Jain Rup Mandan

Author(s): Umakant P Shah
Publisher: Abhinav Publications
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001961/1

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JAINA-RUPA-MANDANA (Jaina Iconography) Umakant P. Shah Jain Edt K vale & Personal use only

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JAINA-RUPA-MANDANA (Jalna Iconography) Umakant P. Shah Pp. 348 Demy 4 to Index Half-tone illus. 215 Colour Illus 3 Bibliography The JAINA-ROPA- MW . Volume I is an authentic work on Jaina iconography from the pen of a well-known authority on the subject, Dr. Umakant P. Shah, an eminent Indologist and art historian with specialization in Jaina art and literature. Illustrated profusely with over two hundred monochrome plates, the work is a standard textbook and a very useful guide to all students of Indian art and archaeology and to Museum Curators. The work is supplemented with a large number of iconographic tables for images of all important Jaina gods and goddesses. Dr. Shah, the author, has for the first time given solutions to various basic problems of Jaina iconography supported with ample evidence from both archaeology and literature including unpublished original texts still in manuscripts. Two further volumes will soon follow. Rs. 800

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JAINA-RUPA-MANDANA Volume I jaina-rUpa-maNDana bhAga 1 (Jaina Iconography) UMAKANT P. SHAH M.A. Ph . Dip. Museology Ex-Editor, Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art Ex-Deputy Director, Oriental Institute, Baroda GE BOERE Vasudeva Baladeva Prati-Vasudeva Cakravartin abhinav publications Jain Education international

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Plate ! FRONTISPIECE

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To My Revered Parents The Jaina Samgha

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First Published in 1987 (c) U.P. Shah Printed in India All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Publishers Shakti Malik Abhinav Publications E-37, Hauz Khas New Delhi-110 016 ISBN 81-7017-208-X ISBN 81-7017-218-7 Printers Hans Raj Gupta & Sons Anand Parbat New Delhi-110 005 JAYALAKSHMI INDOLOGICAL BOOK HOUSE 6. Appar Swamy Koil Street (Upstairs) Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004. Tel: 4990539 Fax: 044-4940066 Attn. FDA 89

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Preface Before 1953 when I was awarded Ph.D. degree on my thesis on Elements of Jaina Iconography (North India). I had published, from 1940 onwards, some important chapters on Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, on the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati, on the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas, on Jivantasvami, on Kaparddi and Brahmasanti Yaksas, Ksetrapala, on Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Tantras, on the History of Tantra in Early Jaina Literature, on the Age of Differentiation of Digambara and Svetambara images and the earliest known Svetambara bronzes, Vardhamana-Vidya-Pata, etc. In 1954 I gave lectures on Jaina Art in the Banaras Hindu University under the auspices of the Jaina Cultural Research Society when the late Dr. V.S. Agrawala presided. The lectures, published as Studies in Jaina Art, mainly dealt with Symbol Worship in Jainism. Since then several articles on Jaina iconography, art, and culture have been published by me, besides three books on Jaina paintings-New Documents of Jaina Paintings (jointly with Dr. Moti Chandra), More Documents of Jaina Paintings and Gujarati Paintings of the sixteenth and later centuries, and Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras. A Brief Survey of Jaina Bronzes with many illustrations was published in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture. Every time I tried to revise my thesis for publication I was required to postpone it and undertake works on Jaina paintings mentioned above, as well as the book on Art of the Akota Bronzes or the editing of the rare Jaina work on music entitled Sangitopanisad-Saroddhara and the work of Critical Edition of the Ramayana of Valmiki and so on. The accidental discovery of the Akota Hoard of Jaina Bronzes was a landmark in the study of Jaina Iconography and Western Indian Sculpture. I was fortunate in retrieving the hoard dispersed amongst people in Baroda. The Akota Bronzes, discovered in 1951-52, helped me in getting solutions of problems like the Introduction of Sasanadevatas in Jainism, Age of Differentiation of Svetambara and Digambara Tirthankara-images, Introduction of cognizances on Tirthankara images, identification of Jivantasvami images etc., and finalising the thesis with some satisfaction. My work does not aim at exhausting everything in Jaina iconography. The thesis was more or less a first systematic attempt at putting the study of Jaina iconography on scientific basis. In the thesis, I had concentrated only on North Indian Jaina images, though I tried to study most of the Svetambara and Digambara literary sources in Prakrt, Sanskrt, Apabhramsa and Gujarati. For the first time I could bring to light and refer to tantric Jaina texts (published as well as a majority in manuscript form). For this study good deal of material also exists in Kannada and Tamil literatures. Prof. S. Settar of Dharwar is doing good work in Karnataka, has brought to light several sources, especially of Kannada Puranas, and has published a valuable work on Sravana Belagola. Dr. Sarayu Doshi brought to light several rare Digambara Jaina paintings and, in Marg, a special issue on Gommatesvara. Before I started my studies around 1938, some important works and articles on Jaina art and iconography were published: A. Cunningham in his Archaeological Survey Reports published valuable information about Jaina sites and noticed sculptures, inscriptions etc. from several sites like Mathura, Khajuraho, Gwalior, etc. G. Buhler published two articles on Jaina inscriptions from Mathura and a paper on Jaina sculptures from Mathura, in Ep. Indica, between 1892-94 A.D. His discussion on Naigamesin from Jaina and Medical

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana sources was remarkable. In 1887 he wrote 'On the Authenticity of Jaina traditions', in W.Z.K.M., and in 1896, a paper on "Epigraphic Discoveries at Mathura'. His 'Legend of the Jaina Stupa at Mathura was published in German in S.K.A.W., Wien, 1897. In 1903, Burgess translated in English Buhler's paper 'On the Indian Sect of the Jainas', appending himself an 'Outline of Jaina Mythology'. J. Anderson in his Catalogue of Archaeological collections in the Indian Museum (c. 1883) noticed a few Jaina sculptures in the Museum. He had also mentioned some Jaina bronzes, of which the bronzes from Gwalior were neglected hitherto. I have recently published these Gwalior bronzes along with other Jaina bronzes from Prof. Eilenberg's collections. V.A. Smith (1901) published his 'The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura', a work of outstanding value for all later studies of Jaina antiquities from Kankali Tila, Mathura. On the basis of some Canareso Dhyana-slokas obtained from South India, J. Burgess discussed 'Digambara Jaina Iconography' in Indian Antiquary, vol. 32 (1903-4), and illustrated various yaksas and yaksinis with modern line-drawings. His Archaeological Survey Reports entitled 'Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachchha' (1876), 'Report on the Belgaum and Kaladgi Districts (1874) and 'A Revised List of Antiquarian Remains in the Bombay Presidency (jointly with H. Cousens' noticed Laica su i images and shrines. Also noteworthy is his Report on the Elura Cave Temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India, Archaeological Survey of Western India, vol. V (1883), as also Cave Temples of India (jointly with J. Fergusson) and Inscriptions from Cave Temples of India (with Bhagwanlal Indraji, 1881). Growse, F.S., wrote on Mathura and also discussed some Mathura Inscriptions in Indian Antiquary, vol. 6. Later J.Ph. Vogel published his famous Catalogue of the Curzon Museum of Archaeology at Mathura (1910), La Sculpture de Mathura, Art Asiatica, Paris, 1930, and wrote on the Mathura School of Sculpture in ASI, A.R., 1906-07 and 1909-10. Bhandarkar, D.R., wrote on the now famous Jaina Caumukha Temple at Ranakpur (ASI, A.R., 1907-08). In an article on Jaina Iconography (ASI, A.R., 1905-06) ho identified and described a sculpture depicting the Asvavabodha-tirtha and Sakunika-vihara story associated with the life of Tirthankara Munisuvrata, and discussed the Jaina Samavasarana in another article on Jaina Iconography in Indian Antiquary (1911). In 1915, he discovered from excavations at Vala (ancient Valabhi) five unique Jaina bronzes assigned to c. fifth and sixth centuries A.D., now preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. As Superintendent, Western Circle, he surveyed a number of sites (Jaina as well as Hindu) in Western India. Banerji, R.D., discussed 'New Brahmi Inscriptions of the Scythian Period' in Epigraphia Indica, X (1909-10) and described some Jaina images and pedestals. In his notes on Mangya Tungya Caves (ASI, A.R., 1921) he described some early mediacval Jaina carvings in Maharashtra. In his Eastern School of Mediaeval Indian Sculpture he discussed Jaina images discovered from Bengal; in his Age of the Imperial Guptas he discussed some known Jaina sculptures of the Gupta Age. In 1914, Dr. A.K. Coomaraswamy opened a new line of studies in his 'Notes on Jaina Art' wherein he discussed miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra, a cosmographical chart and a canvass pata of Parsvanatha. In his Catalogue of Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, vol. IV, Jaina Paintings, 1924, he described Jaina miniature paintings, Jaina Jataka-scenes. He also discussed iconography of Tirtbadkaras, deities like Indra, Naigamesa and others and described the five kalyapakas in the life of each Tirthaokara. In his Boston Catalogue, vol. IV, in the Portfolio of Indian Art and in his History of Indian and Indonesian Art he published some i Jaina sculptures and temples. In 1935 was published his beautiful paper on "The Conqueror's Life in Jaina Painting" (JISOA, vol. III) wherein he tried to interpret the fourteen prognostic dreams of a Jina's mother. His remarkable pioneer study of Yaksas (parts I and II) (1928-31) has been largely helpful in our study of Yaksas and Yaksinis in Jaina art and literature. Two monumental studies by H. Cousens, entitled 'Chalukyan Architecture' and 'Antiquities of Somnath and Kathiawad', were very useful in our study of Jaina antiquities in Karnataka and Kathiawad. His studies of shrines at Aihole, published in ASI, A.R., 1907-08, were equally illuminating.

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vii Preface Rama Prasad Chanda made valuable advancement in the study of Jaina art and iconography by publishing 'Notes on Jaina Remains at Rajgir, ASI, A.R., 1925-26, describing and illustrating almost all important Jaina sculptures from this ancient site. He supplemented these notes in the same report with another long article on 'Svetambara and Digambara images of the Jainas' wherein he discussed the age of differentiation of Svetambara and Digambara Jaina images and placed it roughly in the age of king Ama (Nagavaloka) and Bappabhatti suri, in c. 750-840 A.D. In his Mediaeval Indian Sculptures in the British Museum (1936), he brought to light some beautiful Jaina sculptures. T.N. Ramachandran was the first scholar to give a systematic account of Jaina iconography in his "Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples' (1934). The book included study of wall-paintings in Jaina temples at Jina-Kanchi, supplemented by illustrations of Jaina bronzes and sculptures in these temples, an account of Jaina Cosmography and Iconography of yaksas and yaksinis from Hemacandra's work and three lato Kannada sources. Publications on Jaina miniature paintings by W. Norman Brown, Coomaraswamy, Sarabhai Nawab, Moti Chandra and others were also helpful. Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharya gave, for the first time, an outline of tv supe u. a work on Jaina Iconography by giving lists of different types of Jaina deities for whom sadhanas were traced by him in Jaina texts. The paper on Jaina Iconography was published in Sri Atmananda Satabdi Smaraka Grantha (1935). Brindavan C. Bhattacharya had published a study of the 'Goddess of Learning in Jainism in Malaviya Commemoration Volume (1932) with the help of sources like Nirvanakalika and AcaraDinakara. In 1939, he published a work on Jaina Iconography, which was the first work of its kind aiming at presenting iconography of various Jaina deities with the help of literary as well as archaeological sources. Unfortunately it is marred by some cases of incorrect interpretations of the text, incomplete references, vague statements and in a few cases wrong identifications. However he deserves all the credit for publishing a pioneer work on Jaina iconography. Sapkalia, H.D., in 1938, identified some Dhank sculptures as Jaina which were formerly supposed to have been Buddhist. In 1940, he published a paper on Jaina Yaksas and Yaksinis and published two sculptures of Dharanendra and Padmavati from the Prince of Wales Museum, along with a few reliefs from the Jaina cave at Badami. His paper on Temples at Deogarh hardly added anything new to what was published in the Archaeological Reports and what was already mentioned by B.C. Bhattacharya. Vasudev Saran Agrawala's Catalogue of Mathura Museum (volume on Jaina sculptures) has been very useful to all students of Jaina art and culture. He wrote several articles on Jaina sculptures, for example, an article on Presiding Deity of Child Birth in Mathura art, and Brahmanical Deities in the Jaina Art at Mathura, etc. K.P. Jayaswal's discoevry of 'Torso of a Jaina Image of Mauryan Period' from Lohanipur near Patna, published in JBBORS, vol. XXIII, was an epoch-making discovery in the study of Indian iconography of historical period. J.E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw published her famous work on the Scythian Period (1949) in which she discussed several Jaina images of the Kusana period from Mathura and focused our attention on the importance of dating Mathura sculptures of c. Ist cent. B.C. to c. 4th cent. A.D. It may be pointed out here that all Mathura inscriptions-Jaina, Hindu and Buddhist-deserve to be read again. This is not an exhaustive list of all work done before I wrote my thesis and published articles on Ambika, Sarasvati etc.; this is but a brief survey of the work done. Since 1949 till today many authors have made substantial contributions in the field of Jaina art and culture. In this new revised edition of my thesis I have tried to incorporate results of all such researches by various scholars. However here too I crave indulgence of scholars for all acts of omissions. In my researches for many years I had concentrated only on North Indian Jaina images and my thesis was entitled 'Elements of Jaina Iconography (North India)'. I am glad to note here that my friend Prof. Klaus Bruhn (now in Berlin) carried out the study of Jaina Art and Iconography further by doing exhaustive studies of the Jaina shrines at Devgadh. Only the first volume entitled the Jaina

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viii Jaina. Rupa-Mandana Images of Deogarh is yet published. Prof. S. Settar of Dharwar is doing good work in the South. He has brought to light important references from Kannada literature and has published a beautiful monograph on Sravana Belagola besides some important contributions on Brahmadeva Pillars, Jvalamalini, Jaina yaksas and yaksinis mainly from Karnataka. M.N.P. Tiwari is doing good work in North India, especially on sites like Khajuraho and has written in Hindi a book on Jaina Pratima-Vijnana besides several articles. Some of his articles are collected in his book entitled 'Elements of Jaina Iconography'. Since he had read my thesis (from Prof. Dalsukh Malavania) and used its title for his book noted above, I have changed the title of my book now and called it 'Jaina Rupa-Maydana (Jaina Iconography)'. I have also tried to include study of several Jaina sculptures from South India though this study is not exhaustive. Two or three more volumes of this work will be published as early as possible. For my studies I am very much indebted to my guide and teacher the late Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharya, Ex-Director of Oriental Institute, Baroda and author of the standard text on Buddhist Iconography and editor of several original ancient works. I am also indebted to late Prof. A.N. Upadhye for his guidance in Digambara traditions and to late Muni Sri Punyavijayaji for all his help regarding Svetambara traditions. Through him I had easy access to Sve. Jaina temples as well as Bhandaras. In various ways I am indebted to several scholars like the late Dr. V.S. Agrawala, Dr. Moti Chandra, Rai Bahadur K.N. Dikshit, Dr. Amalananda Ghosh, and almost all the officers of the Archaeological Survey of India, Curators of all museums in India and abroad and many Jaina friends. Most valuable are the blessings of my parents, the help and cooperation of my wife, brother and son, all of whom have suffered in various ways for me. But for the great patience and sincerity of Shri Shakti Malik of Abhinav Publications this work would not have been published. I am also thankful to his proof reader. Umakant P. Shah 48, Haribhakti Colony J.P. Narayan Road Vadodara, 390015 (India) January 28, 1987

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Contents Preface 1. Introduction 2. Origin of the Jina-Image and the Jivantasvami Pratima 3. Panca-Paramesthis 4. Parents of the Tirthankaras 5. Notes on the Jaina Pantheon 6. Kulakaras and Salakapurusas 7. Devadhideva-Tirthankara 8. Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 9. Sasana-Devatas 10. Four More Popular Yaksinis Index List of Plates with Acknowledgements Plates 1-CIX (Figs. 1-215)

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CHAPTER ONE Introduction SVETAMBARAS AND DIGAMBARAS Jainism, primarily an Indian religion, hardly spread outside the borders of ancient India, unlike Buddhism which spread in almost all the countries of South and South-East Asia, and as far as Central Asia, Korea, China and Japan. However, Buddhism almost disappeared in India during the late mediaeval period, revived only in the twentieth century, but Jainism has been a living religion throughout the course of history from the time of Parsva, the twenty-third Tirthankara (8th century B.C.) and the last (twentyfourth) Tirthankara Vardhamana Mahavira (6th century B.C.) till today. Buddhism and Jainism are the two ancient principal heretical sects which revolted against Vedic priestly domination and ritualism involving animal sacrifice on a large scale. Out of many other such revolting sects and beliefs only Buddhism and Jainism have survived. Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and Vardhamana Mahavira, the last Tirthankara of Jaina belief, were contemporaries. The followers of Mahavira were called Nirgranthas and Mahavira is referred to as Nigantha Nataputta (naked scion or son of the Jnatr-clan) in Buddhist texts. They are later more commonly known as Jainas, followers of the Jina or the Conqueror. One who conquers the enemies in the form of passion, attachment, jealousy, etc. resulting in karma-bondage, is a Victor-a Jina. Buddha was also called a Jina3 in ancient Buddhist works, and an emancipated scul was also called a Buddha in early Jaina texts. Similarly the epithet Arhat (i.e. deserving respect and veneration) was used by both the Buddhist and the Jaina sects in ancient India, but later it came to dercte a Jina or a Tirthar kara. Later cn, the terms Buddha and Jina came to be specially used for the founders of Euddhism and Jainism respectively. Jainism is a living faith in India and as such there are a large number of Jaina shrines still in worship in almost all the States of India. It is therefore very difficult to explore and study exhaustively all available Jaina images from all Jaina shrines and sites in India. But after a preliminary outline study of Jaina iconography and art, special studies of selected sites5 cr regions can be undertaken by future workers. The Jainas claim very great antiquity for their religion. According to the Jaina Conception of Time, there is an ever-revolving Wheel of Time, with twelve spokes (aras, representing different pericds or ages, aeons, of mixed and unmixed happiness ard misery); six of them, when ccming up, ccnstitute the tsarpini or evolutionary cycle, followed by a downward process of the spokes representing the avasarpini or involutionary and degenerative process. In each of these two main cycles are born, in this BarataKsetra (sub-continent), twenty-four Tirthankaras, at different intervals. In the present avasari ini cycle twenty-four Tirthankaras have already lived. The first of them was Rsabhanatha or Adinatha (the first Lord) who is said to have flourished some millions of years ago. He was born in Vinita (Ayodhya) and obtained Nirvana on mount Astapada (supposed to be Mt. Kailasa), where a temple and a stupa were built in his honour by his son Bharata, the first Cakravartin. The twenty-second Jina Nemi or Aristanemi is regarded in Jaina traditions as a cousin brother of the Hindu Lord Krishna. The twenty-third Jina Parsvanatha, son of king Asvasena and queen Vima of Varanasi, lived in abcut the eighth century B.C., i.e., about 250 years before Mahavira whose Nirvana took place in 527 B.C.

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Jaina-Rapa-Mandana J.C. Jaina writes: "It is curious to note, however, that most of the Tirthankaras have been assigned to the Iksvaku family and are said to have attained salvation at the mount Sammeta (modern Parasanatha hill in the Hazaribag district, Bihar). So far no historical or archaeological evidence has come forth to warrant the historicity of the first twenty-two Tirthankaras; on the other hand, taking into consideration the long duration of their careers and the intermediate periods between each Tirthankara, they appear to be legendary figures introduced perhaps to balance the number of Jinas with the number of Buddhas." Parsvanatha and his disciples are referred to in various Jaina Canons. We learn from the Acaranga Sutra that the parents of Mahavira followed the faith of Parsva and were adherents of the Samanas. Mahavira himself seems to have first followed the order of Parsva. The Bhagavati Sutra records a discussion between Mahavira and Samana (Sramana) Gingeya, a follower of Parsva. Samana Gangeya gave up the Caujjama Dhamma (Cituryima Dharma-the Doctrine of Four-fold Restraint) and embraced the Panca-Mahavrata (Five Great Vows) of Mahavira. It is stated in the Samannaphala-sutta of the Buddhist Digha-Nikaya that a Nigantha is restrained with four-fold restraint (Caturyama-Samvara). Jacobi has shown the existence of the Nioanthas before Nitaputta (Jnatrr-putra) Mahavira, on the strength of references in the Pali Literare. Inese Nirgranthas (knotless, i.e., free from bondage, attachment, etc.) were obviously followers of Parsva. The followers of Mahavira also were originally known as Nirgranthas. 2 Parsva emphasised the Doctrine of Ahimsa (non-injury) as a protest against Brahmanical sacrificial animal-slaughter, and added three more precepts, namely, abstinence from telling lies, from stealing, and from external possessions.10 Mahavira added the fifth vow of brahmacarya (celebacy) to the above four preached by Parsva. Another important difference between the Doctrine of Parsva and Mahavira was that the former allowed an under and an upper garment (santaruttaro whereas the latter forbade clothing altogether (for Jaina recluses).11 Mahavira was born in Ksatriyakundagrama, a suburb of Vaisali (modern Basarh in Bihar) in the house of King Siddhartha by his queen Trisala (acc. to Svetambara Jaina tradition) or Priyakarini (acc. to Digambara Jaina tradition). According to the Svetambara tradition as recorded in the Kalpa-sutra, Mahavira was first conceived in the womb of a Brahmana lady Devananda residing in another part of Vaisali but his embryo was transferred to the womb of the Ksatriya lady Trisala by (the goat-faced) Harinegamesin, the commander of infantry of Sakra, since the Indra thought that Tirthankaras were never born of Brahmana ladies. The supernatural element in the account obviously lends doubt to the historicity of the incident, which, it is interesting to note, is not reported in the Digambara tradition. In the Bhagavati-sutra, a canonical text acknowledged by the Svetambara Jaina sect, is described the meeting of the Brahmana lady Devananda and the Tirthankara Mahavira. After the departure of the lady, Mahavira, when questioned, explains to his chief disciple Indrabhuti (Gautama), that the lady was his (Mahavira's) mother. This further lends doubt to the historicity of this incident. 12 A stone panel depicting Harinegamesin seated on a throne and with some attendant ladies on one side, with one lady at the far end carrying a small baby in her hands, is obtained from the Kankali Tila, Mathura (Fig. 19). The stone panel is broken at one end and we do not know what figured beyond the representation of Harinegamesin seated on the throne. Below we find inscribed Bhagava Nemeso. Surely, this cannot be taken as the scene of transfer of Mahavira's embryo. As we have shown elsewhere, 13 Harinegamesin, as Nejamesa or Naigamesa is known to Vedic ceremony of Simantonnayana where three mantras addressed to Nejamesa are recited and in Brahmanical and ancient Indian traditions, Naigamesa is known as one of the attendants of Skanda, the Commander of God's army. Naigamesa was propitiated by Krishna for obtaining a beautiful son, according to the Jaina text Vasudevahindi. 14 So this panel may simply represent Harinegamesin as a god connected with protection of children, etc. Goat-faced terracotta figurines are obtained from many other north Indian sites, not necessarily showing Jaina association. During the early centuries of the Christian era, and perhaps a few centuries before, belief in malefic and benefic deities connected with child-birth, rearing of children, diseases of children etc., was very popular as can be seen from the Buddhist account of Hiriti and the references to Putanis, Sasthi, Revati, Bahuputrika yaksi, and the Bala-grahas obtained in ancient literature.

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Introduction 3 Mahavira renounced worldly life at the age of thirty, after practising meditation and penance at home for about a year or more prior to retirement. After renunciation, he wandered from place to place suffering great hardships and molestations from people of Radha, etc., and practised severe penance, finally attaining Kevalajnana on the bank of the river Ujjuvaliya near Jambhiyagama. He was at that time sitting with upright knees like a milkman sitting while milking the cow (godohikasana). . For thirty years Mahavira wandered as a preacher from place to place, and at the age of seventy-two, two hundred and fifty years after Parsva's death, died in Pava in 527 B.C.15 Like Parsva, Mahavira organised his community (Samgha) into four orders, namely, monks (sadhu), nuns (sadhvi), laymen (sravaka) and laywomen (sravika). Gautama Indrabhuti and Candana were Mahavira's first male and female disciples, leaders of his orders of monks and nuns respectively. Mahavira had, amongst his monk disciples, eleven Ganadlaras (Fig. 167), i.e., heads of schools or groups of monks of whom Gautama Indrabhuti was the oldest Ganadhara. The obstacles (upasargas) suffered by Mahavira before Kevalajnana have been a popular theme of the miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra; see, for example, Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India, Figures 159 and 160 illustrating pages from a Kalpa-sutra irom the Sm Atmarama Jaina Jnanamandira. Baroda. For more illustrations, see W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the KalpaSutra, pp. 35-38, Figs. 75, 76, 77 and 78. Another upasurga, narrated in later texts, is that from the Sulapani Yaksa (the trident-bearer yaksa) (Fig. 171) who seems to be no other than Siva, the Brahmanical God. and the story echoes some strong opposition, faced by Mahavira, from the Saivites. The life of Parsva is also noteworthy for what is known as Kamashopasarga, the attack by Kamatha, again a Brahmana ascetic (tapasa) practising penance with fires kindled around him. Once while wandering, Prince Parsva saw a cobra burning in the logs of wood in the fires kindled by Kamatha and as Parsva removed the logs, the snake came out half-burnt and died but was born as Dharanendra, the Lord of the Naga-kumara class of semi-divine beings. Kamatha, after death, was also born as a god, Meghamalin. When after renunciation, Parsva was standing in deep meditation, Kamatha, reborn as god, saw him and taking revenge, poured torrential rains, flooded the area, and sent his host of terrific beings to hurl rocks, etc., to disturb Parsva's meditation. Dharanendra, remembering the obligation, rushed to the scene with his chief queens and protected Parsva by spreading his cobra-hocds over the head of the saint, while Dharanendra's queens played music and danced in order to lessen the miseries inflicted on the saint. Unmoved by the obstacles of Kamatha or the sweet music and dance of the Naga queens, Parava continued his meditation. This incident is a very popular theme of reliefs in several Jaina sites in South India (at places like Aihole, Badami, Ellora, Kalugumalai, etc; cf. Figs. 50, frontispiece), and in paintings of the Kalpa-sutra. No sculptures or reliefs of this scene are as yet discovered from Sveta mbara sites. 16 The attack of Kamatha reminds one of the attack of Mara in Buddha's life so often portrayed in Buddhist reliefs. Both the Jaina and the Buddhist accounts remind one of the Indra-Vstra fight of the Vedic lore. These seem to be echoes of the eternal fight between forces of good and evil, truth and untruth, devas and asuras, light and darkness. Sometime after Mahavira's Nirvana in 527 B.C., schisms began cccurring in the Jaina Church. According to Svetambara accounts, the schism headed by Sivabhuti, pupil of Kanha (Krsna sthavira (Fig. 21), turned out to be the biggest in course of time, and resulted in two principal sects of Jainism, namely, the Svetambaras or the white-robed, and the Digambaras or the sky-clad ones. The Digambaras were also called Botikas in texts of the other sect. This schism took place in 136 years after Vikrama, that is, in 79 A.D. according to the Digambaras, and in 82 A.D. (609 years after Mahavira's Nirvana) according to the Svetambaras. Some of the main points of difference17 between these two sects are: (1) The Svetambaras worship images showing a lower garment carved or painted on the person of the Tirthankaras and further decorate their idols with additicnal ear-crraments, glass-cyes, necklaces, armlets, crowns of gold or silver and jewels, while the Digambaras worship their Tirthankaras unadorned and showing no garment on the body. The eyes of the Tirthankaras in the Svetambara worship are shown wide-open. Usually there are

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana glass-eyes attached to Jina-images in almost all temples still in worship. In the case of Digambara images, the eyes are generally shown half-closed in the original carving, and no glass eyes etc. are attached. This observation regarding eyes applies to images carved after the Gupta period, in what we call the mediaeval period. (2) The Svetambaras assert that there are twelve heavens of different groups of gods (the kalpa heavens), the Digambaras maintain that there are sixteen such types or groups. (3) According to the Svetambaras there are sixty-four Indras for various heavens or groups of gods, the other sect speaks of one hundred such Indras. (4) According to the Digambaras, final emancipation is not possible for a woman, while the Svetambaras believe that a soul can obtain salvation even when born as a woman. This is perhaps an inevitable corollary to the Digambara insistence on the nudity of monks (as well as of the Tirthankara images) which was regarded as the ideal stage of aparigraha (possessionlessness) which was not practical in the case of nuns. (5) (as a corollary to above) The nineteenth Jina Mallinatha was a male according to the Digambaras but according to the mythology of the Svetambara sect, Malli was a princess who later renounced the world and became a Tirtharra. in earliest Svetambara source for this, so far known, is the canonical text Nayadhammakahao, which, in its present form, does not seem to be earlier than the third or the fourth century A.D. The Digambaras do admit a nun's order, but these nuns can reach only upto a certain spiritual stage in the hierarchy of monks and nuns. For attaining the highest stage of Kevalajnana they have to be reborn as males. (6) All the Svetambara monks use at least two garments, one upper and another a lower one. The Digambara monks, barring a few primary stages, remain naked. (7) The Svetambaras acknowledge authenticity of the extant Arigas (or Scriptures, part of the Jaina Canonical or Agama literature) and regard them as works of the immediate disciples of Mahavira. The Digambaras think that all the twelve original Anga texts are lost and hence regard, as authoritative, works like Mulacara, Dhavala, Jayadhavala, Mahadhavala, Bhagavati Aradhana, etc., composed by earlier leading monks, since such works are based on original tradition handed down from the ancient line of acaryas. (8) According to the Svetambara tradition, the mother of a would-be Tirthankara sees fourteen (different objects in) dreams, while according to the Digambaras she sees sixteen such dreams at the time when the Jina is conceived in her womb. This event is the first auspicious event in the life of a Jina. It is known as the Cyavana Kalyanaka, auspicious event of the Descent from heaven in the Mother's womb. (9) The lists of eight auspicious objects--the astamangalas-are slightly different in the traditions of the two sects. There are several other points of difference which are not quite relevant for students of iconography. However, one must note that these differences have grown gradually. Almost all the hitherto-found Tirthankara images in the standing or the kayotsarga posture, dating before the fifth century A.D., are naked, while images of Tirthankaras in the sitting posture (in the padmasana), dating before the fifth century, do not show the lingam, but since they do not show any mark of drapery on the body we have to presume that the very posture of sitting was such that even though there was no garment, nudity could not be shown. After the fifth century, we find standing images of Tirthankaras) in the Svetambara tradition showing a lower garment, though the Svetambara-Digambara differentiation in the case of images in the sitting posture was not explicit. But still later, probably after the seventh century, we find that even in the case of seated figures, markings of garments and their ends, and/or of a girdle (holding the loin-cloth) were clearly done by the Svetambaras while the Digambaras managed to show the lingam even in the case of a Jina sitting in the padmasana or the ardha-padmasana. Tirthankara images, of both the Jaina sects, are found in two postures only, namely, the standing or the kajotsarga mudra, and the sitting or the padmasana or the ardha-padmasana posture. The ardha. padmasana posture is more popular in South India in the Digambara Jaina worship, where images in the padmasana posture are hardly found. A Tirthaikara image can be differentiated from a Buddha image by noting the presence or absence of

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Introduction the upper garment or samghati, since there is no upper garment shown on the person of any Tirthankara. A dialogue between monk Kesin of the school of Parsvanatha and Gautama, the first pupil of Mahavira, recorded in the Uttaradhyayana sutra, shows that the doctrine of Parsva allowed an under and an upper garment (santaruttaro) while that of Mahavira forbade clothing altogether. Gautama cleverly bridges over this difference of the two law-givers pursuing the same end by saying that the outward symbols were introduced as they were useful for spiritual life and that, as a matter of fact, knowledge, faith and right conduct were the only three causes of liberation.18 The Brhat-Kalpa-Bhasya of Samghadasa gani Ksamasramana (circa 5th-6th cent. A.D.) says that the doctrine of the first and the last Tirthankaras prescribed nudity while that of the intervening pontiffs allowed the option of both nudity and wearing garments (to the Jaina monks).19 Even this statement was only used in perpetuating the controversy between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras so far as image-worship is concerned. We however know that Mahavira himself followed, in the beginning of his career as a recluse, the order of Parsvanatha. The Acaranga-sutra, regarded as the oldest preserved section of the extant Jaina Canons, says, about Mahavira, hat for year and a month he did not leave off his robe, thereafter he moved about naked and leaving garment became a houseless sage (anagare).20 5 "The Buddhist texts refer to the existence of large numbers of Niganthas (Knotless, i.e. naked, i.e. Unattached ones) who followed the caturyama samvara, the four-fold restraint that Jacobi and others have convincingly identified with the teachings of Parsva ... Whereas the Digambaras may reject the authenticity of the Kesi-Gautama dialogue, particularly with regard to its position on nudity, the Buddhist reference to caturyama forces them to confront the "discrepancy" between the teachings of Parsva and Mahavira which this dialogue seems to express."21 The above remarks of Padmanabha Jaini are noteworthy. He says that the Buddhists have failed to make clear what the term caturyama samvara entails. The Svetambara canon gives the first comprehensive definition. "Caturyama is said to involve restraint from four sorts of activities: injury, nontruthfulness, taking what is not given, and possession. This list agrees with that of Mahavira except that it omits the fourth of his five vows, which specially prohibits sexual activity... Abhayadeva and Santyacarya interpreted the vow of non-possession as including celebacy... The recent research of P.K. Modi, however, shows that this interpretation is subject to serious difficulties. First, we should expect Mahavira, as a follower of the tradition of Parsva, to have initially taken the same vows as his predecessor. Yet even the Acaranga-sutra of the Svetambaras has him pledging only to follow a single great restraint called samayika-caritra, which entails avoiding all evil actions whatsoever. Moreover, the term caturyama never appears in Digambara literature; Mahavira is invariably said therein to have undertaken the samiyika-samyama, which in the Bhagavati-sutra is shown to be identical to the samayikacaritra. In the light of these facts Modi has suggested that caturyama did not imply four vows at all, but rather the four modalities (mind, body, speech and the senses) through which evil could be expressed. Thus, he concludes, both Parsva and Mahavira practised and taught the same, single, all-encompassing samayika restraint, while the five vows that Mahavira set forth are no more than a specification of the main areas of conduct to which this restraint applied."22 The Buddhist Pali texts talk of certain eka-sataka Niganthas which is regarded as a testimony showing the clothed state of at least a few Jaina monks in Mahavira's time. A passage in the Acaranga-sutra states that weak men, who cannot tolerate going sky-clad but wish to practise fasting and other virtuous activities, should do so while continuing to wear clothing.23 The Sthananga-sutra permits the use of garments under certain conditions, the Acaranga provides for begging of garments, the Uttaradhyayanasutra refers to the worry of monks about their garments being old and torn. It would seem that even Mahavira did not insist on nudity, nor did he regard the use of garment as parigraha; nakedness was not insisted upon as the means to attain salvation.24 From very early times there were two modes of conduct practised by the Jaina monks, namely, the Jinakalpa and the Sthavirakalpa. The first enforced nudity and rigorous austerities while the second enjoined a modified living with a few bare necessities including garments, alms-bowl, etc. According to the Avasyaka-curni (c. 700 A.D.) Municanda, a contemporary of Mahavira and a follower of the school of

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6 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Parsva, who called himself a Samana-Niggantha, placed his disciple at the head of the gaccha, and went to practise the Jinakalpa outside the town. The ascetics of the order of Municandra are said to have indulged in activities which, according to the doctrines of Mahavira, constituted preliminary sin; they put on clothes (sapariggaha) and also practised the Jinakalpa.25 Nudity was thus the highest ideal and specially those who practised Jinakalpa were required to have no parigraha whatsoever. In the early days both the Jinakalpa and the Sthavirakalpa monks were allowed to remain in the Jaina Samgha, and there were no strict rules about one's wearing clothes or going about naked. The Acaranga says: 'if a naked monk thought he could bear the pricking of grass, cold and heat, stinging of flies and mosquitos, or any other painful thing then he could leave the privies uncovered."26 But (when the number of articles in a monk's equipment increased and) when the monks began staying more and more among people, then he could cover the privies with a katibandha. In later stages the katibandha (loincloth) was replaced by a Colapatta.27 Arya Mahagiti, a contemporary of Samprati (the grandson of the Mauryan emperor Asoka), was an exponent of the Jina-kalpa, while his contemporary Arya Suhasti, teacher of Samprati, followed the Sthavira-kalpa. Naturally Suhasti had a larger following. But the Jina-kalpa possibly lingered on upto the age of Arya Raksita. When Arya Raksita initiated his family, his father was unwilling to discard all clothes due to modesty. Later on after great persuasion he accepted a kadipatta.29 The division of the Jaina community into two sects, according to the Svetambara accounts, is ascribed to Sivabhuti, a pupil of Arya Kapha, in the city called Rathavirapura. Kodinna and Kottivira were Sivabhuti's first pupils.30 The Digambaras relate another legend according to which, during the reign of Candragupta (Maurya) in Ujjain, sage Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve years' famine. At this Visakhacarya, a disciple of Bhadrabahu, led the Jaina Samgha to the Punnata kingdom in the south, while Bhadrabahu and others migrated to Sindhu region. In course of time when all returned to Ujjain, famine was still raging though not so acute, and the monks were allowed to use a piece of garment (held before their privies) (ardhaphalakam purah krtva) while going out for alms (compare Fig. 21 of the Tablet of Homage from Kankali Tila, Mathura, depicting the venerable ascetic Kanha; and Figs. 12, 15 showing on pedestals figures of Jaina ascetics holding such cloth-pieces). When the famine was over all the monks did not follow their elders' advice of reverting to nudity, and some retained the piece of cloth, which brought about the schism in Jainism dividing the Samgha into the Digambara and the Svetambara sects. The earliest available literary source for this Digambara legend is the Brhat-kathakosa of Harisena (v.s. 989-932 A.D.),31 while the earliest source for the Svetambara account of the schism is the Uttaradhyayana Niryukti (of Bhadrabahu II, not later than c. 500 A.D.).32 According to the Svetambaras, the origin of the Botikas (Digambaras) took place 609 years after Mahavira's Nirvana, that is, in (609-527=) 82 A.D.33 Introduction of Jainism in the South certainly dates from at least the first two centuries before the Christian era and even earlier as is evident from the Tamil Classics Manimekhalai and Silappadikaram,34 and from inscribed stone beds for monks in caves (e.g. the Sittanravasal Jaina cave) and caverns mainly in the Tamil Nadu, the inscriptions being in what is now called Tamil-Brahmi (that is, in Brahmi script and in Tamil language), 34" A Svetambara account shows that it was the Mauryan ruler Samprati who first patronised or facilitated the migration of the Jaina monks to the Daksinapatha, to the land of the Andhras and to other places further south.35 It is indeed difficult to say which of the two-the Digambara or the Svetambara-legends regarding the schism is correct. In fact, the differences between the two sects grew gradually36 and the final separation came later. Even Harisena refers to a third big sect of the Jainas. The sect was known as the Yapaniya sect which is referred as Yavanika in the Hoskote copperplate inscription of Pallava Simhavisnu. The Yapaniyas, unlike the Digambaras, believed in the authenticity of the Svetambara Canons but retained the practice of nudity 37 It seems that they also believed in the possibility of mukti (emancipation) for females. The first known archaeological evidence of the name of the Svetambara sect, discovered hitherto, is the grant of the Kadamba ruler Siva Mrget avarman,28 who, issuing a village grant in his fourth regnal

