Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy

Author(s): J C Sikdar
Publisher: P V Research Institute Varanasi
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001663/1

Page #1
P.V. Research Series No.38 CONCEPT OF MATTER IN JAINA PHILOSOPHY Editor: Dr. S.M. Join J. C. SIKDAR P. V. RESEARCH INSTITUTE Varanasi - 5

Page #2
Parsvanatha Vidyasrama Series 38 Concept of Matter in JAINA PHILOSOPHY By Dr. Jogendra Chandra Sikdar RY REGECRUI Editor Dr. Sagar Mal Jain M. A., Ph. D., D. Litt. INSTITUT W VARANASI-5 P. V. RESEARCH INSTITUTE Varanasi-5

Page #3
Published by : P. V. Research Institute I. T. I. Road, Varanasi-5 December 1987 Rs. 150.00 Printed by : Divine Printers B. 13/44, Sonarpura Varanasi

Page #4
Dedicated to My Late Acaryas Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose Prof. Dr. Dhirendra Mohan Datta

Page #5

Page #6
Publisher's Note We feel immense pleasure indeed in presenting this valuable work--'The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy' by Dr. J. C. Sikdar in the hands of the scholars. It is also a matter of honour for us that on this work the author was awarded D. Litt Degree by Jabalpur University, Jabalpur. Jaina Acaryas have contributed to almost all the branches ofthe knowledge including Physical sciences also but unfortunately this aspect remained unexplored. No serious attempt has been made by scholars in this specific field. It is gratifying that this subject is for the first time exhaustively dealt by Dr. J. C. Sikdar. The beauty of this work lies in its searching analysis and critical and comparative approach to various problems related to the concept of Matter in Indian thought-philosophical as well as scientific. Through this work author has really made a valuable contribution to Indian Scientific thought in general and Jainism in particular. We hope that this work will serve as a landmark and will succeed in arousing the interest of the scholars in the field. We are extremely grateful to Dr. J. C. Sikdar for allowing P. V. Research Institute to publish this work. We express our deep sense of gratefulness to Sadhvi sre Mrgavati SrIJI for arranging a grant of Rupees Seven thousand for publication of this work in the memory of Pujya Sadhviji Sri Silavatlji Maharaja Sahiba. We are thankful to Dr. Arun Pratap Singh, then Research Associate, P. V. Research Institute and other academic staff of the Institute who have helped in one way or the other in the publication of this work. We are also thankful to Sri Mahesh Kumar of Divine Printers who has been very instrumental in proof-reading and printing of the book. B. N. Jain Prof. Sagar Mal Jain Secretary Director P. V. Research Institute, I. T. I. Road, Varanasi.

Page #7

Page #8
SADHVI SRI SILAVATIJI a Twenty fourth Tirthankara Lord Mahavira, being an advocate of the cause of spiritual upliftment of women, included nuns and lay-women in his four-fold Order. Consequently, great number of women excelled themselves in austerities and spiritual development and stood at par with monks in learning and prominence. From the time of Mahavira to present age the nuns have always outnumbered the monks. In the recent past revered Acarya Vallabha Suri also laid great emphasis on the spiritual upliftment of the nuns of his order. Among his nundisciples pujya Sadhvi sri sIlavatIjI was an intelligent, vigilant and of sound character. She was born at village Ranaparada in Saurastra, the land of saints and heroes. Her earlier name was Sivakunwar Bahen. From early childhood she was very religious in her temperament. She was married to Shri Dungarasibhai of Saradhara. Her family life was quite harmonious and the couple had everything at their disposal required for leading smooth and comfortable life. They had two sons and two daughters. But unfortunately, the ruthless axe of destiny fell on her and DungarSibhai departed in 1927 A. D. Bereaved Sivakunwar Bahen had to bear the responsibility of bringing up her children. Already broken with a miserable widowhood she was struck with another severe blow when her two issues-a daughter and a son passed away in 1928, within a year of her husband's demise. A final stroke she received when her only remaining son also expired. Having realised the futility of this mortal world. She yearned for rununciation of the world and decided to lead an ascetic life. She was initiated with her only living daughter in 1928 at Satrunjaya Hill and started her new life as a nun with

Page #9
( viii ) her daughter-disciple, who became a renowned Jaina Sadhvi Mahattara Mrgavati Sriji. Arya Silavatiji devoted herself to the study of spiritual texts and religious practices. Though her knowledge about the canonical Praksta texts was not much deeper yet she had sound knowledge of Jaina works composed in Gujarati. She was well versed in telling religious short stories. She made special arrangements for the study of her daughter-desciple, Sadhvi Sri Mtgavatlji under the supervision of Pt. Sukhalalji and Pt. Bechardasji. Sadhvi Sri silavatrji toured all over Gujarat and Punjab. The people of Punjab had a great respect for her. When the Golden Jubilee celebrations of Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, founded by her guru Pujya Vijayavallabha Surijs, were accomplished, she left for heavenly abode on 17. 2. 1968 at the age of 69.

Page #10
Pujya Sadhvi Sri Silavati Sriji Diksa 1928 1968 AD.

Page #11

Page #12
PREFACE The Concept of Matter has been treated by every system of thought in its own way from the noumenal and phenomenal aspects as it exists in space and continues in time with all its qualities and modes. This subject has not so far been exhaustibly studied from the metaphysical and physical points of view on the basis of the sources of both the Jaina Agamas and the post-agamic works, although Dr. B. N. Seal, Prof. G. R. Jain, Sri Mohanlal Banthia, Dr. Harisatya Bhattacharya and other scholars made brief appraisal of it in their respective works 'The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus', 'Cosmology-Old and New', 'Jaina Padartha Vijnana men Pudgala' and 'Reals in the Jaina Metaphysics' in course of their studies in Jaina thought on this problem. In the agamic period the Jaina conception of Matter formed the foundation-stone of Jaina physics in a nascent form on a metaphysical basis. On it a superstructure of 'Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy' had been raised in the post-agamic period which commenced with the time of Umasvati and continued through out the period of the later Jainacaryas. It has been much developed in the light of the concept of Matter as embodied in other Indian philosophies with the progress of speculative thought, having kept in view the historical background of all their notions on this subject. In Jaina philosophy. Matter has been analysed on the basis of its conception as a permanent substance possessing infinite qualities and modes with many unique notions about it as found in the physical sciences. The Jaina concept of Matter is flexible to some extent, as is shown by its comparative study with the concepts of Matter in physics and metaphysics where it has passed through a series of developments into a meaningful stage of dynamic reality of the present day. A study of 'Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy' throws

Page #13
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy an important light upon many problems of Indian philosophy and thought, and more particularly in the field of the physical sciences by revealing its various aspects, such as, conception of Reality-Substance, quality and mode (Dravya-gunaparyaya) and their inter-relation, nature of Reality, categories of Reality, concept of Matter, its elements, Indriyas (sense-organs), karma (Karmic matter) and lesya (condition of soul), and atomism, properties of Matter, its effects and modifications, and classification, atomic structure and properties of atom, transformation of Matter, its combination and value of the Jaina concept of Matter. X The structure of the thesis on the subject 'Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy' has been divided into ten chapters. The first chapter deals with the concept of Matter with an introduction by throwing light on the Jaina conception of Reality-Dravya (substance), guna (quality) and paryaya (mode) and their inter-relation, nature of Reality and its categories in brief with a comparative study of these problems as treated in other Indian systems of thought and western philosophy, reve. aling similar views on them. With this background the topic has been discussed in the subsequent chapters in the light of the concept of Matter as embodied in other Indian metaphysics and the physical sciences as far as possible to explain and interpret the metaphysical and physical aspects of the Jaina concept of Matter in an approach to them by a comparative study of the whole problem. The universe is a system of reals, all inter-related with one another from the points of view of dravya (substance), ksetra (locus or field), kala (time) and bhava (condition) having a unity comprising the plurality of interdependent and interconnected substances. Dravya (Substance) means Reality characterized by Sat (existence), endowed with guna (quality) and paryaya (mode) and coupled with utpada (origination), vyaya (decay) and dhrauvya (permanence). The undivided whole of infinite qualities and modes only is conceived as Dravya (Substance), i.e. a collective whole of each individual

Page #14
Preface paryaya (mode) and of such capacities is called Dravya from the point of view of difference among them. But Dravya is gunaparyayavat from the point of view of non-difference among them because of paryaya being like their own causative gunas and gunas being like Dravya. That is to say, Dravya, guna and paryaya are different from one another from the subjective point of view, but non-different from the objective point of view. xi Thus Dravya (Substance) is the crux of Jaina Metaphysics and Physics in particular and a central theme of some Indian systems of thought in general, while substance (i.e. Dravya) is the pivotal point of philosophy of Spinoza and Prof. Bertrand Russel. It was natural for the Jainacaryas to begin their metaphysical inquiry into the problem with the notion of Dravya, a notion which has a continuous history in Jaina philosophy from its very beginning upto the present time as is found in the case of notion of substance from Aristotle to Descartes. The Jaina concept of Dravya compares well with that of substance of Spinoza, the central theme of his metaphysics, "A substance, all of whose attributes and modifications can be deduced from its own essential nature, and all whose attributes are necessary and not contingent, can be described as cause of itself, (cause sui) and only such a substance can be so described". Prof. Bertrand Russel defines a substance as "that which can only enter into a proposition as subject, never as predicate or relation. Metaphysically, substances have generally been held to be indestructible." According to Jaina metaphysics, an entity has got two aspects-permanent and non-permanent, static and dynamic. It undergoes change without giving up its essential nature. In the experience of life all entities appear to be permanent-in-change. Dravya as Reality has two aspects-permanent and non-permanent. If JIvadravyas (living substances) and Ajivadravyas (non-living substances) were devoid of modifications, there would have never occurred the variabilities in the Universe as a united form of these two realities. Hence the principle of per

Page #15
xii The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy manence-in-change in Dravya is conceived by Jaina metaphysics as logical. Sat is the differentia of Dravya, characterized by origination, decay and permanence. It is an objective reality and the highest universal because of being a unifying principle of all existents under the concept of being-existent' on a common objective foundation of existence itself. Therefore, the nature of Dravya-Reality is that it is characterized by origination, decay and permanence. The Concept of Dravya has been studied from the noumenal and phenomenal points of view in the light of the doctrine of manifoldness. Dravya has been conceived by the Jainas as a universal principle of Reality from the aspect of generality, while its particular characteristics are Jrvadravya (living substance) and Ajsvadravya (non-living substance) from the particular aspect. Except the extreme views of monistic materialism of the Carvakas and monistic spiritualism of the Vedanta, other Indian systems of thought have accepted two aspects of Reality, viz. Cetanatattva (sentient principle) and Acetanatattva (non-sentient principle). It is to be noted that Jivadravya and Ajsvadravya of Jaina philosophy do not form any two substance-doctrine, representing the world of animated substances and non-animated substances as independent and self-contained systems. According to a similar concept of a unique substance, "thinking substance and extended substance are one and the same substance, comprehended now under this attribute, now under that." In accordance with the Jaina conception of Reality having JI vatattva (sentient principle) and Ajivatattva (non-sentient principle) as its two aspects, six substances have been accepted as six categories of Reality, viz. Jiva (Soul), Dharma (Principle of motion), Adharma (Principle of rest), Akasa (Space), Pudgala (Matter) and Kala (Time), from the point of view of their respective natures. Nava dravyas (nine substances) of the Vaisesika philosophy, viz. earth, water, fire, air, space, time, direction, soul and mind, can be reduced to Sat-dravyas (six substances) of Jaina metaphysics. They are the constituents

Page #16
Preface of the Universe. The five extended substances (pancastikayasPrinciple of motion up to Matter) and Time (kala)-the sixth substance are permanent in their nature and fixed in number as the sole constituents of the Universe. All except Matter are non-corporeal, i. e. they are not endowed with its characteristics-colour, taste, smell and touch, etc. In the midst of the series of eternal and infinite changes occurring in them, they persist as substances-permanent-in-change (parinaminityadravyas), for they are eternal, independent and permanent categories of Reality from the substantial point of view, yet they are also changing in nature from the modal point of view. xiii Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya (principles of motion and rest) are the neutral and conditional causes of motion and rest respectively of Jiva (Soul) and Pudgala (Matter). Akasa is that which functions as locus in which other substances manifest themselves or exist with their respective modes without exception or itself gives room to them. Jiva (Soul) is a colourless, smelless, tasteless and touchless, non-corporeal, living eternal and permanent and constant substances of the Universe, having an attribute of consciousness. Pudgala is conceived as a permanent substance as well as stuff of which the material universe is constituted, undergoing changes by the process of integration and disintegration. Kala (Time) is accepted as an objective reality. It is one substance having an infinite number of moments as its states. It is constitutionally dynamic in the sense that it changes into moments by virtue of its intrinsic constitution like other substances. The concept of time as mode is inspired by the modal point of view, for it is opined that moments emerge and perish without relation to any underlying continuing substance. Bhuta of the Carvakas, Prakrti of the Samkhya-Yoga, Jadadravya of the Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Mimamsakas, Rupa of the Buddhists, Maya of the Sankara-Vedanta, Acit of the Ramanuja-Vedanta and Pudgala of Jaina philosophy are only diverse views on the subject-Matter.

Page #17
xiv The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy A comparative study of the Jaina concept of Matter with those of other Indian systems of thought and the physica? sciences reveals that it comes nearer to the concept of Matter of the physical sciences, as it is conceived as the substance in the sense of stuff of which the universe is constituted. It is one of the ultimate principles or substances of which phenomena are manifestations. Matter is conceived by Jaina metaphysics az eternal, nonliving, extensive, corporeal, concrete, active, subject to dissociation and combination, changeable, infinite, co-extensive with The Universe, possessed of the capacity to be received by Soul and to be of assistance to it. Its function is to form the basis of the body and the organs of speech, mind and respiration and also to contribute to pleasure, suffering, life and death of living beings. The second chapter makes an analysis of the elements of Matter in the light of the conceptions of the elements of Matter as embodied in other Indian philosophies and the physical sciences by making comparative study of this problem. Jaina Fudgala represents the elements of Matter. Earth, water, shadow, the objects of the four senses--sense of hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste and sense of touch, except the sense of sight, kar. mic matter and atom (paramanu) constitute the material universe in the forms of molecules and discrete atoms. Earth, water, fire, air, and akasa (ether) have been accepted by other indian systems of thought as the elements of Matter. There appears to be a close relation of the structure of elements of Matter conceived by Jaina metaphysics with those of elements of Matter as embodied in other Indian philosophies. The third chapter deals with the problem of Indriyas (senseorgans), Karmapudgala (Karmic matter) and Lesya (condition of Soul). A comparative study of Indriyas by all Indian systems of thought reveals that the Jaina concept of Indriyas analysed from the physical and psychical aspects is more subtle and tho

Page #18
Preface ught-provoking, as they have been accepted as representing translucent matter. Karmapudgala is conceived in Jaina metaphysics as material energy like Apurva of the Mimamsa and Avijnapti (unmani. fested matter) of the Buddhist philosophy from the physical and psychical aspects (aspects of dravyakarma and bhavakarma). There is no objection of any Indian system of thought in regard to Bhavakarina (psychical karma=action). In the opinion of all the Indian philosophies raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion) are Bhavakarma or the causes of Karna. That which is called Dravyakarma (physical karma =-=action) by Jaina metaphysics is called Karma by other Indian philosophies, Samskara (force), Vasana (desire), Avijnapti (unmanifested matter), Maya (Illusion) and Apurva (Energy) are the different names of it. There is no particular dispute witin regard to the cntity-Karma, although there is a difference of opinions of the Indian philosophers on this point whether karma is meterial substance or quality or essential character or any other independent substance. In Jaina philosophy Lesya is conceived as the condition of Soul-physical (dravyalesya) as well as psychical (bhavalesya). As to the nature of Dravya-lesya there are three views viz. (1) Lesyadravya is composed of Karmavarganas (Karmavargamanispanna), nevertheless, like the karmic body it is different from eight kinds of Karma-Jnanavaraniya, etc. (2) Lesyadravya is the current (or continuity) of binding karma (karmanisyanda). Even there being karma in the fourteenth stage of spiritual development in the absence of its current, there is a possibility of the negation of Lesya at the stage of spiritual development, and (3) Lesyadravya has been accepted as independent, belonging to yogavargana (class of activity) (Yogaparinama). The fourth chapter treats of the subject "Atomism' by making a comparative study of all the Indian concepts of atom and those of western metaphysics and physics in relation to Jaina Atomism. The Indian thought on Atomism reflects a stage

Page #19
xvi The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy of the emergence and development of Indian philosophy of a period in the field of metaphysical knowledge, when the speculative Indian mind with logical nicety went on to search out the basic principle of dissolution and creation of the material universe. In this speculation the Samkhya-Yoga, Vaisesika, Nyaya, MImamsaka, Bauddha, Vedanta and Jaina systems of thought have attacked the problem from their respective angles of vision and made attempts at the explanation and interpretation of the root cause of Atomism. The Carvakas have admitted four or five elements of Matter as the basis of creation with a support for Atomism. A study of Atomism of all the Indian systems of thought reveals that Jaina philosophy is the advocate of the atomic theory like the Nyaya-Vaisesika. Nevertheless, the nature of atom conceived in this school of thought is not identical with that of atom of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. But it compares well with the nature of Prakrti of the Samkhya. for atom of this philosophy is transformable like Prakrti of the Samkhya. On this ground atom of the Jainas changes into many forms like earth, water, fire, etc. just as Prakrti is the material cause of many effects, such as, earth, water, fire, air, etc. It is not admitted by Jaina philosophy that the material atoms like earth-atoms, water-atoms, etc, are always basically of different classes. Atom of Jaina metaphysics is finer than atom of the Nyaya-Vaisesika, but it is unmanifest like Prakrti of the Samkhya. Anantaparamanuvada (concept of infinite ultimate atoms) of Jaina philosophy is not far from but nearer to the concept of infinite plurality of Prakrtis of the early Samkhya (with regard to the plurality of Purusa), i. e. "each being attached to a different Purusa (Self)." The phenomenalist atomic conception of the Buddhist philosophy is contrary to the substantive atomic theory of the Jaina, Nyaya-Vaisesika and other Indian systems of thought. As regards the antiquity of Atomism, Jaina Atomism is earlier than Greek Atomism. The fifth chapter deals with 'Properties of Matter'-general properties, motion and oscillation of Matter in the light of

Page #20
Preface the views of the physical science on them by making a comparative analysis of them with those of Matter as conceived by other Indian systems of thought. Properties are the characteristic qualities of Matter. Colour, taste, smell and touch are general qualities inherent in atom as well as molecule. Certain physical properties are stated to be possessed by molecules only, such as, grossness, shape, weight, divisibility, porosity, compressibility, density, elasticity, etc. Cohesiveness (attractive force) and dryness (repulsive force) impenetrability and extension are the common properties belonging to both atoms and molecules. Besides, Matter is possessed of the nature of mobility and immobility. Motion of a material body is determined by its successive positions in time. There takes place oscillation in atoms and molecules, and their motion occurs along with a straight line as well as a curved line. There take place uniform horizontal and vertical motions of free fall and translatory, curvilinear, rotatory and complex motions of Matter. xvii The sixth chapter makes a study of the effects and modifications of Matter in the light of the views of the physical sciences on them in comparison with those of other Indian philosophies regarding them. Matter exists in Nature occupying some volume in perceptible and imperceptible conditions in various forms of effects and modifications within the sensuous and supersensuous experiences. Its effects are stated to be earth, water, fire, air, vegetation and bodies of mobile beings, body, organs of speech, mind and respiration, while its modifications manifest themselves as sound, combination, fineness, grossness, shape, division, darkness, shadow, heat, light, etc. Modification belongs to both substance and its quality (dravya and guna). There are stated to be infinite modifications of Matter from the points of view of substance, state, immersion, duration and quality-colour, taste, smell and touch, etc. A study of the modifications of Matter from these standpoints appear to be thought-provoking when compared to the

Page #21
xviii The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy modes or relations of the material substance as dealt within the physical sciences. In the seventh chapter Matter has been classified into one, two, three, four, six, twenty-three, five hundred thirty and infinite groups respectively from the points of view of (1) dravya (substance), ksetra (locus), kala (time) and bhava (condition), (2) atomic and molecular forms of its existence, (3) apprehensibility and inapprehensibility, receivability, and non-receivability, etc., (4) transfor nation, (5) parts of molecules, (6) grossness and fineness, (7) vargana (grouping), (8) prominence of particular quality and (9) gati (class), part of quality and mode. The eighth chapter deals with the atomic structure of Matter and properties of atom, causative and ultimate discrete atom, the nature of atom in the light of the nature of Matter in comparison with the nature of atom of the Sarkhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisesika, Buddhist systems of thought, group of atoms according to their qualities, contact of atoms, vibration and motion of atom, speed of motion of atom, motion of atom by touching other forms of matter, resistance of Matter, nonresistance of atom and Nyaya-Vaisesika view of motion of atom, etc. in continuation of the fourth chapter on Atomism. Atom is studied from the points of view of dravya (substance), ksetra (locus or field), kala (time) and bhava (condition) with a comparative analysis of its concept of structure and properties as revealed in other Indian systems of thought and the physical sciences to some extent. An atom is partless, finest, discrete, beginningless particle of Matter corresponding to one space-point and one unit of time. It is endowed with the inherent qualities--colour, taste, smell and touch. It is infinite in number from the point of view of dravya (substance), a finest particle of Matter from that of ksetra (locus), a momentary unit of time from that of kala (time) and its qualities are ever changing in nature from that of bhava (condition). Atom is the cause of the formation of molecule; it also comes into being out of the division of a molecule at last. Hence it is

Page #22
Preface the smallest and finest form of Matter and it is permanent. It is eternal from the point of view of dravya (substance) and non-eternal from that of bhava (condition) of colour, smell, taste and touch. xix Atoms are called karananu (causative atom) from the point of view of combination, and anantanu (ultimate discrete atom) from that of dissociation. An atom is a substance and it is attributed by the name 'Dravyaparamanu. It is permanent and constant in number, for it does not give up its individuality and class, even undergoing transformation into a molecular form. It is non-living and it possesses existentiality which is inferable by the mark of its effect. It is devoid of mass, but it possesses the capacity to assume the form of mass by combining with other atoms. An atom is acarama (not-last) from the aspect of dravya (substance), somehow carama (last) and somehow acarama (not-last) from those of locus, time and condition. An atom is partless with regard to dravya and also partless with regard to ksetra (locus) invariably, it is partless in some respect and is having part in other respect with regard to kala (time); it may be partless and it may have parts with regard to bhava (condition) from the point of view of space-point. As to property an atom is indivisible, incombustible, impenetrable or impassable, inapprehensible and non-receivable by soul. Here it appears that suksmaparamanu is indivisible, etc. but Vyavahara-paramanu which consists of infinite suksmaparamanus seems to be divisible. An atom may be a single discrete unit of the material substance or a part of it. It is an ultimate cause and an eternal form of Matter having one colour, one taste, one smell and two touches. It is eternal from the point of view of dravya (substance) and non-eternal from that of bhava (state or mode) of colour, taste, smell and touch. It is itself beginning, it is itself middle; it is itself end. It has got no dimension. Its motion is possible everywhere in the universe, that is way it is called Lokapramana (extensive with the universe).

Page #23
XX The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Atoms are infinite in number, but there is no fundamental difference among them like earth-atom, water-atom, etc. of other Indian systems of thought. An atom can assume any form according to the cause. There is no class-distinction among atoms of Jaina metaphysics. The capacities like colour, taste, smell and touch are equal in each and every atom and it can undergo transformation into any form according to the cause. Even though these capacities are equal in all of them, the varieties of their transformation take place due to the cause of the difference of materials. An aggregate (molecule) formed by a combination of atoms is not a new substance. It is only a particular form out of an aggregation of atoms. All atoms are permanent in their respective individual nature and they are changeable in nature as a result of their transformation in the forms of aggregate, quality and mode. All gross and fine material entities are explained on the basis of the capacity of transformation of infinite atoms and their combination and separation. Infinite atoms can exist in one point of space by their capacity of contraction (sam koca) or becoming finest. Being finest, they are infinite and smallest and all-pervading. When an atom touches another one, the whole of it touches the whole of the latter; for there cannot be a conception of point in point. Atoms are always in a state of flux, because of their revolution, movement and combination with and dissociation from one another to transform themselves into molecules. A resistance to the motion of an atom is obtained by it (1) when it is resisted by another atom on its way of motion, (2) due to its property of dryness (repulsive force) and (3) at the last border of the universe because of the non-existence of Dharmastikaya (Principle of motion) in the Non-Universe (Aloka). The ninth chapter makes a treatment of the topic "Transformation of Matter by a comparative study of this problem with the views of other Indian systems of thought and the physical sciences on it. Matter undergoes transformation in respect of its qualities and modes. An atom having equal quality transforms another atom having equal but dissimilar quality because

Page #24
Preface of its combination with another atom or molecule. An atom having higher degrees of qualities transforms another atom having lower degrees of qualities. Some molecule is formed by the process of combination of atoms, some by the process of dissociation and some by both the processes. xxi The tenth chapter deals with the subject, 'Combination of Matter' according to some rules laid down in both the Svetambara and Digambara works. A combination of atoms occurs as a result of the chemical behaviour of their properties of unequal degrees, i. e. cohesiveness (snigdhatva), dryness (ruksatva) and cohesiveness-cum-dryness (snigdhatva-ruksatva) which are inherent in atoms and molecules both having two to infinite units. A production of the material aggregates like dyad, triad, tetrad, etc. takes place due to a mutual contact and combination of discrete atoms, etc., endowed with the properties of cohesiveness (i. e. attractive force) and dryness (i. e. repulsive force). There take place two kinds of combination of cohesive and dry constituents of Matter, viz. similar (sadrsa) and dissimilar, (visadrsa), i. e. (1) a combination of a cohesive constituent with another cohesive one or that of a dry constituent with a dry one and a combination of a cohesive constituent with a dry one are called similar and dissimilar combinations respectively. The general rules of the combination of forms of Matter are as follows: (1) There does not occur a combination of the cohesive and dry constituents of Matter having a quantum of minimum properties. (2) There does not take place a combination of similar constituents of Matter, because of there being an equal quantum of properties. (3) Atoms having an equal degree of cohesiveness or dryness and being of the same kind, cannot combine with atoms of their own kinds. (4) There occurs a combination of similar or dissimilar constituents of Matter, having a difference in their degrees of cohesiveness, or dryness by two units more. The combination and dissociation of atoms and molecules always take place according to these rules. As a result of integration and disintegration of atoms there can take place infini

Page #25
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy tefold union of atoms with the material substances (pudgala parivarttas of paramanus). xxii In conclusion an estimation of the value of the Jaina concept of Matter has been made by making a comparative study of it with the concepts of Matter as embodied in other Indian systems of thought and the physical sciences with regard to its nature, elements, atomism, properties, effects and modifications, classification, atomic structure and atomic properties, motion, vibration and oscillation, its transformation and combination. The value of Jaina concept of Matter lies in the fact of its scientific approach to the problem of this permanent substance with its noumenal and phenomenal aspects from the points of view of dravya (substance), ksetra (locus), kala (time) and bhava (condition). as it exists in space and continues in time with its static and dynamic forces in the cosmic universe. The study of 'Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy'* was suggested to me by the late National Professor Sri Satyendra Nath Bose, Ex-Vice-Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, in course of my discussion with him on the Jaina concept of Matter, while reading some aspects of it to him from my Ph. D. thesis Studies in the Bhagavati Sutra' at his residence in Calcutta in 1961. Fortunately, I was awarded a Senior Research Fellowship by the University Grants Commission, Government of India, on the 6th November, 1963, to carry on my research studies in my long cherished subject' Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy" at the Institute of Languages and Research, University of Jabalpur, under the supervision of my late revered teacher, Dr. Hiralal Jain, M. A., LL. B., D. Litt., Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, Dean of Faculty of Arts, University of Jabalpur. * The Title of this D. Litt. thesis 'Doctrine of Matter in Jainism' has been changed to "Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy" for publication as it is more appropriate in the light of its study.

Page #26
Preface In spite of some difficulties for not finding some of the necessary reference-books, journals, periodicals, etc. in the library of the Jabalpur University, as it was in the formative stage, I worked on my proposed subject 'Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy' under the mature guidance of my revered teacher, Dr. Hiralal Jain and completed my thesis for the D. Litt. Degree within proper time. xxiii In this connection I feel called upon to acknowledge my deepest gratitude to the L. D. Institute of Indology and its ex-Director Srf Dalsukhbhai. D. Malvania for kindly providing me with all possible facilities for my research works in its library. I refrain from the vain attempt to praise my late revered gurus, Dr. Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghavi and Dr. H. L. Jain, because my feelings of attachment and gratitude for them are too deep for utterance. In one word only I say, the great erudite scholar Pandit Sukhlalji endowed with Prajna-caksu had helped and guided me in entering into the field of Indian philosophy by imparting teachings to me in its fundamental principles and "Concept of Matter" with affection for the benefit of my research work on my proposed subject, while Dr. H. L. Jain guided me with his paternal care in the day-to-day progress of my studies for dealing with the problems that arose in course of my research studies for the advancement of my work and thus he had transformed my life in the field of learning with his intellectual majesty combined with his benevolent heart and able guidance. I am very much thankful to Dr. Nagin J. Shah, ex-Director of the L. D. Institute of Indology, Dr. K. K. Dixit, Ex-Senior Research Officer, L. D. Institute of Indology and Prof. Dr. E. Solomon, Gujarat University, for their valuable suggestions in working out my thesis. I acknowledge my deepest gratitude to the late Nationali Professor Sri Satyendra Nath Bose, the Late Professor Dr. Dhirendra Mohan Datta, Prof. Dr. Kalidas Bhattacharya, ExVice-Chancellor, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, my

Page #27
xxiv The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy respected teacher, Prof. Dr. B. C. Sen, Calcutta University, my revered uncle the late Dr. N. C. Bhadury, Jabalpur, the late Adhyapaka Sri Nityananda Gosvami, Visva-Bharati, my dear friend, Sri Chittaranjan Dev, Visva-Bharati, Mrs. Panna Bagchi, the wife of my late revered teacher, Dr. P. C. Bagchi, ExVice-Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University, my friend Dr. K. R. Chandra, Lecturer in Prakrit, Gujarat University, my sisters-- Bani and Binapani and the latter's husband, the late Sri S. N. Sanyal, for their encouragement in the pursuit of my studies and researches at the University of Jabalpur. I am very grateful to Sri Mohanlal Banthia, Calcutta, Prof. Dr. T. Pati, D. Sc, Jabalpur University and Prof. Dr. S. C. Ghosh, D. Sc., Jabalpur University, for their valuable suggestions and encouragement in my research work. I give my hearty thanks to Dr. R. M. Shah, Lecturer L. D. Institute and Sri Rupendra Kumar Pagariya, Research Assistant for their kind co-operation and assistance in my research studies in va rious ways. I place on record my debt of gratefulness to the University Grants Commission, Government of India, for the award of a Senior Research Fellowship to me for the prosecution of my research studies in "Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy". The book would have not been published without the kind cooperation of Pujya Sadhvf Sri Mrgavatsri jr Maharaja, Sri B.N. Jain, Secretary, Sohan Lal Jain Vidyaprasarak Samiti, and Dr. Sagarmal Jain, Director P. V. Research Institute, Varanasi, I also express to my gratefulness to them. Jogendra Chandra Sikdar

Page #28
CONTENTS CHAPTER I Pages. Jaina Conception of Matter 1-46 Introduction 1, Concept of Matter (Pudgala) 25, Nature of Matter 33, Function of Matter 42, Ancient Greek Conception of Matter 44. CHAPTER II Elements of Matter 47-70 Elements of Matter in other Indian Systems of Thought 49, The Samkhya-Yoga view on Elements of Matter 49, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Elements of Matter 50, The Mimamsa view on Elements of Matter 51, Criticism of the Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Elements of Matter 52, The Buddhist view on Elements of Matter 54, Sixteen Suksma Rupas 57, Analysis of Elements of Matter as conceived in the Buddhist Philosophy 59, The Vedantist view on Elements of Matter and The Conclusion with the modern view of the physical sciences on the subject 67. CHAPTER III Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 71-106 Section 1-Indriyas (Sense-organs) 71 Section II--Karma 79 Nature of Karmapudgala 80, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Karma 85, The Samkhya-Yoga view on Karma 87, The Buddhist view on the Nature of Karma 92, The Mimamsaka view on the Nature of Karma 94, Kinds of Karma 97, Study of Karma from different points of view 99, Karmakarana (Process of Karma) 100. Section III--Lesya (Condition of Soul) 101.

Page #29
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy xxvi CHAPTER IV Atomism 107-148 Introduction 107, Denial of Paramanuvada (Atomism) by the Vijnanavadin Buddhists 109, Refutation of Paramanuvada (Atomism) by the VedantistAcarya Sankara and Others 113, Analysis of Atomism 124, Conception of Atom in Western Metaphysics and Physics 135, Analysis of Concept of Paramanu (Ultimate Atom) from the point of view of the definition of Pudgala (Matter) 137, Conclusion with a short note on the Brahmanical and Buddhist Atomic theories 141. CHAPTER V Properties of Matter 149-183 Section 1-General Properties of Matter 149, The Samkhya view on the properties of Matter 156, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view of the properties of Matter 157, Kinds of Four Specific qualities of Matter in the Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics 159, Properties of Matter in the Buddhist Philosophy 161, Kinds of Properties of Rupa (Matter) 165, Tangible or Tactile Element (Sprastavya) 167, Impenetrability 170. Section II-Motion (Gati) of Matter (Pudgala) Oscillation or Vibration 171, Parispandana (Resolu. tion of all physical action into motion) 172, Motion in the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy 180, Oscillation in the Physical sciences 181, - CHAPTER VI Effects and Modifications of Matter 184-222 Section 1--Effect of Matter 184, Kaya (Embodiment) 185, Vanaspatikaya (Vegetation or PlantBody) 187, Nigodasarira (Miputest body), 187, Trasakaya (body of mobile beings) 188, Sarsra (Gross Organic body), Vak (Organs of speech),

Page #30
xxvii Contents Manas (Mind) and Pranapana (Respiration) 188, Vak (Speech) 192, Manas (Mind) 194, Pranapana (Respiration) 200. Section II--Manifestations and Modification of Matter 202, Sabda (sound) 202, Pitch, Intensity, Quality and Wave of Sound and its Propagation 206, Intensity of Emitted Speech (Bhasa) 207, Paraghata Bhasa dravya 208, Bandha (binding) 212, Other Manifestations of Material Substance 214, Sauksmya (fineness) 214, Sthaulya (grossness) 214, Samsthana (shape) 214, Bheda (division) 214, Tamas (darkness) 215, Chaya (shadow) 215, Atapa (heat) 216, Udyota (cool light moonlight etc) 216, Modification of Matter 217, Ajivaparyaya (modification of Non-living substance) 220. CHAPER VII Classification of Matter 223-253 One class of Matter 224, Two classes of Matter 225, Skandha (Molecule or Aggregate) 229, Two Classes of Matter from the point of view of Apprehensibility 232, Three classes of Matter 235, Four Classes of matter 238, Six classes of Matter 239, Twenty three Varganas (clases) of Matter 241, Five hundred and thirty classes of Matter 249, Infinite classes of Matter 252. CHAPTER VIII Atomic Structure of Matter and Properties of Atom 254-288 Section 1-Atomic Structure of Matter 254, Causative Atom and Ultimate Discrete Atom (Karananu and Anantanu) 255, Nature of Atom in the light of the Nature of Matter 256, Nature of Paramanu (Atom) in the Samkhya-Yoga Philosophy 258, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Nature of Paramanu (Atom) 261, The Buddhist view on Nature of Paramanu (Atom) 265, A light on Carama (last) and

Page #31
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Acarama (Not last) Condition of Atom 268, Apradesa (partless) Condition of Paramanus (Atoms) 269. Section II-Properties of Atom (Paramanu) 271, Group of Paramanu (Ultimate Afom) according of their qualities 272, Contact of Atoms 273, Vibration and Motion of Atom 276, Speed of Motion of Paramanu 278, Sprstagati (Motion) of Atom by touching other matters 279, Pratighata of Pudgala (Resistance of Matter) 282, Apratighata (Nonresistance) of Atom 284, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Motion of Paramanu (Atom) 284. CHAPER IX Transformation of Matter (Pudgala Parinama) Kinds of Pudgala-Parinama (transformation of Matter) 294, The Samkhya-Yoga view on Transformation of Matter 298, Transformation of Matter in the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy 300, Pilupaka 302, Pitharapaka 304, The Vedantic view on Transformation of Matter 310. CHAPTER X Combination of Matter Parlicle Value of the Jaina Conception of Matter BIBILOGRAPHY Combination and Separation of ultimate atoms of molecules 324, Pudgalaparivarta (assembling together of ultimate atoms with the material substances) 326, The Samkhya view on the Combination of Matter 329, The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on the Combination of Matter 332, The Buddhist view on the Combination of Matter 336. CONCLUSION XXVI 289-315 316-339 340-345 346-355

Page #32
Abh Abh. D Abh. K. Asl. Bhs. BR. BS. Bha Comm. Cph. Dhs. DS. ERE GS. Ga. H. H. I. Ph JIva KR. KV. KV. Bha. Ka LP. Loka Majjh Mbh. MK. ABBREVIATION Abhidharmamrtasastra AbhidharmadIpa Abhidharmakosa Atthasalini Bhagavati Sutra (Vyakhya Prajnapti) Bhasarahasya Brahmasutra Bhasya Commentary Compendium of Philosophy of Mr. Aung. Dhammasangani Dravyasamgraha Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Gommatasara Gatha Hindi History of Indian Philosophy JIvakanda Kanadarahasya Kiranavali Kiranavali Bhaskara Karika Lokaprakasa Lokaprakasa Majjhimanikaya Mahabharata Madhyamakakarika

Page #33
XXX NBha. NK. Nku. N Kub. NLY. NLVK. NM. NP. NS. NV. NVTT. Panna. PBha. PPBha. The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Nyayabhasya = Nyayakandali Nyayakusumanjali Nyayakusumanjalibodhini Nyayalilavati Nyayalilavatikanthabharama Nyayamanjari Nayanaprasadini Nyayasutra Nyayavartika Nyayavartika Tatparyatika Pannavana Pravacanabhasya Prasastapadabhasya Pravacanapradipikavstti Pravacanasara Pravacanasara pradipika Tikavstti Pancastikayasara Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus Padarthatattvanirupana Pannvana Rajavartika Satkhandagama Sarvarthasiddhi Sankarabhasya sloka Sthananga Sutra Tattvakaumudi PPV. PR. PRTV. PS. PSAH. PTN. PV. RV. Sat. SS. SBha Stha. Su. TK.

Page #34
Xxxi Abbreviation TP. TRV TS. TSBha. Utt. Uttara. Utt. TI VM. Tattvasamgrahapanjika Tatvartha Rajavartika Tattvarthadhigamasutra Tattvarthadhigamasutra Bhasya Uttaradhyayanasutra Uttaradhyayanasutra Uttaradhyayanasutra TIka Visuddhimagga Vaisesikasutra Vaisesikasutra Upaskara Vyomavati Vitti Visesavasyaka Bhasya Vyasabhasya Yogasutra Yasomitra Yogasutra VS. VSU. Vy. VBha. V. Su. Y. Su. Yaso. Yoga. .

Page #35
SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION Vowels a a A a, i i I , u , U , R , e , ai ai, o 0 o Consonants k, kh, g, gh, i, c, ch, j, jh_i t, pa p, th pha ph, _d, ba b, Do to o s he = dh, bha bh, n, ma m, t ya y, th, ra , d, la , dh, va , n, za , s, s, m h

Page #36
CHAPTER I JAINA CONCEPTION OF MATTER Introduction A study of the Jaina Agamas reveals that Metaphysics is something which is correlated with physics, but the metaphysical inquiry goes beyond the scope of physics. According to the Jaina Agamas, the Universe (Loka) is a system of reals, all inter-related with one another with regard to dravya (substance), ksetra (locus or field), kala (time) and bhava (condition or state or mode), having a fundamental unity comparising the plurality of inter-dependent and inter-connected substances. As for example, there are stated to be four aspects of the Universe from the points of view of dravya, ksetra, kala and bhava1 respectively, i. e. a system of reals is studied with regard to substance, locus or field, time and condition respectively. The Universe is finite with regard to substance, as it is one in number; it is also finite with regard to locus or field, having the dimension of length and breadth of countless crores of yojanas; it is infinite, permanent, continuous, undecaying, constant, eternal and endless with that to time, for it is Traikalika (i. e. was, is and will be in the past, present and future respectively); there was not, is not and will not be such a time when the existence of the Universe was not, is not and will not be continuous respectively; it is also infinite with regard to condition because the modes of the substances of the Universe, such as, modes of colour, smell, taste and touch, figure, heaviness and lightness, and neither heaviness nor lightness, etc., of pudgala (matter) are infinite. So the Universe 1. Cauvvihe loe pannatte, tamjaha davvao, khettao, kalao, bhavao-BhagavatP (Vyakhyaprajnapti) 2. 1. 90. -- 2. Davvao nam ege loe sa-amte... bhavao nam loe anamta vannapajjava. . . natthi puna se amte.-Ibid.

Page #37
2 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy is eternal, for there is no change in its eternal form from the point of view of its existence and it is regarded as non-eternal in its non-eternal forms from the point of view of modesdecrease and increase, for, if there be a change in one part of the Universe, there occurs a change in the whole of it. According to Jaina philosophy, Dravya (substance) endowed with guna and paryaya (quality and mode or modification) is conceived as Reality. Sat (existence) is the characteristic of Dravya and origination, decay and permanence characterize Reality i.e. Sat-Dravya1. Dravya2 is the crux of Jaina Metaphysics and Physics in particular and a central theme of some Indian Antavam ni-ie loe dhiro ti pasai-Sutrakrtanga, 1.1.4 (6); Majjhimanikaya II, Culamalumkiyaputta Sutta, 13 for the eternality and non-eternality of the Universe. In this connection see also Bhagavati, 9. 33. 387 ff.; 2. 1. 90 ff. for eternality and non-eternality, finiteness and infiniteness of the Universe. 1. Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat-Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, V. 29.; sad-dravyalaksanam-Sarvarthasiddhi, V. 29. 2. Namasthapanadravyabhavatastannyasah-TS., 1.5.; Davvao ...bhavao-Bhagavatf, 2. 1. 90, Dravyarthikanaya (substantial) and paryayarthikanaya (mode) point of view; TS. Bhasya, V. 31, pp. 399-401; Dravyacara (external conduct) and Bhavacara (internal conduct ),; Pancasaka, 6; Dravyakarma and Bhavakarma (Physical and psychic actions ),; Satkhandagama, Vol. 13., p. 43; Bhagavati, 25. 4. 733; TS., V. 37, 39; Satkhandagama, Vol. 3, p. 2; Ibid., Vol. 15, Uttaradhyayana, 28. 6 ff. Tattvartha Rajavartika, V. 29, 30; Tattvartha Slokavartika, V, 29, 30; TS. V. 37; Sarvarthasiddhi, V. 38; T. Rajavartika, V. 38; T. Slokavartika, V. 38; Satkhandagama, Vol. III, p. 2; Visesavasyakabhasya, gatha, 28; Laghiyastrayam, 1. 2. 7, p. 3; Pramanamimamsa, 30, p. 24; Pravacanasara, Vol. II, p. 123, etc. p. 33.

Page #38
Jaina Conception of Matter systems? of thought, in general, while substance (i. e. Dravya) is the pivotal point of philosophy of Spinoza2 and Prof. Bertrand Russel.3 Prof. Bertrand Russel defines a substances as "that which can only enter into a proposition as subject, never as predicate or relation. Metaphysically, substances have generally been held to be indestructible."4 The Vaisesika5 influence is evidently felt on the Jaina conception of Dravya (substance) endowed with guna and paryaya (mode),6 for like the Vaisesika philosophy the Jaina post-Agamic work Tattvarthadhigama Sutra of Umasvati defines Dravya as possessing guna and paryaya? instead of Karma (action) of the former. Karma of the Vaisesika is equivalent to paryaya (mode) of Jaina philosophy. Besides, Satta8 (existence or being) is one and the same in both the systems of thought, while it is categorized into six entities in 1. Astadhyayi of Panini, Vol. 1. 4. 3. 161; Vol. II, 6. 1.79; Vaisesika Sutra, 1.1.5; 1.1. 15; Mahabhasya of Patanjali, 4. 1. 3; 5. 1. 119; Yogabhasya, 3.13.; Slokavartika, Vanavada, verses 21-22.; Abhidharmakosa, IX; Ibid., (comm), Yasomitra; Abh. K. I. 3; Abhidharmadspa, p. 90; The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 22, etc. 2. Spinoza, pp. 31-9, 62-5. 3. Analysis of Matter, p. 236. 4. Ibid, p. 238. 5. Kriyagunavat samavayikaranamiti dravyalaksanam - V S., 1. 1. 14 6. Gunaparyayavad-dravyam-TS., V. 37. 7. Ibid. 8. Sat iti yato dravyagunakarmasu sa satta - VS., 1.2.7; Sattaya samanyena sambandhah samavayarupo dravyagunakarmanam sadharmyam - Nyayakandali, p. 17; Satta savvapayattha, savissaruva anastapajjaya Bhamguppadadhuvatta sapadivakkha havadi ekka - Pancastikayasara, 8.

Page #39
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy both of them, i. e. Sad-dravyas1 of the Jainas and Sat-padarthas2 of the Vaisesikas. 4 According to the Vaisesika, Dravya, guna3 and karma are different, whereas Dravya, guna and paryaya of Jaina Metaphysics are of one class.5 Guna inheres in DravyaR and is inseparable from it. It is the capacity, the change of this capacity is paryaya. Guna is potentiality, while paryaya is actuality on the screen of time. They continue with Dravya like earthness or clayness and pitcher. Gunas separable and inseparable from Dravya are paryaya and guna proper respectively, for paryaya keeps changing, but guna is permanently associated with Dravya;10 there is no existence of Dravya on the destruction or separation of guna.11 8 According to the Samkhya philosophy, the three gunas (qualities) Sattva (essence), Rajas (energy) and Tamas (mass or inertia) are the components of Prakrti12 which is the stuff. 1. Bhagavati 25.4.733-4;11.14.4.24; 13.4.4. 82. 3; Anuyogadvara, 324; Gommatasara (JIva), 560. 2. Dravyagunakarmasamanyavisesasamavayanam padarthanam-Vaisesika Sutra, 1.1.4. 3. Dravyani dravyantaramarabhante gunasca gunantaram-- VS., 1.1. 8-9. 4. Dravyagunakarmasamanyavisesasamavayabhavah saptapaTarkasamgraha, p. 2; darthah Artha iti dravyagunakarmasu VS., 8.2.3. 5. Gunaparyayavaddravyam TS., V. 37. 6. Dravyasraya nirguna gunah Ibid, V. 40. 7. Bhavantaram sanjnantaram ca paryayah - ay TS. Bhasya, p. 427 8. Ibid, pp. 426-29. 9. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 510. 10. Ibid, p. 510. 11. Sakalagunoparamae punarna taddravyam Paramanukhanda Sattrimsika. 12. Trigunamaviveki Visayah, etc.- Samkhya Karika, 11.

Page #40
Jaina Conception of Matter The Buddhists accept gunas (qualities) instead of the stuff as dharmas1 (elements); the Jainas admit both the stuff and quality. But Acarya Sankara, the Vedantin, conceives only the Brahman as the stuff according to the doctrine of self-alienation (vivartavada). The Buddhists maintain that there is no substratum of guna and they admit dharmass or gunas as the ultimate elements, while the Samkhya accepts Prakrti as Dravya composed of the afforesaid three gunas. In fact, gunas or dharmas of the Buddhists correspond to the Samkhya gunasSattva, Rajas and Tamas. It can be said that according to Buddhism, Dravya is nothing but gunasamudaya (collection of qualities) or gunasandrava (series of qualities), i. e. sahabhu or samabhu of gunas (co-existence of qualities); the existence of qualities in succession (Kramabhu)8 is paryaya (mode). In the Samkhya view Prakrti and Purusa are beginningless while samabhu-Sattva (essence), Rajas (energy) and Tamas (mass or inertia), Buddhi (intellect), Ahamkara (ego) and Manas (mind) are the paryayas of Prakrti in some respect. 1. The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 9. Svalaksanadharanad-dharmah - 2. Atha Brahmajijnaseti - Brahmasutra 1. 1. Chandogya Upanisad, VI. 2. 1. Ekamevadvitiyam -- 3. Svalaksanadharanad-dharmah 4. The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 19. Abhidharma Kosa, I. 3. - - Abh. K., I. 3. 5. Mahabhasya, 4.1.3. 6. Gunasandravo dravyamiti Ibid., 5. 119. 5 7. Gunah sahabhavi, dharmo yathatmani vijnanavyaktisaktyadih -- Pramananayatattvalokalamkara, 7. 8. Paryayastu kramabhavi yatha tatraiva sukhaduhkhadih-- Ibid., 8; Guna = sakti=sahabhu-natural. Sahabhusakti is Karana (cause), while paryaya kramabhusakti is Karya (effect).

Page #41
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Jiva and Cetanai (soul and consciousness) are co-existent (Sahabhu), while knowledge is a paryaya of Cetana? (consciousness) but there is a continuity between them. It is to be observed from the analysis of Saccidananda Brahman that Sat is Reality. i. e. Dravya of the Jainas, cit and ananda (consciousness and bliss) are gunas (qualities). Sat and cit are primary and ananda is secondary, i. e. general and particular. From the empirical point of view, gunas, because of being separable and inseparable, correspond thus to paryaya (mode) and guna (quality) proper respectively. The Nyaya-Vaisesika3 admits distinct and separate relation between Dravya and guna, while the Samkhyat, Jainas and Mimamsaka systems of thought accept Kathancidbheda (somehow distinction or difference) between Dravya and guna. The Vedanta Philosophy? maintains non-difference between them. The Jainas call the manifestation of Dravya and guna, as paryaya (mode). Sakti (capacity) is intangible, it becomes manifest. Sahabhusakti (co-existing capacity) is guna, 1. The Samkhya gunas-Sattva (essence), Rajas (energy) and Tamas (inertia) are Anadi (beginningless) and Ananta (infinite),. The Jaina gunas as Saktis. (capacities) are karanas (causes), while their paryayas (modes) are karyas (effects), e. g. Cetana (consciousness) is guna (quality), while Jnana (knowledge), Darsana (self-awareness), etc. are its paryayas (modes). Varna (colour), etc. as gunas are causes, while Varnaparyayas ( modes of colour ), etc. are effects. The Jainas used term 'guna' like the Samkhya, while the Mimamsaka used the word, Sakti' for guna. 2. Ibid.: 3. Dravyani dravyantaramarabhante gunasca gunantaram - VS., 1. 1. 10 4. Trigunamaviveki visayah, etc. Samkhya karika I 5. Kathancid-bhedabhedasvarupam gunaparyayavat - TS. Bhasya Tika, pp. 428-9. 6. slokavartika, Vanavada, vv. 22-23. 7. Ekamevadvitiyam," Chandogya Upanisad, VI. 2.1.

Page #42
Jaina Conception of Matter while Dravya is the transcendental Reality (atindriya). In the Samkhya philosophy Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, the three components of Prakrti are unmanifest, while the entities like earth, etc. are manifest. Muladravya (basic substance) is unmanifest and intangible, e. g. paramanu (ultimate atom)1, while Dravyaparyaya (mode of substance) is manifest. Even among Dravyaparyayas some are atindriya (intangible to senses) and some are tangible, e. g. dvyanuka (dyad)2, taijasa (luminous) and Karmana (karmic) bodies are atfndriya, while other skandhas4 (molecules) and effects of Matter are tangible to the senses (indriyagrahya). So Dravya (substance) of the Jainas is unmanifest and beginningless, the Samkhya Prakrti also is unmanifest and beginningless. Similarly the Santanas of the Buddhists and the Brahman and Atman of the Vedanta philosophy are beginningless. An entity becomes manifest only at the present moment with its perception. The relation of Dravya and guna of Jaina Philosophy is further explained in this way that gunas can never exist independently of Dravya5 of which they are the attributes and one guna cannot be the substratum of another guna. The Vaisesika school also maintains that guna and karma are dravyasrita (inherent in substance). That which belongs is dharma (essential character) and that which supports is dharmin (substratum). In other words, that which is inherent in others is dharma (essential character or attribute ). The Vaisesika falls behind Jaina metaphysics in this respect of 1. Bhagavati sutra. 20. 5. 670; TS. Bhasya Tika, p. 366. 2. Gaudapada on Samkhyakarika, 12. 3. TS., II. 38, 39 and its bhasya. 4. TS., Bhasya. Tika, p. 366. 5. Sakalagunoparame punarna dravyam - Sattrimsika, p. 3. 6. Dravyasraya nirguna gunah, TS., V. 40. 7. VS., 1. 1. 16 (Dravyasrayagunavan...gunalaksanam); Prasastapada's Bhasya, p. 38; "Kriyagunavat samavayikaranamiti dravyalaksanam, VS., 1. 1. 15. 7 Paramanu khanda

Page #43
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy the relation between Dravya and guna, for Dravya is defined as "Gunaparyayavad-dravyam1" in the latter. In the Samkhya philosophy guna is a component of Prakrti. Dravyasrita guna is dharma (character); there is mention of fifty bhavas (dispositions) in the Samkhya Philosophy, Similarly the relation of the Buddhist citta (mind) and its dharma-caitasika (mental) is that citta is one, while caitasikas are many3. It appears from this evidence that the Samkhya influence is evidently felt on Buddhism in this respect. Dharmin (substratum) is manifested by traikalika paryayas (modes of three points of time-past, present and future), otherwise it becomes inapprehensible to the senses, i. e. the form in which it is apprehensible to the senses at the present time. The gist of the Jaina conception of Reality is that Dravya is endowed with guna and paryaya. The inherent qualities in a substance and their traikalika modes are infinite4 in number. A substance and its inherent qualities are permanent owing to the cause of its non-origination and non-destruction,5 while modes because of their origination and destruction at every moment are invariably non-permanent. But they are also beginningless series of and permanent, from the point of view of the infinite modes (anamta pajjava), e. g. the material substance is permanent and its inherent qualities, such as, colour, etc. are also permanent. But the modes of colours, such as, blue, yellow, etc. born of the quality of colour are individually non-permanent because of being subject to origination and destruction and the series of modes of colour, being traikalika, are 8 1. TS., V. 37 2. Tattvasamasasutra, pp. 282-8. 3. The Central Conception of Buddhism, pp. 85 ff. 4. Bha., 2. 1. 91. 5. Uppattiva vinaso davvassa ya natthi atthi sabbhavo Pancastikayasara, 11. 6. Vyayam uppadam dhuvattam karamti tasseva pajjaya Ibid. 7. Bhs., 2.1. 90; Tattvartha Sutra, V. 37.

Page #44
Jaina Conception of Matter permanent and eternal.1 The series of traikalika modes taking place due to one causative capacity inherent in a substance are of the same class. The series of infinite modes caused by infinite capacities in a substance are moving (i, e, continuing) together. The modes of different class caused by various -capacities can be found in one substance at a time, but the modes of the same class caused by one capacity at different times cannot be found in one substance at a time.2 These take place in the material substance into various infinite modes like the modes of colour, such as, blue, yellow, etc. Matter undergoes transformation by its capacity of colour into various forms of colour, such as, black, etc. The capacity of colour cannot be separated from the material substance and other capacities also which are inherent in it. In matter the series of various modes of colours, such as, blue, etc. are the effects of one causative capacity of colour. There are always taking place in Matter the series of colour, smell, taste, touch, etc. For this reason infinite capacities are cognized by admitting each individual causative capacity of individual series like that of the capacity of colour, that of smell, that of taste, that of touch, etc. Various modes of capacities, such as, colour, smell, etc. occur in Matter at a time, but different modes, such as, blue, yellow, etc. of one capacity of colour do not take place simultaneously. As material substances are permanent, so their inherent qualities also are permanent, but the modes of the capacity of colour, etc. are not permanent. They, being always subject to origination and destruction, are individually nonpermanent and the series of modes of colour in Matter are permanent because of being traikalika. The undivided whole of infinite qualities only is Dravya (substance). That is to say, the collective whole or aggregate of each individual causative capacity (Karanabhutasakti) 1. Tattvartha Sutra, V. 37, pp. 229-30. 2. Ibid., p. 206. 3. Bhs., 2. 1. 90.

Page #45
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy of each individual mode and of such infinite capacities or qualities is substance from the point of view of difference among them. But Dravya (substance) is called gunaparyayatmaka (endowed with quality and mode) from the point of view of non-difference among them because of modes being like their own causative qualities (Karanabhutagunas) and qualities being like Dravya (substance). That is to say, Dravya, guna and paryaya are different from one another from the subjective point of view in thought, but they are non-different from one another from the objective point of view.1 10 In a substance all qualities are not identical; some common qualities are found in all substances, e. g. Astitva (existentiality), Pradesatva (capacity of having some form), Jneyatva (knowability), etc. and some are uncommon (i. e. specific) qualities which can be found in each individual substance, e. g. sentiency (Cetana), consciousness (Upayoga), etc. in. soul and colour (Rupa), etc. in Matter. Each substance is. distinct and separate from other substances because of its uncommon quality and modes.2 The Jaina conception of the series of material substances, their qualities and modes is supported by the physical sciences to some extent. It is explained by Prof. Bertrand Russel that "The substitution of space, time for space and time has made it much more natural than formerly to conceive a piece of matter as a group of events. Physics starts, now-a-days, from a four dimensional manifold of events, not, as formerly, from a temporal series of three dimensional manifolds connected with each other by the conception of matter in motion. Instead of a permanent piece of matter, we have now the conception of a 'world line', which is a series of events connected with each other in a certain way. The parts of one light-ray are 1. Tattvartha Sutra, V. 37. 2. Ibid., p. 208; See also Dravya-Guna-Paryayano Rasa and Agamasara for the inter-relation of Dravya (substance),. guna (quality) and paryaya (mode).

Page #46
Jaina Conception of Matter 11 connected with each other in a manner which enables us to consider them as forming together one light-ray but we do not conceive a light-ray as a substance moving with the velocity of light. Just the same kind of connection may be held to constitute the unity of an electron. We have a series of events connected together by the causal laws; these may be taken to be electron, since anything further is rash influence which is theoretically useless". 1 As explained, the universal principle of Reality is Dravya (substance), while its particular characteristics are Jivadravya (sentient principle of living substance) and Ajsvadravya (non-sentient principle or non-living substance),2 Jivadravya is non-corporeal, tasteless, smell-less and indescribable; it is endowed with sentiency, it is soundless, non-apprehensible by a mark; and it is of indefinite shape (anirdistasamsthana).3 The common characteristics of Jivadravya are that it is devoid of five colours, five tastes, two smells and eight touches, i. e. non-material; it is subtle and non-corporeal, neither heavy nor light; it is endowed with countless points and indefinite figure;4 while its uncommon characteristics are that it is the enjoyer and self-manifesting and manifester of others.5 Ajsvadravya6 is explained by making division of it into five cate1. Analysis of Matter, pp. 244-45. 2. Duviha davva pi tan jivadavva ya ajivadavva ya - Bhs., 25. 2. 720; Avisesie davve visesie jivadavve ajivadavve ya - Anuyogadvara sutra, 123; Jivabhigama Sutra, Ist chapter; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36. 2; Satkhandagama, Vol. III, p. 2; TS., V. 1-3; Pravacanasara, 35, p. 178; Dravyasam graha, 23; Gommatasara, 562, 3. Satkhandagama, Vol. III. p. 2. 4. Ibid., p. 1. 5. Uddhagal bhotta saparapagasao ttijivassa asaharanalak khanam, Ibid. 6. Bhs., 25. 2. 720; 7. 10. 307; Sthananga 4.1.251; Ajsvakaya dharmadharmakasa-pudgalah - TS., V. 1; --Dravyani Ibid., V. 2.

Page #47
12 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy gories, viz. Dharmastikaya (principle of motion), Adharmastikaya (principle of rest), Akasastikaya (space), Pudgalastikaya (matter) and Addhasamaya or Kala? (time). These Ajivadravyas are classified into two groups, viz,. Ruprajivadravyas (corporeal non-living substances which are both tangible and intagible to the senses) and Arupiajivadravyas (non-corporeal, non-living substances which are intangible to the senses).2 Pudgala is a corporeal non-living substance.3 So non-corporeal, non-living substance, consists of Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya, Akasastikaya and Addhasamaya or Kala.4 A study of other Indian systems of thought except the extreme views of monistic materialism of the Carvakas and monistic spiritualism of the Vedanta reveals also that there are two aspects of Reality (Satvastu), viz. Cetanatattva (sentient principle) and Acetanatattva (non-sentient principle). In the Samkhya-Yoga Purusa and Praksti are Cetanatattva and Acetanatattva respectively as the two aspects of Reality.5 According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought, only Atma (soul-substance) among the nine categories of Dravya (substance) is Cetanatattva like Jiva (soul) of Jaina philosophy. The difference between them is this that the reflection (Chaya) of Jadatattva (non-sentient principle) does not fall (i. e. affect) on the soul-substance of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school, whereas it falls on the soul-substance of Jaina metaphysics. Other eight substances, viz. earth, water, fire, air, ether (akasa), direction (dik), time and mind are the non-sentient 1. Bhs., 25. 2. 720; Dravyasamgraha, 15, p. 44; Gommatasara, 563, p. 209 ( Jfvakanda) 2. Bhs., 25. 2. 720; Jivabhigama, 3, p. 105; Pannavana, 2, p. 265; Anuyogadvara, 142; Satkhandagama, Vol. III. p. 2 3. Bhs. 7.10 305; Sthanarga, 5.4.3 Rupinah pudgalah TS., V. 4. 4. Ibid., See also Gommatasara, 563 (Jyvakanda), p. 209. 5. Samkhyadarsana, 15, 18; Samkhya karika, Isvarakssna III.

Page #48
Jaina Conception of Matter 13 principle of the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy.1 The Mimamsa? admits the existence of Cetanatattva (the self) and Acetanatattva (non-sentient principle) like the Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought. According to the Buddhist philosophy, Nama or Citta (mind) and Rupa (matter) represent Cetanatattva and Acetanatattva3 respectively. Nama or Citta includes the four mental elements, viz. Vedana (feelings), samjna (ideas), saraskaras (volition and other faculties) and vijnana (pure sensation or general consciousness), while Rupa represents the elements of Matter, the physical elements of a personality (Pudgala) including its outer world the external objects. The Vedanta system of thought4 accepts the Absolute Brahman and Jagat (the Universe) as Cetanatattva and Acetanatattva respectively, although it regards Jagat to be the effect of the Brahman (Universal self), produced by its Mayasakti (power of illusion) which is also called Prakstis, as Nama (name) and Rupa (form). 1. Psthivyapastejo vayurakasam kalo digatma mana iti dravyani -- VS., 1. 1. 5; Tatra dravyani prthivyapastejo ... navaiveti.-- Prasastapadabhasya, p. 3. 2. Prakarana Pancika, p. 52, etc. and Prabhakara Mimamsa, p. 35, etc., vide History of Indian Philosophy, Vol I, p. 378. 3. The Central Conception of Buddhism, pp. 5-6; The Basic Conception of Buddhism, pp. 87-88, F. Note No. 41, 42. 4. Atha Brahmajijnaseti -- Brahmasutra, 1.1. 10; Janmadyasya yatah - Ibid., 1, 1.2. 5. Chandamsi yajnah kstave vratani bhutam bhavyam yacca veda vadanti Asmanmayr srjate visvametattasmimscanyo mayaya samniruddhah. -Svetasvatara Upanisad, 4. 9; Mayam tu prakstim vidyanmayinam tu mahesvaram Tasyavayavabhutaistu vyaptam sarvamidam jagat. - Ibid., 4.10.)

Page #49
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Phiolsophy The Ramanuja School of Vedanta also advocates the doctrine of Cit and Acit1 as the central theme of studies, i. e. the sentient and non-sentient principles. According to the Carvakas, "everything else including cousciousness and other psychic phenomena, indeed, the whole paraphernalia of the so-called spiritual life is a function of matter."2 in In a nutshell it can be said that there are two traditions of these principles-Atma tradition and Atom-tradition which manifest themselves as Cetanatattva and Acetanatattva infinite forms and manners with their respective characteristics in the Universe. In Western metaphysics also this 'Dualism of Matter and Spirit' is explained in this way that "Each atom of the nebula...must have had an aboriginal atom of consciousness linked with it; and just as the material atoms have formed bodies and brains by massing themselves together, so the mental atoms, by an analogous process of aggregation, have fused into those larger consciousness."'s The emergence of the thought on Cetanatattva (sentient principle) can be traced back to Bhutacaitanyavada (doctrine of consciousness born out of material elements), Svatantrajivavada (doctrine of independent soul), Svatantra and Parasrita Jivavada (doctrine of independent and dependent soul).* 14 1. Sribhasya, Ramanuja, 1. 1. 43. 2. The Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, p. x. 3. The Principle of Psychology, p. 147. 4. Bharatiyatattvavidya, p. 75; Kalah svabhavo niyatiryadrccha bhutani yonih purusa iti cintyam, Svetasvatara Upanisad1. 2; Idam mahadbhutamanantamaparam vijnanaghana evaitebhyo bhutebhyah samutthaya tanyevanuvinasyati na pretya samjnasti - Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 2.4.12; Viro davvam khettam mahesena vanam pamano kala ya Bhavo u bhavapuriso samasayo niggamamgaim; Visesavasyakabhasya, gatha, 1553; Virakta...Caitanyakhacitatkayannatma anyo astiti manyate Nyayamanjari, pt. II, p. 3;

Page #50
Jaina Conception of Matter But in opposition to the view of Bhutacaitanyavada, the thoughts on the doctrine of rebirth, after-life and the doctrine of independent soul went on vigorously with the development of Indian Philosophy. It is not known who started this movement of this doctrine, when and where, but it is definte that there were many sects of the leaders, following this doctrine and they made speculation about it in their respective manners.1 which e. the Acetanatattva (non-sentient principle) also can be traced back to Bhutavada (doctrine of material elements) arose out of the thought on the object of the senses, i. objects apprehended by the senses. The starting of the search for this Acetanatattva took place with the thought on the objects experienced by the senses. It is known that some thinkers, having kept the perceptible world in view, which came 15 Pamca khamdhe vayamtege bala u khana joino anno ananno nevahu heuyam ca aheuyam; -Sutrakrtanga, 1. 1. 17; Pudhavi ayu teu ya, taha vayu ya egao Cattari dhauno ruvam avamahamsu avare Ibid., 1.1.18; Catumahabhutika ayam puriso yada kalam karoti-Dighanikaya, Samannaphalasutta, Ajitakesakambalavada (3) 22; Iti padhame purisajae tajjIvataccharfra tti ahie Docce purisajae pamcamahabhuie tti ahie-Sutrakrtanga, 2 Pondarfya akhyanavada; Sutrakrtanga's Niryukti (i) gatha, 30 and Ganadharavada, p. 50; Prthivyapastejo vayuriti tattvani tatsamudaye sarirendriya visayasamjna -- Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1; Tebhyascaitanyamiti. tatrakecidvrttikara vyacaksate utpadyate tebhyascaitanyam, anye abhivyajyata ityahuh-Tattvasangrahapanjika, p. 205; Tam jIvam tam sarfram Majjhimanikaya II, Culamalunkiya sutta; Yatha gudapistadayah caitanyam sapraksayanti - Nyayamanjari, II, p. 3. 1. Bharatiyatattvavidya, p. 78. 2. Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1. 2. ...

Page #51
16 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy first of all in thought, accepted the nature of the world as endowed with the five elements (pancabhutas? or pancadhatus2 or pancaskandhas).3 On the basis of this postulation other thinkers began to make a clarification of the nature of Acetanatattva of Ajivadravya. As to the essential nature of six categories of Dravya (i. e. Reality) as determined by the two divisions of DravyaJivadravya and Ajsvadravya in the Jaina Agamas and the post-Agamic works, it is explained that the five extensive substances, viz. Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Kala (time) the sixth substance, are permanent in their nature and fixed in number as the sole constituents of the universe; and all except pudgala are non-corporeal.4 Acarya Kundakunda explains that the five extended reals manifest themselves in various forms through their numerous qualities and modifications and fill the three worlds.5 In other words, they are the constituents of the cosmic universe. They maintain their permanence through the manifestation of their various qualities and modificiations and constitute the substance, i. e. Reality, together with time which is endowed with the qaulity of permanence-in-change. That is to say, "these five reals are being and becoming. They maintain 1. Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1.2. 2. Dighanikaya, Samannaphala Sutta, see the view of Ajitakesakamball. 3. Sntrakstanga, 1. 1. 17. 4. Pamcatthikae na kayai nasi na kayai natthi, na kayai na bhavissai bhuvis ca bhavai ya bhavissai ya dhuve niyae sasae akkhae avvae avatthie nicce aruvi -- Nandisutra, 58; Poggalathikayam ruvikayam -- Bhs., 7. 10. 305; TS., V. 4; PS., 22. 5. Jesim atthisahao gunehim saha pajjaehirn vivihehitn Je homti atthikaya nippannam jehim tellokkam -- PS., 5. 6. Te ceva atthikaya tekkaliyabhavaparinada Ricca Gaccharti daviyabhavam pariyattanalimgasamjutta, Ibid., 6

Page #52
Jaina Conception of Matter their identity in the midst of their changes and thus are characterized by three factors, viz. origination, decay and permanence in the process of birth and destruction."1 As time also possesses these three qualities so there are stated to be six fundamental substances. Acarya Pujyapada, while commenting on the aphorism "Nityavasthitanyarupani", explains that the six substances, viz. Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space), Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter) and Kala (time) are eternal and unchanging in their characteristics and except Matter all are devoid of form (i. e. non-corporeal); Dharma cannot become Adharma or Jiva cannot become Ajiva (non-soul). The number of Dravyas (substances) is fixed as six; it can never be seven or five and with the exception of Pudgaladravya (material substance), the other five Dravyas are non-material and non-corporeal, hence devoid of all characteristics of Pudgala, such as, colour, taste, smell and touch, etc.2 Therefore, according to Jaina metaphysics, there are stated to be six categories of Reality called Sarvadravyas in the universe, i. e. positive fundamental reals characterized by qualities and modes, viz. principles of Motion and Rest, Space, Soul, Matter and Time.3 It is to be noted that in No. 2 aphorism of the fifth chapter of the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra containing the Svetambara tradition the word "Dravyani" (substances) has been joined together with the word "JIvasca (souls) to form this aphorism "Dravyani Jivasca". That is to say, Dharma and Adharma, Akasa, Pudgala and JIva are the five fundamental extensive substances, and Kala is not included here. 1. PS., 6. (comm). 2. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 270-71. 3. Chavviha savvadavva pa. tamjaha-dhammatthikae adhammatthikae java addhasamaye-Bhs., 25. 4. 733-4; 11. 4. 424; 13. 4. 482-3; Anuyogadvara sutra, 324 and Gommatasara (Jivakanda), 560. 17 4. Ete dharamadayascatvaro jIvasca panca dravyani ca bhavanti TS. Bhasya, p. 320. -

Page #53
18 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy The Digambara tradition as preserved in the Sarvarthasiddhi, the Tattvartha Rajavartika and the Tattvartha Slokavartika avers that their No. 2 aphorism, ch. V., "Dravyani" conveys the meaning that principles of Motion and Rest, Space and Matter are the substances (Dharmadharmakasa pudgalah dravyani). According to this view, the aphorisms No. 3 and No. 39, ch. V, includes Souls and Time (Jivasca and Kalasca) respectively in the categories of Reality as conceived in Jaina philosophy. As to the conception of six fundamental substances there is no difference between the two versions which are preserved in the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra and in the Sarvarthasiddhi, the Tattvartha Rajavartika and the Tattvartha Slokavartika respectively, but only the formation of the Sutras differs. The Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought advocates the doctrine that there are stated to be nine substances (Dravyas), i. e. constituent elements of the Universe, viz. earth (prthivi), water (ap), fire (teja), air (vayu), ether (akasa), time (kala), direction or relative position (dik or disa), soul (atma), and mind (manas).1 Earth, water, fire, air and mind are incorporated into the category of pudgaladravya (material substance) of Jaina metaphysics. "These are characterized by colour, taste, smell and touch as the sense of sight" 2 It is to be observed here that all these four qualities are inherent ni all kinds of Matter-tangible and intangible to the senses and may or may not be apprehended by the physical senses simultaneously, and none of them are associated with other substances of the cosmic Universe. The Vaisesika school holds the view that air is devoid of 1. Prthivyapastejo vayurakasakalo digatma mana iti dravyani -VS., 1.1.4; PP Bha., p. 3; Tarkasamgraha, 2, p. 5. 2. Prthivyaptejo vayumanamsi pudgaladravye antarbhavanti; ruparasagandhasparsavattvat --Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 268; Prthivyaptejo vayumanamsi tavat pudgaladravyameva murtakriyavattvad-atmaparinamita va vasudhadayah pudgala jiva eva manusyadivat - TS. Bha. Tika,p. 321.

Page #54
Jaina Conception of Matter form.1 Acarya Pujyapada explains the point by refuting this view in the following manner: "It is not true to say that air and mind do not possess colour, taste, etc. Indeed air possesses colour and so on, as it touches like the pitcher and so on. If it is said that colour, taste and smell are absent in air because these are not perceived by the sense of sight, then it would lead to the negation of atoms also. Water is characterized by smell, as it possesses touch like earth. Similarly, mind also is of two kinds-physical mind and psychical mind. Therein the psychical mind is knowledge. And knowledge is the attribute of Soul. So it comes under Soul. As the physical mind is characterized by colour, taste, smell and touch, it is a modification of matter. The physical mind is characterized by colour, taste, smell and touch, for it is the cause of knowledge like the sense of sight." "It is contended that we do not see the air and mind producing the effect (Karyatvam) of colour, taste, etc., as we do in the case of atoms. We say that such an effect can be admitted that all atoms can produce effects containing (all) colours, tastes, smells, etc. There are no atoms of the class of earth, water, fire or air. For all activity proceeds with the intermixture of blending of classes."3 According to the theory science, air can be converted into a "bluish liquid by continuous cooling just as steam can be converted into water." This scientific experiment demonstrates that air is endowed with the quality of colour and is therefore incorporated into the category of matter. The Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought propounds the theory that fire is endowed with the quality of touch and colours only, but it is devoid of taste and smell, while air possesses 1. Sparsavan vayuh - VS., II. 1.4; Tarkasamgraha, 12. 2. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 268-9; Reality, p. 131. 3. Ibid., p. 269; Reality, 131. 4. Cosmology, Old and New, p. 78. 5. Tejo rupasparsavat 19 VS. II. 1, 3; Tarkasamgraha, 11, 19.

Page #55
20 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy only the quality of touch.1 According to Jaina philosophy, air possesses not only colour and touch but also taste and smell. Modern science has clearly proved that it is a material substance, for when the energy (heat) of molecular agitation is very great, its temperature rises creating the sensation of fire. It is a form of energy which is a modification of matter, for energy is the attenuated form of matter and matter is a bottled energy. So they are identical. The qualities of matter are associated with fire, as it is demonstrated that "the flame consists of incandesent matter, raised to a high temperature by the process of combustion and that flame can exist only so long as the combustion goes on and a sufficiently high temperatura is thereby maintained to render the burning matter luminous. The flame is the outward visible sign of certain chemical and physical process, of action and reaction between the material which is being burnt and the atmosphere which surrounds it."2 The Jaina Agama, the Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti throws a side light upon this theory of fire by making a similar scientific analysis of the burning of fire in a lamp in connection with the holy teachings of Mahavira in this way: A lamp, its stand, wick, oil and cover do not burn, but fire in the wick burns."'3 It is the well-known theory that the oil of the lamp is sucked by the capillary action caused by the heat of fire burning at the tip of the wick. Therefore, fire is included in the category of Pudgaladravya (material substance). According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika school, earth possesses. 1. Tarkasamgraha, 13, p. 9; VS., II. 2. 4; Muktavaly, 42. 2. Outlines of Evolutionary Biology, p. 2; Cosmology, Old and New, p. 79, foot note. 3. Na padive jhiyai na latthi jhiyai na vatti jhiyai na tele jhiyai, etc. Bhs., 9. 6. 333.

Page #56
Jaina Conception of Matter 21 the natural quality of smelli together with colour, taste and touch. It is regarded by this system of thought that smell is existent only in earth, its presence in other substances like water, fire and air is not natural, but is due to the mixture of the earthly particles with them."2 Although odour is existent in them, it cannot be apprehended by the sense-organ of smell, i. e. the nose. For "Human nose is not sensitive enough to detect the smell of these. Several cases are known where our olfactory organ fails, for instance, the cat at once smells the milk or a hound smells the chase."3 Modern science has classified Matter into three states, viz. solid, liquid and gaseous states. Jaina metaphysics holds that Matter (pudgala) exists in the space of the Universe in the forms of earth (prthivi), water (jalam), air (vayu), etc.4 That is to say, they connote solid, liquid and gaseous states respectively and thus naturally come under the category of pudgala (matter). In the Nyaya-Vaisesika school Akasa (ether)s is regarded as a material substance (bhautika dravya); it is endowed with all pervasiveness and it is a fundamental principle of creation. Besides, it is the pure space having the property of accommodation to give room to other substances. The Jaina systems of thought also maintains the view that Akasa is an eternal, 1. Ruparasagandhasparsavati prthivi, VS. II, 1. 1; Laksanavali of Udayana, p. 18; Vyavasthitah pethivyam gandhah-- VS. II, 2.3. 2. The Conception of Matter According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, p. 317. 3. Cosmology, Old and New, p. 78. 4. Sutrakstamga 1. 1. 17; Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 268; TS. Bha. Tika, p. 321. 5. Akasakaladigatmanam sarvagatatvam paramamahattvas sarvasamyogisamanadesatvam ca-Bha., p. 8; Parisesallingamakasasya-VS., II. 1. 27.

Page #57
The Concept of Matter in Ja ina Philosophy infinite substance with accommodation (avagahana)1 as its property, giving room to other five fundamental substances, viz. Dharma, Adharma, Jiva, Pudgala and Kala. The reality of Akasa has also been accepted by all other Indian systems of thought like the Samkhya2, Theravada Buddhism,3 the Vaibhasika and the Vedanta5 as the substratum of all other four elements (bhutas), viz. earth, water, fire and air. 22 As regards Dik (direction) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought it is conceived "as that from which the notions of the various directions are produced with reference to a particular finite (murta) object as the basis of our judge ment. "6 The Jaina conception of Akasa (space) includes Dik" in its category, i. e. it is interpreted as mathematically pure space. "The convention of east, west, etc. in the series of rows of the points of space is based on the rise of the sun, etc. 1. Gunao avagahanagune-Bhs., 2.10. 118.; Avagahanalakkhane nam agasatthikae, Ibid., 13. 4. 48!.; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 28. 9.; TS., V. 18. 2. Vayoravaranam yadi hi avakasarupamakasam na syat tada murtadravyesu sthalyadisu antasteja adipraveso na syat-- Yogavartika, pada III; 3. AbhidharmadIpa, p. 9 (Akasa-dhatu). capyasamskrtam 4. Anasrava margasatyam trividham Akasam dvau nirodhau ca tatrakasamanavrtih - Abh. K. i. ka.5; Avakasam dadatftyakasamiti nirvacanam bhrsamasyantah kasante bhava ityakasamityapare -- Abh. K. I. Ka. 5, Sphutartha. 5. Akasastallingat, Brahmasutra, 1. 1. 22.; Asamantat kasata iti akasah-Srinivasa, Vedanta-Kaustubha 6. PPBha., p. 28; The Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, p. 189. 7. Diso'apyakase Disascakasanna Tika, p. 321. antarbhavah-Sarvarthasiddhi, dravyantaram...disamastiti, TS. Bha, p. 269.

Page #58
Jaina Conception of Matter For instance, this direction is here (The east is in the direction of sunrise).1 Atma (soul) and Kala (time) are common to both the systems of thought-Jaina and Nyaya-Vaisesika. Thus, the nine categories of Dravya (substance) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school can be reduced to the six categories of Dravya of Jaina philosophy. Of the six categories of Dravya (i. e. Reality) as conceived in this system, Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya and Akasastikaya, among the non-living substances (ajsvadravyas) are one continuum each, i. e. indivisible wholes or single substances. 2 Besides, they are immobile or without activity.3 According to Acarya Pujyapada, Kala (time) also has no capability of movement.4 He has raised the question here : "If Dravyas-- Dharma, Adharma, etc. are not capable of movement from place to place, their utpada (origination) should not take place; consequently there will be the negation of vyaya (decay) due to the negation of origination."5 It is clearly explained in connection with the conception of Dravya-Sat (Reality) and its nature that it is characterized by origination, decay and permanence.6 That is to say, origination and decay must take place in the six fundamental substances in some form or other. Acarya Pujyapada himself solves the problem by explaining it in the following manner." By the authority of the scriptures infinite 'agurulaghugunas (qualities of neither heaviness nor lightness), which maintain individuality of substances, are 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 269. 2. Dhammo 'adhammo agasam dayvam ikkikkamahiyam anamtam ya davvani, kalo puggalajastavo -Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 28.8; Akasadekadravyani--TS., V. 5. 3. Niskriyani ca, TS., V. 6. 4. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 274. 5. Ibid., p. 273. 6. Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat, TS., V. 29.

Page #59
24 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy admitted. These undergo six different steps of rhythmic rise and fall (increase and decrease). Origination and decay are established by these changes". 1 It means that "Among the six common attributes, viz. astitva (existentiality), vastutva (functionality), dravyatva (changeability) prameyatva (capacity of being the subject of knowledge), agurulaghutva (individuality or neither heaviness nor lightness) and pradesatva (capacity of having some form), agurulaghuguna is such that an imperceptible rhythmic rise and fall is constantly taking place in its parts in six different steps and these natural rhythms-rising and decaying produce utpada and vyaya. Agurulaghu attribute is said to be responsible for maintaining the individuality of a substance and its characteristic properties". 2 So six fundamental substances, viz. Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya, Akasastikaya, Jivastikaya. Pudgalastikaya, and Addhasamaya or Kala, have been conceived by the Jaina thinkers as six categories of Reality through their experience and critical analysis of the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of it, and of eternal sentient principle (JIvatattva) and nonsentient principle (Ajivatattva) of the existing Universe. This conception of Reality with its nature reveals that pranstattva (principle of beings) and Jadatattva (principle of non-being) come into being and are becoming. In this way they avoided the question of creation and beginning. These six categories of Reality are characterized by the three potent factors, viz, origination, decay and permanence. They are not Kutasthanitya tattvas (absolutely unchangeable reals) like those of the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of thought., i. e. Purusa and Brahman respectively. They are eternal, independent and permanent reals from the point of view of substance (Dravya), yet they are 1. Anantanamagurulaghugunanamagamapramanyadabhyupa gamyamananam satsthapanapatitaya vrdhya hanya ca pravartamananam svabhavadetesamutpado vyayasca -- Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 273. 2. Cosmology, Old and New, p. 100.

Page #60
Jaina Conception of Matter 25 also changing in nature from the modal point of view, as they are conceived from the aspects of their infinite gunas (qualities) and paryayas (modes). There are infinite living and non-living substances possessing infinite gunas and infinite paryayas. 1 In the midst of the series of eternal and infinite changes taking place in the aforesaid six substances they persist as Parinamsnitya Dravyas (permanent-in-change substances). Concept of Matter (Pudgala): Matter has been studied by every system of Indian philosophy in its own manner. Bhuta of the Carvakas, 2 Prakrti3 of the Samkhya-Yoga, Jadadravyat of the Nyaya-Vaisesikaj and the Mimamsakas, 6 Rupa? of the Buddhists, Mayas of the Sarkara-Vedanta, Acit9 of the Ramanuja-Vedanta and Pudgala10 of Jaina philosophy are only diverse views on this problem The concept of Matter can be traced back to Bhutavadali (doctrine of elements of Matter) which arose out of the Indian speculative thought on the objects of the sense in the Upanisadic period. As pointed out, on the basis of the postulation of the nature of the world as endowed with five elements (pancabhutas! 2 or pancadhatus 13 or pancaskandhas)14 some thinkers 1. Bhs, 25. 2. 720. 2. Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1. 3. Samkhyakarika, vv. 8, 10, 11. 4. Vaisesika Sutra, 1. 1. 5. 5. Prasastapadabhasya, p. 16; Nyayakandali, p. 16. 6. Prabhakara Mimamsa, pp. 35 ff. 7. Abhidharmakosa, 1. 24. 8. Kacinmayeti sucitas mayam tu prakstim vidyanmayinantu mahesvaramiti mantravarnat - Sankarabhasya on Brahmasutra, 1. 43. 9. Sribhasya, 1. 43. 10. Bhagavati Sutra, 2. 10. 118. 11. Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1. 2. 12. Ibid. 13. Dighanikaya, Samannaphalasutta, the view of Ajitakesa kamball. 14. Sutrakstamga, 1. 1. 17-18

Page #61
26 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy began to clarify the nature of the non-sentient principle (Acetanatattva or Ajivatattva) the most visible form of which is Matter. Ksiti (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vayu (air) and akasa (ether) are called the five elements of Matter (pancabhutas). They are also known as five aggregates of matter (pancaskandhas)2. The words 'dhatu's and 'kaya'4 also are used in this sense. Later on, the word 'dravya, 5 was employed for this 'bhuta' indicating the elements of matter. There is no difference of opinion in regard to earth, water, fire and air, the four entities, as being tangible to the senses. Akasas was accepted unanimously by some Indian schools of thought as the container of these four elements. In this sense of realities the word 'bhuta' was used by the ancient Indian thinkers that these entities which exist by themselves are also real. Just as some tree stands on the base of its trunk, just so the structure of the material universe is standing on the foundation of these aforesaid five elements. Therefore, these elements-- earth, etc., are called 'Skandhas.'? The meaning of 'dhatu' is explained in this way: that which maintains and nourishes the universe is called 'dhatu', just as vata (air), pitta (bile) and kaph (phlegm) are called 1. Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1. 2. 2. Sutrakstamga, 1. 1. 17-18. 3. Abhidharmakosa, 1. 20. It seems that "Dhatu has been borrowed from medical science where it means elements of body", 4. Bhagavati Sutra, 33. 1. 844 Pudhavikaya, apkaya, etc. 5. Vaisesika Sutra, 1. 1. 5. 6. Akasa has been accepted as space-container of all others substances by the Jainas ( Tattvartha Ramavartika, p. 434 ) and the Vaibhasikas respectively (Abhidharmakosa, K. 1, Karika 5, Sphutartha). 7. Abhidharmakosa, Commentary on K. 1. 2. 8. Carakasasihita, Sarfrasthana..

