Jaina Art and Architecture Vol 02

Author(s): A Ghosh
Publisher: Bharatiya Gyanpith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011013/1

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JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE Volume II

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UAVE Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh A TIRTHANKARA Eleventh century

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JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE Published on the Occasion of the 2500th Nirvana Anniversary of Tirthankara Mahavira EDITED BY A. GHOSH Former Director General, Archaeological Survey of India IN THREE VOLUMES VOLUME II BHARATIYA JNATPTTH NEW DELHI

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PRICE OF THE COMPLETE SET Rs. 550.00 1975 BHARATIYA JNANPITH Published by Shri L.C. Jain, Secretary, Bharatiya Jnanpith, B/45-47 Connaught Place, New Delhi 110001 (India) Printed by Shri Om Prakash, Director, Caxton Press Private Limited, 2E Rani Jhansi Road, New Delhi 1 10055 (India)

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EDITORIAL NOTE AFTER OVER FOUR MONTHS OF THE RELEASE OF THE FIRST VOLUME OF THIS work it has been possible to release this second volume. If things go on as planned, the third and last volume will be published after a much shorter gap. The scheme of the work was explained in full on pp. 9 to 10 of volume I. The present volume adheres to the scheme with the exceptions that (1) in part V (Monuments and Sculpture A.D. 1000 to 1300) the Deccan and South India have been combined in chapter 24 (as was pointed out on p. 10, the regional bounds are not always easy to observe), and (2) in Part VI (Monuments and Sculpture A.D. 1300 to 1800) there is no chapter on south India, the material thereon having been incorporated in chapter 24 (the reasons for this are fully explained by Dr R. Champakalakshmi in a note below, pp. 324-26, which she prepared at my request). The regional and chronological lines being somewhat faint, there is understandable overlap in chapters 18, 19, 24 and 29. The present volume ends with chapter 30 (Mural Paintings). Part VII, to which this chapter belongs, will be concluded in the next volume, which will, in addition, contain part VIII (Epigraphic and Numismatic Sources), part IX (Canons and Symbolism of Iconography and Architecture) and part X (Artobjects in Museums). On p. 7 above, I stated that this is no vestige of Jaina antiquities outside India. As if to modify this statement, the following have since been brought to our notice. Shri M. C. Joshi has republished below, p. 254, a bronze Tirthankara found in north-east Bulgaria, which must have anciently found its way abroad as an object of personal worship of some Jaina devotee. Equally, if not more, interesting is a marble (headless) standing Tirthankara in Afghanistan, kindly reported by my friend Dr Klaus Fischer of the Seminar for Oriental Art-history, University of Bonn, who also sent its photograph, reproduced

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Editorial Note here in lines (fig. X), and a note on it. Stylistically the sculpture is of early medieval date, but its original provenance is not known; being in marble, it may be of west-Indian extraction, but marble is used in Afghan monuments as well. On p. 11, n. 1 above, I said that the Dharasiva (Dharasinva) caves near Osmanabad, Maharashtra, were likely to have been originally Buddhist, later 1. 1 above, i said they have PERO LIA W - - V hiBOY WPA 22 * FIG. X. Karez-Emir (Afghanistan): a Tirtbankara on used by the Jainas, This has led to some objection, and the matter requires reconsideration. Of late Dhavalikar and Mirashi have examined the question; the former maintains the Buddhist origin of the caves, and the latter disputes it.. We need not concern ourselves here with the stories connected with caves which are related in some Jaina texts and on which both have heavily relied; ? In the note Dr Fischer says that the photograph was taken at Karez-Emir at Kabul, where the King of Afghanistan had constructed new buildings and embellished them with sculptures from royal collections. According to the information supplied to Dr Fischer by Professor Daniel Schlumberger, the piece was bought in Ghazni in April 1955 from an antique shop. Dr Fischer has also drawn attention to two other Jaina objects found beyond the Indo-Pakistan border. One is a marble Tirtha kara bought at the famous Buddhist site of Bamiyan in Afghanistan (Klaus Fischer in Voice of Ahinsd, 1956, nos. 3-4), and the other is the painting of a Jaina ascetic in the caves in the Turfan Oasis in Eastern Turkestan (A. von Le Coq, Die Buddhistische Spatantike, III, plate 4; E. Waldschmidt, Gandhara-Kutsche-Turfan, Leipzig, 1925, plate 43 b). M. K. Dhavalikar in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay. XXXIX-XL, 1964-65. pp. 183-90, and in Journal of Indian History, XLVI, 1968, pp. 405-12. 3 V. V. Mirashi in Journal of Indian History, LI, 1973, pp. 315-27.

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Editorial Note the crucial point should be the iconographic features, which have not been fully scrutinized by either, of the rock-cut sculpture installed in the shrine of Cave 2. The sculpture represents a figure seated in dhyana-mudra under a canopy of a seven(?)-hooded serpent; below is a pedestal on which are carved two deer, one on either side of a defaced object, evidently a wheel. If the sculpture is of Buddha, the serpent-hooded canopy would indicate that it represents the Naga-Mucalinda episode of Buddha's life, in which case the deer-and-wheel symbol would be inappropriate, as that (Mtgadava) symbol is mostly, if not invariably, confined only to the Buddha figures in dharma-cakra-pravartanamudra. On the other hand, the deer-and-wheel symbol is not at all incompatible with Jina images, on the pedestals of which it occurs not infrequently, the early known examples being a bronze piece from Akota and a stone sculpture from Idar, both datable to circa 600. The fact that the Dharasiva cave has a plan identical with that of the Vakataka caves of Ajanta need not be emphasized, as it has been again and again pointed out that Indian architectural forms do not generally differ from denomination to denomination. I therefore correct what I previously said about the affiliation of the caves. My friends who extended their kind help in the bringing out of this work have been mentioned on pp. 12-13 above. To them I gratefully renew my thanks and look forward to their continued co-operation. April 5, 1975 A. GHOSH * Cf. above, p. 4. * Information kindly supplied in personal correspondence by Dr U.P. Shah, who adds : 'In most cases prior to the sixth century, if the wheel has two deer the image would probably represent Santinatha, whose cognizance is the deer.'

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CONTENTS PAGE EDITORIAL NOTE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS... PART IV MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A. D. 600 TO 1000 (concluded) CHAPTER 207 19 SOUTH INDIA By Shri K.R. Srinivasan, former Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Madras, and Shri H. Sarkar, Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of ladia, Madras PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 CHAPTER 20 239 NORTH INDIA By Shri M. C. Joshi, Superintending Archacologist, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi 261 CHAPTER 21 EAST INDIA By Shri S. K. Saraswati, former Professor of Indian Art, Banaras Hindu University 277 CHAPTER 22 CENTRAL INDIA By Shri Krishna Deva, former Director, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi 300 CHAPTER 23 West (INDIA By Shri Krishna Deva and Dr U.P. Shah, former Deputy Director, Oriental Institute, Baroda 310 CHAPTER 24 THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA ... By Shri K. V. Soundara Rajan, Superintending Archaeologist, Archacological Survey of India, Madras, with a note by Dr R. Champakalakshmi, Associate Professor, Centre of Historical Studios, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

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CONTENTS PAGE PART VI MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A. D. 1300 TO 1800 335 CHAPTER 25 NORTH INDIA By Shri M. C. Joshi CHAPTER 26 346 EAST INDIA By Shri S. K. Saraswati 349 CHAPTER 27 CENTRAL INDIA By Shri Krishna Deva va Bajpai, University of Sagar 355 CHAPTER 28 WEST INDIA By Dr Asok K. Bhattacharya, Lecturer, Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, University of Calcutta 365 CHAPTER 29 THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA By Shri P. R. Srinivasan, Superintending Epigraphist, Archacological Survey of India, Mysore PART VII PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS 381 CHAPTER 30 MLRAL PAINTINGS By Shri C. Sivaramamurti, Director, National Museum, New Delhi (Part VII will be concluded in volume III.)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The source, which also holds the copyright, of each illustration (photograph or line-drawing) is indicated against it within brackets. Some photographs of objects in museum were received from some source other than the respective museum. In such cases both that source and the museum are the copyright-holders. The following abbreviations have been used in this list : ASI (=Archaeological Survey of India); NM (National Museum, New Delhi); PWM (= Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay). PLATES Frontispiece Ujjain : a Tirthankara, cleventh century (Niraj Jain) Chapter 19 127 A. Sittannavasal: cave-temple (ASI) B. Tirupparuttikkuaram: Candraprabha temple (ASI) 128 A. Tirupparuttikkunram: vimanas os temple-complex (ASI) B. Chattipatti: ruined temple, with sculptures on basement (ASI) 129 A. Sembattur: ruined temple, with sculptures on basement (ASI) B. Sravanabelgola: Candragupta-basti, temple-complex (ASI) 130 A. Kambadahalli (Sravanabelgola): Pancakuta-basti (ASI) B. Sravanabelgola: Cavundaraya-basti (ASI) 131 Sravanabelgola: Gommatesvara statue (ASI) 132 Sravanabelgola: Gommatesvara statue, head (ASI) 133 Tirakkol: rock-cut Tirthankaras (Niraj Jain) 134 Tirumalai: Neminatha temple (ASI) 135 A. Villimalai: rock-cut Tirthankaras and Yaksis (ASI) B. Chittamur: rock-cut Bahubali and Tirthankara Paravanatha with attendants (Institut francais d'Indologie, Pondicherry) 136 A. Chittamur: rock-cut Mabavtra with Yaksi (Institut francais) B. Uttamapalaiyam: rows of rock-out Tirtharkaras (ASI) 137 A, Kalugumalai: rock-cut Tirtha karas with attendants (ASI) B. Kalugumalai: rock-cut Yaksi and Tirtha karas (ASI) 138 Kalugumalai: rows of rock-cut Tirthankaras (ASI) 139 A. Chitaral: rock-shelter (ASI) B. Chitaral: rock-cut Tirtbadkaras (ASI) (xi)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 140 A. Kallil: rock-shelter (ASI) B. Kallil: shrine in front of rock-shelter (ASI) 141 Palghat: temple with basement of earlier shrine in front (ASI) 142 Palghat: a Tirthankara and other sculptures (ASI) Chapter 20 143 Osia: Mahavira temple-complex, deva-kulikas (ASI) 144 Osia:Mahavira temple-complex, torana (ASI) 145 Phalodhi: Parsvanatha temple (ASI) 146 Ajmer: Adhai-din-ka-Jhompda, ceiling (ASI) 147 Ajmer: Adhai-din-ka-Jhompda, interior (ASI) 148 A. Nilakantha: architectural fragments (ASI) B. Sravasti: Tirthankara Parsvaratha (Lucknow Museum) (American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, courtesy State Museum, Lucknow) 149 Katra: Tirthankara Nemir atha (Bharatpur Museum) (American Institute, courtesy Department of Archaeology and Museums, Lucknow) 150 Ajmer: a Tirthankara (Rajputana Museum) (Vipin Kumar Jain, courtesy Department of Archaeology and Muscums, Rajasthan) 151 Bikaner Museum: parikara of an image (American Institute, courtesy Department of Archaeology and Museums, Rajasthan) 152 Jaipur Muscum: Tirthankara Munisuvrata (American Institute, courtesy Department of Achacology and Museums, Rajasthan) 153 Bharatpur Museum: Tirthankara Parsvaratha (American Institute, courtesy Department Archaeology and Museums, Rajasthan) 154 Pallu: Vag-devi (Bikaner Museum) (American Institute, courtesy Department of Archacology and Museums, Rajasthan) 158 Chapter 21 155 A. Mandoil: Tirthankara Rsat hat atha (Asutosh Museum) (Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Calcutta) B. Mayta: Tirthankara (Asutosh Museum) (Asutosh Museum) 156 A. Garh Jaipur: Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Asutosh Museum) B. North Bengal: a sculpture (Museum of Varendra Research Society, Rajshahi) 157 A. Deopara: a sculpture (Museum of Varendra Research Society, Rajshabi) B. Alaura: bronze Ambika (Patna Museum) (ASI, courtesy Patna Museum) A. Manbhum: bronze Tirthankara (Autosh Museum) B. Palma: Tirthankara Ajitanatha (Patha Museum) 159 A. Purulia: caturmukha (Asutosh Museum) (Asutosh Museum) B. Deulia: caturmukha (Asutosh Museum) (Asutosh Museum) 160 A. Jhawari: bronze votive temple (Indian Museum) (Indian Museum) B. Banpur: bronze Tirthankara Rsabhananatha (xii)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 161 A. Banpur: Tirtbankara Parsvanatha (Bhubaneswar Museum) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Orissa) B. Khiching: bronze Tirthankara Candraprabha (Khiching Museum) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Orissa) 162 A. Orissa: Yaksi (Baripada Museum) (Department of Archaeology and Muscums, Orissa) B. Kakatpur: bronze Candraprabha (Asutosh Museum) Chapter 22 163 Khajuraho: Santinatha temple, sculpture of parents of Jina (ASI) 164 Khajuraho: Ghantai temple (ASI) 165 Khajuraho: Ghantai temple, ceiling of sanctum (ASI) 166 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple (ASI) 167 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, back view (ASI) 168 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, part of southern facade (ASI) 169 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, ceiling of mandapa (ASI) 170 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, doorway of back shrine (ASI) 171. Khajuraho: Adinatha temple (ASI) 172 Khajuraho: Adinatba temple, part of southern facade (ASI) 173 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple. caturvimsati-patia in maha-mandapa (ASI) 174 A. Khajurabo: Parsvanatha temple, Sarasvati on facade (ASI) B. Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, divinities on facade (ASI) 175 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple, exterior, head of Siva (ASI) 176 Khajuraho: Parsvanatha temple. a sura-sundari on facade (ASI) 177 Arang: Bhand-Dewal temple (ASI) 178 Arang: Bband.Dewal temple, enshrined Tirthankaras (ASI) 179 Chandpur: Nava-graha slab (ASI) 180 Ahar Museum: Yaksi Cakresvari (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 181 A. Lakhanadon: Tirthankara (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Lakhanadon: Tirtharikara Parsvanatha (Department of Archacology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 182 Gandhawal: Yaksi Cakresvari (Department of Archacology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) Chapter 23 183 Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, ceiling of ranga-mandapa (ASI) 184 Mount Abu: Vimala-vasabi temple, torana over pillars of ranga-mandapa (ASI) 185 Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, a doorway (ASI) 186 A. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Kaliya-damana on corridor-ceiling (ASI) B. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasabi temple, Narasimhba on corridor-ceiling (ASI) 187 A. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Yaksi Ambika on dome of mandara (ASI) B. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, a Yaksa on dome of ranga-mandapa (ASI) 188 Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, corridor (ASI) 189 Kumbharia: Neminatha temple, part of exterior (ASI) (xiii)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 190 Mount Abu: Luna-vasahi temple, ceiling of ranga-mandapa (ASI) 191 Mount Abu: Luna-vasabi temple, pillars of nava-cauki (ASI) 192 Mount Abu: Luna-vasabi temple, a balcony (ASI) 193 Mount Abu: Luna-vasahi temple, relief showing scene from the life of Aristanemi on corriodor-ceiling (Niraj Jain, Satna) 194 Mount Abu: Luna-vasahi temple, relief showing samavasarana, port of Dvarika and Girnar-tirtha on corridor-ceiling (ASI) 195 A. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Vidya-devi Manavi on ceiling of sabha-mandapa (U.P. Shah) B. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Vidya-devi Maha-manasi on ceiling of sabhamandapa (U.P. Shah) Kumbharia: Mahavira temple, panels of parents of Tirthankaras and scenes from the life of Parsvanatha (U.P. Shah) 197 Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Maha-vidya Vajrankusi on a ceiling (U.P. Shah) 198 A. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, an apsaras (U.P. Shah) B. Varavan: a Tirthankara (Prince of Wales Museum) (PWM) 199 Cambay: portrait of a donor-couple (U P. Shab) 200 Varavan: portrait of Sadhadeva (U.P. Shah) 201 Mount Abu: Luna-vasahi temple, portraits of Vastupala and his wives in Hasti-sala (U.P. Shah) 202 Vav: a bronze Tirthankara (U.P. Shah) 196 Chapter 24 203 A. Lakkundi: Brahma-Jinalaya (ASI) B. Lakkundi: Brahma-Jinalaya, later mandapa (ASI) 204 Sravanabelgola: Paisvanatha-basti (ASI) 205 A. Sravanabelgola: Akanna-basti (ASI) B. Hanumakonda: Kadalalaya-basadi (ASI) 206 A. Hanumakoda: rock-out Tirthankara Parsvanatha (ASI) B. Hanumakonda: rock-cut Tirthankara with attendants (ASI) 207 Sittamur: gopura of temple-complex (Institut francais d'Indologie, Pondicherry) 208 Sittamur: modern structure within temple-complex (Institut francais) 209 Tirupparuttikunram: temple-complex (ASI) 210 Tirupparuttikunram: Vardhamana temple, sangita-mandapa (ASI) 211 Tirupparuttikuniam: Mahavira temple (ASI) 212 A. Vijayamangalam: Candranatha temple (Shantilal Kapurchand, Coimbatore) B. Vijayamangalam: Candranatha temple, gopura (Shantilal Kapurchand) 213 Tirumalai: temple-complex, bird's-eye view (ASI) 214 Tirumalai: temple-complex with prakar a and gopura (ASI) 215 Tirumalai: rock-cut Gommata in Dharma-devi shine (ASI) 216 Venkunram: bronze Tirthankaras (ASI) 217 A. Danavulapadu: Tirthankaras Parsvanatha (ASI) B. Danavulapadu: caumukka within circular pitha (ASI, courtesy Government Museum, Madras) (xiv)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 218 A. Danavulapadu: divinities on side-edge of circular pitha (ASI) B. Villivakkam: a Tirthankara (ASI) Chapter 25 219 Chitor: kiriti-stambha and temple (Niraj Jain, Satna) 220 Chitor: Sragara-cauri (Niraj Jain) 221 A. Chitor: Srngara-cauri, a Yaksi (ASI) B. Ayodhya: Katra Jaina Mandir, tonk of Sumatinatha (Harischand Jain, Delbi) 222 Chitor: Satbis-Deodi (ASI) 223 Jaisalmer fort: Sumatinatha temple (ASI) 224 Jaipur: Patodi's temple, wall-painting (Niraj Jain) 225 Trilokpur: Parsvanatha temple, sikhara (Harishchand Jain) 226 Varanasi: Digambara Jaina temple, interior (Harishcband Jain) Chapter 27 227 Digambara Jaina Sangrahataya. Ujjain: sarvatobhadra (Niraj Jain, Satoa) 228 A. Pajnari: Tirthankaras in a temple (Ramesh Jain, Sagar) B. Patna: a Tirthankaras (Ramesh Jain) 229 A. Gwalior fort: a rock-cut Tirthankara (ASI) B. Gwalior fort: a rock-cut Tirthankara (ASI) 230 A. Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain: parikara of a Tirthankara statue (Niraj Jain) B. Narwar: parikara of a Tirthankara statue (Gwalior Museum) (ASI, courtesy Department of Archacology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 231 A. Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya: bala-yatis (Niraj Jain) B. Marimata cave: a Vidyadhara (ASI) 232 A. Shivpuri: Ainbika (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain: a Sasana-devi (Niraj Jain) 233 A. Badoh: group of temple (ASI) B. Pajnari: a temple (Ramesh Jain) 234 A. Malhargarh: upper part of a temple (Archaeological Museum, University of Saugar) B. Kalba: ornamental ceiling of temple (ASI) Chapter 28 235 Ranakpur: Adisvara temple-complex, exterior (ASI) 236 Ranakpur: Adisvara temple-complex, central shrine (Niraj Jain, Satna) 237 Satrunjaya: part of the temple-city (ASI) 238 Ginar: part of temple-city (ASI) 239 Ranakpur: Adisvara temple-complex, a mandapa (ASI) 240 Ranakpur: Adisvara temple-complex, a ceiling (ASI) 241 Ranakpur: Adisvara temple-complex, a ceiling (Niraj Jain) 242 Ranakpur: Parsvanath temple, part of exterior (Niraj Jain) 243 Ranakpur: Parsvanatha temple, part of exterior (ASI)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 244 Ranakpur: Satrunjaya-Girnar-partei (Niraj Jain) 245 Ranakpur: Nandisvara-dvipa-patja (Niraj Jain) 246 Ranakpur: sahasra-phana Parsvanatha (Niraj Jain) Chapter 29 247 Hampi: Ganigitti temple with pillar in front (ASI) 248 Hamps: group of temples on the Hemakuta hill (ASI) 249 A. Hampi; Tri-kucacala temple on the Hemakuta hill (ASI) B. Mudbidri: thousand-pillared temple (ASI) 250 A. Mudbidri: pillars in Bhaira-devi mandara (ASI) B Mudbidri: pillars in Bhaira-devi mandapa (ASI) 251 Mudbidri: tombs of priests (ASI) 252 A. Karkal: Cauniukha-basti (ASI) B. Venur: Sintisvara-basti with pillar in front (ASI) 253 Bhadkal: Candranathesvara-basti with pillars in front (ASI) 254 A. Karkal: Brahmadeva-stambha (ASI) B Mudbidri: upper part of a pillar (AS) 255 Karkal: Gommatcsvara statue (ASI) 256 A. Warangal fort. Tirthajikara Parsvanatba (State Museum, Hyderabad) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh) B. Mudbidri: metal Tirthankara (Photo-Arts, Mudbidri) 257 A. Mudbidri: metal Tirthankara (Photo-Arts, Mndbidri)) B. Mudbidri: metal caturnukha (Photo-Arts, Mudbidri) 258 Mudbidri: metal Meru (ASI) Chapter 30 259 Sitiannavasal: painting on cave-ceiling (ASI) 200) A. Sittannavasal; painting on pillar and architrave (ASI) B. Sittannavasal. painted dunscuse on pillar (ASI) 261 Tirupparuttikkunram: paintings in Mahavira temple. Upper panel, Rsabbanatha and Lauhika-devatas; lower panel, Rsbhanatha proceeding for diksa (ASI) 262 Tirupparuttikkuoram: paintings in Mabavira temple. Upper panel, Rsabhanatha's rcnun. ciation and Kaccha-Mahakaccha episode; lower panel, Nami-vinami cpisode (ASI) 263 Tiruppurutukkunrum: paintings in Mahuvira temple. Upper panel, anointment of Nani and Vinami; lower panel, first carpa of Rsabbanatha (ASI) 264 'lrrupparuttikkunram: paintings in Mahavira temple, scenes of Krsna-lita COLOUR-ILLUSTRATIONS Chapter 30 1 Sittannavasal: flower-gather in lotus-pool (ASI) 2 Sittannavasal: lotuscs and swans in pool (ASI) 3 Sittannavasal: a hamsa-design (ASI) (xvi)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4 Sittannavasal: flower-gather in lotus-pool (ASI) 5 Sittannavasal: dancing apsaras (ASI) 6 Ellora: flying celestial with floral offering (ASI) 7 Ellora: flying celestials (ASI) 8 Ellora: flying celestials (ASI) 9 Ellora: flying celestials (ASI) 10 Ellora; flying celestials (ASI) 11 Ellora: flying celestials (ASI) 12 & 13 Mudbidri MS.: Kali on her vehicle; royal devotees (NM, courtesy Mudbidri Jaina Basadi) 14 & 15 Mudbidri MS.: seated and standing Tirthankara (NM, courtesy Mudbidri Jaina Basadi) 16 & 17 Mudbidri MS.: Yaksa Ajita and devotees (NM, courtesy Mudbidri Jaina Basadi) 18 & 19 Mudbidri MS.: Tirthankara Parsvanatha with Dharanendra and Padmavati and Sruta-devi (NM, courtesy Mudbidra Jaina Basadi) 20 & 21 Mudbidri MS.: Bahubali with sisters, and Sruta-devi (NM, courtesy Mudbidri Jaina Basadi) TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS Editorial Note Fig. X Karez-Emir (Afghanistan): a Tirthankara. (Klaus Fischer) Chapter 19 Fig. XI Sittannavasal: plan of the cave-ternple (ASI) Chapter 20 Fig. XII Sravasti: plan of the Sobhnath temple. (After Vogel) (ASI) Fig. XUI Allahabad Museum: a deva-kulika (After Pramod Chandra) (Pramod Chandra) Fig. XIV Allahabad Museum: a shrine (After Pramod Chandra) (Pramod Chandra) Fig. XV Osia: Mahavira temple-complex, a deva-kulika (M. C. Joshi) Fig. XVI Kemla (Bulgaria): bronze Tirthankara. (Alter Brentjes) (Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Orient) Fig. XVII Kankali-tila: a royal personage. (After Smith) (ASI) Fig. XVIII Kankali-tila: a Tirthankara. (After Smith) (ASI) Chapter 21 Fig. XIX Hmwaza (Prome, Burma): plan and section of the Lemcythna (Archaeological Department, Burma) Fig. XX Pagan (Burma): plan of the Ananda temple (Archaeological Department, Burma) Fig. XXI Paharpur (Bangladesh): plan of the temple (ASI) (xvii)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Chapter 22 Fig. XXII Khajuraho: plan of the Parsvanatha temple (ASI) Chapter 28 Fig. XXIII Ranakpur: plan of the Yugadisvara temple (ASI) Chapter 30 Fig. XXIY Sittannavasal: painting of danseuse (C. Sivaramamurti) Fig. XXV Sittannavasal: painting of a royal couple (C. Sivaramamurti) (xviii)

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Part IV MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (concluded)

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CHAPTER 19 SOUTH INDIA POPULARITY OF JAINISM THE PERIOD BETWEEN 600 AND 1000 WITNESSED AN ACTIVE BUILD-UP OF Jaina institutions, great and small, in the south as in the Deccan, simultaneously with the rise of Saiva and Vaisnava institutions and their temples, in spite of sectarian antagonism that started in the Tamil country with the advent of the Saiva and Vaisnava saints-the Nayanmars and Alvars. The Jainas were widespread, and that almost every village had a considerable Jaina population is attested by the ruins, other extant antiquities and references to Jaina temples and institutions of endowments to them in the hundreds of inscriptions in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. It is only after 1000, particularly after the conversion of Hoysala Visnuvardhana from Jainism to Vaisnavism by Ramanuja and the growth and rise of the Lingayat Saivism, that Jainism weakened in the Kannada and adjoining Telugu areas. ROCK-CUT TEMPLES IN TAMIL NADU Rock-cut Jaina cave-temples in the Tamil country date from the seventh century. They are usually found in the hills which had been earlier occupied by the Jaina ascetics as early as the second century B.C.' and some of which continued to be important Jaina centres till late medieval times. There are also quite a few instances of their conversion into Saiva and Vaisnava centres. With commodious caverns with shrines and cells built of brick and mortar, many of these hill-establishments formed important centres of monasteries and nunneries. It is in such places that the Pallavas and Pandyas excavated their numerous rock-cut temples, some of which were originally Jaina but were later converted into Brahmanical centres. Because of the lesser tractability of the stone available in these parts (granite, gneiss, charnokite, etc.) and hence of the differences in the [1 See above, chapter 9.-Editor.] 207

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV technique of cutting and the labour and time involved, these layanas or cave-temples are of modest proportions and of the simple mandapa-type. They consist essentially of a rectangular mandapa with a facade of pillars and pilasters, short, massive and plain, except for carving and decoration in low bas-relief, and with a shrine cut into the rear wall behind or into the lateral walls. The mandapa is often differentiated into front and rear portions by an inner row of pillars or, in their absence, by a difference in the floor- and ceiling-levels. The number of rear shrines may exceed one-sometimes it may be three, five or seven in a row. The shrine-front is often projected into the mandapa and has usually all the features of a southern vimana. The earliest known cave-temple of original Jaina dedication is the one at Malaiyadikkurichi in Tirunelveli District, subsequently converted into a Siva temple. This cave-temple is of the usual mandapa-type and has a facade of two pillars and pilasters, with simple ornamental carvings such as medallions with human, animal and bird motifs in the centre. The human figures are apparently Jaina. Besides, there are other sculptures representing Jaina figures, wholly or partially crased at the time of the conversion of the cave into a Saiva one. One of these sculptures has faint lines representing a fourarmed divine rider on an elephant, perhaps Indra, or possibly Brahma-sasta or Kubera-Yaksa. The conversion of this cave into a Saiva temple is indicated by a later Pandya inscription, recording its dedication to Siva. The conversion was probably the result of the apostasy of Kun Pandya (Arikesari-Maravarman, 670-700) from Jainism to Saivism under the influence of the Saiva saint Jnanasambandar. This event is also cchoed in the abrupt stoppage of work in what would otherwise have been a fine Jaina cave-temple at Pechchipparai in Tirunelveli District, which was also excavated in the late seventh century. The large cave-temple at Tirupparankunram, a suburb of Madurai, is perhaps another instance of conversion of an original Jaina temple into a subsequent Saiva one, the date of the conversion being circa 773. The same hill at Tirupparankunram has also another rock-cut cave providing a similar example of such conversion. The place is now celebrated as a centre of Subrahmanya worship. Anaimalai also provides yet another example of the conversion of a Jaina centre into a Brahmanical one. Here, the rock-cut cave-temple dedicated to Narasimha represents a deliberate Vaisnava excavation under the 208

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA Pandyas in circa 770. Instances of Jaina centres giving place to Saiva or Vaispava centres are numerous and have been recognized at Pillaiyarpatti and Kunnakkundi (Ramanathapuram District), Arittapatti (Madurai District), Narttamalai and Kudumiyamalai (Tiruchchirappalli District), Tiruchchirappalli itself, Virasikhamani and Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli District), Dalavanur (South Arcot District) and Siyamangalam and Mamandur (North Arcot District). It is only at Sittannavasal near Pudukkottai (Tiruchchirappalli District) that Jaina vestiges have remarkably survived such vicissitudes. This is a notable Jaina centre which was in continuous occupation of the Jainas from the second century B.C.' to the ninth century A.D. The rock-cut Jaina cave-temple at Sittannavasal, called in its inscription Arivar-Kovil of Anpalvayil (temple of the Arhat at Annavasal), must have come into existence in the late seventh or early cighth century as can be deduced from the palaeography of a short label-inscription on the northern side of the base of the rock-cut mandapa. It is a typical mandapa-type cave-temple, having an oblong rock-cut mand apa with a facade of two pillars and two pilasters (fig. XI; plate 127A) and a square shrine-cell behind, with a higher floorlevel reached by a short flight of three steps and with a simple door-opening. The shrine-front is, as usual, projected a little into the mand apa. The two endwalls of the mand apa have niches or deva-kosthas sunk into them. The southern niche contains a bas-relief of seated Parsvanatha with a serpent-hood and triple umbrella. A Tamil label-inscription on a pillar near it reads Ulokadittan (Lokaditya) referring to this Parsvanatha. The northern niche contains a seated relief in dhyana-pose with single umbrella, and from the Tamil labelinscription on a pillar near it, reading Tiruvasiriyan (Sri-Acarya), it is to be taken as a representation of an Acarya. Both the inscriptions are in the script of the ninth century. The walls and ceilings of both the mand apa and cella are finished smooth, and the ceiling of the cella has the brim of a large circular umbrella with the central hub of the ribs cut in relief. On the hind wall is a row of three bas-reliefs, all seated alike in dhyana. Two of them have triple umbrellas over their heads, indicating them to be Tirthankaras, while the third at one end has only one umbrella, denoting it to be that of an Acarya or Cakravartin. According to an inscription in Tamil verse on the rock-face immediately to the south of the mund apa-facade, belonging to the time 1 For the early Jaina centres of the period between the second century B.c. and third century A.D., see above, chapter 9. >> Annual Report on Indiun Epigraphy, 1960-61, no. 324. * Annual Report on Suuih Indian Epigraphy, 1904, no. 368. 209

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV of the Pandya king Avanipa-sekhara Sri-Vallabha (Sri-Mara Sr-Vallabha, 815-62), a Jaina teacher Ilan-Gautaman, also called Madurai Asiriyan, arranged for the repair and renovation of the ardha-mand apa by having removed all defects therein, and having re-embellished it with paintings and sculpture, had FEET qdmh METRES 3 | h Fig. XI. Sittannavasal : plan of cave-temple a structural mukha-mand apa built in front, of which the original ba'se or moulded adhisthana is still extant. It also refers to the erection of a tall pillar, mana-stamba, the square abacus of which, with a lotus underside, was 1 The present construction of the stone mandapa with four stone pillars and slab-roof was erected as a preservative measure by the present writer while he was the State Archacologist in Pudukkottai before 1946 on the clues of the original mundupa. The pillars used are from the ruined hundred-pillared mandapa of the Kudumiya malai Siva (Sikhanatba-svami) temple. The adhisthana below is original. 210

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA recovered during clearance-work in front of the temple. Thus, this cave-temple, ted in the northern part of the Pandyan empire to which Pallava power did not penetrate before 862, was never a Pallava cave-temple as some authors have made out. It appears to have been originally excavated at the close of seventh or the beginning of the eighth century in the propitious times of the Pandya Marap Sendan (654-70) and Arikesari Maravarman (670-700) and before the latter's conversion from Jainism, as in the case of the Malaiyadikkurchi and Pechchipparai cave-temples. The celebrated paintings on the plaster overlying the two earlier inscriptions at the bases of the facade-pillars referred to above and in accordance with the proclaimed renovation and re-embellishment by Madurai Asiriyan at the time of Sri-Vallabha Pandya should only belong to the middle of the ninth century. MASONRY TEMPLES IN TAMIL NADU The series of Jaina structural stone temples in Tamil Nadu would begin with the Pallava example--the Candraprabha temple (plate 127B) in the Jaina temple-complex at Tirupparuttikkunram or Jina-Kanci, a suburb of Kanchipuram, which is even to-day a living centre of the Jaina scct. This temple is the northernmost structure in the existing complex of four major temples (plate 128A) and three minor shrines within a huge cnclosure. It is a threestoreyed square vimana with a mukha-mandapa in front. Of the three storeys the lowermost is built solid and forms the raised platform for the second storey which contains the real shrine, a feature common to Jaina temples of those times. The ground floor of this structure is built of the local friable greyish sandstone like all other temples of Rajasimha thc Pallava, in his capital Kanci, with granite introduced into the mouldings of the adhisthana, a characteristic feature of Rajasimha's temples and those of his immediate successors. The external wall-surface of the temple is relieved by vyala-based pillars and pilasters, with shallow shrine-like niches (deva-kosthas) between them. The niches are surmounted by makara-torana arches. The niches are all empty. The first storey is marked by a hara, with square karna-kutas at the corners and oblong bhadra-salas between them. The middle storey is a lesser square than the lower one and has an open ambulatory around it. It has the usual pilasters of sandstone on its external 1 For a detailed description and discussion, see K.R. Srinivasan, 'A note on the date of the Sittangavasal paintings', Proceeding of the Indian History Congress, 1944, pp. 168 ff (See below, chapter 30, where a Pallava origin of the cave-temple is upheld and the earlier and later paintings described and illustrated.Editor.) 211

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV wall-surface, the walls themselves being built of brick connecting the sandstone pilasters. There is a string of miniature shrines at the top. A significant feature of these shrines is the presence of seated figures on their faces, representing Jaina Tirthankaras and other deities. The third storey rising from behind the hara of the miniature shrines is short and has plain four-sided pilasters and carries over its entablature four squatting lions. The square griva above this storey carries a square sikhara with a square stupi on top, The Sikhara has Tirthankara figures on its four faces The sanctum of the middle storey is dedicated to Candraprabha. Access to this sanctum is provided by two flights of steps contained within the solid lowest storey. The temple as a whole must be assigned to the eighth century, although the upper parts appear to be a faithful reconstruction in brick during the Vijayanagara period. The Candranatha temple at Mettuppudur hamlet of Vijayamangalam, an ancient Jaina centre in Coimbatore District of the Kongu-mandalam, is a Ganga structure with its brickwork vimana facing south and almost coeval or slightly later stone ardha- and maha-mand apas. The original vimana of brick from base to finial of Ganga style, altered by later plastering with a mixture of lime-andbrick powder by way of repairs, is square and two-storeyed with octagonal griva and sikhara. The maha-nasikas enshrine Tirthankara forms in stucco. The cella inside contains an idol of Candranatha and the superstructure is rendered hollow inside. It has a false ceiling at the region of the octagonal griva and sikhara interiors. The faces of the squares contain faded paintings in which could be seen, here and there, tell-talc outlines of lotuses and women in dancing-poses, particularly in the two lowest squares, while the next one shows paintings relating to Jaina mythology and the top shows a festoon of looped garlands in gavanika-fashion with vignettes painted inside the loops. The further upper tiers also appear to have been painted. The stone ardhamand apa is more or less of the same width as the first storey of the vimana, with a larger maha-mand apa in front. The lateral walls of the maha-mandapa on each side has a central deva-kostha with a deep niche surmounted, by an architrave with kapota and a sala-Sikhara. At either extreme of the same wall is a torana-motif mounted on fully-formed pilasters with capital and prastara. Inside the arches of the toranas are sculptures depicting scenes from Jaina mythology. The outer additions to this temples-complex are of the Vijayanagara period including large mukha- and agra-mandapas, prakara and gopura. The maha-mand apa interior has four composite pillars set off from the east and west walls, dividing the east and west walls each into three compartments, with a lower ceiling forming the aisles, as it were, and the raised clerestory 212

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA over the centre forming the nave. The centre of the nave-ceiling has a large slab with a pendentive lotus, while the architrave on either flank of the clerestory has on the beam-faces sculptures of vyalas, dancers, bulls, horses, etc., forming the eastern and western rows, while the northern and southern rows have, besides dance-panels, sculptures of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, in addition to a single female devotee, perhaps Pullappa, sister of the Ganga minister Cavundaraya, whose inscribed nisidika-pillar is incorporated among others in the front mand apa. This pillar has on its south face a horseshoeshaped niche with a seated Tirthankara inside and below it is another niche with the relief-sculpture of a lady. The inscription, in Grantha and Tamil, running over the other three faces of the stele, describes the stele as the nisidika of Pullappa, the sister of Cavundaraya. The interior of the ardha-mand apa is plain and without any sculpture, but on its floor is a pitha with a projected spout on one side and a lion on its front carrying the small abhiseka-murti of Candranatha. Pavanandi, the famous Jaina Tamil grammarian and author of the Nannul was a native of this place. South of Tondai-mandalam in the Cola and Pandya countries there seem to have existed numerous Jaina structural temples in stone that were built by the Muttaraiyars and the Pandyas. These are attested by epigraphical references and vestiges in the form of sculptures and mounds over their ruins with significant local names. The most interesting are the excavated remains of an all-stone temple at Chettipatti (Pudukkottai-Tiruchchirappalli) (plate 128B) revealing the adhisthana of a temple-complex with prakara and gopura-entrance on the east. The nuclear structures were two central shrines standing side by side with two smaller ones behind it. The site yielded also two pillars based on couchant lions, two more without the shafts over the lion-head and other architectural fragments. A fragmentary inscription of Rajaraja I Cola (985-1014) on the adhisthana would date the temple before this period, in the Muttaraiyar times in the late ninth and early tenth centuries. Another inscription mentions Acarya Matisagara of the tenth century, who, as we know from other sources, was the preceptor of Dayapala and Vadiraja. More interesting are the fine sculptures, more than a dozen, of Tirthankara forms, including Mahavira and Parsvanatha, and others of attendant deities. The principal Tirthankara of the shrine, now found removed nearer the village, is a fine sculpture in siddhasana-pose under a triple umbrella. An inscription on the adjoining slab states that the gopura of the temple of the 'Five Hundred' (merchant-guild) Ainnurruva Perumpalli at Tiruvennayil, the old name of Chettipatti, was built by one Jayavira Perilamaiyan. This inscription, in characters of the tenth-eleventh century, would indicate the nucleus to be slightly earlier. 213

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ENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV Sembattur (plate 129A), Mangathevanpatti, Vellanur and Kannanga. rakkudi, all in the same District, and Kovilangulam and Pallimadam in Ramanathapuram District have such vestiges of structural Jaina temples. Those in the first-mentioned places contain, besides Jaina sculptures-Tirthankaras and others--characteristic lion-based pillars which the Muttaraiyars copied from the Pallavas, i.e. of the period of Rajasimha and after. MASONRY TEMPLES IN SOUTH KARNATAKA Among the early all-stone structural temples in the south, the earliest extant Jaina cxamples are the group of three simple vimanas called Candragupta-basti (plate 129B) on the Candragiri hill or Chikkabetta at Sravanabelgola (District Hassan), each about 2 m. square at the base, standing on either end of a common rectangular adhisthana. In the intervening space between the two vimanas is a third shrine with a flat roof. The platform and the outer lateral walls of both the extreme vimanas are extended forward to form a square ardha-mand apa in front of the respective shrines, turning the whole complex into a large square. This complex is now included as a northern lateral anncxc of the front mandapa of the much later and larger Kattale-basti. The facade of the ardha-mand apa of the Candragupta-basti was covered by a finely-carved and intricately-worked soapstone trellis in the twelfth century, with a doorway at the centre embellished by a frieze of narrative sculptures including the traditional story of Candragupta Maurya's association with Bhadrabahu and other Jaina sculptures, all in the vignette. This seemingly triple shrine or tri-kuta, traditionally associated with Candragupta, is the earliest extant monument at Sravanabelgola and the surrounding area, attributable to circa 850. The iconography of the original images consecrated in the two lateral vimanas is not known, but at present the shrines have taken a secondary place and enshrine the two Yaksis, Padmavati and Kusmandini, while an image of Parsvanatha is consecrated in the intervening central cell which appears to be a vimana that has lost its superstructure and functions as the principal shrine at present. A frieze of harsas runs on the beam above the wall-surface. The flexed kapota above has kudu-arches with trefoil finials, corresponding in number to the pilasters below. The top of the architrave over the kopota is a frieze of vyalas. This architrave in all its course is continuous right round the whole 1 The sculptor's name Dasoja of Balligrama (Belagamme) is inscribed at various places below the panels. He is the same person as was responsible for many sculptures in the famous Hoysala temple at Belur. 214

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA complex. On the top of the superstructure, on each end-vimana, is a square griva and a sikhara terminating at its apex in a single stupi, now missing. It would look as if the central portion between the two vimanas with sikharas had also a similar griva-sikhara superstructure, originally making up a tri-kuta complex of three vimanas in a row facing south. The second storey is very short and simple and is much obscured by a heavy terrace laid during repairs in later times, making these double-storeyed astanga or asta-varga-vimanas look like single-storeyed sadanga or sad-varga. This would be in consonance with the early practice of building astanga-vimanas of fair size. The Pancakuta-basti (plate 130A) at Kambadahalli, at the outskirts of Sravanabelgola, is an outstanding landmark in southern vimana-architecture, since it supplies, as it were, a textbook-illustration of the canons and types as codified in the southern vastu, silpa and agama texts. This is a complex of five vimanas enclosed by a prakara with a gopura in front. The earlier nucleus was a tri-kutacala of three vimanas opening into a common square mandapa, the northern side of which affords the common outer entrance for all the three. The principal central vimana on the axial line with gopura faces north, and the two lateral vimanas face east and west respectively, all of them square and double-storeyed. The central or southern vimana, facing north, has a square griva and sikhara over the square body, illustrating the typical Nagara vimana of the south; the one on the west, facing east, has an octagonal griva-sikhara over its square body, making it a Dravida, and its counterpart on the east, facing west, has a circular griva-sikhara, representing the Vesara. Thus, the trio forms an unmistakable illustration of the three forms defined in the southern architectural texts-the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara-a classification based on the plans and shapes of the griva and sikhara-square, octagonal or polygonal and circular or curvilinear. All these three vimanas are connected to the common maha-mandapa by their respective ardha-mandapas. The vimana-walls have, on each face, six pilasters, tetragonal from base to the top of the capital. The architrave consists of a hamsa-frieze, characteristic of the Pallava, Muttaraiyar and Ganga temples. The projected and flexed kapota has three pairs of kuduarches with trefoil finials, and on top of all is a vyala-mala forming the blocking course. The two central pilasters on each face enclose a deva-kostha enshrining a Tirthankara image and crowned by a torana-arch. The toranas are of different types, such as patra-torana or a garland of foliage and flowers, citra-torana with birds and animals such a vyalas with riders included in the 215

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV arcuate arms and Vidyadhara-toranas with a frieze of flying Vidyadhara forms making the arch; the last is a feature rarely seen in other temples. The ardha-mand apas have similar deva-kosthas. The square closed mukha-mand apa too has pilasters similar to those of the vimanas and their ardha-mandapas. An open pillared agra-mand apa with lathe-turned soapstone pillars of the Calukyan variety was added later in front of the maha-mand apa. Inside the maha-mandapa are four central pillars of the usual Pallava type, with square bases resting on larger padma-pithas and octagonal shafts carrying kalasa-capitals. The other eight pillars are of the mandapa-type with square sadurams at base and top and intervening octagonal kastu. The disposition of the central four and surrounding eight pillars suggests a nava-ranga plan as in the Calukyan genre, and the affinity is suggested more by the central bay having a ceiling-slab depicting the Dik-palas on the cardinal and diagonal ends with a central figure of Dharanendra Yaksa, standing, two-armed, with a bow held in the left one like Kodanda Rama, and a conch applied to the mouth as if in the act of blowing it. Behind him rises a five-headed serpent with its hood over the Yaksa's head. There are two cauri-bearers one on either side. The central shrine is consecrated to Mahavira, seated on a finely-worked simhasana, and also with a cauri-bearer on either side. Externally, the hara over the architrave of each vimana is mounted on a vedika and has four karnakutas at the corners and four bhadra-salas at the cardinals. The second storey is much simpler with four pilasters on its harmya-wall on each face, including the cantoning ones at the corners. The two central pilasters on each side are set forward a little and enclose a niche surmounted by a torana. The architrave carries a harsa-valabhi as in the lower storcy. The top course over the harmya-prastara of the sccond storey is a vyala-mala frieze and at the corners are placed four crouching lions. It is from the griva upwards that the three vimanas show their essential difference. The central vimana has a square Nagara griva and sikhara above. The western vimana has the design of the octagonal Davida griva-sikhara. The eastern Vesara vimana is circular, carrying a circular griva and sikhara. The stupis of all the three vimanas are missing. To this nuclear tri-kutacala of the cruciform pattern (as against the linear alignment in the Candragupta-basti) has been added an open pillared agramand apa with lathe-turned steatite pillars of the later Calukyan form at the 216

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CHAPTER 191 SOUTH INDIA corners supporting its roof. In front of this agra-imandapa is a bali-pitha, rising over a basal upana in three tiers of progressively diminishing sizes and variant plans, the lowest square, the next one octagonal with sculptures of the Dik-palas on its eight faces, and the top one circular, reminiscent of the square octagonal and circular plans of the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara sikharas of the vimanas behind. At a little distance in front of the bali-pitha are the additions of a later phase dating perhaps from the last quarter of the tenth century. These are the two double-storeyed square astanga Nagara vinanas, one on either side with their respective ardha- and maha-mand apas facing each other, east and west. Their maha-mand apas are connected to each other in the transverse line by a common open mukha-mandapa. The western vimana has projections in the form of three offset bays on each face in the tri-ratha fashion. The bays of the vimana correspond to the karna-kutas and bhadra-sala of each side over the prastara. The central bay has four pilasters of cqual height, the two inner ones enclosing between them a deva-kostha. All the pilasters (which are actually pillars set in advance) are tetragonal with the capital-components as in the nuclear tri-kuta unit. The hara over the architrave is made up of four karna-kutas and four bhadra-salas. The second storey, which docs not vary much from the earlier examples, carries four lions at the corners and a square griva and Sikhara over a pindi at the centre. The eastern vimana, from the udhisthuna to the architrave, is rendered straight without any ratha-like bays, exactly as in the main tri-kuta nucleus and unlike its own western counterpart. The wall-pilasters are ali tetragonal. A hamsa-frieze docorates the valabhi of the architrave above. The harmya of this storey has plain walls and carries as usual four lions on its top corners and a squarc pindi with square griva and sikhara as in the case of the opposing vimana as also of the main central vimana. The maha-mand apas of these opposed shrines which are of the navaranga pattern show variations in the designs of their four central pillars. The four central pillars of the eastern structure are of steatite and lathe-turned, whereas those of the western structure are of the usual pillar-type with all the sections. The ceiling of the central bay over the four pillars in either case has the same Dik-pala grouping with central figure as in the ceiling of the main maha-mand apa of the tri-kuta-vimanas. The short gopura in front of the whole complex, almost coeval with the nuclear tri-kuta, has an adhisthana of the same type as in the three main 217