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Introduction year from his capital Vaijayanti, divides the village income into three shares, the first for the Holy Arhat, the second for the congregation of the eminent ascetics called the Svetapatas (Svetapata-Mahasramanasamgha), who were intent on practising the true religion declared by the Arhat, and the third for the enjoyment of the congregation of the eminent ascetics called the Nirgranthas.39 What is noteworthy in this record is the fact that the same image of the Holy Arhat in the village seems to have been respected and worshipped by followers of both sects, even though they lived in different quarters and differed in certain beliefs. The same practice is evident from the finds af a large number of sculptures of the Kusana period from the Kankali Tila, Mathura. The names of the monks and the branches (gana, kula, and sakha) to which they belonged, mentioned in the inscriptions on the pedestals of these sculptures, are available in the Svetambara tradition of the Kalpa-sutra Sthaviravali while all the Tirthankaras represented here show no trace of any garment on their person.40 The standing images are all nude, while those shown in the padmasana posture show neither the mark of nudity nor of any garment. It is therefore quite certain that during the Kusana period both the sects worshipped naked images of the Tirthankaras. 7 Hitherto known Jaina sculptures of Tirthankaras upto the fourth and early ifth centuries A.D. (Gupta period), obtained from Rajgir (Fig. 26), Mathura (Figs. 13, 14, 23), and Vidisa (Fig. 27), though limited in number, show no trace of a garment on the person of the Tirthankara.41 But the standing Adinatha image, in brass or bronze, from Akota, with silver studded eyes, datable to the last quarter of the fifth century A.D., is the earliest hitherto known image with a lower garment on the person of a Tirthankara (Fig. 22). The Mathura finds include a stone plaque representing Kanha Samana (Krsna Sramana) by name, holding on his forearm a piece of cloth to cover his nudity which suggests the existence of the ardhaphalakas (monks with partial covering!) in the second century A.D.42 This Tablet with the figure of Kanha (Fig. 21) bears an inscription dated in the year 95, and is noteworthy because this ascetic Kanha is very likely the same as the teacher of Sivabhuti, the leader of the Digambara-Svetambara schism.43 These ardhaphalakas are seen on pedestals of Tirthankara images, on one side of the dharma-cakra, in sculptures of the Kusana period obtained from Mathura (Figs. 12, 15, 21). These pedestals deserve more critical attention than what they have received so far.44 Usually there is, in the centre, a dharmacakra (Wheel of Law) sometimes with the rim facing us and mounted on top of a pillar, or sometimes the Wheel is mounted on a tri-ratna symbol. To the right of the Wheel, the first figure or sometimes the first two figures represent a Jaina monk holding a piece of cloth on forearm to cover his privies from front view. Obviously the monks follow what in later literature is called the ardhaphalaka tradition. 45 The earliest known Jaina sculpture was obtained from Lohanipur near Patna (ancient Pataliputra) which is a continuation of the ancient site of Kumrahara (site of Pataliputra). The sculpture is assigned to the Mauryan age on account of the high Mauryan polish on it and represents a Tirthankara standing in the kayotsarga mudra and having no garment on his person (Fig. 2). The head and lower parts of legs are lost but the position of the arms and the legs sufficiently warrant the inference that the figure stood in the kayotsarga mudra which is a peculiarity of Tirthankara images in the standing attitude. The modelling of the torso is in the best traditions of ancient Yaksa statues and the Harappa torso (a surface find). It has been argued that this torso need not be assigned to the Mauryan age as this type of polish continued even upto the first or second century A.D. We may add that some people have been able to produce similar polish on stone sculptures even in our age. This type of reasoning is not valid in the case of the torso under consideration. The 'Mauryan polish' did exist in the Mauryan age though of course it continued for a long time. So there is a possibility of existence of a Tirthankara image carved in the Mauryan age and having what is known as Mauryan polish on it. There was no prohibition about image worship in Jainism as it was regarding the worship of the Buddha image in early Buddhism. Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, is known in Jaina traditions to have patronised Jainism in different ways including installation of Jina images. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela refers to the Kalinga-Jina image carried away by the Nanda king which was brought back by Kharavela. The Lohanipur excavations revealed foundations of a brick structure with bricks of the size known to have existed in the Mauryan age. A few

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana punch-marked coins were obtained. This torso was obtained from near these foundations. From all these considerations it is advisable to assign this image to the Mauryan age, probably to the age of Samprati. The earliest known image showing any garment on the person of the Jina, discovered so far, is the bronze image of a standing Tirthaokara, identified as Rsabhanatha, obtained in the Akota hoard and assigned to the latter half of the fifth century A.D. (Fig. 22).46 All standing metal images of Tirthankaras. from the Chausa (Bihar) hoard, now in the Patna hoard, dating from a period c. 1st cent. B.C.-A.D. to c. 4th cent. A.D., show no garment on the person of the Jina (Figs. 4, 8). Varahamihira, who lived in c. 492-551 A.D., prescribes in his BIhat-Samhita that the god of the followers of Arhats is to be represented as young, naked, peaceful and beautiful in appearance, with arms reaching his knees and with the Srivatsa mark on his chest.47 Varahamihira's silence over the Svetambara type of the Tirthaikara-image is significant, especially when in the Jaina traditions Vara hamihira is regarded as brother of Bhadrabahu, the author of the Niryuktis. It is quite obvious that the Svetambara type of the Jina-imagu. . + existed, had not become popular enough to obtain recognition in the Bphat-Samhita. The Sveta mbara traditions speak of a dispute over the ownership of the Jaina temples at Mt. Girnar, which took place in the times of Bappabhatti suri (c. 743-838 A.D.).48 The case was decided, with the help of supernatural elements, in favour of the Svetambaras and against the Digambaras. From that time onwards, in order to avoid future disputes, the Svetambaras started the practice of showing an ancala or the end of the garment of the Tirthaokara on images of the Jinas. Obviously this refers to the Tirthankara images in the sitting posture. The Digambaras also clearly showed the linga of the Jina even when he was sitting in the padmasana or the ardha-padmasana posture. The account of this dispute, given by writers of the fourteenth and later centuries, containing some supernatural element, may not be wholly correct, but one fact emerges that there was a dispute over the ownership of the Girnar temples in the age of Bappabhatti suri. The dispute could arise only in the case of images of the Jinas in the sitting posture which hitherto left the matter ambiguous (so far as nudity was concerned), while on the other hand, so far as the ancient images at Lohanipur (Pataliputra), Mathura, Rajgir and other places were concerned, these clearly represented the Tirthankaras as naked, and from fifth century A.D. the Svete mbaras started showing a lower garment on the person of a standing Tirthaikara image. 49 THE JAINA CONCEPTION OF THE DEITY According to Jaina philosophy, the substances are real, characterised by existence, and are six in number. They can be broadly divided into the living (jira) and the non-living (ajiva). Jiva means the soul or the spirit. It is essentially a unit of consciousness and there are infinite souls. The class of nonliving substances is made up of infinite matter (pudgala), principles of motion and rest (dharma and adharma), space (akasa) and time (kala). These substances are eternally existing, uncreated, with no beginning in time. As substances they are eternal and unchanging, but their modifications are passing through a flux of changes. Their mutual cooperation and interaction explains all that is implied by the term "creation", and Jainism admits of no intelligent Creator who can be credited with the creation of this Universe. There is thus no place in Jainism for a Supreme God-head, a Creator-God. Consciousness (cetana) is the very essence of the soul. The soul is inherently endowed with infinite vision (ananta-darsana), infinite knowledge (ananta-jnana), and infinite power (ananta-virya). These original faculties or characteristics of the soul are suppressed in the case of mundane souls because they are bound by subtle matter called karma. This bondage results in the cycle of birth and death, happiness and misery. By cultivating pure thoughts and actions the influx of karma-matter (clinging to and binding the soul), both good and bad, must be stopped, and the already binding stock of karma must be consumed by rigorous religious austerities. When the karmas are completely destroyed the soul becomes liberated manifesting all qualities of ananta-jnana, ananta-virra, etc. This liberated and perfect siddha) soul is the

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Introduction 9 embodiment of infinite power, knowledge and bliss. He is freed from all bondages of attachment and aversion (raga and dvesa) etc. and does not frown upon nor favour anybody. He then becomes a Jina (who has conquered enemies like raga and dvesa) and an Arhat deserving respect and adoration and when he establishes and organises the Samgha (Tirtha), he is a Tirthankara. When he leaves the last bondage of the human body he is completely liberated and perfect, a Siddha. The ultimate goal of every follower of the Jaina Faith is the attainment of Nirvana or Moksa which consists in completely liberating the soul from the bondage of and defilement by the karmas. Right Knowledge (samyak-jnana), Right Faith (samyak-darsana), and Right Conduct (samyak-caritra) collectively constitute the path of liberation. These are known as the Three Jewels--Ratna-traya or Tri-ratna. There is thus no place in Jainism for God as the Supreme Being, Creator and distributor of happiness and misery, of fruits of action, worship and devotion, It is therefore reasonable to suppose that in the beginning there might not have been any Jaina worship of cult images in temples. (But human mind needs some support and resort (asraya) and as such, out of respect for the liberated souls and Tirthankaras, worship of the Jina (Tirthankara) image was started at an early stage. By God Jainism understands a liberated soul (siddha) as well as the Tirthankara (who is also a siddha and) who is the highest spiritual ideal to which any soul can aspire; the God is, therefore, an example to inspire and guide. And by worshipping the God (i.e. the siddha or the Jina) a person is reminded of the God's highest qualities which the pious Jaina worshipper tries to develop in one's own self. The Jaina Conception of the Deity and His worship are therefore different from those of the Brahmanical faith.) The Jaina ideal of worship was for the sublimation of human thoughts and instincts and not for obtaining any material rewards. But this highest ideal, though acknowledged in theory to this day, was in practice never strictly adhered to by the Jaina masses, and, even in the age of Mahavira, propitiation of Yaksas, Nagas, Harinegamesin and others for obtaining children etc., was not unusual with the laity. It is this tendency which led to the eulogising of the Panca-Paramesthi mantra or the Navakara mantra as potent enough to save the worshipper from all calamities. In its purer form, Jaina worship is based on the conception of bhakti of an ideal, or an apostle representing an ideal, not for reward but for self-purification In essence it is more psychic than material and it is for this reason that, in both the Jaina sects, Bhava-puja is said to be always superior to Dravya-puja. Kundakunda, an early Digambara acarya, strongly supported Bhiva-paja in preference to Dravya-paja. JAINA WORSHIP-BEGINNINGS Evidence of Jaina sculptures from the Kankali Tila, Mathura,50 and adjoining sites has shown the prevalence of Stupa-worship in Jainism, from at least c. first century B.C. A Stupa of Muni-Suvrata at Visala is referred to in one of the Niryuktis.51 This Muni-Suvrata may be the twentieth Tirthankara of Jaina belief or the sage (Rsi) Suvrata referred to in Brahmanical literature.52 The Jaina stupa, which once existed on the site of the Kankali Tila, is regarded as a stupa of Suparsvanatha, the seventh Tirthankara in some late Jaina accounts, but, as we have shown elsewhere,53 it was very probably the stupa of Parsvanatha who flourished 250 years before Mahavira, in circa eighth century B.C., according to Jaina traditions. The antiquities from the site, discovered so far, with a few perhaps dating from c. first century B.C. (Fig. 18) and almost all others dating from c. first century A.D. to the end of the Kusana period, suggest that the stupa was enlarged, repaired or perhaps rebuilt and adorned with sculptures in the beginning of the Christian era. Svetambara Jaina traditions speak of repairs to the Jaina stupa of Suparsvanatha in the age of Bappabhatti suri in the eighth century A.D. Antiquities from the Kankali Tila show no repairs of the eighth century A.D. These antiquities from Kankali Tila, Mathura, attest to the existence, amongst the Jainas, of the worship of the Stupa (cf. Fig. 21), the Caitya-tree, the Dharma-cakra, the Ayigapata (Figs. 10, 11, 16, 17), the asta-mangalas (eight auspicious symbols) like the Svastika, the Nandyavarta diagram, the Vardhamanaka (powder-box), the Sri-vatsa mark, Mina-yugala (pair of fishes), the Padma (lotus), the Darpana (mirror), and Sthapana (cross-stand for holding a book) (Figs. 10, 11).54 Images of Tirthankaras, represented both

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10 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana in the standing (Figs. 9, 14) and the sitting (Figs. 10, 12, 23) attitudes, show no trace of drapery which clearly suggests that even though the Svetambara-Digambara schism had come into being in the second century A.D., the final crisis in the differentiation of Tirthankara icons of the two sects had not yet taken place. Hence the evidence of art from Mathura refers to Jaina worship prevalent in and common amongst both the sects in the first three or four centuries of the Christian era and not restricted to the Digambara or the Svetambara sect alone. From Mathura are found a special type of sculptures, called pratima-sarvato-bhadrika in the inscriptions on their pedestals, which show a Tirtharkara image on each of its four sides, facing each different direction (Fig. 14). These four-fold images, later more popular as Caumukha-pratimas55 on account of their facing four directions, have remained popular in Jaina worship of both the sects. The sarvvato-bhadrapratimas from Kankali Tila, Mathura, date from the Kusana period. It must however be remembered that not all the four-fold images from the Kankali Tila have inscriptions calling them pratima-sarvvato-bhadrika. An image of Sarasvati, installed in this period, is also found from the Kankali Tila (Fig. 20). Reliefs showing inc . the lives of Tirtharkaras and other scenes from Jaina mythology seem to have existed in Jaina art at Mathura as is evident from Fig. 18 depicting the scene of Dance of Nilanjana and the consequent retirement of Rsabhanatha. The relief dates from c. late first century B.C. We also have a panel showing Harinegamesin on throne attended by some figures (Fig. 19). " The full parikara obtained on Tirthaikara images of the mediaeval period is not yet evolved in the Kusana age, and only the halo, the Caitya-tree, the flying Vidyadharas or heavenly garland-bearers, heavenly musicians etc., all together or in different groupings are depicted in relief. During the Kusana period one does not find any cognizance (lanchana) on the pedestal of a Jina or an attendant Chowrie-bearer (camaradhara) with the figure of a Tirthankara at Mathura. Instead of the attendant camaradhara yaksa on each side of the Jina, we obtain, in the early stages of Tirthankara iconography, a donor and his wife (e.g. no. J.7 in Lucknow Museum), or more generally a monk and a nun (Fig. 9), or two monks or, in the case of Tirthankara Neminatha, figures of Krsna and Balarama, on the two sides of the Jina The Tirthankara is represented either standing in the kapotsarga posture on a pedestal or meditating while sitting in padmasana on a simhasana (lion-throne). The pedestal or the simhasana shows lions on two ends and the dharma-cakra (Wheel of Law) in the centre, sometimes placed on a pillar, and flanked by figures of sadhus (monks), sadhvis (nuns), sravakas (Jaina laymen), and sravikas (Jaina laywomen) (Figs. 12, 13). The Tablets of Homage called ayagapalas in the inscriptions on them, obtained from the Kankali Tila, Mathura, offer an interesting study. In the inscription on the Tablet dedicated by Vasu, the daughter of Lonasobhika, the Tablet is called a Silapafa.56 In the Jaina canonical literature, we find, in the stock description of the yaksayatana (caitya, explained by commentators as Yaksa shrine), reference to Silapata worshipped on a simhasana placed adjacent to the trunk of a Caitya-tree. The Jaina ayagapatas of Mathura have for their prototypes these Silapatas of ancient worship, as is evident from the inscription on the Tablet dedicated by Vasu, referred to above. The Buddhists also worshipped Sila patas as shown in the reliefs from the Bharhut stupa. A study of some of these Jaina ayagapatas or silapatas shows that in each of them one of the mangala (auspicious) symbols is prominently displayed in the centre. Acarya Hemacandra in his Trisastisalakapurusacarita refers to Bali-patas with astamangala marks which are thus the same as the ayagapatas of the older tradition at Mathura. Now-a-days we find, in Jaina temples, plaques of metal with reliefs of all the eight auspicious symbols on them (Fig. 153). In the ayagapata illustrated in Fig. 10 we find on one end a pillar surmounted by the Dharma-cakra and on the other end a pillar surmounted by a lion. In the ayagapata illustrated in Fig. 11 we find on one end a pillar surmounted by the Wheel of Law while on the other end we find a pillar surmounted by an elephant. Since the lion and the elephant are the cognizances of Mahavira and Ajitanatha respectively and since acarya Hemacandra lists such cognizances as Dhvajas of the different Jinas in his AbhidhanaCintamani-kosa, we should identify the pillars with the lion and the elephant as the Dhvaja-Stambhas or Dhvaja-pillars in front of temples of Mahavira and Ajitanatha supposed to have exsited in the Kusana period at Mathura. The Jainas also erected Dharma-cakra pillars. We find such pillars in the centre of the simhasanas of some of the Jaina images from the Kankali Tila (Figs. 12, 15). Figure 164 from Kankali

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Introduction Tila, Mathura, shows worship by circumambulation of a Dhvaja-Stambha by a Jaina couple.57 It seems that Jainas adored another type of pillars from fairly early times, at least from the Kusana period if not earlier. The Kahaon pillar (in U.P.) with an inscription of the Gupta period is perhaps the oldest extant Jaina pillar of this type so far discovered. It has on top four Jina figures facing four different directions and one Jina figure at the base.58 This is the type known as the Manastambha or the Manavakastambha in early Jaina texts of both the sects.50 Some of the four-fold sculptures obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura, seem to have been either on the top or at the bottom of such Manastambhas since a careful examination has shown that there are sockets either at the top or at the bottom of these sculptures for joining another stone. This proves the existence of the practice of erecting Manastambhas in front of Jaina shrines in the Kusana period. The practice of erecting pillars or votive columns is very old in India. The pillars not only remind us of votive columns one of whose early types was the wooden sthuna of the Vedic age, but also the Yupa of Vedic sacrifices. 60 Coomaraswamy drew our attention to the reliefs of Amaravati81 where the Buddha is represented as a fiery pillar with wheel-marked feet below supported by a lotus, and with a 'trisula-head', and has remarked that they "represent the survival of a purely Vedic formula in which Agni is represented as the axis of the universe, extending as a pillar between the Earth and Heaven."62 The worship of Agni as Skambha (or a sthuna) should, according to Coomaraswamy, he regarded as the origin of later practice of erecting pillars dedicated to different deities and surmounted by their vahanas (dhvajas) or by symbols like the Dharma-cakra. (According to the Jivajivabhigama-sutra, a Jaina canonical text, there was a big manipithaka in the centre of the Sudharma Sabha of Indra. On it was a Caitya-Stambha called Manavaka, in the central part of which were gold and silver boards with pegs. (naga-danta, of ivory) with hangers (sikkaka) attached to the latter. In these hangers were round boxes of vajra (diamonds) with bones of many Jinas preserved therein, worshipped by gods and goddesses. On the Manavaka-Caitya-Stambhas were placed asta-mangalas and umbrellas. The Digambara text Adipurana describes a type of pillars known as the Manastambha, in the first rampart of the Samavasarana (congregation hall or theatre, erected by gods, in which the Tirthankara delivers his sermon). At the base of these pillars on four sides were placed four golden images of the Jinas. The pillars were lofty and adorned with bells, fly-whisks, etc.63 They were placed on triple platforms and on top were triple umbrellas. Being erected by Indra, they were called Indra-Dhvajas. They are also described by the Digambara text Tiloya pannatti which says that the Jina images were on top of such pillars. 64 The pillars found in front of Parsvanatha Basti on Candragiri, Cannanna Basti on Vindhyagiri and Bhandari Basti in Sravana Belagola are Manastambhas. The Indra-dhwaja is perhaps an ancient diraja-pillar associated with the Indra-maha 65 referred to in Jaina canons, and reminiscent of the worship of the ancient Vedic god Indra. It may be noted that even today, when a Jina image is taken out in procession in a car (ratha), in front of the procession is an Indra-dhvaja, with flags on all sides, also carried in a car. The Bhagavati-sutra discusses supernatural powers of certain classes of Jaina monks who can fly to the mythical Nandisvara-dvipa and worship the Caityas (Ceiyaim) thereon. Obviously these Caityas are the Sasvata-Jina-ayatanas situated on the different mountains and also referred to as Siddhayatanas in different texts. The Jaina texts refer to madaga-ceiya (mstaka-caitya),67 i.e., funeral caityas, madaya-thubhiya (mstakastupa), i.e., funeral stupa and devaya-ceiva (daivata-caitya), i.e., caitya (image as well as edifice) dedicated to gods (for worship).68 Caityas existed in the pre-Buddhist epoch, at least in the sixth century B.c., or, say in the latter part of the Sutra period. These caityas were sanctuaries, holysteads, both with or without an icon, including the dhatu-caityas (funeral relics, memorial structures) referred to in Buddhist texts. The description of the Purnabhadra Caitya (which is the Jaina canonical stock description of a Caitya= a Jakkha-ayatana, a Yaksa shrine) in the Aupapatika-sutra does not refer to any image of the yaksa worhipped therein and describes only the Pythvi-sila-pasa on a simhasana at the stem of the Asoka tree

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12 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana in the forest-grove (vanakhanda) of the Caitya. This Sila-pata was possibly meant to represent the Parnabhadra Yaksa. Mahavira visited and stayed in such shrines. Nowhere is it said that he visited a Jaina shrine or worshipped a Jina image. Obviously shrines dedicated to Tirthankaras seem to post-date Mahavira 69 and the canonical passages referring to Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas and Sasvata-Jina-ayatanas must be regarded as later than the epoch suggested by the description of the Purnabhadra-Caitya. The stock description (varnaka) of such Caityas, explained as Yaksa-Caityas by commentators, is as under. The Purnabhadra Caitya was in the udyana (park) called Amrasalavana, situated to the N.E. of the city of Campa. It was very old in age (ciratita), recognised by people as old, ancient (porana), famous, praised everywhere and jnata (of the Jnats-people ?). It was decorated with an umbrella (or umbrellas), banners, bells, flags, atipatakas (flags surmounted on flags), whisks or bunches of peacock-feathers (lomahatthaga) and having a railing (vitardika, vedika, according to Abhayadeva, which would also mean 'containing a sacrificial altar'), its inside floor was coated with cow-dung and the wall-surfaces were polished by rubbing with cowries; it bore palm-impressions in red gosirsa or dardara sandal, was adorned with tas (auspicious jars), and on its entrance gates were toranas (arches) with candanaghata decorations. It was sprinkled all over with perfumed water and garlands were hung; it was fragrint with flowers of five colours, and with burning incense of kalagaru, kundurukka and turukka. It was haunted by actors, dancers, rope-walkers (jalla), wrestlers, boxers, experts in mimics (vidambaka), ballad-singers, story-tellers, pole-dancers (lasaka), picture-showmen (mankha), pipe-players, lute-players and minstrels. Many people visited the shrine which deserved praise, offerings, worship with sandal-paste, etc., gifts, adoration and respect, and which like a benefic, auspicious divine (devayam) ceiam (caityam, image according to commentators), deserved to be propitiated with due respect, and which when wor. shipped with desire did not fail to fulfil it (saccopaye), and which was attended upon by divine pratiharyas. It deserved a gift of a share from sacrifices (Aupapatika sutra, sutra 2). The above description shows that this Purnabhadra Caitya, which according to the explanation of commentators, was a Yaksa-ayatana, a Yaksa-shrine, was situated in a big park called Amrasalavana (a forest of mango and sala trees) and was ancient even in the days of Mahavira. It had a Vitardika (Vedika) or railing around. The wall surfaces were polished. It had entrance gates with toranas (arches). This would suggest that the shrine had walls as well as a railing. Does it mean that its compound or courtyard had a railing with four entrance gates (on four sides and) adorned with arches? There is no mention of the image worshipped and the sanctum (garbhagrha) in which it might have been installed. The fact that it was visited by actors, dancers, showmen and the like shows that it had a big compound around in which these people could perform dancing etc. But where was the Caitya in this udyana? Was it in the centre of the udyana? In the next sutra we are told that on all sides of it (i.e., on all sides of the Caitya or shrine) was a big forest grove (vanasanda) with a central big Asoka-tree (obviously a Caitya-vrksa). Attached to its stem and under the tree was a Prthvi-Sila-Pafa placed on a simhasana. This Sila-para had a very smooth surface and was soft to touch like butter, etc. Its surface was shining like a mirror. Thus this plaque (sila-pata) made of earth (Prthvi), that is, the terracotta plaque, was a highly polished one, what we know as N.B.P. ware. This was not unknown in the age of Buddha and Mahavira as is proved by the discovery of such ware of different colours obtained in excavation of the foundations of the Ghositarama at Kausambi. We find, in the reliefs of Bharhut, scenes of worship of Sila-patas placed on a simhasana under a Caitya-tree. Obviously such scenes represent continuation of such traditions from the age of Buddha and Mahavira and even still earlier. The Sila-pata was placed under the tree reclining a little against its stem (isim khandhasamalline) and deposited on a simhasane (siha sanasamthie) obviously because it was an object of worship. It rested on the lion-throne, not vertically but horizontally, either slightly raised on the trunk side or with its one end probably slightly thrust into the stem of the tree. This was possibly meant by the expression isim khandhasamalline. That the pata was horizontally placed obtains confirmation from representations of the Bodhi-shrine at Bharhut. The description of the Purnabhadra Caitya ends with the description of the Asoka tree and the Sila-pata. So what was the object of worship in the Purgabhadra shrine? We are told in this text sutra 2,

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Introduction 13 translated above, that the Caitya was in the udyana called Amrasalavana. And then later the text says in sutras 3-5 that in the centre of this forest-grove was the Asoka-tree. So where was the walled Caitya of sutra 2? It is reasonable to suppose that in the different vacanas of the Jaina canon some portions of the original texts might have been lost and some were not understood or misunderstood. To us it appears that two stages in the evolution of the Purnabhadra Caitya are here mixed up. In the first stage, there was no walled structure around the object of worship which was none else than the Prthvi-Sila-Pata under the Caitya-tree. It was open on all sides and at the most there was a railing around as we see a caitya-tree with a railing in the Ayigapata set up by an unknown donor (Smith, Jaina Stupa ..., pl. IX, p. 16 and Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 11, pp. 81-82). In the next stage perhaps there was a big platform around the tree and the simhasana with the pata was on the platform (Coomaraswamy, HIIA, figs. 41, 46, 51; Barua, B.M., Book of Bharhut, III, figs. 26, 28, 30, 31). The Mahabharata (Santiparva 69.42) forbids even the felling of leaves of trees that are known as Caityas. Mm. Kane (History of Dharmasastra, II, p. 895) here interprets Caitya as "trees like the Asvattha that have a platform (caitya) built for them." Coomaraswamy cites a case where, in explaining the Suciloma Sutta of Samyutta Nikaya, II.5, a stone dias, stone, or platform (tankite manco) is stated to have been Yakkha's haunt (bhavanam).70 Coomaraswamy writes, "most of the Yakkhacetiya referred to in Buddhist and Jaina literature may have been sacred trees."71 The Vasudevahindi (c. 400-450 A.D.) supplies definite evidence in support of the above inference. According to this text, there was, in Saliggama in the Magadha Janapada, an udyana called Manorama. Therein was the Jakkha Sumano, whose stone-plaque or platform (sila sila) was placed there under an Asoka tree, the sila was known as Sumana. There the people worshipped this Yaksa (tattha Sumano nima Jakkho tassa Asogapayavasamsiya Sila Sumana tattha nam jana puyanti-Vasudevahindi, p. 85). A certain person, Satya by name, is further said to have spent a night in meditation in this area (silapaesa, ibid., p. 88) of the Sumanasila, standing in the kayotsarga pose, to propitiate this Yaksa. The Sila-pata, placed on the simhasana, became a spot for laying offerings to the spirit of the tree. Nay, it also became the pitha for representation of a spirit (or deity) or of a symbol as can be inferred from a relief of a Dhamma-cakka shrine from Bharhut, illustrated by Coomaraswamy (HIIA, fig. 41). At some stage the object of worship was carved on the Sila itself and offerings placed on it, e.g. the Ayagapatas illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11 which have in each a figure of a Tirthankara in its centre. These Yaksa-caityas were open on all sides but at some stage stone umbrellas supported by a staff in the centre were introduced to serve as roofs over these Sila-patas or images of deities placed on such Sila-patas. At some stage images of Yaksas or other deities were worshipped under such Caitya trees and walls were raised on all the four sides72 and there were entrance gates with toranas, as described in the Aupapatika sutra, sutra 2, noted above. It would mean that still the shrine could be visited from any of the four directions on account of entrance gates facing the four directions. Another stage in the worship of the Caitya-vrkia can be imagined in the erection of a pitha or platform with a Sila-pata or an image on each of the four sides of the tree. 73 This served as the basis of the conception of a Caturmukha shrine. Such an inference is confirmed by the elaborate account of Caitya-vrksas in the Samavasarana of Adin itha described by Jinasena in his Adipurina. According to this text, they are Caitya-vrksas because at their roots are placed on four sides four images of the Jinas.74 In Jaina canons the stock description of a Jaina temple is that of the Siddhayatana. The Siddhayatana to the N.E. of the Sudharma Sabhi of Vijayadeva was 13 yojanas in length and six yojanas and one krosa (about half of the length) in breadth and nine yojanas in height. It had on it, above the entrance doorway, the vedika-panel motif and an arch, surmounted by silabhanjik is; it had beautiful pillars of Vaidurya gems, its floor inlaid with gems and gold and silver, its walls decorated with figures of mythical animals (ihamrga), oxen, kinnaras (half-men and half-horses or birds), crocodiles, birds, dragons, winged-deer (sarabha), yaks (camara), elephants, creepers and lotus-rhizomes. The abacus of columns had crowning figures of vidyadhara-pairs, with mechanism to show them moving. The shrine was adorned with thousands of sculptures or reliefs and with many domes (thabhiya), the tops decorated with

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14 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana bells, flags, etc. white, lustrous, adorned with palm-impressions of sandal; its gates were adorned with auspicious pictures and arches surmounted by candana-ghatas; there were flowers, garlands, perfumes and incenses. It was adorned with figures of apsarasas. The shrine had three entrances. In front of each entrance was a portico (mukhamandapa) adorned with the asfamangala-motifs. In front of these were preksagshamandapas or assembly halls (theatres). In front of each preksagphamandapa was a Caitya-stupa on a manipithika (jewelled platform). The Caitya-stupas were white and shining, each two yojanas in area (ayamam circumference or length x breadth) and more than two yojanas in height, its surface covered with jewels, and surmounted by astamangalas, black chowries and flags. On four sides of each stupa were manipithikas, each platform surmounted by Jina figures sitting in the paryarika-asana and facing the stupa. In front of each Caiya-stupa was a manipithika with a Caitya-vsksa on it. In front of each Caityavrksa was a manipihika surmounted by a Mahendra-dhaja (Indra-dhvaja) with a round staff and adorned with thousands of flags, astamangalas, etc. In front of each Mahendra-dhvaja was a Nanda-Puskarani, an -tificial reservoir or tank. In the centre of the Siddhayatana was a manipithika, two yojanas in length and bread.i au un yojana in height on which was a big Devacchandaka, two yojanas in length and breadth and a little more than two yojanas in height, all made of jewels. In this Devacchandaka were installed 108 life-size images of Tirtharkaras. On top of the Siddhayatana were astamangalas, flags etc. It seems that the Devacchandaka was a sort of miniature shrine with pillars and arches in front, and containing only the sanctum. It is something like the Gandhakuti on top of a Stupa. In the Jaina account noted above, there was a row of such miniature shrines or ornamental niches, each with an image of a Tirthankara. The above account from the Jivajivabhigama Sutra, 3.2.137ff inciudes all types of Jaina worship practised in ancient times. The Caitya-stupas, Caitya-vyksas, and the Mahendra-dhvajas described here do not form part of the main structure of the Siddhayatana. It seems that the Jaina temple of the age of composition of this passage consisted of a sanctum, an adjacent hall (or rather a portico only) and a preksamandapa. This last mentioned hall was possibly a little separated from the main structure though the Jaina texts do not explicitly say so. The plan of the shrine would suggest that the passage dates from the early Gupta age. Though the plan of the shrine can be assigned to this age, it must be remembered that the general description of decorative motifs, pillars etc. is of a much earlier tradition reaching back to at least the Kusana period and sometimes to the age of the Sanchi and Bharhut Stupas. We have little evidence of shrines of the Kusana and Sunga periods, but it is not unlikely that the plan of the Siddhayatana noted by the passage may refer to plan of Jaina shrines of the Kusana age. Most of the text of the Svetambara Jaina canon preserved for us seems to be the text of the Mathura Council of c. early fourth century A.D. The descriptions of Caitya-Stupas, Caitya-viksas as apart from the main shrine suggest that there were in worship such separate cult-objects, analogous to those in reliefs from Bharhut, compare Coomaraswamy, HIIA, figs. 41, 55, 70 (Bodhi tree), fig. 45 (Dharmacakra shrine), fig. 42 (Caitya-stupa), also from Amaravati illustrated in HITA, figs. 142 and 144-146. ORIGIN OF STOPAS AND CAITYAS Both the Svetambaras and the Digambaras believe that the first person to erect on this earth the temples of the twenty-four Jinas of this age was Bharata Cakravartin, the son of the first Tirthankara Rsabhanatha.75 Referring to the nirvana of Rsabha, the Avasyaka-Niryukti, gatha 435, says: nivvANaM ciigAI jiNassa ikkhAga sesayANaM ca / sakahA thUbhe jiNahare jAyaga teNAhi aggitti / / . Haribhadra suri, commenting on the above gatha, says that Bharata erected in honour of the Lord

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15 Introduction a Stupa and a Temple called Simhanisady.i-ayatana, one yojana in area and three gavyutis in height and installed therein life-size images of the twenty-four Jinas, as also images of the hundred sons of Rsabha including himself and in order to protect these from violation by others, he placed as gatekeepers mechanical figures made of iron (lohamayan yantrapurusan).76 This he did on the Mt. Astapada, identified in Jaina traditions with the Mt. Kailasa, which is the site of Rsabha's Nirvana. This tradition of Bharata erecting the first Jaina shrine is also found in the Avasyaka-curni and in the Mala-Bhasya gatha based on the above Niryukti gatha. The same belief is expressed in the Vasudevahindi in its account of Rsabha's Nirvana and the mount Astapada.77 Jaina canonical literature shows the existence of the worship of (1) Bones of Tirth ankaras, ashes or relics, (2) Caitya-trees and Caitya-Stupas, (3) Caityas or images, e.g. the Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas, (4) Stambhas or Pillars and Symbols like the Silapatas. The existence of several Caityas in the different places visited by Mahavira is noteworthy. For example, there was Kosthaka Caitya at Sravasti, Candravatarana Caitya at Kausambi, Purnabhadra Caitya at Campa, Gunasila-Caitya at Rajagsha, Bahuputrika-Caitya at Visala, and so on. Commentators explain these Caityas as Yaksayatanas. Besides, we hear of temples of Sulapani Yaksa, Surapriya Yaksa and so on. These suggest the existence even in the age of Mahavira of image-worship amongst followers of the Yaksa Cult, and amongst the Indian masses, for, the Jaina Agamas speak of ladies propitiating such deities for obtaining children. Also, the Agamas speak of festivals and worship of Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Vaisramana, Naga, Yaksa, Bhuta, Vasudeva and others. A temple of Skanda is said to have existed at Sivatthi in the time of Mahavira according to the Avasyaka Niryukti. Thus, according to the Jaina evidence, image worship was already popular amongst the Indian masses in the age of Mahavira. The Purnabhabra shrine visited by Mahavira was ancient (porane) even when Mahavira visited it. Of course the Aupapatika sutra makes no mention of the image of Purnabhadra yaksa. A sort of hero-worship could be casily introduced even though there is no Creator-God according to Jaina Doctrine. Bhakti predominated amongst the masses who worshipped the Yaksas, Nagas, Bhutas, Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Vaisramana, Vasudeva and even Trees, Tanks, etc. Representation of the Jina figure was never spoken of as an act of sacrilege and was not disliked as was done by the Buddha regarding worship of the Buddha-image and hence the Jina-image-worship seems to have started early, at least during the Mauryan age. We have referred to the Kalinga-Jina image carried off by the Nanda king and brought back by Kharavela. T.N. Ramachandran has identified a frieze on the Mancapuri Cave, Udayagiri, Orissa, as a representation of worship of the Jina image, the frieze is assignable to first century B.C. The existence of a Jaina shrine (pasada), as early as the middle of the second century B.C., at Mathura, is proved by an inscription recording the dedication of a pasada-torana by a sravaka named Uttaradasaka.774 In the inscription on the Ayagapata donated by Vasu, the words used for a Jaina shrine are Devakula and Nirgrantha-Arhatayatuna. 'The Jaina account of the cremation of a Tirthankara and the consequent collection of bone relics by Indra and other gods, including erection of the stupas on the cremation site by the gods, given in the Jambudvipaprajnapti78 is noteworthy since it gives us an insight into contemporary methods of cremation and because it obtains an interesting parallel with cremation in Buddhist accounts. Detailed descriptions of a Jaina stupa are not traced in the Jaina accounts but the conception of a Samavasarana bronze or a stone sculpture showing the three ramparts of a Samavasarana vertically is reminiscent of the conceptions of a Jaina stupa. This will be obvious on a camparison of fig. 182 with figs. 10A and 21 in this book as also figs. 14B and 76 in the Studies in Jaina Art. It seems that the popularity of representations of the Samavasara na ultimately replaced the Stupa symbolism in Jaina worship. The pedestal of a Jina image said to refer to Arhat Nandyavarta (but referring to Munisuvrata according to K.D. Bajpai's corrected reading) obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura, was installed in the so called Vodva stupa which is said to be Devanirmita79 according to the inscription on it dated in the year 49 or 79. Due to a slight mistake in separating the words of the inscription inscribed in a line, the stupa was called Vodva Stupa by scholars. Luders in his unpublished revised readings and notes had corrected the