Page #62
Jaina Conception of Matter 'dhatu' because of their being the maintainer and nourisher of the human body. The meaning of the word 'kaya' is the organic body or figure in the Indian literature. The five entitiesearth, etc. are called 'kayas'1 (bodies) because of their being of different shapes or figures. These entities are called 'dravyas' (substances) on account of the continuity of their various tangible qualities and actions or modes in the womb of space and time. Similarly, such a doctrine that the universe is composed of five elements (pancabhautika) has emerged with the development of Indian metaphysical thought. A reference to these five elements (bhutas), earth, water, fire, air and akasa is found in the Upanisads, the Buddhist Pitakass and the Jaina Agamas. But the Indian speculation about Acetanatattva (non-sentient principle) went on more and more and it turned towards the subtle cause from the tangible gross cause of the material universe. The group of advocates of the concept of five elements of matter fell apart from that of the speculators of the finest cause of Acetanatattva. The first group of thinkers stopped there and began to establish the concept that there was nothing else except the five elements of matter (bhutas). This concept is known by the name of Barhaspatya, Lokayata or Carvaka.7 One tradition of Indian schools of thought accepting the concept of four elements of matter (bhutas)8 without akasa (ether or sky) was also continuing in the field of metaphysical 1. Bhagavati sutra, 24. 16. 702-709. 2. Prthivyapastejo vayurakasam iti dravy im, VS. 1. 1. 4. 3. Nyayamanjari, Pt. II. 4. Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1. 2. 5. Dighanikaya, Samannaphalasutta; Ajitakesakambali. 6. Sutrakrtamga, 1. 1. 17. 7. Dighanikaya, Samannaphalasutta; Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1. 8. Ibid, p. 1. see the view of 27

Page #63
28 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy speculation of non-sentient principle in course of time. On the other side those Indian thinkers who were not satisfied with the concept of the five elements of matter apprehended by the senses began to speculate about the cause of these reals and their nature. In this way two currents of thought on the problem of non-sentient principle arose in the field of Indian metaphysics, giving birth to the concepts of Matter. One group of Indian thinkers started to find out the fundamental cause out of the material realities on the basis of inner feeling and thought, while the other group began to think over the nature of the fundamental cause mainly on the basis of the sense-experience. The Samkhya and Brahmavadina views on it represent the first current of thought and Nyaya-Vaisesika, Buddhist and Jaina views on this problem represent the second one. According to Jaina metaphysics, the most visible form of Ajivadravya (non-living substance) or Acetanatattva is Pudgalastikaya (matter) which exists in the Universe in various forms, such as, earth, water, fire, air, shadow, objects of four senses--hearing, smell, taste and touch, physical mind, speech, bodies, etc. up to karmic matter and paramanul (ultimate etom). Pudgala is a tangible reality within the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in perceptible and imperceptible conditions. Its finest form is paramanu (ultimate atom). The .concept of Pudgala preserved in the Jaina Agamas forms the basis of the physical sciences in Jainism in a nascent form. On it a superstructure of analysis of Pudgala has been raised by Umasvati and other Jainacaryas in post-agamic period and darsanakala (age of Indian philosophy) with a synthetic view of all other Indian concepts of Matter on the basis of its existence in the Universe as a permanent substance endowed with infinite qualities (gunas) and modes (paryayas)2 which 1. PudhavI-jala-chaya-caurisdiyavisaya-kamma-khamdha paramanu-Satkhandagama, Vol. III, p. 3; Pancastikayasamayasara, 83, p. 81; Gommatasara, Jivakanda, V. 602. 2. Bhs., 5. 8. 221; 2. 1. 90.

Page #64
Jaina Conception of Matter 29 can be studied in the light of many unique notions of matter as explained in the physical sciences. Etymology of 'puggala' or poggala,1 Skt. pudgala, has been dealt with by the Jainacaryas2, Bauddhacarya, 3 different foreign and Indian scholars including Sri S. M. Shah5 of Poona University in their respective manners of scholarly approach to the problem. According to the concensus of opinions of all scholars, the basic etymological meaning of the word 'puggala' is that the substance which undergoes transformation or modification by the process of integration and disintegration is called puggala or poggala, Skt. pudgala, although it still remains as a problem to be solved, as it has been used in the sense of both Matter and Soul or empirical being in the Jaina tradition? and Soul or personality in the 1. TS., V.1. 2. Puranadgalanacca pudgalah etc.. Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Tika by Siddhasena Ganin on V. 7, p. 316. Puranagalananvarthasamjnatvat pudgalah, etc.. -- Tattvartha Rajavartika, V. 19, Tika ;Pumgiladva...athava. pumamso jiva te sarfraharavisayakarano pakaranadibhavena gilanta iti pudgalah-- Ibid.; Poggale iti puranadgalanacca sariradinam pudgalah- Bhagavati Vyakuyaprajnapti Vitti, Vol. III, pp. 776 ff.; Puramti galamti jado puranagalanehi poggala tena paraman acciya jada iya dittham ditthi kayamhi - Tiloyapannatti, pt. I, ch. I, V. 99. 3. Visuddhimagga, 310. 4. Prof. P. Desco, Sanskrit "pudgala', body, soul, - Journal. of American Oriental Society, Vol. 67, pp. 172-77; Prof. Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Vol. II, Delhi, 1970, p. 347; Pali-English Dictionary. Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961, Word No. 3494, p. 283. 5. Sri S. M. Shah, On the Etymology of Pudgala or Poggala, Sambodhi, Vol. 4, Nos. 3-4, 6. Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Umasvati, p. 316 7. Bhs. 20. 2. 664.

Page #65
30 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Buddhist traditionl respectively. So the nature of Puggala, according to the accepted Jaina tradition, is to integrate and disintegrate.2 On account of this nature of it name 'Puggala' or 'poggala', Skt. 'Pudgala' has been attributed to the permanent substance-Matter in Jaina philosophy. This Jaina concept of Matter may be compared with the .concept of matter in the physical sciences to some extent where it is conceived as the substance in the sense of stuff of which the material Universe is constituted, undergoing changes by the process of integration and disintegration,3 So the concept of Matter of the Jainas comes nearer to that of matter of the physical sciences in some respects. In Jaina metaphysics matter is conceived as a substance (dravya) endowed with quality (guna) and mode (paryaya)4 and it is studied from the aspects of substance (dravya), locus, (ksetra) time (kala and condition (bhava)5 on the basis of the metaphysical speculation which runs parallel to some extent to the conception of Matter as found in Western philosophy and modern physics in which Matter is conceived as one of the ultimate principles of substances of which phenomena are manifestations. According to Jaina philosophy, Matter (pudgala) is a permanent, non-living, extensive, physical, corporeal and concrete, active, disintegrating and integrating, and changeable substance. It is infinite in number, co-extensive with the Universe (Loka), possessed of the capacity to be received by 1. Kecit Saugatammanya apyatmanan pracaksate, pudgala vyapadesena tattvanyattvadivarjitamTattvasamgraha 336, Santaraksita, Gaekward's Oriental Series. 2. Bhs. (Comm.) 20. 2. 664, etc. 3. Cosmology, Old and New, pp. 58-64; See also Physics, p. 2. 4. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 2. 10. 118; Anuyogadvara, 4. 727 ;Uttaradhyayanasutra, 28, 5-6. 5. Bhs., 2. 10, 118. 6. Bhs., 2. 10. 118; TS. V. 1, 2. 3. 4, 6; Dravyasamgraha, 15.

Page #66
Jaina Conception of Matter Souli and to be of assistance to it.2 It is characterized by origination, decay and permanence without giving up its essential nature of existence.3 A comparative study of the Jaina concept of Matter with those of other Indian systems of thought reveals that according to the Samkhya there is Prakstitattva (Primordial Matter) among many successive changes, ever existing and all-pervading; again, however, it is itself attaining also other states in accordance with the changes. Of course it is formless, unmanifest and undifferentiated like atoms of Jaina metaphysics in its unmanifest states. The Nyaya-Vaisesika maintains the view that when newer and newer effects like substances, etc. get produced, then an atom (paramanu ) as the basis of these effects exists as Kutasthanitya (absolutely permanent) without any kind of change. According to Jaina metaphysics also, an atom too is the basis of newer and newer material effects. Nevertheless, atoms are not by any means different and independent from the effects like those of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. But there is one point which is the same in the Samkhya, Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina systems of thought that the individuality or self-identity of the fundamental substance as substratum is to remain as whole or non-divisible (akhanda). As, according to the Samkhya view, the identity of Prakstitattva exists as whole or non-divisible from the points of view of all-pervasive substratum, just so the infinite-fold infinite atoms exist as permanent, 1. Bhs., 2. 10. 118; Sakasayatvajjivah karmano yogyan pudgalanadatte-TS., VIII. 2. 2. Sukhaduhkhajsvitamaranopagrahasca. TS., V. 20, p. 343. 3. Apariccattasahavenuppadavvayadhuvattasamjuttam Gunavam ca sapajjayam jam tam davvam ti vuccasti --Pancastikayasara, II, 3. 4. Mulaprakstiravikstirmahadadyah prakstivikstayah sapta sodasakastu vikaro na prakstirna viksti purusah -Samkhyakarika, 3.

Page #67
32 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy according to the Nyaya-Vaisesikal and Jaina2 concepts of Matter. The Buddhist philosophy calls the Universe rupatmaka (material). Rupa does not connote only the meaning 'perception' to the eye, but it calls all the bhutabhautikatattvas (primary and secondary elements of matter) by this term which can be apprehended by the sense-perception. Like the NyayaVaisesika and Jaina schools of thought the Buddhist philosophy also, keeping in view the perceptible gross matter, material effects like 'taste, etc., as prominent, was engaged in the consideration of its cause. It has also admitted the doctrine of similarity in the postulation of causality (karyakarana), i. e. as there is an effect, so there is a cause. If the material effect is perceptible to the senses of taste, etc., then its fine, finer and finest (i. e. intangible) ultimate cause also is as such, that is to say, it can be only as rupa (colour and shape), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparsa (touch), etc. According to this consideration, the Buddhist philosophy has made a reference to all gross and fine elements of matter of the universe by using the word "Rupa'. But there is a gulf of difference between the Buddhist concept of Rupa and the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina concepts of Rupa. The Buddhist tradition also is anu-paramanuvadin (advocate atomism) like the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina systems of thought. Nevertheless, its postulation of the concept of Matter appears to be distinct from Prakstivada of the Samkhya on the one hand and the doctrine of enternal and infinite ultimate atoms (anantaparamanavada) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Saina schools of thought on the other. The Buddhist philosophy is the advocate of manifoldness (or multiplicity) of elements of matter, but it does not admit the conception of permanence of any entity. It advocates that 1. Asritatvam canyatra nityadravyebhyah anasritatvanityatve canyatra avayavidravyebhyah--PPBha, Dravyadharanaprakarana. 2. Nityavasthitanyarupani- TS., V. 3; Rupinah pudgalah- Ibid., V.4.

Page #68
Jaina Conception of Matter the constitution of reality is always subject to change or being changed. It does not accept the change in entities under the influence of an independent reality called time, but it calls the series of evolving momentary changes due to the intrinsic nature of an entity as time. By this method, like the Samkhya and Jaina systems of thought, it does not admit any such reality as ever ecisting (i. e. permanent) in the current of the would-be newer and newer changes at every moment, but it accepts ever dynamic momentary changes.1 Nature of Matter A detailed analysis of the characteristics of Pudgala(Matter) 1. Bharatfyatattvavidya, p. 63. 2. It is a non-living Substance (Ajfvakaya dharmadharmakasapudgalah dravyani jivasca TS., V. 1-2; it is eternal and permanent (Nityavasthitanyarupani ca rupinah pudgalah), TS., V. 3-4; it is non-living (Bhs., 2. 10. 108; TS., V. 1); it is extensive (Pamcatthikaya panntta...poggalatthikae), Bhs., 2. 10. 118; it is endowed with body (Bhs., 2. 10. 118; TS., V.1); it is corporeal and concrete (Rupinah pudgalah), TS., V. 4; DS., 15.; it is active (Pudgalajivastu kriyavantah), TS. Bhasya, V. 6, p. 236. it is subject to dissociation and combination (puranadgalanacca pudgalah), TS. Bhasya, V. 1, p. 316; it is changeable (Brhad-Dravyasamgraha, p. 67(DS.,) p. 31) it is finite (Davvao nam poggalatthikae anamtaim davvaim) Bhs. 2. 10. 118.; it is co-extensive with the Universe (Khettao loyappamanamette), Bhs., 2. 10. 118; it is possessed of the capacity to be received by Soul (Sakasayatvajjivah karmano yogyan pudgalanadatte), TS., 8.2.; it is of assistance to soul (Sukhaduhkhajfvitamaranopagrahasca) TS., V. 20. 33

Page #69
34 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosodhy as conceived in Jaina metaphysics throws light upon its nature. It is explained in the Jaina Agamas and post-Agamic works that Matter is eternal and constant in number; it was in the infinite eternal past samayas (times or instants), is at the eternal present samayas and will be in the infinite eternal future samayas. 1 On the basis of the Agamic statement about the characteristics of Matter, Umasvatia and other later Jainacaryas have dealt with the nature of eternality attributed to it in detail. Acarya Pujyapada explains it by maintaining that Matter never loses its general characteristics of existence, etc. and particular characteristics, such as, colour, etc. because these are indestructible characteristics like colour in it. It is fixed in number, for there does not take place any increase or decrease in its number, i. e. it remains constant.3 The qualities eternality and fixity in number exist together in all substances * permanently. To be eternal is not to lose its nature of per manence-in-change, i. e. that whose nature is not destroyed and that which is not destroyed by any means is eternal.$ "Since the fixed number is not violated, the substances remain fixed in number and do not at any time exceed fixed unit of six, so these are said to remain constant."5 Matter endowed with its quality and mode is eternal and fixed substance. Therefore, it will never be destroyed nor will it be converted into other substances. 6 That is to say, Matter will remain the same as it is; whatever material substance there was in the past, (that much) is at present and will be in the infinite future. So it is eternal and fixed in quantity from the point of view of Dravya (substance). Matter which is non-living and by all means opposite to Soul is devoid of sentiency and consciousness, while the characteristic of Soul is conscious 1. Bhs., 1. 4. 42. 2. Nityavasthitanyarupani, TS., V. 3. 3. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 270. 4. Tadbhavavyayan nityam TS., V. 30. 5. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 270-71. 6. TS., Bhasya Tika, p. 323.

Page #70
Jaina Conception of Matter 35 ness. Hence, Matter is not living because of being devoid of consciousness, but it is non-living. 2 In regard to the nature of its existence it is explained that Matter is real, 3 for astitva (existence) is the only one all-comprising characteristic of the five extensive substances amongst their various characteristics. 4 It is the nature of the substances. That is to say, this nature is accompanied by its qualities and variegated modifications and origination, destruction and permanence for all times. 6 So Matter is Traikalikasti (existent in three points of time-past, present and future).7 Matter is rupin (corporeal)8 and murta (concrete or tangible). 9 The auto-commentary of the Tattvarthadhigama sutra explains that rupa (corporeality) is murti (concreteness),10 while Siddhasena Ganin elucidates the point by stating that parinama (resultant effect or transformation) of the aggregation 1. Upayoga lakkhane jive, - Bhs., 2. 10. 118; Upayogo laksanam-TS., II. 8, p. 149. 2. TS. Bha. Tika, p. 315. 3. Asti ityayam nipatah kalatrayabhidhayin-Bhs. 2. 10. 118 (comm.) 4. Iha vivihalakkhananam lakkhanamegam saditi savvagayan, --Pravacanasara, II. 5, p. 13. 5. Astitvam hi kila dravyasya svabhavah, Ibid., p. 127, Pradipika. 6. Sabbhavo sahavo gunehim saha pajjahin cittehim Davvassa savvakalam uppadavvayadhuvattehim, PR. II, 4, p. 126. 7. Asti ityaya nipatah kalatrayabhidhayin -- Bhs., 2. 10. 118 (comm). 8. Bhs., 2. 10. 118; 13. 4. 481; Rupinah pudgalah -- TS., V.4; Rupam murtih - TS. Bha., p. 322. 9. Rupasabdasyanekarthatve murtiparyaya-grahanam sastrasamarthyat - T. RV., V. 5. 1, p. 441, 10. Rupam murtih, murtyasrayasca sparsadaya iti - TS. Bha. V. 4, p. 322.

Page #71
36 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy of colour, taste, smell, touch and shape is rupa.1 The things which have corporeality are the material objects.2 Matter is called rupin, i. e. murta (concrete) because of parinama (transformation) produced by the aggregation of colour, taste, smell, touch and shapes like triangular, rectangular, etc.3 It is defined that rupaparinami gunas (corporeality--producing qualities), viz. touch, taste, smell and colour become forms of matter, 4 i. e. forms of matter are characterized by touch, taste, smell and colour. According to Siddhasena Ganin, guna (quality), which is inherent in a Dravya (substance) but nonexistent in other Dravyas (substances), is called laksanaguna (distinctive quality) and that by which an object can be determined is the characteristic of it. 5 One object can be distinguished from another by its laksanaguna. Matter only is rupin (corporeal), while other fundamental substances are arupin (non-corporeal). That which is rupin is murta. Murtatva (concreteness or tangibility) of Matter is brought about by particular parinama (visista parinama) of colour, taste, smell and touch.6 Therefore, a thing which is rupin is Pudgaladravya (material substance), no form of Matter can be arupin, i. e. devoid of colour, taste, smell, and touch.3 Rupitva (corpo1. Murtirhi rupadisabdabhidheya, saca rupadi samsthanaparinamah, TS. Bha. Tika, p. 323. 2. RupamesamastIti rupinah, Ibid., p. 322. 3. Tattvartha Rajavartika, p. 444. 4. Sparsarasagandhavarsavantah pudgalah - TS., V. 23, p. 355; Sparsah rasah gandhah varna ityevam laksanah pudgala bhavanti --- TS. Bha., p. 355. 5. Laksyate aneneti laksanam, Ibid., II. 8, p. 149 6. Ruparasagandhasparsa eva visistaparinamanuglhstah santi murtivyapadesabhajo bhavanti --- TS. Bha. Tika, V. 3, p. 324. 7. Pudgala eva rupino bhavanti, rupamesamastyesu va astiti rupinah-TS. Bha., p. 325. 8. Na murtivyatitekena pudgalah santi -- TS. Bha. Tika, V. 4, p. 325.

Page #72
Jaina Conception of Matter 37 reality) can never be apart from Matter. That in which there is arupitva (non-corporeality) is not Pudgalal (Matter). Samavaya (inherence) of colour, taste, smell and touch in Matter is called rupitva. The aggregation of these four qualities is called rupatvagunasamavaya of Matter; colour or shape (varna or samsthana) alone is not called rupatvaguna. Wherever there is colour, there are certainly touch, taste and smell.2 There is no such form of matter in which there can be found only three or any two or any one of them. None of them can be perceived to exist in other substances. These four qualities must be present in all forms of Matter whether atoms or molecules. They exist also in all conditions of it-tangible or intangible, manifest or unmanifest. Akalanka maintains that Samsthana (shape or figure) also is one of the characteristics of tangibility or corporeality of Matter besides varna (colour) rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparsa (touch). The meaning of samsthana is aksti or akara (shape or figure), it can be the product or effect of the disintegrating and integrating nature of Matter. 3 Matter is active. 4 In Jaina philosophy Sat (reality) is characterized by origination, decay and permanences; it is the basic principle of the Universe. 6 All substances are permanent by their respective inherent co-existing qualities, while they are origination and decay-like by their respective, successive modes. The mode of substance arising from internal and external causes, which is the cause of its motion, is called 1. Arupah pudgala na bhavanti--TS. Bha. Tika, V.4, p. 324. 2. Yatra rupaparinamah tatravasyantaya sparsarasagandharirapi bhavyam, atah sahacarametaccatustayam, ---Ibid., p. 323. 3. Rupadisamsthanaparinamo murtih, --Tattvartha Rajavartika, V. 5, 2, p. 444. 4. Pudgalajivastu kriyavantah-TS., V. 6, p. 326. 5. Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat, TS., V. 29, p. 374. 6. TS., p. 327.

Page #73
38 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy activity (Kriya)". The entities are inactive from the point of view of quality. An entity can be called inactive by the prominence of the substantial stand-point and the non-prominence of the modal stand-point.2 All entities are active from the aspect of origination and decay of their modes. They are active by the prominence of the modal point of view and the non-prominence of the substantial point of view.3 All substances are endowed with qualities and modes, therefore, they are inactive and active respectively. The permanence of quality in a substance can be called inactivity, while the origination and decay of mode in it are to be called activity, (Kriya), modes of a substance are infinite, so there are stated to be infinite divisions or conditions of activity. Both Arthaparyaya and Vyanjanaparyayat take place in Soul and Matter.5 There are two kinds of bhava (condition), viz. parispandatmaka (vibrating) and aparis pandatmaka (non-vibrating).6 It is explained that Matter and Soul are active "Pudgalajivastu kriyavantah"?. Activity has been stated to be characterized 1. Ubhayanimittavasadutpadyamanah paryaya dravyasya desantarapraptihetuh kriya-Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 272. 2. Anutpadavyayotpadavyayadrsanat (25) paryayarthika gunabhave dravyarthikapradhanyat sarve bhava anutpadavyayadarsanat niskriya nityasca--TRV., p. 449. 3. Dravyarthikagunabhave paryayarthikapradhanyat sarve bhava utpadavyayadarsanat sakriya anityasceti -- TRV., p. 449. 4. Arthaparyaya signifis those minute or subtle divisions in a series of changes, which are or appear to be indivisible, no name can be attributed to it, while vyanjanaparyaya indicates a series of changes which has such similarity as to allow it to be stated by a name--Sanmatitarka, III, 34, p. 440. 5. Jivapudgalanam arthaparyaya-vyanjanaparyayasca,-PRTV, II, 37, p. 182. 6. Dravyasya hi bhavo dividhah parispandatmakah apari spandatmakasca,--TRV., 5. 22, 11, p. 481. 7. TS. Bha. V. 6, p. 326.

Page #74
Jaina Conception pf Matter by vibration or oscillation (parispandana). Vibration is the nature of Matter; activity takes place in it due to this vibrating nature and it is capable of being active. Only by its capacity of vibration (parispandana saktiguna). Therefore, it is active by its own capacity.2 In regard to the integrating and disintegrating nature of Matter it has been pointed out that the name 'Pudgala' is attributed to Matter because of its nature of integration and disintegration.3 A name is given to a thing according to its nature and activity.4 Matter integrates and disintegrates; the first cause of it is paramanu (ultimate atom), i. e. paramanu is the ultimate finest eternal cause and last unit of Matter. On account of their mutual touch or contact one paramanu sometimes integrates with another, and being united, again it sometimes disintegrates from a skandha (molecule) or combination in accordance with some scientific rules and so on. This process of integration and disintegration of paramanus takes place due to the integrating and disintegrating nature of Matter (Pudgala). Paramanus, being combined thus, transform themselves into the form of oneness. The name of this form of one state is called 39 1. Pudgalastu parispandasvabhavatvat parispandena bhinna samghatena, samhata punarbhedenotpadyamanavatisthamanabhajyamana kriyavantasca bhavanti-Pravacanasara, II, 37, Pradipikavrtti, p. 182. 2. Samarthyat sakriyau jIvapudgalaviti niscayah, Tattvartha Slokavartika, 5.7-2, p. 398. 3. Pudgalasabdo nirdistarthah (40) Pudgalasabdasyartho nirdistah pumgilanat puranagalanadva pudgala iti, -TRV., p. 474. 4. Puryante galanti ca Pudgalah dhatostadarthatisayena yogah mayurabhramaradivat--Srutasagara Vrtti, Vide Jaina Padarthavijnana men Pudgala, Mohalal Bathia, p. 25. 5. Karanameva tadantyam suksmo nityasca bhavati paramanuh ekarasagandha varno, dvisparsah karyalimgasca -Arya, TS. Bha., p. 365.

Page #75
40 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Skandhal (molecule). There takes place also the union of one skandha (molecule) with another or more than one skandha like that of paramanu. On the division of the aggregate of paramanus, the disintegration occurs not only in the form of paramanus but it may happen also only in the form of skandha and in a mixed form of skandha and paramanu. The dissociation of some paramanus can take place only on the division of a skandha. The remaining skandhas may exist as they are. There can be a union or one or more paramanus with skandhas. The ultimate capacity and multifariousness of Matter are generated by its integrating and disintegrating nature. As to the changing nature of Matter it is explained in Jaina metaphysics that Matter undergoes both adi and anadi Parinamas (transformation with a beginning and without a beginning)2 Its adi parinamas are found in the transformation of its colour, taste, smell, touch, space, union, division, motion, sound and neither heaviness norlightness, 3 while its anadi parinamas are experienced in its dravyatva (substantiality), murtatva (corporeality or tangibility), sattv (existentiality),4 etc. Matter is infinite in number or quantity from the points of view of dravya (substance), ksetra (locus), kala (time) and bhavas (condition). That is to say, it is infinite in number whether it is in the form of paramanu or skandha. 1. Paripraptabandhaparinamah skandhah --TRV., 5. 25. 16, p. 493. 2. Anadiradimamsca, TS., V. 42, p. 438. 3. Bhs., 8. 10. 355; Prajnapana Sutra, Parinamapada, 13; TS., p. 439. 4. Dravyatvamurtatvasattvadayo anadyapi pudgaladrave parinamah sentityamumartham visinasti, --TS. Tika, p. 439. 5. Davvao poggalatthikae anamtaim davvaim, Bhs., 2. 10. 118 ; Anamta khettadesenavi evam ceva kaladesenavi bhavadesenavi evan--Ibid., 5. 8. 221.

Page #76
Jaina Conception of Matter Matter is equal to the extent of the Universe (lokapramana) from the point of view of Ksetra1, i. e. it is co-extensive with the Universe, as it exists only in the space of the Universe (Loka). The forms of Matter occupy one point of space onwards. 2 Acarya Kundakunda explains this problem by stating that the Universe is densely filled with several varieties of infinitefold infinite forms of Matter of subtle and gross nature in all directions.3 The auto-commentary of the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, while interpreting the Sutra "Ekapradesadisu bhajya pudgalanam" makes it clear that the accommodation (or immersion) of partless forms of Matter and forms of Matters having countable, countless and infinite parts (i. e. units of atoms) is in one point of space, that of binary compound or dyad (dvipradesika or dvyanuka) is in one and two points of space, that of tertiary compound (tripradesika) is in one, two and three points of space and so on up to those forms of Matter having countable, countless and infinite units of atoms are in countable, countless points of space of the Universe. Similarly, skandhas (molecules) formed of numerable, innumerable and infinite atoms are accommodated in one, countable and countless points of space of the Universe 5 by their capacity of contraction of becoming subtle, just as the lights from several lamps intermingle. As to the point of nature that Matter is JIvagrahya (receivable by Soul) it is explained in the Agama that Matter is endowed with the attribute of reception or attraction from the 41 1. Khettao loyappamanamette--Bhs. 2. 10. 118. 2. Ekapradesadisu bhajyah pudgalanam-TS. V. 14, p. 333. 3. Oghadhagadhanicido puggalakayahehim savvado logo suhumehim badarehim ya anamtanamtehim vivihehim -Pancastikayasara, p. 70. 4. TS. Bhasya, V. 14, p. 333. 5. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 279. 6. Avagahanasvabhavatvatsuksmaparinamacca murttimatamapyavagaho na virudhyate ekapavarake anekadfpaprakasavasthanavat-Ibid., p. 279.

Page #77
42 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy stand-point of quality.1 On the basis of the agamic statement Umasvati defines the point in this way that the individual self attracts particles of Matter which are fit to turn into karmapudgala (karmic matter) as the self is actuated by passions. This is bondage.2 There is no capacity in Matter to attract Soul, but there is only the quality in it to be received by Soul. It is the Soul which receives Matter by attracting it and thus attains bondage with it. All souls do not receive matter. Only the worldly souls receive matter which is capable of turning into karmic matter because of the nature of being associated with the transformation tinged with passions. Just as the digestive fire of the stomach (gastric fluid or juice ) absorbs food suitable to it, so also the self attracts karmas of duration and fruition corresponding to the viruient, mild or moderate nature of passions. 3 Function of Matter The function of Matter is to form the basis of body and organs of speech and mind, and respiration.4 That is, soul attracts further forms of Matter fit to turn into karmic matter by the association of forms of Matter like mind, speech, and body. In other words, Soul, having attracted forms of Matter and attained bondage with the received forms of Matter, transforms those forms of Matter into the form of mind, speech and body and again it attracts more forms of Matter fit to turn into karmic matter by the contact of matters transformed by mental, vocal. and bodily activities. Forms of matter which are only capable: of transformation into karmic matter are received or attracted. by Soul,5 but all forms of Matter are not receivable to it... 1. Gunao gahanagune-Bhs., 2. 10. 118. 2. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 376-7. 3. Ibid., pp. 376-7 4. Sariravangmanahpranapanah pudgalanam - TS., V. 19, p. 341. 5. Sakasayatvajjivah karmano yogyan pudgalanadatte -TS., VIII. 2.

Page #78
Jaina Conception of Matter Matter in the form of paramanu (ultimate atom) cannot be attracted by Soul nor can it be received in all kinds of molecular conditions. Thus Matter, being transformed into the forms of body, speech, mind and respiration, comes in the service of Soul.1 43 Similarly, the function of Matter is also to contribute to pleasure, suffering, life and death of living beings.2 That is to say, forms of Matter render a service to the worldly souls by four means of upagraha (contributions), viz. pleasure, pain, life and death, having undergone transformation as body, speech, mind and respiration. "Owing to the presence of the internal causes of karma, which produce the feelings of delight and anguish, and in consequence of the ripening of external causes; such as objects, the disposition of agreeableness or affliction is pleasure or pain. The continuance of respiration in a being owing to the presence of the age-determining karma is called living (or life). The cutting off or destruction of respiration is death. Matter renders help to Soul in these respects, for these arise in the presence of material causes." All these modes like pleasure, pain, etc. in Soul are produced by Matter as material functions towards it. Souls and forms of matter exist in the Universe as being mutually bound, touched, immersed and tied to each other by attraction and getting mixed up like a jar and water or a sunken boat and water in a lake4 intermingled with each other like milk and water.5 Of the general qualities of Matter, as conceived in the Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought impenetrability, perceptibility and mass of it (kaya) are essential aspects of its nature. Besides, it possesses colour, taste, smell, touch, priority, posteriority weight, fluidity, viscosity and impulse as the murtagunas (finite or subjective concrete or 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 285-8. 2. Sukhaduhkhajfvitamaranopagrahasca-TS., V. 20, p 343.. 3. Sarvarthasiddhi, pp. 288-9. 4. Bhs., 1. 6. 56. 5. Sanmatitarka, I. V. 47.

Page #79
.44 The Concept of Matter in Jajna Philosophy qualities)1 and also elasticity (sthitisthapakatva)2. As it is substantial, it has the following objective qualities, viz. number, magnitude, separateness, conjunction and disjunctions. Colour, taste, smell and touch are respectively specific qualities (Visesagunas) of the four material substances, viz. earth, water, fire and air and besides weight, fluidity, viscosity and elasticity are particular physical qualities of Matter, while number, magnitude, separateness, conjuction and disjunction and impulse are its general qualities (samanyagunas). 4 It is to be noted that almost all the features of the nature of Jaina Pudgala (Matter) with the exception of its grahanaguna (capacity to be received by Soul) are found to be existing in Matter as conceived in the Nyaya-Vaisesika school in one form or other. Ancient Greek Conception of Matter According to Compedodes and Aristotle, all matter is composed of one primordial substance called hyle or yelm5 which is identical in all bodies. The difference between various substances exist as a result of the presence of certain qualities in the varying quantities (or degrees) placed upon the Prime Matter by the four elements, viz. fire, earth, air and water. This conception of hyle or yelm (Primordial Matter and its elements) can be compared with Pudgala of Jaina metaphysics. The concept of the Primordial Substance founded on the theory of Aristotle continued for over than two thousand years. On the basis of it Alchemy, the forerunner of modern nuclear physics, aimed at transforming elements, particularly making metals 1. Ruparasagandhasparsaparatvaparatvagurutvadravatvasne havega murtagunah--PPBha., Gunapadarthanirupanam, p. 38. 2. Nyayakandali, p. 272. 3. Samkhyaparimanapethaktvasamyogavibhaga ubhayagunah PPBha.,--Gunapadarthanirupanam, p. 38. 4. Ibid. 5. Atoms and the Universe, pp. 126-149.

Page #80
Jaina Conception of Matter 45 form the base ones. With a view to achieving this end the alchemists made attempts to obtain pure Prime Matter by separating the four elements from a substance. Their complete failure to achieve this objective, i. e. the accomplishment of the transformation of elements by adding four elements in the suitable proportions, brought to light the long neglected Greek atomic theory by the beginning of the nineteenth century mainly as a result of the research work of John Dalton.1 In Western metaphysics Matter is conceived as one of the ultimate principles or substances; the physical world consists of material (substances) with qualities and relations. 2 In this light Matter is a permanent reality and the substratum of such qualities which are constantly co-existent as a group in it. In the physical sciences it is the substance in the sense of "Stuff' which constitutes the whole material universe. Extension, impenetrability, trangibility, mass, divisibility, porosity, compressibility, density and elasticity, etc. are the general or universal properties of Matter.3 Besides, it possesses colour, taste, etc, and the capacity of motion and the nature of dissociation and combination. The material universe consists of an almost infinite variety of material substances. It is to be noted that like Jaina philosophy Western metaphysics and physics started with the conception of gross elements of Matter and gradually entered into the subtle atomic theory according to which all material substances are constituted of small units called atoms--the smallest fragment. Atoms means indivisible. But the definition of atom has been found absolute; later on, the physical sciences have demonstrated that atom is divisible. Besides, the analysis of the nature of Matter as conceivedi 1. Atomic Physics, p. 41. 2. Atoms and the Universe, p. 28. 3. Analysis of Matter, pp. 243-4. 4. Atoms and the Universe, pp. 126-149.

Page #81
46 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy in Jaina metaphysics, in the light of physics, reveals that the features of the nature of Jaina Pudgala (Matter) are similar to those of Matter of the physical sciences to a considerable extent, though they differ on the point of grahanaguna (capacity to be received by Soul) of the former. The above discussion on the concept of Matter in Jaina philosophy with a synthetic view of all other Indian concepts of Matter and that of Western metaphysics and physics shows how the problem was dealt with by the Jainacaryas in the absence of scientific verifying data of modern sciences about Matter which exists in space and continues in time with its static and dynamic forces in the cosmic Universe.

Page #82
SECOND CHAPTER ELEMENTS OF MATTER According to Jaina philosophy, Pudgala represents the elements of Matter. Its effect is to offer resistance to causes which tend to produce a change in its position, configuration or motion. Ghatasarira (obstructive body) is a gross body which obstructs and is obstructed by other objects. A body which neither obstructs nor is obstructed by other objects is Aghatasarfra (non-obstructive or fine body). It can pass through any kind of Matter. That is to say, Ghatasarira which is the effect of Matter is impenetrable, while Aghatasarira is capable of passing through any kind of material substances, e.g. X-Ray. Rupa of Buddhist philosophy also is impenetrable (sapratigha) like Ghatasarira of Jaina metaphysics. . Earth, water, fire, air, shadow, objects, four senses (indriyas) besides that of sight, sense-organs, physical mind, karmic matter and atom2 (paramanu constitute the whole material in the forms of molecules and atoms, as they are studied from the points of view of their grossest and finest constitutions. It is explained that "whatever is perceived by the senses, the sense-organs, the various kinds of bodies of beings, the physical 1. Badarasuhumudayena ya badarasuhuma havamti taddheha Ghadasariram thulam aghada deham have suhuman Gommatasara, 183, (Jivakanda), p. 114. 2. Pudhavi-jala-chaya-caurimdiyavisaya-kamma-khamdh-e paramanu-Satkhandagama, Vol. III, p. 3. Puahavi-jalaw-ca chaya caurindiya-visayakammapaogga Kammatida yevam chabbheya poggala homti -Pancastikayasara, 83, p. 81; Pudhavi jalam ca chaya caurimdiyavisayakammaparamanu Chavvihabheyam bhaniyam:poggaladavvar Jinavarehim -GS. (JIva), V. 602.

Page #83
48 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy mind, karmans and are concrete objects-all these are Pudgala (Matter)"} There are stated to be six kinds of effects of Matter, viz. earth-embodiment (prthvikaya), water-embodiment (ap-kaya), fire-embodiment (tejakaya), air-embodiment (vayukaya), plantembodiment or vegetable-embodiment. (vanaspatikaya) and mobile beings' embodiment (trasakaya)," as they are inhabited by souls. They exist in the grossest, gross, gross-cum-fine, fine-cumgross, fine and finest forms from the point of view of grossness and fineness, perceptibility and imperceptibility-tangibility and intangibility. That is to say, Matter (pudgalaskandha) whose chedana (cutting as under), bhedana (division) and prapana (portability) can be possible elsewhere is called the grossest form of Matter (bada ra-badara), e. g. earth, wood, stone, etc; that whose chedana and bhedana are not possible, but prapana is possible elsewhere is known to be the gross form of Matter or molecule (badara pudgalaskandha)., e. g. water, oil, etc. that whose chedana, bhedana and prapana cannot be possible elsewhere, but which is capable to be perceived by the eyes is called the gross-cum-fine form of Matter or molecule (badarasuksma pudgalaskandha), e. g. shadow, heat, moonlight, etc.; that which is the object of the four senses of hearing, smell, touch and taste, respectively are the fine-cum-gross form of Matter. (Suksmabadara-pudgalaskandha), e. g. sound, objects of odour, taste and touch; that which cannot be apprehended by the five senses is called fine form of Matter, e. g. dyad (dvyanuka); and t which is indivisible ultimate atom is the finest form of 1. Uvabhojjam imdiehirt ya imdiyakaya mano ya kammani Jam havadi muttamannam tam savvam pudggaladavvam --PS., 82, 2. Bhs., 24, (12-16). 792-7; Pravacanasara, II, 76; GS., VV. 702-703, 704-707. 3. Badarabadara badara badarasuhumam ca suhumabayaram ca Suhumam ca suhumasuhumam ca dharadiyam hodi chabbheyam-GS.. (Jiva), V. 603.

Page #84
Elements of Matter 49 Matter, e. g. dyad (dvyanuka); and that which is indivisible ultimate atom is the finest form of Matter (Suksmasuksma). It is impenetrable, indivisible and incombustible'i The Physical world is thickly filled everywhere with the material bodies-gross or fine, capable of being received or not (by Soul). The material universe comprises an almost infinite varieties of material substances, it is the receptacle of living and non-living substances and is occupied by infinite atoms. The most important point is this that each of the effects of Matter, when analysed, is ultimately found to have been constituted of one or more of elementary practicles. Elements of Matter in Other Indian Systems of Thought : Earth, water, fire, air and akasa (ether) as mentioned in the first chapter, have been accepted by all other Indian systems of thought as the basic elements of Matter which constitute the material universe. On the basis of this postulation the thinkers of different Indian schools of thought began to speculate about them with the development of Indian philosophy. The Samkhya-Yoga View on Elements of Matter : According to the Sakhya-Yoga philosophy, the visible universe is unbound and of multifarious forms (visvarupa). It is divided into the grossest, grosser and gross, and fine, finer and finest constituents. Earth, water, fire, air and ether (akasa), their respective atoms (i. e. five kinds of atoms--earth-atom, 1. Bhs., 20. 5. 670. 2. Samannaphalasutta, Diganikaya, Ajitakesakambali's view; Sutrakstamga, 1. 1. 17-18; Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1.2; Bshadaranyaka Upanisad, 2. 4. 12; Visesavasyakabhasya, gatha, 15531; Nyayamanjari, Vijayanagaram Series, p. 472; Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1; Tattvasamgrahapanjika, p. 205; besides see Sutrakrtamga Niryukti, gatha, 30 and Ganadharavada, Gujarat Vidyasabha Prakasana; the doubt of the third Ganadhara Vayubhuti, p. 501; Majjhimanikaya II, Culamalumkiya Sutta for avyakstaprasna, etc.

Page #85
50 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy etc.) and five kinds of infra-atomic potentials (tanmatras), viz. prthivi-tanmatra, ap-tanmatra, teja-tanmatra, vayu-tanmatra and akasa-tanmatra, represent the elements of Matter, produced from Mass or Inertia of Praksti (Primordial Matter). So there are three stages in the constitution of Matter. (1) "The original infinitesimal units of Mass or Inertia, absolutely homogeneous and ubiquitous, on which Energy does work, when the original equilibrium comes to an end(Bhutadi-tamasahankara), (2) the infra-atomic unit-potentials, charged with different kinds of Energy, which result from the action of Energy on the original units of Mass (tanmatra), and (3) the five minute divisions of which gross matter is capable (possible), but which are themselves complex tanmatric systems (sthulabhutaparamanu)."1 The Nyaya-Vaisesika View on Elements of Matter : Like the Samkhya-Yoga school the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy also holds the view that earth, water, fire, air and akasa (ether)2 basically represent the elements of Matter, but mind, time and relative position or directions are also admitted by this school of thought as non-basic substances. So they are classified into two divisions, viz. bhautika and abhautika (basic and non-basic) elements.4 Earth, water, fire, and air exist in the universe in two forms, viz. eternal as atoms (paramanus) and, non-eternal as effects (karyadravyas).5 These effects were non-existent before their generation and will be non-existent after their destruction, but the four elements of Matter--earth, water, fire and air have a permanent form of existence as atom before their production 1. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 24. 2. PPBha., p. 22. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. The Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, p. 61.

Page #86
Elements of Matter and after their destruction.1 According to the Vaisesika doctrine of Intransitive Causation (Arambhavada), a new production of them takes place every time out of their permanent form.2 Akasa (ether)3, the last basic substance provides the auditory organ in common with other basic material substances. Its property-sound is manifested through this auditory senseorgan. It is also all-pervasive like other ubiquitous forms of Matter, time and relative position, making up a basic principle of creation. Mind among the non-basic substances is atomic in nature and is endowed with the characteristic of motion and velocity like the non-ubiquitous physical forms of Matter, having this difference that its motion is the fastest of all. Time and relative position are admitted as non-basic, ubiquitous substances at the base of the cosmic order in agreement with akasa (ether or space)s. Thus it is evidently clear that earth, water, fire and air as the effects of their respective causes-earthatom, water-atom, fire-atom, and air-atom are non-eternal forms of Matter. They have intermediate dimension (madhyama parimana), hence they are subject to destruction. Each of them is ultimately produced from its ultimate cause. 51 The Mimamsa View on Elements of Matter: The MImamsa philosophy has propounded the theory of the structure of elements of Matter in the main agreement with the Vaisesika system of thought with regard to the cate1. The Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, p. 61. 2. Ibid.; PPBha. p. 24. 3. PPBha., p. 22. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., p. 21.; VS., V. II. 13. 7. PPBha., p. 22. 8. Ibid. 9. The Conception of matter According to Nyaya-Vaiscsika, P. 62.

Page #87
52 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy gories of five elements of Matter-earth, water, fire, air and akasa (ether) and their qualities like colour, taste, smell, touch, etc. Therefore, the concept of elements of Matter of the Mimamsakas like Prabhakara and Kumarila Bhatta agree, in general, with the Vaisesika concept of elements of Matter, etc. 1 Criticism of the Nyaya-Vaisesika View on Elements of Matter : According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika school of thought, the advocate of many reals, the thought which used to give prominence to the external sensual experience gave main consideration to the aspect of qualities like colour, taste, smell, touch, substantiality, etc., possessed by earthly, aquatic, fiery and airy elements of creation. It accepted the postulation of cause and effect and the law of similarity. In order to have an explanation of the becoming effects in the form of gross elements of these qualities like colour, etc., from their cause, this. philosophy has accepted the causes of these perceptible gross. elements also as endowed with uniform or equal or similar qualities (samanagunas), and it went forward in search of cause -tradition. In the gross earthly objects the qualities which are experienced must be existing in their causes also, and the cause. will certainly be finer than the effect. Having thought like this, the Nyaya-Vaisesika finally came to this conclusion that the ultimate cause of earth is only earth and the basic elements of aquatic, fiery and airy creations also must be only of the categories of their respective realities. The material realities which are conceived by it in the form of these ultimate basic causes were accepted as atoms only. The fineness of the ultimate atom falls in the last category of division beyond which. no further division of material elements takes place. * In this way the Nyaya-Vaisesika has propounded the theory of production of the effect-world on the basis of mutually distinct infinite earthly, aquatic, fiery and airy ultimate atoms. 1. Prakaranapancika, p. 78 (pp. 52 ff.); Prabhakaramimansa, pp. 35 ff.

Page #88
Elements of Matter 53 of various categories. Having accepted this principle "to whatever extent may the cause be fine, it gradually makes the beginning of the gross and grosser effects by conjunction of fine causes of the categories," the Nyaya-Vaisesika has established the theory of Intransitive Causation ( Arambhavada), i. e. one new dyad is produced by conjunction of two ultimate atoms, which, even being different from the two causative ultimate atoms, exists, inhering in them. Thus this system of thought made the constitution of gross production of the effects like hill, river, sun, etc. by this order that one triad is produced by conjunction of three dyads and one tetrad by conjunction of four triads. 1 The difference of this doctrine of Intransitive Causation of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school of thought from the doctrine of change (Parinamavada) of the Samkhya lies in the fact that the latter, having admitted the existence of all successive effects in the basic cause only, accepted the basic cause as existing in and through the effect even when the emergence of these effects is taking place by order. These effects which are going to be produced, do not come into the new existence by all means, but those which were existent in the cause as unmanifest become manifest on the attainment of favourable conditions of efficient cause, etc. But in the doctrine of Intranstitive Causation all effects are different from the causes, and it is only accepted as such that new effects are produced a new. That is, infinite ultimate atoms of the four categories, having remained the same in their respective basic positions, begin to produce countless new effects on the strength of the materials out of themselves only. In the doctrine of Intransitive Causation there is by all means the difference between effect and cause, while in the doctrine of transformation (Parinamavada) of the Samkhya there is the prominence of non-difference between cause and effect. In the former the causes of the earthly effects are the 1, PPBha., Ststiprakarana.

Page #89
54 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy earthly ultimate atoms (e. g. earth-atoms) and those of the aquatic effects are the aquatic ultimate atoms (water-atoms). Infinite earth-atoms, even being of equal category as earthatoms, are mutually very much related (vyavsta) and they preserve all the possible qualities which are inherent in earthsubstance. According to the doctrine of Intransitive Causative, the four classes of infinite ultimate atoms, viz. earth-atoms, water-atoms, fire-atoms and air-atoms, have been accepted as the basic causes of the non-living (materials) universe and along with them, the eternal entities like akasa (ether), dik (relative position or direction) and kala (time) also have found place in the non-living universe. Thus the NyayaVaisesika philosophy accepts many realities on the basis of causes. 1 The Buddhist View on Elements of Matter : According to the Vaibhasika school, Rupaskandha (Matter) represents the following fifteen kinds of Dharmayatana (bases of cognition), viz. (1) caksurindriya (sense of vision), (2) rasanendriya (sense of taste), (3) sravanendriya (sense of audition), (4) ghranendriya (sense of smell) and (5) tagendriya (sense of touch), (6) rupa (colour and shape), (7) rase (taste), (8) sabda (sound), (9) gandha (odour) and (10) sprastavya (tangible), i. e. five kinds of sense-objects, and five kinds of avijnapti (unmanifested matter). In all there are stated to be fifteen kinds of Rupaskandha (Matter).2 In the Jaina tradition also rupa (colour) is prominent among the four inherent qualities of Matter, as is evidenced by the fact of its definition "Rupinah pudgalah" (Matters are corporeal). 3 The Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa maintains that there are stated to twenty four kinds of derived Matter (upadaya1. Bharatiyatattvavidya, Pandit Sukhlalji, pp. 58-60. 2. Rupam pancendriyanyarthah pancavijnaptireva ca Tadvijnanasraya rupaprasadascacaksuradayah -Abh. K., 1.9. 3. TS., V. 4.

Page #90
Elements of Matter 55 rupa), viz. cakkhu (eye), sota (ear), ghana (nose), jihva (tongue), kaya (body), rupa (colour and shape), sabda (sound), gamdha (smell), rasa (taste), itthindriya (material quality of female sex), purisindriya (material quality of male sex), jsvitendriya (life and matter), hadaya-vatthu (heart), kayavinnatti (intimation by body), vacIvinnatti (intimation by speech), akasadhatu (elements of space-vacuum), rupassa lahuta (lightness of matter), rupassa maduta (pliancy of matter), rupassa kammannata (adaptability of matter), rupassa upacaya (integration of matter), rupassa santati (continuance of matter), rupassa, jarata (decay of matter), rupassa aniccati (impermanence of matter) and kabilikaro aharo (edible food ). According to the Theravada school, all these twenty four derived forms of Matter are dharmas (elements), therefore, they should be admitted as ultimate elements. But many of them can be considered "rather as aspects, modes or qualities than separate entities. This is borne out by the commentarial description of some of these dharmas and a distinction drawn between nipphana and anipphana rupa". As for example, akasa-dhatu (element of space-vacuum) is described as pariccheda-rupa (material quality of relative limitation), kayavinnati and vacivinnatti (intimation by body and speech), together with lahuta, maduta and kammannata (lightness, pliancy and adaptability of matter) are stated to be vikararupas (material qualities denoting special conditions). The upacaya, santati, jarata and aniccata (integration, continuance, decay and impermanence of matter) are known as laksanarupa (characteristics of matter). These ten kinds of rupa are stated to be anipphanna-rupa in order to point out their difference 1. Visuddhimagga, 14. 36, p. 309. Of these only twenty three are mentioned in Dharmasangavi. The hadayavatthu has later been added by the com mentators to the list. See Dhs., A. IV, 112. 2. Abhidharmadipa, Introduction, p. 91, They are termed also as parinipphanna and aparinipphanna in Dhs., A. IV, 119.

Page #91
56 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy from the remaining fourteen of the twenty four derived forms of Matter, which are described as nipphanna-rupa. According to Buddhaghosa, nipphanna-rupas are "those which transcend limits, change and characteristics and which are to be seized in their intrinsic nature (svabhava), while anipphanna-rupas are opposite in nature to them.2 Nipphannarupas are endowed with their own nature, whereas anipphannarupas are not possessed of their own nature and are known only by relating them to svabhava-rupas, 3 Their mention in the Abhidharma indicates an influence of the Vaisesika philosophy, advocating the doctrine of Dravya (substance) and guna (quality). This was known to the Buddhist commentators, as is evidenced from the criticism of Buddhaghosa that rupa and gandha (colour and smell) are the qualities of teja (fire) and prthivi (earth) resp:ctively.4 Some of nipphanna rupas can also be posited in the group of anipphanna rupas, e. g. jivitendriya is not composed of a separate matter (rupa), but only a name attributed to the life of matter; tthindriya and purisindriya, two material qualities of sex can be considered as different aspects of kaya (body); kabalikaro aharo (edible food) is nothing but a name attributed to the material quality of nutrition.5 Like the Visuddhimagga, the Abhidharmamotasastra of Gosaka provides a similar list of Rupaskandha as noted below: 1. Abhidharmadspa, Introduction, p. 91. 2. Paricchedavikaralakkhanabhavam atikkamitva sabhavena pariggahetabbato nipphannam, sesam tabbiparitataya anipphannam - VM., 14. 73. 3. VM., TI, pp. 457-8. 4. Kaci panettha, tejadinam gunehi rupadthi anugayahabha vato ti karanam vadanti te vattabba ko panevamaha; rupadayo tejadinam guna ti? avinibbhogavuttisu hi bhutesu, ayam imassa guno, ayam imassa guno ti na labbha vattum ti - VM., XIV, 43, p. 310. 5. Abhidharmadipa, Introduction, p. 92.

Page #92
= Elements of Matter Rupas Twelve: Five prasada rupas(sensitive qualities): Caksu (eye), srotra (ear), ghrana (nose), jihva (tongue), kaya (body); seven visaya rupas rupa (colour), sabda (sound), gandha (smell) and rasa (taste); three kinds of sprastavya (=touch or contact), i. e. tangible, tejodhatu sprastavya (contact of fire or fire-tangible), and vayudhatu sprastavya (contact of air or air-tangible). SIXTEEN SUKSMA RUPAS (Subtle forms of Matter) Of them ten are anispanna rupas (1-10), namely, (1) paricchedarupa (=material quality of relative limitation), (2-3) vijnaptirupas (=material quality of expression): kayavijnapti (bodily expression), vagvijnapti (vocal expression), (4-6) vikararupas (conditions of matter): laghuta (=lightness), mrduta (=pliancy), karmajnata (adaptability), (7-10) laksanarupas (essential characteristics of material quality): upacaya upacaya (=growth), santati (=continuity), jara (=oldness), anityata (=impermanence or death), (11-12) bhavarupas (=material qualities of sex): stritva (female), purusatva (male). (13) hrdayavastu (=heart, the seat of consciousness), (14) jIvitendriya (=vital force), (15) ahara (food). (16) apodhatu (=water); it is not included in the sprastavya (tangible or contact).1 57 Of the twenty four derived forms of Matter (upadaya rupas) as mentioned in the Visuddhimagga only nine-the five senseorgans and four sense-objects, photthabba (tangible), being incorporated in Mahabhutas (fundamental material elements) can be regarded as dharmas (elements) possessing intrinsic nature (svabhava) and hence real.2 It is to be noted that these ten 1. Abhidharmamrtasastra of Ghosaka, ed. by Santi Bhiksu, p. 12. 2. According to the Sautrantikas, four Mahabhutas and four sense-objects are rupa-dharmas. See Alambanapariksa, Appendix D, p. 116.

Page #93
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy rupa-dharmas are in fact the ten of the eleven dharmas as embodied in both the Vaibhasika-Yogacara list of rupadharmas, i. e. five sense-organs-eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and five sense-objects-colour, sound, smell, taste and touch or contact;1 and avijnapti (unmanifested form of Matter). Avijnapti of the Vaibhasikas has been incorporated by the Yogacarins in their eleventh category of rupa called dharmadhatu paryapanna (matter included in dharmadhatu). Avijnapti has not been accepted by the Sthaviraj; instead, suksmarupa (subtle form of Matter) has been admitted by them.4 In this suksmarupa many dharmas (elements) are included, such as; jara (old age or decay), anityata (impermanence), etc., which have been incorporated by Ghosaka, Vasubandhu and Asanga into Cittaviprayukta samskaras (i. e. composite energies apart from matter and mind).5 3 58 Bhadanta Ghosaka defines Avijnapti in this way: "Avijnapti arises either in a kusala citta (good mind) or in a akusala citta (bad mind), but not in a avyakrta citta (neutral mind), because avyakrta citta is very feeble in nature." This simple definition of Avijnapti given by Ghosaka is similar to that given by Vasubandhu in the Abhidharmakosa Viksiptacittakasyapi yo anubandhah subhasubhah Mahabhutanyupadaya sa hyavijnaptirucyate." "Perhaps Vasubandhu was conscious of this; that is why he also like Ghosaka has given a simple definition in his commen 1. Abhidharmamrtasastra of Ghosaka, p. 13. 2. Abhidharmamrtasastra, p. 13. 3. A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 130 ff.; see also Abhidharmamrtasatra of Ghosaka, p. 11. 4. Sukhumarupam-Abhidharmmattho Samgraha, VI. 8. 5. Abhidharmamrtasastra of Ghosaka, p. 11. 6. Kusalakusalacittajam bhavatyavijnaptirupam na tvavyakrtacittam, tat kasya hetoh avyakrtacittasyatidurbalatvat (418), Vide Abhidharmamrtasastra, p. 11. 7. Abh. K., 1. 11.

Page #94
Elements of Matter 59, tary on Kosa (1.11) which runs as follows" : "Vijnaptisamadhisambhutam kusalakusalarupamavijnaptih" The sphutartha (commentary) of the Abhidharmakosa makes the point clear by stating that "the Acarya has defined avijnaptirupa in brief word to make it easily intelligible to the students". 1 Analysis of Elements of Matter as conceived in the Buddhist Philosophy : According the Vaibhasika doctrine, dharmas (elements ) capable to be apprehended by the sense of sight have been defined as Rupa, just as in the Vaisesika philosophy only the qualities like blue, yellow, etc. have been called rupa, but the Vaibhasika school maintains that only colour has not been called rupa just like that in its doctrine. Its view is that. colours like blue, yellow, etc., and the shapes like shortness, length, etc., also have been called rupa.2 In the Vaibesika philosophy colour or dimension is not a substantial entity but inherent in the material substance and attributive in nature, but according to Vaibhasika school, they have not been admitted as such. Each of them has been accepted as separate entity. In Jaina metaphysics the qualities, such as, colour, etc. are admitted as inherent in the material substance and at the same time they are identical with and different from it. Blue, red, yellow and white are the four kinds of colour. Cloud (abhra), smoke (dhunra), dust (rajas), mist or vapour (mihika), shadow (chaya), heat (atapa), light (aloka) and darkness (tamah) are the eight kinds of secondary (apradhana) colour; length, shortness, roundness (or circle), spherical, high, low, even and uneven are the eight kinds of shape. In the Vaibhasika school these twenty kinds of element as a while are 1. Sisyasukhavabodhartham samksepato vakyena tadavijnapti rupam darsayatyacaryah-Abh.K., 1.11, Sphutartha. 2. That is, paramanus of the Vaisesika also have been called rupa by the Vaibhasikas.

Page #95
60 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy defined as rupa.1 There are stated to be three divisions among these twenty kinds of rupa under the category of varna (colour) and sam 3thana (shape). The first division, i. e. colours, such as, blue, etc., is only varnatmaka (associated with colour); the third division, i, e, shapes like lengih, etc., is only samsthanatmaka (associated with shape) and the second division is constituted of colour and shape together (varna and samsthana). Here the question arises what is the necessity of mentioning the second division, as its place has been covered by the first and third divisions. In the cloud, etc. there is the assemblage of blue colour and the shapes like long, etc., so they will be included in the blue colour and shapes like long, etc. In reply to this question the Vaibhasikas explain that the shapes like long, etc., belonging to the third division are kayavijnapti dharma (bodily expression or physical intimation), i. e. they are a kind of activity (kriya) of Kayika samsthanavisesatmaka (particular physical shape). 2 They are formed in the shape of length, etc If a person goes on foot to some distance, the physical activity is considered as long; thus if he moves in circle, his activity (kriya) is understood as round. So the physical action also, in fact, becomes of particular shapes like long, etc. In the Vaibhasika school the actions like going, etc. have been called 'Kayavijnapti' (physical intimation).3 The Vaibhasika view of action must completely be distinct from the Vaisesika concept of action, for it has admitted the substance -substratum of action, as separate and permanent. So it has been possible to accept a separate entity called action (karma) in this system of thought by recognizing a separate substratum 1. Rupam dvidha vimsatidha---Abh. K., 1. 10. 2. Kayavijnaptisvabhava iti. Kayavijnaptirhi kadacit dirgha kadacid-hrasva kadacid-yavadisateti. kidesi punah sa avagantavya; tadalambanacittasamutthapitam yat kaya karma--Abh. K., 1. 10 Sphutartha. 3. Ibid.

Page #96
Elements of Matter 6r and its permanence. It is to be noted that karma (action) of the Vaisesika school of thought corresponds to paryaya (mode) of Jaina metaphysics. According to the Vaibhasika school, Dharma (element) possessing the nature of momentary change has been accepted as momentary and a separate substantial entity has not been. admitted as the substratum of action. Therefore, it is held that. the existing (i. e. apparent) shapes like long, etc., have been called kriya (action or activity) popularly. There cannot be a. separate kriya (action), although Dharmas are changing at every moment (pratik sana-parinamin). These Kayavijnaptirupa-sansthanas (physical intimationlike shapes), such as, long, etc., are apprehended by the eye without the perception of colour (rupadarsina). One man perceives another one walking on road as long; there does not exist any apprehension of colour with that perception, i. e. perception of colour as co-existing with shape. That is to say, some one perceives even the body of a person as long and when he goes on some particular path, then that kriya (going) is. regarded as long. In the apprehension of physical length at the first sight there is the perception of colours, such as, blue, etc., as co-existing with it. So one perceives the colour of the body and its length simultaneously. But when one regards the going of that person as long, there does not remain the perception of any colour associated with that going. As these shapes are of the nature of Kayavijnapti (physical intimation), so in order to explain them separately, the shapes, such as, long (or length), etc., have been defined in the third division. In order to inform that there are the shapes like long, etc., besides vijnaptisvabhava (nature of intimation), cloud, smoke, dust 1. Vaibhasikanamayamabhiprayah niladigrahanamatapalo kagrahanam va sansthananirapeksan pravarttate; kayavijnaptigrahanantu varnanirapeksani parisistarupayatanagrahanantu varnasamsthanapeksami pravarttateAbh. K., 1. 10 Sphutartha.

Page #97
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy and mist have separately been accepted in the second division. But the shapes of these objects are not at all of the nature of vijnapti (intimation). One does not comprehend these shapes as kriya (action or intimation). Moreover, when one perceives their shapes like long, etc., then there must be the perception of any colour associated with them. That is, in that case there is produced a perceptual cognition of the two kinds of base (ayatana), viz. colour and shape (varna and samsthana). If it is conceived that two cognitions are produced simultaneously but separately on various supports, it will be contrary to the postulation, for, according to the Vaibhasika views, the birth of two cognitions (Vijnanas) simultaneously is not admitted.1 With a view to explaining separately the aforesaid shapes of the objects of perception conditional upon colour, i. e. there are the shapes like long, etc., of another kind which are different from the shapes of Vijnaptisvabhava, cloud, vapour, etc. have been mentioned separately in the second division. Mention of atapa (sunshine) and aloka (moonlight) is made in this division, hence it is stated that varnatmaka rupas (forms of matter associated with colour) also come across in particular case as samsthana darsananirapeksa (independent of perception of shape). In this case the warm sunshine and the cool moonlight have been denoted by the words 'atapa' and 'aloka'2 respectively. 62 In atapa and aloka, which are perceived, only colour becomes their alambana (support). But any kind of shape, such as, long, etc., does not become their alambana. In all these cases colour is perceived without having any shape. Elsewhere shape becomes supported in the awareness (or intimation) of 1. Samanantarapratyayo hi tadanim cittacaittalaksanah ekasyaiva tasya nilavijnanasya utpattau avakasam dadatinetaresam nilantaradi vijnananam yugapadvijnanotpattyasambhavat-Abh., K., 1. 6, Sphutartha. 2. Atapah usnaprakasa suryasya, alokah sitaprakasa indoh --Abh., K., 1. 10, Rahulakrtavyakhya.

Page #98
63 Elements of Matter colour. Of course, colour which is perceived in a picture is found to be endowed with shape, i. e. in all those cases each and every cognition exists having a support on both colour and shape. As there is the variety of exhibited rupas in colour and shape-consciousness (or intimation), twenty kinds of rupa have been shown by dividing it into three groups in the Vaibhasika texts. Dharmas (elements) which are known as earth, water, fire and air, in the worldly sense, will be included in the list of the aforesaid rupa, for these elements also are just like the aggregate of ultimate atoms, having colour and shape. As in earth, there are also colour and shape in water and fire. Therefore, there are also the aggregate of colour and shape-atoms like earth. As no colour nor any shape of air can be perceived, so the question is whether the air-element belongs to rupa or not. If not, then it will be outside the category of pancaska If it is, then it has been divided as skandha of Samskrtadharmas (aggregate of non-eternal elements); this view will be affected by the fault of deficiency (nyunatadosa). Rahul Sanskrityayana, while explaining this question in his Vsttigrantha says that air also belongs to rupa (matter), for black colour and circular shape of air can by perceived.1 Yasomitra has not said anything clearly about the colour of air. But the physical sciences have demonstrated that air has got fluish colour, if it is cooled down. Jaina philosophy also admits the colour of air like the physical sciences. Earth is hard (of the nature of hardness or repulsion), water is cohesive (of the nature of attraction, i. e. the producer of lumpness of ground things), fire is of the nature of heat and air is motive (of the nature of motion)2. Earth is repulsive (sandharaka) because of being of the nature of hardness, water 1. Vayudhaturapi prthivyadivatvarnasamsthana rupah, ata eva loke krsno vayuh, cakrarupovayuriti vyavaharah -Abh. K., 1.3, Rahulakrtavyakhya. 2. Bhutani pethividhaturaptejo vayu-dhatavah -Abh. K., 1.12.

Page #99
64 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy is attractive because of its nature of cohesiveness, fire is cooker or warm because of its heat, and air is motive because of its nature of motion.1 These four elements are defined in the Vaibhasika texts as Dhatu (element) and Mahabhuta (fundamental or general elements of Matter). Now, it is clearly understood that according to the Vaibhasika school, 'rupa' signifies colours, such as, blue, yellow, etc. and shapes, such as, short, long, etc. In the Vaibhaasika work these parimanas (dimensions) have been explained by the name of samsthana (shape), just as it is found in the Jaina works. Dharmas (element) which are known as earth, water, fire and are accepted as Rupa (Matter) according to the said view because of colour and shape of these Dharinas on the basis of the above analysis of them. In the Vaibhasika texts the objects having colour and shape have again been known by the appellation of Dhatu and Mahabhuta. The contention of this fact is this that as colour and shape, the same definition of earth, water, etc., are known by one term, Rupa', because every one of them is Dharma having colour and shape. In order to explain them separately in the text prthividhatu, jaladhatu, tejodhatu and vayudhatu (earth, water, fire and air) have been dealt with by such dhatvantasamjnas (terminologies). They do not call to mind the meaning in the sense of colour and shape. On the other hand, hardness, etc. point separately to the list of ten objects having colour and shape. 2 The word 'Pothividhatu' denotes only hard natured colours and shapes, cohesive (attractive) colour and shape are not 1. Dhrtyadikarmasamsiddhah kharasnehosnateranah -Abh. K., 1.12. 2. Psthividhaturaptejovayudhatavah-Abh. K., 1.12; Dhatugrahanam varna samsthanatmakaprthivyadinirasartham svalaksanopadayarupadharanadva dhatava iti, kathinyadisvabhavalaksanas caksuradyupadayasvarupam ca dadhatiti dhatavah -- Ibid., Sphutartha.

Page #100
Elements of Matter 65 signified by it. The word 'Jaladhatu' or 'Ap-dhatu' brings up cohesive colour and shape; it does not signify hard natured colour and shape. The word "Tejodhatu' denotes only heatnatured colour and shape; it does not bring forth colour and shape of any other nature. The word "Vayu-dhatu denotes only motive colour and shape; it does not mean colour and shape of any other nature. In order to comprehend the characteristics like hardness, etc. which are possessed by the aforesaid. elements endowed with colour and shape, these elements have been designated by the different terms like pethivi-dhatu, etc., for the natures, such as repulsion, etc., are produced by them. For this reason they may have been called 'Bhuta'. Their constitution is very great, that is why they have been called Mahabhuta (fundamental or general element). 1 It is known that other entities are contained in earth. Ground things like saktu (wheat powder), etc. become lump with the mixing of water in them. This cohesive quality (or tendency) is produced by water in them. For this reason water has been called 'Bhuta'. It is perceived that the cooking of foodstuffs is caused by fire, the raw mango ripens as a result of heat from the sunshine; the eaten food-stuff and liquid things drunk by some one (pitavastu) are cooked and digested by the fire of the stomach. This cooking function is performed by fire, so it is called "Bhuta'. It is known that other things are moved or increased by the assistance of air. If air blows in speed, the branches of leaves of the trees move to and fro; human body grows by vital air. This motion or activity of motion (prasarpana or vyuhanavstti)2 is caused by air. For this reason it is called 'Bhuta' in the Vaibhasika 1. Tairmahabhutairudbhuta vyaktavsttih dhityadikayesu te ime tadudbhutavittayah prthivyaptejo vayuskandhah, esam mahabhutanam mahasannivesatvat maharacanatvat bhutam tanvantiti bhutani-Abh. K., 1. 12, Sphutartha. 2. Vyuhanani punarvsddhih prasarpanam veti -Abh. K. 1, 12, Sphutartha.

Page #101
66 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy text. The elements which are the producers of various vittis (activities) are called Mahabhutas for their vastness. Thus Dharma (element) having one and the same colour and shape has been called Rupa, Dhatu, Bhuta, and Mahabhuta by ame from different points of view In the empirical world none of the various elements which are regarded as elements like water, etc. is the aggregate of Dhatus of one and the same category. As for example, an earth element as an aggregate of any particular earth-atoms would not be perceived in the empirical world. If an atom is taken as an example of earth-elements, then it is found in an analysis that there is an admixture of water, fire and air elements in it. It would be called earth because of there being a capacity of it to contain other elements in it. It that case, having been there combined earth-atoms, it must be admitted that there is a mixture of water-atoms in it. As a result of chemical action (paka) it has been transformed into the state of stone, so there is also a mixture of fire-atoms in it. As it is increasing (in volume), so it must be admitted that there is a mixture of air-atoms in it. By this order it should be understood that there is a combination of other elements in the elements like water, etc. 1 Besides the five sense-data (indriyavisaya), constituting external objects, the five sense-organs (indriyas) possessing colour and shape have been included in the list of Rupa (Matter) and have been conceived as rupaprasada (translucent matter of sense-organs), which covers the body when it is living. They are the substratum of visual consciousness, etc. According to Professor Stcherbatsky, this division of Matter (Rupa) into objective sense-data and sense-organs is similar to the Samkhya development of Matter along two lines, "the one with the predominance of the translucent 1. Upaladike hi pethividra vye samgrahapanktivyuhanadarsana cchesanam jalatejovayunamastitvamanumlyate -Abh. K., 1. 17, Sputartha.

Page #102
Elements of Matter intelligence stuff (sattva) resulting in sense-organs, the other with the predominance of dead matter (tamas) resulting in sense-objects in their subtle (tanmatra) and gross (mahabhuta) forms. In fact, the concept of tanmatra comes very near to the Buddhist conception of elements of matter (rupadharma). The fundamental difference between the two conceptions is that in the Samkhya system these elements are modification or appurtenances of an eternal substance. In Buddhism they are mere sense-data without any substance. The Vedantist View on Elements of Macter The Vedantist view on the elements of Matter is almost similar to that of the Samkhya-Yoga system of thought. The only fundamental difference is this that Mayal (illusion ) is admitted as the material cause of the Universe in place of Praksti of the Samkhya-Yoga. Besides, Matter is regarded without having atomicity2 of structure. According to the Vedanta, the five Mahabhutas ( gross elements of Matter ), viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether, and their five suksmabhutas (subtle forms of matter) represent the elements of Matter. The gross earth-matter is constituted of four parts of subtile earthmatter and one part of each of other forms of subtile matter. Similarly, it is the principle with other gross forms of Matter, viz. water, fire, air and ether (akasa) in regard to their respective constitution. The following table represents the constitution of gross Matter (Mahabhuta), if ak, v, t, ap and ks stand for the five forms of subtile matter (ether, air, fire, water and earth) and AK, V, T, Ap and Ks for the corresponding five forms of gross Matter :Ak=ak4 (V, ty api ksi), ak4 being the radicle. V =v4 (aki ti ap, ksi), v4 being the radicle. T =t+ (aki Vi ap, ksi), t4 being the radicle. 1. The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 10. 2. Brahmasutra, 1. 1, Sarkarabhasya; Pancadast 1.. 3. Brahmasutra, II 2.11., Sankarabhasya; Pascadasi 1.

Page #103
68 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Ap=ap4 (ak, Vty ksz), apt being the radicle. Ks=ks4 (aki Vi ti ap.), ks4 being the radicle. The potential energies become actualized in the forms of gross forms of Matter in this way that "The Mahabhuta akasa manifests sound, vayu, sound and mechanical energy; Teja,-. sound, mechanical energy and heat-light, Ap-the energy of taste - stimulus in addition and finally Ksiti - Earth,--the energy of the smell stimulus added to the foregoing. 1 "The Suksma Bhutas are forms of homogeneous and continuous matter, without any atomicity of structure; the Mahabhutas are composite; but even these are regarded as continuous, and without any atomic structure. The Vedanta speaks of Anu not as ultimate indivisible discrete constituent of matter; but as the smallest conceivable quantum or measure. Here this philosophy differs from the Samkhya doctrine of the atomic structure of Matter."2 But the philosophy of Madhva", the only Vedantist, supports the atomic growth of Matter by accepting the aforesaid five elements. Jaina metaphysics basically disagrees from the Vedanta on this point of its doctrine of the atomic structure of Matter and the formation of its elements, although this philosophy accepts the four elements - earth, water, fire, and air in common with the Vedanta. Earth, water, fire and air4 have been accepted by all other 1. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 87. 2. Ibid.. p. 88. 3. Purnaprajnadarsana. 4. Samannaphalasutta, Dighanikaya, Ajitakesakamball's view; Sutrakrtanga, 1. 1. 17-18; Svetasvatara Upanisad, 1. 2; Bshadaranyaka Upanisad, 2. 4. 12; Visesavasyakabhasya, gatha, 15531; Nyayamanjarl, Vijayanagara Series, p. 472 Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1.; Tattyasangrahapanjika, p. 205; Sutraketamga Niryukti, gatha 30.; Ganadharavada, Gujarat Vidyasabha Prakasana, the doubt, of the third: Ganadhara Vayuhhuti, p, 591;Maijhimanikaya II, Culamalusklyasutta of avyakstaprasna, etc..

Page #104
Elements of Matter Indian systems of thought as the basic elements which constitute the material universe, so there appears to be a close relationship of the structure of elements of Matter of Jaina metaphysics with those of other Indian schools of thought. The Jaina concept of Pudgala (Matter), when compared with that of hyle or ylem? of Greek philosophy shows that originally the name 'elementary particle' was applied to the four elements only - fire, earth, air and water. The Jaina conception of elements of Matter appears to be unique in its originality, for it has given place to Indriyas (senses), Karmic matters and Lesya (condition of soul)4 also as the material elements in its fold on the basis of the psycho-physical aspects of the material universe. A study of the order of the elements of Matter reveals that Jaina metaphysics commenced with the conception of the grossest forms of Matter and went deep into that of its finest form--the subtile force by stages in dealing with the problem like general metaphysics and physics of the West. According to the modern physical sciences, there are stated to be one hundred three elements of Matter. There are as follows ; hydrogen, helium, lithium, berylium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, sodium, magnesium, alluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, argon, potassium, alcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, arsenic, selenium, bromine, krypton, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tellu 1. A History of Greek Philosophy, W. K. Guthrie, Vol. III, p. 141. 2. Bhs., 1.7.61; TS., II. 15. 3. Satkhandagama, Vol. III, p. 3. Pancastikayasara, 83; Gommatasara (Jiva); 602. Bhs., 1. 2. 22. 4. Pancastikayasara, 89.

Page #105
The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy rium, iodine, xenon, cacasium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymum, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, yetterbium, lutecium, hafnium, tantalum, wolfram, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium, acitinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutinium, amercium, curium, berkelium, californiam. einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and lawencium.1 70 It is noteworthy that the Jaina literature mentions a number of basic elements of Matter some of which are common to both the physical sciences and Jaina chemistry, e. g. silicon, sulphur, iron, zinc, copper, tin, lead, silver, gold, murcury,' 2 etc. It shows that like the alchemists of the middle ages the Jainacaryas also conceived the idea of pure elements of Matter as distinguished from its base forms on the basis of the knowledge of their experimental study of making gold, silver, etc.3 with their keen insight in the womb of Nature even in the absence of developed experimental science of modern age. 1. General Chemistry, Pauling. 2. Suvarna-Raupya-Siddhi-Sastra, Jinadattasuri (VS. 1210). 3. Ibid.

Page #106
THIRD CHAPTER INDRIYAS, KARMA AND LESYA FIRST SECTION INDRIYAS ( Sense-Organs ) Indriyas have been studied in Indian philosophy from the points of view of etymology of the word 'Indriya', cause of indriyas, their place, their number, their object, their shape, their mutual identicality and difference, their kinds and distinction of apprehensibility of substance-quality dravyagunagrahitvaviveka, etc. The earliest reference to its etymology is come across in the Panini Sutra.] The same etymology of the word 'Indriya' found its way in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts like Visuddhimagga2 and Tattvarthadhigama Sutra's Bhasya3 respectively. Besides, it is also recorded in the Jaina agama Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti. 4 In the history of the etymology of the word 'Indriya' there are mainly two things to be noted--the one is that the Buddhist grammarian and Panini's commentator have given place to that 1. Indriyamindralingamindradsstamindrassstamindrajustamin dradattamiti va-Panini, 5. 2. 93. 2. VM.XVI Indriyasaccaniddesa, 4, 5, 6, Vide Darsana and Cintana, p. 134. 3. Pancendriyani bhavanti; arambho niyamarthah sanadipra tisedharthasca; indriyamindralingamindradsstamindrajustamindradattamiti va (Pa. A. 2, Pa. 5, su 93); indro jivah sarvadravyesvaisvaryayogat vinayesu va paramaisvaryayogat, tasya lingamindriyam, linganat sucanat pradarsanadupastambhanad--vyanjanacca jivasya lingamindriyam TS. Bha., II. 15, p. 162. 4. Bhs., 1. 7. 61, 7.

Page #107
72 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy etymology in their respective works in details, while Acarya Hemcandra, 1 the independent Jaina grammarian also has given position to it in his own Vyakarana Sutra and Vrtti in full details. The other point is that the etymology of the word 'Indriya' is not found in any Vedic philosophical work except in the very oldest commentarial works of the Panini Sutra, just as it is come accross in the Buddhist and Jaina texts. It is known that the etymology of the word 'Indriya', having found place in the Buddhist and Jaina philosophical treatises, became the subject of speculation of the philosophers. As for example, in the Matharavitti, 2 the oldest Vedic philosophical treatise, there is preserved the etymology of the word 'Indriya', but it is quite different and distinguishable from that recorded in the Buddhist and Jaina works. It is gratifying to note that when the nirukti (etymology) of this word 'Indriya', having left the field of word, entered into that of philosophy, then the stamp of the philosophical community got impressed on it. Buddhaghosa3 speaks of all those meanings as spoken of by Panini in the nirukti of the word 'Indriya', but he has made an attempt to adopt it by stating the meaning of Indriya as Sugata.4 The Jaina Acaryas interpret the meaning of the word 'Indriya' as only Jiva generally; they have not made the meaning of it as Tirthankara like Buddhaghosa as desired by himself. According to the Samkhya, the material cause of the indriyas (sense-organs) is abhimana (ego) which is a kind of fine substance produced from Praksti.5 This view is acceptable 1. Indriyas', Hemasabdanusasanain, 1. 174, p. 128. 2. In iti visayanam nama, taninah visayan prati dravantiti indriyani, Matharavstti, ka. 26, p. 43. 3. Tippan, 2, Darsana and Cintana, p. 134. 4. Ko Pana nesam indiyattho namati ? indralimgattho indri yattho...bhagava hi sammasambuddho paramissariyabhavato indo .....attho vinicchayo VM. XVI, 4, 5, 6. 5. Sattvika ekadasakah pravartate vaikrtadahankarat Bhutadestanmatrah sa tamasah, taijasadubhayam -Samkhyakarika, 25.

Page #108
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya to the Vedanta. The Nyaya1 maintains that the cause of the indriyas is the five elements like earth, etc., which are nothing but non-living substances. This view is acceptable also to the Purva MImamsakas. According to the Buddhist philosophy, the five sense-organs, because of being produced from rupa (Matter), are called rupa, which is particularly non-living. Jaina philosophy also makes reference to particular matter as the cause of the gross physical sense-organs (dravyendriyas), which is a particular non-living substance only. 3333 73 The external shapes like karnasaskuli, aksigolakakrsnasara, triputika, Jihva and carma (ear-drum, eye-socket-pupil, nose, tongue and skin), which the common people call by the order of the names-karna, netra, ghrana, rasana and tvak-indriyas (sense-organs of hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch) respectively, have been accepted as indriyadhisthana (places or substrata of sense-organs) in all Indian systems of thought, but not as indriyas. Indriyas have been accepted as intangible entities existing in those shapes whether they are material or egoistic. Jaina philosophy, having accepted those material adhisthanas as dravyendriya (physical sense-organ) even, has indicated the same idea that adhisthanas are not really indriyas. According to this school, indriyas are intangible. But they, being not material (bhautika) or egoistic non-living substance, are consciousness or sentient capacity-like which is called bhavendriya (psychical sense-organ) by the Jainas. The sixth indriya called manas (mind) has been accepted as the internal sense-organ in all the Indian systems of thought. Like these six buddhindriyas (organs of intellect) are common to all philosophies. But it is only the Samkhya philosophy which mentions eleven indriyas3 by counting the five karmendriyas (sense-organs of action), viz. 1. GhranarasanacaksustvaksrotranIndriyani bhutebhyah, -NS., 1. 1. 12. 2. Nyayamanjari, p. 477. 3. Abhimano ahankarastasmad-dvividhah pravartate sargah. Ekadasakasca ganastanmatrah yakarika, 24. pancakascaiva.-Samhk

Page #109
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy speech, hands, foot, anus and the organ of procreation1 as indriyas. Just as Vacaspati Misra and Jayanta Bhatta spoke against the acceptance of karmendriyas of the Samkhya as indriyas, just so Acarya Hemacandra also, having refuted indriyatva (the state of sense-organ) of karmendriya, followed the previous Jaina Acaryas like Pujyapada and others who argued in this manner: "This is the section dealing with consciousness. Those that are the instruments of consciousness alone are mentioned here, and not those that are the instruments of activity as these have no such limits. All the limbs and minor limbs are the instruments of activity. And these are determined by name-karmas of limbs and minor limbs. Moreover, the instruments of action are not five only."3 74 Here the question arises when Acarya Pujyapada and other old Jainacaryas and scholars like Vacaspati, Jayanta Bhatta and others have forcefully refuted the eleven indriyas of the Samkhya, then why have they not denied or mentioned the number of twenty-two indriyas which are well known in the Buddhist Abhidharma work.5 It is known that in the Buddhist 1. BuddhIndriyani caksuhsrotraghranarasanasparsanakani. Vakpanipadapayupasthan karmendriyanyahuh.-Samkhyakarika, 26. 2. Tatparyatika, p. 531; Nyayamanjari, p. 483. 3. Pancendriyani bhavanti, arambho niyamarthah sadadipratisedharthasca. TS., Bha., p. 162; Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 174. 4. Dhatunam anantaram udditthani pana, indriyani ti bavisati indriyani cakkhundriyam, sotindriyam, ghanindriyam, jihvindriyam, kayindriyam, manindriyam, itthindriyam, purisindriyam, jivitindriyam-sukhindriyam dukkhindriyam somanassindriyam, domanassindriyam, upekkhindriyam, saddhindriyam, viriyindriyam, satindriyam, samadhindriyam, pannindriyam, anannatannassamitindriyain annindriy im annatavindriyam ti.-VM.; XVI, 1. 5. Abhidharmakosa, Sphutartha, 95; VM., XVI, 1. 2 ff., Darsana and Cintana, p. 137.