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV shrines and has deva-kosthas with slightly different toranas in that they consist of two volutes issuing out of a central vyala on top, suggesting more the beginnings of kala-makara festoon-forms of the doorways of the temples of south-east Asia. The toranas have, inside their arches, seated Tirtharkaras. while their main niches below had standing forms of Tirtharkaras, as a few extant examples would indicate. They are of stcatite. The superstructure of the gopura is lost. The two opposing and later front vimanas are dedicated to Mahavira. of the three in the tri-kuta-complex, the central one facing north enshrines Adinatha, the one facing cast Neminatha and one facing west Santinatha (according to the earlier record of the Mysore Gazetteer). While the simhasanas of the seated Tirtharkaras are of granite, the Tirtharkaras and their attendant cauri-bearers are of polished steatite. There is a fine loose sculpture of a Yaksi in the front mandapa of the same material and a broken Parsvanatha, cauri-bearer and a few other architectural and sculptural fragments including recumbent elephant, the heraldic crest of the Gangas, all lying outside in the precincts enclosed by the coarse rubble prakara-wall. In front of the whole complex and about 40 to 50 m. away stands a tall and well-wrought inscribed column, provided with all the parts of a pillar and capital, with a Yaksa figure on the abacus, all of granite and cocval with the temple. This interesting temple in its parts and three phases of construction epitomizes, as it were, the current trends in stone architecture and sculpture of both the adjoining regions, Pallava-Pandya and Calukya-Rastrakuta, with a pronounced leaning towards the former. It illustrates the evolution of the normal decorative formulations, variations in plan, layout, proportions and rise-styles and types of contemporary architecture, and its attendant sculpture reflects the tradition of the Pallava-Pandya region to its immediate east in the century between A.D. 900 and 1000, with flexions and nuances derived from the Calukya-Rastrakuta sources to its immediate north. The two traditions were drawing almost from common canons and texts, but employing different fabric of constructions-hard stone and soft stone with the attendant facilities and limitations in the working of either. The choice of hard white granite for the structural work, the absence of the sukanasa, as also the absence of the elaborate overdoor with multiple sakha with uttiranga elements, all characteristic of the Calukyan and its cohorts, and the northern prasadas too, would thus ascribe these early Western Ganga temples to the Pallava-Pandya genre of Tamil Nadu. Noteworthy, however, is the persistence of the extension of the first-storey hara over the top edges of the axial mandapas in front, which ceased 218

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA as a feature in the post-Pallava temples by about 850, but continued throughout in the vimana temple of the Calukyas and the Rastrakutas and their successors in Karnataka and the Deccan and forms one of the main features of this series of temples, along with the lathe-turned pillars of the interior of the mandapa. As such, this Panica-kuta-basti with its total of five vimanas forms an important landmark. The Cavundaraya-basti or Camundaraja-basadi (plate 130B), standing at some distance to the north of the Candragupta-basti on the Candragiri hill at Sravanabelgola, is the largest and finest example among the Jaina temples of the period and is of more exquisite workmanship than any other. It was built by Camundaraya, the Ganga minister of Racamalla IV in the last quarter of the tenth century. This temple-complex consists of a three-storeyed square Dravida vimana, 11.5 m. square at base, facing east and with its two lower storeys functional in having cellas enshrining Tirthankaras, a short antarala, visible externally in the first storey as a construction, and a large almost square closed maha-mandapa, of the same width as the vimana. The vimana has five bays and four recesses in between, giving a pancaratha aspect to the main structure. The first storey is marked by a string of miniature shrines, karna-kutas at the corners, oblong salas or kosthas in the middle and apsidal panjaras or nidas between them. The central bhadras, one on each side of the vimana-wall, as also on either side of the mandapa at the middle length, have deva-kosthas, which are plain rectangular niches, intended for standing sculptures. The uttira above carries a hamsa-frieze, the frieze being interrupted by springs of foliage with central lotus-bud so carved as to suggest the tail-plumage of the hamsas themselves. The kapota is ornate, single-flexed and well-undercut, with the brim decorated by a line of circular rosettes and pairs of kudus placed well inside the vertical lines of the pilasters of the wall below. The top line of the architrave is a vyala-mala, consisting of gaja-vyalas and simha-vyalas. The architrave follows the same line of projections as that of the wall and adhisthana of the vimana. Over the architrave and its vyalavari sections is a hara of miniature shrines in the form of four karna-kutas or square vimanas, three bhadra-salas or oblong square vimanas and two apsidal panjaras over each face south, west and north. This hara is of the anarpita-type and stands free from the harmya of the middle 219

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV storey, separated from it by a narrow open ambulatory passage all round. This is in contrast to the Kambadahalli temple, where the hara is of the arpita-type and is attached, like the applique work, to the walls of the harmya of the upper storey. Such anarpita-haras are possible in temples with sandhara first storeys with a double wall and a covered ambulatory in between, as is usual in Calukyan temples. Here the sandhara nature is not quite evident because of the extreme thickness of the wall of the lowest storey and the absence of its separation by an intervening passage as outer and inner walls. This pseudo-sandhara character, however, provides for the anarpita-hara. This helps the rendering of the front and rear aspects of the hara-elements in full, particularly the elephant-backed or gaja-prsthakrti shape of the apsidal panjaras, which in arpita-haras can present only its frontal aspect. The hara is extended over the mandapa, with its own kutas, kosthas and panjaras. The elements are quite ornate, having inside their individual baywindow projections small and finely-wrought figure-sculpture, for example of Kubera in the north-east and south-east karna-kutas and seated Tirthankaras or a sejant lion as in one of the karna-kutas facing the antarala. The bhadrasalas too have similar sculptures of Tirthankaras in their central nasika-fronts, while at the two extremes of each sala are rearing lions. The frontals of the panjuras have Tirthankara sculptures likewise. The harantara-lengths between the hara-elements have the usual ksudra-nasikas, which also contain sculptures of Yaksis, Yaksas and devotees--both men and women. Remarkable in this series are the figure of Padmavati Yaksi, recalling in pose and form the GajaLaksmi from Mahabalipuram but without the lustrating gajas, and the recumbent elephant-sculpture --the royal emblem of the Gangas-in such a position in the ksudra-nasika over the antarala on the south would put the stamp of the Gangas on this temple. The maha-mand apa also has a hara of miniature shrines above, the central one on its castern face being designed like a gopura with a two-storeyed superstructure. The two sculptures of seated women in the ksudra-nasikas, one on either side of this gopura or dvara-sala, are perhaps the best specimens of human sculpture in this temple. An agra-mandapa was later added to the maha-mandapa. The outer opening of the mandapa is fitted with an ornate door-frame, elaborately carved--a characteristic Calukyan feature. Inside, the mandapa has sixteen free-standing pillars, of which all but the four central ones are of the usual mandapa-type with basal and terminal sadurams and intervening kattu and resting on bhadra-pithas. The four central ones are circular in section with capitals, consisting of kalasa, tadi and kumbha, 220

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA . FO A Sittannavasal: cave-temple . B. Tirupparuttikkunram : Candraprabha temple PLATE 127

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 A. Tiruppatuttik kuniam vimanas of temple-complex B. Chattipatti: ruined temple, with sculptures on basement PLATE 128 [PART IV

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA LAYAN AN A Sembattur: ruined temple, with sculptures on bascment : BM STAT Mt.' ty AA Terry he SWARA " . WWW US 4. B Sr vanabelgola : Candragupta-basti temple complex PLATE 129

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV Si A. Kambadahalli (Sravana helgola) : Pancakufa-hasti . B. Sravanabelgola : Cavundaraya-baati PLATE 130

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA 3 29 ATA . " Sravanabelgola : Gommatesvara statue PLATE 131

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV R A .. 1 VERES Sravanabelgola : Gommatesvara statue, head PLATE 132

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA . NR . S. Tirakkol : rock-cut Tirthankaras PLATE 133

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MONUMENIS & SCULPTURE AD. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV Tirumalai : Neminatha temple PLATE 134

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA A. Vallimalai : rock-cut Tirthankaras and Yaksis SA 39 B. Chittamur : rock-cut Bahubali and Tirthankara Parsvanatha with attendants PLATE 135

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV 4 <1 S A. Chittamur : rock-cut Mahavira with Yaksi . *** B. Uttamapalaryam : rows of roc-kcut Tirthankaras PLATE 136

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV ** * WE Kalugumalai : rows of rock-cut Tirthankaras PLATE 138

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CHAPIER 19) SOUTH INDIA ann A. Chitaral : joch-shelter . WT B. Chitaral : jock-cut Tirthankaras PLATE 139

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 A. Kalli rock-shelter B. Kallil: shrine in front of reck-shelter PLATE 140 [PART IV

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CHAPTER 191 SOUTH INDIA . i ish ma X Palghat: temple with basement of carlier shrine in front PLATE 141

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 Palghat a Tirthankara and other sculptures PLATE 142 [PART IV

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA the corbels mounted directly over the last, there being no pali and abacus. These polished stone pillars mounted on circular bhadrasana plinths and comparatively plain and devoid of the elaborate decoration of the later Calukyan forms. The central floor-level of the mandapa is slightly raised, while the ceiling above depicts a large expanding lotus bounded by an outer patra-lata circle, the central torus being plain. In alignment with the rows of pillars inside the maha-mandapa, the inner faces of its walls have tetragonal plain pilasters. The antarala behind the mandapa bears traces of old paintings. The garbha-grha enshrines a seated image of Neminatha made of soapstone with a tiruvaci behind and with two attendants. This is a later replacement of the original as the associated inscription on its pedestal states. The corresponding Yaksa and Yaksi sculptures are in the same material, the Yaksi in particular being a remarkably well-carved specimen. Leading from the south-east corner of the mandapa is a flight of steps, reaching the open terrace in front of the shrine of the second storey. This harmya is a square of lesser sides than the first storey and has externally on each of its four lateral walls four pairs of pilasters. In the wider space between the two central pilasters on the south, west and north walls are sunk very shallow niches which accommodated low bas-reliefs in stucco of standing Tirthankaras. The architrave has a hamsa-frieze as below, interrupted in the rcentrant angles at the corners by figures of lions. Over the cornice is the hara of karna-kutas and bhadra-falas. The kutas and salas contain in their exposed faces seated Tirthankara reliefs, while those of the ksudra-nasikas have sculptures of devotees-men and women. On the architrave over the antarala-walls on the south and north are two apsidal nidas or panjaras exhibiting their full gajaprstha aspect-fore and aft, their frontal toranas having in their niches Tirthankara sculptures in dhyana-mudra. The shrine-entrance behind the rectangular passage of the antarala is fitted with a simple door-frame, while the shrine contains a later steatite sculpture of Parsvanatha. The third storey is a dummy closed on all four sides and is a smaller square of a lesser height rising from behind the hara over the top of the second storey. It has the usual pilasters and central niches with Tirthankara images. It acts more as an upagriva to raise up the real griva and incidentally enhances the total height of the vimana in aesthetic proportion to its base, as otherwise architecturally it would be a squat uncouth structure. On top of this is the octagonal griva surmounted by an octagonal sikhara-dome which is much less elegant than those at Kambadahalli. On all the eight faces of the grivasikhara combination are projected maha-nasikas with Tirthankara sculptures 221

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV inside the niches of the cardinal ones and figures of adoring devotees in the niches of the diagonal ones. The stupi on top is a composite piece and not monolithic. It is of four sections, all of granite, while the topmost knob of the finial is of black steatite stuck into the kalasa-portion. While, according to the foundation-inscription of the Camundarayabasti, the temple was caused to be constructed by Camundaraya in 982; the consecration of the Parsvanatha in the upper shrine, as attested by an inscription of the minister's son on the pedestal of the image, took place in 995. This would indicate a duration of some thirteen years of the completion of the temple by both father and son. The front agra-mandapa is perhaps an addition in the times of Hoysala Visnuvardhana. The lofty pillar called Brahmadeva, standing inside the southern entrance into the enclosure containing many temples on this hill, rises on eight elephants at its base with a Brahmadeva seated on top of its abacus over the capital facing east. The inscription on the pillar commemorates the death of Ganga Marasimha in 974 and was evidently erected soon after. SCULPTURE IN SOUTH KARNATAKA AND TAMIL NADU By far the greatest achievement of the Gangas, and for that matter of any other dynasty in India, is the colossal statue of Gommatesvara on the Indragiri hill of Sravanabelgola (plate 131). Standing on the crest of the hill which rises over 140 m., it is visible from great distances all round. It is carved out of a tall granitic tor which originally projected on the hill-top and which amply satisfied the sculptor by its homogeneity and fine-grained texture. The sculpture is finished in the round from the head down to the region of the thighs by the removal of the unwanted rock from behind, front and sides. Below the thighs, the knees and the fect are cut in very high relief with the parent rock-mass still left on the flanks and rear, as if to support it. The flanking rock-masses depict ant-hills and kukkuta-sarpas or cockatrices emerging out and from among them, and on either side emerges a madhavi-creeper climbing up to entwine the legs and thighs and ascending almost to the arms, near the shoulders, with their leaves spaced out and terminating in a cluster of flowers or berries. The pedestal on which stand the feet of Gommata, cach measuring 2.75 m., is a full-blown lotus. Broad-chested and majestic, Gommata stands erect in the khadgasana-pose with his arms dangling on either side reaching to the knees and with thumbs facing in. The carving of the almost rounded head, 2:3 m. high, is a most sublime composition of any age 222

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA (plate 132). The sharp and sensitive nose, the half-closed and contemplative eyes, the well-shaped pouting lips wearing a benign smile, that could be discerned by a view from any direction, the slightly-projected chin with a dimple above, an imperceptibly high cheek, lobed ears and subdued and voluted curls of locks on the head invading the broad forehead--all make for a charming face, yet quite serene. The broad shoulders, 8 m. across, of sturdy appearance and the lack of well-modulated elbow and knee joints, the narrow hip, 3 m. wide in front, and rounded gluteal bulges, as if to balance the erect stance, the incurved and channelled midline of the back, the firmly-planted pair of feet, all in good proportion, accentuate the beauty and stance of the figure, while at the same time they indicate the conventions of Jaina iconography that has had nothing to do with corporeal appearances. perhaps due to the utter other-worldly personality of a Jina or a saint for whom this material world does not exist. The nudity of the figure, indicating absolute renunciation of a kevalin, the stiff erectness of the stance suggesting firm determination and self-control and the beaming smile yet contemplative gaze--all blend together to bring out the greatness of conception and the mastery of the sculptor. The deft skill with which, besides the head and its mien, the hands, the fingers and cven the nails or the feet with their toes and nails are delineated in this hard intractable in situ rock is something to be marvelled at. The whole sculpture has evidently been controlled by the height and extent of the original rock itself, and the tor upon which Bahubali of tradition is believed to have performed his eternal penance is still shown on the rear, the sides and the foot supporting the massiveness of the hill-composition and material basal foundation for this otherwise tall sculpture. As Fergusson says : 'Nothing grander or more imposing exists anywhere out of Egypt, and, even there, no known statue surpasses it in height.' The Egyptian colossi, including that of Ramses, as also the great Buddhas on the faces of the cliffs of Bamian in Afghanistan, are at best reliefs, while the Gommatesvara is in the round for most of its height above the knees, with a rear side as perfectly shaped and modelled as the front. Added to this is the mirror-like smooth and shining polish of the entire body that brings out the rich fine grains of this greyish white granite, an art that had been lost or forgotten for more than a millennium since the workmen of Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha had polished the extensive interiors of the Ajivika caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills near Gaya in north India. For a hypaethral statue on a high hill-top exposed to sun, rain, heat, cold and James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London, 1910, p. 72. 223

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV abrasive dust and rain-carrying winds the polish acts as a great refractory-a fact which the makers seem to have understood. Unlike the earlier examples of Gommata at Ellora and other places, the creepers entwining round the body have been shown here with great control with their distinctive foliage wellspaced apart and in a way that would not detract from the majesty of the main figure itself. The three later colossi of Gommata from Karkala (A.D. 1342), Venur (1604) and the one not far from Bangalore, all in the Karnataka region, do not compare with this either in stature or in beauty of finish. The apparent shortening and thickening of the legs below the knee in proportion to the general stature of the body and the limbs above or to the total height, suggested more by their still organic contact with the parent rock, are more than offset by the flanking rock-mass and its sculptures of ant-hills, serpents and the growing creepers. The artist in the choice of the proportions has been quite well aware of the unusual location of his hypaethral subject on the top of a massive ovoid hill dominating the landscape for miles around, that was to be Digambara in the real sense, with the ethereal firmament and space as its canopy, background and vestment. His work was one to be viewed distinctly against such a background of endless space and that too from a distance if the eyes of the viewer were to take in the whole figure. In such a view all the parts of the body fall into proper proportions and the dignity of the work is not a little whittled. The inscriptions on either expanse of the flanking rock at the base in three scripts, Tamil-Grantha, Nagari (old Marathi) and Kannada, and others elsewhere, indicate that the Gommatesvara was got made by Camundaraya, the minister of the Ganga king Rajamalla Satyavakya or Racamalla (974-84) some time after 978, the date of the Camunda-raya-Purana composed by Camundaraya himself, which does not mention this great achievement of his. The date of its creation is taken to be A.D. 983, though the traditional date of its consecration, according to several literary works, is Sunday, the fifth lunar day of the bright fortnight of Caitra in the cyclic year Vibhava, which might be equated to A.D. 1028. The inscription at the base also states that the futtala or pillared cloister with shrines of twenty-four Tirthankaras was added round the colossus by Gangaraja, the general under Hoysala Visnuvardhana. In such an act of erection of the part of the mandapa with flat terrace immediately behind the statue he had cut down a large part of the supporting rock to a vertical scarp that forms the inner flank of his storeyed mandapa, which, in turn, appears to be lending support to the colossus in situ. 224

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CHAPTER 19] SOUTH INDIA Another Ganga sculpture of interest is that of Bharatesvara, the brother of Gommatesvara Bahubali in his purvasrama. It stands almost neglected and broken below the knees. The extant part of the sculpture standing in sama-bharga is about 3 m. high. Of fine proportions, this too has been carved out of a large boulder on the spot where it now stands on the west of the enclosure on the Candragiri hill, but unfortunately piled all over by visitors tapping it with stones to hear the musical notes it emits. In addition to the score and more of places with hills containing natural caverns or rock-shelters, with drip-lines or ledges, polished beds and TamilBrahmi inscriptions there are many others belonging, as it were, to the second or later phase of Jaina occupation, distributed practically all over the districts of Tamil Nadu and south Kerala. While being without Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, they contain inscriptions, mostly in Tamil script and language, along with the other associations and often with Jaina sculptures, either as reliefs carved on the rock-face or as loose bas-reliefs. Some of them exhibit internal modifications like the vaulting of the roof and remains of brick constructions; paintings too have been noticed. Such evidences of occupation and re-use in the later phase are found also in the earlier series of caverns and rock-shelters, attesting to their continued use in the later phase. The Pancapandavamalai hills at Orambakkam village, District Chingleput, have recently been found to contain such Jaina associations in their natural caverns with chiselled rock-beds. Near one of them are found sculptures representing Tirthankaras Adinatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. While the Adinatha and Mahavira reliefs are found carved in relief directly on the rockface, the relief of Parsvanatha is carved inside a full-blown shrine-front, as is the case with standing Visnu in the celebrated scene of Arjuna's penance at Mahabalipuram. A Grantha and Tamil inscription by its side states that the tevaram (shrine with deity inside) was got carved by a Jaina teacher, Vasudeva Siddhanta-Bhatara, the founder of caturvimsati. The niche is fairly deep. boldly bringing out the architectural set-up. The shrine contains an image of Parsvanatha in kdyotsarga, his head shaded by a five-hooded cobra. The architectural features, the sculpture and the palaeography of the associated For early natural caverns with rock-cut beds and Brahmi inscriptions, sec above, chapter 9.-Editor.) IR. Champakalakshmi, 'An unnoticed Jain cavern near Madurantakam', Journal of the Madras University, XLI, 1 and 2, Jan.-July, 1969, pp. 11-13. K. R. Srinivasan, Pallava architecture of south India', Ancient India, 14, p. 129, plate XVII. 225

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 (PART IV inscription would all point to a date in the late seventh or early eighth century and mark this and the other two sculptures as Pallava. Adinatha is shown seated with legs crossed in sama-paryanka and both hands placed on the crossed legs, one above the other, palms up in the usual dhyana-pose. Over the head is a triple umbrella and on either side are flying Vidyadhara attendants holding camaras. The Mahavira sculpture too is depicted in a similar pose. While similar bas-reliefs on rocks near natural caverns are commonly found at various other places, the shrine-relief enshrining Parsvanatha of this place is unique. The Pancapandavamalai or Tiruppanmalai at Vilappakkam, District North Arcot, has a natural cavern with Jaina association. The construction of a cross-wall has partly resulted in a tarn, the other part now being a Muslim dargah. Most interesting are the sculptures and inscriptions of the PallavaCola periods of the eighth to the eleventh centuries. A Yaksi figure is a remarkable specimen. There is a relief of a Tirthankara with a figure of a tiger, the Cola crest, depicted below it. The large rock-cut cave-temple at the foot of the castern face of the hill, though incomplete in many respects, functioned as a Jaina temple with its roughly-hewn pillars, walls and ceilings plastered. The facade has a row of six pillars and two pilasters, one at either extreme, with a corresponding row inside the mandapa dividing it into wider anterior and narrow posterior sections. The hind wall has a row of seven shallow nichecells, all empty. Above the facade of the cave-temple with its a drip-line is carved a relief of a Jaina Tirthankara at the centre in the siddhasana-pose. This was the centre of a great nunnery of female Jaina recluses, of whom Pattinikkuratti, a female disciple of Aristanemi-bhatara of Tiruppanmalai was of some importance at the time of Cola Parantaka I, as an inscription of his times, dated A.D. 945, testifies. Tirakkol in North Arcot District contains an interesting boulder with Jaina sculptures (plate 133). Armamalai, in the same District, contains fragments of Jaina sculptures and evidences of structural additions inside its cavern. Thc Armamalai cavern, of large dimensions, was converted into a triple-celled Jaina temple of the tri-kuta type with brickwork The sculptural remains are those of two dvara-palas in rather low relief carved on slabs of stone. These, along with two other slabs with lotusdesigns carved on one of their faces and fragments of pilasters, are the only architectural and sculptural embellishments that remain. The socket at 1 K.R. Srinivasan, Cave-temples of the Pallavas, Architectural Survey of Temples, 1, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1964, pp. 94-98. 226

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA the centre of the lotus-slab would indicate that the stone was used as the base for a wooden post, perhaps a mana-stambha or dhivaja-stambha. The two dvara-palas may represent Canda and Mancanda respectively. The style and low-relief outline of the dyara-palas are suggestive more of RastrakutaGanga affinities than Pallava. The fact that the central cell of the tri-kuta is larger than the two flanking ones would indicate its dedication to the principal Tirthankara, while the lateral ones may have had either other Tirthankara forms or sculptures or stucco models of Yaksas or Yaksis. There are interesting remains of mural paintings on the walls and plastered ceiling. The date of the temple with its sculptures and its paintings would be the late ninth or early tenth century, as indicated by the style of the paintings which have affinities to the Rastrakuta style of Ellora and by a short Tamil inscription in Cola characters of about the tenth century. Similarly, the celebrated Jaina centre Tirumalai, called Vaikavur in the inscriptions, in the same District, has, on its hill, a Jaina temple-complex (plate 134) formed by construction into and outside a natural cavern and dedicated on Mallinatha and Nemisvara and is noted for its fine sculptures of Kusmandini and Dharma-deviyaksis and Parsvanatha and for its paintings. While the rock-carvings are akin to the carly Cola sculptures in style, the contemporaneous paintings, of the late clcventh century, are highly conventional, as Jaina paintings often are. Here too is found an inscription of Rastrakuta Krsna III of his nineteenth year (937-38) and of the early Cola king Parantaka I dated 912-13. Vallimalai, also in North Arcot District, is replete with rock-cut Jaina sculptures in relief in association with its natural caverns (plate 135A). One of the caverns forms the sanctum of the present-day Subrahmanya templecomplex, but still the Tirthankara relief on top of the brow of the overhanging rock is clearly discernible. The foundation of one the shrines here was by the Western Ganga king Racamalla I according to an inscription here. The sculptures have more Ganga than Pallava affinities. One of the caverns contains a twin sculpture of Tirthankaras, seated in the usual pose on simhasanas with diminutive pairs of cauri-bearers above. On either flank of the pair of Tirthankaras are shown reliefs of Ambika with lion on the proper left and Brahmasasta on elephant-back on the proper right. Other relief include: Vardhamana, cut inside a shallow square niche; Gommata in miniature standing in kayotsarga-pose or pratima-yoga in a smaller niche; a group of four Parsvanatha formas, seated with serpent-hoods above; two Yaksis, of which the [ See below, chapter 30.-Editor.} 227

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV larger is Padmavati, and a Yaksa on elephant-mount; five seated Tirtharkaras in a row, with inscriptions below them; Yaksi Ambika in one of three sunk panels; another Vardhamana on simhasana under a triple umbrella, with cauribearers above the seat and two flying Vidyadharas above them and with asta-margalas on top; and a third Parsvanatha standing with head hooded by a serpent and with a triple umbrella over it, the whole set inside a makaratorana tiruvaci. The most exquisite sculpture of the series is the one said to represent Valli by the local people. It is a portrait of a lady standing in a gracefully-flexed tri-bhanga-pose, with a skirt reaching down to the ankles and secured at the waist by girdles, the neck adorned by necklaces and a hara that passes down between her breasts. Her coiffure is a dhammilla done up on top of the head, her right hand is in a kataka-like pose, while in her left hand that hangs down she holds something like a cup. There are some interesting groups of Jaina rock-sculptures in Chittamur, South Arcot District, assignable to the ninth-tenth centuries, around which structural temples have come up from the middle and late Cola periods. Notable among these sculptures are those of Bahubali, Parsvanatha with his attendants (plate 135B) and Mahavira with his Yaksi Siddhayika (plate 136A). Chittamur is the headquarters of a matha of the Tamil Jainas. Thanjavur District, being one without any hill anywhere, is devoid of such monuments but distinct Jaina relics of the period are noticeable in Sendalai, Jananathapuram, Kuhur, Maruttuvakkudi, Devangudi, and Palaiyarai. Samanarmalai, near Madurai, has Jaina sculptures of the period between 600 and 1000, which are some of the finest and most interesting. Inside a cavern on this hill, fixed on a pedestal, is a Jaina image, while on the brow of the overhanging boulder are two more bas-reliefs of Tirthankaras inside niches with Vatteluttu inscriptions of the tenth century. The Settipodavu (podavu or pudai meaning cavern) natural cavern on the slopes at the southwestern part of the same hill has, near its entrance, a huge seated Jaina figure carved on the hill, with a Vatteluttu inscription below it. Within the cavern, on the vaulted roof, are to be found five groups of sculptures with Vatteluttu inscriptions below the central group. The first of the group represents Yaksi Ambika riding a lion, holding a drawn-up bow by the right hand and an arrow in position on the string by the left. Facing the lion-vehicle is an elephant, ridden by a male figure holding a sword and a shield in his hands. This combination is reminiscent of the defaced sculptured panels in the rockcut cave-temple at Malaiyadikkurichi described earlier (p. 208). Next to this are three panels of Jaina Tirthankaras seated on pedestals and under 228

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CHAPTER 19] triple umbrellas. The fifth and last panel depicts a seated Yaksi with her left leg folded on the asana and the right hanging down; she holds a lotus-bud in her right, while the left hand rests on her lap. Evidently she is Padmavati. The spot called Pechchipallam lies on the eastern slopes of the hills at the southern extremity forming a sort of level ground in front of the rock above. Here there is a row of Jaina sculptures, five of them representing standing Suparsvanatha. There are six Vatteluttu inscriptions associated with these sculptures. The two others are seated Tirthankaras. The images are votive in nature as the inscriptions signify. Similar finely-wrought sculptures are to be found on the Nagamalai hill near Madurai. The Pancapandavarmalai at Kilaiyur-Kilavalavu is also noted for its Jaina sculptures of the period carved on the huge boulders. They consist of Tirthankaras and deities like the Yaksis, and the place is called Pallikkudam. Likewise, the Poygaimalai at Kuppalanatham and the Karuppannasami rock at Uttamapalaiyam (plate 136B) have rows of Jaina sculptures mostly of Tirthankaras-Adinatha, Neminatha and others; the associated inscriptions indicate their votive nature as also point to their date. The Aivarmalai natural cavern, too, has in association numerous relies of Jaina Tirthankaras and Yaksis with votive inscriptions in Vatteluttu. One of them, dated in A.D. 970 in the reign of Varagunavarman Pandya, refers to endowments to Parsvanatha sculptured at this place. SOUTH INDIA Eruvadi, in Tirunelveli District, has a natural cavern on the Irattaipottai rock, the overhanging boulder over the cavern bearing a series of Jaina basreliefs accompanied by votive inscriptions in Vatteluttu script. One of the Jaina teachers, Ajjanandi, figures here as also in the Uttamapalaiyam and Ayyampalaiyam (Aivarmalai) inscriptions, pointing to their contemporary nature. The Bhagavati temple on the hill at Singikulam was formerly a Jaina temple of a Yaksi as evidenced by the presence of an image of a Tirthankara in the inner shrine now called Gautama-rsi. The most remarkable series of Jaina sculptures (plates 137A, 137B and 138) with Vatteluttu inscriptions, belonging to the eighth-ninth centuries, is found at Kalugumalai. Noteworthy among these reliefs are those of Parsvanatha with Dharanendra and Padmavati, Ambika and Tirthankaras in rows. Thus, one can see that natural caverns with earliest beds and Brahmi inscriptions continued to be occupied in the later on second phase between 600 and 1000, characterized by the addition of sculptures, constructions in brick and inscriptions in Vatteluttu and Tamil scripts. In addition, other caverns and rock-shelters were pressed into use and occupied by Jaina teachers and recluses forming pallis as evidenced by the presence of relief-sculptures on the 229

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV rock-faces and other loose sculptures in relief and in the round. The instances being too many, only the most outstanding and well-known ones have been mentioned here. But it should be stated that a systematic iconographic survey and study of the wealth of Digambara Jaina material is yet to be made in the Tamil country. The sculptures found at Tiruccaranattumalai near Chitaral, Kanyakumari District, are described later in this chapter. Besides bas-reliefs, both rock-cut and loose, a few large sculptures in the round have also been found. From a ruined temple at Danavalapadu, District Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh, a few sculptures were brought to the Madras Government Museum; they are fine examples of Rastrakuta art in black stone. A Mahavira sculpture from Tuticorin, District Tirunelveli, is a fine Pandya specimen in granite. A large sculpture of a seated Tirthankara, over a metre in height, perched on the ruins of a brick temple on a mound at Puttambur (Pudukkottai, Tiruchchirappalli District), is a noteworthy Cola specimen of good proportions. A seated Tirthankara from Mosakudi in the Pudukkottai Muscum, an early specimen in granite, is rather a poor representation, while a large standing Parsvanatha, also in granite, from Mangattevanpatti in the same Museum, is moulded much more artistically. K.R. SRINIVASAN REMAINS IN KERALA Kerala has a few Jaina monuments ascribable mostly to the period from the ninth to the eleventh centuries when the Ay rulers in the south and the Ceras in central Kerala extended patronage to the Jaina faith. In the ancient Cera country, however, Jainism had a still earlier tradition, for some of their rulers had taken up the cause of that religion during the Tamil Sangam age. For instance, one of the rock-shelters at Pugalur, near Karur, in District Tiruchchirappalli, has on its brow, just below the drip-line, two Cera inscriptions of about the second century A.D. According to these epigraphs the rock (kal) was cut (arupita) for Cenkayapan, a Jaina monk, by the grandson of Ko-Atan Ceral Irumporai.' Some of the inscriptions near the beds and pillow 1 Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1927-28, Madras, 1929, nos. 341-49 and p. 50; Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1963-64, Delhi, 1967: 1. Mahadevan, Corpus of the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions', Seminar on Inscriptions, 1966, Madras, 1968, pp. 65-67; K.G. Krishnan, *Cera kings of the Pugalur inscriptions', Journal of Ancient Indian History, IV, Calcutta, 1970-71, pp. 137.43. [See also above, p. 101 - Editor.1 230

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA lofts provide names of their users, and one such bed (adiffanam) was meant for Cenkayapan himself. That Pugalur was a very important Jaina centre is evident from the large establishment there consisting of four rock-shelters on the same hill accommodating a total number of about thirty monks, who mostly hailed, as the epigraphs show, from neighbouring villages. It is worth noting that while such rock-shelters are common on the east coast and represent an early phase of Jainism in south India, this phase made no headway on the west coast, specially within the present political boundaries of Kerala. The rise of Jainism in Kerala proper possibly synchronizes with the re-emergence of the Ceras in the beginning of the ninth century with their new capital at Mahodayapuram, modern Tiruvanchikulam in District Trichur. In this period, as the inscriptional and literary data reveal, the Tirukkunavay temple, located somewhere near the Cera capital, was a great Jaina centre. An inscription found near the Jaina basti at Talakkavu, District Cannanore, speaks of the foundation of the Tirukkunavay temple some time in the early part of the eighth century. Undoubtedly, these were structural temples, but the tradition of using rock-shelters as Jaina resorts was also present in Kerala during the ninth century. On the whole, the Jaina monuments of this period in Kerala may be grouped under two groups--rock-shelters and structural temples. While the former group is still intact despite their conversion into Bhagavati shrines, traces of structural temples in the original form are hard to find. The most impressive rock-shelter (plate 139A)-and it was located in the ancient Ay territory is the one on the Tiruccaranattumalai, near Chitaral in District Kanyakumari. On the side of the natural cavern, formed by an overhanging rock, are sculptured a number of Tirthankara figures (plate 139B), apart from some inscribed votive images carved by visitors hailing from far-off places. Of these reliefs, the most important are Parsvanatha, Mahavira and Padmavati. The last-mentioned deity stands on a padmasana with lion as her M.G.S. Narayanan, New light on Kunavayir Kottam and the date of Cilappatikaram', Journal of Indian History, XLVIII, 1970, pp. 691-703. Several Jaina temples of the ninth to the eleventh centuries seem to have sprung up on the model of this temple, where, as the tradition goes, llango Adigal, the author of the Silappadikdram, retired after his renunciation. It is noteworthy that inscriptions from the Siva temple at Kinalur, District Kozhikode, and the Tiruvannur temple, built on an apsidal plan, at Kozhikode, both of the eleventh century, refer indirectly to the presence of a Jaina temple at Tirukkunavay. T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Jaina and Bauddha vestiges in Travancore', Travancore Archaeological Series, II, part II, Trivandrum, 1919, pp. 125-27. 231

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV vehicle. A few attendant figures have also been portrayed on either side of Padmavati; in fact, all the prominent figures here are accompanied by worshippers or flying Vidyadharas. Most of the Tirtharkara images have a three-tiered canopy over the head and are seated in sattvaparyarka-pose, while Parsvanatha stands gracefully below a three-hooded cobra. The most important inscription here is the one belonging to the Ay king Vikramaditya Varaguna (circa 885-925), which records the gift of some golden ornaments to the Bhatariyar of the Tiruccaranattumalai.? All the votive figures have below their seats short inscriptions in Vatteluttu characters mentioning the donor's name and place. These inscriptions clearly show that the Jaina establishment continued to exist till at least the middle of the thirteenth century, after which it was converted into a Bhagavati shrine. There is also another Jaina rock-shelter at Kallil (plate 140A) near Perumbavur, in District Ernakulam, which also was transformed into a Bhagavati shrine in later times (plate 140B). On the facade of this rockshelter is carved an unfinished seated figure of Mahavira. Further, on the back walls of the Bhagavati shrine is carved the figure of Mahavira seated on a sirhhasana in sattvaparyanka-pose; behind him are shown two attendant figures, one of them holding a flywhisk. Here also a three-tiered umbrella is shown over the head of Mahavira. A stone image of Padmavati, now covered with a metallic mask, is kept near the figure of Mahavira and is worshipped as Bhagavati. Almost contemporaneous with the rock-shelters are found the ruins of a few structural temples in Kerala, the most important of which is the one at Godapuram, near Alathur, District Palghat. Known locally as the Sakkayar Bhagavati temple, the site yielded two Jaina images, now in the Trichur Museum. The image of Mahavira is seated on a simhasana in sattvaparyankapose, with a three-tiered umbrella over the head; the emblem is depicted as three front-facing lions between four pilasters on the pedestal. There is an attendant figure on either side above the rearing lions, holding a flywhisk in the right hand, the left being in kati-hasta. An image of Parsvanatha also has been recovered from the site. Parsvanatha is in kayotsarga-pose, standing on a double-lotus pitha, with a three-hooded cobra over his head. The tail of the Naga coils round the pitha and then goes round the thighs and back of the image. Significantly, the site, like the ones at Kallil and Chitaral, was also 11.A. Gopinath Rao, 'Chitaral inscription of Vikramaditya Varagupa', Travancore Archaeological Series, I, part XII, 1912, pp. 193-94. 2 Gopinatha Rao, op. cit., 1919, p. 130. 232

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA known as the Bhagavati temple, and this tradition may indicate that originally the temple-complex enshrined an image of Padmavati as well. At present the site of Godapuram is represented only by a few buried structures and some scattered architectural fragments. The area looks like a low mound, and there is every likelihood of structures coming to view by excavation. In an exposed section one can notice traces of a buried granite structure, having an adhisthana of the mancaka variety. At the same time, among the loose pieces on the surface are noticed the usual adhisthanacomponents like upana, jagati, tripaffa-kumuda, kantha with kampas and patfika; a few pieces of vstta-kumuda, evidently belonging to some other shrine, are also to be seen. All the structures at this Jaina establishment, as their mouldings show, were originally square or rectangular on plan, enshrining seated or standing Jina figures. Stylistically, the sculptures may be dated to the ninth-tenth century. This dating is further corroborated by the discovery of a Tamil inscription in Vatteluttu characters of about the tenth century. The undated epigraph also refers to the deity as Tirukkunavayttevar, reminiscent of Kunavayir-kottam, where the author of the Silappadikaram is stated to have retired after renouncing his right to the Cera throne. The date and the provenance of the Jaina record clearly establish the fact that Jainism was in a flourishing stage during the ascendancy of the second Cera dynasty. Palghat proper also has a Jaina temple dedicated to the eighth Tirthankara Candraprabha, but its date cannot be ascertained in view of the thorough renovation that it has undergone in recent times. In front of the present temple stands the basement of an earlier shrine (plate 141), and like any other Brahmanical shrine in the south, it has a bali-pipha in front. The granite adhisthana of the deserted temple is of the mancaka type. The site yielded a headless Jina figure (plate 142) seated in the vajraparyanka-pose. Its modelling is more realistic than is generally met with in the south. The narrow, round shoulders and slimness of the body are reminiscent of northern tradition. Stylistically it belongs to the ninth-tenth century. It is generally held that in the wake of Brahmanical upsurge many Jaina shrines were converted into Brahmapical ones. For example, the Kudalmanikkam temple at Iringalakuda, District Trichur, dedicated to Bharata, the brother of Rama, was, as the tradition avers, originally meant for Bharatesvara-muni. 1 Indian Archaeology 1968-69-a Review, New Delhi, 1971, p. 86. . Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1959-60, no. 238. Also Journal of Indian History, XLIV, 1966, p. 537, and XLVIII, 1970, p. 692. * A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, Kottayam, 1967, pp. 88-89. 233

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 600 TO 1000 [PART IV It is, however, difficult to ascertain the truth in this case, but the process of gradual transformation of a Jaina shrine into a Brahmanical one is amply testified by the evidence from Chitaral and Kallil. This very process can be traced also in the Nagaraja temple at Nagercoil, District Kanyakumari, which has yiclded many Jaina reliefs carved on pillars and on walls alongside Brahmanical figures. The temple continued to be a Jaina establishment till at least Kollam 697 (A.D. 1522), when it received donations from the Travancore king Bhutalavira Udayamarttandavarman. The reliefs of Mahavira, Parsvanatha and Padmavati may be ascribed to the sixteenth century on stylistic considerations. Yet, two huge Naga figures with five hoods, cach sheltering a seated image, may be dated to the tenth century, when Jainism was in a flourishing state in the Ay territory. Referring to the Ananta shrine, which was erected in Kollam 764 (A.D. 1589), Gopinatha Rao states that the deity Parsvanatha perhaps became at a later period the Nagar Tiruvanantavan, Adisesa of Visnu." Jainism in Kerala, as represented by the rock-shelters and a few structural temples, must have derived its inspiration from the neighbouring Pandya country. Innumerable bas-reliefs, accompanied by inscriptions, on a huge rock-face at Kalugumalai, District Tirunelveli, compare in every respect with the reliefs at Chitaral. But the Mysore region might have also influenced, to some extent, this religious movement, specially in north Kerala. Some Jaina settlements exist even today at places like Kalpetta, Manantody and other places in the Wynad area of District Kozhikode. Some authorities consider the rock-shelter on the western slope of the Edakkal hill, near Sultan's Battery, in the same District, as of Jaina affiliation. Though associated with inscriptions, one of them dating back to the sixth century, and rock-carvings, the rock-shelter docs not show any Jaina vestiges. But Sultan's Battery near the Edakkal rock-shelter, also known as Ganapati-vattam, has the ruins of a large Jaina basti, which may be dated to the thirteenth-fourteenth century, if not earlier. It is an example of a cloistered temple built entirely of granite. In its axial arrangement, it consists of a square garbha-gyha, ardha-mandapa, maha-mandapa, later transformed into a closed structure and partitioned into two halves, and a detached portico simulating the namaskara-mand apa of the Kerala tradition. But unlike the Kerala temple-style, it has a mildly sloping Gopinatha Rao, op. cit., 1919, pp. 127-28. * Ibid., p. 129, n. 2. * Menon, op. cit, p. 89; Elamkulam P.N. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, Kottayam, 1970, p. 261. * F. Fawcett, 'Notes on the rock carvings in the Edakal cave, Wynad', Indian Antiquary, XXX, 1901, pp. 409-21. 234

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CHAPTER 19) SOUTH INDIA stone roof, with two inconspicuous domical superstructures on top, one above the garbha-grha and the other atop the maha-mandapa. Perhaps the original superstructure of the temple is completely lost. In its original form the temple seems to have been enclosed by a peristyle, in which columns having octagonal kaftu and squarc sadurams were mostly used. The columns of the maha-mandapa appear to be more developed, and their tapering shafts and decorations are reminiscent of the Vijayanagara tradition. At present there is no image inside the garbha-gsha, but the lalata-bimba of its doorway contains a seated Jina figure; an identical figure occurs also on the lintel of the ardha-mandapa. A number of fragmentary Jaina images were discovered several decades back near Sultan's Battery, but it is difficult to ascertain whether they belonged to the temple described above. One such figure, which may be dated to the eleventh-twelfth century, shows a standing image of a Tirthankara with a threetiered parasol over his head. The hair has been depicted in the form of small ball-like curls. It was undoubtedly a torana-image, in which the arched gateway forms a frame around the image. Amongst the finds may be seen several fragments of a tablet with miniature Jina figures arranged in rows. Without any doubt, they form part of a caturvirsati-pasta. Most of the seated images, one of them having a lion in the centre of the pitha, are in the vajraparyanka-posture. H. SARKAR >>>>>>> >>>>>> <22 235

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Part V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300

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CHAPTER 20 NORTH INDIA HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION THE TWO FOREMOST POLITICAL POWERS WHICH EXERCISED THEIR SWAY OVER a large portion of upper India during the eleventh and twelfth centuries were the Cahamanas and the Gahadavalas. The artistic, literary and religious activities within this range of time have significance not only for the high level of development but also for the fact that they marked the last phase of a continuous chain of cultural growth. While the art and literature seem to have followed in most cases a course of conventional development in medieval times in upper India, the religious growth, despite conflicting philosophies, was marked by a spirit of adaptability and toleration within the frame of desa-, jatiand kula-dharma. The Jaina, Brahmanical and other establishments flourished side by side and the royalty maintained a remarkably liberal outlook and showed respect towards their subjects in matters of religious rites and beliefs. The Cahamanas of Sakambhari, who rose to prominence in the later half of the tenth century, were patrons of arts and letters; although Brahmanists, they encouraged Jainism to a great extent. Psthviraja I, according to the Munisuvrata-carita (Vikrama-samvat 1193-A.D.=1136-37) of Candra-Suri, showed respect to Jainism by making offerings of golden kalasas to the Jaina shrine at Ranthambhor. His son Ajayaraja not only allowed his new capital Ajayameru (Ajmer) to be decked with Jaina temples but also donated a golden kalasa to the Parsvanatha shrine there. Similarly, Arnoraja is stated to have granted the followers of the Jaina Acarya Jinadatta-Suri a site for the construction of a temple and is also said to have acted as a judge in a discussion between the Svetambara Acarya Dharmaghosa-Suri and the Digambara Pandita Gunacandra. Vigraharaja IV not merely raised a Jaina maiha in his capital but also prohibited the slaughter of animals on certain days in a month throughout his vast kingdom. According to Raviprabha's Dharmaghosa-Suri-stuti, he was Puhairayena Sayambhari-narindene jassa-lehena Ranakhambhaura-jinahare cadaviya kanaya-kalasa. Quoted by Dasaratha Sharma, Early Chauhan Dynasties, Delhi-Jullundur. Lucknow, 1959, p. 38. 239