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16 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana relevant reading as pratimavo dve thupe devanirmite instead of the earlier reading pratima vodve thupe etc. Often when two images were donated or cast or fashioned at the same place one had the inscription on one of the two images only but referring to both the images. We have a similar instance of the two big standing Jina bronzes cast by the artist Sivanaga and installed in Samvat 744, obtained from the Vasantagadha hoard, now in worship in a Jina shrine at Pindwada, published in Lalita Kala, nos. 1-2. I am thankful to Prof. Alsdorf for informing me about Luders's correction. The origin of this Stupa of Kankali Tila, Mathura was forgotten and it was supposed to be Devanirmita, built by gods. Haribhadra suri in c. early seventh century A.D. also called it Devanirmita.80 The expression may also mean erected by or gift of a person named Deva or it could have been regarded as work of Deva school of art. Taranatha in his history of Buddhism speaks of Deva and Naga artists,81 As we have shown in Studies in Jaina Art, p. 12, it is better to regard this stupa as a stupa of Parsvanatha rather than of Suparsvanatha. Digambara texts like the Brhat-katha-kosa of Harisena (932 A.D.) give a story of the origin of Five Stupas at Mathura, all built by gods, during a controversy with the Buddhists.82 Somadown, the author of Yasastilaka-campu,83 gives a similar account but refers to only one Devanirmita stupa at Mathura. Rajamalla in his Jambusvamicarita refers to the repair of Mathura Stupas.84 A Pancastupanvaya or a Pancastupanikaya is connected with the locality of Mathura and Jinasena, the author of Jayadhavala, says that he belonged to this lineage of Jaina monks.85 The Paharpur copper-plate, dated in the year 159 (478 A.D.) refers to Panca-stupa-nikaya.86 It is therefore certain that in and around Mathura Five Jaina Stupas existed. The Ayaga pata dedicated by Vasu, the daughter of courtesan Lonasobhika (Fig. 14B in Studies in Jaina Art) may be acknowledged as representing at least one type of Jaina stupa.87 The stupa-drum, standing on a high platform, was reached by a long flight of steps. In front of this platform, all around perhaps, were niches with images. The flight of steps led to the circumambulatory which had, at its entrance near the top of the flight of steps, a torana-gateway. Perhaps there were such flights of steps and torana-gateways facing all the four directions. All around the circumambulatory path there was a stone or wooden railing and the various apsarasas or yaksis and coping stones found from Kankali Tila came from such a railing. The triple-arch of the gateway is reminiscent of the Sanchi gateway. From the middle of it hangs a vandana-mala, an auspicious garland. The drum seems to be in three tiers. High above the pradaksina path is another railing, then a band of decorative motif and then perhaps another railing or a band with lotus (?) motif demarcating the third tier from where the rounding off of the anda begins. The stupa-drum is perhaps straight in height till this point. Perhaps the big platform was square in plan and had huge pillars on four corners. Two huge pillars of Persepolitan style are shown on two sides of the drum, at two ends, in the Ayagapata set up by Vasu. The pillar on the right in this plaque is surmounted by the dharmacakra. The capital and top of the pillar on the left are partly worn out and indistinct. On the analogy of the ayagapata donated by Sihanadika (Smith's Jaina Stupa, pl. III, no. J.249 in Lucknow Museum) this other pillar was surmounted by some animal in the Tablet gifted by Vasu (no. Q.2 in the Mathura Museum). Almost of the same type was the representation of the Jaina stupa on the mutilated Ayagapata donated by Sivayasas (Smith, Jaina Stupa, pl. XII, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, fig. 1 on plate opp. page 74). Here the toranagateway is surmounted by two triratna symbols, one on each end, while the Jaina technical name for the honey-suckle like symbol in the centre is yet unknown. This tablet dates from c. first century B.C. both from the style of the two dancing female figures and from the paleography of the inscription incised on it. It is certainly earlier than the ayagapata donated by Vasu. A stone panel, a frieze or a Torana-beam, from the Kankali Tila, no. J.535 in the Lucknow Museum, illustrated here as Fig. 10 A, depicts the worship of a Stupa by two Suparnas and at feast five Kinnaras. The mutilated and lost right end of the beam possibly showed a sixth Kinnara. Here also it seems that the Stupa is of a high cylindrical type with three tiers clearly marked by three railings. The platform is not shown but perhaps it is taken for granted. About this scene Smith remarked that the beam "may have belonged to the ancient Stupa which was believed to have been built by gods ... and is certainly

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Introduction 17 an early work probably to be dated about 100 B.C. or 50 B.C." This evidence, along with the frieze depicting the dance of Nilanjana and the retirement of Rsabha, illustrated here in Fig. 18, and the representation of a Lion-Pillar being circumambulated by a male and a female illustrated here in Fig. 164 prove that the original Stupa on the Kankali Tila site was decorated with reliefs etc. in the first century B.C. and it was perhaps enlarged and repaired during the Kusana age ard embellisted richly with decorative sculpture as well as cult-images and plaques etc. meant for worship. SYMBOL WORSHIP IN JAINISM Worship of symbols like the Dharmacakra, Pillars like the Mcrastin the, and the Indradhvaja, Caityatrees, the Silapafas later known and worshipped as Ayagapatas, and the Stipas, is discussed above. Worship of some other symbols may be briefly noted here. We have elaborately discussed Symbol Worship in Jainism in our Studies in Jaina Art. The most highly venerated in Jainism are the Farca-Para mesthis or the Five Highest Dignitaries, who came to be worshipped in a Diagram Mandala or Yantra) known as the Siddha-Cakra (Svetambara) or the Nava-Pada (Digambara) diagram. These will be discussed in Chapter Three. During the Kusana period at Mathura we find worship of symbols like the Stupa, the Caitya-tree, the various Stambhas, the Asta-Mangalas, the Dharma-Cakra, the Ayagapata, the Tri-Ratna, etc. Later, during the mediaeval period we find representations of the Fourteen or Sixteen Dreams seen by a Jina's Mother, models in stone and metal, as also diagrams in paintings, of the Jaina conception of the Samavasarana, the Nandisvara-dvipa, the Panca-Merus (the Five Meru mountains), the Astapada, the Sthapanacarya, and the Carana-padukas or the Foot-prints and the Nisidis or the Memorial structures of great monks and nuns. 1. Auspicious Dreams Belief in auspicious dreams and omens is very old in India. The Chandogya Upanisad, V.2.7.8 speaks of the prosperity that would come if a woman is seen in dream. Belief in dreams and omens dates from pre-Mahavira epochs and Nimitta-pathakas or sooth-sayers were called by Siddhartha to interpret the dreams seen by Trisala, the mother of Mahavira. Nimittasastra was very popular with the Ajivikas from whom Kalakacarya mastered it in the second-first century B.C. The Angavijja is a very early Jaina text on Nimitta and dates from c. fourth century A.D. Whenever a Tirthankara descends from cne of the teavens into the womb of his mother, she sees fourteen dreams according to the Svetambara tradition ard sixteen according to the Digambara sect. The fourteen dreams seen by Trisala, the Mother of Mahavira, as noted in the Kalpa-Sutra EUR8 are: (1) a white elephant, (2) a white bull, (3) a sportive lion, (4) the goddess Sri, four-armed and carrying lotuses and lustrated by two celestial elephants, (5) a garland of various flowers, (6) the Full Moon, (7) the Sun, (8) a wondrous beautiful banner fastened to a sc!den staff with a licn at the top, (9) a full vase filled with water and lotuses, the abode of fortune, (10) a large lake full of lotuses, (11) the Ocean of Milk, (12) the Dzvavimana (celestial palace), (13) the jewel-hcap (ratra-resi) and (14) smokeless fire with constantly moving flame.89 Kalpa-sutra miniatures show representations of these dreams, either in a group as in Fig. 180 (also fig. 19 in Brown's Miniature Paintings of the Kalpa-sutra) or singly as in Brown's op. cit., fes. 20-33, pp. 19-22. The most common type of miniature (cf. Brown's figs. 6, 18) represents the Mother of a Jina lying on a cot in the lowest panel and in the two cr three upper panels are shown, in different rows, smaller figures of the fourteen dreams.90 Dreams are also represented in store reliefs of the lives of different Jinas (Fig. 82) or in paintings on wooden book-covers of palm-leaf manuscripts showing lives of Tirthankaras as also above the door-lintels of Jaina shrines91 (see also Studies in Jaina Art, figs. 83, 87). In modern times they are generally shown in reliefs on wooden or metal stools and platters used for placing offerings in Jaina shrines of both the sects.

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18 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to the Digambara tradition, 92 the sixteen dreams are: (1) Airavata, the elephant of Indra, (2) the best of bulls, (3) the lion, white in colour and with red manes, (4) the goddess Padma (same as Sri noted above), lustrated by elephants and seated on lotuses, (5) pair of garlands of best flowers. (6) the Moon, (7) the Sun, rising from the Uduyacala mountain, (8) pair of full-vases with lotuses placed on their mouths, (9) pair of fishes, (10) celestial lake, (11) agitated ocean, (12) a lofty golden lion-throne, (13) a celestial car (vimana). (14) a palace of the king of snakes (Nagendra-bhavana), (15) heap of jewels, (16) smokeless fire. Representations of the sixteen dreams are also popular amongst the Digambaras and are often carved on door-lintels of Jaina temples as for example in the Santinatha temple and other shrines at Khajuraho. According to Jaina traditions, mothers of other Salakapurusas like the Baladevas, Vasudevas and Cakravartins also see a certain number of dreams at the time of conception.93 According to the Svetambara tradition, the Mother of a Vasudeva (Narayana or Visnu) sees the following seven dreams: (1), Young lion, (2) Padma (Sri) seated on a lotus, and being sprinkled with water by two elephants, (3) Sun, (4) a pitcher filled with water and with its mouth adorned with white lotuses, (5) an ocean filled with aquatic animals etc., (6) a heap of jewels, and (7) smokeless fire.94 According to the Digambaras, they are: (1) the Sun, (2) the Moon, (3) Sri, (4) Vimana, (5) Fire, (6) Celestial banner, (7) Die nauc u. jewels.95 The Mother of a Baladeva sees the following four dreams: (1) Elephant with four tusks, (2) bull, (3) Moon, (4) a pond filled with lotuses.96 According to the Digambara tradition they are: (1) Moon, (2) elephant, (3) ocean, (4) Sun.97 The Mother of a Cakravartin sees fourteen dreams like the Mother of a Tirthankara, according to the Svetambara tradition. According to the other sect, she sees five dreams: (1) Earth, (2) Sumeru mountain, (3) Sun and Moon, (4) lake with swans, and (5) ocean with surging waves.98 Dreams may be auspicious or inauspicious. Mahavira in his itinerary, before attaining Kevalajnana, saw ten dreams which are described along with their meaning by the Sthananga Sutra.99 Belief in dreams and their effects is an ancient superstition. It is difficult to say when the section on dreams was introduced in the life of Mahavira in the Kalpasutra account. At least the detailed descriptions of each of the fourteen dreams seem to have been added later as shown by Muni Punyavijaya in his critical edition of the Pavitra Kalpa-satra. It may be noted that the ornament dinara-mala in the description of Sri in these dreams (Kalpa-sutra, sutra 37) supports the inference that this section is added later after the dinara coin became popular in India. 100 Belief in dreams is common to all sects. The science of Svapna-Sakuna was very popular in the age of the Puranas and even medical works like the Astangahsda ya of Vagbhata refer to such dreams in detail.101 II. Astamangalas The Astamangalas or Eight Auspicious symbols are familiar to both the sects and are known to Jaina worship from ancient times. They are: Svastika, Sri-vatsa, Nandyavarta, Varddhamanaka (powderflask), Bhadrasana (a particular type of seat), Kalasa (the full vase), Darpana (mirror), and Matsyayugma (pair of fishes), and are often referred to in the Jaina texts, including canonical works, 102 as decorating tops of architraves or ramparts or placed on Caitya-trees, platforms, or painted on walls and so on. 103 Hemacandra acarya further notes that eight auspicious symbols were represented on Bali-pattas or offering-stands.104 The offering-stand is a platter with low legs, made of wood or metal, used to hold offering in temple worship. It has eight auspicious signs carved or wrought in high relief. Such stools, often made of wood with silver plate studded all over them, or made of silver or brass, and with reliefs of the eight auspicious symbols or the 14 or 16 auspicious dreams, are even today used for placing offerings in Jaina shrines. Often Jaina ladies prepare such signs with uncooked rice on wooden or metal platters placed in the mandapa in front of the deity. Small sized platters with the asfamangala symbols are often worshipped in the sanctums along with metal images of Tirthankaras. Hemacandra's reference to Bali-pattas with marks of the eight auspicious symbols is interesting since

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Introduction 19 such symbols are seen on some of the Jaina Ayz gapatas of the Kusa na period, obtained from Mathura. The Tablet of Homage (Ayagapala) set up by Acala (no. J.252, State Museum, Lucknow), illustrated here in Fig. 10, shows a line of four symbols in the uppermost panel and another of eight at base. In the lower panel, the first symbol from right end, partly mutilated, was probably the Srivatsa. The second symbol is Svastika, the third a lotus-bud, half open, fourth a pair of fishes, fifth a water-jar with a handle, sixth is either an offering of sweets or better a crude representation of Ratna-resi (heap of gems). The seventh is probably the Sthapana (a cross-stand with a manuscript on it), the eighth is an inverted Tri-ratna looking like the so-called hill on ancient coins. The uppermost central rectangular panel, which contains four symbols, shows the Srivatsa, another type of Srastika with bent ends and two more symbols which cannot be properly identified. 105 A better preserved set of eight symbols is obtained on the Ayagapata set up by Sihani dika (no. J.249, Lucknow Museum, see Fig. 11) with inscription in characters which seem to be earlier than those of the age of Kaniska.1c6 Here in the lower panel are shown the Tri-ratna, the full-blown lotus, the Sthapana (or is it Bhadrosara?) and the Mangala-kclasa. In the panel at the top are Mina-yugma, an unidentified symbol, the Sriratsa and the Vardhamanaka (powder-box). It is thus reason.ble to infer that in the Kusana period the Jaina set of the asamangalas was not finally settled. 107 In this older tradition as represented by the Mathura Ayagapatas, the Nandyavarta and the Darpana are omitted and the full-blown lotus and an unidentified symbol are used. The Mathura finds represent a stage anterior to the tradition recorded in the Jaina canons like the Rayapasenaiya sutta. 108 Such facts confirm our inference that most of the Jaina cancns as available today follow the edition of the Mathura council of c. 300-313 A.D. under Arya Skandila. Asfamangalas are represented in miniature paintings109 of manuscripts, in paintings on canvas of different patas, both tantric and non-tantric, and in scroll paintings of the Vijnaptipatras, 110 They are often represented as decorative motifs in different parts of a temple. The Digambara sect gives the following set of Asramangalas: Bhrrigora (a type of vessel), Kalasa, Darpana, Camara (fly-whisk), Dhwaja (banner), Vyajana (fan), Chatra (umbrella) and Supratisha (a seat).111 Some of these symbols like the Svastika are of very ancient origin, common to different ancient civilizations and races of the world and their exact significance is not always easy to comprehend. The fullvase or the Purna-Kalasa, the Purna-Kumbha, of Vedic lilerature, is the Indian symbol of fullness of life, of plenty, of immortality,112 The Svetambara Jaina text Acara-Dinakara explains the significance of these symbols which may or may not represent the original conceptions. According to this text, the Kalasa is worshipped as a symbol for the Jina as he is verily like a Kalasa in the family. The Darpana (mirror) is for seeing one's true self; the Bhadrasana is worshipped as it is sanctified by the feet of the Blessed Lord; the Vardhamanaka is suggestive of increase of wealth, fame, merit, etc., due to the grace of the Lord. The highest knowledge is said to have manifested itself, from the heart of the Jina, in the form of the Srivatsa mark on his chest. Svastika, according to this text, signifies Svasti, i.e., Santi or peace. The Nandyavarta diagram with its nire points stards for the Nire Nidhis. The pair of fishes or the Mina-yugala is the symbol of Cupid's banners come to worship after the defeat of the God of Love. Belief in auspicious objects is very old, ccmmcn to all sects. V.S. Agrawala has referred to Mangalamala (garland of the auspicious symbols) amongst Sanchi reliefs. The Mahabharata, Dronaparvan, 82.20-22 mentions numerous objects which Arjuna lccked at ard touched as auspicious before starting for battle. Amongst these auspicious maidens are also mentioned. 114 The Vimana Furara, 14.35-36 mentions several objects which are auspicious. The Pral:mavaivarta Puraral15 also gives lists of animate ard inanimate objects regarded as auspicious. Belief in Mangalas and Mangela-dra's is also known to the Ramayana. 116 III. Sthapana or Sthapandcarya This is a symbolic representation of cne's icarya or teacher which a Jaina monk keeps in front while giving a discourse. It marks the presence of the elder, used as a corrective witness, a precaution against

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20 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana misinterpretation, but especially as a mark of reverence for the teacher. Literally it means installation of the figure or symbol of the acarya or any other elderly person including deities) when one is not personally present. 117 It is a crossed wooden stand, made of two or more crossed wooden sticks which can be folded and carried easily. The sticks are tied with a string in the centre and when the stand is placed in position, a nice piece of cloth, often a costly ornamental one, is placed as a cover on its top. Under it were placed aksa and varafaka. A scripture was usually placed on it as a sthapana. The sticks are often made of ivory or sandal-wood with beautiful carvings at the ends. The sthapana is an old practice amongst monks of both the sects and can be seen on stone sculptures, especially depicting figures of monks, in various Jaina sites like Devgadh, Khajuraho, Abu, Kumbharia, etc. (Studies in Jaina Art, figs. 43, 77; Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras, figs. 16, 22, 24, 33, and colour figs. C and F; and Figs. 36, 37, 167 in this book). Whether the motif existed or not in art of the Kusana age at Mathura is not known, but the symbol preceding the Mangala-Kalasa, in the lower panel of the Ayagapata dedicated by Sihanadika (Coomaraswamy, HIIA, fig. 70; Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 13), illustrated here as Fig. 11, come very near to this conception. Sthapana is a pretty old conception, referred to by Jinabhadra gani ksamasramana as shown above, and by the Anuyogadvara curai which mentions the accessories of a sadhu in the practice of Dharma. They are thavana (sthapana), muhapatti (mukhapattika), danda-paunchanam (dapda-praunchanaka), and javamilia (japamalika). The sthapana is for the practice of the virtue of vinaya or showing respect to and being obedient to the elders. The Muhapatti is a piece of cloth held in front of the mouth by a Jaina monk while speaking. Prescribed for preventing insects from entering the mouth and being killed, the Mukhapatrika is also a symbol of samyama or control of speech. The Mukhapatti is a very old accessory used by Gautama, a ganadhara of Mahavira, as suggested by the canonical text Vipaka sutra, adhyayana 1. The Dandapraunchanaka, also called Rajoharana, is a broom with a stick-handle, used to sweep dust particles and small insects. According to the Behat-Kalpa-sutra-bhasya it was made of any one of the following five fibres-wool, hair of camels, jute (sanaka), fibres of valkala, or strings prepared by twisting the munja grass. In the Digambara tradition brom made of peacock's feathers is known. The muhapatti, rajoharana and the jap amalika (rosary of beads) carried by a Jaina monk can be seen in a sculpture of Nanna-suri, now in worship in a shrine in Sadadi and installed in V.s. 1393. It is illustrated in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 48. IV. Dharmacakra or the Wheel of Law Representations of the Dharmacakra on Jaina pedestals from Kankali Tila, Mathura, show that the Wheel was placed on a platform or a pillar, often with the rim to front, and worshipped on both sides by the members of the Jaina Samgha (sravaka, sravika, sadhu, and sadhvi). A Wheel on a pillar is shown in Ayagapatas illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11, also circumambulation of such Dharmacakra-pillars is suggested in a relief illustrated in Figs. 164. It seems that formerly the Dharmacakra was separately installed as an object of worship in Jaina shrines. This is inferred from the find of a Dharmacakra of brass or bronze obtained with the Chausa hoard of Jaina bronzes, illustrated in Fig. 16. This Dharmacakra belongs to the Kusana age. A separate brass or bronze Caitya-tree of the same age was also obtained in this hoard (Fig. 17). An Ayagapata from Mathura with a big Dharmacakra in centre is illustrated by us in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 14. V. Astapada, Sam:neta sikhara and Panca-Meru Rsabha obtained Nirvana on the Astapada mountain. Near his cremation ground Bharata erected a temple, of jewelled slabs, and named it Simhanizadya-ayatana (possibly from its architecture ?) with statues of the Sasvata Tirthankaras and the twenty-four Tirthankaras of this age. Bharata also installed statues of his ninety-nine brothers who obtained Nirvana on this mountain, along with Rsabhanatha, besides

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21 Introduction he placed a statue of himself listening attentively like a faithful devotee. Bharata raised the Blessed One's Stupa and those of his 99 brothers outside the shrine. To save these from future damage at the hands of mortals, he placed mechanical iron guardsmen, and cutting off the projections of the mountain, he made it steep and straight and impossible for men to climb. He then made eight (asta) steps (pada) around it in the form of terraces impossible for men to cross and each step or terrace (pada) was one yojana apart from the next one. From that time the mountain was called Astapada. Among people it was also known Haradri, Kailasa, and Sphatikadri. Such is the origin of the name of the mount Astapada according to Hemacandra.118 The Vasudevahindi119 tells how Astapada came to be regarded as a tirtha, how Bharata erected stupas and shrines and installed the different images but gives no explanation of the name Astapada. Astapada is an old Jaina tirtha since it is referred to by the Jambudvipaprajnapti 120 and the Avasyaka-Niryukti. 121 Gautama, the first Ganadhara of Mahivira, was told by his Master that whoever is able to reach the top of this mountain and worship the Caityas thereon will obtain emancipation. Gautama, with his supernatural power, climbed it like a flash of light. Some tapasas (Brahmanical monks ?) were attempting to do so but could not go beyond the third terrace. At the sight of Gautama they got enlightenment and obtained moksa. Gautama reached the top and entering the Simhanisadya-Caitya by the South gate, he first saw images of the four Jinas beginning with Sambhava and worshipped them. At the West-entrance he worshipped the eight Tirthankaras beginning with Suparsva, entering by the Northern gate, he worshipped the ten Jinas beginning with Dharmanatha. From the Eastern gateway of the shrine he worshipped the first two Jinas-Rsabha and Ajitanatha. 122 Obviously, Simhan: sadyi is a Caturmukha shrine with four doorways and having in the centre a platform on which the Jina images are represented in the order described above and worshipped by Gautama. In Svetambara Jaina temples, sometimes, a cell is dedicated to Astapada represented in the way described above. A representation of Astapada of this type, with Gautama ganadhara shown climbing, and the tapasas on the way, is seen in a shrine on the mount Satrunjaya in Saurashtra, Gujarat. Fig. 181 is supposed to represent Astapada. Smaller representations, only of the Jinas, in the above order, on four sides of a pitha, are more common and one such may be seen in a Jaina shrine in Surat. All these are later mediaeval representations and earlier ones are not traced hitherto. Citra-patas mapping tirthas like Satruniaya. Girnara, Sammeta-Sikhara, Astapada etc., singly or in groups, are frequently installed in front halls of Jaina shrines and scroll paintings on canvas or paper were in use. A Pancatirthi-pata painted at Champaner in Gujarat in early fifteenth century A.D. was published long ago by N.C. Mehta and was again discussed by Motichandra with better illustrations in colour. 1220 The avacuri on Samavasaranastava refers to patas representing the Samavasarana structure. Fig. 182 is a small representation of Samavasarana in stone, under worship in Vimala Vasahi, Abu. The Digambara sect also believes that Rsabha obtained Nirvana on the Astapada mountain and that Bharata erected a memorial shrine on the cremation. But representations-in plaques, paintings, sculpturesare not yet traced, though a proper search is likely to disclose some kind of representation of the Astapada and other tirthas amongst the Digambaras as well. Similarly, representations of the Sammeta-Sikhara (see Fig. 180 from Kumbharia) are also worshipped in Svetambara Jaina shrines, a famous example of which is available int he triple-shrine built by Vastupala and Tejpala on the Mt. Girnar. Such representation is known as avatara or uddhara of a particular tirtha. A stone-plaque representing avatara of the Satrunjaya and Girnara tirthas, now in worship in a shrine in Varakhana, Rajasthan, is illustrated here in Fig. 186. Representations of Panca-Meru mountains, showing a Siddhayatana on each tier (on each side as in a four-fold or Caumukha image), one above the other, represented in five tiers surmounted by a finial, are more common amongst the Digambaras. One such Panca-Meru obtained in a Digambara shrine in Surat, installed in V.S. 1514 = A.D. 1456, is illustrated here in Fig. 184. One such Panca-Meru is also obtained in a Svetambara shrine, in the Hastisala of the Luna-Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. The five Merus are: Sudarsana in the midst of Jambudvipa, Vijaya in eastern Dhitakikhanda-dvipa, Acala in western Dhatakikhandadvipa, Mandara in eastern Puskarardha-dvipa, and Vidyunm ili in the western Puskarardha-dvipa.

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22 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to the Digambara belief, in all there are eighty Siddhayatanas on the five Merus. VI. Nandisvara-Dvipa Nandisyara-dvipa is known to both the sects. 123 It is the last of the numerous island-continents of Jaina cosmography, the first or the central one being the Jambu-dvipa. The Nandisvara is a land of delight of the gods with gardens of manifold designs, adorned and honoured by visits of gods devoted to the worship of the Tirthankaras. In its central parts are four Anjana mountains of black colour, situated in the four directions-Devaramana in the east, Nityodyota in the south, Svayamprabha and Ramaniya in the north. On their tops are temples of the Arhats, each shrine having four doors. The shrines are 100 yojanas long, 50 yojanas wide and 70 yojanas in height. Within the shrines are jewelled platforms (manipishaka) on which are diases (devacchandaka) on whom are one hundred and eight eternal statues (Sasvata-bimba) of the four Eternal Arhats (sasvata-Jina), named Rsabha, Vardhamana, Candranana and Varisena, made of jewels, in the paryanka posture and attended each by a beautiful retinue consisting of two Nagas, two Yaksas, two Bhutas and two Kumbhadharas (pitcher-carriers), while behind each statue is a figure of an umbrella-bearer. On the diases are incense-burners, wreaths, bells, the astamangalas, banners, festoons, baskets, boxes, seats as well as sixteen ornaments such as full-pitchers etc. There are gleaming entrance-pavilions (mukha-mandapa), theatre-pavilions (preksa-mandapa), arenas (aksava faka), jewelled platforms, beautiful stupas, statues, fair caitya-trees, Indra-dhvajas and divine lotuslakes in succession. In the four directions from each of the Anjana mountains there are big square lotus-lakes, Nandisena, Amogha, Gostupa, etc., and beyond them are great gardens named Asoka, Saptaparna, Campaka and Cata. With the sixteen lotus-lakes are the crystal Dadhimukha mountains, each having a Sasvata-Jinalaya with images of Sasvata-Jinas noted above. Between each two lakes are two Ratikara mountains making a total of thirty-two Ratikara mountains. These again have thirty-two sasvata-Jinalayas on them. This makes a total of fifty-two such eternal temples of the Arhats on the Nandisvara-dvipa. Here and elsewhere on the Nandisvara-dvipa Indra and other gods celebrate Eight-days' Festival (Asfahnika Mahotsava) on different holy (parva) days. Works on cosmography like the Laghuksetrasamasa of Ratnasekhara expressly state that there are fifty-two Sasvata-Caityalayas, thirteen in each of the four directions, on the Nandisvara-dvipa.124 A diagrammatic representation of it generally shows in a circle a group of thirteen miniature shrines in each of the four directions, with a mountain in the centre. In various temples and palaces of the Nandisvara-dvipa, gods together with their retinue celebrate the Astahnika Mahotsava on holy days of the holy Arhats. After celebrating the Kalyanaka ceremony (or the festival of any of the five chief events in the life of every Jina) gods retire to this dvipa, worship the Caityas thereon and then return to their respective abodes. 125 Plaques or Patas representing the fifty-two shrines on the Nandisvara are very popular amongst both the sects. The Digambaras represent fifty-two small figures of the Jinas (suggesting shrines) on a four-tiered platform, or in a miniature shrine, both the types being four-faced, as illustrated by T.N. Ramachandran in his Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pl. xxxi, figs. 3-4, p. 181. The Sveta mbaras represent miniature shrines in four groups of thirteen each, carved in relief on a stone plaque, and arranged in different artistic ways. A beautiful Svetambara plaque, worshipped in the famous Caumukha shrine at Ranakpur, is illustrated here in Fig. 179. Another pata of this dvipa, installed by one Dhandhala in V.S. 1287 (1230 A.D.), is preserved in a cell in the main shrine on Mt. Girnar but the number of shrines on the plaque exceeds the usual figure 52. It is impossible to list here all the available representations of Nandisvara from the whole of India nor is it necessary in a work of iconography to do so even with regard to images of different deities nor does this author claim to have made an exhaustive study from each and every shrine of the Jaina faith which is still a living religion in India. The Nandisvara-dvipa has been held very sacred by both the sects who install stone and metal sculptures or plaques in their shrines. T.N. Ramachandran (op. cit.) has published a metal sculpture of N.

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Introduction 23 dvipa, pyramidal in shape, rising in four tiers and with a finial top. On each side thirteen Jinas are sitting in padmisana. He has also published a bigger stone sculpture of the N.-dvipa, shaped like a vimana, superimposed on a square base, the sides of which reveal Jinas seated in meditation. The vimana has on each side niche surmounted by an arch with a figure of a Jina sitting in it. A finial surmounts the whole giving it a dignified appearance. Figure 63 in Studies in Jaina Art, illustrated by us, represents a modern N.-dvipa bronze from a Jaina shrine in Kolhapur. Since the N.-dvipa with its 52 Sasvata-Jinalayas has been a favourite resort of gods for festivals and worship, it has naturally become a favourite symbol of worship of the Eternal Jina images, by the pious Jainas. The figure 52 became so popular that a group of smaller shrines 52 in number were often erected round a Jaina shrine. One of the penances practised by them is known as Nandisvara-pankti-vrata in the Digambara tradition; a similar N.-tapa practised by the Svetambaras along with puja of the Nandisvara-pata is referred to by the Pravacanasaroddhara. 1252 VII. Samarasarana Sumavasuruna126 literally means assemblage and refers to the Sermon-hall constructed by gods, where heavenly beings, human beings and the animal world assemble, take their apportioned seats, and attend to the sermon delivered by a Tirthankara after enlightenment. According to Svetambara sect, Vyantara gods erect it at the bidding of Indra, while the Digambara traditions say that Indra himself was the architect. It is a special structure usually an elaborate circular theatre with three fortifications around, erected by gods, for beings to sit and listen to the discourse. 127 In representations in Jaina miniature paintings it is generally circular in plan while in some cases it is square in plan. Detailed descriptions of such assembly halls are obtained in works of both the sects, especially the Jaina Puranas in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa, Kannada, Tamil, etc. 128 The Kalpa-sutra does not refer to the Samavasarana or the festival celebrated by the gods at the time of the Kevalajnana of Mahavira. 129 Even the negative evidence of Kalpa-satra is sometimes significant as it is an early text already commented upon by Agastyasimha suri in c. third century A.D. 130 lt may also be noted that not a single representation of the Samavasara na has yet been discovered from Kankali Tila. Mathura. But the Avasyaka-Niryukti does describe it.131 The terms Samavasaraya, for such an elaborate conception, seems to have originated from canonical expressions like samavasstah used in Jaina canons for Mahavira staying and holding meetings in different places and from texts like the Aupapatika sutra 10, where Mahavira is said to have arrived at the Puraabhadra Caitya near Camp, with a view to hold a congregation (samosarium kame). According to Hemacandra (Trisasti, op. cit.), when Rsabha obtained Kevalajnana, Indra ordained Vyantara gods to erect a Samavasarana. The Vayukumaras first cleaned the ground for one yojana, the Meghakumaras then sprinkled it with fragrant water, the Vanavyantaras spread flowers on it. The Vyantaras covering the surface with shining mosaics, erected, in four directions arches (torana), of jewels, gold etc., having on their tops tall figures of salabhanjikas with reflecting surfaces. Makara ornaments (of glistening sapphire) shone on the arches. 132 The arches, adorned with flags and white umbrellas above and eight auspicious symbols below, looked like those on offering slabs (Balipatsas). The Vimanavasi gods made the uppermost rampart of jewels (ratna) with battlements (kapisirsa). In the middle part, the.Jyotiska gods made a rampart (vapra) of gold with battlements of jewels on it. The third and the outermost fortification wall, constructed by Bhavanavasi gods, was made of silver and decorated on top with extensive coping stones of golden lotuses. Each of these ramparts had four ornamental gateways (gopura). At each gate, jars of incense were placed. Besides at each gate the gods made a reservoir or step-well (vapi) with golden lotuses and having four gates like those of the rampart. To the north-east, inside the second wall, they made a dais (devacchanda) for the Master to rest on. On both sides of the east gate of the first rampart stood two gold-coloured Vaimanika gods as gatekeepers. At its south gate stood two white Vyantara gods, at the west gate two Jyotiska gods of red

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24 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana colour and at the north gate two Bhavanadhipatis black like clouds. At four gates of the second wall, in the same order, stood the goddesses Jaya, Vijaya, Ajita and Aparajita, each with one hand in the abhaya-mudra and the other three hands carrying the noose, the goad and the hammer. On the last rampart, at each gate, stood a Tumburu as door-keeper, carrying a skull-crowned club (khatvanga), wearing a garland of skulls, and adorned with matted hair. 133 In the midst of the Samavasarana, a Caitya-tree was raised by the Vyantaras, beneath it a platform (pitha) of jewels, on the latter a dias (chandaka) of gems. In the centre of it, to the east was placed a jewelled lion-throne with foot-stool. Above the throne shone the white triple-umbrella, on both sides Yaksas held two white fly-whisks. At the gate of the Samavasarana, they placed, on a golden lotus, the Dharma-cakra of remarkable lustre. Gods use nine lotuses for the master to step on while reaching the congregation. Entering the Samavasarana by the east-gate, the Jina makes pradaksina (circumambulation) of the Caitya-tree and bowing to the congregation (tirtha) takes his seat on the lion-throne. Vyantara-gods make three life-size images of the Lord and place them in the other three directions so that everyone in the assembly finds himself facing the Lord. 134 Behind the Jina appears a halo (bhandala), a urum is sounded in the skies (devadundubhi), and a jewelled banner blazes in front of the Lord. In the first rampart is the place for monks and nuns. Gods, men and women, and animals have their own places in different ramparts. In the interesting account given by Jinasena in the Adipurana,135 Samavasarana is circular in plan, surrounded by a dhuli-sala (mud-wall) of dust particles of various gems producing effect of rainbow colours. A little inside the dhuli-sala, in the midst of roads were tall Manastambhas on platforms reached by flights of steps, and situated in the midst of a Jagati, surrounded by three walls and four gopuras. At their bases were golden images of the Jinendra worshipped with waters of the Ksira-sagara. Music and dancing continued before these Jina images. The pillars, erected by Indra, also called Indra-dhvajas had triple umbrellas on tops. Near the pillars were step-wells in four directions and by their sides small kundas for washing one's feet. A little away from these vapis was a moat filled with water, full of lotuses and encircling the Samavasarana area. Near each gateway, of the first rampart, were nine-nidhis (treasures). On each side of the highways starting from these gateways were two nafya-salas. Further inside were incense-burner jars, still further, on the byways by the side of highroads, were four forest groves with square or triangular vapis for heavenly damsels to bathe. At some places were lotus ponds, at others kridamandapas, artificial billocks, mansions (harmya), preksa-grhas, citra-salas (picture-galleries), eka-salas, dvi-salas (single-roomed or doubleroomed houses), or big palaces (maha-prasada). In the Asoka-vana was a big Asoka-tree on a three-tiered platform, and adorned with flags, bells etc. At its root were four images of the Jinendra worshipped by gods and human beings. Similarly the other three forests had the Caitya-trees called Saptaparana, the Campaka, and the Amra-tree. At the ends of these forests were Vana-vedikas with tall gateways with flagstaffs in front. In the description of the second rampart, and its area, the forests are of the Kalpa-vTksas and in the list of buildings etc. we find additional mention of Candrasalas and Kutagaras. In the centre of each of the highways were nine lofty stupas adorned on all sides with images of the Siddhas and the Arhats. In the centre of third rampart area, three pithas stood, one above the other. On the third, Kubera erected a square Gandhakuti on which was placed the lion-throne on which sat the Lord, with triple umbrellas overhead, halo (bhamandala) behind, nearby and attended upon by Yaksas waving fly-whisks. In the sky rose the sound of the celestial drums beaten by gods. Descriptions in traditions of both the sects agree in broad outline, viz., a central pavilion (Gandhakuti) for the Jina, placed on a big platform, and surrounded by three fortifications, each with four archways in four different directions. Originally the conception of the samavasarana seems to be circular in plan and the square plan seems to be a later one. But it shows that the samavasarana has for its prototype the big stupa (the harmika of stupa may be compared with the gandhakufi or devacchandaka for the

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Introduction 25 Jina) surrounded by a flight of steps. At a lower level or on the ground level, running around this central structure and at some distance from it is the bigger railing (a rampart) with ornamental torana-gateways. There is a third rampart which can be compared with the third railing seen on the frieze of worship from Kankali Tila, illustrated in Fig 10A. But the elaborate Digambara description, in the Adipurapa of Jinasena, includes in it the various constituent elements of a big city and may have incorporated in it an ideal description of a contemporary city-site with three fortifications, a surrounding moat, pleasure resorts, stepwells, theatres, lawns, lakes, palaces etc., and having in its centre the royal palace. Viewed in this light, such accounts are of special value as providing us with architectural and other cultural data. In Kalpa-sutra miniatures Samavasarana is generally represented as circular and occasionally square in plan. Brown's pl. 23, fig. 80 shows Mahavira sitting in the padmasana in the centre of the samavasarana, with a yaksa attendant standing on either side. Four highways lead to the Jina in the centre. The ornamental concentric bands around the Jina represent the usual fortifications. The whole is enclosed in rectangular panel, a four corners of which stand pairs of animals who have forgotten their natural animosities under the spiritual influence of the Jina whose main teaching is ahimsa. Brown's figures 113 and 126 are of a similar composition. His figure 99 represents the second type, here a samavasarana of Parsvanatha. 136 The fresco paintings of Sittannavasal, of c. 9th-10th century, contain in the ceiling, a scene of a big lotus pond with animals such as elephants and bulls, birds, and fishes frolicking about and men gathering lotus flowers, which has been identified by Ramachandran as khatikabhumi or the tank region, with the faithful (bhavyas) gathering lotus flowers. The wall and ceiling paintings at Tirumalai, N. Arcot district, the ceiling at Tiruparuttikunram, at Sravana Belagola etc., also contain representations of Samavasarana in circular form. Representations of Samavasarana are available in reliefs showing lives of different Jinas, for example. in the life of Santinatha in a ceiling in the Vimala vasahi, Abu, bhava no. 19, and in another elaborate ceiling in a shrine at Kumbharia. Loose sculptures, mostly circular, showing three ramparts, one above the other, surmounted by a square pavilion showing the Jina sitting on each side are also obtained, a beautiful example of which from the Vimala vasahi cell 20 has been discussed by D.R. Bhandarkar. A big sized beautiful bronze structure of a similar plan, installed in the eleventh century, brought from Sirohi and now in worship in a Jaina shrine in Surat, is illustrated here. 137 Examples of such loose stone and metal sculptures and reliefs are scattered in Jaina shrines all over India. The upper part of Samavasarana, the pavilion or the Gandhakuti, with the Jina facing each side, has been a subject of representation by itself as the Caumukha (Caturmukha pratima) called Pratima-Sarvatobhadrika in Mathura inscriptions. In further later elaboration of this concept we find such four-sided sculptures and bronzes with several Tirthankaras on each face. But the practice of installing Caturmukha sculptures is an old one common to the Caitya and Yaksa worship and images were installed and worshipped on four sides of a Caitya, a pillar or a stupa, as also in the pavilion or gandhakuti on top of a stupa. The square or circular Samavasarana has for its prototype the square or circular funeral mounds or structures referred to by the Satapatha Brahmana and called Daiva and Asura Pracya respectively. Being associated with smasana, symbolising funeral memorials, the Jainas unlike the Buddhists did not like to install miniature Stupa representations in their shrines and at the same time could not omit such a very popular symbol from the Jaina worship. The evolution of the Samavasarana concept gave an excellent substitute for the stupa symbol. So far as the concept is concerned Samavasarana has nothing to do with funeral rites. The original conception of a Caturmukha-pratima so far as a samavasarana or the gandhakuti on top of a stupa is concerned, shows that figures of one and the same Jina should be shown on each of the four sides. But the Pratima-Sarva tobhadrikas from Kankali Tila, Mathura, show figures of four different Tirthankaras on the four sides, two of them can be identified as Rsabhanatha and Paravanatha and the other two possibly represented Mahavira and Neminatha. Thus the Pratima-Sarvatobhadrikas of Kusar a age do not always seem to imply the Samavasarana concept and some of them were certainly on the top or at the base of a kind of Jaina pillars, like the Kahaon Pillar, called Manastambhas. This is quite evident in

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* 26 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana cases where, amongst the Pratima-sarvatobhadrika or Caturmukha images from Kankali Tila, Mathura, we find tenon or socket on top or bottom. The conception of the Samavasarana is not later than the Gupta age since neither the Avasyaka Niryukti nor the Vasudevahindi referring to it can be assigned to a date later than the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. The conception of a Caturmukha shrine, evolved from the cult of Caitya-vsksa and the Yaksa cult as shown before, and the allied concept of Caturmukha Pratima led further to the creation of interesting sculptures and bronzes, as, for example, the Nandisvara images at Jina-Kanchi or Tiruparuttikupsam illustrated by Ramachandran, op. cit., pl. XXI, fig. 3 and pl. XXXI, fig. 4. Four-sided bronze and stone images having in all 72, 108, or 1008 miniature Jina images were also evolved. A beautiful Caumukha shrine from Guna, Madhya Pradesh, is a gem of its kind. 138 VIII. Tree-Worship We have already referred to Caitya trces before. Tree-worship, popular from ancient times, noticed on Indus seals and in Vedic and later Brahmanical literature, formed an important aspect of the religious cult of the masses with whom Buddha and Mahavira were mainly concerned. The Caitya tree had to be introduced on relief sculpture of a Tirthankara by showing its foliage spread over his head, because of the great popular appeal the Tree had in ancient India. 139 Originally perhaps the Jina image was placed under a Caitya-Tree. The bronze figure of a Caitya-tree obtained in the Chausa hoard (Fig. 17) was perhaps worshipped in such a way with a separate small Jina figure placed near its trunk. Even today the Caitya-tree of Rsabhanatha (Rayana tree in Gujarati) is held sacred and worshipped on the mountain Satrunjaya. The earliest reference to the Caitya-tree of Mahavira is in the Acaranga sutra, book II which is regarded as later than book I. Though incorporating much earlier material, the Samavayanga sutra (samavaya 159, p. 152) is obviously a later compilation. It gives a list of Past, Present and Future Tirthankaras and records a list of Caitya-veksas of all the 24 Tirthankaras of this age in the Bharata ksetra. Spirits connected with trees are assigned by the Jainas to the class of Vyantara gods. The Vyantaras are subdivided into eight groups, namely, Pisacas, Bhutas, Yaksas, Raksasas, Kinnaras, Kimpurusas, Mahoragas (Nagas), and Gandharvas. Each group has on its crest the symbol of a tree in the following order--the kadamba, sulasa, vata, khatvanga, asoka, naga and tumburu according to the Svetambara tradition while the Digambaras substitute the badari tree for the khayvanga. In the Svetambara list khafvanga alone does not seem to be the name of a tree. The Sthananga sutra (10.3, su. 766) gives a list of trees worshipped by the ten classes of Bhavanavasi gods. A different list is supplied by the Tiloyapappatti, 4.913ff. Along with the conception of Caitya trees may be noted the conceptions of the Tree of Life and the Wish-fulfilling Trees (kalpa-druma) in Brahmanical and Buddhist texts. Jaina texts also speak of ten kalpa-drumas, described in detail in the Jambudvipaprajnapti, 20, pp. 99ff, Harivamsa of Jinasena, I, pp. 146-47, Trisastisalaka-purusacarita (Parva 1, transl. op. cit., pp. 29-30), etc. REFERENCES 1. For references from Buddhist texts, see Muni Naga rajaji, Agama aur Tripitaka-Eka Anusilana (Hindi), vol. I, pp. 402ff. Malalasekera, G.P., Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, vol. II (London, 1938), pp. 61-65; Shah, C.J., Jainism in North India (London, 1932), pp. 5-7; Jaini, Padmanabha, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi, 1979), p. 2, n. 3. 2. Varahamihira in his Brhat-Samhita refers to the Arhats, i.e., followers of Arhats. By his time the term Arhat (worthy of veneration) seems to have been used espe cially for a Jina or a Tirtharkara. 3. As in Amarakosa, cf. : G G:* fecitaffucci: 1 4. A Jina is called an Arhat, cf. Abhayadeva's Comm. on Sthananga sutra, p. 191, and Avasyaka Niryukti, gatha 1087; Mulacara, 7.4; Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., pp. 1-2 and notes.

