to holy places and the holy death (Sallekhanā) which transform the Jainism into a living religion and culture. 6.3 The Jain Sadhana
According to Jain scriptures, friendliness (Maitri), activity (Pramoda), compassion, (Karuņā) and neutrality (Madhyastha) are four qualities (Bhāvanā) basically required in the foundation of religion."18 Sri Haribhadrasûri, gives a great importance to equanimity or right faith (Samyakkaraṇa). According to him the five inevitable attributes of the soul can alone make the soul attain right vision (Samyakkaraña). These five are
17. Dr. J. P. Jain, Religion and Culture of the Jains, (1975) p. 119. 18. "Luguta Mosf sfat otta"
-Lalita Vistara Vol. I Sri Haribhadrasori, Commentary by Śri Bhanuvijayaji
P. 20

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(i) recitation of verses (Sūtrorkti) (ii) concentration of mind while worshipping (Upayoga) (iii) doubtlessness (Āśarkā Tyaga) (iv) equanimity (Samyak Drsti), and
(v) devotion (Bhakti)' Thus devotion or Bhakti is one of the five attributes required to attain right faith or Samyak Darśana. All these five attributes and activities to make the soul possess these attributes form Jain Sādhanā or Jain Ārādhanā.
Again according to Jain Scriptures the Jain conception of Bhakti or Ārādhanā consists in ten sections or parts. They are :
(i) faith (Sraddhā) (ii) holy communion (Satasanga) (iii) eulogy or religious song (Bhajan, Stavana) (iv) renunciation (Nivịti) (v)
sinceerity (Nisthā), (vi) special interest (Ruci Višesa) (vii) firmness (Drdha Anuraga), (viii) love (Premotpatti), (ix) emotional state (Bhāvānubhūti), and
(x) strong devotion (Parā Bhakti).”20 Thus we find devotion, in Jainism, has its own place in the wider structure of Arādhanā or Sadhanā.
According to Jainism, Sādhanā, Sevā or Upāsanā, all these three words convey almost the similar meaning. The three modes of Upāsanā are Mantras (hymns). Mūrti (image) and Pūjā (rituals and worship)."?! Here also with Mantra, Mūrti and Pūjā, worship and rituals becorne possible, through an extraordinary followup (Anupama Arādhanā). An extraordinary worship is possible in three ways : (1) soul (2) teacher, and (3) scripture."?? These are the means through which the worship could be realized, and the actual worship could also 19. "तथाहि प्रायोऽधिकृतसूत्रोक्ते नैव विधिनोपयुक्त स्याशंसादोषरहितस्य
सम्यग्दृष्टेभक्तिमत एव सम्यक्करणं, नान्यस्य, अनधिकारित्वात् अनधिकारिणः
Hoa in FREUTATAIT, I Lalita Vistara Vol. I Page 30-36 20. Bhaktirasāmstabindu 1 & 2 21. Sr. Bhadrankara Vijayaji : Tattvadohana (1980), p. 155.

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139 be of three kinds (i) discouraging sins (Duskrtagarha) (i) encouraging good acts (Sukrtānumodana), and (iii) submission (Sarana). 23 Thus here also we find one of the very common characteristic of devotional mode of religion, the submission to God. In Jain conception of Arādhanā or Upāsanā, this attitude is out and out theistic in color.
In Jain conception of Sādhana, prayer has its significant meaning and role. The Jain prayer, apparently one might feel a contradiction with its metaphysics and ethics, is certainly quite meaningful and consistent with its basic philosophy. Prayer, traditionally, is asking for something (Yácană) or a request to God. Mostly the prayer is for the removal of the suffering, the unhappiness that prevails in life. But in Jainism, suffering being the effect to Karma and there is no remedy to the effect once cause has been operated, the prayer does not mean freedom from the suffering. A Jain prayer is for the removal of the cause of, the removal of sins : Pāpanivāraṇa. It considers a true prayer to be all powerful and God is always the subject of such prayer. It says, "by praying Thee, let my unhappiness and Karma be annihilated, let me have true knowledge and holy death."24 6.4 Conclusion
Thus we find Jainism provides all the essential characteristics of a system that believes in devotional way or Bhaktimärga. It may once again be cleared that worship or devotion in the sense Bhakti or Ārādhanā, in Jainism, is a way and not the goal. It is a means to an end but not an end in itself. Whenever a path is treated, as the destination or the means as an end, one can very well think what the results would be. One may critically observe the prevailing Jain society or community all lost in the rituals and religious festivals as if that is the end and thus the real goal- the liberation of the soul from its bondage with matter-either being ignored or totally forgotten. Whatsoever it be, but what I propose, here is to emphasize the theistic nature, the
22. Višeşāvašyaka-Bhaşya
"आया गुरवो सत्यं, तिपच्चया वाऽऽइमोच्चिय णिस्स । सपत्तक्खतणओ
सीसाण उ तिप्पदाशे वि ॥ 23. Faghai con TET, Hendi 15quae
777 I ackpunt na, PROT puitfasta: 11 -Śri Hemacandrācāryā 24. et HCO3T AHHui a afectetur

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Jain Theism theistic color and the theistic presuppositions on which the entire religion and its religious activities rest. Such a system, a religion and thought, ever if differing in its structure or mode in comparison with other theistic systems, does not become atheistic. It presents itself as a perfect theistic system and its popular belief as well as Sadhanā, lead it to a very sound position.'

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CHAPTER - 7 SCRIPTURAL AND OTHER ARGUMENTS
FOR THEISM IN JAINISM 7.1. Introductory Remark
The nature of reality, its relativistic character and the nature of soul were sufficient to lead to a position where absolute becomes inevitable. But then in establishing absolute, against the common notion of non-absolute, like one swimming against the current, I feel what is discussed logically or rationally, in the previous chapters is not enough. In order to present Jainism not as atheistic but theistic, it is quite necessary that the cause is made more sound with the help of more supporting arguments. When we think of still more arguments, and arguments that are logically sound and philosophically meaningful, naturally, we would search for testimonial arguments. Jainism, in fact like Nyāy-Vaiśesika and other systems of Indian philosophy, accepts testimony (Sabda Pramāņa) as a source of valid knowledge, The testimonial arguments, generally, falls under two groups : scriptural and personal. Scriptural arguments, form a group of such arguments which are quoted from the scriptures where the thesis is supported. But then, like every system, in Jainism we have the writers of such works who were no ordinary persons but great thinkers and seers. What they have written and said is the result of their own realization and bears a mark of authenticity. In short we have arguments taken from the scriptures as well as arguments supported by great philosophers and seers in their individual capacity.
When we go to scriptural and personal arguments, it would be quite in fitness to give a brief picture of Jain literature that contains its scriptures as well as such names that have been acclaimed and accepted as authority. So let us have a glance over the Jain scriptures and other literature. 7.2 Jain Literature
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan has rightly said, “The faith was preserved in .man's mind, as usual. The knowledge of the scriptures was slowly decaying, till in the fourth century B. C. the need for fixing the canon

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Jain Theism was keenly felt."" Jainism being the oldest living representative of that ancient Sramana current of Indian culture, being one of the earliest home of religions of India,'being 'shown to extend as far back as 3000 B. C. and being described as “a very original, independent and systematic doctrine', it has, to its great credit, proved to be a complete system with all the necessary branches of philosophy, theology, mythology and cosmology, each one very rich in its dogmas and literature, there is very 'big bulk of literature produced by or under the patronage of the Jain in ancient and mediaeval times'? The literature is primarily and essentially religious in character.
Professor P. S. Jaini gives a classification of the canonical literature (Agama) in his famous book “The Jain path of perfection'. The canonical literature is known variously as Nigantha-Pāvayāņa (Sermons of the Nirgarantha, Gani-pidaga (basket) of the Gañadhara) suya-nana. (scriptural knowledge), of merely Siddhānta (doctrine)'8 It consists of some sixty texts divided into three groups of works known as Pūrva, Anga, and Angabāhya, all handed down in an ancient Magadha language called Ardhamāgadhi."
Agama
Purva
Anga
Angabahya (14 texts : all extinct) (12 texts : one extinct)
(34 texts) The 34 texts classified as Angabāhya are further classified in five groups as (i) Upānga (12 texts), (ii) Chedasütra (6 texts), (iii) Mūlasutra (4 texts), (iv) Prakirņakasūtra (10 texts). (v) Cālikāsūtra (2 texts).'"
1. Dr. Radhakrishnan S., Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1977) p. 288 2. Dr. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977), p. 2. 3. Prof. Ramaswami Ayanger 4. Maj. Gen. J. G. R. Furlong 5. Dr. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977). p. 2 6. Ibid., p.
2 7 . Ibid., p. 150 8. Jaini P. S., The Jain Path of Purification (1979), p. 47 9. Ardhamăgadhi was employed only in the most ancient times; the language of extant svetambara texts is very close to Mahārāstri Prakrit and is often referred to as Jain Mabărăstiri by modern scholars. Digamaras adopted another dialect called Sauraseni Prakrit of the Satkhandāgama and other works. See Ibid., p. 47 10. Ibid., p. 47

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Thus here also excluding the 14 texts under Pūrva and one text under Anga being extinct we have 45 scriptures (Āgamas) as the canonical literature of the Jains.
The canonical and other quasi-canonical literature belong to the ancient period is written in the Ardha-Māgadhi or Prākrit language as the Tirtharkaras wanted their preaching to appeal the common people. Jainism believes the Agama (traditional canon) to be the ultimate source of all knowledge. They are also known as the Dwādaśänga sutra or the twelve limbed scriptures.
In fact over and above mentioned 12 Angas, there are 11 *Upānga'. 10 Painna (iniscellanea), 6 Cheda Sūtras, 4 Mula Satras, and 2 Chulika Sūtras. “This makes 45 valuable Agamas.'!!
It may just be mentioned that regarding the exact number of canonical scriptures a great controversy prevails not only amongst the scholars but also amongst the two main sects of Jainism : the Digambaras and the Svetāmbaras. The canonical literature of the Jains is very rich in its content and include almost all the areas pertaining to philosophy, religion, cosmography, cosmology, mythology, mathematics, sociology, etc. Each scripture has its definite subject discussed in full details e.g. the Acārānga Satra discusses Jiva Tattva as well as the nature of soul; or the Sūtrakrutānga discusses the doctrine of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda), the theory of manifoldness (Syādavāda) and the Jain dialectics : the seven alternatives technically known as Saptabhangi Naya, in great details. Since our subject is not the Agamas or Jain literature its detailed survey, I would like to be very brief in saying that though they are religious in nature they offer a wide range of variety of subjects exposed with a detailed analysis, minutest details and highly logical arguments.
Status-wise, the entire religious literature may be classified into three groups : canonical, Quasi-canonical and non-canonical. We also come across another classification where the entire literature is divided into four Anuyogas or divisions: viz; (1) Prathamānuyoga consists of the Jain Pūraņas (mythologies)
Kāvyas (poetry) and Caritras (biographies) (2) Caraṇānuyoga contains ethical literature
il. “Agama-ni Aradhana'- an article, Acärya Sri Manatungasri, Kalyan'
(July. Aug., 1985), p. 183 to 188

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VIUVUYVE
Jain Theism (3) Karaṇānuyoga, deals with the cosmology, cosmography,
Karma and intricate mathematical calculation (4) Dravyānuyoga, which deals with the Jain metaphysics and
ontology.
Moreover we find a huge number of works dealing with theology i.e. ritualistical and Pājā-literature with numerous devotional hymns, eulogies, and lyrics composed in praise of the worshipful ones" ?? Over and above the canonical as well as quasi-canonical literature we find a large literature glosses and commentaries grown up round the sacred texts as well as upon the independent treatises. 'One of the oldest of these treatises is, Umāsvāti's Tattvārthādhigamasätra (185 A.D.)"}3 Some of the most important later Jain works are “Nemicandra's Dravyasrniagraha, Siddhasena Diwākar's Nyāvatāra (533 A.D.) Anantavirya's Parikṣāmukhasutra Laghuvetti (1039 A.D.) Syādvādamañjari of Mallisena (1292 A.D.) Yogaśāstra of Hemacandrācārya (1088-1172 A.D.)., Pramāņa-Naya-Tattvālokālaṁkāra of Vãdi Dev Sūri (1086-1169 A.D.)!*
I have not the least intention to provide an upto date, perfect and exhaustive list of Jain literature. The idea behind the brief picture of the Jain literature, as given above, is to acquaint the reader before they are quoted as supporting authority for argument under the condition, one may find a lot of important treatises and quite a good number of writers not mentioned.
Again in the modern times, we come across some personalities worth taking note for the subject of this work. Amongst these, Srimad Rajcandra, Acārya Nyāyavijayaji, Bhadrankar Vijayaji, Dr. J. P. Jain, Dr. H. S. Bhattacharyaji, Sri J. L. Jaini, Prof. P. S. Jaini, Pandit Sukhlalji, Pandit Dalsukh Malvania are some of the main ones. 7.3 Scriptural Arguments .(Canonical Literature) (1) Arguments from Sri Acārāóga Satra
Infinite number of Tirthankaras, according to Jainism, results
12. Jain J. P., Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977), P. 163 13. Dr. Dasgupta S. N., The History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I, (1975), p. 171. 14. Ibid., P. 172

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into an infinite number of the chief disciples known as Gañadharas. They wrote twelve Angas (Āgamas) of which the very first one is Acārānga Sūtra which discusses the five main rules of conduct (ācāra) for the monks. It also discusses the Jain metaphysics and specially the nature of Jiva (soul). The Acârânga Sõtra provides number of instances where Mahavira has been addressed as God.''! Moreover, in its 24 th chapter, it describes Mahavira attaining omniscience and thus attaining Godhood. He is the Jain God being worshipped by Devas, human beings and others. He is the Lord (Bhagawana), the Arihant (one who has destroyed all his weakness), the Jina (the conqueror) The Kevali (Omniscient) and the Sarvajna (Having all knowledge)"16 Even if we read all the four sub-sections (Uddes) of its 9th chapter under the title Upadhāna-Sūtra it narrates all about Lord Mahāvira and we find the conception of God the Almighty and Lord of the world in him. (2) Arguments from Śri Upăsakadašāåga Satra
This Agama describes the conduct and character of ten householders (Śrāvaka). It contains beautiful discourse and dialogues between Lord Mahavira and his chief disciples. Here we find aphorisms like 'super human being' ('Maha-Manava) progenitor of great religion' or great regulator' (Mahā Dharmikathi)'a mystery to us (Mahāgopa) etc. Moreover at number of places Mahvira has been addressed as Lord,”18 This Agama deals with many aspects related to the theistic
15. Acaranga Sutra 991-92-93. 16. से भगवं अरहा जिणे जाए केवली सवण्णू सत्वभावदरिसी सवगणु यासुरस्स लोयस्स पज्जाए जाणइ, तंजहा: आगति, गति ठिति चवणं उववायं, भुत्तं, पीयं, कई, पडितेविये, आवीकम्मं, रहकम्मं रहोकम्मं लवियं, कहियं, मणोमाणसियं, सव्वलोए सव्वजीवाणं, सव्वभावाइं जाणमाणे पातमाणे एवं च ण विहरई ।
जण्णं दिवसं तमणस्स भगवओ महावीरस्स णिव्वाणे कसिसे जाव समुप्पुण्णे तण्णं दिवसं भवणवइवाणमंतर-जोइसिय-विमाणवासि देवेहि य देवीहि य उख्खयंतेहिय जाव अप्यंजलगभूर यावि होत्था । 17. "समणे भगवं महावीरे महागोवे" ।
"सदालपुत्ता । समणे भगवं महावीरे महासत्यवाहे" "समणे भगवं महावीरे महाधम्मकही" । "समणे भगवं महावीरे महानिज्जामए" ।

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aspects of a religious life c.g. it tells how Lord Mahāvira is praised and worshiped by others. (3) Argument from Nandi Sutra
Nandi sätra, in fact, is not one of the twelve Anga. It falls under the group of Chulikā, Sūtra. But then Nandi Sutra is known as the 'balance-sheet of all the Āgamas, 19 It enjoys its own importance. It contains the detailed description of the worship to Lord, the characteristic of the community (Sangha), the five types of knowledge etc. In order to stress the 'theism' as reflected in Jain scriptures, let us take its very first verse which is a prayer to the Jain God (Jineśvara Bhagawāna). Here the Lord Jineśvara of Tirthankara is addressed as the 'knower of all generating states, 'grand and glorious (Bhavya), The saviour of all beings (Jagannatha), father of all fathers (Pitā) and is ever victorious (Sadā Jayi)'20 In the beginning we also find a hymn or Stuti for Lord Mahāvira for twenty four Tirthankaras, and for the chief Disciples i.e. Gañadharas. In all nearly 50 verses of its very beginning is full of theistic color. A variety of phrases and aphorisms are used all reflecting the reverence and sense of worship towards Tirthankara who is the Jain God, the divine, the pure, the perfect and the powerful. (4) Argument from Anuyogadvāra Satra
Like Nandi Sūtra, Anuyogadvāra, Sūtra is also a Chulikā Sūtra. It is known as "the key to all agamas."?! It is full of many metaphysical as well as the logical issues discussed in great details. It describes the four doors (entry or openings) to enter into Anuyoga. Anuyoga means to be consistent with whatever preached by Lord Mahāvīra. This scripture is comparatively more technical and tougher to understand. What is most important for us to note is the theism peeping out from such discussions. Its main thesis is based on a powerful conviction that one who follows this Sūtra will be able to attain all the infinite capacities of the pure soul. It also narrates gods and goddesses of the different worlds (Devas of Nakşatras). 18. Pi, ia 19. “Agama -ni Arādbană -an article Acārya Sri Mänatungasari, "Kalyan' (July
Aug. 1985), p. 183 to 188 20. JUS Nagiluft fallurit 15 TUNGTI
जगणाहो जगबन्धू, जयइ जगप्पिमहो भगवं ॥ 21. “Agam -ni Ārādhana' -An article Acārya Śri Manatungasūri, Kalyan'
(July - Aug., 1985), p. 183 to 188

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 147 (5) Argument from Sri Aupapātika Satra :
As we find Ācārānga Sútra being the first amongst the twelve angas. so is the Aupapātika Sūtra first amongst the twelve Upāngas. It is also known as Sri Uvavai Sūtra. This scripture is more a narrative one and gives an account of the great honor and reverence offered to Lord, Malāvira by the king Konika, the monks and the people. It also discusses the issues regarding penance, meditation, worship, nature of heaven, and at the end the nature of Siddhas who are Jain Gods. The twentieth verse of this upānga is a famous Jain hymn (Stuti) which is full of the attributes of God : Tirtharkara.?? Some of the attributes here are :
Divine and pure God, self-eminant, the master of the world, 24 the welwisher of the world2s, the path shower of the world,26 the illuminator, 27 the emancipator,28 the omniscient, the good," the absolute
motionless, the pure,l the perfect,32 the Unlimited,33 the changeless, one who is at the state of divine perfection (Siddha),# to such Lord Tirthankara, who is the Jain God,36 prayers and obeiscence is offered, Moreover, this Upānga describes the Upāsņā of the Lord." It explains the three types of worship (Upāsanā) viz. physical worship, phonic (speech) or vocal worship and mental worship. At the end, the Aupapatika Sūtra gives the nature of a soul that has attained the state of Siddhahood, one who is totally liberated from the bondage of Karma. It describes the location where Siddhas world reside permanently, the infinite number of Siddhas are merged into one other38 forming ‘Monism' - the soul is one. The Aupapātika Sutra proves to be very significant
22. Aupapatika Sutra 20 23 to 37. णमोत्थुणं अरिहंताणं भगवंताणं आइगराणं तित्थयराणं सयंसंबुद्धाणं पुरिसुत्तमाणं पुरिससोहाणं पुरिसवरपुंडरीयाणं पुरिसवरगंधहत्थोणं लोगुत्तमाणं लोगनाहाणं लोगहियाणं लोगईवाणं लोगपज्जोयगराणं अभयदयाणं चक्खुदयाणं मग्गयादाणं तरणदयाणं जीवदयाणं बोहिदयाणं धम्मदयाणं धम्मसयाणं धम्मसारहो धम्मनायगाणं धम्म-चरचारंत चक्क वट्टीणं तीवो याणं सरणगइ पइट्टा अपडिह -बर-नाण-बसंण-धराणं वियदृच्छउमाणं जिणाणं जावयाणं तिणाणाणै तारयाणी बुद्धाणं बोहयाणं मुत्ताणं मोयगाणं सव्वण्णूणं सव्वदरिसीणंसिव-मयल-मस्य-मणंत-मकखयमव्वावाह मयुणरावित्ति-सिद्धिगइनामधेयं ठाणं संपत्ताणं, नमोत्थु णं समणस्स भगवओ महावीवरस्स आदिगरस्स तित्थगरस्स जाव संपाविउकामस्स मम धम्मायरियस्स धम्मोवदेगस्स तिथ्यगरस्स वंदामि णं भगवंतं........ 38-39. " आण्णोण्णसमोमोगाढा, पुट्टा सब्वे य लोगतै ॥
-तेओ एकबीजामां व्यापीने रहेला छे य एगे आया - Aupapatika Sutra-5

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as it does not only bring out the Jain theism but also solves the metaphysical problems arising out of plurality of infinite liberated souls and their residence being a mundane place. The solution to the answer ultimately leads Jainism not only to theism but to Monism. (6) Argument from Daśavaikātika Satra
The Daśavaikālika Satra is one of the four Müla Sūtras of the Jain canonical literature. It is a mini-Agama, in the sense, it contains the essence of the Agamas described in ten chapters. It has become an ideal one for the Jain Monks and nuns of the present day period as it wonderfully shows how amidst all the unfavouable situation one can best perform the Arādhanā and attain spiritual progress. The very first line of its very first verse is the famous aphorism served as Jain definition of Dharma : “Religion is the highest bliss. It is made up of non-injury (Ahimsā), self restraint (Samyama) and penance (Tapa); even Gods bow down to him who has his mind always firm in religion is the highest bliss. And penance (Tapa); even Gods bow down to him who has his mind always firm in religion."40
The chapter 4 of this Mūla Sutra through verses no. 14 to 25, logically proves how one who knows life and nonlife passes through the stages in gradation and goes higher and higher, in his spiritual development, till at last he becomes an eternally perfect being." Thus we see here the content reflecting the religious, ethical and spiritual progress towards the state of perfection. It is therefore, highly theistic in its presuppositions and in its approach. (7) Argument from Uttarādhayayan Satra
The Uttarādhyayan Satra is also one of the four Mala Sūtras of the Jain canonical literature like the previous one. It is also very popular amongst the non-Jain scholars of Jainism. It contains the last sermons of Lord Mahāvīra, constituted into 36 chapters. It has a very big variety of subjects belonging to Jain metaphysics, ethics, theology, and, mythology. It is the last expression of the last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvira. One of the characteristics of a theistic system is its worship of the Lord. Worship contains the rituals, the prayers and offerings to
40.
धम्मो मंगलमुनिळं अहिंसा संजमो तवो । dan fa 74fa ofta en quit lll 811 Dasavaikalika Sutra ry 14 to 25
Dasavaikalika Sutra - 1

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Lord. Worship of the Lord. We have dealt the issue of Jain prayer separately in the previous chapter. But then to bow down with reverence expresses the faith of the devotee. The acceptance of the Lord, as our master, and faith in Him, is expressed with reverence through the act of bowing down (Vandanā). In chapter 29 of the Uttarādhyayan Sutra Lord Mahāvira explains the significance and benefit of such acts as bowing (Vandana), singing eulogy (Stuti), confession (Prayascitta), forgiveness (Kșmāpanā), concentration and meditation (Anupreksā and Dhyāna), penance (Tap) etc.42 The complete explanation as given by Lord Mahāvīra is simply impossible and unconceivable if Jainism is atheism. On the contrary it presupposes theism and has all theistic implications. Again, here in this scripture also, we find at number of places Mahāvira has been addressed as Lord or God.
At the end of the Uttaradhyayana Sätra i.e. after the last chapter no 36, in reply to Sri Jambusvāmi's question, his Guru and the 5th chief disciple amongst the eleven of Lord Mahāvira, Sudharmā gañadhara, gives an eulogy after Mahăvira (Virathui). It is composed of twenty-nine verses expressing the attributes of Lord Mahāvīra, He says, "Mahavira was omniscient. has unlimited (absolute) knowledge, was a great master who was steadfast in his own self, devoid of all passions and having no acquisitions or possessions, fearless, timeless, perfect knower of all the objects of the world. He possessed great wisdom, and was unobstructed though active; he was the saviour, liberator and emancipator having great peace and serenity; he was the destroyer of ignorance and illuminator, his wisdom was pure and unfathomable like that of the ocean; he was devoid of all passions and was beyond Karina, always shining; he was the best amongst all souls and was the creator of happiness and bliss in all living beings; he performed the highest meditation known as Sukladhyāna, and attained the state of tiberation which has beginning but no end. He understood and carefully considered all the isms or philosophies of action and non-action; of agnosticism, etc. and showed an utmost control and equinonimousness. The entire eulogy (Virathui) is an example of the Jain conception of God and its theistic approach towards life and reality.
42. Uttaradhyayan Sutra Ch. 29, 10 to 23 43. to 52. Read U.S. Ch. 29 no. 10 to 23 53 to 68. Read U.S. Ch. 36 “Virthui"

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7.4 Arguments from Quasi-Canonical Literature
Let us also examine those works which are technically not belonging to the canonical group. But then they are considered highly important and significant and are included amongst the sacred texts of the Jains. Let us examine a few of them to show the theistic nature of Jainism. (1) Argument from. Yogasāra
This is an authentic text comprising of 206 verses into five sections. The central theme of this scripture is the soul that imerges out as absolute in its pure form and the way or path to attain such a state of soul. In its very first section the nature of Jain God is described; and in the very first line of its third verse it says : “This very soul in its pure form is God"69 It also says, “When the inner vices like attachment and aversion (Rāga Dvesa) are destroyed, when the equinonimousness is attained, then the soul realizes absolute.' it tells us that the plurality of souls is only till they are embodied, and are in the bondage of Karma. Unembodied and souls free from Karma are the Gods having no difference.''l Form Nyaya-Vaisesika point of view all liberated souls are one. Such Gods (liberated souls) thought numerically many are all having infinite power and infinite bliss and thus are qualitatively only one."?? It narrates the nature of God and says, “this God is worshipped, mentally through the fulfillment of vows and physically through 'Bhakti' and 'Pooja'.73 To such a pure
69. शुद्धस्फटिकसंकाशो, निष्कल्मषात्मनात्मनि । -Y. S. 3
परमात्मेति संज्ञातः प्रदत्ते परम पदम् ॥ ३ ॥ 70.. रागद्वेषमयेष्वेषु हतेष्वान्तस्वैरिषु ।
साम्ये सुनिश्चले यायादात्यैव परमात्मताम् ॥३॥ -Y. S. 13 ___ आत्मानो देहिनो मिन्नाः कर्मपंककलंकिताः अदेहः कर्मनिर्मुक्तः परमात्मा न भिंदते ॥६॥-Y. S. 72. संख्यया नेकरूपोऽपि गुणतस्त्वेक एब सः ।
अनन्तदर्शनज्ञानवीर्यांनन्दगुणात्मकः ॥१७॥ जातस्यं यथा जात्यं वहुरूपमपि स्थितम् । सर्वत्रापि तदेवैकं परमात्मा तथा
प्रभु : ॥१८॥ 73. आराधितो स्त्वसौ भावस्तेवेन ब्रह्मचर्यया ।
सत्य पूजादिना दव्यस्तवेन तु तरागता ॥२९॥

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 151 form of soul-the Lord Tirthnkara, whether you call him Lord Buddha or Visnu or Brahma or Mahādeva or you call him Jinendra, it makes no difference."*74 Thus Yogasāra provides number of instances supporting Jain concept of God and Jain's nature of theism. (2) Argument from Adhyātmasāra
Just like in Sthānānga-Satra? which is one of the twelve Angas of the Jain canonical literature, here the central theme is "soul is one')6 It discusses the nature of soul, soul in its polluted form, soul in its pure form, importance of prayer etc. Here through verse no. 714 to 774 the absolute has been described just as we find in Bhagawadgitā. It further categorically
the pure soul is existence (Sat). knowledge Cit) and bliss (Ananda) !” The Adhyatmasära at the end defines God and says, “One who has attained absolute knowledge, detached from the worldly activities, annihilated all the Karmas and has attained Siddhhood is God."** Thus we find Adhyātmasāra giving sufficient support to Jain conception of God as well as Jain theism. (3) Argument from Samaņa-Suttam
This sacred text of the Jains convey the essence of Jain religion. It has four sections: the first one (Jyoti-mukha) tells about Jains and the Jain religion and its main doctrines; the second one (Moksa Marga) talks about path of perfection; the third one (tattvadarśana) deals with Jaina metaphysics and the last and the fourth one (Syādvāda) deals with the non-absolutism of Jainism, it opens with a holy hymn as a prayer to five holy pentad : the God (Arihanta), the absolute (Siddha), the great preachers (Ācāryas), the monks (Upadhyāyas), and all the good persons (Sädhus) with reference to Jain God it says that, “it is 74. godt at ofc ar fabulerai CENTI$R: Juleni a fortat at
Frefutarefa fe 113&11 75. 7 3174 - PATTİN F- QUIFI 76. एक आत्मेति सूत्रस्याप्ययमेवाशयो मतः । प्रत्यग् पूज्योतिषमात्मानमाहु :
legir un ll 77. दुःखैस्मयोभिन्नस्तेनात्मा पुण्यपापयोः । शुद्धनिश्चयतः सत्यचिदानन्दमयः सदा
II 9811 Also see (1) Samayasāra 45 (2) Pravacanasāra 1-78 78. ज्ञानं केवलसंज्ञ योगनिरोधः समग्रकर्महतिः । सिद्धि निवासश्चयदा, ACAT PATTIGI : 117811
A. D. S. 79. Namaskāramantra : Samana Suttam 1 & 2