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V assisted by Arisiha (probably Arisimha of Mewar as suggested by Sharma)1 and a ruler of Malwa in hoisting the flagstaff on the Raja-vihara, a Jaina temple at Ajmer. Prthviraja II made the gift of a village to the temple of Parsvanatha at Bijolia. Arnoraja's son Somesvara also donated a village to the Jaina shrine at Bijolia and Prthviraja III granted a jaya-patra to JinapatiSuri in v.s. 1239 (A.D. 1182) and employed followers of Jainism to many responsible posts. The Cahamanas of Nadol, being closer to the Caulukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat, were more intimate with Jainism. Asvaraja of the Nadol branch of the Cahamanas, himself a Jaina, issued orders for a strict observance of ahimsa on certain specific days. An epigraph of Asvaraja's period, dated A.D. 1110, from Sevadi registers a gift barely equal to one haraka from every well (with arahatta) located within four villages for the daily puja of Dharmanathadeva by Mahasahaniya Uppalaraka. Another inscription, of A.D. 1115, from the same place records a gift of king Katukaraja on the occasion of Sivaratri for the worship of Santinatha in the khattaka of Yasodeva. In 1132 king Rayapala's sons and queen donated a certain quantity of oil from each oil-mill out of the royal family's own share. The Nadloi inscription of 1138 also records a grant of one-twentieth part of tax levied on the merchandise coming to and going out of the city for the puja of Jina Neminatha. Alhanadeva issued on the Sivaratri day of 1152 an amari-ghosana (proclamation for non-slaughter of animals) and even Brahmanas, priests and ministers were ordered to respect this edict. The kings of this line worshipped Brahmanical gods like Surya, Isana, etc., and showed respect towards the Brahmanas as well as Jaina shrines and Acaryas. This spirit of tolerance also seems to have been shared by the common man normally throughout the period in spite of occasional polemics and conflicts between leaders of various religious systems. The position appears to be similar with the Gahadavala kings of Kanauj and Varanasi, although we have no direct evidence on their outlook towards Jaina community and church. Yet, a single example is sufficient to show that they had liberal and tolerant religious ideas. The Gahadavala ruler Govindacandra was a devout Brahmanist like his predecessors, but his consort Kumaradevi was a Buddhist who was allowed by her husband to reconstruct 1 Ibid., p. 62. 2 tajjyestha-bhratriputro'bhut Prthvirajah Prthupamah | tasmad arjjita-hemango hema-parvvata-danatah || atidharmmaratenapi Parsvanatha-svayambhuve! dattam Morajhari-gramam bhukti-muktesca hetuna || Epigraphia Indica, XXVI, 1952, p. 105, 240

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CHAPTER 201 NORTH INDIA the Buddhist Dharma-cakra-Jina-vihara at Sarnath. Govindacandra also donated a village to the Buddhist sangha at Sravasti. . Jaina images found at Kausambi, Mathura, Sravasti and other places indicate that Jainism flourished well under the Gahadavalas. Some of the rulers of this house appear to have had diplomatic relations with the Caulukyas of Gujarat. The Kumarapala-carita records that Kumarapala Caulukya sent his ministers to Kasi, to suppress injury to animals. A poet named Visvesvara of Kasi, who, according to the Prabandha-cintamani, attended a literary meeting at Pattana organized by the great Jainacarya Hemacandra during the reign of Kumarapala, was perhaps an official representative of the Gahadavala court. The overlord of Kasi, who conferred the title of Vadisimha on Abhayadeva, a famous Jaina poet, seems to be a later Gahadavala ruler. An inscription (v.s. 1207=A.D. 1151) on a pillar-capital fixed in the L'al-Darwaza Masjid at Jaunpur mentions onc bhattaraka Bhavibhusana, who may be taken to be a Jaina ascetic of importance in view of his title. He was possibly connected with some Jaina religious establishment in the Jaunpur area. The vast territory from the Siwaliks in the north to Chitor in the south and from the eastern fringe of the great Rajasthan desert to Varanasi or a little beyond formed the kingdoms of the imperial Cahamanas and the Gahadavalas. Literary and epigraphical references as well as material remains indicate that numerous Jaina shrines were built in this hcartland of India during the eleventh and twelfth centuries both by the public and the kings and nobles. These edifices, probably represented many significant aspects of Jaina art and architecture, but the evidence available to us, unfortunately, is limited both in time and space. Of the excellent Cahamana temples at Sakambhari, Ajayameru, Amer, Nagaur, Pallu, Sanganer and Ranthambhor, all in Rajasthan, at Dhillika (Delhi-Mehrauli area) and at Asika (Hansi), Pinjaur and other places in Haryana, we have either no traces of the structures or the remains are so fragmentary that they hardly help us in the reconstruction of exact temple-forms and the analyses of architectural movements properly. Some remarkable shrines built during the reign of Cahamanas of Nadol, who were feudatories of the Caulukyas, however, do survive in their original form. The position in respect of the monuments raised during the Gahadavala rule is still worse. There is not a single Jaina or even Brahmanical shrine in proper 1 Roma Niyogi, The History of the Gahadavala Dynasty, Calcutta, 1959, p. 82. * A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India Report, 1871, XI, reprinted Varanasi, 1966, p. 126. 241

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V shape in the whole territory marking the kingdom of the Gahadavalas (Uttar Pradesh and a part of western Bihar) which could furnish even a general idea of the temple-structure in this part of the country during the reign of this royal house. According to the Jainas, in the whole of India, the Madhya-desa (Haryana and Uttar Pradesh) represents the sacredmost land associated with the birth and life of as many as eighteen Tirthankaras. It was also the sourceland of Jaina culture in ancient times. During the supremacy of the Gahadavalas, numerous temples and other sacred structures must have been constructed here specially at places like Hastinapura, Ahicchatra, Mathura, Kanyakubja, Kausambi, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Sravasti, etc., besides a number of other sites. Yet today there is hardly a trace of any of these temples except some images and damaged pillars, pilasters or other structural parts. It is, therefore, utterly difficult to understand the medieval Jaina art-history of the region in precise terms. ARCHITECTURE The Jaina religious cdifices raised during this age must have comprised a variety of structures, c.g. the temple (prasada), deva-kulikas or chapels, sahasrakutas (normally solid pyramidal structures with numerous figures of Jinas on it), mana-stambhas, nisedhikas (memorial-pillars), mathas, etc., known to us from various sources. The Cahamana kingdom was perhaps full of Jaina edifices with a distinct personality forming impressive quadrangles, besides smaller temples or isolated deva-kulikas with a frontal porch and with or without enclosures, for the shrines were raised according to the capacity, desire and requirement of the builders. The general form of thc Jaina temples was hardly different from Brahmanical shrines; however, the iconographic treatment did always differ, as it was to be according to the mythological narrations, philosophical tenets and ritualistic concepts of the Jaina church. The architects, masons and craftsmen came from the one and same group which worked for the Brahmanical or other buildings in different regions. The Jaina temples of this age, like the Brahmapical edifices, therefore, bear the reflections of the zonal variations and stylistic blends. The main building-orders which appear to have played their part in shaping the templebuilding movement during Cahamana period were the original structural 1 M. A. Dhaky in Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 306 ff. 242

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA tradition of Rajasthan having direct links with the Pratihara monuments on the one hand and the Gurjara shrines on the other, besides a localized austere style in eastern parts. It is not unlikely that some temples connected with the tradition of the Malwa-Deccan architecture also influenced Rajasthan to a limited degree. The original Rajasthani style is robust, bearing propitious but restrained decoration and bold treatment. In many cases one can also notice a pleasing fusion of these orders in medieval temples, particularly in those which date in mature Cahamana phase. Of these styles, the most dominating one proved to be the delicate ornamental style of Gurjara-desa which travelled far beyond its land of birth perhaps as far as the Madhya-desa, although in a somewhat modified form. Dhakyi rightly says: 'The two styles-Maha-Gurjara and Maha-Maru--could not remain insular, uninfluenced from each other for longer time. Not all at once, but by a slow yet definitely progressing process of osmosis, the two exchanged at first the ideas and next went into "deep nuptial embrace" whereby each merged into the other and, by the dawning of eleventh century, a fully fuscd, potential, highly ornate, hybrid but extraordinarily standardized style-The Maru-Gurjara---emerged. This typical new style, with a few local accents here and there, suggestive of a stress either on Maha-Maru Maha-Gurjara blood, spread otherwise homogencously through the greater expanse of western India.' The general features of the Cahamana temples appcar to be a panca-ratha towered sanctum (mula-prasada), vestibule, attached hall (normally closed) with transepts and pillared interior with ornamental ceilings (vitanas) and entrance-porches. In some cases the temples were also cnriched with toranas or ornate entrance-frames. An excellent example of the Jaina toranas of the Cahamana period can be seen in the famous Mahavira temple at Osia (above, chapter 14). The sikharas are bedecked with a cluster of minor srrgas around rising above the karna (quoin), bhadra (central) and other offsets of the structure. However, examples of solitary sikharas over the garbha-grha without angaSikharas are also there. The sikharas, formed of various recessed planes including projecting pediments, are decked with bhumi-divisions and interlaced designs in most cases, specifically those which bear the Gurjara structural impact, or more correctly, as Dhaky suggests, follow the combined Maru-Gurjara idiom. But the purer specimens of the Rajasthani style perhaps continued to be more virile with restrained sculptural decoration during this period. These did not have basal elephant and human bands and projecting ribbed awnings (dandachadyas) above the jangha. The roofs of the halls and porches were stressed by shapely tiered elevation of concentric courses having attractive soffits with a 1 lbid., p. 311. 243

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V variety of well-carved vitanas. The pillars within these classes of temples can be divided into two groups: those with thick sculptural treatment comprising an ornate and recessed body, and (2) those bearing a conventional form and showing a bold and restricted decoration in the form of popular art-motifs like bell-with-chain, lozenges, etc., on the shaft and above. Some of pillars are just faceted and plain. In some of the remains of Jaina temples in Rajasthan and Delhi (within the Qutb complex) examples of the latter variety can be seen. Jaina architecture under the Gahadavalas is, however, difficult to study, as we have virtually no data except a highly-damaged brick structure found at the site of Sobhnath (Sambhavanatha) temple at Sravasti (fig. XII). Remains of a Jaina shrine discovered at Bateshwar (District Agra) and Parasnath (District Bijnor), however, do not help us much in understanding the temple-structures of the period. Regarding a high mound at Bateshwar, Carlleyle1 makes a significant Tablets --- SCALL CE ALE 18 10 M X 14 94M www 244 MOTELS * 150 AN ************** N GANGHI FIG. XII. Sravasti: plan of the Sobhnath temple. (After Vogel) observation: 'The higher ground from the traces of numerous trenches and traces of foundations of walls on it and around it, I immediately perceived, must have been the site of much more ancient temples (probably a fortified temple 1 J. D. Beglar and A. C. Carllcyle, Archaeological Survey of India Report, 1871-72, IV, reprinted Varanasi, 1966, p. 226.

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA encloure.' A Jaina caumukha, a figure of a lady with a child (Ambika?), Jina heads and canopies were also recovered from this mound. Does it not suggest that this high mound with a prikara was a Jaina temple of the middle ages? The Brahmanical or Buddhist shrines of north India did not have high enclosure-walls in the medieval period. The principal building-material of the Ganga-Yamuna valley was always brick, for it was easy to manufacture. Stone was available only in its peripheral regions, e.g. the Himalayan hills, Aravalli extensions near Delhi and Mathura and the Vindhyan ranges on the south and south-east up to Varanasi. Most of the shrines, whether of the Jainas or the Brahmanas, in the Gahadavala period must have been built in brick, and the line of development of such shrines was most likely different organically from those of stone temples. Some idea of their types, with angular (eight-sided, ten-sided and sixteensided), circular or quadrangular body, could be formed from brick shrines of the preceding period in Fatehpur, Kanpur and Sultanpur Districts, besides the Dharmacakra-Jina-vihara at Sarnath. Material from earlier buildings was freely utilized in the construction of new shrines. This is also attested by the remains of the Sobhnath temple at Sravasti. Moulded and carved bricks were employed normally for the decoration of the structure. In respect of the stone temples some idea is furnished by a representation in stone of a miniature deva-kulika relief in the Allahabad Museum (fig. XIII). It has been dated to the eleventh century. The rendering illustrates a familyaffinity with the Adinatha and Vamana temples at Khajuraho in regard to the form of the sikhara. There is another decorative replica of a deva-kulika in the Allahabad Museum (fig. XIV), which has been dated to the tenth century. On the one hand, this representation shows a close relation with the mula-prasada of the Pratihara order; on the other it seems to have served as a future model of the towered sanctuary for the ensuing period. This is testified by Jaina devakulikas of circa fourteenth century in the Manya temple-complex at Dwarahat in District Almora. The temple-pattern of the Gahadavalas was perhaps influenced, if to a limited extent, by the art-traditions of Rajasthan, central India and even Bihar, but in regard to the mula-prasada it appears that the Pratihara form was continued with modifications but with a characteristic heaviness M.C. Joshi in Bharati, Bulletin of the College of Indology, Banaras Hindu University, 8, part I, pp. 66 ff. Pramod Chandra, Stone Sculpture in the Allahabad Museum, Poona, 1971 (?), plate CLXXIV. 245

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V PALMEIHENTAI FIG. XIII. Allahabad Museum: a deud-kulika. (After Pramod Chandra) FIG. XIV. Allahabad Museum: a shrine. (After Pramod Chandra) which ultimately degenerated in stylization. The temples probably had attached porches and pillared halls, but nothing definite could be said about their shape or structural details. TEMPLES Countless temples belonging to the Jaina faith were raised under the rule of the imperial Cahamanas. In the Jaina literature and contemporary inscriptions, numerous references to such buildings are available. Structural as well as sculptural remains also indicate the existence of numerous Jaina buildings in this period. Unfortunately, most of the Cahamana temples and other buildings were subsequently destroyed and the few surviving ones were modified beyond recognition in the course of later repairs or renovations. Perhaps the only good examples of the Jaina building-art of the period can be seen in the famous complex of the Mahavira temple at Osia or ancient Upakesa (fig. XV), which is mentioned as a place of Jaina pilgrimage in the Sakala-tirtha-stotra of SiddhasenaSuri. This temple, originally built in the reign of the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja (783-92), consisted of a sanctum (garbha-grha) with an ambulatory, a vestibule, 246

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA a closed hall (gudha-mandapa) with an attached open hall (mukha-mandapa) and a porch (mukha-catuski), but was partly renovated in 956, and deva-kulikas surrounding the temple proper, the main sikhara and a torana were added in the eleventh century. The original sanctum has survived only up to the wallcornice, while the sikhara clustered by three rows of turrets is later restoration in the developed medieval style of Rajasthan." rTM" FIG. XV. Osia: Mahavira temple-complex, a deva-kulika In spite of these additions the temple retains some kind of organic unity. The surrounding chapels (deva-kulikas) normally have a tri-anga design with moulded pitha, jangha decked with sculptural representations of Jaina divinities and mukha-catuski with eaves and decorated roofs and interior. Yet, a close structural examination shows that these were built in different stages in the eleventh century as pointed out by Dhaky. Besides the decorative aspects, the sculptures illustrate beautifully the complex Jaina iconography of the period including Jinas, Vidya-devis, apsarases, Dik-palas, etc. Architecturally, the deva-kulikas bear the Gurjara stamp to considerable degree. The earlier one still retain the older Rajasthani (Maru) features (plate 143). 1 Krishna Deva, Temples of Northern India, New Delhi, 1969, p. 31. Dhaky, op. cit., pp. 319 fr. 247

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V The ornate torana, built in 1015, comprises two richly-sculptured stambhas raised on a maha-pitha with characteristic mouldings of west-Indian type including gaja- and nara-courses, supporting a lintel (plate 144). The lintel, which is relieved with scrolls and other designs and bears ribbed awning, is topped with a central triangular tilaka with a Jina figure and peacocks on either side within an ornate frame which is flanked by a minor tilaka on each side. The pillar-shafts are designed in faceted (decorative) vertical stages with ornamental bands containing carved figures of Jinas and Vidyadharas. Toranas were regarded as a dignifying accessory to the main edifice during this epoch. A Rajasthan inscription of 1166 describes a temple as uttunga-torana-prasada. The Mahavira temple thus illustrates the process of development of the Jaina temple style from the Pratihara to the Cahamana period. Dhaky's observation' in this regard is most significant: 'The contribution of this Osian complex to the study of Jaina art and architecture is significant as its initial landmark as well as for the wealth of information and artistry it reveals. The Main Temple, a fine piece of Maha-Maru architecture, reveals the oldest example of Jaina kind of Trika of mukhamandapa (chacauki). Its rich treasures of Jaina iconography are the earliest so far known in the context of temple decorations. The Devakulikas themselves are little masterpieces of architecture and demonstrate a further development of the Western style in the making; at the same time they are illustrative of progress made in Jaina iconography. The fact that they were absent in the eighth century and that they are fewer in number and placed directly-not in coalescence-may indicate that the Jaina way of temple-planning was unknown in eighth century and was not effected even in the early eleventh century since inconsistent with the original plan. The rangamand apa (dancing hall)-the glory of the Jaina temples-had not yet materialized.' Perhaps by about the twelfth century the system of stressing the beauty and importance of the main shrine by building chapels around attained great popularity amongst the Jainas of Rajasthan as mentioned in an inscription at Bijolia, ancient Vindhyavalli. This epigraph records that Loliga or Lollaka, a Porwad Mahajana, constructed a temple of Parsvanatha with seven secondary shrines. It is not unlikely that out of seven chapels, four were raised at the four corners of the temple-court and one each in the centre of its three sides between two corner-shrines. Probably there was a gate on the front facing the main temple. It is interesting to note that there is a temple dedicated to Parsvanatha of the pancayatana type containing a pilgrim-record 1 Ibid., pp. 326-27. 248

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CHAPTER 20) NORTH INDIA MM Osia : Mahavira temple-complex, deva-kulikas PLATE 143

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 Osia: Mahavira temple-complex, torana PLATE 144 [PART V

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CHAPTER 20] Phalodhi Parsvanatha temple PLATE 145 NORTH INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V Ver . Horor - A2 M. at den NW ** 220V RO . RSS AN WW . NA *** . eye . . we til V * HW.. Ajmer : Adhai-din-ka-Jhompda, ceiling PLATE 146

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 PART V . * A. Nilakantha : architectural fragment WR B Sravasti: Tirthankara Parsvanatha PLATE 148

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CHAPTER 20 NORTH INDIA war * 3 * Katara : Tirthankara Neminatha PLATE 149

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D 1000 TO 1300 (Pari V 45 US * . l. -- * S7 TACK . hindu. CS Ajmer : a Tirthankara (Rajputana Museum) PLATE 150

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA Bikaner Museum : parikara of an image PLATE 131

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(PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 DES Jaipur Museum : Tirthankara Munisuvrata PLATE 152

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CHAPTER 20] Bharatpur Museum: Tirthankara Parsvanatha PLATE 153 NORTH INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V wali A12 24) 2 . MO . N Pallu : Vag-devi (Bikaner Museum) PLATE 154

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA dated in V.s. 1226 (=A.D. 1169) at Bijolia. But due to its inferior workmanship scholars do not regard it to be the one built by Lollaka or Loliga. The epigraph also states that the forefathers of Lollaka raised Jaina shrines at Todaraisingh, Bhagera, Naraina, Naravara and Ajmer. None of the temples referred to above stand today but the medieval Jaina images and other vestiges found at most of these places show their importance as the holy centres of the Jainas. Remains of a Jaina temple of the Cahamana period have also been noticed at Phalodhi, ancient Phalavardhika, a Jaina tirtha in Marwar. A shrine sacred to Parsvanatha was built here in about 1147. The consecrationceremony was performed by Vadideva-Suri. This edifice was soon destroyed by the Muslim invaders, but perhaps thereafter it was renovated. It has been thought that the renovation-ceremony was probably conducted by Jinapala-Suri. An inscription (v.s. 1221) on a marble slab lying in the temple speaks of a gift of Candaka together with sri-Citrakutiya-silaphata in the shrine of Parsvanatha at Phalavardhika by Poravada Ropimuni and Bhandari Dasadha. Another epigraph mentions sculpturing of utlanna-patta by Setha Municandra. The temple at Phalodhi no doubt bears marks of later repairs and restoration (plate 145); yet it has retained many of its structural features, comprising a mula-prasada, vestibule and closed hall. It falls in the class of developed shrines of the twelfth century with conspicuous west-Indian elements. The mandapa is relatively simple, but the mula-prasada does possess attractive structural features. Some scholars hold the view that the Adhai-Din-ka-Jhompada mosquecomplex at Ajmer was originally a Jaina temple. In support of their contention, they say that Jaina images were found in the vicinity as within this monument. Some identify it with the Jaina monastery called Raja-vihara whereon Vigraharaja hoisted a flag. While Cousens has strongly refuted this theory, yet it may by admitted that even in the modified form of a mosque, its design shows affinity with quadrangular Jaina shrines and their decorated ceiling-patterns (plate 146). The pillar-forms are robust with a bold decorative scheme (plate 147). At Amer Bhandarkar' noticed more than three temples which had originally been Jaina but were appropriated for Siva worship afterwards. Of these, the oldest appears to be Lal-Shah-ka-Mandir, which consists of three contiguous 1 Kailash Chand Jain, Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan, Delhi-Varanasi-Patna, 1970, p. 426. Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle, for the year ending 31st March, 1970, p. 47. 249

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1390 (PART V shrines with a gud ha-mand apa. The lintels and door-frames of the shrine and mand apa contain sculptured figures of Jinas. Mention may also be made of Singhiji-ka-Mandir at Sanganer which preserves interesting structural elements. Significant features of this shrine include two halls, towered cells and well-decked doors and a sculptured interior showing figures of divinities and decorative designs. There are stone images and inscriptions of the Cahamana period in it. It reminds one of the Caulukya shrines of western Rajasthan and Gujarat Bhandarkar, however, dates it to a later period. Nilakantha in District Alwar, mentioned above for its temple-remains and sculpture of the earlier period (chapter 14), has sculptured architectural pieces of this period as well (plate 148A) bearing some impact of western India. Delhi or Dhillika was an important political and religious centre of the Cahamanas. There stood many Jaina shrines including a grand temple (caitya) of Parsvanatha. In ruins of Quwwatu'l-Islam mosque in the south-eastern corner there are distinct remains of a Jaina temple with simple pillars and pilasters arranged in rows, bearing in some cases figures of Jinas. The upper storey in this preserves ornate ceilings with sculptural frieze of Jinas, attendants and animals. There were, however, finer Jaina temples in Delhi as indicated by architectural fragments and images. At Hansi (Asika) too religious establishments of the Jainas seem to have been built and the one which was added towards the close of Cahamana period was a Parsvanatha-Jinalaya. It was sanctified by the saint Jinapati-Suri. At Pinjaur (Pancapura), which was included in the Cahamana kingdom, Jaina remains in the form of sculptures, akin to those of the Bikaner area and other fragments have been noticed, suggesting the existence there of medieval Jaina shrines. Several Jina images were also found in the Kangra fort indicating medieval Jaina temples in the interior of western Himalayan hills. In front of several Jinalayas perhaps stood the mana-stambhas, and some of the sarvatobhadra Jaina images could have served as their capitals. In the opinion of Shah' the grand kirtti-stambha of Chitor composed of eight tiers, with an clevation of about 24.38 m., was originally built around 1100 and repaired in about 1490. Of Digambara association, it originally had a cauinukha image within its top pavilion. 1 U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, p. 23. Sec below, chapter 25. 250

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CHAPTER 201 NORTH INDIA At Rupnagar, a place near Kishangarh in Rajasthan, three memorial pillars or nisedhikas were noticed by D. R. Bhandarkar. One of them is dated v.s. 1018 (A.D. 961) and is surmounted by a Jina image. The epigraph on it refers to it as nisedhika of Meghasenacarya. Another one also mentions Meghasenacarya. The third one records the name of Padmasenacarya, with the date of his death as 1019. As already stated above, p. 241), we have very little information on templearchitecture under the Gahadavalas. The extant sculptures located at Mathura. Hardwar, Parasnath (District Bijnor), Hastinapura, Bateshwar, Chandwar, Kausambi, Sravasti, etc., suggest that Jaina temples were raised in the GangaYamuna valley during the eleventh and twelfth centuries on quite an ambitious scale, but nothing positively can be stated about the details of their plan and elevation. The brick temple of Sobhnath at Sravasti was also found to be in the form of a confused mass of an undefined brick structure of various periods by the excavator. The eastern part consisted of a rectangular, courtyard (18:10 x14:94 m.) enclosed by a thick wall (2:39x2:74 m.) of broken bricks. The brickwork included a large number of carved bricks used at random. The wall around courtyard had niches (deva-kosthakas) on the inner face perhaps for keeping the images. There were traces of steps on the front and of cells at the back (fig. XII, p. 244). In one of the cells in the temple were found images of Adinatha and other Jinas besides those of Gomedha and Ambika. It could be dated to the later half of the twelfth century Remains of a medieval (pre-Muslim) Jaina shrine were discovered in the excavation at Atranjikhera or the city called Ataranjiya in the Jaina texts. It had a central cell and adjoining parts and was perhaps dedicated to Suparsvanatha, as indicated by an image found there during the excavation. A huge statue of santinatha, found some decades ago at Hastinapura, contained an inscription of A.D. 1176, stating that it was a gift of one Devapala Soni of Ajmer. The image, which is in kayotsarga-pose, seems to have been installed at Hastinapura either in a newly-built or renovated temple. Jaina icons of Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle for the year ending 31st March, 1911, p. 43. * Alexander Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India Reports, 1863-65, II, reprinted Varanasi, 1972, p. 234. * J. Ph. Vogel in Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1907-08, Calcutta, 1911, p. 113. * Indian Archaeology 1967-68-a Review, New Delhi, p. 46. 251

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V Tirthankaras and Yaksis discovered at Hardwar also indicate the existence of medieval shrines in this Brahmanical tirtha. Over a dozen fine sculptures of the eleventh and twelfth centuries from Chandwar near Agra doubtlessly prove the construction of at least one Jinalaya of considerable size at this place in the Gahadavala period. Traces of some brick structures and Jaina sculptural remains of this epoch have also been seen at Bateshwar as already stated (above p. 251). Inscribed and uninscribed Jaina images from Kankali-tila give an idea of Jaina establishments of the period at Mathura. There were sacred structures of both the Svetambaras and the Digambaras in this town. ICONOGRAPHY AND ART During this period Jaina art passed through a most complex and formal phase of its development. In artistic and iconographic growth significant contribution was made by wandering Jaina asceties and traders in addition to sculptors and their patrons. A number of sects and subsects also seem to have acted as conditioning factors for art. Tantra and Tantric symbolism, which had already got incorporated into Jainism earlier, further helped the growth of iconographic concepts. The Jainas at times also adapted and worshipped Brahmanical divinities.1 About the close of the twelfth century, a Brahmapical deity, believed to have taken a vow to abstain from accepting offerings of meat at the instance of the Jaina saint Jinacandra-Suri in Delhi, was allotted a place on a pillar in the Parsvanatha temple there under the name of Atibala. In fact, the saint himself asked his followers to carve the figure of this deity on the pillar. According to a Jaina text a trader of Abhaneri performed worship in the temple of Mahavira and Saccikamata at Osia. Numerous Jina images were produced in all sizes in sitting as well as standing postures with simple and elaborate parikaras bearing formallydisposed accessory divinities, animals and sometimes smaller figures of Tirthankaras. Seated Tirthankaras are commonly shown on a simhasana with ornamental cushions marked with ornate rhombic motifs and decorated piece of It is significant to note that an early Jaina scholar Jinasenacarya in his Jina-sahasra-namastrotra equates the Tirthankara with Andhakantaka, Ardhanarisvara, Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora and Isana forms of Siva, Laksmi-bhartr Sri-pati Sabasra-sirsa, and Purana-Purusa forms of Visnu; Mahabrahma, Hiranya-garbha and Pitamaha, identical with the names of Brahma; Ganadhipa: Visvakarman and Vacaspati. Paramananda Sastri, Jina-vani-samgraha, Delhi, 1961, pp. 287 ff. Similar ideas are also found in the celebrated Bhaktamara-strotra of Manatunga. 2 Hariharanivas Dvivedi, Dilli-ke Tomara, Gwalior, 1973, p. 87. a Jain, op. cit., p. 277. 252

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CHAPTER 20) NORTH INDIA cloth dangling downwards (plates 148B to 150). Stone slabs (paspas) bearing all the twenty-four Tirthankaras (plate 150) were also popular with the Jaina community besides sarvatobhadra images. Scenes from the lives (kalyanakas) of the Jinas were also depicted in the shrines. A few icons of Bahubali belonging to this period have also come to notice. Amongst the Devis, Ambika, Sarasvati or Vag-devi, Cakresvari and Padmavati were commonly worshipped. The deva-kulikas at Osia bear the representations of several Vidya-devis like Naradatta, Gauri, Rohini, Mahamanasi, Vajrankusi, Vajraspokhala, Gandhari, Apraticakra, Manavi, Kali, Vairogya, etc. Apsarases, Dik-palas, Nava-grahas, Gandharvas and Vidyadharas also found place in the Jaina temples. Yaksas and other parivara-devatas, besides bhaktas including Jaina acaryas, were normally incorporated in the avarana-images. At Osia a deva-kulika also depicts Heramba which may be an adaptation from Brahmanism. An icon of the elephant-headed Yaksa Parsva, who is the nearest parallel to Ganesa in Jainism, has been noticed at Rohtak. Ambika was perhaps worshipped for progeny and welfare of children. The divine Jaina couple, identified by Bhattacharya as Gomedha and Ambika, seems to have become a very popular deity by the eleventh century. Ksetrapala (protector of a temple, city or village complex), who is also mentioned in the Bijolia inscription (V.S. 1226) along with Padmavati, Ambika, Jvalini and Naga Dharana, was an important addition to the Jaina pantheon. Slabs carved with auspicious diagrams (yantras), Nandisvara-dvipa, etc., were also regarded as sacred objects of reverence. Forming a vast locale, the Jaina sculpture of the Cahamana and Gahadavala age was influenced by many art currents and traditions unificd to a great extent by religious canons at least in regard to the general conception. The aesthetic ideal, unlike the classical standards, was, however, governed by rigid artistic conventions perhaps as a result of the fuller growth of templearchitecture. Goetz rightly remarks in respect of the development of medicval sculpture that it achieved a sweet original beauty towards the end of the tenth century, a classical maturity in the eleventh century, an elegant mannerism in the twelfth century, sinking slowly into a baroque and rococo and overelaboration during the late twelfth century, and afterwards, the evolution, though fundamentally the same everywhere, suffered various modifications in different kingdoms of northern India, reflecting, as it did, those factors of wealth and poverty, peace and war which quicken and retard social and cultural life's 1 B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, Lahore, 1939, p. 82. * Epigraphia Indica, op. cit., p. 110. * Hermann Goetz, The Art and Architecture of Bikaner State, Oxford, 1950, p. 85. 253

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V The commonest medium employed for the sculpture is sandstone but schist and marble have also been used in several cases. Metal images, especially of bronze, were also cast, but mostly they were of smaller or medium sizes. A Jaina bronze image (fig. XVI) datable to about the eleventh century was Fio. XVI. Kemla (Bulgaria): bronze Tirtha kara (Razgrad Museum). (After Brentjes) discovered in 1928 at Kemla in north-east Bulgaria. It is now in Razgrad Museum there. The image depicts a seated Tirthankara on a cushion over a throne resting on a ticred pitha. It is undoubtedly of north-Indian origin, perhaps carried as a personal object of daily worship by some Jaina trader to some central-Asian or west-Asian country in the medieval period. Stylistically it shows affinity with the Cahamana art-tradition. Recently some fine bronze 1 B. Brentjes in East and West, 21, 3-4, Sept.-Dec., 1971, pp. 215-16. 254

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CHAPTER 20] NORTH INDIA figures of the Jinas were also found at Sanoli, District Alwar, Rajasthan. Some interesting Jaina bronzes of this period are also in the collection of the National Museum, New Delhi. These include an icon of Cakresvari riding a Garuda, a charming parikara-top of a Jina-bimba with well-executed usual accessory deities, animals and plants and a dated image (A.D. 1069) of Parsvanatha showing the seated Jina under a seven-hooded serpent with two standing Jinas on either side with other attendant figures including Yaksa and Yaksi. The cushioned seat of Parsvanatha rests on a conventional lotus-flower. Nire small figures on the upper edge of the pedestal have been identified as Nava-grahas. The frivatsa-lanchana on the chest of the Jina and his seat are coated with silver. The upper part of the parikara of this image is triangular. The exact findspot of these bronzes is not known but stylistically they seem to be from Rajasthan. A small-sized image in bronze, originally from Jaisalmer, also deserves mention in the present context. Stylistically appearing to be a precursor of the already-discussed Jina-bimba in the Razgard Museum, the bronze in question also seems to be a cala-puja-vigraha. A dated inscription (1129-38) on its back refers to two ladies Amma and Acchupta of the Sri-Siddhasena-Divakaracarya-gaccha in the Sri-Nagendra-kula. It depicts a centrally-seated Jina with camara-dharas, celestial beings, Yaksa and Yaksi, besides a Jina Tirthankara on the top within a triangular frame resting on a legged pedestal, which in turn bears nine heads, perhaps standing for Navagrahas. The attendants may be Matanga and Yaksi Siddhayika as they ride an elephant and lion respectively. Shah' regards the presence of the miniature Jina on the top as rare in Jaina iconography. The upper part of the frame is in the form of a conventional foliage. The art of the cleventh and twelfth centuries, as already pointed out, represents a fully-developed phase of sculpture in almost the whole of upper India. There the figure-sculpture in most cases is bound by conventions and decorative formalism. The forms normally were conditioned more by poses and bends of the body than by facial expression. The faces are squarish with formally-carved features especially the eyes, eye-brows, nose, etc. The cheeks appear to be swollen and the mouth bulging. In most cases angularity in the manipulation of limbs and a feeling of tension in the poses could be observed. Charm was added to the sculpture, with the exception of Jina figures, by jewellery and ornaments. In the representations of the Tirtharkaras, who were to have dignified austere appearance, profuse ornamentation was introduced in the treatment of parikara (plate 151) especially in the case of seated figures in the Indian Archaeology 1969-70--A Review, New Delhi, 1973, p. 61. * B.N. Sharma in Journal of the Oriental Institute, XIX, 3, March 1970, p. 276. * U.P, Shah in Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Ari, I, 1966, p. 29. 255

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V form of a number of fine figures in attractive poses, including Vidyadharas, celestial musicians, drummers, attendant divinities and bhaktas, besides celestial elephants (plate 151), triple chatras and an ornate halo. This was, however, basically in conformity with the earlier Jaina tradition as can be observed from the following verses of the Bhaktamara-stotra by Manatungacarya: simhasane mani-mayukha-sikha-vicitre vibhrajate tava vapuh kanakavadatam ! bimbam viyad-vilasad-amsu-lata-vitanam tungodayadri-sirasiva sahasra-rasmeh || 29 || kundavadata-cala-camara-caru-sobham vibhrajate tava vapuh kaladhauta-kantam udyac-chasanka-suci-nirjhara-vari-dharam ucchais-tatam sura-girer-iva satakumbham || 30 || chatra-trayam tava vibhati sasanka-kantam uccaih sthitam sthagita-bhanu-kara-pratapam mukta-phala-prakara-jala-vivrddha-sobham prakhyapayat-tri-jagatah paramesvaratvam gambhira-tara-rava-purita-dig-vibhagas trailokya-loka-subha-sangama-bhuti-daksah | saddharma-raja-jaya-ghosana-ghosakah san khe dundubhir nadati te yasasah pravadi || 32 || 31 // It would not be out of context to point out here that the Jina images in kayotsarga-posture with or without smaller attendant figures seem to be closer to the vita-raga ideal of the Tirthankaras (plate 152) in comparison to their decorative seated figures. Mostly the usnisa is low and compressed (plate 153) and later images (dating from circa twelfth century) show more pronounced angularity in the treatment of the body. The overhanging cloth below the ornate cushion in the case of seated Jina images has either a semicircular or an elliptical outline covering the top of simhasana fully or just centrally with a variety of decorative designs. The delineation of trees and plants including the lotus-flower, although stylized, is not without visual charm. The representation of animals with the exception of lion is, however, spirited and pleasing. Of the applied art the most popular motifs of the period comprise rhombic ornament, ghata-pallava, bell with chain, scrolled designs, medallions and half-medallions. Some of the excellent specimens of Indian art of the age like the figures of Vag-devi from the Bikaner region and the ornamental 256

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CHAPTER 20) NORTH INDIA forama at Osia, were the creations of Jaina sculptors. Both these examples, although bearing formal treatment, display precision of details and associated ornamentation to required degree. The Bikaner Vag-devi (plate 154) in marble bears a remarkable placidity of expression. With all its sculptural exuberance it retains a feeling of delicacy and sensitiveness. This sculpture appears to be a product of the well-blended sculptural orders of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The figures on the exterior of deva-kulikas at Osia also illustrate a mixed style of sculpture. Another charming example is headless male (royal) figure found at Kankali-tila (Mathura), which shows a greater impact of Candella art in western Madhyadesa (fig. XVII). An image of Adinatha from Sravasti 12 Fio. XVII. Kadkall-tila : a royal personage. (After Smith) and another from Ayodhya (Faizabad) and a third one from Mathura dated v.s. 1134 or A.D. 1077 (fig. XVIII) also deserve attention for the study of the medieval sculptural tradition of the Ganga valley. Bhattacharya, op. cit., plates I and IV. 257

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V RA20 22 a AU 3:03 C. 2014 porn is ES D Sak Sot In FIG. XVIII. Kapkali-tila : a Tirtha kara. (After Smith) 258

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CHAPTER 200 NORTH INDIA This was an era of stylistic intermixure as can be seen in the contemporary temple-architecture. In the Cahamana territory even as far as Haryana the governing sculptural tradition was of the Gurjara origin, whereas in the Ganga-Yamuna valley it was the Cedi-Candella art-idiom. Some limited impact of the Paramara art-form too can be marked in lower Rajasthan in the border areas. Some of the Gahadavala sculptures, however, retain a few features of the earlier art-tradition of the Ganga-Yamuna vatley, but most of the later images of Madhyadesa are rigid and less attractive. The Jaina art of this age, like the contemporary Brahmanical sculpture, does not seem to have an independent status. It was closely associated with the temple-architecture, and as such the sculptural representation of any kind, despite its ritualistic or iconographic identity, was also aimed to contribute to the structural harmony by merging with the organic mass of the temple-fabric. The Jaina temple, which symbolized the universe presided over by the Jina, has in its accessory sculptures the representatives of the diverse spheres and aspects of the universe. The temple was thus to serve as the fountainhead of bliss, embodiment of supreme virtue and a monument of glory with its structural and sculptural magnificence and grand ceremonials. The idea is beautifully reflected in the following verses of Muni Sakalacandra's Drstastakastotra: drstan Jinendra-bhavana bhava-tapa-hari bhavyatmanam vibhava-sambhava-bhuri-hetu / dugdhabdhi-phena-dhavalojvala-kuta-kotinaddha-dhvaja-prakara-raji-virajamanam // 111 drstar Jinendra-bhavanar bhuvanaika-laksmidhamarddhivardhita-mahamuni-sevyamanam / vidyadharamara-badhujana-yukta-divyapuspanjali-prakara-sobhita-bhumi-bhagam // 2 // drstam Jinendra-bhavanam bhavanadivasavikhyata-naka-ganika-gana-giyamanam / nana-mani-pracaya-bhasura-rasmi-jalavyalid ha-nirmala-visala-gavaksajalam // 3 // drstam Jinendra-bhavanam sura-siddha-yaksagandharva-kinnara-kararpita-venu-vina- / sangita-misrita-namaskrta-dhara-nadair apuritambara-taloru-dig-antaralam // 4 // drstari mayadya mani-kancana-citratungasirhasanadi-Jina-bimba-vibhuti-yuktam 259

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V caityalayar yad atular parikirttitar me sanmangalarn Sakalacandra-munindra-vandyam /10 // The medieval Jaina shrine appcars to have functioned as a centre of arts and hub of socio-cultural life intended to lead the commoner from falsehood to truth, from lower to higher truth and ultimately to the last goal of the life of a sravaka, i.e. moksa. M. C. JOSHI c 260

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CHAPTER 21 EAST INDIA GENERAL OBSERVATIONS CONSIDERED FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ART-HISTORY IT IS NOT POSSIBLE, nor desirable, to describe Indian art of any period under a religious appellation. Through the ages Indian art has been a consistent growth, cach succeeding phase starting with the heritage of the preceding one and leading the styles to their maturity and logical fulfilment. There has been no break in the continuity, at least till the advent of the alien Islam. Religious urge, no doubt, has always been behind the full efflorescence of the art-styles. India is the land of many religious faiths, and even within the same faith there have appeared many sects, often in sharp differences with one another in respect of beliefs and tenets. All religions and all sects are known to have adopted the common norm prevailing in a particular period or a region for the expression of their thoughts and concepts through the vehicle of art. Religious or sectarian differences have hardly been able to divert this norm from its logical course. The norm remains stylistically the same for all religions irrespective of the subjects depicted. The difference lies only in iconographic content. It is only in architecture that a few forms may be seen to have a specific relevance to one or other religious system. In cast India Jainism does not appear to have held a dominant position during the period under review. Compared to the abundance of Buddhist and Brahmanical images the rareness of Jaina images is strikingly noticeable. In the impressive array of sculptures from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa those relating to the Jaina faith are few and far between. And such Jaina images have been found stray and isolated throughout the territory or in groups only in certain circumscribed areas. The remains of painting affiliated to Jainism are altogether non-existent. In chapter 15 reference has been made to the testimony of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang to indicate the popularity of Jainism in this part of the country, at least in the seventh century. But the position of Jainism seems to have weakened in the subsequent centuries due to the ascendancy of Buddhism of the Tantric form and of Puranic Hinduism. 261

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V To speak of Jaina art, in the circumstances noted above, is to describe the iconography of the Jaina images belonging to the period under review. BENGAL AND BIHAR With the rise of the Palas about the middle of the eighth century Bengal and Bihar, for a time, came to be welded into one distinct entity politically, economically and in respect of social, religious and cultural environments, During the reign of Dharmapala and Devapala, roughly about the beginning of the ninth century, there emerged a school of sculpture of great vitality and of abundant output. The school had its base on the classical Gupta idom in its eastern version and is commonly known as the eastern or the Pala school. The Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina images from Bengal and Bihar stylistically belong to this school, one differentiated from the other in respect of iconography only It has already been noted that the study of Indian art of any period in its Jaina application resolves into a discussion of the iconography of the relevant sculptures. In the context of the sculptural remains the iconography, again, is not much too complex. The representations consist chiefly of the Tirthankaras, with or without their Yaksas and Yaksis. Independent sculptures of a particular Yaksi (Ambika, Yaksi of Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara) are also available, though very rarely. Some of the Tirthankaras are found to be more frequently represented than the others, while of a few no representations have been found in the art of east India of this period. The Tirthankaras are shown either standing or seated, i.e. in kayotsarga or dhyana. In cither case it is a stiff and erect pose. In kayotsarga the hands hang down vertically along the torso, the fingers touching the thigh on either side; in dhyanasana the palms are placed on the crossed soles of the feet, one upon the other. The only means of distinguishing one Tirthankara from the other is the cihna or lanchana, i.e. the cognizance prescribed for each of the Tirthankaras. Parsvanatha, the twenty-third, is recognized further by a canopy of seven snake-hoods. The Digambarus prescribe, again, a canopy of five snake-hoods for Suparsvanatha, the seventh. In a system where the date of a particular object of art is determined on considerations of style overlaps are not unlikely and a number of items included in chapter 15 belong seemingly to our period. As instances may be mentioned the images of Rsabhanatha from Surohor, Rsabhanatha from Mandoil (plate 155A), Parsvanatha from Kantabenia, Santinatha from Ujani, 262

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA etc., from Bengal (above, p. 153), and the bronzes from Alaura (Manbhum District, Bihar, above, p. 166), etc. Such sculptures are left out of our account in order to avoid duplication. Among other sculptures of our period mention may be made here of two images of Rsabhanatha, one from Mayta (Midnapur District) and the other from Garh Jaipur (Purulia District), both in West Bengal. The first (plate 155B), executed in a kind of coarse sandstone, is slightly abraded. stands in kayotsarga flanked by two attendants and by four other Tirtharkaras, two on each side of the stela. The lanchana, the bull, is seen on the pedestal. The head is crowned by jata-bhara and a parasol is shown above the head. In the second image (plate 156A), the Jina stands likewise in kuyotsarga between two attendants with the bull shown on the pedestal. He is seen installed within a shrine which is fronted by a tresoil arch and surmounted by a roof in tiered stages crowned by an amalaka. There are representations of the twenty-four Tirthankaras in six rows of two each on either side. These two images, which appear to belong to the eleventh century, are now deposited in the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Calcutta University. Among other Jaina images of approximately this date mention may be made of one of Rsabhanatha now fixed on the wall of the temple at Dharapat (Bankura District) and that of Parsvanatha inside the Siddhesvara temple at Bahulara (Bankura District). A seated image of Rsabhanatha at Sonamukhi (Bankura District) of circa eleventh century may be seen to be of rare iconographic interest. The Jina is seated in dhyanasana on a lotus supported on the outspread foliage of a tree below. On either side appears a standing attendant figure, while above, on each side of the halo, is seen a flying Vidyadhara. Over the head of the Jina is seen the parasol, while in the centre of the lotus-seat is depicted the lanchana, the bull. On the pedestal, on two sides of the tree, are shown a couple, a male and a female, seated at ease each with a halo round the head. On the pedestal there are also other figures of which only a pair of donors may be recognized. This rare theme is also seen in an eleventh-century sculpture from north Bengal (plate 156B), now in the Museum of the Varendra Research Society, Rajshahi (Bangladesh). In this sculpture the couple on two sides of the tree supporting the lotus-seat of the Jina are each seen to bear a child on the lap. Below the lotus-seat of the couple are shown five figures in a row, besides those of the two donors at the extreme ends of the pedestal. The Jina above cannot, however, be recognized because of the absence of the distinguishing lanchana. A fragmentary sculpture, also in the same Museum and of 1 A.K. Bandyopadhyaya, Bankurd Jelar Purdkiriti (in Bengali), p. 126 and plate. 263

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V about a twelfth-century date, repeats the motif of the lower section of the composition (plate 157A). It was found at Deopara (Rajshahi District, Bangladesh). Here also one finds a male and a female seated in lalitasana on two sides of a tree (of which only the trunk now remains), each with a child on the lap. Below their feet may be seen four seated figures and two figures of donors. The upper part of the sculpture is missing. On the analogy of the two preceding images it is evident that the missing upper section had the representation of the Jina seated on the outspread foliage of the tree, the trunk of which survives in the lower section. The Jaina association of the motif is clear from the first sculpture in the group which is one of Rsabhanatha. In this context is not unreasonable to identify the couple on two sides of the tree as the Yaksa and the Yaksi (Gomukha and Cakresvari) of Rsabhanatha. The tree, in that case, may be his diksa-vrksa which, according to tradition, is vata or banyan. In neither of the other two sculptures is it possible to recognize the Jina, in one owing to the absence of the distinctive lanchana, and in the other because the figure itself is missing. These two sculptures supply an additional feature, viz. the presence of a child on the lap of each of the couple. In this regard it may be noted that a sculpture from Bihar, now in the collection of Bijay Singh Nahar of Calcutta, depicts an identical theme, but it is only the female figure that bears child on the lap. Among the Yaksis, Ambika, as her name signifies, is considered as mother and in her independent images she is found to be accompanied by a child or children. The above-mentioned three sculptures may then represent Neminatha and his Yaksa Gomedha and Yaksi Ambika. The Alaura bronzes, now in the Patna Museum,' can hardly be referred to a date before the twelfth century. They have already been included in chapter 15 (above, p. 166). The hoard consists of twenty-nine figures. Some of them are inscribed, the inscriptions referring to the donors; a few of them were Acaryas. One of them depicts the Tirthankaras Rsabhanatha and Mahavira together, each with his respective lanchana. It is of interest also to note the distribution of images in this hoard in order to indicate the popularity of the different Tirthankaras among the votaries of the Jaina faith in this region and about this period. Rsabhanatha has the largest number of representations (as many as eight), followed by those of Mahavira and Kunthunatha, each having six. Candraprabha and Parsvanatha have each two representations, while Ajitanatha, Vimalanatha and Neminatha have one representation each. 1 Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, ed. Parameshwari Lal Gupta, Patna, 1965, Pp. 160-61. 264