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27 Introduction S. A remarkable study of the Jaina shrines at Devgadh 11.12, SBE, XLV, p. 11. Also see Muni Uttam Kamal is made by Klaus Bruhn in his The Jina-Images of Jain, Jaina Sects and Schools (Delhi, 1975), pp. 39-45. Deogarh (Leiden, 1961). S. Settar has studied Sravana. 25. Avasyaka Curni (Ratlam, 1928), pp. 285, 291. BrhatBelagola Monuments. I understand his work will be Kalpa-Bhasya, I, gathas 1328-57. published soon. Of course, an abridged book entitled For details about Jinakalpa, see Brhat-Kalpa-Sarra with Sravana Belagola by S. Settar was published in 1981 Bhasya, III, gathas 3962ff; about the Sthavirakalpa from Dharwar. M.A. Dhaky is engaged in a special monks, sec Acaranga sutra, 7.4.208ff; also see Schustudy of all the Jaina monuments at Satrunjaya while bring, Die Lehre Der Jinas (Berlin and Leipzig, 1935), Harihara Singh has made a special study of the Jaina pp. 162ff. Muni Kalyanavijaya, Sramasa Bhagavan shrines at Kumbharia. Mahavira (Hindi, Jalor, v.s. 1998), pp. 285ff. For the 6. Jaina, J.C., Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jaina Digambara view, see Jaina, Kamta Prasad in Jaina Canons, p. 19, and o. 2. Antiquary (Arrah), vol. ix, no. II. 7. Acarariga sufra, II.3.401, p. 389. 26. Acararga satra, 1.7, SBE, XII, pp. 69-73. 8. Bhagavati sutra, 9.32. 27. Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra with Bhasya, III, gatha 3964. 9. Jaina sutras, SBE, vol. XIV, pp. xvi-xxi. 28. Avasyaka curni, II, pp. 155ff. 10. Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., pp. 15-21. 29. Ibid., pp. 406ff. 11. Cf. Uttaradhyayana sutra, 26.29. For rules of conduct of 30. Avasyaka curni, pp. 427ff. Avasyaka-Bhasya, gatha 145 Kesin, a follower of Parsvanatha, see Rayapasenaiya printed in Avasyaka vptti of Haribhadra suri (Agarosutta, 147, and for disciples of Mahavira, Aupaparika daya Samiti ed., Bombay, 1918), pp. 323ff. Visesayasutra, 16, p. 61. $yaka-Maha-Bhasya of Jinabhadra gani (510-600 A.D.), Modern scholars do not believe in the legend of Transfer vol. II, pp. 676ff (Ratlam ed.). of Mahavira's Embryo. It seems that he was born of a 31. Brhat-Katha-Kosa (ed. by Upadhye, A.N., Singhi Jaina Brahmapa lady. Also see Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., Series, no. 17), 131, pp. 317ff, and Intro., p. 118. For pp. 6-9 and notes; Malavania, Dalsukh D., Mahavira's inscriptions about this legend, vide Epigraphia CarnaLife, Journ of the O. I., Baroda, vol. XXIV, pp. 11ff. tica, II (revised ed.), pp. 36ff. Also see Bhavasamgraha 13. Shah, U.P., Harinegamesin, Journal of the Indian Society of Devasena (Bombay, 1978), pp. 35-39, and of Oriental Art, vol. XIX (1952-1953), pp. 19-41 and Bhadrabahucarita of Bhatjaraka Ratnanandi (Bombay, plates. 1912). 14. The Digambara Sect does not believe in the Transfer 32. Uttaradhyayana sutra, pp. 152-178; Urtaradhyayana cpisode nor do they give the name of Mahavira's mother Niryukti, gathas 164-178; Avasyaka Niryukti, gathas as Trisala. They call her Priyakarini. 778-783. 15. For the date of Mahavira's Nirvana, See Muni 33. Vise dvasyaka Maha-Bhasya, gathas 3011ff) (Ratlam Kalyanavijaya, Vira Nirvana Samvat Aur Jaina ed.), pp. 729-34. The Digambara writer Devasena in his Kalaganana (Hindi), Nagari Pracarini Patrika, vols. X Darsanasara, v. 11, says that this schism arose 136 years XI; and Muni Nagaraj, op. cit. after Vikrama, i.e., in 79 A.D. For Pandit Nathuram 16. For a fuller account and more illustrations, see Shah, Premi's remarks on above, see Jaina Hitaisi (Hindi), U.P., A Parsvaratha Sculpture in Cleveland, Bulletin of vol. XIII, pp. 252ff, 265ff. the Cleveland Museum of Art, December 1970, pp. 303 For the age of Niryuktis, Muni Punyavijayaji's Intro311 and plates. duction to Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra with Bhasya, vol. VI; 17. Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., pp. 38-41. Charpentier's Intro. to the Uttaradhyayana-sutra 18. Urtaradhyayana sutra (Devacand Lalbhai Jaina Pusta. (Upasala, 1922), pp. 49f places Bhadrabahu, the author koddhara series, no. 33, 1916 A.D.), pp. 502-503, Transl. of the Niryuktis in c. 4th cent. A.D. According to by Jacobi, SBE, vol. XIV, p. 12. Leumann the Niryuktis were compiled in c. 80 A.D.; 19. Brhat-Kalpa-Satra with Bhasya (ed. by Muni Punyavija also see Schubring, op. cit., p. 60; Ghatge, A.M., yaji, Bhavanagar), vol. VI, gatha 6369, p. 1681: Dasavaikalika Niryukti, IHQ, vol. XI, p. 629. Alsdorf, acelakko dhammo purimassa ya pacchimasya ya jinassa / A.L., in Mahavira and His Teachings (Ahmedabad, majjhimagAna jiNAnaM hotti acelo sacelo vA // 1976). The Svetambara writers tried to explain the term acela 34. Silappudikaram, transl. by Dikshitar, Ramachandra, by saying that even with tattered worn out garment a V.R. (Oxford, 1942), pp. 4f, 190f, 214f, and Intro., person can be generally called acela, see also ibid.. p. 68; Chakravarti, A., Jainism in Tamil Land, Jaina p. 1680, gathas 6260ff and p. 1688, gathas 6402ff. Antiquary, vol. IV, 3, pp. 69ff etc. 20. Acaranga sufra, 1.8.1, Transl. by Jacobi, SBE, vol. 34a. For detailed information of sites and illustrations, seo XXII, p. 78; Kalpa sutra, Jacobi's transl., vol. XXII, R. Champakalaksmi, South India, Jaina Art and pp. 259f. Architecture, chp:9, pp. 92-103 and plates. 21. Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., pp. 10ff; Dighanikaya, 1.57. 35. Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra, gathas 3275-3289, vol. III, pp. 91722. Jaini, Padmanabha, op. cit., pp. 13ff, 16. 931. Compare gatha 3289 which is famous (the same 23. Jaini, Padmanabha, ibid., pp. 16-18. gathas are also available in the Nisitha Curni, vol. IV, 24. Sthananga, 11.171, p. 137 (Agamodaya Samiti ed.); Acar pp. 128-131, gathas 5744-5758, given in both the texts as ariga, JI.5.1.2, SBE, XII, pp. 157-166; Uttaradhyayana, Bhasya gathas):

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. udiNNajohAulasiddhaseNo, sa patyivo NijjiyasattuseNo / samatato sAhamuhappayAre, akAsi aMdhe damile ya dhore // 3286 / / Also see The Ascendency and Eclipse of Bhagvan Mahavira's Cult in Tamil Nadu, by K.A. Nilakantha Sastri and V. Ramasubramaniam, in Mahavira and His Teachings (Bombay, 1977). pp. 297-344. It is indeed difficult to say when exactly Jainism entered South India. But one can imagine gradual inroads of Jainism in the South, through Kalinga (note Kharavela's inscr.), and through Pratisthanapura; and on the west coast through Surparaka to Karnataka. During the lifetime of Mahavira the Jainas were mainly in Magadha and Radha in Bengal and perhaps in southern Kosala and also in Ujjain etc. Afterwards the Kalpa-sutra-Sthaviravali giving Gana and Kula names derived from places is our sure guide. Jainism does not appear to have made strongholds in the South before c. third or second century ... A few monks could have ventured going into South india before the time of Mauryan ruler Samprati but with little or no success in settling there. Also see Subrahmanyam, R., The Gunfupally Brahmi inscription of Kharavela, Andhra Pradesh Govt. Epigraphical Series no. 3 (1968), pp. 1-6. 36. Schubring, op. cit., p. 6. 37. Premi, Nathuram, Jaina Sahitya Aura Itihasa (in Hindi) (Bombay, 1942), pp. 41ff. Upadhye, A.N., Yapaniya Samgha, Journal of the University of Bombay, vol. VI, pp. 224ff. The Hoskote copper-plate inscription of Pallava Simhavinpu (Ep. Ind., vol. 24) refers in line 25 to Arhaddeva-ayatana Worshipped by the Yavanika Samgha (Yapaniya Samgha). I am thankful to R. Nagaswamy for drawing my atten tion to the Hoskote plates. 38. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 34. Devagiri Plates of Siva Mrgesavarman, Indian Antiquary, vol. XII, pp. 36ff. Saletore, B.A., Mediaeval Jainism (Bombay, 1938), pp. 31-32. Date of Mtgesavarman is c. 470-488 A.D. 39. Perhaps the Digambaras are here referred to as Nirgranthas. 40. It is not possible to illustrate here all of them. Also see Chanda, Ramaprasad, Svetambara and Digambara Images, Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, for 1925-26, pp. 180ff. 41. For known Jaina sculptures of the Gupta period, see Chanda, Ramaprasad, ibid., pp. 121ff, pl. LVI, figs. b and c; Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 14-16; Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III, 66-68; Banerji, R.D., Age of the Imperial Guptas, pp. 104, 106, 108, 129, and pl. xviii; Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, pl. xiii, pp. 52ff; Gai, G.S., Three Inscriptions of Ramagupta, JOI, vol. XVIII, pp. 247ff and plates; Jaina Art and Architecture (ed. by A. Ghosh), vol. I, chps. 10, 11, 12, 13, pp. 107-142 and plates. Shah, U.P., An Old Jaina Image from Khed-Brahma, JOI, vol. X, pp. 61ff and plate. Joanna Williams, The Art of Gupta India, figs. 27-30, 60, 68, 69, 88, 146-148, 230-231. 42. Smith, V., Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities from Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Mathura, pl. xvii, fig. 2, discussed by Chanda, R.P., op. cit., p. 179; Epi. Ind., X, p. 117; Jaina Art and Architecfure, I, chp. 6, pl. 3, p. 57. For the Ardhapbalakas, see Jaina, K.P., Ardhaphalaka Sampradaya (in Hindi). Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, VIII, no. 2, pp. 63-66. 43. The date in the inscription is generally read as 95, Ep. Ind., 1, no. 22. Luders' List no. 75. Luders says that the reading of the first two signs of the date is uncertain. In Jaina Art and Architecture, I, p. 57, Debala Mitra has given year 99 as the date. It seems that the date 95 or 99 may not be in the era of 78 A.D. since that would be equal to 173 or 177 A.D. But if the date is in the era of 57 B.C. then the date would be equal to 38 or 42 A.D. which is reasonable since Kapha or Krspa Sramana is the teacher of Sivabhuti and since Sivabhuti's schism arose in 79 or 83 A.D. If we accept Jacobi's date of Mahavira's Nirvana around 467 B.C., the date of the schism of Sivakofi or Sivabhuti would be 142 A.D. In that case the cra used for the date in this Tablet of Kanha Samapa can be the era of 78 A.D. 44. Also see Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper no. 6, pp. 49-74, and figs. 16-21. 45. The inscriptions on the pedestals of these images from Mathura refer to ganas, sakhas, kulas, etc., found in the Svetambara Sthaviravali of the Kalpa-sutra whereas the monks represented on pedestals are naked and often hold a piece of cloth on the elbow in such a way that the linga is covered from view. Whom they called arddhaphalakas in their times? They seem to be Jinakalpi monks who might be holding such a piece of cloth when they come out of seclusion into the society. Or, are they Yapaniyas? It is difficult to draw any definite conclusion. It is very likely that these sculptures from the Kankali Tila, Mathura are of an age when the Digambara-Svetambara schism had either not surfaced or at least had not reached Mathura. Otherwise we would have found figures of Jaina monks dressed as Svetambara monks, with at least one lower garment. The problem needs further investigation since names of some monks and most of the ganas, sakhas, kulas etc. figure in Sve. accepted Sthaviravali of the Kalpa-sutra. 46. Shah, U.P., Age of Differentiation of Digambara and Svetambara Images and the Earliest known Sverdmbara Bronzes, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, no. 1, pp. 31ff. Akota Bronzes, p. 26, pls. 8a and 8b. 47. Traag: Therafan digbAsAstaruNo rUpavAzca kAryo'haMtAM devaH / / -Brhar-Samhita of Varahamihira, 58.45. The Pancasiddhantika of Varahamihira is dated in 327 Saka year according to S.K. Dikshit in Indian Culture, vol. VI, no. 2, pp. 191ff. Dikshit takes veda-3 in saprasviveda-samkhye etc. Others take veda=4. Dikshit says that in those days only three Vedas were recognised. 48. Prabhavaka-Carita of Prabhacandra (1334 v.s.), publi shed in Singhi Jaina Serics, no. 13, pp. 8off, Upadesutarangini of Ratnamandira gani, p. 248; Pravacanapariksa of Dharmasagara, in Report of the Search of

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Introduction Mss. 1883-84, by Bhandarkar, p. 146: 49. Also compare Rama Prasad Chanda's remarks in A.S.I.. Ann. Rep. 1925-26, op. cit. 50. Smith, Vincent, Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities from Mathura, Debala Mitra, Chapter no. 6, Mathura, Jaina Art and Antiquities, vol. I, pp. 49-68 and plates. Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, Jaina Antiquities, JUPHS, vol. XXIII (1950), pp. 35 147. 51. Avasyaka Niryukti, gathas 949-51, Avasyaka Curni, p. 567, Avasyaka Vrtti of Haribhadra, p. 437. 52. Siddhesvara Shastri Citrava, Pracina Caritra Kosa (Marathi, Poona. 1932), p. 635. 53. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 12, 62-64. 54. For Stupa worship at Mathura, see Debala Mitra, chp. 6 on Mathura in Jaina Art and Antiquities (ed. A. Ghosh), vol. I, pp. 52-61, plates 1-8. Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 43-64. For Astamangalas, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 109-112, and fig. 60; Shah, U.P., Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras. For Caitya-Trees, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 65-76; for Ayagapatas, ibid., pp. 77-84 and figs. For Sthapana, ibid., 113ff, fig. 43. 55. Caumukha images are also found on tops of Samavasarana icons, for Samavasarana, see ibid., pp. 85-95, fig. 76. For Caumukha sculptures, ibid., fig. 28 (from Son Bhandara cave, Rajgir), fig. 74 (from Terahi, M.P.), fig. 84 (from Surat); Jaina Art and Architecture, I, pl. 18 (from Mathura); ibid., II, pl. 159 A and B (from Deolia and Purulia respy.), pl. 257B (from Mudabidri), etc. For discussion of four-fold sculptures on top or bottom of pillars-Manastambhas-and allied matters, see Shah, U.P., Jaina Anusrutis... etc.... Motichandra Memorial Lecture, Journal of Indian Museums, vol. XXXIV (1978), pp. 1-34. esp. pp. 18-22. 56. Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 77-84, fig. 14B. Jaina Art and Architecture, I, pl. I. 57. Shah, U.P., Moti Chandra Memorial Lecture, Journal of Indian Museums, vol. XXXIV (1978), p. 15 and figs. 1 and 2. Worship of pillars was known to Buddhists also, compare Fig. 11, in The Art of India through the Ages, by Stella Kramrisch (London, 1954), showing worship of the Dharmacakra Pillar by a male and a female, carved on a pillar near the north entry at the Sanchi Stupa (c. second century B.C.). 58. See Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, III, pp. 66-68. 59. The practice has remained popular with the Digambaras. At Devgadh are several pillars which show variations in and elaboration of Manastambhas, see Devagadh ki Jaina Kala (in Hindi) (Delhi, 1974), by Bhagachandra Jaina, figs. 28, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48. In Southern India there are so-called Brahmadeva pillars and other pillars in front of Jaina shrines. S. Settar has explained that these pillars do not show figures of Brahma Yaksa or Brahmadeva but the pillars have figures of Sarvanubhuti Yaksa. He has shown their origin in the Manastambhas. Cf. S. Settar, The Brahmadeva Pillars, Artibus Asiae, vol. XXXIII, nos. 1-2, pp. 17ff. 29. 60. Also see Bannerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography (first ed.), p. 114 and note.. 61. Coomaraswamy, A.K., Elements of Buddhist Iconography, figs. 4-10, and pp. 10f. 62. Cf. Rgveda, VI.16.13; 1.59.1-2; IV.13.5; V.29.4; X.5.6. According to Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 66, "The axis of the Universe is coincident also with the fiery Sivalingam set up, according to the Devadaruvana legend, in the foundations of the Earth and extending upwards to Heaven. The Jyotirlingas were originally perhaps such fiery lingas. One such linga with flames exists in the Bharata Kala Bhavan, Varanasi. 63. Adipurana of Jinasena, 22.92-102, pp. 515-16. The name Manastambha is explained as follows: mAnastambhAnmahAmAnayogAt trailokyamAnanAt / anvarthasaMjJayA tajjJa manastambhAH prakIrtitAH // 102 // Tiloyapannatti, 4.782, gives another explanation: mAllAsayamicchA vi dUrado daMsaNeNa thaMbhANaM / jaM hoMti galidamANA mANatthaMbha ti taM bhaNidaM // 782 // 64. Tiloyapannatti, 4.779ff, vol. I, pp. 243-44. S. Settar, The Brahmadeva Pillars, Artibus Asiae, vol. XXXIII, pp. 17ff, figs. 1-3. 65. Indramaha was the most prominent of all other mahas (festivals) in ancient days. Bharata is said to have celebrated eight days' festival in honour of Indra (Avasyaka Curni, p. 213). Indramaha is also mentioned by Bhasa (Pusalkar, Bhasa, A Study, chp. 19, p. 440f), also in the MBH, I.64.33, and Kathasaritsagara, etc. According to Ramayana, IV.16.36, it was celebrated on the full-moon of the Asvin in Gauda-desa. Indalatthi (Indra-yasti, the same as the Indradhvaja) is mentioned in the Nayadhammakahao, I, Bhagavati sutra, 9.6; also in the Mahabharata, VII.49.12. Also see Brhat-KalpaSutra, vol. IV, gatha 5153. Jaina texts mention festivities in honour of (1) Inda, Indra, (2) Khanda, Skanda, (3) Rudda, Rudra, (4) Mukunda, (5) Siva, (6) Vesamana, Vaisramana, Kubera, (7) Naga, (8) Jakkha, Yaksa, (9) Bhuya, Bhuta, (10) Ajja. Arya, the same as Durga, (11) Kottakiriya, Mahisamarddini... Nayadhammakahao, 8. Bhagavati sutra, 3.1. Acaranga sutra, 2.1.1.2, sutra 12; Nayadhammakahao (Vaidya's ed.), pp. 49f. 66. Bhagavati sutra, 20.9, su. 684, 794. For the Nandisvaradvipa, festival thereon and representations of Nandisvaradvipa, see Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 119-121, figs. 63, 89. 67. For a detailed discussion on the origin and conception of Caitya, see Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 3975 where conceptions of Caityas, Caitya-stupas, Caityastambhas, Caitya-vrksas, etc. are discussed with Jaina and other sources. 68. Jaina commentators explain Ceiyam-Caityam in kallanam mangalam devayam ceiyam etc. as Jinadipratima or Istadevapratima. See Studies in Jaina Art, p. 50. 69. Ibid., p. 53, note 4. 70. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (HIIA), p. 47. Also see Odette Viennot, Le Culte De L'Arbre Dans L'Inde Anncienne, pl. VIII, fig. D from Amaravati Stupa.

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71. Coomaraswamy,HILA, p. 47. 72. This stone structure probably had an earlier wooden prototype. For Stone Umbrellas and the Jaina description, see Shah, U.P., Stone-Umbrellas from Mathura, Journal of the U.P. Historical Research Society, vol. XIV (1951). 73. Cr. Odette Viennot, op. cit., pl. XII, figs. A, E, F, pl. XIII, figs. A, B,C,D. pl. XIV, fig. A. 74. Adipurana, 22.184-204, vol. I, pp. 524-527.cr.: mUrnA chatratrayaM bibhranmuktAlambanabhUSitam / vibhostribhuvanazvayaM vinA vAceva darzayan // 174 / / bhejire bughnabhAge'sya pratimA dikcatuSTaye / jinezvarANAmindrAdhaH samavAsAbhiSecanA: // 175|| caityAdhiSTitabudhnatvAdUDhatannAmarUDhayaH / zAkhino'mI vibhAnti sma surendraHprAsapUjanAH // 201 / / Also cf.: maddobhUmuharuMdA caJjoyaNa'cchidANi pIDhANi / pIDhovaribahumajjhe rammA ceTThanti cettadumA // 33 // chattAdidhvattajuttA ghaMTAjAlAdiramaNijjA // 36 // AdiNihaNeNa hInA puDhavimayA sbvbhvnncettdumaa| jIvuppattilayANaM hoMti nimittANi te NiyamA // 37 // cettatarUNaM mUle pattakkaM caudisAsu paMceva / cedati jiNappaDimA paliyaMkaThiyA surehi mahaNijjA / / 8 / / caThattoraNAbhirAmA aTThamahAmaMgalehi sohillA / vararayaNaNimmidehi mANathambhehi airammA hA -Tiloyapannatti, 3.33-39, vol. I, p. 115. 75. Digambara writers share the same telief, compare: tIrthAdau bharatezvareNa bhagavatsaMdezanAlabdhitA gArhasthye rasakhaMDamaMDalaghanaraSTApade nirmitaH / caityAnA nivahastu yatna jinarADbibAni saMsthApitA nyevaM bhUtabhaviSyadaihikakalAM pUjyezvarANAM pRthak / / -Vasubindu-Pratisthopaha, v. 17, p. 6. 76. Avasyaka-vrtti, p. 169. The Mula-Bhosya-gatha on the Niryukti verse is: yUbhasaya bhAugANaM cauvIsaM ceva jiNahare kaasii| samvajiNANaM paDimA vaNNapamANehi niaehiM // 45|| -avasyaka-Vrtti, p. 169. Also see Avasyaka Curni, pp. 223ff. 77. Vasudevahindi, p. 169 and pp. 300-303. Cf.: tassaputto AsI bharaho nAma paDhamacakkabadrI caudasarayaNAhibaI navanihivaI, teNa imaM AyayaNaM kAriyaM paDimA bhiyA y| Vasudevahindi, p.301. 77a. Epigraphia Indica. II (1893-94), p. 198; H. Luders, List of Brahmi Inscriptions (1912), no. 93. Debala Mitra on Mathura in Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 49ff. Also see Lucknow Museum, no.J.540 and Luders List, no.99. 78. Jambudvipaprojnapti, 2nd vaksaskara, sutra 33 (Deva chand Lalbhai Pustakoddhara Fund, ed. 1920), pp. 157158. Quoted by us in Studies in Jaira Art, p. 59, note 4. Also see Avasyaka Curni, pp. 221-223. 79. Luders, List no. 47. For K.D. Bajpai's corrected reading, see Mahavira Commemoration Volume (Agra), I, pp. 189-190. 80. Avasyaka Niryukti with Haribhadra's Viti I, p. 453. Also see Vyavahara-Bhasya, 5.27-28; Brhat.KalpaBhasya,V.5824,VI.6275. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 81. For some explanation, see Studies in Jaina Art. pp. 63 64. Brhat-katha-kosa, ed. by A.N. Upadhye (Singhi Series, Bombay, 1943), pp. 22-27. Also see Jyotiprasad Jaina, Pramukha Aitihasika Jaina Purusa Aur Mahilae (Hindi), p.59. 83. Handiqui, K.K., Yasastilaka Campu and Indian Culture, pp.415ff. Brhat-katha-kosa, notes, p. 379. 85. Introduction to Harivamsa of Jinasena, by Pandit Nathuram Premi in Harivamsa, vol. I (Mapikchand Digambara Jaina Granthamala), pp. 20ff. 86. History of Bengal, I, p. 410. 87. See plate I in Jaina Art and Architecture (ed. by A. Ghosh), vol. II and pp. 55ff, Paper no. 6 on Mathura by Debala Mitra. 88. Kalpa-sutra, su. 31-46, Jacobi's translation in SBE, pp. 229-238; also see Kalpa-sutra, su. 3, and Jacobi's translation, op. cit., p. 219. 89. For discussion and interpretation of some of these prognostic dreams see Coomaraswamy, A.K., The Conqueror's Life in Jaina Paintings, JISOA, vol. III, __no.2(Dec. 1935), pp. 122-144. 90. For other illustrations, Jaina Citrakalpadruma, vol. I, fig. 73. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Boston Museum, vol. IV, figs. 34. 13. Brown's KSP, op. cit., fig. 152, p. 64. Pavitra-Kalpasutra, ed. Muni Punyavijaya, figs. 17, 22. Representations of Sri amongst such miniatures are of special iconographic interest. 91. In the Kharatavasahi Caumukha shrine at Delvada, Mt. Abu, they are represented on an architrave in the hall in front of the main shrine, a photograph of which is published in Muni Jayanatavijaya's Tirtharaja Abu (Gujarati), 5thedition. The dreams are painted on a wooden-book cover depicting the life of Parsvanatha, now preserved in the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, see JISOA, vol. V, pp. 2-12, and plates. Also see Jesalmer Citravali (Gujarati), edited by Muni Punyavijaya. For paintings of dreams on walls, see Niraydvaliao, 2.1, p. 51. Adipurana of Jinasena, sarga 12, v. 101-119; Harivamsa, sarga 8, verses 58-74. 93. The belief is common to both the sects but the differences in the lists and the numbers would suggest a relatively later growth. 94. Trisasrisalak apurusacarita, parva 4, chp. 1, vv. 216-233. 95. Harivamsa, 35, vv. 11-12, vol. II, pp. 451-452. Padmacarita, 25.3, p. 506 notes a different tradition according to which she the Lion and the Moon only. 96. Trisasti., op. cit., vv. 167-179. 97. Harivamsa, 32.1-2; Padmacarita, 25.12-15 gives a diffe rent tradition. 98. Trisasti., 1.4, vv. 883ff. Pavitra-Kalpa-sutra, ed. Muni Punyavijaya, su. 71. 99. Harivamsa, 32.1-2; Padmacarita, 25.12-15 gives a different tradition. Adipurana of Jinasena, parva 15, vv. 100-101. 99a. Sthananga sitra, 10.3, su. 750, vol. II, pp. 4991. 92.

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31 Introduction 100. Muni Sri Punyavijaya. in his Introduction to his ed. of Pavitra-Kalpa-sutra, p. 10, says that the detailed description of the fourteen dreams in the KS is not referred to in Agastya Simha's Curni on the same and that therefore it is difficult to say whether the portion in question is genuine or not. According to him, the Niryukti as well as the Curni on the Dasasrutaskandha (of which the Kalpa-sutra is the eighth adhyayana) seem to date from c. 350 A.D. or earlier. See Sabdakalpadruma-Kosa under Svapna. Aupapatika sutra, su. 31: Sovatthiya (or Sotthiya), Sirivacca, Nandiyavatta, Bhaddasana. Kalasa, Maccha, Dappana and Vaddhamanaga. 103. Trisasti., I (translation in Gos, vol. LTD. pp. 112, 190. Jinasena's Adipurana, parva 22, vv. 143, 185, 210 etc. Compare: tesiNaM toraNANaM uppi aTThaTTa maMgalagA paNNattA, taM jahAsotthiya, sikhiccha, nandiyAvatta, vaddha nANaga, bhaddAmaNa, kalasa, maccha, dappaNa jAva pddiruuvaa| -Rayapasenaiyam, ed. Pt. Bechardas Doshi, pp. 80ff; Jambudvipaprajnapti, vol. I, p. 43. 104. Trisasti., I (transl. in Gos, vol. LI), p. 190 and note 238. 105. Smith. V.A., Jaina Stipa ..., pl.XI. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 10. Some of these symbols occur on other Ayagapatas also, cf., for example, Smith, Jaina Stupa ..., pl. IX; Studies in Jaina Art, figure 11. 106. Smith.Js.... pl. VII; Studies in Jaina Art..fig. 13. 107. Especially see Agrawala, V.S., Harsacarita, Eka Samskrtika Adhyayana (Hindi), p. 120, where he has referred to Asramangalamalas from Sanchi reliefs. The Mangalakas are more than eight at Sanchi. Gradually the number was fixed as eight. 108. On a red sand-stone umbrella (c. 2nd cent. A.D.) from Mathura, the following eight auspicious symbols are carved: Nandipada (same as the Tri-ratna), Matsyayugma, Svastika, Puspa-dama, Purna-ghafa, Ratna-patra, Sri-vatsa, Saikha-Nidhi ... Agrawala, V.S., A New Stone Umbrella from Mathura, JUPHS, vol. XX (1947). pp.65-67. For the Jaina evidence and description of such Umbrellas, from Prasnavyakarana sitra, see Shah, U.P.,AFurther Note.on Stone Umbrellas from Mathura, JUPHS, vol. XXIV. 109. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, figs. 59, 82. Shah, U.P.. Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras, fig. 116. Studies in Jaina Art, fig.60. 110. For illustration see Helen Johnson's translation of the Trisastisalakapurusacarita, I, in the GOS, vol. LI, pl. IV. 111. Tiloyapanmatti, 4.738, vol. I, p. 236. 112. Coomaraswamy has discussed the Purna-Kumbha (full jar) in his Yaksas, part II, pp. 61-64; full-jar is discussed by Agrawala, V.S. in JUPHS, vol. XVII, pp. 16ff; Wilhelm Huttemann, Miniature Zum Jina caritra, Bassler-Archin, vol. 4 (1914). pp. 47-77. Brown, W. Norman, KSP, op. cit., p. 12. Agrawala, V.S., PurnaKumbha (Varanasi). The Vardhamanaka and the Sri-vatsa symbols are treated by Coomaraswamy in Ostasiatische Zeitschr (1927-28), pp. 181ff, and by Johnson, E.H., JRAS, 1931, pp. 558ff; ibld., 1932, pp. 393ff. Agravala, P.K., Sri-vatsa, the ... of Sri (New Delhi). For Svastika, see Brown, W. Norman, The Svastika. 113. Acara-Dinakara, pp. 197-198. 114. Also see Kane, P.V., History of Dharmasastra, vol. II, p. 511. He quotes the following verse from a manuscript of Saunaka-karika: darpaNaH pUrNakalaza: kanyA sumanaso'kSatAH / dIpamAlA dhvajA lAjA samprokta cASTamaGgalam // 115. Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganapati Khanda, adhyaya 16 and Krsna-janma Khanda, adhyaya 70, both quoted in Sabdakalpadruma, III, p.564. Also see Agni Purana, adhyaya 58. v. 31 (Anandasrama ed.), p. 72. Sabdakalpadruma, I, p. 148 quotes the following: mRgarAjo vRSo nAgaH kalazo vyajanaM tathA / vaijayantI tathA bherI dIpa ityaSTamaGgalam / / iti bRhannandikezvarapurANe durgotsavapaddhatI. 116. Cf. maGgalairabhiSiJcasva tatra tvaM vyApRto bhava / -Ramayana, II.23.29. 117. Jinabhadra gani Ksamasramana (c. 500-610 A.D.) explains it as: guruvirahammi ca ThavaNA guruvaesovadaMsaNatthaM ca / / jiNavirahammi va jiNabiMbasevaNADamantaNaM sahalaM / / -Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya. Devendra suri in his Samghacara-fika, section called Guruvandana-bhasya, says: guruguNajuttaM tu guru ThAvijjA ahava tatya akkhaaii| ahavA nANAitiraM Thavijja sakkha-guru-abhAve // 28 // The following from Pindaniryukti explains the Sthapana: taM biti nAmapiDa ThavaNApiMDaM ao pocchaM // 6 // p.3. akkhe varADae vA kaTU putthe va cittakamme vaa| sambhAvamasambhAvaM ThavaNApiMDaM viyANAhi // 7 // Commentary of Malayagiri-........"sthApyamAnasyendra (deranurUpAGgopAGgaciha-vAhanAharaNAdiparikararupo ya AkAravizeSo yadarzanAtsAAdvidhamAna ivendrAdilakSyate sa sadbhAvaH, tadabhAvo'sadbhAvaH. tatra sadbhAvamasadbhAvaM cAzritya 'akSe' candanake 'kaparde' barATake vAzabdo'Gga lIyakAdisamuccayArthaH, ubhayatApi ca jAtAvekavacanaM, tathA 'kASThe' dAruNi 'puste' DiullikAdo, vAzabdo lepyapASANasamuccaye, citrakarmaNi vA yA piNDasya sthApanA sA'AdiH kASThAdiSvAkAravizeSo vA piNDatvena sthApyamAnaH sthApanApiNDaH...." - Pindaniryukti (DLPF no. 44, Bombay, A.D. 1918), pp.3-7. 118. Trisasti., I (Gos, vol. LI), pp. 358-370. Abhidhana Cintamani, 4.94. 119. Vasudevahindi, p. 301. 120. Jambudvipaprajnapti, satra 33. 121. Cf.: aTTAvayamujjite gayaggapada dhamacakke ya / pAsarahAvattanagaM camaruppAyaM ca vaMdAmi // -Acaranga Niryukti. 122. Astapadagiri-kalpa in the Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa ___Jinaprabha suri, published in the Singhi Series, pp.91 93. Also see ibid., p. 31 for an Astapadamahatirthakalpa by Dharmaghosa suri. Abhidhana-Rajendra-Kosa on Astapada. . 122a.Miniature Paintings from Western India, hgs. 177-183.