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Jain Theism
the commandment of the Jain God that one should give up the soul's outer activities of the mind, of the speech and of the body and should enter into the inner world of the soul and should thus concentrate on God." It also says, "One who knows the Jain God knows the soul." Here also, at the end, there is an eulogy for Lord Mahāvira. Its very first verse says that 'Just like the knowledge, the wisdom, the self restraint and penance Lord Mahāvir is also my protector, and shelter."" It further describes how Lord Mahavira was the greatest amongst the liberated, the best in the world and 'Almighty Father' of the whole universe. The Samana Suttam is not merely an essence of all the great scriptures but is also a noncontroversial text that has been agreed and accepted by all the sects of the Jains. The Samaņa Suttam also reflects the most deep rooted theistic approaches of the Jains and Jainism. (4) Argument from Syādavādamañjari
This scripture, in fact, is the commentary on Śri. Hemcandrasuri's 'Mahavira Stuti-dvātrimśikā, which was written by Śri Mallisenācārya in 1293 A.D. and reflects the author's deep study of the other systems of Indian philosophy. It mainly discusses the epistemological problems. But even then, while commenting upon the 17th verse, Śri Malliṣenācārya discusses the "omniscience" and logically proves that the Jain god (Vitaraga Bhagavāna) is Omniscient. At the end of the work, in the last five couplets, there is an culogy expressing God's capacity to know the reality in its pure form and he has thus saved the mankind from fallacies or false standpoint (durnaya).'84 This text, basically, is not metaphysical or pertaining to theology. Even then
80. आस्त्रहपि अंतरण्या, बहिरण्यो छंडिअण तिविहेण । झाइज्जइ परमप्या, उवइटुं जिणवरिदैर्हि 1
81. जो जाणादि अरहंतं, दव्वत्तगुणत्तपज्जयत्तेहिं ।
Samana Suttam
सो जाणादि अप्पाणं, मोहो खलु जादि तस्स लयं 11 11 16-17 S.
82. णाणं सरणं मे, दंसणं च सरणं च चरिय सरणं च ।
तव संजमं च सरणं, भगवं सरणो महावीरो ॥ ॥
ज्ञानं शरणं, मम, दर्शनं च शरणं च चारित्र शरणं च ।
तपः संयमश्य शरणं भगवान् शरणो महावीरः ॥ ॥
83. । टीका । अथ अनादित्वाद रागादीनां कर्म प्रक्षयः इति चेत् । न । उपायतस्तदावत् । अनादेरपि सुवर्ण - S. S. 44.1
मलस्य क्षारभूत्पुटपाकादिना विलयोपलम्भात् । तद्वदेवानादीनामपि रागादिदोषाणां प्रिपक्षभूमरत्नत्रयाभ्यासेन विलयोपपत्तेः । क्षीणदोषस्य च केवलज्ञानाव्यभिचारात् सर्वज्ञत्वम् ॥
S. M. 17
84. Syadvāda Manjari 28

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 153 it does reflect the theistic presuppositions as well as the general theistic approach by the Jain religion and Jain community at number of places. Moreover it narrates the liberation and the nature of liberated soul, its capacity and characteristics. (5) Argument from Yogśāstra
Acārya Hemachandra has his own place in the history of the Jain religion. He enjoys a very respectable status mainly due to his multifaced personality and his services in various fields, like religion, Yoga, literature, grammar, politics and sociology. All the three traditions of ancient India; the Vaidic. The Bauddha and the Jain, have accepted Yoga as a solution and a way of life to attain the highest spiritual happiness. In the third section (Kiran Sa) it tells that one who is practicing Yoga should concentrate on his own soul as not different (Abhinna) from God's Through the last three verses of this section it has been explained how the meditator becomes totally free from the sins and attains Godhood. This entire discussion throws sufficient light on Jain's faith in the supreme and their approach even in Yoga. Again the fourth section, through the verses 40 to 54 he discusses the state of liberation and for that how one should attain equanimity (Samabhāva). In the same section it discusses penance and its different types, 86 religion, 87 ten religions (duties), liberation, ** how and when attained and at the end the companionship or friendship i.e. 'Maitribhāvanā”89 All these issues are dealt in a theistic background. Like Jñāna and Bhakti, Yoga is treated as a way (a Marga) to release the soul from the bondage and attain highest. unity with the Siddhas.
85. 31 Ari ya 44 3451 SART! -Y.S.S., P. 199. 86. अनशनमौनोदर्य वृत्तेः सक्षेपणं तथा । रसत्यागस्तनुक्लेशो लीनतेति बहिस्तपः ॥ ८९ ॥
Yogasastra IV - 89 87. 194: i pita fahari a4: I farfdaya tanpa astaHIN
8311 Yogasastra IV - 93 88. मोक्षः कर्मक्षयादेव स चात्मज्ञानतो भवेत् । ध्यानसाध्यं मतं तच्च तद्धयानं
fed477477: 1188311 Yogasastra IV - 113 , मा कापीत् कोऽपि पापानि मा च भूत् कोऽपि दुःखितः । मुच्यतां जगदप्येषा मतिमैत्री
fre 1188611 Yogasastra IV-118

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Jain Theism (6) Argument from Dravyasangraha
The Dravyasaṁgraha by Śri Nemicandra is considered to be one of the authentic treatises on Jain metaphysics and philosophy. Here, again we find the author begins with a prayer and praises. Lord Tirthankara with full faith and devotion, out and out in a theistic spirit.90 In the third chapter of this work, which deals with 'Path of Salvation' (Moksa-Marga), through the verses no. 50 and 51 the nature of Jain Tithankara and Siddhas is described.91 We find the Jain God in its conception of the Tirthankar and Jain Para-Brahman in its Siddhas. Both the Arihanta and siddha are souls who have attained liberation and perfection and are divine Gods, who should be the object of meditation, 92 On Sri Nemichandra's Dravyasamgraha Sri Brahmadeva has written a commentary in which he gives a detailed explanation on the nature of God.93
90. जीवमजीवं दव्वं जिणवरवसहेण जेण णिदिर्छ ।
देविंदविंदवंदं वंद तं सव्वदा सिरसा ॥ १ ॥ जीवमजीवं दव्यं जिनवरवृषभेण येन निर्दिष्टम् ।
देवेन्द्रवृन्दवंद्यं वन्दे तं सर्वदा शिरता ॥ २ ॥ . Dravya Samgraha 1 & 2 91. गटुपदुधाइकम्मो दंसणसुदणाणवीरियमइओ ।
सुहृदेहत्थो अप्या सुद्धो अरिहो विचिंतिज्जो ॥५०॥ नष्टचतुर्धातिकमां दर्शनसुखजालानवीर्यमयः । .
शुभदेहस्थः आत्मा शुद्धः अर्हन् विचिन्तनीयः ॥ ५०॥ - D. S. 50 92. णतृतृकम्मदेहो लोयालोयस्स जाणओ दढ़ा ।
पुरिसायारो अप्या सिद्धो ज्ञापह लोयसिहरत्यो ॥ ५१॥ नष्टाष्टकटम्मदैहः लोकलोकस्य ज्ञापकः दष्टा । पुरुषाकार: आत्मा सिद्धः ध्यायेत शोकशिखरस्थः ॥ ५१ ॥ . D. S. 51 परमात्मलक्षणं कथ्यते सकलविमलकेवलज्ञानेन येन कारणेन समस्तुं लोकालोकं जानाति व्याप्नोति तेन कारणेन विष्णुर्भण्यते। परमब्रह्म संज्ञनिजशुद्धात्मभावनासमुत्पन्नसुखामृततृप्तस्य सत उर्वशीरम्भातिलोत्तमाभिर्देवकन्याभिरपि यस्य ब्रह्मचर्यव्रतं न खण्डितं स परब्रह्म मन्यते । केवलज्ञानादिगुणोचर्ययुक्तस्य सतो देवेन्द्रादयोऽपि तत्पदाभिलाषिण: सन्तो यस्याज्ञां कुर्वन्ति स ईश्वराभिधानो भवति । केवलज्ञानशब्दवाच्यं गतं ज्ञानं यस्य स सुगतः अथवा शोभनमविनश्वरं सुक्तिदंपदे गतः सुगतः । “शिवं परमकल्याणं निर्वाणं" ज्ञानमक्षयम्। प्राप्तं मुक्तिपदं येन स शिवः परिकीर्तितः ।। निश्चयेन स्वतः सिद्धत्वात्परकारणनिरपेक्षा, त चैवाविनश्वरत्वान्नित्यः । परमोपोक्षम्मायत्वारभ्यरपप्रकाशनसमर्थः, अनायननास्यादा-दिमध्यान्तनिर्मला, परमचैतन्यविलातलक्षणत्वादुच्छलननिर्भरः, स्वाभाविकपरमानन्दैकलक्षणत्वात्परमसुखमूर्ति, निरास्त्रवसहजस्त्वभावत्वात्सर्वकर्मसंवरहेतुरित्युक्तलक्षणः परमात्मा ।
93.

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 155
It describes the world of the liberated souls (Moksa-Sila),94 the Siddhas or the liberated souls, the nature of their blisss and. at the end, it talks about the transcendental meditation or Parama-Dhyana,96 Both Sri Nemicandra and Sri Brahmadeva have treated the issues most theistically. (7) Argument From Naya-Kariikā and Sanmati Prakarana
Both, Naya Karmikā and Sanmati Prakarana, are the creation of Siddhsena Diwākara. The Naya Karņikā opens with a prayer to Lord Mahāvira whose gospel is an ocean, with all kinds of Nayas as so many streams flowing into it.....97 The Naya Karnikā deals with Jain logic, while the Sanmati Prakaraņa gives an elaborative view of Jain epistemology, specially the Jain theory of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda). Pandit Sukhlalji observes in his own comments that both Siddhasena and Samantabhadra, in less or more degree, in a typical Jain style, try to suggest to the people that the trinity of Brahmā, Vişnu and Mahesa is in fact, none else but the Jain Tirthankara." It also contains a short life-sketeh of Lord Mahavira and his spiritual achievements. (8) Argument from Saddarsanasamuccaya
It is one of the most popular philosophical treatise mainly amongst the scholars of Indian philosophy. It is written by Sri Haribhadra Sūri in which the author has given a classification of the systems of Indian philosophy. It also reflects Sri Haribhadra Süri's deep knowledge
94. ततः परं तत्रैव द्वादशयोजनेषु गतेष्वष्टयोजनश्वाहुल्या मनुष्यलोकववत्पञ्चाधिक
चत्वारिंशल्लक्षयोजनविस्तारा मोक्षशिला भवति । तस्या उपरि धनोदधिधनवाततनुवातित्रयमस्ति
। तत्र तनुवातमध्ये लोकान्ते केवलज्ञानाद्यनन्तगुणतर्हिता: सिवदाः तिष्ठन्ति । 95. सर्वस्य कर्मणः यः क्षपहेतुः आत्मनः हि परिणामः ।
ज्ञेयः सः भावमोक्षः द्रव्यविमोक्षः च कर्मपृथग्भावः ॥ ३७ ॥ तस्य मुक्तात्मनः सुखं कथ्यते । “आत्मोपादानसिद्धं स्वयमतिशयवद्वितदार्ध ॥ विशालं वृद्धिहासव्यपेतं विषयविरहितं नि:प्रतिद्वन्द्वभावम्। अन्यदव्यानपेक्षं नित्यमममितं शाश्वतं
सर्वकालमुतकृष्टानंतसारं परमसुखमतस्तस्य सिद्धस्य जातं ॥"९६ 96. मा चेष्टत मा जल्पत मा चिन्तयत किम् अपि येन भवति स्थिरः । आत्मा आत्मनि रतः इदं
एव परं ध्यानं भवति ॥ ५६ ॥ -D. S. 97. वर्धमानं स्तुमः सर्वनयनयरणवागमम् ।
सदोषतस्तदुन्नीतनयभेदानुवादतः ॥१॥ 98. Pt. Sukhlalji & Pt. Doshi B. Sanmati - Prakāran ed. (1952), p. 181

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Jain Theism of the other systems of Indian Philosophy and the attitude of Jain monks towards the other systems. Sri Haribhadra Sūri describes Jain God as one who is free from all attachments, who has destroyed all th
ations, who has attained omniscience, who is worshipped by the gods, and one who has, after annihilating all the Karmas, attained liberation.o Sri Gunaratna Súri, in his commentary on Śadārašanasamaccaya, discusses even the issue of Avatāravāda. He also quotes Sri Siddhasena in this connection and at the end says that the Jain God in his state of liberation is going to be like that for an infinite period; Jinendra (The Jain God) is the real God and to him only one should treat as God.100 (9) Argument from Vişāpahāra Stotra
This stotra by Mahākavi Dhananjaya is more a literary work which describes God through different figures of speech e.g. it uses paradoxes (opposites) in saying "God (Lord Ķsabhadeva) to be nothing but a pure soul and yet it is omnipresent, known to all possessions and yet possesses nothing, living for an infinite time and yet never old."tol Again it says : “You (Lord Rşabhadeva) see all but is seen by none, know all but not known to all, you are how many and how is not predictable and so my prayer is the story of my inability to express. "102 It further says "O Lord ! you are omniscient and you are the Lord of all, the three worlds."?lu3 It also tells regarding the worship and devotion. It says, “Mere talking is not enough, in order to achieve the desired goal worship (Bhakti), memory (Smiti) and obeisance (Namaskrti) is required. So I devotedly, daily worship you (Bhajāmi, Smarāmi,
99.379 Sari FWUT916
जिनेन्द्रो देवता तत्र रागद्वेषविवर्जितः । हतपोहमहापल्लः केवलज्ञानदर्शनः ॥ ४५ ॥ सुरासुरेन्द्रसंपूज्य: सद्भूतार्थप्रकाशकः । कृत्स्नकर्मक्षयं कृत्या संप्राप्तः परमं पदम् ॥ ४६ ॥
-S. D. S. IV 45-56 100. Jain, Dr. Mahendrakumar, ed. SDS - (1970), p. 165 101. Farrafera: Herra: #fredet fattain: 1
uagantseerim atua: urugurareysu yout: Il - V. S. 1 102. Feat faugyar Frantiere fagragoi faftertida:
arforditeeri spugnant: Agfarten şiftirnar - V. S. 4 103. fragicard agafattarella Hen fornitura i
atacuri ufa reforma Asaisfuacamparty 1 - V. S. 16

