Jaina System of Education

Author(s): Debendra Chandra Das Gupta
Publisher: Bharti Mahavidyalaya
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011061/1

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BHARATI MAHAVIDYALAYA PUBLICATIONS
MAHĀVĪRA EXTENSION LECTURES
Under the Patronage of
SREE SHANTI PRASAD JAIN ( of Dalmia Nagar)'
**
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
By
DEBENDRA CHANDRA DAS GUPTA, M (Calif ) Ed D. (Calif) Lecturer in Education, Calcutta University.
With a Foreword by Dr SYAMA PRASAD MOOKERJEE MA, BL, Bar-at-Law, D. Lit
भारती
11
Hella
विदाय feterans
Education Series No.:J
बालय
GRA
ले
Published by
S; C, SEAL, M.A., B.L Hony General Secretary, BHARATI MAHAVIDYALAYA
170 Maniktala Street, Calcutta 1942
ד

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Sole Agents-- SREE BHARATEE PUBLISHING CO
170, Manil tale Street,
Calcutta
Price :
Bound: bi Unbound Rs
si 51 ) 101 sa 4/60 )
I trieu vy COM CZAS SEN A.COM JERLE BHARATEE PRESS 70 lent tala Street, Calcutta

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IN THE HALLOWED NAME OF
LORD MAHAVIRA
This book is dedicated to Mr. Shanti Prashad Jain (of Dalmia Nagar)
as a token of profound respect for his generous
patronage of the cause of Jaina Religion and Culture.
By the Author

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FOREWORD
I have been asked to contribute a Foreword to this book on Jaina System of Education. Anything which contributes to publication of the glories of Indian Culture, no matter whether in its Hindu, Buddhistic or Jaina aspect, is welcome to me. Here is a thought-provoking, suggestive, but by no mcans cxhaustive treatisc on the Jaina System of Education by a scholar who has donc amplc justice to his theme Hc has approached it from technical knowledge of the subject This book is primarily meant for technicians but persons interested in Indian Culture in general and Jainism in particular will find it helpful and delightful reading. The author has given us a good deal of useful information about the Jaina System of Education. The chapters relating to academic degrees and female education are especially interesting.
I may also mention that real service to culture has been done by Sreejut Shanti Prasad Jain by his patronage
Dated the 22nd November, 1942) 77, Asutosh Mookerjee Road,
Calcutta
Syama Prasad Mookerjee

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A NOTE
Peisons connected with educational and cultural movements of the land might be well aware of the aims and activities of the Bhāraii Malāvidyālaya, inaugurated only a year and a half ago. Briefly speaking, it is being developed into one residential University on the lines of Gurukulas of ancicnt lime and Nālandā-Taksaśīlā-Vikiamaśīlā Unn critics of lalcı ages, with modern ariangements for education in all bianchcs of human knowledge It would be built up on an extensive plot of land ncar this metiopolis and a suitable site to start with has been sccued on the western bank of the Ganges, situated only thiec miles from the licail of this city few schools and colleges of different types have alıcady been started and a few libiaries have also beer formed which arc being developed soi the present in Calcutta and will be transplanted to thc peimanant sitc when other adjacent plots of land by the Ganges are secui cd and buildings are constructed thereon In fine, it would be to put it in the words of Acārya Sır P C Ray, as embodied in his inaugural address, "a Gurukula writ large-a Gurukula modernized, expanded and brought in harmony with the spirit of the time."
Anangement is also being made in the direction of compilation and publication of different series of books, both ciitical and popular, Viz (1) Religion Scies (2) Philosophy Series (3) Education Serie, (4) Sacred Lilciature Series (5) Social Science Series (6) Indian History and Culture Series (7) Language Series (8) Industıy Series (9) Agriculture Series (10) Text Books Scries, etc
Two books of the Religion Series have alıcady been published and one book of this Series on 'Hindu Mysticism' delivered as lectures by Dr M N Sircar, M A., Ph D will be shortly out Some of the books of other series are going through the press and others are under compilation Volumes of the Jaina Sacıed Literature Series are also taken up under the patronage of Mr. Shanti Prasad Jain of Dalmianagai They will contain the original texts, and translations with notes into Hindi, Bengalı, and English The first volume of this series too will be shortly issued.

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
It is the desire of the authoritics of the Bhāratı Mahavidyalaya that ser cral professorsluips should be crcatai for its Thcological College in the hallowed names of thc prophcts of different religions. A few religious bodics lavc alrcady been approached for the purpose and favourablc response 100 in somc asc has been recened Mr Shanti Prasad Jain of Dalmianagar a great lover of learning and advocate of the cause of Jaina Rcligion and Culture was approached and he has kindly sanctioned 7 liberal amount for the Mahāura Professorship on Jalna Rcligion and Culture [ The present volume on the Jaina System of Education which is
possibly the first attempt of the kind is the outcome of the first series of Mahasıra Extension lectures
The second serics of the Mahaura Extension Lectures will be on the Jaina Philosophy which would be delivered by an eminent specia list in the subject
A few lines underlying the ideas of the Education Series may be added It is an uncontroversial isuth that the systems of education now in vogue in India are defecute in many respects which are mainly res ponsible for the want of religious and moral education of disapline of wide outlook on life besides other drawbacks in the students The in ! trinsic valuc of cducation is almost lost sight of and its extrinsic value is now a-days being belittled due to want of proper employments in the active life The systems have been criticised on many an occasion both from the press and the platforin but constructive schemes and ar rangement for their realisation into practice are unfortunately lacking What the true type of education-its methods and applications condu cive to the welfare of students of the land based on its indegenous cul ture and traditions should be requires a synthetic knowledge of the systems that were followed in the Vedic and Post Vedic Buddhistic and the Jaina periods by the Gurukulas Vibāras monasteries and nunneries and latter on in a comprehensive way by the then Universities of IndiaNalanda, Takşašila Vikramašila etc and of the systems followed by their modern counterparts in India and in other parts of the World
With this end in view we place before the public as the first number of the Education Series this volume consisting of ten lectures on the Jaina System of Education delivered by an eminent educa tionist, Dr D C, Das Gupta, who has gleaned materials principally

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A NOTE
"Kärtıki-Purnima"
22nd November, 1942 170, Maniktala Street
Calcutta
ix
ones
from the Jaina Sources, supplemented by the Hindu and Buddhistic Many scholars and persons interested in educational activities were present when the lectures were delivered and took part in the deliberations Distinguished scholars viz, Dr D R Bhandarkar, Dr S N Das Gupta, Dr B M Batua, Di M N Sircar, Dr Sunıtı Kumar Chatterji, MM Prof Vidhusekhaia Śāstrī, Dr Satkarı Mookerji, and others presided over the lectures
The book is shorter than it should have been, because of the scarcity and uncertain supply of paper, due to war conditions, and the discrepancy of the paper used is also due to the same factor A few printing errors have crept in as it had to be hurriedly run through the Press Now on the behalf of the Bharatī Mahāvidyalaya we offer our hearty thanks to the author for his indefatiguable labour and painstaking researches into an almost new field of work
Last of all we must place on 1ecord our sense of immense obligation to Mr Shanti Prasad Jain for his kind pationage accorded to this cause Our hearty thanks are also due to Mr Chhotelal Jain, the Secretary of the Jaina Committee of the Bhārati Mahavidyalaya for his active co-operation.
We may in this connection be permitted also to appeal to other wealthy members of the Jaina as well as other communities for encouraging the cause of propagation, preservation and publication of India's religious and cultural heritage as embodied in the various sacred and other Literatures of this Holy Land, in the manner, Mr Shanti Prasad Jam, who has set an example in the direction, has been doing
It is confidently hoped that all readers interested in the subject particularly those belonging to the Jaina community should accord to the book the welcome it deserves
Satis Chandra Sea!

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PREFACE.
In picsunung this book to the public which icpicsents a voyage of discovery not allogeihei devoid of an clement of romance, the authoi feels undai obligation to add a low noids as 10 ils genesis and development culmmaling ma series of ren lccines on “Jama System of Educacon" through the generosity of Ni Shanu Prasad Jam, and under the auspices of the Bharati Maliõudyalaya In cousc of his investigalions into the held of lncient Indian Education, the authoi met willi a sen suggestiic paragraphs in Jama litcialinc and he went to M1 SC Scal, M.1.B.L, the (veneral Seciclany of the Indian Rescaich Institute and the Bhārati Mahāvıdyalaya foi a kid inuioduction to the local libraries contaming saci cd lucrauunc of the Jamas Accidentally the mutual con crsalon lunch on the possibility of composing a li calise on Jama cducation. Somchon, Mr Scal made the formidable proposal of delicing a cousc of Icciucs on ilc thenic The baie hint turned into a proposal, and thic proposal has been lanslated into action-hasty, labou sous, and accmcly dillicul-on thic mciils and demerits of which it is for the hind i cadeis lo judge
An alleinpı has been made on the basis of scanty materials, made all thc moic scanty by liic liansscience of most of the nelevant malei als fiom the libiaues to sasc-custody ciscwhcic lo sui vey the theme from sercial angles of visjon-psychological, sociological and geographical
Thculc "Jama Syslem of Education" which the book bcais might be moic appropriately acplaced by “Educational Systems found in Jamna Lile aline", in as much as the Brahmanical, the secular (Ait-school) and the Vocational Education have also been dealt with It is a historical fact that there was no water-light compaitments in the realm of thought in India separating Jainisin, Buddlusm and other cognate schemes of life and religion They all contibuted liai moniously 10waids the development of culture as a whole Necessauly the contilbutions of these sevei al systems in the field of education were inseparably mixed up, and it would have been suicidal to separate them. Hence we have attempted to exhibit the whole picture of the educa. tional life of India in its several sources and supplementing them by cognate avenues of infoi mation.

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
The period traversed in our thesis extends from the time of Rsabha to the 11th century A D Many authorities who flourished in subsequent ages but who referred to the period under review have been quoted
No words can adequately convey the authors immense obligation to Dr SP Mookerjee for lus kind contribution of the Foreword
The author places on record his obligation to the authorities of the Calcutta University Library and the Imperial Library for afford ing hun facilities for collecting materials Bibliography is attached to the end of work. Finally the author offers his really grateful and not merely rhetorical thanks to Mr S C Seal but for whose inspira tion encouragement and patient sympathy in these days of dearth of paper and paucity of readers the book would not have seen the light of day Inspite of our utmost efforts some errors in prints probably accompained by errors of judgment have crept in The author will gratefully receive any helpful suggestions from the competent.
DEBENDRA CHANDRA DASGUPTA.
X11
22nd November 1942 Calcutta.
}

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CONTENTS
LECTURE NO I PP 1-8 Inu oduction - 1 bucl icucn of the five gicat institutions of the Jaina period, and then cducational activities - Ihc Tamilı-the Church-thc Schoolthe Scacc-Industry
LECTURE NO II pp 9-16 The Brahmanic and The lit-schools - The Vedic school, its origin, and organizalon-The Social Status of the scholars-Thc Curricula-principles of curricula-conscu1011- 110culation between thic Vedic and the Ait sclioolThe age of admission of the Art and the Vedic schools Period of study-Climatic influence on the mental elficiency, and the oiganwauon of the courses of studiesThe influence of the Vedic and the all schools on the intcllcctual life of Indian pcoplc
LECTURE No II PP 172,1 Importance of Juma monastcues-Departments of the staic-The Aim of the Jaina monasteries-Traning agencies, Influence of geographical factors on the Jaina monastcrics-ihen visc and spicad
LECTURE NO IV PP 25-40
Monastic organization and administation-Curricula-A list of impoi lant monasteries ofseung instruction in the Elcven Angas-Criticism of blind memory Thc Micthod of icachung-rcligious, sccular and military subjects-Life in the monastery-Academic lionouis, higher studics and icscaiches-Statistics
LECTURE NO V PP 41-50 The Education of women-Ecclesiastical-The Social position of women-Lay and Ecclesiastical-Distubution of nunneries, and the influcncc of geographical factors on the risc, growth, and cultural and icligious activities of the Jaina nunnciics-Statistics.
LECTURE NO VI pp 51-60 Education of women--Lay The Physical, mental and emotional characteristics of the growing child, and the adolescent youths - The Psychological basis of the curricula for the education of lay women -The Social status of femalelay scholars - The Tiaining agencies --Academic honours -Co education -Concluding remarks

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LECTURE No VII pp 61–85 Education of The Princes - The Eduauon of the princes from the pre nacal stage.-The Child and adolescent psychology-physical mental and ema tional traits of the growing child, and the adolescent youths and their proper carc and education - The Curricula in the Artschool their psychological basis.The distribution of art-schools. The training agences-72 arts in the Juína monastcr, at Moxlcrapura-Staic supervision over the education of the princess academic, military and physical Life-long process of physical educauonidcal gymnasiums in anaent India-their geographical distributions. State con trol of the education of adult king --Programme of studies in the art-schools mcthod of teaching-individual and group-criticism of blind memory workfive sold process of study Educational tour-residence in the art-schools--con cluding remarks.
LECTURE No VIII Pp 86–10, The influence of geographical factors on vocations-their geographical distributions-psychological basis of vocational and educational election. The training agencies viz., the Family the Church, the State the School and Industry -their doset co-operation in imparting vocational education to scholarsh*tatc sanction of guilds and merchants association-ther autonomous status, subject to state control in making bye-laws and in training the scholars in diverse vacations -residence in teacher house was an essential necessity-vocational education was frec and compulsory--and the pupils were placed on appropriate vocauions to ensure doser co-ordination between work and instruction Concluding remarks.
LECTURE NO IX. pp 106-114 Literature of the Jaina fathers-their medium of instruction-the codifica
the sacred texts of the lainas-the two important sects of the Tainasthe Digambarks and Svetambaras. A brief survey of the religious activities of Jaunas-the parepatetic tours of Rşabha and Mahavira-a brief review of Jaina contributions to philosophy religion, art, literature, bustory astronomy astrology mathematica, grammar leucography poeta and politics-oncluding remarks.
LECTURE No X PP 115-128 A brief résumé of the nine lectures with conduding remarks

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LECTURE I
INTRODUCTORY
It is exceedingly to be regretted that so little justice has been done to the Jaina contribution to mass education in India It is historically certain that their contribution was as great, significant, and virtually important as that of the Buddhists The purpose of these Lectuers is to offer an account of the Jaina system of education in India, based on the necessarily meagre materials available Our task may, be best achieved by studying the problem of education in connection with its five important agents, viz the Family, the Church, the School, the State and the Industry, all of which have remarkably contributed to the spread of education in all its aspects
The Family - The family is the nucleus which is ultimately developed into the State through intermediate stages of tribes, the guilds and the castes The process of transition is the same all over the world, and the ancient India is not exception to the rule Here too the family, with its purifying, ennobling, and solidifying influences lead to the development of Indian nation and Indian culture The family, during the Vedic period, when the caste system was in the making, and during the post-Vedic period when the caste system was fully made, served as an important agency of education It developed a healthy sense of discipline, an ideal attitude of devotion, a peculiar feeling of reverence for the teachers, the father being invariably the teacher during this primitive phase of civilization
Jainism, which like Buddhısın, is not a surd, but an integral part of the encyclopædic system of culture, known as Hinduism accepted the institution of family as an indispensable agent of education and life We have ample references in the Jaina literatures giving us an idea of the educational activities of the family We are told how a Brahmin educated at home his sons born of wives belonging to different castes "Then he had successively four wives, belonging to four castes Now the son of the Kşatriya wife was Vikramāditya, but + x

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2
JAINA SYSILM O LDUCATION
son of the Sudri wife was Bharthari
The latter was secretly taught in cellar on account of his buing of inferior caste but the others were made to study openly The young infants also receive their first truning in correct speech at home Thus little Goyame among other things received his first truning in speech at home under the care of his parents = The family not only functioned as a cultural centre for the formal education of the infants and boys but also it was a school for the formal education of the adult king Then on an other occasion the king named Kumarpal desiring to acquire learning had the treatise of kamandakı on Polity read to him for a ume after dinner by a certain learned man with the approbation of the minister Kapardın
The Church of Jainas were the first to organise monasteries to preach their religion and culture among the masses and their lead was followed by the Buddhists Our information regarding the organisa tion and administration of the Jain Church is inadequate Their monasteries were scattered over a wide region in India from the Maga dha kingdom in the east to Gujarat in the west and from the Vijaya nagara Lingdom in the south to the hosala kingdom in the north. Gradually Jainism declined in the east and the north and then it came to be confined to west and south upto the thirteenth century all the time imparting instructions both religious and secular to all ranks of pupils from the prince to the humble folk The Jaina fathers made periodical and systematic preaching tours for the propagation of their gospels The curricula of the Juna monsteries were wider in scope offering instruction in religion literature arts and physical cultures These were carefully framed meeting the needs of all grades of students pusuing courses as preparation for different vocations of life The Jainas admitted students into their monasteries regardless of caste and creed thus challenging the educational monopoly of the Brahmins Specialisation was introduced into the monasteries and teachers were classified into two distinct groups some imparting religious instruc
1
Merutanga Acarya Prabandliacintamani tr by C. H Tawney p 198 2 The Antagada Disão and Anuttaravavalya Dasão tr by L. D Barnett, M.A. D Lit p 19.
8
Merutanga Acarya, op at. p 138

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LECTURE I
tions to the novices, and others lecturing on secular subjects to the young scholais
Among other dulics, such as bcggmg tours, the monks had to be engaged in daily studies for at lcast thice hours a day and this duty was binding upon all monks Debates on ieligious themes were regularly conducted, and sometimes intra-monaslic debates took place when lcained monks from far off regions came to paiticipate in the debates Debates were also held in the presence of the king who was the presiding oslicer of the debate Libraries were also attached to the monasteries and the learned monks made valuable additions to the library by muting constantly books on diverse subjects-religion, philosophy, astionomy, logic, and arithmetic These monasteries were located mostly in gaidens in the suburbs of capital cities such as Rājagilia, Champala, Srāvastī, Vanijagrāma, Vrgulaccha. Divāiakā, Vallapı, Annillaiapua and in other important cities The sites for these monasteries were caicfully selected along public ioads and 11vers facilitating the picaching lows of the monks and the devotional tours of the devotees of the Jaina Church
Side by side with the monastei ies, the nunneries also sprang up in the capital and other industial cities soi the spread of Jainism and its cultui es among the females and these made valuable contributions to ienaissance movement The nuns inostly came from respectable families and spent then time in deep meditation and in preaching the Jaina gospel Some of the nuns challenged the reputed Buddhist priests during the life time of Lord Buddha, and entered into debales with them on some religious doctrines
The ruling chiefs, merchants and the public vied with one another for the support of the Jaina monasteries, made liberal grants for the cause of Jainism and the Jaina Church which justified its existence by the assiduity, religious fervour and ei udition of the priests All ; the Jaina monasteries were under the general supervision of Gunaśıla, the head Church at Rājagrha, the capital of Magadha Thus the fraternity of Jaina priests contributed to the dissimination of culture, methodically and effectively in a manner which reminds us of the
4 The Uvāsagadasão Vol II tr by A F Rudolf Hoernle, PhD, p 51 5 Mei utanga Ācaya, Prabandhacıntāmani, ti by CH Tawney, p 97

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
monks of mediæval Europe who hept the torch of learning burning in the midst of a surrounding atmosphere of gloomy ignorance and superstition
The School -During the Jaina period education was also impart ed through organised institutions known as schools We have evi dence of it in the Institute of Manu where he describes elaborate rules and regulations for the conduct of the twice-born students during their studentship In the same work the descriptions of the constitution and function of the Parisad we also found from the Jatakas and the Lalitavistara we get distinct references to organised schools under a University imparting instruction to scholars both sacred and secular The Jatalas refer to the famous University of Taxila which offered instruction in the three Vedas eighteen Sciences and seventy two Arts which were mastered by Lord Buddha From the later source we learn that the Lord Buddha joined the winng school maintained by Vasu mitra offering instruction in 3 Rs and Arts or practical Sciences
From the Jaina literatures also we learn of the existence of orga nised schools throughout India with a view to imparting instruction both religious and secular to fit the future atzens for their diverse vocations The religious schools maintained by the Brahmins were designed for the twice born-castes whereas the Art schools were non sectarian in character mcant for the education of all Organised schools were attached to royal palaces for the education of the princes and princesses of the royal family Thus three distinct types of schools viz palace schools Brahmanic schools and Art schools existed side by side in India outside thc pale of Jaina monastic schools cach engaged in the spread of culture and learning among the future citizens as preparation for their manifold civic functions
It is however dificult for us to tell with precision whether it was binding upon all students to reside within the campus of the above types of schools It seems that majority of scholars resided with their teachers We have reference to a princess in the Juna literature resid ing with her teacher during her studentship in the country of Vidharbha there was a city named Kundinapura. In it was a king by name Bhimaratha He had a wife named Pushpadanti they had a daughter born to them
in due course she was sent to a teacher of accomplishments, to learn knowledge and she gradually

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LECTURE I
became clever in all learning" Though it is not explicitly stated here whether the princess during her studentship resided with her teacher, we liave clear evidence of such custom in Kālıdāsa's Mālavihāgnimitram, wlicie it is cically stated that Mālavikā, the heroine of the play resided in the house of Ganadāsa, hei teacher when learning fine arts from him Perhaps it was the custom in those days in India for the ladies of aristocratic families to reside in the house of their leachers during their studentship and suitable provision must have been made for them foi this purpose The following extract proves our claim “In the city of Avantı lived Priyangumanjari, the daughter of king Vikramaditya She was made over to a Pandit named Vaiaruci for the purpose of study, and owing to liei clerei ness, she learnt the Sāsıras from hun in a few ciays"
The princes also received their formal education in organised schools under a teacher in diverse curricula as a preparation for their princely duties "On the other hand at the hing's command, Sagara began to go to a teacher on an auspicious day which was celebrated by a festival "'“The curricula were wide in scope embracing various courses such as the Vedas, the sciences, the arts and the physical training” ilence in the schools ne Ksatriya princes received inental and physical training as a picpaiation for the princely duties very similar to the Greek youths of ancient time It was also customary with the princes to receive their education in the arts or secular schools where the curricula included 72 arts-embracing vernacular languages, arithmetic, practical sciences, and physical education The curricula in this type of schools were vitally related with the iealities of life and there is a closer co-ordination between the activities in the school and in society 10
The State -During the Jaina period India was split up into many states These states, tiue to Indian traditions, patronised liteiature
6 Kathāloșa, tr by C H Tawney, p 195 7 Merutanga Ācarya, Prabandhacıntāmani, tr by C H Tawney, p 5
8 Hemachandra, Tişasthisalahāpui usa cantra Vol II tr by Helen M Johnson, PhD, P 68
9 ibid, Loc Cit 10 Antāgada-Dasão Anuttararavāgiya-Dasão, u by L D Barnett, MA, Litt, P 30

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6
and other fine arts The Indian States from time immemorial were great patrons of learned Brahmins, religious reformers and education 1sts The following quotation will support our contention regarding thepa ronge of learning on the part of the State When they arrived the king caused proper honours to be paid to each of them separately in the morning after leaving his bed he said to (Wha makes you here Are you troubled by bad men? But there are no such people in this land) In my kingdom there is no thief no miser no drunkard no irreligious nor illiterate person no adulterer much less in adulteress "1
1
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
During the Jaina period the rulers of the different states vied with one another in honouring the Tirthankaras and warmly support ed the Creed and did much for its spread and cultures The Jaina reli gion made a phenomenal progress in the whole of northern southern and western India as a result of unmitigated efforts and incessant propaganda tours of the Tirthankaras and the royal patronage Princes of the royal families willingly joined the Jaina Order and received their special traming for the propagation of the new religion The Jaina monks lost no opportunity of gaining control over the education of the ruling princes hitherto a monopoly in the hands of the learned Brahmins. The rulers willingly co-operated with the monasteries in the education of their royal infants We have already discussed the cosmopolitan nature of monastic education of the Jainas which provided an encyclopedic courses of studies-religions secular Arts and physical training to meet the growing needs of different ranks of students 12 During the Jaina period Jainism was not made a state religion and it was not brought under the Ecclesiastical Department of the State as was the case with the Buddhists during the reign of Aśoka who even supervised the Buddhist monasteries and the religious and educational activities of the monks through the minister of religion > specially appointed for the purpose But the Jaina rulers of south and west India made no such attempt to bring the Jaina monasteries
13
The Vedanta Sutras of Badarayana, tr by Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu P 91
11
12
Rayasekhara Suri Prabandhakosa Vol. I edited by Jina Vijaya, p 28 18 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum edited by Hultzsch Vol. I pp 57 186

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LI CIURE I
undai thic ducci conuol of the ecclesiastical Department though they Inadc clavagini expenditure for the cause of Jainism
The Industry - Fmally a nod must be said icgarding the indusual activities of Jama India Thc Vasjas, the mercantilc community of India was busy with commercial acuuties, and wcic organised into associations much simular lo modern Chambuis of Commcice of the meichanis "Their associations regulated and guide the business activilies of the merchants during thc Jama pouod Then comincicial
Luvilics ncc nol conimel to the vauous prouinces of India but the uch and cntcrpsmg merchants among them caricd on oveiscas trades, thus adimg 10 the ricalii of the country. We have amplc icsciences of suchi ouciscas lades of Indian moichants in Buddhist, Jami and classical Sanshallucu.incs llic mland transportation systems-the incways, the canaluays, the highways and mountain pallis facilitated the inland commerce and the discibution of soieign goods imported into India from soicign countics India was also connccicd nith thic loreign coulies by occanways which scrved as Camicis of hoi ociscas liades instead of osscuing insurmountable baillCIS The city super usou os morals of the youth used to hold a Vocacional Guidance conscience with the mhabitants of the city and the parents of the youths scching such vocational guidance used to be picsent thcsc We have such icscience in the Jama lilciatuies
Thus we see the Indian indusliy was systematised and well oiganised undei a Chambei of Commeice which clccted its own piesidents and other office-bcarcis This associauon functioned as a school soi the uaming of thc youths of the mci cantile community which thus sent to the would liamed moichants The Scculai as well as Bialınanical and Jama monastic schools all co-opciated in the liaining of the youths of the incicanlilc community Wc have scen that their courses of studies wcic icmai hably adjusted to theii demands Consequently the young Vaisya lads mostly succceded in their profession and made
grants to the sprcad ol Jama monasteries and other institutions of the Society
Thus from our biief ieview of the five great Indian institutions of society we come lo the conclusion that all these institutions coopciated with cach other in the spread of culture and three distinct types of institutions viz, (1) the Brahmanic schools, (2) the Arts schools
libe

Page #24

JAIVA SISTEM OP EDUCATION
and (3) the Monastic schools (Jawi) cxistcd side by side and con iribuced to the stability and progress of the existing social and poliu cal conditions of the people No doubt the Buddhist monasteries or institutions of Icarning dit much for the spread of Buddhist and Bmlimanic cultures and their international reputation invited scholars from distant sorcign countries But Buddhist institutions of learning wull forin no item of our discussion as these are not referred to in Juna litcraturcs Perhaps it will be conicnicnt to style our problem *Lducational System in Ancient India as found in Jaina literatures instcad of Jaina Exlucation Owing to paucity of inatcrials in Jama literatures il 1111 sometimes be necessary to Telcr to Sanskrit and Bud dhist litcratures in order to complete our picture of the Jaina Syslem of Education

Page #25

1
LECTURE II
THE BRAHMANIC AND THE ART SCHOOLS
Simultaneously with the spread of Jaina religion over the whole of India together with Jaina culture, the Brahmin teachers were equally busy, with the task of dissiminating Vedic culture and education through Vedic schools 1 A net-work of Vedic schools covers the whole land and through them sacred culture was imparted to students We do not know exactly when the Vedic education in a technical sense originated, although the Bhagavat Purāna traces it into the Brahman 2 There can be no doubt that the Vedic education originated at home, and it was gradually taken over by organised schools, which, however, did not supplant but simply expanded the ideas and ideals of home education on a sule, systematic and scentific basis Education was distinctly a concern of the State in the Vedic India The assembly of scholars or parışad referred to in Manu's Institute had a distinctly educational function to discharge Its members were versed both in educational and religious literatures which constituted their qualifications for performing the difficult task they had to perform We also learn from the Uttaradhyayana Sutram that the assembly participated in intellecutal activities "A song of deep meaning condensed in words has been well recited in the midst of the assembly (nara-samgha parisad) Rajasekhara, a ninth century scholar and dramatist mentions in his Kāvyamīmāmsā that the assembly of the learned Brahmins at Ujjain and Pataliputra conducted examinations wherein scholars like Panini, Pingala, Vararuchi, Kālıdāsa, Chandi agupta and others appeared at the examinations of the above two boards *
113
The Vedic schools were originally meant for the Brahmins, but later on, students belonging to the Ksatriya and Vaiśya classes came
1 Sthavna Arya Bhadi abahu Swami, Bihat Kalpa Sutia, vol 1, p 110 Srimat-Bhāgabatam, Fourth Skandha, edited by Nityaswaiupa Brahmacharı, p 142, veise 44
2
3. Commentary of Uttaradhyayanasuti am, ti by Charpentier, p 328 4 Rajasekhaia, Kāvyamīmāmsā edited by C D Dālāl, MA, and R. Anantakrishna Shastry, p 55
2

Page #26

10
J1115) STL11 OL I DUCATION
also to be taken m. We do not know cxactly lilien tliis latitude began but ic do hnowy il101 the Lord Bucketlin in tlic sixth century BC. jomcd thic [amous Umenili od 17hsila (1 7xıla) wlcrc lic mastered an encyclopacılıc range of Icyrumg melumg the thircc Vcdas cighteen Sciences and aris Ilus was to consumic his royal dulics both in tune of peace and in time of wr The trainmg reculled here in that ancient unii crsity was physical as well as mental and inoral It was mcant to m einen perfeu llic couscs of serdics licrc arcfully made to take spcurl care of moule abilities or ( factor and the specific abilities or
5 factor tlic art courses includmg printing music dancing lcaping, riling the lorses elephants inillary sciences cic undoubtelly took are of the factor Iliough thcsc illo tcrmis (ctor and S factor were comed by perman a lamous Brugli psychologist the discrences be licen these types of intelligence nicre known to thic Hindus of ancient tinc und the CLITICULT scri especially organic to adjust to uic differ cnt nccls of pupils Export knonlage on this head is rciealed by halıclása or ratlier in the contcupomrics of Kalidasa We sec how a distinct prouision of a perfect type of clucation has made for Malaurka under the tmuon of Pror Canadzsa Anyway a sound thicory of educa tion pervaded the Brahmanical system of cducation from the start the meridian day of couczuon
The wcient authority Vmu laid special cinphasis on the mental state of the students as constituting dicir necessary qualification for admission to Brahmanical schools We must note here the close rela tion that existed betricen thic Bralimanıc and the secular or Art school proper The forincr was exclusi cly meant for the spiritual culture at any rate spiritual culture was their dominant au Secular schools were meant principally for the Suciras ulio miglit get their practical education enabling them to carn their bread and butter and to serve the twice born classes all the more efficiently The incidental refer ence to this fact is lo bc had un Manu But a Sudra being unable to find service with the twice born and threatened with the loss of luis sons and use (through bunger) may maintain himself by handicrafts
(Let hun follow) thosc mechanical occupations and those various practical arts by following wluch the twice born are (best) served :
5
Manu tr by G Bühler p 499 verse PP 99, 100
de

Page #27

LECTURE II
Another authority, Visnu refers to the same fact "For a Sudra, all branches of art such as painting and the other fine arts
16
The Vedic and the Art or secular schools were not properly artı culated and the courses of studies in these two types of schools were quite distinct Scholais however could shift from one type of schools to the other According to Manu it was an essential necessity for the Brahmins to attend the Vedic schools before joining the Art or secular schools For them Vedic education was a prerequisite for joining the later type of schools 'A twice-boin man who, not having studied the Veda, applies himself to other (and worldly study), soon falls even while living, to the condition of a śudia and his descendants after him "7 Initiation into the upanayana ceremony is essential for the twice-born to be admitted into the Vedic school and the age limit varies with the different castes According to Gihya-Sutias a Brahmana, a Ksatriya and a Vaisya boy should perform his upanayana ceremony at the respective age of eight, cleven and twelve The age limit for each of them may be extended to sixteen in the case of a Brahmin, twentytwo for a Ksatriya and twenty-four for a Vaisya-boy from conception The close connection of this ceremony with the admission into the Vedic school clearly shows that the Brahmin scholars are expected to begin then study with the Vedic courses, whereas the other two members of the twice-boin seck admission into the Vedic course after completing the art school, the initiation ceremony is not enjoined upon the scholais of the twice-boin while studying secular courses "The Veda is to be explained only to one who has been duly initiated", while there is no such restriction with regard to the teaching of ordinary 'language'. The Veda is taught to the three higher castes only while ordinary language is common to all the four castes According to Kumārila Bhatta then a Biahmin pupil can easily join the secular or Art school in case his upanazana ceremony is deferied upto the age of sixteen from conception and the above quotation clearly indicates this point
S
We are told in the Lalitavistaia how Lord Buddha in his boyhood
684
11
חיי
6 The Institutes of Visnu, ti by Julius Jolly, p 13, verse 14 7 Manu, u by G Buhler, p 61, verse 168
Gihya-Sutras, ti by Hermann Oldenberg, p 187, verses 1-7 9. Kumarıla Bhatta, Tantiavārtika, vol. 1, ti. by Di Ganganath Jha, p. 325.