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CHAPTER 211 EAST INDIA In the group there is also found a representation of Ambikal (plate 157B). In this connexion it may be useful also to mention a bronze figure of Rsabhanatha (plate 158A) from Manbhum (Bihar), now in Asutosh Museum. The rather coarse execution would refer it to a date not earlier than the twelfth century. Alaura has also supplied a stone image of Santinatha, of about the thirteenth century. The Jina stands in kayotsarga with his lanchana, the deer, shown on the pedestal. Several other Tirtharikara figures may be seen on the stela which has a parasol on top. Palma in Manbhum District has yielded three stone sculptures, of which two represent respectively the Tirthankaras Ajitanatha (plate 158B) and Santinatha. They may be assigned to the eleventh century. The first shows the Jina installed within a shrine which is fronted by a trefoil arch and surmounted by a curvilinear sikhara of the Nagara order. It is evident that the Jaina votaries also erected their shrines in the prevalent style of northern India. This image is of colossal size and shows the elephant, the lanchana of Ajitanatha, on the pedestal. The second image, that of Santinatha, is distinguished by his lanchana, the deer. The third image, also of the same date, has been described to be that of Naminatha, but from the elephant it has probably to be identified as the representation of Ajitanatha. The principal figure is flanked on either side by an attendant with flywhisks. On the stela on each side there are twelve Tirthankaras in four vertical rows of three each. A JAINA MOTIF IN ARCHITECTURE A distinctive Jaina iconographic motif is supplied by what is known as caturmukha (caumukha or caumuha) which consists of a square block with four images on its four faces. The images depicted on the four faces are usually those of the four Tirthankaras--Rsabhanatha, santinatha, Parsvanatha, and Mahavira. Sometimes the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces. Eastern India has supplied a number of such caturmukhas or four-faced image-blocks belonging to our period. Several examples of this interesting motif of the earlier phase are also known. Here we may take note of two such caturmukhas, one from Purulia and the other from Deuliya (Burdwan District), both in West Bengal. They are now in the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art. The first (plate 159A) does not appear to be earlier than the eleventh century; the other is perhaps slightly 1 Ibid., p. 90. 265

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V later in date. In each, one finds four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubical block, the cube rising up with a curvilinear taper in the form of the sikhara temple of the Nagara order. In the first the cognizances are all mutilated and it is not possible to identify any of the Tirthankara figures. In the second the figures of Parsvanatha and Mahavira are recognizable on two contiguous faces of the block. In the second (plate 159B) the sikhara, though of stunted proportions, is complete with the amalaka and finial. In the first the amalaka and finial are gone, despite this lacuna the sikharu may be seen to have an elegant and graceful appearance. Similar caturmukhas, each surmounted by Nagara sikhara, of the earlier period have been found in different parts of West Bengal and may now be seen in the State Archaeological Gallery, West Bengal. This particular Jaina motif may have some relevance to the evolution of a rare type of Indian temple, a type that may be found to have significant reverberations in south-east Asia. The caturmukha or quadruple image-block has been a very popular iconographic theme with the Jainas from fairly early times and has been described as pratima sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the Christian era. The name sarvatobhadrika means pleasing' or 'auspicious from all directions'. It is important to observe that the Jainas had conceived and evolved a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically expected to be approached from all cardinal directions. The motif itself suggests that the four-faced votive object requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with four entrances on four cardinal faces seems to be the most suitable design for the proper installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive object conceived by the Jainas. In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations in the descriptions of the type in different texts. All the texts are agreed, however, that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple is that of a square shrine with four entrances in the four cardinal faces. As observed already, a four-entranced sarvatobhadra templc admirably suits the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika, and it is not without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design seem to go together, one being complementary to the other; the name sarvatobhadra for the architectural design has presumably some interesting connexion with the term sarvatobhadrika used for the iconographic motif. It may not be unreasonable to suggest, [See above, p. 66. ---Editor.) 266

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CHAPTER 21) EAST INDIA hence, that the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e. a shrine with four entrances in the four directions, in order to suit the needs of their four-faced votive object, the caturmukha. In a manner this suggestion gains convincing support from the caturmukhas, described above, which with four Tirthankaras on four faces of a cubic block topped by a curvilinear sikhara apparently reproduce each a shrine with four entrances confronting the four figures of the cube installed within a square sanctum-cella. A simple shrine of this design, possibly without the superstructure which probably is an early medieval addition, appears to have been devised by the Jainas for the proper installation of a sarvatobhadrika image at a fairly early date. The design of a four-faced shrine, it has already been observed, seems to have been derived from the idea inherent in pratima sarvatobhadrika. The Yugadisvara temple at Ranakpur (Rajasthan) of the fifteenth century may be recognized to be the most elaborate expression of the early four-entranced shrines of the Jainas. In the monolithic sarvatobhadrika shrines it is possible to recognize a new expression of the simple four-faced shrines of the early phase. This new expression consists in the provision of a superstructure apparently supported on the cubical votive object. This superstructure conforms to the prevailing norm of north-Indian temple-architecture and consists of a curvilinear sikhara with amalaka and crowning finial. The four-faced shrine with a Nagara sikhara as superstructure adds a new dimension to Indian architecture. Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in two votive temples, one in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze (plate 160A) from Jhewari (Chittagong District), both in Bangladesh. Each of these is in the form of a shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty) on four faces. These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduce the design of a four-entranced shrinc capped by a sikhara. That this new expression in Indian architecture gained popularity in eastern India is evident from the not too infrequent representations of the type with certain elaborations in east-Indian sculptures and in manuscript-paintings in the context of some famous shrines of this territory. The type, though apparently derived from the idea of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika, is known to have extended to monuments beyond the confines of that creed. No structural [See below, chapter 28.-Editor.) 267

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CHAPTER 21] ! B. Mayta Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Asutosh Museum) A. Mandoil Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Asutosh Museum) PLATE 155 FAST INDI,

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A,D, 1000 TO 1300 [PART V A. Garh Jaipur : Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Asutosh Museum) AN B. North Bengal : a sculpture (Museum of Varendra Research Society) PALTE 156

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CHAPTER 21] B. Alaura bronze Ambika (Patna Museum) AGOST EAST INDIA A. Deopara: a sculpture (Museum of Varendra Research Society) PLATE 157

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 A. Manbhum bronze Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Asutosh Museum). B Palma Tirthankara Ajitanatha (Patna Museum) PLATE 158 [PART V

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA A. Dcolia : raturmukha (Asutosh Museun) B. Purulia : caturmukha (Asutosh Muscum) PLATE 159

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 A. Jhawari bronze votive temple (Indian Museum) B Banpur bronze Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Bhubaneswar Museum) PLATE 160 [PART V

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA B. Orissa : Tirthankara Parsvanatha (Khiching Museum) ' AA . X A. Banpur: bronze Tirthankara Candraprabha (Bhubaneswar Museum) PLATE 161

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 PART V www A. Orissa: a Yaksi (Baripada Museum) RAG * B. Kakatpur: bron/e Tirthankara Candraprabha (Asutosh Museum) PLATE 162

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of the Jaina iconographic motif of the sarvutobhadrika. The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the Burmese Buddhists for a long time, and several notable monuments of this order are known to have been erected during the classical (Pagan) phase of Burmese art and architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda or Nanda temple at Pagan is one of the most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A.D. 1091 or 1105. Between the Lemeythna and Ananda there have occurred elaborations of the design in respect both of ground plan and elevation; in such elaborations the fundamental concept of the iconographic theme and its architectural application was not lost sight of. The Ananda is a square shrine with four projecting entrance-vestibules, one in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces; the exterior is thus of the shape of a cross. Inside the shrine one finds in the centre a masonry pile of solid construction with four colossal figures of Buddha set in recessed niches, one on each of its four sides (fig. XX). This four-faced altar is surrounded by two 10 20 30 METRES FIG. XX. Pagan (Burma): plan of the Ananda temple concentric galleries communicating with each other and with the approachvestibules and grilled windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting each other. Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the images O 269

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V on the votive altar, by projecting dormer-windows provided in the superstructure on the four sides. In elevation the temple shows a superstructure of two receding tiered roofs over the galleries topped by a curvilinear sikhara that rests directly over the solid masonry pile forming the altar inside the shrine. The approach-vestibules are each covered by a barrel-vault with gable in front. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha or sarvatobhadrika images. In Burma the type is known to have been in use also in respect of Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple, the only Brahmanical shrine now existing, among the hundreds of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. Built about the middle of the tenth century, it consists of a nearly square sanctum-cella accommodating in the middle a solid brick column with four large brick images, possibly of the incarnations of Visnu (as may be inferred from the sculptures of his incarnations on the outer walls) on its four sides. Such brick columns or piles with sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be recognized, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or sarvatobhadrika images of the Jainas. Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due to their fair state of preservation it is possible to recognize easily the correspondence that they bear to the iconographic motif of the sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In the Indian subcontinent at least two Buddhist temples of the early medieval phase may be presumed to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi District, Bangladesh) that was the great Somapura-vihara founded by Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the beginning of the ninth. In the carlier days there was a Jaina establishment at or near the site, as one comes to know from a copper-plate grant dated in the (Gupta) year 159 (A.D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple has many unusual features, including elevation in a number of successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant to the scope of our present enquiry. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere1 that the shrine of this colossal monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a 1 S.K. Saraswati in Struggle for Empire, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1957, pp. 637-38. 270

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CHAPTER 21] square column-like pile in the centre with projected chambers, one on each of its four sides, the whole surrounded by a circumambulatory (fig XXI). There is a good deal of probability that on each of the four sides of the pile image was installed in the projecting chamber against the pile behind, thus repeating the EAST INDIA FIG. XXI. Paharpur (Bangladesh): plan of temple sarvatobhadrika motif of the Jainas. In this instance the idea might have been derived from a similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. This suggestion gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. The Burmese temples, noted above, settle, beyond possible doubt, the question of the disposition of the shrine in the Paharpur temple. On the analogy of the Pagan temples, again, a suggestion is possible that in elevation this stupendous structure consisted of a roof of tiered stages surmounted by a curvilinear Sikhara supported on the square pile shooting high up above the terraces. A similar complex, again in fragments, has been laid bare on the site known as Salban Vihara, on the Mainamati hills (Comilla District, Bangladesh), the complex that can be identified as the vihara of Bhavadeva, the fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva Dynasty of East Bengal. The remains of the temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati temple also one finds a 271

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V square brick pile in the middle with four projected chambers on its four sides. The above suggestion about the shrine of the Paharpur temple that it had votive images on four faces of the square brick columns seems to be supported here also by the discovery of a fragment of a bronze image of Buddha in one of the projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction gains credibility on the analogy of the Pagan temples noted above. The Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for imitation by the Buddhists. In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the worship of Visnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been adopted, and in this context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not infrequently, several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing the four principal directions. But in such conceptions the iconic theme in each case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach from the front only. Hence, such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be considered as parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to Brahma, the first of the Brahmanical Triad, and the Vaikuntha aspect of Visnu, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic descriptions. The treatment in each case is frontal and the few temples that are known to have been dedicated to their worship are each seen to have only one door in front. The Laksmana temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, one of the most important enshrining an image of Vaikuntha-Visnu, has one entrance only in front. The Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides, three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or confrontation from all sides. In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognized in the iconographic motif of Siva-linga with four faces on four sides, commonly known under the designation of caturmukha-linga or caturmukha-Mahadeva. The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in conformity with the cylindrical shape of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of caturmukha-linga are known from fairly early times, and it is difficult to say which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced linga, is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A linga with its plain 272

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA cylindrical shape or a caturmukha-linga allows confrontation from four sides, and the logical form of a shrine of this kind may be expected to have the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known dedicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each, almost without exception, being the linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha-Mahadeva temple at Nachna (Madhya Pradesh) with a caturmukha-linga as the votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings on four sides; but only that in the east has been treated as the entrance to the shrine. In this regard the information supplied by the Aparajita-prccha (circa twelfth century) seems to be significant." The text describes a Siva temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra sarvatobhadra-catur-dvarah Sivalayah). As already observed, this is the logical form that a linga-shrine is expected to have; and this seems to have been recognized by the followers of Saivism rather late in the history of that creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha temple at Varanasi, as we have it today, are each seen to have four doors on four cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aparajita-prccha. They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a calurmukha-linga in the sanctum-cella. Some late medieval Siva temples in Bengal are also seen to have four doors on four sides in accordance with the sarvatobhadra scheme. The description in the Aparajita-prccha of a Siva temple as obhadra seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility that a Saiva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the particular architectural design conceived and evolved, as observed above, under Jaina patronage. This particularly Jaina motif in architecture is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faiths and in territories outside. The above survey, in outline, illustrates the need for fuller investigations in this regard. ORISSA During the early medieval phase, covering also the period under review, an equally important school of sculpture flourished in Orissa. This school, particularly in respect of cult-images, may be found to have certain affinities stylistically with the eastern school of Bengal and Bihar. The affinities are 1 Aparajita-prcchi, Gaekwad Oriental Series, CXV, Baroda, 1950, chapter 134, verse 4. 273

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V seen to be closer in areas adjoining the territory of the eastern school. In general, however, Orissan cult-images are characterized by a broad expansiveness which results, in a certain measure, in a weakening of the disciplined rhythm of the eastern school. The Jaina sculptures of Orissa of this period are seen to be affiliated to this trend. A plastic style of great force and dramatic diction also developed in Orissa in connexion with the treatment of the temple-walls. This style, naturally, is not seen in Jaina application, The Jaina sculptures of Orissa of our period consist, as usual, of images of Tirthankaras and, rarely, those of Yaksis. They are in stone as well as in metal. A few, apparently of this period, find mention in chapter 15. As an instance may be cited the metal images of Rsabhanatha and Parsvanatha from the Banpur hoard, now in the Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar. Neither of them can be dated earlier than the eleventh century. The figure of Rsabhanatha (plate 160B) with a smooth flowing contour and subtle shadows playing over the surface may be recognized to be an outstanding piece of art. Equally distinctive are the standing metal figures of Candraprabha (plate 161A) and Santinatha from the same hoard, the former having the crescent moon and the latter the deer, their respective lanchanas. Santinatha seems to wear a close-fitting cap on the head, a feature that may be seen occasionally in in respect of images of this Tirthankara. These two seem to belong to the eleventh century, possibly slightly later in date than the aforesaid image of Rsabhanatha. Another Tirthankara is represented by a metal figure from the same hoard, the identification of which is uncertain owing to the indistinct appearance of the emblem on the pedestal. It is a stout and dwarfish figure wearing, again, a close-fitting cap. The Museum at Khiching, District Mayurbhanj. has in its collection a number of Jaina sculptures in stone, discovered, apparently, from the neighbourhood. They are mostly damaged and identification in several instances is not possible duc to the absence or indistinct nature of the emblems. Stylistically they may be said to belong to the eleventh-twelfth century. Except one, the Jinas are all shown standing in kayotsarga-attitude. The exception is seen in the seated figure of Mahavira. He sits in dhyanasana on a throne with two lions at extreme edges of the pedestal supporting his seat. A cakra is shown in the centre between the lions. In the group there are two standing images of Rsabhanatha, the first Tirtharkara (head of one is missing), cach standing in kayotsarga, flanked by the usual attendants and recognized by the lanchana, the bull, shown on pedestal. We have, again, a standing figure of Parsvanatha (plate 161B) with a seven-hooded snake-canopy over the head. Two of the 274

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CHAPTER 21] EAST INDIA images in the group cannot be identified. One of them shows on the stela twenty other Jinas in five vertical rows of two each on either side. In the group there is also one extremely battered caturmukha. The Museum at Baripada in Mayurbhanj District has four Jaina sculptures in metal, possibly collected from the vicinity. Three of them represent Tirthankaras, all standing in kayotsarga. Of these, only the figure of Parsvanatha can be recognized from the seven-hooded snakc-canopy over the head. The last is a dainty female figure with the right hand in abhaya and left holding foliage of a tree (plate 162A). The graceful bhanga endows the figure with more than ordinary interest. The figure represents apparently a Yaksi. Specific identification is not possible, however, due to the absence of the distinctive emblems. All the figures in the group belong to dates between the eleventh century and the twelfth. Several Jaina metal sculptures have come from Kakatpur, ncar Konarak, in District Puri. They seem to belong to the twelfth century. Some of them have been acquired by the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and a few by Asutosh Museum of Indian Art. The figures, the majority of which represent different Tirthankaras, are of the stereotyped order and call hardly for any comment. Mention may be made here of the image of Candraprabha (plate 162B), now in the collection of Asutosh Museum. The Jina stands in kayotsarga on a lotus supported on a square pedestal which bears his emblem, the crescent moon. The inert modelling of the body and heavy drowsiness of the face are symptomatic of the ultimate desiccation of the plastic style. CONCLUSION The above survey of Jaina relics in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa amply demonstrates that the Jaina contribution to the art of this territory was, more or less, of marginal importance during our period. It is generally admitted that Jainism had once been an important creed in eastern India and there are literary as well as epigraphic evidences testifying to its flourishing state. After the seventh century Jainism is seen to be steadily losing ground, however the pressure of Buddhism and Puranic Hinduism which gradually gained ascendancy in the territory. During this period, as an analysis of the findspots of the Jaina relics tends to show, Jainism came to be confined to the tribal tract in the fringes of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, roughly a long strip of plateau-land from the Parasnath hill in Bihar in the north to the Orissan coast in the south With very rare exceptions, all Jaina relics of the period have been recovered from this constricted area. It is significant that this tract has long been the 275

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V home of a people known as Sarak. They live by agriculture and are strictly committed to ahimsa or non-violence. They follow the Hindu religion nowadays; but Risley noticed in his Tribes and Castes of Bengal that the Saraks of Lohardaga still consider Parsvanatha as their particular god. It is also admitted that the tribal name Sarak has been derived from sravaka, which means a householder following the Jaina way of life. The above evidence cumulatively may indicate that the Saraks were originally Jainas; their traditions also lend support to this view. It appears from our survey of Jaina relics that Jainism as an organized creed survives in eastern India with the Saraks as the chief patrons. Their agricultural economy could hardly compete with the commercial economy of western India. Among the Jainas of eastern India there was no state dignitary like Vimala-Saha, a merchant-prince like Tejahpala or a banker-prince like Vastupala. That may explain partially the absence of any great art-activity in eastern India under the patronage of Jainism. S.K. SARASWATI 276

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CHAPTER 22 CENTRAL INDIA HISTORICAL BACKGROUND DURING THE PERIOD 1000-1300 THE COURSE OF POLITICAL AND CULTURAL history of central India was moulded by a few powerful dynasties, of which the Candellas ruled over the northern part (Jejakabhukti or Bundelkhand), the Kalacuris over the eastern part (Dahala and Mahakosala) and the Paramaras over the western part (Malwa), while the central part was ruled over for some time by the Kacchapaghatas. The rulers of these dynasties vied mutually in the arts of war and peace and were great builders and patrons of art, architecture and letters. Although the dynasts were themselves votaries of the Brahmanical sects, they respected Jaina monks and scholars and extended liberal patronage to Jainism, as an influential section of the population of their respective kingdoms comprising merchants, bankers and official dignitaries belonged to the Jaina community, That Khajuraho, one of the Candella capitals, had an influential Jaina population is shown by the presence at the site of a few Jaina temples which share the excellence of Candella art and architecture with other temples dedicated to the Brahmanical faith. The Jaina community at Khajuraho was rich enough to patronize the guilds of sculptors and architects that built the royal foundations, as is proved by the close sculptural and architectural affinities between the Laksmana temple, constructed by the Candella king Yasovarman before 954, and the finest local Jaina temple known as the Parsvanatha temple, which is recorded to have been built in 954 by one Pahila, who was honoured by king Dhanga. Khajuraho has quite a few other Jaina shrines and a large number of Jaina images of the tenth to twelfth centuries, the latest ones being dated in the reign of Candella Madanavarman (1129-63). The site of Mahoba in District Hamirpur, another Candella capital, is also full of remains of medieval Jaina shrines and images, some of them dated in the reign of the Candella kings Jayavarman (1117), Madanavarman mardin (circa 1163-1201). Besides Khajuraho and Mahoba, Deogarh, Chanderi, Budhi Chanderi, Siron Khurd, Chandpur, Dudhai and Madanpur, all situated in a cluster in or around District Jhansi, comprised important 277

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA forming a compact unified structure. The essential elements of the plan, viz. ardha-mandapa, mandapa, antarala and garbha-grha (sanctum) are present in all the temples. The larger temples also introduce an inner ambulatory round the sanctum. Like the plan, the elevation too has distinctive features. Over the platform-terrace, the temple has a high adhisthana or basement-storey, consisting of a series of ornamental mouldings which grip the platform-terrace firmly, providing at the same time a fine relief for light and shade. Over this stable and ornate base rests the jangha or the wall-portion of the temple, forming the central zone, which is studded with two or three horizontal bands of statuary of exquisite grace and charm. Above the jargha rises the roof consisting of a series of graded peaks. The several compartments have their individual roofs which rise in a modulated crescendo from the lowest over the entrance-porch to the loftiest over the sanctum. These peaks, arrayed along the axial line, rise and fall alternately and culminate in the tallest peak (Sikhara) which is raised directly over the sanctum. While the superstructures of the ardha-mandapa, mand apa and maha-mand apa are of the pyramidal shape, the sikhara is tall and curvilinear in outline, which, in the Parsvanatha temple, is also clustered by subsidiary peaks. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples also shows an amazing exuberance of decorative details and sculptural wealth, largely found on the doorways, pillars, architraves and ceilings. The cusped and coffered ceilings representing intricate geometrical and floral designs exhibit uncommon skill and ingenuity. The interior also shows figures of apsarases and salabhanjikas, which, with their sensuous modelling, charming postures and exquisite finish, constitute masterpices of medieval sculpture. To the south-east of the Khajuraho village is situated the fragmentary shell of a Jaina temple known as the Ghantai and a little farther away is a group of Jaina temples enclosed within a modern compound-wall. comprises the Parsvanatha, Adinatha and Santinatha temples, besides numerous modern shrines. Some of the latter stand on the ruins of older ones, while the rest of them are built of old material and display old images. Numerous ancient Jaina sculptures, some of them inscribed, are built into the compoundwall. The temple of Santinatha, which is now the principal place of Jaina worship, enshrines a colossal (4:5-m. high) image of Adinatha, on the pedestal of which is engraved a dedicatory inscription dated A.D. 1027-28. Drastically renovated, this temple has an old nucleus within an enclosure of shrine-cells 279

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V (deva-kulikas), typical of medieval Jaina architecture, and displays many ancient sculptures of which one respresenting Jina's parents (plate 163) is remarkable for its artistic quality. Among the ancient Jaina temples, only two, the Parsvanatha and Adinatha, are in a good state of preservation. GHANTAI TEMPLE The Ghantai temple (plate 164) is locally called Ghantai on account of the chain-and-bell (ghanta) motifs prominently carved on its tall conspicuous pillars, which are among the finest ones of medieval India, remarkable for their stately form, bold ornamentation and classical dignity. Facing east, the extant shell shows that the temple was essentially of the same design as the Parsvanatha temple, but grander in conception and nearly twice as large in dimensions. All that has survived is the ardha-mandapa and the maha-mandapa, each resting on four pillars and supporting a flat but ornate ceiling (plate 165). The maha-mand apa, like that of the Parsvanatha, is entered through an elaborate doorway and was originally enclosed by a solid wall, of which only a few supporting pilasters of the ardha-mandapa and the maha-mand apa have survived; these pilasters are severely plain except for a simple design of conventional pot-and-foliage. Together with the enclosing-walls, the two most important constituents of the temple-plan, viz. the antarala and garbha-grha, are also conspicuous by their absence here. Further, the missing roof of the surviving building is now replaced by a flat roof, leaving the structure as a curious but attractive fragment of architecture. The similarity of plan and design between this and the Parsvanatha indicates that the two temples cannot be far removed in date from each other. Of the two the Ghaptai is larger and slightly more evolved and consequently a little later. This is also attested by the more conventional and later art of its carvings and surviving sculptures. Of the two graffiti on the structure, the one reading svasti Sri-sadhu-Palhah is a late pilgrim-record engraved in the Nagari script of circa twelfth century, but the other, reading Nemicandrah is datable to the end of the tenth century, to which this building is assignable also on grounds of sculptural and architectural styles. From the find near this temple of an inscribed Buddha image (the only Buddhist image found at Khajuraho, now exhibited in the local Museum), Cunningham originally regarded this as a Buddhist shrine, but later on 280

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CHAPTER 22] discarded this view in favour of a Jaina attribution which is now unanimously accepted. Like all other local Jaina temples, the Ghantai was also dedicated to the Digambara sect. This is proved by the sixteen auspicious symbols (as against fourteen of the Svetambara tradition) represented on the doorway-architrave as well as by the numerous nude Jina images excavated by Cunningham in and around this structure,' which included a fragmentary sculpture of Adinatha bearing an inscriplion dated Vikrama year 1142 (A.D. 1085), also in the local Museum. CENTRAL INDIA The temple has apparently no jagati. But as all the Khajuraho temples are invariably reared up on a jagati, the jagati here is probably hidden under debris. The adhisthana-mouldings, visible above the ground, consist of two plain bhitta-courses surmounted by jadyakumbha, karnika, antara-patra decorated with niches containing diamond-patterns flanked by pilasters, similar to those found at the Parsvanatha, and pattika decorated with stencilled heartshaped flowers. The top of the pattika marks the plinth-level. The ardha-mandapa stands on a catuski of four pillars. The pillars stand on an ornate base (kumbhika), resting on an upapitha, which is octagonal and decorated with rosettes, stencilled scrolls and lotus-petals. The kumbhika shows the mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa, plain antara-patra and kapota decorated with kudus. The shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above. The sixteen-sided section is surmounted by an octagonal madhya-bandha decorated with interlocking loops of garlands issuing from the mouths of kirttimukhas, the loops enclosing Vidyadharas represented in anjali-mudra or as carrying garlands or playing musical instruments. This upper band of the madhya-bandha is decorated with lumas in relief. From this madhya-bandha issues a lamp-stand projection with a bhuta on the soffit. Plain projections for lamp-stand also issue from the base of each of the four pillars. The circular section of the shaft carries four madhya-bandhas, of which the lowest is circular and elaborately decorated with large garland-loops, and long chain-and-bell pattern flanked by garlands and streamers and often alternating with lotus-stalks suspended from the mouths of kirttimukhas. The garland-loops enclose Vidyadharas, ascetics, mithunas and vyalas. The second 1 Alexander Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India Report, II, Simla, 1871, p. 43. 281

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V bandha is octagonal and shows smaller garland-loops issuing from kirttimukhas having a pair of vyalas with riders in each loop. The third bandha is circular and decorated with either rosettes or cut triangles and shows four projecting bhuta-brackets of a small size for the reception of ornamental apsaras-struts. The fourth or top bandha consists of two octagonal pattikas, the lower decorated with garland-loops enclosing half lotus-flowers and the upper decorated with circular rosettes. The shaft is surmounted by a circular capital consisting of a ribbed amalaka and padma. The capital carries bhutabrackets with adoring Nagas in between. All the bhutas are pierced with sockets in their bellies for the reception of apsaras-brackets. The brackets carry a lintel with three offsets of which the lower two are decorated with lotus-scrolls and kirttimukhas, while the top offset is left plain. The lintel carries a frieze of processional scenes representing mostly devotees, musicians and dancers, sometimes accompanied by processional elephants. On the north and south sides a Jina figure occurs in the middle of the frieze. Above the fricze rests an ornate but flat square ceiling divided into ornamental rectangular panels, with borders decorated with lotus-flowers in relief. The outer row of panels shows dancers and musicians flanked by mithunas, while the inner row of panels is decorated with stencilled scrolls. In the centre of the ceiling a space of about 1-m. square is decorated with three gajatalu (coffered cusp) courses, the two outer courses showing three gajatalus on each side. The ardha-mandapa leads into the maha-mandapa which must have been enclosed by walls. This maha-mand apa, however, differs from that of the Parsvanatha temple in showing a transverse row of three catuskis in front. The ceilings of these catuskis, now quite plain, may have been decorated originally. The central catuski, which is larger than the side ones, is formed by the two western pillars of the ardha-mandapa and two pilasters flanking the doorway of the maha-mandapa which show at the base two-armed dvara-palas facing each other. The dvara-palas wear karanda-mukuta and carry a gada which is mutilated. Behind each dvara-pala is represented a quadruped resembling a lion. The pilasters are of the bhadraka-type (square in section with three angles in each corner) but quite plain except for a conventional pot-and-foliage carved in the lower and upper portions of the shaft. They stand on an upapitha with a simple decoration of lotus-petals, but whether the upapitha is original is uncertain. Their bases (kumbhikas) consist of the mouldings of khura, kumbha and kapota. The shafts carry a plain short uccalaka section surmounted by a plain capital showing karnika and padma. The capital supports brackets of plain sharply-curved profile with a volute. The brackets carry a lintel decorated with stencilled scrolls and grasa-pattika. The lintel supports a plain cornice 282

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA surmounted by a register of cut triangles, As this lintel is decorated in the section coming between the pilasters leaving the ends (made of different stones) plain, the side-catuskis were intended to be covered up by walls. This is also attested by the absolutely plain pilasters at the ends, which are made of sandstone of a pale-yellow shade. These stand on ornate bases and carry uccalaka section, capital and brackets which are identical in design with those of the pilasters carrying dvara-pala figures. The pilasters behind the doorway are made of granite but they rest on sandstone bases. In one case, however, the upapitha is also of granite. As the design of the two granite pilasters is slightly different, it is likely that these are late additions. The doorway is of seven sakhas. The first sakha is decorated with rosettes, the second and sixth with vyalas, the third and fifth with ganas dancing or playing on musical instruments, and the fourth, which is treated as a stambha-sakha, carries a capital consisting of karnika and padma. The seventh sakha forming the bevelled surround of the doorway is decorated with wavy scrolls and is flanked by a vertical frieze showing ganas dancing or playing on musical instruments. The first three sakhas are carried up, and the fourth or the stambha-sakha supports a lintel showing centrally an image of eight-armed Cakresvari scated on Garuda. Cakresvari carries fruit, arrow, four cakras, bow and sarkha. The niches on the proper right and left ends show scated Jina figures. The intervening space on the lintel shows seated representations of the Nava-grahas on the proper right and eight identical figures of two-armed bull-headed seated gods, carrying abhaya and water-vessel on the proper left, who appear to be the Asta-Vasus. The upper frieze of the lintel shows the sixteen auspicious symbols seen in the dream by Jina's mother at the time of conception. The symbols are placed on lotus-leaves and consist of (1) Airavata elephant, (2) bull, (3) rampant lion, (4) Sri-devi, (5) garland enclosing a kirttimukha, (6) the full moon with hare shown in the middle, (7) the rising sun representing the Sun-god in the middle, (8) a pair of fish, (9) a pair of jars, (10) a tank with tortoise, (11) agitated sea, (12) a lion-throne, (13) vimana, (14) Naga couple seated in a pavilion (Nagendra-bhavana), (15) heaps of jewels, and (16) seated Agni with flames issuing from his shoulders. Above the seventh sakha occurs a band represented in the middle. The three niches of the lintels are surmou udgamas or pediments of caitya-arches addorsed to a tri-ratha pyramidal sikhara crowned by candrika and amalaka. The base of the doorway shows 283

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V the usual river-goodesses, Ganga being on the proper right and Yamuna on the left flanked by a female cauri-bearer. On each door-jamb proper is represented a dvara-pala carrying lotus-flower and gada. A dvara-pala carrying gada and wearing kirita-mukuta occurs also below the surround of the doorway. The mandaraka (door-sill) shows lotus-scrolls in the middle projection, flanked on each side by a two-armed figure of Sarasvati. The flanking recesses show six water-divinities, each seated on a kari-makara and carrying a water-jar. Below the river-goddesses occur gaja-sardulas, while below the outer dvarapalas are depicted scenes of dance and music. The central ceiling of the maha-mand apa is carried on a catuski of four pillars, which are similar to those of the ardha-mand apa but with the difference that they rest on a plain upapitha, They carry a plain lintel with three identicallyornamented offsets surmounted by three other courses, the first decorated with intersecting loops, the second embellished with cut triangles and the third left plain. Above the last rests a flat ceiling decorated with lotusflower in the middle enclosed by a square compartment with three borders. While the inner side of the castern lintel is quite plain, the outer side is decorated with designs of stencilled scrolls, flying Vidyadhara-mithuna flanking a seated Tirthankara in the middle, a band of stencilled heart-shaped flowers, diamonds Tringed by perforated squares and a cornice of lotus-petals with gagarakas issuing from them. The pillars of the maha-mundapa each show three brackets for keeping lamps. The top brackets, which project diagonally are carved with lotus-petals, the middle ones show bhutas, and the bottom ones resemble a plain padmamoulding. The middle and bottom rows of brackets are repeated also on the four pillars of the ardha-mand apa which, however, show at the top four smaller bhuta-brackets on each pillar. PARSVANATHA TEMPLE Of all the local Jaina temples, the Parsvanatha (plate 166) is the best preserved and indeed one of the finest temples of Khajura ho. It is distinguished by a few individual features of plan (fig. XXII) and design and is remarkable in several respects. Although it is a sandhara-prasada, the transepts with the balconied windows which characterize the local sandhara temples are absent here. The temple is oblong on plan with an axial projection on each of the two shorter sides. The projection on the east constitutes the entrance-porch (mukha-mand apa), while that on the west consists of a 284

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CHAPTER 221 CENTRAL INDIA shrine attached to the back of the sanctum (plate 167), which is indeed a novel feature. The temple is entered through a small but elaborately-carved mukhamand apa of one catuski and internally consists of a mand apa, antarala and garbha-grha, the whole enclosed within a rectangular hall. The wall of the ball is relieved internally by pilasters and externally by sculptural bands, besides latticed windows which admit diffused light into the interior. These windows are too inobtrusive to disturb the sculptural scheme of the external ornamentation. The facades (plate 168) have a series of shallow rathas (projections) punctuated by narrow salilantaras (recesses). These projections and recesses carry three elegant bands of sculptures on the jangha. Those on the 2 2 8 $_ 10 _5 METRES 32_ FEET FIG. XXII. Khajuraho : plan of the Santinatha temple lower row are the largest and show figures of gods, goddesses and apsarases on the projections and vyalas in the recesses. The figures on the two upper rows gradually diminish in size, those on the middle row displaying divine couples and those on the top row mainly Vidyadhara-mithunas on the projections as well as in the recesses. Despite these projections and recesses relieved by three sculptural bands of exquisite finish and grace, the templefacade below the level of the fikhara produces the monotonous effect of a solid massive wall, and one misses here the effective architectural relief and shadows provided by the balconied windows and the deep indentations of the outer elevation which form such notobly characteristic features of the evolved Khajuraho style. The temple stands on a 1.2-m. high jagati, the original mouldings of which are now lost. The vedi-bandha rests over a pair of bhitta-courses and 285

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V is divisible into two series, the lower one comprising the mouldings of jadyakumbha, karnika, pattika, antara-patra and kapota and the upper one comprising the usual mouldings crowned by a vasanta-pattika. The jangha shows three diminishing rows of sculptures separated by a pair of bandhana-mouldings and is crowned by varandika and tilakas, one on each ratha-projection. The central bhadra-projections facing the sanctum and the mandapa (the bhadras of the mand apa are not aligned centrally) carry four rows of niches or latticed windows. The sanctum is roofed by a towering sapta-ratha Nagara Sikhara clustered by two rows of urah-srngas and three of minor syngas including karna-srngas. The present roofs of the antarala mand apa and mukha-mandapa are largely restored, but there is no doubt that they were of the normal Khajuraho type. The temple is entered through a modest-sized but highly ornate mukhamandapa of one catuski. Its architraves display unusual decorative and sculptural exuberance which include salabhanjika-struts and figures of apsarases and divine attendants. It has the most elaborately-carved ceiling (ksipta-vitana of the nabhicchanda-order) at Khajuraho with its gorgeous pendant terminating in a pair of intertwined figures of flying Vidyadharas carved in the round. Access to the hall is provided through a sapta-sakha doorway of the mandapa decorated with diamonds and rosettes, ganas, vyalas, mithunas and scrolls, besides figures of Ganga and Yamuna with attendants on the jambs. Its lintel shows, besides the Nava-grahas, ten-armed Yaksi Cakresvari seated on Garuda as the lalata-bimba and a four-armed seated Sarasvati each in its two terminal niches. Cakresvari carries varada, sword, mace, discus and bell in the right hands and discus, shield, bow, goad and conch-shell in the left hands. The Sarasvati figures carry sacrificial spoon, book and water-vessel in three out of the four hands; the one on the right has goose as mount. On each flank of the doorway is carved a four-armed Jaina pratihara wearing kirita-mukuja and holding book and mace in the two surviving hands. The rectangular hall has solid walls reinforced by sixteen pilasters. The free ground-space between the pilasters is utilized to harbour ten Jaina images placed on claborate pedestals kept along walls, which constitutes another distinguishing feature of the temple. For the rest its interior is treated like other local temples. The mandapa has the four usual central pillars carrying four salabhanjika-struts and a square framework of architraves, which supports a square ceiling turned into a ksipta-vitana of the nabhicchanda-order (plate 169). The sanctum has a panca-sakha doorway decorated with scrolls, ganas and mithunas, besides Ganga and Yamuna with attendants, on the jambs. The 286

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V north face show four-armed standing goddesses, the lower one carrying lotusbud in the two upper hands and sankha in the surviving third hand, while the upper one represents a three-headed goddess with all the four hands with their attributes broken. The two principal bhadra-niches on the south face of the sanctum contain latticed windows but the niche projecting from the kalasamoulding of the vedi-bandhu below displays six-armed Sarasvati seated in lalitasana, carrying vina in one pair of hands and varada, blue lotus, book and kamand alu in the other two pairs. In the corresponding niche of the vedi-bandha on the north face occurs a four-armed image of goddess seated in lalitasana, carrying a lotus-stalk cach in the two surviving upper hands It is doubtful whether the fine standing image of Candraprabha and that of a seated Jina appearing in the two southern bhadra-niches of the shrine at the back are original. Quite a few images adorning the sukanasa, including an elegant figure of Yaksi Ambika, were obviously planted. A beautiful original image of this Yaksi, however, appears at the base of the south face of the mandapa-sikhara, not far from an erotic couple, of which theme only two other specimens are available on this temple. In the minute niches along the base of the Sikhara there are quite a few friezes depicting a teacher discoursing to disciples and a narrative panel representing Hanuman visiting Sita in the asoka-grove. Or the pedestals kept in the interior along the walls almost half are empty and the remaining ones harbour, besides the usual images of Jinas, the figure of a four-armed standing Yaksi with a lion-mount and a fine image representing the parents of Jina. ADINATHA TEMPLE The Adinatha temple (plate 171), standing immediately to the north of the Parsvanatha, is an important constituent of the Jaina group of Khajuraho temples. It is a nirandhara-prasada, of which only the garbha-grha (sanctum) and antarala have survived with their roofs, while the mandapa and ardhamand apa are completely lost and are replaced by a modern entrance-chamber, made of lime-plastered masonry and showing arched doorways and domical ceilings, which is quite incongruous with the original structure. The temple is sapta-ratha on plan as well as in elevation, and each of its bhadras shows an additional nasika or projection. In the elegance of sculptural style (plate 172) as well as in general plan and design this temple bears the closest kinship to the Vamana temple. In fact, the only noteworthy difference between this and 288

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA the Vamana temple lies in the decoration of the top or third row of the jangha which in the case of the Vamana shows diamonds in niches. The present temple, however, represents in the top row a spirited band of flying Vidyadharas which is also found on the Parsvanatha, Javari, Caturbhuja and Duladeo temples. Nevertheless, it can be affirmed with some plausibility that this temple is nearer in date to the Vamana than any other local temple. As its sikhara is not as squat and heavy as that of the Vamana but shows better proportions, it appears to be slightly more evolved and later in date than the Vamana. This temple stands on a 1-m. high jagati of moderate dimensions. The original mouldings of thc jagati are lost and its faces are completely restored. The mouldings of the adhisthana stand on the bhitta-courses comprising (1) a plain course (khara-sila), (2) a course decorated with diamonds framed by stunted pilasters (cf. a similar moulding on the Duladeo temple), (3) plain jad ya-kumbha, and (4) a projecting madhya-bandha decorated with lotuspetals. Above the bhitta occur the mouldings of the pitha or basement consisting of (1) jad ya-kumbha, (2) karnika, and (3) grasa-pastika. That the grasa-patrika marks the plinth-level is shown by a makara-pranali or gargoyle projecting above this level from the north face of the sanctum. Above the grasa-patrika rest the vedi-bandha-mouldings consisting of (1) khura, (2) kumbha decorated diamonds in niches, (3) kalasa, (4) kapota, and (5) projecting pattika decorated with diamonds alternating with rosettes. The jangha shows three rows of sculptures, the top row being smaller in size. The two lower rows contain figures of gods and goddesses alternating with apsarases on projections and vyalas in recesses, while the top row has figures of Vidyadharas on projections and Vidyadhara-mithunas in recesses. The Vidyadhara figures are distinguished by dynamic movement and are represented as carrying garlands or playing on musical instruments or brandishing weapons. The facades of the antarala as well as the bhadras of the sanctum show four niches, of which the lowest occurs on the kumbha-moulding of the basement and the upper three at the same level as the sculptural bands. The uppermost niche is a complete replica of the balconied window of the Khajuraho temples and contains each a group of three standing figures. The three lower niches depict Jaina deities. The bandhana-moulding between the first and middle rows shows grasa-pattika surmounted by a projecting pattika, while that between the middle and top rows consists of grasa-pattika surmounted by a projecting 289

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V kalasa. The mouldings surmounting the top row are treated like pillarcapital (bharani), comprising amalaka and ribbed padma. Above this occur two rows of kapota-mouldings, of which the upper one is separated from the Sikhara by a prominent recess. The sikhara of this temple is sapta-ratha. It is of sixteen bhumis indicated by bhumi-amalakas, each amalaka being capped by a kapota. The karna-rathas carry a vertical strip all along consisting of caitya-arches containing a diamond in the lower niche. All the rathas originally projected beyond the shoulder-course, while the central ratha and the flanking rathas terminate in a kirttimukha and half-kirttimukhas respectively, the karna-rathas are crowned by a miniature pyramidal Sikhara showing a pair of pidhas, candrikas and amalaka. The shoulder-course is surmounted by a large ribbed amalaka, a pair of candrikas, smaller amalaka, candrika and kalasa. The floral termination above the kalasa has been added in recent years. The roof of the antarala shows a superposed series of three niches crowned by a pediment (udgama). Above this cises the gabled roof (salasikhara) in three gradual tiers, the top of each tier being decorated with lotus-petals and the sides with ratna-patta. Seen from the front we have prominent row of seven niches, the central one containing the figure of a standing Yaksi and the flanking ones of attendant gods and goddesses. The niches carry an ascending row of three pediments of which the top one is the broadest and rises over the complete row of niches. Its base is flanked on each side by a miniature pyramidal sikhara of four pidhas, candrika and amalaka carried over a niche showing diamonds. The top pediment consists of three rows of caitya-arches. The two lower rows, of which only the northern half has survived, shows only half-arches, each carrying a makarahcad in the loops of the arches. These also show two pillasters in the centre. Above the third row of half-arches occurs a full arch containing a kirttimukha, from the mouth of which are suspended three chains, the central one with a bell flanked by a lotus-bud on each side and the end ones going up to the mouth of the makaras seen in the upper row of half-arches. The full arch at the top is also flanked by a rearing vyala on each side and carries a square finial over which occurs the lion-figure pouncing on the elephant marking the termination of the sukanasika. The lion-figure tests on a slab which surmounts the finial. The half-arches are also flanked by a pyramidal sikhara-top comprising ribbed candrika, amalaka and candrika. The doorway of the sanctum is of seven sakhas. The first sakha is decorated with patra-lata (scrolls) and is flanked by mandara-frieze trailing 290

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA down in Naga figures, now mutilated. The second and fourth $akhas depict ganas dancing or playing on musical instruments. The third sakha which is treated as a stambha-sakha is carved with eight Yaksis. The proper right jamb shows from bottom upwards : (1) four-armed goddess carrying abhaya, spiral lotus-stalk, spiral lotus-stalk and water-vessel, mount missing:(2) fourarmed goddess carrying a missing object, sruk, book and fruit, animal-mount resembling a deer represented below; (3) four-armed goddess carrying abhaya, pasa, spiral lotus-stalk and a missing object with a bird-mount; (4) four-armed goddess carrying abhaya, sruk, book and water-vessel, with a bull-mount below. The proper left jamb shows from bottom upwards : (1) four-armed goddess carrying spiral lotus-stalk and sarkha in the two surviving hands, crocodilemount below; (2) four-armed goddess with all attributes broken, but an intact parrot-mount; (3) four-armed goddess carrying spiral lotus-stalk, book and a fruit in the three surviving hands, with headless animal as mount; and lastly, (4) four-armed goddess carrying abhaya, spiral lotus-stalk, book and water-vessel, with a bull-mount below. The fifth sakha is decorated with the design of srivatsa alternating with rosettes. The sixth sakha forming the bevelled surround of the doorway is decorated with scrolls in bold relief issuing from the mouth of a vyala below. The last or the seventh sakha is decorated with a peculiar type of circular rosettes. The first sakha together with the flanking mandara-frieze is carried up on the lintel. The lintel of the doorway resting on the stambha-sakhas shows images of five goddesses in niches. The central and the end niches represent seated goddesses, each supported on a four-armed bhuta, while the niches flanking the central one show standing goddesses. The central niche represents four-armed Cakresvari carrying abhaya, gada, book and sankha. She is seated on Garuda and wears kiritamukufa. The proper right-end niche represents Ambika Yaksi carrying a bunch of mango-fruits, spiral lotus-stalk, book enclosed by spiral lotus-stalk and a child. She is seated on a lion. The proper left-end niche shows Padmavati Yaksi seated on a tortoise under a canopy of serpent-hoods. She carries abhaya, pasa, lotus-bud and water-vessel. All the five niches of the lintel are surmounted by udgamas. The base of the doorway shows Ganga and Yamuna flanked by female attendants on each side. The attendants depicted on the door-jambs proper face each other and carry a water-jar with crocodile represented behind the proper right figure and tortoise behind the proper left figure. The figures of river-goddesses and their attendants are badly mutilated. So are also the figures of the four dvara-palas, two on each side, which occur respectively below the surround of the doorway and the pilasters flanking the doorway. The door-sill shows on the rectilinear central projection a beautiful lotus-scroll flanked by female attendants. Beyond the 291

