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66: śramana, Vol 64, No. III, July-Sept. 2013
mokṣa can be achieved in the human body only. In Digambara Jainism (in one of two Jain sects), this privilege is restricted even further. As without being monk or nun, there is no possibility to keep full versions of vows that are necessary for final liberation of soul and as these Jains do not have nuns, moksa is reachable for men only.
Putting aside soteriology, however, Jain women in India seem to enjoy more equality to men than women in most other Indian religious communities. Indian Jains take the lead in female literacy with the figure at 90.6%. (Jain, Prakash 2011: 62) On the other hand, the gender gap among the Jains is extremely sharp in regard to work participation rate. “Apparently lots of talent among the Jain women is not being properly utilized. It is likely that most Jain women spend their time either in performing religious activities or in doing household chores. It is also very likely that they do not feel the need for economic employment given the fact that the Jains are economically a better off community.” (Ibid.: 67) Anyway, Jainism in India is “at least in principle (...) open to all irrespective of caste, colour, creed, gender or wealth, though in practice Jains observe all forms of discrimination and exclusion.” (Ibid: 21)20
One more area of inequality in Jainism has to be mentioned. Harming all living beings is not equally bad and, in fact, destroying life of plants could be seen as even acceptable. (Bothara 2009: 74) As Mehta reminds, “according to Mahāvīra the killing of a man is far more sinful than the killing of lower forms of lives...” (Mehta 2012: 42) The reason for that lies in the fact that the gravity of karma attached due to killing is related not to the number of beings but to the level of their development." (Mehta 2013: 14-15)
In contrast to the Jain wide concept of equality, Quaker notion of equality is applied, as it has already been mentioned, to human beings only. Its root could be found in Fox's basic conviction of everyone's equal access to spiritual insight through the Light Within. In the immediate consequence of this idea, Fox refused traditional division of the Christians to clergy and laity. His refusal was supported by those verses of the Bible that put stress on equality and fraternity of all believers.21 At Quakers' meetings, then, men, women and even children have been equally encouraged to rise and to address others. As early as in the days of George Fox, women side by side with men promoted faith and principles of Quakers and were thus accepted into the Quaker ministry earlier than in most other churches (Melton 2009: 441). It is not surprising, then, that among those struggling for women's rights in the 19h and 20th centuries was an extraordinary number of Quakers.
Quakers extended the principle of equality of all people outside their community from the very beginning. A good example of this was their use of the familiar thou and thee to all, even those toward whom convention dictated that the more formal and respectful you be employed. (...) This refusal to make distinctions resulted in frequent problems with the authorities." (Williams 2002: 132) Another source of troubles soon appeared, when Quakers refused to remove their hats even in court. But more importantly, the idea of equality of all people encouraged William Penn to deal with the Native Americans with respect and with the intention to not only avoid conflict but to avoid the exploitation and misunderstanding from which conflict arises." (Ibid.:
