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Early History of Jainism and Migrations.... : 15
merchant from Venpalli (no. 46). Like the earlier inscriptions at Mangulam, these records also demonstrate the support of Jain monasteries by local merchant communities. 108
In addition to the inscriptions at Mankulam and Alagarmalai, there are 29 more inscriptions associated with Jain caves that date from this early period of c. 2nd to 1st centuries BCE. The majority of these early inscriptions cluster around the ancient Pālya capital of Madurai in Madurai district. There are also five inscriptions from Madurai district dated to c. 1st to 2nd centuries CE. Between 2nd and 3rd centuries CE there are 19 inscriptions. Of these, the most significant are the inscriptions at Pukalur in Tiruchirappalli district. In Pukalur, a hill known as Arunattarmalai has a group of about eight caves containing a number of rock-cut beds. The inscriptions at Pukalur are located on the rock-face outside the caves as well as engraved along the ends of the rock-cut beds. This site has become particularly renowned due to two of the inscriptions (nos. 61 & 62) that refer to Chēra kings mentioned in the Patirrupattu, a poetic anthology of panegyrics in Classical Tamil dated (c. 2nd to 5th centuries CE). Other inscriptions at the caves (nos. 69 & 70) record donations to the palli from a gold merchant from Karur and an oil merchant. Therefore, like the inscriptions of Madurai district, it seems that the merchants and ruling elite of the Chēra capital of Karur (located 15 km southwest of Pukalur) were also devoted patrons of Jaina monasteries.
Based on the epigraphic evidence, I would argue that these early Jain caves and the beds within them were used primarily as spaces for contemplation and study rather than sallekhanā, as suggested by Jawaharlal for the Andhra caves. None of the early inscriptions (c. 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE) mention sallekhanā. The first inscription in Tamil Nadu that mentions death by fasting (nisītikai) is from Tirunatarkunram, South Arcot district and dates to c. 5th or 6th century CE. As noted above, the caves are concentrated around the capital cities of the early polities, particularly the Pāndyan capital of Madurai and the Chēra capital of Karur. The spatial distribution of these early caves also appears to correspond to ancient trade routes.109 All of this data strongly suggests substantial connections between the early Jain monastics and the growing Jain lay community who helped to support them... Evidence for the presence of Jains in Tamil Nadu, despite historical narratives that suggest a large exodus of the Jains in the 10th century CE, is continuous from the 3rd century BCE to the present day. Kundakunda is said to have traveled through the Pāņdya, Chāļa and Chēra regions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the latter half of the 1st century CE.110 A key moment in the history of Jainism in Tamil Nadu was the formation of the Drāvida sangha in Madurai c. 470 CE." Following this, there is a considerable rise in Jaina inscriptions and in texts attributed to Jaina authors. The Pallavas of Kāñci and the Pandya rulers of Madurai were great patrons of Jainism in the 6th to 7th centuries CE.112 It is also around this time that the Jains began to adopt the temple "as their main institutional base for survival as a socio-religious force."113 Despite the rise of bhakti and Brahminical Hinduism in South India in the 7th to 8th centuries, Jain temples continued to receive land grants and generous donations from patrons."14 In fact,
