Notes on Modern Jainism

Author(s): Mrs Sinclair Stevenson
Publisher: Oxford
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007307/1

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NOTES ON MODERN JAINISM WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SVETA'MBARA, DIGAMBARA AND STHA'NAKAVA'SI SECTS. BY Mrs. SINCLAIR STEVENSON, M.A. (T.C.D.) SOMETIME SCHOLAR OF SOMERVILLE COLLEGE, OXFORD. OXFORD B. H. BLACKWELL, 50 & 51 BROAD STREET LONDON SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO, LIMITED SURAT : Irish Mission Press 1910.

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Proco Ferring Slaversoro wille her daughters lore. Feb. 14.190.

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Stack Annex 047 333 HVNC LIBELLVM DE TRISTI VITAE SEVERITATE CVM MEAE TVM MARITI MATRI MEMORIAE MONVMENTVM DEDICO QVAE EXEMPLVM LONGE ALIVM SECVTAE NOMEN MATERNVM TAM FELICITER ORNAVERVNT. This little Book on Asceticom e dedicate to my own to my husband's mother who on their lives of happy motherhood Yollowed so referent and Ideas 2029268

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PREFACE. THESE notes on Jainism have been compiled mainly from information supplied to me by Gujarati speaking Jaina, so it has seemed advisable to use the Gujarati forms of their technical terms. It would be impossible to issue this little book without expressing my indebtedness to the Rev. G. P. Taylor, D. D., Principal of the Fleming Stevenson Divinity College, Ahmedabad, who placed all the resources of his valuable library at my disposal, and also to the various Jaina friends who so courteously bore with my interminable questionings. I am specially grateful to a learned Jaina gentleman who read through all the MS. with me, and thereby saved me, I hope, from some of the numerous pitfalls which beset the pathway of anyone who ventures to explore an alien faith. Irish Mission, Rajkot. India. October 6th, 1909. MARGARET STEVENSON.

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CONTENTS PAGE. JAINISM ... ... LIFE OF MAHA'VIRA , RISE OF THE JAINA SECTS THE JAINA SCRIPTURES ... JAINA ASCETICS ... ... JAINA LAY ADHERENTS ... JAINA DOCTRINE ... KARMA ... ... ... ... THE NINE CATEGORIES ... JAINA DIVISIONS OF TIME THE FIVE KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE RATNA TRAYA : THE THREE JEWELS JAINA WORSHIP ... .... JAINA FESTIVALS AND FASTS ... JAINA INSTITUTIONS

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JAINISM. "JAINISM," says Monsieur A. Barth,* " is one of the least known amongst those [ religions ] which have performed an important part in the past of India." Dr. Burgess + believes that " research during the last half century has perhaps been less directed to the study of Jainism than to any other branch of Indian study," and it is probably owing to the prevailing ignorance of Jainism that a recent writeri has ventured to stigmatise it as "a religion in which the chief points insisted on are that one should deny God, worship man, and nourish vermin," and to such a religion he denies the right even to exist. This ignorance is all the more surprising when one. remembers the great interest which attaches to Jainism as "the only one of the almost primeval mendicant orders which survives in India at the present day," and the contempt so liberally poured forth is scarcely merited by a religious community which has done much to foster the study of language and of science, whose members, though numbering less than a million and a third, are almost the * Barth. Religions of India. p. 140. + Digambara Jaina Iconography. p. 1. Dr. Burgess goes on to point out that such research as there has been is chiefly directed to the literature of the Swetambara sect. Hopkins. Religions of India. p. 297.

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MODERN JAINISM most literate in India," whose temples are famous amongst the glories of the East, and whose worship far excels in purity of thought and ritual the Hinduism which surrounds it. Jainism, like its great rival Buddhism, seems to have taken its rise in the sixth century before Christ, an age in which religious speculation was rife in many parts of the world. In India the joyous, childlike faith reflected in the earlier Vedas had been stifled under priestly domination; " the Aryan Holy land was parcelled out among a number of petty chieftains, who waged internecine war one against anothert;" the climate, then as now, exerted its depressing influence on all beneath its sway, and the consequent pessimism is reflected in the philosophies of the times. * The immediate cause which gave rise to both Buddhism and Jainism was probably the caste exclusiveness of the Brahmans in restricting entrance into the medicant or fourth asram, to members of their own community. This restriction was specially obnoxious to members of the next, the Ksatriya (or warrior) caste, and it is noticeable that it is from this caste that the historic leaders of both religions sprang, in a part of the world, too, where Brahman influence was already weakening. * Twenty-five per cent of the Jaina are able to read and write ; thus they are second only to the Parsis, of whom two thirds are literate. + Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. I. p. 407. # The old Brahmanic religion directed a man to pass through four successive asrana ( stages ), first that of a religious student, next that of a house-holder, then to retire from the world as an anchorite, and lastly to spend the remaining years of his life as a wandering mendicant.

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LIFE OF MAHA'VIRA. Mahavira, the founder, or (as it would perhaps be more accurate to call him) the reformer, of Jainism, was born about 599 B. C. His antagonism to Brahmanism was marked even before his birth. for we are told in one of the most famous of the Jaina sacred books, the Kalpa Sutra,* that his embryo was removed from the Brahmani Devananda to the Ksatriyani Tris'ala. His father Siddhartha was a petty Raja, the head of the Ksatriya clan of the Nata, who lived in Kollaga, a suburb of Vaisali (the modern Besar, about 27 miles north of Patna. Dr. Hoernlet gives a most interesting account of the government of this place, which seems to have been a sort of oligarchie republic; " its government was vested in a Senate, composed of the heads of the resident Ksatriya clans, and presided over by an officer who had the title of King and was assisted by a Viceroy and a Commander in chief." Siddhartha was married to Tris'ala, the daughter of this republican king, and from the Kalpa Sutra we gain a charming picture of the happy motherhood of the princess. We read of her joy when, through the fourteen wondrous dreams vouchsafed to her in one night, she learnt that she should bear a prophet son, and of her fixed determination not to go to sleep again that night lest any unlucky dreams should mar the effect. Before the child was born" she took her walks in places which were empty and agreeable as well Sacred Books of the East. Vol. xxii. p. 226. + Annual Address, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1898. + S. B. E. xxii. 240. 3

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MODERN JAINISM. as delightful to the mind;" and at last, when "the sky in all its directions [was] clear, bright and pure; while a favourable and agreeable low wind swept the earth; at the time when the fields were green and all people glad......... (Tris'ala,) perfectly healthy herself, gave birth to a perfectly healthy boy." + # His father had already decided what the boy's personal name should be: "From the moment that this our boy has been begotten, our silver increased, our gold increased,...the intensity of our liberality and popularity highly increased. Therefore when this our boy will be born, we shall give him the fit name, attributive and conformable to his quality-Vardhamana," (i. e' the increasing one.') # Vardhamana, or (as he is called in the various Jaina scriptures) Mahavira, had discovered even before his birth how completely his mother's happiness was bound up in his, and he therefore came to the following decision: "It will not behove me, during the life of my parents, to tear out my hair, and leaving the house to enter the state of houselessness"; so, unlike Buddha, he lived the ordinary life of a nobleman until his parents' death. He married, and his wife, Yas'oda, bore him a daughter, Anojja (or Priyadars'ana), whose titled husband, Jamali, later on became one of his followers, and the connections thus formed were all to help him later in his life work. His parents eventually died, having kept all the rules of their religion; we are told in another of the Jaina sacred books, the A'caranga Sutra, that "they observed, blamed, repented, confessed and did penance according to their sins," and S. B. E. xxii. 250. S. B. E. xxii. p. 249. + S. B. E. xxii. p. 251. SS S. B. E. xxii. 250.

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LIFE OF MAHA VIRA. finally attained a meritorious death by suicide": "( reclining] on a bed of kus'a grass they rejected all food, and their bodies dried up by the last mortification of the flesh, which is to end in death." + Mahavira was now thirty, and with the permission of his elder brother, Nandivardhana, he resolved to enter upon the spiritual career which in India as in Europe has so often proved a fitting sphere for younger sons. Dr. Hoernle I tells us that the Nata clan kept up a monastic establishment for monks of Parsvanatha's order in Kollaga, and it was naturally this establishment that Mahavira first joined. But their rule did not seem to him stringent enough, and after a year and a month he separated from them on the question of wearing clothes, $ and "after that time walked about naked and accepted alms in the hollow of his hand." The question of wearing clothes or not was destined to become a crucial one in the history of Jainisin, for it was on this point that its two great sects divided. It is difficult to understand why Mahavira laid such great stress on nudity. Sir Monier Williams I gives what is at least a possible explanation. "The Jains," he says, " like all other ascetics, were impressed with the idea that it was necessary to maintain a defensive warfare against the assault of evil passions, by keeping under the body and * A way of gaining merit still practised among the Jaina. + S. B. E. xxii. 194. + Annual Address, A. S. B., 1898. S A Jaina tradition says that Mahavira on joining the order had only retained one cloth given to him by the god Indra. Buddhism. p. 530.

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MODERN JAINISM, subduing it. They had also a notion that a sense of shame implied sin, so that if there were no sin in the world there would be no shame. Hence they argued rather illogically that to get rid of clothes was to get rid of sin ; and every ascetic who aimed at sinlessness was enjoined to walk about naked, with the air or sky (Dig) as his sole covering." For twelve years Mahavira wandered naked and homeless over the land, never resting during summer or winter for more than a single night in a village or for more than five nights in a town,* begging his food and indifferent whether good or bad were given to him, guarding his thoughts, guarding his words, guarding his senses, his heart as pure as water in autumn, and himself as unsoiled as the leaf of a lotus. At last in the thirteenth year he reached enlightenment. He was sitting under a s'al tree on the banks of a river not far from the town of Grimbhikagrama, in the position that is now so familiar from Buddhist statues, with legs and arms crossed. He had fasted for two days and a half, exposed to the heat of the sun without even drinking water, when, "engaged in deep meditation, he reached the highest knowledge and intuition, called Kevala, which is infinite, supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, complete and full." I He had now become a Jina (i. e. Victor), an Arihanta (i, e. * S. B. E. xxii, 260, ff. (Rules still binding on Jaina monks and nuns, though they have enlarged the one night into a week and the five nights into a month.) + A popular Jaina traditiou declares that at the time of receiving enlightenment Mahavira was sitting in the godoha asana posture (i, e, the position of milking a cow.) I S. B. E. xxii. 263.

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LIFE OF MAHA'VIRA. 7 Venerable One), a Kevali (i.e. Possessor of Kevala ($944] or spiritual nature) and a Mahavira or Great Hero ), and by each of this galaxy of titles he is varyingly called. Now" he knew and saw all conditions of the world, of gods, of men and demons; whence they come, whither they go, whether they are born as men or animals or become gods or hellbeings, the ideas, the thoughts of their minds, the food, doings, desires, the open and secret deeds of all the living beings in the whole world " * It is from his title of Jina that his sect and system derive their name. The Buddhist name for Mahavira, however, is Nataputta, from his clan, and the Jaina scriptures occasionally call him Vesaliya from his birth place. For thirty years more Mahavira taught his doctrine, gathering followers round him. Gos'ala had been his first disciple. Jacobi + thinks he was the head of an independent sect, who threw in his lot for a time with Mahavira but separated on the question of leadership, but Dr. Hoernle I believes him to have been a follower who after six years quarrelled with his master and became head of the Ajivika order of monks, which are mentioned on As'oka's pillar, about 234 B, C., but which have long ceased to exist. In the Sutrakritangas a dispute between Gos'ala and a zealous disciple of Mahavira is recorded, in which of course Gos'ala is ignominiously routed. This Gos'ala must have been a cantankerous fellow, for he is mentioned in the Buddhist Scriptures as an antagonist of Buddha also. Mahavira made many converts to his religious system * S. B. E. xxii. 263. +S. B. E. xlv. Introd: p. xxix. Annual Address, A. S. B. 1898 p. 41. & S. B. E. xlv. 409.

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MODERN JAINISM and organised an order of ascetics in the lands under the sway of his royal kinsfolk, in Sravasti, Videha, Magadha and Anga (the modern Oudh and the provinces of Tirhut and Bihar)," the very countries traversed by his great rival Buddha. During the rainy seasons he would cease from his peregrinations, lest he should injure any of the abundant life then springing into being, staying for four months in some town. Twelve rainy seasons he passed thus in his own town of Vais'ali. He gained eleven disciples who remained true to him, and they in turn instructed 4,200 monks. His great disciple Sudharma survived him; it is through him that Jainism itself has been preserved, and he hands down in the Sutraksitanga many of the discourses of his master. The Kalpa Sutra records with curious iteration the death of Mahavira in his seventy second year. He spent his last rainy season in the town of Papapuri (probably the modern Padraona, as General Sir A. Cunningham thinks) and at the time of early morning, in king Hastipala's Office of the Writers, sitting in the Sam paryanka posture and reciting the fifty five lectures which detail the results of Karma, he" died, went off, quitted the world, cut asunder the ties of birth, old age and death ; became a Siddha, a Buddha, a Mukta, a maker of the end to all misery." + Mahavira must have been a man of strong personality to have done the work he did amongst his warrior kinsfolk; but ho never seems to have had the same personal magnetism * Buhler, Indian Sect of the Jainas. p. 27. + S. B. E, xxii. 264.

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LIFE OF MAHA'vira, which is associated with the name of Buddha. That he was possessed of great powers of persuasion and organisation is shewn by his having brought over the order of Pars'vanatha (to which he had originally belonged) to his later views, and having prevented anything like a split in his life time. Dr. Hopkins records the tradition that he died in a fit of apoplectic rage, a story scarcely credible of a man whose whole life had been so disciplined and controlled, that "he was indifferent alike to the smell of ordure and of sandal, to straw and jewels, dirt and gold, pleasure and pain, attached neither to this world nor to that beyond, desiring neither life nor death."* Indeed it is almost pathetic to think of a man, originally possessed of so full and vivid a personality, having so docked his life of all feeling as to leave no conceivable room for any cause which could excite " apoplectic rage." That in spite of everything he remained loveable is shewn by the story of his oldest disciple, Indrabhuti, who had cut himself off from every tie that held him back from Kevala except one, his love for his master, and not till the night Mahavira died was he able to cut asunder this last tie and attain the highest knowledge.t The story of Mahavira is followed in the Kalpa Sutra by that of an earlier saint, Pars'va ( or Pars'vanatha ), who seems to have been an historical personage and the founder of the order of the Nirgrantha which Mahavira won over. # Mahavira is counted as the twenty-fourth Tirtharikara [Sanskrit Tirthakara (alette), Gujarati Tirthankara (chusa)], * S. B. E. xxii. 262. + S. B. E. xxii. 265. Indeed the name of Nirgrantha ( one without ties) soon attached itself to the followers of Mahavira and is that by which the Jaina were in early times known. See Hoernle, A. S. B., 1898, p. 42.

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10 MODERN JAINISM. or ford maker who has crossed the troubled river of constant births or transmigration (Samsara (HIR] ) to the haven of Liberation; Pars'va is the twenty-third, and behind him stretch the other Tirthankara, whose length of life and height of stature grow ever greater and greater as they recede further and further into the mists of tradition. We shall return to them later when we are discussing Jaina beliefs.

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RISE OF THE JAINA SECTS. The history of Jainism subsequent to the death of Mahavira is not marked by many outstanding events, excepting the great schism which divided Svetambara and the order into the white clothed SvetamDigambara. bara and the nude or "sky clothed " Digambara. A great famine arose in 310 B, C., some two centuries after the death of Mahavira, in Magadha (Bihar, and, as sometimes happens in India at the present day, under pressure of the famine a great part of the population emigrated, amongst them Bhadrabahu, the then head of the Jaina community, and a number of his people. These went to Southern India, and a certain Sthulabhadra assumed the leadership of those left behind in Magadha. This Sthulabhadra was evidently an energetic worker, and under his rule a gre it council was held at Pataliputra (Patna ), which amongst other things collected the Jaina sacred books. At this time also the home keeping Jaina adopted some sort of dress, and when the famine was over and the exiles returned, they found that their weaker brethren had not only lacked the strength of character to leave their own land but also the moral courage to keep their rule. The orthodox Digambara Jaina refused to have any fellowship with their clothed (Svetambara) brethren, and thus laid a foundation for the schism which definitely arose in 82 A. D. and has lasted to this day. It seems probable that two parties in the community had always existed, and that only distance had been needed to enable the divergence to develop. 11

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MODERN JAINISM. The Digambara refuse to acknowledge the work of the Council of Pataliputra and say that the original sacred books have been lost. 12 The manuscripts authorized by the first council eventually grew scarce and fell into disorder, and so a second great council was held at Vallabhi, in Gujarat, under the presidency of Devarddhi, the head of one of the schools, which revised them and thus fixed the Svetambara canon of the scriptures. This, briefly, is the account given by Dr. Hoernle of the historic Jaina tradition of their own history and sacred books, and he goes on to show how in 1896 most striking corroboration of the early date of the great schism was found by Prof. Buhler when deciphering the inscriptions in Madura. The modern Jaina tradition however in Western India differs slightly from this account, and I am indebted to a learned Jaina gentleman for the following particulars. He agrees with Dr. Hoernle as to the cause of the complete divergence between the Svetambara and Digambara sects, and holds that under Mahavira there had been two sections, the Jinakalpi (se), who were very rigid in their observance of the rule, and the Sthivarakalpi (en), who owing to old age or illness were allowed to relax the rule so far as to wear clothes and to eat delicacies. The Svetambara canon was not committed to writing + for 980 years after the death of Mahavira, then, under the Annual Address, A. S. B. 1898. p. 47 ff. + A Jaina Sadhu has kindly supplied me with the following legend as to the cause of the Svetambara scriptures being committed to .

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JAINA SECTS. 13 presidency of Devarddhi Ksamas'ramana, forty-five Shastras were written down, which took thirteen years to accomplish. The Svetambara believe that originally there had been eighty four scriptures but that thirty nine had been lost. The remaining forty five were first written and published in Vala (Gohelvad Prant,) Kathiavad. All the sects believe that at this time certain of Mahavira's precepts which were no longer suited to society were omitted. The Scriptures were written in Arddha Magadhi, commentaries on them have been written in Sanskrit, and there are also Gujarati translations of the text. The Svetambara do not allow laymen or women to read their Scriptures; these may only read certain small books of extracts which have been made from them. Monks are allowed to read the Sacred books, and so are nuns, though it is very unusual for the latter to be sufficiently educated to be able to do so. There is however a branch of the Svetambara Jaina who permit the laity to read their Sacred books. These are the Dhundhia (2241) or, as they Dhundhia or prefer to be called, the Sthanakavasi Sthanakavasi. (2414591711) Jaina. They give the following account of their origin. About five hundred years ago writing. A certain monk was ill and needed ginger as a remedy for his sickness. By their rule the monks were allowed to beg for any necessary medicine, but the unused portion must be returned by night fall. The monks failed to return the unused ginger, and when their guru saw how forgetful they had become, he felt it was no longer safe to trust the Scriptures to their memories.

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14 MODERN JAINISM. in Ahmedabad a certain Svetambara Jaina* was asked to copy certain sacred Svetambara books, and whilst making the close study of them necessary for the work, he realized that there was no mention of idolatry in ther. He eventually founded a reformed and non-idolatrous sect + which rejects any of the Svetambara Scriptures that treat of idols or idol worship, and allows the common people to read the books it has retained. The Digambara reject the Svetambara Canon. They have formed their own Scriptures, Purana and Grantha. containing lives of the Tirthaikara and of The Digambara great monks and certain rules of conduct, Canon. as well as some mathematics, science and philosophy. These scriptures are specially noted for their philosophy, though like the Svetambara Sacred Books, on which indeed they are based, they treat of idol worship also. They (like the Dhundhia Scriptures ) are open to the laity. There are famous Treasure Houses of the Jaina Scriptures at Patan (near Siddhpur ), Treasure Houses. 1808. Cambay and Jesalmir (in Rajputana ), Com and there is a smaller one at Limbadi ( in Kathiavad). They are connected with Jaina monasteries, but can scarcely be called Libraries, for it is very difficult for even Jaina to gain access to them, and practically impossible for a non-Jaina. * The Dhundbja say the copyist's name was Lonka. Mr. Bhinbhai Kirparam says the reformer was a priest of the Lonka sect who rebelled against the authority of his Shripnjya and was expelled. Bombay Gazetteer. Vol. ix. Part i. p. 106. + They are also known in Malwa as Sadhumargi (Ally Haf) Jaina.