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V female attendants occur four water-gods of the usual type, each carrying a water-jar and riding on kari-makara. The niches below the stambha-sakhas show an image of four-armed Sri-devi and figure of four-armed Laksmi seated in padmasana and carrying lotus-bud in the only surviving upper right hand with a tortoise indicated below the seat. The niches below the seventh sakha show representations of Kubera, carrying abhaya, parasu, spiral lotus-stalk and a broken object, with three jars representing nidhis depicted below the seat. The pilasters flanking the sanctum-doorway are square. They stand on an upapitha decorated with circular rosettes and lotus-petals surmounted by an ornate basc (kumbhika) showing khura, kumbha decorated with udgama, kalasa and kapota-mouldings. The lower portion of the shaft carries a sculpture of four-armed dvara-pala, while the middle portion is decorated with (1) wavy scrolls issuing from the mouth of a kirttimukha (2) diamonds, and (3) pot-and-foliage design. Above this occurs a projecting paprika which is surmounted by an uccalaka section showing only pot-and-foliage design. The surmounting capital carries the decorations of amalaka and padma. Above the capital rests the usual bhuta-brackets with adoring Nagas in the corners. The brackets support lintels with three offsets decorated with (1) sixteen auspicious Jaina symbols seen in the dream by Mahavira's mother at the time of conception, (2) circular rosettes alternating with diamonds, and (3) grasapattika. The superstucture above the lintels is missing and has been restored in modern lime-plaster. The sanctum rests on pilasters having plain shafts of rectangular section. The central pilasters, however, show pot-and-foliage in the upper and lower portions of the shafts which rest on the upapitha and kumbhika of the usual design. All the pilasters here carry capital surmounted by a patrika carved with stencilled scrolls. While the central pilasters carry bhuta-brackets, the hind pilasters show brackets of plain curved profile with a volute at the top. The lintel is plain with two offsets and supports a cornice which carries a flat ceiling decorated with a large lotus-flower with four rows of concentric petals in relief enclosed in a square compartment the corners of which are decorated with kirttimukhas. The eastern ceiling of the sanctum is flat and plain. The temple enshrincs a modern image of Adinatha in place of the old one of which only the pedestal has survived. That the temple was dedicated to Adinatha is attested by the representation of his Yaksi Cakresvari on the lintel of the sanctum-doorway. The northern and southern facades of the sukanasika over the antarala show each three niches with divine figures. These three niches, combined with 292

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA WE Khajuraho : Santinatha temple sculpture of parents of Jina PLATE 163

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[PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 - LOG i DOVA A Khajuraho : Ghantai temple PLATE 164

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA 29 L Khajuraho : Ghantar temple, ceiling of sanctum PLATE 165

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V WALL : W PLN . . the ws hii 2. 4. WAN SON M Ver Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple PLATE 166

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, back view PLATE 167

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 30 Khajuraho Parsvanatha temp'e part of southern facade PLATE 168 [PART V

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA SANTE Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, ceiling of mandapu PLATE 169

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V T . . 1 VORS UNA I c TLD 2: 4 Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, doorway of back shrine PLATE 170

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA A. LEGAL . 45 Khajuraho : Adinatha temple PLATE 171

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE AD. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V W ririnin MS 1 . KW & Khajuraho : Adinatha temple, part of southern facade PLATE 172

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CHAPILR 22] CENTRAL INDIA - Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, caturvinsuti-palju in maha-mandapa PLATE 173

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V A. Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, Sarasvati on facade B. Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, divinics on facade PLATE 174

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(PARI V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURF A.D. 1000 TO 1300 Suche w Khajuraho : Parsvanatha temple, a su rur-sundari on facade PLATE 176

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CHAPTER 22] Arang Bhand-Dewal temple : PLATE 177 CENTRAL INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V 2. KWA 90 23. .. . 12 . Arang : Bhand. Dewal temple : ensbrined Tirthadhares PLATE 178

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA Chandpur : Nava-zraha slab PLATE 179

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V www V Ahar Museum : Yaksi Cakre: vari PLATE 180

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA A. Lakhanadon : a Tirthankara Net AN . B. Lakhanadon : Tirthankara Parsvanatha PLATE 181

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 PARI V . e A. Gandhawal. Yaksi Cakresyari B. Mandhata : brass parikara, central figure missing PLATE 182

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CHAPTER 22] CENTRAL INDIA the two antarala-niches, form a vertical row of five niches on both northern and southern facades. The eastern or the front face of the sukanasika shows a horizontal row of seven niches containing images of gods and goddesses. Most of the niches show images of Yaksis as practically all of them preserve on the crest the image of a Jina seated in padmasana. Generally the Yaksis are represented as eight-armed and accompanied by their mounts; but in most their hands together with the attributes are mutilated. The indifferent preservation of the images, despite the presence of the vahanas, makes their identification difficult, particularly when no order seems to have been followed Images of the Dik-palas accompanied by their respective mounts occur in their correct position in the corners of the first row; Kubera, however, has no mount. Nirsti, who is generally represented as nude, is figured here like other gods attired in the usual dress and omaments, with a dog represented as his mount. Bull-headed Asta-Vasus, invariably surmounting the Dik-palas, are shown with the bull-mount. They hold varada, spiral lotus-stalk, spiral lotus-stalk and water-vessel. Another variety shows varada, parasu, spiral lotus-stalk and water-vessel ART UNDER THE CANDELLAS The sculpture on the Jaina temples, as on other temples at Khajuraho, is divisible into five broad categories. The first category comprises cultimages executed almost fully in the round. They are formal and are seated standing in sama-bhanga and have a large prabhavali and a back-slab decorated with figures of attendant gods and goddesses (plate 173). As these are images fashioned is strict conformity with canonical formulae and prescriptions of proportions, laksanas and lanchanas, they reveal a thin aesthetic vision. The second category of sculptures comprises Vidya-devis, Sasanadevatas (Yaksas and Yaksis) and avarana-devatas, besides other gods and goddess (plates 174A and B, 175). They occur in the niches or are figured against the walls of the temple and are executed either in the round or in high or medium relief. These figures of divinities which include those of the Dikpalas, are less formal and more free. They usually stand in a lively tri-bhanga crare seated in lalitasana and are distinguishable from human figures only by their peculiar head-dress (jata, kirita or karanda-mukuta), or by their mounts 293

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CHAPTER 23] CENTRAL INDIA west, its art is a happy combination of the sensuousness of the east with the nervous angular modelling of the western idiom. Though this art cannot compare with the classical Gupta art in sublimity, depth of feeling and expression of inner experience of the artist, it pulsates with a human vitality that is amazing. One is struck by the immensity and throbbing warmth of the sculptures which are completely liberated from their wall-surface and stand out almost in the round or in high relief as enchanting lyrics of modelled beauty. The modelling generally lacks the flow which characterizes the sculptures of the pre-medieval age. The plastic volume is usually ample but stereotyped, indicating a thinning down of the plastic vision. The plasticity of the fully-rounded and modelled form is replaced by sharp edges and pointed angles with a stress on horizontals, vertical and diagonals. Nevertheless, this art excels other contemporary schools of art in the vivid portrayal of human moods and fancies which are often expressed through the medium of gestures and flexions with a subtle but purposive sensuous provocation. Coquettish languor and frankly crotic suggestion form the key-note which distinguishes this art from the contemporary schools of art. THE PARAMARA ZONE-UN Un, District West Nirmar, situated in the heart of Malwa, is a known a centre of Paramara style of architecture. In this town was built in the twelfth century a fine Jaina temple in the Caulukya style of the Kumarapala phase. This temple, locally known as Caubara-Dera 2, is situated on a natural eminence in the northern extremity of the town. The temple faces north and consists on plan of a sanctum, antarala, gudha-mandapa connected with lateral ardha-mandapas, trika-mandapa and mukha-catuski. The gudha-mandapa has four doorways of which the two lateral ones open cach in an ardha-mandapa. The mouldings of the jagati are now lost. The upapitha consists of a pair of ornate mouldings, resting on two plain ones and supports the normal pitha, comprising the mouldings of jadya-kumbha, karnika and grasa-patti, over which rise the gaja-thara and nara-thara. The nara-thara shows a variety of themes, both mythological and secular, including scenes of the Churning of the Ocean, fighting, dance and music and erotic couples. The nara-thara marks the plinth-level and supports the ornate mouldings of the vedi-bandha, over which rise the mancika, jangha, udgama, bharani, kapota and kutachadya, all typical of the Kumarapala phase of the Caulukya style. The kumbha-moulding 295

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V of the vedi-bandha is embellished with niches containing figures of Jaina Yaksis and Vidya-devis. The sikhara over the sanctum, which rose above the kutachadya, is now Tost, but from the fallen remains it is clear that it was of the twelfth-century Caluukya style. The sanctum is panca-ratha on plan with the central ratha having three facets and the remaining ones only two. All facets of the jangha-projections were decorated with figures. The central projection on each side has a conspicuous niche which once harboured images of Jaina divinities, now missing. The corner rathas display image of Dik-palas, while the remaining ones are adorned by figures of Jaina divinities or apsarases the latter showing contorted flexions typical of the twelfth century. The temple is entered through three urdha-mandapas of one bay cach. All the ardha-mand apas were similar and supported on four ornate pillars, carrying a ksipla-vitana ceiling of the nabhicchanda-type. The northern ardhamand apa formed the principal entrance for the temple. The trika-mand apa has six pillars and the same number of pilasters. Four pillars resemble these of the ardha-mandapa. The remaining two pillars of the trika-mandapa are decorated with sculptured niches on the upper octagonal section which characterize some of the developed temples of Gujarat. The gudha-mand apa is a fairly large octagonal hall supported on eight pillars. These pillars carry a circular ksipta-vitana ceiling of the sabha-margaorder, terminating in a conspicuous padma-sila. From the lower part of the ceiling project sixteen Bhutas which may have supported the sixteen Vidyadevis, now missing. All the four doorways of the gudha-mandapa are of five sakhas, carved with the designs of patra-lata, stambha-sakha, diamond and rosettes and padma-patra-lata. The architrave shows five niches containing figures of Jaina Yaksis. The doorway of the sanctum is practically identical in design with that of the gud ha-mand apa. The sanctum is a small plain compartment measuring 2.44 m, square, carrying a plain corbelled ceiling. The image of Santinatha, dated in the Vikrama year 1242 (A.D. 1185), which was the mula-nayaka (principal deity) enshrined in the sanctum, has been removed to the Indore Museum. Only its pedestal has survived in the sanctum. 296

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CHAPTER 22 CENTRAL INDIA The other Jaina temple, locally called Gwaleswar, is almost similar on plan to Chaubara-Dera 2 discussed above. Though this temple is much restored and in active worship, its Nagara fikhara is somewhat preserved and can still be viewed. Stylistically, both the Jaina temples at Un belong to the twelfth century. While Chaubara Dera 2 is a Caulukya-style temple of the Kumarapala phase, the Gwaleswar combines features of both Paramara and Caulukya styles of architecture. THE KALACURI ZONE, ARANG Like the Candellas and the Paramaras, the Kalacuris or Cedis were also votaries of the Brahmanical sects; nevertheless, they extended liberal patronage to Jainism, as an influential section of the population of their kingdom subscribed to the Jaina faith. Like other regions of central India, Mahakosala also has widespread remains of Jaina sculptures and temples which share the excellence of the Cedi style of art and architecture. Several images of Jinas dating from the tenth to twelfth centuries have been found in District Jabalpur, and the site of Tewar (Tripuri), representing the Cedi capital, is especially known for some excellent Tirtharkara figures. That there were Jaina temples at or near Sohagpur in District Shahdol is attested by a considerable number of Jaina sculptures including those of Sasana-devatas, collected in the Thakur's palace at Sohagpur. Images of Jinas are also known from Sirpur, Malhar, Dhanpur, Ratanpur and Padampur in Mahakosala, Arang in District Raipur was a famous centre of Jaina art and architecture, as it has several loose Jaina images of circa eleventh-twelfth centuries, besides a dilapidated Jaina temple known as the Bhand-Dewal (plate 177), assigpable to the late eleventh century. This temple is the most easterly example of a Bhumija shrine and is remarkable for interpreting the Bhumija mode of architecture in the regional Kalacuri style. The temple faces west and has preserved only the sanctum preceded by a constricted antarala, with no remains of the mandapa or the mukha-mand apa. The sanctum is stellate on plan with six bhadras (offsets), which is rather exceptional, and carries a five-storeyed Bhumija sik hara of three horizontal rows. The sanctum stands on a high pitha, showing the gaja-thara, asva-thara and nara-thara. 1 R.D. Banerji, Haihayas of Tripuri and their Monuments, Memoirs of the Archacological Survey of India, 23, Calcutta, 1931, p. 100, plate XLI. 297

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V surmounted by the mouldings of jad ya-kumbha, karnika and grasa-pafsi. The adhisthana rising above the pitha consists of the usual mouldings but these are heavily ornamented with scrolls and geometrical designs, while the kalasa-moulding is adorned by niches containing figures of Jaina gods and goddesses. The surmounting jangha is lavishly decorated and is carved with two rows of sculptures on the projections and the recesses. While the projections display figures of gods, goddesses and apsarases, the recesses show erotic couples, vyalas, apsarases and miscellaneous themes. The main faces of all the six offsets of the jangha, which are quite broad, are covered with niches containing seated Jaina divinities comprising Yaksis or Vidya-devis in the lower row and Yaksas in the upper row. The sikhara is also adorned with niches harbouring figures of seated Yaksis or Vidya-devis in the lower part and two to three rows of liiezes carved with groups of Jina figures in the upper part. The sanctum is at a lower level and enshrines three standing Digambara Jina images of black basalt representing Santinatha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha, recognized by their respective lanchanas (plate 178). Compared to the lively sculpture carved on the temple proper in the best tradition of the eleventh-century Kalacuri style, the enshrined images of the Tirthankaras are stiff and and wooden and are evidently later by a century or two. KRISHNA DEVA? [ The author of this chapter has written only on three groups of Jaina monuments-those at Khajuraho, Un and Arang.--though he was requested to cover the whole of central India during the period in question. Unfortunately it was not possible to allow him more time as he wanted (he had a long enough notice) to fill in the lacunae, with the result that the survey remains somewhat incomplete and we have been deprived of the benefit of his wide knowledge in the field. While standing Jaina temples in the region and of the period are not many, Jaina sculptural pieces of the region-period are scattered all over, either individually or in groups, indicating the prior existence of Jama centres at the places of their occurrence. Even the more important of such centres are too many to be recounted. However, mention may be made of Shivpuri in the Kacchapaghata zone, the sculptures from which place are collected in a muscum, to be dealt with in volume III. To the north is Chandpur, District Lalitpur, rich in medieval sculptures, one of which, a Nava-graha slab, is illustrated (plate 179). A Cakresvari in the collection at Ahar, District Tikamgarh (plate 180), is a typical medieval piece from the same zone. of the dated sculptures a well-known one is the colossal standing statue of Tirthankara Santinatha, about 5 m. high, at Bahuriband, District Jabalpur, of the reign of the Kalacuri ruler Gayakarna, recording its installation in a temple. Opportunity is taken here to publish two sculptures of Tirtha karas from Lakhanadon (plate 181A, B) in Sconi District, also in the Kalacuri zonc. From a more westerly site, in the Paramara zone, a sculpture of Cakresvari. found at Gandhawal in District Dewas along with other Jaina icons, is also published here (plate 182A), though it may be somewhat earlier. Cf, above, p. 169, plute 98B. 298

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CHAPTER 22) CENTRAL INDIA Shri B.L. Nagarch, Deputy Superintending Arcbacologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Central Circle, Bhopal, has brought to the Editor's notice the recent discovery of a 14-cm, high brass sculpture (plate 182B) at Mandhata, District East Nimar. The central figure, of a beated Tirthankara, is missing from the socket; otherwise the piece, with Vidyadbaras, a Yaksa, a Yaksi, a male cauri-bearer and a male and a female devotee, is intact. The back bears an inscription in Vikrama-samvat 1241 (A.D. 1184).- Editor.] 112 Syd OS 299

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CHAPTER 23 WEST INDIA CAULUKYA TEMPLES CAULUKYA (SOLANKI) ARCHITECTURE REPRESENTS ONE OF THE RICHEST regional styles of north India displaying distinctive features of its own. The temple-building activity in west India had a most prolific development under the prosperous reign of the powerful rulers of the Caulukya dynasty, who patronized the Caulukya style. A Caulukya temple has all the essential features of a north-Indian temple and consists on plan of a sanctum, a gud ha-mand apa (closed hall) and a mukha-mand apa (entrance-porch) which are interconnected internally and externally. The wall-faces are broken by numerous indentations, projected and recessed alternately, which are continued along the elevation producing a variegated design showing contrast of light and shade. In the larger temples, a detached sabha-mand apa (peristylar assembly-hall) is added in the same axis, often preceded by a torana. In rare cases, the sabha-mandapa has more storeys than one. In elevation, the Caulukya temple has the usual components of pitha, vedi-bandha and jangha, together called mandovara, varandika and sikhara, and all the components including the mouldings and decorative ornaments occur in a sequence fixed by tradition. In a typical temple of this style the usual pitha-mouldings of jad ya-kumbha, karnika and grasu-paffi are surmounted by a gaja-thara and nara-thara, with asva-thara inserted in between in ambitious conceptions. Above the conventional vedi-bandha mouldings rests the jangha, decorated with sculptures of gods, goddesses and apsarases on the projections and apsarases, vyalas or ascetics in the recesses. The surmounting mouldings and decorations of the jangha and varand ika, comprising udgama, bharuni, kapota and puspa-kantha, conform to a fixed pattern. A prominent kuta-chadya separates the varandika from the sikhara, the latter similar in design to the Rajasthan temples. The developed temple shows on the mand apa a distinctive roof-design known as the sarvarana, which consists of a pyramidal composition of diagonallyarranged rooflets crowned by bell-members. The author acknowledges the liberal help received from Shri M.A. Dhaky for writing this section. 300

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA The interior arrangement of a Caulukya temple also displays individual features. The mandapas are peristylar in design, and the pillars are lavishly ornamented with figures and decorative designs arranged in a definite order. The mandapas shows an octagonal arrangement of pillars and in the larger conceptions ornamental arches (toranas) are thrown across principal pillars. The domical ceiling of the mandapa is supported on an octagonal frame of architraves resting over pillars and consists of diminishing concentric rings culminating in an exquisitely-designed central pendant (padma-sila). The mand apa-transepts and the mukha-mandapa are decorated with ornamental balustrades. Thus, the Caulukya temple is generally akin to the temples of the northern regions in the treatment of exterior but is unparalleled in the exquisite design and rich ornamentation of the interior. The Jaina temples of the developed Caulukya style consists of a sanctum, gudha-mand apa with lateral transepts, a pillared porch of six or nine bays (caukis) and a peristylar nstya-mandapa in front, the whole placed in a quadrangle surrounded by an enclosure of shrinc-cells (deva-kulikas) facing one or sometimes two bays of colonnaded corridors (bhamati). The elaboration of the pillared porch into six or nine bays and the addition of the enclosure of shrine-cells around, with colonnaded corridors, constitute the special contribution of the Jainas to the Caulukya building-style. There are literary references to the construction of Jaina temples in Gujarat right from the eighth century. A Pancasara Parsvanatha temple called Vanaraja-vihara is said to have been built by Vanaraja Capotkata and a Rsabbanatha temple by his minister Ninnaya, an ancestor of Vimala at Patan Anhilvad for the Vidyadhara-gaccha shortly after A.D. 742. Traces of these temples, however, have not survived. The earliest extant Jaina temple in west India is the celebrated marble temple of Adinatha, known as Vimala-vasahi (plates 183 to 188) and built by Dandanayaka Vimala on Mount Abui in 1032. Incidentally, it is also among the early examples of the Caulukya style. Its garbha-grha, gudhamandapa and trika-mand apa (popularly known as nava-cauki) alone are original, the remaining portions having been added in twelfth eentury. The Although administratively Mount Abu is now in Rajasthan, it is a part of Gujarat from the point of view of temple-architecture. 301

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V trika-mandapa, which is exquisitely ornate, has pillars essentially resembling those of the Sun temple at Modhera. So also is one of the ksipta-type of ceilings. Its two khattakas are the earliest of their kind in Gujarat. The next Jaina temple of this style is the magnificent marble temple of Mahavira built in 1062 at Kumbharia (ancient Arasana), District Banaskantha, which has also four other Jaina temples, besides a Saiva one. Standing on an extensive jagati, this temple comprises of the sanctum, gudha-mandapa, trikamandapa, ranga-mandapa with eight deva-kulikas on either side and three niches in front and a valanaka, the whole enclosed within a prakara. The eastern end of the jagati harbours a petite samavasarana-chapel with a samvarana-roof. The sanctum has a fine sikhara of twenty-one andakas, while the gudha-mandapa has a samvarana-roof resembling that of the Siva temple at Sander. The interior of the temple is exquisitely finished and excels even the Vimala temple at Abu in proportion and unity of conception. The trika-mandapa is matchless for its proportion and delicate beauty, its two central ceilings being indeed architectural masterpiecs. The Santinatha temple at Kumbharia, assignable to circa 1082, closely follows the Mahavira temple in plan and design with a few differences. This is a complete caturvimsati-Jinalaya with eight deva-kulikas each in the east and west and four niches flanking either side of the entrance to the ranga-mandapa. Unlike the Mahavira temple where the trika consists of three catuskis and a prag-griva, the trika here has six catuskis and shows exquisitely-decked khattakas. The south-east corner of the jagati harbours a small chapel representing caturmukha Nandisvara-dvipa. The gudha-mandapa, a simpler samvarana than in the Mahavira temple, with two traces of vestigial phansana. Next in date is the Parsvanatha temple at Kumbharia, belonging to the reign of Siddharaja Jayasimha (1094-1144). Slightly larger than the Mahavira and Santinatha temples, it also faces north and has nine deva-kulikas each on the east and west of the ranga-mandapa and three on either side of the entrance. This temple has a nala-mandapa above the stairway, which is a later addition. Two frontal pillars of the ranga-mandapa and of the trika-mandapa and those of the two central deva-kulikas are exquisitely ornamented. The doorways of the gudha-mandapa and of the two central deva-kulikas are also highly decked. The trika-mandapa is similar on plan to that to the Mahavira temple, but its two pillars support an exquisite torana. This temple is assignable to 1105 on the basis of its earliest inscription. In 1119 Danda-nayaka Kapardin built a Jaina temple at Patan, while minister Udayana erected a temple to Simandhara at Dholaka, which was 302

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V Of the shrines built by the Jajna ministers of the king may be mentioned the mand apas constructed by Prthvipala in front of the Vimala-vasahi on Mount Abu and the Vanaraja-vihara at Patan and the Siddhapala-vasati built at Patan by Siddhapala, son of the poct Sripala. Minister Amrabhatta replaced the old Sakunika-vihara at Broach by a splendid new shrine in 1166, like his brother Vagbhatta, who similarly replaced by a new one the old temple of Adinatha at Satrunjaya in 1155-57. Among the Jaina structures of Kumarapala's reign, the pride of place goes to the nstya-mand apa which was added to the Vimala-vasahi on Mount Abu by minister Pfthvipala in about 1150. Some of the vestibule-ceilings joining the mand apa are indeed architectural masterpieces. The central ceiling of the mandapa, measuring a little over 7 m. in diameter, is among the largest in Gujarat, but its central pendant (padma-fila) is proportionately smaller, though matchless in finish and beauty. Similarly, the highly ornate columns supporting the grand ceiling are shorter by 50 cm. to 1 m. which mars the total impact of the magnificent ceiling. While most temples built by Kumarapala are lost or have succumbed to damage, his largest erection, viz., the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga, built in 1165, still stands. It is a sandhara-type of meru-prasada, comprising a sanctum with ambulatory and three balconied windows with grilles, preceded by a gudha-mand apa. The pillars of the central octagon of the great mandapa are tall and support an ornate ceiling, about 8 m. in diameter, with a huge central pendant. In spite of its mammoth size, the structure looks graceless and unimpressive because of bad proportions and imbalance of parts. Thus, its basement is too short for its overall height, while all its pillars, particularly those of the great mand apa, are to addition to being plain, imparting a harsh look. Again, its bhadra-balconies are too broad, while the constituent ghantas of the sarvarand-roofing are disproportionately small. The Parsvanatha temple at Ghumli, of which only the mandapa has survived, is stylistically akin to the better known Navalakha temple at the same place and, like the latter, belongs to the end of the twelfth century. By about 1220, the political power had practically passed from the Caulukyas to the Vaghelas, whose ministers Vastupala and Tejahpala were the greatest builders in the art-history of India. The two illustrious brothers built upwards of fifty temples and the number of shrines restored or renovated by them is staggering. Vastupala built the Vastupala-vihara and Parsvanatha 304

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA . A MO 1 LY . TOY CATEVE V 14 A 20 24? AL . 14 4 SA . tri . WA WYNA SY 7 ENSV . KATA oy N 27 Mount Abu : Vimala-vasahi temple, ceiling of ranga-mandapa PLATE 183

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE AD. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V UNSERTOLOTHU.EU 11. " . 1 TES W MAR AR to 141 MUL 13 NA FOOTA KA Mount Abu : Vimala-va-ahi temple, toranas over pillars of rangu-mandapa PLATE 184

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA MA 3 4 ! 's - 0221 bel 2A * 233 YA SECTIONS: KAN 557 . AUSS WA AVO 24 Mount Abu : Vimala-vasahi temple, a doorway PLATE 185

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V A. Mount Abu : Vimala-vasabi temple, Kaliyadamana on corridor-ceiling Nr B. Mount Abu : Vimala-vasahi temple, Narasimha on corridor-ceiling PLATE 186

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CHAPTER 23] WEST INDI A. Mount Abu : Vimala vasahi temple, Yaksi Ambika on dome of mandapa B. Mount Abu : Vimala-vavahi temple, a Yaksa on dome of runga-mandara PLATE 187

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(PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300) . MONIA Mourt Abu : Vimala-vavahi temple, corridor PLATE 1X8

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA Yet AS SA .. SELV ya Kumharia : Neminatha temple, part of exterior PLATE 189

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 Mount Abu Luna-vasahi temple, ceiling of ranga-mandapa PLATE 190 [PART V

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA temple at Girnar, Indra-mandapa and six other temples at Satrunjaya, Adinatha temple at Dholaka and Astapada-prasada at Prabhasa. His brother Tejahpala built the Asaraja-viharas at Patan and Junagadh, Neminatha temple at Dholaka, Adinatha temple at Prabhasa and grand temples at Khambhat and Dabhpi for the merit of his mother. He also built temples at Tharad, Karpavati, Godbra, Pavagadh and Nayasari, besides the famous Neminatha temple on Mount Abu. But few works of these great builders now survive. The Vastupala-vihara at Girnar (A.D. 1231) with its lateral gudha-mandapa harbouring Sametasikhara and Astapada is indeed majestic in plan and external elevation, though many of its roofs are lost and the ceilings of the mand apas are restorations of the fifteenth century. The famous marble temple of Neminatha, built in 1231 by Tejahpala on Mount Abu and known as Luna-vasahi (plates 190 to 194), is indeed much better preserved. Like the Vimala-vasahi, its sanctum and gud ha-mand apa are plain and have phansana-roofs. The serpentine vandana-malikas of the nrtya-mandapa and its ceiling with the exquisite padma-sila are most impressive. The two khattakas in the trika are also gorgeous and show baroque at its best. The Sambhavanatha temple at Kumbharia, also built in 1231, is relatively simple and bereft of the enclosing dcva-kulikas. The temple comprises a sanctum, a gudha-mand apa with literal porches and sabhamand apa, enclosed in a prakara. The lattice-decoration on its sikhara and the doorway of the gudha-mandapa showing motifs of sikharas and mand apas as on the Tejahpala temple of Abu betrays its date and style. The marble Jaina shrine at Sarotra, comprising a sanctum, a gudhamandapa and fifty-two surrounding deva-kulikas, is an outstanding example of a well-planned Jaina temple of the first half of the thirteenth century The philanthropic traditions set up by Vastupala and Tejahpala were maintained in the generation by Jagadusa of Bhadravati and Pethada of Mandu. In addition to renovating numerous Jaina and Brahmapical shrines Jagadusa built the temple of Rsabha at Dhanka, a temple with twenty-four deva-kulikas at Wadhavan, a temple on the Satrunjaya hill and a temple with fifty-two deva-kulikas at Sevadi (1250-70). Pethada of Mandu is credited with the erection of eighty-four Jaina temples in important Jaina centres including Satrunjaya, Prabhasa, Dholaka and Salaksanapura around 1264. 305

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V The contribution made by the Jaina laity to the flowering of Caulukya and architecture cannot be overestimated. Of the existing Caulukya temples, roughly forty per cent are of the Jaina persuasion and among them not less than sixty per cent of the larger architectural complexes are due again to Jaina patronage. The rich development of literature and culture in general and huilding-art in particular in western India was due in no small measure to the selfless inspiring leadership of the Jaina monks and the liberal "patronage of the Jaina merchants and philanthrophists led by such celebrities as Vastupala, Tejahpala, Jagadusa and Pethada. If Caulukya art and architecture did not wane in spite of the loss of political independence and the consequent withdrawal of state patronage, the credit went largely to the Jaina community which kept the torch burning by patronizing munificently architects, sculptors and painters and employing them on worthy and pious projects illustrated by the Dharani-vihara at Ranakpur, which was built as late as 1439 as an epitome of the grandeur and magnificence of the Caulukya building-style. KRISHNA DEVA" SCULPTURAL ART The Caulukya period was the most flourishing period in the development of Jaina iconography and is famous for the creation of some masterpieces of art and architecture under Jaina patronge. Earlier, from about the middle of the sixth century a Sasana-devata pair (Yaksa and Yaksi) had been introduced on or near the pedestal of the Jina image. The pair consisted of a Kubera-like two-armed Yaksa called Sarvanubhuti or Sarvahna, usually carrying a citron and a money-bag, and the two-armed Yaksi Ambika, generally holding a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and See below, chapter 28.-Editor.) As in the case with central India in the period A.D. 1000 to 1300 (chapter 22), the author has a restricted scope, in this case only to temples in the Caulukya style. For the Jaina temples in the Marwar area. See M.A. Dhaky, 'Early Jaina temples in western India'. Golden Jubilee Volume of the Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidydlaya, I, Bombay, 1968, containing an excellent treatment of the Mahavira temples at Osia, Ghanerao (for both, sec above, chapter 17) and Varman, the Navalakha Parsvanatha temple at Pali, the Mahavira temple at Sewadi, the Adinatha temple at Nadlai, the Parsvanatha temple at Sadri and the group of temples at Nadol, ancient Naddula, the capital ot a branch of the Cahamana dynasty-all in what Dhaky has called the Maru-Gurjara style. Some of these temples and a few others are also described briefly in the Progress Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1908-09. and onwards.-Editor.) 306

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CHAPTER 23] WEST INDIA holding the child on her left lap with her left. This pair was common to all the twenty-four Tirtharkaras. Later, perhaps by the end of the tenth century, were introduced in Jaina temples of west India the separate Sasana-devata pairs for each Tirtharkara of the present age, early datable lists of which are available in the Trisasti-salaka-purusa-carita, Nirvana-kalika, Abhidhanacintamani, etc. But the earlier pair continued for a long time as is evident from the figures on pedestals in some of the deva-kulikas in the Vimala-vasahi, Mount Abu, and the shrines at Kumbharia. The earlier two-armed Ambika was given two more hands carrying the mango-bunches. What is of greater interest, however, is the growing popularity of Dik-pala figures on templewalls and the introduction, under Brahmanical influence, of figures of Sapta-matskas in the ceilings of the bhamati of the Vimala-vasahi. These parts of the temple date from the twelfth century and some even from the thirteenth. Pillars were adorned with figures of Yaksi, Vidya-devis, etc., as also the door-frames of sanctums of the main shrine, and the cells or deva-kulikas in the bhamatis. Vidya-devis were still popular but began losing their popularity towards the chose of this period, except in larger temples. Fortunately we have a complete set of the sixteen Maha-vidyas (cf. Manavi and Mahamanasi, plate 195A, B) in the ranga-mandapa of the Vimala-vasahi, rebuilt thoroughly by Psthvipala, a minister of Kumarapala, in the earlier part of the latter's region. Besides these, the mandapa has a figure of Brahma-santi Yaksa and another of Sulapani Yaksa (Kaparddin ?). Their Brahmanical origin is unmistakable. These are attempts at showing Brahmanical deities in a secondary position in the Jaina pantheon. The Jaina Purana-literature was growing and Brahmanical legends were introduced in changed Jaina sett The sculpture of Nosimha killing Hiranyakasipu and the scenes from life of Krsna (plate 186A, B) on the ceilings of the bhamatis of temples built by Vimala-Saha and Vastupala-Tejahpala on Mount Abu are instances of this kind. Much more interesting are the elaborately-carved ceilings containing scenes from the lives of different Tirtharkaras (plate 193) in these two shrines and in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia built in circa 1032. The Kumbharia temple also contains in one of its ceilings long panels showing figures of the mother and father of each of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, all having inscribed labels giving their names (plate 196). There is also a panel of the Tirthankaras of the past and future ards at Kumbharia, and a pata of seventytwo Jinas is preserved in the temple built by Vastupala and Tejabpala on Mount Abu. Slabs of stone depicting in relief the story of Asvavabodha and 307

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V the Sakunika-vihara are found at Abu as well at Kumbharia. Thus, reliefs of Jaina Jatakas and other Jaina stories became very popular in this age. The panels in the temple at Kumbharia (plate 189) are masterpieces of art in 'ret. dering miniature figures of gods, men, women, animals, trees, etc., in marble. Artists of this region in the eleventh and twelfth centuries were experts in the minute chiselling of soft marble, which is evident also from the exquisite workmanship of the domes of sabha-mandapas of the Vimala- and Lunavasahis and the various other types of vitanas of the Jaina and non-Jaina shrines of the Caulukya age. Figure-sculpture of the twelfth and subsequent centuries, overladen with minute ornamentation, attracts the eye but is gradually losing its realism, grace and charm. However, while human figures of the age of Kumarapala are stout, sturdy and often more static (cf. Vajrankusi Maha-vidya in the bhamati of the Vimala-vasahi, plate 197), those of the age of Vastupala and Tejahpala show a certain grace and delicacy of form, especially in the rendering of female figures and human faces. A figure, probably of Ambika, on the ceiling in the Vimala-vasahi is a fine specimen of art (plate 187A). The rendering of trees is also noteworthy. Sculpture of the age of Vimala-saha shows superior workmanship. Though very little has survived of what Vimala built at Abu, the art of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, fortunately better preserved, affords an interesting study. In fact, the artists working at Abu and Kumbharia seem to have had for their centre the sculptural traditions of the city of Candravati, about 8 km. from Abu, now in ruins. One of the masterpieces of Jaina sculptures of Candravati, of circa tenth century, is fortunately preserved in the Rietberg Museum at Zurich. A beautiful nayika or apsaras from the Hastisala of Vimala-saha, dating from the age of Vimala, is illustrated on plate 198A. A notable specimen of the art of this period hails from Varavan, Thar Parkar District, Sind, now preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. This sculpture of a standing Tirthankara (plate 198B) shows the full parikara, besides four goddesses on each side. Perhaps they represent different Vidyadevis. The study of portrait-sculptures of donors and monks obtained from various Jaina shrines of the medieval period all over India has been much neglected. The shrines in Gujarat contain a very large number of such sculptures. Though they appear somewhat stylized, a comparative study suggests that they are elegant attempts at portraiture, especially in the Caulukya Period. Plate 199 shows a donor-couple-Bhandagarika Dhandhu 308

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA VAN Mount Abu : Luna-vasahi temple, pillars of nuva-cauki PLATE 191

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V - - www I SOSOS TY 19 . VILADAMATWA VY1 to A AAAA AAAAA 4 www Mount Abu : Luna-vasahi temple, a balcony PLATE 192

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA iFi 2 Mount Abu : Luna-vasabi temple, relief showing scenes from the life of Aristanemi on Connor-ceiling PLATE 193

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[PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 YA + * X Mount Abu : Luna-vasahi, temple, relief showing a samavasa ana, port of Dvarika and Girnar-tirtha on corridor ceiling PLATE 194

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CHAPTER 23) WEST INDIA A Mount Abu : Vimala-vasali, temple, Vidya-devi Manavi on ceiling of suhhu-mandra to* B. Mount Abu : Vimala-vasahi temple : Vidya-devi Maha-manasi on ceiling of sabhd-mandapa PLATE 195

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V * ** www . 1 3. . Kumharia : Mahavira temple, panels of parents of Tirthantaris and scenes Troin the life of Parsvanatha PLATE 196

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CHAPTER 23] Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple, Maha-vidya Vajrankusi on a PLATE 197 ceiling WEST INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 A Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahl, an apsaras B. Varavan a Tirthankara (Prince of Wales Museum) PLATE 198 [PART V

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CHAPTER 23] Cambay portrait of a donor-couple PLATE 199 WEST INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE. AD. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V " Varavan portrait of Sadhadevil PLATE 200

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CHAPTER 23] WEST INDIA " .. SKA 1940 Mount Abu : Luna-vasahi temple, portraits of Vastupala and his wives in Hasti sala PLATE 201

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V WMN Vay : a bronze Tirthankara PLATE 202

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CHAPTER 23] WEST INDIA and his wife Siva-devi with smaller figures of their two sons-installed in sarvat 1260 (A.D. 1203) in a Jaina shrine at Cambay. A figure of Sadhadeva (plate 200) was installed in samvat 1242 (A.D. 1185). Obtained from Varavan, the sculpture is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Plate 201 shows the minister Vastupala with his wives. The sculpture is from the Lunava sahi. Metal-casting was in an advanced state during the Caulukya period, as is disclosed by a large number of Jaina metal images in the various shrines of Gujarat and Rajasthan. One of the finest specimens of the art of this period, dated in 1188, is a beautiful bronze of santinatha with the full parikara, now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Perhaps a part of a very large bronze showing three Tirthankaras, preserved at Vav in north-west Gujarat, is the beautiful standing Tirthankara with an attendant flywhiskbearer, illustrated here on plate 202. U. P. SHAH 309

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA Gavunda for feeding the visitors to the Samyukta-ratnakara-caityalaya constructed by him at Mugunda. The period under reference, in so far as the dynasties of the later Calukyas, Hoysalas, Yadavas and Kakatiyas were concerned, could be said to involve a certain degree of cross-fertilization of two basic structural traditions, that of the 'northern' and the 'southern'. The Hoysalas and, to a certain extent, the Kakatiyas, were prone to prefer the 'southern' temple-form in the delineation of the main shrine and its tower, but with a deliberate admixture of elements which diagnostically should relate to the 'northern' style, as for example the jagati-terrace, the layout of the nava-ranga or sabha-mandapa with catuskiporches, the multiple ratha-offsets of the ground plan of the main shrine and the carrying vertically upwards the of ribbing of the projections and recessions in order to stimulate a 'northern' sikhara rather than a southern vimana-tower. The Jainas, while still continuing to adopt these predilections, had been, by the very reduction of the exterior ornamentation, less guilty of a deliberate camouflage of the two major schools of orders of vastu-vidya. The exterior is often severely plain, except for a bandhana-moulding with diamond-pattern or vimana-models in the anurathas of the karna and bhadra. The decorations of the dhvaja-stambha and often the bali-pitha had been of a very ornate character with a regular miniature pavilion at the top carrying usually a Brahmadeva figure. The Later Calukyas, having geographically bridged the upper and the lower Deccan, and with considerable liaison and frequent vicissitudes of thrones in their impacts with the Yadavas, Kalacuris, etc., practised both the northern and southern styles, although committed to the latter in the southernDeccan area. The Kakatiyas had, by and large, become the subordinates and allies of the Kalyapi Calukyas under whom Prola I, their founder, doubtless received the Hanamkonda-Warangal area as a fief and had been controlling mainly the eastern half of Andhradesa. The Seuna-Yadavas had their main seat in Nasik District in early times and later shifted the capital to Devagiri (modern Daulatabad near Aurangabad) under Jaitugi in 1196. Singhana, who came to the throne in 1200, was the most illustrious king. Of the later kings, Mahadeva (1261-70) was notable, and Hemadri, his minister, is legendarily associated with the building of temples in the Khandesh area in the Hemadpanthi style, which is really the Bhumija style of the Paramaras and others. The Yadavas, who had essentially been rooted to Madhyadesa, deliberately professed the Bhumija style which 311

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V rafter-terminal courses on the entablature are, on the other hand, characteristic of the later Calukyan devices as seen Lakkundi, Dombal, Gadag, etc., in the same century. Lakshmeswar, which was a very important centre of southern Jainism in western Karnataka right from the early centuries of the Christian era, has two temples, one the celebrated Sankha-Jinalaya and the other the Adinathabasti. The latter is a degenerate model of the Later Calukya type, incorporating, as it does, a mild curvature of the plinth-outline, by a multiplication and wedging of the anurathas, still retaining a very broad bhadra, a schematic varimana, the anuratha and karna-rafters gradually radiating, in tune with the curved nature of the plinth-faces, a central niche-like recess on the prastara, flanked by vimana-panjaras, the vimana-motif forming the crest of the pediment of the central niche, thus representing a greater devolution in its design than the Somesvara temple at the same place. The temple is thus liable to be placed in the middle of the late twelfth century. The interior shows an axial layout of the garbha-grha carrying a standing figure of Adinatha, with the sidechambers, of the tri-kuta form carrying Parsvanatha on the eastern and a standing Tirthankara on the western side of the temple, as is often the case with Jaina shrines facing north. The Sankha-basti is, even in its ruins, a very spacious construction, showing an inner main complex comprising a garbha-grha, a large ardha-mandapa and a still larger and wider maha-mandapa and ranga-mandapa. This last is provided with three entrances on the south, north and west, with a caumukha structure in diminutive model in the south-west part of the mandapa facing north. Each of the faces of the caumukha carries three figures, in addition to to which there is a representation in ten rows, one above the other, of almost all the Tirthankaras in miniature. Thus, it is a caumukha combined with cauvisi type of shrine. The details of the wall and pilaster of the shrine present the southern order of the early medieval times, with phalaka (abacus), interesting corbels of the simple bevel type, an eaves-board and a kapota. The superstructure over the cornice is of the pidha-deul type are the tiered and recessed Kadamba-Nagara type, of a panca-ratha pattern, the tiers also showing at each level niched Tirthankara figures invariably seated. A square sikhara caps this caumukha model. The exterior of the layout shows a plinth, carrying a heavy double upana and padma, a stepped jagati forming a raised terrace, another padma, kani (karnika), kapota and vyalavari, the vyalas shown fairly realistically, followed 314

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA by a vedi, with the rajasenaka part carrying mithunas, musical and dancing groups, between each of the paired pilasters. A perforated screen-wall encloses the mand apa-sides over the vedi and kaksasana, up to the cornice. The door-frame of the entrance of the mand apas is of the panca-sakha variety, ornate, with the cornice of the uttaranga projecting well forward and the lalata-bimba showing seated Tirtharkaras, flanked by Yaksas and Yaksis The main vimana and the ardha-mand apa section, however, do not have the vyalavari scheme on their plinth, which is found only in the maha-mand apa and the nava-ranga with triple porch, thus indicating even in its present layout two stages of addition. The wall-decoration of the garbha-gpha and the ardha-mandapa also is plain with single bhitti-stambhas carrying vimana-motif on the top, with a niche under makara-torana in the bhadra section, over which is an outer torana-model with the pediment of a vimana-motif on the crest. The exterior of the temple has been badly and extensively renovated from time to time. Vestiges of seated Yaksas of the early Calukyan type and phase are fortunately preserved along the south-east corner. There is a mana-stambha on the outer court in front of the temple. Even in their utter desolation and nominal worship, the temple-ruins present a grandeur befitting its famed past from the sixth to the thirteenth century. HOYSALA MONUMENTS The most outstanding character of the Hoysala architecture is that, apart from being spell-binding in its ravishing charm, virility and grandeur in its heyday, its artistry has a blend of the vimana-composition, to which it is firmly moored, and the Rekha-Nagara northern prasada, whose several elements it willingly and imaginatively adopted. There is no doubt that the Later Calukyan region culturally, as politically, influenced it. It was thus a congeries of parts, having partly imbibed, by the age in which it operates, the Cola-Pandya formal modulations, the Ganga-Nolamba elegance, the Kadamba-Alupa manipulations and sculptural verve. It was thus a hybridization of the Kalyani Calukya format in this area of south Mysore, sophistication in carving being combined with conformism in architectural core. In the medium or the raw material, it again displayed an ambidexterity, using greenish and soft schist in its main efforts particularly in the northern part of its empire where such rock is available, and hard and stately granite in the southern fringes bordering on Tamil Nadu. The style itself, conditioned by these two variable raw materials, was divergent in its scope for decoration and its dimensions, and even in its basic enunciation. 315

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V The Jaina temple, built in the formative stages of this great political clan and under the royal patronage especially of queen Santala-devi, who continued to promote Jainism even after her royal husband Visnuvardhana had been converted to Vaisnavism under the spell of Ramanuja, expressed severe simplicity and structural clarity. Generally they avoided the stellate plan, the jagati-terrace and even the simulation of the northern tower-outline. The interior carvings, tough yet richer than the exterior, were largely confined to the pillars, ceilings, etc., in a modest way and carvings in its ritual niches or in the sanctum, largely specializing in the fine mirror-like surface-polish and chaste decorations that were also to inform the Later Calukyan temples further north. The typological or morphological variation of the parent model had a reasonably wide range depending upon the ritual requirements of subsidiary deities by way of subsidiary shrines, inside and on the outer mandapas. The temples continued, in all their variants, to have only a flat roof-terrace for its top, unlike the northern school, although it was apt to adopt the sukanasa on the roof of the urdha-mandapa in its main essayings. Under the Hoysalas Sravanabelgola in Hassan District continued to be studded with temples, large and small. The Terina-basti, so called locally due to the temple-car near it, is actually a basadi for Bahubali who is enshrined in it. The garbha-grna opens south and north. The car-like structure known as mandara has carvings of fifty-two Jina figures all around. The varicties of such a mandapa exist in Jaina usage, Nandisvara and Meru, and this is of the former class. An inscription on it of 1117 says that Macikabbe and Santikabbe mother of Poysala Setti and Nemi Setti, royal merchants of king Visnuvardhana, caused the temple and the mandara to be crected. The garbha-grha of the Sasana-basti has the ardhu-mandupa and naya-ranga in front. Inside is consecrated a statue of Adinatha, 1 m, high, with malc cauri-bearers and with Gomukha and Cakresvari, his Yaksa and Yaksi. The temple was caused to be erected by Gangaraya perhaps around 1117 and named Indirakula-gsha. It is so called due to a record being set up near its entrance. The Majjagannabasti, a small temple, 9:7 by 5.8 m., with its garbha-glha produced by an ardhamand apa and nava-rargu enshrines an image of Anantanatha, over 1 m. high. Floral bandhana-mouldings are found around the otherwise plain exterior wall of the temple. The Savati-gandha-varana-basti is named after an epithet of Santala-devi. It is large-sized, 21 by 103 m., with garbha-grha, ardha-mand apa and nava-ranga and an image of Santinatha, 1.5 m, high, enshrined in the sanctum and with the Yaksa and Yaksi in the sabha-mandapa. The inscriptions near the entrance and on pedestals mention the construction of the shrine by Santala-devi in 1123. 316

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CHAPTER 24] 4. A. Lakkundi Brahma-Jinalaya THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA B. Lakkundi Brahma-Jinalaya, later mandapa PLATE 203

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V N OW .. . SOM OPINI Lex . 0. Sravanabelgola : Parsvanatha-basti PLATE 204

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA . . . NABY OLA . A. Sravanabelgola : Akanna-basti B. Hanumakonda : Kadalalaya-basadi PLATE 205

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V A. Hanumakonda : rock-cut Tirtharkara Parsvanatha 29 orgs B. Hanumakonda : rock-cut Tirthankara with attendants PLATE 206

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[PART V MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 Pama th . hante . Siitamur : modern structure within temple-complex PLATE 208

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA M 64.3 ir her VORWAY AT MAI 74 **"W. - Tirupparuttikkunram : temple-complex PLATE 209

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V se. OCCIDO TROR W IN 2. E 23 A ) RON * 1. VA ANTE AK Tirupparuttikkunram : Vardhamana temple, scagita-mandara PLATE 210