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123. Trisastisalakapurusacarita, I (translation in GOS, vol. LI), pp. 395-397. Trisasi., parva II-III (transl. in GOS, vol. LXXVII), pp. 120ff. Harivamsa of Jinasena, 5, v. 647-685, pp. 124ff. Trilokasara of Nemicandra, v. 960ff. Kirfel, Die Kosmographie der Inder, pp. 253. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttik unram and its Temples, pp. 181ff. Sthananga satra, 4.2, su. 307, vol. I, pp. 220ff. Avasyaka Curni, p. 3978. 124. Also see Jivojivabhigama sutra, 3.2, su. 183, pp. 356, for an account of the Nandisvara-dvipa. 125. Cf. Avasyaka Curni, p. 151; JambudvipaprajAapti, 1.2, su. 33, p. 158. Trisaspi., op. cit., p. 130f. Cf.: phAlgunASTAhnikAdheSu prativarSa tu parvasu / zakrAdhA: kurvate pUjAM gIrvANAsteSu vezmasu / / -Harivamsa, p. 124, v. 680. Also see Vasudevahindi, pp. 87, 153, 171. 236. According to Digambara traditions, the gods celeb: to the leais in the last week of the months of Karttika, Falguna, and Asadha every year. See Brhat-Jaina-Sabdarnava, II, p. 512. 125a. Pravacanasarodc hara, gatha 1552 and commentary. 126. First discussed by D.R. Bhandarkar, Jaina Iconography, Indian Antiquary, vol. XL (1911), pp. 125-130, 153-161; also T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pp. 105ff on the basis of Tamil Sripurana. 127. # Hugga ugat CuaT71 -Dhanapala's commentary on Sobhana's Stuticaturvim fatika, v. 94. 128. For typical elaborate descriptions see, for example, Trinaspisalakapurusacarita, 1.3, v. 422ff; transl. in G.O. Series, Vol. LI, pp. 190ff; Adipurana, 22.76-312. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 129. Kalpa-sutra, su. 120-121, Jacobi's transl. (SBE). Brown thinks that it is implied in the K.S., 120-121, see p. 38 of his Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpa-sutra. 130. Discovered from Jesalmer by Muni Punyavijayaji, edited by him in Pavitra-Kalpa-Satra (Ahmedabad). 131 Avasyaka-Niryukri, gathas 539-569; Ivasyaka-Vrtti of Haribhadra, pp. 229-235. This Niryukti in its extant form is certainly not the work of Bhadrabahu I, as traditions would have us believe, since there are references in it to schisms much later than the age of Bhadrabahu. . 132. Also compare Avasyaka Niryukli in Avasyaka Vrtti, pp. 230-231. 133. The Avasyaka Niryukti and the Vasudevahindi do not refer to gate-keepers. 134.] See Av. Niryukti, op. cit., pp. 231-232. 135. Adipurana, parva 22. We have noted here only main points of description, including some additional details supplied by Jinasena. 136. Also see Brown, Norman, A Ms. of the Sthanariga sutra illustrated in the Early Western Indian Style, New Indian Antiquary, vol. I, no. 2, pp. 127ff, fig. 2. 137. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 76. Figure 83 in the same book represents the Samavasarana of Parsvanatha in the Life Story of Parsvanatha carved in relief in this ceiling. 138. M.N.P. Tiwari, Jaina Pratima Vijana (Hindi), fig. 69. For further remarks on Samavasarana, Pratima-sarvatobhadrika, etc., see Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 85-95, 123-130; and chapter 35 in Jaina Art and Architec ture (ed. A. Ghosh), pp. 479ff. 139. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, figs. 72, 73, 75.

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CHAPTER TWO Origin of the Jina-Image and the Jivantasvami-pratima Prehistoric sites in India have not as yet yielded any definite clue to the existence of Jainism. A few seals from Mohen-Jo-Daro showing human figures standing in a posture closely analogous to the freestanding meditative pose (kayotsarga mudra) of the Tirtharkara, or the seals with a figure generally identified as "Siva-Pasupati as Yogi' (in a meditative sitting posture)2 cannot, in the present state of uncertainty of the meaning of the writing on the Indus-Valley Seals, be definitely used to attest to the antiquity of Jaina image or ritual. The standing figures seem to have some extra appendage on the head while the sitting figures have no resemblance with the known Tirthankara images in the padmasana or the ardhapadmasana posture. Jaina traditions ascribe the first twenty-two Tirthankaras of this (avasarpini) age to a period covering millions of years before Chirst, but modern scholarship accepts only the last two, namely, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, as real historical personages. The possibility of the twenty-second Tirthankara Neminatha, cousin brother of Krsna of Brahmanical puranas, being a historical personage, depends on the historicity of Krsna. The mutilated red-stone statuette from Harappa (Fig. 1), though surprisingly analogous to the Mauryan polished stone torso of a Jina (Fig. 2) obtained from Lohanipur near Patna, Bihar, has, in addition, two circular depressions on shoulder fronts which are not seen on any other Tirtharkara image known hitherto, hence the Harappan torso should better be regarded as representing an ancient Yaksa. Being a surface find, it is difficult to assign it with confidence to the age of the Harappan culture. The origin of Image-Worship in Jainism may, on the basis of available archaeological evidence, be assigned to at least the Mauryan age, circa 3rd century B.C., the age of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka. Samprati is reputed in Jaina traditions to have been converted to Jainism and is said to have given much royal support to the monks of this faith. He seems to have installed many Jina images and even today pious Jainas ascribe all old images to Samprati's patronage. The evidence of the Lohanipur statue does lend support to Jaina traditions. Line 12 of the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, as read by different scholars, refers to the recovery and reinstallation of the statue of Kalinga-Jina, formerly carried away to Magadha by the Nanda-king. 5 So far as literary evidence is concerned, we have to weigh it with great caution since available texts of the Jaina canonical works are said to have been finally edited at the second council at Valabhi (Valabhi vacana) which met in the latter half of the fifth century A.D. There are a few references to worship of images, relics, and shrines of Arhats (Tirthaikaras) by gods and men, and these references may be at least as old as the Mathura council (which met in the beginning of the fourth century A.D.) and may be even somewhat older. Most of the art evidence obtained in Jaina canonical texts as available today speaks of motifs etc. found in the art of the Sunga and Kusana periods. But there are reasons to believe that attempts were made to worship an image (verily a portrait-statue) of Mahavira, even during his life-time. This portrait statue of sandal-wood (gosirsa-candana) was supposed to have been prepared when Mahavira was standing in meditation in his own palace, about a year or two prior to his final renunciation and diksa. So this statue showed a crown, some ornaments and a lower

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34 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana garment on the person of Mahavira. Being a life-time portrait statue it was known as Jivanta-svami-pratima, that is, the "Image fashioned during the life-time of the Lord". All later images of this iconographic type then came to be known as Jivantasyami pratimas. The original portrait statue was worshipped by the queen of Uddayana, the king of Vitabhaya-Pattana (Roruka ?) in the Sindhu-Sauvira region. The earliest available reference to an image of Jivantasvami is from the Vasudevahindi of Vacaka Samghadasa gani who took the Bphat-katha of Gunadhya as the model or prototype for his Jaina version of such stories. A critical study of the subject matter and the language of the work has led scholars to conclude that it is a work of c. early fifth century A.D. or a little earlier. In this work, a certain lady, Vasavadatta by name, seeks company of a caravan going to the city of Ujjain. In this caravan was also travelling a certain Jaina nun, followed by a retinue of female pupils, with the object of paying respects to Jivantasami (Jivantasvami) (image at Ujjain). Ksamasramana Samghadasa, a somewhat later writer, of c. 6th cent. A.D., composed his Bhasya on the Bphat-Kalpa-sutra and its N ti wherein he refers to the visit to Ujjain by Arya Suhasti and the conversion by him to Jaina Faith of emperor Samprati, the grandson of Asoka. The Niryukti and Bhasya verses often use only catch-words to refer to legends etc. which are elaborately explained by later commentators. Ksemakirti, commenting on the Bshat-Kalpa-sutra Bhasya and Niryukti, says that Arya Suhasti visited Ujjain for adoring the image of Jivantasvami. Ksemakirti (v.s. 1332=A.D. 1256), commenting on the BIhat-Kalpa-sutra-Bhasya, verse 2753, explained a reference to purva caityas as under: 491f caffor ar' fare attaifafa rat.........11 (by purva caityas are meant ancient idols like the image of Jivantasvami etc.).9 The Avasyaka-curni10 of Jinadasa (676 A.D.), giving an account of the origin of the city of Dasapura (modern Mandasor) narrates also the origin of the first image of Mahavira, when the Lord was alive (Jivanta Syami). According to this account, in a festival of Nandisvara, Vidyunmali, a demi-god, was advised by his friend Acyuta, another god, to worship an image of Varddhamana Mahavira, the last Jina. Vidyunmall fashioned an image of Mahavira out of a kind of sandal-wood (gosirsa candana) from the Maha-Himavanta mountain. 11 This image was later on given by Vidyunmali to a certain individual from whom it was taken by King Uddayana, a contemporary of Mahavira, ruling over Vitabhaya-pattana in the Sindhu-Sauvira land. Both Uddayana and his queen Prabhavats worshipped the image with great devotion. After the death of his 'queen, the king entrusted his slave-girl Devadatta with the worship of the image. But Devadatta, in love with Pradyota, the king of Ujjain (Avanti), managed to elope with her lover, carrying with her the original image of Mahavira but only after depositing in its place a copy of it prepared by Pradyota for the purpose. The theft was soon discovered and Uddayana rushed after them with an army, overtook Pradyota before he reached Ujjain and defeated him with the help of ten confederate kings. Uddayana tried to remove the original image but the image would not move and a supernatural warning was heard that the Vitabhaya-pattana was destined to perish in a terrific sandstorm. Uddayana later on forgave Pradyota and released him on the Pajjusana day. This happened when both were encamped at Dasapura. Uddayana had to maintain a camp here and erect a temporary mud-fortress as the rainy season had set in before he could return to his capital. Haribhadra suri, in his Avasyakavptti,12 gives the same account. The above account is repeated with many additional details by Hemacandracarya in his Trisastisalakapurusacarita where it is said Pradyota dedicated the city of Dasapura for the worship of the Vitabhaya-image13 before he returned to Avantipuri. Once upon a time Pradyota went to Vidisa and gave a grant of 12,000 villages for the worship of the image fashioned by Vidyunmali. Uddayana himself turned a Jaina monk after dedicating villages, mines and cities for the worship of the (new) Jivantasvami image left with him.14 The image remaining at Vitabhaya-pattana was the copy deposited by Pradyota, which, on the evidence of Hemacandra, was fashioned out of sri-khanda wood and was originally consecrated by a Svetambara sage named Kapila.15

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35 Origin of the Jina-Image and the Jivantasyami-pratima Hemacandra informs us that the image at the buried in sandstorm) city of Vitabhaya was recovered by the Chalukya king Kumara pala after excavation by his specially appointed officers. Along with the image was recovered the inscribed grant given by Uddayana. Kumarapala erected a temple at Patan (his capital, north Gujarat) and installed the image therein. 16 Hemacandra further informs us that Vidyunmali had prepared the image after seeing the person of Mahavira standing in the pratima-dhyana in the latter's palace (at Ksatriya-Ku da-grama). 17 Thus the Jivita-svami or Jivanta-svami image represents an image of Mahavira, 18 fashioned as a portrait in his lifetime before the great Jaina teacher took to monk-hood. The image, therefore, should show the ornaments of a Prince. Strictly speaking, the title Jivantasvami can only be applied to a portrait carved in the lifetime of a Jina. At a later stage, images modelled after the original life-time portrait sculpture of sandalwood, showing the same iconography, came to be known as Jivantasvaml images. The Akota bronzes (Figs. 29, 30) are Jivantasvaml images in this sense. Hemacandra further notes that Pradyota and Devadatta, engrossed in sensual pleasures, gave the original sandalwood image of Jivitasvami to a merchant Bhrajila residing in the city called Vidisa, for worship and care, 19 The snake-god Dharanendra gave a boon to this Bhra jilasvami that Fradyota would found a city commemorating Bhrajila's name. Dharanendra further predicted that this Jina image would in course of time be concealed under a new cover by followers of false faith who would proclaim it as an image of the Sun-god known as Bhrajilasvami.20 We are further told by Hemacandra that after release from the captivity of Uddayana, once Pradyota went to Vidisa and founded a divine city there. Hemacandra's account thus states that the original image of Jivitasvami was preserved at Vidisa. But the Vasudevahindi and Ksemakirti's commentary on the BIhat-Kalpa-Bhasya speak of a Jivantasvaml image at Ujjain. The Brhat-Kalpa-Curpi,21 which is calier than the comm. of Ksemakirti, also states that Arya Suhasti went to Ujjain for adoration of the Jiyasami in the city. There while he was walking in the ratha-yatra (procession of the Jina-image placed in a chariot) he was seen by king Samprati watching the yatra from his Palacewindow. The puzzle is solved by a reference from the Avasyaka-curni22 where it is said that both Arya Mahagiri and Arya Suhasti went to Vidisa to worship the Jitapadima. From this place Mahagiri went to a place called Edakaksa (formerly called Dasarnapura) where he died on a mountain called Gajagrapada. Arya Suhasti then went to Ujjain for adoration of the Jivitasvami image in that city. Evidently another image of Jivantasvami was installed at Ujjain sometime after the Pradyota incident narrated above. That the original image was installed at Vidisa (modern Besnagara near Bhilsa, M.P.) is further supported by the Nisitha-Curni23 which says that Arya Suhasti went to Vidisa, to worship the Jivantasvami, where the ratha-yatra festival took place. According to this text the first meeting of Suhasti and Samprati also took place here on this occasion.24 It seems that with the passage of time many more copies of the original portrait sculpture, that is, the Jivan tasvami image, were made and installed at different Jaina tirthas. The tika on a gatha of the BIhatKalpa-Bhasya (vol. V, p. 1536) speaks of a Jivantasvami image at Kosala.25 In the Akota hoard of Jaina bronzes was found an inscribed image of Jivantasvami (Fig. 29). The inscription on the pedestal of the bronze, incised in characters of middle sixth century A.D., reads:26 L. 1. Om Devadharmoyam Jivantasami L. 2. pratima Candrakulikasya L. 3. Nagisvari sravikasyah. The bronze represents Mahavira in a standing attitude (kayotsarga mudro) and wearing a dhoti held with a girdle. The right arm is mutilated and lost but the left arm shows a bracelet and an armlet. The Jina wears a crown, ear-rings and a necklace. A more beautiful bronze (Fig. 30), partly mutilated and with the pedestal lost, also found in the Akota hoard, dates from c. late fifth century A.D.27 A bigger bronze of Jivantasvami, from a Jaina temple in Jodhpur (Fig. 37), dates from c. 8th cent. A.D.28 Two stone sculptures of Jivantasvami from a temple in Sirohi, published carlier by us, 29 date from c. 10th

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana cent, A.D. R.C. Agrawala 30 published a beautiful sculpture of Jivantasvami, originally from Khimvasar in Rajasthan, now preserved in the Jodhpur Museum. Dhaky brought to light Jivantasyami images from Nadol, Sevadi and Ahad.31 Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari discovered two stone sculptures of eleventh century lying in a room in the Jaina temple complex at Osia,32 Rajasthan. On the pillars of the torana, in front of the Jaina shrine at Osia, dated in v.s. 1035 (A.D. 978),33 were carved in all eight figures of Jivantasvami in the kayotsarga pose. Two more dated sculptures of Jivantasvami, brought from Osia, dated in the tenth century, are now preserved in the museum at Jodhpur. They are described by M.N.P. Tiwari. Recently Devendra Handa 34 has discussed all the Jivantasvaml images from Osia. It seems that the Jivantasyami images remained more popular in Western India. Like the crowned Tirthankara Mahavira (in the Jivantasvami image) we have images of the crowned Buddha in both the sitting and the standing attitudes. Such a practice of showing the crowned Buddha35 might have been influenced by the Jivantasvami images. In an earlier paper entitled Side-lights on the life-time sandalwood image of Mahavira, published in Journal of the Oriental Institute, vol. I, no. 4 (June 1952), pp. 358-368, this writer had referred to certain Buddhist parallels to the Jaina cf in a sandalwood portrait of Mahavira carved in his life-time. The Buddhist accounts also speak of such an image of Buddha carved in Buddha's life-time. A. Ghosh writes: "Leaving the standing figures on a Mohen-Jo-Daro seal out of consideration, the Lohanipur Tirthankara images of Mauryan age show that in all probability Jainism had the lead in carving of images for veneration over Buddhism and Brahmanism; no image of Buddha or any Brahmanical deity of that antiquity have been found, though there are contemporary or near-contemporary Yaksastatues, after the stylistic model of which the Lohanipur images are carved. That the practice was prevalent at the time of Mahavira himself is not established: the legend of the queen of Udda yana of Vitabhayapattana (unknown from any other source), a contemporary of Mahavira himself, having worshipped a sandalwood statue of the Tirthankara has its counterpart in the legend of Buddha's contemporary Udayana of Kausambi having installed an image of Buddha out of the same material. (Even the similarity of the names of the two rulers may not be an accidental coincidence.36) The tradition of Jivantasvami images in Jainism is fairly old and known from such early texts like the Vasudevahindi assigned to c. fourth/fifth century A.D. The evidence of Curnis and the Bthat-Kalpabhasya is based upon traditions and the Niryukti gathas. The Niryuktis usually give a catch-word for a whole story or incident which is elaborately described by the Curnis. The Niryuktis cited above are not later than the fourth century A.D. and contain much earlier matter. A. Ghosh has accepted the view that the Lohanipur torso is of Mauryan age and that it is of a Tirthankara image standing in the kayotsarga posture. Thus he believes that the Jainas probably are earlier than the Buddhists in starting image worship. He is right because we all know that Buddha had advised not to worship his images. Mahavira did not issue such a prohibitive order. The tradition of Jivantasvami images in Jainism is fairly old and available literary evidence is at least as old as the fourth century A.D. It is not impossible that one or more portrait sculptures or paintings of both Mahavira and Buddha were done during their life-time. That does not mean that regular worship of their images or paintings was started in shrines as cult-objects, during their life-time. Regular worship of images and shrines of Tirthankaras seems to have started sometime after Mahavira's Nirvana, though not later than the age of Mauryan ruler Samprati who in Jaina traditions is known to have installed Jaina images and provided facilities for Jaina monks to visit the Deccan and Andhra and Dravida countries.37 Udayi (the same as Udayabhadra), another ancient ruler of Magadha and successor of Ajatasatru, is reported to have set up a Jaina shrine in his newly founded capital of Pataliputra, according to the Avasyaka-curni38 Nowhere in the Jaina canons it is stated that Mahavira visited a Jaina shrine or worshipped images of earlier Tirthankaras like Parsvanatha or Rsabhanatha. Mahavira's parents were followers of Parsvanatha and Mahavira himself in the beginning followed the faith of Parsvanatha. He never visited any Jaina shrine or stayed in Jaina shrines. He stayed in Caityas like the Gunasila caitya, etc., which the commentators explain as Yaksa-ayatanas, Yaksa shrines. Nor are any of his chief disciples-the Gana

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37 Origin of the Jina-Image and the Jivantasvani-pratima dharas-or other disciples said to have visited any shrine of any earlier Tirthankara or of Mahavira. The Jina image, as suggested elsewhere by us,39 has for its model or prototype the ancient Yaksa statues. Most of these ancient Yaksa statues were of wood and we find in Jaina canonical legends that these were painted annually. There might have been terracotta images also of the ancient Yaksas and Yaksinis, and perhaps rarely in bronze but hardly in stone. One has to await future archaeological evidence for definite conclusions. It was also suggested by us that the mode of worship of the ancient Yaksa-Naga cult has largely influenced the mode of worship in Jainism. Since Mahavira stayed in Yaksa shrines and preached the masses visiting and worshipping in such shrines, it is but natural that the Jaina converts from these masses adopted as models the images and the rituals of the Yaksa cult. Jayaswal's discovery of Mauryan torso of a standing Jina figure from Lohanipur supports, on the one hand, the authenticity of Jaina traditions about Samprati and image worship, and, on the other hand, the existence in Magadha of an earlier model for the Jina and Buddha images of early. Christian centuries. The Jina-image is a cult object. Lohanipur is a continuation of the Mauryan sites at Kumrahar and Bulandibag near Patna. Along with this highly polished torso were revealed the foundations of a squatc (icinple) structure (8 ft 10 in X 8 ft 10 in), one more nude stone torso, the lower portion of a head and a large quantity of bricks of the size used in the Mauryan age. From the plinth of this brick structure was obtained a worn-out silver punch-marked coin. The foundations should be noted for the earliest known plan of a Jaina temple, assignable to the Mauryan age.40 It is necessary to consider the reliability of the tradition of Mahavira's sandalwood image carved in his life-time. If acarya Hemacandra gives report of the discovery of a Jivantasvami image from the ruins of Vitabhayapattana buried in a sandstorm, especially from special excavation carried out by specially appointed officers under orders of Kumarapala with the blessings of Hemacandra, then it is a contemporary account since Hemacandra and Kumarapala were contemporaries. Hemacandra further reported that the copper plate charter of donations for the worship of this image (the copy left at Vitabhayapattana by Pradyota) was also recovered along with this image. It is further reported by Hemacandra in his Trisastisalakapurusacarita that the image was brought to Patan and installed in a temple. Sauvira country is identified as close to lower Sindh. Sindhu and Sauvira are spoken together and Sauvira, possibly the area around TharParkar and Gujarat and Marvad's modern border with Pakistan, was under Kumarapala's control. What is more important to note is that Hemacandra also reports that the copper plate grant given by Uddayana to the image was also recovered. If Hemacandra has not bluffed before his contemporaries then we have to accept the Jivantasvami account as fairly reliable. Would a person of Hemacandra's status make false statements about recovery of the image before his own contemporaries? Hiuen-Tsang remarks about Kausambi, the capital city of the famous lyrist king Udayana: "In the city, within an old palace, there is a large vihara, about 60 feet high; in it is a figure of Buddha, carved out of sandalwood, above which is a stone canopy. It is the work of the king U-to-yen-na (Udayana)... The princes of various countries have used their power to carry off this statue, but although many men have tried, not all the number could move it. They therefore worship copies of it, and they pretend that the likeness is a true one, and this is the origin of all such figures ..."41 Hiuen-Tsang further writes: "When Tathagata first arrived at complete enlightenment, he ascended upto heaven to preach the law for the benefit of his mother ... This king (i.e. Udayana), thinking of him with affection, desired to have an image of his person; therefore he asked Mudgalyayanaputra, by his spiritual power, to transport an artist to the heavenly mansions to observe the excellent marks of Buddha's body, and carve a sandalwood statue. When Tathagata returned from the heavenly place, the carved figure of sandalwood rose and saluted the lord of the world ..."42 In his account of a city called Pima (Pi-mo), in the district of Khotan, the Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang writes: "Here there is a figure of Buddha in a standing position made of sandalwood. The figure is about twenty feet high ... the natives say: This image in old days when Buddha was alive was made by Uddayana (U-to-yen-na), king of Kausambi (Kiao-shang-mi). When Buddha left the world, it mounted of its own accord into the air and came to the north of this kingdom, to the town of Ho-lo-lo-kia.

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38 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana The men of this city were . . . attached to heretical learning... no one paid it respect. Afterwards there was an Arhat who bowed and saluted the image... the king issued a decree that the stranger should be covered with sand and earth . . . A man who had himself honoured the image with worship, secretly gave food to the Arhat... buried upto the neck. The Arhat... said: Seven days hence there will be a rain of sand and earth which will fill this city full, and there will in a brief space be none left alive... This man escaped and went to the east... (and) the statue appeared behind him..."43 But Fa-Hien, who visited India in c. 400 A.D., giving an account about a sandalwood image of the Tathagata being carved and installed when the Buddha went to heaven to preach his mother, lays the scene in Sravasti rather than in Kausambi in the account given by Hiuen-Tsang. This image was installed by King Prasenajit of Kosala. It was carved out of a sandalwood called gosirsacandana. Says Fa-Hien, "When Buddha returned and entered the vihara, the image, immediately quitting its place, went forward to meet him. On this Buddha addressed these words to it: Return, I pray you, to Your seat. After my Nirvana you will be the model from which my followers... shall carve their images... This image, as it was the very first made of all the figures of Buddha, is the one which all subsequent ages have followed as a model..."44 We are thus faced with similar accounts, one Jaina and the other Buddhist. Both speak of sandalwood images of their leaders carved in their life-time. At least one of the two traditions must be reliable even if one sect borrowed the account from the other. Since the Mahayana Buddhists had to account for image worship it would seem that they are the borrowers. Again, because Samprati was converted to Jainism by Arya Suhasti at Vidisa (according to another tradition at Ujjain) during the ratha-yatra of the Jivantasvami image, it is well nigh certain that the tradition of the sandalwood image in Jainism is as old as and even somewhat earlier than the age of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka. So far as the Sravasti image of Buddha is concerned, the tradition is certainly older than the visit of Fa-Hien who reports about it. Actually there is a relief sculpture from Gandhara depicting the incident of the Sravasti image and the Buddha returning from the heaven. This means that for the Gandhara artists the first Buddha image was carved and installed at Sravasti. There is nothing unreasonable in believing that during the life-time of both Buddha and Mahavira attempts were made to carve out their portraits and to worship them. Even portrait painting might also have been attempted.45 The fact that Buddha asked his followers not to install his image as a cult object shows that such attempts were indeed made during Buddha's life-time. As already suggested before, at least one of the two legends-namely, the Jaina and the Buddhistmust have behind it some historical background or core around which other legendary and supernatural elements are woven. These remarks apply also to the story of Udrayana or Rudrayana of Roruka (in Sauvira) obtained in the Rudrayanavadana chapter of the Divyavadana and in the Avadanakalpalata of Ksemendra. P.S. Jaini has further brought to our notice a Pali version entitled Vattanguliraja Jataka from a collection known as the Pannasa Jataka "which probably originated in the 13th or 14th century in northern Chieng-Mai."46 REFERENCES 1. Marshall, Sir John, Mohen-Jo-Daro and the Indus Valley Civilisation, vol. I, pl. xii, figs. 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22; Jaina, Kamta Prasad in Modern Review, August, 1932, pp. 152ff, regards some of these as representing Jina figures. 2. Marshall, ibid., xii.17, pp. 52ff. 3. The Jainas believe that 24 Tirthankaras lived in this avasarpini era (ara), and an equal number lived in the preceding utsarpini (evolutionary) era, and the same number will be born in the forthcoming utsarpini ara. For the Jaina conception of these evolutionary and involutionary eras, see Jaina, J.C., Outlines of Jainism, p. xxvi; also, Nahar and Ghosh, Epitome of Jainism. 4. Marshall, op. cit., vol. I, pl. x.a-d. For the Lohanipur torso see Jayaswal, K.P., in Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, vol. xxiii, part I, pls. i-iv. Also see Banerji-Shastri, Mauryan Sculptures from Lohanipur-Patna, Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, vol. xxvi, part 2, pp. 120ff. 5. B.M. Barua's revised readings in Indian Historical

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Origin of the Jina-Image and the Jivantasvaml-pratima 39 23. Quarterly, vol. xiv (1938), pp. 459-485. make no men- tion of the Kalinga Jina. Also see Mohapatra, Ramesh Prasad, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Delhi, 1981), Pp.20166. Shah, U.P., A Unique Jaina Image of Jivantasvami, JOI, vol. I, no.1, p.71 and note. 7. Vasudevahindi (ed. by Muni Caturavijaya and Punyavi____jaya Muni). p.61. 8. Brhat-Kalpa-Satra, with Niryukti and Bhasya (ed. by Muni Caturavijaya and Muni Punyavijaya), gatha 3277 and comm., vol. III, pp. 917ff. 9. Ibid., P. 776. 10. Avasyaka Curni (Ratlam edition), vol. I, pp. 397-401 on Niryuktigatha 774. 11. Ibid.. p. 398. 12. Avatyaka-Vrrti of Haribhadra Suri, vol. I. part 2, pp. 296-300. 13. pradyoto'pi vItabhayapratimAyai vizuddhadhIH / zAsanena dazapura daccAvantipurImagAt // anyedyuvidizAM gatvA bhAyalasvAminAmakam / devakIyaM puraM cakre nAnyathA dharaNoditam // vidyunmAlikRtAya tu pratimAya mahIpatiH / pradadau dvAdazagrAmasahastrAna zAsanena saH / / ___-Trisasti., X.11.604-606. 14. Ibid..x.11.623. p. 157. 15. Ibid., p. 152, v.463 and p. 157, vv. 608-609. 16. tato gurumanujJApya niyojyAyuktapuruSAn / prArapyate khanayituM sthalaM vItabhayasya tat // rAjJaH kumArapAlasya tasya puNyena bhUyasA / khanyamAnasthale maMkSa pratimAvirbhaviSyati // tadA tasyai pratimAya yaduddAyanabhUbhujA / grAmANAM zAsanaM dattaM tadapyAvibhaviSyati / / -Trisasti.,X.12.36-92, pp. 159ff. 17. vidyunmAlyapi tasyAjJAmukhIkRtya satvaraH / kSatriyakuNDagrAme'smAnapazyanpratimAsthitAn // gatvA mahAhimavati chitvA gozIrSacandanam / asmanmUrti tayA dRSTAM sAlaMkArAM cakAra saH / / -Trisasti..X.11, p. 149. The Nisitha Carni, vol. III, pp. 139-147 repeats the account of Dasapura etc. narrated above from Avasyaka Curni and specifies further that it was an image showing ornaments on the person of Mahavira. 18. The conception of the Jivantasvami image of Mahavira remained popular in the mediaeval period and was later applied to images of other Tirthankaras as can be seen from a reference to Jivantasvami-Parsvanatha image on a golden chariot, in the story of Vankacula given by Rajasekhara (v.s. 1405)-Prabandha-kosa, ed. by Muni Jina vijaya, p. 76. Also see Jaina-Pratima-Lekha samgraha, vol. I. pp. 5 and 7, nos. 33 and 39. 19. vaNijo vidizApuryA bhAyalasvAmino'nyadA / gozIrSakASThapratimA vidyunmAliprakAzitA // 640 / / rAjJA kugjikayA cApi pUjanAya samarpitA etc. -Trisasti.,x.11.640, p. 154. 20. ....""kAlena gacchatA / guptava mithyAdambhiH sA pratimA pUjayiSyate / / 553 / / tasyAH pratikRtizcaiva bahiH saMsthApayiSyate / Adityo bhAyalasvAmi nAmAyamiti vAdibhiH / / -lbid., p. 155. vv. 553-554. 21. Brhat-Kalpa-Bhasya, vol. II, gatha 3277 and comm., and vol. III, pp.917ff. 22. Avasyaka-carni, vol. II. pp. 155-56, on Niryukti gatha 1283. Avasyaka-vrtti of Haribhadra, II, part I, pp. 66870. annayA AyariyA vatIdisaM jiyasAmipaDimaM vaMdiyA gtaa| tattha rahANuujAne raNo gharaM rahovari aMcati / saMpatiraNNA oloyaNagaeNa ajjamahatthI diTTho / jAtIsaraNaM jAtaM / Quoted by Muni Kalyanavijaya in Vira Nirvana Samyat aura Jaina Kalaganana, p. 90, note. 24. D.R. Bhandarkar beutified Progress Report, Western Circle, 31-9-1913, part 2, p. 59) Vidisa with BhilsaBhaillasvamin on the basis of a copper-plate grant dated v.s.1190. The account of Bhrajilagiven by Hemacandra, compared with this Bhaillasvamin, becomes interesting. 25. kozalAyAM jIvantasvAmipratimA / 26. Shah, U.P.,Akota Bronzes (Bombay, 1959), pp 27-28, pls. 12a, 74b, 74c,74d. 27. Ibid.. pp. 26-27, pls. 9a, 9b. 28. Shah, U.P., More Images of Jivantasvami, Journal of Indian Museums, vol. XI (1955), pp. 49-50, fig.1. 29. Ibid., figs. 2, 3. 30. Agrawala, R.C., An image of Jivantasvami from Rajasthan, Adyar Library Bulletin, vol. XXII, pts. 1-2, pp. 32-34 and plate. 31. Dhaky, M.A., The Temple of Mahavira at Ahar and the Visnu Temple, Ekalingji, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, vol. XIV, pp. 11-17, and pl. VII; Dhaky, M.A., Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Suvarna-Mahotsava Grantha (Bombay, 1968), vol. I, English Section, pp. 290-347 and plates%3; Krishna Dev, Mahavira Temple, Sevadi, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture (Ahmedabad, 1975), pp. 253-254 and fig. 3. 32. Tiwari, M.N.P.,Offai se praptaJivantasvami ki Apra kasila Murtiyant, Vishwa Bharati, vol. 14, no. 3 (1973), pp. 215-18; also Jivantasvami images, Bharati, New Series no. 2 (1984), pp. 78-83. 33. Studies in Jaina Art, fig.53; Devendra Handa, Jivanta svami Images from Osian, Punjab University Research Bulletin (Arts), vol. XIII, no.1 (April, 1982), pp. 11-14, figs. 1,2. 34. Devendra Handa, ibid., figs. 1-7; Devendra Handa, Jaina Sculptures from Osian, Punjab University Research Bulletin (Arts), vol.XIV, no. 1 (April, 1983). pp. 172-74. 35. For example, sec Gairola, C.K.. Two Buddhist Sculptures in the Volkerkunde Museum of Munich, JOI, vol. XIV. p. 397 and plates. 36, Ghosh, A., Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, pp. 3-4. 37. Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra, gathas 3275-3289 and comm., vol. III, pp. 917-921. Nisitha-Curni, uddesa 16, gathas 5744-5758, pp. 128-131.

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40 38. Avasyaka-Curni, vol. II, p. 179. 39. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, p. 5; Journal of the Ori ental Institute (JOI), vol. III, no. 1, pp. 55-71, esp. p. 66. 40. Jayaswal, K.P., Jaina Images of the Mauryan Period, Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, XXIII, part I, pp. 130-132; Banerji-Shastri, A., Mauryan Sculptures from Lohanipur, Patna, ibid., XXVI (1940), pp. 120-24. Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, p. 71. 41. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. I, pp. 235-236. 42. Ibid., pp. 235-236. 43. Ibid., vol. II, pp. 322-324. 44. Beal, op. cit., vol. I, Introduction, pp. xliv-xlv. Travels of Fa-Hien, chp. XX. Also see Shah, U.P., Origin of the Buddha Image, JOI, vol. XIV, nos. 3-4, pp. 365-367. 45. In the Divyavalia orniint of Rudrayana, king of Roruka, we wcar that Binibisara had sent a painting of the Lord Buddha to Rudrayana-Divyavadana (ed. by Cowell and Neil), chp. 27, pp. 544-586. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 46. Padmanabha S. Jaini, On the Buddha Image, Studies in Pali and Buddhism (ed. A.K. Narain, A Homage volume to the memory of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap, Delhi, 1979), pp. 183-188. P.S. M.N.P. Tiwari has criticised me for not having noticed the loose inscribed Jivantasvami images at Osia. He has himself said that he couldunot photograph them. When I visited Osia in 1938 I was not even shown the images which were reported later to be lying in some room. The walls of the temple and the Devakulikas were thickly coated with white lime. The coating was made almost every year. It was difficult to identify symbols of most of the images on walls. M.N.P. Tiwari has made similar criticism about me for not noting certain images. Mine was a pioneer attempt at a standard work on "Elements of Jaina Iconography (North India)" which was the title of my thesis. It was not necessary then to make exhaustive studies of every Jaina site.