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THE JAINA SCRIPTURES. The following is the Canon of Scriptures held by the Jaina of Western India, together with brief notes as to their contents. Various sects and sub-sects differ very much with regard to the Chedagrantha, Mulagrantha and Payanna, but all Svetambara and Sthanakavasi practically agree with regard to the Anga and Upanga. They hold that originally there were Twelve Anga, but that one, the Dris'tivada Anga (1) containing an account of the fourteen Purva or Sciences, was destroyed. A. The Eleven Anga (is). 1. The A'caranga Sutra (22). A book of rules for monks and recluses, together with the life of Mahavira. 2. The Suyagadanga Sutra (sia ), which contains a description of the faiths which prevailed at the time when Jainism arose, and which deals also with tranquility of mind and with the knowledge that destroys our attachment to the world. 3. The Thananga Sutra (gia a). A book concerned with the numbers in which things exist. Thus, under the heading "one" are grouped all things which exist singly as soul; similarly under "two" are mentioned all things of which there are pairs, as Love and Hatred; under "three Birth, Life and Death; under "four Anger, Pride, Deceit, Avarice. 39 "" 4. The Samavayanga Sutra ( ). This book contains various comparisons of opposites, as the 15

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16 MODERN JAINISM. power that moves bodies and the power that keeps them stationary; the comparison being made with regard to substance, space, time, and emotion. 5. Bhagavatiji (240190 oy ) or Vivihapannanti Cala 81491m). This is the great Sutra and is held in the highest honour. It contains the questions which Gautama asked Mahavira and the latter's answers. It deals chiefly with religious philosophy. 6. Jnatadharma Kathanga (119142434191) contains moral stories about Faith, Knowledge and Soul; e. g. Two men were each given a peahen's egg. One man, being faithless, was for ever shaking his egg whilst it was hatching, to see how it was progressing, and so destroyed the chicken, but the believing man, who quietly left his egg alone till the appointed time, was rewarded with a beautiful peacock. 7. Upasaka Das'arga ( 641345 Eliial ) contains the biographies of ten eminent laymen and the eleven steps a layman should take to attain Liberation ( Moksa ). 8. Antagada Das'angu (24cnols Ellil). The lives of ten Preceptors ( A' carya [ 24124141, who possessed the greatest powers of endurance, were freed from the eight Karma and attained Moksa in the same life, together with the lives of some other Kevali. 9. Anuttarovavai Das'anga (ayal 7219918 ERLISL). The lives of ten Preceptors who attained to Anuttaravimana (2497729H ), i. e. one stage short of Moksa, in the same life. 10. Pras'na Vyakarana ( yedd 5413799) deals chiefly with the path of Karma and its destruction.

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JAINA SCRIPTURES. 11. Vipaka Sutra (4) describes the enjoyment of the fruit of good actions and the suffering entailed by evil deeds. 17 B Twelve Upanga (@chi). 1. Uvavai (6) gives more details of the various ceremonies and places alluded to in the Anga. 2. Rayapaseni (14) contains the various questions asked by King Parades'i and the answers given by the Sage Kes'i. 3. Jivabhigama (l). In this is given a full account of the soul and all that appertains to it, together with various other details concerning the Jaina faith. 4. Pannavana (chae). This, too, deals with the soul, and also with matter. 5. Jambudivapannati (chala) contains the geography of the island of Jambu (which many believe to be Modern Asia), its seven divisions, mountains, rivers, etc. 6. Candapannati (ziechala) both deal with astron7. Surapannati (ala) omy and astrology. Niravalia (1941). A description of Hell and of the men who have gone there, including the ten Kalikumara (ten bad princes who committed many murders). 9. Kappavadis'ayya (241). A description of the Kalpa, or lower division of Heaven, and a short account of those who have gone there. The gira p. 187 gives ch (Kappia) instead of Niravalia. 2

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MODERN JAINISM. 10. Pupphiya (y). An account of the heavens and different planets, and of the celestial cars which convey people from the earth to the planets, together with a description of the people who are entitled to enter heaven. 18 " 11. Puphachulia (yea). An account of the nun Puphachula" (yty, her virtues and her disciples. 12. Vanhidas'a (gell). An account of the great men who were born in the Vishnu family; how they conquered Dwarka, obtained initiation, maintained self control and attained Moksa. It is interesting to note that according to Jaina belief Krishna was a Jaina, a cousin of Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara, and that he will himself in his next Incarnation be one of their new Twenty-four Tirthankara. C. Six Chedagrantha (a). (Books partially destroyed, or books teaching how to destroy sin.) 1. !yuyaharu Sutra ( vyavahAra sUtra). 2. Brihatkalpa (4). 3. Das'as rutuskandhu (21). 4. Nisitha (Cali). These four books all contain rules which monks and nuns must observe as to the taking of food, water, clothes, pots, etc., and the penalties to be undergone for violating of these regulations. any As we have already seen, the Svetambara hardly ever allow their books to be read by laymen, and although the Sthanakavasi do not thus restrict the use of the scriptures, even they do not like the laity to see these four books, which, they say, are meant for monks only.

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JAINA SCRIPTURES, 19 The remaining two Chedagrantha are not recognised by Sthanakavasi but only by Svetambara Jaina. Their names are: 5. Muhanis'itha (H8114(214). 6. Jitrekalp.. (Oyasey). D. Four Mulagrantha (Hanu'll), (according to the Svetambara canon.) 1. Das'evikaliku (erdir445). An epitome of the rules for monks with regard to the division of their time. 2. Uttaradhyayanu ( 671226440). A very famous and important book, containing the lives of eminent saints, and teaching that a man is raised by his Karma and not his birth. It deals too with celibacy, discipline and character, and also records the advice given by Mahavira to his disciples two days before he entered Moksa. Its last chapters are devoted to an important and lengthy discussion on Soul and Matter. 3. A'vas'yaka (2419843). The morning and evening duties of Jaina, (Padikamanum, etc.) Various sects of Svetambara have different versions of this book, and whereas versions of other scriptures in use among different sects are much alike, the versions of this one differ widely from each other. 4. Oghaniryukti (als Gelton). This is on similar lines, but is not accepted by the Sthanakavasi. Of these four the Sthanakavasi accept only the first two as Mulagrantha and consider the A'vas'yaka to be not a Mulagrantha but the last of all the scriptures.

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MODERN JAINISM. Four Mulagrantha, (according to the Sthanakavasi Canon.) 1. Das'uvaikalika spaslf45. 2. Uttaradhyayana @ttt444. 3. Nandi Sutro (are 749.) A history of the eightyfour original scriptures and their destruction, and also of the saints who succeeded Mahavira. 4. Anuyogadvara ( ay palalal?.) A book on logic. The Svetambara and Sthanakavasi alike believe that their religion is decaying, and that their scriptures are being destroyed; they think however that the Four Mulagrantha will be the last to perish. This completes the list of the thirty-two scriptures accepted by the Sthanakavasi. In addition the Svetambara accept the following: E Ten Payanna (42191) or Miscellaneous Books. 1. Causurana ( 26HREI,) in which people are exhorted to seek the protection of Arihanta ( auraient) Siddha (for) Sadhu (H ) Dharma (438) i. e. (the Jaina ) Religion. 2. Sunthara Payanna (24131 44911). Another book of good advice, which urges people to fulfil all their vows during their life time, to confess their sins, and to die peacefully without any desire for longer lifc. 3. Tanduluvayalia (18419416 241,) telling of the nourishment and dangers of the embryo in the womb.

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JAINA SCRIPTURES. 21 4. Candavijaya (24) contains stories about the moon, its eclipse, distance from the earth, etc., needless to say not in accordance with Western Science. 6. 5. Ganivijaya (n.) A book of arithmetic. Devindathuoli.) Songs in praise of Indra, the highest of the gods inhabiting swarga. (Some, however, hold that these are really songs sung by Indra in praise of the Siddha). 7. Virathuo (y.) Songs in praise of Mahavira. 8. Gacchacaru (2) gives rules of conduct binding on the members of different Jaina sects. 9. Jyotikaranda rais.) A book of astrology, dreams, omens, etc. 10. A'yuhpaccakhana (24:42.) A book of the Vows which a man should take at the time of his death in the presence of a monk or nun. As these are considered too difficult for any one to perform, he is allowed in case of recovery to keep them in a modified form, and to permit of this he may take them in either a limited (lea ) or unlimited (le) form: e. g. he vows in the limited form not to lie; if on his recovery he should, nevertheless, tell a lie in the course of his daily business, he would be held to have committed the sin of lying but not that of vow breaking. The Digambara Scriptures. The following is the list of Digambara Scriptures given by Dr. Burgess,* * Digambara Jaina Iconography. p. 1.

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22 MODERN JAINISM. 1. Prath emanuyogi (44919del, which contains all works on legends and history, including the twenty four Purana with the lives of the Tirtharkara. 2. Kurananiiyoga (grella2131) which includes all their books dealing with Cosmogony. 3. Dravyanuyogue (604132101) or books treating of doctrine and philosophy. 4. Carananuyog ( Buendum) in which achara customs, worship etc. are described.

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JAINA ASCETICS. The Jaina say that one of Mahavira's great messages to the human race was that man could attain salvation through his own efforts independently of Brahmanic aid. Unlike Buddha, he laid the greatest stress on asceticism as a means towards attaining that end, and Jainism has proved the forerunner of much of the most revolting asceticism current in the India of today. It has been said that as knowledge is wisdom to the Brahman, and purity and love to the Buddhist, so is asceticism wisdom to the Jaina. Monks. It is easier for an ascetic or Yati (49) to attain heaven than for a layman, but before a man may become an ascetic he must obtain leave from his parents or guardians. If he be married he may still become a Yati (or Sadhu) on gaining his wife's permission or after her death, but a Bala brahmacari (M44549412), i.e. a man who has never been married, is held in higher honour. Before his initiation or diksa (191) the Yati gives up everything save five garments (three upper and two lower ones), and a blanket ; in the case of a Possessions. Svetambara these would be yellow in colour, and in that of a Sthanakavasi white; the Digambara, of course, keeps no clothing. (In Ahmedabad some of the Svetambara ascetics wear white with yellow over it, and these men are considered to be more devout ). He keeps also two or three more pieces of cloth to wrap round his food and to strain his drinking water, and a 23

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24 MODERN JAINISM. piece of cloth to wear over his mouth. A Sthanakavasi sadhu must keep his mouth covered night and day, so he wears this mouth cloth or mumati (2401)tied on with strings, and when lay people talk to Sthanakavasi ascetics they must cover their mouths. It is sufficient for the Sve tambara sadhus to keep their mouth cloth in their hands. Besides his cloth the monk generally has a long rod, which must not be hollow lest it should entrap and kill an insect, and a brush (Rajono molt), which is used to protect insects by sweeping them out of danger. Its whisk is of wool, and the Sthanakavasi, who sweep more carefully than the Svetambara, have a bigger brush with a longer handle. The Digambara Sadhu who live in the jungle frequently use a peacock's feather instead of a brush. The ascetic is allowed to possess five pots, which must be gourds, or else fashioned from wood. Brass vessels are not permitted, as a sadhu must possess no metal; thus if he borrow a needle he must return it by sunset, lest the sin of covetousness should grow upon him, and if he is obliged to wear spectacles they must be framed in wood. He is also allowed to keep a wooden jug. These are henceforth to be his sole possessions, and when they grow old he must not ask for new ones, but must wait till they are given to him.+ A woman wishing to become a nun must give up all her property in the same way, excepting that she is allowed to keep two additional garments, * Also called muhapati ( 98 4d?) or mukhapattika ( 74425!). + Even then the donor may not bring them to him at the Upasaro, but inviting him to his house must say as he offers them that they are more than he requires for his own use.

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JAINA ASCETICS. 25 At the time of his initiation the man is led in proces sion through the city with much pomp Initiation. and ceremony to a banyan tree. Next comes the removal of the hair, which is performed outside the city in some room or tent. The candidate's head is shaved all over, with the exception of one small lock of hair which is pulled out under a tree. After six months the ascetic will have to get rid of his hair again, but this time it must all be pulled out, the merciful aid of partial shaving being only given the first time. This hair plucking is a rite peculiar to the Jaina and is looked on by them as of great importance; it is always done in preparation for the yearly Pajjusana, as well as at other times if necessary. A mixture of ashes etc. is applied to his head, and the following mantra is whispered in his ear: karemi bhaMte sAmAyaM sAvajajogaM pacakhAmi. jAvajivAe pajjuvAsAmi. (duvihaM tiviheNaM na karoma na kAravAmi) maNasA vayasA kAyasA tassabhaMte paDikamAbhi niMdAmi garihAmi appANaM vosiraami| The bracketed words are sometimes changed and the following words substituted for them : tivihaM tiviheNaM na karomi na kAravoma, karaMta nANu jaanni| In the first case he promises not to infringe his vows by any of the three Danda, (ES) i.e. mind, speech, or action, nor to cause any one else to do so; in the second case he further promises not to share in the result of any one having done so. If the ascetic be a Digambara or Svetambara, he will take a new name; if he be a Sthanakavasi, however, he will still retain his old one.

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26 MODERN JAINISM. The Svetambara call male ascetics Samvegi (2191) and the nuns Garaniji (penoy ), the Sthanakavasi call the men Mahapurusa (61434) or Pujya ( Yory) and the women Mahasati (mahAsatI) or A'raja ArajA). Nuns. The initiation ceremony for a nun is practically the same as for a monk, excepting that the mantra is whispered into her ear by a Sadhvi (female ascetic ) instead of a Sadhu. Her head too is shaved for the first time, but afterwards when the hair grows it is pulled out hair by hair. This is done about twice a year by one nun for another, and is called Loca (912).* If a woman wishes to become a nun she may do so, but she must first obtain her husband's consent, or, if unmarried or widowed, the consent of her parents or guardians. In any case she must be well instructed in the tenets of the Jaina faith before she can be "professed," and the instruction should last from six months to two years. At any time before her" profession" she can go back into the world, and some women seem to take the course of instruction without any intention of becoming nuns. A woman who had not yet been professed most kindly gave me the following account of her day's routine. About 5 A. M. she rose, and in her own house Daily Life before sunrise she made confession of the of a Novice. night's sin (Rayasi Padikamanum 21477 431570). At sunrise she went to the nuns' house or When I asked a nun if this did not hurt very much she replied: "Hurt? Of course it does, but what's that compared with the bother and worry of a husband " !!

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JAINA ASCETICS, 27 Upasaro (641221), and listened for an hour to the reading of the scriptures or a sermon by a nun. From eight to twelve she was busied with the work of her own holise, but at two o'clock, after her midday rest, she went back to the Upasaro for meditation (Samayika H131648. She had to be home again to take her daily meal before sunset, and after sunset she made her confession of the day's sin (Devasi Padikamanum 242 451549). Twice during the day she did palewana (49994), i. e. searched her clothing to find if there were any insects in it, and, if she found any, removed them carefully that they might take no injury. After she should become a nun, she would have the same duty of morning confession and listening to the scriptures. In addition, not having any Daily Life household duties, she would study till of a Nun. nine A. M., and then go out and beg for water. (The only water an ascetic can take must have been boiled to destroy any life in it, and boiled moreover not more than four hours previously, lest new life be formed in it.) She would also have to go and beg for food at eleven o'clock, and again at five in the evening, and must arrange never to have any food left over at night, lest insect life should form in it. Strictly speaking, she should only eat once and only sleep for three hours during the twenty-four. During the night she should if possible rise and pray twice. In many places however these rules have fallen into disuse. The life of a nun is an arduous one, for she must live the same wandering life as a monk, though always accompanied by a female companion. She is however held in the greatest honour, as is shewn in the respect paid to her at her death.

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28 MODERN JAINISM. By the courtesy of some Sthanakavasi The Funeral ofnuns I was allowed to be present at the an Araja funeral of one of their number. When the moment of death approached, devout laywomen were called in to attend on the dying nun, whom they placed in the sitting (or Kausagga ) posture on one of the wooden bedsteads in the Upasaro; the other nuns withdrew to another part of the room, where they sat repeating certain Mantras, taking no part in the funeral rites, though they were obliged to fast till all was completed. As soon as the nun died, the laywomen tied her to a short plank to keep her in the sitting posture, and wrapped a rich cloth of gold brocade over her body, still wearing its nun's robes of simple white and its mumati or mouth covering. In the mean time a costly palanquin of teak wood had been prepared, the top of which resembled a temple, with numerous pinnacles each bearing a flag, while the inside was lined with exquisite silk and rich cushions. The body was carried from the Upasaro to the palanquin by laymen, who removed the plank and tied the corpse, still in the sitting posture, to some supports at the back and arranged the cushions round it. A procession was then formed to the river bank; it was headed by a royal horse and drum lent by the ruler of the State, after which came men seated in a cart beating religious drums, followed by people on foot playing on ordinary drums and musical instruments. The boys from the Jaina schools furnished a guard of honour; some bore silver sticks and banners on which were written : 0x4 Cordis Jaya Jinendra! (Victory to the Highest

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JAINA ASCETICS. 29 of the Jina ), whilst others sang Jaina songs about the transitoriness of life. After these came a cart containing the sandal wood, cocoanuts and tins of clarified butter necessary for the funeral rites, together with a bag of Juvara (2912), a kind of millet, which would be distributed to the poor when the body was burnt. Hindu, not as one would have expected Jaina, ascetics followed, playing cymbals and other musical instruments, and owing to the friendliness that exists in Kathiawad between the sects, both Svetambara and Sthanakavasi laymen followed the ascetics. (I was assured that in most places the Svetambara would not have paid such honour to a nun of another sect ). These were succeeded by people scattering money, food and flowers amongst the crowd of onlookers. There was a great rush amongst the spectators to try and get hold of these, as they are supposed to have the power of fulfilling wishes. The palanquin itself came next, and this had to be guarded by police, as any woman who can tear a piece of a dead nun's dress thinks she has secured an infallible charm against childlessness. A dozen or more men carried the palanquin, and there are always eager volunteers for the post of bearer, which is considered very meritorious. Those who cannot act as bearers are given lighted sticks of incense and follow the palanquin with the crowd through the city to the burning .ghat shouting "jaya jinendra."

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30 MODERN JAINISM. At the ghat the funeral pyre was built, its lowest layer of the wood of the pipal tree; on this sandal wood was arranged with cocoanuts on the top. On the pyre they placed the palanquin and its burden, and over both were scattered pieces of cotton wool dipped in clarified butter. A dozen men set fire to the palanquin in different places, the scattered cotton wool making it ignite quickly. By the end of four hours the pyre was completely consumed, and the Jaina, leaving the ashes on the river bank, bathed, and donning the fresh clothes that had been brought to them from their homes, returned in a body to the men's Upasaro, where they had to listen to a sermon and then to sit in the Kausagga posture and meditate. When this was over they went to the women's Upasaro, where the laywomen ( who could not go to the ghat) and the nuns had been sitting all day meditating and listening to sermons; to these they offered their condolences, and then had to listen to yet another sermon on the transitoriness of life before seeking their homes. It was curious to notice that, though Hindu ascetics had taken part in the procession, no Jaina ascetics, male or female, were permitted to do so. The cost of this nun's funeral was about five hundred rupees, the palanquin alone costing two hundred. During the whole day business throughout the city was practically at a stand still, all the grain and vegetable markets and most of the other shops being closed. Five Great Vows or Pancha Mahavrata. Every ascetic must take the five great vows (412478190) which Mahavira ordained. These vows, it will be noticed, resemble the Buddhist vows, but still more the ancient

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JAINA ASCETICS. 31 Brahmanic vows on which they are doubtless both founded.* The first vow the Jaina ascetic takes is to refrain from destroying life, and runs as follows:-" I renounce all kill ing of living beings, whether subtile or 1. Ahimsa Vrata gross, whether movable or immovable. AT HI . Nor shall I myself kill living beings (nor cause others to do it, nor consent to it). As long as I live, I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins, in the thrice threefold way, in mind, speech and body." + This ( which is also the first vow taken by the Brahman and Buddhist ascetics ) the Jaina sect divide into nine, and so make it cover an immense field. They are not to kill in word, thought or deed; they are not to cause any one to kill in word, thought or deed; they are not to support any one who kills in word, thought or deed. This vow, on which the Jaina lay the greatest stress, they regularly break. They are most careful not to destroy life themselves, but are quite willing to "consent" to others doing it and to reap the benefit. An ascetic for instance inay not take water that has not been boiled, lest it contain life, neither may he boil it ; but by taking water that another has boiled he certainly "consents" to their action in boiling it. It has been suggested that the real reason for the vow was not so much unselfish kindness to animals as the selfish fear of being haunted by the spirit of the dead. . For the comparison of Jainism with Buddhism generally see Jacobi's Introduction to the Jaina Sutras, S. B. E. xxii. pp. xix ff. + Acaranga Sutra. S. B. E. Vol. xxii. p. 202. Cp. Bombay Gazetteer. Vol. ix. Part i. p. 99.