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CHAPTER 24 THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA The Eradukatte-basti, the double-staired approach to which has given it this name, has in the sanctum a figure of Adinatha whose pedestal carried the record stating that the temple was built by Laksmi, wife of the general Cangaraya in 1118. Deriving its name from its dark character, the Kattale-basti is the largest temple on the Chandrabetta hill, being about 38 m. by 12 m. on plan with a sandhara garbha-gsha, an open ardha-mand apa and a nava-ranga, a mukha-mand apa and an outer verandah. It is also called Padmavati-basti. At present it is without any tower. It is dedicated to Adinatha. The pedestalrecord states that it was carved by the same Gangaraya for the merit of his mother Pocchive in 1118. The Parsvanatha-basti (plate 204), with the full unit of a garbha-grha, an ardha-mand apa, a nava-ranga and a front-porch with a 4:5-m. tall image, is the loftiest on the Candragiri. The inscription in navaranga records the death of the Jaina teacher Mallisena Maladhari in circa 1129, but not of the foundation of the temple as such. Two other temples at Sravanabelgola, the Bandari-basti and the Akannabasti, merit mention. The former, the largest one in the locality, approximately 81 by 23 m. on plan, is dedicated to all the twenty-four Tirthankaras, each about 1 m. high, with three gateways for seeing the group in parts. The middle door is well-carved and the figure right in its front is the twelfth Tirthankara Vasupujya. A single slab, 3 m, square, covers the central pillared arkana of the nava-ranga. The temple was built in 1159 by Hulle, the treasurer of Narasimha I (1141-73), as is known from its inscriptions, and the king is said to have given it the name of Bhavya-cudamani and granted the Savaneru village for its upkeep. The only temple in the true Hoysala style at Sravanabelgola is the Akkanna-basti (plate 205A), almost all others being of the Ganga idiom. It has the full complement of a garbha-grha, an ardha-mandapa, a nava-ranga and a frontporch with side-parapets and kaksasana. The sanctum has a Parsvanatha image about 1.5 m. high. The ardha-mandapa carries the images of his Yaksa and Yaksi. The pillars are quite ornate and the ceiling of the ranga-mandapa is well-decorated. The outer wall is plain, except for pilasters and stambhapanjaras with miniature sikhara-motif at the crest. The tower is also very plain, though of the arpita-class of storeyed divisions, typical of the Hoysalas with a square sikhara and stupi. The temple was erected in 1181 by a Jaina lady Aciyakka, the wife of Candramauli, who was a Brahmana minister of Ballala II. This shows how common it was for wives of public officials to patronize divergent religions without any conflict. Of the other temples in Hassan District, the following may be mentioned. At Basti-halli is a temple of the Hoysala style, dedicated to Parsvanatha, with 317

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V fourteen fine polished black-stone pillars in the sabha-mandapa. Two carved elephants are fixed at the sides of the entrance. A small and perhaps older Adinatha-basti near it in the southern vimana-style and a Santinatha-basti in Hoysala style are also found near it. There is a mana-stambha with a caparisoned horse galloping eastwards. The Pancakuta-basti at Markuli is of the time of Ballala II, having been erected by Bucchimayya, his minister in 1173. It is for Adinatha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha, Puspadanta and Suparsvanatha. It has also a twelve-armed figure of Yaksi Cakresvari. It is in early Hoysala style. At Halebid there are three large large temples in one and the same compound. The westernmost is for Parsvanatha, with a statue 4.3 m. high in fine black stone in the sabha-mandapa. There are eight niches, three on each side and two more at the entrance. The nava-ranga shows a stout seated figure of Sarvahna Yaksa and Kusmandini Yaksi, to the right and left respectively. The middle temple, the smallest in the group, is for Adinatha, flanked by Gomukha and Cakresvari. There is a sculpture of a seated Sarasvati in the nava-ranga. The easternmost temple, dedicated to Santinatha, is devoid of any carvings but has high doorways, nearly 4 m. high. The Santinatha figure itself is somewhat higher and is flanked by Kimpurusa and Mahamanasa. These represent the most intact examples of Jaina temples at Halebid and display a purity of style affiliated to the southern vimana-order and a simplicity in decoration. They have an entrance-mandapa with elephants on the balustraded steps. Built in 1155, the ruined basti at Heragu reveals sharp and fresh carvings. It is dedicated to Parsvanatha. The Santisvara-basti at Nittur, District Tumkur, of the mid-twelfth century, has the full complement of a garbha-grha, an ardha-mandapa, a navaranga and a mukha-mandapa, with the ceiling of the nava ranga showing the Dik-pala grid. The original image in the sanctum is lost but a fresh one is now available. The outer wall carries double-pilastered vimana-panjaras, with seated or standing Jina figures intervening, many of them unfinished. The northern and southern walls of the nava-ranga have two empty niches with female figures at the sides. The Parsvanatha-basti at Heggere, in the same District, built in black stone, is a fine Hoysala structure with its garbha-grha ardha-mandapa and nava-ranga all well-preserved. It is the only basti of its kind in the region with the Sukanasa-entrance having perforated side-screens even for its pediment. The nava-ranga is supported by four black-stone pillars. The central ksipta-ceiling has a kudmala-pendentive. Other ceilings are of the samatala-type. The outer walls are plain except for floral bands. The temple appears to have been built in circa 1160 by Mahasamanta Govideva in memory of his consort, Mahadevi Nayakitti. 318

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CHAPTER 24] THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA The Parsvanatha-basti at Hosaholalu, District Mysore, is one of the oldest in the Hoysala period but is rather dilapidated. Dated to 1198, its navaraiga has the Yaksi, and Yaksi Padmavati and Dharansndra. The Vimalanathabasti at Bellur, also in Mysore District, has a 76-cm. high image of Vimalanatha with an inscription on the pedestal of a date earlier than the thirteenth century. The Vardhamana-basti at Santigatta, Bangalore District, is a plain structure, with a damaged inscription at the very back of the image giving the genealogy of Hoysala kings, from Vinayaditya to Narasimha I (1141-73) and stops there. It is, thus, likely that the image was carved out of the inscribed slab, either unknowingly or deliberately. The image is about 1 m. high with its prabhavali. Seated metallic images of Padmavati, Jvalamalini, Sarasvati, Panca-Paramesthins, Nava-devatas, etc., are found in the temple. MONUMENTS IN THE COASTAL TRACTS IN THE WEST The centres of Jainism were more deep-rooted in the Mysore country than elsewhere owing to the early settlement of the Jainas around Sravanabelgola. Amongst other centres, Humcha, ancient Pomburca, in Shimoga District, the capital of the Santara kings, is important. The capital was founded by Jinadatta, son of Sahakara, coming from the north in the seventh-eighth century. The earliest record is of the early eleventh century of the Santara kings. The Panca-basadi here was erected perhaps by Cattala-devi, granddaughter of Rakkasa Ganga, and is known as Urvi-tilakam. The foundation-stone was laid by Sri-Vijayadeva, her guru and head of the Nandi-gana. Another basti is said to have been erected opposite to it around 1103, The Panca sti or Panca-kuta-Jina-mandira is a rectangular structure with a slopy roof of overlapping slabs in the typical Kadamba vogue with the shrines all in a row, on a common plinth of the pratibandhu type. There is a lofty mana-stambha at a distance from the temple with a Brahmadeva sculpture on the top. The other temple, erected to the north of the mana-stambha, faces south and is less than medium-sized; it is a more finite temple of the southern vimana-order and is a double-storeyed composition, with a Sukanasi to the front of the tower at the roof-level. MONUMENTS IN THE YADAVA AND KAKATIYA ZONES Jainism under the Yadavas of Seunadesa and Deogiri was represented in the cave-temples near Manmad, which were, in a sense, the continuation of the cave-art tradition of Ellora, and at Anjaneri, 21 km. from Nasik, on a hill, where sixteen out of a large cluster of shrines stand out over an area of over 1 sq. km. Of these, the shrines of group 2 are better preserved and are more 319

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 PART V interesting. Among the inscriptions from this place, the most important ones are on the niche of a shrine, recording a grant of three shops to the temples of Candraprabhasvamin by Seuna Ill in the Saka year 1063 (A.D. 1141), and another the gift of a shop and a house by a merchant called Vatsaraya. The remains of the temple consist at present of a moon-stone on the doorway, and although the ruined sanctum is empty, there are two standing Parsvanatha images above the doorway and two mutilated sculptures, one of Parsvanatha and the other of a seated Jina, are found in one of the vestibules of the temple. Jaina vestiges in present-day Andhra Pradesh, forming the eastern part of the Deccan, are mostly confined to the Rayalaseema on the one hand and Telengana on the other, although scattered and earlier vestiges and remains are noted in the coastal tracts as well. The reason could primarily be that first Buddhism and subsequently Brahmanical Hinduism received consistent and extensive patronage in the coastal area, and the traditional affilations were thus too dense to have been successfully penetrated into by Jaina religious propagation. This penetration started from the centre at Sravanabelgola and worked through the Rayalaseema into the coast on the one hand, and from Orissa into the coastal area on the other, as is known from the traditional diffusion story during Vasupujya's time, between the early centuries of the Christian era and the Rastrakuta period, when Jainism first received extensive state patronage and consolidation. The Kalyani Calukya, Kakatiya and the VelnatiCola rule witnessed a fairly impressive, if somewhat diffuse, concentration of Jaina sacerdotal and architectural establishments, the remains often largely restricted to mere sculptural vestiges of the activities, of which the notable are at Potlaceruvu (modern Patancheru) close to Hyderabad, Vardhamanapura (modern Vaddamani), Pragatur, Rayadurgam, Chippagiri, Hanumakonda, Peddatumbalam (near Adoni), Pudur (near Gadval), Adoni, Nayakalli, Kamhadur, Amarapuram, Kollipaka, Munugodu, Penugonda, Nemem, Bhogapuram, etc. It is fairly apparent from the types of temples or vestiges of architectural practice noticed at the above places that certain architectural predilections did influence the constructions, although it has to be said that it is not anything specifically Jaina or denominational in character, but rather of the regional development of the times. We discern more than one divergent vogue, namely, the stepped and tiered Kadamba-Nagara construction, with a Alat lata-band on the cardinal faces, and often with a tri-kuracala composition, involving triple shrines, each with a tower of its own or for the main sanctum alone, and, in all the extant cases, with its own integral sukanasi projection of the tower on the roof, right over the ardha-mandapa within. The Sikhara is invariably square, or what in southern parlance would be liable to be termed 320

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA umbrella for the lord, taken often as Mailama and her husband (plate 206B). Within this temple are caumukha and cauvisi blocks in granite. The temple is datable to circa 1117. The Kollipaka Jaina temple, built by Kumara Tailapa, lies in a ruined state and, like the Lakshmeswar in western Karnataka, was seemingly destroyed during Cola invasions. It was one of the most important centres of Jainism in the Deccan. Vestiges like purna-ghata on the door-jambs of some of the smaller shrines here, mana-stambha, carvings of Adinatha, Padmavati and a high stone torana, etc., proclaim the busy activity under Jainism the place witnessed. At Bhogapuram between Vizianagaram and Bhimunipatnam, is an important Jaina temple of Parsvanatha called Rajaraja-Jinalaya, built by Mannama Nayaka in 1187 during the reign of Anantavarman Rajaraja. Only the sculpture of the deity, about 1 m. high and impressive by any standards, remains now. Chippagiri is said to have close associations with the Kalasuri king Bijiala's life, and the Jaina temple here on the hill was probably built was slightly earlier. The layout comprises the garbha-grha, ardha-mandapa and maha-mand apa, the last being of the nava-ranga type with a beautifully-carved central ankana of four pillars and also a mukha-mandapa. It is interesting that the nava-ranga has kaksasana parapets on the interior all round, as in the Kakatiya and later Calukya temples, K. V. SOUNDARA RAJAN MONUMENTS IN TAMIL NADU The Jaina monuments of the Tamil country pose certain problems regarding the date of their origins and period of construction (or erection), due to the fact that most of them represent different stages of construction of different periods, starting from the Pallava down to the Vijayanagara times. Some of these monuments have also been subjected to extensive renovation in later or more recent times. Hence it would be extremely difficult to them or describe them as belonging to any one period, according to the division adopted in this work. As a result, monuments of the Cola period with additions or renovations made in Vijayanagara times may find place in two chapters, A.D. 600-1000 and 1300-1800, the intermediate period being treated either as a sequel to the first or as a prelude to the second. An idea of 323

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V the nature of the problems involved in assigning them to specific periods may be obtained from the following instances. The group of Jaina temples at Tirupparuttikkunram date from the Pallava to the Vijayanagara periods. The Candraprabha temple, for example, exhibits all the characteristic features of a Pallava temple of the Rajasimha style, but subsequent renovation has altered its surface-treatment and the cult-image considerably, indicating a Vijayanagara date for the present renovated structure, although the plan, design and elevation are, no doubt, Pallava in origin. Similarly, the main group of temples here, known as the Trailokyanatha or Vardhamana temple or Trikuta-basti, evidently dates back to the period of Pallava Simhavarman (circa 550), as the temple of Vardhamana is referred to in the earliest bilingual copper-plate record of the Pallavas as the recipient of a grant from Simhavarman and his son Simhavisnu. Yet, no trace of the Pallava shrine remains today. Even the existing triple vimana-complex cannot be dated back to a period prior to that of Kulottunga I, the Cola ruler (1070-1118), for the earliest inscriptions found in this temple belong to his reign. Furthermore, the Cola structures also seem to have undergone some renovation during the Vijayanagara period, when the sangita-mand apa was added to the temple by Irugappa, the general of Bukka Raya ITI. The prakara or enclosure-wall is itself an addition made by a Kadara feudatory of the Cola king Rajaraja III. This chieftain is called Alagiya Pallavan (Kopperunjinga) in the local inscriptions. Altogether, this temple-complex represents three periods of major construction work, Pallava, Cola and Vijavanagara. Almost similar is the story of the erection of the temple-complex at Tirumalai in North Arcot District, another important Jaina centre in the Tamil country. Here the structural temples came up around natural caverns and rock-cut chambers of an early date. The temple-complex consists of two groups, which represent three periods of construction, the Rastrakuta, Cola and Vijayanagara, the Cola features predominating in the vimana and the | Above, chapter 19. Pallankoil copper-plate grant of Pallava Simhavarman', Transactions of the Archaeologi al Society of South India, 1958-59. For a detailed description of all the structures. see T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikurram and its Temples, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, New Series, General Section, I. B, Madras, 1934. 324

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CHAPTER 24] THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA Vijayanagara ones in the mand apas and gopura. Vijayamangalam in Coimbatore District has a Jaina temple of moderate proportions built in the Ganga and Vijayanagara periods. Instances of this kind are numerous. Sittamur, in South Arcot District, which is even now the headquarters of a Jaina pontiff, may also be mentioned as a leading example. The temple-structures in Sittamur belong to two distinct stages of construction, the Cola and Vijayanagara (plate 207). They have emerged around a natural cavern, which has been modified and converted into a sort of shrine. Buildings of a very recent date are also to be found in this centre (plate 208). Mention may also be made of two other Jaina centres, where similar architectural activities have taken place, Karandai in North Arcot District and Tirunarungondai in South Arcot District. R. CHAMPAKALAKSHMI Among the most impressive remains of Jainism in Tamil Nadu are to be classed the groups of shrines forming the Trailokyanatha complex at JinaKanci or Tirupparuttikkunram in District Chingleput and the natural caverns and structural temples at Tirumalai in North Arcot District and the additions made in Vijayanagara times in the form of the outermost pillared mandapa to the original Candranatha temple of the Ganga period at Vijayamangalam, District Coimbatore. The Jina-Kanci complex at Tirupparuttikkunram, entered through a lofty gopura-dvara set on the north side of this compact prakara-bandha, derives its importance from a good variety of gaja-prstha types of southern vimana-order displayed for the various shrines (plate 209). These range variously from a square base and apsidal upper part, apsidal from base to top, and circular from base to top. The first-mentioned, for Vasupujya, has a stone plinth of the late Cola times and brick-and-stucco wall-superstructure. The temple also is noted for the wooden images of the Trikuta-basti temple. The sangita-mand apa of the temple is most precious for its inscriptions and labelled painted scenes of the Jaina Sri-purana. The Trailokyanatha temple-complex consists of two blocks, an inner, central and outer one, peripheral, within the high prakara. TL The apsidal shrine, dedicated to Vardhamana and located in the central block is part of two more shrines, one on either side, consecrated for 325

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V Tirthankara Puspadanta and Dharma-devi, the Yaksi of Neminatha. The ardha-mandapa and mukha-mandapa are common to all these three. There is a neighbouring group of three shrines dedicated to Tirthankaras Padmaprabha, Parsvanatha and Vasupujya respectively, which goes by the name Trikutabasti, with its own ardha-mandapa and mukha-mandapa. Common to these two units of triple shrines is a kalyana-mandapa in front which is designated as the sangita-mandapa in one of the local inscriptions (plate 210). The Vardhamana Mahavira shrine appears to be the oldest part of the temple-complex, although nothing of the original shrine is left now and is entirely superseded by the brick-built shrine now extant (plate 211). It appears that the original shrine could have been of stone and fallen into decay and in comparatively recent times the present temple has come up. A stone plinth got up for this temple was never shifted to its position before the brick temple came into existence, and it is now located at Karandai, associated with sage Akalanka, about 20 km. from Tirupparuttikkunram. The present ardha-mandapa of the shrines of Vardhamana and the two neighbouring shrines also does not belong to the original temple nor to the recent one and was thus of intermediate stage. Regarding the diminutive and square Dharma-devi shrine itself, there is a tradition that the image now within was introduced here in the thirteeenth century, from the Kamaksi temple of Siva-Kanci, or, according to another version, in the ninth century, after Adi-Sankara's establishment of the Kamakoti-pitha in the Kamaksi temple. While the validity of both versions is gravely open to question, it is interesting that both tacitly imply that the original site of the Kamaksi temple was a Jaina shrine dedicated to Dharma-devi. While this image of Dharma-devi is of granite, the images of Vardhamana and Puspadanta are of massive timber, coloured, and are seated in paryankasana with palms placed right over left. Dharma-devi has the lanchana of lion carved behind her, while the padmasana on which she stands carried the relief-figures of her two sons and a lady-attendant. The Trikuta-basti group is essentially of two shrines, that of Padmaprabha and Vasupujya, almost similarly divisioned in layout and with square plinth, but a living shrine of Parsvanatha has been sandwiched in between at the limit of the ardha-mandapa of either of these shrines. Vasupujya shrinelintels carry records of Kulottunga I (1070-1120). While the plinth-mouldings of the temple carry two Vikrama Cola records of 1131 and 1135, it is said that the original location of these three records was in the south wall of Vardhamana ardha-mandapa at a time when neither the full Trikuta-basti nor the 326

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA Vardhamana ardha-mand apa was there to hide the records. Copies of records hidden from view were made and placed in prominent front parts of the temple, as found in this complex in quite a few cases. Accordingly, the earliest record of the temple was of the forty-sixth year of Kulottunga I (circa 1116). Thus, the Vardhamana ardha-mandapa itself should be earlier than this date, making the original shrine of Vardhamana decidedly much earlier still. On a pillar in the north-east corner of the sangita-mandapa is carried a portraitrelief of the donor of the mand apa who is identified with lruguppa mentioned in the ceiling-inscription of the temples as the builder of the mand apa. This general and minister of Bukka Raya Il is the same as the person mentioned in the pillar-records at Ganigitti-Jinalaya at Hampi and dated to 1365, only two years before the construction of the sangita-mand apa at Tirupparuttikkuntam. Round the temple, there is a running cloister, in which, on the southwest corner, is the Brahmadeva shrine, on the north-west, the Rsabhadeva shrine and a long series of chambers with a common verandah on the northeast corner called the Munivasa. The last-mentioned is so named as the souls of five sages, who flourished at this place, are believed to be in abode here in the five cells. Two of the cells are intended for Malliscna and Puspasena of the fourteenth century. If this be so, their deification and embodiment here would place the date of this structure to not earlier than the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The central room here has two images, of Vardhamana and Parsvanatha. They clearly did not belong there originally. An inscription in Tamil on the eastern prakaru speaks of the construction of the madil (wall) by Algiya Pallavan who has been identified with Kopperunjinga, a vassal of Rajaraja III, and his independent status mentioned here would ascribe the date to later than 1243, when he crowned himself king. At Vijayamangalam the outer mandapas beyond the maha-mandapas of the inner unit of the Candranatha complex (plate 212A) are of Vijayanagara times, as indicated by the pillars, sculptures and the mana-stambha and large entrance-gopura of the temple-complex (plate 212B). The style of erecting large and lofty mana-stambhas to temples is widespread in this District, and even Brahmanical temples have such lofty pillars (single monolithic or stilted shafts) at the entrance. Only one of the two structural temples at Tirumalai has the tower of the chaste late Cola style intact. The sanctum has, as in the Vijayamangalam 327

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V temple, painted papel-scenes and decorations displayed on the drum-like circular zone above the wall proper at the base of the Sikhara-shell. This picturesque village over a low hillock in North Arcot has quite a few Jaina temples (plate 213), a large monolithic image of Neminatha on the hill and a series of caverns converted into abodes with paintings of various geometrical and other designs besides samavasarana-scenes. The place had been humming with activity in the times of the Rastrakutas, the Imperial Colas and the Vijayanagara and Nayaka rulers. Rock-carvings, sculptures of Yaksas, Yaksis, etc., of great charm occur here. The structural temples, two in number, are dedicated to Vardhamana and Neminatha respectively and are typical southern vimanas of late Cola and early Vijayanagara periods respectively, the larger and later one being on the upper terrace of the hill-slope close to the cave-beds. The garbha-grha of the smaller and lower temple also carries paintings in panels around the zone just above the wall and below the lower shell, in much the same style as that of Vijayamangalam. The layout of the complex at Tirumalai comprises a large prakara at the foot of the hill with a fairly lofty gopura-entrance into it from the east (plate 214). There is only one temple for Vardhamana at this level inside the prakara, and it rises in three storeys with a circular griva, and sikhara at the top. An axial layout of three covered halls varjously of the ardhamandapa, maha-mandapa and open mukha-mand apa occur, with a common flat roof on the top. There are paintings on the level above the uttira of the sanctum of this temple, most probably of the early Vijayanagara times. The next terrace has again another prakara-bandha with a gopura-entrance somewhat smaller in size and unfortunately without its superstructural tower. Within this enclosure is a larger temple which has also its tower missing. The garbhagpha of its temple is square and the ardha-mand apa and open mukha-mandapa are much larger in size. The mukha-mand apas in both the temples show massive cornices with kodungai-ribbings underneath in the typical Vijayanagara style. The next and the topmost terrace also carries a shrine, but this is attached to the bulging rock-scarp in such a way that it is in proper alignment with the cavernous recession where the inner shrines have been excavated at different vertical stages and structural floors are aligned accordingly, the topmost going under the horizontally projecting and overhanging rock-bluff. Access is also given by staircases enclosed within the structural chambers. Wbile each of these storeys is characterized only by corner cantoning pilasters, the upper two storeys carry respectively wall-pilasters and niche-figure of Ajitanatha within pilastered makara-torana motif, flanked by Maha-yaksa 328

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA ES em . i 28 12* Tirupparuttikkunram : Mahavira temple PLATE 20

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 (PART V A. Vijayamangalam : Candranatha temple 22 B. Vijayamangalam : Candranatha temple, gopuram PLATE 212

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D 1000 TO 1300 X Tirumalai temple-complex with prakara and gopura PLATE 214 [PART V

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CHAPTER 24] THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA Tirumalai: rock-cut Gommata in Dharma-devi shrine PLATE 215

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D 1000 TO 1300 (PART V Venkunram. bronze Tirthankaras PLATE 216

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CHAPTER 241 THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA A. Danavulapadu : Tirthankara Parsvanatha . TI B. Danavulapadu : caumukha within circular pitha PLATE 217

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A D. 1000 TO 1300 A Danavulapadu divinities on side-edge of circular pitha B. Villivakkam a Tirthankara PLATE 218 [PART V

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CHAPTER 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA and Rohini and with two standing elephants, laterally shown carrying garlands on its slightly-lifted trunks against the varimana and vedi-courses, in applied stucco technique. The interior shrines at different levels show rock-cut carvings of Cola and Vijayanagara periods, as for example, in the Dharma-devi shrine, where the Gommata with two sisters (plate 215) is of Imperial Cola times (eleventh century), while the figure of Dharma-devi herself with some attendants is of the Vijayanagara times. The main shrine, however, is for Tirthankara Neminatha and is known as the Araikkoyil; it contains a large area of Vijayanagara and later paintings. North Arcot District has considerable vestiges of Jainism in the form of rock-cut caves, etc., and the area around Wandiwash especially has been a colonization-area of Jainas till today. Two temples, the Arugar temple at Venkunram and the Arugur temple at Birudur, though architecturally inconsequential, are worthy of mention due to their historical associations. The main temple at Venkunram is two-storeyed with a circular Sikhara and a simple wall-section and manca-bandha plinth. A subshrine for Dharma-devi, carrying also a fine stone sculpture of early Vijayanagara period of this goddess inside, would bear mention. This shrine is at right angles to the main sanctum and carries a sala-sikhara, similar to Devi shripes in Brahmanical temples of Tamil Nadu. The Birudur temple has the earlier stone image of Vardhamana, now broken, kept in a front mand apa and a later image plated in the sanctum. The Devi shrine is built on the north-east corner facing south. The plinth of the main temple is of stone and the shrine is two-storeyed with a circular Sikhara. The vimana-towers show on the first storey prastara, the images of Tirthankaras Rsabhanatha, Sambhavanatha, Suparsvanatha and Candranatha, with their respective Yaksas. SCULPTURAL STYLES Jaina art in medieval times appears to have been having a period of relative of prosperity under the Later Calukya, Vijayanagara, Hoysala and Yadava dynasties. But the later kings, especially from the fifteenth century, had been extending their patronage largely to Saiva and Vaispava faiths, and, at best, had allowed the Jainas survive. In fact, we have had a critical period of clashes between Jainas and Vaispavas (of Melkote) in an important centre like Sravanabelgola, resulting in what has now come down to be called the Sasana executed by Harihara II patching up the quarrels. Interestingly, this record opens with the royal invocation, extolling the great Vaispava leader and 329

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V philosopher, Sri-Ramanuja or Yati-raja and actually quotes a verse from Vedanta-Desika's Dhati-pancaka. The regions other than Tamil Nadu mainly expressed this early medieval art development in the form of carvings on the walls and niches of the shrine, subshrines and in the sanctum. But in Tamil Nadu an additional diversification in the form of the bronze-image tradition was available and gave rise to a wealth of minor images and ritual metallic outfit in the temples of the Jainas, much of which, however, was following a basic folk-art slant, perhaps under the influence of the west-Indian Jaina mural and miniature tradition, expressed in the rigid and ethnic facial moulds, stylization of the curls of the hair and protrusion and elongation of the eye-balls, e.g. bronzes from Venkunram (plate 216). The Andhra area was, however, devoid of the inetallic images. In the Hoysala regime and region, just prior to the foundation of the Vijayanagara empire in 1336, the Jainas had a field-day, thanks largely to the pre-existing and sustained Ganga support to Jainism carlier, and we find perhaps the largest concentration of Jaina art in the Districts of Hassan, Mandya and Mysore. Sravanabelgola in this period was indeed only a subsidiary centre jostling with the state-patronized Brahmanism. The Jaina art of the Hoysala times was subdued but lively and contrasts with the somewhat still though richly picked-out ornamentation of the corresponding Brahmanical iconographic art of the same period. The Jaina art, further, specialized at this stage in the surface-shine and polish of the figures as in the case of pillars, also coeval, and in large-sized images of Tirthankaras in the sanctum. This eschewing of delicate carvings in figure-sculpture would seemingly underscore the deliberate attunement to the philosophic symbolism of the emancipated Tirtharkara by the figural execution. In fact, except for certain medium and small-sized sculptures of the religion, there is a systematization of the Tirthankara figures in all regions, particularly in south India, resulting in a studied uniformity of treatment everywhere, characterized by stark simplicity, a spirit of unconcern, as it were, for the admittedly sophisticated contemporary social and cultural environment, represented by a commanding immobility of a stance amidst the pulsating life-cycle around. It is important to note that, generally speaking, in both style and material, Jaina art was similar to the Brahmanical traditional skill and convention. However, it did opt for a functional simplicity in both architecture and sculpture, although it tended sometimes to compensate this by overcrowded surface-friczes on the pillars and by cloyingly repetitive assemblages of Jinas, minor divinities, Yaksas, Yaksis, etc., on the walls, in 330

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CHAPTBR 24) THE DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA stone and in paint, converting these themes into ritualistic fetishes. Jaina art, indeed seemed to avoid in this period, exclusively or even deliberately, any aesthetic finesse and sensitively. But it would be fair also to add that an element of basic art-rhythm and poise was ever present in the multiplicity of the standardized seated and standing images of the Tirthankaras. The control of the raw material over the style, as elsewhere, was also clearly manifest and this gradually hardened into regional idioms or phases. For example, the Yadava-Kakatiya trend, as seen at Pedda Tumbalam, Chippagiri or Danavulapadu (plate 217A), was to make the cheek-bones somewhat raised and the cheek flattened with a prominent recession around the mouth-portion. The body was thrust forward and the lower ends of arms and legs got attenuated. The backdrop was of an involved multilooped, makaratorana with a simha-lalata (as found in Brahmanical carvings). The stature was invariably slim and generally well-proportioned in the shaping of the shoulder, hips, waist, etc. The Hoysa!a and Western Calukya idiom, however, tended to give a well-rounded and fleshy mould to the face and body, with the background carvings of makara-balustrade, cauri-bearers, Yaksas and other decoration integrated in both size and relief of the main Jina. Portable types of caumukha in the form of a pillar inside a circular pitha, almost similar to the linga of Brahmanism, is also noticed, in the western Andhra region, as seen in the example from Danavulapadu in the Madras Museum (plate 217B). Figure-sculptures of Dikpalas like Agni, Yama, Varuna, Revanta, etc., combined with musical figures and Vidyadhara couples, are found on the side-edges of the pitha (plate 218A), while the caumukha shows faces particularly of Suparsvanatha and Vardhamapa. One of the earliest of such caumukha types is said to be as early as of the Rastrakuta times, as indicated by the inscribed record in the above-mentioned place, on such an example, assignable to the time of Nityavarsa Indra III (tenth century) and representing the glorious Lustration-ceremony of Tirthankara Santinatha. It is stylistically indicative of the influence of the Rastrakuta Brahmanical art coevally on Jainism also. The sculptures from Tamil Nadu, however, by virtue of granite as their raw material and comparatively austere conventions of the Jaina centres here, tend to be oversimplified and devoid of too much of artistic detail. All the same, there are certain motifs which show a purposeful and stylistic evolution. One such is the tri-chatra which either was consolidated in one mould, with layers one above the other, like three cups placed one within the other, 331

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1000 TO 1300 [PART V or took a slightly flange-edged and drooping floral shape. In all the cases, the area adjoining the chatravali was filled with a creeper-design which had several variations, classic, stylized and with buds, foliage, etc., and sometimes the creeper could also be with highly sophisticated series of loops and festoons. The granite figure-work also revealed two variant modes of modelling, one informed by great virtuosity and natural harmony, and the other angular, squarish head and body and a correspondingly grimmer appearance. All carvings of the early medieval times (tenth to thirteeth centuries), however, show considerable muscular modulation and controlled power. The makara-ended architraves and the cauri-bearers were often dispensed with, or very weakly and insignificantly carved. In some cases, as in the coastal areas of South Kanara which had a continuous patronage of Jainism, the surfacepolish and the size of the sculpture had been given greater emphasis over harmony of features or proportion, with the result that the head is often disproportionately smaller than the torso, the hands and legs too flabby and limp, and the conventional neck-line and navel-line shown by mere stylized grooveincisions. The examples from Sakkaramallur, Villivakkam (plate 218B) Vyasarpadi, etc., in Tamil Nadu, and those from Hampi, Pedda Tumbalam, Halebid, etc., show the range of regional variations under the respective dynasties. The cultural values, however, are much the same everywhere, but most probably the granite carvings of the south in the Vijayanagara and Nayaka times by their profundity tend to contrast with the extra-figural elegance of the Deccani models. An Ajitanatha from Pedda Tumbalam in the Madras Museum, above all, by its extraordinary grace and poise, somewhat camouflaged by the ornate prabhavali indicates how the Yadava craftsmen could yet amalgamate the traditions of the Kalyani Calukya, Hoysala and Deccani usages, to produce inspired models. Jaina art, nonetheless, did without any artprops most of the time and thereby established a new trend in art-metier, of symbolism and inner strength, expressed by plain surface-modelling and polish and rounded contours. K. V. SOUNDARA RAJAN XOX9X3 New SA 332

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Part VI MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800

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CHAPTER 25 NORTH INDIA INTRODUCTION MARKING A TURNING-POINT IN THE HISTORY OF NORTH INDIA, THE thirteenth century represents the dividing-line of the cultural horizon between the early and the middle stages of the medieval age. With it began a period when the alien invaders set themselves firmly on the throne of Delhi under the banner of Islam and commenced a policy of political and religio-cultural expansion in their own way. Consequently new cultural norms and art-idioms emerged, destroying or isolating the earlier way of life, traditions, aesthetic outlook and artistic values. Religious edifices raised by the conquerors were of an unconventional order to the conquered people. By this time templearchitecture and art associated with it had already reached an overripe state within a conservative format and there was little scope for its developinent due to several factors. In the subsequent centuries the Brahmanists as well as the Jainas of the north attempted to adjust themselves with the changed environment and to preserve their cultural heritage in some form. During the first phase of the Sultanate administration the cultural life of the native population was much disturbed and religious institutions like temples and marhas could not function smoothly especially in the Madhya-desa, where perhaps no new shrines worth the name could be constructed for at least a couple of centuries. Images, mostly older ones, seem to have been installed in some ordinary structures, The Jaina sculptural pieces recovered by Jinadeva-Suri from Muhammad Tughluq's possession was also re-enshrined in a temple. It was only through the wandering mendicants that religious communication between sects and subsects of various faiths could be maintained within different parts of India. The position was somewhat better in west Rajasthan and other isolated areas where the influence of the Sultanate rule was felt to a lesser degree owing to the presence of local Hindu chieftains. However, this did not much check the process of cultural decline, although it did preserve the religious tradition to a considerable extent. Jaina art and Jinaprabha-Suri, Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, ed. Jinavijaya, Santiniketan, 1934, p. 45. 335

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI architecture, being a part and parcel of the main stream of Indian art, was no exception to these political vicissitudes. It had to undergo these currents and Cross-currents of cultural changes. This state of affairs, however, did not last long and the process of Indianization started operating with some kind of cultural reconciliation between the rulers and the ruled. Temple-construction was taken up with greater vigour in many parts of north India and some of the excellent shrines were raised in Rajasthan during the fourteenth and fiftcenth centuries. The Jaina Sastra-Bhandaras were enriched with diverse manuscripts, some even containing charming illustrations. But temple-architecture, whether of the Jainas or Brahmanists, and sculptural art could never attain its former glory during the long span of the centuries between 1300 and 1800 despite attempts for its revival. ARCHITECTURE It is not easy to trace the line of development of the Jaina temples in upper India during the period under review for the paucity of material and their chequered growth. The surviving Jaina shrines do not conform only to one structural order, for the conditioning factors of their form and scheme depended upon regional variations, political situation, changed aesthetic outlook and time and money at the disposal of the patrons, besides other considerations. The structural data available to us in respect of the medieval Jaina edifices can be broadly arranged in the three following groups: (1) temples affiliated to the traditional styles of western and central India; (2) Himalayan shrines; and (3) temples raised under the Mughal influencc. GROUP 1 : Shrines of this class normally follow the Gurjara, Maru or Maru-Gurjara idioms in varying degrees and sometimes the structural tradition of central India. This class of temples is exemplified by the Jaina shrines of Rajasthan, especially those at Chitorgarh, Nagda, Jaisalmer and other places. These consist, besides the garbha-grha and antarala, of one or more mand apas with decorated tiered roofs or domed ones in later specimens. The exteriors raised on moulded pithas are enriched in many cases with sculpultural ornamentation. The jangha shaded by projecting chadyas contain figure-sculptures in most cases. The sikharas are either dignified by anga-sikharas or follow the Bhumija style, although the latter type is confined to a few. The pillars in 336

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CHAPTER 25] NORTH INDIA these shrines are either simple and richly carved and bear circular, faceted or composite body. Ceilings in many instances are beautifully embellished with simple or complex designs in fine relief-work. The later specimens of this traditional variety of temples show greater stylization and impact of IndoIslamic art. An outstanding representative of the religious architecture of the Jainas of this period is the grand complex of the Caturmukha shrine of Adinatha at Ranakpur [below, chapter 28.-Editor]. GROUP 2: The only example of this variety is the solitary group of tiny shrines at Dwarahat in District Almora, marked by heavy and stylized devakulikas of the Nagara variety in the form of a quadrangle with no ornamentation. Perhaps there were other shrines of this type in the Himalayan region. GROUP 3: The shrines forming this group can be classed as the latest variety of Jaina temples in north India. Generally ascribable to the postsixteenth century period, these representatives of Jaina art bear a conspicuous impact of the later Mughal structural order with engrailed arches, arabesque decoration, Shahjahani pillars containing moulded bases topped by globular jar-like knobs, tapering shaft and conventional floricomous capital and internally domical sikhara with pronounced by stylized exterior. Some temples, especially Patodi's shrine at Jaipur, and a Jaina temple in Delhi1 show the use of the serpentine struts of west-Indian affiliation, although the general form is characterized by artistic degeneration. The brackets supporting the chajjas are multiple but thin and unimpressive in size. These are devoid of structural grace or architectural grandeur and serve as feeble carriers of the great heritage of the Jaina temple-architecture. Most of the shrines of this period are in the form of conventional quadrangles with a central courtyard and a cella at the back. In some cases there are one or more miniature shrines containing Jina-bimbas at the rear and an arcuate entrance on the front. Temples with double courtyards can also be observed in a few examples. In many shrines the cella is surrounded by pradaksina-patha and has a crowning sikhara of stylized variety. The pattern seems to have had its origin in the medieval mosque-complexes or palaces particularly of the Hindu queens of the Mughals, such as the Mahal of Jodhabai at Fatehpur Sikri. Later on this design seems to have been popularly adapted for temples, as such a structural arrangement provided greater security to the images and worshippers. Certain temples contain fine colourful paintings with a variety of subjects, both decorative and mythological. 1 J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, II, Delhi, 1972 (reprinted), p. 67. 337

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI The practice of raising small domed kiosks or structures enshrining Jinapadas or foot-prints of the Jinas in stone also became popular in the late Mughal period. These are known as fonks amongst the Jainas and appear to be architectural derivations from smaller Mughal tombs. SCULPTURAL ART Assessing the art of the medieval temples, particularly those of Rajasthan, Goetz' remarks: "The architecture often lacks understanding for the functional role of individual parts, the sculpture, though lively, bear no relation at all to the human body, the iconography oscillates between a paive pride in the vast learning of the artists (especially Kumbha's chief architect Mandana) and the grossest misunderstandings.' The decorative aspects of the Jaina monuments under discussion are multiple and show links with more than one art-school. As a part of archit ture as a whole the ornamentation, particularly the sculptural devices, creates the desired impact. Yet, there are shortcomings in it. The figure-sculpture, despite overstressed curves and twists of the poses or aesthetic themes, are stagnant and stiff and look like bad imitations of earlier reliefs. Yet the ornamentation in general is minute and charming, although mostly mechanical. There can be detected behind these sculptures a mastery of craft but little or no originality and practically no spontaneity. The figures are virile but virtually expressionless and characterized by a feeling of rigidity. The animalrenderings, particularly of the elephant, are, however, attractive. In the temples raised in the later half of the period the sculptural quality is less pronounced and is cruder in respect of bolder reliefs. In some temples the ornamentation is restricted. The decorative scheme of the later shrines bears a marked impress of the Indo-Islamic art, specifically of the Mughal tradition. A few of the later temples contain paintings and stucco-embellishment showing conspicuous Mughal influence. In the paintings, which have been employed for both decorative and mythological subjects, impact of the local traditions of art can also be traced. Although skilsul, the general character of the paintings is not very impressive. The material used in the sculptures mainly comprises sandstone, marble, precious stones and metal. In pre-seventeenth-century temples traditional 'Hermann Goetz., India, Art of the World Series, Bombay, 1960, p. 161. 338

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CHAPTER 25] NORTH INDIA themes and motifs play greater part, but the later ones mainly have Tirthankara images or sculptures of a few important deities like Ambika, Padmavati or Bahubali out of the vast treasures of Jaina iconography. TEMPLES The structural movement of the Jainas did not totally die out with the Muslim conquest of Ajmer and Delhi, but it did receive a big jolt with this event almost everywhere in north India. Still, in some parts of Rajasthan many charming edifices were brought into being even during the thirteenth century itself. At Kheda (Marwar) the consecration-ceremony of a temple of Santinatha was performed in 1201. Similarly, during this century Pethad Shah built a Jaina shrine at Nagaur. In Bikaner one Hemaraja, son of Sivaraja, repaired the Susani shrine at Morkhana after the Muslim invasion. In 1280 icons of Saccikadevi and other deities were installed at Ajmer. Greater numbers of Jaina religious edifices were raised in the subsequent periods. Numberless shrines were constructed by the Jaina community in north India after 1200, but it is not possible to discuss all of them here. We have, therefore, to mention only the important ones here. Many cities of Rajasthan had already became famous Jaina tirthas by the fifteenth century and the Svarnaksari-Kalpa-sutra-prasasti' (Vikrama year 1555) refers to some of them in verse 35: saccaityobhata-Citrakuta-nagare nanollasan-nagare tirthe tri-Karahata-nagah sdakevis va-prasiddhahvaye srimad-deva-kuladya-Patakapure sri-Kumbhamerau girau tirthe Ragapure Vasantanagare caityan namaskurvata Chitorgarh or Citrakuta, the capital city of the Guhila princes, was one of foremost centres of the medieval Jaina architecture. Amongst the Jaina monuments here the most remarkable is the soaring kirtti-stambha perhaps a mana-stambha), a structural storeyed column, dated by many scholars to a period prior to A.D. 1200. But some writers, including M.A. Dhaky, place it in the fifteenth century; still others feel that it was only restored and rebuilt during Rana Kumbha's time. The Jaina temple, beside the 1 Agarchand Nabta, 'Maodavagadh-ke sangha-nayaka Jasdhir-ki-patni Kumari Likhapita Svarpaksari-Kalpas tra, Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihdsa Parisad, Bhopal, 1962, Pa 89. M.A. Dhaky, Renaissance and the late Maru-Gurjara temple architecture,' Journal of the Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta, Special Number, 1965-66, p. 8. 339

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI kirtti-stambha (plate 219), according to Percy Brown,' is a fourteenth-century production evidently built on the site of the original edifice. It has a lately restored sikhara and domed mandapa, but the lower portion, comprising the garbha-grha, antarala and attached mandapa, seems to be older. The attractive moulded pitha is topped by a superstructure enriched with sculptured figures and other carvings. The ratha-offsets, chadyas and other elevational elements add considerable grace to this edifice. Of greater structural interest, however, is the shrine Srngara-cauri (plate 220), dedicated to Jina Santinatha. Built in 1448, the temple has a garbha-grha, panca-ratha on plan and an attached catuski on the north and west. The garbha-grha, an octagon internally, is covered by a plain dome. The temple-exterior is characterized by innumerable varieties of sculptural work, including reliefs of Dik-palas, apsarases, sardulas, etc., on the jangha. Charming depictions of animals and human (or divine) figures (plate 221A) also occur on the pitha and vedika portions. The main door-frame bears, besides Jina as the lalata-bimba, Ganga and Yamuna, Vidya-devis and dvara-palas. Centrally the interior of the garbha-grha has a well-shaped pitha for the presiding divinity with four pillars at the corners supporting a circular ceiling containing ornamental friezes including a padma-sila encircled by gajatalu courses. A notable aspect of the temple-sculpture is the occurrence of the reliefs of Brahmanical gods like eight-armed Visnu and Siva-linga on the exterior. The sculptured figures here are purely conventional in character. Another Jaina shrine at Chitorgarh is the Satbis-deodi (plate 222) assignable stylistically to the fifteenth century. It is dedicated to Adinatha and is composed of six following divisions: garbha-grha, antarala, gudha-mandapa, nava-cauki, octagonal mandapa and mukha-mandapa. There are secondary shrines flanking the gudha-mandapa. The sikhara, which is sapta-ratha, is surrounded by three rows of angas and karna-srngas. Some of the principal Jaina shrines are found within the fort at Jaisalmer. Marked by a spirit of individuality, these are dedicated to Parsvanatha, Adinatha, Santinatha, Sambhavanatha and Mahavira. Dhaky's observation on these monuments is significant: 'In its sandy isolation for about a century one temple after another rose in succession as a son follows the father. Unperturbed, there flew that steady, forthright current of evolution; the progress or otherwise 1 Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu), fourth eddition, Bombay, 1957, p. 123. M.A. Dhaky, op. cit., p. 7. 340

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CHAPTER 25) NORTH INDIA SU 2 . AJA. .! !.. i . - Aby ti 10 * 4 HT kwa ! .! . 7 . 23 Chitor : kirtti-stambha and temple PLATE 219

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 Chitor: Srngara-cauri PLATE 220 [PART VI

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CHAPTER 25) NORTH INDIA A. Chitor : Strgara-cauri, a Yaksi JE B. Ayodhya : Katra Jaina Mandir, tork of Sumatinatha C h iwum wwwwww PLATE 221

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI Thes 25 - ! he 1991 . LUT www TR .. **** .es Seattle AN Chitor : Sai bis-Duodi PLATE 222

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CHAPTER 25) NORTH INDIA . .? 32 ARTI PARA 27 A VESTYN PORE 27 . ... RATION mare *. O dh W .. . AN TAL www. * -TA ME Jaisalmer fort : Sumatinatha temple PLATE 223

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A D. 1300 TO 1800 M Jaipur Patodi's temple, wall-painting PLATE 224 PART VI

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CHAPTER 25] ELECT Trilokpur Parsvanatha temple, sikhara PLATE 225 NORTH INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 Varanasi Digambara Jaina temple, interior PLATE 226 [PART VI

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CHAPTER 25] can be perceived here in a sequential order.' The oldest of them, the Laksmanavihara (1417), which is dedicated to Parsvanatha, possesses a fine torana, an ornate mukha-catuski (porch), ranga-mandapa, trika, gudhamandapa, mula-prasada and fifty-two deva-kulikas (chaplets) surrounding the latter complex and, as usual with the Jaina temples, integrated with it. The pillars and ceilings of the hall preserve some residual decorative features that remind of the older Maha-Maru style of architecture. The temple of Sambhavanatha (1431) displays a ceiling in its ranga-mandapa, a grand spectacle, which recapitulates several features known better three centuries earlier. The temple of Jina Candraprabha (1453) seems an abridged version of the great Caturmukha temple at Rankpur. Its ceilings betray an atavism as do the earlier two shrines. The temple of Santinatha (1480), too, possesses a few interesting ceilings together with it samvarana (bellroof) notable for its complexity (plate 223). The temple of Adinatha founded in the same year is, on the whole, not as important as the preceding four examples. This is true of the other two Jaina temples of this age at Jaisalmer. NORTH INDIA A reference of the shrine of Parsvanatha at Jaisalmer is preserved in a prasasti of the Dasa-sravaka-caritra (1218), and according to it this temple was build by one Jagaddhara,' but the extant edifice of the same name is definitely of a later date as stated above. These temples are characterized by a bold style. Some of them, especially the one dedicated to Parsvanatha, bears thick ornamentation in the form of floral, animal and human depictions and decorative motifs, disposed formally. The ceilings, struts, brackets and figures on the torana are attractive despite their conventionalized form. The presence of domes and merlons and the relative simplicity of the superstructure indicate the influence of the Sultanate architecture of Delhi, particularly in the Santinatha shrine. The Jaina temples of Bikaner are also important from the standpoint of the medieval art-history of north India. The oldest Jaina shrine of Bikaner is the one sacred to Parsvanatha, whereof the construction commenced around the beginning of the sixteenth century by a merchant named Bhanda. It is also, therefore, called as Bhandasar temple. It was probably completed only by the middle of the sixteenth century or still later. Structurally, it is one of the most ambitious examples and incorporates in it definite elements of the Indo-Islamic architecture. It is not unlikely that some of these traits were later additions. Consisting of usual temple-divisions, the building 1 Kailash Chand Jain, Jainism in Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963, p. 126. 341