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism Pranamami). 104 "Regarding the nature of absolute it says, "O Lord! You have no form, no taste no smell, no touch, no sound, You are abstract and yet you know them all. These are some of the examples to show the writer's treatment towards Tirthankara as Lord and the object of worship.
(10) Argument from Śri Lalita Vistara
The two volumes of Śri Lalita Vistara by Śri Haribhadra Sûri is full of spiritual discussions. In fact the Lalita Vistara is a commentary on "Śri Caityavandan Sūtra' yet it is an independent sastra. Here
Haribhadra Suri has taken each attribute of the Siddhas or Arihant and has discussed each one in a great detail. It is also known the "great light" (Parama Tej). It is full of the mystery that lies behind the worship that brings success. 106 In its first part it discusses the four fundamentals (Bhāvanā) of the Jain religion viz. friendliness (Maitri), activities (Pramoda), compassion (Karuṇā) and equanimity (Madhyastha). These are also called the substratum on which a religion exists. Moreover it discusses the five inevitables' to attain the purity and liberation of the soul and a state of righteousness (Samyaktva). These five inevitables are (i) religious follow up of procedures explained in texts or hymns (ii) while undergoing religious rituals to concentrate on it, (iii) never to keep doubts, (iv) to keep neutral attitude and equanimity, and (v) to be devotional. Again it explains in detail why should we worship. A devotional worship, as it says, is the right conduct (Siṣṭācāra) for attaining the good (Śreya), 109 and the true prayer is always useful to attain what is unattainable Thus we find number of details and elaborative discussions on issues related to Jain theism in these two volumes (commentary) on Śri Haribhadra Suri's Lalita Vistara. (11) Argument from TattvänuŚāsana
107
Tattvānuśāsana is a small treatise comprising of 259 couplets on meditation (Dhyāna) and nature of a liberated soul. It is written by
104 स्तुत्या परं नाभिमतं हि भकत्या, स्मृत्याप्रणम्या च ततो भजामि ।
स्मरामिदेव । प्रणमामिनित्यम्, केनाप्युपायेन फलं हि साध्यम् । - V. S. 31 105. अशब्दमस्पर्शमस्यगन्धं त्वां नीरस तद्विषयावबोधम् ।
सर्वस्वमातारमनेयमन्यैजिनेन्द्रमम्पार्यमनुस्मराभि ॥ ३४ ॥ - V. S. 34
106. Śri Bhanuvijayaji ed. Lalita-Vistara Vivechana (Parama-Tej 1959), Book I p.3
107. Ibid., p. 20 109. Ibid., p. 86
108. Ibid., p. 30 110. Ibid., p. 178

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We have seen some of the quasi-canonical scriptures of the Jain literature. What we saw is the acceptance of the conception of God or the supreme or the absolute. Moreover, one finds a belief in the concrete and effective existence of the absolute. We have also seen how almost in all these works, the nature of Jain God (Arihanta and Siddha) is described, which virtually does not differ from the theistic concepts of the other systems of Indian philosophy. One of the most striking characteristics, commonly found in all the treatises is its beginning. All these scriptures begin with a prayer and the prayer is invariably to Lord or Tirthankara (Mahāvira or Rsabhdeva) addressing him, as his God. The spirit is highly devotional and the feeling with which God is approached is full of humility and submission. The prayer reflects the faith and reverence and thus becomes an act of worship (Bhakti). In short, all these scriptures, have an underneath current of strong theism which is not unnoticable. 7.5 Argument from Non-Canonical Literture Introduction
We have seen some canonical as well as quasi - canonical scriptures to show the Jain theism as being reflected through them. But then we have also with us the non-canonical literature on Jain philosophy. The writers of these texts are of two kinds : Jain and nonJain. To us what is important is the view that affirms our thesis that
111. 31 aranasi: poriafurafen: 1
घातिकर्मक्षयोद्भूतस्पष्टानन्तचतुष्टयः ॥ ९२ ॥ - T.S.S. 2
Buddhisāgarji ed. Anandaghanapadasamagraba (1954) pada : 84 P. 281 112. a aa aar, qarga chafia: 1
Trufaruri : Helferqafar tal 16 - T.S.S. 27

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Jainism is theistic and Jain theism is obviously seen overflowing in a great number of texts and their writers. One thing more, uptil now we have taken some of the works of the texts, but in this non-canonical literature we will take a few authors and thinkers representatives of a class : and thus will deal with their names rather than the text or
ngst such representatives I have selected Srimad Rajcandra Sri Anandaghana, Šri Nyāyavijayaji, Śri Bhadrankarvijayaji, Pandit Sukhlalji, Prof. P. S. Jaini, Pandit Dalsukh Mälvania, Dr. J. P. Jain, Dr. $. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Dasgupta, Prof. H. S. Bhattachārya, Dr. Ram Jee Singh, Dr. G. N. Joshi and others. (1) Śrimad Anandaghanaji
The eighteenth century gave quite a good number of great monks who were highly learned and strictly spiritual. Srimad Anandaghanaji was one of them. He was a great poet and wrote innumerable poems mainly in Hindustani, Mārvādi and Gujarāti languages. The subject of his poems was always the pure soul- the religious thought, an expression of his devotional and sincerest worship of the lord Tirtharkara. He wrote eulogies for the twenty four Tirthankaras as well as many couplets having the spiritual thought. Srimad Anandaghanaji, his life and works, is quite sufficient enough for and independent research work. What we are here, concerned is to examine some of the poems or couplets to conclude Jain theism as it is in the religion of Jains as well as in the writings of, one of its greatest, purest and wisest of the monks. Like Sufi poets, he expresses his immense love for God and in one of his couplets (pada) he says. "O Lord ! I am in love with you. I don't care for the crazy world. Just like an addicted person, intoxicated by the substance he is addicted and is always in his own mood, I am addicted to pure Love of yours."113 Again he says, “Just like a Yogi in his deep meditation concent the desired goal and experiences the bliss, I have fixed my entire mind on Vitarăga (Lord) which gives me a great peace,”!!!4 But then in one of his poems he directly advises to all the living beings to concentrate on none but the God of the Jains (Jineśvara Bhagavāna), The purity of 113. myrit npora gutt, for t he ait to il mito zani.
काहुके कहे कबही न छुटे, लोक लाज सब डारी,
जैसे अमलि अमल करतसमे, लाग रही ज्यु खुमारी ॥ जिनराज०॥ 114. Hunt ut saga, Han era afy zo |
तैसे आनन्दघन अनुहारी, प्रभुके हुं बलिहारी ॥ जिन० ॥ २ ॥
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soul is not possible without loving and remembering the Lord with great devotion and worship. Let the attention be only after eulogizing the great qualities of the Lord.”lis
Moreover, his eulogy on Rsabhadeva!!6 clearly reveals the theistic approach found in Jains. Commenting upon this Ācārya, Buddhisāgarji says that, “Srimad Anandaghanaji is always confident to cross the ocean of the world only with the power of his prayer for the Tirthankara."117 There are many poems that end with an expression of Śrimad Anandaghanaji's strong theistic passion to worship God and to be blissful.ins In his eulogy on Lord Neminātha he sa Jaina is one who by becoming Jina worships jina."119 Thus we have seen a great presentative of the Jain literature whose eulogies and poems overflow with strong and powerful theistic feelings to worship God and to attain the highest bliss. (2) Srimad Rajacandra
Śrīmad Rajacandra belonged to the early twentieth century, He was a great ascetic and a mystic. His name hardly requires any introduction to Jains as well as non-Jains. He was the spiritual guide of Mahātmā Gandhiji whose name Gandhiji refers as one of the three persons (and the only Indian), who moulded his life and thoughts. According to a short summary of a speech given by Gandhiji, we learn
115. Buddhisagarji, ed. Anandaghanapadasangraha, (1954), Pada-95, p. 321 116. प्रथम तीर्थंकर प्रथम नरेसर, प्रथम यतिव्रतधारा ॥ रिखम० ॥ १ ॥
नाभिराया मस्देवीको नन्दन, जुगलाधर्म निवारा. ॥ रिखम० ॥ २ ॥ केवल लई प्रभु पुगते पोहोता, आवागमन निवारा ॥ रिखम० ॥ ३ ॥ आनन्दघनप्रभु इतनी विनति, आ भव पार उतारा, ॥ रिखम० ॥४॥
- Ibid - Pada 101, p. 392.. 117. bid., p. 393 118. - मेरे ए प्रभु चाहीए, नित्य दरिसन पाउं ॥
आनन्दघन प्रभु पासजी, में तो और न ध्याउं ॥ ३ ॥ -Ibid., p. 420 एक अरज शेवकतणी रे, अवधारो जिनदेव, कृपा करी मुज दीजीये रे,
आनंतघनपद तेव ॥ विमल० ॥ दी० १७॥ -Ibid., p. 433 प्रभुमुखथी एम सांभली, कहे आतमरामरे । ताहरे दरिसणे निस्तों, मुज सिध्यां सवि कामरे ॥ शांति०॥१२॥ -Ibid., p. 435, जिनवरमां सघळां दर्शन छे, दर्शने जिनवर भजना रेः सागरमां सघळी तटीनी सही,
तटिनीमां सागर भजना रे. 119. जिनस्वरूप थई जिन आराधे, ते सहि जिनवर होवे रे: - Ibid., p. 440 .

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 161 the following four things from the life and teachings of Srimad Rajacandra :
(i) Engrossed in the eternal (soul) substance (ii) Simplicity of life (iii) Dealing with every being of the world with the same feelings of love and compassion and (iv) Truth and Ahimsa in life." 120 Śrimad Rajacandra's writings (letters) is full of religiousness and theism, He either explains, or answers or tries to remove the faulty notions ab the real meaning that lies behind the fundamental doctrines and Jain Āgamas. His answers or explanations are not his opinions or views. He has a thorough study of the canonical and other scriptural literature, whose authorities, make his saying more authentic and logical. Let us examine Srimad Rajacandra on some of the issues which directly deal with the classical or tradtional concept of theism.
God : Srimad's Literature is very wide and he addresses the supreme or God in different contexts. He uses various words'121 to convey the idea of the absolute or God, most of which we find very commonly used in the other theistic schools of Indian philosophy. Moreover, he uses the phrases which convey the ultimate supremacy of the lord; e. g. he uses so many times : if God's wish be so 'or' if the grace from Jineśvara is there.' He very logically explains in one of his letters, that the substratum of the universe has been erased by the people who were mistaken by the traditional approach. He says that according to him the world can't be an existing reality without its substratum; and the substratum of the world is God, (Hari Bhagavāna). 122 Thus Srimad proves the conception of God, Even in one of the letters he talks about one absolute.123 He says that "the absolute, may you call the 'Omniscience', may you call the 'pure love' or may you call the 'existence' (Sat), the 'consciousness' (Cit) and the 'bliss' (Ananda); may you call 'soul' or 'all soul', may you call the 'one' or the 'many' but the absolute is absolute. Such Absolute has been addressed as God (Hari), the attained (Siddha), lord (Iswara), almighty (Parameśvara Paramātmā or Bhagvāna) and such infinite names."'! 24 120. Sri Punyavijayaji Muni Śrt, Jivan-Jyoti (St, 2018), p. 28 121. istant, $av, ft, para, TAIMI, , ea, da, st , sitara
951774, wg, fa, VOK, Fintaa, atauha, 7. 122. Srimad Rajcancha Ashram (pub. & ed.): 'Srimad Rajcandra' (1976) Vol.
I, p. 273 & 274 123. Ibid. Vol. I. p. 271 124. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanamrta” (1952), p. 31

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He defines God as one who has perfectly known all the objects, all the places, all the times in their all the modes; and one who has completely destroyed his passions and attachments. 125 To have full faith in God, according to Śrimad, is a happy path.26 Such a God, the Tirthankara or Siddha is omnipotent (Samartha) and be prays, to him for the solution.127 He even praises the Lord and his infinite power and other attributes by saying that “where there is God the blinds regain their vision and the deals start listening, the cripples start walking and those who totter speak fluently. Lord is simply fantastic."128
Worship : Srimad advocates for worship (Bhakti) and that too of Arihanta Bhagvān. He says that "the worship of Lord Arihanta is useful to cross the ocean of the world.... capable enough to destro four states of embodiedment existence (Gati). 129 He, at one place says; “Ultimately I want the absoluteness (Sünya), if not that at least the saint, if not that at least religious-discourse (Satasnga), if not that at least right conduct (Āryācareņa), if not that then full concentration with complete purity in the Jain worship. If even Jain worship (JinaBhakti) is not possible, I want nothing,"130 Śrimad Rajacandra has discussed about the worship, its meanings and benefits at so many places. He, very emphatically, says that worship has very definite place in Jain religion and thought, According to him the liberated souls : the Tirthańkars and Siddhas should be worshipped which brings a lot of wonderful benefits to the devotee.!!! Even he talks about the absolute worship i.e. Parābhakti and uses the phrases like the savior of the world.132 (Jagaupakāraka), the base of the three world, 133 (Tribhuvana Adhāra), and 'beneficial as the sun'. 134 (Hitakāri); as 'the light and so without the lord it is all darkness. 135 In one of his poems he says, "practise the worship of the Jina, make your incarnations end by
125. Hemcband Tokarshi Mehta, : 'Srimad Rajcandra Atmakatha' (1989), p. 101 126. Ibid., p. 15 127. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanamrata' (1952), p. 20 128. Ibid., p. 201 129. Govardhandasji Tr., 'Srimad Rajcandra Vachanămasta' (1952), p. 204 130. Mehta H. T., : 'Srimad Rajcandra Atmakatha (1979), p. 20 131. Shah M. C.: Pub., "Moksamālā (1961), p. 19 to 22
See Lesson 13 & 14 on 'Jineśvarni Bhakti'. 132. Govardhandasji, Prajñāvabodha, (1966), ) 7 & p. 549 133. Ibid., P. 609 134 Ibid., P. 611 135. Ibid., p. 609

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Scriptural and other Arguments for Theism in Jainism 163 worshiping the lord. 136 He categorically says that "onc attains the light of the soul through the worship of the lord Jineśvara. 137
Grace : Srimad's thoughts about worship also disclose his strong faith in the divine grace. He accepts, though at first seems to be paradoxical or contrary to law of Karma, the divine grace. 1.38 In one of his poems he says that even the laws of the world and the effect of good or bad Karmas are not possible without God.139
In Short we find Srimad Rajacandra opens our eyes towards the Jain conception of God. The nature of God, God's grace, God's worship, the nature and benefits of such worship etc., He clearly shows the prevailing relationship between the divine and the devotee or let us say the land 'Thou' relationship in Jain religion and thought, This puts Jainism on a strong theistic footings. (3) Śrī Nyāyavijayaji
Muni Śri Nyāyavijayaji, a great logician, is known for his valuable book 'Jain Darshana'. He considers Jainism to be highly secular. Śri Nyāyavijayaji says that according to Jain scripture God is one whose Karmas are totally annihilated. 1441 The state of liberation, as he says, is not different from the state of Godhead. To be liberated is to be God.14! He explains that the meaning of the word Isvara (God) is Samartha (all capable) and so the soul that has attained its pure form with all the four infinites is properly addressed as Isvara or God. 1+2 Muni Sri Nyāyavijayaji also brings before us monism in Jainism. He says since there is no qualitative difference amongst the Siddhas the concept of one God' is not totally illogical. He also says that the spiritual progress of both the Siddhas and the Tirthankaras is of the same quality, both the Siddhas as well as the Tirthankaras are God. 943 Even Pandit Dalsukh Malvania, in one of his books. says that there are no particular differences found amongst the liberated souls.44 Quoting Umāsvāti from Tattvärth-Sūtra, he says that the soul that is liberated
136. Deasi R. C. (ed. & pub. ) : 'Srimad Rajcandra' Vol. I (1976), p. 68 137. Ibid., Vol. I p. 67 138. Śri Puayavijayaji Muni Sri, : 'Jivana Jyoti' (St. 2018), p. 35 139. Shah J. M., Ed. 'Rajvani', p. 49 140. "ufatur Hoof $7:"-Nyayavijayaji Muni, Jain Darsana (St. 2020), p. 36 141. Ibid., p. 36 142. Ibid., P. 36 143. Ibid., P. 37 144. Malvania Dalsukhabhai, : 'Jain Dharma Chintan (1965) P. 118