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32 MODERN JAINISM. : The second great vow of the Jaina, the renouncing of all untruthfulness, runs thus :-"I renounce all vices of lying speech (arising) from anger or greed 2. Asatya Tyaga or fear or mirth. I shall neither myself asatya tyAga. speak lies, nor cause others to speak lies, nor consent to the speaking of lies by others. I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins in the thrice three-fold way, in mind, speech, and body."* It is interesting to notice that, with regard to the order of the vows, the Jaina have here kept closer to the second Brahmanic vow of truthfulness than have the Buddhists, whose second vow is against stealing. The Jaina carefully subdivide this vow, also, into nine. The third vow runs :-"I renounce all taking of any3. Asteya Vratathing not given, either in a village or aut ad a town or a wood, either of little or much, of small or great, of living or lifeless things, I shall neither take myself what is not given, nor cause others to take it, nor consent to their taking it." + This vow is the third vow of the Brahman ascetics, but the second of the Buddhists. The Jaina subdivide this vow also in nine ways, and under it forbid a guru to take any child as a disciple without the leave of his parents, and insist on the ascetics dividing with each other the alms they have received. By it, too, an ascetic is forbidden to ask any individual for a house to live in without the consent of the principal laymen of the place. Once a man has given a house, he may never again be asked for alms. * S. B. E. xxii. 204. + S. B. E. xxii. 205.

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JAINA ASCETICS. 33 The fourth vow of the Jaina and Brahman ascetics 4. Brahmacarya relates to chastity, which with Buddhist Vrata 945121 snascetics is the fifth vow. The Jaina vow is as follows:-" I renounce all sexual pleasures, either with gods or men * * * I shall not give way to sensuality." * It has the usual nine subdivisions with regard to word, mind and deed, and by it, too, all Jaina are forbidden to drink wine, and ascetics are prohibited from eating highly seasoned dishes. + The fifth Jaina vow is the following :-" I renounce all attachments, whether little or much, small or great, 5. Aparigraha living or lifeless; neither shall I myself Vrata 24402894. form such attachments, nor cause others to do so, nor consent to their doing so." # This vow forbids covetousness, and likes or dislikes in regard to such things as agreeable or disagreeable sounds, colours or smells. The fifth vow with the Brahman ascetic relates to liberality, and with the Buddhist to chastity. It will have been noticed how much more nearly the Jaina vows agree with those of the Brahman than with those of the Buddhist ascetic. The Svetambara add a sixth vow not to take a meal at night lest one should inadvertently take life. The Sthanaka6. Rastribhojana vasi and Digambara say that this is inclu Tya'ga ded in the first vow of Ahimsa, under rAtrIbhAjana tyAga. which one is expressly bound not to eat or drink without examining his food, lest he destroy life. * S. B. E. xxii 207. + S. B. E. xxii 208. S. B. E. xxii 208.

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MODERN JAINISM. Ten Duties of Monks or Nuns. There are ten duties, the Das'a Yatidharma (ERL4 ), binding on monks and nuns of all sects. An ascetic must bear and forgive any injury inflicted 1. Ksama' $1311. on him. He must be absolutely free from greed. He must not 2. Nirlobhata' covet new clothes even if in need of them, eladi. but must wait till they are offered to him, and even then he must only accept those of which the giver has no further need. He must be perfectly straightforward and never be 3. A'rjava 24. q. guilty of any kind of intrigue or fraud. He must be absolutely humble, never proud of 4. Ma'rdaya his purity of life, his learning, or any 741EUR9. other virtue, and he must never speak a harsh word. An ascetic must practise many austerities, which will 5. Tapa 14. all help to free him from rebirth. These austerities are divided into Exterior and Interior. (i) There are Six Exterior Austerities. (a) Fasting ( Anas'ana a4d21d. ) A monk must frequently fast, but the period for which he fasts may vary from one day to three months. During that time, besides water, he may only take the watery part of skimmed milk. (6) Partial Fasting ( Unodari GoLE). Instead of a total fast, an ascetic may vow to take only onehalf or a third of his usual amount of food.

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35 JAINA ASCETICS. (c) Restricting Diet (Vrittisanksepa alia). An ascetic may vow that for a period of time varying from one day to a month he will only eat five or six different articles of food, or he may vow to eat only one particular thing, failing to obtain which he will fast. (d) Abstaining from appetising food (Ra-atyaga 2). The ascetic promises to abstain from his favourite food (probably milk, ghi, or molasses) for a certain period. (e) Bodily austerities (Kayakles'a 1421). An ascetic torments his body in various ways, such as pulling out his hair, wearing insufficient clothing in winter and exposing his body to heat in summer. (f) The avoidance of all temptation (Samlinata ziel 19) is accounted another external austerity, and under this the cramping of limbs by sitting in uncomfortable postures is also included. (ii) The following six austerities are Interior. (a) Expiation (Praya cita ). If the ascetic has committed any sin, he must confess it privately to his guru and perform the penance he imposes. Different kinds of penances are prescribed in the Scriptures for different offences. For example, if he has cast a stone (which the Jaina believes to possess one sense) into water (which also possesses one sense) he will be made to atone for the injury he has inflicted on sentient things by fasting or by extra Padikamanum.

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36 MODERN JAINISM. The greatest punishment the guru can inflict is to annul the ascetic's initiation and so "unfrock" him. The guru is bound by the Scriptures to secresy with regard to Confession. (6) The ascetic must also pay Pieverence to his superiors (Vinaya (9014). An ascetic who has no reverence for his superiors will never gain heaven. (c) An ascetic must serve his superiors and the afflicted. This is called Vaiyavacca 4419224. He must bring water and food for his guru and massage him when tired. (d) Neither must an ascetic neglect the duty of Study (Svadhyaya 2916414). He must gain knowledge by reading, by questioning, by remembering, by discussion, and by preaching (e) Meditation ( Dhyana t411). There are two bad ways of meditation which a monk is bound to renounce, z. e. wailing for the dead, and remembering with anger any personal injuries he may have suffered. He is however bound to meditate in the good ways, by being absorbed in religious thought, and by being so freed from earthly thoughts as to be able to think of spiritual things. (7) The last interior austerity which an ascetic must practise is absolute Indifference to his physical state (Utsargu @choi). In order to gain this indifference he sits in a particular position, which he must not change even if a serpent draw nigh!

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JAINA ASCETICS. 37 The restraint of the passions is the sixth duty binding 6. Samyama #24, on all monks and nuns. The seventh duty is to be absolutely truthful in every particular. An ascetic must not tell any "white" or conven7. Satya (4. tional lies, he must not speak ambig * * uously, his speech must be free from all egotism and simply consist of the plain unvarnished truth. 8. S'auca dia. The eighth duty is purity. 9. A'kincinya An ascetic must have no possessions. 24115 Ralf. 10. Brahmacarya An ascetic must strictly observe celibacy. 124. It will be noticed that the last five duties closely resemble the five great vows. Wandering life. The A'caranga Sutra says that he who is well provided with these great vows and their clauses is really houseless, and certainly the Jaina ascetic is Anagara (aNagAra). Both monk and nun must wander from village to village, begging as they go, and never staying at one place for any length of time. The old command Itineracy. was that they should stay only one night in a village and not more than five in a town, but this they now interpret as permission to stay for a week in a village and a month in a town. During the rainy season, however, they must stay in the same place for four months, lest they should injure any of the insect or plant life which is then so abundant. They must pass each rainy season at a different place, or must at least let three years elapse before they return to the same place.

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MODERN JAINISM. The Svetambara, as a rule, only go to those villages where there are Upasara, i. e. separate buildings erected by each sect for their monks or nuns. An 38 The Upasaro Upasaro is a large bare hall without bathrooms or cooking places, furnished only with wooden beds. These beds the monks or nuns are forbidden by their rule to possess, but they are lent for an indefinite period by charitable lay people, who do not expect to get them back again. The beds occasionally have the name of the lenders carved on them, that there may be no doubt as to whom the merit of lending them belongs. The ascetics live on the alms of the charitable, and as each of the three sects have rather different rules for begging, it may be worth going into the subject in detail. Begging. No ascetics of any sect may sit in a layman's house to eat food; nor will they accept food specially cooked for them, but only some of that which is being prepared for the household, and they are never allowed to knock at closed doors, but only to enter doors already opened. Svetambara will usually accept food from people of the Vania, Brahman and Ksatriya caste; in Gujarat however they will not accept food from Ksatriya. Sthanakavasi, failing Vania and Brahmans, will accept food from the Shepherd caste. Neither a Svetambara nor a Sthanakavasi will accept food taken to the Upasaro for them by a layman. The Svetambara, however, will accept an invitation to go to a layman's house in order to fetch food and to take it back to the Upasaro; this a Sthanakavasi will not do.

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JAINA ASCETICS. 39 In the Bombay Gazetteer* it is stated that the Dhundhia priests do not beg; this however my Dhundhia (i. e. Sthanakavasi ) friends assure me is unfortunately not the case. The householders who are begged from feel obliged to. give, and the support of so large a body of mendicants is felt as a very severe tax by a great number of thrifty and hard working Hindus and Jaina. A Brahman gentleman, who though of good position had to strain every nerve to make both ends meet, told me that it cost him at least a rupee a week to satisfy all the religious mendicants who begged from him, a sum equivalent to four days' labour. * Vol. ix. Part I. p. 106.

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JAINA LAY ADHERENTS. One of the reasons for the total disappearance of Buddhism from India under the stress of Mahommedan invasion and Brahmanic spiritual pressure was its failure to connect itself with its lay adherents by sufficiently close bonds. This mistake Jainism never made: the famous Mathura inscriptions record the dedication by lay men and lay women of Jaina statues to Jaina temples under the direction of some Jaina monk or nun, and shew clearly that at that early date (probably A. D. 83-176) the S'ravaka* or lay adherents formed an integral part of the Jaina organisation.+ The Twelve Vows of Laymen Jaina laymen to day take twelve vows (Bara Vrata qa), the first five of which, as will be seen, resemble the five great vows of monks, modified to suit the different circumstances of lay life.+ # i. e. hearers. + See Dr. Hoernle's Annual Address. A. S. B. 1898. pp. 50, ff. Jaina are occasionally found in positions (as for example in the police, or in earlier times in the army) where the taking of life becomes part of their official duty. They are not then forbidden to carry out these duties, but while remaining in such positions would not be considered true S'ravaka. The classic instance given by the Jaina themselves is King Kumarpala, who, though a convinced Jaina, frequently for many years engaged in battle. This was before he had taken the vows, for after taking them, he never went to battle to the end of his life, though reserving to himself the right, if occasion arose, to fight strictly in self defence, which indeed had been his practice throughout. 40

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JAINA LAY ADHERENTS. The layman takes in a looser form the vow not to destroy life; thus he is allowed to use certain vegetables (though they are considered to possess one life), and fuel for cooking. 1. Ahimsa'. 41 Unhappily this vow does not seem to carry with it. any obligation of kindness to animals, beyond refraining from actually taking their lives. The taking of this vow, has had a most unfortunate effect on the Jaina character. It has cut them off from agriculture (since ploughing, reaping, etc., destroy much insect life), blacksmithing and most of the manufacturing trades. This has thrust them into commerce, and especially into its least elevating branch of money lending. Most of the money lending in Western India is in the hands of the Jaina, and this accounts in a great measure both for their unpopularity and for their wealth. Of course the Jaina, though they may not engage in agriculture, live on its products,* indeed it seems impossible to escape profiting, even unwillingly, by the universal law of sacrifice. The laity take the vow against lying, but in a very limited form which allows for the exigencies of commercial or professional life. 2. Truth. In the same way they take the vow against stealing in such a form as approves all forms of 3. Honesty. competition." 66 In certain parts of Western India a great deal of the best land has passed into the hands of Jaina through their money-lending transactions. This land they rent to farmers and thus very literally live on the products of agriculture.

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MODERN JAINISM. 6. Dig'ivrata Instead of celibacy, they promise to be faithful to their wife or wives. The Svetambara allow remarriage during the wife's life-time if there be no issue by by the first wife ; the Digambara on the other hand, at least in certain localities, to their honour dissent from this practice, and do not allow a man to marry a second wife while his first is still alive. In his fifth vow the layman promises to set limits to his covetousness with regard to land and 5. Against houses, money, coin, servants, cattle and Covetousness. plenishing. The sixth vow taken by laymen is that of Dis'ivrata Parimana ( leliga 4f2HIRI). In this vow a man binds himself for life to keep within a certain ta space. My pandit told me that he, for Parima'na. example, had vowed never during this life time to go beyond England on the one side or Japan on the other, never to go further north than the Himalayas or further south than Ceylon. So far as I could judge, he would never have the least opportunity of breaking his vow, but he told me that if it were for a religious reason he could do so without sin. The seventh vow, the Upabhoga Paribhoga Parimana ( 6422191 421 YEHR!), also lasts for a life time. By it a man fixes what food, clothes or 7. Upabhoga Pari. furniture he will use. My pandit. for bhoga Parima'na. instance, had vowed that he would never use more than fifty things. The fewer things one can manage to use the better. The duration of the eighth vow, the Anartha Danda

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JAINA LAY ADHERENTS. 43 10. Des a va.. Vrata (ayne 47) is generally for life, but sometimes for only five or ten years. One promises for 8. Anartha Danda the fixed period not to think evil of any Vrata. one, not to be too overjoyed at the good fortune of any one, not to be careless in one's work, and not to keep more weapons than are necessary, and to keep those in safe places. The ninth vow, Samayiku (H141143 ), relates to one's religious duties. One promises in it to 9. Sa'ma'yika. a spend a certain portion of time in meditation every day or every year. The tenth vow, Des'uvukas'ika Vrata ( Ell1951 fais 991), is taken for one day only; one vows to limit the space he will travel over, to increase the period of to meditation either at home or in the ka's'ika Vrata. * Upasaro, and to decrease the number of things he will use on that particular day. The effect of the eleventh vow, Posadha Vrata (214497) must be to connect the laity still closer with the monastic in order, for in it one promises to lead a 11. Posadha Vrata a monk's life for a day. This means ( in practice ) to fast from food and drink for that period. The twelfth vow, Atithi Samvibhaga Vrata ( au Galea zilarli'l 48), must be equally useful to the monastic orders, for in it the layman promises to set aside 12. Alms. every day a special portion of food for the poor or for ascetics. Caste and Customs. The Jaina say that Mahavira's second great message

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MODERN JAINISM. to mankind was that Kurma was of far greater importance than caste. If this were ever the case, Caste. the message has lost its power now, for the Jaina are perhaps the most caste-ridden people in India.* Some years ago it was commonly believed by European scholars that both Buddhism and Jainism were revolts against the tyranny of caste in general, but unfortunately they seem to have been merely revolts of the higher castes against Brahmanic exclusiveness, which shut the door of the highest as'rama against all but Brahman ascetics. Dr. Buhlert says that "the characteristic feature of this religion is its claim to universality, which it holds in common with Buddhism and in opposition to Brahmanism. It also declares its object to be to lead all men to salvation, and to open its arms-not only to the noble Aryan, but also to the low-born Sudra and even to the alien, deeply despised in India, the Mlechha." If it ever had such kindly feeling to the low castes, Jainism now most effectually" dissembles its love." At two of the great centres of Jaina pilgrimage, Mt. Abu and Girnar, I was assured that no low caste would be allowed to enter their temples to worship. And today, when all that is most generous and enlightened in young India is longing to free itself from the huge incubus of caste that is thwarting all true development, not one of the Jaina associations dare put on the programme of its Conference any motion in favour of the relaxation of caste restrictions. * Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. I. p. 416. + The Indian sect of the Jainas. p. 3. A Parsi who some years ago became a Jaina was for long not allowed to enter their temples to worship, and even now no Jaina can eat with him.

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JAINA LAY ADHERENTS, 45 This is due not to the laity so much as to the obscurantism of the ascetics, who at their initiation were themselves supposed to have renounced caste. The Mathura inscriptions bear witness to the antiquity of caste amongst the Jaina," but to the cruelty and inhumanity of it I know no more convincing testimony than the notice in English affixed to the entrance of Hathisisha's temple in Ahmedabad, which runs as follows: "Low caste servants in attendance on visitors and dogs cannot be allowed to enter the temple." The Brahmans are still the domestic chaplains of the Jaina, and officiate at their wedding, birth and death ceremonies. The Brahmanic ritual is Marriage. followed almost completely in the case of a Jaina wedding, excepting that of late years, instead of fire, Arihanta is worshipped, a change due to the influence of the conferences. The customary age for marriage differs with the sects : the Sthanakavasi and Svetambara generally marry their daughters at about fourteen or fifteen to boys of about nineteen or twenty. There is however no special religious sanction amongst them for any particular age.t The Digambara are governed by fifty-three rules of life (Samskara zizst2 ), and amongst these is a saying that a father should seek a fitting husband for his daughter.' They generally marry their daughters when about ten * Dr. Hoernle's Annual Address. A. S. B. 1898. p. 51. + Dr. Burgess (Notes on the Jainas. p. 36) says :--"Among Jainas, as among Brahmans, it is strictly preseribed that girls should be betrothed before puberty." The Jaina I have consulted deny this.

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46 MODERN JAINISM. or twelve years of age. Vania sometimes accept money in exchange for their daughters, but this, which practically amounts to selling their own children, is much contemned by other Jaina." Svetambara, Digambara and Sthanakavasi will all intermarry if they are of the same caste. They will also intermarry with Hindus of their own caste. Curiously enough, certain Svetambara in Ahmedabad will intermarry, but will not dine with, Sthanakavasi. The birth ceremonies are practically the same as the Brahman ones. On the sixth day after the child's birth a clotht is spread, with paper and ink Birth. on it, and it is believed that fate then writes on the baby's forehead. On the twelfth day the father's sister names the child, and boiled grain and molasses are distributed. The child's horoscope is deciphered by a Brahman. Amongst the Svetambara and Sthanakavasi, if no child is born, a husband is allowed to remarry, although the first wife be still living. If the second Co-wives. wife bear him no child, he may marry a third and even a fourth. Although this is allowed by custom, it is not really allowed by the Jaina Scriptures, * The offenders, however, defend themselves by saying that these daughters had in a previous existence been their debtors, and that they had been reborn into their houses as daughters simply to give their creditors this very opportunity of recovering a bad debt! + The piece of cloth is generally torn from the turban of the oldest man in the family, as it is believed that the child will live as long as he does.

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JAINA LAY ADHEREXTS. 47 Widow and a man who does so is not considered quite respectable by his fellow castemen.* The Digambara, as we have already seen, disapprove of remarriage during the life-time of the wife. All three sects of Jaina unite in forbidding widow remarriage. They give as a reason that one who has been freed from worldly ties should not seek to form them again; but this reason surely Remarriage. applies just as strongly to the case of men ; nevertheless all sects allow widowers to remarry.t There is, however, one small subsect of the Digambara who permit their widows to remarry and in consequence are much despised by their fellow Jaina. Unfortunately ail over India it is considered a sign of good social standing for a caste to disallow widow remarriage. It is not a Jaina custom to keep women in seclusion, but the practise has been adopted by them as a protection, and also as a sign of good social position, Purdah. wherever Mahommedan influence is specially strong. The three sects all permit women to go to their several conferences, and have a Ladies' Day for them. * A Sthanakavasi Jaina, who thus remarried at Morvi, was recently severely censured by his sect. + They say that this is because the number of women is twenty seven times as great as that of men ; when told that the census absolutely contradicts these figures (since in India for every 1000 males only 963 females are born ) they reply : "Oh yes, it isn't true, it's only a reason !!"

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468 MODERN JAINISM. The death ceremonies, which are conducted by a Brahman, very much resemble those of the Hindus. The Jaina, however, after the dead body has been Death. burnt at the side of a river, pour water over the ashes and simply leave them on the bank, whereas the Brahmans throw the ashes into the river. Like the Brahmans, too, the Jaina bury instead of burning a child of less than a year and a half. The Brahmans bury their dead ascetics, but the Jaina burn their dead (with the exception of infants) whether lay or ascetics, lest the body should give rise to too much insect life. The Jaina wear white or black turbans as a sign of mourning, but unlike Gujarati Brahmans do not shave their moustaches on the tenth day.