Page #28

JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
attended an Art or writing school along with five hundred Sakya princes to study 3R s and useful arts from Vasumitra10 before joining the Uni versity of Taxıla where later he went through an encyclopaedic course including the three Vedas eighteen sciences and arts.
The Jaina literature supports the view that this study in Arts school was justifiable We are told that the son of Srenila Bimbisara was banded over to a teacher of art at the age of eight from conception 'Then when prince Mcha was in his eighth year his parents brought him to a teacher of the arts on an auspicious tithi karana and hour The teacher of the arts trained prince Meha and taught him the seventy two arts 11 Precisely at the age of eight from conception prince Goyame was sent to a letter of Arts by hus parents under whom he studied seventy two arts till the dawn of adolescence It may bc noted that unlike the Europeans who calculate age from birth the ancient Indians used to calculate it from conception According to modern educational psychologists adolescence for the males commences at the age of fourteen whereas for that of the females til o years carlict According to this calculation it is clear that Goyamc completed his course of study in the art school in eight years It is clear that cight years course was the standard in the art school Then when lus father and mother saw that little Goyamc was past eight years of age during an auspicious tithi harana day star and hour they brought him to a teacher of the arts Tlic tcacher trained little Goyamc and tought him the seventy to arts And we quote again And now young Goyamc showed himself learned in the scienty two arts with tre sium boring nine organs awalcncd 13
Thc factor of different periods fixed for upangjana ceremony of Brahmin boys grcauy influence the admission into Art scliools. During the period prior to the cercmony of upanayana thc Bralının boys in stcad of wasting away their time in idleness used to study in the Art school before they could join the Vedic school after the upanayana
10 Lalitauistára tr s Dr Rajcncira Lal Mura P 18 11 Arella Vågadhi Reader er lis Binani Das Jain, MA, PJO)
jo The Ania Gada Dado and Anutarovaralia Davo ir by L D Damnett M.A., D Lit, P 30
13 Ibid put

Page #29

LECTURE II
13
ceremony This is a hypothesis the truth of which is borne out by human nature itself There is reason to believe that primary schools or art schools were attended by all the future citizens of India irrespective of caste and creed and the iesult was that literacy almost universally prevailed As a typical example we may take the case of the kingdom of Kekaya where Aśvapati while welcoming the scholars who came to discuss the problem of the true nature of the soul referred to this universal literacy of the kingdom "Whien they arrived, the king caused proper honours to be paid to each of them separately In the morning after leaving his bed, he said to them "What makes you come here? Are you troubled by bad men > But there are no such people in this land In my kingdom there is no thief, no miser, no drunkard, no irreligious, nor illiterate person, no adulterer, much less an adulteress ''14 Thus we gather from the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina sources that the typical art school or piimary school was patronised by all the communities of India Here beside the three R's, the vernacular languages, fine arts as well as psysical and military sciences were taught The inclusion of Vedic study in the Jaina curricula of education was a ladder step in the right direction creating an atmosphere favourable to the spread of Buddhism and Jainism which stood for universal brotherhood of man and denied the validity of caste restriction
It is clear that the Vedic school was superimposed upon the Art school, although, the curiicula of these institutions were different at the start The study of these three Vedas and the eighteen sciences was not compulsory for all students Manu distinctly prescribed three periods when a twice-born boy might diop out from the Vedic school Thus thirty-six, eighteen and nine years were piescribed by Manu for the study of the three Vedas after the upanayana ceremony According to the plan advocated by Manu a twice-born boy might drop out from the Vedic school after tyeļve, six or three years of study in one Veda only As a rule the Brahmins completed the whole course of study as they alone aspire after leadership in ieligion Ksatriyas and Vaisyas dropped out after minimum residence In this connection we may quote the opinion of Kumārıla Bhatta given in his Tantravārtika
14 The Vedānta-Sūtras of Bādarāyana ti. by Rai Baļiadur Srisa Candrą Yasu, vol I. P 91.

Page #30

་
14
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
According to him even Manu did not complete the three Vedas and only the cripple lame or otherwise physically handicapped and the brilliant scholar dedicating their life to the cause of education studied the full Vedic course Then again Manu himself could not necessarily have studied all the branches of all the Vedas and as such he could not always lay his hands upon all Vedic texts 13 and again
As for the Smrt text that enjoins the life of the religious student for forty-eight years this has been mentioned in the Smrtis also only as an alternative course or it may be explained as referring to conditions of life other than that of the prospective householder and as such there is no contradiction by this of the said Vedic text. Manu speaks of the person having studied the three two or even one Veda in due order and from this it is clear that the three alternatives are laid down either in consideration of the diverse capacities of different students or as referring to different conditions of life Gautama has declared that- with a view to the studying of one Veda the man should remain a student for twelve years and this is the first alternative laid down for those desirous of soon entering into the householders state And as the second alternative he lays down the necessity of leading the students life extending to twelve years for each Veda -thus making up a sum total of forty-eight years
18
The longer period has been laid down for those that are either blind or lame or otherwise incapable of entering upon the duties of the householder For such people there is either life long student ship or life of Renunciation and as such they can very well accept the longer course of study 17
The upakarman ceremony (July August) marks the beginning of the Vedic studies and its termination is celebrated by the utsarga cere mony which agam marks the study of the Angus R
This period is eminently favourable to serious studies and clima tologists are of opinion that mental efficiency reaches its perfection in a cooler climate Of the six Vedangas Astronomy may be most success fully studied after January or February or in the spring when the sky Kumarila Bhatta Tantravāruka vol 1 tr by Dr Canganathi Jha p. 111 16. Ibid p if
15
17 Ibid P 16
18
Dr D C Das Gupta Manu and Educational philosophy

Page #31

15
is clear
The recognition of the influence of the climate is clearly perceptible in the organization of the semesters in the Vedic school During the time of Manu the Vedic schools were accidentally wellorganized A Parisad or an assembly of scholais exercised full powers over the general administration and instruction of the scholais Rājaśekhara in his Kāvyamīmāmsā 1efers to Boards of Examiners one at Ujjain and another at Pataliputia where learned scholars like Kālidāsa, Valaiuchi, Panını, Pingala, Chandragupta and others appeared as examinees 10 These two places according to Buddhist and Jaina autho11ties were great and flourishing centies of Biahmanical learning
20
The Jaina authorities in preparing the cuniculum of the studies follow the ideals of Taksasılā University in embracing sacred with secular education In their monastic university there were three distinct departments Vodic study, Jaina scriptures, and Art. In the Brahmanic or Vedic school Acãi ya, Upadhyāya, Hotr, Udgātr, Adhvaryu, Monitois and Tutors were the teachers of various ranks engaged in teaching their respective subjects We gather from the Puranas and Jaina literatures that the head-teacher of an art school was in charge of the students who used to reside in his house for a specific period 21
LECTURE II
The Vedic and the art Schools played an important part in moulding the intellectual life of the people of India The curricula of these institutions were vitally related to the realities of life The geographi
As for the finan
cal factors govern the course of studies in the schools cial resources behind these institutions we may note that they enjoyed state-grants and for the Brahmanical schools the beggingtours enhanced the sources of income On the completion of their studies the students used to pay honorarium to teachers according to their ability The fee demanded by the teachers in the famous University of Taxila from the students of royal household and students belonging to alistocracy wele 1000 pieces of gold per head 22 The students
19 Rajasekhaia Kāvymimānsă edited by C D Dalal, MA, and Anantakrishna Shasty, p 55
20
Divyāvadāna
21
Brhat Kalpa Suua, vol I, p 88
22
The Jātaka o Stories of the Buddha's Former Baths vol. II, ti by W HD Rouse, MA p. 194

Page #32

16
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
of poor families were taught and fed gratis in exchange of manual work while Manu prescribed to the king the duty of honouring and supporting a learned Brahının A Ksatriya must have in his mind the patronage of learning and nothing more
The life in Vedic and Art schools was decent happy and vigo rous The students were looked on as children by the teachers Residence in a teachers house was enjoined upon all scholars in the above two institutions of learning We learn from the Buddhist source that even male students resided in the house of lady teachers We quote below to support our claim Then a young fellow a resident pupil of the brahmin lady of the Verahaccani clan came to visit the venerable Udayın and on coming to him greeted him courteously and after the exchange of greetings and compliments sat down at one siden
It is not clear from the evidences at our disposal whether female students in Jaina India used to live in the house of their teachers during the period of their education but it is clear that they did receiv education of a thoroughly effective type We have even from the scanty materials within our reach a distinctly vivid idea of the vigorous scienti fically perfect and systematic education that was within the reach of all citizens irrespective of caste creed and sex. There were no frontiers of knowledge Sacred and secular learning flourished side by side The Brahmanic scheme of education supplemented instead of supplanting the Jaina scheme In a word in ancient India under the fostering care of the Jaina educationists a very useful and practical method of education anticipating some of the essential features of the educational innovations of modern tunc existed and existed in a vigo rous healthy and marvelously fresh condition
The Book of the Kindred Sayings (Sanyutta Nikaya) part IV tr by F L. Woodward M.A. p 77
28

Page #33

LECTURE III
THE JAINA MONASTERIES
THEIR IMPORTANCE AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS
The Jaina monasteries played a very important part in moulding the civilisation and the cultural destiny of India, both in its intellectual and moral aspects These monasteries did for India during a definite period of Indian history exactly what their counterparts of middle ages did foi Europe during the dark age of her history. They hept the torch of learning burning in spite of and in the midst of intellectual and spiritual darkness They promoted the spirit of sweetness, spirituality and light, and developed the sentiments of humanity, charity, piely and biotherhood The priestly sounders of Jaina monasteries were possessed of strong commonsense and foresight which were displayed in the selection of their sites of learning which were mostly in the vicinity of the metropolis, the cilies or sea-shores, or on the banks of uveis ,on the slopes of mountains and hills These ensured their accessibility and popularity, and guaranteed then continuance People could easily flock to the centies of learning by boats through rivers or could walk through well-consti ucted roads of which there were plenty in those days connecting the vast cities of India In our estimate of the part played by the Jaina centies of learning we should not forget the geogiaphical factors locations, mountains, rivers, lakes, fauna, flora, and the net-work of transportation system which had a iemarkable bearing upon the Jaina monasteries
The curricula of Jaina education were comprehensive and eminently practical, and took into full account the needs of Indian States It may be noted that every organised State in India needed at least the following depaitments, vil (1) department of treasury,1 (2) department of charity2 (3) department of medicine, (4) department
1 Merutunga Ācārya, The Prabandhacıntămanı, tr by C H Tawney, M 4, p 67, p 170 2 Ibid, P 38
3 Ibid, p 81.
3

Page #34

18
JAINA SYSTESI OF EDUCATION
of army (5) clepartment of religion (6) department of education (7) department of records? (8) department of foreign relations each under 1 superintendent As the names indicate the heads of these departments were responsible officers with requisite qualifications due to learning experience and knowledge of the world The head of the education department was 7 superior Pançlita with the extensive juris diction of all scholars At his discretion he had the right to expel the scholars from the country for twelve ycars The head of the foreignrelation department was a diplomat whose office was to negotiate trea ties and agreements between his own State and other foreign States Each department consisted of gradation of offices very much after the pattern of the modern States There were provincial governors' over the heads of the department and above all was the king the sole symbol of sovereignty representing the supremncy and strength of the States
As in the modern world of this industrial age a variety of trades and industries both on large and small scales existed in Jaina India and the aim of the Jaina scheme of education was to equip the students
necessary qualifications for all these branches of trade and industry as well as for the highet occupation relating to religion and morality In other words the Jaina scheme of cducation had the secular as well as religious aspects
In the present lecture we are especially interested in the depart ments of religion and education with special bearing on the develop ment of the intellectual and cultural life of the community We have textual et idences to show that at a very early period of the Jaina history of India the secular education came to be separated from the religious there being two distinct officers in charge of different departments on religion and education The superintendent of the Tripunisa Reli gious Foundation in Guzerat and the superior Pandita" verc respec
4 Mcrutunga Aciry, Thc Prabandhaantámanı ir by C H Tawncy Mwl. P 148
5 Ibid p 25 6 Ibid P 54 7 Ibid p 100 8 Ibid p 41 p 141 9 Ibid p 186 10 Ibid p 25
in Ibid P 52

Page #35

B
LECTURE III
19
This
tively in charge of religious and secular education This was surely a healthy movement anticipating in fact similar steps taken in the USA and the European countries in the nmeteenth century. Over and above those two departments provision was made for imparting education to the members of the royal family in the Vedas and other secular Arts I raming in dancing and music as well as traming in military ants were taken into full account Ample provision was also made for training in horse-riding clephant-riding and other physical exercises State patronage was accorded not only to the Jamas but to the Brahmins who maintained Vedic schools exclusively for the purpose of umparting the sacred lore The mercantile and other artizan communities had then guild schools imparting technical education relating to industries The members of these communities were allowed to join the Vedic schools and the schools for secular education By the by the guilds in Jama India were systematically organized very much after the pattern of then counterparts in the Middle Age I hey made then own by-laws to mamiam then discipline subject to the sanction of the head of the State The office of the president was in theory an elective one though in practice it was hereditary As a rule the piesident was an extremely qualified person versed in sacred as well as secular literature and possessed of a thorough knowledge of the world of men and of the world of commerce and industry Ou mçagie information on this point from purely Jama sources may be well supplemented by Bihaspati, who says, "Honest persons, acquainted with the Vedas and the duty, able, self-controlled, sprung from noble families, and skilled in every business, shall be appointed as heads (of an association)
12
11
17 11
It is clear from the above that the scheme of education pationised by the Jama State was complete, national and comprehensive, taking into account all the needs of the community, theoretical and practical, secular and sacred The educational institutions of all types enjoyed complete autonomy Of all educational institutions, the Jaina
12
13
tr by Rev A M Tabaid, MA, pp 142-43
14 Bihaspati, Minor Law Books, Pait I, 11. by Julius Jolly, P. 347, 9.
Minor Law Books, part I, 1 by Julius Jolly, p 154, veise no 3 Professor Fiélix Lacôte, Essay on the Gunádhya and the Brhat Katha,

Page #36

20
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
monasteries again deserve special notice on account of their complete ness and excellent organization and cosmopolitan nature of the Ideals
The Jama monasteries were widely distributed all over India and in their distribution the influence of geographical factors are cicarly perceptible We give below an illustrative list of the outstanding monasteries in India In Bengal Pundravardhana 15 and the then coastal city of Tāmralıpta 10 (now Tamluk an obscure sub-division of Midna pur district in Bengal) as well as Champaka"and RajagȚha" in Magadha were important centres of Jaina culture and learning Benares 16 Sravastı 30 Alabhiya (Alora) Manivaiya > Kampılya ** (Kampıl in Farokhabad Dist. U P) Ujjain 't on the bank of the Siprā hşıtıpratishthapura " on the bank of the Godavari Kollaga * a su burb of Vaisalı Paņiyabhumi hummagama > Salakotthaya Cheiya in the suburb of Ilıdhiyagama >> and in west India Nandanavana® in thu
15 Divyávadána, cdited by E. B Cowell M.A. And R. A Neil, M.A. P 427
16 Maurice Bloomfield, The Life And Stories of The Jaina Savior Priva nátha, p 168
16b Ibid p 70. Mahâbhârata vol vi edited by Handas Siddhantavagu, D. 780 versc, 169 18 Nirayavaliydo edited by 4 S Gopanı M.A. and V j Chokshi B.A. PÅ VETBC 2 19. Ibid p 6g verse go
20 Ibid p 6g verse, 81 21 The Uvasagadasło vol ii tr by A. F Rudolf Hoernlc, Ph.D., P 103
155
22 Nirayávallydo cdited by A. S Gopanı M.A., and V J Chokshi, B.A. P111 verke, 143
29 Uvasagadasho vol il p 106 16g
232. Cunninghan : Ancient Gcography edited by Surendra Nath Majumder M.A. P 104
24. Hanbhadra Süri Samariicca Kahl, ur by M C. Noli M.A LLB., p 88.
25. Amara Candra Suri Padmånanda Mahakaya, cdited by H R Kapadia, p. 15 verse 1
25a. Haribhadra Suri op dit. P 39 20 Uvasagadasło p 166 rense 267 27 Ibid appendix p. : aja. Jaina Sutras, part I tr by Hermann Jacobi p 264 28 Uvisagadasło appendix, p 2 29 Ibid p 10. 30, Niravavaliyao p 135

Page #37

LECTURE III
21
suburb of Bāravai (Dwaraka), Polāsapua, 91 Pātālapura, 2 Moderapura,'3 Sähunihävihāia,?' in the city of Bhigupuia (modein Broach) in the neighbourhood of Naumadā, Vaidhamāna," and in the southein India in thc uith century Konkonapuli, 90 Kopana"7 Siavana Belgolā, 39 Pombucca" (modern Humcca), Ballıgāmc,a" Anchāntamata," Kuppaāūt in the Sohrab tālulat, Banavasenād,- Heggaiet? (about seven miles from Bulıyū in thc Chitaldioog district), Suingeri, Kolhāpur,45 Bandanıkcin (also variously known as Bāndhavanagaia and Bāndhavapura), Dorasamudia,47 Arasıyalere, 18 (a famous scat of Jama culture in the Karnālaha country), were all noted as centres of Jainism in ancient and mediaeval India The Jaina monasteries sprang up all over India in small towns and villages, devoting themselves to the diffusion of light-religious, academic and practical to liain up their alumni for diverse vocations of life
As we have noted above, the sites of the Jaina monasteries were selected in consideration of many geogi aphical factois, all calculateu to increase the accessibility and popularity of the centres of education We notice below somewhat in detail the geographical factors exercising
31 Uvāsagadasão, vol 11, p 140, para 212 32 Rājaśckhara Sūri, Prabandhakosa, vol 1, p 26 33 Ibid, LOC Cit
34 Merutunga Ācārya, Prabandhacıntamani, vol I, tr, by C H Tawney, MA, P 136
35 Ibid, p 134
36 Bhashcr Anand Salctoie, MA, PhD, D Phil, Mediaeval Jainis P 191
37 Ibid, p 192 38 Ibid, p 193 39 Ibid, p 200 40 Ibid, p 202 41 Ibid, p 204 42 Ibid, p 205 43 Ibid, p 205 44 Saletore, op cit p 206. 45 Ibid, p 206 46 Ibid, p 207 47 Ibid, p 209, p 211 48. Ibid, p 214

Page #38

22
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
powerful influence on selected Jama inonasteries and their educational actritics
the influence of gcographucal factors upon the rise and growth of some of the Jaina inonasicTICS is noied bclon --
(1) Monasterics -
Geographical factors - (i) Punnabhalda monas (1) Water - inland bodies of watertory at Chuprha pools wells to lahes ponds lotus pools
(2) Vegetation -
(a) agricultural crops - rice wheat sugar-cane and lotust?
b) Tropical Scrub jungle - gosiras-sandal reel sandal dardara sandal various species of trees with right of tap tools upper roots storns barh single stems thick broad and round trees shooting Icares in summer thickets bushes boners arbours asoka trees husa-grass vahusa-grass lakušas chattropas śirişas saptaparnas dadhiparnas lodhras dhavas arjunas nipaskušajas kadambas savyas panasas pomegranates šalis wine puins tainalas priyalas priyangas puropakas rapa víkşas tilakas and nandı vșhşas were encompasses by many creepers padmala-creepers naga-creepers campaka-creepers mango-creepers forest-creepers visantiha-creepers Tuimuktaka-crecpers jasmine-creepers śyama-creepers
49 The Antagadadasdo And Anuttarovaványa-dasão tr by L. D Barnett, MA, D Litt P1
50 Ibid ps 51 Ibid p1 61 Ibid PP 44 P & P 7

Page #39

LECTURE III
(3) Fauna
Elephants, horses buffaloes, oxen, rams", cocks, capons", pariots, peacocks, thrushes cuckoos, kobhagas, bhingārajas, kondalas, pheasants nandimukhas, kavilas, pingalakkhagas, ducks ruddy geese, kalahamsas, water-fowl
(2) Monastery in the Sahassambavana garden in the suburb of Kam
pillapura
(3) Monastery in the garden of Sankhavana in the suburb of Alabhiya
(4) Salakotthaya Cheiya in the suburb of Midhiyagama
(1) Transportation high-oads, junction of thicc, four or more 10ads Vehicles chariots, palanquins, litters, cars and cariages
57
(1) Flora 's
-
55
56
23
(1)
Ibid. p Loc Cit
Ind, p 5
58 The Lasgadsão, vol n, u b
(5) Dupalāsa monastery at Kol- (1) Scil, density of population laga located in the suburb of Vanija- & transportation-system grāma which is in its tuin a suburb of
Vaisālī
1)
(1) Flourshing ai bour of ' the Maluka-cceper
(6) Monastery
at Nandanavana (1) Fauna
garden located in the north-eastern Hamsas, deer herons waterduection of Baiavai city
fowl, ruddy-geese, thrushes and
cuckoos
53 The Antagadadesão And Anutruovavärva-dasin, t by L D Bumi, PP 11P 6 p7
51 Ibid. p 1
**
Pnd p 2
1 I. Rudolf Horn, PhD, 30,
pur 163
り
I've, vol ap 103 para 135 61
60
Ibid vol u appendix p 10
Tad vol PP 15 62 The Antagadadasio And Anutovator (divo e ID Bor MA, DL
pla

Page #40

24
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
(7) Monastery at Sirivana" and ac cording to other authority at Sahas sambavana J both located in the suburb of Polasapura
(2) Landscapes --Levels crags caverns cascades declivities slopes and peaks
(1) Flora
P 40
(8) Monastery at Aśokavana located (1) at Kşıtıpratisthapura.
01:3
14
Inland body of water vız the Godavari river
(2) Vegetation -mango-orchards containing mango-trees nimba trees aśoka trees trees of varied description and atimukta-creepers
68 The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavaiya-dasão tr by L D Barnett M.A. D Litt p Loc. Cit.
64 Ibid P 94.
65 The Uvasagadasão p 118 para, 180
66
Haribhadra Suri Samaraicca Kaha, edited by M C. Modi M.A., LL.B.,

Page #41

LECTURE IV
THE JAINA MONASTERIES
THEIR ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES.
The Jaina monasteries were highly organised institutions managed and contiolled by a hiciarchy of officcis To trace their historical growth and development is a very difficult task owing to paucity of materials Sullice it lo say that thcie was an Executive Council corresponding to the Senate oi the Coul of the modern University It looked allei the general adınınıstiation and conducted negotiations with the State in case of disputes “The council who managed the temple of Shree Rishub Dev theicupon biought soith their coppei-plates and other records to piove, in the ioyal court, the antiquity of their privileges” 1 We have alrcady icferied to the practice of king Vijaya's appointing a superintendent soi Tupui usa Religious foundation-a fact which evidently implics the existence of Slate contiol over education And there existed a variety of schools under pati onage including those for the members of the royal household Outsideis were also admitted to State schools The task of administering the monasteries and controlling their policy was enti usted to an assembly of monks with the Siddha as their supreme head This body corresponded to modern academic Council of Univeisities
sii Yogindra Ācārya in his "Paramātma Prakāśa," mentions Ācāryas, Upādhāyas and Sădhus are the three grades of munis They together with the Ārhats and Siddhas constitute Pañca-Paramesti. According to Kundalunda Ācārya, the Siddhas are the foremost among the Jaina saints and are heads of ascetic bands "Having repeatedly saluted the Siddhas, the foremost great Jinas and the saints a person may adopt asceticism, if he desires escape from misery."
1 Alexander Kınloch Foi bes, Rás Málá, Vol I, p 117
2 Śrī Yogindia Ācārya, The Paramātma-prahāśa, tr by S ie Dass Jain, FA, P2, 7
3 Ibid, p 53, 900 4 Sri Kundakundācāı ya, Piavacanasāra, edited br e achta p 24

Page #42

26
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
He prostrates himself before a (great) saint the head of an ascetic band NaturallySiddha must be the supreme head of a Jaina monastery Next in order of ranks is the Arhat The third in rank in the Jamna hierarchy of monks is the Acarya a learned scholar who has reached the highest stage of asceticism The Upadhyaya holds an in ferior position to the Acarya and teaches the Vedas and secular sciences The Acarya is the adept who has reached the highest point of asce ticism but has not yet attained to the status of the Arhat The Upadhyaya is the master whose chief duty is to instruct others and the Sadhu is the ascetic who follows the rules of asceticisin The Sramanas are ascetics who are versed in the scriptures and lead their life in strict con formity with the monastic rules and are expert in the interpretation of the sacred texts. They also must have teaching responsibility in the We have to mention in the connection two spiritual dignitaries-Pravajya-daynka and the Niryapaka the former discharg ing the function of initiating novices in the ascetic fold and the latter rehabilitating the members guilty of misconduct, in the right course That preceptor at whose hands they accept the (ascetic) emblem is known as Pravajya-dayaka (ie the teacher who initiates them into the ascetic fold) the remaining ascetics who help to re-establish them in the right course when they have committed certain defaults are called Niryapaka Each class of hierarchy of teachers mentioned above had distinct functions to discharge-a fact which will be clear from the following quotations It must be noted that all the most obvious and useful duties of saintship are discharged in this stage for example-teaching and preaching the scriptures and reading and writ + ing the books looking after the discipline of pupils travelling abroad and taking load
monasteries
•
-
THE CURRICULA IN THE JAINA MONASTERIES
The curricula in the Jaina monasteries were encyclopaedic em bracing Hindu Buddhist and Jaina courses of studies The first
5
Ibid P 3
6 Sri Kundakundăcărya Pravacanasara edited by A. N Upadhye, M.A.
P 30 verse no 32
Ibid p 83 verse no 68
7
8 Ibid p 288 verse no 10.

