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Doctrinal and Social Context of Non-Violent... : 61
This idea was introduced in 1647 by George Fox (1624-1691), a powerful preacher, whose sharp words were aimed at moral and liturgical praxis of the churches. He accompanied his reproaches with actions that were even more disturbing than his words. Fox and his followers disrupted church services and attracted attention of believers in the manner of old Bible prophets when walking naked and performing symbolic acts. Because of these public outrages, Fox and his early followers experienced imprisonment and other forms of persecution. They regarded this suffering as proof of rightness of their faith. Probably by 1667, the liturgy and organization had been at least loosely fixed in Fox's new movement. Since these beginnings, meetings of Quakers have been concentrated neither on sacraments (not even Holy Communion is celebrated) nor on sermons but on the cultivation of the Inner Light and on listening to It. Silence prevails at these meetings. Only from time to time, somebody feels moved by the Spirit to interpret a passage of the Bible or share with others what may sustain their faith. At the beginning of the movement, this stirring of the Spirit was accompanied by the shaking of that person who was about to speak. This might be the reason why adherents of this new movement were nicknamed Quakers. A new period in the development of the Quaker community arrived with the conversion of William Penn (1644-1718), a son of an influential British admiral and relative to the King. Penn obtained a large amount of land in North America in 1681. He planted a new colony called Pennsylvania there and as the owner of the land, he was responsible for establishing its constitution and laws. He succeeded in founding a prosperous and uniquely tolerant society. At the end of the 17th century, religious freedom was enjoyed in Pennsylvania not only by the Quakers and other Christian dissenters but even by Jews and Muslims.
(1) Non-violent attitudes of the Jains and the Quakers As one could probably expect, the reasons for non-violent attitudes of the Jains and the Quakers and doctrines behind them are entirely different. For a better understanding, they are discussed in two areas that have been already stated above
(a) The doctrinal ground of non-violent attitudes Non-violent attitudes in Jainism are prescribed by the first of five basic vows that bind both Jain monks and householders (yet each of these groups in different measure). This vow of ahiṁsā is seen as the most fundamental of these vows and other vows may be even interpreted as its restatements (Williams 1983:64). The necessity of non-violence is clearly stated in the most honored part of Jain sacred scriptures, in Ācārārgasūtra and passages dealing with this vow can be found in many influential commentaries, religious tracts and treatises. It can be briefly summoned that the vow of ahiṁsā requires avoiding all intentional violence and minimizing unintentional violence by careful conduct and restraint. Ahiṁsāmeans “knowingly or unknowingly not causing pain or the killing of any living being by activities of mind, body or speech; or not asking others to do so or not to admire or support those who do so..." (Jain, Shugan 2012 d: 196) The basic argument for this attitude says that violence causes pain, sorrow