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JAINA DOCTRINE. The Jaina have no belief in one eternal God, supreme Ruler and Creator of the world. They believe the world to be eternal, and give strangely inadequate reasons to prove that it could never have been created. A creator, they say, must have himself had a creator, and so on from eternity; moreover a creator, if there were one, must have created sin and evil, and being thus responsible for the unequal distribution of happiness and unhappiness, have shown a favouritism incompatible with Divinity. They deny the fatherhood of God, and we have seen how the whole system of their caste rules is a negation of the brotherhood of man. Though freely using the titles which other religions reserve for the Supreme Being, they apply them to human beings who have gradually raised themselves to certain peculiarly exalted positions. Beyond this their conceptions do not rise. They believe that there are five stages through which a human being must generally pass before he can thus be come a Siddha. First he must become a Siddha. to sadhu (HI) or ascetic, and then pass on to be an Upadhyaya (641EUR414) or Preceptor, when he can teach both laymen and ascetics; next he may become an A'charya (241 211 4 ) and be at the head of a body of monks or ascetics, with powers of ruling and excommunicating. The next highest stage is to become a Tirthankara ( Musa), one who has obtained perfect knowledge and, having crossed the troubled river of constant transmigrations, is at rest. The highest of all is to become a Siddha ((HF), whom they define 49

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50 MODERN JAINISM. Tirthankara as one" without caste, unaffected by smell, without the sense of taste, without feeling, without form, without hunger, without pain, without sorrow, without joy, without birth, without old age, without death, without body, without Karma, enjoying endless happiness." That is to say, the "holiest, highest manhoo 1 " that the Jaina set before themselves as their ideal is that in which personality is completely stultified. All life is divided into two classes, Bluvi (2401) and Abhavi ( 24640?), according as it has or has not the capacity to become a Siddha, and only a Tirthankara or Kevali knows to which division it belongs. The Tirthankara rather than the Siddha seem to have seized on the popular imagination; it is their images which are in the Jaina temples, and legends of de their gigantic stature and lives of interminable length are eagerly repeated. Certain picturesque miracles are said to have taken place whenever any of the Tirthankara preached on earth; an as'oka tree springs up at the place and grows to twelve times the preacher's height, the dwellers in Devaloka listen to his sermon and scatter flowers from heaven: some gods sing and play celestial music, others wave a fly whisk in front of the preacher. A lion shaped throne and a state umbrella are provided for him by the gods, a halo of light encircles his head, and whenever he pauses to take breath in his discourse, a celestial kettle drum is enthusiastically beaten. A Tirthankara's preaching has thirtyfive characteristics, amongst the most important of which, from a hearer's point of view, are that it is always sweet, intelligible, accurate and interesting.

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JAINA DOCTRINE. 51 Every Tirthankara has also thirty four bodily characteristics, his blood for instance is white, his body has a Sweet odour and he is never seen to eat. List of Tirthankara. The following list of Tirthankara of the present age shows some slight differences between the sects, (1) RISABHADEVA (*40484) or A'dina'THA ( 241[en114 whose sign is the bull. (2) AJITANA'THA (2415690114, whose sign is the elephant. (3) SAMBHAVANATHA (216174119, whose sign is the horse. (4) ABHINANDANA (Bystried), whose sign is the ape. (5) SUMATINA THA ( 3 ,114), whose sign is the red goose. (6) PADMAPRABHU (441409, whose sign is the lotus flower. (7) SUPA'RS'VANA THA (41941014, whose sign is L the svistika symbol. (8) CANDRAPRABHU ( Big Hey, whose sign is the moon. (9) SUVIDHINA'THA (4749114, whose sign is the croco dile [? Digambara: crab ). (10) S'ITALANA THA (21941914), whose sign is the Sri witsui figure [ ? Digambara : ficus religiosa ). (11) S'REYA MSANATHA (4140114), whose sign is the rhinoceros. (12) VA'SUPUJYA (4184084), whose sign is the male buffalo.* (13) VIMALANA THA (1444114), whose sign is the boar. * Dr. Burgess in his edition of Dr. Buhler's " Indian sect of the Jainas,' p. 69, gives the sign as the female buffalo, but all the Jaina I have asked give the male.

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52 MODERN JAINISM, (14) ANANTANA'THA ( 24197119), whose sign is a hawk [? Digambara : a bear ). (15) DHARMANA'THA (474914), whose sign is a thunder bolt. (16) S'A'NTINA'THA ( 21 ford1%), whose sign is a deer.* (17) KUNTHUNA'THA ( 4914, whose sign is a goat. (18) ARANA'THA (3420114), whose sign is a step-well [?]+ (19) MALLINA'THA (H[E6414, whose sign is a water jar. This the Svetambara believe to have been the only woman Tirthankara.f The Digambara of course do not hold this, as they do not think a woman can attain Moksa. (20) MUNISUVRATA (Cygn), whose sign is the tortoise. (21) NAMINA'THA (4749114), whose sign is the blue lotus [Digambara : As'oka tree). (22) NEMINA'THA (49114, whose sign is the conch shell, and to whom Mt. Girnar (in Kathiawad) is specially sacred. (29) PA'rs'VANAT'HA (421914), whose sign is the serpent. (24) MAHA'VIRA (H8141?), whose sign is the lion, the most famous of all the Tirthankara, and whose life we have already given. Besides Mahavira, the favourite Tirthankara are Pars - vanatha, Neminatha, Santinatha and the first, Risabhadeva. * Dr. Burgess loc, cit. gives antelope. + Dr. Burgess gives the Nandyavarta diagram. Some twenty-five years ago her image was found in Bhoyani in Gujarat ; and this has given the place such sanctity that, though quite a small village, it has been chosen as the place of meeting of the S'vetambara Conference of 1910.

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JAINA DOCTRINE 53 The names are also recorded of Twenty-four Tirthankara who preceded those of the present age, and of Twentyfour who will succeed them; other sets of Twenty-four Tirthankara will follow these, and so on in endless succession. arga. Jaina Eschatology. The Jaina have preserved the Hindu doctrine of Transmigration, though they subdivide the Eighty-four Lakhs (i, e. Eighty-four hundred thousand) of rebirths, through which a soul may pass, by an elaborate classification of their own. This doctrine, together with that of Karma, which they also hold in common with the Hindus, colours all their eschatology. The Jaina heaven, Svargu (2901), is attained by those who have acquired great merit, but who are still subject in some measure to Karma. In Svarga both happiness and pain are experienced, but happiness preponderates. Svarga is divided into twenty-six heavens, which are grouped as follows : Devaloka ( 89913), or the twelve lower heavens, where the gods and goddesses, ( Deva, Devi * 89, N) who resemble those of the Hindus, dwell. At the head of these Deva and Devi are the god Indra and the goddess Indrani. Next above these heavens come the nine heavens called Greveyikie (2048); but before a Deva can pass from Devaloka to Greveyika, he must descend to our world and become a man. The gods in these nine heavens are all equal and without a ruler. * Devi only attain to the lower of these twelve heavens.

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54 MODERN JAINISM. Above Greveyika is Anuttari Vimana (249 742 19410) a group of five heavens which are inhabited by higher gods, who will attain Moksa after the expiry of one age. To pass to Moksa, an inhabitant of Anuttara Vimana would have to descend to our world and become a man and an ascetic. Above Svarga is the highest region of all, called Moksu (la); it is attained by those who Moksa. are completely freed from Karma, and these are generally ascetics. The denizens of Moksa are Siddha (demi-gods ) who experience neither pain nor happiness. We shall have to discuss Moksa later, as it ranks as one of the nine elements of Jaina philosophy. Our world, or Tiry kaloka Casals, is situated beneath the lowest Svarga and separates it from Hell. It is made up of two and a half islands, each of which Tiryakaloka. LOK&. is divided into seven parts (the half island being divided into seven smaller parts), and these twenty-one parts are again subdivided. On each Island is a district of great importance called Mahavideha (4811926), but no one knows where this district is. During the fifth and sixth ages only those born in this district can attain Moksa, and these, too, must first have been ascetics. Below our world is Adholoka (ay?1913), which con tains the Seven Hells or Naraka ( 123 ). Naraka. Most vivid pictures are published as to the various torments suffered by the denizens of Hell.* * See dl>slai Cade-or Pictures of Hell. (Publishers and Printers not given !) No yako

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JAINA DOCTRINE. 55 The first hell, Ratna l'rabha (?-1461 ), is paved with sharp stones; the second, Sarkura Prubha (2182 2611), is paved with stones in the shape of sugar loaves; the third, Valu Prabha (que you, is paved with sand; the fourth, Panka Prabha (43 4941, is paved with mud; then follows Dhumra Prabha ( 4011), which is filled with smoke; the sixth, Tama Prabha (1144 4641 ), is absolutely dark; and in the seventh, Tamatumci Prabha (934774 46411, the blackness is even more intense. The inhabitants of all these hells are tormented by wicked Deva and suffer hideous physical torments, being split open, pierced, cut into pieces, or burned ; water is offered to them, and when they try and assuage their thirst by drinking it, it turns into molten lead. They suffer for a fixed period according to their Karma, and are then reborn as men or lower animals or, lowest of all, as some vegetable, perhaps a potato or even an onion ! The Jaina illustrate these divisions by the diagram of a man. His legs are Adholoka with the seven hells, our world, Tiryakaloka, is his waist, and above comes Urdhvaloka (@teals) or Svarga, his breast being Devaloka, his neck Greveyika and his face Anuttara Vimana. His crown is Moksa.

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KARMA Jaina, in common with Hindus, believe that Karma (action), the accumulated force of a man's actions, good and bad, in previous existences,* not only determines every detail of his present life and future existence, but necessitates his passing through an unknown succession of rebirths, until his Karma be exhausted. It is interesting to note that of all the Tirtharkara Mahavira had the greatest accumulation of Karma to exhaust. The Six Les'a'. The Jaina believe that there are six emotions or Les'a which lead to Karma ; three are bad, and three are good. (1) Keisna Les'a (ogy G211 ), or the feeling that gives rise to very evil thoughts; this is the worst of the three bad emotions. (2) Vila Les'a (114 211, the emotion that leads to evil thoughts, but thoughts less evil than the first. Compare :" The Karma---all that total of a Soul Which is the things it did, the thoughts it had, The self' it wove-with woof of viewless time, Crossed on the warp of invisible acts The outcome of him on the Universe." Sir Edwin Arnold. + The Hindus constantly quote the saying from the Mahabharata that " As a calf immediately finds out its mother among many thousands, so does the fruit of actions done in bygone ages follow the agent." 56

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KARMA. 57 (3) kapota Les'a (1918 211): this feeling leads to thoughts, evil indeed, but less black than in the first and second case. The Jaina, it will be noticed, appear to consider the stronghold of evil to lie in the thoughts as much as in the will, There are three good emotions : (1) Tejo Les'a calon 9211), the remover of evil thoughts, as darkness is banished by light. (2) Padma Les'a (44 211). As a lotus flower expands, with the rays of the sun, so Tejo Les'a, coming into the mind, expands it, and this, the next higher emotion, is born. (3) Sukla Les'a ( $1464 2211). Under the influence of this emotion the mind itself becomes a sun, and there is no dark corner left which could contain evil thoughts. The Jaina illustrate the six Les'a by a parable ( more illuminating to the Eastern than the Western mind of six men who wish to eat mangoes.* The first man under the influence of Krisna Les'a wishes to cut down the whole tree to eat one mango; the man swayed by Nila Les'a thinks of cutting off a big branch ; Kapota Les'a induces the third to think of cutting off a smaller branch. The better influence of Tejo Les'a suggests to its possessor to pluck off the unripe fruit ; Padma Les'a induces the fifth to propose plucking off those ready to fall; but * This is such a favourite parable that pictures of it are frequently found in Jaina books; the point of it being that, according to Jaina belief, the life, which pervades the branches and unripe fruit, is in the ripe fruit concentrated in the stone, to which no injury is done by eating the fruit.

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58 MODERN JAINISM. S'ukla Les'a persuades the sixth man to think only of picking up those fruits that have fallen down. The Eight Karma. Karma. The Jaina seem to have a passion for classifying, dividing and subdividing all the tenets of their faith. Karma, which is one of their main doctrines, they classify under eight heads. Jnanavaraniya Karma (alld192984 33), or the curtain that hides knowledge. If a man is prevented from getting 1. Jna'na'varaniya knowledge in one life, either by poverty or stupidity, the reason is that in a previous birth he must have hindered another from getting knowledge; e.g. destroyed useful books, or neglected to help a poor student by paying his fees, and so accumulated the Karma which now prevents him from getting knowledge himself. Durs'unavuraniya Karma ( Ezid192004 szt. If one man is beginning to believe in the Jaina religion and another hinders him and puts stumbling blocks 2. Dars'ana'. in his way, the hinderer in his next varaniya Karma. Hirth will not be able to hav birth will not be able to have faith even if he longs to possess it. The accumulation of this Karma accounts for the action of those Jaina who eat meat and break the rules of their religion. 3. Vedaniya Vedaniya Kurma (98-114 834) is the Karma. one that brings happiness or unhappiness in the next birth. Mohuniya Karma (918-14 $o?), the fourth, is the strongest of all and the one which brings most punishment.

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KARMA. 59 It is accumulated through entanglement 4. Mohaniya Karma. in worldly attachments. If a man in one birth is so absorbed in worldly ties that he never thinks of religion, he will be kept away in the next birth from those he loves. A'yu Karma ( 419 ${) fixes the period during which a man will experience heaven or hell or earthly life. In each birth man is building up his A'yu 5. A'yu Karma. Karma for his next life. A'yu Karma cannot be accumulated beyond one rebirth. Nama Karma (41174 $) decides whether a man will be reborn as an animal or a bird, whether 6. Na'ma Karma. in hell or as a god, i. e, in which Gati* he will be reborn. Gotra Karma (11932). A man's actions in one life decide in what caste he will be born in the next : thus by doing good to others, by looking always 7. Gotra Karma. me at the bright side of people, or by taking an interest in animal asylums he can try to avoid being born in a low caste, and even hope to be born in one of the highest castes. Antaraya Karma (461214 32). If in one life a man has money and is not willing to spend it on others, or if he 8. Antara'ya has influence or energy and yet refuses Karma: to serve others, he will in his next birth be born without money, influence or energy. * There are four Gati : Manusya Gati ( 2900 mA), Deva Gati (Eq ara), Tiryanca Gati (muza), and Naraki Gati (al1231 xsa), and they are frequently represented by the Svastika symbol.

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60 MODERN JAINISM. These eight are subdivided again into one hundred and fifty-eight divisions, into which it is scarcely necessary to go. The Fourteen Steps to Liberation. The Jaina believe that a soul is liberated from Karma by fourteen steps, and these they call the Cauda Gunasthanaka ( cAda guNasthAnaka. ) The First Step is the Mithyatra Gunasthanaka (2 2). Men or women, according to the Jaina, often begin to take their first interest in religion 1st Step. by realising that what is unreal is real. Those who are at this stage are completely under bondage to Karma. Sasalant Gumusthanta (sAsvAdana guNasthAnaka). A man begins to realize what the truths of Jainism are, but finds them too difficult 2nd Step. to believe and is still tied down by Karma. Mis'ra Gunasthanaka (4 1). At this stage 3rd Step. a man, though continuing to be bound by Karma, begins to hold some truth along with the untruth he still believes. Avirati Samyakadristi Gunasthanaka (fa avirati samyakadRSTi guNasthAnaka). A man who has reached this stage begins to understand the evils of excessive 4th Step. Anger, Pride, Deceit and Greed, and is freed from the three ties of Self righteousness, Self esteem and Self conceit; if these evil qualities are not absolutely destroyed at this stage, they become quiescent and are no longer motives in deciding his conduct. He is now somewhat freed from the chains of Karma.

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KARMA. 61 Des'aviruti ( Suryatasuinyata) Gunusthanaka ( Elle Carro 401122481 38174143 ). At this point moderate Anger, Pride, Deceit and Greed are destroyed or 5th Step slepo 1 become quiescent in a man, who is now a little more freed from Karma and can take the vows upon himself, either one or all twelve. Pramutta Gunasthanaka ( 42477 3121741918). Slight Anger, Pride, Deceit and Greed are now destroyed or quiescent, and a man will spontaneously desire to keep the vows. A pramatta Gunusthanaka ( 2447177 ye221013). Anger is now completely destroyed in a man or else remains 7th Step. quiescent. Pride, Deceit and Greed only remain with him in the fourth degree, and he is also, happily, freed from all the bad qualities that would make him lazy or sleepy. Niyatibadara Gunasthanuka [Apurvalarana] ([4fa4182 391741413 [ay y?e]). This is a particularly interesting stage, as the Digambara believe it to be lepo the highest a woman can reach. The Svetambara and Sthanakavasi, however, believe that a woman can pass through all the stages and attain Moksa. One who has reached this point is freed from Pride, or it remains quiescent. His mind and body are now so disciplined that he can dispense with the aid that the taking of vows affords to his weaker brethren. This stage is called the "Unique" because so few attain to it. Aniyatibadara Gunasthanaka (246a404182 38174148). At this stage a man becomes practically sexless, and he 9th Step is freed from the dominion of Deceit.

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MODERN JAINISM. - Suksmasamparaya Gunusthanuka ( 246 24714814 yel 2411098). All sense of humour now vani10th Step. shes from a man, together with his power Shes of feeling grief and-quaint juxtaposition !-his sense of smell. Upas'anta Moha Gunasthanuku (64211677 7118 319474113). It is at this point that Greed should, if not destroyed, at least become quiescent. This is considered a very critical stage : if Greed really dies out, all is well; Mta Step. but if it be only dormant, and something rouses it, it may drag a man down again. Curiously enough, if he falls, it is not to any of the three stages immediately below him, but to the sixth or seventh stage, or be may even fall as low as the first. Should a man die in this stage without Greed having been reawakened, he wili become an Anuttaravasi Deva ( 24124177891), i. e., one who after one more rebirth will become a Siddha. Ksinamoha Gunasthanaki. ( 15118 3191241015 ). At this point a man is freed from four of the Eight Karma li. P. Jnanavarapiya, Dars'anavaraniya 12th Step. Mohaniya and Antaraya), and though the other four remain, they have no more power over him "than a burnt up string." No one can ever die in this stage, for even in articulo mortis he would pass through the next two stages and enter Moksa. Suyogi kevali Gunasthanalu (H2100 Fuel yez195. A man who reaches this stage becomes a Kevali, is omniscient, and will at death become a Siddha. (Only 13th Step. the Kevali know which stage a man has

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KARMA. 63 reached, but as they take no interest, no one prays to them for aid in getting free from Karma. A monk who faithfully performs his vows, etc., can reach this thirteenth stage. A layman could reach it, but it would be very hard for him. The S'vetambara and Sthanakavasi, as we have seen, say that it might be reached by a woman, but it would be hardest of all for her. They say that for every 108 men who attain Moksa, at most only twenty women do so, and ten neuters. Ayogi Kerali Gunasthavaka ( 242108 3941 2121741043). No one who has attained the fourteenth 14th Step. and final stage ever lives in it, but, being freed from all Karma, dies at once and becomes a Siddha.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES OF JAINA DOCTRINES. The S'vetambara and Sthanakavasi believe that there are nine principles of Jainism, Nrivu Tatva ( 71949); the Digambara hold that there are only seven. i. Jiva (ja). With the Jaina the word Jiva seems to mean sometimes soul, sometimes living being, sometimes consciousness and sometimes vitality.* There are, they say, ten different kinds of life. (1) Ekendriya ( R4). Under this heading are classed things possessed of existence alone. This class is again subdivided into things visible Ekendriya. (badara OMIE?), as a stone, clay, wind, water, fire, and certain vegetables as onions; and things invisible (suksma H&H), as, for example, oxygen. It is the fear of injuring these Ekendriya that so limits the trades a Jaina can follow. Children are even forbidden to play with any of these, such as stones or lumps of earth, for fear of injuring them.t (2) Be Indriya (y $&4). Living things possessed, the Jaina say, of body and tongue have Be Indriya. two senses, as caterpillars, leeches, worms, a nimalculae. * S xari olen. Part 2. p. 38. This is one of a Gujarati Series of books of instruction in the Jaina religion prepared for children, and published at Ahmedabad in 1907. + Id. Part 1. p. 28. 64

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. 65 Tri (3) Tri Indriya (fa (44). Things in this class possess one extra' sense' besides body and tongue, i. e. nose. In each class the extra 'sense' which 184. distinguishes it from the class below is supposed to be the one which exercises the most power. In this division the Jaina put ants, bugs, moths, black ants. An unfortunate result of this is that the Jaina will not kill vermin. (4) Corendriya (21784). The things which possess body, tongue, nose and eyes are considered Corendriya to be four sensed ; they include scorpions, butterflies, locusts, wasps, bees, mosquitoes. (5) Pancendriya (ja[84). In the fifth class things possess body, tongue, nose, eyes and ears. They are divided into two classes, those possessing 'intelPancendriya. ligence,' Sanini Pancendriya (rizal val&4), as men, gods, certain birds and beasts; and those without intelligence, Asanjni Pancendriya (Buzizil jalad), certain other birds and beasts, frogs, fishes, germs (of plague) etc. All five classes are subdivided into two divisions, in which things are placed according as time is necessary for the full development of the 'senses' or as Double Division. o the senses are fully developed at birth. Thus if a child dies before birth, though it belongs to the highest division, it is classed as undeveloped (Aparyapta 24441271). For a man to be developed ( Paryapta yell) he must possess six things :-Food ( A'hara 241812), Body (S'arira 21272), Senses (Indriya 64), Speech (Bhasa 01191), Mind ( Mana H0) and Respiration (Svasocchvasa izle 2699174).