Page #43

LECTURE IV!
27
group included the Biāhmanic and the Art courses The second group included the whole sange of Buddhist courses and the third group the twelve Angas of the Jainas The whole scheme of studies was iemarkably adjusted to the needs of the scholars of all ianks~the high and the low' pursuing seculai or religious courses of studies It admn ably takes care of “G” and “S” factors The Vedic or Brahmanic, the Buddhistic and the Jama systems especially took care of the aforesaid first factor or general native abilities and the Art courses of the "S" factor or specific abilities Though these two terms were coined by Spearmann, these tivo types of intelligence were known to the ancient Jainas which they utilized in curicular construction A We learn from the Anuyogadvāra Sutram that the following
courses of studies were followed the four Vedas, the Vedāngas, the
Vyāharana, the diamas, the Lohāyata (Cārvāka), Sankhya, Vaisesiha, the Sastilantia (a Sānhliya treatise) Rāmāyanā, Bhīmasuruksha, Kautilya's Arthaśāstia, Treatment of loises, the Science of chariots, Kārpāsīka Sāstias, Nāgasūkshmā, Kanaka-saptatı śāstrā, etc B Buddha Sāsana (the Doctrins of Buddha) C The seventy-two Arts" (These will be discussed in connection
with the education of the princes) D The twelve Angas of the Jainas which are as follows -
1 Ācārānga Sūtia 2 Sūtrakrtānga. 3 Sthānanga 4 Samavāyānga 5 Vyākhyā Prajñaptı 6 jñātādharma-kathāh 7 Upāsakadaśāh 8 Antakrddaśah 9 Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh 10 Piaśna-Vyākaranām 11 Vipāka-Sūtram 12 Drstivāda 10
We do not know for certain which of the Jaina monasteries offered
9. Anuyogadvāra-Sūtra, p 30
10
Anuyogadvāra-Sūtra, p 32,

Page #44

28
JAINA SYSTFM OF EDUCATION
the encyclopaedic curricula including the Brahmanic the Arts as well as the Jaina courses of studies We learn however from the Prabandha Koşa vol that the seventy two Arts including the Vedas the Vedangas Fine-Arts Military sciences and other scientific courses were offered to Am prince of Kanauj son of king Yasovarman at the Jaina monastery at the city of Morera in Guzerat by Siddhasena " It is however quite likely that all the important Jaina monasteries offered the whole range of encyclopaedic courses of studies with modifications to suit the needs of local society and individuals We have not mate rials at our disposal to prove our contention But we learn from stray references in the Jaina scriptures that eleven of the twelve Angas were offered in the following Jaiha monasteries
(1) Campa -In the Posaha house at Campaka Kamadeva re ceived instruction in the Law from Mahavira his spiritual master
12
(2) Rajagṛha -The eleven Angas were also taught to novices young or adult in the Gunasıla sanctuary at Rajagṛha There a rich man of the name of Makai renounced the world and took to monastic life and studied the scriptures
13
(8) Vaisali -At Kollaga a suburb of Vaņijagrama which was in its turn a suburb of Vaisali a householder of the name of Ananda directly became a disciple of Lord Mahavira with some characteristic expressions of piety and devotion 14
(4) Benares -The Jaina sanctuary Kama Mahavana at Bara nası offered instructions in the eleven Angas It is stated that King Alakkha of the above city joined on his retirement from active life the monastic order and devoted himself to an arduous course of studies 1
(5) In the city of Sravasti which was a centre of spiritual culture
11
Rajasekhara, Prabandhakoda, vol. I p 17
12
Uvǎagadasão vol. I tr by A. F Rudolf Höernle, 81
P
13. The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavaiya Dasão tr by L. D Barnett M.A., D.Lit. p 85
14 The Uvasagadasão vol. I tr by A. F Rudolf Hoernle, pp
6-10
15 The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavaiya Dasão tr by L. D Barnett, M.A., D.Lit. p 96

Page #45

LECTURE IV
in a very vitally important point in education These views are diametrically opposed to the views that prevail in the field of education in the modern world of to-day in practice and not in theory.
The method of study that prevailed in the Jaina monastery was a comprehensive and rational one, there being five steps in the passage of the acquisition of knowledge, namely, rehearsal, repetition, interrogation, concentration and discussion Study is fivefold saying or learning one's lesson , questioning the teacher about it, repetition, pondering, and religious discourse 2+ The Jaina teachers especially valued the influence of repetition in imparting knowledge and the very word repeatedly occuis in the sacred text 25 Over and above, following the method of five steps, the Jaina authorities utilized the biographical method in their extension lectures They used to utilise a real or fictitious personality as a peg round which to weave their lessons on literary and moral subjects
There is reason to believe that the Jaina monasteries made special provisions for the military and physical education of the princes and the children of the military classes Invariably there was either a field attached to every monastery for the exercise of military students or there were public gardens reserved exclusively for this purpose, these were utilized by the monks to offer military instructions to their pupils. As in a modern military school, here the princes learnt military warfare from their professors, who in spite of their being monks, were versed in military arts The teachers used to suggest remedies for pointing out defect in their movements and so forth In teaching military science the teachers adapted their course of training to the mental aptitude of the students We can get a clear glimpse into the state of things that prevailed in the field of military education in Jaina India "He exhibited to the Lord the shooting of a doll on a wheel, shooting an invisible object by sound, the shooting at a target in water, the shooting of a clay-ball on a wheel with arrows, who showed pādagati, carrying a sword and shield, having entered the shield like the moon in a cloud He whirled rapidly a lance, spear, and club, giving the appearance of a fiery streak of lighting, revolving in the sky He showed him knife-science with
24 Jaina Sūtras, vol II tr by Hermann Jacobi, p 179, 4
25 Sri Yogındra Ācārya, Paramātma-prahāśa, tr by Rickhab Dass Jain, BA; P 59, 341

Page #46

32
UN SISTEM OF LDUCATION
all tlic Inic positions expert in all the stops, like 7 dancer showsing a doncc From dcvolion to his icacher and a desire to be taught by him showcd Ajita Svamın lus shill in other scapons also Whatci or was lacking in Sagara s rus the Master taught him For such a man had such a icicher So boch engagcii in activities according to their natures crossed thic first period of life and trai cllcd Crossing the boundary of a villager
The dimission to the Jaina monastcrics cxactly followed the method of admission to the Vedic schools there being an officer with thic title of Pravajyatlayaka ulo initiated the notices into the accetic fold and there being anotlicr officct who looked after their moral con duct Tic ulc of the latcr was Nuryapaka Wc learn from the Praya anasara and the Mulacara Sutra iliat an cthical code of conduct of a 1 cry strict type was applied to the guidance of novices of Jaina monasteries Special respect was to be shown to tcachers senior monks and guests
Standing up (wlicn thc clderly monks arrive) following them (when they arc going) showing respect to them) and removal of fatigue these accompanied by salutation and adoration arc not forbidden for monks having auspicious resultant of consciousness 137
The Sramanas with concentrated mind moral discipline and faith must regularly study the scriptures Hc who is simultaneously applied to the cultivation of the trio of right faith knowledge and con duct is said to haic attained concentration and he has perfect as ceticism T?ic Jaina fathers consider the study of the scriptures to be of supreme importance Application to the study of scriptures is of the highest importance. The students of Jaina monasteries received their education boarding and lodging free Begging-tours were prescribed for the students The teachers were required to follow a prescribed scheme of duties which will be evident from the following quotations Preaching alone right faith and knowledge receiving and fecding the pupils and giving instruction in the worship
26 Hemacandra Trisastusalákápuruşacarita vol II tr by Helen M Johnson Ph.D P71
27 Sri Kundakundădrya Pravacanasara, edited by A. N Upadhye M.A. p. 32. Yuse 47
18 Ibid p. yo vers 43 89 Ibid p go verse 3
T
/

Page #47

LECTURE IV
of great Jins constitute the course of conduct of monks with auspicious resultant of consciousness. In addition to the above duty, the following ten commandments are prescubed for the ascetics by the great Junas Violation of any of these commandinents amounts to a default on their part “Five vows, fivefold carefulness, control of five senses, pulling out of the hair, sıxsold Āvaśyaka or essential nakedness, not taking bath, sleeping on ground, not cleaning the teeth, taking meals in standing postue and taking only one meal a day-these, in fact, have been prescribed, as the primary virtues of the ascetic, by the great Jinas "30
Mention is constantly made of various giades of academic honours such as the diploma of Pandila, Bahuśı ula and Doctorale degrees Like the modern Universities, the Jaina satheis used to confer degrees on successful students The title of Pandita used to be conferied on successful students of moderate attainments It was by no means the highest degree in the Jaina University Such a title used to be confered on scholars of the Vikramaśīla University by the kings of Bengal “Dalaus wurde ihm zur Zeit des Konigs Mahāpala ein schoner Aufenthaltsori, namens Vikiamaçila bewahrt "1 We leain of this title from the Mahabhārata and the Buddhist sources, and the definitions contained therein do not show it to be the highest academic honour It used to be conferred upon scholais not so much for their erudition and depth of learning as for their asceticism and purity of character The Jaina temple of Aristanemi in Kanavati, Guzeiat, had pandits attached to it 39 The mferiority of the diploma of pandita to a doctoiate will be clear from the following quotation "Representatives of all sects were summoned to ievise the pancgyrıc, and the teachei Hemacandra sent there his subordinaťe disciple the pandita Rāmacandia '93 In the Vedic schools, too, the diploma of Pandita did not indicate the highest type of honour This title used to be conferred upon a student studying in a Vedic school. This view is corroborated by the following quotation "She was made
30 Sví Kundakundācãi ya, Pravacanasia, edited by A N Upadhye, MA p 25, veises 8-9
31. Târanātha, Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, tr by Schiesnei, p 232.
32. Merutunga Ācārya, Prabandhacıntamani, tr. by C. H. Tawney, M.A, p 97.
33 'Ibid; p 93.

Page #48

,
JAINA SISTEM OF EDUCATION
01 cr to a Panclıta namcd Vararucı sor thic purpose of study » Origi nally incant lo siguis asccticism thic titic Pandita camc gradually to dcnotc scholarshup Thic process of transition will be clear from the words of Lord Buddha He who after examining both kinds of scnscs, internally and externally, is cndon cd with a clear understanding and lias conquerred cul and good (kanliasukka) such a one is called a Pandita (wise) by being so Buddhaghosa seems to support this view of Lord Buddha His expression pancliccam is equivalent to crudition Wc quotc bclou froin Buddhaghose? Where the substantı tal form pandiccam is renderd crudition and paraphrascd (AsI 1471 as pandılassa bhavo the statc of a wise person one who was discern inent discreuon one who has chosen that good part as contrasted with the avcrage scrisual person or foolish youth * According to Jaina authoritics 75 c have noted it referred to asccticism Gradually at a much later period the diploma of Pandita came to signify academic honour and it used to be conferred cien upon females on account of their scholarship and proficiency in all the sciences 07
The Master s degrec – Thc Jain literature proper does not give us any explicit rcfcrence to thc Master & degree although we have a good deal of information about it from the Buddhistic sources The following quotation proves the existence of Master a degree in Buddhist India during the life-time of Lord Buddha He is a master of logical analysis a master in analyzing causal relations a master of gramma tical analysis master in analyzing thungs knowablc 28 It is probable though it is not certain that the Jainas followed the Buddhist practice of confetting Masters degree on competent candidates We have it on record that the Buddhist Universities conferred the honour on the deserving candidates during the life time of the Buddha himself. In the seventh century the famous University of Nalanda used to confer this honour upon competent students Above the Master 8 degree
94. Merutunga Acórya Prabandhacintamani, tr by C H Tawncy MA, p3
36 The Sutta Nipata tr by V Fausboli p go 36a. Buddhaghosa, The Expositor yol i tr by Maung Tin, MA P 380 86b The Attanagalu Varsa tr by James D Alwis, M.RAS PP 1924. 37 Hemacandricarya The Yogasastra, vol. I P 397 verse 95 38 Anguttara Nik&ya vol. II tr by F L. Woodward M.A p 89

Page #49

35
there was that of Bahusruta, in between the degree of the Master and that of the Doctor We have textual references to thicc distinct grades of this degree in a passage in he Kalpasūtra where we are told that the designation of Bahu uta should be confered on a versatile scholar, versed in different branches of knowledge, possessed of a keen interest in scientific pursuit, and a steady bent of mind, given to the habit of wandering from place to place in quest of knowledge This great academic distinction used to be bestowed on scholars who had already obtamed the degree of Master of Arts and were prosecuting post-graduate studies below the requiements of a Doctorate We have no knowledge of any Jamna monasteries confering this degi ce on its students, but we do know from I-Tsing that the Unnersity of Nālandā habitually conferred this academic honour on competent candidates The following passage will bear out our contention "A person who has studied so far as this (book), is said to have mastered the grammatical sceince, and may be compared to one who has learnt the Nine Classics and all the other authors of China All the above mentioned books are studied by both priests and laymen, if not, they cannot gain the fame of the well-informed (lu much heard, Bahusi uta, or 'knowing much of the Siuti ")" Only brilliant scholars of exceptional capacity were allowed to take this course It was a coveted degree demanded of a minister of a king preparatory to his appointment "In the city of Visala there was a very heroic king named Nanda He had a minis
ter named Bahusi uta "41
LECTURE IV
The Doctorate Unlike the Master's degice the Doctorate is repeatedly mentioned In Jama literature Eminent Jaina church fathers like Hemacandia, Siideva," Bappahatti," Abhaya
39 Sthavira Arya Bhadi abahu Swami, Bihat Kalpa Sutra, vol. I, p 117,
verse no 400
40 I-Tsing, A Record of Buddhist practices, ti by T Takakusu, p 180. 41. Vikiama's Adventure, ti by Franklin Edgerton, pait I, p 33
42 Merutunga Acãiya, Prabandhacıntamani, tr by C H Tawney, MA,
P 123.
43 Ibid, p 98, 102. 44. Ibid, p. 201,,

Page #50

86
suri
Jayamangala Jayasena Silaguna "Vijayasena " and others were recepients of this great mark of honour A typical Jaina Doctor such as Hemacandra was characterised by thirty six marks We read In as much as his mind was grounded in all the received religious treatises and Upanisads and his body was adorned with the thirty six good points of a Jaina doctor his religious teacher formally conferred on him that dignity an It is clear from the text that the requirements for the Doctor s degree in the Juna monastery were of a comprehensive nature including a thorough knowledge of Jaina as well as Vedic litera tures and Arts By the by it is also evident that the candidates for Doctorate in the Juna University were acquainted with the technique of research like their modern counterparts like them they too freely consulted the State records in order to prepare their theses In support of our contention the following lines may be quoted "Then Kumudcandra seated in a litter and the Pandit Ratnaprabha on foot came into the Record office to write down thesis and the counterstate ment. Kumudcandra had his thesis taken down by the officials of the Record office 51 That this high degree of scholarship required in the recepient of a Doctor s degree was almost universal is evident from the works of I Tsing who gives us an idea of the standard that prevailed in the University of Nalanda The priests learn besides all the Vinaya works and investigate Sutras and Sastras as well They oppose the heretics as they would drive beasts (deer) in middle of a plain and explain away disputations as boiling water melts frost. In this manner they became famous throughout Jambudvipa (India) received respect above gods and men and serving under the Buddha and promoting His doctrines of such persons in every generation only one or two appear These men could compose a work on the spot, whatever subject was required-such men could commit to memory the contents of two volumes having heard them only once
Fromu
43
47
48
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
45
46 Ibid p 98
Ibid p 167
46
Prabandhacintamani p 196
4T
Ibid p 19.
Ibid P 157
Ibid p 119
31
Ibid p 100 5 ITsing, A Record of Buddhist Practices, tr by T Takakuru pp 181-81,
49
50

Page #51

LECTURE IV
37
two Arabian authonucs of the ninth century AD, we can gather that thic pracicc of conferring Doctoralc was also in voguc in Ceylon "Thc hing of this land has laws which are the ground work of Religion and Gorcinment of the country Heic arc Doctors, and Asscinblies of Icained men like those of the Hadiths among the Arabs The Indians icpai to thcsc Isscmblics and writc don in what they hcai of thc Lives of the prophicis, and the various cxpositions of the Laws "53
It is definic that thus gicat honoui was never conscued on any slucent for thic mcre volume of huis lcaining originality and research wcrc the most nccdsul thing in a Doctor The prospective Doctoi had 1o look for truth m primary sources available in thc Stalc library or in the libianics of the monastcnics Kundakunda Ācārya composed his thesis in the State library
In the Jama as ucll as the Buddhist Univci silics, the scheme of work for a Doctor was ici, arduous. Thcie wcic good many research scholais oi prospccic Doctors who becamc emment authorities. In laici cimes, onc such typical scholai was Buddhaghosa himsell Front the Icil it is clcar that hic looked soi clausicalion and harmony of the luth of Buddhist pluilosophy. A good deal of claborate study was needed soi ilic poposc In a rod, icscarches in a Buddhist University icquired thorough cuticism of a doctrine, test of its genuineness, synthesis and intcrprctation "That which investigates impci mancncc, cic, is 'Scarch' (vicaya) 'Rcscarch' (pavicaya) shows inci case by mcans of the picpositions 'Scaich sor docuine' is that which investigates the doctine of the Fou Touths''51 and we quote again “In the cxposition of 'mvestigation', the [lcinel] of the word cãra expiesses a going-about the object. This is the primary ineaning. 'Investigation' indicales gencial sci uliny The next lerms with prefixes-anu-upa-vicāia indicato order and closeness in the investigation Next, 'mental adljustment' indicates the mind being fitted to its object as an archer fixes his ariow to the bow-sliing, and examination' is either a sustained consideration, or the opposite-want-of-consideration (anu
53 Ancient Account of India and China by two Mahommedan Travellers, 11 by Eusebius Reunando, pp 83-84
54. Buddhaghosa, The_Expositor, vol. I, ti. by Maung Tin, M.A., p. 195.

Page #52

38
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
pcllhntă an upckklata) - This anticipates the spirit of thoroughness comprehensiveness and methodical claborateness which are charac tcristics of a modern student cngaged in the serious work of rescarch. Quotations 100 vcrc in vogue For cxamplc Rajasekhara made quota tions from halıdasa s kumarasambhavam in the body of his work Kavyamımānisa
Education in thc Jaina monasteries was a systematic never-ending process practised by scholars from the cradle to the grave. Those Jaina nionks ncrc perennial students learning things spiritual and men cal through meditation devotion and study" John Dewey the great American educationist in a similar kcy characterized cduca tion as a continuous process Precisely the same view was held by Manu on the one land and Lord Buddha on the other Manu te quired thc Brahmin scholars to study the Vedas daily even after they haic completed their courses of study in the technical sense Let him daily pour oi cr those Institutes of science which soon give increase of wisdom those which teach the acquisition of wealth those which are bencficial (for other worldly concerns) and likewise over the Nigamas which explain the Veda. "37
The Jaina monks like their mcdiaeval counterparts in Europe besides studying uscd to copy manuscripts of valuable books in their cells Thus they kept the torch of learning burning They used to go on preaching tours to different monasteries to deliver extension lectures before large audience of both sexes. This was thc practice common to both the Buddhists and the Jainas and Lord Mahavira Lord Rşabha Dr Hemacandra were all peripatetic teachers delivering their messages to mankind for their permanent good
We give below statistics on monastic education prepared from the pages of the Kalpasutra. Even making allowance for exaggera tion we can get a fair idea of the diffusion of monastic education in India under the control of the Jaina fathers
55 Buddhaghoxa, The Expositor vol L, tr by Maung Tin, M.A. p 189. 36 The Uvasagadasdo tr by A. F Rudolf Hoernlc, Ph.D p 61 verx. 77 87 Manu t by G Bahler pp 181-37 verse 19

Page #53

LECTURE IV
II.
I Lord Rsabha, 84,000 305,000 4750 sages who knew the Kosalın had śramanas lay votaries the 14 Pürvas under him
with Śreyāmśa 9000 sages who knew Rsabhasena as
at their head Avadhı knowledge head of the
(c) 20,000 Kevalins community of
(d) 20,600 sages who could transform themselves (e) 12,650 sages of vast intellect (f) 12,650 professors (g) 20,000 males who have reached perfection (h) 22,900 sages who
reached their last birth 18,000 169,000 (a) 400 sages and Lord Aristanemi śramanas lay votaries (b) 15,00 Kevalins who had under him
with Nanda at gained Avadhı knowVaradatta as head
their head ledge of a community of
(c) 15,00 sages
who gained transform themselves (d) 1000 sages of vast intellect (e) 800 professors (f) 16,00 sages in their last birth (g) 15,00 males who
reached perfection III. Lord Pārsva 16,000 164,000 (a) 350 sages who knew had under him Sramanas lay votaries 14 Pūrvas Āryadatta as the
with Suvrata (b) 14,00 sages who head of a commu
at their head gained Avadhi knownity of
ledge (c) 1000 Kevalins (d) 11,00 sages who

Page #54

JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATIOY
could transforn them sclics (c) Goo sages who ac quired correct Inow ledge (6 750 sages of vast in tcllect (g) 600 professors (h) 1200 sages who
reached their last birth IV Lord Malia
(a) 314 advanced disci vīra had directly
ples possesed of a wis under him
dom next to perfection (b) 1900 disciples possessed of inductive knowledge (c) 700 disciples possessed of certain know ledge (d) 700 possessed of the power of assuming a different form (c) 500 of large intellect () 400 disputants (8) 700 male disciples who after death obtain ed perfect libcration
(h) 250 who obtained (B)
super-celectial mansion The Lord had under him 11 000 (1) Indrabhuti
male ascetics as head of the community of an excellent band of
() and Sankbasatakar 159 000 male as head of an excellent lay adherents select band of
5.8 Kalpastitra, vol 1. P 274 p 278 59 'The Kalpa Sätra And Nava Tatra tr by Rey | Stevenson, D.D PP 93-94

Page #55

LECTURE V
THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN-ECCLESIASTICAL
The object of the present lecture is to offer to the audience an idea of education imparted to women as a pieparation for ecclesiastical activities in Jaina India as far as it may be gathered from the available literature on the subject It is clear that there were two distinct types of female education (1) The first type of education was imparted by nuns to prospective nuns in nunneries and to female lay votaries (2) The second type of education was imparted in palace schools by lay teachers at any rate under the control of lay teachers with the secular object of training the students in the various duties of life relating to the family, the State and the rest
Before we begin our theme proper, it may not be amiss to add a few words as to the social position and dignity of women in ancient India during the Hindu, the Buddhist and the Jaina periods It is venly a fact that the woman in ancient India was not a mere drudge or a slave The truth is the reverse The popular supposition is sadly erroneous here Even Manu while upholding the doctrine of her inferiority was for maintaining her dignity "In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons, a woman must never be independent " What is really astonishing is that this same authority recommended the appointment of females in the service of the State-a fact which will be clear from the following quotation "For women employed in the royal service and for menial servants, let hum fix a daily maintenance, in proportion to their position and to their work "2 The climax is reached in the following extracts where we get an idea not only of the dignity but also of the apotheosis of women "Women must be honoured and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands and brothers-inlaw who desire (their own) welfare "3 and we quote again "Where
148
1 Manu u by G Buhler, p 195, verse 2 Ibid, p 236, veise 125 3. Ibid, p 85, veise 56.
6

Page #56

42
JAINA SISTEM OF EDUCATION
Nomen are honoured there the gols arc plcased but where thcy art not honoured no sacrcd ritc yields rewards +
Let us non turn to the consideration of the position and dignity of women in the Buddhist India Frankly spcaling it was not a very clevated onc The Buddha vas against adimitting them into his Church and at last hc admitted a few at the repeated request of his disciplc Ananda The Mahaprajapati Golami the Lord s step-mother was the first to be admitted into the order along with the five hundred Sakya princesses
The Buddha did not think women to be fit for practical affairs of lifc because of their inherent intellectual inferiority His attitude on this point wil be distinctly clear from the following words of the text. Womenfolk are uncontrolled Ananda Womenfoll are weak in wisdom Ananda That is the reason that is the cause why tvomen folk do not sit in a court of justice do not embarh on business do not reach the essence of the deed " And again It is impossible for a woman to be an emperor of the world but is possible for a man to be But once women were admitted into the Buddhist Order women of all ranks-royal consorts females of aristocratic class widows 10 cast off women " curtezans 12 und women of the lowest rank 18 in society were freely adınitted by Lord Buddha into his cadeh. He rehabilitated them through a course of religious education into his Order and made thema fit for honourable profession of preaching and teaching But it must be noted that within the limited sphere of ecclesiastical activities the women once they were admitted were given a good deal of latitude.
1
4 Manu tr by G Bohler P 8 verse no 56. 5 Vinaya Text Pitaka part in tr by T W Rhys Davids p 891 p 327 52 Psalms of the Early Sisters, tr by Mrs. Rhys Davids, p 6 P 7 56 Sadharma Pundarika u by H Kern, P 256 6 Anguttara Nikaya vol 11 p 99 7 Further Dialogue of Buddha vol. i p 191 8 Psalms of the Early Sisters PP 81-87
9. Ibid p 6 P 48 P 38 10 lbid p 62 P 131 11 Vinaya Text, vol. ui pp. 105 106 p. 108 na. Pealms of the Early Sisters p 59 1. Ibid P 96 13 Ibid P 129 P 181
,

Page #57

1.fe
LECTURE V
43
They were trained, encouraged and cheered up in their helpfully useful work of charity and popular benevolence to society
The Jaina fathers were extremely sympathetic in their attitude to women and admitted them freely into their Order, no matter whether the candidates for admission were royal consorts, members of the aristocracy, and women belonging to the common run of society There was not only equality but also ascendency and superiority of women to men in Jaina India,—a fact which is clear from the rather jarring note of protest from Dr Hemacandra, the great Jaina father who warns men to beware of women and who emphasizes the dependency of men to women in all phases of life in infancy, in youth and in old age
14
17
Like the Buddhist nuns, their Jaina sisters held a subordinate position in the religious Order, though we do not have at our disposal, elaborate and systematic code regulating the inferior position of the Jaina nuns and their relationship The nunnery of the Jainas was affiliated to the monastery and the Jaina nuns could almost rise to the position of a head of the community of nuns under an Arhat Thus nuns Brāhmīsundari,15 Āryāyākınī,10 Puspaküla, and Candrabāla and Salasa Revati were heads of the community of Jaina nuns under the Arhats Rsabha, Aristanemi, Pārśva and Mahāvīra respectively We do not have any authentic evidence if the nuns ever reached the status of Arhats or Siddhas The geographical factors exerted a powerful influence on the selection of sites for the Jaina nunneries We again see here the influence of location, topography, rivers, soil, flora, fauna, and transportation system in the selection of sites for the nunneries The Jaina nunneries existed at Campā,18 Mithila,10 Rājagrha," Śrāvast1,21 Bārava122 (Dvārakā), and in Kammasadhamma in the Kuru kingdom 23
Tiisastiśalāka-pui usa-Caritra, vol II, ti
20
14 Hemacandra Jhonson, PhD, p 298
15 Kalpasútia, vol I, ti by Heimann Jacobi, p 278
16 Ibid, Loc Cit
17. Ibid, p 274
The Antagadadasão And Anuttai ovavāiyā Dasão, tr by L D Barnett, MA, p 98, p 100 19 Ibid, p 24 Ibid, p 97
18
20
21 The Kathākosa, ti by C H Tawney, p 13
22
The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavãiyā Dasão, p 84 23. Psalms of the Early Sisters, p 57.
by Helen M

Page #58

44
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
The inland boclics of water such as riicr and lake influenced the sclection of the sile for nunnery m Campala Thic city of Campaka, 1101 in obscurc village nicar inolcru Bhagalpur was an ancient city famous for its commercial political and cultural activities through thic ages It is mentioned in the Malubharata as 1 holy place?! But thic Jaina fathers asctibe its origm to honiha or Ajatašauru the son of Srcniha Bimbisira ulo inade it his capital Then being unable to cnclure huis sorton for his father hc Icft Rajastha and founded the nous city Champah. Ibus honska mide the scat of his rulc 2
According to Fa Hian the fifth century Chinese Buddhist pilgrim 10 India il las locrice on the souliern bank of thic rncr Ganges - Rly's Davids in thic Dialogues of the Buddha claus its sitc on the cast bank ot the riicr Campala"The city was semi-circular in shape and it was prou d uuth all the facilitics of the modern civilized life-buildings ex cellent roads and tlic rest The following quotauon will bear us out. In those days at that time there was a city named Campa It was splendid tranquil and prosperous city folk and country folk alike were happy therc. It was thronged with population lus field bounds were turned up by laundreds and thousands of ploughshares and displayed far reaching pleasant dykcs I t was surrounded by a wall bent in a curve like a bow and decorated with cornices arranged in circles Its bastions rampart paths door ways gates and arches were lofty its high roads duly duided It contained markets and bazars thronged with craftsmcn content and happy It had open places junctions of three four or morc roads and markets for goods adorned nith diverse sorts of treasure Its highways wierc thronged with princes It was crowded with number of fine horses fiery elephants and troops of chariots with palanquins and litters and with cars and carriages Its waters were brilliant with beds of lotuses whose buds were newly bursting into bloom and it was fully decorated with fine white palaces 3 Owing
24. Mahabharata, rol. vi edited by Haridas Siddhantavigis, p 780 verse no 163
15 Kathakosa, p 178 20 Fa Hian A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms tr by James Legge M.A. LL.D p 100
27 Dialogues of the Buddha part I tr by T TV Rhys Dards, P 144. 28 The Antagaçadasdo And Anuttarovavdiya Dasto pp 18

Page #59

LECTURE V
45
to its excellent situation in the front of a land naturally fertile, Campā flourished in commerce and trade, and its citizens came to be noted for skill in agriculture, cattle-raising, etc They became rich and prosperous and invested their money in contributing to the architectural excellence of the city and towards the course of religion in a variety - of ways As a rule, religion received great impetus from the public sympathy in the cities where people were placed above the common wants of life Owing to the trade and commercial activities of the citizens of Campā they could afford to devote their leisure time and invest their surplus wealth for the cultural and religious activities of the city
It is quite natural that the Jaina fathers will select site in such a city for nunneries where ladies of royal families readily joined the Jaina order Thus in this city queen Kālı,29 wife of śrenika Bimbısāra, and the step-mother of Kunie or Ajātaśatru was converted and she joined the Jaina nunnery where she studied the Laws of peace and the eleven scriptures Here in this very city queen Sukālı30 another wife of Śrenika Bimbısāra and step-mother of prince Kunie joined the Jaina nunnery Ajjā Candanā31 was in charge of the nunnery at Campā
The following nuns resided in the Jaina nunnery at Campā Mahākālı,32 Kanhā,33 Sukanhā,34 Mahākanhā, Virākanhā, Rāmakanha, Piusenākanhā,30 and Mahāsenakanha 37 Sivānandā, the wife of Ananda, a rich merchant at Vanijagrāma became the servant of Mahāvīra, the Jaina Ārhat when he visited the city 38
The city of Rājagrha was a famous military city being encircleil with five mountains.30 This serves as an instance to show the religious
29. The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavāıyā Dasão, p 98 30 Ibid, Loc Cit 31 Ibid, p 98, p 100 32-34 Ibid, p 101 35 Ibid, p 102 36 Ibid, pp 104-105 37 Ibid, p 106 38 The Uvāsagadasão, vol II, p. 41 39a Further Dialogues of the Buddha, vol 11, tr by Lord Chalmers, p 192 39b. The Romantic Legend of Sākya Buddha, ti by Samuel Beal, p 325.