Page #110
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya Abhidharma tradition there was a common custom of referring to every manasasakti (mental power) by the word 'indriya'. Having thought thus, they have not mentioned or refuted that tradition. Objects like sound, colour, smell, taste, touch, etc., are always apprehensible to the six sense-organs. In this regard all the systems of thought are of one view, but there is the difference of opinion of the Nyaya-Vaisesika from all others systems of thought with regard to the apprehensibility of substance by the indriyas. All other philosophies, even having accepted indriyas as the apprehenders of quality, admit six sense-organs as the apprehenders of substance, while tl e Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Purvamimamsaka call eye, tactile organ (sparsanendriya) and mind as the only apprehenders of substance, but not others.1 Acarya Hemacandra has expressed this difference of opinion, having spoken of karma-bhava-pradhanavutpatti of the words, such as, sparsa (touch), etc., and along with it he followed the previous Acaryas. 75. The discussion on indriya-ekatva (singleness or oneness of sense-organ) and multiplicity of indriyas is very old in the metaphysical tradition. Some, having accepted the sense-organ as one, has supported its many functions by its many sthanas (places), while all the advocates of the multiplicity of senseorgans maintained only the principle of multiplicity of senseorgans by refuting the view of singleness of the sense-organ. In regard to this Acarya Hemacandra, having recourse to the method of the relative point of view, followed the old Jainacaryas by making a synthesis of both the theories, i. e. mutual singleness and multiplicity in sense-organs, and avoided the faults attributed to each other in the case of every extreme view. Indriyas (sense-organs) are of two kinds, viz. Dravyendriya (physical sense-organ) and Bhavendriya ( psychic 1. Muktavali, ka, 53-56. 2. Sthananyatve nanatvadavayavinanasthanatvacca samsayah. -NS., 3. 1. 52. sense

Page #111
76 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy organ).1 Dravyendriya, because of being produced from matter is non-living matter-like (physical), but Bhavendriya is knowledge-like because it is the mode of Catanasakti (capacity of consciousness).2 Dravyendriya is produced by the rise of angopanga (limbs) --and nirmananamakarma (i. e. constitutionmaking namakarma)3. There are stated to be two divisions of it, viz. nirvrtti and upakarana4 (accomplishment and means). The name of the shape (or form), of sense-organs is nirvstti. It is also divided into two kinds, viz. bahya (external) and abhyantara (internal) 5 The external shape or form of sense-organ is called bahyanirvstti, while the name of the internal shape or form is abhyantaranirvstti. The external part is just like the sword, while the internal part is like the sharpness of it which is made of very fine translucent atom. Both material and pyschical natures of the internal nirvrtti have been described. Upakarana is the means of nirvrtti; it is also external and internal.6 In regard to the shape of sense-organs it should be noted that there are many kinds of shape of skin, but there is no difference in its external and internal shapes. The internal shape of skin of any being is just like the 1. DvividhanIndriyani bhavanti-dravyendriyani bhavendri yani ca--TS. Bha., II, 16, p. 163. 2. Samanyatah dravyamayani dravyatmakani dravyendriyani, bhavendriyani tu bhavatmakanyatmaparinatirupaniti - TS. Bha., p. 164. 3. Ibid., p. 164. 4. Nirvsttyupakarane dravyendriyam TS., II. 17; Tatra nirvittindriyamupakaranendriyam ca dvividham dravyen driyam.--TS. Bha. II, 17. 5. Nirvsttirangopanganamanirvartitanindriyadvarani, karma visesasamskntah sarsrapradesah, nirmanananangopanga pratyayamulagunanirvartanetyartah. Ibid., p. 164. 6. TS, Pt. I, pp. 164, 165.

Page #112
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya. 77 external shape of skin. But in the case of other sense-organs it is not so. Except skin the internal shapes of all other sense-organs are not identical with their external shapes. The internal shapes of kindred sense-organs of all classes of animals have been accepted as of one and the same type. As for instance, the internal shape of the ear is like the shape of a kadamba-flower, that of the eye is like the lentil, that of the nose is like the atimuktaka flower, that of the tongue is like khurupa (dagger or weeding agricultural implement). The internal shape of the skin is of differents kinds. 2 The external shapes of all the sense-organs are different in all cases o animals, as for example, ears, eyes, noses and tongues of man, elephant, horse, cow, cat, rat, etc.3 All these five sense-organs are individually an innumerableth part of an angula (finger) by thickness (bahalla), while the ear is an innumerableth part by width (pohatta); thus upto that of the eye and nose; the tongue is one angula (finger) by width (pohatta); and the skin is equal to the extent of the body. These five sense organs are endowed with infinite units. (anantapradesikas) and immersed in countless space-points asim inyeyapradesavaga lhi). The least of all these is the eye. 4 The capacity of apprehending objects by internal nirvrtti (formation) is called upakaranendriya.5 Bhavendriya (psychic sense-organ) is of two kinds, viz. labdhirupa (mental faculty-like) and upayogarupa (consciou 1. TS., Pt. I, pp. 165. 2. Bhs., 2.4. 499; Prajna, 15, 191; Pancadasa, Indriyapada, Prathama Uddesaka; Fourth Karmagrantha, pp. 36-37; TS., ch. II. 17-18 and vitti;Visesava., gatha, 2993-3003 and Lokaprakasa, Sarga, 3, Sl. 464.ffi 3. TS., Pt. I, p. 165. 4. Panna., 5, Indriyapada appabahudaram, 191, p. 166. 5. TS., Pt. I, p. 164.

Page #113
78 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy sness-like). 1 The ksayopasama of Matijnanavarana- the parti*cular capacity of consciousness is called labdhirupabhavendriya. The pravstti (action) which takes place in the apprehension of objects by soul according to this labdhirupabhavendriya is called upayoga-rupa bhavendriya.a According to the Buddhist philosophy, "The translucent matter of sense-organs (rupaprasada) is very subtle; it is like the shining of a jewel, it cannot be cut in two, 3 it cannot be burnt, 4 it has no weight, 5 it disappears without a residue at death. It is nevertheless atomic, and is represented by five different kinds of atoms. The atoms of the organ of sight (caksurindriya) cover in concentric circles the eve ball. The atoms of the organ of taste, or more precisely that matter which is supposed to convey the sensation of taste, covers in concentric semicircles the tongue. The atoms of the organs of touch (kayendriya) cover the whole body.? The idea that all these different kinds of special matter are, indeed, the same translucent subtle stuff covering the whole body and disappearing at death had also its advocates, who consequently reduced all 1. Labhyupayogau bhavendriyam, TS., II. 18, p. 166. 2. Labdhirupayogastu bhavendriyam bhavati, labdhirnama gatijatyadinamakarmajanita tadavaraniyakarmaksayopasamajanita ca, indriyasrayakarmodayanirvstta ca jIvasya bhavati. TS. Bha., p. 166. 3. Chinatti chidyate caiva bhayan dhatu catustayam Dahyate tulayatyevam vivado daghstuiyayoh. Abh. K. 1.36, Tibetan Text, p. 63; Abh, K., 1. 36, Yas. Comm. 4. Abh. K., 1. 36, Tibetan Text, p. 36. 13. 5. Ibid. 6. Vipakajaupacayikah pancadhyatmam vipakajah Na sabdo apratigha astau naisyandika vipakajah; motasyananuvstteh; Abh. K., 1.37. Yasomitra. 7. Tribhirghranadibhistulyavisayagrahanam matam. Caramasyasrayo atstah pancanam sahajasca taih. Abh, K., 1.44.

Page #114
Indriys, Karma and Lesya senses to one, the sense of touch, but this did not find general acceptance. Being as subtle as the shining of jewel, this matter cannot appear alone; it is supported by gross matter (mahabhuta) of which the eye ball and flesh in general consist."1 A comparative study of Indriyas by all Indian systems of thought in brief reveals that the Jaina view on them from their physical and psychic aspects is more subtle and thoughtprovoking as they have been accepted as representing translu cent matter. SECOND SECTION 79 KARMA All forces of life and Nature are associated together in the principle of cause and effect-the central theme of studies of all branches of knowledge. The fundamental law of causation pervades the entire sphere of physical and psychic worlds, governing the process of origination, continuity and decay of the substances- living and non-living, gross and fine, developed and undeveloped. A universal law of causation explains and interprets the psycho-physical actions and reactions of beings, which are manifested in the forms of thoughts, feeling and behaviour. According to Jaina philosophy, soul is endowed with consciousness, infinite modes of knowledge, self-awareness, conduct, and of the attribute of neither heaviness nor lightness respectively, from the stand-point of condition in its perfect eternal state. But the worldly souls are imperfect, for their innate faculty is clouded by a very fine foreign element intangible to the senses which is called Karma and is an aggregate of material particles. This karma-pudgala (karmic matter), having entered into the mundane soul through the mental, vocal and bodily actions, causes certain conditions in it due to the modifications of consciousness comprising four passions, viz. anger, pride, deceitfulness and agreed. 1. The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 10-11.

Page #115
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy NATURE OF KARMA-PUDGALA (KARMIC MATTER)> The common meaning of the word 'Karma' is action and this meaning of its come across in the Vedic tradition from the Vedic age up to the Brahmanic period. In this tradition naimittika kriyas (occasional ceremonies) of day-to-day life, such as, sacrifice, etc., have been called Karma. It was admitted that the performance of these actions was made in order to please the gods so that they would fulfil the desire of the performer.1 The meaning of Karma as action is accepted in the Jaina tradition, but the Jainas do not admit only this meaning as it is pointed out. Each and every activity of the worldly beings or desire is infact Karma, but in the Jaina tradition it is called Bhavakarma. The non-living material substance which makes soul in bondage, having come into contact with it, due to that Bhavakarma (i. e. action of soul) is called Dravyakarma. It is Pudgaladravya (material substance); its appellation of Karma (karmasamjna) is analogical (aupacarika), for it is the activity of soul or it is produced by its action, hence it is also called Karma. Here upacara(analogy) of the cause is made to be in the effect. That is, according to the Jaina definition, there are stated to be two kinds of Karma, viz. Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma. The activity of Soul is Bhavakarma and its effect is Dravyakarma. There exists a relation of cause and effect between these two Karmas; Bhavakarma is a cause and Dravyakarma is an effect. But this. cause-effect relation is similar to the cause-effect relation of the hen and its egg. Egg is produced from the hen, hence it is a cause and the egg is an effect. It is true, but the hen also is born of the egg. 4 Therefore, there is the cause-effect relation 1. Mimamsa, 2. 1. 5. 80 2. Kammattanena ekkam davvam bhavetti hodi duviham tu Poggalapindam davvam tassatti bhavakammam tu-sat., Vol. 15.6. 3. Ibid. 4. Amdae paccha kukkudi puvvim kukkudi paccha amdae, Roha! see nam amdae kao? Bhagayam, kukkudio sa nam

Page #116
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya in both of them. But it cannot be said which is the first or prior. From the point of view of santati (continuity) their cause-effect relation is beginningless. Similarly, Dravyakarma is produced from Bhavakarma, so Bhavakarma is accepted as a cause and Dravyakarma as an effect. But the consumption (nispatti) of Bhavakarma does not take place in the absence of Dravyakarma. Therefore, Dravyakarma is a cause of Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma exists like the relation between the hen and its egg from the point of view of continuity (santati). Although the cause-effect relation of Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma is beginningless from the stand-point of continuity; nevertheless, it is known from individual consideration that the cause of some one Dravyakarma will be some one Bhavakarma; therefore, the relation of priority and posteriority between them can be determined, for one Bhavakarma from which one particular Dravyakarma is produced is the cause of this Dravyakarma and this Dravyakarma is the effect of that Bhavakarma, but not the cause. Similarly, it is to be admitted that even there being individually prior and posterior states, both of them are beginningless from the point of view of class because of there being the absence of purvaparabhava (prior and posterior states). 81 It is evidently clear that Dravyakarma is born of Bhavakarma, because Soul becomes in the bondage of Dravyakarma only due to its transformations like attachment, aversion and delusion, i. e. it travels in the world without attaining liberation. The reason why has Dravyakarma been accepted as the cause in the production of Bhavakarma is this that if the production of Bhavakarma is possible in the absence of Dravyakarma, there will be the emergence of Bhavakarma in the liberated souls and again they will have to come down to this human world. Moreover, there will be no difference between the world and liberation. It will have to be accepted that there kukkadi kao? Bhamte! amdayao evameva Roha! se ya amdae sa ya kukkudr. puvvimpete pacchapete duvete sasaya bhava, ananupuvvi esa Roha-Bhsa., 1. 6. 53.

Page #117
82 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy is the capacity in the liberated soul, to be in bondage, just as it is the case with the worldly soul. In such a condition no man will strive for attaining liberation. Therefore, it must be admitted that there is no Bhavakarma in the liberated soul because of the absence of Dravyakarma in it. And there takes place the emergence of Bhavakarma in the worldly soul on account of there being Dravyakarma. In this way, the worldly life is beginningless for the soul owing to the cause of origination of Dravyakarma from Bhavakarma and that of Bhavakarma from Dravyakarma since the beginningless time. The emergence of Dravyakarma takes place from Bhavakarma; therefore, Dravyakarma is the effect of Bhavakarma; such is the relation of cause and effect. Just as the lump of earth which changes into the form of a jar is the material cause, but it cannot become jar in the absence of a potter, even though there is the capacity in it to become a jar, therefore, the potter is the efficient cause, just so there is the capacity in Pudgala (Matter) to undergo transformation into the form of Karma, hence it is the material cause. But the material substance (Pudgaladravya) cannot change into the form of Karma until there is no existence of Bhavakarma in Soul. For this reason Bhavakarma is the efficient cause. Similarly, Dravyakarma also is the efficient cause of Bhavakarma. That is to say, the cause-effect relation of Dravyakarma and Bhavakarma is nimittanaimittikarupa (occasion-occasionedlike), for not becoming upadana-upadeyarupa (material cause and effect caused by it). 1 1. For example, (1) A is the Upadana-karana of B. (2) B is the upadeya of A. (3) B is the upadana of C. (4) C is the upadeya of B. Three stages are involved in the process of matter which aggregates in the material world, e. g. water-karma-fire. Similarly, three stages of mind are involved in the mental world : (1) thought of being harmed, (2) anger and (3) thought of harming. If the earlier stage of mind causes a

Page #118
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 83 The pravstti (activity) of the worldly soul is called Bhavakarma; the four internal transformation of the soul, viz. anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed are called Bhavakarma or the internal transformations of it, viz. attachment, aversion and delusion are Bhavakarma. The worldly soul is constantly associated with the body, so its activity is not possible without the support (base) of mind, speech and body. The emergence of the internal transformations like the four passions, or attachment, aversion and delusion of the soul takes place by the activities of mind, speech and body. In other words, it can be said that the mental, vocal and bodily activities of the worldly soul which are also called yoga (activity) are tinged with the colour of attachment, aversion and delusion or four passions (kasayas). In fact, pravstti (activity) is one, but just as a piece of cloth and its colour are called different, just so there are also two names of this pravstti of soul, viz. yoga (activity) and kasaya (passion). Just as a new piece of cloth devoid of colour is of one colour, just so the pravrtti of mind, speech and body free from the colour of passion is of one colour. Just as the colour of a piece of cloth is sometimes light and some later stage of mind, the former is upadana and the latter is upadeya. If the earlier stage of matter causes a later stage of matter, the former is upadana and the latter is upadeya. e. g. water particle, Karma-particle, earth particle. Nimitta : If a stage of mind cause a state (stage) of matter or vice versa, then the cause is nimitta and the effect is naimittika. e. g. 1. Cause-anger (mental stage), effect :-Karma particle, becoming earth particle (material stage). 2. Cause -Water particle becoming karma-particle (material happening) 3. Effect - anger (mental happening). That is to say, when the like causes the like, it is upadana-upadeya, when the unlike causes the unlike, it is nimitta-naimittika.

Page #119
84 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy times deep, just so this Bhavakarma is sometimes intense and sometimes mild in the presence of the colour of passion with the operation of activity (yogavyapara); just as a piece of clothdevoid of colour can be small or large, just so the activity free from passion can also becomes more or less. But there becomes the absense of intensity of mildness (mandata) of luminosity, being the cause of colour. For this reason, the importance of colour-communicating passion is more with regard to activity. Therefore, only passion is called Bhavakarma. In the binding of Dravyakarma both activity and passion1 have usually been accepted as the efficient cause, still this is the reason of accepting only passion as Bhavakarma. In a nutshell, the four passions (kasayas)--anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed or the faults-attachment, aversion and delusions are Bhavakarma. Soul becomes bound by receiving Dravyakarma from them. 1. Joga payalipaesam thii anubhagam kasayau-Pancama karmagrantha, Gatha, 96; Bhs. 9. 33. 385. 2. Rago ya doso vi ya kammabryam, kammam ca mohappabhavam vayamti, kammam ca jasmaranassa mulam, dukkham ca jasmaranam vayamti-Uttara., 32. 7; Carittamohanam kammam, duviham tu viyahiyam Kasayamohanijjam tu, nokasayam taheva ya Ibid. 33.10; Sakasayatvajjivah karmano yogyan pudgalanadatte; Ts., VIII. 2; Dohi thanehini aya ahe logam janai pasai, tan samohaenam ceva appanenam aya ahe logam janai pasai, asamohaenam ceva appanenam aya ahe logam janai pasai, adhohi samohaya. samohaenam ceva appanenam aya ahe logam janai pasai Sthanamga Sutra, 2. 2. 114; Micchattam puna duviham jivamajivam taheva annanam Aviradi jogo moho kodhadiya ime bhava-Samayasara 94; Uvaogassa anai parinama tinni mohajuttassa Micchattam annanam aviradi bhavo ya nadavvo-Ibid. 96; Jam bhavam suhamasuhan karedi ada sa tassa khalu katta Tam tassa hodi kammar so tassa du vedaga appa-Ibid. 109;

Page #120
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on Karma Other Indian systems of thought have admitted this doctrine of Karma by different appellations. The Naiyayikas have accepted the three vices of faults, viz. raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion). The pravrtti (activity) of mind, speech and body of beings takes place on receipt of the impulse from these vices. Merit and demerit or virtue and vice (dharma and adharma) originate from this pravrtti. Dharma and Adharma (merit and demerit) have been called by the Naiyayikas as Samskaras (forces).1 85 These three faults-raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion) as mentioned in the Nyaya are accepted by Jaina philosophy as Bhavakarma by name. That which is called by the Naiyayikas as pravrtti produced from dosa is named as yoga (activity) in Jaina metaphysics. The Naiyayikas have attributed the name 'Samskara' (force) or Adrsta (unseen force) to dharma and adharma (merit and demerit) born of pravrtti (activity); that is the place of PaudgalikaKarma or Dravyakarma in Jaina philosophy. In the Nyaya view Samskara like dharmadharma is the quality of Soul. But it should be noted that only Soul is conscious because of there being the difference between quality and its substratum according to this view, its quality cannot be called conscious, for there is no inhering relation of consciousness in Samskara (force). The Jaina Dravyakarma also is non-conscious, there Cahuviha aneyabheyam bamdhate nanadamsanagunehim Samaye samaye jamha tena avamdhutti nani du, Samayasara 177, Mohena va ragena va dosena va parinadassa jivassa Jayadi viviho bamdho tamha te samkhavaidavva. -Pravacanasara. 1. 84; Jo moharagadose nihanadi uvaladdha jonhamuvadesam so savvadukkhamokkham pavadi acirena kalena, Ibid. 1.88. 1. NBha., 1. 1. 2; NS., 4. 1. 3, 17; Evam ca ksanabhangitvat samskaradvarikah sthitah sa karmajanyasamskaro dharmadharmajirocyate, NM., p. 472; see also NM., pp. 471, 500, etc; see PPBha, about pravrtti.

Page #121
86 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy fore, both Samskara and Dravyakarma, as they may be called, are non-conscious. In both the views the difference is this that according to the Naiyayikas, Samskara is a quality of Soul, while Dravyakarma of the Jainas is Pudgaladravya (material substance). On deep consideration this difference also appears to be negligible. The Jainas accept this proposition that Dravyakarma originates from Bhavakarma, the Naiyayikas also admit the origination of Samskara. The real significance of the postulation that Bhavakarma has produced Dravyakarma is this that Bhavakarma has made some such Samskara as a result of which Pudgaladravya has been changed into the form of Karma. Like this the particular Samskara which took place in Pudgala (Matter) due to Bhavakarma is real Karma, according to the Jaina view. This Samskara (impression or force) is non-different from Pudgaladravya, therefore, it is called Pudgala. Under such conditions there does not exist any particular difference between Samskara of the Naiyayikas and Dravyakarma of the Jainas, The Jainas accept the subtle body called "karmanasarfra' also over and above the gross body. There takes place the birth of the gross body because of this karmic body. The Naiyayikas call 'karmana-sarira' as avyakta-sarfra' (unmanifest-body). The Jainas accept it to be intangible to the sense; for this reason, it is really unmanifest. It appears here that the thought on liberation came later on. The Vaisesika conception of Karma is identical with that of the Nyaya. Adrsta (unseen force) is one of the twenty four qualities as propounded by Prasastapada. This quality is different from Samskara-guna (quality of force). It has been 1. NV., 3. 2. 68. 2. Gunasca ruparasagandhasparsasamkhyaparimanapsthaktva samyogavibhagaparatvaparatvabuddhisukhaduhkhecchadvesaprayatnasceti kanthoktah saptadasa / ca sabdasamuccitasca gurutvadravatvasnehasamskaradrstasabdah saptaivetyevam caturvinsati gunah-PPBha., p. 3 and pp. 637, 643. .

Page #122
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya divided into two kinds, viz. dharma and adharma (merit and demerit). It is known by this that Prasastapada has made mention of dharma and adharma by the word 'Adrsta' instead of the word 'Samskara'. From this fact only the differe ce of name should be understood, without having accepted the difference of postulation, for Prasastapada has accepted 'Adrsta' as the quality of Soul, as much as equal to 'Samskara' of the Naiyayikas. In the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy this tradition of the origination of Samskara from dosa (fault), birth from Samskara (force), dosa (fault) from birth and again Samskara (force) from dosa (fault) has been regarded as beginningless like the seed and the sprout. This is just like the aforesaid beginningless tradition of Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma of the Jainas.1 THE SAMKHYA-YOGA VIEW ON KARMA There is very much sameness of the doctrine of Karma of the Yoga philosophy with the doctrine of Karma of Jaina metaphysics. According to the Yoga, avidya (ignorance), asmita (egoism), raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and abhinivesa (affection) are the five klesas (afflictions).2 Due to them there takes place (i. e. originates) the tenacity of mundane existence the activity of mind (vrtti) and from it there are produced Samskaras (forces) like dharma and adharma (merit and demerit); klesa (affliction) can be equated with Bhavakarma, vrtti with yoga and Samskara with Dravyakarma. - 87 i. Nanvevamapyavidyaparikalpita'esa brahmajivatmavibhagah,...........kasyaisa dosa yadi canaditvamasya pariharo bijankuravadbhavisyati, bhavadbhirapi canyamanadireva samsaro abhyupagatah avidyaiva ca sarasara ityucyate-NM., p. 513/95. 2. Avidya asmitaragadvesa'bhinivesah panca klesahYogasutra, 2. 3.

Page #123
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy In the Yoga philosophy Samskara is called Vasana (desire), karma (action), and apurva (energy) also. Moreover, in this view the cause-effect relation of klesa and karma has been accepted as beginningless1 like the seed and the sprout as much equal to Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma of Jaina metaphysics. 88 In regard to the doctrine of Karma the difference between the Jaina and Yoga views is this that according to the latter, the relation of all these, klesas (afflictions), klistavrtti (afflicted activity) and Samskara (force) is not with Soul, but rather with citta (mind) or antahkarana (internal sense-organ) and this antahkarana is the modification of Prakrti. According to the Jaina view, there is the relation of the material karmic body with Soul due to the dispositions-moha (delusion), raga (attachment) and dvesa (aversion), since a beginningless time there exists a relation of cause-effect (karya-karana) between bhavas (dispositions) and the karmanasarira (karmic body) like the seed and the sprout. In the origination of one, the other exists as cause; nevertheless, both of them are in association with Soul from a beginningless time. It is impossible to determine which is the first between them. Similarly, in the Samkhya view, the subtle body (lingasarfra) is in association with Purusa (self) from the beginningless time. The subtle body (lingasarita) originates from the dispositions (bhava) like raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion) and there is also a cause-effect relation between the dispositions and the subtle body like the seed and the sprout. Just as the Jainas accept the gross body as 1. Vrttayah pancayah klistaklistah-Yoga, 1, 5; Yogabhasya, 1. 5; Ibid., 2. 3. Tatra punyapunyakarmasayah kamalobhamohakrodhaprasvah "etc., Ibid., 2. 12. Satsu klesesu karmasayo vipakarambhi bhavati, nocchinnaklesamulah /", Ibid., 2. 13. etc. See also their TattvavaisaradI, Bhasvati, etc., commentaries. 2. Matharavrtti, 52; Tattvakaumudi vyakhya, 52. *

Page #124
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 89 separate and distinct from the karmic body, so the Samkhya also accepts the subtle body as different arom the gross body. In the Jaina view both the gross and fine bodies are material; in the Samkhya view also these two are Prakstic (of primordial Matter). The Jainas, having accepted both the bodies as the modifications of Matter even, regard the classes of both as different. According to the Samkhya, the one is tanmatric (infraatomic) and the other is born of parents. In the Jaina view, the gross body becomes separate at the time of death and a new body is produced at the time of birth. But the karmic body goes along with Soul from one place to another place of birth at the time of death and thus it exists. The Samkhya also postulates that the gross body born of parents does not remain with the self at the time of death and a new body is produced on the occasion of the next birth. But the lingasarira (subtle body) exists as permanent and moves from one place to another.2 According to the Jaina system of thought the karmic body associated with Soul since a beginningless time ceases to be at the time of liberation. Similarly, it is maintained in the Samkhya that there takes place the cessation of the lingasarira (subtle body). In the Jaina view karmanasarfra and dispositions (bhavas) like raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion), etc., remain with Soul from a beginningless time; without the one there is no existence of the other. Like this, in the Samkhya view the lingasarsra also does not exist without dispositions and vice versa.4 According to the Jaina view, karmanasarira is non1. Suksma matapitrjah saha prabhutaistridha visesah syuh Suksmastesam niyata matapiteja nivartante Samkhyakarika, 39 2. Matharakarika, 44, 40; Yogadarsana, 2. 13; Bhasvati's commentary; Samkhyakarika, 40. 3. Lingam pralayakale pradhane layam gacchati iti liriga -Matharavstti, 40 4. Citram yathasrayamste sthanvadibhyo yatha vina chaya Tadvadvina Rvisesaih na tisthati nirasrayan lingam -Samkhyakarika, 41.

Page #125
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy resisting (aghata) or unimpeded; the Samkhya also maintains that the lingasarfra is endowed with unimpeded motion; it is not to face any resistance.1 In the Jaina view there is no capacity of enjoyment in karmanasarira but the gross body enjoys by the senses. Similarly, in the Samkhya view also the lingasarfra is devoid of the capacity of enjoyment.2 3 Although according to the Samkhya view, the dispositions like raga, etc., are the modifications of Prakrti (Primordial Matter), lingasarfra also is the modification of Prakrti, and the other material objects are as such, even then the Samkhya does not deny the categorical divisions existing in all these modifications. It accepts three kinds of sarga (creation), viz. pratyayasarga (evolution or creation of intellect), tanmatric sarga (infra-atomic creation) and bhautika-sarga (material evolution or creation). The dispositions, such as, raga, dvesa, etc., are included in the pratyayasarga1 and the subtle body is in the tanmatric sarga (infra-atomic creation or evolution of rudimentary elements).5 Similarly, in the Jaina view the dispositions like raga, etc., are produced from matter; and so also is the case with the karmic body. But the basic difference between these two views is that the material cause of dispositions is Soul and the efficient cause of them is Matter, while the material cause of the karmic body is Matter and the efficient cause is Soul. 1. Purvotpannamasaktam nityam mahadadisuksmaparyantam 90 Samsarati nirupabhogam bhavairadhivasitam -Samkhyakarika, 40. 2. Ibid. 3. Tattvakaumudi, 52, 53. 4. Esa pratyayasargo viparyayasaktitustisiddhyakhyah Gunavaisamyavimardattasya bhedastu pancasat, SK. 46. 5. Na vina bhavairlingam, na vina lingena bhavanirvrttih Lingakhyo bhavakhyastasmad-dvividhah pravartate sargah, SK., 52; Na vina iti lingam iti tanmatrasargamupalaksayati bhavaih iti ca pratyayasargam, Ibid. (comm,) lingam

Page #126
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 91 In the Samkhya view, Prakrti, even being non-sentient, behaves like the sentient principle due to its association with Purusa (Self).1 Similarly, in the Jaina view Pudgaladravya (material substance), even being non-living, behaves like the living principle, when it undergoes modification into the form of Karma by its association with Soul. The Jainas have admitted the union of the worldly soul and the non-living objects, such as, body, etc., like the union of milk and water. In the same manner the Samkhya accepts the union of Purusa (Self) and the non-living object, such as, body, senses, intellect, etc., like the union of milk and water. 2 Bhavakarma of Jaina philosophy compares well with bhava (disposition)3 of the Samkhya and Vitti4 of the Yoga, and Dravyakarma or karmanasarira with the linga-sarira of the Samkhya. Both the Jaina and Samkhya systems of thought do not admit any such cause as God in karmaphala (fruition of action) and karmanispatti (consumption or performance of action). According to Jaina philosophy, Soul is not really the forms-man, animal, god, infernal being, etc., but the soulsupported karmic body, having gone to different places of birth, builds up the forms of beings, such as, man, god, infernal 1. Matharavstti, pp. 9, 13, 33. 2. Asti purusah samghatapararthatvat yatah samghatasca pararthah tasmat hetoh iha loke ye samghataste parartha drstah paryankarathasaranadayah evam gatranam mahadadinam samghatah samudaya parartha eva, etc., Mathara vrtti, 17, p. 29. 3. Samkhyakarika, 40. 4. Rupadinu pancanamalocanamatramisyate vsttih vacanadanaviharanotsarganandasca pancanam, 28 Svalaksanyam vittistrayasya saisa bhavatyasamanya Samanyakaranavsttih pranadya vayavah panca, 29 Yugapaccatustayasya tu vrttih kramasca tasya nidrista Dsste tathapyadsste trayasya tatpurvika vittihIbid 30

Page #127
92 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy being, etc. In the Samkhya view also the lingasarira being Soul-supported (purusadhisthita), makes bhutasarga (material evolution or creation), such as, man, god, lower animals, etc. 1 THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON THE NATURE OF KARMA As in Jaina metaphysics, so in the Buddhist philosophy also it has been accepted that the multifariousness of beings is caused by Karma (action). Like the Jainas the Buddhists also admit lobha (raga=greed-attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion) as the cause of the production of Karma. The being, having been associated with attachment, aversion and delusion, makes mental, vocal and bodily activities and generates attachment, hatred and delusion respectively. Thus the wheel of the world is moving on, there is no beginning time of this wheel; it is beginningless. 4 In reply to the question of King Milinda on the location of the existence of Karma (action) Acarya Nagasena has explained that it cannot be shown where does Karma exist.5 In the Visuddhimagga Karma has been called arupi (non-corporeal),6 but in the Abhidharmakosa as Avijnapti, i. e. Karma has been described as rupa (Matter),? and this rupa (Matter) is apratigha (non1. Matharakarika, 40, 44, 53. 2. Bhasitas petam Maharaja ! Bhagavata kammassaka manava, satta, kammadayada, kammayoni kammabandhu, kammapatisarana, kammam satte vibhajati, yadidam hinapanstatayati, Milindapanho--, 3. 2; Karmajam lokavaicitrya--Abh. K., 4. 1. 3. Anguttaranikaya, Tikanipata Sutra, 33. 1, Bhaga, 1, p. 134. 4. Sanyuttanikaya, 15. 5, 6 (Bhaga 2, pp. 181-2) 5. Na sakka Maharaja ! tani kammani dessetuin idha va idha iva tani kammani titthantiti--Milindapanho, 3, 15, p. 75. 6. Ninth Oriental Conference, p. 620 7. Abhidharmakosa, K., 1. 11.

Page #128
93 Indriyas, Karma and Lesya resisting or penetrable) but not sapr itigha (resisting or impenetrable). In the Sautrantika view, samavesa (inclusion) of Karma is made in arupa (non-matter); it does not accept Avijnapti (unmanifested matter). From this it is known that like the Jainas the Buddhists also admit Karma as subtle (suksma). Mental, vocal and physical activities also are called Karma. But they are vijnaptirupa (instimation-like) or perceptible. That is, here the meaning of Karma is not only perceptible activity, but also is Samskara (force) born of perceptible action. In the Buddhist definition it is called Vasana and Avijnapti. Samskara produced by mental activity is called Vasana (desire) and samskara-karma produced by vocal and physical activities is Avijnapti (unmanifested matter).1 If compared, it can be said that the causative attachment, aversion and delusion of Karma of the Buddhists are Bhavakarma of the Jainas. The perceptible action of mind, speech and body is yoga (activity) of Jaina philosophy and Vasana born of this perceptible action and Avijnapti are Dravyakarma. The Vijnanavadin Buddhists determine Karma by the word "Vasana". Prajnakara opines that whatever karyas (effects or actions) are there, all of them are born of Vasana ( desire ). It is the root of all these, whether God or Karma, Prakrti or anything else. Having accepted just God, if the production of the varieties of the universe is caused, even then it would not do without admitting Vasana. That is to say, the currents of all these rivers like God, Praksti and Karma become one by uniting into the sea of Vasana.2 1. Abhidharmakosa, 4; Keith's Buddhist Philosophy, p. 203. 2. Karyatvat sakalam karyam vasanabalasambhavam Kumbhakaradikaryam va svapnadarsanakaryavat. Pradhanamisvarah karma yadanyadapi kalpyate Vasanasangasammudhacetah prasyanda eva sah. Pradhananam pradhanam tad-isvaranam tathesvaram Sarvasya jagatah kartri devata vasana para. ; Asakyamanyatha kartumatra Saktih katham mata. Vasanabalatah so'pi tasmadevam pravartate

Page #129
94 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy In the view of the Sunyavadins the other name of Maya (Illusion) or Anadi Avidya (Beginningless Ignorance) is Vasana.1 In the Vedantic view also the cause of multifariousness of the universe is the beginningless Ignorance or Illusion.2 THE MIMAMSAKA VIEW ON THE NATURE OF KARMA The Mimaisakas admit the existence of an entity named Apurva3 which is born of actions like sacrifices, etc. Their argument is this that whatever performance is made by man becomes momentary because of its being action-like. Hence Iti pradhanesvarakartevadanadyah sada sighravahah pravsttah Visantya evadvayatam prayanti tadvasanamey a samudrameva, Pramanavartikalankara, A. M., 4, p. 75; Vide, Nyayavataravartika-Vstti, pp. 177-8, Tippan. 1. Sarvajnasyesvarasyatmabhute ivavidyakalpite namarupe tattvanyatvabhyamanirvacaniye samsaraprapancabijabhute sarvajnasvesvarasyabhilapyete, tabhyamanyah sarvajnah isvarah-SBha., 2. 1. 14. 2. Tadevan avidyatmakopadhiparicchedapeksamevesvarasye svaratvan, sarvajnatvam sarvasaktimattvam ca, na paramarthato vidyapastasarvopadhisvarupe atmanisitrisi tavyasarvajnatvadivyayahara upapadyate, SBha., 2. 1. 14. 3. Apurva punarasti yata arambhah sisyate "Svargakamo yajeteti" itaratha hi vidhanamanarthakam syat, bhangitvat yagasya yadyanyadanutpadya yago vinasyet phalamasati nimitte na syat tasmadutpadayatiti, sabara Bhasya, 2. 1. 5; Phalaya vihitah karma ksanikam cirabhavine Tatsiddhirnanyathetyevamapurvam pratigamyateTantravartika, 2. 1. 5; Evas-yagaderapurvasvargadisadhanasaktikalpanamuhaniyam-Sastradipika, p. 80; Vide Nyayavataravartika-vstti, p. 179.

Page #130
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 95 there takes place the birth of an entity called 'Apurva' out of that performance, which gives the fruit of actions like sacrifice, etc. Kumarila, while explaining this entity - Apurva, said that the meaning of Apurva is capacity. Both the actions, such as, sacrifice, etc., and Purusa are incapable of producing the heaven-like fruit until the performance of actions like sacrifices, etc., is not made. But after the performance there is born such a capacity by which the doer attains the heaven-like fruit. In this regard an eagerness should not be made to know whether this capacity is of Purusa or of the sacrifice. This much is sufficient to know that it is born.1 That which is called by other philosophers as Samskara (force), capacity, capability and power is expressed by the Mimamsakas with the application of the word 'Aparva'. But they accept this view certainly that the emergence of Samskara or Sakti (capacity or power) which takes place from Karma as laid down in the Vedas should be called Apurva, but Samskara born of other Karma is not Apurva. 2 The Mimamsakas also maintains that the substratum (or abode) of Apurva is Soul and Apurva also is non-corporeal like Soul. 4 This Apurva of the Mimamsakas can be compared with Bhavakarma of the Jainas from this point of view that both of them are non-corporeal.5 Bhavakarma, even being born of Dravyakarma, is the character of Soul. Just as the Mimamsakas have accepted action as non-different from Soul, 1. Karmabhyah pragayogasya karmanah purusasya va Yogyata sastragamya ya para sa apurvamisyate Tantravartika, 2. 1. 5. 2. Yadi hi anahitasamskara eva yaga nasyeyuh, Tantravartika, p. 396. 3. Ibid., p. 398; Kriyatmanoratyantabhedabhavat, Sastrad(pika, p. 80; Yadi svasamavetaiva Saktirisyeta karmanam tadvina so tato na syat kartestha tu na nasyati, Ibid. 4. Tantravartika, p. 398. 5. Nyayavataravartika, Tippan, p. 781.

Page #131
96 The Conception of Matter in Faina Philosophy just so the Jainas also have accepted Dravyakarma somehow non-different; just as the Mimamsakas regard A purva as being born of karma, just so the Jainas also admit Bha vakarma as: being born of Dravyakarma; just as the MImamsakas accept Apurva as capable of producing fruit, just so the Jainas. accept Bhavakarma as the producer of particular fruit.1 But, in fact, Apurva is in the place of Dravyakarma of the Jainas. The Mimamsakas accept the following order : Karma (action like sacrifices, etc.) is produced from kamana (desire) and Apurva is born of pravstti (action), such as, sacrifices, etc. Hence kamana or tesna (thirst) can be called Bhavakarma, pravstti like sacrifice, etc., as yoga (activity) of the Jainas, and Apurva as Dravyakarma respectively. Moreover, according to the Minamsakas, Apurva is an independent entity. So it seems proper that Apurva should be accepted in the place of Dravyakarma. Although Dravyakarma is not non-corporeal; nevertheless, it is intangible to the senses just as Apurva is. Kumarila also does not make any earnestness in regard to this Apurva. He has supported it in order to prove the fruit of sacrifice, but he himself has caused the production of the fruit of action without Apurva. He says that the fruit is produced by action as subtle power or capacity. The production of any effect does not take place all of a sudden. But it becomes manifest as gross form, after becoming finest, finer and fine as power or capacity. Just as curd is not formed instantly on the mixture of acidic thing in milk, but it becomes manifest clearly as curd at particular time, having passed through the stages of many kinds of fine forms, just so the fruits of sacrificial actions, such as, heaven, etc., being born in subtle form, become manifest as gross from on the cooking (maturity) of time later on.2 1. Kriyatmanoratyantabhedabhavat- Sastradipika, p. 80. 2. Yagadeva phalari taddhi saktidvarena siddhyati suksmasa ktyatmakam va tat phalamevopajayateTantravartika, p. 395, Vide Nyayavataravartika vrtti, p. 181.

Page #132
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya Acarya Sankara has refuted the conception of this Apurva of the MImamsakas or the conception of subtle power or capacity and has proved this thing that God gives the fruit according to action. He has supported the view that the attainment of fruit is not possible from action but from God.1 The gist of the above discussion on the nature of Karma is this that there is no objection of any philosopher in regard to Bhavakarma. In the opinion of all philosophers raga (attachment), dvesa (aversion) and moha (delusion) as Bhavakarma or they are the causes of Karma. That which is called Dravyakarma by the Jainas is called Karma by other philosophers. Samskara (force or impression), Vasana (desire), Avijnapti (unmanifested matter), Maya (illusion) and Apurva (energy) are the different names of it. It has been observed that there is no particular dispute with regard to the entity, although there is the difference of opinions of the philosophers on this point whether Karma is material substance or quality or essential character (dharma) or any other independent substance.2 97 Kinds of Karma The divisions of Karma into punya and papa (virtue and vice), kusala and akusala (good and bad), subha and asubha (auspicious and inauspicious), dharma and adharma (merit and demerit) are acceptable to all Indian systems of thought. At the initial stage of speculation about Karma there appears to be two divisions of it, viz. punya and papa (virtue and vice) or subha and asubha (auspicious and inauspicious). All Indian systems of thought have accepted these two kinds of Karmapunya and papa as bondage and determined their respective 1. SBha. on BS., 3. 2. 38-41. 2. Atmamimamsa, Sri Dalsukh Malvania, pp. 95-110 3. Brhadaranyaka, 3. 1. 13; Prasnopanisad, 3.7; Pancamakarmagrantha from 15; TS., 8. 21; Samkhyakarika 44; Visuddhimagga, 17. 88; Yogasutra, 2. 14; Yogabhasya, 2. 12; Nyayamanjari, p. 472; PPBha., pp. 637, 643

Page #133
98 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy objectives to be free from both. Therefore, conscientious men have admitted the favourable feeling (vedana) produced from Karma as only pain without having accepted it as pleasure. The two divisions of Karma into punya and papa have been made from the points of view of feeling. Besides, having kept in view for understanding Karma as good and bad, four divisions of it have been made in the Buddhist and Yoga philosophies, viz. krsna (black), sukla (white), sukla-krsna (white and black) and asuklakrsna (non-white and non-black).2 Ktsna (black) is papa, sukla (white) is punya, sukla-krsna (white and black) is the mixture of punya and papa and asuklakssna (non-white and non-black) is none of the two, because this Karma is of only dispassionate persons. The fruit is neither pleasure nor pain. The reason is this that there do not take place raga (attachment) and dvesa (aversion) in it.3 Besides these, the division of Karma has been made from the points of view of kstya (to be performed), pakadana (ripening oblation) and pakaphala (ripening fruit). In the Buddhist Abhidharma and Visuddhimagga equally4 Karma has been divided into four kinds from the point of view of krtya, four from that of pakadana, and four from that of pakaphala, i. e. in all twelve kinds of Karma. But in the Abhidharma four more divisions of Karma have been made from the point of view of pakasthana (ripening place). On the basis of these views, in the Yogadarsana also5 a general discussion is made in regard of Karma but the counting is different from that of the Buddhists. 1. Parinamatapasamskaraduhkhairgunavsttivirodhacca duhkhameva sarvas vivekinah-Yogasutra, 2. 15. 2. Dighanikaya, 3. 1. 2; Buddhacarya, p. 496; Yogasutra, IV. 7 3. Yogadarsana, 4. 7. 4. Abhidhammattha Sangraha, 5. 19; Visuddhimagga, 19. 14-16. 5. Yogasutra, 2. 12-14.

Page #134
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 99 In Jaina philosophy Karma is studied from the four points of view, viz. its nature (praksti), duration (sthiti), intensity (anubhaga) and quantity (pradesa).1 According to its nature, it is classified into eight fundamental species (mulaprakstis), viz. jnanavaranlyakarma (knowledge-obscuring karma), darsanavaraniyakarma (intuition-obscuring karma), vedansya-karma (feeling-producing karma), mohaniya-karma (deluding karma which obscures the right attitude of soul to faith and conduct), ayus-karma (longivity-determining karma), nama-karma (bodymaking or personality-determining karma with its general and special qualities and faculties), gotra-karma (status-determining karma) e. g. family, clan, caste, nationality, social standing, etc., and antarayakarma (soul's energy-hindering karma). They are divided and sub-divided further into one hundred and fifty eight kinds of karma (i. e. uttaraprakstis of eight basic divisions of karma) with regard to various beings. STUDY OF KARMA FROM DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW Karmas are produced or manifested by consciousness, for they are transformed into bad position (sthana), etc., like matters of beings, accummulated as food and collected as physical structure and there arise in one's mind fear and definite intention for killing a being and putting it to death. This Karma is the cause of bondage of soul. Karmas produce six kinds of states in Soul, viz. (1) audayika (the state of soul caused by the unhindered realization of eight karmaprakstis, it consists of all accidental attributes of soul), (2) aupasamika (the state is produced by the suppression of mohansya-karma, thought it still continues to exists and may 1. BhS,, 1. 4, 38; Pannavana, Ist uddesaka and Karmagrantha, 1-6; Gommatasara, Karmakanda. 2. Ceyakala kamma kajjamti-Bhs., 16. 2. 57. 3. Ibid., 17. 1. 594.

Page #135
100 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy be overcome by proper efforts of self control), (3) parinamika (the essential state comprising the qualities attributed to the soul in itself-the qualities in which nothing is changed through karma), (4) ksayika (the state produced as a result of annihilation of karma, in this state liberation is attained), (5) ksayopasamika (the mixed state in which some karma is still existing, but some is neutralized and some annihilated. So the existing karma does not realize itself and possesses no intensity), and (6) sannipatikabhava (the state which consists in the coincidence of several states). Karmakaranal (Process of Karma) Karmic matter (Karma-pudgala) becomes associated with Soul on account of its passions and activities and at certain states of it the passions are completely destroyed, but mental, vocal and bodily activities still continue in causing consequent influx and bondage of Karma, which require some energy of Soul for their origination. There are stated to be four kinds of karana (process or organ of energy of soul), viz. mana-vak-kayaand karma-karanas. The karma-karana is the process of energy by which the karmic-matter undergoes various processes as a result of different conditions of activities. The process of energy have been divided into eight kinds, viz. bandhana (the condition of energy responsible for bondage of soul), samkramana (transformation of one karma into another--the condition of energy responsible for transformation), udvartana (increased realization of karmas- the condition of energy responsible for increased realization), apavartana (decreased realization of karma--the condition of energy responsible for decreased realization), udTrana (premature realization of karma--the condition of energy responsible for premature realization), upasamana (subsidence- the condition of energy responsible for subsidence), nidhatti (the condition that is capable of making karmas incapable of all the processes (karanas) other than the increased realization and decreased 1. BhS., 6. 1. 230; JIvaviryam bandhanakrama nadinimitta bhutam karmakaranah, Ibid. (Comm.)

Page #136
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya realization, and nikacana (the condition that is responsible for making karmas incapable of all the processes).1 The process of energy (karana) of Karma produces a corresponding karmic process and vice versa. Thus karana is explained from the aspects of substance, space, time, life, condition, body, sense-organ, speech, mind, passion, expansion of soul (samudghata), instinct condition of soul (lesya), attitude of mind, sex-passion, act of killing, matter and its colour, taste, smell, touch and figure (samsthana). Here karana is the means of action "kriyate anena iti karanam."3 THIRD SECTION LESYA (CONDITION OF SOUL ) In Jaina philosophy Lesya is conceived as the condition of Soul-physical as well as psychical. So there are stated to be two kinds of Lesya, viz. Dravyalesya and Bhavalesya; the former is physical, while the latter is psychical. In regard to the nature of Dravyalesya, there are three views, viz. karmavargana-nispanna, karmanisyanda and yogaparinama. According to the first view, Lesyadravya is composed of karmavargana; nevertheless, like the karmic body it is different from eight kinds of Karma+, such as Jnanavaraniya (knowledgeobscuring karma), etc. The contention of the second view is that Lesyadravya is the current (or continuity) of binding Karma. Even there being karma in the fourteenth gunasthana (stage of spiritual development), in the absence of its current (flux) there is the possibility (upapatti) of the negation (non 1. Studies in Jaina Philosophy, p. 254. 2. BhS., 19-9-661. 3. Ibid. (comm.) 4. Utta., ch. 34 (comm.), p. 650. 101

Page #137
102 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy existence) of Lesyal at the stage of spiritual development. Third view2 held by Srl Haribhadrasuri and others says that Lesyadravya has been accepted as independent, belonging to yoga-vargana (class of activity). Bhavaletya is a particular transformation of Soul which is anugata (acquired or brought about) by samklesa (impurity or affliction) and yoga (activity). It is of innumerable kinds, in fact, on account of there being many divisions of samklesa like intense, more intense and most intense: mild, milder and mildest forms, etc. nevertheless, its nature has been shown in the scriptures by making its division into six kinds in brief, viz. krsna (black), nila (blue), kapota (grey), teja (red), padma (lotus) and sukla (white).3 The karmic matter communicates colours to the life monad, i, e. the psychological phenomena manifest themselves in six condition of Soul. They are the names to represent the conditions of Soul as if six persons want to enjoy the fruit of a Jambu tree. The first person endowed with black lesya wants to cut the Jambu tree for its fruits without climbing upon it to get them. The second person having blue lesya says what is the good of cutting the tree and he advises others to cut its branches for the fruits. The third one endowed with grey lesya says that it is not proper to do so in order to serve the purpose by cutting the small branches. The fourth one having red lesya proposes to let off the branches and to break the bunches of fruits for enjoyment. The fifth one possessing lotus lesya says that there is no need of the 1. This view is written by Vadivaitala srt santisuri with the note "Guravastu vyacaksate", Uttara, p. 650, vide Fourth Karmagrantha, parisista, 'ka' p. 33. 2. Panna, pada 13 (comm.), p. 330; Dravyanyetani yogantargataniti vicintyatam Sayogatvena lesyanamanvayavyatirekatah-Loka., Sarga, 3, Si. 285. 3. BHS. 1. 7. 22; 12. 5.450. Panna; 13; Uttara., 34; Kinha nila kau, teu pamha ya sukka bhavviyara Fourth Karmagrantha, Ga., 13, p. 2.

Page #138
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 103 bunches, hence he suggests to take some fruits from them. The sixth person endowed with white lessya advises that all these thoughts are useless, because the fruits which are needed have fallen on the ground, so their purpose can be served by them.1 The second example is as follows: Some six persons were going on for plundering wealth. Having reached one village on the way, one of them said, "Let us destroy this village, kill men, animals, birds, whatsoever things are found here and plunder wealth." On hearing this the second person said, "Why should animals, birds, etc., be killed? Let us kill those men opposing us." The third one said, "Why should the women be killed? Let us kill the male persons." The fourth one said, "Not all persons, but those who are armed should be killed." The fifth one said, "Why should the armed persons, who are not opposing us, be killed ?" At last the sixth person said, "What is the good by killing somebody? Take wealth by the means by which it can be stolen, do not kill any body? It is not justified to plunder wealth on one hand, and to kill its owners on the other hand."2 From these two examples, the nature of Lesya can clearly be understood. Among the six persons of each example the conditions of souls of the successive persons are found auspicious, more auspicious and most auspicious by order, i. e. the decrease of samklesa and the increase of mildness in parinamas (transformations of soul) are observed here. The division of mankind into six classes on the basis of possession of these six lesyas are as follows. The black are those who are cruel-hearted and kill living beings by violating the vow of non-injury (ahimsa), the first of the five great vows of Nirgrantha religion. The blue are those who are engrossed in their passion or sex instinct or greed and transgress the fourth and fifth vows, i. e. continence and non-possession. The grey are those who are 1. Lokaprakasa, Sarga 3, 363-66, 71. 2. Ibid, Sarga 3, 363-380; also Avasyaka sutra, Haribhadriyavrtti, p. 654.

Page #139
104 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy deceitful and stealing others' things by violating the third vow of non-stealing (adattadana). The red are those who try to control themselves to observe religion, i. e. the lay worshippers. The lotus ones are firm in controlling them, i. e. the professional mendicants, while the white are those who have attained absolute self-control, Jinakalpa like Lord Mahavira.1 According to the above three views regarding the nature of Lesyadravya, the state of existence or nature (sadbhava) of Bhavalesya should be understood upto the thirteenth stage of spiritual development (gunasthana). This postulation is accep. ted in Gommatasara2 because in this work yoga-pravstti (activity) has been called Lesya. In the Sarvarthasiddhi and in another place of Gommatasara yoga-pravrtti tinged by the rise of passions has been called Lesya.3 Although the becoming of Lesya upto the tenth stage of spiritual development is found from this state, but it is not contradictory to the previous statement because of being conditional (apeksakrta). In the previous statement the causative transformations (parinamas) of karma-praksti-pradesa-bandha are described as Lesya, while in this account the causative transformations of karmasthiti-anubhaga, etc. four bandhas (bondages) are explained as Lesya, but not only the causative transformation of prakrti-pradesabandha. The study of Dravyalesya and Bhavalesya with their respective qualities and transformations, etc., has been made in the Jaina Agamas and the post-agamic 1. Bhs., 1. 2. 22; 12. 5. 450. 2. Ayadotti chalessao, suhatiyalessa du desaviradatiye Tatto sukka lessa, ajogitthanam alessam tu-Gommatasara, Jiva., 531. 3. Bhavalesya kasayodayaranjita yoga-pravsttiriti krtva audayikityucyate--Sarvarthasiddhi, ch. II. 6; Jogapautti lessa, kasaya udayanuramjiya hoi Tatto donnam kajjam bamdhacaukkam samudditthamGS., Jiva., 489.

Page #140
Indriyas, Karma and Lesya 105 works in details,' e. g. krsnalesya is of cloud colour, of bitter taste like that of Nimba,' etc. As in the Jaina works there is found the discussion on Lesya indicating the differential states or degrees of the impurity and purity of the internal conditions of souls, something like that there3 is found the division of six classes of mendicants in the view of Gosala Mankhaliputra, the Ajivika leader, which has been made on the basis of six colours like black, blue, etc., having taken into account its purity and impurity of karma. In the Mahabharata4 also there is reference to six colours of Soul, which are similar to some extent with regard to the above consideration. Such conception is found in the Yoga philosophy5 of Patanjali because here the division of purity and impurity of conditions of souls has been made by classifying Karma into four divisions, viz. krsna (black), suklakrsna (white-black), sukla (white) and asukla klsna (none of them). "The black is found in villains. The white and black is attainable by outer means of attainment. The accumulation of the latest deposit of karma in this (division) is by means of injury or of benefit to others. The white belongs to those who castigate themselves and recite the sacred texts and practise contemplation. Because this kind of karma is confined to the central organ alone. It does not depend upon outer means and it does not grow as a result of injury to others. The neither1. Bhs., 1.7. 22; 12. 5. 450; Pannayana, 13 Lesyapada, Avasyaka Sutra; Lokaprakasa, Sarga, 3; Gommatasara, Jivakanda, Gathas 506-507; Lesyamarganadhikara, Gathas, 488-555. 2. Bhs., 1. 2. 22; 12. 5. 450. 3. Chalabhijatiye - Dighanikaya, Samannaphala Sutta, Makkhali Gosalo tenupasamkamim. 4. Mbh.. 12, 286. 5. Karmasuklakssnam Yoginastrividhamitaresam-Yogasutra, IV; see its Bhasya.

Page #141
106 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy white-nor-black is found in the mendicant-saints (samnyasin), whose hindrances have dwindled away, and whose (actual). bodies are their last."1 According to Dr. Zimmer, the six types of Lesya, viz. klsnalesya, nilalesya, kapotalesya, tejolesya, padmalesya and suklalesya, each with its colour, smell, taste, and touch, "fall into three groups of two, each pair corresponding precisely to one of the three Gunas or natural qualities of the classic Samkhya and Vedantic writing". "The Jaina Lesya 1 and 2 are dark; they correspond to the Guna-tamas, "darkness". Lesya 3 is smoky grey, while 4 is of red flame; both pertain to fire, and thus correspond to the Guna-rajas (fire-rajas, red, colour; of ranj "to tinge red", rakta "red". Lesya 5 and 6, finally are clear and luminous, being states of comparative purity, and thus are the Jaina counterparts of the classic Guna Sattva ; "virtue, goodness, excellence, clarity; ideal being; the supreme state of matter." "In sum, the six Jaina lesyas seem to represent some system of archaic prototypes from which the basic elements of the vastly influential later theory of the Gunas was evolved.") 1. The Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. XVII, p. 305. 2. Philosophies of India, pp. 229-230.

Page #142
FOURTH CHAPTER ATOMISM Introduction The Indian thought on Atomism reflects a stage of the emergence and development of Indian philosophy of a period in the field of metaphysical knowledge, when the daring flight of imagination of the speculative Indian mind with logical nicety went on to search out the basic principle of dissolution and creation of the material universe. In this speculation the Samkhya-Yoga, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Mimamsaka, Bauddha, Vedanta and Jaina systems of thought have attacked the problem from their respective angles of vision and made attempts at the explanation and interpretation of the root cause of Atomism. The Carvakasi have admitted four or five elements of Matter as the basis of creation with a support for Atomism. The Samkhya-yoga? philosophy has conceived an idea of atom as produced from tanmatra (infra-atomic potential) by advocating Prakstivada (doctrine of Primordial Matter) as the fundamental cause of the material universe. The Nyaya-Vaisesika3 has propounded the atomic theory on the basis of avayava (constituent element) and avayavin (composite whole), so its Atomism is based on Sthiratvavada (doctrine of permanence) 1. Tattvopaplavasimha, p. 1. 2. Samkhyapravacanabhasya, Vijnanabhiksu, ch. 1, sutra 62; Vyasabhasya on Yogasutra of Patanjali, pada IV, sutra 14, p. 19. 3. Vaieesikadarsana, Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra. 1-2; Nyayadarsana, Gautama, adhyaya IV, ahnika II, sutra 15; adhyaya II, ahnika 1, sutra 35, See Vatsyayanabhasya. on them. -

Page #143
108 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy and avayavavada (doctrine of constituent elements), while Atomism of the Buddhist schools? of thought like the Vaibhasika and the Sautrantika is supported on Ksanikavada (doctrine of momentariness), as they are the advocates of this doctrine. The Mimamsakas like Kumarila and Prabhakara and the Vedantin Madhva3 accepted Atomism on the basis of the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. The Vijnanavadin Buddhists 4 and the Brahmavadin Vedantin like Acarya Sankara5, Acarya Ramanuja6 and others did not admit this Atomism. The Buddhist work "Vijnaptimatratasiddhi? rejected the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika system of thought on the ground of constituent parts of atom (avayavas of paramanu), while the Vedantin Acarya Sankara8 refuted Atomism of the Vaisesika by following the foot-steps of the Vijnanavadin Buddhist under the influence of the Samkhya doctrine of Praksti, buddhi (intellect), tanmatra (infra-atomic potential), etc. Jaina philosophy has conceived the atomic theory on the basis of destruction and origination of the material world from the standpoint of transformation taking place in it due to external and 1. See Sarkarabhasya on Brahmasutra (Vedantadarsana), adhyaya II, pada II, sutra 18, pp. 484-87; Abhidharmadipa, Vimalamitra p. 65; cf. Abhidharmakosa, Vasubandhu, Kosa II, sloka 22, p. 29; Kosa I, sloka 12, p. 6. 2. slokavartika Kumarila, Sunyavada, sloka 261, 262, p. 301, Prabhakara Mlmamsa, Prabhakara Bhatta, fp, 64-65, 67-68, 3. Purnaprajnadarsana, Madhva, pp. 67-68. 4. Bodhicaryavatara, santideva, Navama pariccheda, pp. 235-236, 28. 5. Sarkarabhasya on Brahmasutra, (Vedantadarsana), adhyaya II, pada II, Sutras 11-17, pp. 459-84. 6. Sribhasya., Ramanuja, adhyaya II, pada II sutra 11-17. 7. Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, Vasubandhu, Karika Vinsatika, Vide Nyayadarsana, Phanibhusana Tarkavegisha, fifth part, p. 105. 8. Sankarabhasya on Brahmasutra (Vedantadarsana), adhyaya II, pada II, sutras, 11-47, pp. 459-84.

Page #144
Atomism internal causes and made a synthetic approach to the problem of the atomic theory from the aspects substance, locus time and condition1 by taking into consideration of all the concepts. of atom of other Indian systems of thought. Denial of Paramanuvada (Atomism) by the Vijnanavadin Buddhists In his Vijnaptimatrata siddhi, Vasubandhu made the refutation of the doctrine of Paramanu (ultimate atom) in the Vimsatika in the following manner: While rejecting the existence of external object of Vaibhasikas, he opined by the first karika that their admitted external object cannot be called one whole nor many and the aggregate of combined atoms, because paramanu is not proved. In support of his contention why it is not proved, he said in the second karika that if having accepted paramanu, the combination (or conjunction) of other atoms with it is admitted, the existence of atom is not proved. Those which are the objects of Vijnaptis (pure sensation or general consciousness) have got no existence. He says that rupa (colour), etc. - the bases of cognition are either one and composite whole (avayavin-rupa), just as found in the conception of the Vaisesikas, or atomically many, or the combination (aggregate) of atoms. But one does not become the object of Vijnapti (pure sensation or general consciousness), because each and every atom cannot be apprehended from amongst the atoms. Again, the combined 1. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740; sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670; Acaramga Curni, (Jinadasagant) p. 165; Uttaradhyayanasutra with Tika of Kamalasamyama, p. 99. 2. Na tadekam ca anekam visayah paramanusah Na ca te samhata yasmat paramanurna siddhyati Satkena yugapat paramanoh sadan sata Sannam samanadesatvat pindah syadanumatrakah. Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, Karika Vimsatika, Vide Nyayadarsana, Fifth Pt. p. 105. 109

Page #145
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy atoms (samghataparamanus) also do not become the object of Vijnapti, for it is not proved that atom is one substance. The question is how it is not proved that atom is one substance. On this point Vasubandhu makes an analysis of atom. Why is there the part of atom? In case it is divisible, then there is no atom. If six atoms, coming from six directions (quarters)upward and downward and four sides of an intermediate atom, combine with it simultaneously, then sadamsata (six sidedness or six parts) of an atom is admitted, i. e. an atom has got six parts, for there cannot take place the combination of six atoms in one and the same part of that atom simultaneously. The combination of another atom is not possible then and then in that part in which the combination of one atom takes place. So it is admitted that there takes place the combination of those different six atoms in six different parts of that intermediate atom. Then it cannot be called paramanu (ultimate atom), because that which has no part and which is the finest of all has been admitted as paramanu. 110 And if the simultaneous combination of six atoms in the same part of that intermediate atom is admitted, or the combination of other atoms with the atom having no part is admitted, or if the part which is of one atom is of the six atoms, then there being equal parts of all, all will be a lump-atom only (pindah syadanumatrakah). The lump as a result of combination of seven atoms cannot be gross, so it cannot be visible. This point is untenable. Again, in this condition any kind of lump is not possible, because the combination of other substance with some particular substance in its different parts can only give rise to the grossness of it. But there cannot be any combination of other substance with that which has no different parts. It is admitted for this reason that the grossness of that substance is not possible. Hence an atom is not different from Vijnana (pure sensation); as it is not such, so no external object is proved by any means. Therefore, there is no separate existence of an object of knowledge different from knowledge. The Kashmirian Vaibhasikas say that there does not take

Page #146
Atomism 111 place samyoga (conjunction) of atoms because of their being devoid of parts. But after having been combined, their conjunction takes place. Vasubandhu opines that it should be asked from them whether samghataparamanu (combined atom) is rather another entity than these atoms. If there loes not take place the conjunction of these atoms, then whose conjunction occurs in combination ? Again, a mutual conjunction of samghataparamanus (combined atoms) also does not come about. It should not be said that a conjunction is not proved due to the cause of partlessness of atoms, for there does not take place also a conjunction of Savayava samghata (combination with parts). Therefore, atoms are not one single substance whether a conjunction of atoms be ista (desired) or not. The oneness (ekatva) of that whose digbhagabheda (division of parts of direction) is admitted is untenable. Atom has got other sides (parts) of eastern direction, of downward direction, etc. In this way, there is digbhagabheda; then how will the oneness of tadatmakaparamanu (identical atom) be reasonable? And if digbhagabheda is not admitted, how will there be impenetrability of atom? How will there be combination ? On the rise of the sun, how do there take place (fall) the shadow somewhere and the sunshine elsewhere? If other parts are not existing, there is no sunshine. If digbhagabheda is not desirable, then how does there occur the covering of one atom by another one ? But an atom has no parabhaga (external or outside part) where there takes place the resistance or repulsion (pratighata) of one atom by another due to the coming into contact and if the resistance or repulsion does not happen, there will be equal spaceness (akasatva) of all atoms and all combinations will become only atom, not molecule. If it forms the lump (pinda), then the lump is not anything else than the atoms or is other than it (atom). If the lump is not accepted as different from atoms, then it is proved that they are not of the lump. This idea is imaginary. If atom is sarghata (combined) or pinda (lump), then what is good by holding this view, if there is no denial of the characteristics--rupa, etc.

Page #147
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Therefore, the characteristics like rupa, etc., cannot be many. When atom has been disproved, then the multiplicity or manifoldness of substance also has become defective with it (atom). But one cannot ascertain rupa (matter or visibility) as one substance only, for, if an object of sense of vision (eye) is conceived as one substance, then its undivided apprehension wil be direct. But the actual experience in life does not say so. Again, the alternative is meant only for the sake of argument, when discrete atom is disproved, then the combined atom (samghata paramanu) also becomes automatically disproved and the objectivity of immediate (direct) matters like eye, etc., also is disproved. Only pure sensation or consciousness (Vijnaptimatra) is proved.1 112 1. So'pi parvasamuhatvat parvapi svamsabhedatah (86) Amsa api tattvato na santityaha -amsa apyanubhedena iti/ amsah parvabhagah api anubhedena paramanuso vibhagena bhidyamanatvat kalpita eva, anavo'pi na pratyekam paramarthasantah ityaha-soapyanurdigvibhagatah ? disam purvaparadaksinottaradharordhvasvabhavanam sambandhena vibhagato nanatvat ? tadvibhagabhedadbhidya manasya paramanoh sadamsata syat? diksu va vibhagahnanadigavasthita nanarupamsah paramanoh, tato bhedena na tasya svabhavo? etc. Vimsatikarika-14); Bodhicaryavatara, Navama Pariccheda, p. 235. Satkena yugapadyogatparamanoh sadamsata sannam samanadesatvat pindah syadvanumatrakah, Vimsatikarika-12. Te'pi, punaraniyams bhagah tathaiva nirupuamanah niratmataya nabhah-svabhavatam pratipadyante ityaha digvibhago'pityadi-digvibhago niramsatvadakasam tena nastyanuh ?" (87), Ibid., p. 236; pp. 261, 281.

Page #148
Atomism 113 REFUTATION OF PARAMANUVADA (ATOMISM) BY THE VEDANTISTS ACARYA SANKARA AND OTHERS Having followed the footsteps of the Vijnanavadin Buddhists, Acarya Sankara, Ramanuja and other Vedantists except Madhva have refuted the atomic theory conceived by the Vaisesikas as the ultimate cause of the Universe in connection with the Vaisesika charge against the Vedantist view of the Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe According to the Vaisesika system of thought, the equalities inherent in the substance constituting the cause reappear in the substance constituting the effect, e. g. white cloth is produced from white thread. If the intelligent Brahman is the cause of the Universe, then intelligence must reapear in all the effects-objects in the Universe. But it is not the case; intelligence is not perceived in the objects like jar, cloth, etc. For this reason the Brahman is not the cause of the Universe. In reply to this Vaisesika charge Acarya Sankara argues that according to the Vaisesikas, the spherical atoms produce the dyads which are minute and short and triads which are great and long, but not any thing spherical. That is to say, the qualities like white colour, etc., which, inhering in the atoms, produce other qualities like white, etc., in the dyads, but the dimension-sphericity (parimandalya) existing in atom does not produce another sphericity in the dyad. In this way the dyads which are minute and short produce the triads (tryanukas), tetrads (caturanuka), etc., which are big and long and not minute and short, i. e. the dimension of dvyanuka-anutva (smallness) and hrasvatva (shortness), does not appear in the triad and tetrad. For this reason the Vaisesika principle, "the quality of cause must also be present in the effect" cannot be accepted in all cases. On this ground, Acarya Sankara opines that just as the dyad having the minute and short dimension is produced from the atoms having the spherical dimension and the triad having great and long dimension is produced

Page #149
114 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy from the minute and short dyads, just so a non-intelligent Universe (acetana jagat) may spring forth from the intelligent Brahman. 1 As to the point of the Vaisesikas that the dyad because of being pervaded by another dimensions, parimandalya (sphericity) of atom cannot produce another parimandalya (sphericity) in it (dvyanuka), i. e. dyads and triads are endowed with qualities opposed in nature to those of the cause (atom), so that qualities of the cause, being over powered, do not appear in the effect, but non-intelligence is not a quality opposed in nature to intelligence, but its very negation. So there is nothing to prevent the Brahman from reproducing its quality of intelligence in the Universe', Acarya Sankara replies that it is not proper to say that the cases are parallel, for, according to the Vaisesika view, even the effect being started, an atom remains attributeless for a moment during this period, i. e. before getting affected by other atoms. Parimandalya at this moment can produce itself another parimandalya in the effect. That is to say, if the qualities of sphericity and so on, existing in the cause, do not produce corresponding effects, it is the same with intelligence. Endowment with other qualities does not modify the power of originating effects which belongs to sphericity, for it is admitted that the substance produced remains for a moment devoid of qualities, and only after that moment other qualities begin to come into existence. If it is argued by the Vajsesikas that parimandalya (sphericity), because of being engaged to produce other dimensionsminute, etc., cannot produce kindred dimension in the dyad, then it is also not justified to say because there are other causes in the origin of other forms (dimensions) like anutva (minuteness) and hrasvatva (shortness) and great and long, not sphericity, according to the Vaisesika sutra. "The origin of other 1. SBha., on BS., II, 2. 11.

Page #150
Atomism forms is due to other causes.1" So if sphericity, etc., do not produce like-effects, it is due to their own nature. If it is the nature of sphericity, etc., not to produce like-effects, it may be the nature of Brahman to produce an unlike-effect, the nonintelligent world. - As to the Vaisesika argument that on account of being sannidhya (nearness) of the effect to the cause producing above forms anutva (minuteness), etc. these dimensions can produce that kind of dimension in the dyads, etc., and there being no such nearness to sphericity, it cannot produce such a sphericity in that effect, it is argued by Acarya Sankara that it is not correct to say so because when a new quality or a substance is produced, then all qualities exist in the cause by equality (samata) or generality and the relation of inherence (samavaya). That is, "there is also the observed fact that from conjunction there originate substances belonging to a class different from that to which conjunction itself belongs. The doctrine that effects should belong to spring is too wide."2 The fallacious reasoning of the rule "just as the cause is, so the effect is produced" is come across in other place, as for example, the conjunction of thread is the cause of cloth, but the conjunction of thread is quality; cloth is not quality. Such is the Brahman; even being cetana (intelligent). there is no difficulty in the origination of the non-intelligent world."3 115 Bhaskara has adopted this interpretation of the Sutra "Mahaddirghavadva hrasva-parimandalabhyam". But Ramanuja and Nimbarka maintain the view that this Sutra refutes the doctrine of atoms constituting the universal cause. If the atoms are composed of parts, there will arise the fallacy of 1. Karanabhutvacca VS., VII. 1. 9; Ato viparitamanu, Ibid., 10; Etena dirghatvahrasvate vyakhyate, Ibid., 17. 2. Sarpirjatumadhucchistanamagnisamyogadadravatvamadbhih samanyam-VS., II. 1.6. 3. Mahaddirghavadva hrasvaparimandalabhyam SBha. on BS., II. 2. 11.

Page #151
116 The Conception of Matter in Jaipa Philosophy anavastha (regress ad infinitum); if they are devoid of parts, they cannot explain the production of other evolutes. Therefore, the atomic view is untenable. Acarya Sankara next puts forward the atomic theory of the Vaisesikas and refutes it in the following manner : In the Universe the cloths, etc., are savayavadravyas (substances having parts). They, existing in themselves by the relation of inherence (or inhering relation), are produced by the assistance of conjunction (samyoga) of threads. By this similarity, whatever things are savayava are svanugata (existing in themselves), it is accepted that they are produced by the assistance of conjunction. There where further division of avayava (part=thread), and avayavin (whole=cloth) ceases to be, i. e. come to an end, exists an ultimate atom (paramanu). Similarly, this world im which hill, sea, etc., are existing is savayava and it is endowed with a beginning and an end because of being savayava. And the effect (world) should not be devoid of cause, for this reason atom is the cause of the Universe. Such is the view of Kanada, the author of the Vaisesika Sutra. Having experienced the four Mahabhutas (gross elements of Matter) in the Universe four kinds of ultimate atoms have been conceived by the Vaisesikas. Because of there being the division of earth, etc., their division takes place up to an ultimate atom and it is called pralaya (dissolution). After that in the beginning of creation motion is produced by Adrsta (unseen force) first in air-atoms. This motion (kriya) unites svasraya-anu (inhering atoms) with other atoms. In this way the great material object called vayu (air) is produced by the order of dyads, etc. Similarly, fire, water, earth and sensed-body are born. Thus the Uni,erse is constituted by atoms. Acarya Sankara refutes this atomic theory of the Vaisesikas in the following manner: The conjunction of atoms existing in the state of division at the time of creation cannot take place without motion, for the conjunction is found in thread, etc., as associated with action (kriyayuktatantu, etc.), i. e. conjunction

Page #152
Atomism 117 cannot take place without action. There must be some cause (nimitta) of action because of there being karya (effect). If there were no nimitta (efficient cause) the first action would not have taken place. If nimitta is admitted even, there will come up a defect (dosa), because effort (prayatna), striking and restriking (abhighata), etc., (any such unseen force) are accepted as nimitta of action; there will not be the first action (adya karma) in the ultimate atoms due to its impossibility (i. e. negaition of Adrsta). The reason is this that the effort the quality of soul is not possible in that state, for there is the absence of body. When there takes place the conjunction of soul with the Teflective mind in the body, then the quality of soul-effort is possible. In this way the solution of drstanimitta (perceived cause) like striking (abhighata), etc., should be made. Thus only after the creation of the mind, etc., effort, striking etc., are possible, but not before that. If Adrsta is accepted as nimitta (cause) of the first action, even then one question arises whether that Adrsta is samavayin inhering) in soul (i. e. there is the relation of Adcsta with soul) or in atom. By both ways Adrsta can not be nimitta in atoms because Adrsta itself is non-intelligent (or non-conscious), it cannot perform any action by non-intelligent individuality (svatantrata) till it is not established by or associated with (adbisthita) intelligent soul (cetana). This is said in the Samkhya Philosophy. For this reason such soul in which intelligence is not born is acetana (non-intelligent) in that state. And if Adrsta would be samavayin in soul, it cannot become nimitta (cause) in atoms, because the relation of Adrsta is with soul, not with atom. If it is argued that there is the relation of atoms with soul which is associated with Adrsta then there will arise the problem of being constancy in the action on account of the relation being constant, for there is no other determinant in pravstti (action). Thus there will be the first action in atoms for there being no definite cause of action in the absence of action; there will not be conjunction and in the absence of it there will not be the effects like dyads, etc.

Page #153
118 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Next, Acarya Sankara raises the question whether the conjunction of one atom with another atom is sarvatmaka (all-embracing), i. e. one whole atom combines with another whole atom, or ekadesin (partial), i. e. one whole atom combines. with the part of another atom. If it is sarvatmaka there will arise the problem of anumatratva (only one atom) because of there being untenability of increase (upacaya). If it is ekadesin (partial or partly), then there will arise the problem of savayavattva (atom having parts). If it is said that there are imaginary parts of atom, the conjunction will be unreal (nonentity due to the cause of imaginary objects, because of being avastu (non-entity) and the conjunction will not be the cause of object-like effect, and the effect-substances like dyads, etc., will not be produced, if conjunction does not become cause. Just as in the first stage of creation there does not take place the action in atoms because of there being no production of conjunction due to the absence of nimitta (cause), so in the great dissolution also it does not take place in atoms because of there being no production of disjunction, for in that case also no determinant cause is coming forth into perception. Adrsta is also meant for the attainment of enjoyment, pleasure, pain, etc., but not for the attainment of dissolution. Like this the heaven of the Vaisesika will not be there in that state on account of the process of dissolution, and the view that the atom is the ultimate cause will be untenable. 1 Acarya Sankara says that the Vaisesikas conceive that the dyad produced from two ultimate atoms is very different from these two atoms, and it maintains the relation of inherence with atoms. But they can not support the causation of atom (anukaranata) by such conception because the fallacy of infinite regress arises on account of the sameness (identicality) of the mark of causes, e. g. a dyad which inheres in two atoms is different from them and the relation of inherence which is equally different from two atoms must be inherent in them on 1. $Bha. on BS. II, 2.16.

Page #154
Atomism 119 account of a second relation of inherence and so on ad infinitum, for the extreme difference of division is same (equal) in both the cases. Like this the relation of that inherence also with other inhering entities will have to be accepted. In this way there will be a fallacy of infinite regress. In reply to this Vaibesika view, Acarya Sankara argues that the view of the Vaisesikas is not correct in regard to this point. If it is so, i. e. the inherence is eternally present in the entities seen here and before us, samyoga (conjunction) also may be stated to be eternally connected with things which are joined together and need not depend upon a further connection (or relation). It will maintain eternal relation with own things which are joined together. For this reason (i. e. for its own companions) there is no necessity of the second relation of inherence. If it is argued that because of there being a second thing, the conjunction depends upon another relation, then inherence also, because of there being a second object, will depend upon other relation It is also not correct to say that there is no necessity of other relation (samavaya) for conjunction because of its being quality. Both of them are different from the terms they relate, for both of them depend upon the relation and to call one quality and the other non-quality is only found in the Vaisesika doctrine. For this reason, the dyad will not be produced from the two atoms on account of the fallacy of anavastha (regress ad infinitum). Therefore, the atomic theory of the Vaisesika is untenable.1 Acarya Sankara asks the Vai esikas what kind of nature of atoms do they admit among the following : active nature (pravsttisvabhava) or non-active nature (nirvsttisvabhava) or both the natures or neither of them. Among these four alternatives the conception of an ultimate atom (paramanu) as cause is untenable by any means. If it is said that there is the active nature of an ultimate atom, there will arise the problem of the 1. SBha. on BS., II. 2. 13 Samavayabhyupagamacca samyadanavasthiteh.

Page #155
120 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy negation of dissolution (pralaya) because of there being permanent activity in it. If the non-active nature of ult mate atom is accepted, there will come up the question of negation of creation because of there being permanent inactivity in it. If both the active and non-active natures of ultimate atom are accepted, it cannot be possible simultaneously, for both are contradictory to each other. If neither of them (neither active nor non-active nature of ultimate atoms) is accepted, some operative cause must be admitted, i. e. their activity or nonactivity would depend upon an operative cause. And if Adrsta is admitted as the operative cause, the activity will be permanent because of Adrsta being in permanent proximity to atoms. If it is said that Adrsta is not the operative cause, there will be permanent non-activity. For this reason paramanukaranavada (doctrine of ultimate) as cause is untenable. "The Vaisesika assumes that when substances are broken up into parts, a limit is reached beyond which the process of breaking up cannot be continued. The atoms are the limit. They belong to four classes, and are eternal and possess the qualities like colour, etc. These are the originating principles out of which this material universe of colour, form, etc. is constituted. In reply to this Vaisesika view Acarya Sankara opines that if atoms have colour, etc , then they are gross and non-permanent. It is found from the daily experience that the things possessing colour, etc., are compared to their causes, gross and non-permanent. A piece of cloth is gross when compared to the threads of which it is made and non-permanent; so the threads are gross compared to the filaments of which they are made. So the atoms possessing colour must be gross and non-enternal compared to their causes. So the Vaisesika sutra "That which exists without having a cause is external"2 does not apply to atoms. Secondly, the reason, which the Vaisesika gives for the performance of atoms that "if, as 1. SBha. on BS., II. 2-14 Nityameva ca bhavat. 2. Sadakaranavannityam, VS., VI. 1.1.

Page #156
Atomism 121 causes, they are not permanent, there is no point in referring to the non-eternality of effects,"] is not satisfactory. The eternal cause may be Brahman. Again a word need not always imply the existence of the thing implied by the word. The object must be established as existing by other means of knowledge. If ignorance or non-perception of the cause is too wide, we may believe even binary compounds to be eternal, for they produce perceptible effects and are themselves produced by non-perceived atoms. If it is said that non-perception in avidyal means that atoms cannot be destroyed either by the destruction of the cause or by disintegration and, therefore, they are to be regarded as eternal, we reply that this reasoning applies only to things that come into being as the result of the combination of several substances. Then the things perish when the substances become separate from each other or are themselves destroyed, but the view of the Vedanta is that the destruction of the effect is possible only by a modification in its condition, as solid ghee is destroyed when it is reduced to a liquid condition. So atoms may not be destroyed or disintegrated but may be transformed into a prior nonatomic condition, which is the condition of the being of Brahman."3 Therefore, the atomic theory is untenable. 4 According to the Vaisesika view, gross earth possesses the four qualities, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch; fine water possesses the three qualities, viz. colour, taste and touch; still finer fire possesses the two qualities, viz. colour and touch, and air, the finest of all, possesses only the quality of touch. In this way these four gross elements of Matter are found in the world. Acarya Sarkara asks the question whether the atoms constituting the four elements possess larger or smaller number 1. Anitya iti visesatah pratisedhabhavah, VS., IV. 1. 4. 2. Paramanoranityatvavisaya sarvapyanumitih avidya bhramarupa abhasaprabhavatvat, VSU., 4. 1. 5. 3. BS., pp. 375-376. 4. SBha on BS., II. 2. 15.

Page #157
The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy of qualities than their elements in this matter: In both ways: the defect will come up, because (1) if it is conceived that atoms are having larger number of qualities, then they will cease to be called paramanu because of there being increase in the size of atoms having more qualities. If it is said that there takes place an increase of qualities with an increase of size, then it is not proper to say this, for among the four elements an increase of their size is found with an increase of their qualities. If it is argued that atoms are not endowed with a larger number of qualities, then in order to save the equality of atoms it has to accept that they must have only one quality and in that case the apprehension of touch will not be in fire or that of colour and touch in water, or that of taste, colour and touch in earth will not be found, for the quality of effect is produced from the quality of cause. If all atoms are assumed. to be possessed of the four qualities then smell will be found. in water, smell and taste in fire, and smell, colour and taste in air. But such is not the case. For this reason the doctrine of ultimate atom (paramanu) as cause is unacceptable.1 Acarya Sankara says that Pradhanakaranavada (Doctrine of Pradhana, the Primordial Matter as the ultimate cause of the Universe) has been admitted by Manu and other Vedic scholars on the basis of Satkaryavada, etc., but no gentleman has accepted Paramanu-karanavada (Doctrine of atom as the ultimate cause) on the basis of division. For this reason it is absolutely disregarded by the advocates of the Vedas. 122 He opines that there cannot take place the conjunction of the three entities-atoms, soul and mind because of there being no parts of them. That is to say, atoms cannot enter into samyoga (conjunction) with one another and the conjunction of soul with atoms cannot be the cause of the motion of the latter and the conjunction of soul and mind cannot be the cause of cognition because the conjunction of one substance having parts with another having parts is found in experience.. 1. SBha on BS., II. 2. 16 (Ubhayatha ca dosat).

Page #158
Atomism If it is argued that there is the imaginary parts of atom, of soul and mind, then it is not correct to say so, for any entity will be proved by an imagination of non-existing entity in the world. There is no proof in the making of such rules that "this much imagination (kalpana) only of the existence of non-existing entity, whether illogical or not, should be made, but not an imagination of the existence of an entity more than that. "There is no limit of imagination because of its being independent. As there does not take place a close relationship of the savayava dvyanuka (dyad having two parts) with niravayava akasa (space or ether without parts), so there does not occur a close relationship of savayava dvyanuka with niravayava paramanu (atom without parts) also, for there does not take space a combination of akasa (space or ether) and earth, etc., like lac and stick (jatukasthavat). It is argued that the condition of asritasraya (the material relation of dependence and substratum) of the effect-substance (karya-dravya) and the cause-substance (karana-dravya) will not be tenable by another method. For this reason inherence must be accepted, then it is also not justified to say because there arises the defect of mutual interdependence (itaretarasraya) in the acceptance of such view of the Vaisesikas. There will be an attainment of itaretarasraya by this way of the pot and plum-tree (kundabadaranyaya)-the providing of asritasrayabhava (relation of dependence and substratum) by karyakarana (effect-cause) and that of karya-karanabhava (effect-cause relation) by asritasrayadravyabhava. The Vedanta does not accept the distinction between effect and cause and admit the relation of dependence and substratum in them, because, according to its view, effect is a kind of condition of cause. 123 An ultimate atom will be savayava (possessed of parts) because of being limited on account of there being that much of its parts as whatever number of sides it may have (i. e. six, or eight, or ten); and thus it will be non-eternal for being savayava (possessed of parts). In this way there will arise the contradiction in the Vaisesika doctrine that "there are no parts of atoms.

Page #159
124 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy and they are eternal." If it is argued that the parts which have been conceived in atom by the thought of digbheda (division of direction or relative position) are really atoms, then it is not justified, for atoms also, becoming subtler and subtler up to the cause, can be destroyed, just as earth, because of being very grosser than dvyanuka (dyad), etc., and being really in existence even according to the Vaisesika view, can be destroyed. After this earth there may take place the destruction of other fine things of the category of earth, after that there occurs the destruction of the dyad ( dvyanuka ). just so atoms also, being of the category of earth should be destroyed. If it is argued that in case there is the destruction of atom, it happens by the division of parts, then it is not justified to say so, for just as hardness of clarifi:d butter is destroyed, just so atom also is destroyed. That is, just as there takes .place the division of clarified butter, gold, etc., but they melt by the conjunction of fire, just so when atom also attains the state of paramakarana (last cause), there will be the destruction of its form, etc. And the origination of an effect does not take place by mere conjunction of parts, for there does not occur the conjunction of parts of milk, water, etc. nevertheless, there is the production of effects like curd, ice, etc., respectively out of milk, water, etc. For this reason, the paramanukaranavada (Doctrine of atom as ultimate cause) is untenable according to Acarya Sankaral. Ramanuja, Vallabha, Bhaskara, Nimbarka and other Vedantins also supported the view of Acarya Sankara by rejecting the atomic theory of the Vaisesikas. But Madhva accepted the conception of atom fully on the basis of the Vaisesika atomic theory. 2 ANALYSIS OF ATOMISM The Indian philosophical schools which have invented, developed and adopted the atomic theory by their speculation 1. SBha. on BS., II. 2. 17. 2. Purnaprajnadarsana, Madhvabhasya, pp. 67-8.