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CHAPTER THREE Panca-Paramesthis The Panca-Paramesthis or the Five Supreme Ones are: 1. Arhat, 2. Siddha, 3. Acarya, 4. Upadhyaya and 5. Sadhu. These are superior to all other objects of worship in Jaiais... From very early times throughout the history of the Jaina Church they have been invoked in Che famous mantra--Namo Arahantanam. Namo Siddhanam. Namo Ayarianam. Namo Uvajjhayanam. Namo Loe Savvasahunam. Eso PancaNamukkaro, Savva-pava-ppanasano Mangalanam Ca Savvesim Padhamam Havai Mangalam. The Mahanisitha calls it Pancamangala-Mahasrutaskandha. It is variously known as Panca-Namaskara. Panca-Paramesthi Namaskara or simply Namokkara (Navakara-mantra) and so on.1 It is to be muttered on all occasions and is regarded as potent in protecting a person from all calamities.2 The Mantra came to be employed for Tantrik rites and Hemacandra has prescribed it for dhyana in his Yogaprakasa.3 Muttering of this mantra at the time of death leads one to better life hereafter and a number of stories in the literature of both the sects demonstrate this power of the mantra. The mantra is obtained in the beginning verses of the Bhagavati-sutra and the Kalpa-sutra, and in the Mahanisitha, 3rd Adhyayana. Bhadrabahu has discussed the five padas of the mantra in his Avasyaka Niryukti (Namaskara-Niryukti), it is also discussed by Jinabhadra gani ksamasramana in the Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya. This special sanctity attached to the mantra from olden times is due to the fact that the Five Supreme Ones are the Devadhidevas, the highest of objects of veneration for a pious Jaina. But this worship is impersonal. It is the aggregate of qualities of these souls that is remembered and venerated rather than the individuals. The Siddhas or Arhats are souls who are freed from the bondages of matter or karma and as such do not confer any boons on the worshipper. They are indifferent to praise or abuse. By saluting any of the Paramesthins a worshipper suggests to his own mind the qualities of the Arhat, Siddha, Acary., Upadhyaya or Sadhu, which the mind would gradually begin to follow and ultimately achieve the stage reached by the Siddhas. Hence the belief in the practice of using the mantra against Sakin's etc. is all due to Tantrik influence. But fundamentally, this is the mantra to lead a person to self-realisation, the Kevala-jnana, Omniscience. When the matter binding a soul is entirely subjugated or removed the soul is said to have been liberated or attained perfection, a condition in which the soul "enjoys its true and eternal character, whereof the characteristic is the four infinites-infinite perception or faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss." And such a soul is called Siddha. Siddhas 5 The Siddhas are divided into fifteen classes by the Prajnapana sutra according as a person obtains Right knowledge himself or after initiation by a Guru, or according as the person is a male (purusalinga-siddha) or a female (stri-linga-siddha) and so on. But the two main divisions noteworthy for us are: Tirthankara siddhas and Saminya-siddhas. All the Siddha souls after nirvana live in a disembodied state at the summit of the Universe on the Siddha-Sila in the Isatpragbhara Prthvi. The Samanya Siddhas, like the Tirthankara Siddhas, enjoy the same state of unending bliss but the latter are so called because during their life-time, they had

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana established the Tirtha, the four-fold Jaina order, whereas the former did not do so. There were 24 Tirthankara Siddhas of this avasarpini in the Bharata-ksetra. Tirtha karas or Arhats and the Siddhas are separately invoked only because while the former as Arhat are worshipped as embodied souls, the Siddhas are worshipped in their disembodied stage when even the last bondage of the material body does not remain. A Siddha is endowed with the following 8 chief qualities: Anantajnana, Anantadarsana (infinite-faith), Anantacaritra, Avyabadha Ananta-sukha, Akasaya-sthiti, Arupitva, A-guru-laghutva, and Anantavirya.8 Late representations of the siddhas are sometimes obtained in Jaina temples. Being disembodied, bis body is not shown and the metal plaque is made like a stencil, the whole standing figure of the Siddha being cut awayo (Fig. 185). Such images are found in Digambara shrines. Arhats Qualities of the Arhats are described in detail in Jaina texts and their total comes to 46.10 These an dereced to 12 qualities: 1-8. Pratiharyas, mentioned before. 9. Apayapagamatisaya, complete freedom from injury. 10. Jnanatisaya, perfect knowledge. 11. Pujatisaya, worship by everyone. 12. Vacanatisaya, supernatural characteristics of speech which are 35. Nos. 9-12 are known as mulatisayas. They are called Arhats because they deserve the worship by celestials with mahapratiharyas etc.. or because they kill (hanta) the enemy (ari) in the form of rajas (binding matter), or because they have nothing to conceal. They are Jinas because they conquer attachment, dislike, infatuation etc. 11 Acaryas are those who practise (ayaramana) the five-fold acara, 12 and instruct others in the rules of conduct (acara), constituted of darsana, jnana, tapa, and virya. They are endowed with 36 qualities. The acaryas are heads of groups of Jaina monks (gacchas), and include the ganadharas and so on. The detailed list of qualities need not be enumerated here. Upadhyayas are those who teach the scriptures, consisting of the eleven argas and the fourteen purvvas (now lost). They are endowed with 25 chief qualities. 13 All ascetics are sadhus. A Jaina sadhu has 28 chief qualities besides other subsidiary ones, according to Digambaras and 27 according to the Svetambara lists. 14 Acaryas Upadh- yayas Sadhus Separate representations of the Paramesthins are obtained. In sculpture, there is no marked difference in the representations of Acaryas, Upadhyayas and Sadhus. The Svetambara saints are shown with an upper and a lower garment and carrying a rajoharana (Fig. 177), and a mukha-paffika. Sometimes a rosary is placed in the hand held in Vyakhyana mudra. The earliest known representation of an acarya (Ganadhara) is on two sides of the figure of Parsvanatha in the Ayagapata, set up by an inhabitant from Mathura, No. 248, Lucknow Museum. Two ganadharas of Parsvanatha stand on two sides of the Jina and are without any garment.149 Jaina monks are represented also on pedestals of images obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura. Here on the pedestals are generally shown all the four constituents of the Jaina Samgha: Sadhu, Sadhvi, Sravaka and Sravika. A study of pedestals Nos. J.32, J.3, J.11, in the Lucknow Museum, the pedestal of the image of Vardhamana, No. J.10, in the same Museum, and No. J.16 of Vardhamana dedicated in Samvat 35, etc., has shown the following noteworthy points: (1) Sadhus are naked but they carry on the left forearm a piece of cloth held in such a way as to cover the nudity. The right arm holds a rajoharana. (2) Sadhvis wear an undergarment, carry a rajoharana. But they also wear a long coat or gown and in one case at least, on J.108, Lucknow Museum, a caddara seems to have been used as an upper cover. (3) Sadhvis can be easily differentiated from sravikas on pedestals since the latter wear anklets, neck ornaments and carry thick money-bags.

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Panca-Paramesthis 43 (4) Sadhus have shaven heads; hair are suspected on some figures of sadhvis, but probably they covered their heads with a scarf (odhani). (5) Water-vessel is not carried by either sadhus or sadhvis. (6) The coat of sadhvis is a gown-like thing whose border's lines are clearly marked. (7) Especially noteworthy, and our unfailing guide is No. J.8 of a standing Jina with head lost, and having on two sides as attendants, not the usual Yaksas, but a sadhu on the right and a sadhvi on the left. Such a representation of the Tirtharkara image is singular. The sadhvi's two garments a lower one and a gown or coat-are clearly visible. Here she has a shaven head. (8) The tablet representing ascetic Kanha, Fig. 21, No. J.623, Lucknow Museum (Smith's Jaina Stupa, pl. xvii, p. 24), shows the same accessories for the Jaina monk-a piece of cloth held on left forearm, and a rajoharana, but no garment. The Tablet is dated in Samvat 95, i.e. 173 A.D. but the same types of figures of monks are available on pedestals dated in first two decades of the era noted on these sculptures, i.e. in the last two decades of the first century A.D. Modern scholars recognise this practice of holding the cloth-piece as the Ardha-falaka-sampradaya. 15 Figure 212 illustrates a much later sculpture of Adinatha (belonging to the Digambara sect) from a Temple at Khajuraho. In the central panel, below the Jina, sit the Acarya and his disciple facing each other with the Sthapana between them. The pupil carries a scripture. A small thin broom of peacock's tail sometimes accompanies figures of Dig. Jaina monks as in Devgadh Temple 4. Wooden vessels used by these monks are also shown. In a Jaina temple in Sevadi, Rajasthan, is worshipped a figure of a Svetambara acarya sitting on a raised seat with the right foot hanging, the left tucked up and a yogapata running across the right leg. He carries a book in the left hand while the right one carrying a rosary is held in the vyakhyana mudra. The broom is shown behind him, and a mukha-vastrika piece rests on his right shoulder. The figure was installed in Samvat 1242 (or 1243) and is at present preserved in a shrine at Sevadi, old Jodhpur State. The monk wears a lower garment, while the mark of the Caddara above is worn out, but it can be inferred from a miniature painting of Sudharma and Jambusvami from a palm-leaf MS16 in Cambay Bhandara. Figure 214 represents a rare sculpture of a Svetambara Sadhvi now preserved in a shrine in Patan. She sits like the acarya in Sevadi image discussed above and wears an under and an upper garment. The right arm is mutilated, the left one holds a book. Figure 213 represents a Dig. Jaina nun figure worshipped in a shrine at Surat. Figures of Ganadharas in miniature paintings of the Kalpa sutra are well known, cf. Brown, K.P., pl. 39, figs. 130-34. Also see Figs. 170 and 167 illustrated here. The Five Supreme Ones are worshipped collectively also, by representing them on one plaque, along with symbols of four other essentials of the Jaina religion. Such plaques are known as the Siddha-Cakra (Sve.) or the Navadevata (Dig.). Figure 38 is a representation in stone, from Nadol, Rajasthan, of the Five Parameshins. Instead of the last four Padas of the Navapada diagram (called the Siddha-Cakra amongst the Sveta mbaras), only four double-lotuses are carved. A Svetambara Siddha-Cakra-Yantra is illustrated in Fig. 39, where the additional four padas are shown in four corners as om Hrim Namo Tavassa, Om Hrim Namo Damsanassa, Om Hrim Namo Nanassa, and Om Hrim Namo Carittassa. It will be seen that here invocations are offered to the abstract qualities and not to anthropomorphic deities. The whole diagram of the Siddha-Cakra is in the form of an eight-petalled lotus with different worthies arranged as follows: The Arhat is in the centre, the Siddha just above, the Acarya to the left and the Sadhu to the right of the central figure. The Upadhyaya is just below the figure of the Arhat. The Arhat and the Siddha sit in the padmasana showing the dhyana mudra while the remaining three Paramesphins sitting in the padmasana carry some object in one hand while the other hand rests on the lap. As figures are not quite distinct in this bronze it is not possible to identify the symbols held by them. However, paintings of the Siddha-Cakra are also popular in Jaina worship. In paintings, each of these three dignitaries (excluding the Arhat and the Siddha) lets his left hand rest on the lap while the right hand, held in the vyakhyana mudra, carries the muha-patti, or the mouth-piece.

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44 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana In paintings of this diagram (illustrated by us in the paper on Vardhamana-Vidya-Pata, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol. IX (1941, fig. 1 on pl. facing page 44), each of the Five Paramesthins has a particular complexion, necessary for his dhyana in the Tantrik sadhana of the Siddha-Cakra-Yantra. Thus the Arhat, the Siddha, the Acarya, the Upadhyaya and the Sadhu are of white, red, yellow, greenish and blue-black complexion respectively. The colour of the four remaining members of the Nava-Pada is to be visualised, in meditation, as white according to the Nava-Pada-Aradhana-Vidhi (also see SiriSirivala-Kaha, verses 1185-1191). The Digambara diagram of the Nava-Pada, also called Nava-Devata, is illustrated here in Fig. 36 (stone) and in Fig. 37 (bronze). The first Five Dignitaries are the same in both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, namely, the Arhat, the Siddha, the Acarya, the Upadhyaya and the Sadhu. But in the Digambara tradition the remaining four dignitaries or Padas are: the Caitya or the Jina-image, the Caityalaya or the temple of the Jina, the Dharma-Cakra or the Wheel of the Sacred Law, and the Sruta or the Speech of the Tirthankara represented by Jaina Scriptures. Figure 36 is a rare early specimen of the Digambar l a, hailing from Tamil Nadu, now preserved in the Madras Museum and dating from c. fifteenth century A.D. The Nava-Devata bronze illustrated in Fig. 37 is in worship in a Jaina shrine in Sravana Belagola. T.N. Ramachandran had illustrated one such bronze from Jina-Kanchi, Tamil Nadu in his Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pl. XXXVI, fig. 2. The Digambara Nava-Devata diagram forms the central eight-petalled lotus of the elaborate Pratisthavidhi-mandala described by Nemicandra (c. 15th cent. A.D.) in his Pratistha-tilaka; Pandit Asadhara in his Pratistha-saroddhara seems to suggest the same thing. The Nava-Devatas are also invoked in the NityaSandhya-kriya-vidhi of the Jina-Samhita (in ms. still unpublished) ascribed to Indranandi, the well-known Digambara Tantrik writer of c. tenth century A.D. The Yantra-Mantra-vidhi section of the Pratistha-kalpatippanam (in ms.) of Vadi Kumudacandra (c. 1275 v.s.) which mentions different Digambara Yantras, also describes an elaborate Panca-Mandala called Nava-Devata, the central eight-petalled lotus of which is reserved for the worship of the Five Paramesthins, the Jina-temple, the Jina-image, the Jaina scripture and the Dharma-cakra. Obviously the Arhat amongst these is worshipped in the centre of the eight-petalled lotus. The Jina-Samhita of Ekasamdhi (c. 1250 A.D.) prescribes in the Devarcana-vidhi section a big mandala with an eight-petalled lotus in the centre, wherein are invoked the Five Paramesthins and (the symbols (?) of) samyak-jnana, samyak-darsana, samyak-caritra; tapa, however, is omitted, possibly through the scribe's oversight. The mandala contains moreover invocations to the goddesses of the Jaya and the Jambha groups, the sixteen Vidyadevis, the yaksinis, and others. According to the author of this work, the mandala followed the tradition of Indranandi. Thus the central part of this elaborate diagram completely corresponds to the still existing type of the Sve. Siddha-Cakra illustrated here in Fig. 39. Again in the Pratistha-vidhi section, the same writer, following Indranandi, gives a bigger mandala including all the above-mentioned deities and many more, and invokes the Panca-Paramesthins and the four Padas, namely, Jnana, Darsana, Caritra and Tapa in the central eight-petalled lotus. But what the Digambaras worshipped as the Siddha-Cakra-Yantra was quite different from the Svetambara one of the same name as also from the Digambara Nava-Devata and this fact is quite evident from the descriptions of the LaghuSiddha-Cakra and the Bhad-Siddha-Cakra Yantras given by Asadhara (Pratistha-saroddhara, chp. 6), Ekasandhi (Jinasamhita, Ms., chp. 9), and Vadi Kumuda-Candra (Pratistha-Kalpa-Tippanam, Ms., YantraMantra-vidhi section). Amongst the Svetambaras, the Nine Worthies were also the first group of deities invoked in the elaborate Nandyavarta-mandala prescribed for consecratory rites by the Acara-Dinakara (1468 v.s.= 1411 A.D.). The Nirvanakalika (c. eleventh century A.D.) refers to the same mandala but in the invocation mantras Tapas or the Right Penance is replaced by Suci-vidya. Henacandra, in his Yogasastra, chp. 8, describes a yantra with Five Paramesthins but, instead of adding the four Padas noted above (Jnana, Darsana etc.), the four Padas of the Namaskara-mantra giving the fala-sruti (namely, eso Panca-Namukkaro, savvapapappanasano, mangalanam ca savvesim, padhamam havai mangalam) are prescribed in the intervening quarters (vidik-patras of the eight-petalled lotus). Thus the Yantra of Hemacandra, partly different from the Siddha-Cakra worshipped today, proves that the older Nava-Pada-Yantra was composed mainly of the

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45 Panca-Paramesthis various parts of the Navakara-Mantra. And perhaps still earlier the Siddha-Cakra cult included only the Five-Paramesthins. And it is interesting to note that Hemacandra in his description noted above did not Specify it as the Siddha-Chakra. The same writer however refers to the Siddha-Cakra as a diagram brought to light by Vajrasvami (c. 57 B.C.-57 A.D) from the lost Vidyanupravada-purva text, in the early centuries of the Christian era. Unfortunately, the yantra is not described in this context (Yogasastra, chp. 8, verses 74-75) and the disciple is invited to learn it from his preceptor. Very probably, the SiddhaCakra was originally based on the Panca-Paramesthi-Namaskara-mantra without its phala-sruti. It seems that in the earlier stage, the Siddha-Cakra-Yantra included the worship of the Five Paramesthins only and that the four Padas of Jnana, Darsana, Caritra and Tapa were added later. Siddhasena, commenting on the Pravacanasaroddhara, verses 78-79 dealing with the Panca-Paramesthi-mantra, refers to older texts like the Namaskara-valaya, where a vyakhya (explanation of the Panca-ParamesthiNamaskara is given. As is quite obvious, the Siddha-Cakra is none else than the Namaskara-valaya elaborated at some later stage. But it is also certain that the diagram of Siddha-Cakra, probably in its earlier form, was already well-known in the age of Hemacandra, even though no earlier references to Siddha-Cakra-Yantra could be traced in the extant Svetamh ra literature, for, Hemacandra refers to it as samaya-prasiddha-cakra-visesa in his Brhannyasa on his own Sabdanusasana. The Siddha-Cakra-Yantra attained great popularity and was highly regarded as its worship brought great rewards. The story of king Sripala, who had been famous for his devotion to the Siddha-Cakra and who is supposed to have been highly rewarded for his meritorious worship of this diagram, forms the subject matter of Siri-Sirivala-kaha of Ratnamandira gaoi (1362 A.D.). A Gujarati ballad known as Sripala-rasu, composed in 1738 A.D., is very popular amongst the Svetambaras of Gujarat and profusely illustrated manuscripts of this work are available in some Jaina bhandaras. Ratnamandira gani describes the Siddha-Cakra-yantra in every detail. However, according to his version, the yantra is larger than the one commonly worshipped and includes worship of several other deities. According to this author, the presiding deity or guardian of this mystic diagram is Sri Vimalasvami, but the Nine Padas of course form a nucleus around which other deities find a place in the yantra. As noted above, Tantrik texts like the Namaskara-valaya were known to Siddhasena (1191 A.D.), the commentator of Pravacanasaroddhara. His remarks are noteworthy in as much as he says that in works of this class is given a vyakhya of the Panca-Paramesthi-Namaskara. This Panca-Paramesthi-mantra is also said to be the origin of all mantras (spells, charms etc.), the essence of all Purva-texts and the Wishing-tree (kalpa-druma) for attainment of all desired objects. Its power is great in as much as it can be used against poisons, snakes, supernatural beings like Sakini, Dakini, Yakini and the like grahas and has powers of Vasya, Akrsti, etc. over the whole world. Thus the Siddha-cakra-yantra, made up of the worship of mainly the Panca-Paramesthins, came to be employed in various Tantrik rites-the saf-karmas, such as Santika, Paustika, Vasya, Akarsana, Mohana, Uccatana and Marana, at least in the eleventh century A.D., a century or two preceding the age of the commentary of Siddhasena. Originally the Siddhacakra or the Namaskara-valaya must have been employed in pure rites like the Santika and Paustika, but the growing Tantrik influence in India, from c. seventh century A.D. if not earlier, which resulted in the composition of various Buddhist Sadhanas and expansion of the pantheon, and in a similar activity in the Brahmanical Tantra, also led the Jainas not only to elaborate their pantheon, but also to include a number of Tantrik rites and practices originally prohibited to Jaina monks and which were against the very principles of Jainism. Later Digambara manuscripts of the Panca-Namaskara-Kalpa, and Svetambara manuscripts of the Panca-Paramesthi-kalpa etc. are still available in the Jaina bhandaras. This class of small Tantrik texts await special critical study.

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana REFERENCES 1. Cf. Mulacara, 7.13, p. 396. 2. saMgrAmasAgarakarIndrabhujaGgasiMhadurvyAdhivahiripubandhanasambhavAni / cauragrahabhramanizAcarazAkinInAM nazyanti paJcaparameSThipadarbhayAni / / -Upadesatarangini bhoyaNasamae yaNe vibohaNe pavesaNe bhae vasaNe / paMcanamukkAra khalu samarijjA sambakAlaM ni / / - Upadesatarangini jeNesa namukkAro saraNaM saMsArasamarapahiyANaM / kAraNamasaMkhadukkhakakhayaNassa heu sivapahassa // -Vrddha-Namaskaraphala-stotra (Quoted in Pratikramana-sutra-Prabodha-Tika, I, pp. 25ff) 3. tathA paNyasamaM mantraM jagatritayapAvanam / 5555ThanamaskAra vicintayet / / trizuddhayA cintayaMstasya zatamaSTotaraM muniH / bhujAno'pi labhetaiva caturthatapasaH phalam // enameva mahAmantraM samArAdhyeha yoginaH / trilokyApi mahIyante'dhigatAH paramaM zriyam / / kRtvA pApasahasrANi hatvA jantuzatAni ca / a# mantra' samArAdhya tiryaJco'pi divaM gatAH / / ghyAyanto'nAdisiddhAntAnvarNAnetAnyathAvidhi / maSTAdiviSaye jJAnaM dhyAturutpadyate kSaNAt // -Yogaprakasa, 8th prakasa 4. The unpublished Mahanisitha sutra deals at length with the importance of this mantra. Long ago Schubring discussed the contents in German and later published some parts. 5. For an explanation of the title cf.: dIhakAlarayaM jaM tu kammaM se siymtttthaa| siyaM dhaMtaMti siddhassa siddhattamuvajAyai / / --Visesavasyaka-bhasya, v. 3029 Also see Tattvartha sutra, 10.7; Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, v. 35; Niyamasara, v. 72; Avasyaka Niryukti, vv.953-961. 6. Prajnapana sutra, su. 8; Visesavasyaka-bhasya, vv. 2950ff. Also see Avasyaka-Vrtti of Haribhadra, pp.438ff. 7. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 189. 8. See also Jaini, J.L., Outline of Jainism, pp. 130-131; Trisasti,I(GOS), AppendixV, p. 450. 9. Sometimes a figure without Pratiharyas is regarded as a representation of Siddha. 10. Abhidhana Cintamani, I.57-71, Trisasti,I(GOS), p. 450. Also Jaini, op. cit., pp. 128-29. 11. Avasyaka Carni, II, pp. 8-9; Yogasastra, 3. pp. 216ff Avasyaka Niryukti, verses 921-926 and Av. Vrtti of Haribhadra, pp.406ff. Sthananga sutra, 3.4, Sd. 220 and comm., vol. I, p. 174. jitakohamANamAyA jiyalohA te jiNA hu~ti / ariNo haMtA rayaM haMtA arihaMtA teNa vuccaMti / / -Avasyaka Nir., v. 1076 With above, cf. Malacara of Vartakera, 7.64, vol. I, p. 432, which is almost identical with the Av. Nir. Gatha quoted above. Also see Milacara, 7.4-5, p. 394. 12. Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 994; Visesavasyaka, vv. 3189ff. Pra vacanasaroddhara, vv. 541-49; Jaini, op. cit., pp. 131ff, Trisasti, I (GOS) p. 452; Niyamasara, v. 73. Avasyaka Vrtti of Haribhadra, pp. 448ff. 13. Vifesavasyaka, vv. 3196-3200. Upadhyaya is explained by Avatyaka Niryukti, v. 997. Also see Trisasti, I (GOS), p. 452. Jaini, op. cit., p. 133; Pravacana Saroddhara, vv.492ff. Niyamasara, v.74. 14. Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 1002; Trisasti, I (GOS), pp. 454 55%; Jaini, op. cit., pp. 133f. Niyamasara, v. 75. Avasyaka Vrtti, op. cit., pp. 449ff. 14a. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 12. 15. Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara (Jaina Antiquary), vol. VIII, pp. 62-66 paper on Ardha-falaka-sampradaya (Hindi) by K.P. Jaina. 16. Shah, U.P., Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras (Ahmedabad, 1978), fig. 18.

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CHAPTER FOUR Parents of the Tirthankaras The parents of the Tirthankaras have been paid due respect by followers of both the main Jaina sects, who have taken special care to record their names in the evils if the lives of Tirthankaras of this Avasarpini age. Table I, appended at the end of this chapter, gives their names according to both the traditions. Worship of the parents of the Tirthankaras appears to be of ancient origin. They are invoked in various rites, especially in the pratisthavidhi, and it is interesting to note that even here the mothers are more frequently invoked than the fathers. In painting as well as sculpture, the mother is more often represented. Aryavati in the Amohini Votive Tablet from Mathura, dated in the 42nd year of Sodasa, is one of the earliest such specimens (Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 14A). It belongs to the early Kusana period, and depicts a standing lady (Aryavati) adored and worshipped by attendant figures one of whom holds a parasol over her. The lady represents the mother of a Tirtharkara, probably Mahavira. Several stone patas or plaques representing in relief all the twenty-four mothers-each in a separate compartment and carrying the son on her lap-are known to have been installed in Jaina temples during the mediaeval period. The earliest of these known hitherto is preserved in a Svetambara Jaina temple at Osia in the former Jodhpur State, Rajasthan, and is dated v.s. 1075/A.D. 1018. I know of similar patas from Pasan, Abu and Mt. Girnar, and many more exist in different Jaina temples. The mothers of the Jaina saviours were widely worshipped both in groups of twenty-four and singly. When single, the mother is shown reclining on a cot with the child lying beside her, both attended by maids and/or the Dik-kumaris of Jaina mythology. Such representations form part of the numerous scenes depicting the whole life of a Jina as we find in some ceilings of Vimala Vasahi, Abu and in shrines of Santinatha and others at Kumbharia, but such scenes are generally without the Dik-kumaris as in the miniatures of the Kalpa-sutra. Of the latter type may be seen the miniatures illustrated by Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpa-sutra, pl. 17, figs. 58, 59 where Trisala is lying on a cot with Mahavira by her side and attended upon by a maid-servant, or figs. 90, 91 from the life of Parsvanatha, fig. 103 from the life of Aristanemi and figs. 118, 119 depicting the birth of Rsabha. It will be seen that all such representations are of the same type. Another type represents the Mother of a Jina lying on a cot in a lower section of the miniature, while the two upper sections show the various dreams (14 according to the Svetambaras) seen by the Mother when the Tirthankara is conceived in her womb, compare Brown's fig. 18 representing Trisala, the Mother of Mahavira.3 In the case of the Mother of Mahavira, however, some more types of miniatures are available, one shows the Brahmani Devananda seeing the fourteen dreams, when Mahavira first enters her womb (Brown, fig. 6), a second shows Devananda sleeping on a cot and Harinegamesin carrying away the foetus of Mahavira (Brown, fig. 14), while a third type shows Trisala lying on a cot and Harinegamesin standing beside her with the foetus of Mahavira (Brown, fig. 16).4 On a pillar of the famous Dharana-vihara shrine, Ranakpur, old Jodhpur State, Marwar (now Rajasthan), is found a figure of a Mother lying on a cot which represents the Nativity of a Jina. An older big sculpture of the Mother resting on a cot and shampooed by a maid is preserved in temple No. 4 at Devgadh

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Jaina-Ripa-Mandana fort, Jhansi District, Madhya Bharata. The sculpture (dated v.s. 107 (?), c. 1020 A.D.) includes representations of the twenty-four Jinas on all the three sides of the Mother (Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 39), which shows that the image represents "The Mother of the Jina". The Nativity figures are not unknown to other sects in ancient Indian sculpture. The Nativity of Buddha, found at the site of his birth, near the Lumbini Garden as also at Nalanda are well-known.5 The Nativity of Krsna is represented on the outer wall of the first Pancayatana temple at Osia, assignable to the post-Gupta age. Similar representations are known from Eastern India, including representations showing the birth of Sadasiva.7 The famous sculpture from Pathari, old Gwalior State, of a Mother lying on a cot with a child beside her, and attended upon by four maidens standing behind and holding the fan, the chowrie-a money bag (?) etc. in their hands, 8 is especially noteworthy since the Jaina traditions speak of Dik-kumaris serving the Mother at the time of the birth of a Jina. This sculpture can be identified as representing the Mother of a Jina and the identification is likely, especially when an old Jaina temple still exists at Pathari. It may be remembered that in Buddhist mythology, the Buddha is attended upon, not by females, but by Brahma er four male deities, while a similar group is not known in Hinduism. It will be seeria Fig. 82 from a ceiling slab in the Neminatha shrine at Kumbharia (North Gujarat), which relates to the life of Parsvanatha, King Asvasena and Queen Vama (parents of Parsva) are represented as seated side by side in the first row. The second and the third rows contain in separate sections parents of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras. As, however, the photograph shows only a part of the big slab, only a few of them, each completely labelled by the artist, can be seen in the plate. In each section are seated, side by side, on small seats, the Mother and Father of a Jina, with the child on the Mother's lap. The sculpture is assignable to c. 12th century A.D. With this type may be considered a group of miniature paintings of the Kalpa sutra. Figure 35 of Brown shows King Siddhartha and Queen Trisala (Parents of Mahavira) seated beside each other. the king on a somewhat bigger seat, and with a chatra above each. Here Trisala narrated her dreams to Siddhartha who tells her that the dreams are a very auspicious omen. Of a similar type is fig. 117 of Brown, representing parents of Rsabha, the patriarch Nabhi and his Queen Marudevi. Figure 48 of Brown's KSP shows Siddhartha and Trisala, listening to the interpreters of dreams (svapnapathaka) shown in a lower panel (also cf. figs. 40, 50 of Brown). But this type of representation of the Parents of a Jina (seated side by side), on stone at Kumbharia or in the miniatures noted above, leads us to the examination of yet another group of sculptures which were lying unidentified. This type of sculpture generally shows a male and a female in princely attire, sitting under a tree, with a child on the female's lap. In almost all such cases, there is a seated Jina figure on the top of the tree (Figs. 80, 81, 85A).10 Sometimes both the male and the female hold a child each.11 In some cases the male holds a lotus or a citron 12 in one of his hands.13 Below the princely pair, in a lower panel, are found several seated or standing figures (Figs. 80, 81) and in some cases figures riding on horses are also seen. 14 Again, in some sculptures, 15 a group of children are shown near the feet of the male and the female. Sometimes, a small dwarfish figure is seen climbing the stem of the tree just above and in a sculpture in the Devgadh fort, a figure like this is represented on the branch of a tree. In this connection, two sculptures from Khajuraho deserve special notice. In one (Fig. 85A) a small figure of a bull is placed between the pair, near their legs. In another (Fig. 81) are seen, at two ends below, representations of a Yaksa and Yaksi. Again, the chowrie-bearers to the right and the left of the male and the female may be noted. Such representations are known to have been found in old Digambara shrines and old Jaina sites in the Gwalior State, Madhya Bharata, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. A few are also known from Bengal. They seem to have been gradually less popular in the Moghul period while older sites like Khajuraho, Devgadh, Budhi Canderi etc., abound in them. Now, the presence of a Yaksa and a Yaksi, as subordinate figures in Fig. 81, as also of fly-whisk bearers and the bull-cognizance in Fig. 85A) shows that such a pair does not represent the Yaksa and Yaksi of a Tirthankara. Besides there are different kinds of trees in different sculptures which fact suggests that

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Parents of the Tirtharkaras 49 the pairs are concerned with different Tirthankaras. The presence of a child on the lap of the Mother is of utmost importance, for it shows that, in view of all peculiarities noted above, the pair must be taken to represent the Mother and the Father of the Tirtharkara.16 Moreover, both the male and the female are dressed like King and Queen in all sculptures. Above all, we have the evidence of a similar tradition amongst the Svetambaras (in c. 11th-12th century) of the ceiling slab from Kumbharia, discussed above (Fig. 82), which actually represents them seated side by side with the son on the Mother's lap. The labels inscribed below the panels at Kumbharia leave no doubt about their identifications. Another alternative is to take the pair as representing the Kulakara and his queen, or the happy twins (Yugalika) who lived in those days.17 But in the case of at least the two sculptures from Khajuraho, discussed above in Figs. 81 and 85 A, the presence of the bull cognizance and the Yaksa and Yaksi would remain unexplained. But it would be easier to identify the pair in Fig. 85 A as representing the Parents of Rsabhanatha, whose cognizance is the bull. The Yaksa and Yaksi in Fig. 81 represented at two ends of the lower panel are already noted. Besides, there are five more figures (both male and female) in the centre of the pedestal, who seem to be worshippers. A figure of a standing camara-dhara to the right of the male is noteworthy. The male seems to have held in his left mutilated hand a lotus with a long stalk (also in Fig. 85 A with the bull symbol). It is therefore impossible to regard this pair as the Yugalikas, and if we take them as Parents the presence of a child is better explained than in the case of a Kulakara. Besides, the almost invariable presence of a Jina figure on the top of the tree in such sculptures would not be necessary if different Kulakaras are represented. Another alternative would be to regard them as representing a Yaksa and a Yaksi probably as a Jaina version of the Buddhist Jambhala and Hariti. If Fig. 81 above with another Yaksa and Yaksini at the two ends of the pedestal be regarded as our guide to the understanding of these types of sculptures, then we need not take the Male and Female as a Yaksa and Yaksini. The presence of horse riders on pedestals of some sculptures is not explicable under any of the above-mentioned alternatives. The Mathura Museum sculpture No. 278, illustrated here in Fig. 178, shows a male and a female seated side by side in lalitasa na under a tree, on the trunk of the tree is an ascending lizard. On the pedestal is carved another figure seated with the left leg drawn up and flanked by two butting rams and a group of frolicksome children. No. 1111 is another relief of this group in the Mathura Museum. Here both the principal figures, twoarmed, hold a brimming cup in right hand. No. 1578 in this museum, again, shows, on the pedestal, a group of seven miniature figurines in anjali mudra.18 A sculpture from Devgadh, showing the male and the female in a standing attitude, and carrying the citron in their right hands and the child in their left hands, was identified by Shri Brindabana Bhattacharya as the Yaksa Gomedha and Ambika Yaksini of Neminatha. 19 A sculpture from Chanderi in the Gwalior State shows on the pedestal a group of horse riders with galloping horses. 20 Now the presence of galloping horses cannot be explained under any of the other identifications suggested by B.C. Bhattacharya, V.S. Agrawala and others while the frolicking children can very well be expected in a sculpture based on the Buddhist Jambhala and Hariti group. A better specimen of this type is preserved at Devgadh, temple no. 12, which shows three more standing infants, not on the pedestal, but beside the legs of the male and female sitting in lalitasana under a tree. The brimming cup held by the principal figures in some sculptures, or the citron shown in others, or again the lotus held by the male in some figures would suggest that the pair represents some Yaksa and Yaksini. But in the last case (from Khajuraho Museum) the bull symbol would prevent us from doing so and in fig. 117 from Khajuraho where again the male carries a lotus, a yaksa and yaksini figure on the pedestal. Under all these circumstances, it is difficult to find out a final satisfactory solution of this group of sculptures, almost all of whom belong to the mediaeval age, with a few assignable to the early mediaeval age but none earlier than c. 7th century A.D. All the sculptures of this group post-date the introduction of a Yaksa pair as attendants in Tirthankara images. It is therefore likely that this group of Jaina sculptures was modelled after the Buddhist Jambhala and Hariti,21 to attract the laity, and worshipped as Parents of the Jinas, but the correspondence being so great and the canonical injunctions being still not fixed up, the artist could take liberties in representations on pedestals and other minor figures. It may be that a few figures were possibly intended to represent a yaksa pair in cases where the pair carries the brimming

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50 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana cup or the citron, but even in the case of the sculpture discussed by Brindabana Bhattacharya, the lion vehicle of Ambika is absent (the partly mutilated figure to the left of Ambika represented some worshipper and not an animal) and the five figures on the pedestal seem to represent five planets or some minor deities. The sculpture was carved in an age (c. 13th century A.D.) when the iconography of Ambika was so well known that she would carry mango-bunch, rather than a citron, and would be shown as standing under a mango-tree only. And no other yaksi carries a child with her in Jaina iconography. Unfortunately almost all available sculptures of this type bear no inscriptions and in a few cases of short inscriptions on pedestals (as in a bronze in the Nagpur Museum or in No. A(C)2,329 in the Rajshahi Museum, from Deopara, district Rajshahi) the inscriptions do not help us in identifying this pair. But the short inscription on No. 278 in the Mathura Museum is read as Priyati Siddhah. If this has any connection with Priyakarini and Siddhartha, the Mother and Father of Mahavira, according to Dig. tradition, then the riddle of identification of this group is solved. We are not quite sure about it and in the absence of any other labelled sculptures of this group, the identification of this group, as representing the Parents of the various Tirtharkaras suggested here, is to be regarded as tentative only, and in this the panel at KumSaria, and Figs. 81 and 85 A from Khajuraho are our only guides. TABLE I Parents of Jinas No. Tirthankara Father Mother 1. Rsabhanatha 2. Ajitanatha 3. Sambhavanatha 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumatinatha Marudevi Vijaya Sena (Sve.); Susena (Dig.) Siddhartha Mangala 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsvanatha Susima Prthvi 8. Candraprabha 9. Puspadanta 10. Sitalanatha 11. Sreyamsanatha 12. Vasupujya 13.. Vimalanatha 14. Anantanatha 15. Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthunatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha 20. Munisuvrata 21. Naminatha 22. Neminatha 23. Parsvanatha 24. Mahavira Nabhi Jitasatru Jitari Samvara Megha (Sve.) Meghaprabha (Dig.) Dhara or Dharana (Dig.) Pratistha or Supratistha (Dig.) Mahasena Sugriva Drdharatha Visnu Vasupujya Kstavarma Simhasena Bhanu Visvasena Sura or Suryasena (Dig.) Sudarsana Kumbha Sumitra Vijaya Samudravijaya Asvasena Siddhartha Laksmana or Laksmi (Dig.) Rama Nanda Visnu or Venudevi (Dig.) Jaya or Vijaya (Dig.) Syama or Jayasyama (Dig.) Suyasa or Sarvayasa (Dig.) Suvrata Acira or Aira (Dig.) Sri Devi or Mitra (Dig.) Prabhavati Padma Vapra or Viprita (Dig.) Sivadevi Vama or Varmila Trisala or Priyakarini (Dig.)

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Parents of the Tirtharkaras SI A sculpture of a male and a female seated in lalitasana on a common seat, with haloes behind (obviously showing that they are objects of worship, gods or great souls) seated in a sort of a heavenly vimana, or a shrine with a sikhara, and a Jina seated to front on top, but without the tree (met with in all the sculptures discussed above), is preserved in the British Museum, London.22 Again, neither the male nor the female carries a child and the pair possibly held lotus in their right hands. The female carries the citron in her left hand. The pedestal shows three dwarfs lifting the vimana, and four standing males who seem to be musicians. On the pedestal is carved Anantaviryyo in early Nagari characters, of c. 10th or 11th century A.D. No Yaksa is known as Anantavirya in Jaina literature. But Anantavirya is the name of the twenty-fourth future Jina according to the Digambaras23 and of the twenty-third according to the Svetambaras.24 Even then it is difficult to identify this pair, it is just possible that Anantaviryyo merely signifies the name of the donor. One must await future discoveries to obtain a final solution of all such sculptures. In order to identify the different pairs as parents of the different Tirthankaras, a table of caitya-trees of these Jinas is appended below. It will be seen that the tree under which the pair sits is different in different sculptures, and often there is a tree with thic Jia figure on top. TABLE II Caitya-Trees of Tirth ankaras No. Tirthankara Svetambara Digambara Same as Sve. Saptaparna Sarala Prayala Priyangu Chatra Sirisa Naga 1. Rsabhanatha 2. Ajitanatha 3. Sambhavanatha 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumatinatha 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsvanatha 8. Candraprabha 9. Puspadanta (Suvidhinatha) 10. Sitalanatha 11. Sreyamsanatha 12. Vasupujya 13. Vimalanatha 14. Anantanatha 15. Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthunatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha 20. Munisuvrata 21. Naminatha 22. Neminatha 23. Parsvanatha 24. Mahavira Nyagrodha Saptaparna Sala (Shorea Robusta) Piyaka or Priyaka Priyangu (Panicum italicum) Caturabha (Anethum Sava) Sirisa (Acacia Sirisha) Naga Mali Pilankhu (Plaksa) Tinduga Palala (Bignonia Suaveolens) Jambu (Eugenia Jambulana) Asvattha Dadhiparna Nandi (Cedrela-Toona) Tilaka Amra Asoka Campaka (Michelia Champaka) Bakula (Mimusops Elengi) Vetasa Dhataki (Grislea Tomentosa) Sala Aksa Dhuli Palasa Tenduva Patala-Jambu Asvattha Dadhiparna Nandi Tilaka Amra Asoka Campaka Bakula Mesasrnga Dhava Sala

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana REFERENCES 1. Acara-Dinakara, pp. 16ff, 154ff, Pratisha-saroddhara, pp. 87ff, Pratistha-tilaka, pp. 420ff. 2. Pavitra-Kalpa-Satra, fig. 23 coloured plate representing Trisala and Mahavira on a cot; fig. 30 is a palm-leaf miniature showing Trisala with an attendant maid and two Dik-Kumaris in an upper corner, also cf. fig. 85 where the Dik-Kumaris are in a lower register. Fig. 100 depicts the birth of Rsabha, only a maid-servant or probably only one Dik-Kumari is shown. Also see Brown, W. Norman, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpa Sutra (KSP), figs. 58, 59, 90, 91. 3. Cf. fig. 98 colour plate representing Devananda seeing the fourteen dreams, in Pavitra Kalpa Satra, ed. by Muni Punyavijaya. 4. Pavitra-kalpa sutra, figs. 77 and 82 representing 'garbha pahara' and 'garbha-samkramana' respectively. 5. Kramrisch, Stella, Indian Sculpture, fig. 98, also figs. 21 23 for dream of Maya Devi. 6. Annual Report, Arch. Surv. of India, for 1908-09, pp. 100ff where Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar describes the temples at Osia. The present writer has seen the sculpture on the temple. 7. History of Bengal, vol. I, figure of Sadasiva. Bhattasali, N.K., Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculp tures in the Dacca Museum, plates LIII, LIV, pp. 134ff. 8. History of Indian and Indonesian Art, fig. 178. 9. The four male deities are the four Maharajas, the quarter-guardians, Dhrtarasira, Vidudhaka, and others. The Pathari sculpture, because of the four standing attendant females (not known to Buddhist or Hindu mythologies), must be identified as representing the birth of a Jina, probably the Nativity of Mahavira. 10. From Khajuraho Museum. 11. From Devgadh. Also see fig. A(c)2,329, from Deopara in the Museum of the V.R.S., Rajshahi. 12. See Gomedha and Ambika from Devgadh, illustrated by B.C. Bhattacharya, in Jaina Iconography (first edition). 13. Negative no. 1263, Dept. of Archaeology, Gwalior State showing 3 sculptures of such pairs. 14. On pedestals of all the three images noted above in note 13. See note 20. 15. From Devgadh Fort. 16. The Pratisha-tilaka of Nemicandra admits as valid representations of the Mother and Father seated side by side, in the following verse: bharvA sahakAsanasanniviSTAM saMsnApya yAM tIrthajalaiH surendrAH / divya vibhUSAmbaramAlyamukhya rAnacaM renAM vayamarcayAmaH / / --Pratisha-tilaka, p. 422. 17. For Kulakaras, see a separate discussion under Kulu karas in this book. Also see T- 110 , pp. 93ff. Tiloyapannatti, 4.320ff, vol. I, pp. 185ff, for Yugalikas. The text specially says: te jugaladharamajutA parivArA natthi tatkAle // 340 // which excludes the possibility of this group being identified as Yugalika-images. For Kulakaras, ibid., 4-423-510, pp. 195-206. 18. Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, vol. XXIII, parts 1-2, pp. 67-68 for Nos. 278, 1111 and 1578 discussed here. 19. Bhattacharya, B.C., Jaina Iconography, plate XVI, p. 183 (first edition). 20. Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India for 1924-25, pl. 42, fig. (2). A sculpture from Chanderi shows horsemen at the bottom portion of the image. 21. Cf. Kubera and Hariti from Sahri-Bahlol, in Smith and Codrington, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, pl. 31, fig. B. For Hariti, also see Bhattasali, N.K., op. cit., pp. 63-84. 22. Rai Bahadur Chanda, Ramaprasada, Mediaeval Sculp ture in the British Museum, London, pl. IX, pp. 41-42. 23. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 213. 24. Abhidhana-Cintamani, 1.53-56, pp. 18-19.