Page #60

46
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
and cultural activities of the military city encompassed with mountains This famous capital of Magadha was an important centre of Jaina edu cation being at once provided with a monastery and a nunnery the hatter being associated with the name of Nanda the consort of Bimbi sam who embraced Jainisin there and practised severe asceticism for a period of twenty years ller was not a conversion due to a mer emotional unpulse she was thoroughly well versed in the Scripture Here again a notable lady Bhadda by name the daughter of the kings treasury entered the ascetic order after putting an end to the life of her criminal husband in the Robbers cliff at Rajagṛha There is a romantic flavour mixed up with the devotion in the whole story which may be described as follows She learnt the sacred text of the Niganthas in the local nunnery and left Rajagrh for further knowledge receiv ing instruction from different wisemen at different places When she found herself competent she challenged the captain of the Norm pre sumably Sariputra and at Sravasti she entered into a debate with the Sakyan reclus and assailed him with questions after questions all of which he answered with satisfaction Then Sariputra took his turn and when Bhadda failed to answer his question she embracerl Buddhism " Here we find a wonderful specimen of female scholarship in ancient India comparable to that of Gargi who challenged the sages in the field of scholarship The conversion of the girl Bhuya is equally interesting throwing a flood of light on the excellence of female edu cation in ancient India Then the girl Bhuya surrounded by her retinue went right through the midst of the city of Rajagṛha to the temple Gunil and having gone there she got out of the chario meant for religious journeys and surrounded by the circle of the maid servants she went to her Lord Parswa who is greatly renowned in the world and having circumambulated him three times waited upon him 'The Lord Parswa who is greatly renowned in the world delivered to that girl Bhuya and to the great assembly the religious instruction Having heard and bestowed to it she was greatly delighted and saluted and bowed down to him and having done so she spoke thus to him
40. The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovavăiyă Dasão P 97 Psalams of The Early Sisters pp 64-66,
41
to

Page #61

LECTURE V
47
'I believe, veneiable sır, in the Doctrine of the Nigganthas (and so forth, down to) I have stood for that
"She went to her parents, and having folded her hands she asked their permission exactly as in the case of Jamalı in Bhagavatısūtra after dinner he consented to the renunciation of his daughter ”42 Then followed the formal admission of Bhuya into the Order “Then that gırl Bhuya, being thus spoken to by the Lord Pārswa and becoming greatly delighted in the presence of Pupphachula nuns (and so forth, down to) become a self-restrained nun "43 As in the Jaina monasteries it was also customary for the nuns to study regularly, "and wherever she spread her bed or seat for study she first of all sprinkled that place with water ?44 The case of Bhuya suggests two fundamental facts (1) First, like the Buddhist monastery co-education was practised in the Jaina monastery where sermon could be attended by the males and the females alike, and (2) Second, vehicles played an important role in the dissemination of Jaina culture and faith among the people
Benares, the sacred city was an abode of cosinopolitan culture Here the followers of different and even conflicting creeds met together and lived in a spirit of amity and concord The Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jains were there The Jainas had their monasteries and nunneries in this sacred city flourishing side by side with the temples of the Hindus and the Vihāras of the Buddhists We leain that the Suvaya nuns living at Benai es used to beg their food from all classes of citizens -the high, the middle and the poor The nun Soma studied the eleven Angas such as Sãmaiya and others under the Suvaya nuns 45
Jaina nunneries existed at Sākelapuia, Kammasadhamma in Kuru kingdom, Bāravaī (Dvārakā), Polāspura, and at other centres
The Jaina nunneries served as places of relief and shelter to many a distressed lady in the high rank of life Thus it is on record that a Widowed princess of a local royal household sought shelter in the nunnery of Srāvastī against the evil design of her brother-in-law, the king of Sāketapuia 46
4: 43 45 46
The Niryâvaliyão, edited by A S Gopani, MA, PP 118-120, 1531156* Ibid, pp 121-122, 159 · PP 121-122, 159
44 Ibid, pp 118-120 Ibid, pp 118-120, 153-156. Katlākoşa, p 13

Page #62

J\\ 1 5STLY OF EDUCATION
Ilic volumic the magnitude as well as the excellence of culture alianci by u opanhoord in Jrina India can be gathered cien from the {ngincntnr, cuidcncc c huic at our disposal We have already cited 7 cxample of icmale scholarship of sicrling merit in Jaina India. 17e arrangement (or instructions in philosophy and thcology given to scinale students in Juna nunneries was as perfect as possible. We may add a (cu more examples to this glorious list Nanduttara was another Jama mu to challenge Moggallana another apostle of Lord Buddha Slic came of 1 Brim sanuly of kininasadhamma in the kingdom of huru Haung Icarnt the arts and sciences of her aste she joined the Jainn orsicr Slic gradully cainc io be known as a famous orator in usuch she inust hasc acquired skill in the Jaina nunnery In the dcbatc with loggallana slıc was dcfeated and cmbraced Buddhism *7
There was Baravai or Dianha cclcbarted in the Mahabharata and clic Purnas as the capital of Lord hşiia According to Jaina litera turc the city is tuclic yojanas in length and nine yojanas in dim cnsions The city is located on the extreme north western periphery of Gurent and is on the immediate vicinity of the coast of Arabian sea It had on its north castern side Revayae (modern Girnar) the moun lain full of Noras and faunas of ducrsc Linds
Queen Prumaial of Baravai hias admitted into the Jauda ordei by saint Arifliancm.. She plucked her own liair and was handed Oicr to illc nun lallhini for training in the laws of peace and in eleven scriptures She led the life of a nun for full twenty years and then staned herself to death "
Queen Gori consort to hanlie Vasudeva king of Baravas also re nounced the world and joined the Jaina order - In this city princess Mulasırı wife of prince Sambe son of king Kanhe renounced the world and joined the Jaina order 51 These significant and glorious examples emphatically illustrate the magnitude of the influnece of Jainism in the field of spiritual culture Jainism affected the very springs of life
47 Palms of The Early Sisters, P 57 48 The Antagaçadasdo And Anuttarovardiya Dasdo pp. 1113 49. Ibid p. 84 50 Ibid Los Cit 51 Ibid Loc Cit

Page #63

-
49
to the extent of persuading the members of the softer sex to give up a life of luxury and ease in favour of a life of stern asceticism because the latter leads to emancipation Aggimitta was converted in the presence of Lord Mahāvīra in the Sahassambavana garden in the town of Polaspura
52
We do not have detailed account regarding the Jaina nunneries in the different parts of India Happily for us the Kalpasūtra has recorded statistical account of the activities of Brāhmīsundarī, Āryayaksını, Puspakŭlā and Candrabālā and Salasă Revati the five nuns under the leadership of Arhat Rsabha, Aristanemi, Parsva and Mahāvīra respectively Even making allowance for exaggeration if any, we can safely conclude from the statistical account given below that the nuns were very numerous numbering 378,000, and 12,170,00 female votaries and 45,000 female disciples who had reached perfection We give below the statistical table prepared from the pages of Kalpasūtra
3
(1)
(3)
(2) (1) The Arhat 300 0CO 554,000 female lay
uuns
Rsabha, the Kosalian had under him nun Brahmisundari as head of the community of
votaries with Subhadra at then head
(II) Arahat Aris- 40,000 tanemi had under him 111111 Arya
nuns
Yaksını as head
of the community
of
LECTURE V
336,000 female lay votaries with Mahäsuvrata at their head
(III) Arhat Parsva 38,000 327,000 female lay him nuns
had under
votaries with Su
nandā at their
head
nun Puspakula as
head of the com
munity of
52 Uvasagadasão, vol ini, p 140, para II
53 Kalpasütia, vol I, t by Heimann Jacobi, p 284
7
40,000 female disciples who had reached perfec
tion.
3,000 female disciples who had reached perfection.
2,00) female disciples who reached perfection.

Page #64

50
(IV) Lord Maha Trend under
11111 11011
1) Chandrabala as
head of a commu nity of
4) And nun Sala
så Revau as head
of a community of
JAINA SYSTÉM OF EDUCATION
a select band of 36,00 female ascetics.
5-1
an excellent select band of 318 000 female lay adherents "
The Lord Mahavira himself had directly under him 14 females who obtained perfect liberation on death
We learn from Hemacandras Trisaştısalakapuruşacaritra that 800 000 nuns and 551 000 lay women existed in India." From the statistical table cited above we get a glimpse of the tremendously effec tive type of spiritual culture affecting the female life in Jaina Indiaa glorious movement of education of which any age or country in the world could be or should be proud
The halapasutra And Nava Tattva, tr by Rev J Stevenson, D.D PP
93-91
5. Trisastikaläkāpurusacaritra vol I p 358

Page #65

LECTURE VI
EDUCATION OF WOMEN-LAY
In this lecture we propose to discuss the education of female lay scholars imparted outside the pale of the Jama nunneiics for secular puposes The Family, the State and the School were vitally interested in the education of the lay scholais It was universally prevalent, intensely practical having a sound psychological basis The nuns who joined the Jaina Order weic women of mature age as a rule, and consequently, they were thoroughly fit for then task, being well versed both in secula and sacred learning There was a sound knowledge of child and adolescent psychology in the background of the process of education they imparted to then students The physical and mental growth of the child is gradual and not sudden The following quotation will give us an idea of then knowledge of child-psychology "Twins Yasasvin and Surupa wee boin Having the (same) joints, figue and colour (as their parents), a little shorter lived, they gradually attained growth, like strength and intellect together they gradually grew up like intellect and vigour The characteristics of physically growing child ale restlessness, exhuberance of energy, playfulness and hardness biief they are fond of sense and motor activities and aie restless owing to the urge of inner energy During this period their emotions of love, and anger are also manifested "These grew up gradually, playing here and there, very strong, very energetic, like young elephants on the Vindhya Mountains
1
In
"The passions, anger, etc, of the twins appeared like grains of lac on asvattha trees, gradually, gradually " Though the physical, emotional and mental traits aic gradually manifested in the growing child these continue to grow unmitigated in an ideal child born of ideal parentage
1 Hemacandia
Johnson, PhD, pp 98 99. 2. Ibid, p. 148.
Tisastisalaka-puusa Canua, vol II, u by Helen M,

Page #66

JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
An elaborate and an almost astonishingly modern description of the eight stages of the human life is given in the Uvasagadasao There are according to this Anga eight stages of development altogether each logically following the other The first stage contains seven days com mencing from the birth of the child This is a period of pure inacti vity during which the child does not respond to outside stimuli and all its senses are totally inactive The second stage is the stage of play ful activities during which the child cries laughs and coughs in a word responds to outside stimuli It is a period of restlessness and motion This is followed by the third stage the stage of experiment on the part of the child-through the help of its parents or others The fourth stage is the stage of unaided walk-the stage of independent motion on the part of the child. Then follows the fifth stage which is associated with the fitness of the body and the ripeness of the mid-a stage of life when the child 19 pre-eminently fit to learn the acts. The follow ing quotation supports our statement Eight stages of man (purışa bhumiya) he designated the following cight developmental periods of man the dull stage the playful stage the experimental stage the erect-stage the learning-stage the ascetic stage thc Jina stage and the prostrate stage What he means is thus beginning with tic day of birth for a period) of seven days till they come out of a condition of mental obstruction (living) beings are dull (manda) or semi-conscious (momuha) This he calls the dull stage (manda bhumi) Afterwards those that have arried (in the present birth) from a statc of torment (in a previous existence) prepctually cry and scream while those that have come from a state of happiness laugh in the perpetual recollection of it This he calls the playful stage (kludda bhumi) Then when they attempt to walk along on the ground holding on the hands or legs of their parents or to a bed or stool that lic calls the
experimental-stage (vimamsabhumi) The time when they are fulls able to walk on their feet he calls the crect-stage (ujugata bhumi) The time when they are made to learn the arts he calls the Icarning stage (sehha bhumi) The time when leaving thicir houses thcy der ote themschics to a life of ascetic mendicancy hc calls the ascetic stage (Samana bhumi) The timc then after a continuous course of ascetic practices they attain perfect anonledge he calls thc Jina-stage (Jina bhumi) When a mendicant becoming a prostrate Jina no lor

Page #67

LECTURE VI
53
ger speaks (i e, begs) anything, showing thereby that he has become an ascetic who is passed all wants, that he calls 'the prostrate stage' (punna-bhumi) "3
From the above description it is quite clear that the Jaina theorists in the field of education had a sound, profound, and scientific knowledge of child psychology and adult psychology without which it is impossible to frame a scheme of education Education, after all, is for man , and not man for education A further light is thrown on this aspect of the question in a quotation inserted below from Hemacandra - on the physical growth of an aristocratic lady "He had a wife, named Laksmana, who had all the favourable marks, surpassing the moon in fascinating beauty of face Though possessing a body which was an unequalled stream of loveliness, she rained only nectar with her eye and speech Walking very slowly, she made mellows grow at every step with her feet, as it were Her brow and gait weie curved, but her mind was not crooked , her waist was small, but not the wealth of her intelligence The important virtue of proper behaviour adorned like a general, her entire army of virtue surpassing everything"4 It is a common knowledge that adolescent girls are notorious for wildness, looseness, desire for promiscuous company and sexual eccentricities These are universal prevailing in all the ages, in countries, and in all stages of culture, and the ancient India was not exception to the rule We read in the Prabandhakosa, vol I, the story of Varudatta, the daughter of a serpent king indulging in youthful pranks with fourteen inates of her own age 5 Taking into account the physical, emotional and mental traits of the females from their birth to adolescence, it was quite natural for them to attend the art School in their girlhood to early adolescence For the curricula of the art-Schools were of such nature as to fit these well into their physical, emotional and mental traits Naturally the Jaina fathers prescribed the art education for the girls in their girlhood instead of Vedic education The Vedic education was to be superimposed upon the art or primary and secondary education
ܘܝ
The Uvāsagadasão, vol 11, tr by AF Rudolf Hocinle, p 33 Tusastisalāhā-pui usa-Caritia, vol II, pp 315-316 Rājesehliara Sūri, Prabandhakosa, vol I, p 87
ܕ n
5

Page #68

199
54
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
The course of studies prescribed for females were eminently prac tical and physiologically sound having a special eye to the mental aptitude of the students and their prospects in the future as members of the State of the Church of the School or of the Family It may be added that music was also included in the scheme of studies and those who had special aptitude for it specialized in it. Gandharvadatta has been brought up in the city of Gandharvas She is skilled in all the Arts
but more especially in music
Let there be at Campa a musical competition every six months At it Candharvadatta will the sing narayanastuti
0
This
Specilization was in vogue very much as it is to-day Students pursued a thorough study in particular branch of knowledge which was quite in harmony with their practical bents of mind some specia lized in painting some in dancing others in singing and so forth is typically illustrated by the story of the princess Srimati whose sorrows were soothed by her learned and skilful nurse by means of depicting the story of her life-story on a piece of canvass Associated with the knowledge of painting was the knowledge of geography and of city transportation system and others The story referred to may be given in the following words One day Srimati had gone to a pleasure-garden and her nurse named Pandita seized a favourable opportunity and spoke to her privately When I know your grief I shall procee-l to the business of curing it She then told Pandita an exact account of her former life like a man making confession to a good guru Having represented Srimati s story on a canvas by pictures Pandita learned in strategy went quickly to display it outside same story 15 repeated in the Mahapurana by Puspadanta a tenth century writer He represented Srimati drawing herself the portrait of Lalitanga her lover on a piece of canvas and handed it over to her nurse to find out the whereabouts of her lover An inter
The
P 181
6
Professor Fillix Lacôte, Essay on the Gunadhya and the Brhat Katha Tra salākā purua-Caritri vol. II P
7
60
8 Puspadanta Mahapurana vol I edited by Dr P L. Vaidya chap 22,
verse 21

Page #69

LI CIURT VI
55
esuing story of romantke impone similar to the story of Pandais iclatcıl by another authon, Harbhadia Suri in huis Samicca haha. Heic
cac all cold lus the musc Vladanalchha iclicvel ilic mind of lici wand pincess husumivali by painting pillic of hci mind on a camus lhe sout is gn1en in the lollowing words "Then Mcclanalehhi brough the pamung bond with brush and said 10 kusumavalı
Vy lachy. the puree as fond of peming. wmny ladlı pamis licica femalo 5.1, so is seplace from her proper parties and is thiciclorcamous 10 sec lim 'I hen understanding the opinion of canalchlā she smiled a little and painted the funale swan as was adused MaclanaIchha also 111010 upon in the Dupadithanda suggesung the condition of Kasumivalı" Ilus Ilomacandia, Puspadania and Haubhacia Sin all adsowel the story of pamumg for young adolescent guls or ladies for cypressmg adequately and concicicly then lifc-slouics and cmonons such as love so precommant in them in thicu fust bloom. Ilus pamumg for them las practical quality of wing the hearts of then loci and in solumg ile xolesceni problem of choosing and nonning life's companion Rightly cnough music and painimg constilined Important items or libcual education in those days ol yoic Tlicy piovidul icii and women not only with a source of innoccnt iccication, but also with a sumulus to the dei clopment of imagination without which no culme can be perfect Oici and aborc ilicic was also an clement of uulity in the malici of malimony
els nc nouced bcroic sense and motoi activitics aic picdominant in gulhood and in adolese chec owing to suplus cucigy. Dancing, games and physical cucation (ouses of the Alt School weic of immense Valuc 11 sausfying the physical needs of the young guls and carly adolcscents Naumally, organic games and playsıcal cxciciscs formed an item of then courses of liaming in the ail-School Thc pimcess uli117cd then skill m physical exciciscs, games and in dancing in the proper use of then pastimes, iccication and in physical excicisc We quote below lo support ou slalement "So was thic haim of princess, who were avci se siom the ball-play, who gave up the activities of painting, who stopped all music and dancc "'10
9 10
Haubhadra Sūri, Samajāicca-Kalā, 11. by M C Modi, M A., LL B., p 80. Ibid, p 29.

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66
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION A few gistcd scholars alonc could master the encyclopaedic courses in the art school which according to Jaina fathers are seventy two' and according to the Brilimins sixty four 15 Tbesc courses comprising
Rs languages fine Arts music painting pictography dancing, physi al CACICISCS Sucli is games military exercises sciences such as astrology astronomy and other courses xcrc pursucd by female-students gradually as they dei clopol physically mentally and emotionally as they grew 20 jcars Hence the courses in the Art or Vernacular Schools were properly adjusted to the needs of the growing female scholars The Jaina fathers also included the Vedas and the Vedangas in the curricula of the Art School lhe following paragraphıs from the kathakosa will substantiate the aboic statement. In the country Vidrabha there was a city namer! hundinapura In it was a king by name Blumaratha. He had a wife Pushpauinti. As thcy acre living together in loving union they had a daughter born to them thc chid was called Devadant. She grens Micry day like a digit of the moon in the white fortnight. In duc course she was sent to a teacher of accomplishments to acquire know ledge and she gradually became clerer in all learning 1 Education was by no mcans a monopoly of the Brahmins ksatriya and Vaisya females too enjoined the blessings of lugher learning and culture We have evidence of higher education on the part of a girl belonging to the Vaisya class who by a single scribal alteration converted a man doomed - to death by her father into her husband There is a romantic and poetic flavour about the whole story which is given below In the meantime the daughter of that merchant, Visha by name came there to worsbip the God of love She saty Damanaha with his broad eyes and broad chest and while she was looking at hun her eye fell on her father s letter she took it from the end of his stack and read it It rail as follows Health and prosperity Sagarapota from the cattle farm loviogly embraces Samudragupta and tells him what is to be done
Before he has time to wash his fect you must immediately bestor on this man Viga (poison) and so make my heart free from the thorn of pain
114. Anuogadara, p 80 u1b Prabandhakoga, vol. I p 27 11 Lalıtavistara, ir by Dr Rajendra Lal Milra pp 186-188 19 The Kathakosa tr by C H Tarncy, Mact p 195

Page #71

LECIURL VI
Slic though. No doubt my fatlıcı has found heic a budc-groomi fit for me, as foi the manage liaving to bc peisoimed this very day, it mcans that to day is an auspicious day, so the manage must take place to day Is for the order that Visha is to be given, in luis cagerness lic has rulich an anusuala insicud of ihc long a' so I will pul il right, Having thus icilcuul, she took some collyrium from hci cyes and made the leucri msicad of a dol, and scalmg inc Icici up again, she left Il as it has and went home"!!! I hc 111-School was attended not only by the ha salia and the Vasia guls, but also by then Bralımın sisteis prior 10 then Icaining lhe Veilie sicMCY "Thus it porcs clearly that even in Buddlust period 11 became the fasluon among thc Brahmins cspccially the guls 10 aliend the ici naculul schools before recciving instruc11on in the Vedic sciences 'She, loo, faring in thic past as the fore menlioned Sisters, was, in this Buddha age, born m the kingdom of thic Kuns at the town of hammas.damma, in a Bialmın family And when slic hrad Icaint from some of ihem then Arts and sciences, sho cnici cd the orde of the Miganthas ""
lle have also authoritate cudence in the Shandapuranı supporuing the viens that a Brahmi gul, daughici of Hai iswami of Bcharcs jomc! ihc dil-school ulcic shc cxcclled in fic arts 16 The universal populainy os dancing and music is clearly slicssed in the Agnipuana thich speaks lughly of llc lcachci of Fine Arts and assigns him a icsicience in the hcaien !
Education of all grades from the pumary to the higher was no! denied cven to the mentals in socicly duung the Jama period of which wc harc evidence in the Prabanchacinlāmam The females in the higher institutions of Icaining icceived scculai education We learni from thc Prabandhalosa, vol I, that Madanamanjari, the daughter of king Kuntibhoja of Vijayapura was veised in the higher bianches of lcaining and she wrotc from behind the scicen five hundied ślokas of a book composed by a Digambaia saint This instance proves that the princess was competent enough to bc cngaged even as a scribe "194
14 15 16 17
Kathākosa, p 172 Psalms of the Early Sisters, p 57 Shandlapurāna, 4th canto, cdited by Kälıkışna Mandal, p 729. Agnipurānam, edited by Pandit Panchānan Tarhalatna, p 402, verse 54.

Page #72

JAIMA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
अस्मत्पुत्री मदनमसरी नाम लिखिप्यति जयनिकान्तरिता सती। दिगम्यरेण प्रन्या कत HTTÀ I Thai aurat foreta Io8 Women were also versed in varied languages and costume of diferent countries as the following quotation shoirs "ATSTĀT Ararforera Ti l los factuumitalouuuur
en 1919 Evcn a widow of tender age though icry wise and well versed in all the 7 sastras and shillful in the art of speech is also acquainted with the domes tic work Such 7 learned window not only hecps herself busy with house-Nork but also causes others to be cngaged in such a nork 'पामसस्य च चाम्पलदेनाम्रो घालयिधया घाग्मिनी उचितमा सशालविरा तमया यह घ्यापारान् करोति कारयति ।"20
We alrcady atcd examples of educated ladies secking employment in royal households We may now refer to an instance of an old female cook recciving the blessing of culture The case is given in the following authoritative words When she persisted in this endea vour there was produced in her intellectual abuity and so after she had to a certain extent studied the three Vedas the Raghuvamca the hamasastra of Vātsyayana and the writings of Canakya on morals anul the principles of Government she went with her daughter named Vijaya who was in her fresh youth and learned my
During the period of the ascendency of the Jainas in India it us patent that the Family the Church the School and the State serred as potterful agents for the spread of education among women We are told in the Mabapurana how Sundari a princess learnt various Arts from Bharata thc son of Log Rşabha. Jaina literature does not explicitly refer to the state of education for the lay females in the nunneries but it does to inplıcıtly and we have an incidental reference to princess Gangasena of Gangapura receiving religious instructions froin Chandrayasas a local abbess *
We are quite in the dark about the School buildings and
18 Rajasekhara Suri Prabandhakota, 101I p 64 19. Jbid P 98 20 Ibud p 100 81 Prabandhaantamani p 69 21 kathakosa p 116

Page #73

LECTURC VI
59
cquipment of the art-school for the guls Wc harc icsciences to the use of winting-tablet in the all-school in the Lalılavislara," the Jātahas, Kilidāsa's Raghuvamsa and in Albciuni's India, Vol 1 Wo also lcai from thc Prabandhacmiamanı thc usc of moucc-board and whuc chalk in 112lling purposes -
Thal thc diploma of Pandıā uscd 10 bc confeucd upon the compelent lacly-alumni of the lughei instilllions of Icarnıng is evident from the word "Pandita" being picfixed to the names of some of the females. Besides such Pandita could composc poems oi make up the lost poition of a manuscripe on the spot which cien lici Icained fathci could not 1ccorci Wc quoic bclon in support of the above slalement "While the Pandua ras icproachimg hem in these words King Bhoja burnt that original dialı 11 tlic blaring fic Then thc Pandit was doubly dispiace and doubly ciest-lallen, and lic lung himsell down on an old couch in the back pail of his palacc, and lay theic siglung deeply His daughici Bilapandına soused hmm siom his stupor with loving alicntion and made him bathe and cal and cumh, and then icmembering the fust half of the Tilalamañjau siom having seen the wailing of the first diall of it, shc WIOLC IL 011, and the second half she composed anck, and so complcıcıl the book "'S
Co-clucation scems to have picvailed in the Jama Ait-schools as well as in the monastcuics The case of Bhuya to which reference has alıcady been made is a typical instance to the point. she attended clension lcctics along with males at the Gūnasıla monastery at Rājagi ha The extension leclics of the monastciics, it appears, useil to be attended by audience of both scxcs The abode of Kanva, the god-father of Sakuntalā described in the immortal drama of Kālıdāsa seems to have been an idcal co-cducational hei mitagc This co-education was of a very resliicted type, but it was nevertheless there From Kālıdāsa's Vikramorvasi and Sakuntală we get an idea of Kālıdāsa's
23 Kathākośa, p 116 24 Lalitavistaia, p 182 25 Jātaha's, vol I, t1 by Chalmais, p 275 26 Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, canto xviii 27 Alburını's India, vol I, u by DEC Sachau, vol I p 182 28. Prabandhacıntāmanı, p 36 29. Ibid, p. 61.

Page #74

JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
VICTI's regarding the cducational activitics of the hermitage The ber mitage 1175 a co-educationrl institution admitting males and females ulicrc tlicy rcccncil both thcorctical and pracuical education in a spin wal atmosplicre 10 fit them for their future vocauons
I'roin the aboicuc arc in a position to conclude that co-education was in voglic in ancient India and among others the Jaina educa tionists cffccuni cly helped it through their various agencies of educa lion spyrnalism was incessantly praised in the field of education and what is rcilly astonislung plıysical and cien muitary training were gucn to komen It is implicul in the Jaina literature as the whole range of scienty tlio Arts acre prescribed for the females Females were not debarred by the Jaina fathers from receiving the same kind of clucation with tlıc males The Jainas recognized the equality of the tko sexes Only indı dual interests aptitudes temperaments tastes and nccis dctcrminal the type of education to be pursued by any student. Nccds of society State and industry also were taken into account Thic same view was adioated by Rajaśckhara in his Kavya mimamsa wluch was referred to in our introductory remarh. The educa ted women filled important positions in the family the school or higher institutions of learning in the church or nunnery and in the State. Briefly speaking they were not burden to society but were its actie members and did much for the cultural mental moral and social upheaval of the country in ancient and mediaeval India and their edu cation was utally related 10 the realities of life Thus we get an cdifying sketch of female education prevalent in ancient India among the Jainasma sketch which may be read with interest and profit even by moderns of our scientific age Here we get a graphic zllustrations of sound theories of education on elaborately comprehensive scale All honour to our venerable ancestery tho could think so much and do so much in those hoary days of antiquity

Page #75

LECTURE VII
THE EDUCATION OF THE PRINCES.
In a tuly platonic spinu as it were the ancient and mediaeval rulers of India approached the problem of the education of the future guardians of the States or more explicuty the pinces and the princesses on whom the destiny of the country mainly depended, in a spirit of conformity with scientific principles, all the more so in an aristocratically and autocratically governed States of India Those autocratic rulers of India were in most cases themselves highly cultured and 11ghtly enough they appreciated the benefit of learning and patronised it with judicions liberality But education like charity begins at home, and they began by bestowing an elaborate attention to the education of their children from the cradle or more exactly from the embryoni stage in the womb. The futune mother was well fed, well provided with light, refreshment, recreation, and an atmosphere favourable to the health of the focus This reveals both an insight and foresight and a uue understanding of the mature and the magnitude of the problem of education in the true sense of the term From a passage quoted below we can form an unmistakable idea of the thorough knowledge of the prenatal conditions that must be fulfilled by an ideal mother Thus the consort of Andhaga-Vanhi, king of Baravai took special care during her pregnancy stage "She nourished herself according to place
and time with substances neither to chill no too hot, noi too acrid, nor too pungent, nor too asti ingent, noi too soui, nor too sweet, but pleasant in seasonable use, with food, covering, perfumes, and garlands, such as were good for the unborn babe, moderate, wholesome, nutritious for the unborn babe, using special and soft beds and couches, staying in pleasantly retired and agreeable places of abode, her longings excellent, her longings fulfilled, duly honoured, entirelly gratified, dispelled, and removed, free from sickness, sori ow, delusion, diead, and terror, she comfortably carried unborn babe Then, after the passing of nine months and seven and a half days and nights, queen Dharını bore a baby delicate of hands and feet, his body perfect and in no wise lacking in its

Page #76

62
JAINA SYSTEMI OF EDUCATION
fivc organs of sense excellent in the marks of distinction and token swect of aspect as the moon, lovely and picasant to behold a goodly form 1
The Jaina fathers were far ahead of the modern psychologists in their ads ocacy of the gradual growth of the human organism from the cmbryonic stage to its maximum period of growth in the adult period Then thic embryo grew secretly day by day in lady Siddhar tha s womb like the secd 1 cssel in the calyx of a lotus • We have already noticed in connection with our sixth lecture the eight stages of lifc which portain to both sexes Wc may further note that of these the first five stages of derclopment come within the purview of the pre-school stage wluch may broadly be distinguished into two (11 there is the stage of inactivity followed by (2) the stage of response to external stimuli There is a Buddhist legend about a Brahmin illus trating the period: Dr Fergusson refers to a relevant portrait in the following words In the chamber on the right or east side of the sanctuary are sculptured a pair of partly sitting figures both with rich head-dresses the woman holds a child on her knee apparently amusing it with a toy held in her right hand to the right and left of them are female slives with chauries whilst one beholds a parrot and a fruit Below are eleven small figures some of them making rams but others wrestling and some playing on musical instrument for the child s amuscment This is probably intended to represent the in fancy of Buddha nursed by his mother Mayadevi (or Mahaprajapatı) with a peculiar headdress who sit by his father Suddhodana. This practice of amusing the infants with ball and musical performances by expert ladics resemble very well the modern kindergarten ideals in ancient India In the third stage of developpent, the young child learns to walk with the aid of the nurse The point was stressed by Kalıdása in his Raghuvamsa where young Raghu is described as learn
1 The Antagaçadas0 And Anuttarovardiya-siado tr by L D Barnett PP 25 26
* Hemacandra Tugastitalaka purusa-Caritra, vol ut by Hjen N Johnson, PhD p 858
3 The Romantir Legend of Sakya Buddlır, tr by Samuel Beal p 316
4. James Fergusson DCL and James Burgess The Cave Temples of India p. 833-0346