Page #160
Atomism 125 may be placed mainly in three groups. The first group is. represented by Jaina Metaphysics, the second one by the Vaisesika and Nyaya systems of thought and the Bhasya (commentary) on the latter by Vatsyayana and the Vaibhasikas. and Sautrantikas of the Buddhist Philosophy, and the last group of Indian Atomism is represented by Prasastapada's Bhasya which is the oldest systematic exposition of the Vaisesika school of thought and generally adopted by the combined Vaisesika-Nyaya philosophy. As pointed out, the Mimamsakas? and the Vedantin Madhvaaccepted the atomic theory on the basis of the Vaisesika conception of it, while the SamkhyaYoga conceived the idea of atom as generated from tanmatra (infra-atomic-potential). It appears that the speculation about Indian Atomism marks a stage of emergence and development of subtle thought in the field of Indian philosophy in different ages. It has developed from a simpler concept by gradual modifications of scientific thoughts accumulated in successive ages. Thus it has undergone gradual changes with the passage of time. The seed of Atomism of the Jainas is embodied in the Jaina Agamas?. Umasvati has sown the metaphysical aspect of it in his work Tattvarthadhigama Sutrat on the basis of the agamic conception of Atomism Siddhasena Ganin,5 Acarya Pujya 1. Slokavartika, Kumarila, Sunyavada, slokas, 261, 262, p. 301; Prabhakara Mimansa, pp. 64-65; 67-68. 2. Purnaprajnadarsana, Madhva, pp. 67-68. 3. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 14. 1. 513 (see its Tika); 20. 6. 670, etc. 4. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, Umasvati, prathama vibbaga, first edition, 1926, ch. V, sutras 11. 14, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. 5. Ibid. (Bhasya-Tika)

Page #161
.126 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Pbilosophy pada,1 Acarya Akalanka", Vidyananda,3 Haribhadra Suriu, Vinayavijayaji5 and other later Jainacaryas gradually developed it on a more scientific basis. They organized the entire system of dispute on Arambhavada (Doctrine of Intransitive Causation) of the Nyaya Vaisesika and Ksanika-paramanuvada (Doctrine of momentary atom) of the Buddhists and those of other Indian schools of thought in their respective works. The Jaina thinkers have retained the Buddhist tradition of of skandha (molecule), while discarding the Nyaya-Vai esika view of Avayava-Avayavivada (Doctrine of constituent part and composite whole) in formulating their concept of paramanu (ultimate atom). It appears to have originated from the most primitive ideas about Matter. In Jaina Philosophy Matter (Pudgala) is conceived as an enternal substance undetermined from the point of view of transformation of its quantity and quality. Material particles may combine into one substance and one material substance may disintegrate into many. Every material entity of the cosmic universe is constituted of atoms. The Nyaya-Vaisesika holds the view that paramanu is an ultimate cause of the material world (tadantyam karanam), but not the effect (karya), it is the root cause of the elements 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, Ac. Pujyapada, avstti, I, ch. V, sutras 11, 14, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37. 2. Tattvartha Rajavartika, Akalankadeva, Bhaga II, ch. V, Sutra 11. 14, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33, 36, 37. 3. Tattvartha Slokavartika, Vidyananda, ch. V, sutras-11, 14, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37. 4. Haribhadriyavrtti on Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, ch. V, sutras, 11, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. 5. Lokaprakasa Vinayavijaya Ganin, part-I, sarga 1, sloka 21, p. 5. 6. Vaisesikadarsana, Kanada, adhyaya, VI, ahnika, 1, sutra 1,2; Nyayavartika, Udyotakara, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 21.

Page #162
Atomism of Matter. Jaina Philosophy maintains that paramanu is both cause (karana) and effect (karya)1 of the material world from the standpoint of transformation which takes place in the elements of Matter, due to external and internal causes. The Jaina conception of paramanu as cause and effect is paralled to the conception of energy and consequence of energy of the physical sciences.2 In the Samkhya-Yoga Philosophy the material existence of paramanu is accepted but not as an unit of matter and an ultimate cause of the material universe as it is conceived in the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina systems of thought. It is a produced entity (Janya padartha) but not an enternal entity. It is evolved out of the first tanmatra (infraatomic potential).9 127 A paramanu represents a smallest homogeneous part of any substance. As it is not partless, so it is divisible. This is the radical difference between the atomicity of matter of the Samkhya-Yoga and the atomicity of matter of the NyayaVaisesika and Jaina Philosophies as embodied in their respective works. According to the Jainas, paramanu is ekanta (discrete) and beginningless, while a skandha (molecule) is not a 1. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. V, sutras 26-27; see its Bhasya and Tika; comm. on the Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 14. 4. 510; Tattvartha Rajavartika, Akalanka, pp. 491-92. 2. Atomic Physics, Harnwell and Stephens. p. 4. 3. Samkhyapravacanabhasya, Vijnanabhiksu, ch. I, sutra 62; Vyasabhasya on Yogasutra of Patanjali, pada IV, sutra 14, pp. 191-3. 4. Yogasutra, Patanjali, pada III, sutra 52, see Vyasabhasya on it, p. 174; Tattvavaisaradi, Vacaspati Misra, p. 174. 5. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 1. 4. 21; 5. 7. 214-15; Anuyogadvarasutra with Tika of Maladhari Hemacandra, sutra 91. p. 69; Uttaradhyayanasutra, part, IV, adhyayana, 36, VV. 11, 12, 13, (see Tika on them).

Page #163
128 The Conception of Matter in Jaina Philosophy single unit and beginningless. A paramanu is in samyoga (combination) and it is always undergoing change from the points. of view of substance, locus, time and condition,1 Paramanus. are infinte in number with regard to substance, a paramanu is a finest particle of matter from the point of view of locus, it is. momentary from that of time and its capacity of quality is changing from the standpoint of condition.2 indivisi The Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy conceives the bility of paramanu3, while the Buddhists-the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas maintain the divisibility of paramanu (i. e. Samghata paramanu). which consists of, at least, eight parts. of elements (astadravyaka)5 of Rupa (Matter). Jaina philosophy holds the view that suksma paramanu (finest ultimate atom). is indivisible, but vyavahara paramanu (usual atom) and four qualities of paramanu, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch, have infinite divisions. This atomic concept of the Jainas suggests the divisibility of paramanu without limit like the divisibility of atom the physical sciences. Really speaking, gunas (qualities). of the Nyaya-Vaisesika, viz. rupa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparsa (touch) are paramanus of the Buddhists, 8 1. Bhagavat Vyakhaprajnapti, 20. 5. 670; 25. 4. 740; 12. 10. 469. 2. Ibid., 25. 4. .740; 20. 5. 670; Acaranga Curni, p. 165; Uttaradhyayana Sutra with Tika of Kamalasamyama, p. 90. 3. Vaisesikadarsana, Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 1; adhyaya II, ahnika I, sutra, 12. 4. Abhidharmakosa, Vasubandhu, Kosa I, V. 12, Tibetan text, p. 83. 5. Abhidharmakosa, II. 22, p. 29. 6. Anuyogadvara Sutra, 133, p. 160; Jambudvipaprajnapti (purvabhaga II, sutra 19, p. 92). Lokaprakasa, Vinayavijayaji, part I, sarga I, slokas 21, 28, p. 5. 7. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 25. 4. 740. 8. Abhidharmakosa, K. 1, 10 A, 250 C. D. 65 A. D. L

Page #164
Atomism 129 i. e, atoms of quality. Dravyaparamanu (material atom) of the Nyaya Vaisesika corresponds to Samghataparamanu (combined atom)1 of the Buddhists, which is divisible by intellect. It can be compared with pancikarana of the three gunas (qualities) of praksti of the Samkhya philosophy.a Samghataparamanu3 of the Buddhists is avinirbhagin or abbaga (indistinguishable) from the point of view of vyavahara (modal standpoint), while paramanu of the Jainas is anantabhaga (infiniteth part) of paramanu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. 4 The doctrine of permanence had to be refuted by the Buddhists, so their concept of paramanu is that it is divisible by intellect. The Jaina atomic theory comes nearer to the Buddhist concept of atom from the modal point of view, for, according to Jaina Metaphysics, paramanu is non-eternal from the modal point of view.5 It is of one class 6 like the energy of matter of the physical sciences. By convention it may be compared with anu (atom) of the Buddhists which is conventionally called atom, as there are stated to be earth-atom, water-atom, air-atom, etc. But they are the forces in the Buddhist convention. Rupa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparsa (touch) of Pudgala (Matter) of the Jainas compare well with 1. Abhidharmakosa, K. II. 22, p. 29; K. 1. 126; K. 1. 10 A; * Paramanu(nu)sarighata (7) ityartha ta evastau , caksurvijnanadhatvadayo (hitva sesa dasa) samcita Abhidharmadipa, p. 25. 2. Samkhyatattvakaumudi, Karika 16, p. 62; - Samkhya Karika, Ka. 27, p. 17; Samkhyapravacanabhasya, ch III, sutras 11,12; ch III, sutra 19, vide The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 53. 3. Abhidharmakosa, Vasubandhu, Kosa II, sloka 22, p. 29. 4. Nyayavartika, Udyotaka, p. 617. 5. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 14.4, 511. 6. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, Umasvati, Prathama vibhaga, p. 324.

Page #165
130 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy the Buddhists' gunas=dharmas (qualities==clements) like rupa (colour), rasa (taste), etc., i. e. atom of colour, atom of taste, etc. Paramanu of the Nyaya-Vaisesikal is purvaparyaya (previous state or mode) of its own category and also Vijatiyasahakart nimittakarana (assisting instrumental cause of different kind. Paramanu of Jaina Philosophy is beginningless, eternal and non-eternal from the points of view of substance and mode respectivily, while paramanu of the Buddhists is nonpermanent, as the Buddhists Philosophy holds the view that every entity is evanescent according to its doctrine of momentariness. Paramanu of the Samkhya-yoga also is non-permanent (anitya) as it is a Janyapadartha (evolved entity), whereas, paramanu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika is beginningless (anadi) and permanent (nitya) like paramanu of Jaina Metaphysics, but it is to be noted that paramanu of the latter is also non-permanent (anitya) from the modal point of view. According to Jaina Philosophy, all suksma paramanus are abhedya (impassable or impenetrable), acchedya (uncuttable) avibhajya (indivisible), adahya (incombustible) and agrahya (non-receivable), while paramanu of the Buddhists appears to be bhedya or vibhajya (passable or divisible), for the Buddhist Philosophy advocates the theory of primary and secondary elements of matter. 4 Paramanus of the secondary elements of matter mean varna (colour-atom), rasa (tasteatom), gandha (smell-atom) and sparsa (touch-atom), i. e. the Buddhists conceived guna (quality) as paramanu and made it distinct from citta (mind), because the entire Buddhist system of thought classifies Rupa (Matter) into two divisions, viz. primary and secondary elements. 1. Vaisesikadarsana, Kanada, adhyaya IV, abpik 1, sutra 1, 3; Nyayakandali, Sridhara, pp. 78-80. 2. Vaisesikadarsana, Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika, 1, sutra 1. 3. Bhagavatr Vyakhyaprajnapti, 20. 5. 670. 4. Abhidharmakosa, Kosa, 1, sloka 10 A.

Page #166
Atomism : 131 That is to say, they represent dravya (substance) and guna, (quality) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. As pointed out, gunas of the Nyaya-Vaise sika are made to be paramanu of the Buddhists, while gunas of the Jainas divide paramanus. In the NyayaVaisesika Philosophy paramanu is accepted as fine and indivisible, but it appears to be gross when compared with paramanus of Jaina Metaphysics. This school of thought conceives paramanu as finest and indivisible, i. e. suksma paramanu is indivisible, but vyavahara paramanui (which can be equated with atom of the physical sciences) is divisible. This is the basic difference between these two atomic theories. The Jaina conception of the nature of paramanu is by all means different from that of the nature of paramanu of Arambhavada (Doctrine of Intransitive causation) of the Vaisesika Philosophy. According to Jaina Metaphysics, there are stated to be infinite paramanus, but there does not exist any radical difference among them like pethivi paramanu (earth-atom , ap-paramanu (water-atom), teja-paramanu (fire-atom) and vayu-paramanu (air-atom) of the Vaisesika. A paramanu of Jaina Philosophy can assume any form in accordance with the causal condition. A paramanu which has undergone change into the form of earth can undergo transformation, into the forms of water, fire, etc., on the alteration of the material. That is to say, there is no class distinction among paramanus as conceived in Jaina metaphysics.3 A paramanu is endowed with one colour, one taste, one smell and two touches and it is known by the mark in the form of its effect (Karyalinga).4 If a paramanu is endowed with one 1. Anuyogadvarasutra, 133, p. 160; Jambudvipaprajnapti (purvabhaga), sutra 19, p. 92 (see their tikas); Lokaprakasa, Vinayavijayaji, part, 1, sarga 1, sloka 21, 28, p. 5. 2. Vaisesikadarsana, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 3. 3. Tattvarthadhigama sutra, prathama vibhaga, p. 324. 4. Ibid., ch. V, sutra 25 (Bhasya), p. 365.

Page #167
132 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy colour, it may be black, or blue, or red, or yellow, or white, if it is possessed of one smell, it may have pleasant smell or unpleasant smell, if it is endowed with one taste, it may have bitter taste, or sour taste, or astringent taste, or acideic taste, or sweet taste; if it is possessed of two touches, it may be cold and cohesive, or cold and dry, or warm and cohesive, or warm and dry. 1 The existence of paramanu can be inferred on observation of their collective effect. Even its properties are inferred on observation of the basic properties of Pudgala (Matter). Henceit is inferable by its effect for the persons having common. knowledge. In the same line of thought of Jaina Metaphysics. the Nyaya-Vaisesika3 and the physical sciences also account for the existence of atoms in this manner. "Individual atomic events are not observed directly, though their consequence may be and hence greater reliance must be placed on logical inference and methodology than in most other branches of sciences."4 "Many of the experimental verification of atomic properties depend on observations of the properties of matter on a large scale. Thus the study of the thermodynamics and the statistical behaviour of large number of atoms, which provides a connection between atomic attributes and the gross properties of matter, is very important."5 Jaina Philosophy maintains thai the capacities-colour, taste, smell and touch, exist as equal in each and every paramanu and can change into any form according to cause. Even though they are equal in all paramanus, the variousness of their transformation occurs because of the difference of materials. Similarly, according to the Jaina view, skandha (molecule) 1. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 20. 5. 668. 2. Ibid., 18. 8. 640. 3. Nyayavartika, p. 233 ane its Tatparyatika, p. 272, Line 1, from the bottom etc. 4. Atomic Physics, Harawell and Stephens, p. 4. 5. Ibid.

Page #168
Atomism 133 formed by the combination of paramanu is not any new material substance, as it is conceived in the Vaisesika Philosophy. It is only one particular form out of the aggregation of paramanus. In the Vaisesika view paramanus are Kutasthanitya (absolutely permanent)1 and this Kutasthanityata (absolutely permanence) is proved by all means by maintaining the view that the produced and destroyed substances or quality and action (karma) are different from one another. But Jaina Metaphysics admits parinamanityata (permanence-in-change) of paramanus like the Samkhya by rejecting Kutasthanityata of paramanu of the Vaisesika. It conceives all paramanus as permanent in their respective individual nature and accounts for their parina. manityata by accepting skandha (molecule), guna (quality) and paryaya (mode), karma (action) as being produced as a result of transformation of paramanus. Thus a skandha is accepted as somehow non-different as well as different from them. Jaina Philosophy explains all gross aod fine material creations (products) on the basis of the capacity of transformation of parumanus4 and their combination and dissociation, just as the Samkhyas accounts for the production of the multiforms of the gross and fine material entities of the universe on the ground of differentiated combination of gupas (qualities)-Sattya (essence), Rajas (energy) and Tamas (intertia or mass) from 1. Vaisesikadarsana, adhyaya IV, ahnika, 1, sutra 1; Nyayakandall, SrIdhara, pp. 78-80. 2. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 5.7.213; 14.4.510-11; Tattvarthadhigamasutra, prathama vibhaga, ch. V. sutras 26-27. 3. Ibid., 1.9.73; 8.10.356; 25.4. 730; TS., p. 324. 4. TS., p. 324. 5. Samkhyapravacanabhasya, Vijnanabhikgu, ch. 1, sutra 62, vide; The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 29; Vyasabhasya on Yogasutra, Patanjali, pada IV, sutra 14, p. 191.

Page #169
.134 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Prakrti-one Primordial Matter and its capacity of transformation. The Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy stops by conceiving paramanu as the sixth part (or division) of rajakana (mote) perceived in the sunrays, whereas Jaina metaphysics accept an anu or a paramanu (atom) also as skandha (molecule) of infinite suksmaparamanus (finest ultimate atoms). It explains that infinite paramanus and infinite skandhas can exist in a subtle from in one point of space, in which one paramanu exists, by virtue of its capacity of samkoca (contraction or capacity of becoming fine), e. g. the combinations of the atoms of mercury and gold in a ratio 1:100 Karsas*. On this ground paramanu is infinite in number also. It should be noted that it is anardha (without half part), amadhya (without interior part) and apradesa (without having parts)5 i. e. devoid of void from the point of view of ksetra (locus). It has neither beginning, nor end, nor middle (i. e. nor interior). It is devoid of length, breadth and depth, because of this fineness it is itself beginning; it is itself middle; it is itself end. Its fineness compares well with the fineness of Prakrti of the Samkhya. The difference between the two conceptions lies in the fact that even though Prakrti is fine, it is one and all. pervading, where as paramanus of Jaina Philosophy are infinite in number, but every paramanu is finest and smallest, and Lokakasa or bhautika visva (cosmic universe) is filled with infinite paramanus. 1. Nyayavartika, Udyotakara, p. 647. 2. Anuyogadvarasutra 133, p. 160; Jambudvipaprajnapti II, sutra 19, p. 92; Lokaprakasa, part I, sarga 1, sloka 21, p. 5% 3. Paramanukhandasattrimsika, Ratnasimhasuri (vrtti), p. 2. 4. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 13.4. (vrtti), (Sa. 27), mudrita, pa, 608; Lokaprakasa, Pt. I, 1, vv. 47-48, p. 88.. 5. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 5.7. 215; 20.5. 670. 6. Tattvartha Rajavartika, Akalanka, Bhaga II, ch. V, sutra 25; see commentary No. 1, p. 491.

Page #170
Atomism : 135 A study of Atomism of all Indian systems of thought reveals that Jaina Philosophy is the advocate of the atomic theory like the Nyaya-Vaisesika. Nevertheless, the nature of paramanu conceived in this school of thought is not identical with that of paramanu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. But it compares well with the nature of Praksti of the Sankhya, for paramanu of this philosophy is transformable like Praksti of the Samkhya on this ground paramanu of Jainas changes into many forms like earth, water, fire, etc., just as Praksti of the Samkhya is the material cause of many effects, such as, earth, water, fire, air, etc. It is not admitted by Jaina Philosophy that the material atoms like earth-atoms, water-atoms, etc., are always basically of different classes. It is to be observed that paramanu of the Jainas is finer than paramanu of the NyayaVaisesika, but it is upmanifest like Praksti of the Samkhya. Anantaparamanuvada (Doctrine of infinite ultimate atoms) of Jaina Philosophy is not far from but nearer to the doctrine of infinite plurality of Prakstis of the early Samkhyal (with regard to the plurality of purusa), i. e. "each being attached to a different purusa (self)". 2 CONCEPTION OF ATOM IN WESTERN METAPHYSICS AND PHYSICS The concept of atomicity together with its antithesis continuity was propounded by the Greek philosophers. Atomicity may be roughly described as representing indivisibility, and continuity by divisibility respectively. This early conception of atomicity compares well with the Nyaya-Vaisesika view of 1. Darsana and Cintana, pp. 129-130, (Jainadharma and Darsana). 2. Yuktidipika, p. 169 (Samkhyakarika Vstti), Vide Avidya, P. 46.

Page #171
136 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy indivisible atom. Leucippus possibly first propounded the atomic theory "as a means out of Zeno's paradox of the hare and tortoise." About one hundred years later Democritus of Abdera advocated the atomicity of matter. These early Greek philosophers had sown the seed of the concept of atom which gradually developed into a full-fledged atomic theory of modern physical sciences. The convincing proof of the atomicity of matter actually came up about 200 years ago when the natural philosophers observed the fact that "the existence of recognizable substance recoverable from homogeneous mixtures was difficult to reconcile with any theory of the continuity of matter.' 2 In 1738 it was stated by Daniel Bernoulli that "the behaviour of a gas, as the pressure and temperature were changed, could be explained on the hypothesis that the gas consisted of a larger number of infinitesimal particles in rapid motion."3 The most important evidence for the atomic hypothesis probably was found in the two early chemical laws of definite and multiple proportions which are generally associated with the names of J. L. Prout and J. B. Richter in the later part of the eighteenth century. They are as follows:-- (1) "The propo.tions in which two elements combine cannot vary continuously, (2) If two elements combine together in more than one way, the mass of an element that combines with a given mass of the other are in simple ratios to one another. The laws are summarised succinctly in the present common notation for chemical formula. But it was not until 1808 that John Dalton marshalled and presented the evidence sufficiently convincingly to say scientific opinion to the acceptance of the atomic theory."4 Dalton came to the conclusion from the thought of the way in which various elements unite together to form chemical 1. Atomic Physics, ch. II, p. 40. 2. Ibid. 4. Ibid., p. 41. 3. Ibid.

Page #172
Atomism compounds that every element is constituted of atoms. They are "the indestructible and indivisible units of matter. The atoms of each chemical element are identical but different from atoms of other elements." So, according to Dalton's theory, the number of elementary particles is equal to the number of chemical elements including these produced artificially. 137 Much simpler and more attractive hypothesis was made by W. Prout in 1816 that "the atoms of all elements are built up of one atom, the atom of hydrogen, which would thus correspond to the prime matter, the ylem of the Greeks. Prout based his idea on the assumption that the atomic weights of all elements were whole numbers and, therefore, multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, which is given unit value. This assumption proved to be incorrect when stimulated by Prout's hypothesis; more accurate measurements of atomic weights were carried out and found in many cases to have fractional values, as for example 35.457 for chlorine, or 63.54 for copper. Prout's hypothesis was thus abandoned, but only temporarily, for it was revived in a modified form a century later. "2 Prout's atomic theory comes nearer to the Jaina conception of atom which is of one class only. "The discovery of radio activity was mainly responsible for the revival of Prout's theory in a modified form and it has brought the evidence that "the atom is destructible." ANALYSIS OF CONCEPT OF PARAMANU (ULTIMATE ATOM) FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE DEFINITION OF PUDGALA (MATTER) Paramanupudgala is called only paramanus or dravya 1. Atoms and the Universe, p. 28. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., pp. 26-27. 4. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 14.4.513; 20.6.670. 5. Ibid., 20. 6. 670; 18. 6. 631.

Page #173
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy paramanu1 (atom of material substance). This conception shows the atomic growth of Matter as found in the physical sciences. Paramanu is a substance from the point of view or dravya (substance), for it possesses both guna (quality) and paryaya; it is existent in the universe (loka) and non-existent in the non-universe (aloka) and it cannot go theres from the standpoint of ksetra (locus or field). Besides, it exists individually in one space-point as a discrete unit of Matter, it occupies one point of space, but it cannot occupy two or more spacepoints; it can exist together with other paramanus in one spacepoint by its capacity of samkoca (capacity of becoming fine or of contraction). It is traikalika (existing in three points of time-past, present and future) from the aspect of kala (time)5; it is endowed with the properties-colour, taste, smell and touch from the point of view of bhava (condition), as these four qualities are called bhavas (attributes or capacities) of paramanu.7 138 With regard to permanency and constancy the quantity of paramanu will remain the same as it is for ever without loss of destruction, increase or decrease in number. No new paramanu will be self-generated nor will be produced by anybody. In the past no new paramanu was produced, no new one is produced at present and no new one will be produced in future. Paramanu Pudgala abserves the principle of 'utpada vyayadhrauvyayuktam sat (existence is characterized by 1. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 20. 6. 670. 2. Ibid., 14. 4. 512; 18. 6. 631. 3. Ibid., 2. 10. 121. 4. Paramanukhandasattrimsika, Ratnasimha Suri, p. 2; Savarthasiddhi, see the Commentary on ch. V., sutra 14. 5. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 14. 4. 510. 6. Ibid., 18. 6. 631; 120. 5. 668. 7. Ibid., 20. 5. 670. 8. Ibid., 2. 10. 119; 14. 4. 510. 9. Ibid., 2. 10. 118; Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, prathama vidhaga, ch. V, sutra 3; see its auto-auto-commentary, p 322 Jain.Education International

Page #174
Atomis origination, destruction and permanence)1. It is existent from the point of view of asti (existence)2. 139 Paramanu is transformable with regard to bhava-guna (quality) colour, taste, smell and touch from the standpoint of parinama (transformation). There takes place the transformation of four qualities in all paramanus, viz. Varnaparinama (transformation of colour), rasaparinama (transformation of taste), gandhaparinama (transformation of smell), and sparsaparinama (transformation of touch). The transformation of shape (samsthanaparinama) does not occur in the individual independent state of paramanu, for it is devoid of shape and it does not assumed any shape in its discrete condition.5 In this state paramanu undergoes transformation in the form of increase and decrease of its bhavas (qualities) by combing with another paramanu or paramanus. There takes place the transformation in the parts of its bhava-gunas, i. e. only the natural transformation occurs in paramanu existing in its own state. It is agurulaghu (neither heavy nor light) from the point of view of kaya (mass or body). It is devoid of lump and part; there is no smaller and lighter form of matter than paramanu. It is aguru (not-larger or not-heavier) but laghu (lighter) than any material substance. It is agurulaghu in its own state or individual condition from the point of view of bhava, i. e. there takes place the process of decrease and increase by six steps (sthanas) in its bhava-gunas (qualities). It undergoes transformation by six steps with regard to its own qualities, even when it exists in isolation in its discrete condition. As for example, a paramanu is one fold black, it can be infinitefold back by its capacity of agurulaghu-guna and again it can 6 1. Tattvarthadhigamasutra, prathama vibhaga, ch. v, sutra 29, p. 374. 2. Ibid., p. 381. 3. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 5. 7, 213; TS., p. 437. 4. Ibid., 8. 10. 356; TS., pt. I. p. 324. 5. Ibid., 8. 10. 356, 357. 6. Ibid., 1. 9. 73.

Page #175
140 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy 'became onefold black, having attained a decrease in its gunas (qualities). 1 The process of decrease and increase takes place at every samaya (moment of instant) by the process of natural transformation. From the point of view of consciousness it is explained that a paramanu-pudgala is not jiva (soul) but ajiva (nonsoul). In its own state it is not receivable by Soul. In the classification of paramanu the fourth class has been called agrahya (non-receivable).2 That is to say, in its own condition it does not come in the service of soul.3 With regard to sacitta and acittadravyas (living and non-living substances), it is acitta (non-living) in its own individual condition because it is non-receivable by soul, i. e. soul cannot exist in a paramanu, therefore, it cannot become living. But soul and paramanu can exist together is one space-point.4 Paramanu has its self-existence or individuality (aya) from the point of view of individual existence and property of Matter. The meaning of the word 'aya' is not jivatma (soul). A paramanu has got its own individuality which has been called here aya (atma). It is manifested in its on bhavas (states or qualities). It can be said that a paramanu possesses its independent nature which is different from another one, i. e. each and every paramanu is different from every other paramanu or paramanus. Therefore, a paramanu is endowed with one single individuality or discreteness, 5 This nature of paramanu of the Jainas is similar to that of paramanu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, because, according to the latter, each of paramanus possesses its own particularity (antya-visesa).6 1. Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, 25. 3. 730. 2. Ibid., 20. 5. 670. 3. Ibid., 18. 4. 662. 4. Ibid., 13. 4. 484. 5. Ibid., 12. 10. 469. 6. Prasastapadabhasya, p. 7.

Page #176
Atomism 141 CONCLUSION WITH A SHORT NOTE ON THE BRAHMANICAL AND BUDDHIST ATOMIC THEORIES : The conception of paramanu (atom) in the Brahmanical and Buddhist schools has been associated with the theory of the four elements of Matter, viz. earth, water, fire and air. According to this conception, four distinct kinds of atoms. correspond to these four elements and their distinctive qualities are inherent in several atoms. This view of the atomic theory has accordingly been accepted by the Brahmanical and Buddhist atomists (i. e. Vaibhasikas and Sautrantikas) on the basis of the atomic growth of elements of Matter, although their opinions differ in details. The atomic theory is the cardinal tenet of ths Vaisesika philosophy.1 According to its doctrine, "things that exist and are not produced from a cause are eternal; they may be inferred from the fact that all known things are products (effects). Besides, everything perceived is non-eternal, this idea of noneternality presupposes enternality:"2 "The uncaused causes 1. Brahmasutra, II, 2. 11 ff. and Sarkarabhasya on them. 2. Sadakaranavannityam-VS., IV. 1. 1, Pythivyadinas navanamuddesam laksanaparlksa nirvartya prakstermulakaranatam Sakhyabhimata niracikirsuh paramanunam mulakaranatvam pethivyadyantarbhavanca sinadhayisurnityasamanyalaksanah tavadahaSadakaranavannityam, etc. VS. 4. 1. 1; Tasya karyam lingam, Ibid,, IV. 1. 2; Tasya paramanoh karyam lingam, 1. 4. 1. 2; Tathaca Gautamiyam sutram - Vyaktat vyaktasya nispattih pratyaksapramanyat-A. 4. 1. ? Avayavavayaviprasangastavadanubhuyate sa yadi niravadhih syattada merusarsapayoh parimana bhedo na syat, anantavayavarabadhatvavisesat etc, (comm.) 4. 1. 2; Karanabhavat karyabhavah- Ibid., IV. 1. 3;

Page #177
142 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy of things constitute ignorance (avidya)"1 on account of which they are not perceived, hence, they are eternal, or as one cannot conceive any other cause of the decay of an object than the disjunction or destruction of its cause, so it is taken for granted that the last causes must be external. Therefore, these eternal things, the causes of the non-eternal ones, are atoms, but they are intangible to the senses, for only the great thing is perceptible in case it possesses many constituent parts and presupposes colour.? Atom is indivisible, as it is not composed of material parts. S An object is great, if it is constituted of many constituent parts or if the parts themselves are great, or if they are adjus. ted in a particular way.4 The opposite to Mahat (great thing) is anu (small thing) which is not composed of constituent parts, i. e. atom. The statement "Great, small, long and short", as popularly used are relative terms, for the same object is great with reference to one object and small in relation to another. These points to great objects because they are visible; there they are applied in a secondary sense. But the expressions 'great' and 'small' are not relative terms in the primary sense, but they signify distinct kinds or general of dimension like red and Rupadinam karane sadbhavat karye sadbhavah karanagunapurvaka hi karyaguna bhavanti ghatapatadau tatha darsanadityarthah (comm). 4. 1. 3; Anitya iti visesatah pratisedhabhavah, Ibid., IV. 1. 4. 1. Avidya-VS., IV. 1. 5; Paramanoranityavisaya sarvapyanunitih avidya bhrama rupa abhasaprabhavatvat, (comm,) 4. 1. 5. 2. Mahatyanekadravyavattat rupaccopalabdl ih, VS., IV. 1. 6. 3. Nyayavartika, p. 233. 4. Karanabahutvacca, VS. VII. 1. 9; Mahattvadirghatva-parimanayogabhyupagamat-SBha on AS., II. 2. 11. 5. Ato viparItamanu, VS., 7. 1. 10; Etena dirghattvahrasvatve vyakhyate, VS., 7. 1. 17.

Page #178
Atomism 143 blue colours, otherwise one would attribute qualities (greator small to a quality 'greatness' which goes against the principles that qualities are attributeless". Greatness and smallness are non-eternal in non-eternal entities; they are eternal in eternal ones i. e. absolute or infinite. The absolute small 'anu' is spherical in dimension.. The qualities like colour, taste, smell and touch in earthen and other material objects disappear on their destruction. But they are eternal in eternal objects like earth-atoms. Similarly, the inherent qualities are eternal in water-atom, fire-atom and air-atom. Some qualities are subject to chemical action (pakaja)? under the influence of heat in earth and earth-atoms. Different atoms come into conjunction.s In the beginning of creation atoms were set in motion by the unseen force called Adrsta.4 Mind also is atomics in nature according to the Vaisesika Philosophy. It is to be noted that the word 'Anu' denoting atom is used in the Vaisesika and Nyaya Sutras, while the word Paramanu' (ultimate atom) is come across in the Nyayavartika ard later works. Besides, the logic for the existence of anu (atom) based on the impossibility of limitless division of an object was not yet applied by Kanada. In the Nyaya Sutra and its Bhasya written by Vatsyayana, some aspects of the atomic theory are dealt with on the one hand, while it is defended against the objections raised by the 1. VS., VII. 1. 10-20. 2. Ukta gunah, VS., VII. 1. 1; Psthivyadiruparasagandhasparsa dravyanityatvadanityas:a Ibid., VII. 1. 2., Etenanityesu nityatvamuktam, Ibid., VII. 1. 3; Apsu tejasi vayau ca nitya dravyanityatvat, Ibid., VII. 1. 4; Anityesvanitya dravyanityatvat, Ibid., VII. 1. 5; Karanagunapurvakah prthivyam pakajah, Ibid., VII. 1. 6. 3. Anusamyogastvapratisiddhah, VS., IV. ii. 4. 4. Agnerurddhajvalanan vayostiryakpavanamanunam manasascadyam karmadsstakaritam, VS., V. ii. 13. 5. Tadabhavadanu manah, VS., VII. 1. 23.

Page #179
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy opponents on the other hand. Like the Vaisesikas Gautama accepts the physical properties of the atoms as discussed above, for it is incidentally stated by him that the black colour (of earth atoms) is not eternal1 in spite of its existence from enternity. Hence it can be presumed that the properties of water, fire, and air are considered non-eternal by him. 144 The metaphysical aspects relating to atoms are dealt with at the end of the analysis of avayavin (composite whole). and avayava (constituent part). It is maintained by the Naiyayikas2 that the composite whole (avayavin) is something different (arthantara), not separated from its constituent parts, but rather something in addition to them. "Just as a tree as a whole is perceived, though the atoms-the constituent parts of it are imperceptible." An object composed of parts is called avayavin (composite whole) and so also the parts of a part, and so on ad infinitum. The idea of the composite whole cannot be conceived without reaching the last constituent parts (avayavas), hence the idea of the composite whole would lead to nothing. But the limit of division of a material object. ends in the indivisible atom. This conception of atom compares well with the early Greek idea of atomicity which means indivisibility. If the division of parts is without limit, the mote would not differ in size from the highest mountain, for 1. Anuiyamatanityatvabhaddha, NS., IV., 1. 67. 2. Savisayanatikramen endriyasya patuma dabhavadvisayagrahanasya tathabhavo navisaye pravrttih NS., IV. 11. 14; Avayavavayaviprasangaiscaivamapralayat, NS., IV. 11. 15;. Na pralayo anusadbhavat, NS, IT. 11. 16. Param va truteh, NS., IV. 11. 17. 3. Sarvagrahanamavayavyasiddheh NS., II. 1.35; Paramanusamavasthanam tavad darianavinayo na bhavatyatIndriyatvadanunam, Ibid., NBha; NS., II. 1. 36; Avayavyarthantarabhuta iti, NBha., II., 1. 36; Senavanavaditi grahanamiti cennatindriyatvadanunam, NS., II. 2. 37.

Page #180
Atomism both of them would possess the same number of parts1 in that case. The further development of the atomic theory of the Naiyayikas is found in the Nyayavartika in this manner that a mote in the ray of the sun entering a window is an atom, while some philosophers maintain that atoms do not exist singly (asamhata), but always in combination.2 This view is apparently of the Buddhists-Vaibhasikas and Sautrantikas who advocate the idea that atoms are non-eternal, for they are possessed of motion. Like the Vaisesikas the Naiyayikas also maintain that atoms are set in motion by the unseen force (adrsta), but they bring God for directing the action of atoms.3 145 The third stage of the development of the atomic theory is found in the conception of dyad, triad, etc. It was propounded by Udyotakara, subsequently it became the tenet of the Joint Nyaya-Vaisesika works. The union of these two schools of thought began early and became complete at the time of the Nyayavartika. The atomic theory appears to have been embodied into the Buddhist Philosophy by the Sarvastivadins under the influence of their association with the Vaisesikas. A frequent mention of atoms is made in the Mahavibhasa "in its interpretation of other works and seemingly with no sense of incogruity."4 It seems that the atomic theory was prevalent in the early part of the second century A. D., the probable date of the 1. Krtsnaikadesavrttitvadavayavanamavayavyabhavah, NS., IV. 2. 7; Tesu cavrtteravayavyabhavah (8); Prthak cavayavebhyo avrtteh (9); Na cavayavyavayavah (10); Ekasmin bhedabhavadbhedasabdaprayoganupatteraprasnah (11); Avayavantarabhave'pyavrtterahetuh taimirikopalabdhivattadupalabdhih (13) NS., iv. 2. 2. yayavartika, p. 234. 3. PPBha., p. 21. 4. A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 126. (12); Kesasamuhe

Page #181
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Mahavibhasa, as evidenced by the fact that the whole theory in its developed form is contained in the Abhidharma Hrdaya.1 It had an important place in the metaphysics of Vasubandhu and Samghabhadra. It was admitted provisionally by the early Yogacarins in spite of their idealism, but it was refuted by the later Yogacarins, beginning with Dinnaga on the ground that it stood on the path of the doctrine of store-house of consciousness (alayavijnana), i. e. all phenomena emerge from mind. 146 A detailed study of the atomic theory as conceived in the North does not seem to have been made by the NeoSthaviravadin school established by Buddhaghosa, but the use of the Kalapa theory (doctrine corresponding to the concept of Samghataparamanu of the Sarvastivadins) was made by Buddhaghosa in the Atthasalini and was admitted as an integral part of the Sarvastivadin Philosophy, the idea being mentioned and considerably developed in the Abhidhammattha Samgaha. The name 'Paramanu' was attributed to the ultimate of molecule; thus the atomic theory is considered to be an integral part of the Sarvastivadins.3 According to this school, there are stated to be fourteen kinds of atom-five atoms of the five sense-organs, five atoms of the five sense-objects and four atoms of four Mahabhutas. In the Sankarabhasya also the atomic theory of the Sarvastivadins is described in this way: "These Buddhists acknowledge the four elements-earth, water, fire, and wind with their properties and products, including the organs of sense; the four elements are atomic, the earth-atoms have the quality of hardness, the water-atoms that of viscidity, the fire-atoms that 1. It was translated into Chinese in the third Century A.D., Vide A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 126. 2. Ibid., see Alambana pratyaya. 3. Ibid. 4. SBha. on BS., II. 2. 18.

Page #182
147 Atomism of heat and the air-atoms that of motion, in combination of these atoms form earthly things, etc."1 It is admitted by the Vaibhasikas that an atom had six sides, but it is maintained by them that "they made but one or what comes to the same that the space within an atom cannot be divided." Their view is refuted by the Naiyayikas in an old verse quoted in the Nyayavartika." Their view that "atoms are ammenable to sense-knowledge, though were not visible apart, just as a dim sighted man sees a mass of hair, though he cannot see a single hair",9 is also disputed by the Naiyayikas, according to whom, atom is transcendental and intangible to the sense. According to the Sautrantikas, the aggregate of seven atoms is the smallest compound (anu)4 and the spherical atom did not touch one another completely, but there was an intervening space between them. One thing emerges out of this discussion on the conception of atom that it is indivisible according to all Indian systems of thought, though it is admitted by some that it might be regarded as possessing parts, viz. eight sides. It is maintained by both the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas that atoms are impenetrable. The atoms of the Buddhist Philosophy are non-eternal; they emerge into being from time to time and then they are destroyed (cf A. K. 12, later half). The ten kinds of atom, i. e. five atoms of the five sense-organs and five atoms of the five sense-objects, are produced due to the four atoms of the four fundamental elements (Mahabhutas) and they would instantly be destroyed, if there were not the sustaining power of the four elemental atoms.5 Therefore, every derivative atom has an 1. Sarvadarsanasamgraha, p. 24, p. 14; SBha. II, 2. 18 (BS); see E. R. E., Vol. II, pp. 199-200. 2. Nyayavartika, pp. 521-22. 3. E. R. E., Vol. II. p. 201. 4. Abh., D., p. 65, cf. Abh. K., II. 22. 5. Dhityadikarmasansiddhah kharasnehognateranah, * Abh., K. 1. 12.

Page #183
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy atom of each of the fundamental elements with it for its substance. The atoms of the four fundamental elements of Matter are non-permanent, constantly undergoing change by the process of origination, continuance, decay and destruction followed by a new process of origination, etc. The phenomenalist atomic conception of the Buddhists is in contrary to the substantive theory of atom of the Jaina, Nyaya-Vaisesika and other Indian systems of thought. As regards the antiquity of Atomic theory Jaina Atomism is earlier than Greek Atomism. 148 1. Abh. K. 4. 29.

Page #184
FIFTH CHAPTER PROPERTIES OF MATTER FIRST SECTION GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER Properties of Matter are the characteristic qualities. According to Jaina Philosophy, Matter is endowed with specific characters of two kinds : those which are inherent in ultimate atoms as well as in aggregates (molecules) and those which are found only in aggregates. It is stated in the Jaina Agama that Matter is characterized by colour, taste, odour and touch from the points of view of condition (bhava)1. They are inherent in ultimate atoms as well as in aggregates of ultimate atoms as the specific properties. In addition to them, an aggregate of two units, or three units, up to that of infinite units of matter is possessed of the physical characters - mutual attraction and repulsion, fineness and grossness, shape and figure, divisibility, opacity and casting of shadows and heat and light energy.. They appear as the manifestations of Matter. On the basis of ths agamic account of them the Post-agamic works explain them in details. 1. Bhavao vannamamte rasamamte gamdhamante phasamamate, Bhs., 2. 10. 118; Sparsarasagandhavarnavantah pudgalah, TS., V.23, p. 355. 2. Sauksmya-sthaulya-samsthana-bheda-tamaschaya tapodyatavantasca, TS., V. 24, p. 356. 3. Sparsarasagandhavarnavantah pudgalah, TS., V. 23, p. 335; Sparsah rasah gandhah varna ity evam laksanah pudgala bhavanti, TS., Bha., V. 23, p. 355; Vannarasagamdhaphasa paramanuparuvida visesa hi Davvado ya ananna annattapagasaga homti, PS., 57; Varnagandharasasparsamayascananta pudgalah, Vardhamanapurana of Acarya Sakalakirti.

Page #185
150 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy In the philosophies like the Vaisesika, etc., the corporeaf substances, viz. earth, water, fire and air, have not been accepted as equally endowed with these four specific characters, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch, but it has been admitted that earth is possessed of these four qualities, water is possessed of three qualities without smell, fire is possessed of two qualities colour and touch without smell and taste, and air is possessed of touch only.1 Like this they have not accepted four qualities - colour, taste, smell and touch as inherent in mind? according to Jaina philosophy. For this reason the purport of the sutra "Sparsarasagandhavarnavantah pudgalah" is to show the difference of its view from those of the Nyaya-Vaieesika system of thought and others. It is indicated by this aphorism that in Jaina philosophy Matter and Soul are different. Therefore, the application of the word "Pudgala" is not meant for Soul.4 In this way, earth, water, fire and air are equal as Matters 5 i. c. all of them are endowed. with four qualities. And in Jaipa Metaphysics mind also is possessed of these qualities, because of its being material. It is to be noted that in the physical science also colour, taste, odour and touch have been accepted as the properties of 1. Ruparasagandhasparsavati psthivi, VS., II. 1. 1; Ruparasasparsavatyapo dravah snigdhah, Ibid., 2; Tejo rupasparsavat, Ibid., 3; Sparsavan vayuh, Ibid., 4. 2. Sarvarthasiddhi (comm.), v. 3. 3. Atha sparsadimantah syuh pudgalah iti sucanat Ksityadija tibhedanam prakalpananirakrtih, Tattvartha slo., p. 419. 4. Yasmadittham laksanah pudgala bhavanti tasmanna jivah pudgalasabdavacya iti / yatha caite paramanvadigatah jivah sparsadayah gunah paramanvadibhyo bhinnascabhinnasca tatha'guna paryayavaddravyan, TS. Bha., II, p. 355. 5. TS., p. 415. 4. TS., p. 355.

Page #186
Properties of Ma'ter 151 Matter, just as they are found in Jaina Philosophy. "The colour of a material substance is an important physical property and the apparent colour of a substance depends upon its state of subdivision. The colour becomes lighter as large particles are ground up into smaller ones."I "The properties of taste and odour are closely correlated with the chemical nature of substances, and are to be considered as chemical properties."'2 In regard to touch the properties of the material substances like malleability, ductility, hardness, etc., are dealt with in details in the physical science. Akalarka, Vidyananda and Siddhasena Ganin give the reasons why have these four basic properties of Matter been placed in the order of touch, taste, smell and colour respectively in the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra. Touch is prominent (strong) among all the properties of Matter, because the manifestation of touch in the sprsta-grahr-indiyas (tactile sense-organs) takes place first and it becomes apprehensible to the worldly beings. For this reason touch has been first accepted among the properties of Matter. According to Jaina Metaphysics, eye is aprapyakari, i. c. it does not go up to the object; it apprehends its own object from a distance, while the Nyaya Philosophy maintains that eye is prapyakari i. e. it reaches the object to apprehend it; the Samkhya says that every sense-organ and mind also go up to the object and then apprehend it. Although among the worldly beings, indifferent to touch, the manifestation of taste (rasavyapara) is sometimes found prominent in the object; nevertheless, on the touch of it, the manifestation of taste takes place. For this reason taste has been placed after touch because the apprehension of taste occurs after that of touch. In air also taste, colour, etc., are accepted to be inherent, hence there is no fallacy. The properties like colour, etc., are inherent in it. Just as the qualities 1. General Chemistry, Pauling, p. 12 2. Ibid., p. 13. 3. Ibid., p. 12.

Page #187
152 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy like colour etc., even being inherent in the non-apprehended fragrant substance, are intangible because of being unproduced or fine and they are not experienced as becoming a gross objeet of the sense-organs like eye, etc., so colour, etc., of air also are apprehended by the sense-organs. Smell has been posited before colour because it is imperceptible. Last of all colour has been accepted on the ground that it is experienced as inhering in the gross material substance only. 1 It is further stated in th: Agamas and the post-agamic works that Matter possesses five colours, five tastes, two smells and eight touches. The numbers of colour, of taste, of smell, and of touch are specifically mentioned in them in the following manner: colour is of five kinds, viz. black, blue, red, yellow and white; taste is of five kinds, viz. bitter, sour, acidic, sweet and astringent; smell is o two kinds, viz. pleasant and unpleasant; and touch is of eight kinds, viz. soft, hard, heavy, light, cold, hot, smooth and rough. The sub-division of modes of each of these twenty kinds of property of Matter may be one to countable, countless and infinite3 from the standpoint of the relation ( state ) of degrees. At every samaya ( instant ) the possible divisions of four qualities among them are found in each and every matter. In other words, every one of them has got ore 1. Visayabalattvat sparsagrahanamadau, TS., p. 355; Sparsagrahanamadau visayabaladarsanat (1); Rasaprasanga iti cet ; na; sparse sati tadbhavat (2); Vayau tadabhavat vyabhicara iti cet; na tatrapyabhyupagamat, (3); RV., p. 484; Rupat praggandhavacanam acaksusatvat...ante varnagrahanam sthaulye sati tadupalabdheh (5); RV., p, 484; TS. SI, p. 419; TS., p. 355 2. Poggale pancavanne pascarase dugamdhe atthaphase pannatte, Bhs., 12. 5. 450; TS. Bha., p. 356; SS., p. 356; RV., pp. 484-5. 3. Bhs., 25.4, 739; Anuyogadvara, p. 110; Ta ete mulabhedah pratyekam samkhyeyasamkheyanantabhedasca bhavanti, SS,, 5. 23 ( Comm.).

Page #188
Properties of Matter 153 to infinitefold transformations or modifications ( states ) of degrees. At every samaya ( instant ) the possible divisions of four qualities among them are found in each and every form of matter. In other words, every one of them has got one to infinitefold transformations or modifications. As for instance, there are stated to be onefold black, twofold, black, threefold black up to tenfold black, numerablefold black, innumerablefold black and infinitefold black colour; the accounts of blue, red, yellow and white also should thus be understood. Similarly, those of pleasant and unpleasant smells, of five tastes and of eight touches should be known. The Jaina conception of five colours of Matter appears to be scientific. Black, blue, red, yellow and white are inherent colours in Matter; they are the basic colours and more scientific and up-to-date, as it is demonstrated by the following statements. "As the temperature of a body is raised, it emits first of all infra-red radiation, then red light, then yellow light, and finally white light. If we could obtain even higher temperatures in the laboratory, we could make bodies 'blue hot, as is actually observed with some of the stars."I "As the temperature of a body is raised, the colour emitted by it becomes more and more rich in waves of shorter-wavelength. Some of the stars shine with a bluish white light which indicates that their temperature must be very high.". "The infra-red rays are the dark heat rays which do not generate the sensation of vision. These rays are present in what appears to be perfect darkness to us. The eyes of a cat or of an owl are provided with the infra-red rays, so that these animals can perceived in the dark."3 Now-a-days photographs can be taken in utter darkness with the help of infra-red-rays. "So long as the temperature is below the draper point, 525degC, a body 1. A Text Book of Heat by A. W. Barton, p. 361. 2. Dr. M. N. Saha, F.R.S. and B, N. Srivastava, p. 341, Vide Cosmology Old and New, p. 166. 3. Cosmology, Old and New, p. 166.

Page #189
154 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy emits only infra-red rays; in other words, it appears dark or black, then the colour changes to red, then white and finally blue."1 It is to be noted here that these colours are not pigmentary, but natural colours which are assumed by a piece of matter at a different conditions of temperature. Their number is only five, viz. black, red, yellow, white and blue. Hence they are identical with the five kinds of inherent colour of Pudgala (Matter) as conceived in Jaina Philosophy, a According to some, green should be included in the list of natural colours and black and white are unnecessary, for white is a mixture of green and red pigments and black is the absence of colours. It should be observed here that the above mentioned five colours are not pigmentary. The fundamental coloursred, green, and bluish-violet are needed by a canvas painter to produce a desired colour from them by mixing three powders in different portion, while the three colours - red, yellow and blue are required in tri-colour printing on paper. 3 Even it is demonstrated in the case of the colours of solar spectrum that in case "the red light it cut off from the spectrum by an opaque screen and the remaining six colours then recombined by a prism, the resulting light would be green."4 That means "what appears to be green is only white light minus red."5 Besides, there lies a distinction between a mixture of special colours and that of pigment colours. The mixture of blue and yellow light produces white light, whereas, the mixture of blue and yellow pigments generate a green paint, This demonstrates clearly that the five basic colours of Matter are not special nor pigmentary. The modern definition of 1. Cosmology Old and New, p. 166. 2. Varna sa pamcavidhah krsna-nila-pita-sukla-lohita bhedat, SS., V. 23. 3. Cosmoloy Old and New, p. 164. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid.

Page #190
Properties of Matter 155 colour says, "colour is the general term for all sensations arising from the activity of the retina and its attached nervous mechanism. It may be examplified by the enumeration of the characteristic instances, such as, red, yellow, blue, black and white." So the five inherent colours of Pudgala (Matter) as conceived in Jaina Metaphysics agree well with the five natural colours of matter of the physical sciences. In regard to the infinite modes of these five colours, they can be compared with the difference of wave lengths, as "the apparent colour of a material substance depends upon its state of sub-divisions, it becomes lighter as large particles are ground up into smaller ones." As to the five kinds of taste, viz. bitter, sour, acidic, sweet, and astringent, it can be said that the modern scientific research has demonstrated that there are in the taste only five general classes, viz, sweet, bitter, saltish, sour, and insipid.3 In regard to the division of smell into two kinds, viz. pleasant and unpleasant, there is no controversy in any Metaphysics and Physics. The four parts of the quality of touch (sparsa) or eight divisions of touch (sparsa) of Jaina Philosophy correspond to the following four physical properties of Matter according to the physical sciences-Scale of hardness (mtdukathina=soft and hard), density ( guru-laghu=heavy and light) temperature (Stta and usna =cold and warm) and crystalline structure (snigdha-ruksa=smooth and rough or cohesive and dry). 1. Report of the Colorimetry Committee, 1922, Optical Society of America, vide Cosmology, Old and New p. 168. 2. Ibid. 3. See the article "Taste and Chemical Constitution" by A. J. Mee, M. A., in the Science Progress, October, 1934, vide. Cosmology Old and New, p. 164.

Page #191
156 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy THE SAMKHYA VIEW OF THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER Dr. B. N. Seal explains theat "the properties of a thing are only the energies that are manifested in the particular collocations of the three Gunas-Mass, Energy and Essence; and a tri-Tanmatric or a penta-Tanmatric atom, i. e. an atom composed of three or five kinds of Tanmatras may differ from another of the same class in respect of the number of constituent Tanmatras of a particular kind, as also of their collocation or grouping, and therefore, in mass as well as in generic and specific characters."1 According to the Samkhya-Patanjala--the properties (energies) of the substances originate from the grouping or the quanta of the Tanmatras, or the gunas themselves, e. g. "various kinds of fruit acids and juices, all originating from one and the same Bhuta (water) with different accretions of earthy matters (bhuvikarah)".2 So it is maintained that the four Bhutas or Mahabhutas 1. Yogyatavacchinna dharminah saktireva dharmah, Yoga sutra, Vyasabhasya 3, vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 44. 2. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 45; Yo...dharmesu anupati samanyavisesatma so anvayi dharmin, Yogabhasya, III. 14; Syadetat-kathai ekarupanam gunanam anekarupa pravsttih ityata aha parinamatah salilavat / yatha hi Varidavimutam udakam ekarasam api tattadbhuvikaran asadya narikela-tala tati-vilva-ciravilva-tindukamalaka-kapitthaphalarasatayaparinamat madhuramlalavanatiktakasayakatutaya vikalpate, evamekaikagunasamudbhavat pradbanam gunam asritya apradhanagunah parinamabhedan pravarttayanti / tadidamuktam pratipratigunasrayavisesat ekaikagunasrayena yo visesastasmat ityarthah, Tattvakaumudi, Vacaspati on Karika, 16. Sce :P. S. A. H., pp. 45-6.

Page #192
Properties of Matter 157 (fundamental elements of Matter), viz. air, fire, water and earth, possess the four specific qualities, viz. touch, colour, taste and smell respectively as conceived in the Nyaya-Vai esika system of thought. The difference between the Sankhya-Yoga and Jaina views regarding these properties is this that they are the specific qualities in the four Bhutas ( fundamental elements) respectively, according to the former, while in the latter's view all of them are inherent in every kind of matter whether it is earth or water or fire or air. THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA VIEW OF THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER The four general properties of Matter (Pudgala) of Jaina Philosophy, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch, are stated to be the four specific qualities of Matter of the Nyaya-Vaiscsika Metaphysics. According to its view, earth possesses colour, taste, smell and touch,2 besides number, dimension, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, weight, fluidity, velocity and elasticity. Smell is the specific quality of earth which differentiates it from other substances. In addition to them, it possesses motion (kriya)3 which generates velocity ( vega ), 4 weight ( gurutva )5 and fall (patana ),6 liquidity 1. Ruparasagandhasparsah, vs., 1. 1.6; Ruparasagandhasparsa..., PPBha., p. 38. 2. Ruparasagandhasparsavati prthivi, VS., II, 1. 1. 3. Nodanabhighatat samyuktasamyogacca prthivyam karma, VS., V. 2. 1. 4. Yattu yugapat praksiptasarayorekasya tsvro vego aparasya tu mandah tatra, nodanativnatvamandatve nimittam, VSU., 5. 1. 17. 5. Samskarabhave gurutvat patanam, VS., 5. 1. 18. 6. Ibid.

Page #193
158 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy (dravatva); and law of affinity. 2 Water is possessed of all the qualities of earth-substance except smell with this distinction that its characteristic of natural.3 Of these colour, taste, touch, natural fluidity and viscidity are the specific qualities of water by which it is differentiated from all other elements of Matter. 4 Fire is possessed of all the qualities in common with earth and water except taste, smell and weight due to the negation of which it moves upwards, viz. colour, touch, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, fluidity and velocity.5 Colour and touch are only its distinctive characteristics. Its colour is white and illuminating (bhasvara) and its touch is hot.6 The liquidity in it is not intrinsic, but it is perceived when a strong heat is generated as in the case of all the metals.7 1. Sarpirjatumadhucchistanamagnisamyogad-dravatvamad bhih samanyam, VS., II. 1. 6; Trapusssaloharajatasuvarnanamagnisamyogad-dravatvamad bhih samanyam, Ibid., II. 1. 7. 2. Bhuyastvad-gandhavattvacca prthivi gandhajnane prakrtih, VS., VIII., 2. 5. 3. Ruparasasparsadravatvasnehasamkhyaparimanaprthaktva samyogavibhagaparatvaparatvadravatvasamskaravatyah purvavaddesam siddhih, PPBha., p. 91; Aptvabhisamban dhadapah, PPBha., p. 14. 4. Ruparasasparsavatya'po dravah snigdhah, vs., II, 1. 2. 5. Tejastvabhisambandhat-tejah, PPBha., p. 15; Rupasparsasankhyaparimanapsthaktvasamyogavibhagaparatvaparatvadravatvasamskaravat purvavadesam siddhih tatra suklar bhasvaranca rupan usna eva sparsah, PPBha., p. 15. 6. Tejo rupasparsavat, VS., II. 1. 3 ; Tatra suklam bhasvaranca rupam usna eva sparsah, PPBha., p. 15. 7. Vyoma, ( PPBha. ), pp. 255-60 ; See PPbha., 25.

Page #194
Properties of Matter 159 Air possesses the characteristics of touch, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority and velocityl in common with earth, water and fire of these touch is the distinctive characteristic of it, which is non-chemical and neither hot nor cold.2 This quality differentiates it from earth, water and fire. Air is possessed of oblique or transversal motion ( tiryag-gati ), s but no weight4 in the absence of which it does not come down. Its motion is unimpeded as it receives the impetus from the velocity of air.5 The Nyaya-Vaisesika view on the properties of Matter suffers from some defects, when they are analysed in the light of the physical sciences. As for instance, it maintains that air does not possess any weight, but modern physics demonstrates that air also is possessed of weight. In agreement with the physical sciences Jaina Metaphysics holds the view. that air also possesses the quality of weight because of being a form of Matter. KINDS OF FOUR SPECIFIC QUALITIES OF MATTER IN THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA METAPHYSICS Colour : According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, there are stated to be seven kinds of colour, viz. white, blue or black, yellow, green, grey, red and citra ( variegated colour ) 1. Sparsavan vayuh, VS. 11.1.4. Vayutvabhisambandhadvayuh sparsasamkhyaparimanaprthaktvasamyogavibhagaparatva paratvasamskaravan, PPBha., Vayunirupanaprakaranam. 2. Sparsasca vayoh, VS., 11.1.9; Sparso'syanusnasitatve satyapakajah, guna ,inivesatsiddhah, PPBha., p. 17. 3. Agnerurddhvajvalanam vayostiryakpavanamanunam mana sascadyam karmadsstakaritam, VS., V. 2. 13. 4. PPBha., Vayunirupanaprakaranam. 5. Preranadiheturekah san kriyabhedadapanadisamjnam labhate, Ibid.

Page #195
160 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy belonging naturally to earth. When compared with the five basic colours of Jaina Metaphysics, these seven colours of the former can be reduced to the five colours of the latter, for green, grey and variegated colours are not the original colours of Matter as demonstrated by the physical sciences. Taste : Taste is of six kinds, viz. sweet, acidic, saltish, bitter, cour and pungent (or astringent ) belonging to earth". Here the saltish taste is not the basic taste of Matter according to Jaina Metaphysics. But it is accepted by the science as one of the basic tastes. So there is a difference between the two systems in regard to the basic tastes, but the Jaina view is nearer to that of the physical sciences. Smell : Like Jaina Philosophy the Nyaya-Vaisesika mentions two kinds of smell, viz. good and bad (i. e. pleasant and unpleasant ). But according to this philosophy, they belong to earth only, while the Jaina system of thought maintains that they belong to all forms of Matter. Touch : The Nyaya-Vaisesika maintains that touch4 1. Sukla dya neka prakaram salila tiparamanusu nityam parthi vaparamanusvagni---samyogavirodhisarvakaryadravyesu karanagunapurvakamasrayavinasadeva vinasyati, PPBha., p. 44 ; see NK., p. 30. The word 'citra' is used for an independent colour ( Kirana val of Udayana, p. 205 ). 2. Raso rasanagrahyah prthivyudakavsttih jIvanapustiba larogyanimittam rasanasahakarl madhuramlalavanatiktakatukasayabhedabhinnah asyapi nityanityatvanispattayo rupavat, PPBha., Rasaprakaranam, p. 45. . 3. Gandho ghranagrahyah prthivivsttih ghranasahakari surabhirasuravisca asyapi purvavadutpattyadayo vyakhyatah, PPBha., Gandhaprakaranam, p. 45. Sparsastvagindriyagrahyah ksityudakajvalanapavanavsttih Tvaksahakart rupanuvidhayi sitoonanusnasitabhedat trividhah asyapi nityanityatvanispattayah purvavat, PPBha., Sparsaprakaranam, p. 45.

Page #196
Properties of Matter 161 belonging to earth is of three kinds, viz. hot, cold and neither hot nor cold, which are generated from chemical action. But the Jaina view is that there are eight kinds of touch which can be grouped into four divisions, as already pointed out, on the basis of their conception in the physical sciences. These four specific qualities-colour, taste, smell and touch are possessed by both the earthly form of matter-eternal and non-eternal. But they are non-eternal in both the cases because of chemical action, unlike the qualities, belonging to the ultimate atoms of water, fire, and air. The Mimamsaka view on the properties of Matter is the same as they are found in the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, for its very conception of Matter is based on the Nyaya-Vaisesika doctrine of Matter. PROPERTIES OF MATTER IN THE BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY As previously touched upon, the general property of Matter (Rupa ) conceived in the Buddhist Philosophy is impenetrability ( sapratigha ), i. e. space occupied by one of the elements of Matter cannot be occupied by another at one and the same time.. In Jaina metaphysics paramanu ( ultimate atom ) has been characterized by the property of impenetrability, besides the effects of Matter have been described as ghatasarira and aghatasarsra (obstructive and unobstructive bodies). The ghatasarsra ( obstructive body ) offers resistance to causes which tend to produce a change in its position, configuration or 1. Yam tam rupam ajjhatthikam tam sappadigham. yas tam rupam bahiram, tam atthi sappatigham, atthi appatighamn, Dhamma Samgani, 3, Tikamatika, pp. 151, 152, 156, 157; Yam tam rupam sandassanan tam atthi sappatigham, atthi appatigham, Atthasalini, 4, 16, p. 244 - 245; Yam rupam sappatigham tam atthi indriyam-Atthasalini 4.17, pp. 244-45.

Page #197
162 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy motion, while aghatasarira allows the passage of another form of Matter through it. Even infinite atoms can exist in one space-point. Each ultimate atom or aggregate is individually impenetrable, but all ultimate atoms and aggregates (skandhas) are not impenetrable, for they can exist in one space-point. At one stage of it an ultimate atom is impenetrable. This is the basic difference between the impenetrability of the Buddhist elements (dharmas) of Matter and that of the Jaina ultimate atoms or the effects of Matter. Though the Buddhist Philosophy denies the existence of any permanent substance possessing inherent qualities, it can be said in a nutshell that hardness ( or repulsion ), cohesion (or attraction ), heat and motionl are respectively the four essentials or specific properties of the four fundamental elements of Matter, viz. earth, water, fire and air, which are manifested by them. Besides, the four sensibles, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch, can also be counted as the properties of Matter (Rupa) according to the Buddhist Metaphysics, for it recognizes only gunas ( qualities ) as elements of Matter by denying the substances. The four essentials-hardness, cohensiveness, heat and motion, predominate in earth, water, fire and air respectively. For this reason they are termed as prthivi (earth), ap (water), tejo (fire) and vayu (air) technically, but pathavi-adhika,s apoadhika substances and the like are not themselves pathavi (earth), apo (water), etc. It is explained by the commentators that "apo is that which diffuses itself throughout its coexistent 1. See Dhammasamgani and Atthasalini, (Rupaskandha); Bhutani prthividhaturaptejovayudhatavah Dhrtyadikarmasamsiddhah kharasnehosnateranah, Abh. K., 1.12. 2. Kame astadravyako anuh ruparasagandhasparsa iti catvari dravyani prthivyaptejo vayuh iti catvari, Abh. K., 1.22, Sphutartha. 3. i. c. preponderating in pathavi.

Page #198
F Properties of Matter qualities or that which increases the bulk of them." "It is that which heaps them well together, without allowing them to be scattered about or that which imbibes (absorbs) them or that which holds or collects them together as it were by imbibition." 153 Leaving aside the etymological derivation of apo from apeti, appayati, pati or pivati, it is to be observed that both the Ceylonese and Burmese traditions suggest that apo is 'cohesion' (bandhanattanarupassa). The mass is held together by the force of cohension; on its removal by splitting the mass, only cohension-the force of attraction is left in them. In the case of the reduction of the fragments to smaller particles, it exists inhering in upto the ulimate individual atoms. This fact shows the correctness of the phrase "diffuses or locates itself by pervading its co-existent qualities." The phrase "increase the bulk of them" is justified by the thing that a great body is constituted of smaller bodies by this force of attraction (cohesion). The remaining phrases are justified by the fact that cohesion holds together a mass of matter.4 "Poggharana-svabhava" or fluidity is accepted as the characteristic mark (lakkhana) of water, while regarding cohe1. Apeci sahajatarupani pattharati, appayati va ruheti vaddhetiti apo (Ceylon, Cyclopaedia, p. 167 on Abhidham matthaSamgaha), vide Compendium of Philosophy, p. 268. No mention is made of watery element (apo). 2. Apeti sahajatarupani vyapetva titthati;...avippakinnani katva bhuso Pati rakkhati pivati va pivanto viya tani samganhati sampindetiti apo, Ledi, Sadaw, p. 246. It is to be noted that water is not that which imbibes, but that which is imbibed Cph. pp. 267-9. 3. Dhammasamgani 8, 652; So Buddhaghosa comments on this passage, A. Sl. p. 355, vide Compendium of Philosophy, pp. 268 ff. 4. Compendium of Philosophy, pp. 268 ff.

Page #199
164 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy sion as its functions ( kicca ).1 But it should be noted that still more fluidity is possessed by air than water, hence 'poggharapa' does not clearly suggest water any more than it implies. air. According to the Buddhists, fluidity is associated with apo (water), just as it is found in the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy; water is mentioned as an apo-adhika substance (i. e. preponderantly cohesive). The physical sciences maintain that there is more cohesion in solids than in liquids and gas ; whereas the Buddhist system of thought regards hardness or firmness (kakkhalatta) as the characteristic mark of solids (pathavi), because, however, a solid may be apparently cohesive, once it is broken up, its original cohesiveness goes away, but there does not take place recohesion. But a liquid cannot be divided because it tends to re-coalesce immediately. Similarly, air behaves in the same manner to some extent, but its capacity of expansion without limit tends to counteract the force of cohesion holding the particles of air or gas together.2 Therefore, air is conceived. in the Buddhist Philosophy as the type of mobility (vayuIrana=motion). Tejo (fire) is heat; cold or relative absence of heat is not mentioned in the Buddhist Metaphysics as a force distinct from heat. 'Lambent' and 'fiery' may only fit occasionally in popular phrascology. Fire matures; sharpens, intensifies or imports heat to the other three essentials. Vayu (air) is that which as the condition of motion to another place brings about the impact of one essential with another. 3 In the words of Ledi agaip "that which vibrates or oscillates, that which, as a condition of motion in space, moves the series of elements to a different place, or carries its co-existent qualities from place to place", (p. 240 ), i. e. motion ( Irana ) is the essential of vayu. According to the later Vaibhasikas, the air-atoms are 1. Compendium of Philosophy, pp. 268 ff. 2. Ibid. 3. Vayati desantaruppattihetubhavena bhutasamghatah papetiti vayo, C. Ph., p. 270. ( Ceylon, cy., p. 167).

Page #200
Properties of Matter 165 touch-sensibles possessing impact or pressure (frana) as their characteristic property; they constitute air-element by aggregation; the fire-atoms are colour and touch-sensibles with heat as their characteristic property, and constitute fire-element by aggregation; the water-atoms are taste, colour, and touchsensibles having a characteristic viscosity and they constitute water element by combination, and the earth-atoms are smell, taste, colour, and touch-sensibles possessing a characteristic property of dryness or roughness of hardness (kharatva) and constitutes earth-element. 1 Here the Vaisesika influence is evidently felt on the later Vaibhasika conception of properties of Matter. KINDS OF PROPERTIES OF RUPA (MATTER) Colour : According to the Vaibhasikas, there are stated to be four kinds of primary colour, namely, blue, red, yellow and white and there are eight kinds of secondary colours of cloud, vapour, dust, dew (mihika), shadow, heat, light and darkness respectively. Black colour does not find mention in the list of primary colours as it is found in Jaina Philosophy. And shape is of eight kinds, viz. long, short, round, spherical, high and low, even and uneven. Thus there are twenty kinds of Rupa (colour and shape).2 Spherical and round shapes are common to both Jaina and Buddhist Metaphysics, the former 1. Kame astadravyakosabdah paramanuranindriyah, AB h. K., II. 22; rupa-rasa-gandha-sparsa iti cattvari dravyani-psthivyaptejo vayu, iti catvari, also kharasnehosnerana svabhavani bhutani, Abh., K. Spht.; Bhutani prthividhaturaptejovayudhatvah dhstyadikarmasamsiddbah, kharasnehosnateranah, Abh. K., 1. 12. Vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, pp. 92-93. 2. Rupam dvidha vingatidha, Abh., K., 1. 10.

Page #201
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy mentions triangular, square and rectangular shapes in addition to them and another which is none of them. 166 Taste The Vaibhasikas maintain that taste is the aggregate of a class of atoms. So, according to them, it is a substantial entity. Those atoms called taste are endowed with the nature distinct from colour, shape, and sound-atoms. Like other atoms, i. e. colour-atoms, etc., taste-atom also is modifiable (savikara) and impenetrable (sapratigha). Thus, because of being modifiable and impenetrable, taste-atom also will be included in Rupa (Matter). For this reason they have been included in rupaprasada. Like the Vaisesika the Vaibhasika school divides taste into six kinds, viz. madhura (sweet), amla (acidic), lavana (saltish), katu (sour), kasaya (astringent) and tikta bitter), though it is mainly divided into infinite kinds from the secondary points of view. Various kinds of tastes are produced by different kinds of mixtures of taste-atoms. It is to be noted that here six kinds of taste are mentioned, whereas in Jaina Metaphysics only five kinds of taste are enumerated. The basic difference between the two views in regard to the number of tastes is this that the Buddhist Philosophy has accepted the saltish taste as an additional one on the basis of the Vaisesika doctrine of Matter. Smell: In the Vaibhasika view smell is the aggregate of a class of atoms. These atoms also are distinct from other atoms. According to this concept, bhautikatva (materiality) is the general characteristic of smell. In the smell-entity which has not been the object of smelling perception (or sensation) of any being, the objectivity of perception produced by the sense of smell cannot be called the general characteristic of smell, because it will be avyapta (non-related or non-pervasive). Smell is mainly divided into two kinds, viz. pleasant and unpleasant as they are found in the Jaina and Nyaya-Vaisesika systems of thought. On the basis of intensity and non-intensity in each of them they are sub-divided into four kinds-two kinds of pleasant smell and two kinds of unpleasant smell.

Page #202
Properties of Matter TANGIBLE OR TACTILE ELEMENT ( SPRASTAVYA) been The aggregate of a class of combined atoms has called sprastavya (tactile or tangible); it is a substantial entity; it is not qualitative entity like that of the Vaisesikas. The objectivity of perception produced by the tactile senseorgan (skin) cannot be called the general characteristic of it, for, really speaking, that characteristic will become avyapta (non-related or non-pervasive) in the tactile element which did not come into perception of any being. According to the previous procedure, all these-rupa (colour and shape), rasa (taste) and gandha (smell) being different, materiality (bhautikatva) also cannot be accepted as the general characteristic of sprastavya (tangible), for it will be avyapta in the tangibility like roughness or hardness, etc. 167 This sprastavya is divided into eleven kinds, viz. parthivasparsa (earthy touch), jaliya-sparsa (aquatic touch), taijasasparsa (fiery touch), vayaviya-sparsa (airy touch), mrduta (softness), karkasata (hardness or roughness ), gurutva (heaviness), and laghutva (lightness), sitatva (coldness), vubhuksa (hungriness or appetite) and pipasa (thirst). Soft, hard, heavy and light and cold touches are common to both the Jaina and Buddhist traditions. As a result of particular closeness (sannivesa) of the elements like earth, etc., there takes place the contact of the physical senses with particular condition, so one thinks of the necessity of heat; that of particular condition is srtatva (coldness). Vubhuksa means the desire to eat, this is a kind of mental element. It can never be included in the sprastavya dharma (tangibility), belonging to Rupaskandha (material aggregate). Hence, in this case of vubhuksa it will be understood that there takes place in the animal body a kind of temporary transformation of earth-element in the inner part of the stomach. If there is the contact of the physical sense with that, there arises the desire of beings for eating. As that material transformation

Page #203
168 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy inside the stomach is the cause of vubhuksa, it has been called vubhuksa. In the cause there is the analogical application of the effect-indicating word. In the scripture the birth of Lord Buddha has been called happiness. It is the mental element and birth is the physical element, so birth and happiness cannot be one and the same. In spite of such division the birth of Lord Buddha has been called happiness. He is born for various kinds of emergence and attainment of liberation. So his birth, because of being helpful to happiness like abhyudaya (emergence) and nihsreyasa (liberation) has been called happiness analogically. This is the analogical application of the effect-indicating word in the cause. Similarly, pipasa also, belonging to the sprastavyadharma should be understood as a kind of transformation, not as the desire for drinking. Such kind of mental element cannot be included in sprastavyadharma (tangible-element). The internal physical transformation with which the contact of the physical sense leads the beings to desire for drinking has been called pipasa in this case. 1 In regard to the general properties of Matter, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch the basic difference between the Jaina view and those of other Indian systems of thought is this that according to the former, they are inherent in all forms of Matter whether molecules or ultimate atoms, whereas they are regarded as the specific qualities of the four elements of Matter in the latter. According to their views, only earth possesses four characteristics, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch. In the physical sciences the Jaina view regarding the four general characteristics of Matter, viz. colour, taste, smell and touch, is well supported to a considerable extent. Besides, their respective divisions also compare well with those of the same four kinds of property of Matter as demonstrated in the physical sciences. 1. Vaibhasikadharsana of Anantakumara Bhattacarya, (Bengali) Rupaskandha, p. 88.

Page #204
Properties of Matter In addition to the four general characteristics of Matter (Pudgala) certain common properties are associated with all the three states of it, viz. solid, liquid and gasesous. Matter possesses the property of cohesion and adhesion (snehakayatva or samghataguna),1 impenetrability, 2 extension, divisibility (bhedatva or pradesatva), porosity and compressibility5 (or condensation and taking up subtle form) and density and elasticity, etc.7 3 Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules (or aggregates) of the same type and adhesion is the force of attraction that exists between molecules of different nature. Cohesive force holds molecules together in a material substance and adhesion is the cause of sticking together of the two material substances (pudgaladravyas), e. g. gluing of wood to wood. The combination of ultimate atoms takes place owing to the presence of the property of oily body or sticky substance (sinehakae), i. e. cohesiveness and adhesiveness inherent in them. Thus two ultimate atoms may combine together into a skandha (molecule) because of their property of cohesiveness and adhesiveness. 169 I. Sinehakae poggale, BhS., 1. 10. 80; Gahanagunalakhane, Ibid., 2. 10. 118. 2. Abhejja, Ibid., 20. 5. 670. 3. Poggalatthikae, Ibid., 2. 10. 118; AjIvakaya dharmadharmakasapudgalah, TS., ch. V. 1. 4. BhS., 16. 6. 582; Ekapradesadisu bhajyah pudgalanam, TS., V. 14; Bhedat, TS., V. 27. 5. BhS., 6. 7. 247; 1. 6. 54. 6. Pannavana, Alpatvabahutva. 7, Donham paramanupoggala egayo sahanamti donham paramanu poggalanam atthi sinehakae, BhS., 1. 10. 80.

Page #205
170 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy IMPENETRABILITY It is a property of Matter by virtue of which two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time. In regard to this property there arises the contradiction in the Jaina conception of impassability or impenetrability of ultimate atom (paramanu), for there can exist one to infinite ultimate atoms or molecules in one space-point in a subtle form. Extension : It is the property of Matter by virtue of which every body occupies some definite space. As an astikayadravya (extensive substance) Matter has existence as well as extensive magnitude; even an ultimate atom has the property of extension of one space-point.2 Divisibility ( Bhedatva ): It is the property of Matter by virtue of which a material substance can be sub-divided into extreme minute parts. Even greater sub-division of the particles of Matter takes place when a scent or perfume spreads out in air. A ketaki flower smells out for hours without any visible changes in mass. Its smell spreads through the air. Neither the ketaki flower nor the core of it blows with the air, but the finest division (atom of smell) of matter blows with the air.3 That is why there is found the smell pervading the atmosphere and the air surcharged with it. Porosity4 : It is the property of Matter by virtue of which one material substance enters or diffuses into another easily and rapidly; all bodies contain pores more or less; these pores point to spaces intervened between one cluster of molecules and another, e. g. solid, ash or sand, liquid water, gas etc. 1. Paramanupoggale nam Bhamte asidharam va khuradharam va ogahejja...no tinatthe samatthe, no khalu tattha sattham kamai, Bhs., 5. 7. 213; 20.5. 670. 2. Bhs., 1.3.4.481 ; TS., ch. V.1. 3. No kotthae vati javau. no keyai vati ghanasahagata poggala vati, Bhs., 16.6.59. 4. Bhs., 1.6.55 ; RV., p. 465.

Page #206
Properties of Matter 171 Compressibility : It is the property of Matter by virtue of which it can be compressed so as to occupy a smaller volume by the application of external pressure because of there being pores contained by all bodies, e. g. cotton, hair and air. Density? and Elasticity : Density is the mass per unit volume of body, so it is a universal property of all forms of Mattermolecules or ultimate atoms, for all material bodies must have some mass. Elasticity which is possessed by all matters more or less in all the three states of them--solid, liquid and gas is. the property of offering resistances3 to change in size or shape. SECOND SECTION MOTION (GATI) OF MATTER (PUDGALA) OSCILLATION OR VIBRATION According to Jaina Philosophy, there are stated to be twokinds of bhava (state) of substance, viz. parispandatmaka and aparispandatmaka (vibrating and non-vibrating or mobile and immobile ).4 Dharma (Principle of Motion), Adharma (Principle of Rest) and Akasa (Space) is immobile. There is no capacity in them for making movement at all.5 Soul (Jiva) is immobile by nature but the capacity for movement is intrinsic in it and an element (pradesa) of Soul moves by the contact of karmic matter due to the activities of the material mind, speech and body. 6 Matter (Pudgala) possesses the nature of both 1. BhS., 6. 7. 247 (hair); 1.6.54 ( air ). 2. Bhs., 1. 6. 53 (alpabahutva); see Pannavana (alpatvabahutva). 3. Bhs., 1. 6. 54; Stha., 211. 6. 4. Dravyasya hi bhavo dvividhah-parispandatmakah aparis pandatmakasca, TRV., V. 22.21. 5. Niskriyani ca taniti parispanda-vimuktitah, T Sl. V. 7.2. 6. Yogatmapradesaparispandah, TRV., II. 25. 4.

Page #207
172 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy mobility and immobility or vibration and non-vibration. In -the Tattvartha Rajavartika parispandana ( vibratory motion ) and aparispandana (non-vibratory motion) have been called kriya ( activity) and parinama ( change or transformation ) respectively, while in the Pradipikavstti of Pravacanasara parispandana has been called kriya (activity of action) and .each parinama (change=arthaparyaya-parinama ) has been stated to be bhava ( state or condition ).2 Siddhasena Ganin has called "parispandetara' prayogajaparyaya-svabhavaparinamas ( 'non-moving' voluntary modal nature as change). PARISPANDANA (RESOLUTION OF ALL PHYSICAL ACTION INTO MOTION) Dr. B. N. Seal explains that "Parispandana sometimes stands for motion-molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules."4 The term "parispandana' signifies "whirling or rotatory motion, a circling motion," but also simple harmonic motion, e. g. vibration. "All action, operation, work (kriya, vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff."5 As for example, a cosmic vibratory motion is stated by the Vedanta.6 Akasa is "the first stadium in the evolution of Matter, which gives off Vayu, which gives of tejas 1. Parispandatmakah kriyatyakhyayate itarah parinamah, TRV., V. 22.21. 2. Parinamamatralaksano bhavah, parispandanalaksana kriya, Pravacanasara, Pradipikavstti, II. 37, p. 182. 3. Dravyasya svajatyaparityagena parispandetaraprayogaja paryayasvabhavah parinamah, TS., Bha. TI, V. 22, p. 350. 4. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 121; molar (A)=having power to grind. (N) Back teeth. 5. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 121. 6. Sarvalokaparispandanam, Sankara, Vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 121.

Page #208
Properties of Matter 173 and so on; but Akasa (ether) itself passes through two stages: before the emanation of the suksmabhuta vayu : (1) the motionless ubiquitous primordial matter-stuff (answering to the Samkhya Bhutadi) called Puranam Kham, and (2) a subtle integration, the pure unquintuplicated suksmabhuta called Vayuram Kham, answering to the Samkhya Tanmatra stage. It is this subtle Akasa, in its Tanmatric integration, i. e. in the derivative form, which is subject to an incressant Parispanda. The gaseous stage of matter (The Vedantic Vayu) is indeed matter in a stage of Parispandic motion. So also the biomotor and sensori motor principles apart from the directive intelligence of the self.2 This parispanda is conceived also by the Samkhya philosophy to describe every process and phenomenon of cosmic evolution.3 "Bhutas, organisms, mental organs, as modes of Praksti (considered apart from the Intelligence of Purusa), are also subject to this Parispanda."4 But Praksti (the Primordial Matter) as the unmanifest ground can have no Parispandic motions (or mobility), though the action of evolution belongs to it. Here the question is how did the similarity of thought (vicarasamya) come into both the Samkhya and Jaina philosophies from evolution or transformation in regard to Parispandana. In the Samkhya it is stated 1. Vayoh parispandatmakatvat-Sarikara. 2. Pranasya parispandatmakatvadevayadadvaitam sthulam suksmam ca tatsarvar manah sanditamatram-Sankara, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 122. 3. Vyaktam sakriyam parispandavat, Tattvakaumudi, 10, Vacaspati Misra. 4. Tatha hi buddhyadayo upattamupattam deham tyajanti dehantaram ca upadadata, iti tesam parispandah sariraprthivyadinam ca parispandah prasiddha eva, Ibid., Vacaspati on Karika, 10. 5. Yadyapi avyaktasyapi parinamalaksana kriya, tathapi parispando nasti. Ibid,, on Karika, 10.

Page #209
174 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy that there takes place evolution in all things except in the Sentient Principle (Cetanasakti =Purusa), while Jaina Metaphysics maintains that both Matter and Soul undergo transformation. In the Samkhya, there is stated to be the unmanifest and manifest conditions (avyakta and vyakta avastha) of Praksti (Primordial Matter), while in Jaina Philosophy Jiva (Soul), Dharma (Principle or Motion), Adharma (Principle of Rest), and Akasa (Space) are unmanifest (avyakta). According to this philosophy, there is a state of aparispandana (nonvibration or non-mobility) of Soul (JIva). The worldly soul and Matter possess spandana (vibration or rotatory motion). Dharma and Adharma are the efficient causes in the motion and rest respectively of the worldly souls and Matter. The Jaina conception of utpada (origination), vyaya (decay) and dhrauvya (permanence)' of the reals corresponds to the Samkhya view of parinama (transformation) of Praksti or of all things. According to Jaina philosophy, there continues parinama (transformation) in the liberated souls, the worldly souls and all forms of Matter. Parispandana (vibratory motion) takes place in Matter. In the unmanifest stage of Praksti there is a state of equilibrium (samyavastha). The sadnsaparinama (evolution of like to like) of the Samkhya corresponds to the arthaparyaya of Jaina metaphysics which takes place in all substances--Soul, Matter, etc. The Samkhya maintains that when the disturbance occurs in the state of equilibrium of Prakrti, it becomes manifest, i. e. parispandana. In the Jaina tradition the principle of utpada (origination) -- vyaya (decay) dhrauvya (permanence) is parispandana (vibratory motion). Soul is aparispandanatmaka (non-vibratory), but not so is kriya (activity) of Matter. In regard to these parispandana and aparispandana of Matter it appears that the Jaina and Samkhya views are one at the root of speculation about this problem. According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, parispanda is found in 1. Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktan sat, TS., V. 29.

Page #210
Properties of Matter 175 all forms of Matter except in Akasa (space) which is conceived as non-atomic and inactive. All the four classes of atoms, viz. air atoms, fire-atoms, water-atoms and earth-atoms are in continual motion. The universe at bottom is an infinitude of unceasingly vibratory particles.1 "All physical action consists in motion."2 Force, power and operation (sakti) are recognized by this philosophy as only the modes of motion. It is said by Jayanta Bhatta that no mysterious power or operation which is not and cannot be apprehended by the senses in acknowledged. "But this denial of force (sakti) and of unperceived and unperceivable operation (atindriyavyapara) is advanced as the philosophical proposition to show the correctness of the Nyaya treatment of the causal nexus to mere invariable and unconditional antecedence among phenomena without productive power of efficiency."9 Parispanda is of the nature of motion and is the ultimate form of activity in spite of its being subtle and hence infra-sensible ( suksma and anudbhutarupa, not atindriya ).4 It is explained that an effect is the total outcome of the combined motions of the various (material and efficient ) causes involed in all cases of material causation, e. g. in the case of chemical uction (paka ).5 Sa 1. Anavarata parispandamanaparimitapavanadiparamanavah, Raghunath; compare also paramanavah in gatisilatvat patatravyapadesah patantiti, Nyayakusumanjali, Stavaka. V. Vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 122. 2. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 123. 3. Anyathasiddhisunyasya niyatapuryvavarttita, Bhasaparic cheda, Vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 123. 4. Parispandana eva bhautiko vyaparah karotyarthah atin driyastu vyaparah nastiti brumaha tasmat karakacakrena calata janyate phalam na punascalanadanyo vyapara upa labhyate, NM., Abnika, 1, p. 18. 5. e. g. in the case of paka, samuditadevadattadisakalakara kanikaraparispanda eva visistaphalavacchinnah paka ityu

Page #211
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy all action of matter on matter is converted into in this way, just as it is found in Jaina philosophy. 176 The basic difference between the Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Samkhya-Vedanta on Parispandana (vibratory motion) is this that the former maintains that the conscious activity is sharply distinguished from all forms of motion, according to the former, while the latter considers everything except Intelligence, Purusa (the transcendental Self) to emerge in "the course of cosmic evolution, and hence to be subject to pariapandic motion."1 It is to be noted that the MImamsakas accept sakti (power), while the Naiyayikas reject it. But the Jainas accept power in an entity. In Jaina philosophy Matter and Soul are stated to be active, while the Principles of Motion and Rest and Space are called inactive. That is, the Principles of Motion and Rest and Space cannot make movement like 'reaching' another place from one place as a result of motion. The denial of the universal activities like origination, decay, etc., is not meant here in the aphorism "Niskriyani ca".3 Origination and decay of arthaparyaya (unceasing modification) take place in them. Soul also is inactive by nature because it is aparispandanatmaka (non-vibratory ). Due to no-karma (quasi-karma) parispandana (vibratory motion) occurs in the elements of Soul cyate... atha vyapara evaisah sarvvah sambhuya sadhyate kim phalenaparaddham vah taddhi sambhuya sadhyatam NM., A. 1, p. 18. 1. Kriyavisesa evayam vyaparo jnaturantarah spandatmakabahirbhutakriyalaksanavilaksanah, Quoted in NM,, A. 4. Vide, P. S. A. H., p. 123. 2. Niskriyani ca, TS., V. 6, p. 326. 3. Pudgalajfvavartivi ya visesakriya desantarapraptilaksana tasyah pratisedho ayam, notpadadisamanyakriyayah, TS., p. 327. Pudgalastvito desantaramaskandantah jivascetyataste kriyavantah, Ibid. samupalabhyante

Page #212
Properties of Matter 177 by the relation of karmic body with it, for this reason it has been called active (kriyavanta). 1 On the disjunction (or dissociation) of the karmic body as a result of the destruction of eight kinds of Karma, Soul becomes non-vibratory (aparispandanatmaka). There takes place the upward motion of Soul when it is released from the karmic body,2 It reaches the Siddhasthana by that motion. The parispandanatmaka kriya (vibratory activity) like contraction and expansion of pradesas (elements) of Soul, which occurs in it, is produced by the previous action. In the worldly souls there is happening at every moment arthaparyaya like origination and decay of infinite knowledge, self-awareness, energy and unthinkable experience of happiness. Soul cannot attain liberation as long as it is active because the relation of Soul with Matter continues as long as its acts.4 Kriya (activity) is stated to be endowed with the characteristic of parispandana (vibratory motion or oscillation)." Motion is the nature of Matter; activity takes place in it due to the nature of parispandana (vibratory motion); it is capable of activity by its capacity of parispandana (vibratory motion). Therefore, it is endowed with activity. It is active by its own capacity.? Internally activity is associated with the changing 1. Karmana-sarIralambanatmapradesaparispandarupa kriya, TS1., 2. 25, p. 331. 2. Tadanantaramurdhvam gacchatya lokantat, TS., 10.5, p. 298. 3. Purvaprayogad asangatvad, bandhacchedat, tathagatipari namacca tadgatih, TS., 10.6. 4. Java caramam Bharte ayam jive eyati veyati calati pham dati tayam caramam nanavaranijjenam java antaraena bajjhavimti ? hamta Goyama ! BhS., 3.3.153. 5. Parispandanalaksana kriya, PPV, p. 182. 6. Ibid. 7. Samarthyatsakriyau jsvapudgalaviti niscayah jivasya nis kriyatve hi kriyahetuta tanau; T SI 5.7.2, p. 398.

Page #213
178 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy capacity (capacity of change). Matter is not by any means nonmotive, static and inactive. It is not true that Matter is active in all fields (ksetras), at all times (kalas) and in all conditions (bhavas). Sometimes it is active and sometimes it is inactive. 1 Having remained immersed in one space-point, it vibrates or oscillates or makes revolving motion. Activities made by vibration are not continuous; it is accidental. There can be infinite divisions of activity with regard to infinite modes. Generally, there are stated to be many divisions of activity (kriya), but from the particular point of view there can be the following divisions of it with regard to nimitta (cause), applied (prayogika) and natural (vaisrasika) processes and its own form (nature), i. e. motion in one place and motion to another place, and integration and disintegration (bandhabheda). In the Jaina Agama Bhagavat. Vyakhyaprajnapti the word 'eai' (to vibrate or to oscillate) has been used to stand for motion in one place ( space-point). There are stated to be two kinds of kriya (activity or movement), viz. samita (limited) and vividha (various). 4 A few kinds of motion for reaching another place are described below: (1) Anusreni and visreni (motion in a line and motion out of lines), avigraha (non-curvilinear-motion or motion in noncurved line) and vigraha (curvilinear motion or motion in curved line) and sjudgati (motion in straight line) and kutila gati (complex or crooked motion). (2) Pratighatin gati (impeded or resisting motion) and apratighatin gati (unimpeded motion). 1. Paramanupoggale siya eyati, veyati, java parinamati, siya no eyati java no parinamati, BhS., 5.7.213. 2. Egapaesogadhe poggale see tammi va thane, annammi va thane jahannenam egam samayam, ukkosenan avaliyae asamhkejjaibhagam ciram, Bhs., 5. 7. 215. 3. Pudgalanamapi dvividha kriya visrasa-prayoganimitta ca, TRV., 5.7.17. 4. BhS., 3.3.153 (comm).

Page #214
Properties of Matter 179 (3) Sprsta gati (touching motion) and asprsta gati (nontouching motion). (4) Urddhagati (upward motion), adhah gati (downward motion) and tiryag-gati (horizontal motion).1 Some kinds of kriya (movement or activity) of the worldly souls or beings have been described in the following manner : (1) samiam eai (samita kampana=limited vibration), (2) veai (vividha kampana=various vibrations or oscillations), (3) calai (calana-gamana=going), (4) phandaei (spandana== pulsation or oscillation), (5) ghattai (samghata=striking or colliding or friction or sudden pushing), (6) khuvvai (prabalatapurvakapravesa=forcible entry), (7) udirai (pravalatapurvakaprerana=padarthantara-pratipadana=the act of throwing).2 Some of the rules of patikriya (motion-activity) are given below : (1) Anusrenigati (linear motion or motion in a straight line), (2) (a) ekasamayavigrahagati (curved motion for an instant) and (b) lokanta prapinigati (motion upto the last border of the Universe), (3) paramaneraniyata (movement of ultimate atom), (4), (a) calajaghanya (minimum movement of an ultimate atom from one space-point to another in one samaya= instant), (b) utkrstagati (maximum movement from one last border to another in one samaya=instant), (5) kampanakriyakala (duration or time of vibration or oscillation-(a) minimum for one samaya, (b) maximum for innumerableth part of avalika, and (6) niskriyakala (time or durations of non-vibration or non-oscillation)-(a) minimum for one samaya, (b) maximum for countless samayas. According to the rule, the desantaraprapinigati (motion from one place to another) takes place in a straight line. But on account of prayogaparinama ( the applied process of trans 1.. TS Bha., 2.27-29, pp. 180-82. 2. Bhs. 3. 3. 153.

Page #215
180 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy formation) it takes place out of the straight line. I MOTION IN THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA PHILOSOPHY In the Nyaya-Vaisesika "motion is characterized as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction."] The four material substances, viz. earth, water, fire and air, are capable of motion because of having limited magnitude. According to this philosophy, motion is instantaneous (ksanika) and uproductive of another motion ( svajatfyanarambhaka.3 ) The Vaisesika maintains that every material object moving in a particular direction must by necessary implication possess the quality of impulse (vega), 4 which makes the continuity of its motion in the same direction possible. The quality of impulse is produced in a moving body by its first unit of motion, and so long as the impulse of the body is not neutralized by some other force, it will continue to move in the direction of its original motion.5 Impulse is a type of quality of samskara. It is produced from one motion and leads to an other, just as the mental impression is the product of a previous experience and the cause of a subsequent one, viz. recollection. In regard 1. Anusrenigatih, TS., 2.27, p. 180; Sarva gatirjivanam pudgalanam cakasapradesanusrenirbhavati, visrenirnabhavatiti gatiniyama iti, Ibid. Bha. p. 181; Avigraha jivasya, TS., 2. 28; Vigrahavati ca samsalinah prak caturbhyah, TS., 2. 29, p. 182. 2. Ekadravyamagunam samyogavibhagesvanapeksakaranamiti karmalaksanam, VS., 1. 1. 17. 3. PPBha., p. 290, Gunapadarthanirupanam, 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., p. 266. 6. Samskarastrividhah vego bhavana sthitisthapakasca tatra vego muitimatsu pancasu dravyesu nimittaviscsapeksat karmano jayate niyatadikkriya prabhandhahetuh sparsavaddravyasamyoga-visesa-virodhi-kvacit karanagunapurva kramotpadyate, PPBha., p. 646:

Page #216
Properties of Matter 181 to motion one point is common to both Jaina and NyayaVaisesika systems of thought that the material substances having limited magnitude are capable of motion. OSCILLATION IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES In the physical sciences oscillations of elastic bodies, e. g. the moving piston, the crankshaft, the tree swaying in the wind, the heart beat, the motion of planets, and many others, represent parispandana of Jaina Metaphysics, while motion of modern physics corresponds to gati of the latter. According to the physical sciences, motion is the change of position of a body with them. Absolute rest is unknown, for there is no stationary point in the Universe. Everything is in motion, though one object may be at rest in relation to another. Hence there cannot be absolute rest. Rest is here relative rest; an object is at relative rest with respect to another when it does not change its position in relation to the latter. As for example, kites flying in the sky in a formation are at a relative rest in relation to each other in their continuous motion. motion is relative and the motion of a body involves a change of its position with respect to some known object, as there is no such fixed point in nature. There are stated to be many kinds of motion in the physical sciences. The uniform circular and pendulum motions among them are a class by themselves, while all others terminate, or take a body farther and farther away from its starting point.1 In the cases of circular and pendulum motions the path of a particle is continually retraced after a definite period of tims, they are called periodic motion. The simplest of all periodic motions are those performed by elastic bodies. The instantaneous displacements of the parts of an elastic body, when plotted against the time yield sine or cosine curves, are called harmonic curves. In general, 1. It is the desantaragati of Jaina Metaphysics. 2. It can be compared with ekasamayavigrahagoni, etc.

Page #217
182 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy harmonic motion, may be a composite one in which several periods are present simultaneously. In the presence of a single period the motion is called simple, harmonic motion. Besides, there are stated to be two kinds of motion, viz. translatory and rotatory or both simultaneously. Translatory motion is subdivided into rectilinear and curvilinear motions. Translatory motion takes place in a body when it moves in such a manner that there occurs also such identical motion in its constituent parts that "the line joining any two points of the body always moves parallel to itself when body is in motion. That is, the distance traversed by one point is equal and parallel to the distance traversed by the other point according to the rule that all the points in the body have identical straight line motion, e. g. vertical motion of rain drop or stones from a height, the running of the train on straight rails, the motion of a bullet from a gun." This translatory motion of the physical sciences compares well with the anusreni gati of Jaina Metaphysics. The motion of translation taking place along curved line in the way that any line in the body remains parallel to itself is known to be a curvilincar motion, e. g. the motion of an automobile or of a train rounding a curve. This curvilinear motion corresponds to the visrenigati of Jaina Philosophy.. Rotatory motion takes place when a body turns about a fixed point of axis, e. g. the whirling motion of a stone tied at the end of a string held in the hand. The motion which involves both rotation and translation of an object is called a complex motion resulting from the combination of rotation and translation, e. g. the rolling down of a banking aeroplane in its curved flight in the sky. The vigrahagati and kutilagati of Jaina Metaphysics may be compared to the rotatory and complex motions of the physical sciences respectively. It can be said from the above analysis of motion that in both Jaina Philosophy and modern physics the motion of a body is specified by its successive positions in time. Both of them study motions taking place along a straight line as well

Page #218
Properties of Matter 183 as a curved line, a uniform horizontal motion and a vertical motion of free fall, Jaina Metaphysics goes deep into the problem of motion of matter in all its subtlest forms over and above the translatory, curvilinear, rotatory and complex motions of the physical sciences, as it is suggested by a brief outline of this subject.

Page #219
SIXTH CHAPTER EFFECTS AND MODIFICATIONS OF MATTER FIRST SECTION, EFFECTS OF MATTER As pointed out previously, according to Jaina. metaphysics, Matter exists in Nature, occupying some volume in perceptible and imperceptible conditions within the sensuous and supersensuous experiences in various forms of modifications. Its effects appear as six kayas, viz. prthivikaya (earth-embodiment), apkaya (water-embodiment), tejakaya (fire-embodiment), vayukaya (air-embodiment), vanaspatikaya (plant-embodiment or vegetation) and trasakaya (embodime it of mobile beings), 1 and sarira (gross organic body), vak (speech or voice), manas (mind) and pranapana (respiration), while its manifestations are found to exist in the forms of sabda (sound), bandha (union or combination), sauksmya (fineness), sthaulya (grossness), samsthana (shape), bheda (division), tamas (darkness), chaya (shadow ), atapa (heat, sunray) and udyota (cool light, moonlight).It is to be noted that tamas (darkness), chaya (shadow), atapa (sunshine or hcat) and aloka instead of udyota (moonlight, cool light), have also been accepted as bhautika (material) or rupa (matter) in the Vaibhasika school of the Buddhists on the ground that they are apprehensible to the sense of sight with colour and shape (varna and samsthana). 1. Bhs., 24. 12. 21. 702-707 ff; 25.4. 739; GS., Jivakanda, 182; Sarfravanmanahpranapanah pudgalanam, TS., V. 19, p. 341. 2. Sabda-bandha-sauksmya-sthaulya-samsthana-bheda tamaschayatapodyotavantasza, Ibid., V. 24., p. 356.

Page #220
Effects of Matter Kaya (Embodiment): It is caused by the operation of Karmas which make the bodies of the mobile and immobile beings. They are inseparably connected with the genus (jati)-(body-making karma).2 As mentioned above, it is of six kinds, viz. earth-embodiment upto the embodiment of mobile beings. In the physical sciences also they are regarded as the effects of Matter. Bodies (or embodiments) of earth, water, fire, and air-bodied souls exist (i. e. are formed) by the operation of the earth, water, fire, and air-body-making karmas as a rule with their respective suitable qualities like colour, taste, smell, touch, etc. and materials. 4 185 Having taken into consideration the four kinds of each of the above four embodiments (effects) of Matter, the following divisions are mentioned, viz. (1) earth in general (samanyaprthivf), (2) earth-soul (prthivi-jiva), the soul which is in transmigratory passage, vigrahagati, immediately before being born as earth-bodied, (3) earth-bodied soul, the soul which has taken up an earth-body (prthivi-kayika), and (4) eaithbody (prthivi-kaya). Water, fire and air also are of four kinds, just as earth is described. That is to say, the effects-earth water, fire and air, etc., having the qualities of colour, taste, smell and touch, undergo transformation into bodies (kaya) by the operation of the nama-karmas, such as, prthivi-namakarma, etc. Here karma is energy, which is the attenuated form of matter. According to the physical sciences, "energy, like 1. Vaibhasikadarsana, pp. 67-8; Atapah usnaprakasah suryasya, alokah srtaprakasa indoh Abh., K. 1. 10, Rahulavyakhya. 2. Jai avinabhavitasathavara-udayajo have kayo. 3. So jinamadamhi bhanio pudhavikayadi chabbheyo, GS., Jivakanda, 181. 4. Pudhavi auteuvayukammodayena tattheva Niyavannacaukka judo tanam deho have niyama, GS., Jiva., 182.

Page #221
186 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy matter, is something which exists in Nature, though in different kinds. It pervades throughout this universe, but it has no bulk to be perceived by our senses. It has also no weight and knows no extension or compression."1 It is to be noted that "work, whatever be its nature, can never be produced without expenditure of energy. Energy is, therefore, defined as the cause of work. So, energy and work are synonymous, i. e. what is energy is work and what is work is energy." For this reason "energy is qualitatively measured by work. As work may be of various types, the corresponding energies are differently named, depending on the type of work. The main divisions of energy are mechanical energy (energy possessed by matter on account of position, configuration or motion), heatenergy, sound-energy, light-energy, magnetic-energy, and electric body,"2 i. e. they are the modifications of matter. "Each one of them is transformable in to any other form or forms and this shows the ultimate identicality between different kinds of energy. 8 The bodies of the prthivi-kayika-jiva, etc., are gross or fine due to the operation of gross and fine-body-making karma respectively. As indicated before, a body which resists another body or is resisted by another one is called gross impenetrable body (ghatasarira), while that which does not resist another body nor itself is resisted by another one is called fine body, e. g. X-Ray or Karmana-sartra. Their bodies are cqual to the extent of innumerableth part of a cubic finger. Gross bodies require support, but fine bodies need no support and exist everywhere in the Universe with nothing intervening between them.4 1. Int. Physics, S. C. Ray Chowdhury & D. B. Sinha, Calcutta, 1952, p. 2 2. Ibid., pp. 2-3, 3. Ibid., p. 3. 4. Badarasuhumudayena ya badarasuhuma havasti taddeha Ghadasarfra thulam aghadadeham have suhumam; GS., Jiva., 183.

Page #222
Effects of Matter 187 VANASPATIKAYA (VEGETATION OR PLANT-BODY) Souls become plant-bodied by the operation of the plantbody-making namakarma (energy). They are classified into two groups, viz. pratyeka (one body-one soul) and samanya or sadharana (general or common, i, e. one body, many souls). It is called pratyeka when the owner of one body is one soul. The body in which many souls exist is called sadharana (common body). Individual (body) is sub-divided into pratisthita (host with common parasites) and apratisthita (nonhost without parasites)." Every plant is of two kinds, viz. pratisthita and apratisthita. The pratisthita is that in which many nigoda jivas (minute germs of life) exist besides the existence of one soul as principal in it. The apratisthita is that body where many nigoda jivas do not exist under one single principal soul. Thevegetables which grow from a root (mula), from the shoot (agra) of a plant, from a joint (parva), from a bulb (kanda), from trunk (skandha), from seed (bija) and vegetables which have no such seed as root, etc., (i, e., sarmurcchima) have been declared (to be) individual with host bodies (pratisthita pratyeka) or without them (non-host-apratisthita), e. g. ginger, rose-plant, sugarcane, potato, wheat, grass, etc.2 NIGODASARIRA (MINUTEST BODY)s The nigoda-sariras become group-souled or gross (badara 1. Udaye du vanapphadikammassa ya jiva vanapphaar homti Patteyam samannam paditthidiretti patteyam, GS., JIva., 185, 2. Mulaggaporabija khamda taha khamdhabijabijaruha Sam mucchima ya bhaniya patteyanamtakaya ya, Ibid., 186. 3. Bhs., 25. 5. 749; Jainasiddhanta-bolasamgraha, Pt. II, pp. 19-21; Anantanamasumatamekasuksmanigodbinam Sadharanam sariram yat sa nigoda iti smotah, Lokaprakasa, Sarga 4.33; See Jaina Jnana Mahodadhi, pp. 33 ff; Jyvabhigama, 5. 233.

Page #223
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy nigoda) by the operation of the common-body-making karma. They are of two kinds, viz. gross and fine (badara and suksma).1 In that common body when a soul dies, there takes place the death of infinite souls (with it) and when one is born, there -occurs the birth of infinite souls in it.2 In one human breath (respiration) a soul existing in a nigoda body takes birth and dies a little more than seventeen times.3 The maximum period for the existence of a nigoda sarira is stated to be innumerable crore multiplied by crore sagaras. The body of group-souled vegetables (badaranigodas) are innumerable times more than the spatial units of the Universe.4 188 Trasakaya (Body of mobile beings) All the bodies of the mobile beings are called trasakaya. Those souls which exist in the Universe with two, three, four or five senses should be known as mobile-bodied.5 Sarira (Gross organic Body), Vak (Organs of Speech), Manas (Mind) and Pranapana (Respiration) Matter forms the physical basis of the organic body, the organs of speech, mind and respiration of beings. Forms of Matter are necessarily the auxiliary causes in the formation of body, etc; they also affect each other. There are stated to 1. Saharanodayena nigodasarira havamti Te puna duviha jiva badarasuhumatti vinneya, GS, JIva., 191; Ni-niyatam gam bhumim, ksetram, nivasamanantanantajivanam dadat ti nigodam (That, which is always, is thesea body of infinite souls is called Nigoda). 2. Jatthekam marai jIvo tattha du maranam have anamtanam Vakkama jattha ekko vakkamanam tatthanamtanam, GS., Jiva, 193. 3. Ibid. 4. Vihi tihi caduhi pamcaha sahiya je im diehi loyamhi Te tasakaya jiva neya virobadasena, GS., Jiva. 198. 5. BhS., 24, 17-21 708-712; TS., V. 19. 6. GS., Jfva, m 606. 7. BhS., 25.4. 738; Audarikavaikriyikaharakataijasakarmanani sarirani, TS., ch. II. 37, p. 195, See its Bhasya.

Page #224
Effects of Matter 189) be five kinds of body of the worldly beings, 1 viz. audarika-- sarsra, vaikriyikasarira, aharakasarira, taijasasarira and karmanasartra. (1) That which is born from the womb of mother is called audarikasarira (organic body of men and animals), (2) That which is possessed by the celestical beings. or infernal beings, invisible to the sense of vision and capable of transformation in shape or size is called vaikriyikasarira. (transformation body), (3) A subtle body which is developed. by the highly spiritual yogins and can be thrown or impelled to great distances on special occasions is called aharakasarfra, (4) Taijasasartra is an electric or luminous body the existence of which has been established by the scientific experiments, (5) Karmanasarira is the inner subtle body which forms the basis, of all mental and physical activities. It corresponds to the lingasarira (subtle body) of the Samkhya Philosophy. 11 accompanies Soul from birth to birth and it keeps Soul bound to the confines of the Universe because of the gravitational forces of matter encircling it on all sides. On the destruction of Karma-pudgala (karmic matter), Soul as a perfect eternal! substance moves on fast with an impulse to the Siddhasila and exists there in its perfect state by attaining liberation. Only the audarikasarira (organic body), is perceptible to the senses, as it is gross, whereas the other four are the subtle bodies; the one is subtler than the other by a gradual order, 2 but they are all corporeal.3 The first one is gross. The transforniable body is finer than the gross one, the translocation-body is still finer than the trasformable one. The luminous or electric body is still finer than the translocation or projectable body.And the karmic body4 is still finer than the luminous or elec1. Bhs., 25. 4. 738; TS., II. 37. 2. Param fara i suksmam, TS., 2. 38. 3. Ibid. 4. Tesamaudarikadisariranam param param suksmam veditavyam tadyatha audarikadvaikriyar suksmam vaikriyadaharakam aharakattaijasam taijasatkarmanamititi: TS., Bha., 2. 38.

Page #225
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy tric body. Prior to the luminous body, each has innumerable times the number of space-points of the previous one. That is, "the transformable body has innumerable times more than the number of space-points of gross organic one. The translocation body has iummerable times more than the number of spacepoints of the transformable one. The extent of the multiplying term is one/innumerable part of a palya. If so, the bodies must be successively greater in size. No. There is no difference in size owing to the nature of arrangement of structure, as in the case of heap of cotton and a ball of iron."2 190 "The last two (taijasa and karmana) have infinitefold (spacepoints). The luminous body is infinitefold in (space-points), when compared with the translocation body. And the karmic body is infinitefold in space-points, when compared with the luminous body. The last two (taijasa and karmana-sarira) are non-resisting (without impediment),5 i. e. there is no impediment for these two types of bodies, as these are of a fine nature, they can move upto the last border of the universe without resistance. Just as heat enters a piece of iron, the luminous and karmic bodies meet with no impediment in their transit through adamantine sphere etc. Now, there is no impediment for the transformable and the translocation bodies also. It is true. But there is a difference. In the case of the last two bodies, there is no impediment anywhere upto the end of the 1. Padesato asamkhyeyagunam praktaijasat, TS., 2. 39, p. 197. 2. Tesam sarfranam param parameva, pradesato asamikhyeyagunam bhavati prak taijasat, audarikasarfrapradesebhyo vaikriyasarfrapradesa asamkhyeyagunah vaikriyasarirapra desebhya aharakasarfrapradesa, asamkhyeyagunahTS. Bha., 2.39, p. 197; SS., 2.38 (Comm). 3. Anantaguna pare, TS., 2. 40, p. 198. 4. Sarvarthasiddhi, 2.39; TS. Bha., 2.40. 5. Apratighate, TS,. 2.14, p. 199. 6. Ete dve sarire taijasakarmane anyatra lokantat sarvatrapratighate bhavah, TS. Bha., p, 199; SS.; 2.40 (comm).

Page #226
Effects of Matter 191 universe. But it is not so in the case of the other two, namely, the transformable and translocation bodies."1 The taijasa and karmana sariras (bodies) are of beginning less association.2 "The association is beginningless as well as with a beginning. From the point of view of the series of cause and effect, the association is beginningless. From the particular point of view, it is also with a beginning as in the case of the seed and the plant. The gross, transformable and translocation bodies are associated with Soul at some time or other. But the luminous and karmic bodies are not so, on the other hand, these two are associated with Soul till the attainment of liberation."3 These two bodies are possessed by all the transmigratory souls.4 Some Acaryas5 maintain from the stand-point of Nayavada (consideration of one aspect of a thing) that there is a beginningless relation of the worldly souls with karmanasarira only, but not with the taijasasarira, because of its production from labdhi (mental faculty) commencing with the luminous and karmic bodies, upto four bodies can be had simultaneously by a single soul. The karmic body is not the means of enjoyment.? The gross body is of uterine birth and spontaneous generation.8 The transformable body originates by birth in aupapada) (heavenly special birth-beds); attainment is also the cause of its origin. 10 The luminous body 1. SS., 2.40 (Comm). 2. Anadisambandhau ca, TS., 2.42; Tabhyam taijasakarmana bhyamanadih sambandhah iti, TS. Bha., p. 200. 3. Sarvarthasiddhi, 2.41. 4. Sarvasya, TS., 2.43., p. 200. 5. Ibid. 6. Tadadini bhayani yogapadekasya caturbhyah, TS., 2,44, p. 202. 7. Nirupabhogamantyam, TS., 2.45. 8. Garbhasammurcchanajamadyam, Ibid., 2.46. 9. Vaikriyamaupapatikam, Ibid., 2.47. 10. Labdhipratyayam ca, Ibid., 2, 48.

Page #227
192 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy also is caused by attainment. The projectable body, which is auspicious and pure and without impediment, originates in the saint of the sixth stage only. 2 VAK (SPEECH OR ORGANS OF SPEECH OR VOICE) Acording to Jaina Philosophy, Vak (Speech or Voice) is nonsoul, corporeal, non-sentient and non-living material substance of the beings.3 The two-sensed beings and five-sensed beings receive matter by the sense of taste in the form of language, while the sam join jivas (those which possess consciousness to make a distinction between good and evil) receive infinite manovarganayogyapudgalaskandhas (matters fit to turn into manovargana=mind-dust-or particle) by manahparinama (mental transformation).4 In the medicial science also speech is regarded as material. (It comes out of the larynx or the organ of voice which is trangular box of cartilage and muscles, situated below the pharynx and the root of the tongue. It presents a considerable projection at the upper and front parts of the neck externally. At the upper part of the larynx there is a lid of cartilage called the epiglottis.5 The voice is generated by forcing air from the lungs through the space between two stretched vocal chords which are stretched across the trachea with a narrow vocal slit between them, the edges of the slit acting as 1. Taijasamapi, SS., 2.48 (Comm). 2. Subham visuddhamavyaghati caharaka caturdasapurva dharasyaiva, TS., 2.49. 3. Goyama no aya bhasa anna bhasa, ruvi bhasa no aruvi bhasa...no sacitta bhasa acitta bhasa, no jiva bhasa ajiva bhasa Jivanam bhasa no ajivanam bhasa, Bhs., 13.7.493. 4. Dvindriyadayo jihvendriyasamyogat bhasatvena glhoanti nanye, samjninasca manastvena glhananti nanya iti, TS., Bha., p. 342. *5 Pysiology, p. 82.

Page #228
Effects of Matter 193 reeds. The two vocal chords (membranes) are attached to muscles by which their tension and vibration frequently can be altered. The edges of the membranes are set into vibrations like reeds by the air from the lungs and thus sound is produced, the pitch of which can be altered by altering the tension of the vocal chords, and the quality of which depends upon the air cavities of the nose, throat and mouth, which act as resonators, the shape and the size of which can be varied by the speaker at will. It is similarly explained in the Bhagavatr Vyakhyaprajnapti that speech which is breaking forth while speaking is speech, but not that which was spoken nor that which dies out after the crossing of the speaking time.2 There are stated to be two kinds of vak (speech), viz. dravyavak and bhavavak (physical and psychical speeches). 3 Acarya Pujyapada explains them in this way: There in the psychical speech is material, as it arises on the destructioncum-subsidence (ksayopasama) of energy-obstructing karmas and sensory and scriptural knowledge-obscuring karmas, and on the rise of physique-making karmas of limbs and minor limbs. For in the absence of matter there can be no function of psychical speech. Matter prompted by the active soul endowed with this capacity takes the mode of speech. Hence physical speech is also material. Speech is the object of the sense of hearing. 4 "It is perceived through the senses composed of matter, it is obstructed by material objects like the wall and the others, it is intercepted by adverse wind, and it is overpowered by other material causes."5 In support of his predecessor Akalanka deals with the subject by explaining that psychical speech, being the effect (karya) 1. Int. Physics, S. C. Ray, Chaudhury and D. B. Sinha, p. 571. 2. BhS., 13.7.493. 3. Vak dvividha dravyavakbhavavagiti, ss., p. 286; see Visesavasyakabhasya, 336, 337, 351, 352, 353, 354, 375, 377; N. 5. 6, 8, 9. 4. SS., p. 286. 5. Ibid.

Page #229
194 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy . of Matter, is material (paudgalik) from the point of view of cause (nimitta)". It is material, for it is the object of the auditory sense, just as the thunderbolt, sparkling once, is destroyed again and does not become perceptible to the sense of vision, just so speech, once heard, is not heard again because of being broken forth. Just as inherent colour, taste, etc., even existing in the apprehensible fragrant substance, is not apprehended by the pranendriya (vital organ), just so sound also is not apprehended by the sense-organs like eye, etc.3 MANAS (MIND) Manas (mind) has been accepted by all the Indian systems of thought as the internal sense-organ. There is a difference of opinions among the philosophers in regard to many aspects of it, such as, nature, cause, function, character (dharma), place (sthana), etc. The Vaisesikas, 8 the Naiyayikas4 and their followers, the PurvamImamsakas, 5 have conceived manas as anu (atomic), hence it is eternal, i. e, devoid of cause. The Sankhya-Yoga and their followers the Vedanta have not accepted it as anu; nevertheless, they have admitted it as atomlike and producible, as its origination takes place from ahankara, 6 an evolute of Prakrti or as avidya. According to the Buddhist and Jaina philosophies, manas is all-pervasive, but not atom-like. Both these traditions accept it as having intermediate dimension and producible. The Buddhist philosophy maintains that manas (mind) is vijnanatmaka (consciousness1, Tannimittatvat pudgalakaryatvadityarthah, Rv., p. 469. 2. Punaragrahanas tadiddravyavadasamhatatvat, RV., p. 470. 3. Tadabhavadanu manah, VS., 7. 1. 23. 4. Na, yugapadanekakriyopalabdheh...yathoktahetutvaccanu, NS., 3.2.57-59. 5. Prakaranapancika, p. 151. 6. Yasmat karmendriyani buddhindriyani ca satvikadahanka. radutpadyante, mano'pi tasmadeva utpadyate, Matharavitti, ka. 27.

Page #230
Effects of Matter 195 like) and it is the previous consciousness-like cause of the succeeding consciousness. 1 According to Jaina metaphysics, the physical mind is born of a kind of subtle-non-living substance called manovarganas (mind-particles) and it undergoes changes like the body at every moment, while the psychical mind, because of being characterized by the capacity of knowledge and being knowledge-like, is born of the sentient substance. 2 All the Indian systems of thought hold the view that the function of manas is to causes the birth of the qualities like desire, hatred, pleasure, pain, etc., and their experience, whether these qualities exist in the soul or are of the intellect 3 or self-evident, according to the theories of the Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsaka and Jaina systems of thought, etc., or the doctrine of the Buddhist philosophy, respectively. Manas becomes the cause in the emergence of knowledge brought about by the external sense-organs and in the production of the qualities like knowledge, etc., which are born independently of the external sense-organs. According to the views of all the Indian Philosophies with the exception of the Buddhist view, the dharmas (characters or essentials) like desire, aversion, knowledge, pleasure, pain, impression, etc., do not belong to manas. The Vaiscsikas and the Naiyayikas, the Mimamsakas and the Jainas maintain that these qualities belong to Soul, but the Sakhya-Yoga and the Vedanta hold the views that they belong to the intellect. The Buddhists have accepted manas 1. Vijnanam prativijnaptih mana'ayatanam ca tat. sannama nantaratitam vijnanam yaddhi tanmanah, Abh. K., 16-17; Tattvasangraha, ka. 631; Abh. K., 1, 17 Sphutartha, pp. 40, 41, vide Darsana and Cintana, p. 139. 2. Tasmaccittasya dharma vsttayo natmanah, Sarvadarsana, pata, p. 35. 3. Tamraparniya api hedayavastu manovijnanadhatorasrayam kalpayanti, Abh. K., Sphutartha, p. 41, vide Darsana and Cintana, p. 140.

Page #231
196 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy (mind) in place of the Principle of Self without regarding it as a separate entity, therefore, according to its view, all elements like desire, aversion, knowledge, force, etc. which are called atmadharmas (essentials of soul) or antahkaranadharmas(essentials of internal sense-organ) by different philosophers are the elements of mind. Some philosophies like the Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Buddhistt accept manas (mind) as hrdayapradesavartin (existing in the space-point of heart), while other systems of thought like the Samkhya, etc., hold the view that the place of manas (mind) cannot be stated to be hrdaya (heart), because, according to their traditions, it is entering into the subtle body (lingasarfra) which is itself a special body-like. It is known that the whole gross body should be accepted as the place of the subtle body; therefore, according to this tradition, the place of mind is decided to be the whole body. The Jaina tradition avers that the place of the psychical mind (bhavamana) is Soul only. But there is found the difference of opinion in regard to the physical mind (dravyamana) among the Jainas. The Digambara tradition accepts the physical mind (dravyamana) as existing in the smallest point of the heart, while the Svetambara tradition maintains that the whole gross body is stated to be the seat of the physical mind (dravyamana). 2 So mind is of two kinds, viz. physical and psychical (dravyamana and bhavamana). "The psychical mind characterized by the capacity (for comprehension) and consciousness is material, as it is assisted by matter. Similarly, owing to the destruction-cum-subsidence of knowledge-covering and energyobstructing karmas and the rise of nama-karma of limbs and 1. Abh. K. Sphutartha, p. 41; Vide Darsana and Cintana, p. 140. 2. Sarvarthagrahanam tulana, Pramanamsmamsa, p. 19, pamtim 10 Sarvarthopalabdhaunendriyani prabhavanti iti sarvavisayamantahkaranam manah, NBha., 1. 1. 9; SK., 35; SS 2-11 (comm); SS., 5. 19 (comm).

Page #232
Effects of Matter minor limbs, particles of matter transformed into mind assist the living beings tending to examination of good and evil, remembering things, etc. Hence the physical mind also is material. It is contended by others that mind is a different substance that it is bereft of colour (form), etc., and it is of the size of an atom. Hence it is improper to consider it as matter." This is the Vaisesika view on the concept of mind. Acarya Pujyapada refutes this contention by advancing the argument whether the mind is connected with the senses and the soul or not. "If it is not connected, then it cannot be of assistance to the soul, nor can it be of use to the senses. If it is connected, then the atomic mind connected with one point cannot leave that point and be of use to the other parts (of the soul or the other senses). Nor can it be said to rotate like the potter's wheel on account of an invisible force, as there can be no such capacity. The invisible force (adrsta) is admitted to be the attribute of the non-material and inactive soul. Hence it is also inactive. Being inactive itself, it cannot be the cause of activity elsewhere. For instance, the wind is endowed with activity and touch, and it is naturally the cause of the wafting of plants and trees. But this invisible force is quite different from it and hence it cannot be the cause of activity. 2 Bhavamana is jnana (knowledge), which is the attribute of Soul, so it comes under Soul. "As the physical mind is characterized by colour, taste, smell and touch, it is a modification of matter. The physical mind is characterized by colour, tyste, smell and touch, for it is the cause of knowledge like the sense of sight." 197 Having followed the footsteps of Acarya Pujyapada, Akalanka also deals with the concept of mind by refuting the Samkhya, Buddhist and Vaisesika views regarding it in his 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, V. 19 (comm.) Vide Reality, S. A. Jain p. 145. 2. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 287. 3. Reality S. A. Jain. p. 131; Sarvarthasiddhi V. 3 (Comm)

Page #233
198 The Concept of Matter in Jaipa Philosophy own manner. He rejects the Samkhya view of mind as the modification of the Praksti (Primordial Matter) by stating that when Prakrti itself is non-sentient, then its modification also will be non-sentient, hence like jar, etc. it will not be able to perform the function like examining good or evil, remembering, etc. Mind is karana (organ) of activity like thought. Then who will be the doer of this activity ? Whether is it Prakrti or Purusa (Self)? Purusa is attributeless, therefore, there cannot be the modification of Sattva (Essence) in it like thought, memory, etc. Praksti is non-sentient, hence there cannot be the sentient activities like thought, remembering, etc., in it also. Mahat (intellect), ahankara (ego), etc., the modifications of Praksti, are different from it, then the postulation of the identity of effect and cause stands refuted. If it is non-different, then there remains only Prakrti from which no modification is possible at all. Therefore, they cannot become mind. 1 Next Akalanka refutes the Buddhist theory of mind which is conceived as separate entity called vijnanarupa (pure consciousness-like), i.e. that which is upadana-bhutajnana-ksana (material cause of past knowledge-inoment) of cognitions is called mind (manas). But in the Buddhist view, when jnana (knowledge) is momentary, it cannot apprehend the object at the present moment; then what is to speak of the previous knowledge ? When the present knowledge does not maintain any relation with the prior and posterior consciousness, then how can it examine good and evil, remembering, etc. ? Recognition of an object experienced by oneself is made by one who has seen it in the past, but there is no possibility of the recognition of the object experienced by others or that of the object unexperienced by himself. In the case of the advocates of momentarism this succession of remembrance (recognition) cannot take place. Santana (issue or continuity) is nonsubstantial. Therefore, with regard to it there is no rational 1. Pradhanavikara iti cet, na; acetanatvat, TRV., v. 19 (comm)., p. 478.

Page #234
Effects of Matter ground for making the possibility of remembrance, etc. When purvajnanarupamana (previous knowledge-like mind) is not existent at the present time, then how can it perform the functions like examining good and evil, remembering, etc.? If the seed-like store-house of consciousness (alayavijnana) is accepted as permanent, then the doctrine of momentariness stands refuted. If it is momentary, then it cannot also be the support of remembrance, etc. 1 Akalanka has followed the same procedure of his predecessor Acarya Pujyapada for refuting the Vaisesika view of mind. 2 In modern psychology mind has been conceived as physical and psychical, just as it is accepted in Jaina Philosophy, as the evolution-theory demands and mind-dust.3 William James makes the assumption that our mental states are composite in structure, made up of smaller states con-joined."4 "Theory of 'mind-stuff' is the theory that our mental states are compounds, expressed in its most redical form."5 "Each atom of the nebula...must have had an aboriginal atom of consciousness linked with it; and just as the material atoms have formed bodies and brains by massing themselves together, so the mental atoms, by an analogous process of aggregation, have fused into those larger consciousness which we know in our selves and suppose to exist in our fellow-animals." So according to this doctrine of atomistic hylozoism, "there must be an infinite number of degrees of consciousness, following the degrees of complication and aggregation of the primordial mind-dust."? This mind-dust can be compared well with 1. Vijnanamiti cet, na; that samarthyabhavat (32), RV., pp. 472-3. 2. RV., pp. 471-472. 3. The Principles of Psychology, pp. 145. ff. 4. Ibid., p. 145. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., p. 147. 7. Ibid.

Page #235
200 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy manovarganas, which constitute manas (mind) as conceived in Jaina Metaphysics. The comparative study of these brief outlines of the Indian concepts of mind reveals that the Jaina concept of mind has made a synthetic approach to this problem from the physical and psychical points of view like modern psychology. PRANAPANA (RESPIRATION) Pranapana (respiration) is material, Acarya Pujyapada explains the point in this manner "The soul wishing for the destruction-cum-subsidence of energy-obstructing karmas and the rise of nama-karmas of limbs and minor limbs, exhales air from the lungs, and it is called the breath of life (prana). The same soul inhales air from the atmosphere and it is called the breath of inhalation (apana). Thus these also are helpful to the soul, as these enable the soul to live.". The exhaled air and inhaled air must be understood to be material. They meet with resistance, etc., by objects. Respiration is obstructed by covering the face with the palm or cloth. It is also obstructed by phlegm. But a non-material substance cannot be obstructed by material objects. In the medical science also the Jaina view of the material nature of respiration is fully supported. The respiratory apparatus consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and pleurae.? When one breathes in air, it goes through the trachea and bronchi to the air-sacs of the lungs, which are surrounded by blood capillaries. "According to the property of diffusion the oxygen inside the alveoli and the carbon dioxide in the capillaries interchange themselves through the thin membranes. As the oxygen inside the alveoli is taken by the blood, the air inside the lungs must be renewed to bring in a fresh supply of oxygen and the waste products, such as, carbon dioxide must 1. SS., V. 19 (comm). 2. Human Anatomy, p. 1016.

Page #236
Effects of Matter also be thrown out of the body." The first process by which one breathes in air is called inspiration, i. e. the Jaina 'apana', and the second one by which the impure air inside the lungs is thrown out is called expiration which corresponds to the Jaina 'prana'. This combined process of inhaling and exhaling air is called respiration, i. e. the Jaina 'apana and prana'. The absorption of oxygen by the red corpuscles of the blood and the removal of waste products, such as, carbon dioxide and water, take place in the lungs by this process of respiration. 1. Human Anatomy, p. 1016. 201

Page #237
SECOND SECTION MANIFESTATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS OF MATTER Manifestations of Matter take the forms of sabda (sound), bandha (combination), sauksmya (fineness), sthaulya (grossness), samsthana (shape or figure), bheda (division), tamas darkness), chaya (shadow), atapa (sun-shine, heat) and udyota (moonlight, cool light).1 Sabda (Sound)-The cause of Labda (sound)-natural or artificial, has been pointed out to be the striking of molecules (skandhas) against one another, i. e. "sound is generated by molecules when they strike one another, which may be natura or artificial (hence sound may be indirectly associated with: atoms also)."2 According to the Samkhya Philosophy3, sabda (sound) is tanmatra (infra-atomic or potential energy) which generates akasa (ether), because of being a radicle or centre encircled by masses (Bhutadi), while the Vaibhasika school* of the Buddhists maintains that sabda (sound) as an object of the sense of hearing is one of the fifteen kinds of Rupa (Matter). The Nyaya1. Sabdabandhasauksmyasthaulyasamsthanabhedatamaschayaatapodyotavantasca, TS., V. 24; Saddandhayara ujjoo, paha chaya atavo i va, Utta., 28. 12; Saddo bamidho suhamo thulo samthana bhedatamachaya Ujjodadavasahiya puggaladavvassa pajjaya, DS., 16. 2. Saddo khamdhappabhavo khamdho paramanusamgasamghado Puttesu tesu jayadi saddo uppadayo niyado, PS., 86. 3. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 26; Sadvisesah tadyatha sabdatanmatram etc., Vyasabhasya, Sutra 19, pada II; Ahankarad-sabdatanmatram...etc., Pravacanabhasya, Ch. I, Su. 62. 4. Sabdascanye nava dvidha, Abh. K. I. 34.

Page #238
Effects of Matter 203 Vaigerika conceived sabda (sound) as the quality of akasa (space or ether). The Mimamsakas of the Bhatta school accept sabda (sound) as a substance on the basis of the fact that it is perceived independently and directly and it exists as a self-subsistent real and it does not have the criterion of quality of being perceived invariably as dependent upon a substance substratum. The Mimamsaka view of dependence is refuted by the Nyaya-Vaisesika on the ground that the perception of substance is not the essential pre-condition of the perception of quality and the dependence of quality upon the substance is not the exclusive criterion of a quality because every positive real except an eternal substance is dependent upon some substratum for its very existence.3 The Nyaya-Vaisesika maintains that whiteyer p); 3; 1 of a universal (jatimat) and is cognizabl by some external sense other than the visual sense, is a quality.4 Therefore, sound (sabda) is a quality.5 It is not an incomposite 1. Sabdalingavisesadvisesalingabhavacca, VS., II. 2. 30; Tatrakasasya gunah sabdasamkhya, PPBha., p. 23. 2. Viyadgunatvam sabdasya kecid usurmanisinah, pratyaksa divirodhah, tad-Bhattapadairupeksetam, tatra gunasya sarva tra sasrayatapratlyamanatvad iha ca nirasrayatayai'va pratitidarsanat pratyaksavirodbah ..sabdo dravyam sattve satyanasrayatvat kalavat, Manameyodaya of Narayana Bhatta, ed. Trivandrum, 1912, p. 91. 3. Asritatvam ca'nyatra nityadravyebhyah, PPBha., p. 16, cf. Asritatvam gunatve hi na prayojakam isyate santamapi padarthanam asritatvasya sambhavat. Dikkalaparamanvadinityadravyatirekinah asritah sad-apisyante padarthah kanabhojina, NM., Pt. I, p. 210. 4. Studies in Nyaya-Vaisasika Metaphysics, p. 167. 5. Bahyendriyagrahyatvena pratibandhat, Sabdo guno jati mattve sati asmadadibahyacaksusapratyaksatvat gandhavat

Page #239
204 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy substance nor a composite one, for the incomposite substance, e. g. atom, or space, or time, or soul, is intangible to the external sense. 1 It is eternal because of being uncaused, but sound is non-eternal, for it is generated under specific conditions. 2 It is stated to be the product having Akasa (ether or space) as its constitutive substratum. But the idea that substance produced by and inhering in a single substance is inconceivable, since one of the conditions of production, viz. the conjunction of constitutive factors, which is the asamavayikarana, is lacking."3 Hence sound is not a substance. According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, it is the specific quality of Akasa (space or ether). According to the physical sciences, sound as the manifestation of Matter is conceived as energy of it. This view is identical with the Jaina conception of sound as the manifestation of Pudgala (Matter). It usually originates in vibrating bodies and that the vibrations are transmitted through the surrounding elastic medium, usually air, as wave motion of the longitudinal type. When the compressional sound waves are passing through air, the amplitude of the vibratory motion of the layers of particles is surprisingly small, being only about 10-8 cm for a sound that is barely audible.''4 This view of the origination of sound as explained in the physical sciences is yadi tu niravayavadravyam syat babyendriyagrahyam na syat niravayayadravyasya, NLV., pp. 274-5; SM., pp. 190-1. 1. NLV and NLVK., p. 275. 2. Anityascayam karanatah, VS., II. ii. 28; Karanata utpatterdsstatvaditi sesah upalabhyate hi bheridandasamyogadibhyah pradurbhavan sabdah, tatha cotpattimattvadanityo ayamiti yadva karanata iti karanavattva hetumupalaksayati, VSU., Ibid. 3. Ekadravyatvanna dravyam, VS., II. ii. 23; see Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 169. 4. Physics-Principles and Application, 38, 1, p. 560.

Page #240
Effects of Matter similar to the Jaina view of the generation of sound as a result of the striking of molecules against one another. 205 Kinds of Sabda (Sound) : According to Jaina metaphysics, there are mainly two kinds of sound, viz. bhasatmaka (sound incorporated in languages) and abhasatmaka (sound which does not find place in languages)'. The former is sub-divided into two kinds, viz. aksaratmaka (articulate utterance of speech) and anaksaratmaka (sound made by creatures or by the Kevalins), while the latter is also of two kinds, viz. prayogika. (sound produced by human beings with the help of musical instruments, i. e. musical sounds) and vaisrasika (natural sounds, such as, the roaring of the thunder or the rippling of water and the noises in generul). The prayogika sabda (artificial or applied sound) is further sub-divided into four kinds, viz. tata (musical sound of table or drum, i. e. a stretched membrance), vitata (musical sound of stringed instruments), ghana (musical sound produced by reed instruments, such as, harmonium, sound from bell) and susira (sound produced from wind instruments, organ pipes or conch)*. According to modern accoustics, sound is divided into two classes, viz. musical sounds and noises. Prayogika sabdas of Jaina metaphysics, viz. tata, vitata, ghana and susira correspond to the musical sounds of modern physics, while vaisrasika sabdas (natural sounds), such as, roaring of thunder, etc., include the noises-sounds of modern accoustics. Bhasatmaka-sabda (sound incorporated in languages) forms a distinct class-by itself, but it may be placed under the category of the noises of modern accoustics. The subdivisions of musical sound into the vibrations of membranes, strings, rods and plates and air columns of the physical sciences correspond respectively to the 1. Sabdo dvedha bhasalaksanaviparitatvat, RV., p. 485. 2. Bhasatmaka ubhayatha aksarikrtetaravikalpat, Ibid., p. 485. 3. Abhasatmako dvedha prayogavisrasa nimittatvat, Ibid,, p. 485; Tatra vaisrasiko valahakadiprabhavah, Ibid. 4. Prayogascaturdha tatavitataghanasusirabhedat, RV., p. 485.

Page #241
206 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy following kinds of sound of Jaina metaphysics, viz. tata, vitata, ghana and susira. PITCH, INTENSITY, QUALITY AND WAVE OF SOUND AND ITS PROPAGATION It is explained that Bhasa (sound incorporated in languages or speech) is of the beings, it originates from the body, it is of the shape of vajra (thunderbolt) and it reaches the last border of the universe. Bhasa having originated from the body, breaks forth by two samayas (instants). There are stated to be mainly two kinds of Bhasa viz. paryaptika (developed) and aparyaptika (undeveloped). Paryaptikabhasa has been subdivided into two kinds, viz. satyabhasa (true language) and mosabhasa (wrong or false language). They are again divided and sub-divided into many kinds, such as, janapadasatya, samyagsatya, sthapanasatya, namasatya, rupasatya, etc. In reality there are two kinds of Bhasa, viz. dravyabhasa (physical speech) and bhavabhasa (psychical speech)2. Dravyabhasa is sub-divided into the following groups, viz. grahanam (speech received by the self through transformation), nihsarana (that which is emitted by the action of lungs, throat, ete.) and paraghatabhasa (speech sent out by the action of transformation by those emitted physical vocal substances). Beings receive bhasa. 1. Bhasa nam jivaiya sarTrappabhava, vajjasamthiya, logamtapajjavasiya pannavatta-Pannavana, Bhasapada, ii, 386. 2. Pannavana, Bhasapada, 387, 388-90; Namal-nikkheva, cauro caurehi ettha nayavva Davve tiviha gahanam tahaya nisiranam paraghayo, BR., 2; Pahannam davvassa ya, appa hannam taheva kiriyanam Bhavassa ya alambiya, gahanaisu davvavavacso, BR. 11; Uvauttanam bhasa, nayavva ettha bhavabhasatti Uvaogo khalu bhavo,nuvaogo davvamitti kattu, BR. 12.

Page #242
jat Erects of Matter 7.207 dravya (vocal substance or speech-substance) from six directions.1 The nihsaranadravya-bhaga identical with the voice or speech of the medical science emitted by the beings. Intensity of Emitted Speech (Bhasa): Bhasa breaks forth with gentile efforts, i. e. with low intensity; some speeches are emitted with intense effort and some are unbroken, i. e. continuous. The broken (emitted) speeches go to the last border of the Universe, getting increased and increased infinitefold. That is to say, some healthy speaker emits bhagadravya (speechsubstances or vocal substances) with intense effort out of liking and they are broken forth into parts by the efforts of receiving and throwing out matters, while some sick person emits gross particles of unbroken (continuous) spcech-substance with gent effort out of disliking. These particles of unbroken speechsubstance, getting increased infinitefold on account of fineness and manifoldness and association with other material substances go to th: last borders of the Universe in six directions, i.e. spread to the last borders of the Universe.2 In other words, a 1. Goyama thiyaim ginhai, no atthiya im ginhai...davvao vi ginhai khettao vi kalao vi, bhavao vi ginhai, PV., Bbasa. pada, 11. 395; Bhasakanam niyamattrasanadyamavasthanena tesam saddiggatanam eva pudgalanam grahanasambhavat, alapakascatra prajnapanayamevanusandheyah, Bhagarahasya, Tika, p. 2. 2. Puttham sunei saddam ruvam puna pasai aputtham tu... (336) ni. 5, p. 130; chikkain ciyam ginhai saddadavvaim (337) Jan tain Bhasa samasedhio saddam Jam sunai misayam sunai Visedhi puna saddam sunai niyama paraghac 35, Ni 6 Sedhi paesapamti vadato savvassa saddisim tao jasu vimutta dhavai bhasa samayammi padhamammi (352) Bhasasamasedhithio tabhasamisiyam sunai saddam taddavvabhaviyaln annaim sunai vidisattho (353) Anusedhigamanao padighayabhavo animitao

Page #243
208 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy being emits speech-substances which it receives for speaking as borken and unbroken (bhinna and abhinna).1 Those speechsubstances, being emitted, touch the last borders of the Universe, getting increased and increased infinitefold. The unbroken speech-substances, having crossed countless points of immersion, breaks forth and having gone to countable yojanas die out in the horizon. Paraghata Bhasa-dravya : There takes place the force (vasana) called paraghata (impact or striking-wave) of the prayoga-vasana-yogya-dravyas (speech-substances pronounced with the efforts of palatals, etc.'. That paraghatabhasa is emitted as being generated by the striking of speechsubstances against one another out of straight line (i. e. in a curved line) due to the fineness of emitted speech-substa Samayamtaranavatthanao ya mukkaim na sunei (354) Tivihammi sarframmi Jivapaesa havamti Jivassa Jehi ugenhai gahanam to bhasai bhasao bhasam, ni 8 Oraliyaveuvviya abarao genhai muyai bhasam saccam saccamosam ca asaccamosam ca (375), ni 9 Anahigaya ja tisu vi saddo ciya kevalo accasusa eya sabheyalakkhana sodaharana jaha sutte (377) V. Bhasya. Bhinnai koi nisirai, tivvapayatto paro abhinnaim Bhinnai jamti logam anamtagunavuddhijuttaim, Bhasarahasya, 5; Goyama ! bhinnaim pi nisirai abhinnam pi pisirai jaim bhinnaim nisirai taim anamtagunaparivuddhie parivuddhamanaim loyamtam, phusamti, Pannavana, Bhasapada, 11. 398. 1. PV., Bhasapada, 11. 398. 2. Bhijjamti abhinnaim, avagahanavaggana asam khijja gamtum va joyanain, samkhijjaim vitijjamti", Bhasarahasya, 6; Jaim abhinnais nisirai taim asamkhijjao ogahanayagganao gamta bhedamavajjasti sarkhejjain joyanajs viddhamsamavajjamti, Pannavana, Bhasapada, 11. 398.

Page #244
Effects of Matter 209 nces from the going in a straight line (anusreni-avagahana). Paraghataline (sama bhasa-kadigapeksa-pradhvara sroni). So it is stated in the Niryukti that paraghatabhasa goes in a curved line. 1 lu regard to the propagation of sound the early NyayaVaisesika philosophers maintain that the first sound, generated by the impact of vibrating molecules of sonorous bodies against contiguous molecules of air in the substrate Akasa2 generates sound in the contiguous Akasa and the second sound a third sound and so on, just as waves produced in water or ocean, until the last sound causes a vibration in the ear-drum (karnasaskuli). This propagation of sound is effected by the air-wave as its carrier. Akasa is immobile, but the air-wave is not transmitted without the inter-connecting of air-molecules by Akasa. Udyotakara3 holds the view that the first sound 1. Bhasa samasedhio saddam jam sunai misayam sunai Visedhi puna saddam sunei niyama paraghae, Bhasarahasya, 10. 2. Sabdo ambaragunah samyogavibhagah sabdajah...sthana vayusamyogapeksamanat sthanakasasamyogat varnotpattih avarnaksano api bheridandasamyogapeksat bheryakasasamyogat utpadyate, PPBho., p. 156; Venu parvavibhagat venvakalavibhagacca sabdacca sanyogavibhaganispannat vicisantanavat sabdasantana ityekam santanena srotrapradesamagatasya grahanan, Ibid., VIcyantaramupajayate tato apyanyat tatopyanyadityanepa kramena vicisantano bhavati, nanvesa kalpana kutah siddhyatityah, etc. NK. p. 157. 3. Parisesat tu santanasiddhih/tatradyah sabdah samyoga vibhagahetukah tasmat sabdantarani kadambagolakanyayena sarvadikkani tebhyah pratyekamekaikah sabdah mandataratamadinyayenasraya pratibandhamanuvidhiyamanah pradurasti, tato antyasyatimandyat sabdantarotatti saktivighato yena pratibandhat bhavati, Udyotakara, 11.2.14, NV., p. 286.

Page #245
210 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy produces indefinite number of sounds in all directions, not one sound in a circle; each of them generates again another one and so on, in such a way that sound expands by successive concentric spherical layers, just as kadambakoraka (bud of the Nancha Kadamba) expands by successive concentric spherical layers of filaments, shooting forth from one another. Of these two hypotheses the first air wave implied in the transmission of sound is of the transverses waves, while the second is of longitudinal waves. In the orthodox Mimamsaka view of Sabarasvamin the air-wave forming physical sound signifies a series of conjunctions and disjunctions of air-particles with rarefaction and condensation and suggests longitudinal waves. 1 Sound dies out at last with the growing of the momentum of the impact of series feebler and feebler in the course of transmission of sound through the air-particles. Another view is that the propagation of sound is not effected from molecule to molecule, but it spreads in ever expanding circles, just as evidenced in water-waves, perbaps in spherical layers by the compression of masses of air, the waves of which are very fast.2 There is a striking similarity between the Jaina view and the Nyaya-Vaisesika theory on the wave of sound and its propagation. Both of them agree on the point that sound becomes refracted as well as diffracted according to the cause of its generation. It increases infinitefold on account of fineness and manifoldness and association with other substances, like air, etc., and expands in all directions and go to the last borders of the Universe. The unbroken (continuous sound attains division and dies out at last; after crossing countable distance with the growing of the momentum of the impact of series 1. Vicitaranganyayena tadutyabhittistu kirttita kadambako rakanyayadutpatti kasyacinmate, Bhasapariccheda, Si. 165, Visvanatha. 2. Yatha, "adyasabdena kadambagolakavad dasadisi dasasabda arambhante taisca dasasabda-santana iti, Tattvacintamani, Ganesa.

Page #246
Effects of Matter 211 feebler and feebler. But there is the difference between the two views on the fundamental point that sound is accepted as the quality of Akasa in the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, while it is conceived as the manifestation of Matter in Jaina metaphysics. The Jaina theory of wave of sound and its propagation is well supported by modern physics. It is explained that "sound waves, of course, exhibit the properties of reflection, refraction, and diffraction characteristic of all forms of wave motion. Such behaviour of sound waves may be rendered visible by the method of spark photography. The waves passing before the photographic plate are illuminated for a brief interval by a timed electric spark. The slight increase in density in the condensation in the wave front causes some refraction of the eight and thus produces a shadow in the photograph."? "If a train of waves is filling a medium, a surface connecting at a given instant all particles which are in the same phase of vibration constitutes a wave front. In the case of sound waves in air, the vibrating source being quite small, such a surface will be spherical; and if the distance from the source is large, a small portion of this spherical wave front may be considered as a plane wave. If the medium is homogeneous and isotropic, the direction of propagation is always at right angles to the wave front."9 "The behaviour of the wave fronts as a uniform medium, bends around obstacles (diffraction), rebounds from a surface (reflection), or changes direction when entering a new medium (refraction) may be predicted by using a simple, method first proposed by Huygens (1629-1695), a contemporary of Newton."9 According to his principles, "every point on a wave 1. Physics-Principles and Applications Margenau, Watson and Montgomery, 38, 1, p. 560. 2. Physics--Principles and Application, p. 552. 3. Ibid.

Page #247
212 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy front may be considered to be a new source of disturbance from which spherical wave-lets issue."? Here is the point which is explained by Jaina philosophy in this way that paraghata bhasadravyas (generated sound-particles or waves by striking) increase infinitefold and expand and go in a straight line, a: curved line and a parallel line or in mixed line to all directions. BANDHA (BINDING) Bandha is the binding of various forms of substance by the force of which they draw together and stick. It is of two kinds, viz. vaisrasika (natural) and prayogika (mechanical or that brought about by human efforts). The first one is caused by the mixture of smooth and rough particles of matter (i. e. positive and negative electric charges) in lightning, meteoric showers, rainfall, fire, rainbow, etc. The second one is twofold combination of non-living things and combination of living and non-living substances, as for instance, the combination of non-living things, resin, wood and so on. Jivajsvavisayabandha (combination of living and non-living objects) may result from (i) karma producing eight kinds of bondage corresponding to eight kinds of karma, viz. (i) jnanavaraniyakarma (knowledge-onscuring karma up to antarayakarma (energyhindering karma) and (ii) no-karma (which aids the fruition of karmas), which is classified into alapana (fastening of a rope, 1. Physics--Principles and Applications, p. 552. Reflection of Waves; "The law of reflection for a wave front incident upon a smooth obstructing surface may be obtained by application of Huygens' principle (Physics, p. 553) Refraction of Waves; "When a wave front passes obliquely from one medium into another in which it travels with a different velocity, its direction will change. This is. the phenomena of refraction." Ibid., p. 556.

Page #248
Effects of Matter 213 or chain to a chariot), alepana (painting the wall, etc.) samslesa (joining of pieces of wood together by a carpenter), sarirabandha ( the binding of limbs in a body ) and sarfri-bandha (the binding of different bodies). 1 Vaisrasikabandha (natural binding or combination) is either anadi (beginningless), i.e. the binding combination of the whole mass or Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of Rest) and Akasa (Space), or adimat (that which has a beginning because of its origination from a definite cause), e. g. the combination of different colours, in a rainbow, production of lighting, the shooting stars, and the formation of clouds. The whole half of a quarter of each Dharma. Adharma and Akasa (Principles of Motion, Rest and Space) may be said to contain different parts which are attached to another. Thus there are nine kinds of binding or combination which are eternal.2 Besides, there is misrabandha (prayoga-visrasa), e.g. bandha (binding) of pillar, jar, etc., caused by human effort and non-living material substances. 1. Goyama ! duvihe bamdhe pannatte, tamjaha-paogaba dhe ya visasa bamdhe ya ; visasabamdhe . duvihe pannatte, tamjabasaiya-visasabamdhe ya anaiya-visasabardhe ya, etc., BhS., 8.9. 344-347; Khamdho' api dvedha visrasaprayogabhedat, adya dvedha adimadanadivikalpat, visrasa vidhiviparyaye pipatah prayogah purusakayavanmanahsamyogalaksanah prayogikah sa dvedha ajsvavisayo jivajivavisayasceti jivajivavisayah karma no-karmabandhah karmabandho jnanavarana dirasta, no-karmabandhah pamcavidhah-alapanalepanasanslesa sarfrasariri bhedat", RV., V. 24, 6.7.8.9; p. 487. 2. Kstsno dharmastikayah tadardham desah ardbardham pradesah evam adharmakasayoh, dharmadharmakasana. mekasah traividhyannavavidhah, RV., V. 24. 7, p. 487 3. Prayogavisrasabhyam jivaprayogasahacaritacetanadravya parinatilaksanah stambhakumbhadirmisrah, TS., p. 360.

Page #249
2:4 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy OTHER MANIFESTATIONS OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCE Sauksmya (Fineness) : Sauksmya is the subtle manifestation of the material substances. It is of two kinds, viz. antya (absolute or extreme) and apeksika (relative). Antya (extreme fineness) is found in indivisible ultimate atoms. Instances of relative fineness are the wood apple, myrobalan, plum, etc. 1 Sthaulya (Grossness) : Sthaulya is the gross manifestation of the material substances. It is also of two kinds, viz. antya (absolute or extreme) and apeksika (relative). The example of extrema grossness is the biggest molecule of matters pervading the entire Universe, while the instances of relative grossness. are the plum, myrobalan, wood apple, palmyra fruit, etc. 2 Samsthana (Shape): Samithana is the shape of the material substance. It is of two kinds, viz. ittham (that which can be defined) and anittham (that which cannot be defined). The regular geometrical shapes or figures, such as, circle, triangle, rectangle, square, globe, etc., are the instances of the first variety. The clouds, etc., may be of various irregular shapes, which cannot be exactly described. They are the instances of the second variety. 3 Bheda (Division) : Bheda is the division of the material substances. It is of six kinds, viz. utkara (e. g. sawing a piece of wood), curna (e. g. grinding barley and wheat into flour), khanda (e. g. breaking up of pitcher into different potsherds), curnika (c. g. separating the chaft from rice, pulses, etc.) pratara (e. g. dividing mica into many layers or slices) and 1. Tatrantyam paramanunam, apeksikam bilvamalakabadara dinam, ss., 5. 24 (Comm), See RV., 5.24; 10; p. 488. 2. Sthaulyamapi dividham antyamapeksikam ceti tatrantyam jagadvyapins mahaskandhe apeksikam badaramalakabilva taladisu, Ibid., See, RV., p. 488. 3. BhS., 25. 3. 723; SS., p. 296.

Page #250
Effects of Matter 215 anucatana (e. g. causing spark of fire to fly out from a glowing ball of iron, etc.)? Tamas (Darkness) : As pointed out before, Tamas (darkness) is conceived as material in Jaina metaphysics. Besides, the Jaina view regarding it has been supported by the Vedic and Buddhist works. In the Jaina Agarna Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti it is stated that "Day is bright and night is dark (Diya ujjoe ratim amdhayare), because in the day time there is auspicious inatter, the transformation of which is auspicious, while at the night time there takes place the transformation of inauspicious matter. Here the purport of this statement is this that both light and darkness are material. Acarya Pujyapada has defined Tamas as the antithesis of light and the cause of obstruction to vision. It is not the negation of light. In the physical sciences also it has been demonstrated that there exist infra-red rays in complete darkness and "they can be perceived by the eyes of a special photographic plate." "In the absence of these dark rays it is not possible to have photography in pitch darkness.":4 Chaya (Shadow): Chaya (shadow) results from the obstruction of light by an object. The Vaibhasika school also accepts chaya (shadow) as Rupa (matter) having colour and shape. It is of two kinds, viz. images as seen in a mirror and univerted images like shadows. In the first instance of these two the left side becomes right and the right side becomes left.5 The produc1. Pam zavihe bhee pannatte tamjaha khan dabhee payarabhee cunniyabhee anutaaiyabhee, ukkariyabhee, etc., PV., 399 400; SS., p. 296. 2. Diya subha poggala subhe poggalapariname ratim asubha poggala asubhe poggalapariname, Bhs., 5. 9. 224. 3. Tamo drstipratibandhakaranam prakasavirodhi, ss. 5.24 (Comm). 4. Cosmology Old and New, p. 195. 5. Chaya prakasavarananimitta sa dvedha, varnadivikara parinata pratibimbamatratmika ceti, SS, 5. 24 (Comm).

Page #251
216 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy tion of shadow is explained by the physicists in the following manner. "An opaque obstacle in the path of the rays of light casts a shadow because the rays are obstructed and are unable to enter casts a shadow because the rays are obstructed and are unable to enter the region of the shadow. The images formed by lenses and mirrors are of two kinds called virtual and real. The example of a virtual image is the image seen in a looking glass, whereas the example of the latter is the images in a cinema screen. In the case of virtual image the rays appear to come from the image, whereas in the case of a real image, the rays do actually come from it, i. e, energy manifests itself in the form of shadows and images, virtual and real."'i The Jaina conception of chaya (shadow) differs from that of modern physics, for the Jainas accept chaya as material on the ground that it is apprehensible to the sense of sight with its colour and shape, while modern physics holds the view that an opaque obstacle in the path of the rays of light casts a shadow, as the rays are obstructed on its way to the entry into the region of the shadow. Atapa (warm light or heat, sunshine) and Udyota (cool light, moonlight etc.) Atapa is heat and light combined emanating from the sun, fire, etc.2 while udyota is light emitted by the moon, the firefly (glow worm), jewels, etc. 3 It is a well known fact in the Jaina system of thought that the sunrays and moon-light are natural. They make space bright, cause to shine and make it hot and illustrious by their respective lights in six directions. 4 Some hold the view that the sunrays are sometimes resisted by 1. Cosmology Old and New, pp. 88-89. 2. Atapa adityadinimitta usnaprakasalaksanah, ss., p. 296. 3. Udyotascandramanikhadyotadiprabhavah prakasah, SS p. 296. 4. BhS., 8. 8. 344; Suriyapannatti, 3. 24, 25, 26, 28; Canda pannatti 28.

Page #252
Effects of Matter 217 matters which come into contact with it. This division of prakasa (light energy) into atapa (warm light) and Udyota (cool light) is made on a scientific basis. The first one is preponderant in heat-rays and the second one in light-rays. According to modern physics, "heat is a form of energy and may be measured in energy units.". It may correspond to atapa of Jaina Metaphysics, but atapa denotes both heat and warm light. From earlier recorded times up through the period of Newton's and Huygen's great discoverites, i. e. to about 1700, practically all thinking about the physical world was confined to the fields of mechanics and light. Prior to 1678, when Huygens studied the possibilities of a wave theory, it was commonly believed that light consists of corpuscles shooting out in straight lines from a luminous source. The ancient Greek philosophers knew such facts as the regular reflections of light at a smooth surface where the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence; they knew qualitatively about the refraction of light at a surface separating two transparent media, such as air and water, and the apparent straight-line, or rectilinear propagation of light. All these facts could be explained quite well by a corpuscular theory'3 of Newton that light travels in a straight line. The value of the Jaina theory of atapa and udyota lies in the fact that it touches upon both heat and light theories in a nascent form. MODIFICATION OF MATTER Dravya (Substance) is one entity, while Dravya-Paryaya (modification of substance) is of two kinds, viz. jivadravyaparyaya (modification of living substance) and ajsvadravyaparyaya (modification of non-living substance). There exist 1. Ta je nam puggala suriyassa lessam phusasti te nam puggala suriyassa lessam padinamti, Suryaprajnapti, 3.26 2. Physics, p. 248. -3. Ibid., p. 588.

Page #253
218 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy guna (quality) and paryaya (mode or modification) in Dravya (Substance); the Jaina paryaya belonging to both Dravya (substance) and guni compares well with the Praksti-parinama (transformation or modification of the Primordial Matter) of the Samkhya philosophy, though there is some difference of views between them. According to Jaina Philosophy, there is paryaya of Jivadravyas and ajivadravyas (living and non-living substance), while the Samkhya maintains that there takes place the transformation of Acetana Prakrti (Non-Sentient Principle). The difference between Cetana and Acetana, i. e. ji vadravya and ajivadravya is marked by sentiency and non-sentiency respectively as existing in them. In Jaina metaphysics parinamavada (the theory of evolution or transformation) also is advocated; dravyaparinama (transformation of substance) and gunaparinama (transformation of quality) occur as a result of natural conditions (vaisrasika) or due to the applied or mechanical process (prayogika). Hence paryaya is again of two kinds, viz. dravyaparyaya (modification of substance) and gunaparyaya (modification of quality). Both dravyaparyaya and gunaparyaya take place in Matter. There is manifested the combined modification of Soul and Matter in the body of a being. The figure (or structure) of a being is formed by the union of Soul and body. When karmaraja (karmic-dust or karmic particle) is united with lesyaparinama (transformation of psychic condition) of Soul, there takes place avagahana (immersion) as a result of the combination of body and Soul. There falls an impression from Matter on Soul. When karmic matter comes into contact with soul, there occurs ajivaparinama (transformation of non-living substances). Jivaparyaya (modification of Soul) cannot happen without its. gatiparinama (change of birth). The Buddhist ksana (moment) corresponds to the Jaina paryaya for ksanas (moments) like rupa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), etc., of the Buddhist philosophy are equivalent to paryayas of Jaina metaphysics. Tadetadrupa-ksanam of the Buddhists, Tanmatras of the Samkhya and Visesa (particularity) of the Yoga reflect the Jaina

Page #254
Effects of Matter 219 Paryayavada. It was the question to Vasubandhu whether the present dravya-paryaya was, is and will be respectively in the past, at present and in future. 1 Bergson maintains that "the truth is that we change without ceasing, and that the state itself is nothing but change". The Jaina Paryayavada is again of two kinds, purvaparyaya (prior or past modification or mode) and paraparyaya (posterior or future modification or mode). It appears that paryayaparampara (tradition of mode) has been changing in the Indian Philosophy, for the Jainas accept two kinds of paryaya, viz. paryaya-sadrsa (similar or general modification) and paryayavisadesa (dissimilar or particular modification), while the Buddhists maintain paryaya-visadssa (dissimilar or particular modification) in santanas (issues or series) or flux of the Sautrantikas. The Samkhya admits sadcsa parinama (similar or general transformation) in the Guna-series and visadcsa-parinama (dissimilar or particular transformation) in its creative evolution. 1. There are dra vyapravaha and paryayapravaha on the screen of time (kala pata) The Buddhists advocate paryayapravaha (series of modes or issues) in the form of rupaksana, etc. According to the Samkhya there takes place gunaparyaya (parinama) and dravyaparyaya (parinama) in Prakrti. There emergesBuddhi (intellect), Ahamkara (ego), manas (mind) etc. from the modification of Praksti out of gunas-sattva, etc. The emergence of tanmatra (infra-atomic potential) from Bhutadi (original mass), paramanu (atom), gross elements of Matter is Dravyaparyaya. In Yogasutra Praksti is accepted as samanya (general), while tanmatra, etc. are admitted as visesa (particular), for there emerges akasa (ether), etc. from tanmatra (infra-atomic potential). In the Sankhyayoga Prakrti is conceived as one unmanifest or intangible substance, while the intangible infinite atoms are conceived! in Jaina Philosophy as nanaprakstis (many prakntis).

Page #255
220 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy AJIVAPARYAYA (MODIFICATION OF NON-LIVING SUBSTANCE) As the topic is conceived here with the modification of Matter, the study of it will b; confined to an analysis of ajivaparyaya (modification of non-living substance) by leaving out the treatment of jivaparyaya (modfication of living substance). Ajfvaparyaya is of two kinds, viz. rupi-ajiva-paryaya (modification of corporeal material non-living substance) and arupiajiva-paryayi (modification of non-corporeal non-living substance.)? Arupi-ajiva-paryaya is stated to be of ten kinds2 viz. Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion), Dharmastikayadesa, ( part of Dharmastikaya ), Dharmastikayapradesa ( smallest unit of Dharmastikaya), Adharmastikaya, (Principle of Rest)Adharmastikayadesa (part of Adharmastikaya). Adharmasti kayapradesa (smallest unit of Adharmastikaya), Akasastikaya (Space), Akasastikayadesa (part of Space) and Akasastikayapradesa (point of space) and Addhasamaya (Time).. There are stated to be four kinds of rupf-ajiva-paryaya, viz. skandhas (molecules or aggregates), skandhadesa (part of molecule or aggregate), skandhapradesa (smallest unit of aggregate)4 and paramanus (ultimate atoms).5 Ultimate atoms and their aggregates are infinite in number.6 There are infinite modifications of ultimate atoms, for one ultimate atom is equal to another one from the points of view 1. Duviha ajivapajjava, tamjaba-ruvi ajsvapajjava ya aruvi ajiva-pajjava ya-Pannavana, 266. 2. Ibid. 267. 3. Pannavana, 267 (Suttagama) -4. Skandha, skandhadesa and skandhapradesa form one joint family in which ultimate atom also is united, though it is a unit (pradesa), i. e. pradesa is conceived by intellect, while paramanu (ultimate atom) is separate or discrete from that family. 5. When an ultimate atom exists separately. 6. Pannavana, 288.

Page #256
Effects of Matter 221 of substance, mode and immersion, but it may be less or equal or more from the point of view of duration (stbiti). If it is less, it is less by innumerableth part (pradesa) or numberableth part or numerablefold or innumerablefold. If more, it is more by innumerableth part or numerableth part or numerablefold or innumerablefold. With regard to the modification of black colour, it (ultimate atom) is sometimes less, sometimes equal and sometimes more. If less, it is less by infiniteth part (unit) or innumerableth part or numberableth part or numerablefold or innumerablefold or infinitefold. In the case of modifications of the remaining colours, smell, taste and touch six sections of the above account of an ultimate atom should be known.2 Of the eight touches there are stated to be six sections of the said account of an ultimate atom with regard to the four touches, cold-warm, and cohesive-dry. For this reason, it is said that there are infinite modifications of ultimate atoms. There are stated to be infinite modifications of the dvipradesika skandha (dyad), for one dvipradesika skandha is equal to another dvipradesika skandha from the substantial and modal stand-points, but it is sometimes less, sometimes equal and sometimes more with regard to immersion (avagahana). If less, it is less by one unit (pradesa); if more, it is more by one unit (paesa-sama-bbhahie). In regard to duration (sthiti) there are stated to be four sections as mentioned above in the case of ultimate atom, while six sections of the account of dvipradesika skandha should be known with regard to colours, etc. and the aforesaid four kinds of touch. In this way a detailed account of the modifications of paramanus (ultimate atoms), dvipradesikaskandhas up to anantapradesikaskandhas have been given in the Prajnapana Sutra from the points of view of substance, mode, immersion, duration, colour,, 1. Pannavana, 288. 2. Evam avasesavannagamdharasaphasapajjavehim chatthanavadie, PV, 268.

Page #257
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy smell, taste and touch,1 having kept in view minimum, maximum and neither minimum nor maximum (medium) numbers of them in the light of substance and quality.2 222 Besides, there are stated to be infinite modifications of Jaghanya gunakalaka-paramanu (ultimate atom having the lowest degree of the quality of blackness). A paramanu having such quality is equal to another jaghanyagunakalakaparamanu from the points of view of substance, mode, immersion and four sections with regard to duration; it is equal to the latter with regard to the modes of black colour; six sections should be known in the case of smell, taste, and two touches. Thus the accounts of the utkrstagunakalakaparamanu (ultimate atom having the highest degree of quality of blackness) and ajaghanya-anutkrstagunakalaka-paramanu (ultimate atom having neither the lowest nor the highest degree of quality of blackness) should be understood; only the difference is that in their respective categories six sections should be known. In this way infinite modes of jaghanyagunakalaka dvipradesikaskandha (molecule having two units of matter) upto anantapradesikaskandhas (molecules having infinite units of matter) are explained from various points of view in the case of the remaining colours, taste, smell and touch. The accounts of these modifications of Matter from the stand-points of substance, mode, immersion, duration and properties-colour, taste, smell and touch, appear to be thoughtprovoking when compared to the modes or relations of Matter as dealt with in the physical sciences. In both physics and chemistry Matter has been conceived to the infinite in number from the aspects of substances, quality and relations (or modes). 1. See PV., 269-274. 2. Ibid., 275-279.

Page #258
SEVENTH CHAPTER CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER In Jaina Philosophy Matter is classified into one, two, three, four, six, twenty-three, five hundred thirty and infinite groups from the points of view of (1) dravya (substance), ksetra, (field), kala (time) and bhava (condition), (2) atomic and molecular forms of existence, (3) apprehensibility and inapprehensibility, receivability and non-receivability, etc., (4) transformation, (5) parts of molecule, (6) grossness and fineness of matter, (7) vargana (the group having the same numerical value), (8) prominence of particular quality of matter, (9) jati (category), part of quality (gunamsa) and mode or modification of matter, respectively. Matter is infinite in number from the point of view of dravya (substance).1 All material substances-sapradesa and apradesa (having parts and partless) are infinite with regard to dravya, ksetra, kala and bhava. The classification of infinite forms of matter is also made from this substantial point of view.3 These infinite forms of matter are of infinite kinds with regard to jati (category) and bhava (condition).5 Molecules and ultimate atoms are stated to be of infinite kinds from 1. Davvao nam poggalatthikae anamtaim davvaim., Bhs.. 2. 10. 117. 2. Davva desenavi me ajjo savve poggala sapaesa vi appaesa vi anamta, khettadesenavi evam ceva, kaladesenavi, bhavadesenavi evam ceva, Ibid., 5. 8. 220. 3. Ananta bhedapi pudgalah, RV., V. 25. 3. 4. Jatyadharanantabhedasamsucanartham bahuvacanam, anavah skandhasca kriyate,, RV., V. 25. 5. Paramanapoggala ..no sammkhejja no asamkhejja anamta, evam java anamtapaesiya khamdha..java anamtagunalukkhatti, Bhs., 25. 4. 740.

Page #259
224 The Concept ot Matter in Jaina Philosophy the modal stand-point, because the modes of matter are infinite. One class of Matter All forms of matter are individually ultimate atoms, i. e. the finest forms of matter. Matters or forms of matter existing in uncombined or discrete state are ultimate atoms, 2 hence there is one class of Matter, i. e. paramanu (ultimate atom), with regard to the nature of ultimate atom. The ultimate division of Matter is only one ultimate atom. All forms of matter are ultimate atoms from the point of view of Niscaya Naya (real point of view). Therefore, an ultimate atom is one from the general stand-points and the class of ultimate atoms is one. 4 It is stated that there is one-one class of Matter with regard to dravya, ksetra, kala and bhava, viz. one class of ultimate atoms upto one class of molecules having infinite units (pradesas) one class of matters immersed in countless space-points, one class of matters having the duration of one samaya (instant) upto one class of matters having the duration of countless samayas (instants and one class of matters having onefold black colour upto one class of matters having innumerablefold black colour and one class of matters having infinitefold black colour, thus with regard to the remaining colours, smells, tastes and 1. Khamdha khamdhadesa, khamdhapaesa paramanupoggala, cauvviha ajsvapajjava no samkhejja, no asam khejja anamta, PV., 5. 268; see also Bhs., 25. 5. 740; Anamta paramanupuggala, anamta dupaesiya khamdba java anamta dasapaesiya khamdha, anamta samkhejjapaesiya kbardha, anamta asamkhejjapaesiya khamdha, anamta, anamtapaesiya khamdha, PV., 5. 268 2. Parasparenasamyukta paramanavah TS., Bha li, V. 25, p. 366 2; Tatranavo abhandhah skandbastu baddha eveti, TS., p. 366. 3. Ege paramanu, Sthana., 1, 45. 4. Ega paramanupoggalanam vaggana, Ibid., 1,57.

Page #260
Classification of Matter 225 touches upto one class of matters having infinitefold dry touch, one class of molecules (skandhas) having minimum number of units, one class of molecules having maximum number of units, one class of molec'iles having neither minimum nor maximum number of units, thus the classes of molecules having minimum, maximum and neither minimum nor maximum immersion, minimum, maximum and neither minimum nor maximum duration, minimum black colour, maximum black colour and neither minimum nor maximum black colour; thus with regard to the remaining colours, smells, taste and touches upto one class of molecules having neither minimum nor maximum dry touch.1 In the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, paramanus (ultimate atoms) from one class as the ultimate cause of the Universe, though there are stated to be different kinds of paramanus e. g. earth-atom, etc. According to the Samkhya-Yoga, Praksti represents one class of matters as the Primordial Matter like the Jaina Paramanus, while in the physical sciences only energy of matter exists as one class in the form of its manifestation in the Universe. Two classes of Matter In Jaina Philosophy the entire mass of Matter (Pudgala) has been classified into two forms, viz. paramanu (ultimate atom) and skandha (molecule or aggregate of ultimate atoms). So Matter exists in the forms of paramanu and skandha (ultimate atom and molecule). The material substance which is cause-like is called paramanupudgala (ultimate material substance); it is eternal. The apprehension of this atomic matter cannot be made by the senses; it is the material substance which is to be apprehended by the knowledge revealed in the Agama or by inference. The existence of it has been inferred by the mark of its effect. Those miterial effects which are come across are 1. Ega paramanuppoggalanaia vaggana ajahannukkosaguna lukkhanam poggalanam vaggana -Sthana, 1. 74, p. 185.

Page #261
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy having a cause. In this way that which will be intangible last effect should also have the cause, i. e. it is paramanudravya (atomic substance); it is called an ultimate cause because of there being no other material substance as its cause. There is neither further division of an ultimate atom nor can there take place any division of it. For this reason it is its own beginning, its own middle and its own end in itself. Atomic material substance is infinite and discrete (unaggregated) in its own condition. So there are stated to be two kinds of ultimate atom, viz. karanaparamanu (cause-ultimate atom) and karya-paramanu (effectultimate atom).1 226 Akalanka deals with the extreme point of view of the Vaisesikas with regard to the mark (linga) of paramanu in the following manner: "The last atom is only cause, subtle and eternal. There is one taste, one smell, one colour and two unopposing touches in it and it is inferable by the mark of its effect." But it is not logical. The argument "paramanu is only cause" is not proper because it is also an effect on account of its production by the division of skandhas (molecules). Its karyatva (effectness) is negatived by the statement "karanameva". When "karanamapi" is stated, then karyatva remains annegatived. In an ultimate atom the qualities like cohesiveness, etc., are born and destroyed. Therefore, it cannot be called permanent by all means because of being somehow non-permanent (non-eternal). "The ultimate atom exists as anu (small) from the beginningless time, and it is the cause of binary compound, etc., from this point of view it is called "karanameva". This solution of the said problem is not correct, for, if the ultimate atom does not give up its anutva (atomicity or smallness), there does not take place any production of effect. If there is the division of anutva (atomicity) then 1. Dhatucatuskasya punah yo hetuh karanamiti samjneyah Skandhanamavasano jnatavyah karya-paramanuh, Niyamasara, 25 (Skt. Chaya). 2. VS., 4. 1. 2.

Page #262
Classification of Matter 227 it itself will be an effect. It cannot be called cause (karana) also till an effect is produced by the division of such anutva (atomicity). In the absence ( or non-existence ) of the son, the father is not appellated as such. There cannot fall the shadow, etc., of the beginningless ultimate atom, for shadow, etc., take place in the case of skandha. Therefore an ultimate atom cannot be the cause from the point of view of an effect like shadow, etc. They are perceptible to the eyes. Hence they cannot be the effects of ultimate atoms. An effect of ultimate atoms will be imperceptible to the sense of sight : nevertheless, there is no anu (atom) existing in the condition of paramanu (discrete ultimate atom) since the beginningless time upto the present time. In the Sutra "Bhedadanuh" the origina. tion of paramanu by the process of division of skandha has been stated. Therefore, from the point of view of beginningless ultimate atom (anadi paramanu), it is not proper to call it permanent or eternal, for there takes place in it also a transformation of the qualities like cohesiveness, etc., at every moment. No object is devoid of change. Like the binary compound, etc., an ultimate atom is never produced. Hence it is only cause from the stand-point of substance; decay and origination do not occur in it, so it is permanent (nitya). Like this, here is no contradiction of 'evakara' even? in particular alternative 'karanameva.' An ultimate atom is partless; therefore, there are one taste, one sinell and one colour in it. There can by many tastes in savayava lemon, etc., and many smells in anulepana, etc. In 1. Karanameva tadantyamityasamIksitabhidhanam; katha ncit karyatvat, RV., 5. 25. 5, p. 491; Avirodha iti cet, na; eva sabdenavadbaranat, Ibid., 5.25.6, p. 491; Nitya iti cayuktam snehadibhavenantiyatvat, Ibid., 5.25.7, p. 491; Anadiparamanvavasthamiti cet, na ; tatkaryabhavat, Ibid., 5.25.8, p. 492.

Page #263
228 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy ultimate atoms there are two unopposing touches-any one between cold and warm touches and any one between cohesive and arid touches; the qualities-heaviness, lightness, softness and hardness are not found in an ultimate atom, for they belong to skandha (molecule). The existence of ultimate atoms is proved by the effect-like molecules, e. g. body, sense-organs, elements, etc. It is an agreed principle that the inference of cause is drawn by the mark of effect (karya-linga). In the absence of ultimate atoms the molecules-effects cannot be possible. Therefore, that mark can be justified from the point of view of manifoldedness only. An ultimate atom is syat-karana (some-how cause) because of being a producer of effect-like molecules, such as, binary compounds, etc. It is produced by the process of division of the molecules and is thus syat-karya (somehow effect) because of being a substratum of the qualities belonging to the effect. There is no smaller division than this ultimate atom; therefore, it is syat antya (somehow last); it is also not antya (last) because of the division of its qualities, though there is no division of a unit (pradesabheda). Hence there being fine transformation, it is syat suksma (somehow fine) and it is also gross (sthula) because of having the capacity of producing a gross effect. It does not give up substantiality, so it is permanent; it is non-permanent because of its attaining skandhaparyaya (molecule-like mode) and undergoing transformation of its qualities. In the alternative of "apradesatva" (partlessness) it is endowed with one taste, one smell, one colour and two touches; it is also possessed of many tastes, etc., because of there being the capacity of transformation in it to be anekapradest skandharupa-parinama (transformation as molecules having many units). On account of its being inferable by a mark of an effect it is syat karyalinga (somehow as 1. Ekarasavarnagamdha anuh piravayayatvat, RV. 5. 25.13, p. 492; Dvisparso virodhabhavat, Ibid., V. 25.14, p. 492; Tadastitvam karyalingatvat, Ibid., 15, p. 492.

Page #264
Classification of Matter 229 mark of effect) and it is also not karyalinga because of being an object of perceptual knowledge. 1 There are stated to be two kinds of paramanu, 2 viz. suksma and vyavaharika (fine and empirical) from the noumenal and phenomenal points of view respectively. One vyavaharika anu is constituted of infinite suksma anus. It is determined from the aspect of phenomenality (vyavahara).3 Here it is suggestive that a vyavaharika anu may correspond to an atom of the physical sciences, which is divisible, while a suksma anu may correspond to electron, proton, neutron, etc. That is to say, this view of modern science that what was comprehended as atom is further splittable into its component parts which are called proton, neutron, electron, etc. "Skandha (Molecule or Aggregate) An aggregate which ultimate atoms from by combining with one another is called Skandha.4 So the second form of Pudgaladravya (material substance) is skandha (molecule or aggregate). All skandhas are formed as aggrevate. A skandha is an effect-substance-like (karya-dravya-rupa) with regard to its own cause- substance (karanadravya) and it is also a causesubstance-like with regard to its own effect-substance (karyadravya) e. g. skandhas having two units (pradesas): they are the effects of paramanus (ultimate atoms) etc., and also the cause of skandhas having three units (pradesas) of matter. Therefore, a skandha is an aggregate of paramanus (ultimate 1. Anekantah karanatvadivikalpah, RV., 5.25.16 2. Anuyogadvara of Maladhari Hemacandra, Su., 133, and JambudvIpaprajnapti, 19, Ga., 100, p. 169; Dvividhah paramanuh syat suksmasca vyavaharikah Anantairanubhih suksmaireko' anurvyavaharikah, Lokaprakasa, 1.21. 3. Lokaprakasa, 1.21. 4. Skandhastu baddha eveti parasparasam hatya vyavasthitah, TS., Bha., TIka, V. 25, p. 366; Paripraptabandhaparinamah skandhah, RV., V. 25. 16.

Page #265
230 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy atoms).1 Skandhas possess a gross and undergo the process of integration and disintegration.2 "Skandhas are the aggregates of ultimate atoms which in their gross state can be taken by the hand and handled.?" "If action is present in a few instances by synecdoche it can be extended to others in conventional acceptation. Hence the word 'skandha' is applicable also to molecules consisting of two or more atoms, which cannot be handed, etc.4 Though Matter is of infinite varieties, still it is classified into two groups on the basis of ultimate atoms and molecules."'s Srr Vinayavijayajyo maintains that a skandha is formed by infinite finest ultimate atoms from the noumenal points of view (Niscayanaya). Skandhas are characterized by sound, combination; fineness, grossness, shape, division, darkness, shadow, heat (sunshine, etc.) light (moonlight, etc.) as well as by touch, taste, smell and colour.' They are of two kinds, viz. badara (gross--those that can be perceived by the senses) 1. Khamdho paramanusango samghado, PS. 79, p. 62, (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramalayam) 2. Sthulabhavena grahananiksepanadivyaparaskandhanat. skandha iti samjnayante, etc., SS., p. 291. 3. Reality, p. 153. 4. Ibid. 5. Rudhau kriya kvacitsati upalaksanatvenasriyate iti grahanadivyaparayogyesvapi dvyanukadisu skandhakhya pravartate, anantabheda'api pudgala anujatya skandhajatya ca draividhyamapadyamanah sarve glhyanta iti, SS., V. 25 (comm), p. 297. 6. Vyavaharanayenaiva paramanurayam bhavet Skandho anantanuko jatasuksmatvo niscayatpunah, Lokaprakasa; sl., 1. 23. 7. Skandhah punah sabdabandhasauksmyasthaulyasamsthana bhedatamaschayatapodyotavantasca sparsadimantasceti SS., V. 25 (Comm), p. 297.

Page #266
Classification of Matter 231 and suksma (fine-those which are intangible to the senses). I Although the capacity of combining with each other is absent in the combination composed of only two elementary particles, they are still called skandhas. Skandhas are stated to be of three kinds from the stand-point of parts, viz. skandha, skandhadesa and skandhapradesa. The particular aggregate of infinitefold infinite ultimate atoms is a skandha (molecule), half of it is skandhadesa and half of that half is skandha. pradesa.? That is, the smallest piece of matter possessing all the characteristic properties of a material substance is the complete skandha (molecule). According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, there are stated to be two forms of Matter, viz. avayava (constituent) part, i. e. paramanu) and avayavia (composite whole). Avayava-paramanu stands for Jaina paramanu and avayavins, such as, dvyanuka, etc., represent skandhas of the Jaina system of thought respectively. The relation between an avayava and an avayavio is that they exist as cause and effect. As an effect the latter inheres in the former which represents the cause. They are related by inherence, still they are the two distinct entities possessing different attributes and functions.3 In regard to this classification of Matter into two groups the basic difference between Jaina Metaphysics and the Nyaya-Vaisesika is this that the latter accept paramanu (ultimate atom) as the ultimate cause, while the former admits it as both cause and effect. So according to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, paramanus are the cause of the material Universe and dvyanuka (dyad) tryanuka (triad), etc., are the effects. The classification of Matter into two groups, viz. paramanu 1. PS., 82; Parthivadravyanam gandhah tadguna iyopalabhyata iti cet; na sadhyatvat, RV., p. 493. 2. Anantanantaparamanubandhavisesah skandhah, tadardhara desah, ardharddham pradesah, RV., p. 493; see also GS., JIva, 604. 3. NS., 2. 1. 32-36.

Page #267
232 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy and skandha, is also come across in the Buddhist philosophy in different manner. The Buddhist kalapa or Samghataparamanu represents the Jaina paramanu. According to the Buddhists, paramanus exist always in combination, but not in discrete state. Rase is called skandha, whatever matters whether past or future or present, internal or external, gross or fine, less or more (minimum or maximum) distant or nearall these taken together are called rupaskandha.The difference between the Jaina and Buddhist views on these two forms of Matter is this that the Buddhist paramanu is saighataparamanu consisting of seven or eight or nine or ten material particles; it is not the cause-like paramanu of Jaina Metaphysics. The Samghata-paramanu of the Buddhists actually corresponds to vyavaharika paramanus of the Jainas. According to the physical sciences also, there are mainly two forms of Matter, viz. atom and molecule, although atom is subject to further division into electron, proton, neutron, etc. Two classes of Matter from the Point of view of Apprehensibility In Jaina Philosophy Matter has also been classified into two groups from the point of view of apprehensibility by the senses, its tactile quality and its unitariness (pradesatmakata), viz. suksma and badara (fine and gross).3 Matters which are 1. Rasyayadvaragotrarthah skandhayatanadhatavah Mohendriyarucitraidhat tisrah skandhadidesanah, Abh. K., 1. Ka 20; see Vibhasa, 74, p. 383. 2. See Samyuktanikaya, 25. 2; Yatkincid-rupamatstanagatapratyutpannam adhyatmikam va bahyam va audarikam va suksmam va hinam va pranitam va duram va antikam va tadekadhyamabhisanksiptyayamucyate rupaskandhah, Vibhanga, p. 1, Vide Abhidharmakosa (Hindi), p. 31. 3. BhS, 8.1.310 ff: Duviha poggala pannatta, tamjaba-suhuma ceva bayara ceva, Sthanamga, 82; Suhuma savvalogammi, logadese ya bayara, Utta., 36. 12.

Page #268
Classification of Matter intangible to the senses are called fine pieces of Matter. All ultimate atoms are fine and intangible to the senses. Among molecules also, the constitution (or a structure) of many of them are such that they cannot be apprehended by the senses, e. g dyad (dvyanuka), triad (tryanuka), karmic matter; they are also called fine.1 Skandhas (molecules) which are tangible to the senses are called gross matter,2 e. g. clarified butter, water, oil, etc. That is to say, fine matter is that which is an object for thought-activities and is beyond the sense-perception and gross matter is that which is within the range of senseperception. As to the second point of view-the tactic quality, it is explained that dvisparsin pudgala (matter having two touches, trispargin (matter having three touches), catursparsin (matter having four touches) and finely transformed matter having eight touches are fine. The remaining molecules having eight touches are gross. In regard to the third point that Matter is fine and gross from the point of view of pradesatmakata (unitariness or discreteness ), it is explained that apradesin pudgala (partless matter) or ekapradesin-pudgala (Matter having one unit), dvipradesin pudgala (molecule having two units), dasapradesika (molecule having ten units), samkhyata pradesika (molecules having countable units), asamkhyatapradesika (molecules having countless units), and suksma parinata-anantapradesika skandha (fine-transformed molecule having infinite units) are called fine.4 Gross transformed mole cules having infinite units (badaraparinata-anantapradesika skandha) are called gross.5 The classification of Matter into 1. Suksma bhavanti skandha-prayogyah karmavarganasya punah, Niyamasara, 24 (Skt. Chaya) 2. Sthula iti vijneya sarpir jalatailadyah. Ibid., 22 (Skt. Chaya). 3. Ye punaratindriyadvyanukadavo anantanukaparyavasanah skandhah suksmaste, TS., TI, p. 373; Ta eva badarasta eva ca punah suksma iti, Ibid. 4. TS. TI., p. 373. 5. Ibid. 233

Page #269
234 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy fine and gross can also be made from the point of view of field (ksetra) and immersion (avagahana). The account for these two kinds of Matter is one and the same from the four points. of view. According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika also, Matter has been classified into two groups, viz. anu (small) and mahat (great), while the Buddhist philosophy classifies it into two divisions, viz, suksma (fine) and sthula (gross), just as it is found in Jaina metaphysics. There are stated to be two classes of Matter from the aspect of its capacity to be received and not to be received by Soul, viz. grahya (receivable) and agrabya (non-receivable). 1 Matter is received by soul and it can be transformed but it is not receivable to Soul in all conditions. An ultimate atom is not receivable to it. Molecules having two and four touches are non-receivable to it. Only some kinds of molecules having eight touches are capable to be received by it. Therefore, Matter is classified into two groups, viz. grahya (receivable) and agrahya (non-receivable) from the point of view of its capacity to be received and not to be received. Matter is avis-sita (non-particular, i. e. general), while paramanu (ultimate atom), dvipradesika skandha (dyad) upto anantapradesika skandha (molecule having infinite units) are visesita (particular).2 Besides, Matter has been classified into two groups from various points of view, such as, bhinna and abhinna (broken and unbroken), chinna and achinna (disintegrated and non-distintegrated), paramanupudgala and na-paramanupudgala (atom and molecule),3 baddhapasaputtha and no-baddhapasaputtha (deeply attached and not-deeply attached), paryayatita and aparyayatita, atta and anatta. (favourable and unfavourable or received and not-received), ista and anista (desirable and undesirable), manojna and amanojna (pleasant and unpleasant), sacitta and acitta (having 1. Pancama Karmagrantha, 75; Visesavasyakabhasya, 636-38;. GS., Jiva , 593-4. 2. Anuyogadvara, 123. 3. They are already discussed above.

Page #270
Classification of Matter 235 consciousness and without consciousness), subha and asubha (auspicious and inauspicious), etc. In this way, Matter has been classified into two groups from various points of view. Three classes of Matter Matter has been classified into three groups from the point of view of transformation, viz. prayogaparinatapudgala (organic matter), misraparinatapudgala (organic-cum-inorganic matter), and visrasaparinatapudgala (inorganic matter).2 The material substances that are produced by the living organism, vegatables or animals are classified as prayogaparinatapudgala (organic matter) and all those material substances which are not prepared from the living organism but from the inanimate objects by the natural innate disposition are classified as visrasaparinatapudgalas ( inorganic matters ) and all material substances that are the synthetic products of these two processes-vital force and natural force are classified as misra-parinata-pudgalas (matters produced by the mixed processes). That is, matter transformed by the action of beings into the physical form, matter transformed by the action of beings-cum-natural innate disposition and matter transformed 1. Sthaga, 10. 107 (chinna and achinna); Bhs., 14.9.535 (atta and anatta) ista and anista); 7. 10. 308 (acitta); 5. 9. 224 (subha and asubha), 14. 8. 553; Duviha poggala, pa. tam-bhinna ceva abhinna ceva 1, duviha poggala pa. tam-bheuradhamma no-bheuradhamma ceva 2, duviba poggala pa, tam-paramanupoggala ceva noparamanupoggala ceva 2, duviha poggala pa. tam-suhuma ceva bayara ceva, duviha poggala pannatta, tam-pariya. ditacceva apariyaditacceva, duviha poggala pannatta, tam-atta ceva anatta ceva, duviha poggala pa, tam-ittha ceva anttha ceva, evam kasta, siya, manunna, manama, Stba., 2. 82; See Anuyoga. 123. 2. Tiviba poggala pannatta, tamjaba payogaparinata, missaparinaya visasa-parinaya, Bb$., 8.1.309; see Sthananga, 3. 186.

Page #271
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy by the natural process form the three classes of Matter from .the point of view of transformation. Matters which have been transformed by beings on receiving them are called prayogaparinata (organic matter) and matter which have been transformed by the action of beings, but now being given up by the action of them, (they) are themselves undergoing transformation by the natural process, are stated to be misraparinatapudgala. That is, matter in which there takes place simultaneously a transformation by the action of the being and by the innate nature is called misraparinatapudgala. Matter in which there occurs a transformation by its own innate nature or in the transformation of which there is no help of any being, is called visrasaparinatapudgala (inorganic matter). 236 These three classes of Matter have been divided into many sub-classes from various points of view. For example, there are stated to be five kinds of prayoga-parinatapudgala, viz. ekendriya-prayogaparinata-, dvfndriya-prayoga-parinata-, trindriya-prayoga-parinata-, caturindriya-prayoga-parinata- and pancendriya-prayoga-parinata-pudgalas. Ekendriya-prayoga parinata-pudgalas are of five kinds, viz. prthivikayikaprayoga parinata-pudgala, ap-kayika-prayoga-parinata-pudgala, taijasa kayika-prayoga-parinata-pudgala, vayukayika-prayoga-parinatapudgala, and vanaspatikayika-prayoga-parinata-pudgala. That is to say, matters transformed by the actions of onesensed earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied-, air-bodied- and plant-bodied -beings respectively. They are again sub-divided into two main groups, viz. suksma (fine) and badara (gross) so on. Misra-parinata-pudgala are of five kinds, viz. ekendriya misra-parinata-pudgala up to pancendriya-misra-parinatapudgala. They are again subdivided into many kinds up to ayata-samsthana-parinata-pudgalas.1 Visrasa-parinata-pudgala is of five kinds, viz. varnaparinata, gandhaparinata, rasaparinata, sparsaparinata and samsthanaparinata. They are again sub-divided into many groups 1. BhS., 8. I. 311.

Page #272
Classification of Matter 237 according to their respective numbers, e. g. varnaparinatapudgala is of five kina's, viz. kalavarna-parinata up to suklavarnaparinata, and so on.1 The Jaina view on these three classes of Matter is well supported in the organic chemistry. It is explained there that all those which could be obtained from vegetables or animals, i. e., substances that were produced by the living organism, were classified as organic; and all those substances which were not prepared from the living organism were classified as inorganic. At this stage of investigation of organic compounds it appeared that there were the definite differences between organic and inorganic compounds, e. g. complexity of composition and combustibility of the former. Berzelius (1951) thought that organic compounds were produced from their elements by laws different from those governing the formation of inorganic compounds. This then led him to believe that organic compounds were produced under the influence of a vital force, and that they could not be prepared artificially. "In 1828, Wohler converted ammonium cyanate urea, a substance hitherto obtained only from animal sources. This synthesis weakened the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, and this distinction was completely ended with the synthesis of acetic acid from its elements by Kolbe in 1945, and the synthesis of methane by Berthelot in 1956. A common belief appears to be that Wohler's synthesis had little effect on the vital force theory because it did not start with elements. Wohler had prepared his ammonium cyanate from ammonia and cyanic acid, both of which were of animal origin. Partington (1960), however, has pointed out that Priestley (1781) had obtained ammonia by reduction of nitric acid, which was later synthesised from its elements by Cavendish (1785). Also, potassium cyanide was obtained by Scheole 1. BhS. 8. 1. 312. 2. Organic Chemistry, Vol. I. I., L. Finar, Ch. I., pp. 1-2.

Page #273
238 The Concept of Matter in Jaipa Philosophy (1783) by passing nitrogen over a strongly heated mixture of potassium carbonate and carbon, and since one form of carbon used graphite, this reaction was, therefore, carried out with inorganic materials. Since potassium cyanide is readily converted into potassium cyanate, Wohler's synthesis is one which starts from the elements. Since the supposed differences between the two classes of compounds have been disproved, the terms organic and inorganic would appear to be no longer necessary. Nevertheless, they have been retained, but it should be appreciated that they have lost their original meaning.") Four classes of Matter Matter is also classified into four groups from the point of view of parts of skandha (molecule), viz. skandha (molecule) skandhadesa (part of aggregate), skandhapradesa (unit of aggregate) and paramanu (ultimate discrete atom). As pointed out, there are two main forms of Matter, viz. paramanu and skandha (molecule). Here the four classes of matter have been described by making three divisions of skandha into (1) skandha (aggregate), skandhadesa (part of aggregate) and skandhapradesa. (unit of aggregate) respectively and by adding paramanu into this classification. The aggregate of combined ultimate atoms is called skandha. The part of skandha which again can be divided is called skandhadesa. There the division of skandhas having two upto infinite constituent elements is stated to be desa. Whatever paramanus having been combined, are formed into a skandha, (that much) are the pradesas (units) of it, i. e. the units of the undivided skandha having the extent of an ultimate atom (paramanu), even when combined in a skandha, is known to be pradesa. The indivisible 1. Organic Chemistry, Vol. 1, pp. 1. 2. 2. Je ruvi te cauvviha pannatta, tamjaha khamdha, kham dhadesa, khadhapaesa, paramanupoggala, Bhs., 2.10. 119; see Jivabhigama, 5. Uttara, 30.10; Anuyogadvara. 142.

Page #274
Classification of Matter 239 matter in its discrete state is called paramanu. They are thus described from the point of view of gross state for the aggregate of combined ultimate atoms, which is full in all parts, is stated to be a skandha, the half of it is called desa and the half of that half is pradesa and the indivisible unit is paramanu. I The Jaina desa and pradesa of a skandha correspond to avayavin and avayava of the Nyaya-Vaisesika respectively, Six classes af Matter In Jaina Philosophy Matter is classified into six groups from the stand-point of grossness and fineness in its size, viz. badarabadara, badara, badara-suksma, suksma-badara, suksma and suksma-suknina? (grossest, gross, gross-fine, fine-gross, fine and finest). Pudgala-skandha (molecule) whose chedana (penetrability of penetration or cutting), bhedana (division or divisibility) and prapana (portability) may generally be possible is called badara-badara (grossest), e. g. solids like earth, stone, etc. Pudgala-skandha whose penetration and division are not possible but portability can be possible is called badara (gross), e. g. liquids like molten butter, water, oil, pudgala-skandha whose penetration and division and portability can not be possible at all, but which is apprehended by the eyes is called badara-suksma (grossfine), e. g. heat, light, electricity and magnetism. The ultra visible but intra sensual-molecules tangible to the four sense-organs except the visual organ are called suksma-badara (fine-gross), e. g. gases with air and others. The molecules which are ultra-sensual matters are called suksma (fine). It is responsible for thought activities and is beyond the sense perception. The finest ultimate-atom is called suksmasuknina, because firstly, it is the finest of all forms of matter, 1. Khamdham sayalasamattham tassa ya addham deso iti Addhaddham ca padeso avibhagi ceva paramanu, GS., JIva., 604. 2. Badara-badara badara badara-suhumam ca suhumabadaram ca Suhuman ca suhumasuhumam dharadiya hodi chab. bheyam", GS., Jiva., 602; see Niyamasara, 21.

Page #275
240 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy secondly, only paramavadhijnanin (onc endowed with transcendental knowledge) and Kevalajnanin omniscient) can apprehend it. Other persons can know it only by inference with regard to the mark of its effect. 1 It is to be noted here that these six divisions of Mattergrossest to finest can be reduced to the three divisions of Matter in the physical sciences in three states, viz. solid, liquid and gaseous. The remarkable feature in them is that the molecular structure is common to all the three states, whereas the difference lies only in the closeness with which the molecules comprising them are packed. In a solid, the molecules are put closely together, so the intermolecular forces of cohesion are greater than the molecular tendency to disintegrate. As a result of this fact the molecules are held to each other with a strong force which enables a solid to maintain a definite shape and volume and to put a great resistance to any change in either of them. For this reason a solid possesses high rigidity, high volume and elasticity. In a liquid, the molecules are placed less closely together than they are packed in a solid, so a liquid promptly submits. to any external force tending to change its shape on account of much smaller cohesion in it. Thus it has no definite shape, but it can maintain its volume and quite large force, though comparatively smaller than that in a solid to change it a little. 1. GS., JIVa., 603; Bhupavvadamadiya bhaaida aithulathulamidi khamdha Thula idi vinneya sappijalatelamadiya--Niyamasara, (22); Chayatavamadiya thuledarakhamdhamidi viyana hi Suhumathuledi bhaniya khamdha caurakkhavisaya ya, Ibid. (23); Suhuma havarti khamdba pavogga kammavagganassapuno Tavvivariya khandba aisuhuma iti puruvemdi, Ibid. (24)

Page #276
Classification of Matter In a gas, the molecules exist widely separated from each other, hence intermolecular attraction is almost absent and they move about as being independent of each other within the limitation of the walls of the containing vessel. It cannot preserve any definite shape or volume but pervades the whole of the containing vessel readily. So it cannot offer any appreciable resistance to any change either in shape or in volume. TWENTY-THREE VARGANAS ( CLASSES ) OF MATTER 241 The group of matters of the same numerical value is called vargana (class). As for example, individual ultimate atoms (paraman us) which exist in the entire cosmic universe (lokakasa) is called the first vargana. The aggregate which is formed by the combination of two ultimate atoms is called the second vargana. The aggregate which is formed by the combination of three ultimate atoms is stated to be the third vargana. In this way, on the increase of one-one ultimate atom the aggregates (skandhas), having countable, countless and infinite and infinitefold infinite units of matter are to be known as samkhyatanuvargana, asam khyatanuvargana, anantanuvargana and anantanantanuvargana1 respectively. All these varganas, because of having alpaparamanus (less or small quantity of ultimate atoms) cannot be received by soul. For this reason these are called agrahya or agrahana varganas (non-receivables). But the aggregates which are formed of ultimate atoms which are infinite times more than the number of abhavya jivas (beings unfit to attain liberation) and infinitech part of siddhajfvas (perfect beings or souls), i. e. the aggregates in which there are such numbers of ultimate atoms are receivable by Soul. 1. Igaduganugai ja abhavan imtaguniyanu Kham dha uralociyavaggana u taha agahanamtariya, Pancama Karmagrantha, 75.

Page #277
242 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy On receiving them, Soul transforms its own gross body. For this reason these aggregates are called audarika vargapa. But this vargana is the most minimum of all the receivable varganas of the gross body. In addition to it, there being an increase of ultimate atom by the gradual order of one unit (pradesa), the first, the second, the third, the fourth, the fifth, etc., upto infinite varganas of skandhas become grahya varganas (receivable classes) of the gross body. Therefore, the receivable maximum varganas of the gross body becomes more by the infiniteth part than the receivable minimum varganas of the gross body. In this infiniteth part there are infinite ultimate atoms. So the varganas from the minimum to the maximum should known as the grahya varganas (receivable classes) of the gross body. In addition to the maximum vargana of the gross body, the varganas of skandhas which are formed as a result of the increase of ultimate atoms by the order of one unit (pradesa) to each of them are firstly possessed of more number of units of ultimate atoms than that of the gross body on the one hand; secondly they are fine; therefore, they become grahya varganas (receivable classes) of the gross body. And they are having less number of units of ultimate atoms and are grosser than skandhas of which the transformable-body (vaikriyika sarsra) is formed. Therefore, they are not capable of being received by the transformable body. Thus ananta varganas (infinite classes) of skandhas, because of there being an increase of ultimate atoms by the order of one unit (of ultimate atom) to each of them in addition to the maximum vargana of the gross body (audarika sarira), become unfit to be received (i, e, non-receivable). As for example, the maximum varganas of the gross body is more by infiniteth part than its receivable minimum varganas. Similarly, the nonreceivable miximum vargana should be known to be infinite times more (i. e. having infinitefold ultimate atoms) than the non-receivable minimum vargana. In this way the receivable varganas are alternately placed, i. e. there comes the non

Page #278
Classification of Matter receivable vargana after the receivable vargana and the receivable vargana after the non-receivable vargana. 1 The collection-like (group-like) vargana of those skandhas in which there is found one ultimate atom more than the number of ultimate atoms existing in a skandha of non-receivable maximum vargana is the receivable minimum vargana of the transformable body (vaikriyika sarfra). The collection-like (group-like) second vargana of those skandhas in which there is found one more unit of ultimate atom than the number of units (of ultimate atoms) of the minimum vargana is the receivable vargana of the transformable body (vaikriyika sarira). Like this infinite varganas of skandhas having an addition of ultimate atoms by the order of one unit (of ultimate atom) more to each of them become the receivable varganas of the transformable body. Therefore, the receivable maximum vargana of the transformable body becomes more by the infiniteth part than its receivable minimum vargana. The vargana which is of skandhas having one unit more than the receivable vargana of the transformable body is having much more units than the transformable body and is fine; and it is having less number of units than the translocation body (aharakasarira) and is grosser than it. Therefore, it is neither useful to the transformable body nor to the translocation-body. For this reason it is called non-receivable vargana. It is the minimum vargana. In addition to it, the infinite varganas of skandhas having the increase of units (of ultimate atom) by the order of one unit are non-receivable. The vargana of 1. Ega paramapunam eguttaravaddhiya tao kamaso Samkhejjapaesanam samkhejja vaggana homti. 636 Tatto samkhaia samkhaiyappaesamananam Tatto puno anammtanamtapaesana gamtunam Oraliyassa gahanappaogga vaggana anamtao Aggahanappaogga tasseva tao anamtao Evamajogga jogga puno ajogga ya vaggananamta, Visesavasyakabhasya, 636, 637, 638. 243 638 637

Page #279
244 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy skandhas having one unit more than the non-receivable maxirmum vargana becomes the receivable minimum vargana of the translocation-body (abaraka sartra). There becomes the receivable maximum vargana of skandhas of the translocationbody, having the number of more units by the infiniteth part than this minimum vargana of the translocation-body. There becomes the non-receivable minimum vargana of the skandhas having one atomic unit more than the receivable vargana of the translocation-body. In addition to that, there being an increase of atomic units infinite times more than the minimum vargana by the order of one atomic unit, there becomes the non-receivable maximum vargana. Thus these infinite varganas are having much more atomic units than the translocation-body and are fine; and they are having less number of atomic units than the luminous-body, and are grosser than it; therefore, they are not receivable. The vargana of skandhas having one atomic unit more than the maximum nonreceivable vargana becomes prayogyajaghanya vargana of the luminous-body. There being an increase over that by the order of one atomic unit, there becomes the maximum vargana of skandhas having infiniteth part more atomic unit of prayogya (applicable) minimum vargana of the luminous-body. There becomes the minimum non-receivable vargana of skandhas having one atomic unit more than a skandha of the receivable maximum vargana of the luminous-body. In addition to that, there being an increase of atomic units by the order of one atomic unit, there becomes the maximum nonreceivable vargana of skandhas having atomic units infinite times more than the minimum non-receivable vargana. Like this these infinite non-receivable varganas are having much more atomic units than the luminous-body and are fine, and they are having less number of units than speech and are grosser than it. Therefore, they are not receivable. The vargana of skandhas having one unit more than the maximum pon-receivable vargana, becomes the bhasa-prayogya-jaghanya-vargana:

Page #280
Classification of Matter 245 minimum vargana fit to be speech). In addition to that, there being the increase of units by the order of one, there becomes bhasa-prayogya-utkrsta-vargana (maximum vargana fit to be speech) of skandhas having units more by the infiniteth part than the minimum vargana. Thus the infinite varganas become receivable in the case of bhasa. There becomes the non-receivable minimum vargana of skandhas having one unit more than skandhas of receivable maximum vargana of bhasa. In addition to that, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there takes place the non-receivable maximum vargana of skandhas having units infinite times more than the receivable vargana. The vargana of skandhas having one unit more than skandhas of this vargana becomes the receivable minimum vargana of respiration. In addition to it, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there becomes the maximum non-receivable vargana of respiration of skandhas having infiniteth part more ( unit ) of the units of skandhas of the minimum vargana. There becomes the non-receivable minimum vargana of skandhas having one unit more than skandhas of the receivable maximum vargana of respiration. In addition to that, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there becomes the maximum non-receivable vargana of skandhas having units infinite times more than the units of skandhas of the minimum non-receivable vargana. There becomes manodravya's (mind-substances) receivable minimum vargana of skandhas having one unit more than skandhas of that vargana (respiration). In addition to that minimum vargana, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there becomes the manodravya's receivable maximum vargana of skandhas having the infiniteth part more unit than the units of the skandha of the minimum vargana. There becomes the non-receivable minimum vargana of the skandhas having one unit more than the receivable maximum

Page #281
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy vargana of the mind-substance. In addition to that, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there takes place the non-receivable maximum vargana of skandhas having units infinite times more than the units of the skandhas of the minimum vargana. The vargana of skandhas having one unit more than the units of skandhas of this maximum vargana is the receivable minimum vargana of karma (fit to be received). In addition to that, there being an increase of units by the order of one unit, there becomes karma's receivable maximum vargana of skandhas having infiniteth part more unit of the minimum vargana.1 246 In brief it can be summed up that there are infinite times more ultimate atoms in one aggregate of the maximum nonreceivable vargana than whatever number of ultimate atoms are existing in one aggregate of the minimum non-receivable vargana and there are infiniteth part more ultimate atoms in the aggregates of the maximum receivable vargana than whatever number of ultimate atoms are existing in the aggregates of one minimum receivable vargana. In this way eight varganas are receivable and eight varganas are non-receivable. From amongst these sixteen varganas there are stated to be two main alternatives of each of them and there are infinite intermediate alternatives between the minimum and the maximum (or from the minimum to the maximum). The maximum of the receivable vargana is the infiniteth part more than its minimum and the maximum of the non-receivable vargana is infinite times more than its minimum. Thus there are stated to be eight receivable varganas, viz. receivable varganas of gross-, transformable-, translocation- and luminous-bodies, speech, respiration, mind and karma (karmic body).2 1. Pancama karmagrantha, p. 211; see Notes of Pandit Sukhlalji. 2. Emeva viuvva-hara-teya-bhasa-nupana-mana-kamme Suhuma kamavagaho umunamgula-asamkhamso, Pancamakarmagrantha, 76

Page #282
Classification of Matter 247 The five kinds of bodies - audarika (gross) upto karmana (karmic body) are finer by the successive order; nevertheless, the use of ultimate atoms is made more and more in their respective formations. As for instance, though cotton, wood, earth, stone and iron are accepted in some particular magnitude or quality (parimana), still the size of wood is smaller than that of cotton, that of earth is smaller than that of wood, that of stone is smaller than that of earth and that of iron is smaller than that of stone. But these things, even being smaller in size from one another, are more solid and heavy by the successive order. Just like that the account of the five bodies should be understood. The reason is this that pudgalavarganas of which the gross body is formed are having less number of ultimate atoms like cotton, but they are gross in size ; pudgalavarganas of which the transformable body is constituted are having more number of ultimate atoms than that of pudgala-vargana fit to be gross body like wood, but they are less in size. In this way the account of the bodies should be known according to the successive order. It means that the number of ultimate atoms increases more and more in the cases of successive varganas, but their size becomes finer and finer. That is to say, as there takes place a combination of more ultimate atoms, so there occur their finer and finer transformations successively. Therefore, the immersion of audarikavarganas is innumerableth part of a cubic finger and that of its non-receivable vargana is also innumerableth part of one cabic finger, but the innumerableth part of this cubic finger is less than the previous one. Like this the immersion of vaikriyika-grahanavargana also is the innumerableth part of a cubic finger, but this innumerableth part is less than the innu 1. Param param suksmam, pradesato asamkheyagunan prak tejasat, TS., 2. 38, 39; Anantagune pare, Ibid., 2.40; Apratighate, Ibid., 2.41 The closeness of atoms makes the body compact and solid by virtue of cohesion according to the physical sciences.

Page #283
248 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy merableth part of a cubic finger having the immersion of audarikagrahanayogyavargana (pudgalavargana fit to be received for the formation of gross body). Similarly, the innumerableth part of a cubic finger should be understood lesser and lesser also. On account of this decrease (oyunata) even there being the perception of the gross body having less number of ultimate atoms, the co-existent luminous and karmic bodies having much more number of ultimate atoms successively are not perceptible. Speech, respiration and mind lie in between the luminous and karmic bodies. That is, varganas which undergo transformations as sound at the time of speaking are finer than the receivable varganas of the luminous body. And varganas which undergo transformation as respiration of beings are finer than these bhasavarganas. From this fact, it is inferable how much more fine are karmavarganas, but the number of ultimate atoms are more in them. This analysis throws light upon the outlines of the nature of those things which undergo transformation as karma. In addition to these karmavarganas, there are stated to be the following varganas, viz. dhruvavargana (fixed molecule), santaranirantara-vargana (Inter-non-inter-molecule) (or adhruvavargana-non-fixed molecule), sunyavargana (iudifferent molecule), pratyekasariravargana (individual body-molecule), dhruva-sunya-vargana (fixed indifferent molecule), badaranigoda-vargana (gross-common-body-molecule), sunyavargana (indifferent molecule), suksmanigoda-vargana (finer-commonbody-molecule), sunyavargana or nabhavargana (indifferent or sphere-molecule) and mahaskandhavargana (great molecule). 1 1. Anusamkhasamkhejjanamta ya agejjagehim amtariya, Aharatejabhasamanakammaiya dhuvakkhamdha, Samtaranirastarena ya sunna patteyadehadbuvasunna Badaranigodasunna suhumanigoda nabho mahakkamdha, GS., Jiva., 594, 595, p. 294;

Page #284
Classification of Matter 249 It appears from the above analysis of varganas of Pudgala that whatever is visible is not the final units of Matter. Five hundred and thirty classes of Matter In Jaina Metaphysics Matter has been classified into five hundred thirty groups from the point of view of the prominence of its qualities-colour, taste, smell, touch and shape on the basis of their respective predominance in their substratum. It has been divided into one hundred groups by accepting colour as primary and other qualities as secondary 5 (5 +2+8+5)= 100, one hundred groups by accepting taste as primary and others as secondary, forty-six groups by regarding smell as primary and others as secondary, one hundred eighty four groups by accepting touch as primary and others as secondary and one hundred groups by accepting shape as primary and others as secondary. Thus the total number of these classes of Matter is five hundred and thirty. It is stated in the Prajna pana Sutra that those which are kalavarniparinitapudgalas (black-coloured-tronsformed matters) with regard to colour are surabhigandha-parinata and durabhigandhaparinata (pleasant and unpleasant-smell-transformed) with regard to smell; tiktarasaparinata (bitter taste-transformed), katukarasaparinata (sour-taste transformed), kasayarasaparinata (astringent taste-transformed), amlarasaparinata Paramanusamkha-asahkha-anamtapaesa abhavvanamtaguna Siddhananamtabhago aharagavaggana tTtanu (18) Agahanamtariyao teyagabhasamane ya kamme ya Dhuva-adhuva-accitta sunna-cau-amtaresuppim (19) Patteyagatanusa bayarasuhuma-nigoe taha mahakkhamdhe Gunanipphannasanama asaskhabhagamgulavagaho (20) Karmapraksti (Bandhana-karana) Kammovarin dhuveyarasunna patteyasunnabayariya (16) Sunna suhuma sunna mahakhamdho sagunanamao Pancasamgraha, Bandhanakarana, Vide Pancamakarma grantha, p. 214. 1. Pannavana, I. Ruvi ajrvapannavana.

Page #285
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy (acidic-taste-transformed), and madhurarasaparinata (sweet* taste-transformed) with regard to taste, karkasasparsa-parinata (hard touch-transformed), mrdusparsaparinata (soft touchtransformed), gurusparsaparinata (heavy-touch-transformed), laghusparsa-parinata (light-touch-transformed), 250 sitasparsaparinata (cold-touch-transformed), usnasparsaparinata (hottouch-transformed), snigdhasparsaparinata (smooth or cohesive touch-transformed), and ruksasparsaparinata (rough or dry touchtransformed) with regard to touch; parimandalasamsthanaparinata (spherical shape transformed), vrttasamsthanaparinata (circular shape-transformed), tasrasamsthanaparinata (triangular shape-transformed), caturasrasamsthanaparinata (square shape-transformed) and ayata-samsthana parinata (rectangular shape-transformed) with regard to shape (20). Those which are nila-varnaparinata (blue-colour-transformed) from point of view of colour are surabhigandhaparinata and durabhigandhaparinata from that of smell, tiktarasaparinata, katukarasaparinata, kasayarasaparinata, amlarasaparinata and madhu- - rarasaparinata from that of taste; karkasasparsaparinata, mrdusparsaparipata, gurusparsaparinata, laghusparsaparinata, sitasparsaparinata usnasparsaparinata, snigdhasparsaparinata and ruksasparsaparinata from that of touch; parimandala-samsthanaparinata, vrttasamsthanaparinata, tasrasamsthanaparinata, ayatasamsthanaparinata the caturasiasamsthanaparinata and from that of shape (20). Those which are lohitavarnaparinata (red colour-transformed) with regard to colour are surabhigandhaparinata and durabhigandhaparinata with regard to smell,. tiktarasaparinata, amlarasaparinata and madhurarasaparinata with regard to taste; karkasasparsaparinata, mrdusparsaparinata, gurusparsaparinata, laghusparsaparinata, sitasparsaparinata, usnasparsaparinata, snigdhasparsaparinata and ruksasparsaparinata with regard to touch, parimandalasamsthanaparinata, vrttasamsthanaparinata, tasrasamsthanaparinata caturasrasamsthanaparinata and ayatasamsthanaparinata (20), with regard to shape. Those which are haridravarnaparinata (yellow colour-transformed) from the point of view of colour.

Page #286
Classification of Matter 251 are surabhigandhaparinata and durabhigandhaparinata (pudgala) from that of smell; tiktarasaparinata, katukarasararinata, kasayarasaparinata, amlarasaparinata and madhurarasaparinata from that of taste, karkasasparsaparinata, madusparsaparinata, gurus parsaparinata, laghusparsaparinata, sstasparsaparinata, usnasparsaparinata, snigdhasparsaparinata and ruksasparsaparinata from that of touch; parimandalasamsthanaparinata, vittasamsthanaparinata, tasrasamsthanaparinata, caturasrasamsthanaparinata and ayatasaristhanaparinata from that of shape (20). Those matters which are suklavarnaparinata (white colour-transformed) from the aspect of colour are surabhigandhaparinata and durabhigandhaparinata from that of smell, tiktarasa parinata, katukarasaparinata, kasayarasaparinata, amlarasaparinata and madhurarasaparinata from that of taste; karkasasparsaparinata, mrdusparsaparinata, gurusparsaparinata, laghusparsaparinata, sitasparsaparinata, usnasparsaparinata, snigdhasparsaparinata and ruksasparsaparinata from that of touch; parimandalasamsthanaparinata, vsttasamsthanaparinata, tasrasamsthanaparinata, caturasrasamsthanaparinata and ayatasamsthanaparinata from that of shape (20). Thus there are stated to be one hundred groups of matter in this classification from the stand-point of predominance of colour as primary quality and non-predominance of other qualities as secondary. In this way Matter has been classified into the remaining four hundred thirty groups from the points of view of predominance of smell, touch and shape respectively. It is to be analysed whether the quality of primary as well as secondary importance in the transformed piece of matter is inherent in the component parts of it or emergent from the aggregation due to some chemical behaviour in it. According to the physical sciences, it can be said in regard to colour, taste and odour that colour is the important physical property and the apparent colour of a material substance is conditional upon its state of sub-division; it becomes lighter as large particles are grouped up into smaller ones. Taste and

Page #287
252 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy odour are the chemical properties in the matter as they are closely correlated with the chemical nature of the material substances. ,,Infinite classes of Matter There are stated to be infinite classes of matter with regard to its jati (category)-anujati ultimate atom) and skandhajati (molecule). All ultimate atoms are not of the same conditions. All the conditions of qualities of colour, taste, smell and touch do not exist in one ultimate atom. There may exist in one ultimate atom any one colour, any one taste, any one smell and any two unopposed touches between warm-cold and cohesive-dry. Ultimate atoms in which similar colour, taste, smell and two touches exist will be stated to be belonging to one jati (category). Similarly, ultimate atoms are of different jati (category) due to the cause of possible combinations of the sub-divisions of colour, taste, smell and touch. Like this skandha (aggregate) is of various jatis (category). In the Rajavartika, while commenting on the aphorism "Anavah skandha-Sca", Akalanka explains it in this manner; "Ubhayatra jatyapeksam bahuvacanam-anantabheda'api pudgala anujatya skandhajatya ca". In this sutra the use of these plural words "anavah' and 'skandhah" has been made from the point of view of jati. Matter is of infinite classes from the point of view of anujati and skandh ajatis. He has explained it further by stating ; "dvaividhyamapadyamanah sarve glhyanta iti tajjatyadharanantabhedasamsucanartham bahuvacanai kriyate." Infinite classes of Matter2 are discussed from the state of 1. Bhs., 25. 4. 740; Ubhayatra jatyapeksam bahuvacana (3) anantabheda'api pudgala anujatya skandhajatya ca dvaividhyamapadyamanah sarve glhyanta iti tajjatyadharanantabhedasamsucanartham bahuvacanan kriyate, RV., p. 491. 2. Bhs., 25. 4, 740; BhS. 20. 5. 670; TS., p. 439.

Page #288
Classification of Matter 253 the part of its quality. There is the degree of the capacity in the characteristics of Matter--colour, taste, smell and touch. As for example, blackness in black coloured matters is not equal in all of them. Some one is of onefold blackness, i, e, the lightest blackness in comparison with which there cannot be any lightest black colour-indivisible part of blackness which is unitary; some may be numerablefold black; some may be innumerablefold black and some may be infinitefold black. This degree of qualities exist in both ultimate atoms and molecules. In this way Matter has been classified into infinite groups from the points of view of the degree of the parts of its qualities --colours, tastes, smells and touches. There are also infinite classes of Matter with regard to its modes. Matter is subject to modification on account of the process of combination and dissociation. Matter undergoes modifications by the process of integration into the forms of colour, taste, smell, touch and shape and thus it assumes vyanjanaparyayas, (periodic modifications.) From the point of view of the these infinite modes, Matter has been classified into infinite groups, as for instance, sound, heat, light, darkness, water, earth, cloud, etc. The classification of Pudgala (Mattar) into infinite groups from the points of view of jati (category), part of quality (gunamsa) and mode or modification is comparable to the analysis of matter of the physical sciences from the point of view of subject (substance), predicate (qua-- lity) and relations (modes). 1. Jaina Padartha-vijnana men Pudgala, pp. 41-49 2. Ibid., p. 50.

Page #289
EIGHT CHAPTER ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER AND PROPERTIES OF ATOM FIRST SECTION ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER In continuation of the fourth chapter on Atomism it is necessary further to have a detailed discussion of the atomic structure of Matter, the nature and properties of atom in relation to the Brahmanical and Buddhist views on them. In Jaina Philosophy paramanu (ultimate atom) is studied from the points (locus or field), kala (time) and bhava (condition), as it is the finest particle of Matter the further division of which is not possible; it is identical with one space-point and one unit of time (ksana-samaya), and is endowed with quality and it is ever changing in nature. 1 Paramanu is an indivisible unit of Matter; it is the finest of all forms of Matter; the finest point of space is an indivisible one space-point; the finest unit of time is an indivisible instant; and the finest unit of quality of Matter is bhavaparamanu (atom of quality). So Jaina Mataphysics mentions dravya-paramanu (atom of material substance), ksetraparamanu (atom of space), kalaparamanu (atom of time) and bhava-paramanu (atom of quality).2 1. From the general point of view Paramanu is one "egepara manu", Stha. I; Bhs., 25. 4. 70; 20. 5. 670; Acaranga Curni, p. 195; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Tika (Kamala Samyama), p. 99. 2. Goyama ! cauvvihe paramanu pa. tan- davvaparamanu, khettaparamanu, kalaparamanu, bhavaparamanu, Bhs., 20. 5. 670.

Page #290
Atomic Structure of Matter 255 One point of space is the last limit of the division of space, i. e. partless. As pointed out, paranianu is partless, it has no inner and outer parts. That is why it is the finest particle of Matter from the point of view of field or locus; it exists only in one space-point. It is a momentary unit in this sense that a samaya or ksana is the indivisible unit of time, so also paramanu is an indivisible unit of Matter; the movement of a paramanu from one space-point to another is measured by a samaya or ksana (instant), for this reason it is identical with a momentary unit of time. The properties of a paramanu are also in a state of flux, undergoing transformation. A paramanu is so finest in form that it is touched by air, but it does not touch air. 1 The Jaina Acaryas of both the S veta mbara and Digambara traditions have used this word "Paramanu" and interpreted it in the following manner : Paramanu is the cause of the formation of pudgalaskandha (molecule); it comes into being out of the division of skandha at last2. Hence it is the smallest and finest form of Matter and it is permanent. It is eternal from the point of view of substance and non-eternal from that of condition of colour, smell, taste and touch.4 Causative Atom and Ultimate Discrete Atom ( Karananu and Anantanu ) Dravyaparamanu (atom of material substance) is called paramanupudgala (atomic matter) from the general point of 1. Gayama ! paramanupoggale vayuaenam phude no vayu aye paramanupoggalenam phuae, BhS., 18. 10. 644. 2. Goyama ! esa nam poggale titam ceva java egaruve siya, Bhs., 14. 4. 510; Bhedadanuh, TS., V. 27. 3. Suksmo nityasca bhavati paramanuh, Uttara. Tika (santi Acarya, p. 24. 4. Goyama ! davvatthayae sasae vaanapajjavehim java phasa pajjavehim asasae tenatthenam ja va siya sasae asasae, Bhs., 14. 4. 512.

Page #291
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy view or in short it is called paramanu (ultimate atom).1 All pudgalas (forms of matter) are paramanus from the real or noumenal point of view, but a paramanu does not exist always in the form of this state. According to the intrinsic nature of combination and dissociation, an aggregate-form of paramanus, which is produced or manifested as a result of combination of one paramanu with another due to the organic process of activity or application (prayoga) of beings or with the organic process of application of beings (Vaisrasika) is called skandha (molecule). In this aggregation a group of combined paramanus, sometimes being subject to the law of division (bhedadanu)2 or to that of integration and disintegration (Sanghatabhedebhya utpadyante) again can attain their respective discrete state. Paramanus are called Karananu (causative atom) from the point of view of combination and anantanu (ultimate discrete atom) from that of dissociation or disintegration. That is, Matter consists of two forms, viz. paramanu and skandha from the physical aspect of its nature. Here the point arises how do they exist in the spatial Universe. It is traikalika (of three points of time) and is subject to transformation by artificial (i. e. applied) and natural processes. 5 256 Nature of Atom in the Light of the Nature of Matter Paramanu is a material substance and it is attributed by the name 'dravyaparamanu'. It is permanent and fixed (constant) in number, for it does not give up its individuality and class, even undergoing transformation into a molecular form. It observes the law of conservation of Mass, for no paramanu is destroyed nor goes out of existence and no paramanu originates in the universe. The number of paramanus, which was in the past, exists at present and will exist in future. Para 1. BhS., 20. 6, 670. 2. TS., ch. V. 27. 3. TS,, ch, V. 26. 4. TS., ch. V. 27. 5. BhS., 14. 4. 510.

Page #292
Atomic Structure of Matter 257 manu is non-living, because there is no essential quality of livingness in it. It possesses existentiality (i. e. quality of being) which is inferable by the mark of its effect. It is devoid of mass, for it is a unitary material substance, but it possesses a capacity to become corporeal or to assume a form of mass or corporeality by combining with other paramanus.? So paramanu can be called corporeal because of its capacity of assuming corporeality. There are only four inherent properties in paramanu, viz. colour, smell, taste and touch, but it is devoid of shape. The shape *ayata' (oblong) commences only from a combination of two paramanus having two space-points? or units. A paramanu is endowed with a capacity of kriya (activity or movement); it can move from one place to another and make movements, but its movements are uncertain, i. e. accidental. It does not disintegrate nor does it break up or split up nor does it get scattered nor does it itself integrate by getting disintegrated, broken up and scattered. But it attains aggregation by combining with another paramanus or paramanu and it dissociates from that aggregation by giving up that state. A paramanu is not of the 1. Paramanuprabhitayo'anantanantapradesaskandhaparyava sanasta eva rupavattamananyasadharanzmanekarupaparinatisamarthyapaditasuksmasthulavisesavisesaprakarsaprakarsavartinim bibhrati, TS. Bha. TI., p. 325; Matravadharyate, taddhi na jatucidaticiraparicitaparamanudvyanukadikramavsddhadravyakalapamujjhati samarthyacca pudgala api na tam vihaya vartante, atah pudgala eva rupina iti susthucyate, Ibid. Esamiti pudgalanam paramanudvyanukadikramabhajam uktalaksanam rupam murtih sa vidyata iti rupinah, TS, Bha. TI, p. 325; Parthivapyataija savayaviyanavao ' apyekajatiyah kadacit kancit parinatim bibhrato na sarvendriyagrahya bhavanti, ato ruparasagandhasparasa eva visistaparinamanugrhytah santo murtivyapadesabhajo bhavanti, TS., p. 324.

Page #293
258 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy nature of disintegration and integration in its self-evident or discrete state, but a skandha of paramanus has the nature of integration and disintegration. Therefore, a paramanu is of the nature of integration and disintegration in its collidye or (combined) form. It is of the changing nature; it itself is changeable in state of neither heaviness nor lightness (agurulaghubhava). This agurulaghuparinama (transformation of the quality of neither heaviness nor lightness) takes place in the parts of qualities-colour, taste, smell, and touch. A paramanu, while combining with another, can be transformed by the latter. Paramanus are infinite in number. In spite of the fastest speed of motion of a paramanu, it is not capable of going to Aloka ( Non-Universe ); its motion is everywhere in Loka (Universe). Therefore, a paramanu is called Loka-paramanu (co-extensive with the Universe)." As pointed out, it does come in the service of Soul in its natural state. According to the physical sciences, "the outstanding property that all atoms possess is that of mass. Mass is of course, an important parameter in the study of the motion of atoms by themselves as well as in the study of the motion of collections of atoms, i. e, of solid bodies and fluids. Since Avogardro's number is large, we know that ordinary qualities of materials, contain very large number of atoms."4 NATURE OF PARAMANU (ATOM) IN THE SAMKHYA-YOGA PHILOSOPHY The Samkhya-Yoga Philosophy admits the material existence paramanu (atom), but not as the unit of Matter and 1. Paramanu poggala ..anamta, BhS., 25. 4. 740. 2. Paramanupoggale na logassa puracchimillam tam ceva java uvarillam carimantam gacchai, Bhs., 16. 8. 584. 3. Ibid., 18. 4. 662. 4. Physics, pp. 299-300.

Page #294
Atomic Structure of Matter the ultimate cause of the material universe. As pointed out, paramanu of this system of thought is janyapadartha (produced entity) but not an eternal entity like paramanus of the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina Metaphysics. It is evolved out of the first tanmatra (infra-atomic units of potential) which itself originates from Bhutadi (rudiment Matter) under the operation of Rajas (Energy)1 as a result of "the process of disintegration and emanation in the menstrum of surrounding medium of the unindividuated cosmic mass Mahat.'' 259 A paramanu is the smallest portion of any substance, having the characteristic quality of it, i. e. it represents the smallest homogeneous part of any substance. It is not partless, hence it is divisible, for it is subject to dissociation. Here lies 1. Upastambhatah parinamayanti, Samkhya Pravacanabhasya, 62, ch. 1, p. 35. 2. Prakhyakriyasthitisilanam gunanam grahanatmakanam karanabhavenaikah parinamah srotramindriyam grahyatmakanam sabdabhavenaikah parinamah sabdo visaya iti, sabdadinam murtirsamanajatiyanamekah parinamah prthiviparamanustanmatravayavah, tesam caikah parinamah prthiv gaurvrksah parvata ityevamadih, bhutantaresvapi snehausnyapranamitvavakasadananyupadaya samanyamekavikararambhah, samadheyah, Yogabhasya, IV, 14, pp. 192-3; Vikaranabbavah vikirnatasvabhava vyapita iti yavat, Yogavartika on Patanjali's Sutra Manojavittam Vikaranabhavah, etc; Akasastu vikurvanah sparsamatram sasarja Balavanbhavadvayustatah sparsa guno matah Visnupurana; See Samkhyapravacanabhasya, p. 35: P. S. A. H., p. 29. 3. Apakarsaparyantam dravyam paramanurevam, See Yoga Su., 52, pada III and V Bha., p, 174; Lostasya hi pravibhajyamanasya yasminnavayave alpatvataratamyam vyavatisthate so' apakarsaparyantah paramanu, Tattvavaisaradr, Ibid., p. 174;

Page #295
The Concept ot Matter in Jaina Philosophy the difference between the atomicity of Matter of the Samkhya-Yoga and the atomicity of Matter of the Jaina and Nyaya-Vaisesika systems of thought, as the latter advocatethat a paramanu is indivisible. 260 Dr. B. N. Seal explains the conception of paramanu in the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy in this way: "In a mixed substance (militadravya, samhatabhutartha) whether it be an "isomeric' or a heterogenic compound, the quantities are due to the mixture, and therefore its paramanu (usually called rambhaka paramanu), the smallest homogeneous particle possessing its characteristic qualities, must result from the mixture of the paramanus (in smaller or larger numbers as the case may be) of the component substances. In the Samkhya view, then, the paramanus of a mixed substance ( Arambhaka paramanu) corresponds to what we now call molecules."1 According to the Samkhya-Yaga Philosophy", a paramanu is a type of atoms corresponding to each Bhuta class, and indeed one and the same kind of paramanu may comprehend atoms of different masses, if only these should agree in their structural type."2 This nature of paramanu differs from the Jaina view of one class of paramanu, but it is akin to the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Buddhist concepts of different classes of atoms corresponding to different elements of Matter. But the difference of views on the point lies in the fact that paramanus of the Samkhya-Yoga are generated, whereas paramanus of the Nyaya-Vaisesika are the ultimate causes of the material universe and the Buddhist paramanus are samghataparamanus (combined atoms). In the Samkhya-Yoga the generation of paramanus are conceived in the following order: "Akasa-atom Nanunityata na nirbhagatvam, prthiviparamanuh jalaparamanurityadivyavaharastu prthivyadinam apakarsakasthabhiprayenaiya, PBha., V. 88. Vijnanabhiksu. 1. P. S. A. H., p. 52. 2. Ibid., p. 40.

Page #296
Atomic Structure of Matter 261 is generated by the sound-potential with accretion of rudimentmatter (Bhutadi), the vayu-atom is generated by the touchpotentials by combining with the vibratory particles (soundpotential); the Teja-atom is produced by the light and heat potentials by combining with touch-potential and soundpotentials; the Ap-atom is generated by the taste-potentials by combining with light and heat-potentials, touch-potentials and sound-potentials; and the Psthivi-atom is produeed by the smell-potentials by combining with the preceding potentials. The Akasa-atom is endowed with the attribute of penetrability, the Vayu-atom with impact of mechanical pressure, the Teja-atom with radiant heat-and-light, the Apatom with viscous attraction, and the Earth-atom with cohesive attraction.''1 THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA VIEW ON NATURE OF PARAMANU (ATOM) As already discussed in brief outlines in the fourth chapter, paramanu (ultimate atom) is conceived by the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy as the ultimate particle of Matter; it is absolutely without any magnitude, its measure is anu (smallest);2 it is non-spatials and it has no inside or outside;4 it is intangible to the senses; its existence is inferable by the mind or intellect.6 No magnitude can be produced by the adding up of its measure, 1 P.S. A. H., pp. 38-39. 2. Mahato viparitas anu, VS., VII. 1. 10. 3. NV., IV, ii, 25, p. 522, line 3. 4. NS., IV. ii. 20. .5. NV., p. 233 and NYTT., p. 271, line 7 from bottom etc; Param va truteh, NV., IV. ii, 12; Trutistrasarenurityanarthantaram jalasuryamarscistham trasarenu rajah smotam, NV., p. 647; Tasya karyam lingam, vs., IV. 1. 2; VSU., VII, ii. 9.

Page #297
262 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy as it is absolutely devoid of any magnitude. It is an eterna substance. According to the Nyaya-Vaiseslka, paramanus are the ultimate constituents of bodies; they are indivisible and eternal2 material substances. A continuous process of production is involved in their internal character, though they are themselves incapable of producing anything, for they are kutasthanitya (absolutely permanent). As there are stated to be four classes of paramanus corresponding to four elements of matter, viz. earth-atom, water-atom, fire-atom and air-atom, so atoms of any specific element of matter are admitted to possess all the specific qualities of it. Therefore, the four specific qualities, viz. smell, taste, colour and touch are possessed by the four kinds of atoms respectively by the order : smell by earthatom, taste by water-atom, colour by fire-atom and touch by air-atom.4 The specific qualities in the atoms of water, fire and air are eternal and constant, while those in the earth-atoms are subject to transformation (chemical action) under the influence of heat.5 So all the atoms, except earth-atom, of the same element of matter are qualitatively similar, but they are qualitatively dissilimar from the atoms of other elements of matter. The specific qualities of the four kinds of atoms are imperceptible, for they are unmanifest and inherent in intangible non-spatial atoms in which there is no gross magnitude accruing from the combination of parts.6 On account of this fact atoms are 1. Anitya iti visesatah pratisedhabhavah, VS., 4. 1. 4. 2. Ibid., Sadakaranavapnityam, Ibid., 4. 1.1; Adravyatvena nityatvamuktam, vs., II. i. 13; VV. II. 1. 13; KVBha., p. 78. 3. NK., pp. 78-83; Avantarabhedanirupanarthamaha nityo canitya ceti...karyalaksana prthivi. 4. Karanabhavat, karyabhavah, VS., IV. i. 3. 5. Jnananirdese joananispattividhiruktah, VS., VIII. 1. 13 and See vv. 6. Anekadravyasamavayat rupavisesacca rupopatabdhih, VS., IV. 1. 8;

Page #298
Atomic Structure of Matter 263 imperceptible, for they are not possessed of gross magnitude (mahattva) and manifested colour (udbhutarupa)1 in them. But they can be perceived by the yogin with his supernatural intuitive vision which is free from the imposition of limitation of any external factors.2 Paramanus cannot be apprehended by the tactile-sense organ nor can they be tasted by the senseorgan of taste nor can they be apprehended by the sense-organ of smell for want of magnitude and manifested touch, taste and smell respectively in them.3 But the sense-organs come into contact with ultimate atom4 for the Yogin. paramanus are stated to be the material cause of the universe5 and thus inapprehensible to the sense in both collective and individual forms and they are endowed with quiddity (antyavisesa) by which one is discriminated from the others? The numerical Tena rasagandhasparsesu jnanam vyakhyatam, VS. VI. 1. 9. 1. Mahatyanekadravyavattvat rupaccopalabdhih, VS., 4. 1. 6; Paramanormahattvabhavadanupalabdhirityuktam bhavati Vyakhya, Ibid; Dharana karsanopapattes:a, NS., II. 1. 36; Senavanavad-grahanamiti cennatIndriyatvadanunam, NS., II. 137. Indriyajamapi dvividham sarvajniyamasarvajniyanca sarvajniyam yogajadharmalaksanaya pratyasattya tattatpadarthasarthajnanam, tatha hi paramanavah...acintyaprabhavo hi yogajadharmo na sahakaryantaramapeksate, VSU., VIII. 1. 2; PPBha., p. 97; NV., II. 1. 35, p. 230 3. NVTTP, VS. Fol. 26. 4. NV., IV. 1. 33. 5. Tatkaritatvadahetuh, NV. 1. 21. 6. Sa ceyamavayavajanya na tvanusamhatimatram, etc., NLV, p. 8. Prakasa on NLV., p. 122. 7. Psthivyadinam navanamapi dravyatvayogah svatmanyaram bhakatvam gunavattvam karyakaranavirodhitvamantyavisesivattvam, PPB ha., p. 7.

Page #299
264 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy differences of different kinds of ultimate atoms from one another and from all other things are remarkable and their differences from one another are of an ultimate nature. An ultimate atoms is differentiated from all other ultimate atoms by its ultimate differentiating characteristic called particularity (vjsesa). All ultimate atoms are regarded as discrete individuals, because each of them possesses its own particularity.1 In Jaina Metaphysics also this attribute of an ultimate atom has been discussed in the same manner by the st "paramanupoggale...siya aya siya no aya java no ayai ya,... appano atthe aya, parassa aitthe no aya, tadubhayassa aitthe avattavam aya i ya no aya i ya."} This is to say, a paramanu has got self-existence or individuality from the point of view of existence and property of matter. It possesses its own independent nature different from that of another ultimate atom. The Neo-Naiyayikas headed by Raghunatha Siromani also hold the view that ultimate atoms and all eternal substances are distinguished from one another by themselves, for each of them is a unique particular by its very nature.3 In regard to the dimension of paramanu it is explained by the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy that a paramanu is endowed with the smallest and shortest dimension called parimandalya (spherical) 4 Jaina Metaphysics does not spcak about the spherical dimension of paramanu, but it is clear from its statement that a paramanu occupies one space-point having a spherical point as its dimension, just as it is mentioned in the Nyaya-Vaisesika. 1. PP. Bha., pp. 321-22. 2. Bhs., 12. 10. 469 3. Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 146; see PTN., pp. 30-31. 4. Kanadarahasya, pp. 72-73; Nitye, nityam VS., VII. 1. 19; Nityam parlmandalyam, Ibid., 20; Parimandalyamiti sarvapaktstam parimanam, NK., p. 318.

Page #300
Atomic Structure of Matter 265 THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON NATURE OF PARAMANU (ATOM) According to the Buddhist Philosophy, the finest of all rupas (matters) is rupa-samghataparamanu; it is intangible to the senses and soundless and it is astadravyaka.? When there exists Kayendriya (tactile sense-organ) in it, then it is navadravyaka (having nine elements); when there is aparendriya (internal sense-organ) in it, then it is dasadravyaka (consisted of ten elements). Here paramanu does not mean dravyaparamanu which is one entity and one substance, but it is samghataparamanu sarvasuksmarupasamghata (the finest material aggregate), for there is no finer material entity then this in rupasamghata (meterial aggregation), Sarighabhadra maintains the view that the finest part of sapratigha rupas (impenetrable matters) whose further division is not possible is called paramanu, i.e. a paramanu cannot be divided into any part by other rupa (matter) and citta (mind). It is called the finest of all forms of matter, for it has no part. On this ground the name 'sarvasuksma' has been attributed to it, as the finest is called ksana and it cannot be divided into half ksana (moment).2 This nature of paramanu as conceived 1. Kame astadravyokosasabdah paramanuranindriyah Kayendriyo navadravyo dasadravyoaparendriyah Abh. K., II. 22; Saptadravyavinirbhagi paramanurbahirgatah Kamesvekadhikah kaye dvyadhikascaksuradisu Abh. D. 65. II, 100; Paramanu (nu) samghata (7) ityarthah ta evastau caksurvijnanadhatvadayo (hitva sesa dasa) samcita Abh. D., p. 25. 2. D'apres Samghabhadra (xxiii. 3. Folio 52a); Parmi les rupas, susceptibles de resistance (sapratigha), la partie le plus subtile, qui n'est pas susceptible d'etre scindle a nouveau, s'apelle paramanu, c'est a-dire le paramanu n'est pas

Page #301
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy in the Buddhist Philosophy is similar to that of paramanu as explained by the Jaina, Nyaya-Vaisesika and Yoga schools of thought. But it should be noted that the nature of BuddhistSamghata-paramanu opposes the indivisibility of atoms." 266 When in Kamadhatu (external or physical world) sound is not generated in atom (sabdayatana) and no indriya (sense) is produced, then this paramanu is astadravyaka (consisted of eight elements) as a rule, i. e. it is constituted of four particles. of primary elements - earth, water, fire and air2 and four particles of secondary elements, viz. colour, smell, taste and tangibility. When sound is not produced in paramanu, but it is generated by the action of other paramanus in kayendriya (kayayatana), then one ninth substance (or entity) is produced i. e. when a sound-atom is produced by the action of other atoms, samghataparamanu is ninefold. When sound is not 4 susceptible d'etre devise en plusieurs par an autre rupa, par la pensee. C'est qu'on dit etre le plus petit rupa; comme il n'a pas de parties, on lui donne nom le 'plus petit'. De meme un kshana est nomme le plus petit temps et ne peu etre devise eu demikshanas (iii. 86). LVPAK II., p. 144, n. 3. Also cf "yat punarucyate rupasamudaya iti nihsarfrah paramanurveditavyah, vuddhyaparyantaprabhedastu paramanuvavasthanam pindasamjnavibhavanatamupadaya rupe dravyaparinispattipravesatam copadaya, As., pp. 41. 2. 1. Abh. K., i. 43. Tibetan Text, p. 83 Vide The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 13. 2. Abh. K., i. 12 C. 3. Abh. K., i. 10 A, 250 C. D; 65 A. B. 4. The combination of these anus which cannot be disintegrated is called samghatanu. In Kamadhatu (external world). at least there is the co-production of eight substances and it has soundless intangible samghatanu. The substances (dravyas) are four Mahabhutas and four upadayarupas (derivative matters), i. e. colour, taste, smell and touch; Abh. K.(A), p. 115.

Page #302
Atomic Structure of Matter 267 generated in paramanu, but besides kayendriya another indriya (caksurindriya, etc.) is produced, then there is produced one tenth substance (aparendriya) in it, i. e. caksurindriya, etc. are generated, because caksusrotradi-indriyas (eye, ear, etc.) are kayendriyapratibaddha (associated with tactile senseorgan) and prthakvartin ayatana (separate base). When the aforesaid samghataparamanu is associated with sound, then nava-, dasa-, and ekadasa-dravyakas (combined atoms having nine, ten and eleven elements of particles) are produced respectively. In fact, sabdayatana (sound) which is generated from Mahabhutas is indriyavipirbhagi (indistinguishable or inseparable)?. "Strictly speaking, even an eightfold molecule (samghataparamanu) contains at least twenty atoms, since there are four sense-objects-atoms and each such derivative atom must have one atom of each of the four elements supporting it, making four derivative and sixteen elementary atoms in the simplest molecule ( samghataparamanu ). This number is increased to five derivative and twenty elemental atoms in the case of those molecules containing sound atoms. The number eight or nine there refers only to the different kinds of atoms in a molecule, and not to the total number or constituent atoms.??? But from the stand-point of the Sarvastivadins3 there are fourteen kinds of atoms corresponding to the fourteen elements of Rupa (Matter), one kind for each element, i. e. one given to each of the sense organs, and one to each of the sense-objects and four additional ones for each of the Mahabhutas. 1. In one sabdaparamanu which is produced by hands there are four Mahabhutas, four upadayarupas, sabda (sound) and kayendriya=10 dravyas ; there are 11 dravyas in sabda produced by Jihvendriya (tongue). There is the increase of Jihvendriya in it; the atoms of Jihvendriya are in the atindriya (insensible) Jihva (tongue)., Abb. K. (H), p. 115; Samghabhadra, 10, p. 383, col. 3. 2. A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, pp, 127-8. 3. Abh. Hr. 1, etc., Vide A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 127. 4. A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 127.

Page #303
268 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy A LIGHT ON CARAMA (LAST) AND ACARAMA (NOT-LAST) CONDITION OF PARAMANU (ATOM) According Jaina Philosophy, paramanu is acarama (notlast) from the aspect of substance, somehow carama (last) and somehow acarama (not-last) from those of locus or field, time and condition. Paramanu which, being bereft of Vivaksitabhava (intended condition) of transformation, will not attain that condition is carama with regard to that condition; paramanu opposite to carama is called acarama, i. e. paramanu which will attain that condition is carama with regard to that condition. Hence this paramanu is not carama but a acarama with regard to dravya (substance), for paramanu, which being lost from its own state, attains samghata-paramanu (transformation of combination), and it will again attain paramanuparinama (transformation into ultimate atom) in course of time from the state of samghataparina!na, so it is acarama. With regard to ksetra (field) paramanu is carama in some respect and acarama in other respect. In the space where a Kevalin (omniscients) attains samudghata (expansion of soul), paramanu which is immersed there, does never attain immersion there as being particularized by the attainment of samudghata of that Kevalin, because of the liberation of the Kavalin that paramanu cannot come there. So it is carama in this respect. But with regard to the remaining space (non-particularized space) it will remain in that ksetra (field or locus), i. e, it is acarama because it exists there by immersion. With regard to kala (time) paramanu is carama in some respect and carama in other respect. In reference to kala when samudghata is performed by a Kevalin (omniscient), paramanu (ultimate atom) which existed, never exists at the (time) particularized by keva1. Davvadesenam n carime acarime, khettadesenam siya carime siya acarime, kaladesenam siya carime siya acarime bhavadesenam siya carime siya acarime, Bhs., 14. 4. 512; Pannavana, 157.

Page #304
Atomic Structure of Matter lisamudghata (expansion of soul by the Kevalin) bacause of the absence of samudghata due to the attainment of liberation (siddhi) by the Kevalin. With regard to that it is carama, while with regard to nirvisesakala (non-particularized time) that paramanu is acarama. With regard to bhava it is carama in some respect and acarama in other respect, for paramanu which attained particular qualities like colour, etc., during the period of kevalisa mudghata, is carama in respect of that intended kevalisamudghatavisistavarnadiparinama (transformation of colour, etc. particularized by kevalisamudghata), because of the liberation of the Kevalijnanin, again it does not attain that particular parinama (transformation), while with regard to the remaining qualities, it is acarama. 1 269 Apradesa (partless) Condition of Paramanus (Atoms) Paramanu is partless2 with regard to dravya (substance); and also partless with regard to ksetra (field or locus) invariably; it is partless in some respect and is having part in other respect with regard to kala (time); it may be partless and it may have parts with regard to bhava (condition) from the point of view of space-point. A paramanu is partless from the aspect of ksetra, i. e. it. occopies one space-point. In its individual condition it occupies one-space point and it occupies this space-point by combining with other paramanu also, but it can exist there as being 1. BhS., 14. 4. 512 (Comm). 2. Paramanupoggale...anaddhe, amajjhe apaese, BhS., 5. 7. 215, Davvenam paramanu khittenegappasamogadha kalenegasamaia apaesa puggala humti, Pudgalasattrimsika, 2. 3. Savve poggala sapadesavi apadesavi anamta khettadesenavi evam ceva kaladesenavi bhavadesenavi evam ceva, je davvao appadese se khettao niyama apadese kalao siya sapadese siya apadese bhavao siya sapadese siya apadese je khettao apadese se davvao siya sapadese siya apadese, kalao bhayanae bhavao bhayanae, jaha khettao evam kalac bhavao, BhS., 5. 8. 221.

Page #305
270 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy combined with another adjacent paramanu existing in another space-point. A paramanu combined in a skandha (molecule) also occupies one space-point, but not more than one spacepoint. 1 Wherever there is one paramanu there are not unit of Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion), one unit of Adharmastikaya (Principle of Rest) and one point of Akasa (space). There can take place an immersion of infinite units of JIva (soul) and Pudgala (Matter) is one space-point. The immersion of kala (time) may occur sometimes and may not occur sometimes there. If it takes place, it is an immersion of infinite addhasamayasa (length of time). 1. Jattha nam Bhante ! ege poggalatthikayapaese ogadhe .. evam jaha jivatthikayapaese taheva niravasesam, BhS., 13. 5. 484; See SS., 5. 10 (comm); Pudgalasattrimsika, 2. 2. Jattha...ege dhammatthikayapaese ogadhe tattha...ahamma tthikayapaesa .. ? ekko, agasatthikaya...? ekko jivatthikaya ? anama, poggalatthikaya...? Ananta, addhasamaya...? siya ogadha siya no ogadha jai ogadha anamta, Bhs., 13. 5. 483.

Page #306
SECOND SECTION PROPERTIES OF ATOM (PARAMANU) As to its property of colour there exists in it any one of the 'following five colours, viz. black, blue, red, yellow and white. 1 There cannot be more than one colour in a paramanu. This colour may be onefold up to infinitefold. The colour of one paramanu can undergo transformation into the colour of another paramanu by combining with another paramanu or .paramanus and vice versa, but its natural (intrinsic) colour is not destroyed. On the breaking up of the combination, a paramanu transforms itself into its own natural colour by dissociating from a skandha (molecule). There is no mixed colour in a paramanu.S In regard two smell there exists in a paramanu any one of the following two smells, viz. pleasant and unpleasant.4 There cannot be both of them or a mixture of them in it. The capacity of smell can be onefold up to infinitefolds in it. A paramanu having pleasant smell can transform into a paramanu having unpleasant smell by combination with another paramanu or paramanus and vice versa. On account of division by the breaking up of the combination a paramanu transforms itself 1. Bhs., 20. 5. 668; 18. 6. 531. 2. Egagunakalaga nam Bhamte !...anamtagunakalaga, evam avasesavi vannagamdharasaphasa neyavva java anamta gunalukkhati, BhS., 25. 4. 740. .3. Yada tu sa eva pudgalaskandhah syaparamanuviyojanena aparaparamanusamyojanena va dravyantaratvamapanno' api yavatpurvaparyayan krsnatvadinna muncati tavadbhavasthanayurityucyate, Paramanukhandasastrimsika, p. 1; RV., 5. 25. 13, 14, pp. 491-2. 4. Bhs., 20. 5. 668; 18. 6. 631; 25. 4. 740. 5. Bhs., 25.4. 740, Bhannai egagunanavi anamtabhagammi jam anamtaguna, Pudgalasattrinsika, p. 2 (5)

Page #307
272 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy into its own natural smell. There does not take place the destruction of the natural smell of a paramanu in the state of its combination with another paramanu or paramanus. With regard to taste there exists in paramanu any one of the following five tastes, viz. bitter, sour, astringent, acidic and sweet.2 But there cannot exist in it more than one taste. The capacity of taste can be onefold up to infinitefold.3 A paramanu, having assumed the form of aggregation by combining with another paramanu or paramanus can undergo transformation into the taste of another paramanu or of paramanus. But its natural taste is not destroyed. On its dissociation from a skandha a paramanu again transforms itself into its own natural taste. There is no mixed taste in it.4 As to the quality of touch there exist in a paramanu any two unopposing touch of four touches, viz. srta-snigdha (coldcohesive), sita-ruksa (cold-dry), usna-snigdha (warm-cohesive) and usna-rukna (warm dry).5 Therefore, a paramanu may either be (1) cold-cohesive or (2) cold-dry or (3) warm-cohesive or (4) warm-dry. There is neither heavy nor light touches in it because it in aguru laghu (neither heavy nor light) and there is neither hardness nor softness in it, for these qualities are existent in a gross molecule. Its capacity of coldness, warmth, cohesiveness and dryness is onefold up to infinitefold. 8 GROUP OF PARAMANUS (ULTIMATE ATOM) ACCORDING TO THEIR QUALITIES From the aspect of category (jati) there are many groups of paramanus because of variousness of bhava-gunas (condi1. Paramanukhandasattrimsika, p. 1. 2. Bhs., 20. 5. 668; 18. 6. 630. 3. Bhs., 25. 4. 740; Pudgalasattrinsika, pp. 5-6. 4. Paramanukhandasattrimsika, pp. 1.4. 5. BhS., 20. 5. 668; RV., pp. 491-2. 6. Bhs., 25. 4. 740; Pudgalasattrinsika, pp. 5, 6.

Page #308
Properties of Atom 273 tion-qualities). There are two hundred basic groups of paramanus (5 x 5 x2x8) and there are infinitefold infinite groups of paramanus according to the degrees of capacities of bhavagunas (varna, gandha, rasa and sparsa=colour, smell, taste and touch). 1 As for example, one paramanu is black, pleasantsmelled, sweet, and warm and dry. The other paramanu is red, but the remaining qualities are like those of the first paramanu. It (first one) can become many paramanus having bhavagunas (condition-qualities), i. e. atoms of qualities, they are of one basic group of paramanus. The second paramanu also, having bhava-gunas, can become many paramanus, hence these are paramanus of the second basic class. There become two hundred basic groups of paramanus by addition of the remaining basic groups of paramanus having their respective properties. Next, the colour of the first paramanu is black and onefold black, the other paramanu of this group is twofold black, some of this group is threefold black, some is fourfold black, thus innumerablefold black and some is infinitefold black. In this way there can be infinite subgroups of paramanus according to the degree of onefold up to infinitefold capacity of each bhavaguna existing in each individual basic group of paramanu.2 CONTACT OF ATOMS There are stated to be nine alternatives of sparsata (contact or mere touch of paramanu), viz. (1) one part touched by one 1. Evam ca sparsanadinamekaikasya ekadvitricatuh sam khyeya asamkheyanantagunaparinamo avaseyah, RV., p. 485; Anantabheda api pudgala anujatya skandhajatya ca dvaividhyamapadyamanah sarve glhyanta iti jatyadharananta bhedasamsucanarthai bahuyacanas kriyate, RY., p. 491. 2. BhS., 20. 5. 668; 25. 4. 740; Pudgalasattrinsika, pp. 5, 6.

Page #309
274 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy part, (2) more than one part touched by one part, (3) all parts touched by one part (4) one part touched by parts (more than one part), (5) parts touched by parts, (6) all parts touched by parts, (7) one part touched by all parts, (8) some parts touched by all parts and (9) all parts touched by all parts. When one paramanu touches another one, the whole of it touches the whole of the other, for there cannot be the conception of point in point. A paramanu touches a skandha (molecule) having two units (pradesas) by the alternatives--the part by the whole (parts) and the whole by the whole of it. It touches a skandha having three units by the alternatives--the part by the whole, the parts by the whole and the whole by the whole. By this order it touches also skandha (molecules) having four, five up to infinite units (pradesas).3 In regard to the touching of the units of other substances like Dharmastikaya, etc., it is explained that one paramanu touches the four points of Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion) in the minimum and seven points of it in the maximum.3 Similarly, it touches the four points of Adharmastikaya 1. Paramanupoggale nam Bhamte ! paramanupoggalam phusa mane kim desenar desam phusai desenam dese phusai 2 desenam savvam phusai 3 desehim desam phusai 4 desehim dese phusai 5 desehim savvam phusai 6 savvenam desam phusai 7 savvenam dese phusai 8 savvenam savvam phusai 9, BhS., 5. 7. 216. 2. Evam paramanupoggale dupadesiya phusamane sattamana vamehim phusai, paramanupoggale tipaesiyan phusamane nippacchimaehim tihim phu jaha paramanupoggale tipaesiyam phusavio evam phusaveyavvo java anamtapaesaio, Bhs., 5. 7. 216. 3. Ege Bhaste poggalatthikayapaese kevaiehim dhammatthi kayapaesehim ? evam jaheva jivatthikayassa, BhS., 13. 4. 482; Ege ! Bhaste jsvatthikayapaese kevaiehim dhammatthikayapuccha jahannapae cauhim ukkosapae sattahim, Evan ahammatthikayapaesihin vi, Bhs., 13. 4. 482.