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does not need to enter into the cycle of births and deaths. This Moksa, once attained, is eternal. 45 He advocates for the worship of the Lord. and says that the main objective of worship is not to please God but to attain purity of the mind and soul.146 The root causes of all the sufferings in Karma are due to attachments and aversions. The worship of the Lord creates vibrations in the soul which inspires on towards spiritual progress. 147 Thus the worship becomes quite meaningful and inevitable. In the same way he finds the image of the Lord a great source of inspiration and thus very much helpful to attain a state of mind to enter into the divine religiousness. Sri Nyāyavijayaji also talks about the divine grace'. He says, “Whatever is, is due to the grace of God. Thus it is also spoken by the lay Jains. But there is nothing wrong in saying so. In fact, such utterings make us more humble and more devotional. Moreover, logically one can argue that the nature of God is such that his if grace alone would have been the cause of happiness, all would have been equally happy. He says, self efforts are also required. The very fact that one is able to have devotion and sincerity towards the Lord and yet tries for the spiritual progress, is itself the grace of God.148 Thus in Sri Nyāyavijayaji's argument we also find a clear theism taking its shape and he also tries to show the theistic elements grounded in the Jain religiousness. (4) Śri Bhadrankaravijayaji
Shri Bhadrakaravijayji has written quite a good number of books on Jain religion. The most striking characteristics of his writing is his deep study of the canonical scriptures, strong theistic faith in Jain path of perfection and bold exposition of the issues relevant in the prevailing circumstances. In his “Jain Mārgani Piccaņa' he devotes a separate chapter on the nature of the Jain God'. Here he describes in detail the conception and nature of the Jain God.149 In the same book he also
145. Nyayavijayaji Muni, 'Jain Darśana', (St. 2020), P. 38 146. Ibid., P. 42
147. Ibid., P. 42 148. Read Nyayavijayaji's 'Jain Darsana' Page 225 to 227 149. “Halalt fettricaletrifft: 1 afratsetaich a talset RH: 118 11
अन्तराया दानलाभभोगवीर्योपभोगगाः । हासो स्त्यती भीतिर्जुगुप्सा शोक एव च ॥२॥ कामो मिथ्यात्वमज्ञानं निंदा चाऽविरतिस्तथाया । . रागो द्वेषश्च नो दोषास्तेषामष्टादशाऽप्पमी ॥३॥ Bhadrankarvijayaji, : 'Jain-Mårgani-Piccaņa' (St. 2033) Read Chapter 7, page 93 to 96 on The Nature of Jain-God

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discusses the worship and chanting (Japa) of the names and hymns of Lord Tirthaņkaras. He comprises the entire worship into four sections : (i) chanting (Japam) (ii) worship (Pūjā, Darśana) (iii) listening (Kathā Śravaņa), and (iv) practising what is preached. (Palana)
In his another book “Tattvadohana! he explains asceticism (Vairāgya) and worship (Bhakti) as two paths for the self-realization. But then while asceticism or Vairagya stops from the worldly attachments, worship or Bhakti diverts the soul towards the absolute.151 Bhakti on one hand removes the passions and attachments and on the other hand helps in attaining and experiencing the innate qualities of the soul.152 Śri Bhadrankaravijayaji says that, “the firm conviction that the total release of the soul from the bondage of the Karma is possible and right vision (Samyak Darśana) etc. are its available remedies, is the base of Jain theism,''153 He gives an additional, but quite necessary, importance to faith; and the six locations of faith.154 He beautifully explains the three modes of worshiping God. Worship or Upāsanā is through an image (murti), through religious hymns (mantra) and through penance or practice (Agama Ajña).155 He also discusses the Jain prayer and the pure form of a prayer. Here he discusses the subject and object (the divine and devotee) of the prayer as well as the content of the prayer. He very logically convinces us that the prayer is most essential. 186 He also discusses Jain Sadhana and Isvarabhakti in his another book “Parame-sthi Namaskāra and Sädhanā' written in Gujarati language, Thus in Śri Bhadrankaravijayaji's writings we find one more source that comes before us with the theism that is there in Jain principles and practices. (5) Śri Vijayendrasori
The Jain God is also found being discussed by one more Jain monk Vijayendrasūri. In his book 'Jagat and Jain Darśana' he has discussed Ishvara (God) in Jainism, '57 He quotes Hemachandrācārya's
150. Ibid., p. 82 151. Bhadrankarvijayji, : "Tattvadobana' (1980), p.65 and p.161 152. Ibid., p. 71-72 153. Bhadrankarvijayji, : 'Tattvadohana' (1980), p.76 154. Ibid., 77-78 155. Ibid., p. 157
156. Ibid., p. 277-278

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explanation about the nature of God as given in his Yogaśāstra. He also gives Haribhadrasuri's Mahadevāstaka, He boldly says, "All the Siddhas who have attained perfection, having no qualitative difference amongst them, there is nothing wrong, if they all, though collectively, are called as one God." (6) Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghavi
Under the auspicious of Śri Sayājirav Gāyakavāda Hon. Lecture series, Pandit Sukhlalji gave five lectures on Indian Philosophy in 1958, which later on came out in a printed form under the title 'Bhāratiya Tattvavidyā.159 This book contains an independent chapter on God (sśvaratattva) through which I wish to highlight Panditji's ideas about Jain theism. First of all, he expresses his view that, there is no group or class of people who in one or the other form, in one or the other name does not accept an element (spirit) higher than himself."!6 Further he says that the belief in God seenis to be quite ancient and so it is grounded even in the common people's mind.161 After a long discussion
God in Şaddarasana, he says that Jainism does not treat God as an independent person: while Madhava, Nyāya and Vaišeşika considers god as an independent person through an incidental cause. (Nimittakāraṇarūpa).
He says that “Jainism believes in the spiritual development, The seed of the entire development is the Jiva or the embodied soul. One who develops this seed fully attains the highest achievement, such souls who have attained the highest spiritual achievement (liberation) being perfect are themselves Gods."162 Thus according to Panditji also Jainism is not a system or religion without God. It has God, worship of the God and thus divine-devotee relationship which make Jainism theistic.
157. "Haşit famiglottoprasta: 1
Teferansefarct gaatsen T: - Yogasastra 158. Vijayendra Surij: Jagat ane Jain-Darsana' (1935), p. 37-38 159. Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi,: 'Bhāratiya Tattvavidyā, (p. 103, 1958) 160. Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi,: 'Bhāratiya Tattvavidyā, p. 71 161. Ibid., p. 72 162. Ibid., p. 77

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(7) Pandit Dalsukh Malvania
He is one of the most scholarly authorities on Jainism, existing in the today's world. He has also supported Jain theism through number of his essays and articles. In 'Jain Dharma Cintan' he discusses the path of worship (Bhakti mārga) in Jainism. Here he gives the original principles of Jain Sādhanā, as well as those of Bhakti Mārga. He gives number of examples to show that like the Vaisnavas, Jains have also given due importance to devotion. 163 “He says that some have even prayed for devotion all throughout the incarnations for the liberation."164 In Jainism the real Bhakti, as he says, is the practice of whatever that is said by the Tirthaņkaras, 165 According to Pandit Datsukh Malvania, the significance of Jain devotion lies in its insistence for right conduct (Samyak caritra). 166
But then, whatever the significant cause be, even to Pandit Malvania, Jainism bears, in theory as well as in practice, the full environment of theism. 7.6 The Authors on Jain Philosophy and Religion
If not very many, there are quite a few authors who have contributed to Jain philosophy and Religion. Amongst these, as I. remember, Sri J.L. Jaini, Prof. P.S. Jaini, Dr. H.S. Bhattacharya, Dr. Dayānand Bhärgava, Dr. J.P. Jain, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. N. Dasgupta etc. Are the main ones. Of course the list I have given, does
163. "तव पादौ मम हृदये मम हृदये तव पद्वद्वये लीनम् ।
तिष्ठतु जिनेन्द्र तावद्यावनिर्वाणसंप्राप्तिः ॥" "जिनवाणीसंग्रह पृ० १०८, २६३ ॥ "त्रिभुवनगुरो जिनेश्वर परमापदैककारण कुंत्व । मयि किकत्र कस्गा यथा तथा जायते मुक्तिः ॥ "तत्वं कारुणिक : स्वामी त्वमेय शरणं जिनेश:'" ॥ जिनवाणीसंग्रह, पृ० १०९ ॥ "जगदेकशरण भगवन् नौमि श्रीपद्मनंदितगुणौध । किं बहुनाबहु कुररु करुणामत्र जने शरणमान्ने ॥" ॥ जिनवाणोसंग्रह, पृ० ९० ॥ " जन्म जरा मिथ्यामत मूल जन्ममरण लागे तँह फूल । सो कबहुँ बिन भक्ति कुठार, कटे नहीं दुःख फल दातार ॥" जिनवाणीसंग्रह, पृ० २६२॥ "यह संसार अपार महासागर जिनस्वामी । तातें तारे बड़ी भक्तिनौका जगनामी ॥ ॥ जिनवाणीसंग्रह, पृ० ९१ ॥
"तुम भक्तिवका जे चहे, ते भये भवोदधिं पार ही । ॥ जिनवाणीसंग्रह, पृ० ६४ । 164. Pt. Malvania, D., : 'Jain-Dharma-Chintan', (1965), p. 129 165. Ibid., p. 131 166. Ibid., p. 129

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not claim to be all exhaustive. Let us see what is the general approach of these authors towards the issue of this work. (1) Śr. J. L. Jaini
In his famous book 'Outlines of Jainism' he has devoted a chapter on 'Jain theology and gives a lot of information about the Jain theology, Śri J. L. Jaini is "convinced that in its (Jainism's) spirit and essential doctrines Jainism has that in it which satisfies the deepest and the most varied wants-mental and spiritual-of men and women of our age."!67 In the introductory pages of the book Śri J.L. Jaini says, “The greatest happiness of the greatest number is only a practical paraphrase of the Jain doctrine, absolute and eternal happiness for all living beings'. So in the highest ideal happiness and virtue are identified. The Jain God is the soul at its best, i.e. when, freed from all (Karmas), it has attained perfect knowledge, faith, power and bliss."168 He discusses Jain Metaphysics and ethics, but he also discusses the rituals and he says,
Jain rituals, like all priestly matters are very elaborate and complicated, but its principle is in confirmity with the simplicity of the whole creed Its practical aspects are two : the devotional and the ascetic,'*169 Regarding the Jain conception of God and its theism Sri As compared with most other religions, it is important to notice that Jainism has a definite and uncompromising attitude towards the conception of God. It is accused of being atheistic. This is not so, because Jainism believes in Godhood and in innumerable Gods."170 Regarding the Jain worship he says, “But it must never be forgotten that it is no one person in particular that the Jains worship. They worship the ideal and nothing but the ideal, namely, the soul in its perfect condition. This ideal may be Christ, Sankara, Vişnu, Brahmā, Mohammed, Jehovah or any other type of perfection; and this indicates at on the rational basis and the catholic breadth of the Jain doctrines."17)
Thus we find J.L. Jaini is very clear about the theistic position of Jainism and expresses his clear view that Jainism, as accused of being atheistic, is in reality not so. It has its God, its theology, its ethics, its rituals and definite mode of devotional worship.
167. Jaini J. L: : 'Outlines of Jainism (1979), preface p. XIV 168-169. Ibid., p. XXIV 170. Jaini J. L., Outlines of Jainism (1979), p. 4 171. Ibid., p. 75

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169 (2) Prof. P. S. Jaini
. Śri Padmanabha Jaini is a professor at the university of California at Berkeley, U.S.A. In his 'The Jain Path of Purification' he discusses certain difficulties that come in way of elimination of ignorance and removal of suffering. I do not take you to all these problems and it is not required also, But then Prof. P.S. Jaini says, "Most Indian traditions, with a notable exception of the monistic (Advaita) Vedānta, have dealt with these problems by recourse to a theistic doctrine : the intervention of some divine agency is here seen to provide the 'helping hand' that lifts human souls from the mire of transmigration,"172 In this regard he discusses the Jain solution and says, "Perhaps more than any other Indian tradition, Jainism is imbued with an emotional commitment to self-reliance. "173 But then he also discusses the worship of the
hankaras (DevaPūjā), The great ceremony of the five auspicious ccasions (Panca-Kalyāņaka) in the life of a Tirthaņkara (conception, birth, renunciation, attainment of omnicience and nirvāņa). Further he discusses even the DevaPajā ritual, its fundamental features, actual performance and the adoration of the Jin with various ornaments called the Anga-püjā. Again Prof. Jaini gives an account of the auspicious days, during the year, the Jains celebrate. He has explained all these in quite an elaborative way,174 so much so, that he even writes about the jain pilgrimages or holy places, annual rite of confession .. (Pratikramaņa) and renunciation (Pratyākhyāna), the attainment of equanimity (Sāmāyika), and the holy death (sarllekhanā) what is important is to note the numerous devotees worship their Lord Tirthankara by observing all the rituals and ceremonies most sincerely. For them, they are the devotees and their divine God is the Tirthankaras and Siddhas who are the liberated souls. They are out and out theistic in their spirit, trying to express their utmost faith and devotion towards the sacred religion and holy God. Besides this the medicant's path of the Jains to attain the goal can be also added as the symbol of their ardent religiousness.
172. Jaini Padmanabh S., The Jaina Path of Purification (1979), p. 135 173. Ibid., p. 138 174. Read Chapter VII : Jaina Rituals and Ceremonies in Prof. P.S. Jaini's
The Jaina Path of Purification. 175. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Prayer (1964), p. 22