Page #77

LECTURE VII
63
ing to walk and uttei half hazaid way from the nurse or demi-mother by holding her finger - In the fourth stage it can stand on its own legs and walk about unassisted The second and third and fourth stages of development from infancy to childhood is described in the Antagadadasão in connection with the rearing of Lord Gotama, prince of Bāiavai (Dvaravatī) in his infancy as follows “Now little Goyama was attended by five nurses to wit, a wet-nuise, (a2-bath-nurse, a tning-nurse, a lapnurse, and a play-nuise-also by many-women of diverse lands, in foreign garb skilful and accomplished, well-trained Surrounded by this goodly throng of slave-girls and band of maids, encompassed by eunuchs, messengeis, and chamberlains, he was passed from hand to hand, he enjoyed breast after breast, he was danced about, sung to, caressed, embraced, hugged, piaised, kissed, made to walk upon delightful jewelled floors, and so grew in comfort ”
The fourth stage (ujugatabhūmı) is characterized by restlessness peculiar to childhood due to sense and motor activities brought about by surplus inner energy During this period they jump, and run about, and are fond of bids and bullerflies of variegated colours The children have recourse to various tricks to elude the vigilance of then nurses and make them worried by their wild demeanour In brief childhood is characterized by physical activities and restlessness “Running about rapidly as they liked, they tired out their nurses-running after them Strength is a quality of the noble The royal boys, the vāyukumarakas in speed, caught bırds, pleasure-parrols, peacocks, etc By various kinds of flattery, the nurses halled the boys in their course as they wandered at pleasure " We quote again "getting down repeatedly from their laps with the restlessness usual to children, tricking his nurses again and again, the Lord passed his childhood, playing in various games !!
5a Kālıdāsa's Raghuvamsam, canto I, veise no 25
5b DC Das Gupta's Educational Ideas in Kälıdāsa's India, P B March, 1942 6 The Antagadadasão And Anuttai ovavāıya-dasão, pp 28-29
BM Barua's A History of per-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, pt IIIPhilosophy of Masharın Gośāla
8 Tuşaştıśalāhā-purusa-Caritia, vol II, PhD, p 67 9 Ibid, p 307

Page #78

64
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Thus infancy and chuldhool ycrc possed in the company of the cducated and shilful nurses amidst physical and motor acuvities and appropriate arrangements werc made for organized games and informal cducation under their carc and toys of discrse kinds 11 CTC provided them to play with Group acutilics cre encouraged where sociability and national inanncrs and cuiquçitc and mother tonguic were taught to them by murse Thus to use Conichius icon in thc School of infancy the children Icarn in an infornal way from thicir nurse-thc upamata use ful information quite appropriatc to their physical and mental growth In the fifth stagc (schha bhuni) at the scienth birthday or cighth year froin conception young boys 11 cte handed over to the teacher of Arts whereas the Brahmın boys join the Vedic school after the initiation cerchions They may los cicr postpone the upanajana ceremony upco the sixtccntlı ycar from conccption and in this case they shall have no choice other than joining the art school From birth to the childs first entry into school parcnts perform scries of ceremonies In this particular instance lic may cite the example of Lord Goyama a prinac of the house of Baravai and the ceremonics performed by his parents from lus birth to his first entry into art school were as follows So the father and mother of litulc Goyama in clue order performed the sites of the birth-day festival the sight of moon and sun the vigul the same giving the walking and moving thc legs the fcasting the increase of food the teaching to speak the boring of the cars the cleaning the ar the dressing of the hair the taking to school and many other rites from conception to birth 10
Physical emotional and mental growth are gradual and not sudden There is a slow process of evolution Like the modern pujchologist the Jaina father recorded the tendency of the young boy's to imitate adult occupations It is a psychological fact with all the young boys and girls during the sekha-stage which begins at the age of seven to dramatise adult occupations Thus Hemacandra in his Sthaviravalicarita describes how Chandragupta the founder of the Murya empire in his boyhood daily played the role of king with his co-villagers He used to ride upon the boys when they played thu role of clephants and horses This is indicative of Chandragupta s
10
The Antagadadasdo And Anuttarovaványa-dasło p 19

Page #79

LECTURE VII
65
B
future fortunes 11 The same view is stressed again in the Kathāsaritsāgara where the boys played the game of kingship 12
The gradual development of the physical, emotional and mental characteristics of the child upto the period of adolescence is a remarkable phenomenon to be noted and the Jaina authority Hemacandra noted this phenomenon with exactitude in the course of the child Goyama We quote below an extract relavent to the point "Their
cheeks were like golden mirrors, and their eyes tender and soft like _ears_ryth beautiful wholes looked like pearl-oysters, and their necks 7790-assess by three lines, like conches Their shoulders were arched
frontal boss of an elephant, and their arms were long and o fike the king of serpents Their breasts resembled slaps of
a ila, and their navels were very deep like the mind Their uovere slender as the middle part of a thunderbolt, their thighs,
nand soft, had the shape of an elephant's trunk Their legs L ane ke the legs of a deer, and their feet had straight toes like the
194 öf the sthalapadma "13 With the physical changes in the adole92 de ouths of both sexes there is a change in their voice as well domą er, satatasamitābhiyukta, the young man of good family or the E en lady who keeps, teaches, proclaims, writes this Dharmaparyāya
Save an organ of taste possessed of twelve hundred good faculties of the tongue
A sweet, tender, agreeable, deep voice goes out from him, an amiable voice which goes to the heart, at which those creatures will be ravished and charmed, and those to whom he preaches, after having heard his sweet voice, so tender and melodious, will even (if they are) gods, be of opinion that they ought to go and see, venerate, and serve him "14
Adolescence is marked by physical as well as by mental vigour According to Jaina fathers intelligence begins to grow mature even from boyhood “And this, after having passed childhood, and with just ripened intellect, having reached the state of youth, will become a brạve, a gallant, and valorous king, the lord of the realm, with a
11 Hemacandra, Sthavnávali Carita, edited by Hermann Jacobi, p 236 . 12 Kathāsarıtsāgai ?, vol 1, ti by CH Tawney, MA, p 57
13 Trisastıśalākā-purusa-Caritia, vol I, p 72 14 The Saddharma-Punduika, ti by H Kern, pp 346-347.
a

Page #80

RAJ
JAIPUR
ܐܐ
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
|
large and extensive array and train of waggons 13 The modern psychological principle of individual differences was known to the Jaina fathers One authority obsctics Somc men differing in intellect, will character opinions tastc undertakings and plans study various evil sciences This is a fact which is borne by individual opinion According to Kundah unda Ācarya high native abilities or talents are of four kinds
Intuitivc- Autpattıkı Disciplined- Varnayıkı the talent acquired by practice - harmaja and devcloped talent or the talent acquired by the maturity of age Parinamiki 17 This is a golden observation on which volume might be written here is a plain truth borne out by experience A Valmīkı or a Kalidasa or a Hemacandra is born with ? poetic intution No amount of study horvever vast, no discipline how eter rigorous no training holder sedulous can make a Kalidasa or a Shalcspeare But practice can develop the latent gifts of nature By training the power of thinking speaking may be developed Auto matic or habitual actions like speaking walking and moving and extra ordinary feats like the gymnastic feats performed by professional athlets all belong to this category The fourth type of talent u equally com mon It is refreshing to read so much of sound common sense applied to the realm of psychology in our Jaina authorities
The adolescent youths males and females are fond of gangspirit and violence They constantly move about in gangs We already referred to such a story in connection with our lecture on femalc edu cation They are also fond of games music and wild demeanour 16 During this period young man or woman becomes social in their deal ings with the public which earns hun or her universal admiration "That magnanimous young one becomes a pleasure to the cyes of the people like the fullmoon 10 This is followed by a period of adolescence the period par excellence of Romance. He then attained to youth which is a pleasure garden of Rani (or sport) a short Teapon of cupid and a charm to attract love-sick maidens > We
15 Jauda Sutras, part i tr by Hermann Jacob2 P 240 16 Thid p 866 17 The Nirayávliyao p 16 18 Rajasekhara Sari Prabandhakopa, vol i p 86
19. Jaina Jatakas of Lord Rabhas Porvábhán, tr by Amulya Charan Vidyabhushano p s8 verse no 245
20 Ibid p 28 yerse DO 245.

Page #81

LECTURE VII
67
quote again “The Master attained youth the opposite bank of the stream of childhood, majestic for the subjection of women "21
On the advent of adolescence, the manifestation of specific talent for music, dancing and singing becomes predominant This is a principal fact biographically and psychologically borne out There is a whole encyclopaedia of literature dealing with the topic 29 Thus we see native and specific abilities and emotional traits-all grow concurrently with the physical growth of human organism According to the Jaina as well as the modern psychologists the phenomenon of emotion is unsteady it has flood and ebb-tides "It is interrupted , for oppositions are noticed in it, since we realize it as proceeding by the rise of good emotional karman disturbed by the rise of bad emotional karman
"It is unequal, for it is utterly unsteady, since it evolves through increase and decrease Thus even merit turns out to be, lıke sin, effective of pain "23 Thus far our discussion of child and adolescent psycho. logy has revealed the gradual growth of physical, mental and emotional traits of the growing child from birth to puberty Now it will be our purpose here to trace how far and to what extent these psychological traits of the adolescent youths were taken into account in organizing the curricula of the art-school attended by the Princes or students of the ruling-class
Curricula in the art-school were carefully organized with reference to the psychological factors referred to above The whole range of the art-courses may be principally classified as follows viz (1) 3 R's, eg, reading, writing and arithmetic, (8) fine-arts dancing, singing, music, painting and chivalry, (3) military-training with its allied sciences, (4) vernacular languages, (5) astronomy, astrology and other practical sciences in course of time the Vedas and the Vedāngas were included in the curricula of the art-school Of these the study of the 3 R's is of absolute necessity to give the children a command over the fundamental tools of knowledge The fine arts were rightly included in the Jaina scheme of studies, as without them no liberal education
21 Tuşaştıśalākā-puruşa-Caritia, vol 11, p 318
22 The Gandavyūha Sūtra, edited by Daisetz Teitara Suzahı And Hoki Idazumı, part, 1 & 11, p 318
23. Kundakundā Ācārya, Pravacanasāia, t). by Bai naid Faddegon, p 48.

Page #82

68
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
was possiblc Nothing is morc alculated to de clop the imagination and broaden the vision than poctry Nothing aan de clop the visual perspective morc cliccucly tlun painting There is no severe indent to accuracy than sculpture Nothing an aid the cxpression of the spirit inorc cliccia cly than architecture and aboic all music is both an cducator and medium of the truc dcpths of the soul To these purcly academic branclics of knowledge acte added the supremely practical sciences of war The following quotation will giic us a faint idca of the statc of things which then prevailed Now thc royal princc up to the time of lus cighth year grew up in the royal palace without any attention to study but from he cighth ycar till his twelfth scar he was trained under the carc of Visvainitra and Khantadeva as #chaic related
But non having completed anche scars and being perfectly ac quainted with all the customary moles of cnjoyment as mcn speak such as hunting riding and driving here and there according to the desire of the cyc or for the gratification of the mind such being the case it came to pass on an occasion that he was visiting the kan hu-garden and whilst thcte amused hinself by wandering in different directions shooting with his box and arrow at directions shooting with his bow and arrow at whatever he pleased and so he separated himself from the Sak ya youths who hcrc also in the ses eral gardens enjoying them selves in the same way!
The higher or the advanced courses in the Art school such as vernacular languages compositions ballad making public speaking the Vedas the Vcdangas astronomy astrology the eight branches of medicine mineralogy and other sciences were pursued by the scholars for intellectual pleasure as well as for economic gain Briefly speaking the whole range of the encyclopaedic courses in Arts were well adjusted to the physical mental and emotional needs of the scholars from their boyhood to carly adolescence and the whole syllabius was classified into four distinct groups VIL 8 Rs Finc Arts military-training academic and scientific courses well organized on the sound basis of child and adolescent psychology beginning with the rudimentary subjects to the gradually increasingly difficult courses. Besides the curricula of the
84
The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, P 72
225914

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LECTURE VII
69
ait-school were based on the realities of life taking into account the needs of institutions of society, viz the family, the church, the state, the school and industry Hence the curicula were vitally related to the realities of life Specialization was the general rule, though the scholars were made to have an all-round taming in all the courses.
The family, the school, the church and the state played a conspicuous part in the education of rulers of the States to fit them for then 10yal duties in time of peace and of war It will be our purposes here to discuss the educational activities of each of these institutions of Society
In the Jama literatue we find cvidences as to the educational functions of the family it functioned not only biologically but also educationally It helped the individual not only in the growth of his body but also in the development of his soul The home was not only a castle but also a source of culture. The father was also the teacher Thus Rsabha taught his son Bharaha (Bharata) born to him by his wife, Yasavan the various arts, politics, sociology-embracing the social structure and machinery based on hereditary caste system and the civic duties of the members of the respective castes He was also taught the geography of different Indian States, then mter-state iclationships, and this is only a typical example.
School The Art and the Vedic schools existed in all the great cities and metropolis of ancient India such as Campaka, Rajagi ha, Vaisali, Kosala, Kapilavastu, and Baravai, Modeiapuru and Pātalapura in Guzeiat Many such institutions of learning existed in the south and in other parts of India imparting useful and higher learning to the multitudes in India Let us describe here some of the important ait-schools wherein some of the leading princes 1cceived then all round education in these institutions of learning
Education in the Art-school began at the age of eight from conception or seven years from birth which lasted till the dawn of pubertv or adolescence According to modein psychologists pubcity for males begins at the age of fourteen and for the females at the age of twelve and childhood ends for both at the age of six Eight-year curricula
wit
25 Puspadanta, The Mahapuiana, edited by Dr. P L Vaidya, chap v, also p 604.

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
+
for the males were instituted in the Art school from the state of childhood to that of youth in all the common branches of knowledge Lalitavistura that Lord Buddha remained unschooled at the age of eight from conception or seven years from birth when he joined the writing or Art school where he pursued the art-curricula up to his adolescence ** According to this source Lord Buddha studied in the art school for seven years whereas according to the Jaina source the Art school offered an eight year course superimposed upon the pre school or infancy school course where the children spent their days in organized games and music along with other activities quite appropriate to their ge Thus price Goyama of Baraval was sent by his parents to an art school in an auspicious day at the age of eight from conception "Then when his father and mother saw that little Gayama was past eight years of age during an auspicious tithi karana day star and hour they brought him to a teacher of the ArtsTM
The Art school at Rajagṛha was also a popular institution offering academic military scientific and practical courses where pupils of all ranks went for education Prince Meha or Magha son of Srenika Bimbisara was its student where he mastered the seventy two Arts from his seventh year (eighth year from conception) till the dawn of his adolescence Then when prince Meha was in his eighth year his parents brought him to a teacher of the arts on an auspicious titlu karana and hour The teacher of arts trained Mehă and taught him the seventy two arts This wonderful curricula gives us au idea of the range depth and breadth of the Indian mind devoted to the solution of the problem of education. Here nothing is omitted nothing is neglected The education is as thorough and comprehensive as could be Here agam there is an encyclopaedic and ambitious scheme of studies demanding a knowledge of the seventy two arts very high altitude of knowledge was reached and high degree of per
19
A
And when he passes
he will be perfect But we learn from the
26 The Kalpasūtra And Nava Tatva tr by Rev J Stevenson p 55 27a Lalitaviştăra pp 184 190.
17b Jataka Stories vol I tr by Chalmers p 75
18. The Antagadadasão And Anuttarovaványa-dasão, p 30
29
Ardha Magadhi Reader edited by Banarasi Das Jain M.A. p 101

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31
LI CI URI: VII
section aimed at by those who wcic icsponsible for moulding the cultural desliny of India in that golden age of Indian culine and coul:. zation
In Kundmapura, a subub of Varsili, Verlue or higher institution of leainmg was superimposed upon the ill-school This ric Icaini from the drcam vluch the mothei of Lord Vahüvira s.11 In this postgradualc institution of Icarming the curricula included iic Vedas, the Vedāngas, history. lcgends, plulosopliy, maiheinaucs, gramman, prosodly, asionomy and saci cu tens of ilic Bialumms 'On kaung the sure of childhooil he will be perfect in all the mferuor branches of knowlege, and afici entering on the state of youth. lie will soon become able to rcpcai, dcfend, and uphold the four Vedas, the Rig Veda, Yaju - Veda, Sānia-Veda, and the Atlanta-Veda, and the luhāsa (legendary history), which is considered a filul Verla, and the Nighani (le vicon), whuch may be icimed a sivil: the body livinily with all its inembers, know also then luden meanmg llc will be acquainic with the si subsidiary members of the Vaca, and the soili plulosophical system (the Sänkhya), with the mathematics, the institutc which diccis 11s riles and ceremonics, graminai, piosody, analysis of words, astronomy, and othcı Bialimanıcal sciplines especially that clating to the staic of an ascelic , in all of these he will become a proficient "!"
Oudh -Di Hemacandia gries uis a uud kica of the curricula of studies pui suced by the ideal punce Sagua Thuis is slightly diffcicnt from the curricula followed by the punces Goyama and Mcghã All the same it is very vast, compichensive and almost occanic The following calacl will give us an idca of the vast range of knowlcilge pursued by the idcal prince “On the other hand, al thic king's command, Sagara began to go to a teachei on an auspicious day, which was celebiated by a festival In a few days Sagara absorbed the scicnccs, giammar, etc, like thic occan, thc watcis os niveis Without esfoit Saumitrı (Sagaia) took the wealth of rhetoric from the teacher, like a torch taking light from anothei torch. He made his own slcep accomplish its purpose by poems, praises of passionless saints, floweis on the creepeis of rhetouc, elıxır for the car An ocean of learning and intelligence, hc giasped unhesilalingly all the works of saci cd authority, like deposits made by himself.
30 The Kalpasūlia And Nava Tattva, p. 27

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Sigara dcfcated luis opponents by unerring questions from the doctrine of Syadrada lihc Jitasatru lus cncmics by arrous He plunged into the unfathomable occan of political science which had evil sca monasters filled with waics of the application of the six policies of the (four) means of regal poncr ctc. He learnt without difficulty the cighifold Ayuri cda also the corch of Lnon ledge of the strength and cffects of all herbs and essences Ho acquired the science which is the source of Inowledge about concerts consisung of four kinds of musical instruments four dramatic styles and sour modes of conveying pleasure Without instruction lic Wew the characictiStICS of elephants complete mith bitcs states of mada bodily characteristics and medical treatment. He established in his heart by study and experience practices about draft animnls and the characteristics of his horses and their trcatment.
He put his hicart on archery and the characteristics of other weapons just from having them as casily as his own name He attained skill in fighung with thc bor sword and shield dagger arrow axe lance javelin club Lampana staff spear pihe plou share mace cudgel, pattisa dusplota bhusandhi sling arrow trident dart and other weapons in conformity with the manuals He became filled with all the arts like the full moon with digits 31This short8 how the capa cious mind of the prince was equal or rather more than equal to the Herculean burden laid on it by hu teacher
Arhat Rabha the ruler of Oudh huslef taught seventy-two arts to his people for their bencfit and as elsewhere writing was caught first and last of all astrology and here we have special reference 10 sixty four arts meant for the females in addition to traditional seventy two arts Here we have clear inention of adjusting the curricula of the art school to the needs of the fair sex We quote below Rşabha curricula as follows "The Arhat Rışabha thic Kosalian clever with the aspirations of clever man of great beauty controlling (Bus senses) luchy and modest During his reign he taught, for the benefit of the people the seventy two sciences of which writing is the first, arithmetic the most important and the knowledge of omens the last the sixty four accomplishments of women the hundred arts and three
31
Trişastifalaka punya-Carlıra, pp 68 70

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LICIURI. VII
73
accomplishments of men't. 'l hese cunicular in the ....sehool at Oudli clearly prove il 10 be a cuclucational instituuton „dmung students of all janis-males and females alike and the curucula neic adjusted 10 thcui necils
All-school at Bāraidi.
Prince Goyama of Baravai kas suure by luis parents to the local All-school in an auspicious clay at the age of seven 'I ho cachici taught him the scient?-1110 alls. lle quote bulou in support of oui slalement "I hic teachcliruel lille (osam and laughi him the scienti-1110 ans musuly uning then jantumcute as most important and lastly buds (11(s, in their all, purpose and practic-10 1111, wung. arithmetic, mpersonat101), canong, singing, mahing music with insu umenis, 111th the conc, 1911 the drum, and with cymbals, gambling populai con ci sacion, diang, play of the cigh-square boiul, cily-policc m ing of W inth class rules of loud rules of shrink.rules of housc-coping rules of bor joy.lt cases, udelling. Migachi anal Gāthā composition, ballac-making, sloke-making means of prepaung unwrought and wrough goll. pailumes, and powers, rules of oinament, ataning of damsels pomis or women, of men of houses, or clephants, of humc, of cocks of umbrellas, of sales, of suords, of jums and of the Kājanı jouels , loic of building measurement of camps and citics, column and countci-colunm, llumg column and fiying-countci, column, ni hecl-column, hilc column, Call-column, figliung and lears fighting, and supreme righug list-lighuing. am fighung brancinfighting, ariou-shooung, welding the sword, loic of dic bon, casting of unwiought and ought gold play with cells, with thicadls, and with lotus-stalks, engiaving Icaves, engraving bracclets, giving and taking lisc, and bud's crics Then when he had lained laule Goyama-hu teacher of aits brought him to his fathei and mothei " The Jaina scheme of cducation in the all-school took note not only of the factors of puie knowledge and utility, but also of the factors of iccication which is so much needed soi the proper devclopment of the mind
We can have an idea of the ways in which the Jaina monaslei ics
32 33
Jaina Sūti as, vol 1, p 282 The Anlagadadasāo And Anultai avavaiya dasão, PP 30-31.

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JNIM SISTLU OF COUCATION
discharged their clic ation functions from the accounts given below Iluse monastcrics cducatcd clic royal students with a view to their com pcience for discharging tlic duties of the State and coni crtal people in clucling lungs will n view to dc calico mission of the church Thus thic curricult of thic Jam monastcry were admirably fitted to suit the needs of duscrsc duties of us alum Thc Jama monasteries at the suburb of Baranı Vuranası or Benares con crted princc Aimutte 31 hing hanlie Vasudeva of Baravai and Ling Algklhe of Benares and hing Adiyance who pursue the claicii Angas of the Jainas. They ucrc not the only members of the royal liousehold to join the Jaina Order King Rablia and luis son Baralia " Mahavira Vardhamana ucrc all members of thc policrful roynd houschold who renounced the world for spiritual career **
Art school at llocrapura -
Rajaśckra Siri 1 much Inter authority clescribes a still clifferent curricula for the education of the prince Ama son of Sośavarman Ling of Kanouj and his consort Sujasa There lived a Suri Sxlhasena by namc at Patalipura in Guzcrat during the reign of Jitasatru The Suri repaired to the monastery at Moclcrapura where he trained Bappa Blialtı son of Bappa 1 h satriya resident of Dunbadhı in Panchala along with prince Ama of honauy in the seventy two arts* cmbracing the 3R s fine arts military sciences Vedas Vedangas minera logy astronomy astrology medicine treatment of plant disease and training of the Acaryas etc The curricula in Jaina monasteries were flexbile and varied Thus Siddhasena Suris ideal curricula for the education of Bappa Bhatħ and the price of Kanou are as follows –
___ 1 किनितम् writing 2 गणितम् arithmetic, 3 गीतमू singing 4 ray dancing 5 ofert reading 6 UTOL music 7 6019CUTAL graminar 8 छन्दो prosody, 9 ज्योतिपम् astronomy 10 शिक्षा phonetics 11 निरुतम् etymology 12 कात्यायनम् ritual, 13 निघण्टुः lexicography 14 4 39h cuttuug of leaves, 15 UL cutting of nails, 84 The Antagaçadasso And Anuttaravaväiya dasao pp. 84-85 35 Ibid P 96
36 Idd Loc Cit. 87 Puşpadanta, Mabápurini, yol, i edited by P L Vardya p 38 Jaina Sūtras, part I 89 Rajasekhara Suri Pralandhakoga, vol. p 27

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LECTURE VII
16 Tagilear testing of jems, 17 snyatta: use of weapons, IS HITELIA riding elephant, 19 OTTITIETH riding lioises, 20 at: ESTETT learning the use of avions, 21 Araar science of mantia, 22 stranie: science of suigical instrument, 23 TATTG: alchemy, 24 mulle: mining, 25 TARAH chemistry, 26 fastiat science, 27 aware: logic, 28 FEST: siddhanta, 29 fazer: the science of curing poison, 30 465# llie cuie of snake bites, 31 ieading omens from the flight and cry of buds, 32 âTFF nedicine, 33 atefect the science of teachug, 34 MA: traditional doctiine, 35 LHC27014 architecture, 36 gigi palmıstıy: 37 Fala law, is geruit purānam, 31) slanie: anecdotes, 40 az: velas, 41fafsto injunction, 45 farengara: intei pielil1011 of Icaining, 43 aviaciat: philosophy, 44 ist yogic practice, 41 SATI TT black arts, 46 forsicot magic, 17 qarafere an occult practice, 48 77'Bildcicou cunning-art, 49 Fiata: perfumeij, 50 gefufficer tieatment. of plaut-diseases, 51 a Afor-Fi inanufacture of artificial jeuns, 52 dienuit sundry art, 53 494+* enchanting, 54 qui tiade or business, 55 चिनकम pai11t111g, 56 काप्टघटनम् carpentry', 57 पाषाणen stone work, 58 297 outinent, 59 ta' leather work, 60 aaaat manufacture of machues or implements, 61 slott poetry, 62 अलङ्कार 1hetoric, 63 हालतम् com1c, 6-4 संस्कृतम् sanskrit, 65 प्राकृतम् prakrits, 65 पैशाचिकम् witchcraft, 67 अपभ्रंशम् apabhramsa prakrit, 68 449 art of tricks, 6? Tanut spoken dialects, 70 TO i metal-work, 71 ftri: the mo:le of recitation, 72 tasolfafsi: the rule of the Kevalins 40
Having mastered this encyclopaedic curricula of a diverse natus the exiled prince of Kaunoj went to his father with his exiled mother who were warmly received into the palace by Yośavarman, the kins
40 Rājaśckhara Sūnı, Prabandhalosa, yol 1, p ??

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
and he nominated the alucard young prince as his successor to the Ilironc of a runoj"!
State -Statc stipen ision over the cducation of the young prince was extended to Arts and higher cducation The State encouraged specialization and spacialists were sought for cagerly and they used to be appointce for the cducation of the princes The Buddhist source supplics us Taith iformiuion on the point Thus we learn from the legend of Sakya Buddha that Lord Buddha while a inerc boy recened hus education in the academic subjects and traditional sciences under Vasvamilna in ilc rcgular class room of tlic Art school and his military truining in han hu thc royal girilen under ksantadem The teacher scrc carefully selected in consultation with the rise, ministas of the State Tich thc sarious ininisters rcplicd to the king as follows Maharaja I knou Viśmilra is most perfectly acquainterl with all thic Sastris and in cicry respect the most studied to become (cacher of tlic prince in all and cicry kind of scholar like erudition Then Suddho lana despatched messengers to Visvamitra to speak to him thus Yıll you Oh Icarned sir I undertake to instruct the prince Royal in che various branclics of politc learning and the usual manual accom plishments I * We quotc again Then all the ministers respectfully answered the king and said Maharajal the son of Supra Buddha Kşantı deva by name is thoroughly competent to teach the prince all the material accomplishments of which you speak * We learn also from the Jaina source that the military tactics were practised by the princes in a field especially set apart for this purpose called khaturika in the suburb of a capital city The following extract will support our state mcant, He wandered about until he arrived at the city of Sundaram where he happened upon Gunasundara the son of tbe king of that aty practising military tactics on the field for military exercise (Kha turikā) outside the city # Provision was also made for separate gardens or hippodrome for practising horse riding as a part of military training for the princes or pupils of the art-school Such train
41 Ibid Loc. Cit. 4: The Romantic Legend of Sahya Buddha, p 67 48 Ibid, p 70
44 Maurice Bloomfield, The Life and Stories of The Jaina Savior Partva natha, p 89

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LICTURI VII
77
ing-ground of hoiscs was constiuicial in the suburb of Vasantapma. a city located at a clistance of a month's jouncy som Ksitiprauishihānapwa and the new day after finishung the mind. ing duues he went to the training ground of horses all the proper time. He iode many houses from Ball. Turkey, and Vamana. Cli, and sat in the garden of Sahasiamaravana, situacil on the short of the liainingground, soi the purpose of icmoring its (10 of udmg) fulguc "'45
Vlılılary uaming was supplemented by physical naming in its various aspects and for this CHICHISIC rangement was maile 'Ilie aules systematicalls umcru en plusal cicios regularly cach day for the picscriation and disclopment of then ou calih Their physical cxcrcises dad 101 stop with the commencement ciciciscs of their institutions of Icaining and it 1125 prolonged slumg ihe rest of thcu lucs Hence like géncial cluton then prysical clucation was also a conunuous or life-long process Ilus according to Hindu or Jama weals physical wcll-being of human beings began in the picnalul stage and lasıcıl till the cry end of human liso Consequently It is co-Chiusic with life We have cudiences of the physical ciciciscs of the rules and ulic public in uic gymnasiums the iulcis undciwent then physical Scicises in then priville' gymnasium and the public in public gymnasiums of the (11) 11.ngements ucic also made for the constant supply of ficsh-watci foi sanitary and hygienic icasons Sometimes cxcicisc-grounds rcic constructed on all sides of the swimming-pools as in Taxıla The vulcis very carly in the mounmg first under went physical cicicises with vauious instruments such as Icaping, limb-twisting westling, luning, stictching aims with weights, practising the discuss and the javclin-thiowing Physical exercises were followed by oilment with oils scientifically picpaicd and diluted with drugs and peifumes Expeits in the science of ointment and ubbing, who were skilful, dextcious, accomplished, clever, wise, thoi oughly conversant with the modes of iubbing, turning, used to lub the ruler with tender, delicate palms pleasant to the bone, flesh, skin. and hair with a view to comforting, inspning, gladdening, stiengthening, and rejoicing all the organs and links 46 Gymnasium existed at
45 Haribhadia Sūli, Samarāicca-Kahā, (F1st Two Chapteis) ti by M C. Modi, p. 19,
46. Jaina Sutia, part. ii, p. 420.