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CHAPTER FIVE Notes on the Jaina Pantheon (1) BACKGROUND OF JAINA COSMOGRAPHY According to Jainism, the shape of the Cosmos is fixed and unchangeable. Fourteen rajjusa in height, it is not uniform in breadth-broadest at the bottom, narrowest at the centre, broader still above and at the top narrower once again. The shape of the cosmos (loka) is best compared with a man standing in the vaisakha position, with arms akimbo, at the bottom resembling a vetrasana (cane-stand), in the middle a jhallari (circular flat symbol or gong) and at the top a muraja (mrdanga). It is filled with three worldslower, middle and upper, the terms being used with reference to Rucaka. The centre of the cosmos comprises the madhya-loka-middle world with the abodes of human and lower beings, and extending nine hundred yojanas above and below Rucaka. The lower world or adho-loka is made up of seven earths, one below the other, in which are terrifying abodes of hell inhabitants: Ratnaprabha, Sarkaraprabha, Valukaprabha, Pankaprabha, Dhumaprabha, Tamahprabha and Mahatamahprabha.5 The Ratnaprabha is divided into three parts; the uppermost, called the khara-bhaga, has in its central regions abodes of all the classes of the Bhavanavasi-devas except the Asurakumaras, and of the various classes of the Vyantara gods except the Raksasas. The middle part of the Ratnaprabha is called the parka-bhaga wherein stay the Asurakumaras and the Raksasas. Remaining parts of the lower world contain hells wherein live the narakas or hellish beings, ugly and grotesque in appearance and tortured mercilessly by the Asurakumiras and fifteen other classes of celestial beings known as amba, ambaras, sama, sabala, rudra, maharudra, kala, mahakala, asipatra, dhanu, kumbha, valu, vetarani, kharasvara and mahaghosa. The middle world, a rather circular body, consists of numerous concentric dvipas or island continents with intervening oceans separating any two of them. In its centre is the Mount Meru, golden and surrounded by the Jambu-dvipa, the latter being encircled by the lavanoda ocean. Then comes the Dhatakikhanda-dvipa followed by kaloda-samudra, then the Puskaravara-dvipa and the puskaroda-samudra, the Varunivara-dvipa and the varunivara-samudra, the Ksiravara and the ksiroda, the Ghftavara and the ghstoda, the Iksuvara and the iksuvaroda, the Nandisvara and the nandisvaroda. Human beings are found only in the first two dvipas and the first half of the third one. At the end of countless continents and oceans is the great ocean known as the Svayambhuramana. The Jambu-dvipa, placed in the centre of the middle world, is the most important of all the continents. Six ranges of mountains divide this Jambu-dvipa into seven regions (ksetras): Bharata, Haimavata, Hari, Videha, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airavata. The six mountain ranges known as varsadharaparvatas are: Himavat, Mahahimavat, Nisadha, Nila, Rukmin and Sikharin. On their tops are six lakes, namely, Padma, Mahapadma, Tigincha, Kesari, Mahapundarika and Pundarika respectively, each having a big lotus-island (padma-hrada, full-blown lotus, rooted ten yojanas in water) in its centre. In these islands live the six goddesses Sri, Hri, Dhsti, Kirti, Buddhi and Laksmi respectively, 8 attended by samanikas, gods of councils, bodyguards, and armies. In each of the seven ksetras is a pair of chief rivers -Ganga and Sindhu, Rohit and Rohitasya (or

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Rohitamsa), Harit and Harikanta, Sita and Sitoda, Nari and Narakanta, Suvarnakula and Rupyakula, Rakta and Raktoda.9 To the north of the Nisadha Mts. and to the south of Meru are the Vidyutprabha and Saumanasa Mts. in the west and in the east. Between them are the bhogabhumis or enjoyment-lands known as Devakurus. In the Devakurus, on the east and west banks of the river Sitoda are the mountains Citrakuta and Vicitrakuta, on which are temples of the Jinas. To the north of the Meru and to the south of the Nila Mts. are Gandhamadana and Malyavat Mts. between which is another bhogabhumi known as the Uttarakurus, where, on the banks of the river Sita, are two Mts. known as Yamaka. To the east of the Deva and Uttarakurus are the regions known as the East Videhas, while to the west are the West Videhas, each of the Videhas being divided into sixteen provinces.10 In the centre of the Bharata, parallel to the Himavan, is the Mt. Vaitadhya or Vijayardha, dividing the Bharata ksetra into northern and southern regions. The northern one is peopled by the Mlecchas.11 The southern region is divided into western, middle and eastern parts, the Mlecchas again live in the treme east and west sections. the middle section, peopled by the Aryas (noble, worthy, respectable ones), is known as the Arya-khanda.12 54 On the northern and the southern slopes of the Mt. Vaitadhya are cities of the Vidyadharas, fifty in the south and sixty in the north. 13 At ten yojanas above the abodes of the Vidyadharas are two rows adorned with abodes of the Vyantaras. Above these again are nine peaks. There are two caves on the Vaitadhya, known as the Tamisra-guha and the Khandaprapata-guha. Krtamalaka a Vyantara god is the superintending deity of the first while Narttamalaka, another Vyantara god, rules over the second. There are similar Vidyadhara cities in the Airavata and Videha ksetras. In the Bharata and the Airavata ksetras, in the extreme south and north of the Jambu continent, there is an increase and decrease of age, height, bliss, etc., of their inhabitants, in the two chief Eras of Time-utsarpini and avasarpini-while in the other five ksetras there is no increase and decrease of any sort. In the centre of the Jambu-dvipa is the Mt. Meru, golden and having the shape of a truncated cone. At the base of Meru is a grove Bhadrasala resembling a surrounding wall. At five hundred yojanas from Bhadrasala, on a terrace, is the grove called Nandana. On a second terrace, at a certain distance above Nandana is the grove Saumanasa, while the Sundara-vana (grove) is on a third terrace. On the peak of Meru is the garden Pundarika. In the last grove is performed the Janmabhiseka kalyanaka (birth-bath ceremony) of the Tirthankaras.14 Each of the above-mentioned groves has four Sasvata-Jina-Bhavanas. The continent of Jambu-dvipa has a fortification wall (jagati) of diamond, with a lattice work above it which latter is surmounted by a beautiful terrace (vedika) named Padmavara, the pleasure ground of gods. In the fortification wall are four gates in the four cardinal points. They are: Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta15 and Aparajita with gods of the same name superintending over them. Over each gate is a dvaraprasada, with various pavements, excellent varanakas, shining with jewel lamps, having pillars adorned with various salabhanjikas, jewelled minarets and flags. It appears beautiful with various sculptures and painting and excellent curtains. On these gates are the images of Jinas sitting on lion-seats and adorned with haloes, umbrellas, fly-whisks etc. 16 The cities of Mahoraga gods situated in the vedi have costly palaces of square and rectangular plans, and of white, ruby, golden or various colours. These mansions contain various apartments, such as the olagasala (?), mantra-sala, bhusana-sala, abhiseka-sala etc. The Tiloyapannatti further says that Vyantara cities of the Jambudvipa have various types of grhas, namely, samanya-grha, citra or caitya-grha, kadali-grha, garbha-grha, lata-grha, nada-grha, and asana-grha. In the beautiful palaces of the city are various types of seats, of the shape of elephants, lions, parrots, peacocks, crocodiles, eagles, swans, etc. 17 The Lord of the Jambudvipa is a Vyantara god called Anadrta or Anadara.18 Similarly there are lords of kset ras, samudras and mountains. Besides the seven mountain ranges (varsadhara-parvatas) noted above, there are other similar but smaller mountains in different ksetras. All the mountains have various peaks (kutas). The Vaitadhya, for example, has nine peaks known as siddhayatana-kuta, daksinardhabharata-kuta, khandaprapata-k., manibhadra-k., vaitadhya-k., purnabhadra-k., tamisraguha-k., uttarabharatardha-k., and vaisramana-k., the

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55 Notes on the Jaina Pantheon last eight derive names from gods of the same name superintending over them, while the first one is so called from the Siddhayatanas or Temples of the Siddhas situated on it. Such shrines are also known as Sasvata-Jina-Bhavanas with images of Sasvata-Jinas installed in them.19 Next to Jambu-dvipa is the Lavanoda ocean, then the Dhataki khanda, then the Kaloda ocean and following it is Puskaravara-dvipa. Half of the Puskaravara is inhabited by human beings. The human world, therefore, is made up of two-and-a half continents, two oceans, thirty-five zones in all and a number of mountains, rivers etc. Beyond it is the Manusottara, a mountain range, round like a city-wall, surrounding the human world. Situated half-way in the Puskaravaradvipa and golden, Manusottara is so called because 'man is not born except on this side of it', which is the ultimate limit of regions inhabited by human beings. Surrounding the Puskaradvipa is the Puskara ocean, followed by continents and oceans called the Varunivara, the Ksiravara etc., the eighth from Jambu being the Nandisvara-dvipa, which resembles a heaven. The Nandisvara-dvipa20 is a land of delight of the gods with gardens of manifold designs, adorned and honoured by the visits of gods devoted in the worship of the Tirthankaras. In its central part are four Anjana mountains of black colour, situated in the four directions; Devaramana in the east, Nityodyata in the south, Svayamprabha in the west, and Ramaniya in the north. On their tops are temples of the Arhats (Tirthankaras), one hundred yojanas long, half as wide and seventy yojanas high, each shrine having four doors. Within the temples are jewelled platforms, sixteen yojanas long and wide, and eight yojanas high. On the platforms (manipithika) are diases (devacchandaka) of jewels whose length and width exceed the platforms, and on them are one hundred and eight eternal statues (sasvata-bimba) of each of the Arhats named Rsabha, Vardhamana, Candranana and Vorisena in the paryanka posture, made of jewels, attended each by a beautiful retinue consisting of two Nagas, two Yaksas, two Bhutas, and two pitcher-carriers while behind each statue is a figure of an umbrella-bearer. On the diases are incense-jars, wreaths, bells, the eight auspicious marks, banners, umbrellas, festoons, baskets, boxes and seats as well as sixteen ornaments such as full pitchers etc. There are gleaming entrance-pavilions (mukha-mandapa) of the size of the temples, theatre-pavilions (preksa-mandapa), arenas (aksa-vataka), jewelled platforms, beautiful stupas, and statues, fair caitya-trees, indradhvajas, and divine lotus lakes in succession. In the four directions from each of the Mt. Anjanas there are big square lotus-lakes, Nandisena, Amogha, Gostupa etc., and beyond them are great gardens named Asoka, Saptaparna, Campaka and Cuta. Within the sixteen lotus-lakes are the crystal Dadhimukha mountains, each having a SasvataJinalaya with images of Sasvata-Jinas described above.21 Between each two lakes are two Ratikara mountains thus making a total of thirty-two Ratikara Mts. These mountains have again thirty-two SasvataJinalayas on them. This makes a total of fifty-two such Eternal Temples of Arhats on the Nandisvaradvipa (4 on Anjana Mts.+ 16 on Dadhimukha Mts. +32 on Ratikara Mts.).22 In the eight directions on the two southern Ratikara Mts. are the palaces of the eight queens of Sakra and on the two northern mountains are those of the queens of Isanendra, all these being adorned with the temples of the Jinas. Here and elsewhere on the Nandisvara-dvipa, Indra and other gods celebrate eight days festival (astalnika-mahotsava) every year on different holy (parva) days. Next follows the Nandisvara ocean, then the Arunavaradvipa, the Arunoda ocean, and the ocean and dvipa called the Arunabhasa, then the Kundala dvipa with four Jina temples, the Kundaloda ocean followed by the Rucaka-dvipa. In the centre of the Rucaka-dvipa is the Rucaka-giri (mountain) with four Eternal Temples. On all sides of these temples, on different mountain tops, stay the thirty-six Dik-kumaris of the upper Rucaka-giri while four more Dik-kumaris stay on tops in the centre of the mountain. The last in the series of oceans and continents is the Svayambhuramana ocean. In this continent of Jambu-dvipa there always flourish four each of Tirthakrts, Cakrins, Visnus (Vasudevas) and Baladevas at the minimum. At the maximum, there are thirty-four Jinas and thirty kings, and twice as many in Dhataki and the inhabited half of Puskaradvipa.23 Mount Himavata bounds the Bharataksetra, while there is another Mt. called Vaitadhya, parallel to

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56 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana the Himavan which divides the Bharata-ksetra into a Northern and Southern region. The Northern one is peopled by the Mlecchas or barbarians. Human beings living in the Jambu, Dhataki and half Puskara dvipa (together forming what in modern usage is known as Adhai or Dhai dvipas-patas or paintings of which are still popular) regions are of two kinds, Arya and Mleccha. The divisions of these people and the lists of Mlecchas given by Jaina texts form an interesting subject for students of ancient Indian culture.24 To the north of the Nisadha Mt. and south of Meru are the Vidyutprabha and Saumanasa mountains in the east and west respectively. Between them is the bhogabhumi or enjoyment land known as Devakurus. To the north of the Meru and to the south of the Nila are Gandhamadana and Malyavat mountains. Between them is another bhogabhumi called the Uttarakurus. East of the Deva and Uttarakurus, the region is called Purva-Videha and to the west the Uttara-Videha. In each there are 16 provinces called Kaccha, Sukaccha etc.25 In the Bharata-ksetra, on the southern and northern slopes of the Vijayarddha mountain are cities of Vidyadharas, 50 in the south and 60 in the north. There is also a similar number of Vidyadhara cities in the Airavata-ksetra and 55 for each slope in the Videha-ksetra. The Mount a in or Vaitadhya is in the centre of Bharata dividing it into north and south. At 790 yojanas above the surface of the earth (middle world) is the lower level of the Jyotiskas, divided into Adityas (suns), Candras (moons), Grahas (planets) and Naksatras (asterisms). The Upper World or Ordhva-loka is above Mount Meru. Starting from below, this world can be divided into the following heavens: (i) Kalpas, (ii) Graiveyakas, (iii) Anuddisas, (iv) Anuttaras and (v) Siddha-ksetra. The Svetambaras do not acknowledge the (iv) class. The Kalpas are 16, according to the Digambaras, and situated in eight superimposed pairs which are compared to the ribs of a man. They are: Saudharma, Aisana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantaka, Kapistha, Sukra, Mahasukra, Satara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Acyuta. The heavens of (ii), (iii) and (iv) groups are also known as Kalpatita heavens. According to the Svetambaras the Kalpa heavens are 12 in number, omitting Brahmottara, Kapistha, Mahasukra, and Satara of the Digambara list. The nine Graiveyakas, according to both the sects, are arranged in three rows one above the other(i) Sudarsana, Suprabuddha and Manorama; (ii) Sarvabhadra, Suvisala and Sumanas; (iii) Saumanasa, Pritikara and Aditya. The Anuddisas (Digambara only) are nine: Arcih, Arcimali, Vaira, Vairocana, Soma, Somarupa, Aika, Sphatika, and Aditya. The five Anuttaras are: Vijaya in the east, Vaijayanta in the south, Jayanta in the west, Aparajita in the north and Sarvarthasiddhi in the centre, according to both the sects. Twelve yojanas above Sarvarthasiddhi, at the summit of the universe, is the Siddha-ksetra, the land of liberated souls, in the world called Isatpragbhara. In its middle, radiant like silver is the Siddha-kseira, shaped like a parasol or canopy, tapering up towards the top. Here the Siddhas live "in the Blissful possession of their infinite quarternary" 26 Saudharma and Aisana are round like the moon, in the southern direction is Sakra, the Indra of Saudharma kalpa, and in the northern direction, Isana; similarly are situated Sanatkumara and Mahendra. Beyond them is the place corresponding the elbow of the man representing the universe, in the centre of the universe is the Brahmaloka with Brahma Indra as its lord. At the end are the Lokantikadevas: Sarasvatas, Adityas, Agnis, Arunas, Gardatoyas, Tusitas, Avyabadhas, Maruts and Ristas. Above Brahma-loka are the Lantaka and other heavens. The ten divisions of gods are: Indras or lords of all the gods of the following other nine divisions, Samanikas are the same as Indras but lack Indraship, Trayastrimsas or the ministers and priests of Indras, Parsad yas or companions of Indras, Raksasas who are bodyguards, Lokapalas or Quarter-guardians who work as spies of Indras, Anikas forming the armies, Prakirnas constituting the villagers and townsmen, Abhiyogikas who work like slaves and Kilbisakas who are regarded as the lowest castes. The Jyotiskas and Vyantaras have no Lokapalas.

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Notes on the Jaina Pantheon (2) CLASSIFICATION OF JAINA DEITIES The Sthananga27 and other Jaina canons classify gods into four main groups, namely, the Bhavanavasis, the Vyantaras or Vanamantaras, the Jyotiskas and the Vima navasis. These are again sub-divided into several groups with Indra, Lokapalas, Queens of these and so on. The classification is acknowledged by both the sects and is a very old tradition, but they are after all deities of a secondary nature in the Jaina Pantheon. 1. The Bhavanarasi Gods The abodes of Bhavanapatis, situated in the Ratnaprabha earth, are like two rows, in the north and south, of shops on a highway. The ten classes of Bhavanapatis are the same according to both the sects. Each group has its own recognising mark, usually shown in front of their crowns. The following tables give the iconography of ten classes of Bhavanavasis, according to both sects (TP - Tiloyapannatti, Digambara and Sve. = Jainis canons of Svetambara tradition).28 Bhavanavasis - Digambara Class Caitya-Vrksas Mark on Crown Complexion 1. Asura-kumaras 2. Naga-kumaras 3. Suparna-kumaras 4. Dvipa-kumaras 5. Udadhi-kumaras 6. Stanita-kumaras 7. Vidyut-kumaras 8. Dik-kumaras 9. Agni-kumaras 10. Vayu-kumaras Asvattha Saptaparna Salmali Jambu Vetasa Kadamba Priyangu Cuda mani Snake Eagle Elephant Crocodile Svastika Vajra Lion Kalasa Horse Black Black Blackish Blackish Black Black Lightning-like Light-black Flame-like Blue-lotus Sirisa Palasa Raja-druma Bhavanavasis-Svetambara29 Class Mark on Crown Complexion Garments 1. Asura-kumaras 2. Naga-kumaras 3. Suparna-kumaras 4. Dvipa-kumaras 5. Udadhi-kumaras 6. Stanita-kumaras 7. Vidyut-kumaras 8. Dik-kumaras 9. Agni-kumaras 10. Vayu-kumaras Cudamani Snake Eagle Lion Horse Vardhamanaka Vajra Elephant Water-pot Makara Black White Golden Golden White Golden Golden Golden Golden Blackish Red Bluish White Blue Blue White Blue Blue Blue Reddish yellow

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58 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Caitya Trees of Ten Bhavanavasis (Sve.)-Asvattha, Saptaparna, Umbara, Vappotatta (?), Palasa, Vanjula, Salmali, Karpikara, Sirtsa, Dadhiparoa.30 According to the Prajnapana, all the Asurakumaras are black, have red lips, white teeth, black hair, earrings on left ears (vameyakundaladhara), their bodies are besmeared with sandal paste, they put on red garments, they are in the prime of age (padhamam vayam ca samaikkanta) or youth, their breasts are adorned with mani-ratna-haras, their arms are adorned with talabhangaka and trutita ornaments, having rings on all the ten fingers (of hands), and cudamani on (in front of) their crown. Beautiful in appearance, they are said to have long straight prominent noses.31 The canons name the parsadas (council halls or assembly halls or durbar halls) of the Indras32 of different classes, and such other details which need not detain us. II. The Vanamantaras or Vyantaras The Vyantaras33 living in the Ratnaprabha earth are divided into eight chief classes by both the sects. They are: (1) Pisacas, (2) Bhutas, (3) Yaksas, (4) Raksasas, (5) Kinnaras, impurusas, (7) Mahoragas, (8) Gandharvas. (1) Pisacas: The are sub-divided into 14 classes by the Dig. Tiloyapannatti: Kusmanda, Yaksa, Raksasa, Sammoha, Taraka, Asucinamaka, Kala, Mahakala, Suci, Satalaka, Deha, Mahadeha, Tusnika, Pravacana. 34 All the Pisaca gods are black and the two Indras of Pisacas are Kala and Mahakala. According to the Svetambaras, the Pisacas are blackish, but beautiful in appearance and adorned with ornaments of various jewels. Kadamba tree is the symbol on the Dhvajas of the Pisacas, according to the Svetambaras,3 who divide the Pisacas into sixteen classes: Kusmanda, Palaka, Sujosa, Ahnika, Kala, Mahakala, Coksa, Acoksa, Talapisaca, Mukharapisaca, Adhastaraka, Deha, Videha, Mahadeha, Tusnika and Vanapisaca. (2) Bhutas: They are divided into seven classes: Svarupa, Pratirupa, Bhutottama, Mahabhuta, Praticchanna, Akasabhuta (Dig.). The Tulasi-plant is their Caitya-tree. All Bhutas are black according to both the sects. According to Svetambara traditions there are nine classes of Bhutas: Surupa, Pratirupa, Atirupa, Bhutottama, Skanda, Mahaskanda, Mahavega, Praticchanna, Akasaga. They are said to be beautiful though black and are peaceful in appearance (saumya), adorned with paste marks of various motifs (bhakti-citra). Their flags bear the mark of a Sulasa tree. (3) Yaksas: According to the Tiloyapannatti, they are divided into 12 kinds: Manibhadra, Purnabhadra, Sailabhadra, Manobhadra, Bhadraka, Subhadra, Sarvabhadra, Manusa, Dhanapala, Sarupa, Yaksottama, and Manoharana. Their Caitya-tree is the Banyan tree. According to the Svetambaras, they are divided into 13 groups: Purnabhadra, Manibhadra, Svetabhadra, Haritabhadra, Sumanobhadra, Vyatipatikabhadra, Subhadra, Sarvatobhadra, Manusyapaksa, Vanaharas, Rupayaksa, Yaksottama, Vanadhipatis (Dhanadhipatis in Samgrahapi). They are beautiful to look at and possess well-proportioned limbs, serene in appearance, wearing shining Kiritamukutas, and other ornaments. Black in complexion, they have the Banyan-tree on their dhvajas.35 Purnabhadra and Manibhadra are their Indras according to both the sects. According to Tiloyapannatti, each Indra has four chief queens called Tara, Bahuputra, Kunda and Uttama. According to Svetambara traditions they are called Purna, Bahuputrika, Uttama and Taraka.36 (4) Raksasas: They are of seven classes according to the Tiloyapannatti: Bhima, Mahabhima, Vinayaka, Udaka, Raksasa, Raksasa-raksasa, and Brahmaraksasa. All Raksasas are black. Their Indras are Bhima and Mahabhima, having four chief queens each called Padma, Vasumitra, Ratnadhya and Kancanaprabha. Kantaka is the Caitya-tree of Raksasas. The Svetambaras also acknowledge seven classes, namely, Bhima, Mahabhima, Vighna, Vinayaka, Jala-raksasa, Raksasa-raksasa, Brahmaraksasa. Their Indras are Bhima and Mahabhima. The Raksasas are white, adorned with golden ornaments and having fierce appearances with long red lower lips. Their flags have the mark of Khatvanga.37 (5) Kinnaras: According to the Tiloyapannatti they are divided into nine classes: Kinnara, Kimpurusa, Hrdayangama, Rupapali, Kinnarkinnara, Anindita, Manorama, Kinnarottama and Ratipriya. They

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Notes on the Jaina Pantheon are all black. Asoka is the Caitya-tree of these gods. According to Svetambaras, they are of ten kinds: Kinnara, Kimpurusa, Kimpurusottama, Kinnarottama, Hsdayangama, Ropasali, Anindita, Manorama, Ratipriya, Ratisrestha.38 Black in complexion, they have especially charming faces, they wear crowns and have a peaceful appearance. Asoka tree is their flag mark.39 (6) Kimpurusas: They are of ten kinds, according to Tiloyapannatti: Purusa, Purusottama, Satpurusa, Mahapurusa, Purusaprabha, Atipurusa, Maru, Marudeva, Maruprabha and Yasasvan. Their two Indras are Satpurusa and Mahapurusa. All the Kimpurusas are golden in appearance. According to Svetambara tradition the Kimpurusas are of ten classes: Purusa, Satpurusa, Mahapurusa, Purusavssabha, Purusottama, Atipurusa, Mahadeva, Marut, Maruprabha and Yasasvan. White in complexion, these gods have very bright faces, especially beautiful hands and legs, and are adorned with various ornaments and marks of sandal paste.40 (7) Mahoragas: The Tiloyapannatti divides them into 10 classes: Bhujaga, Bhujangasali, Mahatanu, Atikaya, Skandhasali, Manohara, Asanijava, Mahesvara, Gambhira, Priyadarsana. The Mahoragas have dark complexion. The Naga-tree is their Caitya-tree. According to the Svetambaras, the 10 Mahoragas are: Bhuj ga, Bhogasali, Mahakaya, Atikaya, Skandhasali, Manorama, Mahavega, Mahayaksa, Merukanta, Bhasvanta. Blackish in appearance, they have broad and muscular shoulders and necks and are adorned with various ornaments and sandal paste marks. The Naga is the mark on their heralds. (8) Gandharvas: According to Tiloyapannatti, the ten Gandharvas are Haha, Huhu, Narada, Tumbara, Vasava, Kadamba, Mahasvara, Gitarati, Gitarasa, Vajravan. Golden in appearance, they have the Tumbaru tree as their Caitya-tree. According to Svetambara Samgrahani sutra, they are: Haha, Huhu, Tumburu, Narada, Rsivadika, Bhutavadika, Kadamba, Mahakadamba, Raivata, Visvavasu, Gitarati and Gitayasas. The Gandharvas are blackish and beautiful in appearance, have excellent physiognomy, sweet voices and are adorned with crowns and necklaces. The Tumbaru tree is their herald mark. Of the Vyantaras, there are eight more classes given by Prajnapana and other Sve. texts. They are: Anapanni, Panapanni, Isivai, Bhuyavai, Kandi, Mahakandi, Kohanda and Piyanga. Nothing more is known about these except their Indras. The Prajnapana describes the general appearance of all the Vanamantaras or Vyantaras. They are of an unsteady nature attached to dance and music, adorned with Vanamalas of various flowers, wearing garments of different colours, and used to taking different shapes and forms, smiling or laughing. They like love-quarrels and adorn their bodies with various ornaments such as the angada, kundala, karpapitha etc., and with marks of sandal pastes. They carry sword, mudgara (club), sakti (dart) and kunta (spear) in their hands. 41 III. The Jyotiskas According to both the sects the Jyotiskas42 are divided into five classes: suns, moons, planets, asterisms and miscellaneous stars. It is said that every moon has 88 planets. The naksatras are 28 in number. The planets are noteworthy in Jaina iconography. They are found in the parikara of a Jainaimage. IV. The Vaimanika Gods The Vaimanika gods and goddesses live in the various Kalpa and Kalpatita heavens, noted in the outline of Jaina cosmography. The Prajnapana43 gives symbols on the crowns of the different classes of gods:

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Vaimanika Gods44 Kalpa-Gods Symbol on Crowns (Sve.) Symbol on Crowns (Dig.) Boar Deer Buffalo Fish Frog Snake 1. Saudharma 2. Isana 3. Sanatkumara 4. Mahendra 5. Brahmaloka 6. Lantaka 7. Mahasukra 8. Sahasrara 9. Anata 10. Pranata 11. Arana 12. Acyuta Deer Buffalo Boar Lion Goat Frog Horse Elephant Snake Ganda-animal Bull A deer known as Vidima Goat Bull Wishing Tree Wishing Tree Wishing Tree Wishing Tree The Jaina texts give various other details regarding the Indras of various classes, their places, shrines, lokapalas, queens etc. The Tiloyapannatti gives an elaborate description of the Airavata elephant. The Jivajivabhigama describes the puja performed by Vijayadeva in the Siddhayatana, the 32 types of dances are noteworthy in the Raya pasen aiya. Similar puja is described in the Tiloyapannatti but the 32 varieties of dance are not detailed. Besides the above-mentioned gods, there are some gods and goddesses specifically named and described. Of this type are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, and Aparajita, belonging to the Vyantara class (?), superintendents of the four dvaras (gates) of the Jagati (rampart) of the Jambu-dvipa.45 4nadsta, a Vyantara, is the Lord of the Jambu-dvipa. Now a goddess Anahiye has been identified by this writer 46 with the Anahita-Anaitis, an Iranian goddess. This Anadhiya47 or Anahiya or Anadrta seems to be a male counterpart of Anahita-Anaitis, evolved at a later date. The different Dik-Kumaris, living on different kutas of Meru and Rucakadvipa, 56 in number are a group of goddesses which have a special function like the Indras, in the Birth ceremonies of a Jina and therefore get a place in Jaina art. They are the attendants (mahattarikas) of the Mother of a Jina. The list deserves critical study, since the Jainas seem to have given a place in this list to ancient popular or Vedic goddesses. Thus for example we find Vijaya, Nanda, lla, Aparajita, Bhadra, Plthvi, Ekanasa (Ekanamsa). Of such antiquity are the six goddesses known as Hlada-devis residing on the islands-continents on the six varsadhara mountains (Himavan and others); they are Sri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi and Laksmi. 48 Various gods and goddesses could be classified under one or the other of the sub-divisions of the above-mentioned four main classes. But with their store of merit exhausted, these gods and goddesses had to be reborn on this earth. They are not the highest objects of worship. They are mere celestial beings or Devas, but the Devadhidevas, Lords of even the celestial beings, objects of worship for all, are the Emancipated souls, the Siddhas and such Siddhas who during their life-time have founded a Tirtha, i.e. propagated Jaina Faith having established orders of sravakas, sravikas, sadhus and sadhvis. These are the highest objects of Jaina worship. Next to the Tirthankaras or Arhats and Siddhas are the other ascetic souls, the Jaina monks of three main grades of Acarya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu, these five constituting what are known as Parcanaramesphins, the Five Chief Divinities. These and the Salakapurusas or great souls have been discussed in separate chapters. This in essence is Hero-worship and as such Great souls both ascetic and non-ascetic came to be

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Notes on the Jaina Pantheon 61 especially revered. The Jaina classification of souls will be easily explained by a chart published by T.N. Ramachandran, which is copied and appended herewith. Lives of Great souls became the favourite theme of Jaina Puranas. Such great souls were the 24 Tirthaokaras +12 Cakravartins +9 Baladevas +9 Vasudevas = 54 Mahapurusas also called Salakapurusas by the Jainas. Every Vasudeva had a very powerful enemy who also came to be included as a Great soul and the total of Mahapurusas was raised to sixty-three. It may be noted that Silanka suri wrote his Caupanna-mahapurisacariyam in c. 925 v.s. (868 A.D.)49 which shows that upto the middle of the ninth century only 54 people were counted as Mahapurusas. Hemacandra (12th cent. A.D.) who wrote a Purana on these souls called it Trisastisalakapurusacarita, and included the 9 Prativasudevas as Great souls. But there were other Great souls. The Jainas also evolved a conception of Manus like the Manus of Hindu mythology and it is noteworthy that whereas the Digambaras believe in 14 Manus or Kulakaras, the Svetambaras have only seven. These are fundamentally the Great souls of Jaina Mythology and it is a mistake to count the 9 Naradas or the 11 Rudras as great souls or Salakapurusas. The Jainas who had to face Hindu opposition included at a very late date the conception of eleven Rudras, sometime in the middle ages, but the descriptions of the Rudras or the Naradas in the Jaina Puranas clearly demonstrate that their inclusion was effected only for the sake of popular appeal and with a desire to underrate them. Kamadeva or the Cupid was an object of worship and temples of Kamadevas existed in ancient India. The Jainas, too, evolved a list of Kamadevas, but their role was different. Behind the Jaina concept of a Kamadeva, it is his extremely beautiful person that was emphasised and he had not the powers of shooting arrows on young men and women. Bahubali, the great sage, was the first Kamadeva. It must be remembered, however, that in spite of this belief in non-ascetic great souls like the Cakravartins, the Baladevas, the Vasudevas and others, the Five Supreme Ones (Pancaparamesthins) alone remained the real objects of worship for the Jainas. For a sect or a religion to thrive amongst the people, local deities, popular deities, and deities acknowledged from ancient traditions by the masses have to be incorporated in every pantheon, in a manner suitable to the new environment and doctrines. Such for example was the worship of the deities whose shrines existed in the days of Mahavira, and whose images and festivals are referred to in the Agama literature. They include Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Mukunda, Vasudeva, Vaisramana, Yaksa, Bhuta, Naga, Pisaca, etc. Indra, the great Vedic deity, was assigned the role of a principal attendant by both Buddhism and Jainism and was made to serve the Buddha or the Jina. The other deities of the list did not originally belong to the pantheon of the Vedic priests and were rather deities of the populace, and of the various other non-Aryan tribes. Mahavira usually stayed in Yaksa shrines which shows that he had to accord a different generous treatment to such deities. Worship of such deities even by Jaina laywomen, for obtaining children, seems to have been tolerated. If Jaina traditions are correctly handed down, then Mahavira had to face bitter opposition from Sulapani Yaksa, i.e. from the followers of Siva who is well known as Sulapani, the trident-wielder 50 Skanda the Commander of Gods in the Hindu Mythology is made the commander of the infantry of Indra. But Naigamesin,51 who was associated with procreation of children as Nejamesa in ancient times, was also worshipped by the Jainas for obtaining boons for children as is shown by the story of Sulasa in the Antagadadasao. Vasudeva, originally possibly belonging to a heterodox cult, had to be given a very prominent place by the Hindus and the Jainas too made him a very favourite theme of their story literature. But with the rise of his position in Hindu literature, art and ritual or worship, an attempt was made to give him a place in Jaina art, in the Gupta age, though as an attendant, as can be seen from representation of Baladeva and Vasudeva on a sculpture of Adinatha in the Lucknow Museum. The practice does not seem to have lasted long. In the Kusana period we find Krsna-Vasudeva and Baladeva on two sides of Neminatha in sculptures from Mathura.