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(3) Dr. H. S. Bhattāchārya
Dr. H.S. Bhattachārya of the university of Calcutta has substantially contributed to Jainism, His “Reals in the Jain metaphysics", “The Philosophy of the Jains," : "The Jain Prayer and “Jain Moral Doctrines” are some of the notable works. In “The Jain Prayer' he discusses the term God, God's attributes and then the problem of creator God. With reference to Jainism and Jain prayer he says, "Religion establishes a close connection between those revered object and a believer, To establish, effectuate or realize that connection, a religion prescribes various rites, formulas and practices. Accordingly, The goodness or soundness of any of these must ultimately be judged by its efficacy regarding that God-man connection, which is the supreme goal of a rational religion to bring about,"175 He finds in the NamaskāraMahā Mantra, an insight in the nature of Jain religion. According to him the conception of God as found in rational religion is the true and the purest conception." The Jain religion is certainly a rational religion of this type and its faith in such a God saves it from the charge of atheism; for the Jain religion is assuredly not atheistic, Its God or Gods are the five groups of high souled beings and in revering them, the Jain really reverses the divinities which are their essential attributes. The offering of the prayers to and the meditations of the God in the highest forin, of a rational religion, are perfectly disinterested. No favors are sought from the God or the Gods and the result of the divine worship is simply the development and perfecting of one's own self... This does not mean that faith in God is unnecessary.176 In the same book he says, “The Jain religion dispenses with the idea of a creator God on logical grounds but does not do away with the real God or perfect being to whom reverence can profitably be paid, although it does not seek any favors, whatsoever from them."177 Thus we find Dr. Bhattachārya also supporting the view that Jainism is not atheism. It has God, worship, and all the required characteristics to claim itself to be theistic. In his Jain Moral Doctrines' he says that "the conception of God in Jainism with infinite apprehension. infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite joy are the features, attributed to God in every religion.” In the light of the fundamental basis of all religions and
176. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Prayer (1964), p. 116 177. Ibid., p. 117 178. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Moral Doctrine (1976), p. 2

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morality he tries to make an estimate of Jainism as religion and a code of moral practices, and says that "Jainism is nevertheless a God believing religion."179 Jainism, apart form being a rational religion, as Dr. Bhattāchāraya says, is also an ethical system. Considering the Jain religion and thought from these points it appears before us as theistic par excellence. (4) Dr. Bhārgava
Dr. Dayānand Bhārgava in his 'Jain Ethics' says Jains do not accept hypothesis that God made this world. “This, however, does not mean that there is no God.. Human souls themselves attain Godhood or Siddhahood by shedding away all impurities... These Siddhas are far more above gods or deites.""}80 While discussing the salient features of Jain ethics, one of the features as he says is, that Jain ethics does not confuse the science of spirituality (mokşaśāstra) with science of social righteousness (dharmaśāstra)... It lays emphasis on the unity of faith, knowledge and conduct. Thus Jaina ethics is not merely a system giving certain code of morality, but it is a religion to be lived in practice.181 Thus we find in Jainism a definite place for ethics and morality. The path of three jewels, the conduct of a householder as well as a monk, penances, stages of spiritual development etc, are very justifiably discussed by Dr. Bhārgava where one finds the theistic presuppositions clearly visible in the background of the discussions of these issues. (5) Dr. J. P. Jain : "
Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain is much known for his 'Jainism the Oldest Living Religion' where he proves the antiquity of Jainism. But then I am concentrating on his another book, 'Religion and Culture of the Jains, 182 Concentrating upon the two chapters : “The Path' and 'worship, Ritual, Fasts and Festivals', we can say that Dr. J. P. Jain is also of the opinion that the basic spirit of Jainism is 'to live and let live', to live a life of understanding, tolerance, sympathetic cooperation, and peaceful coexistence, may, the still fuller and nobler corealisation."183
179. Bhattacharya H.S., The Jain Moral Doctrine (1976), p. 17 180. Bhargava Dayanand, Jain Ethics (1968), p. 25-26 181. Ibid., p. 37-38 182. Religion and Culture of the Jains by Dr. J.P. Jain,
Bharatiya Jñanapith Publications, New Delhi, (1977), p. 196 183. Ibid., p. 102-103

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About the worship in Jainism he says that, “Worship in Jainism, is the expression of sincere devotion (Bhakti) of the aspirant for the spiritual values he esteems most hence for the personage or the soul who has fully realised, attained and manifested those values, properties, attributes and qualities.... The purpose is to get inspiration and guidance from the example of the worshipful."}4 The Jain religion is a way of life “which offers much that is permanent and eternal, and has stood the test of time."185 About the state of liberation, Dr. J.P.Jain says that Moksa means “the bound becomes the liberated, the slave becomes the master, the Ātman becomes the Paramātman, self come to self, the pure entity, the very God."186 “Moreover, with Jainism, liberation is essentially a religious concept, being recounted as the last and the highest of the seven Tattvas."187 Thus we can very conveniently conclude that Dr. J.P. Jain finds Jainism, in more than one regard out and out theistic. (6) Dr. S. Rādhākrishnan :
Dr. S. Rādhākrishnan discusses Jainism as one of the systems of Indian philosophy in his Indian Philosophy Vol. I. He calls Jainism as 'pluralistic religion'. After discussing the Jain methaphysics, theory of knowledge, logic and ethics, he discusses Jain's attitude to theism. He agrees to certain Jain objection to conceive a creator God of the material out of which the world is created is difficult to answer."188 Regarding the Jain theism he says, “Though there is no divine creative spirit, still every soul when it reaches it's highest perfection becomes a Paramātman or supreme soul. God is only the highest, noblest and fullest manifestation of the powers which lie latent in the soul of man. All perfect men are divine, and there is no rank among them, since all are equal."189 Dr. Rādhākrishnan feels that "strictly speaking there is no room for devotion or Bhakti in the Jain system."
He says so because his logical argument is that since all attachment and love is to be burnt up in the glow if asceticism'! and no Bhakti or devotion is possible without the personal love or attachment. Dr. Rādhākrishnan though logically sound in his argument,
184. Religion and Culture of the Jains by Dr. J.P. Jain,
Bharatiya Jñanapith Publications, New Delhi, (1977), p. 106 185. Ibid., p. 170
186. Ibid., p. 173 187. Ibid., p. 46 188. Radhakrishanan S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. I (1979), p. 330 189 Ibid., p. 331
190. Ibid., p. 331

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what we find in Jainism, people develop a sort of devotion towards the great Tirthaņkaras, gods an goddesses. The Jins cannot and do not return answers to the prayers, but there are gods who watch and control true discipline. They hear the prayers and bestow favor. So far as Jains are concerned, the best mode of worshiping them is to adopt their advice."191 But then Dr. Rādhākrishnan, in his final conclusion, at the end, says, “One thing, however, is clear, that it is only by stopping short at a half way house that Jainism is able to set forth a pluralistic realism."192 This thought, if further elaborated, it can be said that ultimately, in its final analysis, we find all liberated souls as one (monism) and the devotion and worship of this one is the Jain theism. (7) Dr. S. N. Dāsgupta
Dr. Surendranāth Dasguptā like Dr. Rādhakrishanan is known for his five volumes on the history of Indian philosophy a great contribution. He discusses Jainism in his Vol. I, and covers all the important issues and aspects pertaining to Jain philosophy,193 including Jain atheism'. He relies more or less on Gunaratna's criticism on Hindu concept of God in Tarkarahasyadipikā, What is worth noting here is the feeling that a great scholar like Dr. Dasgupta could have discussed this problem more from the practical and realistic approach rather than purely theoretical one. He could have, like Dr. Rädhākrishnan taken into consideration the fact that Jains believe in God, They have their own conception of a supreme or a perfect being, though they do not accept the supreme or Paramātmā to be the creator of the world. Even if the mode of worship, prayer, rituals, pilgrimages and temple Pūjāif all these are considered as part of the Jain religion and thought, one certainly comes to the conclusion that Jainism is certainly anything but atheism. If the theism of Jainism, in its nature is different from that of the traditional or classical nature, as found in sematic religions like Christianity, Islam etc, we can say that Jain theism is a type by itself - a variety. But it certainly is all in all, theism and theistic. 7.7 Conclusion
So far, in this chapter, I feel, we have quite sufficient authorities-canonical, quasi- canonical, non-canonical, scriptural and
191. Radhakrisbanan S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. I (1979), p. 332 192. Ibid., p. 340 193. Dasgupta S. N., A Histrory of Indian Philosophy Vol. I (1975), p. 169-207

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personal-all leading to some very important conclusion regarding the issue of Jain theism. From all these authorities what could be stated is
(1) That Jainism is not atheistic. (2) That Jainism does not believe in creator - God but does
believe in God, That the Jains have their own conception of God. God to them is the liberated soul or souls, God i.e. liberated souls, all being qualitatively same, one can interpret them all as one. The soul in its pure form is divine and perfect. The pure
soul is the God. (6) God, though does not reply the prayer, the scope of prayer
is there. Prayer in Jainism is more a source of inspiration and devotion. Grace of God, though not directly, but through gods and goddesses , become part of the Jain rituals. In Jain mode of worship, the relationship between 'I and Thou' or devotee and Divine' or Bhakta and Bhagawāna' or 'Atmā (Jiva) and Paramātama' is quite evident. Jainism is quite rich in its theology as well as mythology
that is based on its theism. (10) Jainism, as religion and thought, is theistic; and it provides
a unique color, a variety of theism, The above derived are some of the important conclusions. They are logical and substantial as they bear a testimonial support (sabda Pramāņa) either canonical or non-canonical.

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CHAPTER - 8 NATURE OF JAIN THEISM 8.1 Introductory Remark
We have almost covered up all the main issues pertaining to the philosophy of Jainism, we examined all its metaphysical doctrines and presuppositions. We saw its logic, its ethics and its philosophy of soul. What we see behind all these areas and the doctrines is a clearcut theism. At the end of the previous chapters, as an important conclusion we have arrived at a decision that Jainism is not atheistic. We saw the theistic presuppositions and theistic attitude behind the Jain metaphysics, Jain logic and Jain ethics,. Even the Jain Philosophy of soul opens the way to worship and prayers and we find soul, in its pure form, is God. But then, one of the valid sources of knowledge, as Nyāya-Vaišeșika says, and even Jainism also accepts is testimony. Naturally, regarding the problem we have undertaken in this work, we would certainly like to know, what have the scriptures and other canonical literature has to say. Thus in our previous two chapters, very much based on the scriptures and canonical literature,, we have seen the Jain concept of God and the theistic color of Jainism, Moreover, we also took a serious note of the popular belief and sādhanā in Jainism; and then we also considered the Jain literature. Jain literature, being quite wide, for our convenience, we divided into canonical quasicanonical and non-canonical works. Sufficient references have been put before the reader, from these works, to show that even the Jain scriptures and works by the authentic writers consider Jainism not as atheistic but theistic, In short, through its metaphysical, logical and ethical doctrines, through its philosophy of soul and the theory of spiritual development through its popular belief and Sadhanā or path and through a number of testimonial references from the canonical, quasi-canonical and noncanonical works, we have strongly advocated both the hypothesis, i.e. that Jainism is not atheistic and that Jainism is theistic, and have made the position quite sounder. Now, if Jainism is not an atheistic
d if Jainism is a theistic system, naturally the issue that subsequently follows is the Nature of Jain Theism. If Jainism is theistic what is the philosophical nature of Jain theism.
We must have some conception of what theism ought to be if we are to determine the philosophic nature of Jain theism. It is true
13

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that it must at least have room within itself for the three great postulates of God, freedom of will, and immortality of the soul. Besides keeping the theistic conjectures of Indian system of theism the 1-thou' relationship or the relationship between the devotee and the divine or between the 'Bhakta' and 'Bhagavan' must also be observed in the theistic nature. Before we evaluate the Jain theism' let us see the philosophical nature of Jain theism.
8.2. Philosophic Nature of Jain Theism
The philosophic nature of Jain theism might raise a question from the very word 'philosophic' what do I mean by the word philosophic nature? Let me clear that the use of the word philosophic is quite significant as I do not wish to depict the nature in its most general sense in which a lot that is not philosophic may also be included. I wish to highlight those qualities or characteristics which are observed in Jain system as theistic and yet fundamentally related to philosophy of religion e.g.. God, prayer, worship, soul, salvation, path etc.
Let us discuss these theistic elements as are found in Jainism, and constitute, ultimately, what we may call, a philosophic nature of Jain theism.
8.2.1. Jain God
Subjectively speaking religion is consciousness and its main function is transcending man's ordinary empirical self. We very well know, religion being a way of life, a path to reach the goal, it is not one. "Amidst the variedness of religions, it is certainly difficult to pick out the fundamental features which can be found in all religions. The concept of some sort of God as a being superior to the finite beings is, of course, the central doctrine in all forms of religion but differences crop up when we look to the positive contents of this idea of God." If we consider all the religions and their most basic doctrines connected with the theories of God, we could attribute 'power' to god or gods. "God is thus in all religions, essentially a powerful being. Another fundamental characteristic of the God in all religions is that he has the immediate apprehension of all things. A third similar divine feature is the 'omniscience' of God i.e. the fact of his truly knowing all things and phenomena. The last attribute that is ascribed to God in every religion is that he is essentially a being in 'uninterrupted joy'. So, these four infinite power, infinite apprehension, infinite knowledge and

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infinite joy are the features, attributed to God in every religion."?
Earlier we have also mentioned that in Jainism God is certainly the man, "An ordinary animal or being suffering from the vicissitudes of the ordinary life, is not God, it is only his pure nature to which divinity can be attributed, and in this sense it is but natural to look upon the high-souled beings, -the super ordinary persons who by their self-culture and self-development have realized their pure selves, as divine beings.... we must recognize, in other words, that every conscious creature is a God in potentiality and that when thus developed to perfection, this potential God. In a living being appears in its true light, i.e. as a full fledged God with his fourfold attributes."'3
"According to the Jains, "one who is omniscient, who has won over attachments and repulsions, one who is worshipped in all the three worlds and one who is the visualizer of all things as they are in themselves is the God, the Arhat." The God i.e. Arhat is free from eighteen defilements." God, according to Jainism is not only free from defilements but has also the following four qualities
(i) He knows past, present and future (Sarvajñatā) (ii) His speech' has neutralcy His preachings have no extremes (iii) He is unaffected by the matter and helps those who are affected
by the matter
(iv) All the deities and gods and goddesses who are worshiped in the world, worship Him. He is worshiped by all those whom we worship."
Dr. H. S. Bhattacharya says. "According to Jains, all religious and moral injunctions do emanate from God but the eternal merit of their philosophy consist in their revolutionizing the very conception of God. According to them, God is the Arhat, who was not a transcendental mystery being but was one among and like other men and who becomes
1. Bhattacarya H. D., Jain Moral Doctrine, p. 2
2. Bhattacarya H. S., Jain Moral Doctrine, p. 2
177
3. Ibid., p. 6
4. "सर्वज्ञो जितरागादिदोशस्त्रैलोक्यपूजितः । यथास्थिताऽर्थवादी च देवोऽर्हन् परमेश्वरः ॥ -Bhadrankarvijayaji, Jain Märgani Piccana (st.2033), p. 93
5. अन्तराया दानलाभभोगवीर्योपभोगगा : | हासो रत्यती भीतिर्जुगुप्सा शोक एव च ॥ कामो मिथ्यात्वज्ञानं निद्रा चाऽविरतिस्तथा । रागो द्वेषश्च नो दोषास्तेषाष्टादशाऽप्यमी ॥ Ibid., p. 93
6. Ibid., p.96