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Taxıl? 41 husinagar 4" kundapura " Barami so Avantı ol and at Nalanda - The Licchiavi youths practised military Arts in the gymna sium at Vitalı -
Let us now turn to the description of a royal gymnasium at Kunda pura derising our source materials from thic writings of various authors, clevoted to the description of the aforesaid gymnasiums and thus to have a general sicu of a gymnasiun in ancient India We arc quoting below in describe the royal gyınnasıtım at hundapura where king Siddharth? father of Lord Malayıra underwent hus physical exercises Having got up he went into the gymnasium where there was a profussion of instruments for excrcising the body and weights for stretching the arms Tierc after cicrcusing himsell lullc was ured and tired again hc tool various kinds of oils some with a hundred aud others with a thousand drugs and mendicants dissolved in them sweet smelling nourishing irradiating exlularating flattening strengthening and quickening all the senses hc anointed himself all over with these he was then well rubbed and shampoed by men skilled in the Art and who could impart a softness and tenderness even to ibe palms of the hands and soles of the feet alio could perform their work with quick ness and dexterity fastness and cleverness of their profession and who had studied well the Art and were incapable of fatigue hneading thu body till the bones lctc invigorated the muscles refreshed the shi released and hair made to shinc all the four tissues of the body re freshed and langour and fatigue banished He then left the gymnasium and went into the bathung rooins
king Andhaga Vanh, lord of Barayai had also according to the text simular physical training as comfortable as could be " The above
47 The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana and The Indian Embassies to Rome tr by Osmond De Beannier Praulx p 17
48 Rajendra Lal Afitra Avadana p go p 78 49 Janna Sútra part I 30 The Antagıdach d 150 And Anuitarovavis dasac p 10
Vikrama s Adienture, p 191 52 The Jaina Sutras, part ii p 40 58 The Kindred Sayings (Sarnyatta Nikáva) vol 11 tr by F L Il noduarel
P 981
54 85
The Kalpasätra And Nava Tatva, PP 57 58 The Anlagaduçladinio And Anutturovavdiyadasão p 80

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LLCTURE VII
79
mentioned gymnasiums were well-planned and scientifically constructed and some of these were located in a huge garden with swimming-pools of cool-unning water in the centic and had taming-grounds for physical exercises on all rounds "So saying, he led him to the place where he was accustomed to bathe This was a garden-,-about a stadium long, with a swimming bath of cold running water in the middle of it on which side an excicising-ground "'" Besides some of these gymnasiums, again, had bathing-halls supported on innumerable pillais simila to the modern American gymnasiums We quote below from the Jaina Sūtia to suppon Ou above statement This householder Lepa possessed, in a north-castein duction from the suburb of Nālandā, a bathing-hall. called Seshachavya, it contained many hundreds of pillais, and was beautiful'
Thus our bucf review of the education of the rulers or guardians of state reveals the truth that they pursued a comprehensive cunicula embracing academic, technical, scientific, military and physical sciences so as to prepare them for State-service in time of peace and in wai The governing principle of the system of education pursued here was to maintain a complete equilibrium between the mind and the body There was to be a perfect balance a perfect harmony of the body and the soul Heic was a Platonic conception of education made more perfectly democratic and profound
56
P 17
The State also controlled the education of the adult king Adulteducation was in vogue in ancient India and we have constant 1eferences to it in Jaina literature The adult king 1eceived his education in the palace under a veteran teacher in the rudiments of learning as well as in advanced courses of studies, and politics under the general supervision of the minister Night-class after the dinner used to be held for the education of the adult king with the permission of the minister We have reference to such an education in the Prabandhacıntamari where we get a fragmentai y record of the education of Kumā1apāla, king of Guzeiat and a great pation of Hemacandia, the great Jaina leader King Kumarapala had a chequered career and had to fly for his life and pass the longer period of his life in disguise before he could
The Indian Travels of Apolonius of Tlana And The Indian Tmbassies, 57 Jaina Sütias, pait 11, p 420

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JAIN 1 SYSTLY OF EDUCATION
establishi huuself kmg of Geremt Consequently he coull not recelic cluction proper for 7 princc in lus young days and had to engage ? private lutor to niake up for thic loss in the past Then on mnotlicr occasion the king nunc humarapala desinng to acquire lcrming bad thic trcaliscs of kamandzki on policy read to him for a uine yster inner by a certam lcirned man with the approbation of the minister kapardın after that speech the hing in order to coinprchcnd the ciymology of words began the study of treatises commencing with the alphabet under a ccrtun tcacher and in one your read ihrec pocnis with their comincntaries and so gained the title of Vicaracturinuli The royal student mentioned here wa not only 7 vomcious reader but also 7 icrsatule genills
Inspite of our limited sources of information it seems to be prette certyin that classes in the Juni Art schools were licld from sunrise in sunsct with a recess for the lunch and both group and individual instructions were in i ogrie Group instructions were practued in casi of training in military and cognatc sciences as it meant a good economy of time Auto education 1135 cncouraged in case of talented students like prince Siddharth The following quotation will bear us out on the point. As for me he said I will be my own instructor on which k santa deva applied bimself to perfect the five hundred youn, Sakya noblemen in all the Arts of his calling-riding the elephants archery chariot racing and so on 50 We Icarn from Hemacandras Trişaşçısalaka puruşa-caritra how Ajita Swamin a teacher of military science was giving individual instruction to prace Sagara of Vinita (Oudh) The Poet Kalidasa also fai oured individual instruction for students of fine Arts such as dancing music and singing and we learn from his Malavikagnimitrain low Ganadusa teacher of fine Arts Laught Malavika the Art of dancing music and singing in his owi residence " Similar method must bave been in vogue in the other courses of the Art school though we do not have definite proof of it
In the Bralımanic school also individual as well as group instruc
58 Merutunga Acirja, Prabandhauptmanı pp 198-139 59 The Legend of Sakya Buddha p yo 60 Trişaşçısaláká purusa-Caritra, vol. II P 71 61 Kalidasa Malavikagtuunnitram

Page #95

LECTURE VII
tion was followed Thus, a teacher Soma by name expounded the śāstras to his son while he laught a group of students elsewhere in the school "In due time, Soma had a son born to him, and, when he grew up, the father himself instructed him While teaching a group of pupils he placed him in an underground chamber, sitting the while on a bench over it expounding the Sāstras "02
The materials at our disposal do not enable us to have an exact knowledge of the time-table followed in the Jaina school. There is reason to believe that physical and military exercises were held in the morning Class-room instructions were given at noon One couise of instructions was followed by another, only after the first was completely mastered Thus there was a distinctly scientfic method of learning The following quotation gives us an idea of the method pursued “That magnanimous young one, as he learnt up all the arts one after another, became a pleasuie to the eyes of the people like the full-moon "03
But the Buddhists and the Hindu sources tell us a different storv as to the programme of studies in the All-school We have noticed before in the lecture how Suddhadhana, in consultation with his ministers, selected simultaneously Vaśvāmilia and Ksāntadeva to teach young Gotama the academic, art and military courses The simultaneous appointment of the experts distinctly proves that the instructions in different bianches of learning were concuriently given All the aspects of the mind were to be simultaneously and thoroughly cultivated and trained Complete education could ill afford to omit anything that contributed to culture of an ideal type The point is not definitely stated in the "Legend of śākya Buddha" It is our inference from the simultaneous appointment of the two teachers specialized in different branches of knowledge But the Kathāsarit-Sāgara is much more definite regarding the simultaneous pursuance of the academic, scientific and military sciences at the same time Thus Mahīpāla, son of CandraSvāmin, a Brahmin learnt at the same time all the arts-academic, scientific and militaiy “And in couise of time Mahīpāla grew up,
62 Maurice Bloomfield, The Life And Stories of The Jaina Savior Pārsvanātha, p 84
| 63 Jaina Jtaka, p. 28, verse no. 248
11

Page #96

JAIVA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
and was taught tlic sciences of inssle and hand co liand capons anil 175 7thic samc mc instrucicd m 11 knowledge "
Mic mctlol of tcachmg in thc {rt schools and thic higher institutions of Icarning 1123 basal on a sound clucational psychology and instruction whether in academic, scicnulic and 1 mililary subjects or in Vedic Icarming was uncir force upon a tinwilling mid Education was adjusical to the natural benit of mind Thus is truc of music, singing dancing m an sciences and in other academic subjects Before admission to thic military course the prosjxciiic students liad to demons trace their fitness before the onclicrs by cxlubiling their bodily strength agiliz os molion and other alicncm qualiucs Thu is exactly what candidates for posts in the Anny Inc to do all over the cylized world Herc lic sectic molern American praclicc of giving machanical apui Ludc icsi or iryoul courses in icchnical commercial or in any practical courses to discover the dormant abilities of pupils as a preparatory to trcir locational and educational sclcction 11'c quotc bclou to suppor our claun Hc cxhibice to the Lord the shooting a doll on a whee) shooting an invisible object by sound uic shooting at a target in water thic shooting a clay ball on a wheel with anony He show cd padagati carrying a sord and slueld He u burled rapidly a lance spear and club giving uc appearance of a fiery surcak of lightning revoli mg in the sky He showed hum knife science with all the knife positions expert in all steps like a dancer showing a dance. From dei otion to his teacher and a desire to be taught by him he showed Ajita Svamın his skill in other vicapons also Whatever was lacking in Sagaras arts-the Master taught him for such a man has such a traclier So both engaged in activities according to their natures crossed the first period of life like travellers crossing the boundary of a village. too
We have already discussed the method of teachung in connection with our lecture on Monastic Education which holds good in the case of cducation for the princes embracing academic, scientific and in
64. The hathasarit Ságara, vol. 11 P 549.
6. Kalidius MalavikAgnimitram. I verse 14 also D C. Das Gupta, Educational Ideas in Kalidasa 1 India Prabuddha Bharat March 1941
66 Hemacandra Trisastusalaka purusa-Carltra, tol Up 71

Page #97

LECTURE VII
83
military courses We have alıcady shown from the Jaina and the Buddlust sources how the blind-memory rok was discarded in the ancient Indian cducational system
Nāgārjuna, the famous Buddhist scholar and picachcr also bilicil; assailed the blind-memory work in a chemcnt mannci
"Knowledge contained in books And nicalih prociucd from others, When the umc soi nccdmg them arrives,
Aic neither knowlcgc noi ucalth **** And again "The supcuoi man who has Icained from books (only)
And has not studied things) from many scancponis, Resembles a picgnant gul of loose morals
Hc docs not look well in an assemblage."as Biltei criticism of blıely memoiising the icu docs nou dispense with the academic work altogchci lhe clics ically mcan that the pupils should thoroughly 11y lo understand the piccc oi class assign-- inent and then try to memorize it by "icpctition." Of the five-fold process of studying "mentioned in thic Jama Sūna, questioning the [cacher, icpetition, and pondcung-ılıcsc thuice sicps in the process of studying aic of gical importance in Icaining any subjcci-academic, technical, scientific and m uary aris Imilalion in Icarning fine arts, military sciences or practical arts is of great importance Kálidāsa was conscious of it and hc aclıocated its utility m his Mālāvihägnimitiam where the heroine of the drama was learning fine arts in the house of Ganadāsa, her icachcı by imitaling lam. “Imitauon" is also mentioned in the Nyāya Sülra of Gautama as an indispensable means of Icaining fine-arts “When the pupil is taught, he only imitatcs what he finds in the teacher, as in the case with the tcaching of dancing "70 Imitation also played a prominent role in depicting thiough concrete illustrations the emotions and seclings of hcail in painting that is “imilation” is essential in pamting. "The prince said it is proper for friends to imitate in words the condition of friends having fust scen
67 Ibid, p 84, verse 164 68 Ibid, p 118, verse no 934 69 Jaina Sūlias, vol, 11, p 179 70. Gautama, The Nyāya-Sūtra, tr by Gangā nātha Jhā, vol 11, p. 83.

Page #98

84
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
tlic painting He asked for a pur of scissor to cut loves He carved in a borcllcal tlic stalcly swan in the sainc condition as that of a lady swan and strophc in clear icrms to conicy the heart 11
Tlic ancient Juna authontics rightly realised the importance of trai cls or cours as indispensablc agents in the dei clopment of the mind They were to supplement practically thc thcoretical training given in the schools Wc baie cudences of the practice both in the Jaina and thc Jataka litcraturcs
hing Ratnašiklia thus reflected Without travclling to a foreign land onc docs not obtain glory lame knonledge of accomplishments or anytlung So I will certainly go to a forcign land and make trial of my mcmit Then the king fornc a secret plan and at the end of night he left the city 12th his 511 ord for his only companion and went towards the north Then beholding many man cls in villages assem blics towns and citics rclying cr crywhere on the power of his own mcrit the ling at last entered a terriblc wood 11
Though scholars in the art schools used to reside in the house of the teacher such residence was not universal at a subsequent date. Scholars of such schools used to attend the classes from outside We harc clear evidence of it in the "The Life And Stones of the Jaina Savior We learn from this source that one Kşıraladamba a teacher had in his school prince Vasu son of Abhicandra Ling of Sultimati along with his son Parvata and another boy named Narada At night they all studied on the roof of the palace"
But we learn from the Kathakopa that kşirakadamba was the teacher of a school in the city of Campaka This establishes beyond doubt that Kşıraladamba 8 school was not a palace school it was a Brahmanic school In this very land of Bharata in the village of Kusastbala dwelt a Brahmana named Vasudeva his father died while he was a child There he studied with a teacher named Kşırakadamba. He acquired fame among men as a student, and received alms in the lungs palace ** Thus our brief survey of the education of the rulers
71 Haribhadra San Samaraican Raha (First Two Chapters.) p 81 76 The Kathikove p 140
73 Maunce Bloomfield, The Life And Stories of the Jana Savior Partva. natha P 86
74 The Kathikopt p. 18

Page #99

LECTURE VII
85
based on the fragmentary cvidences in the Jaina literature, cstablishes the fact that the Indian princes of yoic icceived then primary cducation in the populai schools along with childicn of the common pcoplc, whic they used to master the wholc iange of encyclopacdıc curicula, with a specialization in one pailiculai bianch of studies, accoidmg to their natural bent of mind Physical and military courscs occupied a promi. nent place in the piogramme of ulicui cducation. They continued their education furthei in the Bialmanic school whcic thcy specialized in the Vedas, and the Vcdāngas, and othei varicd couscs During the Jama period, in the sixth century BC thc Vedic school was superimposed upon the All-school Education was cqually valued by the community at large as well as by thc governing class. Amplc provision was made for the liberal educalion of the punces to which the school, the chuch and the state contributed equally Thus out of five social institutions, the above foui except indlustay functioned as educacional institutions for the education of the pimces Thc bcncfit of liberal culluic was so much appreciated that even hings who, soi good icasons, could have it in piopei time would make up foi the loss by appointing cxperts as private tutois foi special liammg Thc method of tiaming followed was thoroughly scientific onc Thus we get heic a very mspring picture of the educational idcal followed by the rules of India in the spacious days of the Jaina ascendency.

Page #100

LECTI RE VIII
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
It is proposed to discuss in this lecture the locations pursued m Jaini India with reference to thcir gcographical origin, their geography cal distribulion lle application of psychological principles to voca tional selection and the organization and administration of vocations Tlic inaicrials of this study wluch represents a noi cl attempt of this kind at any ratc in this couniry are derno principally from the Jaina sources supplemented by the Hindu and the Buddhist oncs
The geographical factors iz location mountains reliefs bodies of water-mland or occanic soil climate flora fauna minerals and the transportation systems liic always in all ages and under all ar cuhstances excrced a paramount influence on the genesis development and the direction of the locations of man who after all is a product of the cnyironment to a great extent It has beca so all over the world and India is not an exception to the rule Very natur ally wc find all these factors ponerfully effective in Jamna India Let us now turn to the description of these factors tracing their influence on vocations leaving out location for discussion in connection with the geographical distribution of vocations
Mountain occupation -
The mountain occupauion is styled variously by different Jain : writers Rajasekhara Suri names it yanajavštti (974) aud Hemacandra styles it vanajivika ( Emailfon). According to the commentary of the Yogasastra Vanajiviha includes selling of fruits powers leaves of wild trecs either plucked or unpluched and the grind ing of seeds with hand mill!
“छिन्नाछिन्नयनपत्रप्रसूमफलषिक्रया ।
कयामा दलमात् पेपाल एविश्व धमजीषिका ॥ १०३॥ 1 Huntington And Cushing. I'rinciples of Human Geography Chap 1 1a. Rajasekhara Sur, Prabondbakoga, vol 1 p 17 2b Hemacandra Yogasastra, vol 1 p 566 verse 10 3 Ibid, PP 367868

Page #101

87
LECTURE VIII
fegatu feuignaty Bufyatzy gati garla 414674 yanvi s ini फलानां च छिन्नाच्छिन्नानां विक्रयो वनजीविकेत्युत्तरेण सम्बन्धः। कणानां च legiferi collega litste uild, falconfumiyanılgar ama quintunar afa: a gasila" it
In addition to the aforesaid mountain occupalions, trade in ivory is also peculiar to hilly tracts Such regions are full of wild elephents, yaks and other wild animals which are assets to the hilly people for trassic in ivory, chamaris, nails, bones and hides These occupations are styled as traffic in task or ivory by Hemacandra in his Yogaśāstra
The influence of the soil, the climate, and the inland bodies of water on vegetation, and the growth and development of the animal population is immensely striking The richness of vegetation, and the density of population greatly depend upon the sertility of the soil, excellence of the climate, and the adequacy of the supply of water A glance at the populous regions of the world, like Europe, China, and India, will convince anybody of the li uth of the remark All thesc parts of the earth aie blessed with a seilile soil or with a temperate climate, or with plenty of water-supply, or with all the three together Of the human occupations, agriculture and herding of cattle are greatly influenced by the factors of soil, climate and water These, however, are to be supplemented by the factors of human energy in all cases and by all means With this brief preliminary remark, let us now discuss the occupational activities of ancient India pertaining to flora and faunı as described in the Jaina literature Thus wheat, sugar-cane, and rice were the agricultural products of the land, and cattle-raising was the occupation generally followed by the humbler folk Oxen, buffaloes and ramso were available in large number Naturally, agriculture and cattle-raising influenced the vocations of man living in a geographical region with fertile soil, ideal climate and plenty of water-supply. Briefly speaking, flora and fauna influenced the occupations of man in such an environment
4 Hemacandra Yogaśāstia, vol I, p 569 5 Antagadadasão And Anuttaiovavāıya-dasão, ti. by L D Barnett, p. I. 6. Ibid, Loc Cit

Page #102

JAIYA SI STE VI OF EDUCATION
Fishery -
Filung industry is greatly influenced by water dimatc and soul Pcoplc luing in the torrid zone or on tic sca coast with a barren soul tale to fishing occupation Tlus industry flourishics better in a cold clunaic than in tropical one with rich soil where people gencrally take 10 agricultural occupation It is better and less costly to preserve the catches in the cold clinic than in the tropical zonc Notwithstanding this disadımptage pcoplc living a thc tropical climate take to fishing occupation on a moderate scalc Climate soul and watcr also in flucncc fislung industry in the warm climac. Here we are citing the case of fishing industry in ancient India carried on in the river Jumpa and tlic fislung industry in question was well organized with a chief as its head who was assistal by lured labourers who ucrc paid in cash The following quotation supports our statement And at a certain tim he became the licad of the fishicrinen who was arreligious (here the test to be supplied SS 5 6 down to) difficult to be pleased Then many mcn of that fisherman Soniyadatta who were paid wages in cash or in foodi usce to plunge with boats (cgatthiya) every morning into the grcat mer Junina and used to apture many Sanhamachhas -kind of fish (here the rest to be supplied as above down to) padagas and aspa dagas (kinds of fish) by mcans of draining off water from lakes - dalagalana samutnizing the lakcs - dahamalana churning the lakes drhamahanı destroying the lakes by removing water etc -- daha vahana draining off water from lakcs- dabapavahana various knide of nets for catching fish such as ayıpula nets panchapusla nets macha andhala ncts muchlizpuchla new - jambha nets usira nets bhi sira ncts dhisara nets vigura icts hillir nets zulliri nets Jalas angles to catch fuh-jalas kudasa nets vallabandlias-hind of nete made of hemp thread-nets suttabandhapa und nets made of hai yalabhandhana and used to fill the boats with those fish take them to banhs make heaps of fish and expose them to sunshine fried baked and roasted in the pricipal market of the city ?
Trade in Animals -
The climate also determines the migration of birds and animals. Consequently the vocation of earning livelihood by the sale of birds is
7
The Vivagasiyam, t by V J Chokshi & M C Modi pp. 94-95

Page #103

LECTURE VIII
89
conditioned by climate and soil This vocation is called "haluju ujas in the Jaina literature and it is looked upon with disfavour by the Jaina father Such a vocation includes the rearing of saukā, śuka, cat, dog, cock and peacock
“सारिकाशुकमार्जारश्वकुक्कुटकलापिनाम् ।
पोषो दास्याश्च वित्ताथैमसतीपोषणं विदुः ॥3 The occupation of boring lands includes the digging of wells, tanks, directing the river-couise, draining the lahes, tilling agricultural fields, breaking stones, and manufacture of stone articles. This occupation with its sub-groups is influenced by soul and the manufacture of stone articles are greatly determined by the soil and mountain reliefs Wells or tanks cannot be dug in a soil whiclı is likely to be silted soon Nor agricultural occupation in a dry barren land can flourish Traffic in lac"hterafviser" 10 is also determined by soil, climate and mountains Agricultural firms and floriculture in ancieni India were well organized and workers such as guards were appointed by the ranchers to ward off birds and animals from the agricultural fields The keepers of the field11 and rice-fields are constantly mentioned in the Jaina literature 12 Floriculture also flourished in rich fertile soil in an ideal climate and employees with various designations such as garden over-seers, keepers of the garden were attachel to the gardens In higher vocation such as medicine the influence of flora is also felt The following quotation will support our statement "Jivānanda learnt his hereditary science of Ayurveda in all its eight branches, and studied the drugs from the point of view of their taste, efficacy and action "13
As remarked in the foregoing pages, the soil and climate remarkably influence the growth of the animal population, which, again, dete:mines human occupations such as agriculture, heiding or grazing of
8 Hemacandra Yogaśāstra, vol I, p. 572, verse 113 9 Ibid, p 573, verse no 114 10 Ibid, p 570, verse no 108 11 Kathālosa, p 43 12 Ibid, p 45, p 258 13. Jaina Jātahas, p 77, verse no 729
12

Page #104

JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
calllc " clcpliant-rising s thic occupations of the butcher 10 fisher folk 17 the snake-catchers is the leather workers the ivory workers ctc.19
The soil also determuncs the transportation system in the moun tunous regions it is quite diffcrent from the one in the plains. In bancient India as in other parts of the country of the civilized world human and animal power was utilized in the transportacion system Even to-day human and animal agencies are in vogue in mountainous regions where modern transportation system cannot be introduced with profit The Jaina literature mentions minnevallunt 'and' hicmalları"as two distinct types of occupauons in connection with the transportation system The former includes the manufacture of chicles their parts, and their salc together with thc bcasts of burden cither personally or by agents. Earning Invelihood by such occupation is called traffic in schicles The rearing of oxen buffalous camels donkeys mules and horses to be used in drawing vehicles is called "Hierufam"91 Another distinct type of Occupation was developed in ancient India in connec uion with the branding of animals Lnown as "Asisynnie Thus occupa uon u concerned with the branding of cours buffalocs horses and other domesticated animals and their castration branding the back of young clephants and boring the cars
The Minerals -
Minerals were closely connected wich the development of Indian civilisation in its commercial or purely material aspect. It was what one might naturally expect in view of the immense natural resources
14 Kathakota, p 180 P 78 158. Ibid p. 141 256. Kaihdorit+garn, p 88 16 The Book of Discipline, vol 1 tr by J B Hornet P 129 17 The Vivagasuyam, PP 9495 272. Kathakosa p 168 18 Mudra Raksasa, PP 19 13 19a. Hemacandra Yogaklstre, vo] I P566 verse DO 10. 2gb Amaracandra Sari Padminanda Mahakivya p 592 verse no 415 0 Ibid p 808 verse no 104 21 Ibid veic no 105 88 Ibid p 572 verse no 112,
1
f

Page #105

LECTURL VIII
91
of this land Many Europcan authontics chuk olhei wisc, but their opinions, without hesitation may be alributed lo purc dogmatisin begotten of ignorance We givc below a list of occupations connected with mucıals as given by the Jama authorities. These aic the occupations of goldsmiths, jewelleis,"? chick-jcwcllcis,94 jewclicsici 5,5 braziers (hosahara),”0 woihcis in mcials including gold, silvcı - and copper -8 Mineral-occupations aic mentioned in thc Yogaśāscia uidci the category of traslic in poison The list includes swoics, ploughs, cically weapons and spades The sale of these deadly ni capons is called uallic in poison " Thesc micral-occupations icceived sullei u calment in the Mahābhārala Hemacancia, in thc Yogaśāsua, vol. I, mencions vocations regarding machincıy for picssing scsamun, oil-scod, pressing sugar-cane and water-inill 70 It is hard for us to tell siom Hemacandia's description of the machinery and from the commentary whether these implements were made cntiicly of wood oi of iron Alany ialc, these machines must have been made of both wood and iron Vocations concei ning the manufacture of charcoal are also mflucnced by mountains foi they are dependent upon the supply of limbii rom foiests. It is styled as Angārajīvihã in the Jama litcialuc The charcoal was utilized according to the commentary of the Yogaśāstia in fiying cei cals, in bahing can then pols, in picparing medical herbs, in smelling iron, silver and gold 31 Tiallic in lac?? was also go cally influenced by mountains along with the soil and the climate Soil, climalc and watei also determine gically the higher nccds of human lifc, viz. politics, religion, science and cducalion All these aspects of human civilization are the products of the thicc saclois mentioned above.. Limited space and time forbid the lengthy discussion of these aspects
23 Trisaştısalāhā-pui usa-Cautia, vol II, p. 191 24 Ibid, p 81 25 Prabandhacıntāmanı, P 104 26 Padmānanda Mahāhāvya, P 592, veise no 8 27a Ibid, veisс no 2 276 Tusastısalākā-pui usa-Caritia, vol II, p. 191 28 Ibid, Loc Cit 29 Hemacandra Yogaśāslia, vol I, p. 571, vci se no. 101 30 Ibid, verse no 11 31 Ibid, p 567, veise no 102. 32 Ibid, p 570, verse no. 108.

Page #106

JMIN
31STI UE EDUCATI04
of hunan occupations Besicles ne laic louclied upon State Focations in connection with our lecture 110 IV
Huung narmic thc msluence of geograplıcal factors on vocations Ict us 1103 turn to tlic discussion of their grographical distributions Herc tlic influence of Location is predoinınant. (a) Campaha
Let us nors begin with Campala We have discussed the top graphy of Carnpala in counction with our lecture no V Repetition has become hercan una ordable necessity for tracing the relationship be tuccn the topography of the city and licr occupruonal activities The city itself was cos cred wh a not noth of roads and in it there were plenty of chicles such as chiots and palunquns litters and carriages all of which were used for the purposc of transportation As might be cxpected in 1 centre of commerce there were good many markets for tlie distribution of goods and there were places incant for the purpose of th and cxcursions so csscnually necessary for the preservation of health of llc ciucns Favourble clinate and excellent situation con tributed to the density of the city s populalion all of whom netc engager I agricultural and cognate putsuits Alinost as a matter of course 11 dcs eloped into a brisk commercial centre resorted to by princes aristocrats and other dignitaries +
As a corollary to the coniquercial prosperity of Campaka its archi tectural grandeur followed as a matter of course affording room for activities to shilled artizans One ancient authority testifies to the splendour of the city thus Its bastions rampast paths doorways gates and arches were lofty its high roads duly divided its gate bars anrı bolts were stout and fashioned by skilful artificers It contained mat kets and bazars thronged with craftsmen content and happy 34
Development of fine arts other than architecture notably music necessarily followed theatrical arts began to flourish and there were innumerable actors and actresses contributing to the gaity us well as to frivolity of the citizens The following words of the text give us an idca of this ancient city in its higlier aspects It was liberal in alms giving, a home of secure and pleasant life dense with nany millions
83 34
The Antagadadasdo And Aruttarovavaiya-dasão p I Ibid Loc. Cit

Page #107

LLCIURI, VI
of citizens content and happy It was liauniul loy actors, canctis, 10pewalleis, 11 csilcis, boscis, ICCICIS, jumper ballid singers, storCliclluis. pole danccis, piciuc-slowmen, papers, lure players and clappers in plenty:"?
(b) Rījagi ha
Let us now come to the multis (nly of Rajagala, the capital or Magadlia It was situated in the midst of hic mountains and bus was impiegnablc against any possibility of foreign ttcls. We can 1201 know much about it from the lama source Buch is to be supplementul by the Buddhist ick which tells iis in good about it
ll'c lcau from Buddhist sources that the (llarens ol Rangoli, had recuuise to hunting, and the raining of mals and in the 100 veiy dignisicd occupations of the soules and the clociluuntet me inin being, and the butches ucie sb dadel licimcil 11 lile. butchers, shccp-buchers and pig-butches 11 ts karilass in sint 11111 the genesis and development of these o ptions hoc influenced by the hilly civiionment of the ritz, the hills being the abodes of all types of animals and buds. The Lord Buddla lumell sokled in y region five hundid li fiom Rajagilia where theic liucl a mountain clan of humicis consisung of 122 persons Ovci and above, the occupation of cattle-raising flouislice m tlic subub - Rīgagn 11.1 Curiously enough, thc caulc-raiscis were all Braums by both This occupation flow ishics ouing to the luxurious growth of grass clue to the mountainous icgions near by luhatic rous mi be quoted, “In days of old, at the back of the Gudhiaküla mounams. neai Rājagi ha, theic was a village, of some seventy or so lamılıes, all of them Brahınans Buddha ushing 10 concil these people, came to the place and sat down undei a licc
To this they icplied-'lchaic dwelt heic dung thusty-gencialions past, and om occupation is lo tend cattle "
The climate of Rājagrha was also savow able to the growth of floriculture, and we aic lold of Aljunac a uch floust of the city. This science iequired a thoi ough and systematic study and icachied to a great perfection We are told of the sage who came from the Supar
35 The Anlagadadasão And Anuttai ovaväiya-dasão, pp 1--? 36 Dhammapada, ir by Saniucl Bcal, p 61, vcisc 102.