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI clearly shows employment of two different styles, viz., the traditional one and the Mughal in the sikhara and mund apa respectively. The exterior of the tall Sikhara is charmingly decked with urah-srrigas including the superimposed miniature sikharas at the quoins, besides double-storeyed projecting gaukha (balconies) amid each side. Describing the temple Goetz writers:1 'Above the cella with its circumambulatory are two storeys each opening into four balconies and interconnected by narrow stairs; the centre of these upper rooms is consecrated to a Samavasarana, that Jain symbol of the "world city" presided over by four of the world teachers. The architecture in yellow Jaisalmer stone is crude like that of other contemporary Jain temples in Marwar and Jaisalmer. But the mandapa and the galleries and porches surrounding it make a better impression as they belong to a partial reconstruction in the early 17th century.' The other noteworthy temple is named as Cintamani Rao Bikaji, who initially started it as a modest shrine with a garbha-grha and attached mand apa, and it was completed after his death in 1505. Later on, in the same century it was enlarged and another mandapa and two side-porches and a mukhamandapa were added. Its mula-prasada, which follows the medieval Gurjara , has a low elevation which does not conform to its later enlargement. The traditional motifs used here appear to have been misunderstood. The structural treatment of the mand apas and porches with domed elevation together with their pillars and capital-designs betray the impact of the Sultanate style of Ahmedabad and Champaner. In 1583 Jaina images looted from Sirohi State by Rao Raisingh were deposited in a vault in the Cintamani temple and a shrine of Adinatha imitating the structural form of the Cintamani was raised near it. It enshrines a large-sized image in marble of Adinatha. This edifice has some richer decorative elements. Its celings painted at a later date show even deities like the paris (winged damsels) of alien origin. The finest and mature specimen of the Bikaner Jaina building-art is the temple of Neminatha dated to 1536. On plan almost similar to other two temples with a mula-prasada, gudha-mand apa and ardha-inand apa accessible from these sides, it has an organic unity and rich but balanced distribution of decorative wealth. The iconographic representatives, designs and motifs follow the traditional norms without excluding decorative arabesque patterns of the Indo-Islamic association. An interesting Jaina temple is at Nagda in the vicinity of Eklingi known as Padmavati-Mandir which is partly built into the rock of the hill. It 1 Hermann Goetz, The Art and Architecture of Bikaner State, Oxford, 1950, p. 59. 342

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CHAPTER 25] seems to be a shrine of Parsvanatha according to inscriptions of the Vikrama years 1356 and 1391 in its main garbha-grha. It contains a simple mulaprasada with towering central sikhara decked with anga-sikharas and a domed mandapa, probably a restored one, with projecting porches. The interior has three sanctuaries; of them one has a sarvatobhadrika image, while other two are empty. The decorative elements here are few, although figures of some divinities can be noticed on certain parts. NORTH INDIA There are two more Jaina edifices at Nagda. One of them, known as the Adbhudji temple, which is reduced now only to its garbha-grha and attached antarala with tall faceted pillars contains a colossal image of Santinatha set up in the Vikrama year 1495 during the reign of Kumbha by a merchant named Saranga. A few more images are lying here, of which two could be recognized as Tirthankaras Kunthanatha and Abhinandana.1 Some traces of structural embellishment also appear on the exterior. The other Jaina shrine at Nagda is that of Parsvanatha datable to the fifteenth century. Bearing a notable scheme of construction, it consists of a cella, a closed hall and three other halls, of which the last one is separated from the other three by means of a flight of steps and also has an attached porch. This temple bears the usual type of superstructure with well-carved concave ceilings having floral and figure-decoration. Medieval Jaina buildings also survive at Phalodi, Kota, Kishangarh, Marotha, Sikara and other places in Rajasthan. Structurally, none of them is very outstanding, One of the temples at Chandakedi in the Kota area, of about the seventeenth century, is of an underground type, which was probably raised to offer protection to Jaina images from fanatic followers of other faiths. Amongst the later examples, two shrines at Jaipur, those of Singhi Jhuntaram and of Patodi, deserve notice. Singhi's shrine comprises a courtyard with cells and domed hall at the back, dalans on the sides and domed entrance on the front. The triple shrines forming the cella are crowned with stylized sikharas. Patodi's temple seems to be still later in date but is artistically interesting especially for its wall-paintings illustrating scenes from Jaina mythology (plate 224). Both structurally and artistically it shows Mughal influence. 1 Henry Cousens, Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of Western India for the year ending 1905, p. 62. Jain, op. cit., p. 128. 343

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI of medieval Its triple shrines demonstrate only a conventionalized form sikharas. As already stated, the only representative of Jaina structural art in the Himalayan belt is a temple-complex at Dwarahat known as the Manya. It consists of a collection of small deva-kulikas on the three sides of a platform, which perhaps supported the main temple originally. Some of the temple-lintels and base of the platform bear crude figures of the Jinas; otherwise the shrines are absolutely plain and highly stylized. Probably these were raised during the rule of later Katyuri rajas of this area around the fourteenth century. It is, however, significant to note from epigraphical and iconographic vestiges' that there was at least one Jaina establishment at Dwarahat in the tenth century. Jaina temples of the Madhyadesa (Ganga-Yamuna valley) mostly belong either to the seventeenth or later centuries, although most of them contain images of earlier periods. Several shrines were repaired or enlarged to a considerable extent. Structurally, these edifices have limited reflections of the earlier art-traditions. Of the extant temples only a few invite our attention, such as those of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Trilokpur, Sauripura and Firozabad. Ayodhya, being the birth-place of Adinatha, is regarded as one of the holiest centres of Jaina pilgrimage. Shrines of an early period must have stood here, but of the existing ones only one deserves a mention. This shrine is in the quarter called Katra. It houses several Jaina sculpture, of which the oldest is dated in the Vikrama year 1224. Other icons bear dated inscriptions of the Vikrama year 1548 and 1626. The temple does not seem to date earlier than the eighteenth century, for a tork (plate 221B) enshrining the footprints of Sumatinatha in its courtyard bears a dated record of the Vikrama year 1781. A four-sided conical sikhara with a fluted exterior surmounts the cella, but the arrangement is not impressive. The tonk is a small domed octagonal structure. There are other tonks too of the Jinas, but they have hardly any artistic merit. At Trilokpur, District Barabanki, a temple of Parsvanatha has an octagonal prasada with a conical faceted sikhara decked with low alcoves 1 The present author noticed some years back a few fragmentary Jaina sculptures including a female deity of about the tenth century lying in a field at Dwarahat. An inscription of 983, referring to some arjika, has also been found at this place. Cf. Annual Report of Indian Epigraphy 1958-59, no. 383. ying in a field arsika, has also Pgraphy 1958-59. m 344

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CHAPTER 25] NORTH INDIA and a bracketed base (plate 225). Stylistically, it shows the impact of the Lucknow style of architecture, and hence it can be ascribed to a period posterior to the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The image of Parsvanatha, however, is somewhat older. Varanasi is well-known to the Jainas as the birth-place of Parsvanatha. The temple at Bhelupura, believed to mark the actual birth-spot of the Tirthankara, is stated to date during the period of Akbar, as a text dated in the Vikrama year 1619 refers to it. But structurally the present temple, which is built in the degenerated late Mughal style is of a much later period. There is a good collection of late medieval Jaina sculptures in this temple (plate 226). The Jaina shrines of Agra, Sauripura and Firozabad also bear collections of medieval images including those of precious stones, but structurally they are just ordinary in character and in most cases have retained only a few original features owing to heavy repairs and additions. The same is the case with the famous Lal-Mandir in Delhi which is dated to 1656. The construction of another Jaina temple of Delhi was commenced in 1800 by Raja Harsukh Rai at Dharmapura and was completed in the later part of the nineteenth century. Jaina images belonging from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries are found in the later shrines of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. These are mostly crude and lifeless. 13 Balabhadra Jain (ed.), Bharat ke Digambara Jaina Tirtha, I, Bombay, 1974, p. 129. 6069 M. C. JOSHI 345

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CHAPTER 26 EAST INDIA IN CHAPTER 21 WE HAVE NOTICED WHAT WAS PERHAPS THE LAST FLICKER OF east-Indian art in Jaina application. And it did not take long for the flicker to vanish. The confrontation with alien Islam led to the emergence of a new form of Hinduism with an all-pervasive attitude towards other sects. The Jaina community, already a residual minority in eastern India, could not escape being engulfed by the new wave and the lingering followers of Jainism came to be absorbed into the Hindu fold. There are interesting evidences, again, of Jaina fanes being converted to new usages. Many of the Jaina divinities lent themselves easily for conversion under Hindu garb: Parsvanatha as Balarama or Manasa (in spite of the sex-mark that was carefully hidden); Rsabhanatha as Siva; Ambika as a manifestation of Durga; and so on. For all purposes Jainism as a creed of the easterners may be said to have disappeared. But this situation does not mean that in eastern India Jainism did not exist in the period. It did exist, but more as an intruding element than as an autochthonous one. During the Mughal rule mercantile and banking communities from western India are known to have migrated to different parts of eastern India and settled in or near the seats of Mughal government in this territory. The members of these communities professed largely the Jaina faith. Extremely devout, they undertook pious works at the places where they had settled, and through their initiative artistic activities under Jaina patronage may be said to have revived in eastern India. Dacca (Bangladesh), Jahangirnagar of old, was the first seat of Mughal government in Bengal. Nahar has noticed1 two inscriptions from this area that record the erection and consecration of Jaina shrines apparently by members of the west-Indian community settled in this part. No vestiges remain, however, of these consecrations. Flourishing Jaina families from western India are known to have settled in and around Murshidabad (West Bengal), the later capital that played a 'Puran Chand Nahar, Jaina-Lekha-Samgraha, part I, Calcutta, 1917. 346

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CHAPTER 26] EAST INDIA dominant role in the stirring political events of the eighteenth century. Patna (Bihar) as well was coming into prominence; several other places in eastern India also grew into importance in connexion with the trade handled by the different European Companies, especially the English East India Company. With their traditional commercial outlook Jaina communities from western India flocked to these places. In this situation there naturally ensued brisk artistic activities under the patronage of Jaina migrants from western India. It is difficult to say, however, how far such activities belong to eastern India in the sense of an indigenous movement. The Jaina communities of western India were, and still are, mostly of Svetambara persuasion. The Svetambaras generally prefer to have images carved in white marble for installation in their temples; the exception is those of the nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-second and twenty-third Tirthankaras. As marble is not available in eastern India, the Jaina patrons had, and have, to import finished images in marble chiefly from Rajasthan, which was, and is, the most reputed centre of marble-carving, for consecration in the land of their adoption. Jaina sculpture in eastern India of this period may, hence, be said to be chiefly of Rajasthani origin. Nor is any purposeful architectural form seen to have been developed under Jaina patronage during this period. Many shrines were doubtless raised; one may cite, for instance, the Jaina temples at Jiaganj and Ajimganj, near Murshidabad, as exemplifying the style developed under Jaina patronage during this period. The emphasis was chiefly on lavish ornamentation by carving and fretwork in marble, again of Rajasthani extraction, and not infrequently by imported tilework in colour or by glass and ceramic mosaic. Even the much-publicized Badridas temple in Calcutta (incidentally it may be noted that it falls outside our chronological scope) fails to impress except as a work of decorative architecture. The participation of eastern India in Jaina art during the period seems to be negligible." S.K. SARASWATI [2 During the late medieval period the hills at Rajgir and Parasnath in Bihar, the latter identified with Sametasikhara, which is believed to be the spot where most of the Tirthankaras are said to have attained nirvana, continued to be popular Jaina centres. At both these places inscriptions on Tirthankara and other sculptures and on padukas attest to the continued activities of the pious Jainas (Ambalal Premchand Shah, Jaina-Tirtha-samgraha, I (in Gujarati), Ahmedabad, 1953, pp. 453-63 and pp. 444-47. But monuments of the period are virtually non-existent. Professor Saraswati, in correspondence, says that according to the information received by him from Shri Bijoy Singh Nahar, a Trustee of the Rajgir temples, none of the present temples at Rajgir is 347

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI likely to antedate 1800. An 1827-description of Parasnath, quoted in E. Lister, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers, Hazaribagh, Patna, 1917, says in 1765 Shougal Chand Jagat Seth of Murshidabad erected here a Parsvanatha temple roofed with five fluted domes, the central one the largest. It therefore conformed to the style described in this chapter. Even this temple, according to T. Bloch, Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Bengal Circle, 1902.03, Calcutta, 1903, p. 13, was destroyed by lightining some time ago and the present one evidently was put up only recently.- Editor.) MOMO 7 A 2006 348

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CHAPTER 27 CENTRAL INDIA DURING THE PERIOD ALIEN RULE IN NORTH AND CENTRAL INDIA GAVE A severe blow to the development of art and architecture. But in spite of the repressive attitude of many rulers, Indian religious movements continued to grow. The Vaispava, Sakta and Jaina saints saved the masses from their mental agony. They infused in them a new spiritual vigour, which could save them from a pessimistic outlook on life. In the days of the political subservience of Indian kings and the general public, these saints spread the message of tolerance and goodwill. Along with a few Sufi saints, they earned the credit of creating a soothing atmosphere for the people of different creeds to live together. The iconographic forms of quite a large number of deities and semidivine figures had already been thoroughly worked out by then both in the Digambara and in the Svetambara sects. Apart from the statues of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, those of the sixteen Vidya-devis, twenty-four Sasana-devas (both Yaksas and Yaksis), the Ksetra-palas, eight Matskas, ten Dik-palas and nine Grahas were made in the prescribed forms. Some of the medieval Jaina texts also mention sixty-four Yoginis, eighty-four Siddhas and fifty-two Viras, who had assumed the forms of popular divinities. The theological complex of the religion had gained ground in several parts of the country. The profuse development of temples and images gave an impetus to this complex during the late medieval period. The business-community of the period was largely Jaina. A peaceful atmosphere for an undisturbed progress of trade and commerce was essential. Hence the Jainas strove hard to help the rulers of thier respective regions in maintaining a congenial atmosphere and, as far as possible, strived to avoid warring tendencies. Even in the earlier period, several Jaina sacred places, the siddha-ksetras and atifaya-ksetras, had assumed considerable importance. In central India several of them were located on hillocks or on the banks of rivers and lakes, some with pleasant natural surroundings. During this period places like 349

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI Sonagiri, Dropagiri, Nainagiri, Pavagiri, etc., became famous. At these and other sites in Malwa, Gwalior and Bundelkhand temples were erected and statues of various types made. The temple-architecture of the period mainly represented the Nagara or sikhara style of north India. Besides numerous temples, pillared halls (stambha-mand apas) were also constructed. They had decorative pillars for the support of ornamental ceilings. The sculptural art of the period is marked by a profusion and a peculiar liking for the colossus. Carving of huge stone images of Tirtharkaras became a fashion. The rise of the Gommata cult was largely responsible for this, the notable example at Sravanabelgola perhaps providing the inspiration. At Gwalior, Ahar, Banpur, Barhata. Deogarh, Bahuriband and several other places in central India huge image were carved. Besides the Tirthankara images, a large number of statues of Sasana-devas Nagas, Nava-grahas, ksetra-palas, Gandharvas, Kinnaras, etc., are still preserved. To the number of the early goddesses, Sarasvati, Ambika, Padmavati and Cakresvari, numerous other Devis were added. Depiction of the Jaina Puranic stories and of folk-life in general was also favourite with the contemporary artists. Natural scenes are met with here and there. The profuse plastic art of the period is primarily marked by a sense of iconographic monotony. It is, however, not invariably devoid of the aesthetic sense, which real artists could not miss. Some of the figures of gods and goddesses, apsarases, etc., do indicate a proper sense of anatomy and expression. But the number of such figures is rather limited and, on the whole, the early tradition of aesthetic excellence in plastic art was broken. It was, therefore, not possible to expect the originality, freshness and emotional exuberance of the earlier epochs in the art of the late medieval period. The Hindu rulers of Gwalior, Narwar, Orchchha, Rewa and Gondwana and the Sultans of Mandu patronized fine arts. The numerous monuments preserved in central India eloquently speak of the encouragement given to fine arts during this period. In the Bundelkhand area black granite was used along with the sandstone for construction. In other parts of central India sandstone of different varieties was utilized for building temples and carving images. In the Gwalior area artistic activities continued in the period. The Gwalior fort has preserved some colossal Tirthankara images hewn out of the rock. 350

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CHAPTER 27] CENTRAL INDIA The Tomaras of Gwalior and their successors gave a fillip to architecture, sculpture, painting and music. The name of Manasimha Tomara is well-known in this respect. At Narwar (ancient Nalapura), 40 km. north-east of Shivpuri, several Jaina temples and statues were made. The white stone used for temples and images here was highly polished and thus gave the appearance of marble. Kings Yajvapala, Gopaladeva and Asalladeva of Narwar largely contributed to the development of art. Tumain and Chanderi in Guna District were important art-centres. Quite a large number of stone sculptures of the period have been obtained at Chanderi and the area around. They represent the Tirthankaras, goddesses and other images, several of them inscribed. By about 1400 the Chanderi patsa had been established. Its pontiff Bhatyaraka Devendra-kirtti and his successors played an important role in the diffusion of Jainism in that area. Sironj in Vidisha District was under the orbit of the Bhattarakas of Chanderi. In the Malwa region, Jainismi flourished throughout the medieval period. At Ujjain and the area around. Jaina temples and images continued to be made after the rule of the Paramaras. Bhanpura in Mandsaur District witnessed the growth of Jaina art, Numerous art-relics of the period have been discovered there. At Maksi, near Ujjain, during the fifteenth century both the Digambara and Svetambara sects had their establishments. The well-known temple of Parsvanatha was built here by Sangramasisha Soni in 1461. At Dhar (ancient Dhara) inscribed images of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are preserved in a temple at Baniawadi. Dhar was a great centre of study and research in ancient lore. Mandu (Mandavapura) near Dhar is known for its grand monuments built during this period. Several Jaina scholars occupied important positions in the kingly courts. Among these mention may be made of Pethad Shah, Jhanjhana and Mandana, who patronized Jaina religion and art. They are responsible for building several Jaina temples and statues. Badwani is known as Siddhanagara with several Jaina temples. An image of Adinatha carved in the rock is 26 m. high. On the hillock called Culagiri there are twenty-two Jaina temples. 351

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI At Alirajpur in Jhabua District huge Jaina statues and temples were carved. At Vidisha, the ancient art-centre, temples and statuary continued to be made during the period. Images of Nagas and Nagis and Yaksas and Yaksis of the period have been discovered at Vidisha. At Badoh and Pathari in the same District several Jaina temples, with some fine stone images, were made. At Samasgarh near Bhadbhada, District Bhopal, some colossal Tirthankara images and decorated architectural pieces of the thirteenth century have been found. The Vindhya region (Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand) witnessed great activity of Jaina plastic art during the medieval period. Mention may be made of Deogarh, Thubon, Sonagiri, Dronagiri, Kundalpur, Papaura, Ahas, Rehli, Bina-Barha, Banpur, Barhata, Pajnari and several other sites, where extensive art-activity took place. At Thubon, Kundalpur, BinaBarha and Ahar, building-work continued for a considerable length of time after the twelfth century. Bina-Barha, District Sagar, 75 km. south-east of Sagar, is located on the bank of the river Sukhchain. It has two temples and a gandha-kuti. The first temple is that of Candraprabha. The image of the deity was installed in the temple in 1775 by Bhatyaraka Mahendra-kirtti. In the temple is an image of Mahavira, about 4 m. high. The second temple is of Santinatha built in 1746. The image of Santinatba enshrined here is in khadgasana and is over 5 m. high. The gandha-kuti is located at a considerable height. Ahar is situated 20 km. east of Tikamgarh. This sacred place was tastefully beautified by the Candella rulers, who constructed here several buildings and ponds. The extant temples here were built in the eleventh and the succeeding centuries. Apart from the temples of Santinatha and other Jinas and Bahubali, there are several mana-stambhas. Inscriptions on the pedestals of images give an account of several branches of the Jainas, who contributed to the development of this centre. A museum has been set up at Ahar. At Banpur, near Tikamgarh, is an interesting shrine representing a sarvatobhadra-sahasra-kuta, with a door on each of the four directions. The shrine, of the Nagara style, is built on the square basement, about 1 m. high. Its entire composition, the decorated pillars, ceilings, garbha-grha and tapering Sikhara are remarkable indeed. The decorative arrangements of 352

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CHAPTER 27] CENTRAL INDIA Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain : sarvatobhadra PLATE 227

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI - - Pajnari: Tirthankaras in a temple ** * Patna : a Tirthankara PLATE 228

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CHAPTER 27] CENTRAL INDIA 12 Gwalior fort : a rock-cut Tirthankara . Gwalior fort : rock-cut Tirthankaras PLATE 229

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain : parikara ol a Tirthankara statue . we S 3 WA Narwar : parikara of a Tirthankara statue (Gwalior Museum) PLATE 230

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CHAPTER 27] Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya bala-yatis Marimata cave: a Vidyadhara PLATE 231 CENTRAL INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI MA A. Shivpuri : Ambika TASTE X B. Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain : a Sasana-devi 4 PLATE 232

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CHAPTER 27] CENTRAL INDIA ! . Badoh group of temples Pajnari : a temple PLATE 233

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI Malhargarh: upper part of a temple . h.. 1 20 . : 1. EY sem S Kolha : ornamental ceiling of a temple PLATE 234

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CHAPTER 27] CENTRAL INDIA the river-goddesses, the Nava-grahas and foliage-work are also exquisitely done. The images of Adinatha and Sarasvati and other deities have been tastefully carved. Near Tikamgarh the other two sacred Jaina centres are Papaura and Navgarba. Dronagiri, in Chhatarpur District, is another important siddha-ksetra. It has thirty Jaina shrines on hillocks commanding the scenic beauty of the area. The temples were constructed here between 1483 and 1539. Sonagiri, Nainagiri, Garha, Golakot, Pajnari and Ajaigarh are other sites worth mention where Jaina art and architecture grew up during the period. At Ajaigarh, District Panna, in the reign of the Candella king Viravarman, a remarkable image of santinatha was enshrined in 1279. The work of construction continued here till later times. At Naunia, near village Barhata in Narsinghpur District, are seen colossal statues of Adinatha, Candraprabha and Mahavira. The site was a Jaina centre from the eleventh to fourteenth centuries. Apart from the stone images, metal images of a few Tirthankaras, particularly Adinatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, were cast during the period. Images in metal were also made of goddesses Sarasvati, Ambika, Cakresvari, etc. They were made of gold, silver, asta-dhatu or bronze. These are preserved in various temples, and the museums at Gwalior, Indore, Raipur, Dhubela and Nagpur. The contribution of Jaina saints and Acaryas to the development of Jaina religion and fine arts has already been referred to. They gave an impetus to the advancement of learning through the media of literature, oral preaching and visual arts. Among the saints of the period Acarya Tarana-Tarana-ji occupies a towering place. Born in 1448, he dedicated himself to a life of penance at a place called Semarkhedi near Sironj, District Vidisha. Malhargarh, District Guna, near the bank of the river Betwa, was selected by him for his last sojourn During his life of sixty-seven years, the saint spread his message of knowledge based on broad bumanism, which transcends the mundane differences of worldly life. Although he believed in the efficacy of scriptures, shrines and sacred places, he advocated the freedom of thought based on the ethical plane. His fourteen works are like jewels to enrich and guide the worldly and spiritual life of his followers. The shrines built at Semarkhedi and Malhargarh represent the architecture of the last phase of our period. 353

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI The few typical illustrations given here exemplify the artistic development of the period. Plate 227 represents a sarvatobhadra with Jina images in dhyanasana from the Ujjain area. The lion-figures on the pedestal are crudely carved. The Jaina statues from Pajnari and Patna, near Rehli, both District Sagar, illustrate the decay of the sculptural art during the period (plate 228A, B). The colossal Jinas in the Gwalior fort (plate 229A, B) belong to a distinct type. The poor anatomy can clearly be seen particularly in the unproportioned legs and hands. The depiction of elephants and attendants relieves the monotony to some extent. Plate 230A, B represents the upper parikaras of Tirthankara images showing artistic degeneration. They are respectively in the Digambara Jaina Sangrahalaya, Ujjain, and the Gwalior Museum. On plate 231 A five bala-yatis are seen standing erect, with their hands on thighs. Any aesthetic sense is conspicuous by its absence here. Some of the Deva figures carved during the period do, however, indicate a sense of proportion and elegance. Compare, for example, plate 231B, where a Vidyadhara holds a heavy garland. The headless Ambika from Shivpuri (plate 232A) and a Sasana-devi from Ujjain (plate 232B) show the lingering of the earlier art-tradition. Late medieval Jaina temples of the period, such as those at Badoh, District Vidisha, and at Pajnari, District Sagar (plate 233A, B), show none of the rich architectural creations of the earlier period and are sometimes characterized by late medieval Rajput features, as the one at Malhargarh (plate 234A). The ornamental ceiling of the temple at Kolha near Bhanpura, District Mandsaur, recalls its counterparts in west-Indian temples (plate 234B). K. D. BAIRAS 354

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CHAPTER 28 WEST INDIA WEST INDIA MAY BE MARKED AS ONE OF THE REGIONS WHERE ARTISTIC AND architectural activities began in very early times. In fact, the earliest remains of a structural temple, so far discovered in India, are those of the circular temple found at Bairat near Jaipur in Rajasthan and datable in the third century B.C. The role of Rajasthan in the development of the sikhara type of temple may also be noted from the fragments of an amalaka, the crowning member of a Sikhara temple, belonging to the fifth century A.D., unearthed at Nagari near Chitor. This part of the country appears to have made positive contributions to the evolution of Nagara temple-style from its genesis in the archaic Sikhara temples of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. For reasons not difficult to surmise, the temples of the transitional phases, covering a period approximately extending from the fifth to the eighth century, have almost totally disappeared. The temples showing developed Nagara characteristics are, however, not infrequently met with in the region, and most of them may be assigned to some time between the eighth and the middle of the thirteenth century. The closing years of the thirteenth century and the early years of the fourteenth are notable in the history of west India for the devastating campaigns of the rulers of Delhi. Before the repeated campaigns, especi led by 'Alau'd-Din Khilji, crumbled the strongholds of the age-old Hindu rulers of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and as a consequence the religious zeal and material greed of the invaders got a free hand in the destruction of numerous shrines in western India. The havoc wrought by the conquering army was not limited to the destruction of religious structures alone; it also stirred the heart and mind of the sufferers. When the people of the region succeeded in overcoming the shock, they emerged with certain new values, leaving behind many of their cherished norms of olden days. In a sense, medieval age made its clear advent into the life of the people then onwards. It is no mean achievement on the part of the Guhila rulers of Mewar that they freed Chitor, the traditional stronghold of the Rajputs, within a decade of its capture by the Khiljis. Immediately after the liberation of Chitor 355

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI in 1311, the ruling community of Mewar took up the task of raising the morale of the people, and perhaps also of their own, by renovating old temples damaged by the invaders, and also by establishing new ones. It is said that this constructional activity was initiated by Rana Lakha and was followed by his successor Rana Mokala. But a sort of golden age in Rajasthan came into being during the reign of Rana Kumbha (1438-68), who was enthusiastic equally towards military campaigns and artistic exploits. He employed a number of sutradharas, i.e. master-architects, to adorn Chitor with ambitious edifices, religious as well as secular, and at the head of them was Mandana, the renowned architect of medieval India and the author of a number of treatises on architectural science, including the Prasada-mand ana, the Rajavallabhamandana, ctc. In the wake of this structural activity a new era of templebuilding started, and again the Jainas of the region showed their zeal for doing sacred deeds by renovating and erecting temples dedicated to the Arhats. From the evidence of an interesting work on architectural science, viz. the Vastu-sara, written by a Jaina called Thakkura Pheru in 1315, when, as noted by him, 'Alau'd-Din Khalji was reigning in Delhi, it appears that the Jainas succeeded in preserving intact the tradition of temple-building even in the face of invasions in western India. In the Vastu-sara the author elaborated the plan and elevation of a Nagara temple in its western-Indian version. According to the text a temple is called prasada. The sanctum of the temple is the mulagabhara or garbha-grha, and there should be three mandapas axially preceding the sanctum. The first one is the guda-mandapa (i.e. antarala) which serves as a vestibule; then comes the middle hall called the ranga-mandapa, nava-ranga or nrtya-mand apa, i.e. the hall for dramatic performances; and finally the balanamand apa or mukha-mand apa, i.e. the portico through which entrance is made into the temple. The temple has three divisions along its vertical axis. The lower portion representing the base is known as adhisthana, the central one mandovara and the upper one sikhara, which is surmounted by an amalaka. The text divides the base into two parts: the jagati-pitha and the prasada-pitha. The former rises from the ground-level as a raised platform, while the latter represents the socle of the temple proper. Besides, the text describes the different courses of the basement, the members of the Sikhara, the features of the mand ovara, etc., by using specific terms. The importance of the text lies in the fact that it possibly helped in carrying on the rich tradition of Nagara 1 V.S. Agrawala, Studies in Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, pp. 271-75. A good edition of the text with Hindi translation was published by Bhagwan Das Jain in the Jaina-vividha granthamala series, Jaipur, 1936. For the date of Thakura Pheru, see p. 10 of this edition. 356

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CHAPTER 28] WEST INDIA temple-style of the thirteenth century down to the fifteenth, when in western India a rejuvenated temple-building activity was in full swing. It appears that the political stability that was assured by the might of Rana Kumbha in the middle of the fifteenth century provided an atmosphere for the Jainas to take up temple-building not only in Mewar but also in adjacent regions. During the reign of Kumbha and his immediate successors a number of Jaina temples associated with the Digambara sect were constructed at Chitor and among them was the Adinatha temple standing near the famous Jaina kirtti-stambha, also dedicated to Adinatha of an earlier date. Three wellknown temples on Mount Girnar-Samarasimha's temple (1438), temple of Samprati-Raja (1453) and Melaka-vasahi (1455)also belong to the middle of the fifteenth century. All these temples follow the broad lines of the Solanki version of Nagara temple-style and, as such, corroborate the general description of the temple-type discussed in the Vastu-sara of Thakkura Pheru. The fifteenth century appears to be especially significant in western India from the viewpoint of architectural activities conducted by the followers of the Arhats. For this was the period when the medieval architecture of the region, which has aptly been termed as 'middle style' by James Fergusson, was set in order. The best expression of this 'middle style' may be marked in a unique type of temple constructed for enshrining the images of Jaina Tirthankaras by the architects of the age. This type is based on the previous experiences of the Solanki and Vaghela school of the Nagara temple-style and shows the ensemble of such well-known constituents as the adhisthana, i.e. raised platform, devakulikas, i.e. surrounding chapels, Sikharas with their clustering anga-sikharas, pillared mand apas, gavaksas, i.e. balconied windows, etc. It creates a new form, however, by elaborating a ground plan with a pivotal square at the centre. The temples of this type are usually known among the Jainas as caumukha (caturmukha) and approximates in general to the sarvatobhadra type described in Indian texts on architecture. TL. The best example of this caumukha type may be seen in the Adinatha, Adisvara or Yugadisvara temple at Ranakpur or Ranpur, near Sadari in Mewar. Situated in a valley of extreme natural beauty, this complex stands out among a number of Jaina shrines at the place which is considered to be one of the five sacred sites in Mewar. An inscription on a pillar close beside the entrance of its main shrine records that in 1439 Depaka, an architect, constructed the building to the order of Dharanaka, a devoted Jaina. From a reference to Rana Kumbha 1 J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, I, reprinted Delhi, 1967, p. 60. 357

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI in the inscription it appears that this great patron of art and architecture was behind the erection of this grand caumukha temple. Indeed, the scheme is an ambitious one; it covers an area of over 3,716 square metres and consists of twenty-nine halls containing as many as four hundred and twenty pillars. The plan, though apparently complex, is not cumbersome (fig. XXIII). When studied from the centre, i.e. the square sanctum containing a quadruple EBOOK . . . SD * LO 100 METRES FEET FIG. XXIII. Ranakpur : plan of the Yugadisvara temple. (After Cousons) image of the deity, a geometric orderliness is clearly discerned. Being built on a westerly hill-slope, the jagati or adhisthana had to be made very high along the western facade. On the top and at the centre of this platform, which is terraced inside, the square sanctum (mula-gabhara or garbha-grha) is located with its four openings each through one of the four walls. Each of these openings of the sanctum leads to a ranga-mandapa (dancing-hall), which, in its turn, is connected with a two-storeyed mand apa, and across this mandapa to an impressive portal, also double-storeyed, called balana- or nali-mand apa as it covers the 358

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CHAPTER 28] stairway. The wall that surrounds the rectangular (almost square) courtyard covering an area of over 62 m. by over 60 m., exclusive of the projections of each side, appears to be the main feature of the exterior, for it forms the chief elevational aspect from the outside. Along this boundary-wall, facing the inner rectangle, is a long row of eighty-six deva-kulikas (plate 235), i.e. chapels for minor deities. From the outside, above the outwork of the elevated wall, one sees an array of small turrets surmounting these chapels. Beyond them are the five Sikharas, of which the largest and most prominent one tops the central sanctuary (plate 236); four others surmount a corner-shrine each, and twenty cupolas cach provide a roof over a pillared hall. Access to the enclosed rectangle is made through any of the double-storeyed portals of great elegance in the middle of three walls. Of these portals the largest one is on the west, indicating unmistakably the main entrance. Each of these entrances leads through a series of columned courts and pillared halls to the central square sanctum which occupies the middle of the complex composition on a raised rectangular court, measuring 29 m. by 30.5 m., with four pillared halls on four sides. The interior of the shrines shows a cruciform chamber containing the four-faced (caumukha) marble image. WEST INDIA The main impression conveyed by the temple is not that of its height nor of the extensive plan laid out with a masterly skill, but that of the variety and multiplicity of its parts. Emphasis is not on any single component, but on the aggregate. One may quote the following appreciation from James Fergusson: The immense number of parts in the building, and their general smallness, prevents it laying claim to anything like architectural grandeur, but their variety, their beauty of detail-no two pillars in the whole building being exactly alike--the grace with which they are arranged, the tasteful admixture of domes of different heights with flat ceilings and the mode in which the light is introduced, combine to produce an excellent effect. Indeed, I know of no other building in India of the same class, that leaves so pleasing an impression, or affords so many hints for the graceful arrangement of columns in an interior.' In fact, the caumukha temple of Ranakpur, though not great, is undoubtedly the tour de force among the Jaina temples belonging to our period, and as such crowns the west-Indian temples in the 'middle style'. The feeling for multiplicity appears to be one of the dominant motive forces that worked among the Jainas of the middle age. The caumukha type of temples was, no doubt, suited to such a feeling and, therefore, the type was frequently repeated at other important Jaina centres in western 1 Ibid, pp. 47-48. 359

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI India. On Mount Abu, amongst the famous Dilwada group of temples, is found a caumukha dedicated to Tirthankara Parsvanatha. It appears from an inscription on the four-faced image of the cella that the temple was constructed in 1459. This caumukha followed immediately the construction of the celebrated example of the type at Ranakpur. On plan it also shows four mand apas adjoining the sanctum on four sides; the main entrance is on the west. The mandapas, however, are more extensive than those of the Ranakpur temple, and their ceilings are apparently inspired by the much-renowned Tejahpala temple at the place. The outer walls of the double-storeyed sanctum and of the mand apas are fully engraved with figures representing Jaina deities. Built in grey stone, the temple, with its pinnacle, is the tallest of all the existing shrines of the Dilwada. Another significant example of caumukha temple is situated within the Karalavasi-Tuk of the great temple-city on the Satrunjaya mountain near Palitana. The temple, situated on the apex of the northern ridge, was bulit in 1618. To effect the plan of a four-faced' shrine, the sanctum, which is 7 m. square and almost 30 m. high with a surmounting lofty sikhara has been provided with four requisite entrances. But in this example only one mand apa is met with, and this is connected to the eastern entrance of the sanctum and is preceded by the main portal. Hence, this caumukha temple shows the usual ground plan of a Nagara temple prevalent in western India and as such should not be classed with the sarvatobhadra type. Nevertheless, the three other openings have porches leading into the surrounding courtyard, and above each porch rises an elegant second storey with characteristic balconied window, as if to justify its awareness of the composition of a typical caumukha temple. The temple contains an additional range of exterior cells incorporated into its western walls and screened by a pillared verandah. The overall effect of the temple is that of an animated architectural form commensurate with the usual feeling of the Jainas for elaboration and multiplication. The same spirit for elaboration and multiplication seems to have worked for generations among the Jainas who are well-known for building temple-cities at various sacred spots. Among these temple-cities the more celebrated are those on the mountains of Parasnath (Sametasikhara) in Bihar, Satrunjaya and Girnar in Gujarat, Abu in Rajasthan and Vindyagiri (Sravanabelgola) in Karnataka. Two of the most important of these templecities are on the Satrunjaya and Girnar in western India (plates 237, 238). Again, the largest of them is that on the Satrunjaya, south of the 360

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CHAPTER 28] WEST INDIA 2 . ON S Ranakpur : Adisvara temple-complex, exterior PLATE 235

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI PAD 2 15 WWW ope 092 5842 23 th Ras 1. Si E 2 Ranakpur : Adisvara temple-complex, central shrine PLATE 236

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CHAPTER 28) WEST INDIA Yov .1 .. 3. D 942X UNNAR. .. 2 . Satrunjaya : part of temple-city PLATE 237

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 Girnar part of temple-city PLATE 238 [PART VI

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CHAPTER 28) WEST INDIA CHEVAL Ranakpur : Adisvara temple-complex, a mandapa PLATE 239

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI . . . ist 5 Ranakpur : Adisvara temple-complex, a ceiling PLATE 240

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CHAPTER 28] Ranakpur; Adisvara temple-complex. a ceiling PLATE 241 WEST INDIA

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI S .. Ranakpur : Parsvanatha temple, part of exterior PLATE 242

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CHAPTER 28) WEST INDIA 2 . , Ranakpur : Parsvanatha temple, part of exterior PLATE 243

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(PART VI MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 10 1800 POS . wwwwwww . RU ' .. Ranakpur : Satrunjaya-Girnar-parfa PLATE 244

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CHAPTER 28] WEST INDIA A Ranakpur - Nandis rura-china-posta PLATE 245

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 Ranakpur sahasra-phuna Parsvanatha PLATE 246 [PART VI

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CHAPTER 28] WEST INDIA town of Palitana, occupying the twin summits of the mountain, 600 m. above the sea-level. Crowning these two ridges, each some 320 m. long, the line of buildings, eight hundred and sixty-three in number, forms almost the shape of the letter S. Out of the large number of shrines of various shapes and sizes, a typical example is the caumukha temple of Adinatha standing on the apex of the northern ridge, which we have already discussed. Dominating the opposite and the southern ridge of the Satrunjaya and situated within the Vimalavasi-Tuk is the temple of mula-nayaka Sri-Adisvara, the first of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, to whom the sacred site is chiefly dedicated. According to an inscription at the entrance, the present edifice represents the seventh restoration of the temple carried out in 1530 by Karma-Simha, a minister of Ratna-Simha of Chitor. Evidently, the present structure occupies the place of a much older temple of about A.D. 960, which might have replaced still older ones. The temple, as it stands, is an imposing double-storeyed building with a lofty spire and a base surrounded by many small shrines. Comprising one cella only, it is simpler on plan comparison to that of the caumukha temple on the northern ridge, its architectural elevation, which is notably ornate, showing distinctly good features. This specially applies to the eastern frontage with its pillared portico and upper storey, the semicircular arches being additionally supported by the characteristic convoluted struts. As a whole,' says Percy Brown, 'this building is however not unified, it is a combination of parts each good in itself, but the process of assembling has not been perfectly accomplished.' However, the individual temples and their architectural distinction are not the strong points of the great temple-city of Satrunjaya: the overall effect of the innumerable shrines, the silence that prevails in the surroundings and, in particular, the fact that the site is never visited by man after dusk are some of the aspects that make a visitor, wonder about this celebrated temple-city of the Jainas. Situated barely 160 km. to the west of Satrunjaya, the temple-city of Girnar tops a great cliff some 900 m. above the sea-level. Although not so numerous a collection of shrines as found on Satrunjaya, Girnar possesses a number of temples of earlier dates. The temple of Neminatha, the largest in the Girnar group, bears an inscription recording its restoration in the thirteenth century. A few temples belonging to our period are also found, and among them the more important ones are the temples of SamaraSimha and Samprati-Raja and Mekala-vasahi, all belonging to the fifteenth century and referred to above. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu), Bombay, 1965, p. 135. 361

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI As for the temples on Mount Abu, better known as the Dilwada group, the majority were erected before 1300. Two of these temples, the Vimalavasahi (1021) and Luna-vasahi (1230), are highly acclaimed as finest examples of Jaina workmanship in India. It is needless to mention that the artistic norms set by the Dilwada group of temples were more or less active throughout the medieval age in the west-Indian Jaina temples. The Pittalhara temple, constructed by Bhima Saha in the fourteenth century and dedicated to Adinatha, is a notable temple in the Dilwala group. This shrine consists of a garbha-grha, gud ha-mand apa and nava-cauki and follows the usual Nagara plan of western India. It enshrines a massive brass image of Adinatha, weighing 108 mounds (4031 kg.), said to have been cast by Deva, son of sutradhara Mandana. The well-known tcmple-cities apart, there are a number of Jaina religious centres in western India possessing significant Jajna shrines built in the medieval period. Among such centres Ranakpur has already been noted for the famous caumukha temple. But the place should also be referred to for two more Jaina temples belonging to the fifteenth century. One of them, the Parsvanatha temple, raised on a featureless jagati, shows the usual plan of a Nagara temple and is remarkable for its extremely ornate balconied windows. Jaisalmer, the city in the desert of south-west Rajasthan, also felt the impact of Jainism. Of the temples erected by the Jaina devotees at the place, at least two should be specially noted. The Parsvanathaji, constructed within a fort by Rauka Jaya-Simha in 1547, consists of the usual components like toruna, mand apa and garbha-grha, the walls of which are covered with about a thousand carved images. The temple of Lutherva at the same place was built by Tharu Saha in 1675. The temple is renowned for its engravings on the stone windows of the walls which are rarely found in such a scale in any other temple of India. The walls of the temple, decorated with jharokhas, lend it a beautiful appearance. Along with the architectural movement of the fifteenth century in western India, the art of sculpture, both on stone and in metal, was also widely practised. The output of sculpture in the medieval age appears to be abundant and was commensurate with the demands of the temple-builders. It has rightly been observed by Shah: "Thousands of Jaina bronzes scattered over western India require a special study as most of them are stylistically related to the miniature paintings of the Western school which flourished in medieval period. It would be interesting to note here that some of the metal images belonging to the neighbourhood of Dungarpur in south-western U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, p. 24. 362

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CHAPTER 28] Rajasthan bear inscriptions recording the names of a number of sculptures proficient in metal-casting. From the inscriptions we get the names of such image-makers as Lumba or Lumbha, Natha, Lepa, etc. It seems that while the sutradharas of Chitor, viz. Jaita and Mandana, specialized in buildings, some other sutradharas developed a centre of metal-casting in southwestern Rajasthan, as if to revive the glory of the days of Akota (near Baroda) and Vasantagarh (in Sirohi District) in western India. WEST INDIA The west-Indian Jaina temples of the medieval age are silent witnesses to the volume and range of sculptural works executed in stone by the artists to satisfy the needs of the faith. The works, chiefly in hard marble, eloquently speak of the labour lavished on them. To the sculptors the rich heritage of the interior carvings of the Dilwada temples supplied the invaluable inspiration. The pillars of the caumukha temple at Ranakpur, as noted above, are wonderfully varied in design, none of the four hundred and twenty pillars resembling another (plate 239). The deftness in wielding the chisel succeeded in transmuting marbles into ivory-works (cf. plates 240, 241). But their interest was chiefly in decorative designs, not so much in figural forms, especially human. No doubt, the sculptors executed icons following the injuctions of the texts and thereby met assidously the religious requirements of the period. In respect of the icons and decorative figures, usually seen on the walls of the temples and also on the ceilings and brackets (representing Nayakas, Vidyadharas, apsarases, Vidya-devis and so many other members of the Jaina pantheon), their approach appears to be mechanical and highly conventionalized (cf. plates 242, 243). They had captured the outer forms of the desired figures but not their inner spirit; thus, the figures were usually frigid. The hands that executed them appear to be sufficiently trained, but the mind behind was seldom inspired. Thus, the Jaina figure-sculpture of the medieval age is at best a conventionalized successor of the sculpture left behind by the artists of the late-classical period. If we refer to the practices of the contemporary miniature painters in western India, we would find that they were also no longer interested in depicting the human form as it should be. In the miniatures the human figure is found to have lost its volume and sensuous grace and tends to be represented merely as flat designs in pure bright colours and jerkaj lines. In the sculpture of the age the plastic volume has been retained, for it is an essential aspect of the medium; but the more subjective elements, such as the meaningful expression of the countenances, are almost totally neglected. 1 R.C. Agrawala, 'Some famous sculptors and architects of Mewar', Indian Historical Quarterly, XXXIII, 1958, pp. 332-33. 363

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI Emulating the practices of the contemporary painters, the sculptors working in stone and metal developed a fascination for decorative designs floral as well as geometric. The spirit of the artist found its way in the undulating creepers and foliage that they carved on the ceilings, pillars and walls of the temples throughout western India. A close scrutiny of such designs would reveal that in executing them their hands and minds were almost always equally alert. Their creative interest in decorative forms is further attested by the fact that they introduced some arabesque designs as, for example, in some of the pillars of the caumukha temple at Ranakpur. The accent on the multiplicity may also be noted in the sculpture of the age. The characteristic contribution of the medieval Jaina sculpture seems to be the highly conventionalized motifs having full religious significance. The Satrunjaya-Girnar-pasta (plate 244), the Nandievara-dvipa-pasta (plate 245) and the sahasra-phana-Parsvanatha (plate 246), all from Ranakpur and in stone, the sahasra-kuta from Patan, Nandisvara from Kolhapur and the Panca-Meru from Surat, all in bronze, are some of the interesting motifs in which multiplication of a single form appears to be the chief motive force guiding the artist. A survey of the Jaina art and architecture belonging to medieval western India reveals throughout a single unifying factor, and that is unmistakably this feeling for multiple representation of forms. ASOK K. BHATTACHARYA i Shah, op. cit., fig. 64. ? Ibid., fig. 63. * Ibid., fig. 78. JALULET MONOCULUDW IDOC 1 12 MAN NY A 10 11 WOWOTIOTIINID !! 364