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all knowing through his self-culture and supreme moral efforts..... This conception of God, not only as an omniscient being but as a man, struggling for and finally attaining through continuous efforts, both subjective and external, self-perfection, is unique in Jainism."?
Even in the BỊuhad Dravyasmgraha by Nemicandra whose commentary is written by Sri. Bhramadeva, the nature of God is discussed, and it has been shown how he becomes Vishnu, Para-Brahma, Išvar, Sugata, Jiva, Jina etc." The Jain Yogsāstra describes God as omniscient, blissful, unconditional, pure, unperceptible, and full of infinite virtues." The Dravyasamgraha describes God as the soul who is totally free from the four Karmas that destroy the qualities of completely or partially (i.e. Ghati Karmas) and one who has attained infinite apprehension, infinite power, infinite omniscience and infinite bliss i.e. ‘Ananta catuştayas' (the four infinites), without body from Niscaya and free from the eighteen defilements."10
Thus we find the Jain God all powerful, having infinite apprehension, infinite knowledge and infinite joy. Besides it is pure in the sense that it is free from all the defilements and is worshipped by all. Like all the rational religions, Jainism maintains that man alone is the creator of his own destiny and dispenses with the hypothesis of the world creator. 8.2.2. Prayer, Worship, Rituals
Of course the central idea in any system that claims itself to be 'theism' will be God." The power of theism can only be revealed where the idea is revealed of a God whose will, which is supreme, is love and righteousness."! A Jain God, Arhat as we call, is full of compassion for every soul. “For theism to be possible man must be cognized as a self- determining agent, whose character is not eternally fixed, but for whom the future may be a land of hope and promise. He must be one who can, God helping him, break the bonds of habit, and enter into the experience of a moral victory that is really his, and the God who he knows must be one who can bring him into such an
7. Bhattacaryaji, H.S. Jain Moral Dectrine, (19 ) P. 75-76 8. Nemicandra's Brubad, D.S. : Commentary by Brahmadeva p. 55. 9. Yogasastra - 69 10. Dravya Samgraha - 50 11. Macnicol N., Indian Theism, p. 227

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experience. There must be windows in his sky through which the light of divine forgiveness can stream into his penitent heart."12 In this connection we have to note that Jainism, by including all these and satisfying its due recognition becomes theism,
In the chapter on popular beliefs and Sadhana we have seen in detail how the Jain prayer plays a very important role in the life of a devotee who observes its rituals and worships God with passionate devotion. Jain prayer, though it is not to please God, is certainly an important moral act. It expects inspiration to the soul, peace to the mind and purity to the active life a Jain is living. Same is the case with worship, rites and rituals fasts and religious festivals, holy pilgrimages and Yoga. On one hand the metaphysics, the doctrines and theories, enjoy due importance in Jainism as a system. But then, on the other hand, Jainism being theistic in more than one aspect, the God of its theism, the Arhat and Siddha, always triumphs completely over all the legalism of its doctrines and theories. It is not fully correct that there is no 'divine grace' or 'God's grace' in Jainism. In fact one may get numerous evidences in support of the grace if we survey the Jain Yoga and Arādhanā.
As Destiny could be shaped, destiny could be changed. What is required is the purity of the heart and spiritual development of the soul. Thus we find Jainism, alongwith its conception of God, from the point or view of its prayer, worship. Rituals and such practices, expresses a very high order of passionate devotion, men's hearts yearning for the divine life, a victory of life over death, of the spirit over matter. Philosophically Jain Theism provides a superb example for any system which claims to be rational in its base and aspires to be morally and spiritually theistic in its final phase. 8.2.3. I- Thou Relationship
This relationship is the relationship between the being and God. To use the phraseology which Clement C. J. Webb found convenient to use, “a combination of ultimacy with intimacy")) is a dstinctive note of all that we should call “religious'. The religious experience, since mysticism has sufficiently opened a number of issues, has become a very important feature of a theistic system. “In some types of religious experience, the desire of the worshipper may be 12. Macnicol N., Indian Theism, p. 229 13. Webb, Clement C. J., Theism and Absolutism, p. 387

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rather to speak with, in others rather to be united with his God, the later type of religion being that which is often designated by the word 'mystical'.... In Hinduism, emphasis on union with the divine, as the goal of spiritual endeavor, is more marked then in the religion of most Christians."14
Let us examine, in this regard, what is the position in Jainism. In Jainism the soul attains perfection and becomes God. A Jain God is a perfected soul. But then the worshipper is not a perfected soul but an embodied Jiva -a polluted soul. The Jiva or a Jain who worships does not worship his own soul but Arhat or Siddha who has now become God. Again the worshipper's soul in its pure form is same as that of Arhat or Siddha but on his path or Sadanā he is a worldly soul in bondage. Such a soul or such a Jain worshipper when too much passionate in his devotion what is his desire, specially with reference to his relationship with the divine. To put the same problem in more simple terms, we can ask what is the religious experience to a passionate devotee in Jainism. If we look to the Jain metaphysics it gives a detailed theory of matter. Jainism talks of self realizations. But then the self itself is material. Again Jainism has accepted the soul to have infinite power. This means the soul, according to Jainism is capable enough to experience anything and everything. The soul that experiences is to be experienced. One who experiences i.e. the soul, is to be experienced i.e. its pure nature, in its essence is to be experienced. On the other side, in Jainism, the soul is also having its attributes (Guna) as well as modes (Parayāya). This means whenever, according to Jainism, one has realization, he will have the realization of this or that mode of self but not the whole or pure self. One may experience only an aspect of the soul and not the soul in its totality. This is what I call self-realization or Atma Darśana. Now in Jainism, the modes are infinite (anantānanta) and Kevala Jñāṇa. In Ananta Darśan the experience is of infinite modes.
All these modes are relative and so it is the experience of infinite relativeness. While Kevala Jñana is absolute. There is no mode in it. Everything is related to it. Kevala Jñānna is nothing but an absolute knowledge without relativity. It knows the whole and it is known as infinite knowledge. This is so very difficult and so it can't be attained in one life. Thus if you attain Kevala Jñāna (absolute
14. Webb, Clement C. J., Theism and Absolutism, p. 387

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knowledge) you will have the knowledge of the matter or if you know all the modes of matter (complete matter) you will attain Kevala Jñāna. We do come across a number of poets who could be called mystic poets. But then we hardly could come across such descriptions where the mystic experience is expressed. A passionate feeling as part of devotion is seen in the poems of Sri Anandaghanaji and even in
paanyaya Yasnovijayajı, or even some mystic writings in the letters of Srimad Rajchandra. But I have not come across such writings where the religious experience, may be of Tirthaņkar, or of Siddha, or even of any substance or law of Karma, is experienced and is described. This also does not coine in our way to prove Jainism a Theism as in Jainism the deep spiritual experience is always there. Since it is of none else but one's own soul-may be from one Gunsthāna to another and the soul in its pure form is God, the religious experience in Jainism brings a lot of openings before us. 8.3. Conclusion
Through the general characteristics of theism, the nature of the Jain God, the Jain prayer, the Jain rituals and worship and the religious experience in Jainism I have tried to give a philosophic nature of Jain theism. William James says, “Theism, whenever has erected itself into a systematic philosophy of the universe, has shown a reluctance to let God be anything less than all in all. In other words, philosophic theism has always shown a tendency to become pantheistic and monistic, and to consider the world as one unit of absolute fact....."15 Needless to say, even in Jainism as per the Samgraha Naya God is established and since there are no qualitative differences amongst the liberated souls even the canonical works support the idea of one God, one Soul. Thus whatever William James had expected the philosophical nature of theism having God nothing but all in all and so pantheistic and monistic we find the same in Jain theism.
We have tried to picture the nature of Jain theism in two ways. First of all we took note of all the theistic concepts, presuppositions as well as implications that are found in Jainism. Second. was the conscious effort to take note of certain theistic conceptions of Jainism and to compare them with the traditional conception of theism or traditional theistic religions. It is true that in no case we found even the slightest truth in estimating or concluding Jainism to be atheistic.
15. William James, The Vareties of Religious Experience (1952), P. 129.

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We all, by now, have become quite sure that Jainism is not atheistic but theistic. Now the point before us is whether the theism of Jainism as we have seen, appeared to be the same as those that found in the religions which are having traditional theism, like that of Christianity, Islam, etc, If an attempt to evaluate the value of Jain theism is made. it will necessarily imply the standards by which it can be evaluated. These standards naturally will be the standards concerning the conception of what theism ought to be. It is true that the Jain theism, to its credit, has much to claim itself theistic, but then the following points are also to be considered which are if not atheistic are not theistic in its conventional sense.
(i) The Jain theism, as we have seen, has God in it. But then the God in Jainism, inspite of all powerful and all blissful like the God of other religions, is a soul that was once embodied and has become God by self-effort. We do not find such a situation in the conventional theism.
(ii) According to Jainism, God is not the world-creator. God can not be conceived as one who deals in such activities as the creation of the world. The world, according to Jainism, is since the beginningless of time (Anādi). In the conventional theism we find God as the worldcreator.
(iii) According to some, in Jainism there is no scope for prayer as well as the divine grace, We have already in our previous chapter shown how this is not true. As a matter of fact, the Jain theism has prayer as well as divine grace both quite significant and quite meaningful. But then the nature of the Jain prayer and the divine grace is not the nature of the same as we find in Christianity and Islam. Jainism being a rational religion and realistic in its approach, though it contains prayer its nature is different, with regards to the problem of divine grace, it is always derived indirectly or inferred. The Yoga and Sādhanā, of -course, speak of the divine grace directly upon the meditating soul.
(iv) Regarding the religious experience in Jainism we did discuss what could be the nature of such experience in Jainism. But then we do not find any details describing or discussing such mystic experiences that would throw more light on the supreme or the ultimate reality. We do find such experiences in other conventional theism.

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Nature of Jain Theism
183
The above mentioned points clearly differentiate Jain theism from the conventional ones. Of course these points do not prove Jainism to be not theistic. This bring the Jain theism to a peculiar position where the Jainism appears to be quite theism but its theism becomes a latent or a hidden one. The effect of these developments has decidedly strengthened the case of Jain theism as a modified realistic theism. Such a theism which is, "discriminatingly critical realism, therefore, that accepts the phase of idealism and pragmatism that are rationally and empirically justified in the light of the present knowledge, is, the proper standpoint"6 and the Jain theism, thus, becomes apparent by itself.
16. Wright W.K., A Student's Philosophy of Religion, (1968), p. 463

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“..... God is being-itself is the only direct and nonsymbolic statement that can be made about God. God is the name for the infinite and inexhaustible depth and ground of all being..... Since God is depth, you cannot then call yourself an atheist or unbeliever." "The fundamental symbol for our ultimate concern is God. It is always present in any act of faith, even if the act of faith includes the denial of God. Where there is ultimate concern, God can be denied only in the name of God.... he who denied God as a matter of ultimate concern affirms God, because he affirms ultimacy in his concern.'
- Paul Tillick
w
Jainism, in its final conclusion, is Theism. There are thinkers and philosophers who have expressed this or such theism as “modified theism” (Prof. W. K. Wright) or “Variety of theism”. Jainism, as a matter of fact, has theism which is Latent or Hidden. What is required is to bring it out, as it has been tried here in this book.
-Author

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CHAPTER - 9
CONCLUSION 9.1 Resume
In the preceeding chapters we have made a detailed study of the Jain philosophy and theology in the perspective of Jain theism. We studied the various conceptions of the Jain metaphysics, Jain Logic, Jain ethics and Jain theology. The terms theism, atheism, God etc. The discussion in the early chapters logically bring us to the final part of the work. In the beginning I have tried to examine and express the meaning of the term theism, Atheism, God etc. And have taken note of the roots of Jain atheism', and then I discussed religion, God and Jainism in general. with this background we examined Jain logic. I am sure one is bound to take note of Jain logic as a very valuable contribution to world philosophy. Here we have discussed in detail the Jain philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda), Syādāvāda and Nayavāda and we have taken note of the theistic implications that are apparent behind the Jain logic. A special reference. Once again, is made to the theistic import of Samgraha Naya which proved to be a very base to erect Jain theism. Then we discussed Jain ethics. Jainism being fundamentally an ethical system, through the discussion of its doctrine of Karma and meaning and existence of soul, we could see Jain ethics in the perspective of its theistic presuppositions. And after this we come to a very important part which deals with the Jain philosophy of soul, where the existence, meaning and nature of soul is discussed. This one may find the journey that has begun with theism and Jainism, very logically through the first five chapters results into theism in Jainism. The last three chapters of the work deal with Jain theism. These chapters prove to be quite substantial in leading the work, ultimately, to Jain Theism. The popular belief and Sādhanā in Jainism and the scriptural and other arguments, do not merely prove Jainism to be not atheistic but positively establish Jainism as a theistic system. If we find Jainism to be theistic, naturally we have to examine what is the nature of Jain theism. And that we did see in the previous chapter. If we take a bird's eye view on all these previous chapters, I am sure, the reader will find the development of the subject in a definite direction. One will find how from theism and Jainism we come to theism in Jainism and ultimately into the conception of Jain Theism.

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So that was a short resume of the previous chapters and their main contents. But still I do not claim to have made concept completely clear by complete arguments. In fact as I have visualized, during the course of this research work, two important aspects, very significantly discussed by William James, to be noted. First, I felt, in the light of the present day world and in light of the development of science and philosophy there is a strong need of the identification of religion and theism. And the second significant aspect that I noted is the fact that for certain issues in religion or theism the evidence lies not in logical interpretations or metaphysical discussions but into the inner personal experiences'. 9.2 Jain Theism
A reader on listening the phrase 'Jain theism, at first, might feel as swimming against the current. But then, after having gone through the contents of the previous chapters, I am sure, the reader will agree that the current is 'so-called' and not real, the current is conventional and not substantial. If this work, at least awakens the reader to think on the problem before making any categorical statement which could mean Jainism to be atheism, I think, I have achieved something. In fact, to convince the rational mind I have discussed the theistic implications and theistic presuppositions of the Jain metaphysics, ethics and logic. This could satisfy a rational mind. But then, as I felt, this won't be enough. In society, and specially amongst Jain community, there is a very big number of those to whom testimony (Sabda Pramāņa) is more forceful than inference or reasoning. I have also taken care of such conventional minds. The scriptural and other arguments comprise of the canonical, quasi- canonical and non-canonical arguments, all affirming the truth that Jainism is all-in-all theistic. The following are the main arguments that strengthen the thesis that Jainism is not atheism but theism
(1) Relativism is not possible without absolutism, We find absolute in Sangraha Naya - a generic standpoint. The 'Sāmānya' becomes Sat or Mahāsat.
(2) From Syädvāda point of view truth is partial and relative. It is relative with reference to absolute, The 'absolute' is the 'Sat' of the Saṁgraha-Naya.
(3) Jainism believes in absolute knowledge (Nirvikalpa Jñāna).

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Conclusion
187
Absolute knowledge means undeferential knowledge or unconditional knowledge (Abheda Jñāna) absolute knowledge implies absolute.
(4) Jainism, unlike Vedānta, accepts Viseșa as not Avidyā but real. But this does not affect their concept of Sāmānya.
(5) Once you accept generic truth (Sāmānya Śat) then all particulars (Višesa) simply become the manifestations of that one. Particular remains real only at the empirical level, at the spiritual level Visesa becomes insignificant and what remains is Mahāsāmānya. Thus we find Jainism close to Samkara than Mädhva in this regard.
(6) The concept of absolute knowledge (Kevala Jñāna) is an admission of Absolutism. Absolute knowledge is not sum total of relative truths. Absolute truth is not mathematical. It is absolute.
(7) Kundakundā'cārya, in samayasāra": appears to approach absolutism. He clearly makes distinction between the empirical and the absolute viewpoints. Vyavahāra is empirically true and ultimately false. It is only ŚuddhaNaya (suddanao) that is ultimately, true.
(8) Kundakundācārya goes to the extent of saying that even faith, knowledge and conduct (Darasana) Jñana and Cāritra are true only from cmpirical standpoint. From the absolute standpoints there is neither faith; nor knowledge, nor conduct because the ultimate pure self. He also says, "without Vyavahāra (empirical) paramā (absolute) can not be taught."3
(9) Jainism believes in soul and in liberation of soul from the bondage of birth and death. In the state of liberation the soul has infinite apprehension, infinite power, infinite knowledge and infinite joy. All liberated souls are 'Gods' as they are all powerful and omniscient. All liberated souls qualitatively are the same and so only one absolute. There is no Dvaita but only Advaita.
(10) The three postulates to judge a theistic system : God, freedom of will and immortality of soul, strengthen Jainism as a theistic system.
1. Samayasara
2. Samayasāra 7 3. Samayasara 8

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(11) The philosophy of soul, existence of soul, soul in different states, the holy pentad all these make Jainism a sound ethical system with theistic pesuppositions.
(12) Jain theology which contains prayer, rites, and rituals, temple worship, fast and festivals, holy pilgrimage etc. Opens the facets of religiousness and conception of God in Jainism, it gives a path or a way for Sadhanā, or Bhakti. The “ devotee-deity” relationship or the 'I- Thou' relationship through Ahimsā, (non-injury to living beings) Samyama (restraint) and Tapa (penance) are noteworthy characteristics of Jain theism.
(13) The concept of absolute is derived through the philosophy of non-absolutism, through the concept and nature of pure soul, from Jain faith and religiousness. Worship of the absolute proves to be of a very high rank.
(14) Through the concept of the holy pentad, concept of omniscience, concept of Moksa and ethical doctrines of Jainism for right conduct, we have seen the theistic elements and theistic presuppositons that are there behind these concepts.
(15) Even the doctrine of Karma, and the philosophy of soul also unfold the theistic approaches. It talks about the changeless behind the change, the absolute behind the non obsolete, the one behind many and the pure and perfect behind the polluted and imperfect.
(16) Again the Jain worship, Upăsanā or Sādhanā, the popular belief, the Jain literature and scriptures also lead us to a typical Jain way of life. That life reflects the full theistic spirit quite in accordance with the philosophy and religiousness of Jainism.
The above mentioned are some of the important noteworthy points that supports the Jain Theism. It will definitely pinch my heart if at this stage I fail to make a mention of some of the issues, which I have found, either unexplored or ambiguous or controversial and they need sincere attention. Amongst such issues, as per my choice of course, I would like to put the religious experience in Jainism in the perspective of Jain mysticism as very important. Moreover, if distinct clarity regarding the theological aspects like creation activity, nature of Siddhasilā as mundane place, the Siddhas and their ultimate moral unity leading to monism etc. should be brought before the masses. Even the concept of modes or change (Paryāya) in the state of salvation,

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Conclusion
and the Jain concept of omniscience with possibility of graded knowledge create confusions and contradictions. What I simply hint is more serious efforts to make such philosophical and theological issues clear, at least, to those who are very eager to know Jainism in its real spirit.
Dr. Radhakrishanan tells us that, "the worshippers of the absolute are the highest in rank; second to them are the worshippers of the personal God; then come the worshippers of incarnations like Rāma, Krisna, Buddha: Below them are those who worship ancestors, deities and sages; and lowest of all are the worshipers of the petty forces and spirits"4
189
Let me clear that Jainism, unlike some other religions, Christianity among them is not a form of thought, a doctrine or a creed, but like Hinduism, 'a way of life'. One is bound to be unjustified to Jainism if not clear in the terms 'theism' and 'Absolutism'. One may recognize a fundamental contrast between the religion as representative of 'theism' and that which, although not excluding 'theism' attribute an intrinsic superiority to 'absolutism'. Theism and absolutism should be more clear and consistent. Jainism as a religion which, though finding room for devotion to a God conceived under the form of a personal object of worship, decidedly regards the quest for absorption in the absolute (the Siddhas) as a higher form of purity and piety and as, on this account, better suited to be a religion then a school of philosophy (Darśana), I fully agree to often discussed and often quoted view of Dr. J.A.Yajinik that if a person in his life practises theism purely metaphysically. He is found to be true Jain. In other words Jainism is a metaphysical theism.
After having gone through all the discussions and arguments, when a researcher starts thinking whether Jainism directly comes before us as theism in its pure sense; or some philosophers might react and say Jainism tends more towards spiritualism or polytheism than theism. But to such critics we can say that it is shown that Jainism seems to be so theistic that it is impossible to describe it as atheism. If, in this way, we are in a position to say that Jainism is anything but atheism, then are we not entitled to say that if Jainism is seen to be not atheistic it would be very reasonable to regard it as theistic, or not very much different from it not only with regard to Jain practices and Sadhana but also in the light of authentic scriptural evidences.
4. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, A Hindu View of Life, P. 32.

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Jain Theism
Jainism, in our final conclusion is theism. There are thinkers and philosophers who have expressed this or such theism as ‘modified theism (Prof. W. K. Wright) or, 'towards theism' (Dr. Rādhākrishanan) or a 'variety of theism' (Dr. J. A. Yagnik), I myself feel, Jainism being theism, it may not be proper at this stage to call it a variety of theism though the scope to prove Jain theism a variety is open to any enthusiastic scholar,. In my final summing up I would like to say that if one thinks in continuation to this work, one can say Jainism has all the characteristics of theism and Jainism is theism. If Jainismi would have been theism as Christianity and Islam are, one would naturally question the scope of this thesis. Jainism, as a matter of fact has theism which is latent or hidden. What is required is to bring it out, and I hope, I have sincerely tried to do the same.

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Appendix
191
APPENDIX SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography of selected works (mostly in English), dealing with different aspects of the religion, philosophy, literature and culture of the Jains, is given herein below. These books have been used, wherever necessary in preparing and writing out the present work, apart from the original texts and other works in Indian languages. The bibliography is moreover, intended to serve as a handy list for those readers whose curiosity is aroused by the perusal of this work and who, therefore, wish to contribute by making a deeper and detailed study of Jain & Jainism.
1.
4.
Abhyankar K.V. (Prot) (ed. & Tr.) Dasveäliya Sutta (Daśavaikālika Śūttram) (1938) The Khadayata Book Depot. Ahmedabad. Arunavijayji Muni Sacitra Gañadharavāda (1984) Shree Visa-Srimali Tapagacca Ināti Sangh, Bhavnagar. Ayn Rand Philosophy who needs It (1984) New American Library, N.Y. Bhadrankar Vijayaji Jain Märgni Picchana (St.2033) Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya', Ahmedabad. Tattavadohana (1980) Vimal Prakashana, Ahmedabad. Parmesthi Namaskāra and Sadhanā (1980) Shree Namaskāra Aradhana Kendra Palitana (Gujarat) Bhanuvijayaji (Muni) Parama Tej - Commentary on 'Lalit Vistara Vol. I & II (1959) Divyadarśana Sahitya Samiti, Ahmedabad. Dr. Bhargava Dayanand Jain Ethics (1968) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Jain Tark Bhāṣā Motilal Banarasidass Delhi.
14

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10. Bhattacharya H.S.
The Philosophy of the Jains (1958) Shree Jain Literature Society, Bombay. Bhattacharya H.S. The Jain Prayer (1964) University Of Calcutta, Calcutta. Bhattacharya H.S. Reals in Jaina Metaphysics (1966)
The Sheth Shantidas Khetsy Charitable Trust, Bombay. 13. Vädi Dev Sūri's
Pramāņa- Naya- Tattavā lokālamakāra (1967)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 14. Jain Moral Doctrine (1976)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. -15. Brahmācariji Govardhanadasji (Pub & Tr.)
Samadhi Sopana (1952) Shrimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas, (Gujarat) Pragñāvabodha (1966)
Shrimad Rajcandra Mandal, Agas, (Gujarat) 17. Brahmadev
Bruhd-dravyasmagraha and Laghu- Dravya Samgraha shree Turakhia trust, Rajkot. Broughton A Dictionary of all Religions (1945) Buddhisagar Suriśvarji Mahāraj (ed.) Shree Anandghana pada samgraha - Bhavartha -1954
Shree Adhyatmjnana Prasaraka Mandal, Bombay. 0 Chakravarti A. (Prof.)
Mahāvira and His Teachings University of Calcutta. Chandarasekhar Vijayaji - Muni (Tr.) Adhyātmasāra (St.2023)
Kamal Prakashan Ahmedabad. 22. Chatterjee S.C.
The Fundamentals Of Hinduism (1970) University of Calcutta, Calcutta.

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Appendix
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23. Chatterjee S.C. & Datta D.M.
An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (1968)
University of Calcutta, Calcutta. 24. Chattopadhyaya B. K.
The Teaching of Upanisads 1952 Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad Indian Atheism (1983) People's Publishing House, New Delhi. Chaudhari H.K.D. God In Indian Religions (1969) Calcutta. Clay C.F. (Gen. Mgr.) The Encyclopaedia Britanica (1910)
Cambridge University press, Cambridge. 28. Dasgupta S. N.
A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. (1975) Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Desai R.C. (Pub. & Ed.) Shrimad Rajcandra Vol. I & II (1976)
Shrimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas, Gujarat. 30. Devachand Damaji Sheth (ed.)
Jain Darsana (1914)
Bhavanagar, Gujarat 31. Dhananjaya (ed.)
Visppahārastotra Virendrakumar D. Jain, Bombay. Doshi Amritlal kalidas sheth (ed.) Yogaśāstra (1967)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 33. Yogaśāstra (1969)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 34. Doshi Ratanlal (ed.)
Uttaradhyayan Sutra (Hindi) (1962) Shri A.B.. Sadhumargi Jain Samskriti Rakshak Sangh, Sailana (M.P)

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35. Flew Antony (ed.)
A Dictionary of Philosophy (1980)
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The Jain Philosophy (1924) Shree Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay. Dr. Glasenapp The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy (1948)
B. V. J. P. Charity Fund, Bombay. 38. Gopani A. S. (Tr.)
Samaņasuttam (1976)
Yajna Prakashana Samiti, Baroda. 39. Herbert Warren
Jainism (1968)
Shree Vallabhasűri Samarak Nidhi Publication, Bombay. 40. J. Clayton Fever & W. Horosz
Religion in Philosophical and Cultural Perspective (1971) Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Dr. Jain Jyoti Prasad Religion and Culture of the Jains (1977) Bhāratiya Jñānapith Publication, New Delhi. Dr. Jain Mahendrakumar (ed.) Şaddarśanasamuccaya (1970)
Bharatiya Jnānapith Prakashana, Varanasi. 43. Jaini J. L.
Outlines of Jainism (1979) 44. Jaini Padmanabha S.
The Jain Path of Purification (1979)
Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. 45. Joshi G. N. (Dr.)
Ātmā and Mokşa (1965)
Gujarat University, Ahmedabad. 46. Dr. Joshi H. R. (Tr. & Ed.)
Mahāvira Vani (St. 2040) Bhagawana Mahāvira 2500 Nirvan Mahotsava Samiti, Surat.

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Facets of Sain Religiousness in Comparative Light (1981)
L. D. Insti. of Indology, Ahmedabad. 48. Dr. Kalghatgi T. G.
Karma and Rebirth (1972)
Sri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay. 49. Khushaldas J. (Ed.)
Yogaśāstra (1965)
Sri Mahavir Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay 50. Lal R. B.
Religion in the Light of Reason and Science (1978)
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. 51. Macnicol N.
Indian Theism (1968)
Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 52. Mackenzie J. S.
A Manual of Ethics (1946)
University Tutorial Press Ltd., Cambridge. 53. Malvania Dalsukhbhai (Pandit)
Jain Dharma Chintan (1965)
Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya, Ahmedabad. 54. Max Muller
Natural Religions (1899) 55. Mehta M. L.
Outlines of Jaina Philosophy (1954)
Jain Mission Society, Bangalore. 56. Dr. Misra Kamesvarnath (ed.)
Şaddarśanasamuccaya (1979)
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi 57. Dr. Mookerji Satkari
The Jaina Philosophy of Non-absolutism (1978)
Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. 58. Dr. Nagaraja Rao and Others (ed.)
Radhakrishnan Reader - An Anthology (1988) Bhāratiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay.

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Jain Sabha, Patan (Gujarat) 61. Dr. Padmarajiah Y. J.
Jain Thiries of Reality and knowledge (1963)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay 62. Parrinder Geoffrey
Mysticism in the World's Religions (1976) Punyavijayaji (Muni Sri) (St. 2018) Jivan Jyoti
Śri Jivan-mani Sadvachanmala Trust, Ahmedabad. 64. Dr. Radhakrishnan S.
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Shrimad Rajcandra Munuksu Mandal, Rajkot. 72. Sahakian W. S. & Sahakian M. L.
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Prem-Jinagama Prakashan Samiti, Bombay. 75. Śri Nandi Sutra (1977)
Prem Jinagama Prakashana Samiti, Bombay. 76. Shree Upāsakadašānga Sätra (1977)
Prem - Jinagama Prakashana, Bombay. Dr. Singh Ramjee The Jain Concept of Omniscience (1974)
L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 78. Sinha Jadunath
A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I & II (1956)
Sinha Publishing House, Calcutta. 79. Smart Ninian
Doctrines and Arguments in Indian Philosophy- (1964) 80. Sogani K. C.
Ethical Doctrines in Jainism (1967) Jain Samskriti Samskara Sangh, Sholapur. Sukhalalji Sanghavi (Pandit) Darsana Aur Chintan Part 1 & 2 (1957)
Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad. 82. Tattvārthasūtra (1977)
Shree Jain Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad Siddhasena Diwakar's Sanmati-Prakarana (1952)
Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. 84. Bhāratiya Tattvavidyā (1958)
M. S. University, Baroda.
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85. Jain Dharmano Prāna (1978)
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Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya, Ahmedabad. 86. Sulocanaśri Sadhvi (ed.)
Syādvāda Manjari
Navrangpura Jain Sangh, Ahmedabad. 87. Tatia Nathmal
Studies in Jain Philosophy 88. Tattvanandavijayaji Muni (Tr.)
Tattvānusāsana (1961)
Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. 89. Tukol T. K.
'Compendium of Jainismo (Jain Darsan Guj. Tr. By C. P. Shukla), (1978)
S. P. University, Vailablı Vidyanagar, Gujarat. 90. Upadhye A. N.
Nyāyāvatāra (1971) Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay. VijayendraSuri Mahāraj Jagat ane Jain-Darsana (1935) Shree Yashovijaya Jain Granthamala, Bhavnagar (Gujarat) Vijaya LaxmanSūrishvarji Maharaj Philosophy of Soul (1963)
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