Page #310
Properties of Atom 275 (Principle of Rest) in the minimum and seven points of it in the maximum. That is to say, the point of space in which one ultimate atom exists is one and the same point of Dharmastikaya and of Adharmastikaya also. There can be six points of Dharmastikaya on the six sides of a paramanu-east, west, north, south, up and down. Therefore, one paramanu can touch seven points of Dharmastikaya at the maximum. But in the corner of Loka (universe) there can be the three points of Dharmastikaya on the three sides of a paramanu. For this reason it is stated that one paramanu can touch the four points of Dharmastikaya at the minimum. One paramanu touches the point of Dharmastikaya immersed in one point of space with it (atom) by the rule of "the whole is touched by the whole." The same explanation of this process of touch is to be understood in the case of Adharmastikaya. But it is not comprehensible by this order of division whether a paramanu touches the parts of Dharmastikaya or of Adharmastikaya in six directions of its own sides. There is no intervening space between one space-point and another. For this reason the contact which takes place between two points existing in close proximity should be accepted in the case of paramanu with the unit of Dharmastikaya existing in close proximity. It is futile to conceive of a part in a partless ultimate atom. A paramanu pudgala touches the seven points of Akasastikaya (space) at the minimum and maximum respectively because Akasastikaya is everywhere (all-pervading).2 It touches the infinite points of Jivastikaya (Soul), for the infinite points of Soul can immerse in one space-point.3 If a paramanu touches Addhasamaya 1. Kevaichin agasatthikaya ! sattahim kevaiehim jivatthi kaya ? sesam jaba dhammatthikayassa anamtehim kevaiehim poggalatthikayapaesehim putehe ? Goyama ! anamte him, BhS., 13. 4. 482. 2. Agasatthikayassa savvattha ukkosagam bhaniyavvan, Ibid. 3. Kevaiehim jIvatthikayapaesehin putthe Goyama ! anam tehim, Ibid.

Page #311
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy (time), it touches infinite times1 (addhasamayas). These characteristics of paramanu show its extensiveness with the Universe and its all-pervasiveness. 276 VIBRATION AND MOTION OF ATOM Pudgalagati (Motion of Matter) is defined as that which causes the motion of paramanupudgalas up to that of anantapradesikaskandhas (molecules having infinite units of matter)2. Paramanu is active and dynamic, but it is not always active or moving; sometimes it is active, sometimes it is non-active 9 Its activity is accidental. There are stated to be many kinds of movement of paramanu. It sometimes vibrates (revolves), sometimes makes various vibrations up to undergoes transformation.5 It is evidently clear by the Jaina Agamic statement 'siya eyati siya veyati java parinamati' that besides vibration and various vibrations, a paramanu makes also other movements. 1. Kevaiehim addhasamaehim putthe siya putthe siya no putthe, jai putthe niyamam anamtehim. Ibid. 2. Se kim tam poggalagati ? jam nam paramanupoggalanam java anamtapaesiyanam khamdhanam gai pavattai, se tam poggalagai, Pannavana, 16. 474. 3. Paramanupoggale nam Bhamte! eyai veyai java tam tam bhavam parinamai? Goyama! siya eyai veyai java parinamai siya no eyai java no parinamai, BhS., 5. 7. 213; Navaram sastham, tatra sastho desayoh ejanam, pradesayoreva va anejanamiti, BhS., 5. 7. 213 (comm); Paramanu...ityadi siya eyati tti kadacit ejate, kadacitkatvat sarvapudgalesu ejanadidharmanam, dvipradesika trayo vikalpah (1) syad ejanam, (2) syad anejanam, etc. (comm). 4. Ibid. It shows that the motion of an ultimate atom is relative, it is sometimes stable and sometimes unstable like the nuclei of the physical sciences. 5. BhS., 5. 7. 213.

Page #312
Properties of Atom 277 That is to say, paramanus are always in a state of flux by their vibrating (revolving), moving, combining with one another to transform themselves into skandhas. Hence it is explained that a paramanu may or may not vibrate and transform itself into a state of vibration. 1 A paramanu can make desantaragam Ikriya (activity or movement of going to another place) from one space-point to another one. While making vibrating movement, it can make also desantaragams movement. The motion can take place together with other movements like vibration, etc. Here the question arises how does a paramanu existing in one space point make vibration. In the usual sense the meaning of the word 'eyai' is vibration, but it is not desirable here, for in that case there takes place the movement of a paramanu from one space-point beyond it. Therefore, a paramanu existing in one space-point can only make a revolving movement, but the revolution should be without any axis, because there cannot be the conception of an axis is a paramanu. It is itself axis. The movements of a paramanu such as, vibration, etc., can be samita (regular) and aniyamita (irregular) also, i. e. certain and uncertain. Here niyamitata (regularity) or aniyamitata (irregularity) of the movement of a paramanu is conditional upon space-time. 2 In a paramanu activity or motion can be natural (spontaneous) or it can be made by the combination of other paramanu or skandha. The activity and motion which take place in Matter due to the instrumentality of Jiva (Soul or being) are called applied (prayogika) activity and motion. But there cannot occur any activity and motion in a paramanu by the instrumentality of JIva (soul) because a paramanu cannot be 1. Bhs., 5. 7. 213. 2. Bhs., (comm)., 3. 3. 153. 3. Esam ca ejanadibhavanam kramabhavitvena samanyatah sadeti mantavyam na tu pratyekapeksaya kramabhavinam yugapadabhavaditi, Bhs., (comm)., 3. 3. 153.

Page #313
278 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy received by Jiva and there is no capacity in Jiva to bring about a transformation in Pudgala without receiving it. 1 Therefore, the activity and motion which take place in a paramanu are natural. SPEED OF MOTION OF PARAMANU It is stated in the Jaina Agamas about the desantaragaminikriya=yani-gatikriya (movement) that a paramanu can go from the eastern last border of the Universe to the western last border, from the western last border to the eastern last border, from the northern last border to the southern last border, from the southern last border to the northern last border, from the upward last border to the downward last border and vice versa in one samaya (instant) by its maximum speed of motion. Its minimum speed of motion is determined 1. BhS., 16. 8. 585; In Aloka there is the non-existence of matter and media of motion and rest, hence soul cannot make movement there, BhS., 3. 2. 147; 5. 8. 221; 6. 3. 244; Jivanam kammovacae...payogasa jivanam tivihe pagoe pannatte, tamjaha-manappaoge, vai. ka iccenam tivihenam paogenam jivanam kammovacae payogasa no visasa, BhS., 6. 3. 234; Deve nam Bhamte ! mahiddhie java mahanubhage bahirae poggale apariyaitte pabhu egavannam egaruvam viuvvittae, Goyama ! no tinatthe, Bhs.. 6. 9. 253; Deve nam Bhamte! mahiddhie java mahesakkhe bahirae poggale apariyaitta pabhu tiriyapavvayam va tiriyabhittim va ullamghettae va pallamghettae va ? Goyama ! no inatthe samatthe, Ibid., 14. 5. 517; Jivadavvanam ajivadavva paribhogattae havvamagacchamti, Ibid., 25. 2. 72. 2. Paramanupoggale nami Bhamte ! logassa puracchimillao carimamtao paccacchimillam carimamtam java uvarillam carimamtam gacchai, BhS., 16. 8. 584; Panna., 16. 471.

Page #314
Properties of Atom 279 by its going from one space-point to another adjacent spacepoint by slow movement? in one samaya (instant). That means samaya is divisible. Here is a defect in the conception of the last unit of kala (time) as conceived in Jaina Philosophy. The motion of paramanupudgala takes place in a straight line. In one unit of Kala its motion, whether from one spacepoint to another one or from one last border of the Universe to another one, is to occur in a straight line. If it is curvilinear motion, then it will take more than one samaya. Vigrahagati (curvilinear motion) occurs due to the action of others.3 SPRSTAGATI (MOTION) OF ATOM BY TOUCHING OTHER MATTERS When a paramanu (ultimate atom) makes a movement by touching skandhas (aggregates) having from two up to infinite units of matter, it is called sprsta-or sparsagati.4 When the division of a skandha takes place, then a motion is the splitted up pieces of matter is produced. But there can be motion also in the unbroken or unsplitted up pieces of matter due to ten causes, viz. motion while collecting, transforming, breathing in, breathing out, feeling, dissociating (karmic matter), assuming transformable body, enjoying sexual pleasure, being overpowered or overtaken by Yaksa (ghost or spirit) and being carried by air.5 There takes place a motion 1. Pravacanasara, Vrtti, II. 46. 2. BhS., 16. 8. 584; TS. Bha., 2. 27. 3. Ibid. 4. Phusamanagai jannam paramanupoggale dupaesiya java anamtapaesiyanam khamdhanam annamaonam ..phusitta nam gai pavattaj...settam phusamanagai, Panna., 16. 474. 5. Dasahim thanehi acchione puggale calejja, tamjaha-aba rijjamane va calejja, parinamejjamane va calejja, ussasijjamane va calejja, nissasijjamane va calejja, vedejjamane va

Page #315
280 The Concept of Matterin Jaina Philosophy in Matter, because of there being the division of breaking up of skandha. When a paramanu dissociates from one skandha it does so by a terrible motion. On the disintegration of a skandha a dynamic motion is naturally generated, but in acchinna pudgala-skandha (unbroken aggregate of matter) also there takes place a dynamic motion due to the above mentioned ten causes. Activity and motion of paramanu are regular from some point of view and irregular also from other points of view. But they are mainly irregular, for this reason the motion of it is called aniyata (irregular). 2 Paramanus are vibrating (or moving) and non-vibrating (or non-moving) from the point of view of time.2 The duration of vibration (or movement) of a paramanu is one samaya (instant) in the minimum and innumerableth part of an avalika in the maximum and that of its non-moving is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum.3 A paramanu is sarvaija and nireja (wholly moving and nonmoving), while skandhas (aggregates) having two up to infinite units may be desaija (partially moving), sarvajja (wholly moving) and nireja (non-moving). 4 In regard to the intermediate times of the vibration of matters-ultimate atoms and aggregates, it is stated that matter immersed in one space-point or innumerable points of space exist vibrating for one samaya in the minimum and innumerableth part of an avalika in the maximum in the case calejja, nijjarijjamane va calejja, viuvvijjamane va calejja, pariyarijjamana va calejja, jakkhaitthe va calejja, vayapa riggahe va calejja, Sthana., 10. 9. 35. 1. RV., 2. 26; Paramanorgatih aniyata, vide Jaina Padartha Vijnanamen Pudgala, p. 72. 1, BhS., 25. 4. 744; 2. Ibid., 5. 7. 217. 4. Ibid., 25. 4. 744

Page #316
Properties of Atom 281 of vibration and innumerable samayas in the case of nonvibration from the points of view of time, etc.? As to the rules of irregular and regular activity and motion of paramanu the following points emerge out of the discussion on the activity and motion of it: (1) it is uncertain when an non-active ultimate atom will commence its activity and motion. They may start at any time between one samaya (instant) and countless samayas (instants). But after the passing away of countless samayas it will definitely commence its activity and motion. (2) It is not possible to say when an active ultimate atom will stop its activity and motion. It can stop them at any time between one samaya and the innumerableth part of an avalika. But after an innumerableth part of an avalika it will definitely stop its activity and motion. (3) It is uncertain to presume what direction will be taken by a paramanu in its desantaragati (cross space-point-movement). On the commencement of its motion spontaneously, it may make movement in any direction. But it is not yet determined which direction will be taken by it in its movement, if it is made by the action of other pieces of matter. (4) Besides, it cannot be said what kind of motion and activity it will make on their commencement. It is uncertain whether it will revolve or vibrate and move simultaneously on its course to reach another place. (5) It is not possible to say what speed-slow or fast, will be taken by a paramanu in its commencement of its motion and activity. It is uncertain whether it will take the speed of motion of traversing one space-point in one samaya (instant) or the speed of motion for reacbing the last border Loka (Universe) in a samaya (instant) or any intermediate speed of motion between them. But the following rules of regular motion of a paramanu can be outlined in this way: (1) The desantaragati (movement from one place to another) of a paramanu will take place in a straight line. (2) In the case of its curvilinear motion an 1. BLS., 5. 7. 217.

Page #317
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy application of another matter is necessary. (3) Soul cannot be the direct cause in its movement. (4) The minimum speed of motion of a paramanu is the traversing of a distance of one space-point in one samaya, while the maximum speed of its motion is determined by its movement from one last border of the Universe to another last border in one samaya. (5) The motion and activity of a paramanu take place spontaneously and they can be effected by the application of other matters.. 282 PRATIGHATA OF PUDGALA (RESISTANCE OF MATTER) There are stated to be three kinds of pudgalapratighata (resistance of matter), viz. (1) resistance obtained by one paramanu of skandha (molecule) when it is resisted by another paramanu on the way of its motion, (2) resistance obtained by a paramanu due to its property of dryness (repulsive force) and (3) resistance obtained by a paramanu at the last border of the Universe because of the non-existence of Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion) in the Non-Universe. In other words, the resistance obtained by an ultimate atom is possible under three conditions: (1) If there takes place the physical contact of an ultimate atom with another one, while making their motion in great speed by the process of natural transformation, then the first paramanu is resisted in itself and can resists the other paramanu with which it comes into contact. (2) Having combined with other paramanu or skandha by virtue of its property of cohesiveness and dryness, a paramanu loses its individuality (or discreteness) for a certain period of time. (3) It is resisted in its motion at the last border of the Universe because of the absence of Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion) 1. Tivihe poggalapadighate, pa tam paramanupoggale paramanupoggalam pappa padihanijja, lukkhattae va padihanijja, logamte va padihanijja, Sthananga, 3. 211, 3. 4. 211.

Page #318
Properties of Atom 283 in Aloka (Non-Universe). Thus according to three kinds of resistance, three names have been attributed to the resistance obtained by a paramanu, viz. vegapratighata, bandhaparinamapratighata and upakarabhavapratighata. 1 A paramanu is resisted by another one on the way of its motion because of their respective properties of impassability or impenetrability, when they come into contact with each other in their motion. A paramanu bound by combination with another one or other paramanus exists collectively with other paramanus in a skandha (aggregate). In this way it is resisted by its own individual condition. This resistance of a paramanu. is the cause of the perceptible multifariousness of the Universe. According to the physical sciences also, these interactions give rise to the existence and behaviour of matter in bulk."2 In the movement of an ultimate atom Dharmastikaya (Principle of Motion) is assistant on account of its support in the motion, so it is to take the support of Dharmastikaya in its activity and motion. It cannot make any activity and motion without this. support in spite of its having the capacity of making motion and activity. Dharmastikaya is co-existensive with the space of the Universe, but it does not exist in the Non-Universe. A paramanu cannot go there because of being inactive and immobile in the absence of Dharmastikaya. Therefore, it is resisted and stopped at the last border of the Universe, when it reaches there by making motion in great speed in one samaya. The following rules of Pratighatatva and Apratighatatva (resistance and non-resistance) emerge out of the discussion on the speed and resistance of paramanu. If any moving ultimate atom does not meet another moving ultimate atom in its way of motion with any speed, then it cannot be resisted. In this - 1. Yatastrividham pratighatamamananti bhagavantah, para. manunam bandhaparinamopakarabhavavegakhyam, TS., p. 368. 2. Atoms and the Universe, p. 126.

Page #319
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy way the occurrence of mutually opposing conditions resisting and non-resisting (pratighatin and apratighatin) in an ultimate atom has been accepted in Jaina Metaphysics. In the physical sciences also the existence of such mutually opposing conditions-resisting and non-resisting, in matter is explained by demonstration. As for instance, X-Ray is non-resisting in comparison with any gross matter of different kinds; it does not stop on its way, but it is resisted by the thick covering of glass. 284 APRATIGHATA (NON-RESISTANCE) OF ATOM A paramanu (ultimate atom) is non-resisting in its motion; nothing can resist, obstruct and stop it in its motion in the Universe except the above mentioned three conditions. Hence it is not resisted in its movement to another place; it is capable to exist together there where many other ultimate atoms exist: it is capable to make activity independently of those of others; it is able to move from there without any resistance, while existing together with other ultimate atoms. As these four natures exist in an ultimate atom, so it is non-resisting. A moving ultimate atom cannot be resisted by any other matter, any being and any other substance in this way. It goes off from the midst of all by making movement. It accommodates itself in the space-point in which other matters or soul or other substances exist, having gone there. It can make activities like revolution, vibration, etc., by its independent state, while accommodating itself with others. An ultimate atom is nonresisting in itself and non-resisting also to another material substances from this view-point, i. e. it does not resist others. Thus it is fully independent in this respect. "THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA VIEW ON MOTION OF PARAMANU (ATOM) According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, there is supposed to be two kinds of motion of free atoms, viz. creative motion and

Page #320
Properties of Atom non-creative motion. The creative motion produces conjunction of ultimate atoms, which leads to the formation of gross bodies and eventually of the material universe. This motion is generated in ultimate atoms only on the eve of a new cosmic creation after the period of cosmic rest (pralaya). The non-creative motion is not productive of conjunction or disjunction of ultimate atoms. It simply separates ultimate atoms from the spacepoints occupied by them and join (i. e. combine) them with the contiguous point of space. It may occasionally cause a kind of placing of atoms side by side or loose grouping of atoms, but it never conjoins them to be actually integrated nor to be composite bodies. 2 No impact upon the process of creation is made by this motion; it is possible for atoms only during the period of cosmic rest. It is supplanted by the creative motion of the emergence of the necessity for creation. The only object of non-creative motion is to determine the duration of cosmic rest in terms of ksana resolved by each unit of such motion.3 There is no spontaneous motion of free atoms in these two cases, for Adrsta (unseen force) is supposed to be the cause of creative motion. It leads the destiny of souls in accordance with their karmas and demands to be furnished with properly equipped bodies and suitable material world for the experience of pleasure and pain. Under the operation of this force atoms begin to move in order to combine into countless varieties of objects. The non-creative motion is produced in this way, when a body is dissolved by a violent shaking or impact, the effect of which sets the atoms of the dissolved body in motion. The motion generates in atoms in turn the property of impulse (vega) which keep them going, i. e. vibrating (spandana) continually during the whole period of cosmic rest. 4 285 1. Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 146. 2. Ibid., p. 147; see NKuB., p. 91. 3. Ibid., see NKu, Pt. 1, p. 333. 4. NKuB., p. 91, vide Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 147.

Page #321
286 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy The fundamental difference between the Jaina and Nyaya Vaisesika systems of thought in regard to the motion of atom is this that the former maintains that the motion is the intriastic capacity in an ultimate atom, while the latter holds the view that the motion is not inherent in an ultimate atom but it is caused by Adrsta (unseen force) in the case of creative motion and it is generated by the effect of violent shaking of a body or impact in the case of non-creative motion. The Jaina view on oscillation and motion of paramanu ultimate atom) is nearer to the atomic motion of the physical sciences. As for example, "From X-Ray studies it is known that in crystalline solids the atoms are located at definite points in a lattice arrangement. The atoms vibrate about these lattice points, the amplitude of the vibration increasing with the rise in temperature. At the melting point, which occurs at a fixed temperature different for each crystalline substance, the amplitudes of the vibrations have become as large as to disturb the orderly arrangement of the atoms."l "The concept of oscillatory behaviour, or wave motion is a basic one which finds wide application in atomic physics."2 "The wave aspect of elementary particles is possible their most fundamental characteristic, and it is not possible to reduce this concept further by forming any adequate picture of what substance, if any, is undergoing pulsation." "The motion of atom of the physical sciences is demonstrated by the breaking up of atom, its smashing by the energy within itself and the emission of energy from it and the radiations from the radio active elements which consist of there distinct typesa-, B-and y-ravs. Radio active substai spontaneously either helium nuclei or electrons. These take place the radio active transformation in them. "When a nucleus is transformed into another, either by a-or B-decay, some 1. Physics, p. 261. 2. Atomic Physics, p. 12, 1. 4. 3. Ibid.

Page #322
Properties of Atom 287 energy is released in the process, which is taken up as the energy of motion of the a-or the 3-particle with surplus appearing as y-rays. The energy released from the nucleus may be quite high of the order of millions of electron-volts."} As to vega-pratighata of paramanu conceived in Jaina Philosophy it can be said that the physical sciences contain a parallel view in regard to the collision of atomic particles. "In any elastic collision, say between two billiards balls, the total energy and the total momentum before and after the collision must be the same. If one ball makes a head-on collision with another at rest, the first will come to a stop and the second will carry on in the forward direction with the energy and momentum previously had by the first particles. In off-centre collisions both balls will be set into motion at right angles to each other, and the direction and energy of each of the balls can be simply calculated from the conservation of laws. Similarly, if atomic particle collides with a helium nucleus, both are set in motion at right angles to each other. We can often observe the path of boto particles after collision in a cloud chamber and verify that the laws of conservation of energy and momentum hold for nucleus processes."'2 "Neutrons themselves are last detected by making them collide with protons, i. e. by letting the neutron beam pass through a hydrogeneous medium, say water or paraffin wax. Since the neutron and the proton have approximately the same mass, their collision is analogous to that between two billiards balls. In a head-on collision the neutron is brought to rest and the proton is emitted in the forward direction with the whole energy. In off-centre collisions the proton may be emitted at different angles but from the angle of emission and from the energy of the proton the energy of the neutron can be deduced."'S In regard to Bandha-parinama-pratighata of paramanu a 1. Atomic Physics, p. 65. 2. Atoms and the Universe, p. 84. 3. Ibid., p. 87.

Page #323
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy similar theory is found in the physical sciences, "Every atom exerts a force upon every other atom. The details and the magnitude of the force vary as between one type of atom and another, but in general the force is always a force of attraction when the atoms are at a distance apart greater than their normal diameters, changing to a force of repulsion if the atomsare forced very close together. Thus there will be a tendency for atoms because of their force of attraction to draw together and stick."1 288 The Jaina view of upakarabhava-pratighata of paramanu compares well with the view of modern science that beyond the borders of the finite universe even the light rays do not travel, as nothing lies beyond, probably nothing manifested; "light rays, apparently going in a circle, returning boomeranglike to their point of departure." That is to say, they are resisted or checked like pa ramanus of Jaina philosophy at the last border of Loka (Universe) because of the absence of the support of motion. 1. Atoms and the Universe, p. 126. 2. Mystries of Space, p. 5.

Page #324
NINTH CHAPTER TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER (PUDGALA-PAR INAMA) Matter (Pudgala) undergoes transformation ; there takes place the external and internal transformations in its attributes. The change in the character of the qualities of a substance is parinama (transformation)? which is brought about by the applied process or the natural process without giving up its own class or nature 2 Generally an attainment of another state by giving up one state is called parinama. No substance is absolutely permanent by any means nor is it destroyable by all means, for this reason, it is proper to admit parinama of each substance.3 From this point of view it is beginningless and is having a beginning also.4 As for instance, parinama of Matter is adimat (having a beginning);5 an ultimate atom undergoes two kinds of parinama, viz. gatiparinama (transformation of motion) and gunaparinama (transformation of quality). An ultimate atom having equal guna will transform another ultimate atom having equal but dissimilar guna because of its combination with another ultimate atom or molecule. An ultimate atom having higher degrees of gunas (qualities) 1. Parinamo avasthantaragamanam na ca sarvatha hyavastha nan, na ca sarvatha vinasah parinamastadvidabhistah vide Syadvadmanjari, p. 205. 2. Dravyasya svajatyaparityagena prayogavisrasalaksano vika rah parinamah RV., 5. 22. 10. 3. Parinamo avasthantaragamanam na ca sarvatha hyavastha nam na ca sarvatha vinasah parinamastadvidabhistah, Syadvadmanjarl, p. 205. 4. Anadiradimamsca, TS., ch. V. 43. 5. Rupisvadiman, TS., ch. V. 43.

Page #325
290 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy will transform an ultimate atom having lower ones.1 It is explained in the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra that some skandha (molecule) is formed by the process of combination of ultimate atoms, some by that of dissociation of molecules and some by both the processes of combination and dissociation of ultimate atoms? or molecules. When one binary molecule is formed by combination of two discrete ultimate atoms, then it is called dvipradesika skandha produced by combination of two ultimate atoms. Similarly, tripradesika skandha (molecule having three units of matter), catuspradesika skandha (molecule having four units of matter), samkhyatapradesika skandha (molecule having countable units), asamkhyatapradesika (molecule having countless unils), anantapradesikaskandha (molecule having infinite units) up to anantanantapradesikaskandha (molecule having infinitefold infinite units) are formed by combination of three, four, countable countless, infinite and infinitefold-infinite ultimate atoms, 9 respectively. The smaller and smaller skandhas which are formed by the process of disintegration of larger skandhas can be found as anantanantapradesikaskandha up to dvipradesikaskandha4 (molecule having two units) When, on the disintegration of any skandha a new skandha is formed by the process of combination of some other material substance with the part of that skandha at the very moment, then that skandha is stated to be formed by the joint process of 1. Bandhe samadhikau parinamikau, TS., ch. V. 36. 2. Sanghatadbhedat sanghatabhedaditebhyastribhyah karane bhyah skandha utpadyante dvipradesadyah, TS., Bha, 5. 26, p. 366. 3. Tadyatha-dvayoh paramanvoh sanghatat dvipradesah, dvipradesasyanosca sarghatattripradesah, egam samkhyeyanamasamkhyeyanam ca pradesanam sanghatat tavatpra desah, TS., Bha., p. 367. 4. Esameva bhedad-dvipradesaparyantah. TS. Bha., 5. 26, p. 370.

Page #326
Transformation of Matter combination and dissociation of parts of skandha. Such skandhas also can be dvipradesikaskandha up to anantanantapradesikaskandha. It should be understood for skandhas having more than two units that skandhas having three units, four units, etc., are formed by combination of three, four, etc.discrete ultimate atoms also. And tripradesikaskandha can be produced by combination of an ultimate atom with dvipradesikaskandba and catuspradesikaskandha by combination of two or one ultimate atom with dvipradesika or tripradesikaskandha respectively by the gradual order.2 291 An ultimate atom is not an effect of any material substance, for this reason the combination of material substance is not possible in its origination. It has been accepted as eternal; nevertheless, here its origination which is spoken of in the sutra, "Bhedadanuh" is explained from the point of view of paryaya (mode), i. e. an ultimate atom is eternal as substance, but it is also producible (janya) from the modal point of view. The states of its existence sometimes as a constituent element of a skandha and sometimes as a discrete atom, because of being dissociated from a skandha are its paryayas (modes or particular conditions). The discrete state of it (visakalita avastha) originates by disintegration of a skandha for this reason, here the purport of the statement "origination of ultimate atom by a process of disintegration" is this much that an ultimate atom having the discrete state is an effect of the disintegration of a skandha, but not a pure ultimate atom." It is further explained that imperceptible skandhas having 1. Eta eva ca sanghatabhedabhyamekasamayikabhyam dvipradesadayah skandha utpadyante, anyasanghatenanyato bhedeneti, Ibid. 2. TS., p. 370. 3. Bhedadeva paramanurutpadyate, na sanghataditi, TS. Bha., p. 371; see also the Commentary of Siddhasena Ganin, TS., p. 371.

Page #327
292 The Concept of Matter in Jaipa Philosophy an efficient cause can be perceptible.1 There are different kinds of transformation of Matter; therefore some skandha is inapprehensible to the sense of vision, while some is apprehensible to the sense of vision. A skandha which is imperceptible because of being fine, can be perceptible by its gross transformation, having given up the state of its fineness or fine transformation. In such a formation of that skandha both the causes-disintegration and integration are conditions. When on the cessation of suksmatvaparinama transformation of fineness in any skandha there originates sthulatva-parinama (transformation of grossness) then some new ultimate atoms must necessarily combine with that skandha, but some ultimate atoms dissociate also from it. On the cessation of suksmatvaparinama an origination of sthulatva-parinama takes place not merely by combination of combined ultimate atoms or only by dissociation of dissociated ultimate atoms. Without sthulatvaparinama no skandha can become perceptible. For this reason, here as a rule it is said that a perceptible molecule is formed by both the process of disintegration and integration.2 1. Bhedasanghatabhyam caksusah, TS., 5. 28, p. 372; Bhedasarghatabhyam caksusah skandbah utpadyante acaksusastu yathoktat sanghatad-bhedat sanghatabhedacceti, TS. Bba., 5. 28, p. 372. 2. Svata eva parinativisesaccaksusatvaparinamabhajo badarah skandhah sanghatabhedabhyamutpadyante ityetanniyamayate apare varnayanti sanghatadeva skandhanamatmalabhasidd herbhedasangbatagrahanamanarthakam, naitadevam tadvisesajnapanarthatvat, na sarva eva sanghatascaksusa grahyah, yato anantanantanusamhatinispadyo' api skandho badaraparinatimanevanayanadigocaratam pratipadyate, na sesa iti evam ca vyacaksananam bhedagrahanamanarthakameva syat taccayuktam, yatah suksmaparinamo paratau sthaulyaparinamah, tatra ca yatha samhanyate paramanavastatha bhidyante api kecanetyatah sanghatabhedabhyameva caksusa nispad yante na sanghatadeveti, TS., p. 372.

Page #328
Transformation of Matter 293 Two meaning of the word 'Bheda' are implied : (1) disintegration of skandha, i. e. a dissociation of ultimate atoms from it and (2) on the cessation of the previous transformation an origination of another transformation. The purport of the above sutral has been taken up by accepting the first one between them. According to the second meaning, when any fine molecule attains a gross transformation capable to be apprehended by the sense of sight, i. e, on the cessation of imperceptibility, it becomes apprehensible to the sense of sight, then a gross transformatian (badaraparinama) is a condition in its becoming as such, which is conditional upon the combination of particular number of infinite discrete ultimate atoms (samghata). Not only the new gross transformation on the cessation of the former transformation-like fineness is the cause of its becoming perceptible nor only particular infinite number of ultimate atoms is the cause of its becoming perceptible, but both the transformation and the said number-like combination are the causes of its becoming perceptible. Although the meaning of the word 'Caksusa' of the aphorism "Bhedasanghatabhyam caksusah", denoting a skandha apprehended by the eye, appears to be correct; nevertheless, here the characteristic meaning of all the sense-organs are implied by the word 'caks. usa'. According to this interpretation, the meaning of the sutra is that lissociation and combination the two causes are the conditions in the becoming of all intangiblo skandhas to be tangible to the senses. On account of there being unlimited varieties of material transformation, as the previously intangible skandha can be later tangible to the senses due to the causos like disintegration and integration, so a gross skandha also becomes fine. Not only this much, for a skandha apprehended by more senses becomes apprehensible to a few senses due to the 1. Bhedasangbatabhyam caksusah, TS. V. 28. 2. Ubhabhyam bhedasanghatabhyamekakalabhyam caksusa bhavanti, caksurgrahanacca samastendriyaparigrahah, TS., p. 373.

Page #329
294 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy varieties of transformation, e. g, the things like salt, resinous substance, etc., can be apprehended by the four senses, viz. the senses of sight, of touch, of taste and of smell, but they can also be apprehended by only the senses of taste and smell because of its being diluted into water. 1 As to the point of the cause of the origination of intangible skandha (molecule) it is explained that the three causes of the origination of skandha have been discussed in general way in the twenty-sixth aphorism "Sanghatabhedebhya utpadyante"here only the particular discussion is made on the causes of becoming of particular skandha or of the origination of a perceptible skandha from its imperceptible state. For this reason, according to that general rule, the causes of the origination of acaksusa skandha (imperceptible molecule) are only three, viz. bheda, sanghata and bhedasangbata (disintegration, integration and disintegration-integration). KINDS OF PUDGALAPARINAMA (TRANS FORMATION OF MATTER) There are mainly ten kinds of paramanus2 taking place in Matter, viz. varnaparinama (transformation of 1. Ta eva badarasta eva ca punah suksma iti, yato vicitrapari pamah pudgalah kadacid-badaraparinamamanubhuya jaladharasatakratucapasaudaminilavanasakaladikamatha pascadalaksaniyaparinamamatmasvarupavasthadasyabhavamatisuksmamadadate karanantaragrahanalaksanatam va bhajante lavanahinguprabhitayah sucaniyaparinamasca jantiva punarapi viyati paritah sakaladigantara varodhivari dharasvadina sthulenakarena parinamante, TS., p. 373. 2. Pamcavihe poggalapariname pannatte tamjaha vanna pariname gamdhapariname rasapariname phasapariname and samthana pariname, BhS., 8. 10. 355; Ajivapariname...dasavihe paonatte tamjaba - bamdhapari

Page #330
Transformation of Matter 295 colour), gandhaparinama (transformation of smell), rasaparinama (transformation of taste), sparsaparinama (transformation of touch), sansthanaparinama (transformation of shape), bandhanaparinama (transformation of binding or combination), gatiparinama (transformation of motion), bhedaparinama (transformation of division), agurulaghugunaparinama (transformation of neither heaviness nor lightness) and sabdaparipama (transformation of sound). The transformation of colour, smell, taste and touchtakes place in all forms of matter as a result of integration and disintegration of forms of Matter by the applied, natural and applied-cum-natural processes. These ten kinds of parinama of Pudgala are divided into the following kinds on the basis of their respective numbers. Hence varnaparinama is of five kinds, viz. kalavarnaparinama (transformation of black colour) up to suklavarnaparinama (transformation of white colour); gandhaparinama is of two kinds, viz. surabhigandhaparinama (transformation of pleasant smell) and durabhigandhaparinama (transformation of unpleasant smell); rasaparinama is of five kinds, viz. tiktarasaparinama (transformation of bitter taste), katukarasaparinama (transformation of sour taste), amlarasaparinama (transformation of acidic taste), kasayarasaparinama (transformation of astringent taste) and madhurarasaparinama (transformation of sweet taste); sparsaparinama is of eight kinds, viz. karkasasparsaparinama (transformation of hard touch) up to ruksasparsaparinama (transformation of dry touch); samsthanaparinama (transformation of shape) is of five kinds, viz. parimandalasamsthanaparinama (transformation of one material substance into spherical shape) up to ayatasam name, gaipariname, samthanapariname, bheyapariname, vannapariname, gamdhapariname, rasapariname, phasapariname, agaruyalahuyapariname, saddapariname, Pannavana., 13. 417. 1. Sparsadayah paramanusu skandhegu ca parinamaja eva bhavanti, TS. Bha., 5. 24, p. 364.

Page #331
296 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy sthanaparinama (transformation of one material substance into rectangular shape). There are stated to be two kinds of bandhanaparinama (transformation of binding), viz. snigdhabandhanaparinama (binding transformation of matter by cohesiveness) and ruksabandhanaparinama, (binding transformation of matter by dryness). The combination of forms of Matter takes place due to the cohesive (attractive positive) and dry (repulsive negative) forces of unequal degrees, but it does not occur in the case of equal cohesive force nor in that of equal dry force. That is, no combination takes place between two particles of matter having equal degree of the same property. But there is found to happen a combination of two particles of matter having unequal degrees of force of cohesiveness by two units more with cohesiveness and unequal degree of dryness by two units more with dryness. But no combination is possible to take place between the particles of matter having the lowest degree of two properties whether unequal or equal.2 In the process of combination the higher degree of property transforms the lower one, according to the Svetambara view both the svetambara and Digambara views regarding the rules of combination of matter will be discussed in the tenth chapter in detail. It is explained further that gatiparinama (motion-trans. formation of matter) is of two kinds, viz. sparsagatiparinama (transformation of tactile motion of matter, e. g. drawing pitcher goes down to the bottom of water by touching water) and asparsagati (transformation of non-tactile motion of matter) or dirghagatiparina na (long-circuit motion-transform1. BhS., 8. 10. 355; PV., 13; Samavayanga, 22. 2. Goyama! duvihe pannatte, tamjaha niddhabam Jhanapariname, lukkhabamdhanapariname ya, samaniddhayae bam dhe na hoi samalukkhayae vi na hoi vemayaniddhalukkhattanena bamdho u khamdhanam, niddhassa niddhena duyahie nam lukkhassa duyahie nam niddhassa lukkhena uvei bamdho jahannavajjo visamo samo va, Pannavana., 13. 3. Bandhe adhikau parinamikau ca, TS., V. 36. 1

Page #332
Transformation of Matter 297 mation) and hrasvagatiparinama (short-circuit motion transform ation). 1 Bhedaparinama (transformation of matter by division) is of five kinds, viz. khandabhedaparinama (transformation of matter by the division of it into parts), e. g. separate parts of a broken pitcher up to utkarabhedaparinama (transformation of matter by division like sawing, e.g. the sawing of a piece of timber). There is stated to be one kind of agurulaghuparinama, as it is taking place in all substances constantly by rhythmic rise and fall, while sabda parinama (transformation of sound) is of two kinds, viz. surabhisabdaparinama and durabhisabdaparinama (transformations of pleasant and unpleasant sounds). 2 . Besides, there are stated to be five kinds of indriyavisayapudgalaparinama (transformation of sense-object-matter), viz. srotrendriyavisayapudgalaparinama (transformation of auditory sense-object-matter) up to spargendriya-visaya-pudgalaparinama (transformation of tactile sense-object-matter). They are again sub-divided into different kinds. Srotrendriyavisayapudgalaparinama is of two kinds, viz. surabhisabdaparinama (transformation of pleasant sound and durabhisabdaparinama (transformation of unpleasant sound). Thus cakuurindriyavisayapudgalaparinama is of two kinds, viz. surupiparinama (transformation of matter into beautiful object) and durupaparinama (transformation of matter into ugly object) and thus surabhi.gandhaparinama (transformation of matter into unpleasant smell) and durabhigandhaparinama (transformation of matter into unpleasant smell); thus surasaparinama and durasaparinama (transformation of matter into good and bad tastes) and a susparsaparinama and duhsparsaparinama (transformation of matter into good and bad touches) respectively of the remai 1. Gaipariname...Goyama ! duvihe pannatte tamjaha.phusa managaipariname ya aphussamanagaipariname ya ahava digghapariname ya hassa pariname ya, Pannavana, 13. 418. 2. Pannavana, 13.

Page #333
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy ning sense-object.1 All these sense-objects i. e. matters undergo transformation into favourable and adverse states according to chemical behaviour. 298 Pleasant sounds (matters) undergo transformation into unpleasant sound and unpleasant sounds into pleasant sounds; beautiful matters change into ugly matters and ugly matters into beautiful matters; pleasant matters undergo transformation into unpleasant ones and vice versa, good tasteful matters into bad tasteful-ones and vice versa, matters of pleasing touch into matters of painful touch and vice versa.2 THE SAMKHYA-YOGA VIEW ON TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER According to the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy, Prakrti, the fundamental cause, is all-pervasive; it is outside the scope of beginning and end in time. There is the finest seed of motion and rest in it and it cannot exist even for a moment without undergoing transformation into newer and newer forms. It preserves its own fundamental nature as permanent because of there being such nature in it. There is the capacity of expansion in it, i. e. to undergo transformation from the finest conditions into fine conditions and from the fine into the grossest material state by such order on account of which it is only one Reality. Just as the seed of a banyan tree brings forth into existence a huge banyan tree, just so the Prakrti gives form to the multifarious universe by selfgenerated capacity without the impetus of any other entity. "Change is taking place everywhere, from the smallest and least to the highest. Atoms and reals are continuously vibrating and changing places in any and every object. At each moment the whole universe is undergoing change, and the collocation 1. JIvabhigama, 191-192. 2. Nayadhammakaha, 92; JIvabhigama, 191, 192.

Page #334
Transformation of Matter 299 of atoms at any moment is different from what it was at the previous moment."1 Energy (Rajas) works on the original infinitesimal units of Mass (Bhutadi), absolutely homogeneous and absolutely inert and ubiquitous, being devoid of all physical and chemical characters (rupadibhirasamyutam) except quantum (paricchinnatva parinama)". The action of Energy on the original units produces the infra-atomic unit-potentials (tanma tras) charged with different kinds of Energy. It "represents the subtile matter-vibratory, impingent, radiant, etc. instinct with potential energy." These "potentials" arise from the unequal aggregation of the original Mass-units in different proportions and collocations with an unequal distribution of the original Energy (Rajas)."2 Dr. B. N. Seal explains the Samkhya process of transformation of matter in this manner; "the potentials lodged in subtle matter must undergo peculiar transformations by new grouping or collocations to be classed among sensory stimuligross matter being supposed to be matter endowed with properties of the class of sensory stimuli, though in the minutest particles thereof the sensory stimuli may be infra-sensible (atlodriya but not anudbhuta).'' "First, the potential" of the sound-stimulus is lodged in one class of Tanmatras--particles which possess the physical 1. History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 250, 2. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, pp. 24-25; Tanmatrarupadeh kim karanam iti cet svakaranadravyanam nyunadhikabhavena anyo' anyam prati samyogavisesa eva svajatiyopastambhadina veddhibrasadikam ca yuktam, Vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 25. 3. Tasmistasmimstutanmatrah te ca' avisesinah, te ca padar thah santaghoramudhakhyaih sthulagatasabdadivisesaih sunya ekarupatvat, tatha ca santadivisesasunyasabdadimattvameva bhutanam sabdaditanmatratvam. Vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 25.

Page #335
300 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy energy of vibration (parispanda), and serve to form the radicle of the ether-atom (akasaparamanu); then the potential of the tactile stimulus is lodged in another class of Tanmatras, particles which possess the physical energy of impact or mechanical pressure in addition to that of vibration, and serve to form the radicle of the air-atom (vayu-paramanu), next, the potential of the colour-stimulus is lodged in a third class of Tanmatras, particles, wbich are charged with the energy of radiant heat and light, in addition to those of impact and vibration, and serve to form the nucleus of the light and heat corpuscle (teja paramanu), then the potential of the tastestimulus is lodged in other Tanmatras, particles which possess the energy of viscous attraction, in addition to those of heat, impact, and vibration and afterwards develop into the atom of water (ap paramanus) and lastly, the potential of the smellstimulus is lodged in a further class of Tanmatras, particles which are charged with the energy of cohesive attraction, in addition to those of viscous attraction, heat, impact and vibration, and which serve to form the radicle of the earth atom." TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER IN THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA PHILOSOPHY Transformation of Matter takes place in the form of chemical action in its different forms in accordance with the 1. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, pp. 25-26; Sadvisesah tadyatha sabdatanmatram sparsatanmatram rupatanmatram, rasatanmatramgandhatan natram ca ityekadvitricatuspancalaksanah sabdadayah pancavicesah, Vyasabhasya on Yogasutra, 19, pada II, p. 88; Ahankarat sabdatanmatram tatascahankarasahakstat sabdatanmatrat sabdasparsagunam sparsatanmatram evamkramena ekaikagunaveddhya tanmatrani utpadyante, Samkhyapravacanabhasya, 1.62;

Page #336
Transformation of Matter 301 foliowing rules ; (1) Karanagunapurvakah karyaguno drstah, 1 (2) samanajatiyasamyogah dravyarambhakah na vijatiyasamyogah, (3) apakajaruparasagandhasparsaparimanaikatvaikapothaktvagurutvadravatvasnehavegah karanagunapurvakah and (4) ruparasagandhanusnasparsasabda parimanaikatvaikaprthaktvasnehah samanajatyarambhakah,2 The Nyaya Philosophy agrees with the Vaisesika on this point "karanaguna purvakah karyaguno drstah" (the quality of the composite product is produced by the corresponding quality of the constitutive cause as a rule). But it differs from the latter in regard to a particular class of events, viz. the emergence of new qualities in earth-bodies due to the action of heat. That is, it is a kinds of conjunction of the taijasa (fiery) elements by which the previous colour, etc., of the earth. atom are destroyed and another colour, etc., are produced in their place. On the contact of an earthly object with fire in a furnace Sabdadinam murttisamanajatlyanam ekah parinamah prthiviparamanuh tanmatravayavah bhutantaresu api spehausnyapranamitva avakasadapani upadaya samanyam ekavilcararambhah samadheyah, Vyasabhasya; Su. 14, pada IV; Tadyatha gandhatanmatram varjjayitva catustanmatranatir snehajatiyanam ekah parinamah jalaparamanuh tesam ca mahajaladih, evam gandharasau varjjayitva ausnyajatiyanam tritanmatranam tejo' anuh tebhyah mahatejadih evam gandharasarupanam varjjanat dvabhyam vayvanuh tebhyah mahavavyadih, evam sabdatanmatradahankaramsasahakstat, akasanuh tebhyah mahakasadih Vijnanabhiksu remarks : atra darsane ayam siddhantah sabdaditanmatrapancake kathinyasnehadivyargyah fethivitvadijatiyah santi, Yogavarttika, Su, 14, pada IV, Vide P. S. A. H., pp. 26-27. 1. VS., II. J. 24. 2. PPBha., Gunapadarthanirupana.

Page #337
302 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy a motion is generated in the ultimate constituent particles of it through the forcible contact (abhighata) or impulsion (nodana)? of fire. As a result of this motion the disjunctions are generated by it in its turn; they cause the destruction of the conjunctions in existence between the various parts of the composite and finally convert them to their ultimate particles. Later, on the destruction of their qualities by these particles, again fresh qualities are generated in place of the old ones by a fresh similar contact of fire. They are called pakaias (trai formed by chemical action). There are stated to be two kinds of paka (chemical action). viz. pllupaka and pitharapaka.2 Pilupaka An unbaked earthen pot is black, but after it is burnt in 1. Parthivaparamanurupadinam pakajotpattividhanam gha taderamadravyasyagnina sambaddhasyagnyabhighatannodanadva tadarambhakesvanusu karmanyutpadyante tebhyo vibhagebhyah samyogavinasah samyogavinasebhyasca karyadravyam vinasyati tasmin vinaste svatantresu paramanusvagnisamyogadausnyapeksacchyamadinam vinasah punaranyasmadagnisamyogadausnyapeksat pakaja jayante, PPBha, Pakajaprakaranam. 2. Karanagunapurvakah pethivyam pakajah, VS., 7. 1. 6; Pilavah-paramanava eva svatantrah pacyante, tatraiva purvarupanasagrimarupadyutpattih karanagunaprakramena cavayavinirupadyutpadyate iti pilupakavadinah, VSU., 7. 1. 6; Tatrakaryakaranasamudaya eva pacyate iti pitharapakavadinah, Ibid., PPBha., Pakajaprakaranam; Parthivaparamanurupadinamiti yadyapi paramanava eva prthivi tathapi te karyarupapithivyapeksaya parthiva ucyante...yatra parvesam vinasadaparesamutpadastameva prakaram darsayati...etc. NK., p. 107; KV., p. 183; NM., Pt. II., pp. 11-12; Udyotakara, chap, III, Ahnika 1, Sutra 4.

Page #338
Transformation of Matter the potter's furnace, it becomes red all over, both inside and outside. There is a controversy on this simple phenomenon leading to the question whether does the pot undergo a complete disintegration when acted upon by the fire in the furnace under the influence of fire or does it remain intact in its structure. Does the change of colour from black to red take place in the atoms or in the body with its structure intact? The Vaisesika maintains that when the unbacked earthen pot, etc., are brought into contact with fire, motion is produced in the atoms of it by the forcible striking (abhighata) or pressure (nodana) of fire. Disjunction is produced by this motion in the constituent of the pot and it is followed by the destruction of the conjunction existing between the various constituents of the composite and finally their splitting up into atoms. After the complete disintegration of the body of the unbaked earthen pot a second impact of fire-particles upon the isolated atoms (pflu-anus) destroys their original attributes like colour, etc., and coverts them to their original conditions. A third impact of fire, which occurs, generates fresh attributes, 1. e. red colour, etc., in these atoms in place of the old ones. Thereafter, a reverse motion is generated by the influence of the unseen force of the individual selves in the liberated and homogeneously transformed atoms which combine together by twos. The combination of the red dyads results in the corresponding triads, thus the process leads to the production of the red pot of the original magnitude and shape.1 303 The merit of the theory of Pilupakaja (chemical action in isolated atoms) is that it follows strictly the dictum "The quality in the effect is necessarily the outcome of the correspon 1. Apake nihksiptasya ghataderamadravyasya vahnina nodanadabhighatadva tadarambhakesu paramanusu dravyarambhakasamyogavirodhivibhagenarambhakasamyoganase dravyanasavasyambhavat drsyate hi sthalyamahitanam, etc. VSU,, 7. 1. 6: PPBha., Pakaja prakaranam.

Page #339
304 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy ding quality of the cause." ." That is to say, according to the Vaisesika doctrine of Pilupakaja, the emergence of new qualities takes place in the isolated atoms (plus) as a result of the action of heat. Pitharapaka The theory of Pitharapakaja propounded by the Naiyayikas maintains that the change of qualities takes place in the whole body (pithara), remaining structurally intact,2 as a result of the action of heat on the following grounds. It is perceived that a pot remains structurally intact even when it is being. burnt by the fire inside the potter's furnace. The recognition of the identity of the burnt pot and the unbaked one is not invalidated by a subsequent experience, but it stands as conclusive proof against the Vaisesika view which holds the two pots to be entirely different both numerically and qualitatively.* Secondly, it will be very difficult to explain the point how does the pot preserve its position when placed on the furnace which also is disintegrating by the action of heat, if the Vaisesika theory of the decomposition of bodies by the action of heat is considered to be valid. Thirdly, the Vaisesika theory of wholesale destruction and reaction makes it difficult to explain the question how should the reconstituted pot possess the same magnitude and shape as the original unbaked pot. Fourthly, it seems to be peculiar that an absolute new pot is found to exist exactly in the same condition in which the unbaked pot was 1. VSU., 7. 6, PPBha., Pakajaprakaranam, 3. VS., 7. 1. 6. 2. VSU., 7. 1. 6; PPBha., Pakajaprakarana m; NK., p. 107; KV., p. 183; NM., Pt. II, pp. 11-12; Udyotakara, chap. III, Ahnika 1, Su 4. 3. VV., p. 447 (Vyomavati)-a commentary on PPBha. by Vyomasivacarya ed. CSS. "Evam ghatadinamavasthayitvam/na ca ghatadervinase kardamadibhirvina punarutpattiyukta, etc. 4. VV., p. 447. 5. VV., P. 447.

Page #340
Transformation of Matter 305 placed, even though it is entirely annihilated and an absolutely new one is produced. 1 "The change of position is, however, a matter of natural expectation, as is seen to be the case with bubbles of water among which the disappearance of one is followed by the appearance of another but not necessarily in the same place."2 Fifthly, the reproduction of the pot from the atoms into which the old pot was dissolved is supposed to take place without the essential conditions of the wheel, the staff, the measuring rod, etc., and without the activity of the potter. It seems to be a miracle, for the accepted law of causation is given here a wide scopes against the ordinary course of experience. The Naiyayikas deals with the question how does fire enter into the structure of the pot inside and outside without destroying it in this manner that the particles of fire can enter into its structure through its pores, for the porosity of the body of the pot is an undeniable fact proved by the oozing out of water particles out of it or the coolness of the outer surface.4 The porosity of an earthen body is demonstrated by the conduction of heat through it to boil the water or by the boiling of the paddy inside the pot without destroying it by way of decomposition and recomposition. The conduction of fire into the structure of the pot is not resisted by the pot nor the entry of the fire particles into it disintegrates its structure, for it is not an absolutely compact and impervious body which might not allow the penetration of fire into it. The entry of the minute particles of fire through the pores into its structure, though a mass of fire cannot effect an entry into it, makes the baking of the whole pot inside and outside.5 1. VV, p. 447. 2. NP., p. 312, vide Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 96. 3. Na ca ghacadervinasa karma libhirvina punarutpattiryukta, VV., p. 447. 4. VSU., VII. 1. 6. 5. Ye brjavayavaste purvvavyuhaparityagena vyuhantarama

Page #341
306 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Sridhara contends this theory of the Naiyayikas by raising the point that atoms and dyads constituting the body of the pot are not porous, for atoms are indivisible and dyads are devoid of extensity. If it is so, that would imply that atoms forming a dyad is not conjoined. The conjunction of atoms in a dyad does not leave a gap between them nor the conjunction of dyads in a traid admits of any gap between them, as dyads also do not possess extensity. The pot is a composite and campact body. The fire can effect an entry only into its body, if the constitutive dyads are split up into atoms, thus making possible for the entry of fire to reach the inside of its body.1 In reply to this argument of Sridhara, the Naiyayikas maintain that there is a possibility of the gap between triads, for conjunction is in respect of parts.2 Besides, the passage of padyante vyuhantarapattau ca prthividhaturabdhatuna samgrhitantarena tejasa, pacyamano rasadravyam nirvarttayati, sa rasah purvyavayavasahito ankuradibhavamapadyate paramanyavasthani bijani bhavantityetanna pratipadyamahe, yasmacchalyadibyjamucchunavasthamadim krtva yavadupantyam salibijakaryam ta vanna kadacit paramanvavasthan bhavati, yadi tu syat kadacit nopala. bhyeta, NV., Udyotakara, Chap. III, Ahnika 1, Sutra 4; Prakstisusiratayaiva karyadravyasya ghatadih arambhat antastejah kananupravesakstapakopapatteh alam vidasakaipanaya pitharapakapaksa eva pesalah, NM., Pt. II; ,see NV., III. 4; VV., p. 448. 1. NK., P. 109; Na tavatparamanavah santarah, nirbhagatvat, dvyanukasya santaratve canutpattireva, tasya paramanvorasamyogat samyuktau cedimau nirantaraveva, sabhagayorhi vastunoh kenacidamsena samyogat kenacidasamyogat santarah samyogah, nirbhagayostu nayam vidhiravakalpate sthuladravyesu pratiyamanesyantaram na pratibhatyeva, tryanuke svevantaram...na kalpyete, NK., pp. 262-3. 2. Yadi canupravisya drayyam dravyantaram vyatibhinatti tena caksusasya ragmer anupravesat sphatikadi vinastamiti, NV., III. 1. 4, p. 353.

Page #342
Transformation of Matter 307 light through the hard transparent bodies like glass and crystal to things situated beyond is the positive proof that the things which appear to be compact are not really so and they cannot resist the penetration of such fine things like the atoms of light. The fact of the passage of one material substance through another demonstrates that take wholesale disiptegration of the body is not a necessary precondition for the operation of heat and for the emergence of the new physical qualities. In answer to the Vaisesika point that the hard and red baked pot is a distinct entity from the soft and black unbaked one on account of their functional characteristics and the impossibility of the occurrence of the contradictory attributes in a self-identical substance, the Naiyayikas maiotain that the identity of a thing can be made only by recognition without contradiction. In this case the recognition of identity is obvious and conclusive. The successive emergence of contradictory qualities does not annual the identity of a thing, e.g. a piece of cloth, when drenched in water, becomes wet and dries, remains the same cloth. In refutation to the Vaisesika view that recognition is not necessarily a proof of identity as it is observed to make a mistake in such cases like the flame of light and the stream of water, the Naiyayikas explain that the recognition of identity of the flame of light is vitiated by forceful arguments. It is directly perceived that there is the difference of size of the flame at different moments and the wick's oil and the action of fire also change every moment. Therefore it is shown by the difference of causal conditions as well as of the qualities of the flame that the flame in question is not one but a series of phenomena which are misconceived to be identical on account of their quick succession and close similarity. The apparent identity of a stream of water can be explained. So the Vaisesika argument that all recognitions are equally 1. Na viruddhasarisparsavattvena'avayavino bhedo'abhimatah, avayavina'ekatvena pratyabhijnanat, NP., p. 313.

Page #343
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy erroneous according to these cause in general and that recognition in the case of the baked one in particular is more vitiated by prejudice than logic.1 308 The Vaisesikas opine that the advocate of the theory of Pitharapakaja accepts the possibility of the recognition of the sameness of magnitude and shape in the case of a slightly mutilated pot, e. g. a pot perforated in the neck with a needle is recognized to be the same pot even though mutilated, but logically it cannot be the same original whole pot, as it is lost of a part, though small. The whole exists in the totality of the parts and cannot dispense with any of these parts without losing its identity. If the whole is deprived of one or two parts, it ceases to exist and another whole deprived of parts emerges. In reply to this argument the Mimamsakas argue that "the loss of one or two parts does not entail the disappearance of the whole as the recognition of identity proves its continuance in the parts that are left over."" The Vaisesikas refute this point by explaining that a whole which exists in a determinate number of parts cannot continue to exist in excision or accretion of part of a two in it. The MImamsaka example of diminution of magnitude of a piece of cloth due to contraction does not suggest the substraction of parts or its expansions; a fresh accession of parts does not fit 1. NP., p. 311. 2. KV., p. 188; Rupam casrayanasadeva vinasyati, karyarupatvat nastaghatarupavadi (1) tyasyapi pratyayasya pratyabhijnanirdalitatvat,...pitharavayavanam tatha tanmadhyapatitadvyanukasyapi ka jIvitavyavasthitivatyanumanamapyudyamasa dayati, NLV., pp. 831-2; VSU., VII. 1. 6. KR., p. 60 3. The MImamsakas appear to be the earliest exponents of the doctrine of Pitharapaka.

Page #344
Transformation of Matter 309 well so the argument does not dislodge the position of the Vaisesikas. 1 As to the Naiyayikas' point regarding the absence of the potter and his apparatus for the production of a new pot it is explained by the Vaisesikas that the production of the mutilated pot also did not wait for the potter and his apparatus. So the Vaisesikas maintain that the production of a new pot in super-session of an old one does not necessarily wait for the usual causal condition. Besides, according to the Vaisesikas, the process of disintegration of parts in the unbaked pot by the action of fire is gradual and it takes place in and through its parts. So also is the process of reintegration of parts of it. Consequently, there is the emergence of some fresh parts with the changed qualities when there takes place the distruction of some parts. This synchronism of these two processes does not allow to perceive the structural or dimensional change in the reconstituted pot from the disintegrated one.s It appears from the above analysis of Pilupaka and Pitharapaka that the latter process seems to be more acceptable for the physical sciences have demonstrated that heat can penetrate into a piece of metal and bring about a change in its internal structure without destroying the magnitude of it. Taste, smell and colour also change with its chemical action. The Jaina view+ also supports this contention in this way that there takes place a transformation of gunas (qualities) in some dravya (substance) having no integration and disintegration of atoms in it. 1. KV., pp. 188-189; VSU., VII. 1. 6. 2. VV., p. 448. 3. NK., p. 110 (p. 265) of Varanasi Samsksta Visvavidyalaya edition 4. Kammivi puna tadavatthevi hoi gunavipparinamo, Paramanu-khandasattrimsika, (14), p. 3; Ghacadravye tadavasthe api pakena praktanamsyamarupadigunanasadarsadat (14), Ibid., p. 3.

Page #345
310 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy THE VEDANTIC VIEW ON TRANSFOR MATION OF MATTER As already pointed out, the world evolves out of Maya by a process of self-alienation of the Absolute Brahman which produces first Akasa, and other classes of subtle matter evolve from Akasa in an ascending linear order. The Mahabhutas (gross elements) are produced by the process of Pancikarana (quintuplication). On the formation of the Mahabhutas once "the different kinds of substance are derived from them by the evolutionary process called parinama". I There takes place constantly the change of state in Matter." The effect is only the cause in a new collocation." There are stated to be two kinds of change, viz. (1) change by a spontaneous process, without external influence including isomeric change (svabhavika-parinama). This svabhavika parinama corresponds to the Jaina Visrasa parinama, i. e. spontaneous integration and disintegration, but it is directed against the Naiyayika doctrine of Arambhavada-action from without, impressed force abextra (adssta) and (2) change as a result of the combination with other substances. It corresponds to the Jaina parinama of matters by combination or binding (bandhanaparinama). "Such combination may produce (a) a compound substance possessing like-qualities with the constituents (samanajatiyotpatti) or (b) unlike compounds with new qualities "heteropathic effects" (vijatiyotpatti). Any new quality thus evolved through (chemical) combination is called samhatabhutadharma, e. g. the intoxicating power of the fermented rice and molasses, which does not exist in the ingredients taken separately (madyabrjanam pratyekam avarttamanapi samudayasaktya madasaktih drsyate). This sambhuyakriya (sambhuyakriya samutthaga) corresponds to the chemical combination, and the Vedantists, like the Samkhya, explain this 1. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 89. 2. Ibid.

Page #346
Transformation of Matter only as the transformation of the latest Energy (sakti, andbhutasakti ( in a new collocation (samsthana avayava-sannivesa). But, unlike the mediaeval Samkhya, the Vedanta freely recognises the combination of heterogeneous Bhutas. Thus Earth, Ap, Tejas, and Vayu freely combine in a different proportions and groupings to produce the variety of substances in the world. For example, the animal organism is a compound of all the five Bhutas (pancabhutika). It is not merely the concomittant or efficient causes that may be heterogeneous to the material cause as the Naiyayikas contend, but several heterogeneous substances (or Bhutas) may unite as "material causes to produce a new substances."1 1. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 90; Pancikarana: 311 Dvidba vidhaya caikaikam caturddha prathamam punah Svasvetaradvitlyamsairyojanat panca panca te. Yatha trisargasrutau srstanam bhutanam sphutataravyavaharanamarupasya karanopayataya trivrtkaranam srutam tadvat bhutapancakasargasrutau api tatha, tadanim pancikaranantaram akase sibdo' abhivyajyate sphutatayeti sarvvatra yojantyam (Vidvanmanoranjint) - asti hi sarire sarvvesamapibhutanam karyasam pratipattih avakasavyuhanapavanakledanakathinyanam sarvajananubhavasiddhatvat, atastatkaranataya pancani bhutani ekasmin dehe santiti sthite tantupatayoriva avayavavayavitvameva pancabhutadehayoruktam, na ca sparsasunyatvat ekadravyatvat ca akasaya arambhakatvanupapattiriti vacyam, arambhavadasya anangikarat, ekasyapi dugdhavayavino dadhyarambhakatvadarsanat vastutastu pancanam pancatmakatvasya darsitatvat arambhavadasya nirakrtatvat ca tasmat siddham sarfram pancabhautikamiti Ibid., pp. 91-92; Na tavat samanajatiyameva arabhate na bhinnajatiyamiti niyamo vasti, samavayikarane eva samanajatiyatvabhyupagamah na karanantaravisaya iti tadapi anaikantikam, napi anekameva arabhate naikamiti niyamo'asti anumanasoradyakarmmarambhabhyupagamat, ekaiko hi paramanuscadyam svakarmarabhate na dravyantaram samhatya ityabhyupagamyate dravya

Page #347
312 The Concept of Matter in Jaioa Philosophy In the physical sciences the transformation of Matter is explained by the chemical behaviour of it in the following manner "why molecules can sometimes inter-change atoms and form new substances, and why molecules already formed can sometimes dissociate again into separate atom."? These questions correspond to the Jaina Sutras "Bhedasanghatebhyah utpadyante"; "Bhedadanuh" (Molecules are formed by division, combination and division-cum-combination); the atom is produced only by division). <Page #348
Transformation of Matter 313 of sodium fluoride present and free sodium and fluorine. Then at higher temperatures the portion of free sodium and fluorine will increase. Also, the propotion of the fluorine which is in the form of single atoms rather than in the molecules will increase at high temperatures. The precise composition of such a mixture could in fact be worked out if we knew all the quantities of energy actually involved. In more complex chemical reactions in which atoms are interchanged between molecules there are more quantities of energy to be considered. There are the energies which bave to be supplied before the separate molecules can be dissociated and also the energies gained by formation of the new types of molecules. Even in a gaseous mixture there will be ample opportunity for interchanges during collisions between molecules. The course of a given chemical reaction will depend on all these quantities of energy and upon the temperature, and also on the concentrations in which the various (substances are present." The chemical behaviour as explained above is similar to the Jaina conception of evolution of matter by the process of combination, of dissociation and of both combination and dissociation of atoms. Besides, in the physical sciences solid, liquid, and gaseous states of Matter and their respective changes of state are explained in the following manner : "From X-ray studies it is known that in crystalline solids the atoms are all located at definite point in a lattice arrangement. The atoms vibrate about these lattice points, the amplitude of the vibration, increasing with the rise in temperature. At the melting point, which occurs at a fixed temperature different for crystalline substance, the amplitudes of the vibrations have become so large as to disturb the orderly arrangement of the atoms. Heat energy absorbed by the solid during the meating process is 1. Atoms and the Universe, pp. 132-133.

Page #349
314" The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy used in overcoming the attractive forces between the molecules and so producing increased molecular potential energy. Amorphous substances, such as, wax, tar and glass, as well most alloys, do not have sharp melting points but rather pass from the one state or phase to the other over a range in temperature of a few degrees. The change from the solid to the liquid state is known as melting, or fusion, the reverse change, as freezing, During freezing the molecules in settling down into their lattice positions have their potential energy changed back into kinetic energy, part of which is given as heat energy to the immediate surroundings. When a liquid changes to the gaseous state, a process known as vaporization, there is a further much larger increase in the average distance between molecules. Heat energy is absorbed by the liquid to supply this increase in potential energy, or internal energy, of the substance. In addition, a portion of the absorbed heat energy is consumed in doing external work in the expansion against the pressure confining the substance. In the reverse change from the gaseous to the liquid phase, known as condensation, energy must be given up as heat energy to the surroundings. The transition directly from the solid state to the gaseous state, called sublimation, also occurs. It takes place; for instance, when "dry ice" at atmospheric pressure changes to carbon dioxide gas without going through the liquid phase. To produce sublimation there is, of course, an absorption of heat energy in order both to increase the potential energy of the molecules and to do the external work in the large expansion against the pressure of the atomsphere."? The Jaina conception of change of state of Matter "Bhedasanghatabhyam caksusah" (Molecules produced by the combined action of division and combination can be perceived by the eyes) is comparable to the process of change of states of Matter from the solid to the liquid and from the liquid to the 1. Physics--Principles and Applications, p. 261.

Page #350
Transformation of Matter 315 gaseous and the process of the reverse change of state from the gaseous to the liquid and from the liquid to the solid state as explained in physics. According to the Jaina Metaphysics, the invisible matter becomes visible by the combined process of division and combination, and not by division, for "when a molecule of minute size splits, it does not give up its minuteness. Hence it is invisible. Again another minute molecule splits. It combines with another molecule, gives up its minuteness and attains grossness. Then it becomes visible."1 It is to be noted that in the gaseous state the particles of matter become invisible, while in the liquid and solid states they become visible. That is to say, some of the molecules are visible and some are invisible, though they are composed of even an infinite number of atoms. 1. Reality, p. 155; Anantanantaparamanusamudayanispadyo'api kasciccaksusah kascidacaksusah, tatra yo acaksusah sa katham caksuso bhavatiti ceducyate, bhedasanghatabhyam caksusah na bhedaditi ka katropapattiriti cet ? brumah suksmaparinamasya skandhasya bhede sauksmyaparityagadacaksusatvameva sauksmyaparinatah punaraparah, satyapi tadbhede anyasanghatantarasamyogat sauksmyaparinamoparame sthaulyotpattau caksuso bhavati, SS., 5. 28 (Comm)., p. 299.

Page #351
TENTH CHAPTER COMBINATION OF MATTER PARTICLE In the Jaina Agamasi it is stated that the combination of ultimate atoms takes place as a result of the chemical behaviour of the properties of matter of unequal degrees : snigdhatva (cohesiveness of attractive force), ruksatva dryness or repulsive force) and snigdhatvaruksatva (cohesiveness-cumdrynessrattractive-cum-repulsive forces), which are inherent in both ultimate atoms and molecules having two up to infinite units. It lasts for one samaya (instant) in the minimum and innumerable times in the maximum. The two ultimate atoms combine together into a molecule because of their having the property of snehakayatva.2 Molecules also integrate and disintegrate into two, three units, etc.? On the basis of the Agamic statement Umasvati explains the combination of matter in this manner that it takes place by virtue of the properties of cohesive and dry forces4 which are associated with them. The origination of the material aggregate (i. e. molecules) occurs only as a result of the mutual contact of unitary (discrete) ultimate atoms, etc.5 For this reason, besides the contact (samyoga), there is something else for 1. Paramanupoggala ..vemayaniddhayae dvemayalukkhayae vemayaniddhalukkhayae ..bamdhe samuppajjai, etc., BhS., 8. 9. 345; See also Pannavana, 13, 418; Bhandhasattrimsika, p. 10. 2. Do paramanu-poggala egayao sahanamti donham para ** manu poggalanam atthi sinehakae, Bhs., 1. 10. 80. 3. Khamihevi ya nim asasaz saya sa niyam uvacijjai ya avacijjai ya, BhS., 1. 10. 80. 4. Snigdharuksatvadbandah, TS.; V. 32, p. 420. 5. Snigdharuksayoh pudgalayoh sprstayorbandho bhavati, TS., Bha., 5. 32, p. 420.

Page #352
Combination of Matter 317 its production. The purport of the aphorism "Snigdharuksatvadbandhah" is to show this fact. In addition to the mutual conjunction, it is also necessary that there should be the properties-cohesiveness and dryness (i. e. attractive and repulsive forces) in them. When cohesive and dry constituent parts combine mutually with each other, there takes place their binding-transformation of oneness (integration). The molecules like dyads, etc., are produced by this combination. There can be two kinds of combination of cohesive and dry constituent parts, viz. similar (sadrsa) and dissimilar (visadrsa). The taking place of combination of the cohesive constituent with the cohesive one and that of the dry constituent with the dry one is called similar combination (sadrsabandhana), while the combination of the cohesive constituent with the dry one is dissimilar combination (visadssabandhana). So there are stated to be two kinds of bbandhanaparinama (binding-transformation of matter), viz. snigdhabandhanaparinama (binding transformation of the cohesive constituent parts) and ruksabandhanaparinama (binding-transformation of the dry constituent parts). The general rules of the combination of matters are as follows: (1) There does not take place a combination of the cohesive and dry constituent elements of matter having the quantum of the minimum (lowest) properties (energies), 3 i. e. there does not occur a combination of ultimate atoms having the minimum quantum of properties. (2) On account of there being equal quantum of properties there does not take place a 1. TS., 5. 34. 2. Bardhanapariname nam Bhamte ! kaivihe paanatte ? tamjahaniddhabamdhanapariname, lukkhabamdhanapariname ya, Pannavana; 13; Samaniddhayae bardho na hoi samalukkhayae vi na hoi Vemayaniddhalukkhattanena bamdho u khamdhanam, etc. Ibid. 3. Na jaghany agunanam, TS., V. 33, p. 421.

Page #353
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy combination of similar constituent particles of matter.1 That is to say, there is no possibility of a combination of the cohesive constituent part with the cohesive one and that of the dry constituent part with the dry one. (3) Ultimate atoms having equal degree of cohesiveness or dryness, and being of the same kind, cannot combine with ultimate atoms of their own kind. (4) There takes place a combination of similar or dissimilar constituent parts having the difference in their degrees of cohesiveness or of dryness by two units more.3 318 In the three sutras "Na jaghanyaguna am Gunas amye sadrsanam, Dvyadhikadigunanam tu", the first sutra forbids the combination of matters on the ground that there cannot take place a mutual combination of ultimate atoms having the minimum properties of cohesiveness or of dryness in them.4 It is revealed by this fact of negation that there can be a mutual combination of all cohesive or dry constituent elements having medium and maximum degree of these properties. But in this rule also there lies an objection which is explained in the next sutra "Gunasamye sadrsanam." According to it, there cannot take place a mutual combination of similar constituents having equal degrees of properties of cohesiveness 1. Gunasamye sadrsanam, TS., V. 34, p. 422. 2. Ibid. 3. Dvyadhikadigunanam tu, TS., V. 35. 4. Jaghanyagunasnigdhanam jaghanyagunaruksanam parasparena bandho na bhavati, TS. Bha., 5. 33, p. 421. 5. Ityevametau jaghanyagunasnigdharuksau vihayanyesam madhyamotkrstasnigdhanam ruksaih snigdhaisca ruksanam parasparena bandho bhavati iti, TS., pp. 421-22; Atraha-uktam bhavata-jaghanyagunavarjanam (snigdhanam) ruksena ruksanam ca snigdhena saha bandho bhavatiti, atha tulyagunayoh kimatyantapratisedha iti? atrocyate na jaghanyagunanamityadhikrtyedamucyate, TS. Bha., P. 422. ca

Page #354
Combination of Matter or of dryness. In this way there cannot occur a combination of the cohesive ultimate atoms with the cohesive ultimate atoms having equal degree of dryness. The contention of this negation shows that there can be a combination of similar ultimate atoms having unequal degrees of properties-cohesiveness and dryness.2 Having abridged the expressed meanings in the third sutra "Dvyadhikadigunanam tu" the position (or limitation) for a combination of unequal quantum of properties of similar constituents has been determined. In accordance with this rule there can take place a combination of similar constituents having unequal degree of propertycohesiveness or dryness, when the property of cohesiveness or of dryness of one constituent element is more than the property of cohesiveness or of dryness of another constituent element by two, three, four units, etc.3 Therefore, if the property of cohesiveness or of dryness of one constituent element is more than the property of cohesiveness or of dryness of the other constituent element by only one unit, then there cannot be a combination of similar constituent elements. 4 319 There is no difference in the reading of the aforesaid three sutras in the Svetambara and Digambara traditions, but 1. Gunasamye sati sadrsanam bandho na bhavati tadyathatulyagunasnigdhasya tulyagunasnigdhena, tulyagunaruksasya tulyagunaruksena iti, TS. Bha., 5. 34, p. 422. 2. Atraha-sadrsagrahanam kimapeksata iti? atrocyate-gunavaisamye sadrsanam bandho bhavati, Ibid., p. 423 3. Dvyadhikadigunanam tu sadrsanam bandho bhavati, TS., p. 424; Tadyatba-snigdhasya dvigunadhikasnigdhena, dvigunadyadhikasnigdhasya ekagunasnigdhena, ruksasyapi dvigunadyadhikaruksena, dvigunadyadhikaruksasya ekagunaruksena., Ibid. 4. Ekadigunadhikayostu sadrsayorbandho na bhavati atra tu sabdo vyavrttivisesanarthah, pratisedha vyavartayati bandham ca visesayati, TS. Bha., 5. 35, p. 424.

Page #355
320 The Concept of Matter in Jaipa Philosophy there lies the difference of interpretations made by the commentators. According to the Bbasya and Vitti of the Tattvarthadhigama sutra, when both ultimate atoms are having the lowest degrees of energy, then only their combination is ruled out. That is, if one ultimate atom is endowed with minimum quality and another ultimate atom is not possessed of minimum degree of quality, according to the Bbasya, then there takes place their combination. But according to the explanation of the Digambara texts-Sarvarthasiddhi, etc., there cannot be a combination of one ultimate atom having minimum degree of quality with another ultimate atomo having non-minimum degree of quality like a mutual combination of two ultimate atoms having the lowest degree of property. "There is no combination between atoms which are characterized by the lowest degree of greasiness or dryness. It as follows: There is no combination of one degree of greasiness with one, two, numerable, innumerable of infinite degrees of greasiness. In the same manner, there is also no combination of one degree of greasiness with one, two numerable, innumerable or infinite degree of dryness. Similarly, it should be understood with regard to one degree of dryness. If so, it would imply indiscriminate combination among all degrees of greasiness and dryness other than those of the lowest degree."] 1. Jaghanyagunasnigdhanam jaghanyagunaruksanam, ca parasparena bandho na bhavati, TS. Bha., p. 421. 2. Atraha-uktam bhavata-jaghanyagunavarjanam (snigdha nam) ruksena ruksanam ca snigdhena saha bandho bhavatiti, TS., Bha., p. 422. 3. SS., 5. 34 (Comm). 4. Reality, p. 159. Tesam jaghanyagunanam nasti bandhah tadyatha ekagunasnigdhasyaikagunasnigdhena dvyadisamkhyeyanantagunasnigdhena va nasti bandhah tasyavaikagunasnigdhasya ekagunaruksena dvyadisamkhyeyasamkhyeyanantagunaru

Page #356
Combination of Matter 321 According to the Bhasya and Vstti of the Tattvarthadhigama sutra in all the three sutras the meaning of the word "Adi' has been accepted in the sense of three, etc. Therefore, in spite of their being the quantum (ansa) of cohesiveness or of dryness of another constituent element more by two, three, four up to countable, countless and infinite units than that of any one constituent element, there will take place a combination in this case. Only if it is more by one unit of property, then there will be no combination. But the Digambara Acaryas interpret that the combination of ultimate atoms is accepted, if there be * only two degree (units) of property more, i. e. like one degree of property in the case of there being three, four up to a numerable innumerable and infinite degrees more, a combination of ultimate atoms is not possible, Acarya Pujyapada explains : "The increase by two units means four degrees of either property (of greasiness or dryness). The particle Adi' (etc.) indicates manner. The manner shows increase by two units. By that five degrees, etc., are ruled out. This implies a combination between similar and dissimilar types of atoms if there is difference in degrees of either property by two units. There is no combination of an atom of two degrees of greasiness with one, two or three degrees of greasiness. But there is a combination of it (an atom of two degrees of greasiness) with four degrees of greasiness. The same (greasiness of two degrees), however, does not combine with five, six, seven, eight, numberable innumerable and infinite degrees or greasiness. Similarly, there is a combination of three degrees of greasiness with five degrees of greasiness. But there is no combination of this (greasiness of three degrees) with lesser or greater degrees of greasiness than two). Greasiness of four degrees combines ksena va pasti bandhah tatha ekagunaruksasyapi yojyamiti; Etau jaghanyagunasnigdharuksau anyesam snigdhapam ruknanam ca parasparena bandho bhavati, SS., 5. 34, (Comm.)

Page #357
322 Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy with six degrees of greasiness, but not with the rest. Similarly, it must be understood in other instances. In the same manner, dryness of two degrees does not combine with that of one, two or three degrees. But it combines with dryness of four degrees. The same does not combine with five and higher degrees of dryness. Similarly, it should be understood that there is a combination of dryness of three degrees, etc. with that of two degrees higher than itself. It should be understood similarly with regard to dissimilar types (i. e. greasiness and dryness)." 'It is also described in the scriptures', 'with the exception of the lowest degree, wherever there is difference of two degrees in greasiness and dryness, there is combination between similar or dissimilar types, such as greasiness with dryness and greasiness with dryness." In all the three aforesaid sutras according to the Bhasya and Vstti, the rule of combination which takes place because of there being an increase of the degree of properties by two units, three units, etc. is applicable only to similar constituent elements.2 But in the explanation of the Digambara Acaryas that rule is applicable also to the combination of dissimilar ultimate atoms, just as it is applicable to the cause of similar ultimate atoms. "The term sadrsa" is intended to indicate combination of the same kind in case there is difference in the degree of greasiness and dryness. From this it follows that there would be combination between atoms of the same kind and the opposite kind, if there be difference in the degrees of greasiness and dryness."'S 1. Reality, pp. 160-161; SS., V. 36 (Comm.) 2. Dvyadhikadigunanam tu sadrsanam bandho bhavati, TS. Bha., p. 424. 3. Reality, p. 160; Gunavaisamye sadesanamapi bandhapratipattyartham sadrsagrahanas kriyate. Ato visamagunanam tulyajatiyanamatulyajatiyanam ca, SS., V. 35 (Comm), pp. 305-6.

Page #358
Combination of Matter 323 In the process of combination the equal and higher degrees of property transform equal and lower ones respectively. In the case of equal degree of property the combination of similar constituents does not take place, but there occurs the combination of dissimilar constituents, e, g. the combination of two degrees of cohesiveness with two degrees of dryness or three degrees of cohesiveness with three degrees of dryness. In such case, some particular equal degree of property transforms another equal degree of property into its own nature. That is to say, according to substance, field, time and condition, cohesiveness sometimes transforms dryness into cohesiveness and sometimes dryness also transforms cohesiveness into dryness, having equal degree of property. But in most cases the higher degrees of property can transform the lower ones into their own nature, e. g. the five degrees of cohesiveness, i. e. three degrees of cohesiveness turn into the magnitude of five degrees by the nature of relation. Like this the five degrees of cohesiveness transform the three degrees of dryness into own nature. When dryness is more, then it also transforms cohesiveness of less degree into its own nature.3 According to the Digambara tradition in which the reading is "Bandhe adhikau parinamikau ca", it is not desirable that 1. Bandhe samadhikau parinamikau, TS., V. 36. 2. Bandhe sati samagunasya samagunaparinamako bhavati adhikaguno hinasyeti, TS., Bha., V. 36, p. 426. 3. Sati bandhe---samghattalaksane visrasadvarena tulyaguno dvigunasnigdhastulyagunastaddvigunaruksasya parinamakah svamatena snehagunena ruksagunamatmasatkaroti, evam ruksagunah kadacit parinamakah, svagatena ruksagunena snehagunamatmasatkaroti parinamayatiti, gunasamye tu sadrsanam bandhapratisedhah, imau tu visadrsaveko dvigunasnigdho anyo dvigunaruksah, sneharuksayosca bhinnajatiyatvannasti sadesyam, tatha adhikagunahtrigunasnigdho hinagunasya ekagunasnigdhasya parinamayita, anena hyekagunasnigdhastrigunasnigdhatamapadyate, TS., pp. 426-27.

Page #359
Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy one equal degree of property transforms another equal of property into its own nature. But it avers that in the process of combination the higher degrees transform the lower ones.1 For example, "treacle full of sweetness transforms particles of dust, etc., that surround it, by imparting its sweetness to them. Similarly, higher degrees transform lower degrees. So greasiness and dryness of four degrees, etc., transform greasiness and dryness of two degrees. For that reason the previous state disappears and another state of four degrees is manifested. Thus combination (oneness) is produced. Otherwise the two would appear separate in spite of union, as in the case of a cloth woven with black and white yarn."" 324 COMBINATION AND SEPARATION OF ULTIMATE ATOMS AND MOLECULES In the Jaina Agama Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti a detailed account of combination and separatian of ultimate atoms and molecules having two units up to infinite units (pradesas) has been given in a systematic way. As for example, two ultimate atoms combine together because of their property of cohesiveness (force of attraction); they may disintegrate into two discrete units (atoms) by the process of disintegration (i. e. by the force of repulsion); thus they become individual discreteultimate atoms again. In this way three ultimate atoms com1. Bandhe adhikau parinamikau ca, SS., V. 37. 2. Reality, p. 161; Yatha klinno gudo' adhikamadhurarasah paritanam renvadinam svagunotpadanat parinamikah, tatha'anyo'apyadhikagunah alpiyasah parinamika iti krtva, dvigunadisnigdharuksasya caturgunadisnigdharuksah parinamiko bhavati tatah purvavasthapracyavanapurvakam tartIyikamavasthapradurbhavatItyekatvamupapadyate. itaratha hi suklakrsnatantuvat samyoge satyasyaparinamikatvatsarvam viviktarupenaivavatistheta, SS., 5.27 (Comm). ntaram 3. BhS., I. 10. 80.

Page #360
Combinotion of Matter bine together because of their cohesiveness (force of attraction) into a molecule. If that aggregate disintegrates into two parts, the one part becomes an ultimate atom on the one side and the other part becomes an aggregate having two units. If it disintegrates into three parts, there become three discrete ultimate atoms. Similarly, four and five atoms combine together to form aggregates and those aggregates are non-permanent, for the process of integration and disintegration always takes place in them.1 In this manner the account of combination and separation of infinite ultimate atoms has been discussed in great detail. Infinite ultimate atoms integrate into one molecule having infinite units (pradesas). On its disintegration it gets divided into two, three up to ten, countable, countless and infinite units. When disintegrating into two parts, the one part becomes one discrete ultimate atom by singleness and the other one becomes an aggregate having infinite units or two aggregates having infinite units. When disintegrating into three parts, there become two discrete ultimate atoms by singleness and one aggregate having infinite units or there become one ultimate atom by singleness, one dyad and one aggregate having infinite units up to or there become one ultimate atom by singleness, one aggregate having countless units and one aggregate having infinite units or there become one ultimate atom by singleness, two aggregates having infinite units or there become one dyad and two aggregates having infinite units-thus up to or there become by oneness one aggregate having ten units and two aggregates having infinite units or there become an aggregate having countable units by oneness and two aggregates having infinite units or there become by oneness one aggregate having countless units and two aggregates having infinite units or there become three aggregates having infinite units. While disintegrating into four parts, there become by singleness three ultimate atoms and one aggregate having infinite units; thus catuskasamyoga up to 1. Bhs., 1. 10 80. 325

Page #361
326 Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy asamkhyatasamyoga should be understood; all these are discussed like the account of countless divisions as stated above. Similarly, the account of infinite divisions also should be known. Only difference is that one infinite division (anantaka) more should be stated up to or there become by openess countable aggregates having countable units and an aggregate having infinite units, or there become countable aggregates having countless units and an aggregate having infinite units or there become countable aggregates having infinite units. When disintegrating into countless parts, there become countless ultimate atoms and an aggregate having infinite units or there become countless aggregates having countless units and one aggregate having infinite units or there become countless aggregates having infinite units. When disintegrating into infinite parts, there become infinite discrete ultimate atoms. I PUDGALAPARIVARTTA (ASSEMBLING TOGETHER OF ULTIMATE ATOMS WITH MATERIAL SUBSTANCES)? As a result of integration and disintegration of ultimate atoms there can follow infinitefold pudgalaparivarttas of paramanus 8 (union of ultimate atoms with material subs. tances). There are stated to be seven kinds of pudgala-parivartta, viz. audarika-pudgalaparivarttas (assemblings of gross matters), vaikriya-pudgala-parivarttas (assemblings of trans1. Bhs., 12. 4. 445. 2. Pudgalaih pudgaladravyaih saha parivarttah--paramana nam milanani pudgala parivarttah samanugantavyah anugantavya bhavanti iti hotoh akhyotah parupitah bhagavadbhiriti gamyate makaria --prakptasaitiprabhavah, Bhs., 12. 4. 446 (Comm). 3. Hamta Goyama ! essi nam paramanupoggalanam sahana nabhedanuvaenam anamtanam poggalapariyattanam anamtanamta-poggala pariyatta samanugamtavva bhavamtiti makkbaya, Ibid., 12. 4. 446,

Page #362
Combination of Matter 327 formable matters), taijasa-pudgala-parivarttas (assemblings of luminous matters), karmana-pudgala-parivarttas (assemblings of karmic matters), manahpudgala-parivarttas (assemblings of mental particles or mind-dusts), vak-pudgala-parivarttas (assemblings of speech-matters) and anaprana-pudgalaparivarttas (assemblings of respiration-matters). ? Taijasa and karmana-pudgalaparivarttas are eguttariya (one or two or three in the minimum or countable up to infinite in the maximum) in all cases; manahpudgalaparivarttas are eguttariya in all five-sensed beings but there is none in the case vikalendriyajsvas (two-sensed up to four-sensed beings), vak-pudgala-parivarttas are thus and the same; the particular difference is this that it is not applicable in the case of onesensed beings. Anaprana-pudgala-parivarttas take place in all cases of five-sensed beings up to that of the vaimanikas2 (celestial beings). Audarika-pudgala-parivarttas occur because audarikasarira-prayogadravyas (material substances applied by the gross body) in the form of audarikasarfra (gross physical body) are received, bound, pervaded, transformed, held, settled, immersed, attained and developed by soul, existing in the gross physical body and in the forms of limbs and they are transformed, dissociated, discharged and given up by it. Similarly, vaikriya-pudgala-parivarttas (assembling together of the transformable matter) also should be understood. The particular difference is this that it should be stated that it is received by soul existing in vaikriyasarira (transformable body). 1. Goyama! sattavihe poggalapariyatte pannatte, tamjaba oraliya.poggalapariyatte veuvviya teyapoggalapariyatge kammapoggalapariyatte manapoggalapariyatte vaipoggala pariyatte anapanu-poggalapariyatte, Ibid. 2. Bhs., 12. 4. 446; 'Eguttariya' means one or two or three in the minimum or countable up to infinite in the maximum. Another meaning is 'Having one as the latter part (in the case of compound numerals).'