Page #108

JAIS 1 5751LJI OI EDUCATION
"la lo chic royal court and caught thic king the valuable science Inlani bodics of 19cr 100 exertel remarkable influcncc on the activities of Ryjagth? who found it profitable to fish in the river the Tapoda the Ganges and thic Irhes adjacent to the city
Als might be expected all the dignitaries of the State resided in the capul city Very naturally illcre was a goi crnmental department cxcrcising control over the forest wluch cxisted on and ner the moun luns adjacent to the city We read actually of the preinicr of Magadha conducting business lour and coming into contact with the overseer of the wood apparently in officer of the forest department (c) Vaisali
Besides agriculture comincrce architecture and the arts relating 10 ainusement lourished vigorously State 1Qcations flourished in the in land citics as a matter of course There the form of Government was constitutional Strong centralized government is possible only in rich fertile sou Wc leam from thc halpasutra the existence of the State occupations at Vaisalı to be as follows -
(1) Vice regent (2) Cabinet ministers (3) Counsellors (4) Heads of departinents (5) Commander of troops (6) Commander of forces (7) Commander of chariots (8) Heads of police (9) Chief of the royal messengers (10) Wanders bankers astrologers sealers and slaves To thus list we may add the following occupations of amusement in addition to the one we already described at Campaka such as players on cymbals on tambouriners wind and stringed instruments and on those who toss up polcs and double balls 37
(d) Baravai (Dvaraka)
Let us now turn to the description of the influence of the environ ment upon the occupational activities of a coastal town namely the city of Baravar (Dvaraka) within the vicinity of the Arabian sea We learn from an authoritative source that a good number of occupations Aourished there connected with the activities of the State There were kings and princes and barons and where there are these dignitaries there are cominerce and commercial activities In consequence we find bankers traders and merchants We can get a glimpse of the various
87
The Kalpa-Satra And Nava Tattva, p 77

Page #109

95
LECTURE VIII
types of occupational activities that sprang up into being in connection with the court-life.
Thus there were stuffs, pikes and bows and so forth There were persons with the lyres and caskets There were wand-beareis, shavellings, jesters, jokers, and buffons In other words the light as well as the grave aspect of life were thoroughly represented in this important city in the days of yore 38 It goes without saying that the prosperity of the citizens with its various activities was possible only because of their commercial prosperity which again was gi catly influenced by the favourable position of the city on the site of the sca (e) Polasāpura
Polasāpura, an inland city illustrates significantly though not exactly; the influence of geogiaphical factors on the matcrial prosperity of the citizens The city owed its greatness principally lo commercial factors Commerce was very brisk there and it was followed by piosperity There were various types of industries actively cariied out by the people of the city Pottery was one of the indusliies which sloui ishcil vigorously in the suburb of the city It ieceived a scientific treatment and was noted for specialization The piinciple of the divison of labour was in evidence Some of the workers were cngaged in bowels, others in pots and so forth There were manufacturers as well as salesmen as in modern towns with this difference that the capitalislı. manufacturers took advantage of their superior position by exploiling the workers 80 Thus our brief review of the topography of the above mentioned cities gives us an idea of the occupational activities of the citizens as quite different from those living in the hilly regions where hunting, selling wild fruits and roots are the prevailing types of occupt tions.
At the initial stages of the Indian civilization, vocational and educational selections were greatly determined by the institution of caste with its spirit of narrowness, rigidity and seclusion Then came the tremendous assaults on caste by Jainism and Buddhism with the result
that the rigour' of caste came to be modified The change had its ' effects in the field of education “Child-Life" came in consequence, to
38
The Antagadadasão And Anuttalovavāıya-dasão, pp. 21, 49, g 1,
89. Uvasagadasão,

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961
JAIMA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
be recognized as the standard of occupational and educational selection. In order to have mider of the locational selection made on the basis of castelic liarc to refer oursely cs, to Manu and other authorities. Thus Manu advocates locational sclcction on purcly caste-system in the follow ing crses a man of low-caste who through covetiousness luvcs by thic occupations of a higher one the king shall deprive him of his property and banish
It is better (to discharge) oncs own (appointed) duty incompletely than to perform completely that of another for he who lues according to the law of another (caste) is instantly excluded from his own ** Vaikhanasasmartaguırm makes similar injunction in occupational and cducational sclection only to preserc thc existing social order of the time" The Mahablarata recommcpds the threc principal group of vocations to be adjusted to the thirce principal classes of people viz. thc highest the middle and the lowest classes of people to avoid chaos in locations that is io climinate vocational mal adjustment. Though in the Mahabharata the element of caste system is advocated in voca tional choice yet premiuin is placed upon efficiency and intelligence in vocational training and placement. This the following verse till support our claim
"कश्चिन्मुण्या महत्स्पे मध्यमेपुच मध्यमा ।
अधन्याश्व जघन्येषु भूत्पाासुयोजिता" Rigidity of the caste system was not strictly adhered 10 in vocational and educational selection during the Buddhist period and education was completely democratized Scholars in collaboration with their parent or parents made a thorough selection of their life s calling so as to fit the profession into their natural bent of mind which woulil enable them to live as a self respecting citizen in the State The follow ing quotation will support our contention When Jiwaka who was also called Kumarbhacha was seven or eight years of age he was plat ing with the princes in the hall and they reproached him with having no mother Ashamed he went to Abhaya and asked who was hus
40 Manu p 418 surse nos. 96 97 41 Vailhanasa Smärtasutram, t by D W 41 Mahabharatăm p 46 verse no 43
Caland p 225 p 231

Page #111

LECTURE VIII
mother, but hesiniled and said, 'I am your fathei, who was your mother I do not know, I found you exposed in the forest, and rescued you.' Then Jiwaka reflected, when he heard this circumstance related, that he would receive no inheritance from relationship, so he resolved that he would learn some science, and then by his attainment he might be able to acquire both relatives and wealth.
Again he considered the character of the eighteen sciences and the sixty-four arts, and deterınıned that he should study the art of medicinc, that he might be called doctor, and be respected, and attain to eininence , with this intention he went to Taksala, and applied to a learneri professor to ieceive him into his school "13 This is what might be expected of a man of 1eal genius
Imagination of the acutest and finest type was exercised by the parents of ancient India in the selection of the occupation of their children This impoi tant affan was never left to chance but was guided by a rich imagination This point is clear from the theory and practice of the Jaina and the Buddhist authorities who look into full account the factors of occupational environment, and the ability of the student In a word financial profit, material comfort, future prospect, social status-all these entered into the minds of the Buddhist parents in the selection and rejection of the occupation of their wards As a typical evidence we may insert a quotation from the Vinaya Text describing the scrupulous and judicious caie exercised by the parents ol Upālı in selecting the occupation of their son “At that time there was in Rājagrha a company of seventeen boys, friends of each other, young Upālı was the first among them Now Upāli's father and inother thought ‘How will Upālı after our death live a life of ease and without pain? Then Upāli's father and mother said to themselves , if Upālı coulil learn writing, he would after our death live a life of ease and without pain' But Upāli's father and mother thought again if Upālı learns writing, his fingers will become sore But if Upālı could learn arithmetic, he would after our death live a life of ease and without
pain'
But then Upāli's father and mother thought again 'If Upāli learns arithmetic, his bieast will become diseased' But if Upālı could learn
43 Manual of Buddhism, tr. by Hardy Spence, pp 238-239.
13

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JAIVA SISTLAL OF EDUCATION
money changing lic would alter our death livc a life of case and com fort und without pain But then Upalis father and mother said to thicinsclics If Upalı Icaris inoncy-clanging his eyes will become sore Non hcrc arc thc Sakyaputty Samanas who keep commodious precepts and live a commodious life they have good meals and lic down on beds protected from dic wnd If Upali could be ordained with the Sakyaputtiya Samanas hic would after our death luc a life of case and Without pain"
It is startling and interesting to note that Jaina authorities adıocated a system of vocational guidance on the basis of collaboration between the parents concerned and the general body of citizens at large Here was a distinctly inodern and a democratic touch The city super visors of morals used to call such conferences which assisted the youths in the arcful selection of their occupation Let us quote Harbhadra Sūn on thc point 'Then the citizens rete informed. They liked It very much Their parents were called The whole matter was nasmated to them They also liked it cty much Then they were made to make a promise You should not put them to difficulty Dharana and Deranandı were then called Each of them was given goods of the valuc of five lacs of Dinaras The document was drawn up 43 Tmic point is much more explicity and clearly stated in the Trışaşçısalaka purusa-Caritra where prince Sagara made a demonstration of his sh] in the various aspects of military science before Ajitastvamın out of his desire to be taught by him The natural bent of mind was taken into account in teaching the military science Sagara s demons tration before his teacher Ajitastamin is similar to the modern practice of administering performance tests to students of vocational education in U.S.A The following quotauon will bear us out. From devotion to his teacher and a desire to be taught by him he showed Ajita Svamın hus skill in other weapons also Whatever was lacking in Sagara s arts the master taught him for such a man has such a teacher So both engaged in activities according to their natures W Intelligence as the basis of vocational success u also stressed in the Prabandhacintamani
44 45 46
Vinaya Text, vol I PP 801 Harbhadra Sun Samardicca Kahl, P. 10 Trisagitaliki-purusa-Caritra vol II. p 71

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99
LECTURE VIII
We quote below to support our slatement "Bcing naturally clever, he had read such books as the Agastyamala, and thc Ratnapariksā of of Buddhabhatta, and from living in the company of jewel-lester hc had become expert in the discrimination of jems "47 Intelligence as the sound basis of professional success has also been sui essed in the "Vivagasuyam” the eleventh Anga of the Jaina canon It is said in the above canon that a good many medical praclioners who had been in the house of Soriyadatta, the chief of fishermen, lo cxtricate a fish-bone from his throat used their utmost shall by applying the 'Four Talents' only to meet a with total failure We quote below to support our claim “Then many physicians heard this proclamation while it was being announced, and having done so they went to the house of Soriyadaltı and went to where the fishei man Soriyadalla was lying, and making use of their, 'Four Talents V17 (1) Intuitive-'Amulapalliki', (2) Disciplined—'Vainayıkı. (3) the talent acquned by practice ‘Kaimaja' and (4) Developed talent or the talent acquired by maturity of age 'Parinamiki', they tried to extract the fish-bone out of the neck of the fisherman Soriyadatta by means of vomitting, medicines to vomit, a pain. going treatment (such as beating, striking or iubbing hard the diseased part of the body) "48 Reference to the application of 'Four Talents' by the medical practioners has again been made in the above cannon in connection with the vajinal treatment of the consort of king Vijaya ?) This practice proves conclusively the firm conviction of the Jaina fathers, in the efficacy of the 'Foui Talents' in professional success. "Business Talent" is also mentioned in Karakanda Cariu as a basis of professional success "Who charmed the king by his business-abılıty," intelligence or specific talent as the basis of occupational or vocational selection has been much more clearly advocated in the wiitings of subsequent Hindu writers We quote below to substantiate our statement "When they heard this speech of the kings, one of them said-'I am Pañchaphuttika by name, a sudra , I possess a peculiar lalent or I weave every day five pairs of gai ment":1
47 Kathakoşa, p 104 48 The Vivagasuyam, p 96 49 Ibid, p 144 50. Muni Kanakamara, Karakanda Cariu, ti by Hırālal Jain, p. 190. 51. Kathāsarit Ságara, vol I, p. 449.

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100
JAINA SYSTEXT OF EDUCATION
This colution of the standard of socational selection in ancient India was an interesting slow and a tentatic process There was a transition from 7 dull, mechanical aristocratic to a vital rational and deinocrauic ctilcrion 'The idcals of aristocracy came to be replaced by thc idcals of personality of personal competence. The gerra of this democratic idcal may be traced to the Mahabharata It was developed in right camnest by thic Buddlusts and the Jainas The Buddhists ex pomenced the influence of the won on the workers-a vital thing The Jainas wanied to malc education a concern of the State in a spint of racial democracy The Hindu limiters wanted to adjust the vocations to the talents of the socarics Thus there was a constant progress in the dircction of balancc liarmony and perfection Hence as in the modern period vocational guidance was practised in ancient India.
Let us nou turn to the discussion of the final phase of vocational education in Jaina India In imparting vocational education to the future citizens of thc State the family the Church the School the State and Industry-the five great institutions were alıyays acuve. We lave elsewhere duelt on the important and cffective parts played by them in moulding the educational system of India and thus moulding the very soul of Indian civilization and culture
The Statc centunes before the Christian era when Jainism was in the ascendent tool keen interest in the welfare of its citizens and for its furtherance introduced agriculture trade industry and diverse vocations so essential to supply the physical needs of human life Thetc is textual evidence to show that Lord Roxabha was keenly interested in the promotion of vocational education of the people Thus the Lord taught the citizens of his State five sılpas exhorted them to settle down into agricultural life and to various gainful occupations We quote below to illustrate the five sulpas ___"वक्ष चित्रक कुविन्द मापिता-नासमोदिति सपञ्च शिल्पिनः। बाम्पमी तु शतपाs
Hvat funfausraten 9973952 Hemacandra the great Jaina leader of the Svetambara sect stressed the same point when he ascribed to Lord Rsabha of Vinita (Oudh) the introduction of vocations concerning food clothing and shelter-the
32 Padmdnanda Mahakarya, p. 208

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101
LECTURE VIII
three fundamental needs of human lise We quote below from Hemacandra relating to this point "From that uimic, the first artisans, the potters, arose. For the sake of houses for the people, the Lord appointed carpenters He, wisc, appomtcd painters for the painting of the houses, for the sake of diversity of the people's plcasuic. He eslablished weaveis for the people's clothes, ... .
The Master, the sole sathcı of the world, appomed barbers for the people who were very much annoyed by the growth of hair and nails... He established grass-gathering, wood-cari ying, ploughing, and tradethese business for the sake of the people's livelihood."**Haic wc find the modern conception of thic Slale paui onage of agriculture, trade, com. merce and industry for the financial prosperity of uic citizens, clcarly anticipated. This palionage was cffcctively supplemented by indus. trial training given to fit students
In ancient India-in Jama India-thc employment of the citizens of the state after their period of training was over, was a concern of the government This ultra-modern theory was thoroughly understood and practised by the Jama authorities The conference of parents and citizens at large to which we have alıcady icfcrred is an instance to the point The Mahābhārata bears clear tcstimony to the consciousness of the rulers in this important aspect of their duty The following quotation from the Mahābhārata will bcar us out.
"38414 theo troch Floriferfeqah I dignitude APE Faredi 27993f6 11 38€ 11 कच्चित् कृतं विजानिपे कर्तारञ्च प्रशंससि ।
FAT AST HERIH ! Faleita a Os24754 11 880 11" Cănakya in his famous Arthaśāstra advocates the state supervision of trade and industry, and there he mentions a separate department of trade and industry with a hierarchy of officers 95
The ancient merchants, tradesmen, artizans, agriculturists and other businessmen had associations or guilds of their own We have
53. Trışaştıśalákā-purusa-Caritra, vol I, p 152, p. 153 54 Mahābhārata, vol, iv, p 69, verse nos 119-120
55. Cănakya's Arthaśāstra, tr. by R. Shama Sastry, pp 94, 100, 106, 140. 180-181,

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102
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
no detailed information about such associations from the Jaina sources at our disposal. Hentacandra makes incidental reserence to such a guild of washermen in hus Sthayıravalicaritra In the Vivagasuyam the clcscnth Anga of the Jainas rcference is made to a chief of fisher mcn-a chuch of the guild of fishermen " We learn however from Buddhist sources of such associations of merchants Mention » made thcrcın of five hundred merchants in India who had an association with Maitri as its president. The merchants freely took counsel froni this association regarding their overseas trade and occan navigation The association of merchants had various departments over which superiors were appointed by themselves I remember in years gone by-there CTC 500 merchants in Jambudwipa of whom a certain one was chicf his namc being Main (sse-che) On one occasion these merchants all asseinbled together and began to consult how thcy might best embark on some expedition for the purpose of getting gain
Then the merchants having assembled on the coast, and offered their worship to the sea god selected five men to superintend the various departments (as before) and then set saul.
We learn from Vişnu of the status of the Association something about the Guilds of merchants businessmen or artizans and other professional groups of autonomous bodies Severe punishment used to be in flicted on those treacherous members of the Association who attempted to create dissension and chaos among its members by their unlawful act. The state intervention is sanctioned by Vişnu to punish those mal-creants for the preservation of the Associauon from ruin
Those who cause dissension among the members of an association shall undergo punishment of a cspecially severe Lind because they would prove extremely dangerous like an (epidemic) disease if they were allowed to go free Wherever a criminal act opposed to the dictates of majority has been attempted, a king desirous of prosperity shall redress it. The president of the Guild according to this autho rity should spring from a noble family should be versed in the Vedas
+
56 57 88 B
Hemacandra Sthavirivalıcantra, P 206 Vivagasuyam, tr by V J Chokshi and M C. Modi p 10. The Romantic Legend of Sikya Buddha, pp 344-345 The Minor Law Books p. 155 veixe no. 6,

Page #117

LECTURE viii
103 should be dutiful, energetic, bear good moral charactci and be skilled in different phases of industry Go
The Association or Guild of merchants should appoint counsellois to advise the villagers, companies of artizans and other associations.92 In the Samarāicca Kahā, we have reference to a king's commission composed of five principal citizens, which accompanied Dharana and Suvadana to the sea-shoie, and which counted gold and handed it ovei lo the former This passage suggests to us the practice of appointing an advisory board similar to the one advocated by Visnu in his code
We quote below a relevant extract "Then being headed by the commission of principal citizens from the king, Dharana, along with Suvadana went to the shore The gold was counted by the committee and was handed over to Dharana "02 Thus the Hindu and the Buddhist literatures support the Jaina view of thc state patronage of agriculture, industry and commerce and the placeincnt of the futurc citizens The State extended its co-operation to Associations or Guilds of incrchants, businessmen, artizans and agriculturists and constantly helped the people in their profession either by appointing special commission or through the advisers of the association.
This authority describes aules and regulations which remind us of their counterparts in mediaeval Europe,-compulsory residence, fixed period of training, the spirit of rigid seclusion, and above all the phenomenon of corporal punishment for the deserter The apprentice received free instruction, room and board and had to pay the honorariuni voluntarily to the teacher at the time of his returning home Thus vocational education was virtually free and compulsory.
The instruction in the house of the teacher and the work in the factory or farm were simultaneous The teacher was very cautious to place his apprentice on the appropriate occupation for which he was re ceiving theoretical instruction in the school Thus there was proper co-ordination between work in industry and teaching in the school The income of the apprentice for his work used to go to the teacher "The master shall teach him at his own home and
60 The Minor Law Books, p 347, veise 9. 61 Ibid, p 347, verse no 10. 62. Samai āicca Kahā, p. 78.

Page #118

104
JUNI3131st or LJUCATION
lccelle must not employ hom it isoth of a different description and ucat luis like a sm
Jí one forulota masier who instructs lum and whose character is unexrcptionalile he may be compelled by forcible incans to remain (at thic mpyors loutc) and hic diceres cogxnl punishment and con liement 7trotrgli les collect of instruction bc coinplcted an appcatre coniilltic iu reuc at the house of lus master will ile fircel periodi lias cxpirca lhe profit or whatcicr work lic may be cloing thicre belongs to his master "? Tuis last point coincides with thic basic pluulekaplıy of thic mculer Wardha sclicuc moicnicht which includes in its curricul cailemic and pracuical courses of studies to in the thc purpuls self supporting 1lic plan further esclcats tlie carning ol ilic scholars to clic sclioxol fund 111 the manner adiacaicd by Manu
Eich afic (lic completion of his courses of studlics thc apprentice liad o reside at tlic house of his master for the stipulated period The profit camod lig huu ilırouglı his work would go to the pocket of the master A strict ctamination would be followed us thc paytucnt of thic honorarium to the teacher" Thic esc of tcxt books in leaming tradc" was in soglic icry march 15 ( 18 in molemn schools.
Our brick discussion of locational education during the Jaina period rci cals 10 us the fact that the Jaina fathers were conscious of the influence of geographical factors on the origin and distribution of rious locations which is surprisingly inodern They also know full sell along with the Hindu and Buddhist 1771cts the needs of adjusting locations to the physical cmotional and physiological needs of the applicants secking locational training The candidates for voca tions were guien a systematic and thorough vocational and educational guidance by the city-superiors in an open conference in cooperation with the parents and the citizens The opinion of the candidates was also respectfully taken into account In vocational and educational sclection the parcnis also carcfully took into account the relative in flucnces of locations on the physiology of their sons as also their res pective merits and demcrits and future prospect
og The Minor Lau Books PP 193 194 crac nos. 17-19 o Ibid p. 131 verte no 110 65 Pralandhadintamani p 104

Page #119

LECTURE VIII
105
The Family, the Church, the School, the State and Industry-the five great institutions of society played an important role in imparting vocational education to the future citizens Especially the state and industry co-operated in closer harmony in the enterprise State interference in industry and its occupations is great and tremendous The state introduced agricultural, industrial, and commercial pursuits under the direct control of Rsabha, then Lord of Vinitā (Mod Oudh), the first Jaina Tīıthankara We also know from the Buddhist and the Hindu sources something about guilds or associations of merchants which undertook 10 supervise and duect agriculture, trade, industry and commercial education in the country For these, various departments were introduced in the association of the merchants, each under a specialist and the associa. tion constantly kept the people informed about economic activities of the countıy and occupational opportunities through its advisors The association may appropriately be compared to a modern Board for Voca tional Education It must have under its control various trade-masters in structing their apprentices in their respective arts The Board or Association was an independent organization under the general control of the state, enjoying full autonomy, imparting instruction in agricultural, technical, industrial and commercial courses subject to the restrictions set up by the State Hence vocational education was both theoretical and practical, it applied theory to practice The students could learn while earning though the profits went into the fund of theni teacheis Besides, they learnt their trades under the direction of experts in an ideal occupational environment, and there was proper coordination between the instruction in the organized classes and the practical work in the factory or the farm and the vocations were carefully selected according to the natural bent of mind of the students
14

Page #120

LECTURCI
THE RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
OF THE JAINA FATHERS It is a historical fact Unt at the Jaina proplicts from Rşabha to Mahavir addressed themselves directly to the masses in homely verna cular illustrating their sublimc lessons uitli suinple examples parables and short stories Theirs was thic mission of uplisting the humble liumınity in the sphere of religion The inissionary activities of the Jainas like thiose of their Buddhist contemporaries were eminently practical They were calculated to apperl inore to the emotion than to the intellect of the audience Religion is after all morality touched with emouon 78 Mathew Arnold has profoundly observed
The sacred literature of the Jaipas is cmbodied in the Canonical books known as the Angas twelve in number which were put in shapes of books in order to assist the srail memory of man long aftri the demise of Lord Mahavira,
It was first done two generations after the passing away of Maha 1182 and again the process had to be relived in the fifth century AD We may repeat here the well known fact-that the Jainas are divided into tuo important sects,the Svetambaras and the Digambaras-chose who are clothed in white and those who go about naked The last has a significance which must not be missed the practice of nudity symbolizes absolute detestment from all worldly concerns The Digan baras and the Svetambaras do not agree in the details of their Faith Inlo the details of the sectarian controversy we need not enter Suffice it to say that during the earlier period of their history the Jainas Tiere exclusively a religious body having nothing whatever to do with politics of the material world Under pressure of circumstances into thc details of which we need not enter they were compelled to participate 111 politics and in the tenth century AD they began to do so effectively
1 Maurice Winternutz Ph.D Vol II tr by NI S Ketkar & Miss H. Volim P 137

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LECTURE IX
-
207
by capturing the contiol of the education of the princes from the hancis of the Biālmins
It is well-known that when Jamısı declmc as a icligion in the eastern pait of India, it flowished in the West and the South owing to the effectiveness of teaching and thc high standard of moral character of the Jama missionaries, rho casily oscilame the opposition of their Bralıının rivals in the same fiell. The latıcı-clay Jama scholars 111bibed a lastc foi scculai culuunc and thcy made solid conubuuions 10 various fine-arts, philosophy and secular sciences Theic arc 1110 distinct phases of cultual history of the Jainas-thc carly phase or thic phase of Reformation and the latci pliascthc phase of Renaissance The carlıcı phase was purely icligious incucul against jitualısı, sacei dotalısı and dogmatism of the Vedas , the latci phase icpicsenicu a combination of intellcual and plıysicalculunc icpresentcil by a host of sciences-112 pliysiology, psychology. asuonomy, asuiology. mathematics, geography and other subjects Let us proccod jou to our the audience a lilile moic dclailcr account of the picachung tons of some of the Tīruhanhaias starting with Rsabha
Fillingly enough let us start with the last Tirthanhaia, Loid Rsabha, who was born of a royal famıly, his fatlıcı bcmg Ling Navi oi Oudh and his mother Mcrudevi The atmosphcic surioinding lus childhood was savouable to the mental and spicual development of the child, who in course of limc dlcicloped into a full-liclged cligious 1eformer Rsablia scems to have ieceived the ideal cducauon foi 2 prince , he was happily mauued to the royal piccsscs Yaśavai anı Sunandā, daughteis of thc hings of Kacca and Mahākacca’ and when the proper time came lie became the ulcı of the land-hc iuled it and ruled it well
Soon after he realised the lansitoi incss of material pleasucs and renounced the world and pusucd huis spiritual mission, being bent on the attainment of Kevalijñāna of perfect knowledge which is the sole source of salvation In connection with this transition in his life a picturesque stoiy of a heavenly damsel of the name of Nilam jasā trying to charm him by her attiactive dance and heisell being withereil
2 Puşpadanta, Mahāpurāna, edited by P L Vaidya, p 600. 3 Ibid, p 602.

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
away in the process is related' The first converts of Rsabha were Bambi and Sundari and Suyakıttı and Pıyamvaya "
In course of his teaching the first of the Tirthankaras taught his audience not only the elements of morality but also the rudimentary principles of science physiology psychology astronomy and geography * The other Tirthankarms followed in the foot steps of the pioneer till we come to Mahavira the last of the Tirthankaras.
Mahira came of the royal family of Kundapura or Vaisalı his father being Siddhartha king of the land He received a thoroughly perfect education becoming a royal prince in the Art school as well as in the Institutions of higher learning The courses of his studies embraced the various arts the Vedas together with their angas and the whole range of Brahmanical learning
He renounced the world at the early age of twenty-eight with the consent of his father and pursued a career of spiritual conquest of truth For twelve years he led a life of severe austerities and penance It is at this stage of his life that he adopted the practice of going naked. After twelve years of spiritual discipline and austerity he attained to Kevalinship or perfect knowledge Thereafter as Jacobi says He was recognized as omniscient is a prophet of the Jainas or a Tirthankara (founder of the path) and had the title Jina (spiritual conqueror) Maha vira (a great hero) etc. which were also given to Šakyamuni The last thirty years of his life he passed in teaching his religious system and organized his Order of ascetics which as we have seen above was patronised or countenanced chiefly by those princes with whom he was related through his mother From the Atmanusasana we learn that Mahavira had four names altogether "That last Tirthankara Mahavira Svamin is often referred to by four other names Vira Var dhamana Ati vira and Sanmatı "He was known among the Buddhists by the name of Nigantha Nataputta. His followers were drawn
4 Mahāpurāņa pp 606 610
5
Ibid p 167
6
Ibid pp 6161617
7 Jacobi Sacred Book of the East, pp 15 217
8
Shri Guna Bhadra Acārya Atmānusasana, ir by Rai Bahadur J L Jain, MA Bar-at Law p I
9 Maurice Winternitz vol II P 424

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109
LECTURE IX
chielly from the Ksaliija aristocracy and organized them into a con: munity with lay membois diawn from both the seves. With Vahāvīra, the race of Jama piophcts or Tilthanhara comes to an end
From the materials at our disposal, 10 are neither in a position to assign the dates of the discicnt stages of the missionary Climatics of of Mahāvīra not to idenusy with precision the different towns and cities he visited All that we know definitely is that ile aica of lus travels is very extensive embracing the whole of India from the Bay of Bengal 10 thic Arabian sca From the account given below me get firstly an appioximate idea of the dimensions of lus trauch We do not exactly know when i whence he started his spiritual 1011 Bul the cilies he visited may be thus ananged on the approximalc conii. guity of geograplucal locauons. It may bc acider that some of the cities he visited havc not yet been identificat Thus beginning from Campaha in Anga, he made hus paicparctic ious and 11.11 Cisco throngia Rājagrhia, Nālandā, Milulā, Vaišãli, Benaics, llambhiha, Kampilla, Srāvastī, Panilabhūmi, Polāšapura, Vardhamāna (Gwciat), sugāma, etc 10 In addition to the above cities Loid Malāvīrā visited Bhadiche, Sāhanjani, Pādalasanda, Sonyapua, Rohida, Hasumāpura, Usabhapura, Virapuia, Parimatala cily'! Ho made l.sy-concats and disciples in the Jaina monasteries located in the following important ciuics -(1) Kāmadeva at Punnabhadde sanctuary, in the suburb of Campaka,. () Vijaya at Rājagi ha, (3) a Brahmın, Bāhula, at Kollaga, suburb of Śrāvastī,4 (4) Ananda of Vanijagrāma ai Dūpalasa monastcry in the same city15 (5) Chulanıpıya at Kolhaga monastciy, in the suburb of Benares 16 (6) Chullasayaga inn the garden of Sankhavāna in the suburb of Ābabhiya,"7 (1) Kundaloliya in the garden of Sahassambhavana ni
10a Jaina Sūtras, pait I, p 264 10b Kalpa Sütia And Nava Tativa, p 91 11 Vivagasuyam, pp 1-132 12 The Uvāsagadasão, vol II, pp 64, 81, 85. 13 Ibid, appendix 1, p. 1 14 Ibrd, p 2 15 Ibid, vol. II, pp 9 10. 16. Ibid, p go 17. Ibid, p. 103.