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66 MODERN JAINISM. ii. Ajiva (Ha). * The Jaina make five divisions in the class of things " without life," and these with Jiva make up the whole of the universe.* Dharmastikaya (47121314 ): Motion, for example . that which, brought into connection with 1. Motion. a fish, makes it sw Adharmastikaya ( 344 3410201314 ): Inertia in soul 2. Inertia or body. 3. Space. A'kas'astikaya (24151211121314): Space. 4. Time. Kala (819): Time. The Jaina make two divisions in time: (a) Vyavaharika Kala (04981278 314), which includes the ordinary divisions of time into days, years etc., and (b) Addhasamaya Kala ( 2481244 $149), or time which works alterations, e.g. which makes new things old and old new. Pudgalastikaya ( yeufz314). Under this heading is included every thing that relates to our means of perception, such as colour, touch, smell 5. Form and taste. The Jaina believe that there are five primary colours, viz:-red, yellow, blue ( or green). black and white. Under" touch," (2428) they classify things heavy and light, smooth and rough, dry and wet, hot and cold. * The late Rev. Douglas Thoronton has well said :-" These are vaguely classed and generally incapable of interpretation." Parsi, Jaina and Sikh, p. 63.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. iii. The Forty two A's'rava. There are forty-two A's'rava ( 241249 ) or Paths leading to the Eight Karma, and of these seventeen are major and twenty-five minor. The current Jaina illustration of A's rava is as follows:-the soul is like a tank into which, like water through rills and channels, Karma flows by way of the body, tongue, nose, eyes and ears.* Of the seventeen major A's'rava, four are included under : Kasaya (5414) or passions, namely Anger, (Krodha fill, Pride (Mana 7101), Illusion (Maya 2141, Greed Lobha 01164. These are all subdivided The Passions. according to their extent. In the case of Anger ( which they believe dwells in the forehead) there are:-- (1) Anintanubundhi ayonigaych), or the bitterest anger, which is endless, and the punishment for which is Hell. (2) Apacokhanaruraniyu (244244419492084, or anger which lasts for not more than a year, and which is ended on the Jaina festival of good will, the last day of Pajjusana. If a man die whilst he is indulging in this anger, he will become a beast or bird. (3) Pacukhana viraniya ( 42404194192984), or anger which lasts for not more than fifteen days. At the end of every fifteen days there is a special confession of sin amongst the Jaina, and this anger must end then. If a man die in this state, he will have no chance of becoming a saint in his next birth, but will be born a man. * art mau 9141. Part 2. p. 59.

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68 MODERN JAINISM. (4) Sanjvalana (44), or slight anger. This anger is confessed and dismissed at the end of every day at the evening confession. If a man die whilst indulging in this form of anger, he cannot become a Siddha, but might be a Tirthankara in his next birth. Pride, Illusion and Greed are divided in the same way and carry the same punishments. The Panca Indriya (chia ). The next five A's'rava consist in failing to restrain the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Though the immediate results of exercising these senses may be good, yet they lead to entanglement. The Senses. The Panca Avrata (chia 241) are the opposites of the five great vows, and consist of killing, lying, stealing, unchastity and coveting. Breach of Vows. The remaining three, the Trana Yoga (a), come from failing to restrain body, mind and speech. Trana Yoga. The Digambara include under A's'rava Merit (Punya you) and Sin (Papa chy, which, unlike the Svetambara and Sthanakavasi, they do not consider to be main divisions of the nine categories, but only subdivisions. iv. Samvara (a): the Impeding of Karma. The Jaina believe that Karma may be impeded in fiftyseven ways. Ten of these we have already learnt under the Ten duties of monks and nuns; besides these there are: Five Rules of Conduet ( Panct Samiti - pAMca siita ) which impede Karma :

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. 69 (1) Irya Samiti (opei Hof), i. e. walking carefully Rules of Conduct. and avoiding treading on anything. (2) Bhasa Samiti (2141 Rale), or speaking sweet, wholesome, true words. (3) Esana Samiti (ayyen (9: taking only such food as is allowed by the Sastras and avoiding the forty-two sins of eating. (4) A'dananiksepana Samiti ( Bullalaa yg! HAG): sweeping the ground to clear it of insects before sitting down. (6) Parithapanika Samiti (42414/}! Hla): right disposal of refuse. The Three Gupti (124) also impede Karma ; they are strictly binding on monks and nuns, and Three Gupti. also, though more loosely, on the laity. They are : (1) Manogupti (2013 ), or controlling the mind : a monk must give up wandering thoughts and fix the mind on meditation. (2) Vacanagupti 193448647), controlling the speech : a monk should speak as little as possible and occasionally vow silence for a whole day. (3) Kayagupti ($143 Cort), restraining bodily movement. If a monk is meditating, he should not start even if a snake appear; whenever he moves, he should take care not to injure any living thing. There are also Twenty-two Ways of Endurance or Parisaka (4948), by which a monk or nun is bound, and The Twenty-two the laity should endeavour, to impede Parisaha. Karma. (Such endurance is specially binding on the laity during the Posadha Vow). The

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70 MODERN JAINISM. monk must endure hunger (Ksudha Parisuha la fue); thirst (Trisa qui), only drinking hot fuids; cold (Sita illa), without lighting a fire or asking for extra clothing; heat ( Usna 60'21), without even fanning ; mosquito bites (Dansa sin ); unsuitable clothing ( Vastra cet); he must be indiffe rent to the lodging, food, clothes, etc., he obtains (Arati, 242G): indifferent to women Strivell; he must not mind changing his dwelling (Carya 2441); must be indifferent to danger and fear ( Naisidhiki arafasl); as to getting a bed or not (S'ayya 21241); must endure taunts, etc. (A'krosa 2415121); beating ( Vadha 94); unkindness when begging (Yanca 41211); refusal when begging (Alabhu ay(1164); illness ( Poga 2100); must not mind the prickly grass on which he lies ( Trinaspars'a delz421); must endure dirt on his body (Mela 244); must not be puffed up when praised for his learning or virtue (Satkara 2651?; nor proud whilst teaching his pupils (Prajna 411); must not remember his learning and his studies ( Ajnana wylot j; and finally, must never allow a doubt as to the truth of his religion any foot-hold in his mind (Samy.ektu. Parisaha 274509 46728). Twelve great reflections ( Bhavana 211901) must be remembered, especially by monks and nuns, but also by the laity : (1) Anitya Bhavana ( 241424 041991): One must Twelve constantly remember that the world is Reflections. transitory and the soul eternal. (2) As'arann Bhavana ( 34217191 641941): that the soul fears death and has no shelter. (3) Sam sea Bhava ma (int addt): that man is constantly taking birth.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. 71 (4) Ekatva Bhavana (a 309 641941): that the soul came unaccompanied, goes unaccompanied and must suffer for its actions. (5) Anyatva Bhavana (240469 0119411): that neither wealth, son nor wife are really ours but belong to others. (6) As'auca Bhavani (2481124 041991): that even our body is not our own and is impure. (7) A's riiva Bhavana (341914 6419-11). One must reflect how hard it is to be free from Karma when sin may lurk in one's every action. (8) Saivara Bhavana (219? 21901 ): that to destroy Karma one must take certain vows, either small or great. (9) Nirjara Bhavana (Groret 0119011). In order to completely destroy Karma one must meditate on austerities. (10) Loka Bhavana (als 641941). One must think of the world as in the form of a man. Instead of searching for God in anything one must think of himself as capable of becoming a Siddha. (11) Bodhibija Bhavana (allauior 1991). One must think how he shall take the first step in his religion, and then go on mounting. (12) Dharma Bhavana (21 34 641941): and he must think of the highest truth in his religion, and be thankful that he was born a Jaina. Finally, there are five Rules of Conduct or Discipline, Caritra (241622), which impede Karma :(1) Samayika Caritra (H1941645 241074), the giving up of um all sinful actions and performing innocent Five Ca'ritra. do ones, and looking on all mankind as equal.

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72 MODERN JAINISM. (2) Chedopasthapaniya Casitra ( 1 424140114 211224), repenting for all sins. (3) Parihara Vis'uddha Caritra (42812 Gall u271). This third rule is variously given by the various sects; it may mean to go when ordered by a superior to a miserable place as a test of endurance. (4) Sukamaram paraya Caritra (287214214 211628). To try and have very little attachment to this world. There are, as we saw, fourteen stages on the way to Liberation, and he who is thus but lightly tied to this world has reached the tenth stage. (5) Yathakhyata Caritra (4412418 4162). The fifth rule of conduct is carried out when one has lost all attachment to the world and thinks only of the soul. This is to attain the thirteenth and fourteenth stages towards Liberation. v. Nirjara' (Cecai.) The fifth great principle or category of Jainism deals with the partial destruction of Karma. It is effected by those exterior and interior austerities which we have already discussed under Tapa when we were studying the ten duties of monks and nuns. * vi. Bandha (42.) The sixth principle is also concerned with Karma and our bondage to it. Each of the eight Karma already mentioned is considered with regard to its nature, duration, quality and quantity. * See page 34 + See page 59.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. 73 Karma is also classified with regard to time into Satta (7741), that which accumulated in a past life; Bandha (vil), that accumulated in the present life, and Udaya (@E4), that of which the effects are now being experienced. (The Vedantists, though they call them by different names, have these three last classifications ). If Jaina believed in Karma alone, it would lead to such absolute fatalism that all present activity would be stultified. "What" people would ask "is the use of bestirring oneself when all one's life has been decided by the actions of some previous existence." To counteract this tendency they teach that Karma is divided into two parts. (1) Nikacita (Glstra), or the Karma whose results we are in any case obliged to experience. (2) S'ithila (file ), or the Karma from whose effects we may escape by extraordinary exertions. As no one knows to which class his Karma belongs, he is incited to activity in the hope of avoiding calamities. vii. Moksa. The seventh Jaina principle deals with Moksa (718)* or complete deliverance. When Moksa is attained, one is absolutely freed from the effects of the eight Karma and from rebirth. Very few women ever attain it, as they are not gifted with sufficient powers of body or mind, but a non-Jaina who had kept even accidentally all the tenets of Jainism might reach it. These seven principles are held in common by all Jaina ; the Digambara, however, as we have seen before, do not hold the two following to be main principles. See also page 54.

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MODERN JAINISM. viii. Punya. Punya (494) or merit can be earned in any of the following nine ways : Nine ways of (1) Anna Punya (2401 y 34): giving Earning Merit. food to the poor or to mendicants. (2) Pana Punya (4191 414): giving water to the thirsty. Cold water can never be given to ascetics, and the hot water given must be surplus hot water, and not water specially warmed for them. (3) Layana Punya (41409 494): building houses for the homeless, or setting aside special buildings for ascetics, Jaina monks from Molwa and Marwar will never stay at an Upasaro (monastery), but beg the loan of empty houses. They are afraid, if they used one specially erected for them, of sharing in the guilt of building houses (by which life may have been destroyed). (4) S'ayana Punya ( 21491 494): providing seats, beds or bedding for those who are in need. It is in order to earn this merit that laymen lend to an Upasaro the broad benches the monks sleep on. (5) Vastra Punya ( 921 794): merit gained by giving clothing to the poor and naked, or renewing the five garments permitted to a monk. (6) Mana Punya (749 494): thinking well of others. 'It is considered very meritorious to think of the " bright side" of other people, and to remember their good qualities whilst forgetting their bad. One should also constantly plan to promote the happiness of others.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES, 75 (7) Vacann Punya (43401 404): speaking well of and to others. This includes merit gained by speaking as highly as possible of others, giving them good advice, instruction, lectures etc, and always speaking politely. (8) S'arira Punya (21772 714): serving others at some bodily trouble to oneself, and personally looking after the sick and aged. A layman cannot thus serve monks, who must be served by their brother monks; if, however, a layman has taken the Posadha vow,* he can serve a monk as long as the vow lasts. (9) Namaskara Punya (11742312 494): showing reve rence to elders, superiors and ascetics, One can acquire this form of merit by bowing, by salaaming with both hands, and by generally showing reverence in bodily postures. The fruit of Punya is divided into fifty-two classes of rewards, which vary according to the zeal with which the action was performed. Some actions, for of instance, bring fame, some health of body Punya. or beauty of form or voice, others assure your being born in an exalted family, or even win Moksa, and the highest of all raises the doer to the rank of a Tirthankara. Although the Jaina have set before themselves so complete a system of altruism, and buttressed it by rewards appealing so strongly to self interest, it seems to have but little influence on their conduct to any but Jaina and ascetics. The callous indifference to human suffering shown by this rich community during the famine which devastated The frit of * See page 43.

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76 MODERN JAINISM. Gujarat in 1900* has left an indelible stain on a reputation already tarnished by their apathy regarding infanticide. The practice of female infanticide was, before the British Government intervened to put an end to it, almost universal amongst certain Rajput tribes in Western India ; and the Jaina never attempted to save the countless children thus done to death. Concerning this the Government Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency says with justifiable indignation :" Brahmaus who would not destroy the most hurtful reptile, and Jains, who cover their mouths that they may not injure the smallest insect, looked on with apathy from generation to generation, never raising their voice in behalf of the helpless creatures, who, year after year, were sacrificed at the shrine of superstition and pride." I ix. Papa. The ninth category deals with sin (Papa 414), of which, according to the Jaina, there are eighteen kinds. The greatest of all sins is the destruction of life Eighteen kinds (Pranatinata uleulanin), and this carries of Sin. with it the heaviest punishment; the guilt increases in accordance with the number of " senses" the thing injured possesses (so that the greatest guilt is incurred by killing a man), and also in accordance with the motive from which the action was done. Mrisavada (44191EUR), or telling lies, is also forbidden, but the truth should be spoken pleasantly. Adattadana (24EUR Tela), or * The exaggerated value Jaina place on animal rather than human life was clearly shewn in the famine. In more than one town they were seen to drive away starving little children from picking up scattered grains of corn, 80 that pigeons might get a full meal. + Bombay Gazetteer, vol. viii. p. 112.

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THE NINE CATEGORIES. 77 stealing, is prohibited in all its branches: one must not steal, receive stolen property, shelter a thief, or smuggle. Treason, curiously enough, is also forbidden under this head. The other Sins forbidden are Abrahmacarya (2444) or unchastity; Purigraha (g), or gathering possessions' with too much greed; Krodha (14), anger; Mana (HA), or conceit; Maya (4), or deceit; Lobha (), avarice; Raga (11), or overfondness for persons or things; Dvesa (aP), or enmity (which includes envy, spite and maliciousness); Kles'a (1), quarrelsomeness; Abhyakhyana (224 ~414), slander; Pais'unya (4-4), or talebearing; Parapravada Ninda (4249 fiel), or fault finding; Rati Arati (zla a), lack of self control; Mayamrisa (2), or suggestio falsi; and Mithyadarsana S'alya ( 2164), or false faith. All these eighteen sins are carefully tabulated as forbidden, but there is a curious passage in one of the new Jaina religious school books, which runs: "Children, you must not commit such sins aimlessly, where no end can be gained for yourselves, and the interests of your relatives are not concerned; moreover sins should be kept within bounds." Sin will hinder our attaining in our next birth to Right Knowledge, Faith and Conduct. For example, if a man is reborn wealthy, he may be unable to give alms owing to the miserliness produced by his sins in a past life. Results of sin. *karA! jemAM tamAro matalaba na saratI hoya, tema paNa na hoya, tevI nakAmI rAMte tevAM pApa na karavAM rAkhavI joie. 1997. Part 2. p. 55. tamArAM sagA sa MbaMdhInuM kAma joIe, ane tenI maryAdA

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78 MODERN JAINISM. Again one may, as the result of sin, become a beast or a bird, or be born in Hell. To be born in Hell is the worst of all punishments, while another of the heaviest penalties is to be born an onion or other "one-sensed " thing. If in one life a woman is not faithful to her husband, she will in the next become a widow. It is hideous to think of all the suffering that has been caused by this one article of belief, and this suffering has been heightened by the fact that it is only the child widow, i. e, the one most incapable of defending herself, who is believed to have thus sinned. When older women lose their husbands in mature life, it is considered simply to be in the course of nature. Certain other sins cause physical deformity in the next birth, or may make a woman childless. Loss of friends. relations, wealth, etc., are all put down to sins in a former life, as are excessive sleepiness and laziness. One Jaina gentleman told me that, as his family consisted only of daughters, he found it a great expense to marry them all oft, but he dare not complain, as all his friends assured him it was only his just punishment for having misappropriated funds in a previous existence !

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JAINA DIVISIONS OF TIME. The Jaina believe that, while the world was never created and will never end, two periods of time, a Rise and a Decline, have followed each other and will follow each other endlessly in ceaseless rotation, These two divisions are known as the Utsarpini (@c24rien), or Rising, and the Avasarpini ( 2497[uen) or Falling; each of these, true to the Jaina genius for classification, is subdivided into six periods. A Utsarpini. This era begins when everything is at its very worst, and its first and worst period is known as Dusuma Duxama ($4748474). This is followed by Dusamu, when, though everything is very evil, a sight improvement has taken place. Dusama Susama ( $474 447 ) is a period a little better still, when there is some joy as well as some sorrow; and in Susami Dusama joy preponderates over sorrow. The fifth period, Susama, is entirely joyful, and it is followed by Susama Surama, a time of extreme and intense joy, B. Avasarpini. Unfortunately we are now living in the declining period of the world's happiness. (1) It began with Susuma Susama, a period which lasted for countless years, and of which a rather pretty picture was given me by a Jaina. The children that were born in that happy age were always fortunate. They were always born twins, a boy and girl, beautiful trees provided them with fruit to eat, and the bark of these trees served 79

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80 MODERN JAINISM. them as garments. On the fourth day after their birth they were able to eat as much food as was equal to a grain of corn in size; they never ate a larger meal throughout their lives, and this meal they only took every fourth day. They never had to cook their food, but the desire-fulfilling tree, the Kalpa Vsiksa ($64 ga), served their need. The parents died as soon as the children were forty-nine days old, and the children lived lives of such innocence that they did not even know what a dwelling place, a cooking utensil, cooked food, or religion were, and at their death this innocence took them to Devaloka. (2) Susama. Happy twins were born in this period too, the differences being that they could eat on the third day after their birth, and continued to eat, every third day of their lives, a meal equal in size to a Bora (912), or jujube fruit, and the parents lived till their children were sixtyfour days old. These twins, like the previous ones, went straight to Devaloka at death. (3) Susama Dusama. The twins that are born in this period eat every second day a meal the size of an A'mala (2414011) fruit, and their parents live till their children are seventy-nine days old. The first Jaina Tirtharkara, Risabhadeva, took birth in the latter part of this period and taught the twins the - seventy-two useful arts ( i. e. cooking, sewing, pottery, carpentry, &c.). After this the happy times ceased, the desire-fulfilling trees disappeared, and fortunate twins were no longer born. Risabhadeva also introduced politics and established a kingdom, and taught his daughters letters and the art of writing. Risabhadeva's elder daughter, Brahmi, is the Jaina patron of learning.

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Jaina DIVISIONS OF TIME. 81 (4) Dusuma Susama. The remaining twenty-three Tirtharkara took birth in this period, which lasted for an ocean of time, and the Jaina religion was then fully developed. The people who were born in that age might at death go to any of the four states (Guti),* 1. C., might go to Hell or Heaven or become a man or a beast. A man of this period could generally eat thirty-two morsels of food, and a woman twenty-eight. (5) Dusama. This is the period in which we are at present living. It began three and a half years after Mahavira reached Moksa, and will last for 21,000 years. No one born in this period can reach Moksa in one life ; however good an ascetic or a layman may be, he must undergo another birth. No Tirthankara will be born during Dusama, and no one will live longer than one hundred years. At the beginning of this period a man's height was seven cubits, but it is gradually decreasing. We see another proof of the pessimism inherent in Jainism in their belief that during this period the Jaina faith will steadily decline, until at last it is quite extinct. The last Jaina monk will be called Duppasaha Suri (824218 ), the last nun Falgus'ri (fej ), the last lay man Nagila (1 714 ) and the last lay woman Satyas'ri (78481). Thoughtful Jaina find this belief as to the imminent extinction of their faith a great bar to energetic action for the spread of Jainism. (6) Dusamo, Dusama. This period will also last for 21,000 years. In the beginning of the epoch a man's life * See Page 59.

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82 MODERN JAINISM. will only last for sixteen years and will go on decreasing, and in the same way the average human height, at first only one cubit, will get smaller and smaller. At the end of the period terrific winds will blow, rains fall and flames appear in such a violent storm that it will almost seem as if the world were going to be destroyed, but as the world is eternal, that of course cannot really happen. Animals and men will shrink to the size of seeds, and birds and the seeds of every plant will take refuge in the river Ganges, in the ocean, or in caves. At last the time will come for the era of Utsarpini to recommence, and a gradual improvement will set in : the seeds will grow, and in the third period the Jaina religion will begin afresh. In due course this era will again be followed by Avasarpini, and so on in endless succession, as night follows day.