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CHAPTER 29 THE DECCAN GENERAL OBSERVATIONS JAINISM, WHICH PLAYED A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN THE SOCIO-RELIGIOUS history of the region prior to the thirteenth century, began to meet with stiff opposition from vigorous Vira-Saivism in the northern and eastern parts of the Deccan and from the sattvika Sri-Vaispavism in the southern part of the Deccan. From the beginning of the fourteenth century this religion, along with other religions of India, also suffered from Islam, the religion of the Muslim rulers who became the masters of the region north of the Tungabhadra. In order to stem this tide, it is said, the empire of Vijayanagara was established in 1346 by the two brothers Harihara and Bukka. Though the members of this royal household themselves professed the Brahmanical religion, they also always supported the cause of other religions like Jainism. This is very significantly brought forth by the famous inscription of Bukka I, according to which when in 1368 there was a serious dispute between the Sri-Vaisnavas and Jainas, no less a personage than the emperor Bukka I himself mediated between them and brought about a lasting amity amongst them. Thus, having gained imperial support the Jainas slowly expanded their activities in the usual fields of literature and fine arts. Throughout the period of the existence of the Vijayanagara empire, side by side with the literary productions and productions of creative arts of the followers of Brahmanical faiths, there were produced similar works of great bcauty of the followers of Jainism also. Examples of such activities are known in larger numbers from the Kannada-speaking parts and the westcoast arcas of the Deccan than from the Andhra Pradesh part or the southern Maharashtra part of the region. In fact, in the northern Karnataka area this religion seemed to have suffered persecution at the hands of the Muslims as evidenced by a Kannada inscription from Mulgund, Dharwar District, of about sixteenth century, which states that the Jaina preceptor Sahasra-kirtti, the disciple of Lalitakirtti, stayed unshaken inside the Parsvanatha-Jinayala which was set on fire by the Muslims and was burnt to death. This is indeed gruesome, but the act of the Acarya was exemplary in vindicating the greatness of the 1 South Indian Inscriptions, XV, no. 695. 365

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI faith which insisted that its followers should always follow the path of ahimsa even in the face of the gravest of provocations. During the reign of the Vijayanagara ruler Devaraya I (1404-22) his queen Bhima-devi, a Jaina herself, is known to have gifted an image of Santinatha to the Margayi-basti at Sravanabelgola. She was also a patron of Jaina Acaryas. The next ruler Devaraya II (1422-46) continued to patronize Jainism. In A.D. 1424 he made over the village of Varanga in Tuluva to the basadi of Varanga Neminatha of the same place. Besides, he caused the building of a caityalaya in the capital Hampi itself in 1426. The reign of Krsnadevaraya (1509-29) was marked by tolerance and equal protection of the followers of all faiths. He had made gifts to Jaina basadis in 1516 and 1519 and in 1528 he made a gift to the basadi at Chippagiri in Bcllary District. Besides the emperor, some of their officials too were great promoters of Jainism. In this connexion mention must be made of the general Irugappa (1384-1442), a devout Jaina, who served under Harihara II and Devaraya II and did yeoman's service by building Jaina temples in different parts of the empire, providing lavish gifts to others and patronizing Jaina pontiffs. Jainism also found votaries in various provinicial courts because they were more congenial for its growth than the capital of the empire. Thus, it became popular in the courts of such great feudatories like Kongalvas, the Cangalvas, the Saluvas of Sangitapura (Haduvalli), the kings of Gerasoppe and the Bhairarasa Odeyars of Karkala. It found favour with the lesser feudatories Prabhus of Avalinad, the Mahaprabhus of Kuppatur, Morasunad, Bidnur, Bagunjisime, Nuggehalli and others. who ruled over different parts of the western Deccan from about the fifteenth to the seventeenth century, and the patronage they extended to Jainism is attested to by quite a number of inscriptions and monuments. In the Telengana and southern Maharashtra parts, however, as has been stated above, this religion had only a lingering existence during this period. While dealing with the architecture of a Jinalaya or basadi, it may be useful to have an idea of its component parts. Generally, the arrangement of the various parts of Jaina temple does not differ much from that of a contemporary Epigraphia Carnatica, II, Introduction, p. 29. 2 B.A. Saletore, Medieval Jainism, p. 301. Ibid., pp. 302-03. * Ibid., p. 301. Ibid., pp. 306 fr. * Ibid., pp. 313 ff; B.L. Rice, Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions, London, 1909, p. 203. 366

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN Brahmanical temple. However, it is noteworthy that some Jaina inscriptions contain information on the composition of a Jaina temple. Thus, an inscription, dated 1278, from Amarapuram, Anantapur District,' of the time of a chief named Irungonadeva-Cola, ruling from his permanent residence at Nidugallu, states that the income from a certain grant was to be used for the reconstruction with stone from the 'foundation to the pinnacle' (upanadi-stupi-paryantam) of the temple of Brahma-Jinalaya with the maha-mandapa, bhadra-mandapa, Laksmi-mandapa, gopura, parisutra, vandana-mala, mana-stambha, and makaratorana. An inscription in Kannada from Bilagi, North Kanara District,' dated 1581, records the construction of the Ratnatraya-basadi and of the mandapa, muni-vasa, candra-sala, etc., by a certain chief and a gandha-kuti-basti for Santisvara by a royal lady. Examples of Jaina architecture fall into four types. One of them, represented by the group of temples at Hampi, is characterized by the stepped pyramidal superstructures. No doubt this type of sikhara is also employed in the building of Brahmanical temples in this region, but many a Jaina temple has this as an invariable feature. Another type is represented by some large stone temples at Bhatkal in North Kanara District and Mudbidri (Mudabidure) in South Kanara District. The most notable features of these temples are their plain sloping roofs and the peculiar arrangement of stone screens which close in the sides... There is a great likeness between these buildings and similar ones, built in wood for the most part, found in Nepal. It is not likely, however, that there is any other connexion between them than that the same conditions brought about the same type of structure. But these roofs may be seen repeated in every thatched cottage in Bhatkal, even to the double storey. This method of roof-construction is, therefore, no more than a copy in stone of thatched roofs of the country, rendered necessary by the exigency of the climate and made possible by the ease with which the great laterite slabs could be quarried on the spot. The third type, which is considered an interesting one, is represented by tombs of Jaina priests in the neighbourhood of Mudbidri. 'The style of these monuments is that of a pagoda-like pyramid rising up into several diminishing stories, each storey defined by a 1 Annual Report of South Indian Epigraphy, 1916-17, Appendix C, no. 40, * Ibid., pp. 74, 113-14. * Annual Report on Kannada Research in Bombay Province for 1939-40, p. 75, no. 88. A.H. Longhurst, Hampi Ruins, Delhi, 1933, pp. 94-95, fig. 44. H. Cousens, The Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, XLII, Calcutta, 1926; pp. 134-35; Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, Buddhist and Hindu, fourth ed., Bombay, 1959, p. 132. 367

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN superstructures of the peculiar stepped pyramidal type (plates 248, 249A). 'Most of the temples do not have any icons in the sanctum. The characteristic features of these temples are three shrines facing east, west and north; a common ardha-mandapa; a front porch; walls with large rectangular slabs neatly dressed and fitted with a central horizontal band; heavy early cubical pillars with large corbels; and stepped pyramidal superstructures of stone with square domical sikharas." The absence of icons in the sanctum of these temples and the style of their superstructure may make one doubt whether they are really Jaina, and even otherwise there is no evidence to show that they were Jaina in origin. In fact, many of them are undoubtedly Siva temples. Some of them are assigned on stylistic grounds to the fourteenth century. However, this type of tri-kuta temples is found at such places at Vardhamanapura (modern Vaddamani), a Jaina centre, and at Pragatur to the north of Alampur, which though perhaps of an earlier date, may be Jaina. A Jaina temple of this type is also known from Belgaum, dating from before 1205. Stylistically resembling the Hemakutam group is a temple near the Elephant-stable at Hampi, with a garbha-grha, ardha-mandapa and maha-mand apa with porches, but without any extant superstructure. The walls of the sanctum are built of long and broad rectangular neatly-dressed slabs. The ardha-mandapa and mahamandapa have plain heavy cubical pillars of the early type. The inscriptions here state that the temple was built by Devaraya II in 1426 and was dedicated to Parsvanatha. MONUMENTS AT SRAVANABELGOLA Of the numerous temples in the great Jaina centre of Sravanabelgola, some belong to the period under review here. Stylistically, these temples are Dravidian, with decorative details in the Hoysala idiom. The Mangayi-basti, an early structure of this period, probably dates from 1325. The inscriptions in the temple state that it was caused to be built by Mangayi of Belugula. This is a plain structure, consisting of garbha-grha, a sukanasi and nava-ranga. There is a standing figure of Parsvanatha, known from the inscription on its pedestal to have been donated by Bhima-devi, a lay-disciple of Panditacarya and the queen of Devaraya I (accession 1406) of Vijayanagara. Another small temple of this period at the place is the Siddhara-basti (1398), enshrining a seated figure of a Siddha, about 1 m. high. On both 1 Devakunjari, op. cit., p. 49. * Gopalakrishna Murthy, op. cit., pp. 50-51, plate XIV, figs. 31A, B. Cousens, op. cit., pp. 121-22, plate CXXXV. Epigraphia Carnatica, II, 1923, pp. 1-32 and plates. 369

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI sides of the figure stand two fine inscribed pillars, and their workmanship is beautiful, their tops being fashioned in the form of a tower. Another late temple is the Cennanna-basti (1673). It consists of a garbha-grha, a porch and a verandah and enshrines a seated figure of Candranatha. A mana-stambha stands in front of it. MONUMENTS IN SOUTH KANARA In South Kanara, on the west coast, Jainism began to be popular from about the fourth century. In the subsequent centuries this religion became very influential and its votaries contributed much to the promotion of fine arts, besides literature. It was then that Karkal, Mudbidri and Venur became great centres of Jainism. The large number of Jaina bastis at these places stand as witness to this fact. Of these places Mudbidri, also called Jina-Kasi, Venupura (Vamsapura) and Vratapura, contain some of the important examples of Jaina architecture of this period. The most interesting of them is the Hosa-basadi, also known as the Tribhuvana-cudamani-basadi and as the thousand-pillared basadi because of the presence of numerous pillars in it (plate 249B). This is the largest and finest of basadis here, having been built in 1429 during the time of the Vijayanagara emperor Devaraya II. The basadi, with a double enclosure, a lofty mana-stambha and a decorated gateway, is dedicated to Candranatha. The uppermost storey is of woodwork. Facing east, it consists of the sanctum and three halls in front of it, viz., Tirthankara-mandapa, the Gaddiga-mandapa and the Citra-mandapa. In front is a detached building called Bhairadevi-mandapa (plate 250A, 250B), built in 1451-52 during the time of Vijayanagara emperor Mallikarjuna Immadi Devaraya (1446-67), by Gopana Odeyar. A notable feature of the roof of this temple, as also of the other Jaina temples at Karkala and other places in the Kanara Districts, is the reverse slope of the eaves above the verandah, which is said to be copied from the thatched roofs of the houses of the people. This basadi, like the others of the place, looks much plainer in the exterior than Brahmanical temples. 'Their pillars look like logs of wood with the angles partially chamfered off, so as to make them octagons, and the sloping roofs of the verandahs are so evidently wooden that the style itself cannot be far removed from a wooden original... The blinds between the pillars which are there executed in stone are found in wood in every city in India. . . The interiors of these temples are in marked contrast with the plainness of the exteriors. Nothing can exceed the richness of the variety with which they are carved. No two pillars seem alike, 1 Saletore, op. cit., p. 352. 370

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN and many are ornamented to an extent they may seem almost fantastic'.1 An interesting feature of the Tribhuvana-cudamani-basti is that around its base runs a band of sculptures in bas-relief depicting various scenes perhaps from Jaina literary works. Another group of structures of a peculiar and beautiful form consists of tombs of the priests in the neighbourhood of Mudbidri (plate 251). 'They vary much in size and magnificence, some being from three to five or seven storey in height; but they are not, like the storeys of the Dravidian temples, ornamented with simulated cells and finishing with domical roofs. The division of each storey is a sloping roof, like those of the pagodas at Kathmandu, and in China or Tibet. In India they are quite anomalous. In the first place, no tombs of priests are known to exist anywhere else and their forms, too, are quite unlike any other building now known to be standing in any other part of India'.' At Karkal, 15 km. north of Mudbidri, there are some very interesting examples of Jaina temples. Some six of them, including a Tirthankara-basti, are located in the suburb of Hiriyangadi. One of them, viz. the Santinathabasti, is stated in an inscription, dated 1334 of the period of Hoysala Ballala III, to have received donations from a number of persons including some pious women of nobility. A piece of fine architectural workmanship is the manastambha standing in front of the largest basadi at the place. At Karkal proper, there is the famous Caumukha-basti (plate 252A), built in 1586-87. Each of its four doors opens on three black-stone figures of three Tirthankaras, Ara, Malli and Munisuvrata, of identical size and shape. The temple has pillars of simple workmanship, has the sloping eaves made of long stone slabs overlapping one over the other and topped by a double frieze-like part. Interestingly the temple has no superstructure and may be said, therefore, to be an example of munda-prasada of the sarvatobhadra class. Temples of this class are rare. At Venur, 20 km. from Mudbidri, there are a few Jaina temples, of which the Santisvara-basti with the earliest inscription dated 1489-90 is of special interest (plate 252B). This all-stone temple has a sanctum on the first floor also, and this sanctum has an image of a Tirthankara and a roof of a somewhat pyramidal shape. This method of placing a sanctum over sanctum in 1 J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, II, 1910, pp. 76-77, wood-cuts 303-305; Brown, op. cit., p. 156, plate CIIA, fig. 1. 2 Fergusson, op. cit., pp. 79-80. 'K.V. Ramesh, History of South Kannara, Dharwar, 1970, p. 298. 4 Srinivasan, op. cit., p. 79, fig. 1. 371

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI diminishing sizes is an ancient practice, especially in the Karnataka region, and an early example of the type is the Lad Khan's temple at Aihole. There stands a well-carved mana-stambha in front of the Santisvara-basti. Several other places in the South Kanara District had Jaina temples belonging to this period, but information about them is meagre. Similar is the case with Jaina temples in the North Kanara District, although from a number of inscriptions one can gather the information that during the Vijayanagara rule Jainism was very popular here. The Jaina temple at Bhatkal has been mentioned above. Known as the Jattappa Nayakana Candrana thesvara-basti (plate 253), it is situated to the north of the town of Bhatkal. As described by Cousens, it consists of two blocks of buildings joined together by an intervening porch, the running east and west and facing east. The western block is in two storeys, the ground floor containing the principal hall, internally supported upon six pillars and enclosed with perforated screen-walls. The shrine with its two parallel chambers extends across the whole width of the building. The interior is remarkably plain. The eastern block, which, serving as a porch to the temple, has a plan somewhat similar to that of the contemporary gopurams of southIndian temples. Cousens adds that the pillars in these temples are shapeless, ill-proportioned, squat and clumsy." At Haduvalli (same as Sangitapur), 18 km. east-north-east of Bhatkal, is the plain temple of Candranathasvamin, a flat-slab-roofed structure of no architectural interest. Bilogi is another place in North Kanara where there is a large Parsvanatha-basti built in the sixteenth century, to which additions were made some time in the last quarter of the century. This temple is Dravidian in style. Among the ruined temples of Gerasoppa the largest is the one called the Caturmukha-basti. 'It is a cruciform-planned temple having four porches, one facing each of four cardinal points. The temple contains in its central shrine, which has four doors, the caumukha or caturmukha, which is a square facing each door. The tower, if it ever had one, has disappeared. Around the temple was a verandah, the solitary columns of which still stand, the roof-slabs having been removed." This temple may belong to about the sixteenth century and may be compared with the Caturmukha-basti of Karkal detailed above, which is considered to be an example of a munda-prasada of the sarvato bhadra class. Ibid., p. 78. Annual Report on Kannada Research in Bombay Province for 1939-40, pp. 58 ff. 3 Cousens, op. cit., pp. 135-36. * Ibid., p. 126. 372

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Chapter 29] THE DECCAN SVENS 1, +. NI" WARE . WW W SEX 1187 . A . Hampi : Ganigitti temple with pillar in front PLATE 247

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [Part VI M AN JE Hampi : group of temples on the Hemakuta hill PLATE 248

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN 4. SW 12 w wie to the f o mer ... . Hampi : Trikutacala temple on the Hemakuta hill * Mudbidri : thousand-pillared temple PLATE 249

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI A. Mudbidri : pillars in Bhaira-devi mandara 32 9 .4. 7 CL LA 14.2. ** B. Mudbidri : pillars in Bhairu-devi mandapa PLATE 250

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(PART VI MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 ce . A. Karkal. Caumukha-basti * . * . T . M ALL B. Venur : santisvara-basti with pillar in fort PLATE 252

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CHAPTER 29) THE DECCAN I 1 G www . Bhadkal: Candranathestara-basti with pillar in front PLATE 253

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI A. Karkal : Brahmadeva-stambha they B Mudbidri : upper part of a pillar PLATE 254

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CHAPTER 29] Karkal Gommatesvara statue PLATE 255 THE DECCAN

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI A. Warangal fort : Tirthankara Parsvanatha (State Museum. Ilyderabad) 5 . B. Mudbidri : metal Tirthankara INC PLATE 256

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN A. Mudbidri : metal Tirthankara B. Mudbidri : metal caturnukha PLATE 257

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI - an 4 St. E 3 WA * Mudbidri : metal Meru PLATE 258

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN MONUMENTS IN MAHARASHTRA The followers of Jainism in the Maharashtra region have also left behind some interesting examples of works of art and architecture. The temples built by the Jainas here are naturally in the local style, in the northern Sikharastyle of a particular variety which went by the popular name of Hemadpanthi sytle, and Jaina temples also possessed architectural feature characteristic of this style. Some of them belonging, however, to the twelfth century are found at Anjaneri in Nasik District. Among the Jaina temples of this region belonging to this period, interestingly two are cave-temples. One of them is at Tringalvadi and the other at Chandor, both in Nasik District. The former, which has an inscription of 1344, is a very ornate cave-temple. It consists of a garbha-grha, antarala and mand apa. "Along the front of this mand apa is a low parapet-wall from which rise pillars, one on either side of the entrance, supporting the outer eave of the verandah. There are grille-windows, ceiling-designs, beautifully-carved pillars, carved front doorway and bands of mouldings. In the shrine there is a mutilated figure of Tirthankara. The Chander cave, which seems to be later in date, has a small room supported by rough square pillars. Inside is an image of Candraprabha.' An unfinished Jaina temple at Sirpur, 19 km. north-west of Basim in Berar, dedicated to Antariksa-Parsvanatha, is of interest. It has an abraded inscription dated sarvat 1334 (A.D. 1278 if the era is Vikrama), which contains this name of the Tirthankara. It has a star-shaped plan and its walls are decorated with band of arabasque. The sikhara of the temple, in brick-and-mortar, seems to have been a later addition. The entrance-doorway of the hall is elaborately carved and has images at the bottom on either side, some of the images being representation of nude Jaina figures. The lintel of the doorway has the small seated figure of a Jina." PILLARS The next class of architectural components is the pillars, the manastambhas and Brahmadeva-stambhas. These columns form an integral part of the temple, but they have an individuality of their own which is admittedly charming. Says Smith of the stambhas of Kanara: 'In the whole range of Indian H. Cousens, Medieval Temples of the Dekkan, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, XLVII, Calcutta, 1931, p. 43 ff. * Ibid., p. 48. 3 Ibid., p. 49. * Joid., pp. 67-68, where the date 1334 is referred to the Saka era. 373

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI art there is nothing, perhaps, equal to these Kanara pillars for good taste.1 In the same strain Fergusson observes' 'Though not the grandest, certainly the most elegant and graceful objects to be found in Kanara belonging to the Jaina style of architecture are the stambhas, which are found attached to many of their temples." The mana-stambhas are tall pillars topped by a small pavilion in which is usually placed a caumukha with a Jaina figure carved on each of its four faces. The Brahmadeva-stambhas have in their pavilion-like top part a figure of Brahmadeva. In a Jaina temple a mana-stambha seems to have been an almost invariable feature. Examples of Brahmadeva-stambhas are found near the Gommata figures at Karkal (plate 254A) and Venur. A beautiful example of a mana-stambha is found at Guruvayankeri. Of a column, about 16.5 m. high, from Mudbidri (plate 254B), not belonging to either of these two categories, Smith approvingly quotes Walhouse: The whole capital and canopy are a wonder of light, elegant, highly decorated stone-work; and nothing can surpass the stately grace of these beautiful pillars, whose proportions and adaptations to surrounding scenery are always perfect, and whose richness of decorations never offends." Evidently, the Jainas of the late medieval period of the Deccan have contributed a remarkable addition to the already rich and fascinating repretoire of Indian architecture by the creation of these singularly beautiful stambhas. GOMMATA STATUES The colossi representing the saint Gommata, the son of the first Tirthan kara, occurring in Karkal and Venur are other examples of the striking artistic creations. Like the Sravanabelgola example, they are set on the top of hillocks and are visible for long distances around. The one at Karkal (plate 255) is made of solid block of gneiss and is about 12.5 m. high. Estimated to weigh about 80 tonnes, 'the figure is made to lean against a slab which reaches up to its wrists. There is a round pedestal which is sunk into a thousand-petalled lotus flower. The colossus stands on a platform of stones and is surrounded by a stone railing and two laterite enclosures... The legs and arms of the figure are entwined with vines (draksa creeper), On both sides of the feet a number of snakes are cut out of the slab against which the image leans.' The inscriptions on the side of the same slabs state that this image of Bahubali or Gommata-Jinapati was set up by a chief named Vira-Pandya, the son of 1 V. A. Smith History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Oxford, 1911, p. 22. 2 Fergusson, p. cit., p, 80-81. 3 lbid., p. 81. Smith, op. cit., p. 22, fig. 6. 374

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CHAPTER 29] THE DECCAN Bhairava, in A.D. 1431-32. An inscription of the same chief is engraved on a graceful stone pillar in front of the outer gateway. This pillar bears a seated figure of Brahmadeva and is surrounded by a stonc railing. The Venur colossus, about 11 m. high, resembles the Karkal only with some minor differences in detail. According to inscriptions it was set up at Enuru by Timmaraja of the family of Camunda in 1603-04. The statue has the special peculiarity of the cheeks being dimpled with a deep, grave smile', which is considered to detract from the impressive effect." Another beautiful sculpture representing Gommata is found on the hill called Gommatagiri situated to the right of the Mysore-Hunsur Road, at a distance of 25 km. from Mysore. The setting of this figure is picturesque. Like the other figures, this also represents the saint standing with creepers going round the legs, thighs, the arms and showing at the shoulders. The curls of hair on the head are well-worked. It has a faintly smiling face, and the eyes are gentle. The two hanging hands are just touching the hood of the serpents on either side. The serpents, however, are not shown as coming out of the ant-hills. Stylistically this figure may be assigned to about the fourteenth century. OTHER SCULPTURE Countless images of Tirthankaras, standing or seated, of this period are reported from various parts of the Deccan. Generally the images are produced out of the stone that is locally available. They are made of copper and other materials also. There arc images carved on rock-boulders too. The seated figures are in padmasana or ardha-paryankasana, while the standing ones are in kayotsarga. . Besides the sculptures of the Tirthankaras, there are representations of their attendant-figures like the Yaksas and Yaksis, their style bearing the marks of the school and period to which they belong. In fact, this stylistic peculiarity can be noticed even in the Tirthankara sculptures. From many places in the Deccan Jaina sculptures of the period are reported, but very few of them are illustrated. For instance, at Malkhed in Gulbarga District, the capital of the Rastrakutas, there is a Jajna basti of the twelfth or thirteenth century, which is stated to contain Jaina images of later Annual Report of South Indian Epigraphy for 1901, p. 4. ? ibid., pp. 4-5. * Smith, op. cit., p. 268. 375

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 (PART VI times. Sedam, also in Gulbarga District, is another place where a number ot Jaina bastis are reported to contain similar sculptures of the same age. At Hampi also some Jaina sculptures are known to exist, So also at Sravanabelgola, Mudbidri, etc. At Venur a Jaina dharmasala is known to store a number of metal images of beautiful workmanship. Several places with Jaina bastis to which images were donated by devout Jainas mentioned in numerous inscrip tions are reported in the Epigraphia Carnatica volumes and the Mysore Archaeological Reports up to 1956. Of these, a very early group of Jaina sculptures is found carved on the rock-surface at Anegondi on the northern bank of the Tungabhadra just opposite Hampi. Though they have been called 'crude' they are rather good examples of the art about the fourteenth century. The standing figures in the kayotsarga-posture with the usual mukkudai (triple umbrella) above their heads are beautifully proportioned. The workmanship of one group is obviously different from that of the other and the one on the proper left is definitely a fine piece of sculpture. Its facial features are expressive of the inner calm, the shoulders are well-formed, the arms are beautifully worked and the portion below the waist is not without its points of interest. The attendant-figures in seated positions are also good studies with their finely-proportioned bodies and expressive gesture of hand and features. Among the few examples of Jaina sculpture known from the west-coast areas, those from Haduvalli (Sangitapura) and Bhatkal may be noticed here. One of them is a metal figure of a Tirthankara from the former place, with an inscription of the fourteenth century. It has been identified as Tirtharkara Rsabha, on the basis of the seated figures with Gomukha on pedestal. The lion is, however, usually found in the representations of Mahavira. The pedestal is separate, and it is not known definitely whether it belongs to the figure. The inscription does not mention the name of the Tirthankara. The figure is seated in the paryarkasana and bears the srivatsa-mark on the chest. Probably the figure bears strands of hair falling on the shoulders, a characteristic of Adinatha. Behind the figure is an elaborately-worked prabhavali, enclosed within a beautiful makara-torana supported on either side by pillars with several details. Seventy-one Tirthankaras are represented on the prabhavali, ? Klaus Fischer in Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, I, 1955, P. 57. 2 Ibid., fig. 15. 3 R.S. Panchamukhi in Annual Report on Kannada Research in Bombay Province for 1939-40, pp. 91 ff., for the metal and stone sculptures from Haduvalli. 376

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CHAPTER 29) THE DECCAN including the standing figures of Suparava and Parsvanatha on the two sides and four seated Tirthankaras below the triple umbrella. There are representations of trees at either extreme end. The pedestal, as has been stated above, contains panels having the figures of Gomukha Yaksa, Cakresvari (?), the lion and rosette-designs. Being an example of the early part of the period under review, this image possesses features which are reminiscent of a style of an earlier period, noted for its power and beauty. The metal figure of Padmavati and the stone figure of the same deity, the Yaksi of Parsvanatha, one of a very late date and are examples of the decadent style. Yet the sculptors of these two figures did not fail to infuse into their works a certain quality of serenity and divinity by means of the facial features. The attributes of Padmavati seem to agree with those of the standing bronze Padmayati at Tirupparuttikkunram in the weapons and the vehicle. The stone figure of Padmavati, with five serpent-hoods, has the cognizance of swan. The attributes are goad and noose in the upper and lotus and fruit in the lower hands. The other metal figure representing a cauniukhi, (Nandisvara) is unique and may belong to the fifteenth-sixteenth centur a small metal shrine (mand apa) with an arched opening on the four sides, An elaborate representation in stone of Nandisvara (?) (probably a sahasra-bimba) is found in the Sankha-basti at Lakshmeswar, in which one thousand and fourteen small Tirthankara images are carved with a life-size image in the centre. The stone figure of Parsvanatha is a beautiful specimen of the thirteenth or fourteenth century.? Turning to Andhra Pradesh, individual Tirthankara figures mostly in stone are known from several places, many of them attributed to a period earlier than 1300. However, the Jina figure seated in the ardha-paryarikasana from Kajulur may be said to be an example of sculpture of the early Vijayanagara period. The strength and power of the Jina are beautifully portrayed by the broad chest, high shoulders and well-built arms. The torso and the lower part also do not lack in plastic qualities. The sculptures representing Vardhamana and Parsvanatha from Pudur may also belong to the same period as they are stylistically allied to the Kajulur figure. The standing Parsvanatha figure (plate 256A) from Warangal fort appears to belong to about the 1 T.N. Ramachandran, Tirupparurikunram and its Temples, Bulletin of the Madras Government Muscum, New Series, General Section, 1, 3, Madras, 1934, plate XXXIII, 3. Panchamukhi, op. cit., p. 94, plate IX (a), (b). * Gopalakrishna Murthy, op. cit. All the pieces mentioned in this paragraph are illustrated therein. 377

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MONUMENTS & SCULPTURE A.D. 1300 TO 1800 [PART VI fourteenth century. Its style is reminiscent of the Kakatiya school. The noteworthy details of this image are the miniature figures of twenty-three Tirtharkaras around the back-slab, the cauri-bearers and the seven-hooded serpent topped by the mukkudai, all very confidently worked, with an eye on proportion. Amongst the examples belonging to later periods, the Jina from Nindra, the tomb-stone figures from Chippagiri, the cauvisa figure from Nizamabad District and the Gommata figure from Bairampalli may be mentioned, and they may range in date from the fifteenth century. Before closing this brief outline of the works of sculpture which the Jainas created during the late medieval period in the Deccan, it may be mentioned that at such places as Sravanabelgola, Mudbidri, (plate 256B, 257A. 257B and 258), Nenur, etc., where the Jainas continued to live in an uninterrupted manner, one can find a large number of Jaina sculptures, mostly in metal, which were made during the last few centuries. Late examples of the art, for instance, may be found in the Jaina monastery at Sravanabelgola. P. R. SRINIVASAN Epigraphic u Carnatica. II, 1923, p. 29 ft., particularly plates XLIV and XLV. COLORE 378

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Part VII PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS

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CHAPTER 30 MURAL PAINTINGS THOUGH THE ART OF PAINTING IN INDIA HAD A GREAT TRADITION BEHIND IT, nothing has survived to illustrate the early phase of Jaina paintings, the earliest extant examples dating only from Pallava times. Mahendravarman I, the Pallava king, who was a great artist, sculptor and painter, musician, poet, engineer and connoisseur of art, was originally a follower of Jainism but was converted to Saivism in the beginning of the seventh century by the Saiva saint Tirunavukkarasu or Appar, as he was affectionately termed by Tirujnana-Sambandar, baby hymnist, who had been responsible for the conversion of the Pandyan king Ninrasirnedumaran. It is well-known that Mahendravarman was the first in the south to introduce rock-cut architecture; he also bore the title citrakarapuli, the tiger among painters. At Sittannavasal, not far from Tiruchchirappalli, he excavated a Jaina cave temple. For long, all the paintings in this cave were believed to have also been executed simultaneously with the excavation of the cave, that in the seventh century, but recently it has been found that there are two layers of paintings, an earlier and a later, as also an inscription of the ninth century, relating to the additions and renovations in the early Pandyan period. It is only a portion of the ceiling, originally painted and not completely covered by the Pandyan coat, that reveals patterns of the early Pallava painter (plate 259). An inscription in Tamil verse near the southern end of the facade mentions a Jaina Acarya Ilan-Gautaman, hailing from Madurai, who renovated and embellished the ardha-mand apa and added a mukha-mand apa. It is known to history that Arikesari Parankusa, a Pandyan king, contemporary with the last two Pallava kings, was a Jaina ruler, converted to the Brahmanical faith by the baby saint Tirujnana-Sambandar, in the later half of seventh century, just as the Pallava king Mahendravarman had been converted by Appar. There is thus observod in this cave a continuity of Jaina traditions. ri For the alleged Jaina affiliation of the paintings in the Jogimara-Sitabenga caves, see above, p. 10.-Editor.] pa The Pallava origin of this cave-temple has been doubted. See above, chapter 19. -Editor) 381

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS (PART VII 128 FIG. XXIV. Sittannavasal : a painted danseuse One of the paintings in the cave, that of a lake showing a delightful representation of fish, animals, birds and flower-gatherers, probably does not illustrate the parable of the lotus-pool, but the 'region of the lake', the second katika-bhumi (region) where the bhavyas, the good ones, rejoice while washing themselves, as they pass on from region to region in order to hear the discourse of the Lord, in the samavasarana structure. The flower-gatherers are portrayed in elegant proportions, and there is a great charm in their face. The stalks of the lotuses that they carry as well as the petals of the blooming flowers and the buds are wonderfully realistic. The ducks, fish and other aquatic animals here, particularly the buffaloes, are perfect examples of the painter's study of their form, movement, life and habits (colour-illustrations 1-4). The figure of an apsaras (col.-ill. 5), with the left hand in the dandaposture, and the other, with the finger composing the pataka, with the face slightly tilted, and the eyes turned in that direction, is as effective as in Nataraja in the usual bhujanga-trasitaka ('scared by snake') pose. The disposition of the bands in this manner is repeated to great aesthetic advantage in the catura-mode of dance of Siva in an exquisite early Cola example of metalwork from Tiruvarangalam. It is essential to compare this with a similar 382

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CHAPTER 301 MURAL PAINTINGS 2 - _) FIG. XXV. Sittannavasal: a painted royal couple figure of dancer from Barabudur,' the hastas arranged exactly as in the Sittannavasal painting, which shows how happy and pleasant is this composition of the hands in danda and pataka in the portrayal of a dance-figure. The other danseuse on a pillar (plate 260A), with the left hand stretched out in joy, matalli, and the right in pataka, with the whole body swaying in lovely flexion (plate 260B; fig. XXIV), cannot but remind one of the figures of Bala-Krona or Bala-Subrahmanya dancing in sheer joy. The elaborate coiffure, with flowers and pearls, and simple but effective ornamental decoration, along with the graceful figure itself, composing this beautiful feminine theme, make it a masterpiece of the Pandyan painter's brush. There is also a delightful portrait of a king and queen conversing with a Jaina monk, which has partially survived, to illustrate the highly technical perfection of the painter in managing portraiture, the viddha-citra type, as it is known in the Citra-sutra, a text on painting. The delightful crown of the prince and the effective dressed coiffure of the queen (fig. XXV) perfectly match each other and are a contrast to the simple unadorned monk in front of them. C. Sivaramamurti, le Stapa du Barabudur, Paris, 1961, plate XII, 1. 383

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII In the Indra-sabha at Ellora (above, chapter 18) the entire surface of the ceiling and the walls is covered with painted scenes with a wealth of detail. Of the ninth-tenth century, the scenes illustrate Jaina texts and patterns including floral, animal and bird designs. The painting of Gommatesvara here is interesting for comparison with sculptural versions of the theme, an example of which in this cave itself and other similar ones known from elsewhere, as the monolith from Sravanabelgola, the famous bronze now in the Prince of Wales Muscum, and so forth, afford scope for study. Nowhere is the theme of Gommatesvara, turned recluse and standing in deep meditation with ant-hills grown about his legs and creepers entwining his body in wild growth, and with his sisters on either side, better portrayed. It is, however, the Dik-pala group-of Yama with his consort on a buffalo, preceded and followed by members of his retinue and others on the same pattern-presented on a band on the ceiling that arrests our attention. It is interesting to compare it with the portrayal of a similar theme from a ceiling-piece of a temple at Hemavati, of Nolamba workmanship, now in the Madras Museum. The treatment of clouds, the wide-open eyes of the figures and the beginning of stylization, not yet definite, arc specially noteworthy. The flying Vidyadharas with their consorts amidst clouds, sailing along in the sky, in close embrace and affectionate fondling on the neck as other godlings move in the air with offerings of flowers in their hands in puspa-puta, the hands gathered together as a cup to hold flowers (col.-ills. 6-10), dwarf ganas with their hands raised and brought together in adoration, while others blow the conch and yet others clasp their hands in tune with the celestial music that fills the air (col.-ill. 11), are a delightful creation of the painter's brush. These are probably the only remains of the painter's work of this period of art, during the hegemony of the Rastrakutas, one of the greatest dynasties in the Deccan, whose sway extended far and wide and had impact on almost all the contemporary kingdoms in India-north, south, east and west. The Colas, who again came to power in the ninth century under Vijayalaya, were tolerant kings, who served all the faiths alike, with a special predilection for their own faith, Saivism. Rajaraja, who built the most magnificent temple for Siva, named after 'him Rajarajesvara, in Thanjavur and whose taste for art got him the appellation nitya-vinoda ('always rejoicing in art'), was equally a great patron of Jainism as can be seen from his munificent gifts to that faith. His sister Kundavai was responsible for building and endowing Jaina temples at Tirumalai and other places. The Cola paintings in the Jaina monuments, however, belong to a date later than those of Nartamalai, which are of the earliest phase of Cola art. The paintings and 384

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CHAPTER 30) MURAL PAINTINGS > * 1. . . 220 KA . . RE . Sittannavasal : painting on cave-ceiling PLATE 259

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS (PART VII .. A. Sittannavasal : painting on pillar and architrave . . . B. Sittannavasal : painted danseuse on pillar PLATE 260

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CHAPTER 30] MURAL PAINTINGS 3 4 ute M 1 C ca 70, , DE .. . Tirupparuttikkunram : paintings in Mahavira temple. Upper panel, Rsabhanatha and Laukika-devatas; lower panel, Rsabhanatha proceeding for diksa PLATE 261

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII - kennen de una BU SHA be ON V CAN A . IN TIM var TU. TAXO . . Tirupparuttihkunram : paintings in Mahavira tempel. Upper panel, Rsabhanatha's renunciation and Kaccha-Mahakaccha episode, lower panel, Nami-Vinami episode PLATE 262

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS (PART VII * 3. . 7 Tirupparutuikkunram : paintings in Mahavira temple, scenes of Krsna lila PLATE 264

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CHAPTER 30] MURAL PAINTINGS sculpture at Tirumalai are not altogether as degenerate as Smith would have them. The paintings come midway between the Vijayanagara and Cola styles, representing the last phase of Cola art. The groups of Kalpavasi-devas in the Laksmivara-mandapa, painted on the brick walls of the outermost chamber, ground floor, composing the earliest painted layer, are pleasing figures, though tending towards the late style, profusely bejewelled and with large open eyes. The second painted layer is nearer the Vijayanagara manner. Almost about this time, the Hoysalas were emerging as a dynasty of rulers in western Mysore. Their greatest ruler Vispuvardhana (1106-41), originally known as Bittideva or Bittiga, was converted to the Vaisnavite faith by Ramanuja and built some of the most beautiful temples as at Belur and Halebid that make Hoysala art so famous. The king, converted from Jainism, was catholic in spirit, with his queen, dedicated to the faith of the Tirthankaras, equally so, just brings to our mind the Iksvaku sovereigns of the Brahmanical faith, the princesses of whose family were devoted to Buddhism. The ministers and generals of Visnuvardhana, like Gangaraja and Hulji Dandanayaka, were also devout followers of the Jaina faith. Though the sculptural wealth of the Hoysalas is evident in the magnificent examples of architecture and sculpture all over their kingdom, no example of mural art has so far been discovered. Fortunately, however, there are specimens of paintings of the Hoysala period preserved in the Manuscripts Library of the temple in Mudbidri. These are painted palm-leaf manuscripts at the Jaina pontifical seat and are objects of worship. They comprise the commentaries of Virasena known as the Dhavala, Jaya-dhavala and Maha-dhavala or Maha-bandha of the original text of the Sapkhandagama. The Dhavala, Jaya-dhavala and Maha-dhavala preserve surviving portions of the original Jaina canons of twelve angas according to Digambara tradition. The Dhavala is the commentary on the Sarkhandagama, wherein the story of the composition of the latter is narrated in the introductory portion. The teachings of Mahavira, arranged into twelve angas by his pupil, Indrabhuti Gautama, were handed down by oral tradition but were neglected to such an extent that they had to be revived. Gunadhara (first century B.C.) and Dharasena (first century A.D.) were the two Acaryas who preserved whatever was available of the teachings of Mahavira, in their respective works on Jaina karman philosophy, known as the Kasaya-pahuda and Sarkhandagama. The last of the series of commentaries on the Safkhand agama was the Dhavala. Its author Virasena also wrote the commentary of the Kasaya-pahuda known as the Jaya-dhavala. The date of the Dhavala is * V.A. Smith, History of Fine Arts in India and Ceylon, second ed., revised by K. de B. Codrington, Oxford, 1930, p. 140. 385

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII 816 (A.D. 894), during the time of the Rastrakuta king Amoghavarsa I. The attention of the present writer to these illustrated manuscripts was drawn some years ago by his esteemed friend Shri Chhotelal Jain, through whose good offices these printed leaves were received on loan for a manuscripts exhibition at the National Museum in January 1964, when they were photographed in colour. The manuscripts, fortunately, have been taken good care of in the ancient library at Mudbidri. Clearly of the Hoysala period by their palaeography, closely resembling the lithic as well as the copper-plate inscriptions of Visnuvardhana's time, they have survived, with their paintings of quality in bright colour, to give us an idea of the art of the Hoysala painter. It is interesting to compare the writing in these manuscripts with that of the flowery lines on the metal plates from the Belur temple. The paintings must be attributed to the time of Visnuvardhana and his wife, Santala, a devoted Jaina. The paintings, on unusually large palm-leaves, are important both for the beauty of the letters composing the text and the illustrations that accompany it. Two of the leaves, with letters rather thickened, with a greater delicacy than in the rest, with a soft tone reducing all effects of contrast in colours and with outlines drawn in very pleasing proportions, appear to be the earliest among the paintings. This manuscript of the Dhavala is dated A.D. 1113. Here is presented Kali, the Yaksi of Suparsvanatha, in fair complexion, contrary to her name. Her vehicle, the bull, is present. The flexion of her body and the sinuous lines composing the figure are remarkable. Similarly, the devotees on one side, probably royal devotees, including the king, the queen and the prince, are drawn and painted with great delicacy. These figures occur towards the end of the leaves (col.-ills. 12 and 13). The central paintings on both the leaves are of a standing and a seated Tirthankara Mahavira. Though it is difficult to handle a theme so simple as that of a Tirthankara figure in the nude, the painter has made the figures truly artistic creations, which are most pleasing from the aesthetic point of view (col.-ills. 14 and 15). The elaborate seat, with makara-decorated back and rearing lions, is beautifully matched by the cauri-bearers on either side in pleasing proportions and flexions. The painting at once recalls that masterpiece of early Cola workmanship, the Nagapattinam Buddha, with Nagaraja cauri-bearers on either side. At another end of the leaf there is Ajita, the Yaksa of Puspadanta and a pair of seated devotees (col.-ills. 16 and 17). The painting is almost monochrome here, but not without effect as a painting of volume brought out with great mastery. 386

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII greatest building-activity and the beautifying of the temples with sculptures and paintings continued during a long period of nearly four hundred years from the fourteenth century. How deeply impressed even the European travellers of the time in India were with the colourful murals in the temples and palaces and homes of the noblemen of the day is seen in the accounts left by those like the famous Portuguese traveller Paes, who visited the Vijayanagara capital and showered praise on the painter's art. This is no exaggeration, as it is very wellknown that emperor Krsnadevaraya, himself a poet and artist, was a great patron of literature and art, being credited with the construction of more gopuras than he could have ever completed, almost like the legendary achievement of Asoka, credited with the construction of eighty-four thousand stupas. Among the innumerable paintings that are found all over the vast Vijayanagara empire, on the ceilings of large gopuras and mandapas and walls of temples, the Jaina paintings on the sangita-mandapa of the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikkunram in Kanchipuram are noteworthy from the point of view of Jaina themes in Vijayanagara art. Some of the paintings belong to an earlier phase, though most of them are much later. The earlier ones, in fragments, are nevertheless extremely interesting, not only from the point of view of the themes that they illustrate, but also because of the special place they occupy in the study of paintings of this period. As the mandapa was itself built by Irugappa, the minister of Bukkaraya II and a devoted follower of the Jaina faith, these paintings illustrate the painter's craft towards the end of the fourteenth century. The themes chosen are from the life of Vardhamana. Here is the nativity-scene showing Priyakarini giving birth to Tirthankara Vardhamana; most interesting is the theme of the child-birth both in south-Indian paintings and in carvings from Kerala, where the Ramayana provides the scope for illustrating the theme. A comparative study of such scenes in indeed interesting. The birth and anointment-ceremony of the child by Sudharmendra accompanied by his wife Saci is painted with elegance and is quite typical in every respect of the form, deportment, ornamentation and decoration of the period. Equally interesting is Saudharmendra's dance before Vardhamana, with the legs crossed in pada-svastika. Even with the weakening of the Vijayanagara empire after the battle of Talikota, patronage of art was continued both by the titular emperors and the now more powerful Nayaka kings who had been their erstwhile subordinates. To this Nayaka phase belong the later paintings in the Mahavira temple at Tirupparuttikkunram, of the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries. Scenes from the life of Rsabhadeva, of Vardhamana, of Krsna, the cousin of Tirthankara Neminatha, 388

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CHAPTER 30) MURAL PAINTINGS 3. ' * 4 * * WA 42 1. Sittanna asal flower-gatherer in lotus-pool ER w ws 196 w

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CHAPTER 30) MURAL PAINTINGS . MARS 2.0 wers 3. Sittanpavasal: a hamsa-design 72 14 4 . Sk. es A AJ * OPA

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII 91 * . . 6. Ellora : flying celestial with floral offering

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS [PART VII

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CHAPTER 30] 11. Ellora flying celestials MURAL PAINTINGS

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS DES *** PH 3,4 X . . . E www Ver R AO . 1 OMEX (PART VII 20 & 21. Mudbidri MS. : Bahubali with sisters, and Sruta-devi

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CHAPTER 30] MURAI. PAINTINGS as well as the life of Neminatha himself, are all graphically portrayed in a long series with elaborate painted labels in Tamil, clearly explaining each scene. The painting of labels had become a usual feature in the Vijayanagara period, as observed at several other places like Chidambaram, Tiruvalur, etc. Even in temple-hangings the painting of labels became a regular mode of explaining the themes. The labels were usually either in Telugu or in Tamil according to the region. Here at Tirupparuttikkunram they are in Tamil and the letters themselves are in Tamil-Grantha. Episodes from the life of Rsabhadeva depict how the Laukantika-devas reminded Rsabhadeva that it was time he renounced the world to proceed for diksa (plate 261), how Kaccha, Mahakaccha and others, deeply devoted to him, also tried to renounce but were unable to bear the intense cold and pangs of hunger and returned to their clothes and food, how Nami and Vinami pleaded with Rsabhadeva in deep contemplation to give them their share of his kingdom (plate 262) and how Dharanendra offered them the sovereignty of the Vidyadhara world, the first carya of Rsabhadeva--all of them narrated at great length (plate 263). In the story of Krsna, the cousin of Neminatha, Baladeva receiving the new-born baby, crossing the Yamuna, and giving the child to Nandagopa, and the bala-lilas of Krsna (plate 264), his killing the various Asuras, Sakata, Dhenuka, etc., the uprooting of the yamala-trees as he crawled along, pulling the mortar to which he was chained, and so forth, a whole group of cows, cowherds and milkmaids-all these are all vividly portrayed in this series. It is of interest to note the various customs, social modes, beliefs and faiths, ceremonies, religious functions, etc., in such depictions as the presentation of the purna-kumbha, flowers and other objects as a welcome, music and dance, auguring a festivity or a celebration of an event-all painted graphically in several panels. Detailed descriptions of the labels with their readings and an elaborate narration of the themes themselves are to be found in a monograph by Ramachandran entirely devoted to the Tirupparuttikkunram temple.1 The Nayaka phase of art is the last chapter of a glorious tradition that had continued during the centuries in south India and the Deccan. C. SIVARAMAMURTI 1 T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temple, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, New Series, General Section, 1, 3, Madras, 1934. 389

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