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JAIVA SYSTry or SDUCATTOV
the suburb of himpillupur" In addition to thic aboic list of wealthy lay olisciples the lord rclictantly acmmcd into his Order Gosala" at l'aniyabhumi un like Dci ndalla prosa liostile to his master and was cypcllal from thic Order Qucen landa 111c of Bimbisara izs ad milied by the Lord onto lus asceuc sold 11 thc Cunisıla monastery at Rajagtln («cc lcriure no 1
Thus cicrusherc lic 175 trily recciice and cnthusiastically goccia and 3 1750 number of people of all ranks and of both sexes becomo buscomarts (suc sticolarble nithe end of lecture no IV) dlaha vira tlıc last of the Irelanlaris discliarged supreincly a synthetic mission by usinuing ilc icichings of lies prcelcccssors and by giving it a final forn Hc contributed towrds thic organization of the churcn and laid minor rules and regulations without which an organization cannot go "Micrc 125 room an Ins folcl both for inonhs and laymon
Lei (is non proceed to offer 7 brick account of the intellectual activities of the frings in different brunchies of secular knowledge which SO to say represent Jaina Renaissance It was the necessary out-come of the Jaina system of education described in our peulous lectures The Jaina Renaissance may be said to be the outcome of the Jaina Reforma tion by wluchi sc mcan the $75l and varied moicmcnt associated with the names of the Tininharas from Rşabha downwards (1) Philosophy -
Our theme namely the Jaina cducational system has not directly much to do with thc Jaina sysicm of pliilosophy which is so very deep rich and subule But it undoubtedly influenced its educational doc trine Tlic pluralistic rcalısın of the Jainas with its peculiarly minute logic claborate psychology and sublime ethical code must have exertel ? powerful influence on the enunciation of their educational philosaphy (2) Religion -
Jainism is 7 distinct religion having a distinct cntity of its 077 It is a combination of metaphysics psychology and what is popularly
18 19 go
Ibid p 100 Ibid appendix i pe Ibid sol II P 97

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LECTURE IX
known as religion Through sheei of ignoiance and pei veiseness many western scholars like Barth regarded Jainism as a mere variation of Buddhism 21 There are iemarkable points of difference between the cieeds as well as resemblance Jainısın admits the iminortality of the soul while Buddhism denies its existence altogether The Jama system of philosophy is a type of dualism recognizing the existence of maller and soul while both are unreal with the Buddhists The Jainism carries the docti ine of Ahimsā to a giealer logical precision than what Buddhism does Jainism reconciles itself to the institution of caste from which Buddhism totally departs (3) Art -
There was nothing very original about the Jaina architecture but the Jainas were great buildeis devoting a good deal of carc, attention and money towards the enrichment of their citics with buildings and towards the construction of temples of various designs and sizes in diff. erent places The following extract from Vincent Smith gives us au idea of the nature of Jaina architecture “In the domain of art the most notable achievements of the Jainas are the exquisite marble temples of Mount Abu, built in the local 'Guzerat' style The Jaina temples in Mysore almost equally ornate in a different fashion A peculiarity of Jain architecture is the massing of an enormous crowd of temples into a confined space, as at Palitana in Kathiawar and other places The individual buildings are in the style of their age and locality "22 The Jainas, it goes without saying thoroughly assimilated the Hindu and the Buddhistic32 ideals and they in their turn greatly moulded the style of Muslim architecture in Guzerat 24
(4) Literature -
Jaina literature is characterized by a severe tone of asceticism and unworldliness as contrasted with the graceful humanity of the Buddhist text The early phase of the Jaina literature which was almost ex clusively written in Prakrit dialects like Ardhamāgadhi and Mahārāstri possesses a philological interest of its own It was from approximately
21 Sir S Radhaku ishnan, The Indian Philosophy, vol I, pp 290-291 22 Vincent Smith, p 11 23 Ibid, p 9, 24 Ibid, P 32

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JAINA SY51LN OF EDUCATION
about thic mclle of thc 8th century AD that Sanskrit came to bc uscu (or lucrary purpose by the Jamns of both the sictainbira and the Digan, ban secus-the Sictambura began to use it in the cighth century A.D and tlic Digombana soinciliat carlicr Tlic Jaina sanskrit writers wrote in a variety of styles noted for purity and grace and in the tenth cen tury AD) they began to fill back upon tic nauunl dialects of the people In moxleri cimes the Jrına kititors quitc in larinony with the spirit of age fizic begin to composc trcatiscs in Guzcratı Taipıl hanaresc and Hindi thereby contributing to the chrichnicnt of these literatures.
Cuinmg from the manner to tlic matcr of Jaina literature we find that the Jumas much more thoroughly than thc Buddhists inasterer! Hindu ilionghits scnuments and legends and adapted them to their own usc. is for sample thic h$lia cult and thic legend of Dratipai appear in their Jaina version to the great cdification of the readers belonging 10 thc rank of thic pcoplc As an example to the point we may refer 10 lic Prakrit Epic Pauma-cariyam (Palma Carua) by pocu Vunala Suri (890 y cars after the demise of Lord Valaura)
It is to the crelil of the Jainas that they immensely contributai 10 ile In lian slock of Lnon lcdge not only m de ficlds of philosophy art religion and literature but also in the domam of secular knowledge like astronomy astrology mathematics grammar lexicography L'etics and politics
Among tlic imponant Jama mathematicians kc must mention the name of Mahavracarya ? a ninth century south Indian scholar who applied mathematics to thic study of astronomy and regarded the know laulge of illes science essential for the salvation of the soul He absorbed the scientisic ideals of the Hindu authority Brahma Gupta Hus monu mental work Ganitasár samgraha was widely appreciated in south Indra and it was translated into Telugu language Very relev ently we may insert here a modern authoritatie estimate of the contributions of these ancient korthics The 80 ailed Jama operation (page 200) is akin to 11ork found in Brahmagupia and yet none of the problems
25 Maurice linicrniz A History of Indian Literature vol II p 427 26 Ibid P59.
27 Asahávirácărya, Ganita Sára-Sangraha v by M Rangidrya, M.A., Ru Bahadur

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113
the same. The shadow problems, primitive cases of trigonometry and gnomonics, suggest a similarity among these three great writers, and yet those of Mahāvīrācārya are much better than the one to be found in either Brahmagupta or Bhaskara, and no questions are duplıcated "28 And we quote again "His labours have revealed to the world a writer almost unknown to European scholars, and a work that is in many respects the most scholarly of any to be found in Indian mathematical literature "29
30
In connection with Jaina contributions to grammar, we mus! mention the name of Hemacandra, the great Jaina scholar of the eleventh century who on account of his vast erudition and versatile genius enjoyed the patrange of Siddharāja at whose request he composed his famous treatise on gramman known "Siddha Hemacandra" which was extensively circulated all over India and beyond Over and above, Hemacandra also wrote a commentary on his own grammar He also composed Abhidhānacıntāmanı and Anekārthasamgraha and other innumerable works of great merit 31 Hemacandra was greatly influenced by his Hindu predecessors in his writings on grammar, metri s and poetics but he also added original element of his own His SiddhaHemacandra is clearly an imitation of Panini's grammar but his chapters on Piakrit dialects are really original contributions He wrote his secular works during the reign of Siddharāja and his religious works in the reign of Kumārapala,32 of Guzerat, his patron
(5) History
The Jaina wiiters wrote extensively on history, and their notable contributions being Prabandhas on diverse topics and Merutanga Acārya's Prabandhacıntămanı gives us valuable information regarding the social, political, economical and educational conditions of his time Forbes largely derived his source materials from this work for his Rasamala The Jainas occasionally interferred in politics The great author Hemacandia to whom we have already referred was, besides being many things, something also of a politician Kalāka Sūri, a Jaina
28 Mahāvīrācārya, Op Cit p xx
29 Ibid, p
V
30
Dr G Buhler, Life of Hemacandra, pp 15-16
31. Heniacandra, Kumārapālacarita, pp xxiv-XXV edited by Dhruva.

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nion, cook part in politics and lic also oncc lcd an army against the Ling of Ujjain
During the latter part of tlus lcclurc nc haie mainly cwelt upon thic intcllectual activitics of thic Jainas which may be said to have cons Luc a period of Ronnussance which is associated with its develogy ment of liictaturc sccular arts and sciences. Its carlicr part has mainly clcalı sit religious 7CUIT LICs which may be said to hasc represented the Rcformation moiement History docs not always rcpeat itself aftcr all In Furopycan history the Renaissance movement proceded the Rcformation inoi cment Herc the order was reversed What we hasc designated as thic Jaina Rcformilion was associated with religroli and plulosopliy 'c haic discussed religion some dat in detail but uc harc rcsrained froin dusclling on philosophy almost altogether be cause of 117nt of sprcc

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LECTURE X
CONCLUSION
Friends,
We propose to present you m this, the last lecture of the sciics with a 1ésumé of the nume lcctuics alicacy delivcicd and nothing moic. The family has been fiom the vciy stail, both a biological and a cultural institution It was the carliest soum of school, imparting cdication soi the cultural uplift of humanity. In course of time, with the growth of the complexitics of civiluation, it came to be superseded by the organized school From the carliest times, the school was almost invariably associated with the church as an agency of education In couise of time the latter absorbcd ilic formcı altogethcı. It was so in Europe It was almost so here in India Tlic Brahmins used lo control both the secular and the religious education of the land
In the second lecture, we noticed how the Vedic and the Art-schools came into being as two distinct instilulions-the formei exclusively for the lwice-born, and the latter for the Sūdias and other members of the lower order in society, though the lwice-boin 100 could join it, if they would There were no proper articulation between these two grades of institutions, and they were running into parallel directions without meeting at any common point. The attendance in the former institutions was compulsory for the lwice-boin especially for the Brahmins, but they had the option to join the latter, and this oplion depended on the postponement of the upanayana ceremony according to Grhya-Sūtrās
This proves conclusively that the Braliinins miglit easily join the alischool The curricula in the Vedic school was encyclopaedic, embracing puiely academic and scientific courses of studies meant for the twice-born as a preparation for their multifarious duties or vocations of life Physical education was not neglected Early-rising, collection of faggots and other manual work done for their teachers assisted in an informal way the physical training of the alumni of the Vedic schools. The Brahmanic curricula offered facilities for mental development of

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the scholars These were framed on sound psychological and sociological principles,and were not forced upon all regardless of the miental differences of the reccpients According to Manu the twice born scholars were given the latitude to drop out after 36 18 and 9 years of study of the thrce Vedas Consequently according to this scheme one might drop out of the Vedic school after 12 6 and years of study Only on rare occasions brilliant scholars who dedicated their lives to the cause of learning devoted themselves to the study of the whole range of the four Vedas extending to 48 years accori ing to the Smrti It is quite likely that the scholars of average intelli gence and modest ambition did not study the range of the encyclopaedic courses of Vedic studies
The Ksatriyas necessarily pud scanty attention to the study of the Vedas devoung their serious care to solid positive and practical sciences such as politics science of tactics physical education painting music and languages as a preparation for their life s calling The Vaisyas likewise reserved their serious care for the study of the practical arts and sciences with special reference to varta sastras agriculture cattle-raising, commerce trade and industry Naturally these tho groups of scholars spent their minimuin time in the Vedic school with a special stress on the course of studies required for their vocations Briefly speaking the curricula in the Brahmapic school were remark ably adjusted to the mental and social needs of the scholars and the courses were more philosophical and less practical for the Brahmins and more practical and less philosophical for the h satriyas and the Varsyas In other words personality and society were the standards of education The Brahmanic education was carefully designed to preserve the then political and social structure of the country-ie education was framed after the pattern of the state It is patent that the Vedic educaion took a thorough account of the facts of human nature it had its basis in the very psychology of man as a practical positive being whose education to be of any good, must not be an ain) nothing but a real help guiduig him onward and forward to the path of self realisation through self elevation Then again it was thoroughly alive to the important eco nomic principle of the Division of Labour which was really at the root of the institution of caste-an institution with which the educational philosophy of India was so integrally connected

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117
The lecture method was fully utilized, though individual instruction too was in vogue The corporate life was buisk The spirit of association was vigorous The teachers were organized under parisad's, iesembling the Mediaeval European universities offering instructions to students-both religious and secular There was a hierarchy of officers discharging their respective duties Reference to Parisads or Brahman Sabhas is made in the Kāvyamımāmía of Rājasekhara These Parisads used to hold examinations in which learned scholars of those days of hoary antiquity used to sit This practice establishes beyond doubt its academic character Education was no play in ancient India There was no saturnalia of option and looseness It was a slow, sure, stern and steady discipline of the mind needing practice, devotion, and care
The proper articulation between the Vedic and the art-school was gradual The parallel system of organization was replaced by the ladder-scheme during the time of Loid Buddha who joined the writing or the art-school as preparatory to joining Taxıla University where he mastered the whole range of learning available in his days, and thus became perfectly fit for the discharge of his royal duties
The movement for this articulation between the Vedic and the art-school reached its culmination, when these institutions were controlled by the Jaina fathers Their monasteries, as a result of this assimilation of culture of their won, assumed a cosmopolitan nature, imparting instruction in a vast range of subjects Specialization went hand to hand with liberalism in their realm of studies Their institutions of learning became a melting-pot of cultures as it were, thus exerting a tremendous influence on the inental, moral and political life in India The Jaina fathers had a remarkable power of adaptability, and to make their institutions of learning very popular, they tactfully incorporated the diverse types of cultures in their monastic universities
Like the Vedic or the Brahmanic schools, the encyclopaedic curricula of the Jainas took into account the psychologcial and the sociological factors in framing their courses of studies That is "child-life" and “Social-institutions” became the standards of education Naturally, in the monastic schools of the Jainas, there were ecclesiastical and secular departments offering instruction in the Brahmanic, the Buddhistic

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Icarumg und in the Arts and thic Angas of the Jainas The Jaina fathers had a wonderful grasp of gcography the knowlcclgc of which tlicy utilized in founding the monastcrics
Thus thcy always like the Buddhist fatiers sclected sites for then inonastcrics und the nunneries in the suburbs of the capital ciues com mercial fons-inland or coastal and they were always careful in taking into account tlic geographucal factors of the locality-their loquion sulun the vicinity of the highways and by ways natural scene ry surcharged with sngrant brcczes of the lotous pools thc humming of becs slicct-chirmg of various spccics of birds and temperate climate desord of disturbing cloinnus-natural or arusicial
7lc Jam monastcrics were well organized under a hierarchy of officers such as Presidents Icaryas Upadhyayas Sramanas Pravajya dlaynhas Niryapakas and other officers and teachers required to conduct boch tlic systems of administration and instruction obtaining therein and they became important centres of culture and learning attracting lny scholars from all mnhs in SOCICLY
No tuition Icess store chargoul from lay scholars who ucre et en guion free room and board in case of necessity Moral discipline was strictly enforced upon all cspecully upon the novices who ucre, subject od to rules of asceticism and their courses of studies included the Angrs as well as sacred and secular texts All the Jaina monasteries taught the nouces their cleven Angns at the least and we have constant rcfcrences to the practice in sacred texts. Scicnty tuo arts are mentioned in the Pribandhalosa as thic curricula prescribed for the education o Bapp Bhajți and prince Aina by Siddhascna Suri at the Jaina monastery at Moçlerapura in the province of Guzcrat.
The Jaina fathers introduced an cthical code governing the daily programme of the monks-physical mental and moral At least three hours daily study of the Jaina scriptures was strictly enjoined upon Jaina monks and nuns the violation of which was looked upon with grave concern They enjoined begging touss upon all monks sumila. to the practice that was in vogue in the Vedic or the Brahmanıc schools with this difference that the former used to beg alms from all classes of citizens from the rich to the poor without any reservation
The Jaina monasteries had excellent libraries or Bhandaras attached to them wlicte competent and lughly educated monks spent

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LECTURE X
119
their time in studing, and copying sacred books, and writing books on diverse subjects In bucs, the Jaina Bhāndaras like thic Mediaeval Europcan libianics, weic rich depositoi ics of Indian lilcialues on diverse subjects from the religious to the sccular They cvcrted a profound influence on the mental and moral uplist of the Indian people.
Nunncies wcie also founded in the citics soi the spicad of educa tion among thc women, especially among the muns and the female novices. The Jama fallicis weic ciy libcral, and readily admittel women into then told The munncucs acqucd popularity and ladies from the royal household, especially the royal consoils voluntauly joined them I lic scmale novices weic admittel into the Jama oidei besoic the assembly of the monks , and after the formal admission they icic handed ovci to thc nun-11-chaigo, undei Those guudance they cccived liaming in the eleven Angas of the Jainas as picparatory 10 then icligious carcci The nuns were chicsly instrumental in the spicad of cducation among the fail sex The nuns impailed instruction also to femalc lay scholars in religion and moral piccepts attending then classes from then homeWe learn from thc Kathāhosa that princess of the ioyal family of Gangapura received ieligious instruction regulaıly from thic abbess Chandiayacas of the same city? The Jaina nuns ieceived all-round uaining in diverse subjects--both religious and sccular and we have on iecord the cases of Bhadda and Nandullaia, the Jama nuns who challenged Sariputia anii Moggallana lhe iwo apostles of Lord Buddha in open debates on pomts of religion Though both these nuns could not stand the debates, yet i! was a gloi nous defeat soi them both We do not have any evidence to prove is the Jaina nuns could be elevated to the coveted position of an Arhat , but they were promoted to thic position of the head of a community of nuns under the charge of a Tirthankara Thus Biāhmi sundarī, Aiya Yaksīnī, Puspahula, Candiabālā and Salasa Revat, were eminent Jaina nuns who rose to the position of a head of community of nuns and lay votaries respectively under Rsabha, Aristanemi, Pārśva and Mahāvīra
Education was imparted to lay females desiring to enter into domestic duties in the family, state and the schools We have noticed above
1. Kathakoșa, p. 116.

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how the Jaina Church also undertook to train the lay females in reli gion Our knowledge of the responsibility of the Church in imparting the secular education to the lay female scholars 13 very defective In the family the state and the school the female lay scholars studied the whole range of encyclopaedic curricula prescribed for the Art school Their courses of studies were admirably fitted to their physical emo tional and mental growth Emphasis was laid upon the personality of the pupils their special aptitudes interests native abilities and social conditions in giving them the best kind of education as a prepara tion for their domestic and civic duties Thus fine Arts took care of their physical emotional and mental necds and the academic or literary courses including the Vedic courses and the classical languages took note of their intellectual appetite In addition to these needs the needs of society were also taken into account Briesly speaking, as in the monastic school Child life and Society were the standard of educa tion The female scholars were made to study seventy two arts of the Jainas with a specialization in the subject of their choice The courses were organized with a view to fit into the nature and specific abilities of the scholars Thus rigid courses of studies were not forced upon all scholars regardless of their abilities tastes aptitudes and natural bent of mind
The females also received higher education in the Vedic or the Brahmanıc school Female education was not restricted to a particular community but females of all ranks Brahmins Ksatriyas Vaišyas and even adult female cooks could receive the benefit of higher education Diploma of Pandita was conferred upon successful candidates After completing their courses of studies they found employment in various vocations and even a princess of Bhoja engaged herself as a sctibe in copying the Jaina texts
The Art schools were very popular and they were prevalent in the capital cities commercial towns and even in the distant regions of the country
On the education of the princess or the guardians of state the influ ence of the family the church the state and the school was immense The education of the princes began from the prenatal stage to their ad olescence and post adolescence and education was carefully planned and
in the prenatal adjusted to the growing needs of the growing child

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stage, special care was taken of the mother, her diet was regulated and her environment was made comfortable and ideal, and disturbing elenents were removed
LECTURE X
nuises were
After birth they were left to the charge of groups of female nurses especially trained in child-care and they with their special skill assisteri in the mental, moral and physical well-being of the child We pointed out in course of our lectures how the female versed in fine arts, and in higher education and some of them had Pandita' prefixed to their names-more as a scholastic stamp than a mere surname For such Pandită nurses showed their skill in drawing pictures and were skilled in literatures and sacred lores and were constant companions of their masters' children on terms of equality. Adolescent princesses had such Pandită nurses as their companions
The formal education of the royal princess did not begin till their seventh birthday or eighth year from conception when they were sent to the art-schools to receive instruction in the seventy-two arts comprising 3 R's, vernacular languages, fine-arts, sciences both physical and military The Jainas included the Vedas and the Vedangas in the artcurricula of the monasteries In some cases as in Vinita (Mod Oudli) in the family of Rṣabha the young princes and the princesses received their education in the arts and the sciences at the palace from Bharata the son of Rsabha, the Lord of Vinita
It is clear that the female education in Jaina India was more scientific, practical, and efficient than the so called female education of modern civilization This is merely a perverted type of male education That was a genuine type of mental discipline meant to secure a practical purpose, calculated to make women real and solid builders of civilization and culture A comparative glance at the achievements of each type will convince anybody of the truth of our assertion
The princes also received their education in the Jaina monasteries in the seventy-two arts as a preparation for their royal duties We already noticed how prince Ama of Kanouj, son of King Yasovarman 1eceived his education in the seventy-two arts along with Bappa Bhatti from Siddhasena at Moderapura in the kingdom of Guzerat The Jaina fathers in the west and in the south of India captured the educational control of the princes as a measure of increasing their influence
16

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L
JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATIO
and power in the current politics of the day In this object they suc ceeded pre-eminently
The Art school quite independent of the monasteries imparted instruction to princes and other lay scholars in the seventy two arts The curricula in the art schools were carefully organized on sound psychologial and sociological basis and the teaching in the school was vitally related to the realities of life
The state also co-operated with the art-school in imparting instruc tion to its alumuni Especially in the education of the princes the supervision of the State is clearly perceptible We learn from the Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha how king Suddhodana the father of Lord Buddha held formal conference with his ministers and how in consulation with them he appointed specialists-Visvamitra to train young Siddhartha in 8 R s and fine arts and Khantadeva to train the young prince in physical and military sciences For physical and military training especially prepared spacious fields were set up in the suburbs of cities for practical training The group and individual instructions were known The physical and military education pre ceded the academic and the fine art classes in the art school Special training-grounds for horse riding must have been used as it is definitely learned from the Jaina literature The education of the princes was based on sound psychological principles and proper balance was main tained between the mind and the body and both the theoretical and the practical education was carried on sunultaneously Sometimes the students of military sciences made demonstration of their skill in the use of the various implements of warfare This resembles the modern performance test as demanded of applicants for admission into voca tional or trade schools
The influence of the State in the education of the prince was especi ally felt in the education of the adult king Thus king Kumarapala of Guzerat who had a chequered career hired a private tutor to train him in his palace after dinner Gradually he mastered the 3 Rs litera tures politics and other sciences and arts demanded of a king
The Art-school as remarked before existed in all the important It is 2 cities towns and in distant regions of the Indian peninsula very ancient institution incidentally referred to by Manu and Brhas pati as an educational institution meant for the non Brahmins. But

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LECTURE X
123
gradually it came to be a popular institution attended even by Brahmin scholars, for we have ample evidences in the Kathāsarıt sāgara to prove that the Brahmins excelled otheis in fine arts and military sciences. We learn from the Mahābhārata also that Dronācārya was thoroughly versed in the military sciences
The contribution of the Jaina fatheis to geography was immense as we noticed before Their knowledge of geography was sound judged by the standard of those days and they very well realized the influence of geographical factors on the origin of vocations-a fact which is very modern In our lecture on vocational education of the Jainas we tried to trace the influence of the geographical factors, viz location, mountains and reliefs, watel-inland bodies of water and oceanic water, soil, climate, minerals and transportation system on the origin of vocations We have discovered the influence of the geographical factors on various vocations to be inseparable Vocations differ in diverse regions because they are conditioned by the geographical factors Thus vocations in the plains are bound to be quite different from those of the hilly regions The vocations on the coastal cities are again different from those in the inland cities
Next we discussed the application of psychological principles to vocational selection In ancient times caste system was the criterion of vocational and educational selections The individual was made subservient to the static society Gradually and steadily as a result of agitation made by the Buddhists and Jainas the antiquated practice was supplanted by sound psychological basis of vocational and educational guidance Systematic vocational guidance in consultation with the parents, citizens and the city-supervisors of the morals of youths was made No vocation was forced upon the unwilling mind The parents made a careful survey of different vocations—their merits and demerits, their demand upon the native and the specific abilities and on the physiology of their sons The working conditions, future prospect, monitary advantages and other factors were carefully considered before selecting the vocations for their sons Native and specific abilities were especially considered to fit the right vocations for the right candidates Briefly speaking, to eliminate mal-adjustment or labourturn-over, vocations and their programmes of studies were carefully selected on a sure psychological basis after a careful study of the mau

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JAINA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
and his vocation This is a grand monument of the practical com mon foresight of our ancestors directed to the formulation of a sound scheme of education Science and idealisin here went hand in hand
In vocational education the influence of the family the church, the state the school and industry-the five great institutions of society is clearly perceptible These institutions especially the state and industry were chiefly instrumental in imparting vocational education to the mercantile communities artizans agriculturists and other workers in society The state took a leading part in patronising voca tional education Assemblies of the merchants with departinental system and guild were orginized subject to the general control of the state. These were autonomous bodies with the right to make their own byelaws and with a hierarchy of officers to supervise the vocational educa tion of the students The Art school also opened vocational classes. Vocational education was practically free and compulsory as we noticed in connection with our lecture on the subject No scholar was allowed to drop out of the school before completion of the stipulated period Its students like those of the Art schools received theoretical and practi cal education simultaneously They worked in the factories ranches or in other places of work both for practical experience and monitary gain and in the vocational class they received theoretical instruction on their selected occupations Thus like the American Part Time CoOperative schools the students of the vocational classes received both the theoretical and practical training at the same time.
Thus work and instruction were closely correlated and the pupils in the mercantile and guild schools used to receive training in com merce business industry technology agriculture and in other voca tions of life in an occupational environment
The activities of these above mentioned four institutions excepting the family were closely interrelated The state was instrumental in the support of the Jaina religion and education and the industry of the country which again added to the national wealth
Next we discussed the influence of the transportation system on the religious and educational activities of the Jaina fathers Le the principal routes followed by the Jaina fathers in their preaching tours and their consequent influence on the moral and mental life of the people The debates held in the Jaina monasteries and the migration

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of the Jaina fathers from the diffcicnt Jaina monasteries to participaic in them conu ibulcd 10 the dissemination of the icligious punciples. Finally we have touched very briefly on the conubution of the Jaw'r fatheis to icligion, philosophy, lucratics and sciences
With this bus suricy of our ninc lccruics. 'c may sarcly corclude that during the Jama poirod. centuics before the Christian ci. down to the fomiccnih century AD., thc Jaina fatlıcıs ucic busily active in the spicad of their religion and culuc among ilic people Their education and picachings ricic basce upon sound chuo ulional psychology and the Jaina sathcıs ricre thoroughly acqumnied with the child psychology, adolescent psychology and curational psychology and their wholc clucation was based upon sound psychological pune ciples Our sluicy rci cals the following poolagogical principles touching upon all aspects of coucauon which are astonishingly molein Ow survey has given us a significant picuuic of an ancient civilwauon
i It appeared in course of ou locuincs that the Jaina system of education was a thoroughly compichcusic one meant for making its recepients good citizens, sound chuchmon, and cliccnt rulers op the future, fil for discharging thien tasks All the fou grcal agencies of education opciated with this gocat end in vicu.
2 Seculai cducation was scgrcgalled from the icligious though both the types of education wcie impailed in the Jaina monastcuies
3 Education was conti olled by the Family, thic Church, the State, the School and Industry all co-ordinating with one anothcı sor a common cause
4 The Jaina Church had a business council to settle dispute with the state or any othei constiluent body It had an academic council or assembly of the Icained monks enti usted with thic task of the reception of the wandering Arhats, anangement of extension lcctures etc It had under jurisdiction of these two organizations a hierarchy of teachers and officers cach with specific duties in tcaching, preaching, in initiating the novices before the Assembly of the monks and in rehabilitating the morally pcivert Herc the sliicl adınınistrative principle of authority and responsibility were strictly adhered 10 and each teacher and officer had his own responsibility and authority, the violation of which was not tolerated.
5. It conferred academic degrees such as Paņạitā, Bahuśruta and -

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Doctoralc (Bhaja) upon the most successful and competent scholars This list and the highest degrcc 1975 conferred upon the thoroughly competent scholars noted for Icaming and originality in rescarch
6 Tic statc also had a dcprrtment of Education with the Supe nor Pancı7 as its head This officer had the right con to expel a scholar from the country for a period of ticlve years It is also gathered from Buddhistic sources liori che premier with his collcagucs held a conference with hing Suddodhana of kapılavastu when sum moncd by Irm to select the best available tcachers for the education of prince Sıddrartha Thu proics that onc of the ministers in the statc was in charge of the portfolio of cducation in addition to his other responsibility much after the practice of modern goi ctnments. The state accordicd its close co-operation to the great agencies of edu calion by providing thein with training-grounds for military exercise parks for recacation and so forth Education was distinctly a con ccrt of the statc
7 Tlic Brahmanıc and the Art schools flourished in the samc city and the rigid practice of attending the former institution before adınıssion into the latter was not universally followed by the tice born
8 The Jaina fathers made their monasteries a cosmopoliton institution of leaming offering instructions on the Vedas the Angas the Buddhistic Literature ctc. thus making their seminaries the mele ing pots of culture
9 Industry had Associations of its own The merchants the artizans and other workers were all organized under their own guilds which had their codes of ethics and byc laws subject to their general approval of the statc The merchants Association had jurisdiction over wider regions with various departments each under a specialist. The guilds according to Bșhaspati must have supervisors Sometimes commission was appointed by the king to assist the merchants
10 The church the school and industry enjoyed autonomy and the State intervened sparingly
11 The Jaina educational systems as described in the Jaina litera ture were based on sound psychology The Self and Society were the two fundamental basis upon which the entire educational curricula were based The psychological factors included physical, emotional

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127.
and mental and the curricula in the ail-school or the art-courses in the Jaina monasteries were ogilizcd in such a way as to satisfy the physical urge of the young children of voti ine sexes Physical edu cation, military training, music and dancing were appropriate courses to take care of the motor activities so predominant in little children. The fine arts like painting and music which are eminently conducive to the development of the imaginative and emotional lives of their votaries were extensively utilized by the Jaina educators We have given concrete examples of the practice in course of these lectures This practice of imparting education with a view to the specific ability of the recipients was a sound one It was followed by all the ancient authorities whether Hindu, Buddhistic or Jaina The Hindu practice is concretely illustrated in the case of Mālavikā, the heroine of a drama by Kālıdāsa , reference to whom has already been made The academic courses in the art-schools, comprehensive and perfect, as they were, supplied food to the mental appetite of advanced scholars Briefly speaking the curricula were framed to fit them into the physical, mental and emotional traits of the scholars Through an ideal curricula a proper balance between mind and body was maintained This is evident from the very scheme of studies followed-a scheme of physical, mental and spiritual cultures
12 Education-academic or vocational was never enforced upon the unwilling mind Teaching was adjusted to the gradual growtli of the mind, premium was placed upon native abilities and specific abilities and sex-bar was unknown and both the sexes pursued the same courses with specialization on the subject of their own choice Performance test used to be administered before admitting students to military courses In other words try-out courses were in vogue in Jaina and Buddhist India The ancients knew full well the difference between general abilities and specific abilities and the curricula were adjusted according to this plan All the seventy-two arts were not studied together There must have been some kind of specialization even in those days of cosmopolitanism
13 In the trade school the work and the instruction went on simultaneously thus each supplementing the other
14 Adult education was in vogue in India as is evident from the writings of the Jaina fathers.

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15. It was popular in this country among the people of all classes from the king to the luunbic folk
16 11 included 3 Rs liecratures politics, classical languages of Bralunanıc cultures and the closen Angas of the Jainas
17 7lic church the state and the schools all worked in harmony in cducaung the illucrate adults Extension lccttirc tours in connec tion with thc Jainn church ucrc organized to spread culture and learn ing among tlic mass of both sexcs "The state influence was especially fclt in rcmoi ng allitcracy cicn from the ruler
Wc lavc thus discusseel with you gentlemen in the course of these (cn short lectures hurricdly prepared some of the outstanding educa tional thcorics and practices that were in vogue in ancient India from Rşabla to that of Hemacandra thic last of the great Jaina scholars a prolific writer on various subjects-religious and secular
Any impartial critic will from the points cnumcrated above notice that all the fundamental educational aims and principles were based on those psycliological principles which are most modern-and which arc the ground work of modern Europan and American pedagogy It must be an agrecable surprise to see how our educational philosophy has been choroughly assimilated by the Europeans and the Americans only to be re-exported to us through our learned pedagogues the cul tural ambassadors of their alma melers Even superficial students know hon the translation of the Indian classics-Sanskrit, Buddhistic and Jaina into European languages during the latter half of the eighteenth and the whole of the nineteenth centuries and onwards has placed the whole stock of the knowledge of our ancestors within the casy reach of the West. The East and the West have met together in the realm of cul ture in the field of thought. Into various branches of learning for good or evil cach has influenced the other in the region of educa tional philosophy with which we are especially concerned in these lectures the westerners have borrowed a good deal from India directly and consciously and it is to be regretted even without acknowledgment of the obligation

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8

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