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FIVE KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE. The Jaina have a classification of knowledge on which they lay great stress, and which is believed io be peculiar to themselves. They divide it into five classes. (1) Mati Jhanu Hla Ellat), which depends on making the right use of intellect and conscience. (2) Sruta Jnana (34181101), or knowledge attained by hearing, preaching and the reading of S'astra, &c. This knowledge is intimately connected with knowledge of the previous class. 3) Avuulhi Jrina 249 la tla. Limited knowledge of things beyond the ken of ordinary men, for instance knowledge concerning the heavens, gods, the actions of friends at a distance, &c. (4) Janah paryaya Jnana 34:4414 014). Knowledge of what passes in the minds of others. (5) Kevala Juanu ($947 14). The perfect knowledge or omniscience possessed by the Kevali.

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RATNA TRAYA. The Jaina sum up all their rules of conduct and all their doctrines, with their multifarious subdivisions, under the name of the Three Jewels, or Ratna Trayu (ca 74.. These are Jnanu (419), or Right Knowledge of the Jaina doctrines; Dars'ana ( Ezidi), or Right Faith in those doctrines; and Caritrya (41(254), or Right Conduct in fulfilling the Jaina vows and duties; of these the first two are considered of no avail without the last. It is interesting to notice in this connection that though the Buddhists also speak of Tri-ratna, or Three jewels, with them these terms denote three concrete things : Buddha, the Law and the Order.

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JAINA WORSHIP. The Jaina seem always to have chosen for their sanctuaries the crests of wooded hills. In Western India there are three shrines of special sanctity and beauty to which the S'vetambara and Digambara Jaina go on pilgrimage. The most sacred of these," the first of places of pilgrimage, the bridal hall of those who would marry everlast ing rest," is the hill of S'atrunjaya, near S'atrunjaya. Palitana in Kathiawad. This hill, which is sacred to A'dinatha, rises to the height of some 1977 feet above sea level, and the summit is entirely covered with temples. "Street after street, and square after square, extend these shrines of the Jain faith, with their stately enclosures, half palace, half fortress, raised, in marble magnificence, upon the lonely and majestic mountain."* Indeed, so many are the temples, that to go round them all is said to require ninety-nine pilgrimages. Mount Gimnar, ( the hill of Neminatha), can be seen on a clear day from S'atrunjaya, to which it is only second in sanctity. It is situated in the Mahome dan State of Junagadh, and its summit is gained by the most magnificent stairway in the world. Aicht upon flight of stone steps, which lead from the plain beneath, past the Neminatha fortress with its wealth of temples, to the highest of the five peaks, some 3,666 feet above the level of the sea. * A. K. Forbes. Ras Mala pp. 5, 6. 85

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86 MODERN JAINISM. The Dilvara temples on Mount A'bu, though they lack the surpassing sanctity of S'atrunjaya, and their site has not the wild grandeur of Girnar, are in themselves perhaps the most beautiful of all. A'bu. A walk of about a mile through a pleasant valley connects the rising ground on which they stand with the little hill station of A'bu. The larger shrines belong to the S'vetambara sect, and the brothers Vastupala and Tejapala-they died in the years A. D. 1242 and 1252 respectively-who had spent, it is said, eighteen crores of rupees in erecting the temples on the S'atrunjaya hills, spent twenty-four crores more on erecting temples here and on Girnar. Digambara Morning Worship. Across the way from these shrines is a little temple of the Digambara sect, which has lately been restored through the zeal of the Bombay Provincial Association of Digambara Jaina. Through the courtesy of their representative in A'bu, we were permitted to watch their morning and evening worship. Two steep flights of steps lead to the temple court, in the centre of which is a shrine of A'dinatha, and round the court are windowless cells, built for the occupation of visiting monks, nuns and pilgrims. There is an additional room with five or six separate hearths which serves as a kitchen. 12 We arrived about 8 A. M., and found the Jaina Pujari taking an early cup of tea before beginning his work. After removing our shoes, we were allowed to stand on the floor before the door of the temple during the worship, which lasted about an hour and a half, and which consisted in

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JAINA WORSHIP. 87 cleansing the idols, marking them and offering rice. In the main circle of the temple, or Rariga Mandapa (1 is 4), were two figures of A'dinatha and two of Mahavira. In a furthur recess, the Gabharo FIGLI), which one might almost call a chancel, were two figures of Sambhavanatha, and within the inner shrine, the Sevano Gabharo (24121 PICHIRI, a larger figure of A'dinatha and his attendant Yaksas, set in a background of beautiful carving. The furniture of the temple consisted of a beautiful silvered alms chest or Bhandara (Gisi?), standing just in front of a rough wooden table on which was a square silver stand for the sacred book. Behind this table was a smaller wooden one, also bare, save for a three-legged stool which rested on it. A hanging brass bell and a moveable gong completed the equipment. The images of the Tirthankara were all of white marble and quite nude, wearing only a star-shaped ornament on their breasts. Just as with the S'vetambara, the figures are seated with their legs in the Padmasana ( 4941349) posture, i. e. crossed in front, the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee of the other, and their hands in the Kausagga position, i. e. the right hand over the left in the lap. The eyes of the Tirthankara in the Digambara temples are devoutly cast down, in the S'vetambara they are staring straight in front of them. The Digambara lay great stress on this difference, as shewing how completely their Tirtharikara have renounced the world.* * It is interesting, however, to note, as perhaps indicating local divergencies, that in the plates illustrating Dr. Burgess' Digambara Jaina Inconography' the Tirtharkara are represented as nude iudeed, but looking straight in front of them.

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88 MODERN JAINISM. The pujari, not being a monk, was unshaven and wore a moustache. In the adjoining temples the pujari are Hindus and so take far less interest in the worship than the Jaina we had the opportunity of watching bere ; in fact we did not happen to meet in A'bu a single S'vetambara pujari who knew the Sloka proper to the various acts of worship. After bathing, the pujari entered the shrine and washed the sacred vessels and the smaller wooden table in front of the large figure. Taking a duster, and regardless apparently of any small inseets he might be killing, he cleaned the inner shrine with resounding whacks of his cloth and roughly swept the steps. After having placed a little heap of yellow powder on the washed table, he proceeded to dust the figure of A'dinatha by dealing it several smacks on its face with his duster. Then, more reverently, he stood in front of the image and gently poured a little water on its forehead, mopping up the drops as they fell and wiping it all over, first with a damp and then with a dry cloth. Both here and on Mount Girnar the Digambara pujari were most careful lest any water should fall to the groundthey said that if even a drop fell, it would be accounted a sin-whereas the Svetambara were quite careless on this point.* In the same way he wiped the marble of the inner shrine and then the other Tirtharkara in the body of the * Dr. Burgess, however, in the book already mentioned gives as one of the differences between Digambaras and S'vetambaras that the former "bathe their images with abundance of water but the S'vetambaras use very little." Dig. Jaina Iconography, p. 2.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 89 outer one; this done, he anointed and washed himself and his loto* intoning all the time. He then turned to the left corner of the temple, in which were a collection of beautifully polished brass vessels and the materials for the offering--rice, spices, almonds, etc., but no fresh fruit or flowers, which the Digambara, unlike the Svetambara, may not offer. The rice he washed most thoroughly three or four times and drained off the water. Then he rubbed soine saffron and sandal wood on a stone till he had made a yellow paste called Kes'ara ($212). Next he took up an empty brass tray and drew on it the Svastika sign with Kes'ara, and taking a vessel not unlike an II upturned chalice, he marked it in the same way on what we should have called the base. To the tray which held the rice he added spices, chopped cocoanut and uncracked almonds, arranging them all in separate little heaps. Going to the little wooden table, he placed on it, and directly in front of the image, the upturned chalice and the empty , marked tray, together with a cup. He then filled two brass tumblers with a mixture of yellow powder and water, and placing in them two longhandled spoons and two very small bowls set them on the three legged stool; beneath this on the wooden table itself he placed the tray heaped with rice, etc., and then began a most interesting ceremony, mainly consisting of lifting grains of rice, etc., from the full tray and putting them on to the marked tray and chalice, to the accompaniment of elaborate genuflexions and intonings. * A brass cup for holding water.

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90 MODERN JAINISM. The pujari completed his own preparations for this ceremony by taking off his vest, and, clothed only in his dhoti, or loin cloth, unwound the pagari from his head and arranged it over his bare shoulder like a khesa, or scarf, Taking some of the yellow powder, he marked with a candalo his forehead and his ears, * drew three lines on each arm, marked the middle of his chest and each side, and finally drew a line round his neck. Then, going outside with one of the sacred vessels, he bathed again. His personal preparations over, he took the gong, and striking it once or twice, laid it on the table. Next he took a spoonful of the liquid from the tumbler and poured it over the rice on the tray, and then did the same with a tiny bowlful, afterwards bowing elaborately before the shrine. Rising he sang loudly Jaya Jaya ( Victory, Victory!) and continued intoning in the same way as before. He then took a few grains of rice from the full tray and placed them on the marked tray and on the upturned chalice. Again he took, on a tiny brass platter, rather more rice from the full tray, elevated it, waved it slightly and emptied it out on to the marked tray. He repeated this several times, and then lighted the incense and knelt down. Rising, he clapped his hands, took a few grains of rice, touched his forehead with them and put them on the upturned chalice. He rang the gong for the second time and poured a spoonful of liquid on to the rice on the tray marked I. * The marking of the ear is peculiar to Jaina.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 91 He next wrived a little rice in his left hand, clicking the fingers of his right, and then wiped his hands elaborately. Taking the ends of his utturasanu or cloth, he tied them over his head in such a way as to cover his mouth," and continued to transfer the rice, etc., little by little from the full tray to the marked one, elevating and waving it and dusting either the hand or the little platter by means of which he had transferred it. A third time he rang the gong, and after pouring out the liquid, he clicked the fingers of his left hand. Then he stood rigid before the shrine for a full minute in absolute silence, ceasing for the first time the intoning which he had maintained all through the cleansing, preparation and offering. Then, beginning his chant again, he bowed and knelt, and rising, continued ceremoniously transferring the rice from one tray to the other. He rang the gong a fourth time, and clapped his hands and proceeded as before for several minutes. Then he rang a fifth time, again clapped his hands, and after continuing to transfer rice for a minute or two longer, he poured the contents of the two tumblers on to the rice in the marked and now nearly filled tray. Again he stood reverentiy silent, then bowed, and untied his utturasuna from his mouth and knelt, touching the floor with his head. Taking the marked tray, he waved it before a cocoanut, which he had placed by the side of a figure of A'dinatha at the left of the Mandapa. * Dr. Burgess, loc. cit., however, says: "The Digambaras make their prayers after the usual Hindu fashion; the members of the other sect close their mouths or tie a cloth over their lips."

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92 MODERN JAINISM. This done he returned to the table, shook the grains from the upturned chalice on to the tray, and the ceremony was complete. He explained to us that the offering to the cocoanut was in order that all might be auspicious, and he also told us that the food that had been offered would be afterwards removed and eaten by a temple servant, and that no Digambara pujari would eat any of it himself. Evening Worship or A'rati. About six o'clock we returned to see the evening worship. This occupied only about ten minutes, and consisted in waving a light before the image in the shrine. The pujari, fully clothed and wearing an ordinary native cap, went to the shrine, before which one light was burning. He lighted the little five-fold lamp or A'rati, and then struck a gong, after which he solemnly and slowly waved the light from left to right for three or four minutes, intoning all the time. He next turned to the Mandapa, and waved the light in front of the seated figure of A'dinatha on the right. This done, he put the light on the three-legged stool, knelt down, and rising, struck a gong, to show that the service was ended. S'veta'mbara Morning Worship. Early next morning we presented ourselves at the gate of the S'vetambara temples across the way, and the temple attendants, after some little hesitation, courteously permitted us to view their worship also.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 93 These famous temples are beautifully situated on rising ground overlooking a little valley, across which a pleasant stream meanders through meadows dotted with palms. There are four main temples, arranged in the form of a cross, and their carved white marble domes and pillars are a miracle of fretted loveliness. In the first temple we entered, that of the Karigara, or artificers, we were interested to notice before the shrine of Pars'vanatha blackened lamps and other obvious signs of the Hindu Feast of Lamps, or Divali.* We were told, however, that at the last Jaina conference objection was raised to participation in a festival which led to the destuction of so much insect life. Throughout all four temples we saw far more evidence of the influence of Hinduism than in the Digambara temple. In the entrance was a Mata,t together with a large image of Hanumana killing Ravana, and beside it an image of Bhairava. * Dr. Burgess, loc. cit., however, gives as one of the differences between the sects that "the Digambaras bathe and worship their images during the night, but the S'vetambaras do not even light lamps in their teniples, niuch less do they bathe or worship the images, lest in so doing they might thereby kill, or indirectly cause the death of, any living thing, for to do so during the night they regard as a great sin." Not only on Mount A'bu did we see traces of the festival lamps that had been burning the previous night, but at Ahmedabad in Hatthisin: ha's teniple (S'vetambara ) an unprotected light burns all night before the figure of Dharmanatha. + A type of Hindu goddess.

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94 MODERN JAINISM. On either side of the Vastupala teraple was a red daubed image of Bhairava, and amongst the Tirtharikara in the courtyard that surrounds the central shrine of Neminatha was the figure dressed in red skirt and blue silk chadar) of S'ankes'vari Mata, the mother, we were assured, of all the Tirtharikara ! Inside the central shrine of the third temple we found the lap of the large metal image covered with a cloth, to show that it had been washed but not yet worshipped. Retracing our steps, we entered the principal temple, that of Vimala Shaha, which is said to date from A. D. 1032. Here, too, was evidence of the all-pervading influence of Hinduism in the shape of a large image of the goddess Ambaji, which occupied a cell bigger than any of the Tirtharikara cells in the court surrounding the central shrine. The temple is dedicated to A'dinatha, but beside his stone image it also contains two seated brass images, one of Naminatha and one of A'dinatha himself, and two standing figures of Pars'vanatha. The furniture consisted of a long alms-table in the centre and a smaller alms chest on the right, and on the left an empty brass throne, in front of which a most beautiful brass lamp was banging. The whole of the interior, in striking contrast to the simple severity of the Digambara shrine, was disfigured by quantities of vulgar hanging glass shades and cheap mirrors. Two banners on either side bore the Svastika sign. In contrast to the simple, unadorned Digambara figures, the images throughout the S'vetambara temples are given

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JAINA WORSHIP. 95 staring glass eyes, are adorned with jewels, and are represented as wearing loin cloths.* Another difference between the two sects which we shall note later is in the number of markings the pujari gives the image, while a still further point of difference is in the pujari himself. In the Digambara temples the pujari is always a Jaina, a Vania by caste; in the S'vetambara temples he is generally a Hindu, sometimes a Mali (Gardener) by caste, sometimes a Kanabi ( Farmer), a Brahman, or a Barota ( Bard). A further contrast is that the S'vetambara pujari may himself eat the offering after the ceremony, the Digambara pujari leaving it for the temple servant. The cleansing of the temple and of the idol was very similar to what we had seen the previous morning, though owing to the number of small images of Tirtharikara six pujaris were employed instead of one. The contral shrine and its idol were first cleansed, then the figures in the cells round the court. The image of the Hindu goddess Ambaji was undressed, bathed, and redressed behind a drawn curtain by the same attendant that bathed the large image of A'dinatha, who however sang entirely different sloka to the two images. When all the smaller Tirtharkara in the cells were cleansed and marked, the Pujari returned to the central shrine and marked the large image of A'dinatha in fourteen * It is therefore not quite accurate to say generally of Jaina statues :-"The images of the saints, statues of black or white marble, are represented as nude." Imperial Gazetteer of India. vol. I. p. 416. This is only true of Digambara statues.

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96 MODERS JAINISM. places, ;. e. right big toe, left big toe, right knee, left knee, right arm, left arm, right shoulder, left shoulder, forehead, head, centre of chest, centre of diaphragm, centre of stomach, and palm of the upper of the two crossed hands. (The pujari informed us that the Digambara only marked their images in three places. *Then, taking flowers from off the alms-chest, he arranged them round the image and proceeded to put on its jewellery, which he had taken off in order to wash the figure. This took some time, as the image wore a crown, a necklace, earrings, bracelets, armlets, and a girdle. All this time another pujari outside was preparing the yellow powder for use in all four temples. If outside worshippers had been present, a most curious ceremony might now have taken place, viz., the auctioning of the ghi (or clarified butter). One against another they would have bid how much ghi they were willing to give, and the service would then have been performed for the benefit of the highest bidder. No actual ghi changes hands, it is now simply the arbitrary symbol for the amount they are willing to pay. e. g. If a man says he will give ten maunds of ghi, he has actually to contribute twenty-five rupees. The price of this fictitious ghi is conventionally fixed at one anna a pound, a price which must have prevailed long ago, as the present market value is ten times that amount. The offering made to the image may consist of rice and sweets, with the addition of fruit, such as oranges, bananas, or almonds.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 97 The cheapest service, the Sanatana Puja ( you) costs the worshipper 54 annas, the next cheapest, the Pancakalyana Puja (chazy ) costs 54 rupees. The offering is transferred from one tray to another very much as it was in the Digambara temple. As no outside worshippers happened to be present, nor was there, as in the Digambara temple, any committee to provide funds for a daily offering, the worship on this particular morning was very simple. The pujari, whose mouth and head had been covered all the time he was cleansing the images, etc., lighted the five-fold lamp ( A'rati ) filled with ghi, on the lower tray of which camphor was also burnt; a second pujari beat a kettledrum in the court, another man struck a bell outside the shrine, a fourth sounded a gong inside it, and the principal pujari himself rang a hand-bell with his left hand, whilst with his right he slowly waved the lamp in front of the image. Replacing that, he picked up a single-light lamp (Mangaladipa nay) filled with ghi, with camphor also burning on its stand, and whilst he waved this, he continued to ring the hand-bell, the other pujaris likewise continuing con amore to beat the drum, strike the bell and sound the gong, the echoes reverberating amidst the beautiful arches. Finally above the din the pujari loudly shouted" Bas!" (enough), and the service was at an end. A noticeable point about the ceremony was that not one of the men taking part in it was a Jaina, or professed to believe in the service he was performing. 7

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98 MODERN JAINISM. S'veta'mbara Evening Worship. Hatthisisha's temple in Ahmedabad is a modern Jaina sanctuary famous for its architectural beauty. Its facade, decorated with Ionic and Corinthian pillars, seems however curiously out of keeping with the rest of the building; and it is the entrance to this temple which is defaced by the notice: " Low-caste servants in attendance on visitors and Jogs cannot be allowed to enter the temple." Arriving at the time for evening worship, we were allowed to pass into the Gabharo, where the worshippers were prostrating themselves before the idol. The pujari was, in this case, a Kanabi ( or farmer ) by caste. He lighted two little earthen lamps (kodiyan $lishi) in the Sevano Gabharo and placed tuem on candlesticks before the image of Dharmanatha (the 15th Tirtharkara); then, lighting two little sticks of incense, he placed them too before the image. Next he lit a little kodiyum and placed it in the Gabharo at the right of the door leading into the Sevano Gabharo and hung a brush of soft peacock's feathers on the door. (A worshipper coming up at this moment was given an incense stick which he waved before the shrine; afterwards, putting that down, he took the brush of peacock feathers and waved that The pujari proceeded to get ready the A'rati, and then the Mangaladipa (single light), by taking little portions of cotton wool, dipping them in ghi and putting them in the lamps, which were then lit. A drum was beaten and two bells rung in different parts of the temple. A worshipper, who had offered a pice

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Jaixa WORSHIP 99 for the privilege, was handed the A'rati on a tray, whilst the Mangaladipa was placed on the threshold. This worshipper waved the A'rati from left to right; then, placing it on the threshold, he picked up the Mangaladipa and waved that in the same way, whilst the pujari was chanting. This done, he replaced the Mangaladipa and waved the peacock feathers; the noise ceased, and the worshipper proceeded to say his private prayers, kneeling and prostrating himsef before the idol. The lights, we were told, would be left to burn for an hour or two, in spite of the fact that, being unprotected, they were a grave source of danger to insect life. Daily Worship of a Stha'nakava'si Jaina. The members of the third sect of the Jaina, not posses-- sing temples, and abhorring anything like idol worship, have no evening or morning worship similar to that of the Deravasi (i. e. S'vetambara and Digambara) Jaina. A Sthanakavasi Jaina layman, however, has most kindly furnished me with the following particulars of their daily religious duties. They should rise two hours before sunrise (though this is not always carried into actual practise in winter), and say the Virvukar's Mantra (19512 Navaka'ra a), i.e. tell their beads (Mala HIV1), Mantra. making salutation to the Five ( Panca Parameswara, namely Arihanta, Siddha, A'carya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu), and to Knowledge, Faith, Character and Austerity.* * In Gujarat, however, most Sthanakavasi Jaina do not include these last four in their repetition of the Navakara Mantra.