Page #363
328 Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy The remaining account is one and the same; all up to anapranapudgala-parivartta should thus be known. The particular difference is that all anaprana-pudgala-prayoga-sarvadravyas (all material substances applied by respiration) are assembled together as anaprana-pudgala (respiration-matter). The remaining is one and the same as before. Audarika-pudgala-parivartta becomes free by the cycle of atsarpini and avasarpini kalas. Similarly, vaikriya-pudgalaparivartta up to anaprani-pudgala-parivartta also should be known. Of those audarika-pudgala-parivarttanirvarttanakala (time for being free) upto anapranapudgala-parivarttanirvarttapakala, the least of all is karmana-pudgala-parivartta-nirvarttanakalas, taijasa-pudgala-parivartta-nirvarttanakala in infinite times more than karman l-pudgala-parivartta-nirvarttana-kala, audarika-pudgala-parivartta-nirvarttanakala is infinite times more than audarika-pudgala-parivartta-pirvarttanakala, manahpudgala-parivartta-nirvarttanakala is infinite times more than anaprana-pudgala-parivartta-pirvarttana-kala; vak-pudgalaparivartta-nirvarttana-kala is infinite times more than manahpudgala-parivartta-pirvarttana-kala; and vaikriya-pudgalaparivartta-nirvarttana-kala is infinite times more than vakpudgala-parivartta-nirvarttana-kala. Of these audarika-pudgala-parivartta up to anapran1-pudgala-parivarttas, the least of all are vaikriya-pudgala parivarttas; vak-pudgala-parivarttas are infinite times more than vaikriya-pudgala-parivarttas; manah-pudgala-parivarttas are infinite times more than vakpudgala-parivarttas; anaprana-pudgala-parivarttas are infinite times more than manah-pudgala-parivarttas; audarika-pudgalaparivarttas are infinite times more than anaprana-pudgalas; taijasa-pudgala-parivarttas are infinite times more than audarika-pudgala; taijasa-pudgala-parivarttas are infinite times more than audarika-pudgala-parivarttas and karmana-pudgalaparivarttas. 1 This account of pudgalaparivarttas (assembling 1. Bhs., 12. 4 447.

Page #364
Combination of Matter 329 together or joining of ultimate atoms with material substances) throws light upon the complex system of the combination of Matter with regard to all beings from different aspects, such as, time, etc. THE SAMKHYA VIEW ON THE COMBI NATION OF MATTER According to the Samkhya, the process of combination of different elements of Matter is explained in the following manner : there are stated to be two classes of aggregates, viz. (1) those of which the parts are closely united and fused, being lost in the whole (ayutasiddhavayavah) and mechanical aggregates or collocations of distinct and independent parts (yutasiddbavayavah samuhah). As an aggregate of the first kind a substance may be classified into two groups, viz. the Bhutas and their 'isomeric' modifications (bhutabheda and bhutavikara) and chemical compounds (militadravya samhatabbuta rtha). The second class of the substance may be sub-divided into two group, viz. (1) those compounds of atoms of the Bhuta class, i. e. of different isomeric modification of the same Bhuta, and (ii) those compounds of atoms of different Bhuta classes. In the former there takes place the contact between 'isomeric' atoms (sajatsya-samyoga), while in the latter there occurs the contact between heterogeneous atoms (vijatIya-samyoga). The first contact brings. about the intimate combination.2 "The isomeric atoms by a peculiar liberation of energy (sajatiyopastambha--the action of similars on similars) are attracted towards one another, and being rivetted as it were, form the so-called material cause (upadanakarana) of the compound product. 3 1. Sangah sargakhyah yah samyogavisesah tenaiva dravya nam vikaro bhavati, Pravacanabhasya, p. 136, Vijnanabhiksu; See The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 49. 2. P.S. A. H., p. 49.

Page #365
330 Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy The second kind of contact (that between unlike atoms of heterogeneous Bhutas) begins with a liberation of Energy (upastambha), which breaks up each of the Bhutas; and taking particles (or atoms) of one as nuclei or radicles, groups particles of the rest round these radicles in a comparatively free or unattached conditions", 1 This Samkhya process of combination of atoms is comparable to the Jaina view that "there would be combination between atoms of the same kind and the opposite kinds, if there be difference in the degrees of greasiness and dryness."2 In the above process the one Bhuta performing the function of providing the radicles is called upadana-karana (material cause), while the others bringing about the release of Energy by their collocation (upastambha, avastambha or vistambha) are known as nimittakarana (efficient cause)3. It is demonstrated by the examples of the Rasas as modifications of Ap (water) with earth-accretions that this process applies to the attributes (gunas) and the Bhutas.* 1. P. S. A. H., p. 49. 2. Reality, p. 160, SS., (Comm), V. 35. 3. Evamekaikagunasambhavat pradhanagunam asritya apradhanagunah parinamabhedan pravarttayanti, Vacaspati, Samkhyatattvakaumudi on karika, 15, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 50. 4. Yatha akasadekarasam salilam patitam nana rupat samslesat bhidyate, Gaudapada on karika, 17, Vide P. S. A. H. p. 50. Tatra'api (taijase sartre api) bahutaraparthivavayavavastambhat, alpatve ca anupabhogat; Aniruddha on Sutra 112, Chap. V. Jatisamkaryasya asmakamadosatvat samagrisamavadhane anekairapi indriyaih ekada ekavrttyutpadane badhakam nasti; Samkhya Pravacanabhasya, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 50%.

Page #366
Combination of Matter 331" According to Aniruddha, "both 'isomeric' and 'heterogeneous' combinations are real causes of constitutive contact. 1 "But in the later Samkhya-Patanjala the current teaching denied this-bahunamupadanayogat (Sutra 102, Chap. V), where Vijnanabhiksu notes-bahunam bhinnajatiyanam copadanatvar na drstamiti sajatiyamevopadanam itaracca bhutacatustayamupastambhakam" 2 It is admitted by the Samkhya that the dyad (dvyanuka) may be formed by atoms in constituting substances, 3 In the mediaeval Samkhya-Patanjala it was conceived under the influence of the Nyaya-Vaisesika that the intimate combination took place in the case of the structure of molecule formed of 'isomeric atoms, while in the case of a molecule formed of heterogeneous atoms there occurred only grouping of comparatively free or loosely attached atoms round a radicle atom (vyuhana ) with liberation of Energy (upastambha, avastambha or vistambha) and the setting up of unequal stress and strain ( gunavaisamyavimardda--Isvarakrsna ). There existed a fundamental (radical) difference between these two structures of molecules. But this distinction is not applicable to the Tanmatras (infra-atomic potentials or suksmabhutas), the forms of subtle matter which could combine into close "fusion whether homogeneous or heterogeneous". As for instance, suksmasarira (subtle body), the vehicle of the sentient principle is admitted by Vijnanabhiksu to be pancabhutatmaka (penta-Bhautika), i. e. all the five infra-atomic potentials (Tanmatras) function as upadanakaranas (material causes). "though the gross body (the animal organism) is stated 1. Arambhakasamyoga, e. g. bhautika-vayordeharambhaka tvam, Aniruddha on sutra 113, Chap. V., Vide P. S. A., H.. p. 50. 2. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 50. 3. Tatha anyonyasrayasca dvyanukavat gunah, Gaudapada on karika 12; The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 52.

Page #367
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy to be a "heterogenic" compound with the Earth-Bhuta as radicle or base. But according to the original Sam khya-Patanjala, the production of a new substance by the contact of dissimilar elements (vijatiyasamyoga) was admitted "as freely as in Vedanta, and was conceived as in nowise differing from the 'formation of a compound of atoms of the same Bhuta class". 332 The Samkhya view of chemico-physical action does not make any distinction between collocations of isomeric' and those of heterogeneous atoms", as basically they are all collo.cations of the Gunas; even it is urged by Vijnanabhiksu that "the qualities of a compound substance are not necessarily the result of similar qualities in the compound elements."3 THE NYAYA-VAISESIKA VIEW ON THE COMBINATION OF MATTER According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy, the ultimate atoms cannot exist in discrete state in creation; nevertheless, the atmospheric air consists of the means of atoms in a loose uncombined state. 5 One earth-atoms combines with another 1. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 53; Adhisthanasarfram ca suksmam pancabhutatmakam vaksyate, tanmatrakaryam yat bhutapancakam lingadhisthanam sarfram-Samkhya Pravacanabhasya, sutra 11 and 12, Chap. III. Sthulasarfram parthivameva anyani ca bhutani upastambhakani, Ibid., 19, chap. III. 2. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 54. 3. Ibid.; Sajatiyakaranagunasyaiva karyagunarambhakata iti tu tesam (tarkikanam) api na niyamah, vide P.S. A. H., p. 54. 4. Sivaditya, Saptapadarthi, vide commentary. 5. Stimitavayustu paramanusamuha eva anarabdhadravyah, Saptapadarthi, p. 21.

Page #368
Combination of Matter 333 by an original tendency to form a dyad (dvyanuka). In the same manner the dyads of other elements of Matter are constituted. The ultimate atoms are endowed with inherent vibration (parispandana) and it is the rule that while combining in pairs except in the case of the chemical action under the influence of heat, the original qualities of the ultimate atoms generate homogeneous qualities in the dyads. 1 In the orthodox view, the primordial infinitesimal atoms. begin with an unceasing vibratory motion and an inherent impulse which leads them to combine into dyad. The dyadsconstitute larger molecules, having combined by threes, fours, fives, etc. and the variety of elementary substances. The particular arrangement of them is determined by the physical causes as well as by the unseen force (Adcsta).3 It appears that this view has been originated by Prasastapada.4 According to another view maintained by the Vaisesika 1. Karyagunam karanagunapurvakam, VS., 7. 1. 6. 2. Anavarataparispandamana parimitapavanadiparamanavah, Raghunatha Siromani, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 100; Gatisilatvat patatravyapadesah patantiti, Nyaya Kusumanjali, Udayana, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 100. 3. Dvyanukairbahubhirarabhyate ityapi niyamo na, dvabhyam tasyanuparimanotpattau karanasadbhavenanutvotapattavarambhavaiyarthyat, bahusu tvaniyamah, kadacit tribhirarabhyate iti tryanukamityucyate, kadaciccaturbhirarabhyate, kadacit pancabhiriti yathestan kalpana ..adpstavasat tatha tatha tesam vyuho yatha yatha tadarabhesu aparajatayo vyajyante, Danvadrstakarita sarvabhavana ssstih, NK., Psthivinirupanan, pp. 80-81; Cf. Vacaspati's Report, Bhamatr, chap. II, pada II, sutra 2; Yada caturanukamarabhate caturnam dvyanukanamaram-- bhakatvat. 4. Paramanudvyanukesu bahutvasankhya tairarabdhe karya dravye tryanukadilaksane, PPBha., Parimananirupanam, p. 57.

Page #369
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy -system, ultimate atoms possess an inherent tendency to combine with one another, but some combine in pairs, others in triads, others in tetrads, etc., either by ultimate atoms falling into the groups of threes, fours, etc., direct, or by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate. The latter process of combination by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate is similar to the Jaina view of the formation of dvipradesika-, tripradesikaskandha, etc. Therefore, like the Jaina tripradesikaskandha the Vaisesika tryanuka inheres in three atoms, but not in three dvyankas (dyads). Similarly, the same process of combination of atoms follows in the case of tetrads, pentads, etc.1 4 334 According to Prasastapadabhasya, the dyads are combined by threes, fours, fives, etc. (tryanuka, caturanuka) to constitute different isomeric modifications. "The variety of Earthsubstances is due to differences in the arrangements of the molecules (e. g. their greater or less density, and above all, their grouping or collocation, vyuha, avayavasannivesa), which account for the specific characters (aparajati) manifested by these isomeric substances."2 1. Caturvidhah paramanavah ksitijalagnivayunam, dvabhyam paramanubhyam dvyanukamarabhyate tribhih paramanubhistryanukamarabhyate iti kramena sthulakaryadravyasyotpattih, Utpala, Chapter 1, Sloka 7; Vrhatsamhita, cf. also Sridhara's admission, "Athava yadi paramanavo dvyanukamarabhya tatsahitastryanukamarabhante tryanukasahitastu dravyantram tathapi, kuta visvasya agrahanam, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 101; see yadapi dve dvyanuke caturanukamarebheta, SBha., (Sarfrakabhasya), II. XX. 2, see P. S. A. H., p. 101. 2. amanajatiyas amyogah dravyarambhakah na vijati ya samyogah, Vide P. S. A. H., p. 98; Sa prthiv bahutvopeta, PPBha., Prthivfnirupanam, p. 12; Sthairyam nividatvam adisabdat prasithilatvadiparigrahah sthairyadyavayavasannivesavisista aparajati

Page #370
Combination of Matter As already discussed in the previous chapter, an elementary substance like earth produced by primary atomic combination may undergo qualitative change under the action of heat in a furnace, according to two theories, viz. PIlupaka (chemical action of isolated atom) of the Vaisesikas and Pithara paka chemical action of the composite structure) of theNaiyayikas, i. e. (1) the decomposition into homogeneous atoms, transformation of atomic qualities and finally recombination, all under the operation of heat and (2) the assuming of new characters by the molecules and larger aggregates under the influence of heat without decomposition into homogeneous atoms or change of atomic characters.1 paramanvadisu aparajatyabhave api adrstavasat tatha tatha tesam vyuhah yatha yatha tadarabdhesu aparajatayo vyajyante, NK., Prthivinirupanam, p. 81; Sthairyam sthirata cirakalavasthayitvamiti yavat. Adigrahanadvistambhakatvam jaladivyuhavirodhitvanca avayavasannivesah tattatsamanyavisesabhivyanjakasamsthanavisesah, na etaddravyantare sambhavati, jaladinam yatkincit sparsavad-vegavad-dravyopanipatamatrenaiva bhanguratvat, K. V. Ibid. (Prthivfnirupanam). 1. Tesamanumanena vinasah parikalpyate. Sarvavayavesu antarbahisca pakapurbbakapurbbarupadivilaksanagunopalabdherantah pravesah krsanoranumlyate tena vegavata banhidravyena nodanat abhighatat va nyunam ghatadyarambhakesu avayavesu kriya jayate kriyato vibbagah vibhagat dravyarambhakasamyogavinasah, tadvinasat dravyavinasah, pakkasca syamadigunanavajahatah raktadigunantarayogamanubhavantah-adrstapreryamanah 335 parasparam samyujya dvyanukadiprakramena tadrsameva ghatadikaryamarabhante, evam tapanatapadrsyamanesu amradiphalesu esa eva nyayah, sarfre, api udaryena tejasa pacyamanesu annapanadisu rasamaladhatubhavena parinamamupagacchatsu prayena pratiksanamutpadavinasau sambhavata iti, NM. (Bhuta-caitanyapurvvapaksa), Vide P. S. A. H., p. 102;

Page #371
336 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON THE COMBINA TION OF MATTER In the uddhist Philosophy the process of combination andet dissociation of particles of matters are not clearly dealt with as is treated in other Indian systems of thought. Nevertheless, it is implied from the Buddhist conception of sanghataparamanus (combined atoms) like saptadravyaka, astadra vyaka, navadravyaka and dasadravyaka, and kalapa that the atoms of earth, water, fire and air and the atoms of colour and shape, sound, odour, taste and tangible cannot "appear independently without being combined with the fundamental ones, in the ratio of four atoms of primary matter to one of secondary."1 So the minimum number of four atoms of general materiality integrated with each atoms of colour, odour, taste and secondary tangibility-matter is necessary "for their actual appearance in life."2 In the case of particular piece of matter resounded, atoms of sound being added to it make the combination Prakstisusiratayaiva aryadravyasya ghatadeh arambhat antastejah kananupravesakstapakopapatteh alam vinasakal. panaya, pitharapakapaksa eva pesalah, NM., (Bhuta-Caitanya-Purvvapaksa); Ye bijavayavaste purbbavyuhaparityagena vyuhantarama. padyante vyubantarapattu ca pethividhaturabdhatuna samglhita'antarena tejasa pacyamano rasadravyam nirvarttayati sa rasah parbbavayasahito' ankuradibhavamapadyate, paramanvavasthani bijani bhavanti iti etanna pratipadyamane, yasmacchalyadibijamucchunavasthamadini krtva yavadupaatyam salibijakaryam tavanna kadacit para manvavasthani bhavati, yadi tu syat kadacit nopalabhyeta, Udyotakara, chap. III. Ahnika, 1, Su. 4, Vide P.S. A. H., p. 103. 1. The Central Conception of Buddhism, p. 12. 2. bid.

Page #372
Combination of Matter 337 comprising nine different atoms. I "The combined atoms (sarghata-paramanu) alone appear in phenomenal reality, the simple ones, or infra-atomic elements, presumably, were relegated to the transcendental reality, in accordance with the general character of a Buddhist element. This device made it an easy task for the Buddhists to oppose indivisibility of atoms."? According to the later Vaibhasikas, air-atoms form air by aggregation, fire-atoms constitute fire by aggregation, wateratoms form water by aggregation and earth-atoms form earth by aggregation. The elements combine to constitute inorganic substances, organism and organs. In the physical sciences the combination of Matter is explained in this way that atoms are capable of free existence. "Every atom exerts a force upon every other atom."4 They combine with other atoms and form molecules by the force of attraction when the atoms are at a distance apart greater than their normal diameters, changing to a force of repulsion if the atoms are forced very close together. Thus there will be a tendency for atoms, because of their force of attraction to draw together and stick."5 That is to say, the atoms of one substance combine with those of another to form molecules in the process of chemical reactions taking place between two substances. The molecules constituting a substance attract each other by the inter-molecular forces of attraction. This force of attraction between them is very strong when the distance between 1. The actual number of atoms in a samghata paramanu will be much greater, since each atom of secondary (bhautika) matter needs a set of four primary atoms of its own, but if dhatus alone are reckoned, the number will express the classes (dhatu) of elements (dharmas) represented (cf. Ab. K. ii. 2), Ibid. 2. Ibid. 3. P. S. A. H., pp. 92-93. 4. Atoms and the Universe, p. 126. 5. Ibid.

Page #373
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy them is small. It vanishes when the distance exceeds the range of molecular attraction, i.e. there is the repulsive force. "If there are no such repulsive forces, atoms would not have individual existence and would all merge into each other. So the very existence of discrete atoms is a de facto demonstration of the existence of repulsion. But we can see, a possible origin of this force in the structure of the atom as a positively changed nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. If we consider two such atoms approaching so closely together that they overlap greatly (assuming for the purposes of this argument that this does not cause any distortion of the individual atoms) we eventually arrive at a condition in which the two are very close together, and the two spherical electronic clouds have become nearly coincident. It is obvious that the most important force under these circumstances will be the repulsion of the two positively charged nuclei upon each other, because the electronic clouds will so thoroughly mixed up that their contributions will act almost equally on both nuclei. At small distances the repulsion of unclei becomes very powerful and this is, in part at least, the origin of the general repulsive force between atoms."1 338 The molecules also tend to dissociate from each other by an inherent motion to which they are subject. They are subject to the simultaneous action of two forces-the intermolecular forces of attraction tending to combine them into pact mass, while the inherent molecular motions spread them out. a com tend to Snigdhatva (cohesiveness) and ruksatva (dryness) of Matter conceived in Jaina Philosophy may correspond to the force of attraction and the force of repulsion respectively as inherent properties in Matter of the physical sciences. As the attractive and repulsive forces are most indispensable for the combination and separation of atoms and the molecules in the physical sciences, so also snigdhatva (cohesiveness) and ruksatva (dryL. Atoms and the Universe, p. 128,

Page #374
Combination of Matter 339 ness) are main properties of Matter for the combination and dissociation of atoms and aggregates of atoms, according to Jaina metaphysics. Thus the Jaina conception of the combination of Matter runs parallel to the conception of molecular formation of the physical sciences, though they differ in regard to the complex process of chemical behaviour of matters,

Page #375
CONCLUSION Value of the Jaina Conception of Matter A study of the Jaina conception of Matter reveals that it was natural for the Jainacaryas to begin their metaphysical inquiry to the problem with the notion of Dravya (substance), a notion which has a continuous history in Jaina Philosophy from its very beginning up to the present time as is found in the case of notion of substance from Aristotle to Descartes. The Jainas had developed the distinction between Dravya and its gunas (attributes) partly in order to mark logical difference between the ultimate subjects of knowledge and partly also to answer puzzles about change and identity. The next step is to divide gunas of Dravya or gunas which it may be said to possess into two categories: first, the essential attributes, those which make it the kind of thing it is, and. secondly, the accidental attributes, which it may acquire and lose without changing its essential nature.1 "In Spinoza's terminology the words 'necessary and contingent' are generally substituted for 'essential and accidental."""2 The Jaina concept of Dravya is comparable with the concept. of substance of Spinoza, the central theme of his metaphysics. "A substance, all of whose attributes and modifications can be deduced from its own essential nature, and all whose attributes are therefore necessary and not contingent, can be described as cause of itself, (causa sui) and only such a substance can be so described. It is Spinoza's fundamental argument in part I of 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, Pujyapada, p. 136; Tattvartha Rajavartika, p. 502; Tattvartha Slokavartika, ch. V. 41, p. 446; TS., Bha, Ch. V, p. 435. 2. Spinoza, Stuart Hampshire, A Pelican Book, p. 32.

Page #376
Conclusion 341 the Ethics that there can be only one substance which is causa sui, and that this single substance must be identified with the universe conceived as a whole, this unique all-inclusive totality he therefore calls God or Nature (Deus sive Natura )."1 Spinoza has so strictly defined substance that "nothing whose attributes are the effects of outside causes can be called a substance; a substance by definition is such that all its attributes or modifications, can be explained in terms of its own nature and are therefore necessary and not contingent."2 some way According to Spinoza, "There can be only one substance so defined, and nothing can exist independently of or distinct from, this single substance; every thing which exists must be conceived as an attribute or modification of or as in inherent in, this single substance; this substance is therefore to be identified with Nature Conceived as a whole or as the totality of things. This substance must be infinite in its nature "...it possesses an infinite number of attributes each of which is itself infinite."3 The Jaina Concept of a single Dravya is a unique allinclusive totality like the single substance of Spinoza, identified with the universe conceived as a whole. That which has gunas (qualities) and paryayas (modifications) is a Dravya (Substance). Dravya is the inherent essence of all things, manifesting itself in and through infinite modifications, and it is endowed with qualities and it reveals permanence and change inherent in it to be real. And Dravya is endowed with its unchanging nature of existence.6 It possesses an infi 1. Spinoza, Stuart Hamsphire, A Pelican Book, p. 36. 2. Ibid., p. 38. 3. Ibid., pp. 38-39. 4. TS., ch. V. 37, p. 427. 5. PS., 8. 6. Pravacanasara, Pt. II, 3, p. 123.

Page #377
342 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy nite number of attributes each of which is itself infinite like that of the single substance of Spinoza. The Jainas made the metaphysical inquiry into the concept of Dravya from the noumenal and phenomenal points of view with the doctrine of manifoldness. Dravya has been conceived by them as the principle of Reality from the aspect of generality, while its particular characteristics are JIvadravya (sentient principle or living substance) and Ajivadravya (non-sentient principle or non-living substance) from the particular aspect. I But Jivadravya and Ajivadravya do not form any two-substance doctrine, representing the world of animated things and the world of non animated things as independent and self-contained systems. According to a similar concept of "a unique substance of Spinoza", thinking substance and extended substance are one and the same substance, comprehended now under this attribute, now under that." Jaina Philosophy has conceived six categories of Dravya (Substance) as determined by their respective natures, viz. Dharma (Principle of Motion), Adharma (Principle of Rest), Akasa (Space), Jiva (Soul), Pudgala (Matter) and Addhasamayas (Time). Matter is conceived by every system of Indian philosophy in its own perspective. The Jaina concept of Matter comes nearer to the concept of Matter of the physical sciences in some respects, as it is conceived as the substance in the sense of stuff of which the universe is constituted. It is one of the ultimate principles or substances of which phenomena are manifestations. An analysis of the nature of Jaina Pudgala (Matter) reveals that it is a permanent, non-living, extensive, physical, corporeal and concrete, active, disintegrating and integrating, and 1. Anuyogadvara Sutra, 123. 2. Spinoza, p. 64. 3. Bhs., 25. 4. 733-4.

Page #378
Conclusion 343 changeable substance. It is infinite in number, co-extensive with the cosmic universe, possessed of the capacity to be received by Soul and to be assistance to it. It is characterized by origination, decay and permanence without giving up its essential nature of existence. The main features of the nature of Jaina Pudgala (Matter) except grahanaguna (capacity to be received by Soul) are similar to those of the nature of Matter conceived in the physical sciences to a considerable extent. Jaina Pudgala represents the elements of Matter, Earth, Water, shadow, objects of four senses, karmic matter and atom form the whole material universe in the grossest to the finest forins. The most valuable point in this conception of the elements of Matter is that each of its effect, when studied, is ultimately found to have been constituted of one or more of these elementary particles. The Jaina conception of the elements of Matter appears to be unique in its originality, for it has accepted not only earth, water, fire and air, etc, as the basic elements of Matter, but it has given place to indriya (sense-organ), karmic matter and lesya (condition of soul) as material elements in its fold on the basis of psycho-physical aspects of the material substance. The value of the Jaina conception of the basic elements of Matter, such as, sulphur, iron, copper, tin, mercury, lead, silver, gold, etc. lies in the fact that the Jainacaryas conceived the idea of pure elements of Matter as distinguished from the base forms of it. On the emergence of the Jaina and other Indian concepts of atomicity of Matter from the first chemical and physical observation it came to light that ultimate particles were much smaller than the samples of matter. They are inapprehensible to the senses and their existence is inferable. It appears that Jaina Metaphysics commenced with the conception of the grossest form of Matter and entered into its subtle form by stages in dealing with the problem of the elements of Matter.

Page #379
344 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Four general properties of Matter colour, taste, smell and touch, its impenetrability, cohesion, adhesion, greasiness (spigdhatva=attractive force) and roughness (ruksatva=repulsive force), oscillation or vibration and motion are the common properties of Matter to both Jaina Metaphysics and physics. The Jaina conception of the effects of Matter as earth, water, fire, air, vegetation, body, speech, mind and respiration and its manifestations as sound, combination, fineness, grossness, shape, division, darkness, shadow, heat and light is old in Indian Philosophy. All these effects and manifestations of Matter except 'shadow' have been accepted in the physical sciences in some forms. The classification of Matter by the Jainas into one group to infinite groups from various points of view are valuable in an analysis of Matter in the light of the physical sciences. The Jaina theory of transformation of Matter as a result of internal and external causes, propounded on the basis of various aspects, such as quality, etc. is a valuable contribution to the Indian concepts of transformation of Matter. Besides the Jaina concept of its transformation brought about by the processes of integration, disintegration and integration-cumdisintegration is identical with the theory of chemical behaviour of atoms and molecules as explained in the physical sciences. The process of the combination of Matter as explained in Jaina metaphysics on the basis of certain principles of interactions between atoms which give rise to the existence and behaviour of matter in bulk bears some points of similarity with that of the physical sciences regarding inter-atomic forces and the combination of atoms. The greatest value of the Jaina conception of Matter lies in the fact the reality of Matter, with its noumenal and phenomenal aspect, has amply and brilliantly been expressed together with its potent factors-origination, decay and permanence from the points of view of substance, locus, time and condition

Page #380
Conclusion in the daring speculation, not sacrificing the logical aspect of knowledge in the thoughts of its metaphysical and physical existence and in the synthetic views of its qualities and modifications, elements, karma, atomism, properties, effects and manifestations, classifications, its atomic structure and properties, vibration and motion, its transformation and combination, as it exists in space and continues in time with its static and dynamic forces in the cosmic universe. 345

Page #381
BIBLIOGRAPHY Jaina Works Anuyogadvara Sutra, Agamodayasamiti, Bombay, 1924 Acaranga Sutra with Tika of silanka, Agamodayasamiti, Meha sana, 1916 Avasyaka Curni-Jinadasa Ganin, Ratlam Edition, 1928-9 Avasyakasutra, Haribhadra-Vstti, Agamodaysamiti, Mehasana, 1961-7. Bandhasattrinsika-(Avacuri).Vanarassi, Ganin, Sri Atma nanda-granthamala, 12 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, Agamodayasamiti, Mehasanay 1918-21 Bhasarahasya, Yosovijaya Ganin, Mansukhlehai, Ahmedabad Candapannatti, Agamodayasamiti, Mehasana, 1919 Drvaya-Guna-Paryayano-Rasa, Upadhyaya Yosovijayaji, Sri Jaina Vijaya press, 1908 Dravyasamgraha, Acarya Nemicandra, edited by Sarat Chan dra Ghoshal, M. A, B. L., published by Kumar Devendra Prasad, Arrah (India), 1917 Dravyasamgrahavstti, -doGanadharavada, Jinabhadra Gasin, Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad. Gommatasara--Acarya Nemicandra, edited by Rai Bahadur J. L. Jaini, M. A., Published by Pandit Ajit Prasad, M. A., LL B., Ajitasbram, Lucknow, (India), 1927. Hemasabdanusasana, Acarya Hemacandra, Siddhahema Praka. sana Samiti, Bombay, 1964 Jambudvipa Prajnapti, Devachand Lalbhai, Bombay, 1920

Page #382
Bibliography 347 Jivabhigama Sutra with TIka of Malayagiri, Devachand Lal bhai Series, Bombay, 1919 Karmagrantha (1-VI)-Devendra Surl, SrI Atmananda Jaina Pustak-Pracarakamandala, Roshan Muhalla, Agra, Vira Sam., 2468 Laghlyastrayam Akalanka, published by Manikcand-Digam bara Jainagranthamala Samiti, Vira Sam., 2442 Lokaprakasa-Vinayavijayaji, published by Jivanchand Saker chand Zaveri, 1929-1934 Nandisutra, Agamodayasamiti, Bombay, 1924 Nayadhammakahao Nyayavataravartika, Santisuri, ed. by Dalsukh Malvania Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, Central Jain publishing House, Lucknow, 1931. Pancasaka, Haribhadra Suri, Jaina Dharma Prasarak Sabha, Bhavanagar, 1912 Pancastikayasara, Acarya Kundakunda, edited by Prof. A. Chakravartinayanar, M. A. L. T. Published by Kumar Devendraprasad, Arrah, 1920 Pannavana Sutta with TIka of Malayagiri, published by Aga modaya-samiti, Mehasana, 1918-19 Paramanukhandasattrimsika (Vstti) by Ratnasimha Suri Pramanamimamsa, Acarya Hemacandra, Bharatiya Vidya. Bhavan, Bombay, 1939 Pramananayatattvalokalankara, Vadi Devasuri, Motilal Ladhaji, Poona 1930 Pravacanasara, Acarya Kundakunda, published by Shree Paramashruta Prabhavak Mandal, Javeri Bazar, Kharakuva, Bombay, No. 2, VS. 1969. Samavayanga Sutra, Agamodayasamiti, Mehasana, 1919 Sanmatitarka, Siddhasena Divakara, edited by Adhyapak Sukhlal Sanghavi and Adhyapak Bechardas Doshi, published

Page #383
The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy by Sri Punjabhai Jaina Granthamala, Karyalaya, Ahmedabad, 1932 348 Sarvarthasiddhi, Acarya Pujyapada, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Kashi, 1944 Satkhandagama, ed. by Dr. H. I. Jain, Jaina Sahitya Uddharaka Fund Karyalaya, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Varanasi, 1958. Sthananga Sutra, Agamodayasamiti, Mehasana, 1918-20 Srutasagarivrtti on Tattvartha Sutra, edited by Mahendra Kumara Jain, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Varanasi, 1949. Suriyapannatti, Agamodayasamiti, Mehasana, 1919. Sutrakrtanga with Tika, of Silanka, Agamodayasamiti, Meha sana, 1917. Suvarna-Raupya-Siddhisastra, Jinadattasuri Syadvadmanjari, Mallisena, published by Motilal Ladhaji, Poona, Vira Sam., 2452. Tattvartha Sutra, ed. by Pandit Sukhlalji, published by Sri Mohanlal Dipacband Coksi, Bombay, 3, VS. 1996. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra-Umasvati, published by Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri, 1929. Tattvartha Rajavartika, Akalanka, published by Bharatiya Jnanapith, Kasi, 1944. Tattvartha Slokavartika, Vidyananda, Series No. 5, 1918. Tiloyapannatti, Yati Vrsabha Uttaradhyayana Sutra, published by Ghetabhai Doshi, Ahmedabad, 1925. Agamodayasamiti, Uttaradhyayana Tika (Kamala Samyama), Laksmi Chandra Jaina Library, Belanguhj, Agra, 1923. Uttaradhyayana Tika (santi Acarya), Devachand Lalbhai, Bombay, 1916. Vardhamanapurana, Acarya Sakalakirti

Page #384
Bibliography 349 Visesavasyakabhasya, Jinabhadra Ganin Ksamasramana, published by Rishabhadas Kesharimal, Ratlam, 1936. Brahmanical Works Astadhyays of Panini-tra, by Major S. C. Bose, published by Panini Office, Allahabad, 1891. Bihadaranyakopanisad, vide isadyastottara satopanisadah, edited by Vasudev Sharma, published by Pandurang Javaji Sresthi, Bombay, 1925. Brahmasutra, Vadarayana, published by Vedamandir, No. 141/ 31 Varanas! Ghosh Street, Calcutta. Bhasapariccheda, Visvanatha, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1911 Bhaskarabhasya on Brahmasutra, Chowkhamba Sanskrit, Series, Banaras, 1915. Carakasamhita, Caraka, Nirnaya Sagara Press, Bombay, 1941 (3rd Edition). Chandogya Upanisad, vide isadyastottarasatopanisadah, edited by Vasudev Sharma, published by Pandurang Javaji: sresthf, Bombay, 1925. Kiranavali, Udayana, Benaras, 1940, Kiranavalr Bhashara of Padmanabha Misra Laksanavali, Udayana Mahabhasya, Patanjali, edited by Pt. Bhargavasastri Joshi, Sastracarya, published by Satyabhamabai Pandurang, Bombay, 1942. Manameyodaya, Narayana Bhatta, Theosophical Publication House, Adyar, Madras, 1933. Matharakarika, Matharacarya, Chowkhamba. Sanskrit Series No. 296, 1922. Matharavrtti -doMimarsa sutra -do

Page #385
350 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Nyayadarsana, tra. by Phanibhusana Tarkavagisa (Bengali,) Vol. 1 Bangiya Sahitya Parisad, Calcutta, 1946 Nyayakandali Srydhara, Ganganatha Jha Granthamala Varanasi, Sanskrit Visvavidyalaya 1961. Nyayakusumanjali, Udayana, edited by Laxman Shastri Dravid, Professor, Government Sanskrit College, published by H. D. Gupta and Sons, 1912. Nyayakusumanjalibodhini, Varadaraja Nyayalilavati, Vallabha, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series No. 64, Benaras, VS. 1991. Nyayamanjari-Jayanta Bhatta, parts I, and II, Kashi-Sanskrit Series No. 58, 1939. Nyaya Bhasya-Vatsyayana, Poona Oriental Series, No. 58, 1939. Nyaya Sutra, Gautama, Poona Oriental Series No. 58, 1939. Nyayavartika, Uddyotakara, edited by Viadhesvari Prasad Dvivedi, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 1916. Padarthatattvanirupanam, Reghunatha Siromani Medical Hall Press, Benaras; 1915. Pancadasl, Vidyaranya Panipi Sutra Prabhakara Mimamsa, ed. by Dr. Ganga Natha Jha. Prakaranapancika, Salikanatha Misra ed. CSS, published by Benaras Hindu University, 1961, 4th edition Prasnopanisad, vide Isadyastottarasatopanisad, edited by Vasudev Sharma, published by Pandurang Javajisresthr, Bombay, 1925. Prasastapadabhasya, Kashi Sanskrit Series No. 3, 1923 Purnaprajnadarsana, Madhva, Jivananda Vidyasagar, Calcutta, 1883. Sabarabhasya, Anandasrama Sanskrit Granthavali, No. 97, Poona, 1930.

Page #386
Bibliography 351 Saptapadartbin, Sivaditya, Metropolitan Publication, Calcutta 1934. Samkhyakarika-Isvarakrsna, edited by Dr. Har Dutta Sharma, The Oriental Book Agency, Poona, 1933. Samkhyapravacanbhasya, Vijnanabhiksu, edited by Dr. R. S. Bhattacharya, published by Bharatiya Vidya Prakasana, Varanast, VS. 2022. Samkhyatattvakaumudi, Vacaspati Misra, Poona Oriental Series No. I, 1934. Sastradipika, Parthasarathi Misra Siddhanta Muktavalt; Visvanatha, ed. N. S. P. (Nirnaya Sagar Press), Bombay, 1915. Slokavartika-Kumarila, edited by S. K. Ramnath Sastri, publi shed by Madras University, Madras Sanskrit Series No. 13, 1940. Sribhasya, Ramanuja, Madras, Sanskrit Book Depot, Madras, 1937. Svetasvatara Upanisad, vide Isadyastottarasatopanisadah, edited by Vasudev Sharma, published by Pandurang Javaji sresthi, Bombay, 1925. Tantravartika, Kumarila, Apandasrama, Poona, 1929. Tarkasamgraha, Ancam Bhatta, edited by K. C. Mebendale and D. J. Dalvi, 1908. Taittiriyopanisad, vide isadyastottarasatopanisadah, Darbhanga, 1962. Tattvacinta mani, Upadhyaya Ganesa, Mithila Vidyapitha, Darbhanga, Bihar 1962. Tattvavaisaradi, Vacaspati Misra Tattvopaplavasitha, Jayarase, ed. by Dandit Sukhalalii, Qubl shed by Gaekwad Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1940. Tattvasamasasutra with Tika of Bhavaganesa, vide Samkhya darsana, ed. by R. S. Bhattacharya, Pracya Bharati Praka. sana, Varanasi, 1964.

Page #387
352 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Tatparyatika, Vacaspati Misra, Kashi Sanskrit Series No. 24, Chowkhamba, Benaras, 1982 (1942). Vaisesika Sutra, Kanada, Kashi Sanskrit Series No. 3, publi shed by Chowkhamba, 1923. Vyasabhasya on Yogasutra, vide Patanjaladarsana, edited by Pt. Jivananda Vidyasagar, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1895. Vyomavati, Vyomacarya, Benaras, Skt. Series, Chowkhamba, 1930. Yogasutra, Patanjali, vide Patanjaladarsana, edited by Pt. Jivananda Vidyasagar, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1895. Yogavartika, Vijnanabhiksu Buddhist Works Abhidharmadipa ed. by Dr. Padmanabha Jaini, published by K. P. Jayaswal Institute, Patna, 1950. Abhidharmakosa (Sanskrit) Vasubandhu, edited by N. N. Law, published by J. C. Sarkhel, Calcutta Oriental PressLtd., 1949. (Hindi translation) by Acarya Narendra Dev, published by Hindustani Academy, Allahabad, 1959. Abidharmamotasastra, Ghosaka, ed. by santibhiksu, published by Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan. Anguttara Nikaya, Nalanda, Institute, Palipakasanamandal, Government of Bihar, 1960. Atthasalini, edited by Dr. P. V. Bapat, and R. D. Vadekar, Poona, 1942. Bodhicaryavatara, santideva, ed. by Dr. P. L. Vaidya, Published by Mithila Sanskrit Institute, Darbhanga, 1959. Buddhacarya, Rahula Sankstyayana (Bharatiya Samskrti Granthamala), Sevasadan, Varanass, 1932).

Page #388
Dhammasangani, Nalanda Government of Bihar, 1960. Bibliography Institute, Palipakasanamandal, Majjhimanikaya, Nalanda Institute, Palipakasanamandal, Government of Bihar, 1958. Milindapanho, edited by R. D. Vadekar, Bombay University, 1940. Samyuktanikaya, Nalanda Institute, Government of Bihar. Palipakasanamandal, Tattvasamgraha Santaraksita, Gaekwad's Oriental Series Nos. XXX, XXXI (Vols. I, II), 1926. Vijnapatimatratasiddhi, Vasubandhu 353 Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosh, edited by Dharmananda Kosambi, published by Bharatiya Vidyabhavan, Bombay, 1940. General Works Analysis of Matter, Bertrand Russel, Published by George Allen and Unwin Ltd. (2nd edition), London, 1959. Atoms and the Universe, G. O. Jones, J. Rotblat and Whitrow. Atomic Physics, Harnwell and Stephens. Atmamimamsa, Dalsukh Malvania, published by Jaina Samskrti Samsodhan Mandal, Benaras, 1953. Basic Conception of Buddhism, Vidhusekhara Bhattacarya, Calcutta University, 1934. Bauddha-Dharma-Darsana, Acarya Narendra Dev, Bihar Rastrabhasaparisad, Patna, 1956. Bharatiyatattvavidya, Ahmedabad, 1960. Brahmasutra tr. by Dr. S. S. Radhakrishnan, Ruskin House, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 1959. Pandit Sukhlalji, Jnanodaya Trust,

Page #389
354 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Vol. II, Delhi, 1970. Compendium of Philosophy, S. Z. Aung. Central Conception of Buddhism, Prof. Stcherbatsky, Published by Sushila Gupta, Calcutta, 1951. Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, Dr. U. C. Misra, published by Mrs. Misra, Allahabad, 1936. Cosmology--Old and New, Prof. G. R. Jain, The Trustees of of the J. L. Jaini's Estate, Indore, 1942. Darsana Aur Chintana, Pandit Sukhlalji, Published by Pandit Sukhlalji Sanman-Samiti, Ahmedabad, 1957. Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. II, Arthur-Bunyan ed, by James Hastings, Edinburgh. General Chemistry, Pauling. Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. XVIII. History of Indian Philosophy, Vols. 1-IV, Dr. S. N, Das Gupta, published by the Syndics of the Cambridge Univer sity Press, 1952. History of Greek Philosophy, Guthri, Cambridge. Human Anatomy, Henry Grey. Jaina Padarthavijnana men Pudgala, Mohanlal Banthia, Published by Jaina Svetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1960. Journal of American Oriental Society, Vol. 67. Keith's Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon, Oxford, 1923. Manual of Buddhist Philosophy, W. M. McGovern, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., 1923. Mysteries of Space, UNESCO's pamphlet. Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, Dr. Sadananda Bhaduri.

Page #390
Bibliography 355 Organic Chemistry, L. Finar. Pali-English Dictionary, Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids and Prof. William Stede. Physics-Principles and Application, Margenau, Watson, and Montgomery. Physiology, Dr. V. N. Bhave, Anath Vidyarthigsha Prakasan, Poona-2. Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Dr. B. N. Seal, published by Sundarlal Jain, Jawahar Nagar Delhi-6. 1958, (Reprint) Principles of Psychology, William James, Dover publication New York, (U. S. A.), 1950. Reality, S. A. Jain. Sambodhi, Vol. 4, Nos. 3-4, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. Spinoza, Stuart Hampshire. Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Dr. N. Tatia, Jaina Cultural Research Society, Benaras, 1951. Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, Dr. Sadananda Bhadurr, Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1957. Vajbhasikadarsana, Anantakumar Bhattacarya, (Bengali ), Nyaya-Tarkatirtha, Published by Sri Prahlad Kumar Pramanik, 19 Shyamacarana Dey street, Calcutta--12.

Page #391

Page #392
Index 0 Abbaga, 129 abbasatmaka, 205 abhavya jivas, 241 Abhidhammattha samgaba, 146 Abhidharmamrtasastra, '56 Abbidharma, 98 Abhidharma Hsdaya, 146 Abbidharmakosa, 58, 59, 92 abhighata, 117, 302, 303 abhimana, 72 abbinivesa, 87 abhyantara, 76 abhyantaranirvstti, 76 abhyudaya, 168 acakyusa skandha, 294 Acarama, 268 Acarya, 59 Acarya Hemacandra, 72, 74, 75 Acarya Kundakunda, 16, 41 Acarya Nagasena, 92 Acarya Pujyapada, 17, 19, 23, 34, 74, 125, 193, 197, 199, 200, 215, 321 Acarya Ramanuja, 108 Acarya Sankara 97, 108, 113, 116, 118-22, 124 acchedya, 130 acchinna pudgala skandha, 280 acetana, 117 acetana jagat, 114 Acetana Praksti 218 Acetapatattva, 12-15, 26-28 Acetanatateva of Ajsvadravya, 16 achinga, 234 Acit, 14 Acit of the Ramanuja Veda ota, 25 adabya, 130 addattadana, 104 Addhasamaya, 12, 24, 220, 276, 342 Adharma 16, 17, 22, 85, 171, 174, 342 Adharmastikaya, 12, 23, 24, 220, 270, 274, 275 Adharmastikayapradesa, 220 adhisthanas, 73 adhisthita, 117 adhruvavargana, 248 adi, 40, 321 adimat, 289 Adrsta, 85, 86, 116, 117, 286, 333 adya karma, 117 Agama, 41 aghata 90 Aghatasarlra, 47, 161, 162 agrahana vargana, 241 agrahya, 130, 234 agrahya vargapa, 241 Agurulaghu, 24 agurulaghuguna, 23, 24

Page #393
358 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy agurulaghu parinama 258, akusala, 97 295, 297 akusala citta, 58 agurulaghutva, 24 alambana, 62 abankara, 198 alapana, 212 ahara, 57 alayavijnana, 99 abarakasarira, 189, 243, 244 alepana, 213 ahimsa, 103 aloka, 59, 62, 138, 258 ajaghanya anutkrstaguna alpaparamanu, 241 kalaka paramanu, 222 amlarasa parinama, 295 Ajiva, 17 amsa, 321 Ajlvadravya, 11, 12, 16, 23, 28 anadi, 40 342 Anadi Avidya, 94 ajivadravyaparyaya, 217 anadi parinamas, 40 Ajivaparyaya, 220 anaksaratmaka, 205 Ajivatattva, 24, 26 anania pajjava, 8 Ajivika, 105 anantabhaga, 129 Akalanka, 37, 126, 151, 193, anantaka, 326 197-99, 226 anantnaptanuvargana, 241 akara, 37 Apantanu, 255, 256 Akasa, 12, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, anantanuvargana, 241 26, 27, 49, 50, 171-73, 204, anantanantapradesika skandha, 209, 211, 260, 270, 310, 290, 291 342. anantaparamanuvada, 32, 135 akasadhatu, 55 antaraya karma, 212 akasaparamapu, 300 ananta vargana, 242 Akasastikaya, 12, 23, 24, 220, knaprana pudgala parivarttas, 275 327, 328 Akasastikayadefa, 220 agapranapudgala parivarttanirakasastikayapradesa, 220 vattana kala, 328 akasa tapmatra, 50 anaprana pudgala prayoga sarakasatva, 111 vadravyas, 328 akhanda, 31 anavastha, 116 aksti, 37 anekapradesi, 228 aksaratmaka, 205 angoparga, 76 aksepaksta 104 angula, 77 aksigolakaksspasara, 73 apiccata, 55 s 256 -

Page #394
Index 359 anipphana rupa, 55, 56 anirdist asamsthana, 11 Aniruddha, 331 anispapna rupas, 57 anityata, 57, 58 aniyamita, 277 antahkarana, 88 antarapradesikas, 77 antarayakarma, 99 antya, 214 antyavisasa 140, 263 apu. 234 anubhaga, 99 anucatana, 215 anudbbuta, 299 anudbhuta rupa, 175 anugata, 102 anujati, 252 anukarapata, 118 anumatratva, 118 anu-paramanuvadin, 32 apusreni, i78 anusreni-avagahana, 209 Anusrenigati, 179, 182 agutva, 113-15, 226-27 ap, 18, 26 apakajaruparasagandbassarsa 301 apana, 200 aparajati, 334 aparendriya, 265 aparispandana, 172, 174 aparispandatmaka, 38, 171, 176 177 aparyaptika, 206 apavartana, 100 Ap-dbatu, 65 apeksita, 214 ap-kaya, 48, 184 apodhatu, 57 Apradesa, 269 apraghatin gati, 178 Aprapyakari, 151 apratigha, 92 Apratighatatva, 283 apratighatin, 284 apratisthita, 187 ap taomatra, 50 apurva, 88, 94-97 Arambhaka paramanu, 260 Arambhavada, 31, 126, 131, 310 Aristotle, 44, 340 Arthaparyaya, 38, 174 arupa, 93 arupf, 92 Arupljivadravyas, 12 arupfajivaparyaya, 220 arupin, 36 arupitva, 37 asaskhyaranuvargana, 241 asaskhyatapradesika, 233 asamkhyata pradesika skandba, 290 asamkhyatasamyoga, 326 asamkhyeyapradesavagadha, 77 Asanga, 58 asmita, 87 asparsagati, 296 asprstagati, 179 abritasraya, 123

Page #395
360 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy avayavin rupa, 109 avibhajya, 130 asritasrayabhava, 123 asr'tasrayadravyabhava, 123 astadravyaka, 266, 336 astikayadravya, 170 astitva, 10, 24, 35 asubha, 97, 235 asuklakrsna, 98 atapa, 62, 202, 216, 217 atimuktaka, 77 atIndriya, 7, 175, 299 atIndriya vyapara, 175 Atma, 7, 12, 14, 18, 22 audarikagrahanayogyavargana 248 audarika pudgala parivartta 326-28 audarika-pudgalaparivartta nirvattana kala, 328 audarikasarfra, 189, 327 audarika sarira prayogadra vyas, 327 audarika vargana, 242, 247 audayika, 99 aup samika, 99 avagahana, 22 avagahana. 218 avalika, 280, 281 avasarpini kala, 328 avastambha, 330, 331 avastu, 118 avyakta sarfra, 86 avayava, 107, 116, 239 avayavas of paramanu, 108 avayava sannivesa, 334 avayavavada, 108 avayavin, 107, 116, 144, 231, 239 avidya, 87, 121 avigraha, 178 avijnapti, 54, 58, 92, 93, 97 avinirbhagin, 129 avisesa, 234 avyakrta citta, 58 avyakta, 174 avyakta sarfra, 86 avyapta, 166 ayatana, 62 ayus karma, 99 ayutasiddhavayavah, 329 Badara, 232, 236, 239 badara badara, 48, 239 badara nigoda, 187-88 badaranigodavargana, 248 badaraparinama, 293, 295.96 badaraparinata anantaprade sika skandha, 233 badara pudgalaskandba, 48 badarasuksma, 239 badarasuksma pudgalaskandha, 48 bahalla, 77 bahya, 76 bandha, 104, 202, 212 bandhana, 100 bandhanaparinama, 317 bandhaparinama pratighata 283 Barhaspatya, 27 Bauddha, 107 Bauddhacarya, 29 Bhagavati Uyakhya prajnapti, 20, 71. 178, 193, 215, 324

Page #396
Index 361 . Bhasa dravya, 206.207 bhasatmaka, 205 bhasa vargana, 248 Bhaskara, 124 Vatsyayana 115 bhasvara, 158 Bhasya and Vitti, of Tattvarthadhi gama, 320-21 Bhasyavstti, 321, 322 Bhatta school, 2 bhautika, 50, 73 bhautika dravya, 21 bhautika sarga, 90 Bhautikatva, 166 bhava, 30, 38, 40, 88, 91, 171, 223, 254, 268, 269 bhavabhasa, 206 bhavaguna, 139, 272-73 Bhavakarma, 80-86, 93, 95 97 Bhavalesya, 101, 102, 104 bhavamana, 196 97 bhavaparamanu, 254 Bhavavak, 193 bhavendriya, 73, 75-77 bheda, 202, 214, 294 bhedadanu, 256, 291 bhedana, 48, 239 bhedaparinama, 295, 297. bheda samgbata, 294 bhedatva, 169-70 bhedya, 130 bhinna, 234 bhuta 22, 25, 26, 27, 65, 66, 157-57, 260, 311, 332 bhutabheda, 329 bhutabhautikatattva, 32 Bbutacaitanyavada, 14, 15 Bhutadi, 259, 299 Bhutadi-tamasabankara, 50 bhutasakti, 311 Bhuta sarga, 92 Bbutavada, 15, 25 bhuvikara, 156, 329 Brahman, 7, 13, 24, 113, 121 Brahmavadina, 28 Brahmavadin Vedantin, 108 Buddha, 168 Buddhaghosa, 54, 56, 72 buddhindriyas, 73 Buddhism, 89 Buddbist, 7, 28, 54, 71-73, 93 128, 131, 146 48 161-66, 184, 194, 197, 198, 202, 219, 232 Buddhist Abhidharma, 74 Buddhist citta', 7 Cakkhu, 55 Caksu, 57 Caksurindriya 54, 78 Caksurindriyavisaya pudgala parinama, 297 Caksusa, 293 calajaghanya, 179 Calaga gamana, 179 Carama, 268 Carvakas, 12, 14, 27, 107 Caturanuka, 113, 334 Catuskasamyoga, 325 Catursparsin, 233 Catuspradesika skandha, 290 91 Cavendish, 237 Cetara, 115, 117

Page #397
362 The Concept of Matter in Jaina Philosophy 2 Cetapa, 10 dhumra, 59 Cetanasakti, 76 Digambara, 18, 255, 319, 321, Cetanasakti-purusa, 174 322 Cetanatattva, 12, 13, 14 digbhagabheda, 111 Chaya, 12, 59, 202, 215 digbheda, 124 Chedana, 48, 239 Dik, 12, 22 Chinna, 234 dik or disa, 18 Cit, 14 Dinnaga 146 Citta, 13, 88, 265 dirgbagatiparinama, 296 Cittaviprayukta sanskaras, 58 dosa, 87, 117 Curna, 214 dravatva, 158 Curnika, 214 Dravya, 7, 8, 10, 16, 18.23, 26, Darsanakala, 28 27, 30, 36, 131 269 darsanavaranfya, 99 Dravyakarma, 80, 81, 82, 86, dasadravyaka, 265, 336 91, 95, 96 dasasparsin, 233 dravyalcsya, 101, 104 desa, 239 dravyamana, 196 desaija, 280 Dravyani, 17, 18 desantarapra pinigati, 179 Dravyani Jivasca, 17 Dharma, 7, 16, 17, 22, 55, 57, Dravyaparamanu, 129, 218, 64-66, 85, 97, 162, 167, 174, 254 56. 265 342 Dravya paryaya, 7, 217 dharma and adharma, 87, 97 Dravya-Sat, 23 Dharmadharmakasa pudgalah dravyasatya, 206 dravyapi, 18 dravyasrita, 7, 8 dharmadbatu, 58 dravyatya, 24, 40 Dharmastikaya, 12, 23, 24, dravyavak, 193 220, 270, 274, 275, 282, 283 dravyendriya, 73, 75, 76 Dharmastikayadesa, 220 dsstanimitta, 117 Dharmastikayapradesa, 220 duhsparsaparinama, 297 Dharmayatana, 54 durabhigandhaparinama, 295, dhatu, 26, 27, 64, 66 297 dhatvantasarjna, 64 durabhigandhaparinata, 249, dhauvya, 174 dhruvasunya-vargana, 248 durasaparinama, 287 dhruvavargana, 248 durupaparinama, 297 297

Page #398
dvanuka (dyad), 6 dvesa, 85, 87-89, 92, 97, 98 dvipradesika, 41, 334 dvipradesikaskandhas, 290, 291 dvisparsin pudgala, 233 Dvy idhikadigunanam, 319 eguttariya, 327 ekadesin, 118 ekanta, 127 dvyanuka, 41, 48, 49, 113-14, 124, 334 dyad dvyanuka, 41, 48, 49, 53, 113, 114, 325, 331, 333 Ghosaka, Bhadanta, 58 ghrana, 54, 57, 73 ekasamayavigrahagati, 179 gandha, 32, 37, 54, 55, 57, 130 gandhaparinama, 295 Gati, 171 gatikriya, 179 gatiparinama, 289, 295, 296 ghana, 205 Ghatasarfra, 47, 161, 186 ghattai, 179 Ghosaka, 58 ghranendriya, 54 Gommat isara, 104 Gosika, 56 Gosala Mankhaliputra, 105 gotra karma, 99 grahanam, 206 grahanaguna, 44, 46 Index 221, grabya, 234 grahya vargana, 242 Guna, 7, 8, 10, 30, 36, 106, 133, 138, 218-19, 330, 332 gunamsa, 223 gunaparinama, 218 gunaparyayatmaka, 10 Gunaparyayavad, dravyam, 8 Guna rajas, 106 gunasthana, 104 Gunatamas, 106 Gunavaisamyavimardda, 331 guru laghu, 155 gurutva, 157, 167 Hadaya-vatthu, 55 Haribhadrasuri, 10, 126 hrasvagatiparinama, 297 hrasvatva, 113, 114 hrdayavastu, 57 Indriyas, 72, 73, 75 indriya-ekatva, 75 indriyagrahya, 7 363 indriyavinirbhagi, 267 indriyavisayapudgala parinama 297 ista, 111 Isvarakrsna, 331 itaretarasraya, 123 ittham, 214 itthindriya, 55 Jadadravya of the Nyaya-Vaisesika, 25 Jadatattva, 12, 24 Jagat, 13 Jaghanyagunakalaka dviprade. sikaskandha, 222 Jaghanya gunakalaka paramanu 222

Page #399
364 The Concept of Matter in Jajna Philosophy Jaipa, 23, 28, 88, 266 jara, 57, 58 Jaina Agamas, 16, 20, 27, 104, jarata, 55 276, 324 . jati, 223, 252 Jainacarya, 28, 29, 46, 70, 72 jatimat, 203 Jaina conception of Akasa, 22 jatukasthavat, 123 Jaina concept of matter, 32 Jayanta Bhatta, 74, 175, Jaina concepts of Rupa, 32 jibva, 55, 57 Jaina metaphysics, 7, 17, 18, Jinakalpa, 104 47, 59, 92, 125, 129, 131, jitendriya, 56 133-34, 141, 150, 151, 155, JIva, 12, 16, 17, 22, 171, 174, 159-61, 166, 174, 181-84, 270, 278, 342 200, 205, 211, 215, 217-18 Jlvadravya, 11, 16, 218, 342 231-32, 254, 259, 264, 315, JIvadravyaparyaya, 217 343 44 Jivagrahya, 41 Jaina Paramanu, 225 Jivajivavisayabandha, 212 Jaipa parinama of matter, 310 Jivaparyaya 220 Jaina Paryaya, 218 Jivasca, 17 Jaina Paryayavada, 219 Jivastikaya, 24, 275 Jaina philosophy, 20, 45, 63, Jivatattva, 24 85, 218, 239, 340, 342 jsvitendriya, 55, 57 Jaina Pudgala, 44, 342 jnana, 197 Jaina school, 32 jnanavaraniya, 99, 101 Jaina sutras, 3 12 jnana varaniya.karma, 212 Jaina system, 107 joeyatva, 10 Jaina systems of thought 31-33 Kabilikaro abaro, 55, 56 Jaina texts, 72 Kadamba-flower, 77 Jaina tradition, 29 Kala, 12, 16-18,22-24, 30, 40, Jaina tripradesikaskandha, 334 254, 279 Jaipa visrasa parinama, 310 Kalapa, 232, 336 Jaladhatu, 64, 65 Kalaparamanu, 254 Jalam, 21 Kalavarnaparinama, 295 jaltyasparsa, 167 Kalpana, 123 Jambu tree, 102 Kamadhatu, 266 janapadasatya, 206 Kamana, 96 janya, 291 Kampanakriyakala, 179 Janya padartha, 127, 259 Kanada, 116, 143

Page #400
Index 365 75 Kapha, 26 Karnasaskuli, 73 Kapota, 102 Karya, 93, 117, 126-27 Kapota lesya. 106 Karyadravyas, 50, 123, 229 Karana, 100, 101, 227 Karyakarana, 32, 88 Karanabhutagunas, 10 Karyakarana bhava, 123 Karanabhutasakti, 9, 10 Karyalinga, 131, 228 Karanadravya, 123, 229 Karya paramanu, 226 Karanagunapurvakah karya- Karyatva, 19, 226 guno dcstah, 301 Kasaya, 84 Karananu, 255-56 Kasayarasa parinama 295 Karana paramanu, 226 Kashmirian Vaibhasikas, 110 Karkasasparsaparinama, 295 Katukarasaparinama, 295 Karkasata, 167 Kaya, 26, 27, 43, 55-57, 185 Karma, 7, 42, 43, 48, 88, 92, kayavijnapti, 57, 60, 61 93, 96, 103, 104, 212 kayavijnaptidharma, 60 Karmabhava pradhanavutpatti kayavijnaptirupa samsthanas, 61 Karmajaata, 51 kayavinnatti, 55 Karmana, 7 Kayayatana, 266 Karmana-pudgala parivarttas kayendriya, 78, 265.67 327 kayika, 60 Karmana sar[ra 86, 88, 89, 90, Kevalijnanin, 240 91, 186, 189, 190-91 kevalisamudghata, 268-69 Karmanispatti, 91 khanda, 214 Karmanisyanda, 101 khurupa, 77 Karmaphala, 91 khuvvai, 179 Karma-prakstipradesr-bandha, klesa, 87, 88 104 klistavitti, 88 K rmapudgala, 42, 79, 100 Kriya, 38, 60, 61, 116, 172, Karmaraja, 218 178 Karmasamjna, 80 Kriyayuktatantu, 116 Karmasthiti-anubhaga, 104 Ktsnalesya, 105, 106 Karmavargana, 248 Ketya, 98 Karmavargana.nispaona, 101 Kespa, 98, 102 Karmendriyas, 73, 74 Ksana samaya, 254 Karna, 73 Ksaaikaparamanuvada, 126

Page #401
366 The Concept of Matter in Jain. Philosophy Ksanikavada, 108 Madhurarasa parinama, 295 Ksayika, 100 Madhva, 68, 113, 125, 103 Ksayopasama, 78 Madhyama parimani, 51 Ksayopasamika, 100 madyabijanam pratyekam... ksetra, 30, 40, 41, 268-69 310 Ksetraparamanu, 254 Mahabbarata, 105 Ksiti, 26 Mahabhuta, 57, 64-68, 79, Kumarila Bhatta, 52, 95, 96, 108 116, 146.47, 267, 310 Kundabadaranyaya, 123 Mahaddirghavadva hrasvaKundakunda, 16 parimandalabhyan, us Kusala, 97 Mahat, 198, 234, 259, 263 Kusala citta, 58 Mahavibbasa 145, 146 Kutasthanitya, 31, 133, 262 Mahavira, 20 Kutasthanityatattvas, 24 Manah parinama, 192 Kutilagati, 178 mapah pudgala parivarttas, Labdhirupa, 77 327 Labdhirupabhavendriya. 781. Manah pudgala-parivartta- ,. Laghuta, 57, 167 nirvarttaoakala, 328 Lakkhana, 163 Manas, 18, 188 Laksanarupa, 55, 57 Manasasakti, 75 Lesya, 69, 101. 102, 105, 106 Mandata, 84 black-blue, --grey, Manodravya, 245 lotus-red, 102 Manovargana, 192, 195, 200 -white, 103 Manu, 122 Lesyadravya, 101, 102, 104 Matharavstti, 72 Lesya parinama, 218 Matijnanavarana, 78 Limba, 76 Maya, 25, 67, 94, 97, 310 Linga, 226 Mayasakti, 13 Linga sarira, 88, 89, 91, 92 Milinda King, 93 Lobha, 92 Militadravya sashatabhutarLoka, 30, 41, 138, 258, 275, tha, 329 281 Mimamsa, 13, 51 Lokanta prapinigati, 179 Mimamsakas, 25, 52. 94-97, Loka-paramanu, 258 107, 108, 125, 161, 176, Lokapramana; 41 195, 203, 210, 309 Lokayata, 27 misrabandba, 213

Page #402
Misraparinata pudgala, 235, 236 Moha, 85, 88, 92, 97 MohanIyakarma, 99 mrdu-kathina, 195 Mrduta, 57, 167 mrsabhasa, 206 Muladravya, 7 Mulaprakrtis, 99 murta. 22, 34-36 Murtagunas, 43 Murtatva, 40 Murti, 35 Nabhavargana, 248 Niyayikas, 86, 143, 144, 145, 147, 176 Nama, 13 Nama karma, 99, 196 Namasatya, 206 Naimittika kriyas, 80 Naiyayikas, 85, 794, 304-6, 309-10, 335 Navadravyaka, 336 Nayavada, 191 Neo Naiyavikas, 264 Neo sthaviravadin, 146 Nimbarka, 115 nigoda sarfra, 187 nihsarana, 206 nihsaranadravya bhasa, 207 nihsreyasa, 168 nikacana, 101 Index nfla, 102 nila lesya, 106 Nimba, 105 Nimbarka, 124 nimitta, 117, 118 nimittakarana, 330 nimittanaimittikarupa, 82 nipphana, 55 nipphanna rupa, 56 niravaya paramanu, 123 nireja, 280 nirmanamanakarma, 76 nirukti, 72 nirvisesakala, 269 nirvrtti, 76, 77 Niscayanaya, 224, 230 niskriya kala, 179 nispatti, 81 Nityavasthitanyarupani, 17 367 nivrttisvabhava, 119 nodana, 302, 303 Nyaya, 73, 85. 107, 125, 195 Nyaya Philosophy, 151, 301 Nyayasutra, 143 Nyaya Vaisesika, 12, 13, 1923, 28, 31, 32, 43, 44, 50, 52, 75, 87, 107, 108, 12635, 140, 148, 150, 157, 159, 160, 164, 166, 174. 176, 180-81, 195-96, 202-4, 210.11, 225, 231, 234, 239, 259-60, 262, 264, 266, 284, 331 Nyaya Vaisesika Metaphysics 157 Padarthantara pratipadana, 179 padma, 102 padmalesya, 106 paka, 66, 302

Page #403
368 The Concept of Matter o Jain Philosophy pakadana, 98 Pakaja, 143. 302 pakaphala, 98 pakastbana, 98 panca bbautika, 331 Pascabhutas, 16, 25, 26 panca bhutatmaka, 331 pascadhatus, 16, 25 pancaskandhas, 16, 25, 26, 63 pancikarana, 129, 310 Panini, 71, 72 papa, 97, 98 parabhaga, 111 paraghata, 208 paragbatabhasa, 206 paragbata bhasa dravya, 208 paramakarapa, 124 paramanerapiyata, 179 paramanu, 7, 28, 39, 40, 43,47 109-10, 116, 119, 122, 127131, 133 138-39, 161, 220, 222. 225, 229, 232, 238-39, 254-59, 263, 265, 269, 271-73, 278-79, 283 84, 286, 288, 326 paramanudravya, 226 paramanukaranavada, 120, 124 paramanu-parinama, 268 paramanu pudgala, 138, 140, 255 paraparyaya, 219 parasritajsvavada, 14 pariccheda-rupa, 55, 57 paricchinpatva, 299 parimanas, 64 parimandalya, 113.14, 264 parimandala samsthana pari nama, 295 parinama, 34-36, 104, 172, 247, 269, 289, 310 Parinamavada, 53, 218 parinamika, 100 Parinamioitya dravya, 25 parispanda, 300 parispandana, 39, 173, 174, 176-77, 181, 333 parispandana ciktiguna, 39 Parispandatmaka, 38, 171 parthiva sparsa, 167 Partington, 237 Paryapanna, 58 Paryaptika, 206 Paryaptika bhasa, 206 Paryaya 10, 30 61, 133, 138, 218.19, 291 Paryayaparampara, 219 parpaya sadssa, 219 Paryayavada, 219 Paryaya visadlsa, 219 patana, 157 Patanjali, 105, 156 Paudgaljka, 85, 194 photthabba, 57 Pilu-anus, 303 pilupaka 302, 309, 335 Pilupakaja, 303 Pinda, 111 pindah syadanumatrakah, 110 pipasa, 167 pitakas, 27 pitavastu, 65

Page #404
369 pithara, 304 pithara paka, 302, 309, 339 Pitharapakaja, 304, 309 pitta, 26 Poggharana, 16+ Poggharana svabbava, 163 Pobatta, 77 Prabhakara, 52, 108 pradesi, 99, 104, 239, 274, 324-25 pradesatmakata, 232 Pradesatva, 10, 24, 169 Pradhana, 122 Pradbanakaranivada, 122 Pradipikavstti, 172 Prajnakara, 93 Prajnapana sutra, 221, 249 Praksti, 7, 8, 12, 13, 25, 72, 90, 93, 99, 104, 108, 135, 173-74, 198, 298 Prakstic, 89 Praksti parinama, 218 praksti-pradegabandha, 104 Prakstitattva, 31 Prakstivada, 32 Pralaya, 116, 120 prameyatva, 24 Praga, 200 Pranapana, 188, 200 pranendriya, 194 pranstattva, 24 prapana, 48, 239 prapyakart, 151 prasada rupas, 57 prasarpana, 65 Prasastapada, 86, 87, 125 333-34 pratara, 214 pratigbata, 111, 282 Pratigbatatva, 283 pratigbatin gati, 178, 284 pratiksapa parinamin, 61 Pratisthita, 187 pratyaya sarga, CO pratyeka, 187 pratyekasarTravargana, 248 Pravacanasara, 172 Pravalatapurvaka prerana, 179 pravstti 83, 85, 96, 117 pravsttisvabhava. 119 prayatna, 117 prayoga parimata, 236 prayoga parinata pudgala, 235, 236 prayogavasanayogyadravya, 208 prayoga visrasa, 213 prayogika, 205, 212, 218 prayogika sabda, 205 prayogyajaghanya vargana, 244 Prout, J. L. 136, 137 prthivi, 18, 21 prthividhatu, 64, 65 prthivikaya, 48, 184 prthivi paramanu, 131 prthivi tanmatra, 50 Pudgala, 12, 13, 16, 17, 22, 25, 29, 30, 33, 37, 39, 47, 48, 69, 82, 86, 154-55, 171, 289, 342

Page #405
370 The Concept of Matter' in Jaina Philosophy Pudgaladravya, 17, 18, 20, 36, Rjudgati, 178 80, 86, 91, 169, 229 ruksabandhana parinama, pudgalagati, 276 296, 317 Pudgalajivastu kriyavantah ruksa sparsa rasa parinama, 38 . . 295 pudgala parivartta, 326 ruksatva, 316, 338 pudgalaskandba, 48, 239, 255 Rupa, 10, 13, 25, 32, 35, 47, Pudgalastikaya, 12, 24, 28 54-58, 63, 64, 66, 73, 92, pudgala vargana, 247, 248 * 109, 112, 130, 166, 215, punya, 97, 98 , 265, 267 Puranam kham, 173. rupadarsana, 61 Purisindriya, 55, 56 rupadibhirasi iyutam, 299 Purusa, 12, 24, 88, 91, 95, rupaparinami gunas, 34, 36 176, 198 rupaprasada, 78 Purusadhisthita, 92 rupara sa gandhanusnasparsa purusatva, 57 sabda, 301 Purvajnanarup amana, 199 : Rupasa mgbata, 265 Purvakapravesa, 179 Rupasatya, 206 Purva Mimarsakas, 73, 75, Rupaskandha, 54, 56, 167 194 Rupassa aniccati, 55 Parvaparabhava, 81 Rupassa jarata, 55 purvaparyaya, 219 Rupassa kammannata, 55 Raga, 85, 86 88, 97, 98 Rupassa lahuta, 55 Raghunatha Siromani, 2.4 Rupassa maduta, 55 Rahul Sankrityayana, 63 rupassa santati, 55 Rajas, 7, 59, 99, 133, 259 Rupassa upacaya, 55 Ramanuja, 113, 115, 124 Rupatmaka, 32 Ramanuja school, 14 Rupatvaguna, 37 rasa, 32, 39, 54, 55, 57, 130, Rupatvagunasamavaya, 37 330 Rupiajivadravyas, 12 rasapa, 73 Ruplajivaparyaya, 220 Rasanendriya, 54 Rupin, 34-36 Rasaparinama 139, 295 Rupinah pudgalah, 54 Rasavyapara, 151 Rupitva, 36, 37 Rasi, 232 Russel, Prof. Bertrand, 10 Richter, J. B., 136 Sabarasvamin, 210

Page #406
Sabda, 54, 55, 57, 202, 205 Sabdaparinama, 295, 297 Sabdayatana, 266 sadamsata, 110 Sadbhava, 104 Sadharana, 187 Sadrsa, 317 Sadrsabandhana, 317 Sadrsaparinama, 174 Sajattya samyoga, 329 Sajatlyopastambha, 329 Sakti, 95, 175, 311 Samanagunas, 52 samanajatryasamyogah dravyarambhakah, 301 SamanajatIyotpatti, 310 samanya, 187 Samanyagunas, 44 Samata, 115 Samvayin, 117 Samavesa, 93 Samavaya, 37 Samaya, 153, 279-81, 316 Sambhuyakriya, 310 sambhiryakriya samutthana, 310 Samghabhadra, 146, 265 Samghata, 111, 293-94, Samghatabhedebhya utpadyante, 256 Samghataguna, 169 Samghataparamanus, 110, 111-12, 232, 260, 265 68, 336-37 Samhatabhutadharma, 310 Samita, 178, 277 Index 371 Samita kampana, 179 Samkhya, 7, 8, 12, 22, 24, 28, 31-33, 53, 66, 67, 72, 74, 89-92, 106, 108, 129, 133135, 151, 156-57, 173-74, 196-98, 218-19, 299, 310311, 331-32 Samkhya Bhutadi, 173 Samkhya-Patanjali, 331, 332, Samkhya philosophy, 73, 117, 189, 202 Samkhya prakrti, 7 samkhyatanuvargana, 241 samkhyatapradesika, 233 samkhyata pradesika skandha, 290 Samkhya view, 91 Samkhya view of parinama, 174 Samkhya yoga, 49, 50, 67, 107, 125, 127, 194, 225, 258, 260, 298 samklesa, 103, 213 Samskaras, 13, 85-88, 93, 95 Samskaraguna, 86 Samskara karma, 93 Samskrtadharmas, 63 samsthana, 37, 60, 64, 101, 202, 214 Samsthana avayava, 311 Samsthana darsananirapeksa, 62 Samsthanaparinama, 139, 295 Samsthanatmaka, 60 samsthanavisesatmaka, 60 samudghata, 101, 268

Page #407
372 The Concept of Matter in Jain Philosophy samyagsatya, 206 samyavastha, 174 samyoga, 111, 116, 119, 122, 316 sandharaka, 63 sankarabhasya, 146 sannidhya, 115 sannipatikabhava, 100 sannivesa, 167, 311 Santanas, 7 Santaranirantaravargana, 248 Santati, 55, 81 Sapratigha, 93, 161 Sapratigha rupas, 265 Saptadravyaka, 336 Sarga, 90 Sarira, 188 Sarirabandha, 213 Sariri bandha, 213 Sarvadravyas, 17 sarvaija, 280 Sarvartbasiddhi, 18, 104, 320 Sarvastivadin, 145-46, 267 sarvasuksmarupa samghata 265 sarvatmaka, 118 Sat, 37 Satkaryavada, 122 Sattva 7, 67, 133 Satvastu, 12 Savayavadravyas, 116 Savayava dvyanuka, 123 Savayava Samghata, 111 Savayavatva, 118 Scheole 237 Seal, B. N., 156, 172, 260, 299 Shah, S. M., 29 Siddhasena Ganin, 35, 36, 125 151, 172 Sita usna, 155 Sitatva, 167 Skandha, 7, 26, 39-41, 126 127, 133-34, 220, 225, 226, 228-33, 238-39, 256, 270271, 274, 277, 279-80, 283, 290-91 Skandhadesa, 220, 231, 238 Skandhaparyaya, 228 Skandhapradesa, 220, 238 Skandharupa parinama, 228 Snehakayatva, 169, 316 Snigdhabandhanaparinama, 296, 317 snigdha ruksa, 155 Snigdharuksatvadbandhah 294, 317 Snigdhatva, 316, 338 Snigdhatvaruksatva, 316 Sota, 55 Satyabhasa, 206 Spandana, 179, 285 Sparsa, 32, 37, 75, 130 Sauksmya, 202, 214 Sautianika, 93, 108, 125, 128, Sparsagati parinama, 296 141, 145, 147 savayava, 123 Sparsaparinama, 139, 295 Sparsata, 273 231,

Page #408
Index 373 Sparsendriya, 75 Spargendriya visaya pudgala parinama, Sphutartha, 59 Spinoza, 341, 342 Sprastavya, 54, 57, 167-68 Sprstagati, 179 sravanendriya, 54 srotra, 57 srotrendriyavisayapudgala parinama, 297 Sthana, 99 Sthanaparinama, 296 Sthapanasatya, 206 Sthaulya, 202 Sthavira, 58 Sthiratvavada, 107 Stbiti, 99 Sthitisthapakatva, 44 Sthulatvaparinama, 292 Striva, 57 subha, 97, 235 Sugata, 72 Sukla, 98, 102 Sukla-krsna, 58 Suklalesya, 106 Suklavarna parinama, 295 Suksma 93, 175, 232, 236, 239 suksma badara, 239 Suksmabadara pudgala skap- dha, 48 suksmabhutas, 67, 68, 173, 331 Suksma paramanu, 128, 130- 131 Suksma parinata anantaprade fika skandha, 233 Suksmasirtra, 331 Suksma suksma 49, 239 Suksmatvaparinama, 292 Sunyavadin, 94 Sunyavargana, 248 Surabhigandhaparinama, 295, 297 Surabhigandha parinata, 249 Surabhigabda parinama, 297 Surasaparinama, 297 surupaparinama, 297 susira, 205 Susparsaparinama, 297 Sutra Ekapradesadisubhajya pudgalasam, 41 Svabhava, 56, 57 Svabhava rupas, 56 Svabhavika parinama, 310 svaougata, 116 svasraya-anu, 116 Svatantrajsvavada, 14 Svatantrata, 117 Svetambara, 17, 255, 296, 319 Syat karana, 228 Syat karyalinga, 228 Tadantyam karanam, 126 Tadatmaka paramanu, 111 Tadetadrupa ksana, 218 Taijasa, 7 Taijasa-pudgala-parivarttas, 327 Taijasa pudgala parivartta nirvarttanakala, 328

Page #409
374 The Concept of Matter in Jain Philosophy Taijasasarlia, 189-91 trona, 96 Taijasasparsa, 167 tryanukas, 113, 334 Tamas, 7, 133, 202 Tvak, 73 Tanmatra, 50, 67, 107, 108, Udbhutarupa, 263 125, 127, 156, 173, 202, Udvartana, 100 218, 259, 299, 300, 331 UdIrana, 100 Tanmatric, 89, 90 Udyota, 202, 216.17 Tata, 205 Udyotakara, 145, 209 Tattvarthadhigamabhasya, 7! Umasvati, 28, 34, 42, 125, 316 Tattvarthadhigama sutra, 17, Upacara, 80 18, 35, 71, 125, 151, 290, Upacaya, 55, 118 320-21 Upacaya upacaya, 57 Tattvartba Rajavartika, 18, Upadanabhuta jnanaksana, 198 172 Upadana karana, 329-31 Tattvartha Sloka vartika, 18 Upavana upadeyai upa 82 Teja, 18, 26, 56, 102 uradaya rupas, 57 Teja-kaya, 48, 184 upagraha, 43 Teja paramanu, 131 upakarabhavarratighata, 283, Teja tanmatra, 50 288 Tejodhatu, 57, 64, 65 upakarna, 76 Tejo lesya, 106 Upanisads, 27 Theravada school, 55 upanisadic period, 25 Tthindriya, 56 upapatti, 101 Tiktarasa parinama, 295 usasamana, 100 TIrtbankara, 72 upastambha, 330, 331 Tiryag gati, 159, 179 upayoga, 10 Traikalika, 8, 9, 138, 256 upayogarupa, 77 Traikalika paryayas, 8 upayoga rupa-bhavendriya, 78 Taika likasti, 35 urihvagati, 179 Trasakaya, 48, 188 utkara, 214 Tripradesika, 41 utkarabheda parinama, 297 Ludradesika skandha 290- ulkrstagati, 179 291, 334 uikestagunakalakaparamanu, Triputika, 73 222 Trisparsin, 233 utpada, 23, 24, 174

Page #410
Index 375 utsarpini kala, 328 uttara prakstis, 99 Vacaspati Misra, 74 vacivinnatti, 55 vagvijnapti, 57 Vaibhasika, 22, 58, 60, 108, 109, 125, 128, 141, 145, 147, 164-66, 2'5, 337 Vaibhasika doctrine, 59 Vaibhasika pbilosophy, 59 Vaibhasika school, 54, 59 6!, 184, 202 vaibhasika texts, 63, 64, 65 vaibhasika view, 62 vaibhasika yogacara, 58 vaikriya pudgalaparivarttas, 326-28 vajkriya pudgala parivartta nirvarttanakala, 328 vaikriyika grahana-varga na, 247 vaikriyika sarfra, 189, 242-43, 327 vaimanika, 327 Vaisesika, 7, 52, 86, 107-9, 113-16, 118-21, 123.25, 127, 131, 144, 145, 150, 165-167, 180, 194-95, 199, 197, 209, 301, 303-4, 307-9, 333, 335 vaisesika doctrine of intran sitive causation (Arambha vada ), 51 vaige sika-nyaya, 125 vaisesika philosophy, 13, 133, 143 vaisesika principle, 113 vaiscsika school, 18 vaisesika system, 51 vaise sika tryanuka, 334 vaisrasika, 205, 212 vaisrasikabandha, 213 vak, 188, 192-93 vak nudgala-parivarttas, 327-28 vakpudgalaparivartta nirvart ana kala, 328 Vallabha, 125 Vanaspatikaya, 48, 187 Vargana. 223, 241-46 Varni, 37, 60, 130 Varnapurinama, 139, 291-95 varnatmaka, 60 Vasana, 88, 93, 94, 97, 208 Vastutva, 24 Vasubandhu, 58, 109-111, 146. 219 Vata. 26 Vatsyayana, 125, 143 Vayavtya sparsa, 167 Vayu, 18, 21. 26, 116 Vayudhatu, 57, 64, 65 Vayu kaya, 48, 184 Vayu parer:anu, 300 Vayuram kham, 173 Vayu tanma tra, 50 Vedana, 98 Vedaniya karma, 99 Vedanta, 12, 13, 14, 24, 67, 68, 73, 107, 123, 194, 311, 332 Vedanta philosophy, 7 Vedantio Madhva, 108

Page #411
376 The Concept of Matter in Jain Philosophy Vedantist, 68, 113 vitata, 205 Vega, 157, 285 Vivaksitabhava, 268 Vegapratighata, 283, 287 vividha kampana, 179 vibhajya, 130 Vividha, 178 Vidyananda, 126, 151 vstti, 66, 91 Vigraha, 178 Vsttigrantha, 63 Vigrahagati, 279 Vyakarana sutra, 72 Vijatrya samyogah, 301, 329, Vya karana vstti, 72 332 vyakta avastha, 174 Vijatiyotp itti, 310 Vyanjanaparyaya, 38 Vijnana, 13, 62, 110 Vyapara, 172 Vijnanabhiksu, 331 Vyavahara, 129, 229 Vijnanarupa, 198 Vyavabara paramanu, 128, Vijnanatmaka, 194 131 Vijnanavadin Buddhist, vyavaharika, 229 93, 108, 113 Vyavaharika paramanu, 232 Vijnapti, 62, 109, 110 vyavita, 54 vijnaplirupa, 57, 93 vyaya, 23, 24, 174 Vijnaptisvabhava, 61, 62 vyuha, 334 vijnaptimatratasiddhi, 108, vyuhana, 331 109, 112 vyuhanavstti, 65 Vikara rupas, 55, 57 William James, 99 Vikalendriyajivas, 327 Wohler, 237 Vimsatika, 109 Yasomitra, 63 Vinayavijayaji Sri, 126, 230 Yoga, 12, 83, 85, 87, 88, 93, Vis udesa, 317 96, 218 Visadrsabandhana, 317 Yogacarins, 58, 146 Visakalita avastha, 291 Yogadarsana, 98 Visrasa parinata pudgala Yoga philosophy, 87 235, 236 Yogaparinama, 101 Visvarupa, 49 Yoga-pravstti, 104 Visasa zunas, 44 Yoga School, 266 visista parinama, 36 Yoga vargana, 102 Vistambha, 331, 330 Yoga vyapara, 84 visreni, 178, 182 Yutasiddhavayavah samuhah Visuddhimagga, 54, 56, 71, 92, 329 97-98 Zimmer, Dr. 106

Page #412