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100 MODERN JAINISM. Next he does Padikamanuin ( 4$154e) either in the house or in a religious building. Padikamanum. Padikamanum has six parts : (1) Samayikul (H141145. Wee below). (2) Canvisunththo ( 346lziegu), which consists of praise to the twenty-four Tirthankara. (3) Vand'ina (iae) : salutation to the Guru, or, if he be not present, to the N, E. corner of the building. * (4) Padikamanun proper, or repetition of the twelve vows and confession of any infringement of them. (5) Kausugga ( $1975), : sitting like Mahavira with the mind lost in meditation, and secretly repeating mantra. (6) Pucukhana ( 424 vie : taking a vow not to eat forbidden food during the day, or, if said in the afternoon, promising to abstain from the evening meal. The Samayika is generally said by Sthanakavasi Jaina in a monastery (Upasaro. On entering the monastery the worshipper says " Nisahi" (MHO), bidSa'ma'yika ding worldly cares and thoughts "begone," and then, before beginning prayers, says "A'vasahi " (241449 ) "Let me enter" [into what is necessary to be done ).+ Samayika generally lasts about forty-eight minutes; it consists of eight parts: (a) Navokara (19512), or salutation to the Five, as above; ( 6 ) Tikhuto (7491), when the worshipper salutes the Guru (spiritual instructor three times by moving his . This is because Malavideha, the abode of the Tirthaikara, is supposed to lie in that direction. See p. 54. + With the Deravasi Jaina, however, this word seems to be used differently, i, e. when about to resume worldly duties after worship.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 101 hand or clothes from left to right. (If the Guru be absent, he salutes the North East corner in the same way); (c) Iriyamahi (R), or asking forgiveness for anything he may have killed when walking thither; (d) Tasettari (qua, the correct conduc which must be maintained during meditation; (c) Logassa (P, or recital of verse in praise of the twenty-four Tirthankara; (f) Karemi Bhante (3 in), when the worshipper promises to abstain from all sin; (9) Namoththana (eg, or general praise; and finally (h) Samayika Palana (G), when the worshipper asks pardon for all the faults in his meditation. Though a layman need only spend forty-eight minutes over Samayika, an ascetic is expected to spend all his time in such meditation, though he need-not do it exactly in this order. The reading of the sacred books is considered to be Samayika. Sometimes, when the layman reaches the Upasaro, he finds a Sadhu preaching; and if heflisten to him, that would be equivalent to doing Samayika. Before leaving the Upasaro, he takes a vow with regard to his conduct during the day: that, for example, he will put on certain clothes, or use a particular bed, use only two chairs, or eat no more than five kinds of food. He then goes about his daily avocations, but, like all Jaina, he must be careful to take his last meal by daylight, lest he should unwittingly kill any insect. After this meal he makes confession of the sins of the day, Evening Derasiye Padikmanu,(devasIya paDikamaNuM), Devotions. either in his house or in the Upasaro, which must last as long as did the morning Padikamanum.

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102 MODERN JAINISM. This is followed by evening praise, Sajhaya Stavana (4 244), and lastly by a vow not to eat till sunrise, or Coviharanam Pucukhana (24). After this he is free to go home and please himself till bed time, when he must tell his beads and offer salutation to the Five before going to sleep. Daily Worship of a S'veta'mbara Layman. A S'vetambara Layman at Girnar was kind enough to give me some details of his daily worship, which we afterwards compared with the worship we saw performed in a little temple in Rajkot. The worshipper, we learnt, generally rose at seven A. M. and bathed, wearing a special dhoti, and his sacred thread round his waist, which Jaina (unlike Brahmans) only wear during worship. He might bathe either at home or at the temple, but he must be careful to choose a dry spot and to use as little water as possible.* After bathing, he donned, if he had time, the special seamless clothes (which are kept for worshippers in a room at the temple) consisting of either blanket or Vestments. dhoti, uttarasana, (GR) and an eight-fold mukhakosa (14), and marked his forehead with a candalo (1871). Next he walked three times round the temple-this is called Pradaksina (Helen-and whilst doing so meditated on the Three Jewels, and then entering Pradaksina'. the temple uttered thrice the "Nisahi" that bids all worldly eares begone. *Jaina are not supposed to bathe in rivers, tanks, lakes or the sea for fear of disturbing the water, but as a great many of them can swim, this prohibition is obviously often honoured in the breach.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 103 The full ritual has eight parts, but the first rite, the Jalu Puja (sruyo), or washing of the idol, can only be Jala Puja'. , done once in the day, and so only one * person has the opportunity of performing all the eight acts of worship. The actual puja is very simple, consisting of washing the idol with sufficient water to remove all the candana marks of the previous day; instead of water, Pancamrita 244179) may be used, * which is compounded of pure milk, whey, Kes'ara, flowers and water. The idol is then rubbed over three times to dry it. This done, the worshipper proceeds to the next rite, the Candana Puja (ziert you, or marking the idol with Candana Puja'. bir kes'ara. The use in Rajkot seemed to * be to make only thirteen spots with this yellow substance, whereas in Abu fourteen places on the images were thus marked. After that he does Puspa Puja ( you you, offering Howers and garlands. Other worshippers also do the Candana and the Puspa Puja, till the idol is covered with various yellow spots at the appointed la places, but as, before they can be performed, the worshippers must bathe and don the special dress, only those with leisure can do these rites. To perform the remaining acts of worship it is not necessary to enter the innermost shrine, so ordinary dress may be worn ; women also are permitted to perform them. The fourth rite is the Dhripa Puja (P244), or waving Dhupa Puja'. of a lighted incense stick before the image. * Dr. Burgess however says : " The Digambaras wash their images with the panchamrita ; but the others do not." Dig. Jaina Iconography, p. 3.

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104 MODERN JAINISM. The fifth is Dipu Puja (24 you, or waving a lamp before the shrine. As a part of this rite Dipa Puja': 38. the five-fold Afrati may be waved, or the single Mangaladipa alone. In the next, the Aksuta Puja (3489 yom), rice is offered. The worshipper brings from his or her) home some rice in a little bag generally elaborately embroiAksata ruja dered. This he arranges either on the alms chest (Bhandara) or on a stool in a particular form, thus : The Svastika sign (c) represents the Gati* in which one may be born, (a) - either as man or beast, in heaven or in hell. The three little heaps (6) (6) @ represent the Three Jewels t of Right Knowledge, Right Faith and Right Conduct, by which one attains to Moksu, which is represented by the half moon sign (a). The rice thus arranged is left until some other worshipper requires the space for his Aksata, when it is swept into the alms chest. At the end of a month all the rice in the chest is sold in the bazaar for the temple expenses, when, however, Jaina are careful not to buy it. Oecasionally worshippers drop pice into the alms chest through the same aperture as that through which the rice is swept. The seventh Puja consists of offering Nairedya (194) Naivedya. or sweet meats. The eighth, Phala Puja (for you), is the offering of fruit and nuts of all kinds : almonds, Phala Puja'. oranges, limes, bananas, etc. The pujari * See p. 59. + See p. 84.

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JAINA WORSHIP. 105 eats such fruit as will not keep, the remainder being sold with the rice. These various puja need not be performed in any particular order, and the worshipper, if he be pressed for time, may only do two or three, in which case he will probably choose the Candana, Dhupa and Aksata Puja. The method of performing each may differ with each worshipper. We watched one gentleman do the Dipa Puja, after which, setting the little Mangaladipa in front of him, he did the Aksata Puja, and then, after censing his rosary, told his beads. He sang in Gujarati the praises of the Twenty-four Tirthankara from a little illustrated hymnbook,* which he had also censed. Each worshipper struck a gong when he had finished his puja before leaving the temple, and said " A'vasahi" on entering on his wordly concerns once more, If the worshipper had time, he might then go to the Upasaro and hear a sermon. In the evening about five he might go to the temple again to do the A'rati Puja. We were assured that Svetambara did paint the seet marks on their foreheads; Dr. Burgess however notes in his list of the differences between the two Sect Marks. sects: "The Digambaras paint on their forehead their caste marks but the S'vetambaras do not."+ This would be true of the Sthanakavasi, who never, in Western India at least, wear sect marks. * As this hymn-book has pictures of all the twenty-four Tirthalikara, it enables the possessor to worship when it is not possible for lim to go to a teniple, + Digam bara Jaina Iconography. p. 3.

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106 MODERS JAINISM. Daily Worship of a Digambara Layman. A Digambara layman told me that, like members of the other two sects, he told his beads, but did not do either Padikamanum or Samayika. After telling his beads, he went to the temple about 8 A. M., and wearing only his dhoti did Kriya Puja (%41 YM! i.e. offered rice, almonds and cocoanut. This took about an hour, and my informant did no more puja during the day, because he happened to belong to the Terapantha (2014) sub-sect* of the Digambara Jaina, who do not do Arati puja, giving as their reason that the Tirthankara, having attained bliss, take no further interest in mortals, so that there could be no profit in performing such a ceremony as the A'rati. The Visapantha sect of Jaina, however, believe in offering the A rati, for they say that, since the Tirthankara, who have now attained Moksa, did so, there must be some advantage in it. The Digambara do not permit their women to perforin any puja near the idol ; they may only perform such puja as can be done at a distance : ( Dars'una alt). "A Sthanakavasi Sadhu kindly furnished me with the following information about the Terapantha Sect. They are recruited from all three sects, though their founder was a Sthanakavasi, who abont 150 years ago, in Sojat (Marwar), entertained doubts about certain current practices, and founded a sect of his own. They are called Terapantla, because the number of Sadhus who joined was originally thirteen. Their ascetics wear the same dress, etc., as the Sthanakavasi Sadbu, but will not stay in an Upasaro, preferring to beg the loan of houses from wealthy laymen. The Terapanthi accept the Sthanakavasi scriptures, but reail their own meaning into certain passages. They are not as particular as other Jaina about protecting animal life, never for instance interfering to save mice from cats, so the orthodox of all three sects unite in condemning them. They are found chiefly in Kathiawar, Cutch and Rajputana.

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JAINA FESTIVALS AND FASTS. Pajjusana To the Jaina of all three sects the most sacred season of all is Pajjusana (4989 ), or Paryusana (44a, which closes their year. It extends from the last four days of the month of Sravana to the first four of Bhadaravo these eight days usually fall in August). Both Sretarbara and Digambara Jaina count eight days as the season, but as the Digambara keep seven days at its close for special worship, it really lasts fifteen days with them. The special object with which they keep Pajjusana is to obtain pardon for the sins of the year. Every other day they fast and go to the Upasaro, wearing their best clothes, while on the alternate days they eat specially dainty food. The fifth day is conventionally celebrated as Mahavira's birthday, though they know this not to be the true date. On this day both Sretambara and Digambara go in processo sion though their towns, bearing an image which is generally that of Pars ranatha. The Sthapakarasi Jaina would also like in many cases to observe Mabarira's birthday, but their gurus frown on this, lest it should lead to idol worship. On the fasting days the Sretarbara go to the Upasaro to hear the Kalpa Sutra read in Magadhi, the priest translating. The Sthanakarasi Jaina, who do not accept the Kalpa Sutra, go to their own Upasaro and hear Mabarira's life read in their own Scriptures. The members of all the sects go to the Upasara as often as they can, and some of thern spend 107

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MODERN JAINISM. the whole day there. A Jaina fast is exceedingly strict, for they are supposed to eat nothing at all, though they may drink water. Some very devout Jaina, instead of fasting on alternate days, fast for the whole eight, and some fast more or less for forty days. Their object in fasting is to gain merit and freedom from rebirth. 108 Poso ( or Posadha (. During Pajjusana any Jaina may obtain special merit by behaving for twentyfour hours as an ascetic;* during that time he wears old clothes and fasts, Poso. passing his time in meditation. Samvatsari. Samvatsari (c). On the last day of the Jaina religious year all adult men and women must fast throughout the day. All through Pajjusana devout Jaina have been doing Padikamanum with greater zeal and attention than usual, but on this day every Jaina must do it. At the time of the ceremony all the temples are crowded; in large towns the temples have separate buildings for men and women, and the Sthanakavasi have separate Upasara. The Guru are present but they are making their own confessions privately, whilst some learned layman (or lay woman as the case may be) repeats mantra aloud in Magadhi and afterwards in Gujarati. This continues for about three hours; when the first person is tired, another takes up the repetition, and so on. The audience listen all the time in silence; they are supposed to be making private mental confession, but generally they simply listen to the mantra. The late Rev. Douglas Thornton seems in his able Essay (Parsi, Jaina and Sikh. p. 62) to imply that this practise has fallen into desuetude, but this is not the case.

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JAINA FESTIVALS AND FASTS. No light may be brought into the meeting, even if it goes on till eight or nine o'clock at night. At the close of the three hours the lay people salute the gurus. Then they greet each other and ask forgiveness for any injuries or slights inflicted during the past year, and many old quarrels are actually made up at this time. If any one carries on a quarrel beyond Samvatsari and dies, he is in a parlous state. Going home they greet their nonJaina friends and make up quarrels with them too, and they also at this season write letters to distant friends and put every thing right with them. 109 The Jaina are specially zealous during Pajjusana to prevent any animal life being taken. In many States, such as, for instance, Limbadi, Jamnagar and Morvi (in Kathiawad, they have prevailed on the respective Chiefs to prohibit all shooting, fishing or slaughter of animals during these eight days. In other States they try to prevent it for at least the first five days and the last by paying all the S'ikari to remain idle. Punema. Four full moon days during the year are observed as special fasts by the Jaina. These days are called Punema (yan) or Purnima (y). The one that occurs about November is called Karttiki Punema (sifa yan); the next, about March, Phagani Punema (sin yar); Caitri Punema (ya) falls about April; and in June or July is Asahi Punema (2411 ya). Both Svetambara and Digambara Jaina decorate their temples with lamps on these days, and more of them than usual go to the temples to worship.

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110 MODERN JAINISM. Oli. In the month of March or April, eight days before Cuitri Punena, Oli Sicun) or A'mibela (ay 1 024) is observed. At this time men and women take special vows with regard to the food they will cat, as that it shall consist only of one kind of grain for that day and that they will only drink boiled water. Women are specially particular in keeping these vows. This, too, is the great season for pilgrimages; both S'vetambara and Digambara Jaina go on pilgrimage to Palitana, Samedshikhara (near Gaya), A'bu or Girnar, where large fairs are held and the temples decorated. Monthly Fasts. S'vetambara and Sthanakavasi observe d'thuma (241871), A'thama and the eighth, and Pakhi ( 4141 ), the Pa'khi. fifteenth day of each (lunar) month. Devout members of these sects fast, and all are supposed to go to the temples and Upasara. In the same way the Digambara sect observe the eighth day of the month, but instead of the fifteenth they keep the fourteenth day Cuudas'u (SIERI. Strict A'thama and Digambara Jaina not only fast from all Caudas'a. food on this day, but also from all water. The Svetambara and Digambara observe the anniversary of Mahavira's birthday and the anniversary of the day on which he became a Kevali, but the Sthanakavasi do not, neither do they keep two other festivals, Siddha Chakra Puja ( Parte 24 yom) and Jala Jatra ( on ongli ).

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JAINA INSTITUTIONS. Pa'njara'pola. All three sects of Jaina unite in maintaining near many of the large towns and villages of India Panjirapola (Hieral2100), or asylums for old and diseased animals. Any one may send decrepit horses, cows, donkeys, etc., there, and the Jaina undertake to feed them. The pariah dogs, too, which haunt the streets of Indian cities, are often collected in vans and taken charge of temporarily, to save them from destruction by vigilant authorities. Unfortunately these Panjarapola are too often left in the hands of hirelings, without any proper supervision being exercised. The result is that they have earned a very bad reputation for starving and neglecting the imprisoned animals.* Conferences. Each of the three leading sects has its own Conference for the development and spread of its tenets. The head offices of both the Svetainbara and Digambara Jaina are in Bombay, while the Sthanakavasi have lately moved their head quarters from Morvi to Ajmere. There are eighty-four subsects of Jaina, some of them differing very widely from each other, as the Tape Guccha (94912:9) and Ancalit Gucch'i (244345701249 do. The Sthanakavasi claim to have very few subsects, but in all three cases the subsects attend the big Conference of their parent sect. * One finds however that it is possible to secure some alleviation in their condition, ii public attention be drawn to it. 111

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112 MODERN JAINISM The Jaina Young Men's Association of India has been formed with the object of promoting harmony between the three sects, and of furthering the cause of education and social improvement. They aim ultimately at the abolition of caste restrictions, the alleviation of the sufferings of child-widows and the introduction of other social reforms. But in these, as in all their other ambitions, they are much hindered by obscurantist priests and ascetics. The pessimism which nvershadowed the birth of Jainism still seems inherent in it, and its more thoughtful followers are not only perplexed by the conflict between its teachings and the discoveries of Modern Science, but are also discouraged from active effort by their belief that Jainism is doomed to disappear at the end of the present era.

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INDEX. Abhavi, 50. | A'kros'a Parisaha, 70. Abhinandana, 51. Aksata Puja, 104, 105. Abhyakhyana, 77. Alabha Parisaha, 70. Abrahmacarya, 77. Alms, 43, 77. A'bu, 44, 86 ff, 110. [37. Alms-chest, 87, 94. A'caranga Sutra, 4, 15, 31n, A'mala fruit, 80. A'carya, 49, 99. Ainaryadita form of vow, 21. Adananiksepana Samiti, 69. Ambaji Mata, 94, 95. Adattadana, 76. A'mbela, 110. Addhasamaya Kala, 66. Anagara, 37. Adharmastikaya, 66. Anantanatha, 52. Adholoka, 54, 55, Anantanubandhi Krodha, 67. A'dinatha, 51, 85, 86, 87, 88, Anartha Danda Vrata, 42, 43. 92, 94, 95, Anas'ana, 31. Agriculture, +1. Ancala Gaccha, 111. Ahara, 65. Anga, the eleven, 15 ff. Ahimsa, 31, 33, 41. Anger, 67, 77. Ahmedabad, 45, 46, 93 n., 98. Animals, kindness to, 41, Ajnana Parisaha, 70. 76n. 106n. 111. Ajitanatha, 51. Anitya Bhavana, 70. Ajiva, 66. Aniyati Badar GunasthaA jivika Order, 7. naka, 61. Askas'astikaya, 66. Anna Punya, 74. Akincinya, 37. Anojja, 4. 113

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114 JNNEX Antagada Dias'aniga, 16. | Asteya Vrata, 32. Antaraya Karma, 59, 62. A'thama, 11C. Anuttara Vimana, 16, 54, 55. Atithi Sanivibhaga Vrata, 3. Anuttaravasi Deva, 62. Attachment, 33, 72, 77. Anuttarovavai Das'anga, 16. Auction of yhi, 96. Anuyogadvara, 20. Austerity, 34, 72, 99. [34. Anyatva Bhavana, 71. Austerities, the Six Exterior, Apacakhanavaraniya Krc- Austerities, the Six Interior, dha, 67. Avadhi Jnana, 83. [35. Aparigraha Vrata, 33. A'vasahi, 100, 105. Aparyapta, 65. Avasarpini, 79, 82. Apramatta Gunasthanaka, 61. A'vas' yaka, 19. [03. Apurvakarana, 61. Ayogi Kevali Gunastharaka, A'raja, 26. A'yu Karma, 59. ,, funeral of, 28. Ayuhpaccakhana, 21. Aranatha, 52. A'rati, 92, 97, 99, 104. Badara, 64. A'rati Puja, 92, 104, 105, 106. Bala Brahmacari, 23. Arati Parisaha, 70. Bandha, 72. Arati, Rati, 77. Bara Vrata, 40. Arddha Magadhi, 13. Barota, 95. Arihanta, 6, 20, 45, 99. Beads, telling, 99, 105, 106. Arjava, 34. Be Indriya Jiva, 64. A'sadhi Punema, 109. Begging, 27, 32, 38, 70. Asarana Bhavana, 70. Bhadaravo, 107. Asatya Tyaga, 32. Bhadrabahu, 11. As the Bhavana, 71. Bhagavatiji, 16. Ascetics, 23 #., 43. | Bhairava, 94. A's'rama, 2, 44. Bhandara, 87, 104. A's'rava, the Forty-two, 67. Bhasa, 65. A's raya Bhavana, 71.. Bhasa Samiti, 69.

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INDEX. 115 72. Bhavana, 70. | (aste, 44, 98, 112. Bhavi, 50. Categories, the Nine, 04. Bhoyani, 52n. Cauda Gunasthanaka, 60. Birth Ceremonies, 46. Caudas a, 110. Bodhibija Bhavana, 71. Cauvisanththe, 100. Bora fruit, 80. Causarana, 20. Brahmacarya, 37. Celibacy, 37. Brahmacarya Vrata, 33. Character, 99, Brahmans, 2, 3, 233, 31, 32, Chastity, 33, 37, 42, 77. 33, 40, 44, 45, 45n., 48, 76, Chedayrantha, the Six, 18, 19. Brahmi, 80. [95. Chedopasthapaniya Caritra, Brihatkalpa, 18. Brotherhood of man, 49. Buddha, 4, 7, 8, 9, 23. Children, Advice to, 64, 77. Buddhism, 2,7, 23, 310., 32, Clothing, 5, 6, 11, 23, 35, 70, 33, 44, 84. 74, 102, 106. Cold (enduring , 70. Caitri Punema, 110. Colour, 66. Candalo, 90, 102. Committees for Worship, 86, Candana, 103. Conceit, 77. Candana Puja, 103, 105. Conduct, Five Rules of, 68. Candapannati, 17. Conduct, Right, 77, 84, 104. Candavijaya, 21. Conferences, Jaina, 44, 47, Candraprabhu, 51. Confession, 36. [111. Canon, Jaina, 12 ff. Corendriya Jiva, 65. ,, Digambara, 14. Covetousness, 33, 34, 42, 77. ,, Svetambara, 12. Coviharanam Pacakhana,102. Carananuyoga, 22. Cc-wives, 42, 46. Caritra, the Five, 71. Creation, 49. Caritrya, 84, Cremation, 48. Carya Parisaha, 70. Customs, 45.

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116 INDEX. Damsa Parisaha, 70. Digambara Sect, Origin of, 11. Danda, 25. Digambara Worship, 86 ff. Dars'ana, 84, 106. [62. Diksa, 23. Dars'anavaraniya Karma, 58, Dilvara Temples, 86, 93, Das'as rutaskandha, 18. Dipa Puja, 104, 105. Das'avaikalika, 19. Discipline, Five Rules of, 71. Das'a Yatidharma, 31. Disivrata Parimana, 42. Death Ceremonies, 48. Divali, 93. Deceit, 77. Doctrine, 49. Deravasi, 99. Doubts, 70. Des'avakas ika Vrata, 43. Dravyanuyoga, 22. Des'avirati Gunasthanaka, 61. Dristivada Anga, 15. Destruction of Life, 24, 27, Duppasaha Suri, 81. 31, 65, 74, 76, 93, 101, 109. Dusama, 79, 81. Deva, 53, 55. Dusama Dusama, 79, 81. Devaloka, 50, 53, 55, 80. Dusama Susama, 79, 81. Devananda, 3. Duties of Monks and Nuns, Devarddhi, 12. Dvesa, 77. [34 ff. Devasi Padikamanum, 27, Devi, 53. [101. Ear, marking of, 90. Davindathuo, 21. Ekatva Bhavana, 71. Dharma, 20. Ekendriya Jiva, 64. Dharma Bhavana, 71. Endurance, Ways of, 69. Dharmanatha, 52, 98. Enmity, 77. Dharmastikaya, 66. Esana Samiti, 69. Dhumra Prabha, 55. Eschatology, 53, 81, 82. Dhundhia, see Sthanakavasi. Eternity of World, 19. Dhupa Puja, 103. Dhyan., 36. Faith, 93. Digambara Canon, 14. Faith, Right, 77, 84, 104. Digambara Scriptures, 21. Falgusori, 81.

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INDEX. 117 Famine, 75, 76n. Hatthisimha's temple, 45, Fasting, 28, 34ff., 43, 107, 108. 93n., 98. Fatherhood of God, 49. Heat (enduring.', 70. Festivals, 107. (100. Heaven, 53. Five, Salutation to the, 99, Height of mankind, 82. Food, 33, 34ff., 43, 74, 11C. Hell, 54, 78. Forno, 66. Hinduism, influence of, 93,94. Fruit, offering of, 89, 104. Honesty, 32, 41, 77. Funeral of A'raja, 28. Horoscope, 46. Houselessness, 6, 37. Gabharo, 87, 98. Humility, 34, 36, 70. Gabharo, Sevano, 87, 98. Hunger, 70. Gacchacara, 21. Hymn-book, illustrated, 105. Ganivijaya, 21. Garaniji, 26. Illness, 70. Gati, 59, 104. Illusion, 67, 68. Gifts to Religious, 24n. Images, washing of, 88 ff. Girnar, Mt., 44, 85, 86, 88, Impeding of Karma, 68. God, 49. [102, 110. Indifference to hardships, 70. Gosale, 7. Indra, 5n., 53. Gotra Karma, 59. Indrabhuti, 9. Greed, 67, 68, 77. Indrani, 53. Greveyika, 53. Indriya, 65. Grimbhikagrama, 6. Inertia, 66. Gunasthanaka, Chauda, 60. Infanticide, 76. Gupti, the Three, 69. Initiation of monk, 23, 25. Guru, 36, 100, 101, 108, 109. L ,,nun, 26. Insects, scruples regarding, Habit of ascetics, 23. [35. 24, 27, 31, 65. Hair plucking, 25, 26, 26n., Institutions, Jaina, 111. Hanumana, 93. Iriyavahi, 101.

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118 INDEX. Irya Samiti, 69. Karananayoga, 22. Itineracy, 37. Karemi Bhante, 101. Karigara, Temple of the Jainism, 1. (Abu), 93, >> Origin of, 2. Karma, 19, 44, 50, 54, 56, Jala Jatra, 110. 58, 59, 63, 72, 73.0 Jala Puja, 103. Karma, the Eight, 58, 73. Jamali, 4. Karma, the Impeding of, 68. Jambudivapannati, 17. Karttiki Punema, 109. Jaya Jinendra, 28, 29. Kas'aya, 67. [100. Jewels, the Three, 84. Kausagga posture, 28, 30, 87, Jina, 6. Kayagupti, 69. Jinakalpi, 12 Kayakles'a, 35. Jitakalpa, 19. Kes'ara Paste, 89, 96, 103. Jiva, 64. Kes'i, 17. Jivabhigama, 17. Kevala, 7, 83. Jnana, 84. Kevala Jnana, 83. Juanavaraniya Karma, 58, 62. Kevali, 7, 50, 63, 83. Jnatadharma Kathanga, 16. Kles'a, 77. Jujube tree, 80. Knowledge, 99. Junagadh, 85. Knowledge, Five kinds of, 83. Jyotikaranda, 21. Knowledge, Right, 77, 84, Kodiyuni, 98. [104. Kala, 66. Kollaga, 3, 5. Kalikumara, the Ten, 17. Krishna, 18. Kalpa, 17. Krisna Lesa, 56. Kalpa Sutra, 3, 8, 9, 107. Kriya Puja, 106. Kalpa Vriksa, 80. Krodha, 67, 77. Kapota Les'a, 57. Ksama, 34. [62. Kappavadis'ayya, 17. Ksinamoha Gunasthanaka, Kappia, 17n. Ksudha Parisaha, 70.

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INDEX. 119 Kumarpala Raja, 401. Mahavira re:ches enlighterKunthunatha, 52. ment, 6. >> Death of, x, Lidies at Conference, 47. , Character of, 8. Lamps, 92, 93, 99, 104, 103. Mala, 100. Ly Adherents, 10. Mali, 95. , ,, Twelve Vows of, 10. Mallinatha, 52. Layana Punya, 74. . Malwa, 14n., 74. Les'a, the Six, 56. Mana, 60. Liberation, the Fourteen Mana, 67, 77. Steps to, 60. Manahparyaya Jnana, 8. Life, Destruction of, 24, 27, Mana Punya, 74. 31, 65, 74, 76, 93, 101, 109. Mandapa, 92, Lobha, 67, 77. Mangaladipa, 97, 99, 101. Loca, 26. Mango tree, Parable of, 57. Lodging, 6, 37, 38, 70, 74. Manogupti, 69. Logassa, 101. Mantras, 25, 28, 108. Loka Bhavana, 71. Mardava, 34. [104. Lonka, ltn. Marks on Images, 95, 96, 103, Marriage, 42, 45. Madura, Inscriptions at, 12, Marwar, 7+. 40, 45. Maryadita form of vow, 21. Magadha, 8, 11. Mata, 93, 94. Magadhi, Arddha, 13, 108, Mathura, see Madura. Mahanis itha, 19. Mati Jnana, 83. Mahapurusa, 26. Maya, 67, 77. Mahasati, 26. Mayamtisa, 77. Mahavideha, 54, 100n. Meditation, 27, 36, 101. Mahavira, 3, ff. 52, 56, 81, 87. Mela Parisaha, 70. Birthday of, 107,110. Merit, 74. >> Life of, 3 ff. Misera Gunasthanaka, 60.

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120 Mithyadars'ana S'alya, 77. Mithyatva Gunasthanaka, 60. Mohaniya Karma, 58, 62. Moksa, 16, 54, 55, 63, 72, 81, Money lending, 41. [104. Monks, 23 ff. Monthly Fasts, 110. Mosquitos, 70. Motion, 66. Mourning, 48. Mouth-cloth, 24, 28, 91. Mrisavada, 76. Muhapati, 24n. Mukhakosa, 102. Mukhapattika, 24n. Mulagrantha, the Four, 19, [20. Mumati, 24, 28. Munisuvrata, 52. Nagila, 81. Nais'idhiki Parisaha, 70. Naivedya, 104. INDEX. Nama Karma, 59 Namaskara Punya, 75. Name, change of, 25. Naminatha, 52, 94. Namoththuna, 101. Nandi Sutra, 20. Nandivardhana, 5. Naraka, 54, 55. Nata, 3, 5. Nataputta 7. Navakara Mantra, 99, 100. Nava Tatva, 64. Neminatha, 18, 52, 85, 94. Nikacita Karma, 72. Nila Les'a, 5EUR. Niravalia, 17. Nirgrantha Sect, 9, 91. Nirjara, 72. Nirjara Bhavana, 71. Nirlobhata, 34. Nisahi, 100, 102. Nis'itha, 18. [61. Niyatibadara Gunasthanaka, North-East Corner, 100, 101. Novice, Daily life of, 20. Nudity, 5, 6, 11, 87, 95. Nuns, 26 ft. Offering to idols, 89, 96. Oghaniryukti, 19. Oli, 110. [102. Pacakhana, 100. Pacakhana, Coviharanam, Pacakhanavarniya Krodha, 67. [100, 101, 106. Padikamanum, 19, 27, 35, Padma Les'a, 57. Padmaprabhu, 51. Padmasana, 87.

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INDEX. 121 Paisunya, 77. Pessimism of Jainism, 2, 81, Pajjusana, 25, 67, 107 #. Phagani Punema, 109. [112. Pakhi, 11C. Phala Puja, 104. Palewana, 27. Pilgrimage, 85, 110. Palitana, 85, 110. Population, 47. Pana Punya, 74. Posadha Vrata, 43, 69, 73. Panca Avrata, 68. Posc, see Posadha. Panca Indriya, 68. Possessions of Ascetic, 23, 37. Pancakalyana Puja, 97. Postures, C, E, 28, 30, 31, 36. Panca Mahavrata, 30. Pradaksina, 102. Pancamrita, 102. Prajna Parisaha, 70. Panca Paramnes'vara, 99. Pramatta Gunasthanaka, 61. Panca Samiti, 68. Pranatipata, 7EUR. Pancendriya, 65. Pras na Vyakarana, 16. Panjara pola, 111. Prathamanuyoga, 22. Panka Prabha, 55. Prayas'cita, 38. Pannavana, 17. Preaching, 50, 83, 101, 10. Papa, the Eighteen kinds of, Preceptors, 49. Papapuri, . [76. Pride, 34, 36, 67, 68, 70, 77. Parades'i, King, 17. | Priyadars'ana, 4, Parapravada Ninda, 77. Pudgalastikaya, 66. Parigraha, 77. [72. Pujari, 86, 88, 95, 97, 98. Parihara Vis'uddha Caritra, Pujya, 20. Parisaha, the Twenty-twe, 69. Punema, 109. Parithapanika Samiti, 69. Punishment of Sin, 67, 78. Parsi Convert, 441. Punya, Fruit of, 75. Pars'vanatha, 9, 10, 52, 93, Punya, the Mine, 74. Paryapta, 65. [94, 107. Puphacula, 18. Pataliputra, Council of, 11,12. Puphaculia, 18. Payanna, the Ten, 2C. Pupphiya, 18. Penance, 35, 36. Purana, 22.

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122 INDEX. Purlab, 47. Samavayanga Sutra, 15. Purity, 37. Samayika, 27, 43, 100, 101, Purnima, see Punema. Simayika Caritra, 71. (106. Puspa Puja, 104. Samayika Palana, 101. Sambhavanatha, 51. Raga, 7. Samedshikhara, 110. Rajkot, 102, 103. Samiti, Panca, 68. Rajono, 24. Sarlinata, 35. Rariga Mandapa, 87. Samp:tryanka Posture, 8. Rasatyaga, 35. Samsara, 10. Rati Arati, 77. Samsara Bhavana, 70. Ratna Prabha, 55. Samskara, 45. Ratna Traya, 84, 102. Samvara, 68. Ratribhojana Tyaga, 33. Sarivara Bhavana, 71, Ravana, 93. Sanivatsari, 108. Rayapaseni, 17. Samvegi, 26. Rayasi Padikamanum, 26. Samyaktva Parisaha, 70. Reflections, the Twelve, 70. Samyama, 37. Religious Instruction Series, Samiyatasamyata GunasthaReverence, 36, 75. [64n., 77. naka, 61. Right Conduct, 77, 84. Sanatana Puja, 97. Right Faith, 77, 84. Sanjvalana, 68. Right Knowledge, 77, 84. Sarikes'vari Mata, 94. Risabhadeva, 51, 52, 80. Santhara Payanna, 20. Roga Parisaha, 70. Santinatha, 52. Rules of Conduct, Five, 68. S'arira, 65. S'arira Punya, 75. Sadhu, 20, 23 H., 49, 99. Sarkara Prabha, 55. Sadhvi, 26. Sasvadana Gunasthanaka, 60. Sajhaya Stavana, 102. Satkara Parisaha, 70. Sale of daughters, 46. Satrunjaya, 85, 86.

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INDEX. 123 Satta, 73. Schanakavasi Sect, Origin of, Satya, 37. Sthivarakalpi, 12. [13. Satyas'ri 81. Sthulabhadra, 11. S'auca, 37. Stri Parisaha, 70. S'ayana Punya, 74. [62, 63. Study, 36. Sayogi Kevali Gunasthanaka, Sudharma, 8. Sayya Parisaha, 70. Sukla Lessa, 57. Scriptures, Jaina, 12 ft., 15 ft. Suksma, 64. [72. Sect marks, 105. Suksmasamparaya Caritra, Senses, 35, 64, 76. Suksmasamparaya GunaSevano Gabharo, 87, 98. sthanaka, 62. Shaving, 25, 26. (99. Sumitinatha, 51. Siddha, 20, 49, 50, 51, 63, 68, Supars'vanatha, 51. Siddha Chakra Puja, 110. Supreme Being, 19. Siddhartha, 3. Surapannati, 17. Sin, 76.. Susama, 79, 80. Sin, Results of, 77. Susama Dusama, 79, 80. S'italanatha, 51. Susama Susama, 79. Sita Parisaha, 70. Sutrakritanga, 7, 8. S'ithila Karma, 73. Suvidhinatha, 51. Sloka for Worship, 88, 95. Suyagadarga Sutra, 15. Smell, 50, 66. Svadhyaya, 36. Space, 66. Svarga, 53, 54. Sravaka, 40. Svasocchvasa, 65. S'ravana, 107. Svastika sign, 51, 89, 94, 104. Sravasti, 8. Svetambara, 18, 19, &c. Sreyainsanatha, 51. Svetambara Canon, 12. S'ruta Jnana, 83. S'vetambara Scriptures, 20. Steps to Liberation, the Four- Svetambara Sect, Origin of, teen, 60. Svetambara Vow, 33. [11. Sthanakavasi, 13, 18, 19, &c. Sweeping brush, 24, 98, 99.

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124 INDEX. Tama Prabha, 55. Trinaspars'a Parisaha, 70. Tamatami Prabha, 55. Tri-ratna, 84. Tandulaveyalia, 20. Trisa Parisaha, 70. Tapa, 34, 72. Truth, 37, 41, 7EUR. Tapa gaccha, 111. Twins, Happy, 79, 8C. Tasottari, 101. Taste, 50, 66. Udaya, 72. Tejapala Temple (A'bu), E6. Unodari, 34. Tejo Les'a, 57. Untruthfulness, 32, 34, 76. Terapantha, Tera panthi, 106. Upabhoga. Paribhoga PariThananga Sutra, 15. mana, 42. Theft, 32, 41, 77. Upadhyaya, 49, 99. Thirst, 7C. Upanga, the Twelve, 17 ff. Thread, Sacred, 102. Upasaka Das'anga, 16. Three Jewels, the, 84, 102, Upas'anta Moha GunasthaTikhuto, 100. 1104. naka, 62. Time, 6C Upasaro, 24n., 27, 28, 38, 74, Time, Divisions of, 79. 100, 101, 105, 1078. Tirtharkara, 9, 10, 18, 49. Urdhraloka, 55. 50ff., 68, 75, 81, 94, 100n.. Usna Parisaha, 70. 106. Utsarga, 36. Tirthankara, List of, 51ff. Utsarpini, 79, 82. ,, Images of, 87,88,94. Uttaradhyayana, 20. Tiryakaloka, 54, 55. Uttarasana, 91, 102. Touch, 66. Uvavai, 17. Trana Yoga, 68. Transmigration, 52. Vacana Gupti, 69. Travel, 42. Vacana Punya, 7. Treason, 77. Vadha Parisaha, 70. Treasure houses, 14. Vaisali, 2. Tri Indriya, 65. Vaisali, Government of, 3.

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INDEX. Vaiyavacca, 36. Vallabhi, Council of, 12, 13. Valu Prabha, 55. Vandana, 100. Vanhidasa, 18. Vania, 38, 39, 46, 95. Vardhamana, 4. Vastra Parisaha, 70. [94. Vastra Punya, 74. Vastupala Temple (Abu), 86, Vasupujya, 51. Vedaniya Karma, 58. Vedantists, 73. [7. Vesaliya, (name of Mahavira), Videha, 8. Vimalanatha, 51. Vimala Shaha Temple, 94. Vinaya, 36. Vipaka Sutra, 17. Virathuo, 21. Vishnu, 18. Vows, 21, 30, 40. Vrata, 31. Vrittisanksepa, 35. Vyavahara Sutra, 18. Vyavaharika Kala, 66. Wandering Life, 6, 37. Water, 27, 64, 88, 102. Whisk, 24, 98, 99. Widow-remarriage, 47. Widows, Child, 78, 112. Worship, Jaina, 85. 39 99 "" 23 "" "" [86. Digambara Morning, Evening, 92. 125 29 Women, 107. "" " (Layman's),106. S'thanakavasi, 99. [92. S'vetambara Morning, "Evening, 98. (Layman's), 102. 26, 47, 52, 61, 103, 33 Yaksa, 87. Yanca Parisaha, 70. Yas'oda, 4. Yathakhyata Caritra, 72. Yati, 23 ff. Yoga, Trana, 68. Young Men's Association, 112.

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SOF-CALIFORN S.OF.CALIFORN WA LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITA 1.OF.CALI FOR CALIFORNS ERS/ JA LOS ANGELES OSITL A-LOSANCI THE-LIBRARYO OF CAI THE LIBRARY OF HE-LIBRARY OF WLOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITE THE-UNIVERSITA A LOS ANGELES THE LIBRARY OF THE-LIBRARY OF THE UA - 129 THE-LIBRA .OF.CALIFORN WIOS ANGELES. 13NY.S017 RYOA SVA LOS ANGELES: ..THE-UNIVERSIDA ALOSAN ORNL 9931 4:0F-CALIFORN OF CALIFORNIA HELIBRARYO THE-UNIVERSIT A LOS ANGELES. VISUAINO:3HX? A LOS ANCELES. S7139NY-S01 The THE-LIBRARYO RARY OF BRARYOE UNIVERSITA THE JA:LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITAS SHE-UBRARY OF OF CALIFORN THE-LIBRARYO Y OF CALIFORN 14.0 -THE-UN 4.OF-CALIFORNE THE UNIVERSITA FORN 40 LOS ANGELES N8031 ALOS ANGELES. THE-LIBRARYO J-OF-CALIFORNZ THE-LIBRARYO THE-LIBRARY OF THE LIBRARYO A:LOS AN THE UNIVERSIZ WA LOS ANGELES. THE-URR HE LIBRARYO OF 2.0F CALIFORN THE-LIBRARYO THE UNIVERSITI ALOSA THE-UNIVERSIDA FORN JA:LOS ANGELES HE-UNIVERSITL < THEN TV-OF-CA 4.OF.CALIFORN Page #141
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