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana The Yaksas, Nagas and others had to be given a place in Jaina worship. Since the Buddhist representations of Jambhala and Hariti became very popular, they had to be incorporated in Jaina worship and towards the close of the Gupta age, a Yaksa and a Yaksini of the type of Jambhala and Hariti came to be incorporated as attendant pair of the Tirthankaras on Tirthankara sculpture. But before that the yaksas were included as attendant chowrie-bearers on the two sides of a standing or sitting Tirthankara. A hymn addressed to a snake-goddess Vairofya is ascribed to Arya Nandila or Arya Anandila who, according to traditions, lived in c. first century A.D. Vairotya is a snake-goddess and possibly connected with Jangoli-vijja or a charm against snake-poisoning. Belief in Yaksas and Nagas etc. is fairly old in Jainism and Dharanendra is a snake-deity one of whose chief queens is called Vairotya in the canons. With the rise of Padmavati sometime towards the close of the post-Gupta period, Vairotya lost her old great popularity. Vairotya is one of the sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas. Four more goddesses are very ancient in Jaina worship, though they have not been traced hitherto in sculptures. They are Vijaya, Jaya, Jayanta and Aparajita, invoked in the Varddhamana Vidya. It seems that these goddesses were worshipped under various names by all sects and have been invoked by the Jainas at least from the age of Vajrasvami in the first or second century.. The later Jaina Santi-devi is based on Vijaya as shown in the following pages. 62 Bahubali became popular in Jaina worship at least in the post-Gupta age, not as a Kamadeva (he is also a Kamadeva in Jaina literature) but as a great sage, the Jaina counterpart of the conception of Valmiki. It is noteworthy that not a single sculpture of Bahubali has been recovered hitherto from the Kankali Tila finds at Mathura. Belief in magic charms, as shown in an earlier paper in our discussion on the Vidyadevis, is very old and Vidyas existed even in the age of Mahavira and Buddha. The Paumacariya and the Vasudevahindi are our earliest sources for the different Vidya-devis like Rohini, Prajnapti, Saravastramahajvala, Gauri and Gandhari. Soon sixteen goddesses came to be regarded as the chief Vidyadevis (Mahavidyas) as can be traced in literature, though no early sculptures are traced hitherto. It is however very likely that representations dating from at least the post-Gupta age may be traced of these goddesses. Parents of the Jinas were accorded special veneration from very early times and the figure representing the Tablet of Aryavati from Mathura seems to have represented the Mother of Mahavira. The scripture (Sruta) was not forgotten by the Jainas and the Goddess of Learning was venerated from very early times, as can be inferred from the famous sculpture of Sarasvati from Kankali Tila which is the earliest known sculpture of the Goddess of Learning, discovered hitherto in India. Sri figures on an arch of a doorway in the Ananta-Gumpha in Orissa and is a proof that from ancient times the Jainas worshipped both the goddess of learning as well as the goddess of wealth. It is highly probable that at a very early stage, the Jainas also worshipped images of the Sun-god,53 just as they included Indras, Sarasvati, Laksmi, Vasudeva, Baladeva and others in their pantheon. It is but natural to expect that the popularity of Sun-worship amongst the masses attracted the Jainas as well. The Jainas have from very early times taken interest in astronomy and amongst the oldest existing works showing the existence of astronomical speculations in ancient India are the Jaina Suryaprajnapti and the Jyotiskarandaka. Padalipta in the first or second century A.D. wrote a commentary on the Jyotiskarandaka, a manuscript of which was discovered by Muni Sri Punyavijayaji, a few years ago from Jesalmer. This shows the interest of the Jainas in Astronomy and we would not be wrong if we infer the existence of sun icons amongst the Jainas at Mathura in at least the Kusana age. Towards the close of the post-Gupta age, the growth of the pantheon obtained a further impetus and a separate yaksa and yaksini were evolved for each of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. This growth is due to several factors: one, the growth of Tantric literature in India, two, the growth of smaller states with great ambitions and the revival of Indian art and culture in the post-Gupta age after the Huna onslaught. Another factor was state-support to the Jainas in several provinces. All these factors combined led to further activity in art and literature and the new deities or old Indian deities in new roles appeared in due course. A glance at the list of attendant yaksas and yaksinis will show that some of them are Hindu

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No tes on the Jaina Pantheon 63 deities assigned the role of attendants of Tirthankaras, e.g. the Isvara yaksa, Brahma yaksa, Kumara yaksa, Sanmukha yaksa. As has been shown by Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharya,54 collective deities form an interesting feature of the Jaina Pantheon. Such deities are the eight Vasus, the twelve Adityas, the eleven Rudras in Hindu mythology or the eight Taras of the Vajratara Mandala and so on in Buddhist pantheon. The Dikkumaris in Jainism, already mentioned, are group deities. Another class of ancient Jaina collective deities is the Lokantika gods who like the Indra and the Dik-kumaris are assigned a special role in the life of a Jina. When the proper time for renunciation is ripe, they approach the would-be Tirthankara and inform him accordingly, and request him to renounce the worldly life for the benefit of the world. No. J.354 in the Lucknow Museum obtained from Mathura possibly represents the Lokantikas in an early Jaina Jataka scene of the incident of the Dance of Nilanjana which led to the renunciation by Rsabhadeva. The Lokantikas are known to the canons and are said to reside in the krsparajis of the fifth kalpa-heaven called the Brahmaloka. They are: Sarasvatas, Adityas, Vahnis, Varunas, Gardatoyas, Tusitas, Avyabadhas, Agneyas (Maruts) and Ristas 55 It will be evident that most of these are Vedic deities and were given a place in the Brahma-loka" at a very early stage. Such an adoption is natural in the history of any sect and is almost inevitable. The conception of the Lokapalas is common to all sects and we hear of 4 Lokapalas of each of the different Indras, like the four great Maharajas of Buddhism. This conception was later evolved into ten quarter-guardians. The planets came to be worshipped in the post-Gupta age and they obtained a better position than the Dik palas in as much as they were given a place on the pitha of a Tirthankara image in Western India and on the stella of the Jina figure in the Pala art. The quarter-guardians began guarding the shrine standing on the outer-wall of the sanctum With the growth of the yaksas and yaksinis, worship of Vidyadevis seems to have received a setback from which it could not recover properly. The Ksetrapala was not forgotten and an early image assignable to c. 10th century is seen on a pillar in the Devgadh fort, Central India (Fig. 163). The Matrkas must have been incorporated in the post-Gupta age. At Delvada, Mt. Abu, the Vimala Vasahi contains representations of these goddesses but it is natural to expect that they were given a place in Jaina ritual at some earlier date.56 Jinaprabha suri (in the fourteenth century) recorded his protest against this growing worship of foreign deities, in his Vidhimargaprapa alias Suvihita-Samacari.57 A similar process worked in the South also amongst the Digambaras where many a Bhattaraka of the middle ages were originally Brahmin Pandits and where Saivite element was very strong amongst the people. In the South Brahmadeva became popular amongst the Jainas, in the North (properly Western India) Kaparddi (Siva)58 yaksa came to guard the Tirtha at Satrunjaya. Later on, at least in the fourteenth century, Ganesa also came to be worshipped in Jaina temples and occasionally the Mahi samarddini, images of both of which assignable to the fifteenth century are still available in Jaina shrines. That these images were originally installed by the Jainas can be proved by the fact that a painting of the Mahisasuramarddini is available in a palm-leaf ms. at Cambay.59A mutilated sculpture in Jodhpur Museum (no. 96/2386) from Rewada in Jodhpur division, showing lower part of Mahisamarddini, has an inscription on pedestal wherein she is called Saccika. There is a shrine of Saccika devi on a mound at Osia where as R.C. Agrawala has shown (Journ. of B.B.R.A.S., vol. 29, part 2) Mahisamarddini is worshipped by Oswal Jainas as Saccika-devi. Abstract deities are also obtained, the Santi-devata and the Adhiva sana devi invoked by the AcaraDinakara are instances of this process in the evolution of the Jaina Pantheon. But the same Jinaprabha suri who voiced his protest against foreign elements, had to give a list of 64 Yoginis, obviously because belief in Bhairavas, Viras and Yoginis had become widely current in India. The Vastu-Vidhi itself, the rite of consecration of a temple, is not free from such influences. Deities worshipped in the Ekasiti-pada-vastu are identical with those in such rituals of the Hindus. The signs of the Zodiac, or the Tithi-devatas were not left out though such deities are not known to have been

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana represented. As noted by Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharya, "the Dhyanas of the twelve signs of the Zodiac certainly have an originality special to the Jainas."60 64 The Jaina Pantheon and especially, the Jaina Tantra is influenced more by the Hindu pantheon and Tantra than by the Buddhist ones, but instances of Buddhist influence are not wanting. Vajrasrakhala and Vajrankusi, as their names and their chief recognising symbols suggest, are obviously borrowed from the Buddhists, for, as rightly remarked by Benoytosh Bhattacharya, "the prefix Vajra to the names of Jaina deities is not altogether meaningless, because it shows clearly that these are importations from the Vajrayana School of Buddhism."60a Again, Bhrkuti is Buddhist. Towards the end of the middle ages, attempts were made to introduce Kurukulla and a hymn addressed to her is known amongst the Jainas. 61 A clear indication of Hindu influence on the Jaina ritual is the various samskara-vidhis described by the Acara-Dinakara. The Sasthi worshipped in the Janma-samskara is of course a very old Indian goddess not necessarily originally Brahmanical. But the Matrka-pujana is certainly Hindu. Acara-Dinakara also invokes the eight Bhairavas. A brief outline of such very minor deities, the Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Pantheon, was published earlier62 by this writer. Ghantakarna,63 originally an old non-Aryan deity, was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon as one of the gas 54 and the Jainas comparatively recently attempted to introduce his worship. Late manuscripts of Ghantakarpakalpa are obtained in Gujarat and Marwar. Manibhadra65 is a deity who has been worshipped more popularly in Jaina temples in Western India, Gujarat, Marwar, and Rajputana and though no definite early text regarding his legend could be traced, yet it seems that his worship as a Jaina deity is as old as the fourteenth or fifteenth century and probably older. It is a peculiar instance of reviving in new garb the worship of the ancient Manibhadra yaksa, popular with merchant class. It also suggests that a few worshippers and images or shrines of the old Manibhadra had existed in these regions upto c. 1200-1400 A.D. Symbol worship amongst the Jainas is treated separately, 66 and need not be discussed in this outline of the growth of the Jaina Pantheon along with its classification. Dvarapalas of temples or gate-keepers of the various fortifications of the Samavasarana are interesting. Nowhere are Ganga and Yamuna mentioned as gate-keepers of a Jaina shrine, but Indra, Indrajaya and Isana are noteworthy. In the Samavasarana, Tumbaru is one of the gate-keepers. Indra and others, the dvarapalas carved on door-frames facing the four sides of a Jaina shrine, are noted by Silpa works like the Aparajitaprecha, the Rupavatira or the Devatamurti-prakarapa. Goddesses were worshipped as Gotra-devatas or Kuladevatas. A metal image of Ambika in the Museum of the St. Xavier's College Research Institute, Bombay, has an inscription on its back which calls her a Gotra-devata obviously of the donor. Similarly, in the South, Padmavati and Siddhayika are known as Gotra-devatas or Kula-devatas of certain families. Sri-Laksmi is worshipped as a Kula-devata by Hindu and Jaina families who are Srimalis by caste, having come from Srimala (modern Bhinmala in Rajasthan) where Sri seems to have been the tutelary city-goddess. Of later Tantric development the Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa of Mallisena and the commentary of Bandhusena, or the Vidyanusasana of Matisagara (c. 16th century A.D.) provide interesting examples. The Tantric Sat-karmas are available in the Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa and amongst the different forms of Padmavati, Tripura is included. The Vidyanusasana gives iconographic forms of all the letters of the alphabet, a, a, i, i, etc. and includes sadhanas of Karnapisacini, Cetaka or Uma-cetaka, Sugriva-Vanararaja, Ucchistapisasini, Sundari, Randa, Matangi and propitiatory rites of Balagrahas, the Jvalagardabhas (?) and so on. A work on Balagrahas is ascribed to Ravana, another to the famous Jaina versatile genius and monk Pujyapada acarya, both of which are incorporated in this monumental Tantric text. Subhacandra's unpublished Ambika-kalpa (c. 15th-16th century A.D.) also contains sadhanas of Karnapisacini, Sundari and Randa who are thus included in the Parivara of Ambika. Somasena, another Digambara writer of c. 16th century A.D., has composed a work, Traivarnikacara which betrays much Brahmanical influence. It may be noted that he gives a new classification of Jaina gods and goddesses. According to him, deities are of four types: Satyadevas, Kula-devas, Kriya-devas and Vesma-devas. The Satyadevas are the Panca-paramesthins, who lead to the attainment of moksa. The Kriya-devas

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Notes on the Jaina Pantheon 65 are deities like fire, who, worshipped with oblations of havya, baked food etc., remove all calamities. The Kuladevatas are divinities worshipped in families from ancient times. Cakresvari, Ambika or Kusmandini, Padmavati, Jvalini, Rohini, Mahakali, Kalika, Sarasvati, Gauri, Siddhayini, Candi, and Durga are (such) Kula devatas who should be worshipped with profound devotion by those desirous of welfare. The Vesmadevatas are of four types: the Visvesvaris, Dharadhisa, Sri-devi, and Dhanada or Kubera. The Visvesvaris are the Mothers of the Jinas who should be worshipped by the best ladies in their homes. By worship of the mothers, a housewife, who is barren, is able to bear a child. These Sat-kriya-devatas (Visvesvaris) worshipped with homa for peace (santi) are powerful. Worship of Kubera in a home is said to bring eternal prosperity while worship of the Dhara-Indra (?) is enjoined for having a male child. Worship of Sri-devi protects the life of a child in the mother's womb. They should be worshipped with garments, ornaments, fruits and cooked food. The author further says that at the end of the worship of all the above-mentioned deities, a housewife should worship the dvarapalas and should perform Pitr-Tarpana with water. 67 With this may be compared the ancient Jaina classification of gods given to Gautama by Mahavira in two dialogues recorded in the Bhagavati-sutra. In one answer, Mahavira said that gods were of four classes: Bhavanapati, Vanavyantara, Jyotiska and Vaimanika.68 In another dialogue, Mahavira said that gods were of five types: Bhavyadravya-deva, Naradeva, Dharma-deva, Devadhideva and Bhavadeva. 69 Those souls who are going to obtain Devahood in future are Bhavyadravyadevas. Those who deserve god-like respect amongst human beings are Naradevas, e.g. the Cakravartins. Those who are well-versed in scripture are revered as Dharma-devas, e.g. the different types of Jaina monks. The Devadhidevas are the Arhats who possess the real jnana and darsana. Those who experience the merit (karma-fruit of action) of birth as Bhavanapatis, Vyantaras, Jyotiskas or Vaimanikas, are Bhavadevas. It has already been shown that these celestial beings, the Bhavanapatis etc., are divided into ten groups according to their position and function amongst gods, the groups are Indra, Samanika, Trayastrimsas, Parisadyas, Atmaraksakas, Lokapalas, Anikas, Prakirnakas, Abhiyogyas and Kilbisakas. There are no grades nor Indras amongst Vaimanika gods beyond the Kalpa-heavens, in the Kalpatita heavens, where each inhabitant calls himself an Indra and all are alike. They are therefore known as Ahamindras. The Kalpavasi gods attend the ceremonial worship of each of the five Kalyanakas (auspicious events) of every Tirthankara but the Ahamindras do not go out of their heavens, though they do pay their homage to the Jinas on all such occasions by folding their hands in the anjali mudra. A deva is spontaneously born. In each heaven there are many devis, each deva having many wives. Each pair of deva has a big retinue of minor devas, as also vahanas. elephants etc. Devas or celestial beings have the following eight acquisitions or supernatural powers: anima, laghima, sakabha (power to assume any form and number of bodies at one time), vasitva, isitva and prakamya (power to act at will), corresponding to such powers described in the Yoga system. The devas have fluid or changeable (vaikriya) bodies. 70 Jaina texts describe the lesyas of each main class of gods and of different types of beings. The doctrine of lesyas or thought-colours is an interesting advancement shown by the Jainas, from ancient times, in the field of psychic research and culture.71 REFERENCES 1. For a detailed account of Jaina Cosmography, see Kierfel's Die Kosmographie Der Inder, pp. 210ff. This account is mainly based on Trisasi., 2.3.479ff, G.O.S. II, pp. 1051f. 2. For Jaina Units of Measurements, see Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparutrikungam and its Temples, pp. 165ft. Trisasi., I (G.O.S.), p. 103, n. 3. Trisasti.. I (GOS), p. 245 n. Yogasastram, 4.103. Painted diagrams of the Lokapurusa dating from c. 16th century A.D. are available mainly in Mss. of the Samgrahani Sutra. Kierfel, op. cit., pl. 4. U.P. Shah, Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras, Fig. 93, Jaina Citrakal. padruma, I. Fig. 73. Quite a large number of illustrated Mss. of Samgrahani are available in Jaina Bhandaras,

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66 mostly dating from c. 16th century A.D. An illustrated ms of Trailokyadipaka exists in the Dig. Jaina Bhandara, Bombay. Besides miniatures in such texts on Cosmography, are found pafas or paintings on canvas or paper, with diagrams of the Jaina conception of the Universe or of the two-and-a-half continents (adhai-dvipa) constituting the manusya-loka. See Kierfel, op. cit., plates 5-6. The practice of painting such pacas is referred to by Santicandra in his comm. on Jambudvi paprajnapri, sutra 12, p. 72. For some more illustrations of the Samgrahani, see Jaina Citrakalpadruma, I, Figs. 269-271, 273-278 and pp. 95ff. Also see Caillat Collettee, Jaina Cosmology (in French and in English, Paris, 1982). Cf. kaTisthakaravaMzAkhasthAnakasthanarAkRtiH / / dravyaH pUrNaH sa tu loka: sthityutpattivyayAtmakaH // "-Trisasti., 2.3.478 Also vaizAyasthaH kaTinyastahastaH syAdyAdRzaH pumAn / argui TRENT ..... ... -Adipurana, 4.42 4. Also see Tiloyapannatti, 1.137ff, vol. I, pp. 17ff. Cf. venAsanasamo'dhastAnmadhyato jhallarInibhaH / agrema rajasaMkAzo lokaH syAdevamAkRtiH / / jagattrayestvadhastiyaMgurvalokavibhedataH / astirya gUrvabhAvo rucakApekSayA punaH // -Trisasti., 2.3.479, 481 5. Bhagavati sutra, 1.6, Tattvartha sutra, III 1-2; Tiloya pannatti, 2.9ff, Vol. I, pp. 52ff. Trisasri (text), 2.3.484, 486-502. 6. Tiloyapannatti, 1.152ff, 2.26f, 362f. 7. Tattvartha sutra, 3.9-11, pp. 143ff. Trisasi. (text) 2.3. 552-566, Adipurina, 4.49, Harivamsa of Jinasena, 5.4-7; Jainendra Siddhantakosa, pp. 460-462. 8. Also see tables in Kierfel, op. cit., pp. 215, 218, Tiloyapannatti, 4.1624ff, Vol. I, pp. 355ff. For Hindu traditions, Ali, S.M., Geography of the Puranas (New Delhi, 1973), p. 10ff. 9. Tiloyapannatti, 4.2065ff, pp. 408ff. Trisasti., 2.3.577ff. 10. For names see Trisasti. II (G.O.S.), p. 112. 11. Trisasi. II (GOS), p. 119 for a list of Mlecchas. 12. For a detailed account of Aryas and Mlecchas, see Ramachandran, op. cit., 176-179. 13. For a list of Vidyadhara cities, Kierfel, op. cit., p. 329. Jambudvi paprajnapti, sutra 12, p. 72f; Tiloyapannatti, 4.112-125, vol. I, p. 156. 14. Trisasri, text, 2.3.556-566, GOS, op. cit., pp. 109ff; Tilo yapannati, 4.1808ff. 15. Tiloyapan arti, 4.15-87, pp. 143ff. For interesting descriptions of the Jagati, the Padmavaravedika, the four gates, the god Vijaya superintending over the Vijaya-gate, etc. see Jivajivabhigama, su. 124ff, pp. 177ff, Trisasti., II, GOS, p. 113, Trisasti text, 2.3.612ff. 16. Tiloyapannatti, 4.45ff, pp. 1477; p. 151. 17. Tiloyapamatti, 4.25ff, pp. 145ff; p. 151. 18. Harivamsa, 5.181, p. 84, Jambudvi paprajnapti, op. cit., Vasudevahindi, pp. 25-26, Tiloyapannatti, 5.3748, Vol. II, p. 535. He is the same as anadhi ya, worshipped in the Vardhamana-vidya. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 19. Jambudvipaprajnapri, su. 12-13, pp. 72ff. The Siddhaya tanas and the Sasvata-Jina-pratimas are discussed in Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 40, 52ff, 117-121. 20. Harivamsa, pp. 647-680, 122-24; Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 181; Kierfel, op. cit., pp. 253ff. Trisasi., 2-3.704-738, II, GOS, pp. 120ff. Also see Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, on Nandisvaradvipa. 21. Jivajivabhigama sutra, 3.2, su, 183, p. 356, for an early account of the Nandisvara-dvipa. Patas or plaques representing the 52 shrines on the Nandisvara are very popular amongst both the sects. The Digambaras represent 52 small figures of the Jinas (suggesting 52 shrines) on a four-tiered platform or in a miniature shrine, both the types being four-faced (sce Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 181 and pl. xxxi, figs. 3-4). The Svetambaras represent 52 miniature shines in tr oups of 13 each, arranged in different ways. A beautiful plaque from Ranakpur was discussed in JISOA, IX (1941), p. 48, pl. V, by this writer. Also see U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 11988, fig. 89. 23. Jambudvipaprajnapti, sutras 172-173. 24. For example, the inter-continental mlecchas are Ekoru, Hayakarna, Gajakarna, Gokarna, Saskuli-karpa, Mesamukha, Hayamukha etc., the Karmabhumija mlecchas are Saka, Yavana, Sabara, Barbara, Kaya, Mur. unda, Udra, Godra, Arapaka, Huna, Romaka, Bhilla, Pulinda, etc. The lists vary in some texts. See Prajnapana sutra for a list of mlecchas; also, Ramachandran, op. cit., pp. 176-77, Trisasi., II (GOS), pp. 119ff. 25. Trilokasara, verses 687ff. Trisasi., II (GOS), p. 112. Trilokasara, vv. 711ff give a list of countries in the Arya ksetras of Bharata land; also see Trisasti., op. cit., p. 117. Trisasi text, 2.3.750-79, Jainendra-Siddhanta Kosa, vol. 4, pp. 511-38. 26. Ramachandran, op. cit., p. 184. In Kalpasutra minia tures, the nirvana of a Jina is usually represented by showing him sitting in padmasana on the Siddhasila, white and shaped like an inverted umbrella (or a crescent moon). 27. Sthananga sutra, 4.1, su, 257, vol. I, p. 198, Jivojivabhi gama sutra, 3.1, su. 114ff, pp. 158ff. 28. Tiloyapannatti, 3.9-10, 119ff, vol. I, pp. 111, 126ff, Jivajivabhigama sutra, op. cit. 29. Prajnapana sutra, pada 2, su. 37, vol. I, p. 283; Brhatsamgrahani of Jinabhadra Gani Ksamasramana, vy. 44ff and in the Samgrahani sutra, v. 25. See Kierfel, Kosmographie der inder, Section on Jaina Cosmography. 30. Sthananga, 10.3, su. 766. Kierfel, op. cit., p. 264. | 31. See Prajnapana si tra, pada 2, su. 27, Vol. 1, pp. 267ff and Jivajivabhigama, comm. on su. 117, pp. 161-165. 32. For Sixty-Four Indras, see JOI, 34, nos. 1-2, pp. 41ff. | See Praj ma and sutra, op. cit., su. 32f. pp. 274T. 33. Malayagiri's comm. on Brhatsamgrahani of Jinabhadra, p. 3 saystathA vividhamantaraM banAntaramAdikamAzrayarUpaM yeSAM tebyantarAH, tathA hi teSu teSu vanAntareSu gholAntareSu kandarAntareSu ca prativasantati suprasiddha

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Notes on the Jaina Pantheon 67 For Vyantaras, see Brhatsamgrahani, v. 58ff, pp. 28/7, v. 163, p. 73; Tiloyapannatti, 6.44ff, Vol. II, pp. 647ff. Kierfel, op. cit., pp. 270ff. 34. Samgrahani sutra, comm. on v. 30, also see v. 32. 35. Samgrahani sutra, comm. on v. 30, also see v. 32. 36. It is indeed very interesting to note that both Tara (Taraka) and Bahuputrika (Bahuputra) were from ancient times regarded as queens of Indras of Yaksas, i.e. they were Yaksis. It shows that the origin of Tara as well as Bahuputrika (or Hariti) lies in the ancient Yaksa cult. 37. Samgrahani sutra, comm. of Devabhadra on v. 30. 38, Prajnapata sutra, su. 38, comm. on p. 70. 39. Samgrahani satra, op. cit. 40. Ibid. 41. Prajnapana sutra, pada 2, su. 38. For tables regarding the Vyantaras (and gods of the other classes) see Kierfel, op. cit., pp. 27281". The following description of the palaces of Vyantara gods may be noted: mAlAvalokadalyAdyAH prekSAsanasabhAgRhAH / vINAga latAcitraprasAdhanamahAgRhAH // mohanasthAnasaMjJAzca ramyA ratnamayA gRhAH / sarvatastatra zobhante vyantarAmarasevitAH / / haMsakaucAsanamuNDa mRgendramakarAsanaH / Fifth di: arieta: 11 dIrghasvastikavRttastavipulendrAsanairapi / gandhAsanaizca ratnADhya yuktAH suramanoramaiH / / -Harivamsa, 5.383ff, p. 101 42. Tilo yapannatti, chp. VII, Vol. II, pp. 657ff. Prajnapana, su. 50. 43. Prajnopana sutra, pada 2, su. 51. 44. Tiloyapannatti, Vol. II, pp. 1033ff Table; also see p. 1032 Table of Kalpatita gods; chp. VIII, Ep. 832ff for text. For all Vaimanikas see Kierfel, op. cit., pp. 291ff. 45. Harivamsa, 5.390ff, pp. 101f; Jivajivabhigama, su. 128 129, pp. 201ff 46. Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature, by U.P. Shah, Indian Historical Quarterly, Sept. 1951. 47. Jambudvi paprajnapti, 4, Su. 90, vol. I, pp. 330ff calls him Apadhiya. 48. Dik-Kumaris, Hrada-Devis and such other minor deities are treated by U.P. Shah in a series of articles entitled Minor Jaina Deities, published in Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. XXXI, no. 3. pp. 275-290; Vol. XXX, no. 4, pp. 371-378: Vol. XXXII. nos. 1-2, pp. 82-98; and Journal of the M.S. Univ. of Euroda, Vol. XXX, no. 1, pp. 75-109 dealing with iconography of Some Minor Jaina Deities. Matrkas and Dik palas. 49. Jaina Sahityano Samk sipta Irihisa (Guj.), pp. 18117. For illustrations and discussion about an ancient painted wooden book-cover of a palm-leaf ms. at Jesalmer, see U.P. Shah & Muni Punyavijaya, Some Painted Wooden Book-Covers from Western India, Journ. of Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, Vol. 1. 50. Also cf. the story of Pedbala, Avakyaka Carni, vol. II, p. 17518. 51. Discussed by us in JISOA, XIX, pp. 19ff. 52. Shah, U.P., Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavid yas, JISOA, Vol. XV (1947), pp. 114ff and plates: and A Peep into the Early History of Tantra in Jaina Literature, publ. in Bharatakaumudi, Vol. II, pp. 839-854. 53. Smith, Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities from Mathura, pl. xxxi, fig. 1 shows a carved pediment with a figure of two-armed sun-god in a Caitya-window motif. 54. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, Jaina Iconography- A Brief Survey', Shree Atmaramji Satabdi Grantha. pp. 114-121. 55. Bhagavati Satra, 6.5. Tiloyapannatti. 8.616ff, Vol. II, pp. 859f. 56. For Matkas at Abu, see Shah, U.P., Some Minor Jaina Deities-- Matykas and Dikpalas, Journal of the M.S. Univ. of Baroda, vol. XXX.1 (1981), pp. 75-109 and plates. 57. taTA kajjArambha viNAyagAinAmaggaddaNaM...."vivAhe viNAyagaThavaNaM Osta Alvi ...Tigo aftan .....aau devayANapUyA'... ' ' imAe micchattaThANAI parihariyambAI / / --Vidhimargaprapa, p. 3 It is interesting to note that the Acara-Dinakara prescri. bes Vinayaka-puja, Saszhi-puja, Matrka-puja, Mula aslesa-santi etc., prohibited by Jina prabha suri. 58. S. Settar, The Brahmadeva Pillars, Artibus Asiae, XXXIII, 1-2, Shah, U.P., Brahma-Santi and Kaparddi Yaksas, Journal of the M.S. Univ. of Baroda. Vol. VII, no. 1 (1958), pp. 5971. 59. Published in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 71. Also see Agrawala, R.C., TTSTEST # Theat TFT, publ. in Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskar, XXI.1, pp. 1-5. Also see M.N.P. Tiwari, Some Unpublished Jaina Sculptures of Ganesa from Western India, Jaina Journal, January, 1975, pp. 90-92 and plates. Dhaky, M.A. in Babu Chhorelal Jaina Smrti Grantha (Calcutta, 1967), The Iconography of Sacciya Deri, pp. 63ff, has shown that very probably originally the Saccika was derived from the Hindu goddess Ksemankari. 60. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, Jaina Iconography- A Brief Survey, Shree Amaramji Satabdi Grantha. pp. 114-121. 60a. Ibid. 61. Jaina Stotra Santuccaya (publ. Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay) contains a Kurukulla-Stavana by Vadideva suri. 62. In Acarya Anandshankar Dhruva Memorial Volume, part III (Ahmedabad, 1946). 63. Shah, U.P., Minor Jaina Deities. Journal of the Oriental Institute, vol. XXXII, nos. 1-2, pp. 95-96. For other Minor Jaina Deities, see Shah, U.P., Minor Jaina Deities, Journal of 0.I., Vol. XXXI.3, pp. 274ff and XXXI.4, 371ff. 64. According to Vyadi quoted by Hemacandra in his comm. on Abhidhana-Cintamani, 2-114. p. 89. 65. Shah, U.P., Minor Jaina Deities, JOI, Vol. XXXII, pp. 82-98, esp. pp. 97-98. 66. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 39-121. Also chp. on Canons and Symbols of Jaina Iconograph, in Jaina Art and Architecture (ed. by A. Ghosh, New Delhi, 1975), Vol. III, chp. 35, pp. 465-493.

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68 67. Traivarnikacara, adh. 4, vv. 209-213, and end of chp. 5. For a criticism of this work see Grantha-Pariksa (Hindi), part III, by Jugalkishore Mukhtar. 68. Bhagavati-sutra, 2.7. 69. Ibid., 12-9, also Sthananga, 5.1, su. 401 and comm., Vol. II, p. 302. Uttaradhyayana sutra, 36, 203-247, SBE, XLV, pp. 225ff. Varangacarita (Dig.), chp. 9, pp. 73ff. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 70. Also see Tiruparuttikumram and its Temples, footnote on p. 228. 71. A very illuminating paper on the same contributed by A.N. Upadhye is published in the Proceedings of the Seventh All India Oriental Conference, Baroda. Jaini, Padmanabha, The Jaina Path of Purification, p. 114; Basham, A.L., History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas, p. 245.

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A. KULAKARAS The Brahmanical traditions give a list of fourteen Manus or law-givers, who are also known as propagators of mankind. The Jainas similarly acknowledge a set of first law-givers who flourished in the present Avasarpini Age (in the third division called susama-duhsama, when beings were born as twins and when the Wishing Trees (kalpa-vrksa) used to provide them with necessary food, light and other necessities of life). The age of the Kulakaras was a primitive one, when arts and sciences were not known, and crime and punishment were in infancy.1 In course of time, the Wishing Trees failed to give proper service and man was obliged to protect himself against wild animals etc., and quarrels over properties arose. In difficulties such as these, man could approach the Kulakaras of his times for proper guidance, protection and dispensation of justice. Kulakaras were thus the first law-givers in Jainism.2 According to the Svetambaras, Rsabha, the first Tirthankara, was the last Kulakara, while according to the Digambaras, Nabhi, the Father of Rsabha, was the last law-giver. The Bhagavati, the Sthananga and the Samavayanga sutras and the Avasyaka Niryukti representing earlier Svetambara traditions, give a list of seven such law-givers of the present Avasarpini and are followed by later writers like Hemacandra.3 The Avasyaka Niryukti and the Acaradinakara further give the complexions of these Kulakaras. The Kala-Lokaprakasa gives different complexions. Below is given a table showing complexions of Kulakaras and names of their wives according to these texts: Svetambara List Kulakara 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. Caksusman 3. 4. Vimalavahana CHAPTER SIX Kulakaras and Salakapurusas Yasoman (Yasasvin) Abhicandra Prasenajit Marudeva Nabhi Wife Candrayasa Candrakanta Complexion acc. to Ava. Nir. and Aca. Di. Golden Black Black White Black Suropa Pratirupa Caksuhkanta Srikanta Marudevi (Wives of all the Kulakaras are black in complexion.) Golden Golden Colour acc. to Loka P. But the Jambudvipaprajnapti differs from other Agama texts by giving the following list of fifteen Kulakaras instead of the usual seven noted above: 1. Sumati, 2. Pratisruti, 3. Simankara, 4. Simandhara, 5. Ksemankara, 6. Ksemandhara, 7. Vimalavahana, 8. Caksusman. 9. Yasasvin, 10. Abhicandra, 11. Candrabha, 12. Prasenajit, 13. Marudeva, 14. Nabhi, 15. Rsabha. Golden Golden Golden Black Golden Golden Golden

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana The Paumacariyam of Vimala suri, assignable to c. fifth century A.D., regarded as a work of their sect by the Svetambaras, gives a list of fourteen Kulakaras, omitting the last one (Rsabhanatha) from the above list. The text generally follows the same order, with slight changes. In this list, the name of Yasasvin is omitted which shows that a verse, before the names of Vimalavahana and the rest in v. 55, has fallen out from fater manuscripts, which inference is supported by the order in the Digambara Padmacarita. In v. 56, the author of the Paumacariyam expressly says that there were fourteen Kulakaras. Curiously enough, this Svetambara belief obtains support in the Digambara tradition which gives a list of fourteen law-givers. The Tiloyapannatti gives the following details useful for our subject: Complexion Golden Name 1. Pratisruti Sanmati Ksemankara 4. Ksemandhara Simankara Simandhara 7. Vimalavahana Caksusman Yasasvin 10. Abhicandra Candrabha Marudeva Prasenajit 14. Nabhiraja (?) Golden Wife Svayamprabha Yasasvati Sunanda Vimala Manohari Yasodhara Sumati Dharini Kantamala Srimati Prabhavati Satya Amitamati Marudevi 13. The Adipurana however adds that Rsabha, the son of Nabhi, was both a Jina and a Kulakara, and that Bharata, the son of Rsabhanatha, was both a Cakradhrt and a Kuladhst. It would thus seem that the author wants to raise the number of Kulakaras from 14 to 16. Varangacarita10 explicitly says that there were sixteen Manus, and gives a similar list. They are called Vamsakaras or propagators of race and Bhumipalas or Kings and law-givers. The above analysis show's that there are two distinct traditions in Svetambara literature and that the second one recorded by Jainbudvipaprajnapti and the Paumacariyam is followed by the Digambaras. But the names given in the shorter list are common to both the traditions. Jinabhadra gani ksamasramana was aware of both the traditions amongst the Svetambaras and made unconvincing attempt to explain away the obvious contradictions. Santicandra, the commentator of the Jambudvipaprajnapti, also made another attempt.11 This analysis is a pointer to the fact that some of the Digambara traditions, though recorded in works later than the Svetainbara Agamas, are based upon older sources not always known to us. The Sthi nanga sutra 12 further gives lists of seven Kulakaras of the Past Utsarpini, ten of the Past Avasarpini, seven of the Future Utsarpini and ten of the Future Avasarpini. Representations of Kulakaras have not been discovered, but looking to the popularity of the conception there are hopes that they may be discovered at a future date, either in a group or separately though the latter is less likely. There is however a class of sculptures showing a male and a female sitting under a tree, with a child usually on the female's lap, which has not been satisfactorily identified so far. They are discussed separately in this work as Parents of the Tirthankaras where it is shown that the presence of a bull symbol in one and of an attendant Yaksa couple in another specimen points to their being sculptures of Parents of different Jinas rather than the Kulakaras sitting under a Kalpavsksa. The Kumbharia panel with names of Parents further supports our view. The Kelpavrksas of Jaina ryti:clogy may however be noted since we find them mentioned in accounts

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71 Kulakaras and Salakapurusas of the Kulakaras. The Tiloyapannatti gives the following list: Pananga (Pananga), Turiyanga (Turyanga), Bhusananga (Bhusananga), Vatthanga (Vastranga), Bhoyanga (Bhojananga), Alayanga (Alayanga), Diviyanga (Dipakanga), Bhayananga (Bhajanaoga), Malanga (Malanga), Tejarga (Tejanga) with excellent drinks, music, ornaments, garments, edibles and ready-made dishes, mansions to live in, lamps, utensils and garlands of flowers respectively while the last type, namely Tejanga, seems to be selfluminous, serving the purpose of heavenly luminaries. 13 The Paumacariyam gives a similar list with slightly different titles but signifying the same characteristics of these Wish-fulfilling trees. 14 The Sthananga sutra 15 gives the following names: Mattangata (Mattanga), Bhiyanga (Bhstanga), Tuditanga (Trutitanga), Divanga (Dipanga), Joti-anga (Jyotisanga), Cittanga (Chitranga), Cittarasa (Chitrarasah), Maniyanga (Manianga), Gehagara (Gehakara), Anitana or Anianga (Anagnaka). The Jivajivabhigama sutra elaborately describes the functions of each of the types of wishing trees mentioned above. Thus they provide the Yugalikas (twin-born) with wives and intoxicants, utensils, music and musical instruments, (serve the purpose of) small lamps, (also of the bigger) heavenly luminaries, (and supply people with) garlands, edibles, riches and ornaments, mansions and residential quarters, and garments to cover the privy). It would be interesting to note that sculpture of the Surga age, especially Bharhut and Sanchi, shows representations of this type of Kalpavsksa motif. Garlands, ornaments etc. hung from creepers are found depicted in several specimens. Sri Sivaramamurti has referred to such specimens, in another context, in his work entitled Sculpture Inspired by Kalidasa, 16 and has referred to descriptions of such motifs in his essay. The consensus of opinion does not agree with his dating of Kalidasa in the first century B.C., but the evidences collected by him help us now to conclude that the motifs remained popular upto the fifth century A.D., which again is the age of the latest edition of the Sve. Jaina canon. The descriptions of the Kalpaviksas, however, are so detailed that we are inclined to regard them as older than the age of Kalidasa and it would not be wholly unwarranted if we regard them at least as old as the first two centuries of the Christian era if not as old as the first or second century B.C. As shown by Moticandra, 17 the Riyapasenaiya gives a very realistic description of the Jaina stupas of the Kusana Age. This description of the Kalpa trees is another evidence to show that most of the available Anga and Upanga text portions are not later than the age of Arya Skandila of the Mathura council in early fourth century A.D. Belief in the Kulakaras, which is closely associated with the descriptions of the Primitive Man and the Kalpaviksas, is also not later than the fourth century A.D. It is difficult to fix up an upper limit for the tradition. 18 B. SALAKAPURUSAS The Jaina conception and evolution of the Salakapurusas has been discussed in the Chapter on Notes on the Jaina Pantheon giving classifications of Jaina deities. Salakapurusas are 63 according to both the sects. As shown before, in the earlier stage there were only 54 Salakapurusas and the nine Prati-Vasudevas came to be regarded as such great men only at a later stage. The following pages will give an account of the twelve Cakravartis, the nine Vasudevas, the nine Baladevas and the nine Prati-Vasudevas, only so far as it concerns our study. Details about their lives are not within the scope of this work. The Naradas. the Rudras, or the Kamadevas, excepting only Bahubali, the first Kamadeva, are minor deities and except Bahubali, have no place in Jaina temple worship, nor are they regarded as Salakapurusas. Representations of some scenes of Cakravartin's conquests and of fights between Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva were carved in relief on some Jaina temple walls of the mediaeval period but these require a special study. Unfortunately this writer could not do so. However such scenes, especially from the Jaina versions of the Ramayana, are found on walls of Jaina temples in Western India. The whole story of Bharata and Bahubali is depicted in the dome of the porch in front of the sabhimandapa of the Vimala Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. Recently a set of two long painted wooden book-covers of a palm-leaf manuscript, assignable to the

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72 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana thirteenth century A.D., are found by Muni Silavijaya. The paintings depict, in a continuous narrative, scenes from the previous births and the life of Tirthadkara Santinatha who also was a Cakravartin. In this narration Anantavirya Vasudeva and Damitari Prati-Vasudeva and Aparajita Baladeva are painted. Two wooden book-covers of a palm-leaf ms. in the Jaina Bhandara at Jesalmer contain representations of all the 63 Salakapurusas. They date from the twelfth century A.D. and are discussed with illustrations by Muni Punyavijaya and U.P. Shah in Some Painted Wooden Book Covers from Western India, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (New Series), Vol. I, Special No. on Western Indian Art, pp. 34-44 and plates. Twelve Cakravartins Cakravartins are Universal Monarchs or World Conquerors. The Jaina Puranas give a list of twelve such Cakravartins who flourished in this Avasarpini. 19 Golden in complexion, they all belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. The first amongst them was Bharata, the son of Rsabhanatha, who gave his name to this land, which is called Bharata-bhumi or Bharata.20 His chief queen was Subhadra. Sagara, the son of Sumitra and Yasomati of Ayodhya, and a contemporary of Ajitanatha, was the second Cakravarti. Bhadra was the queen.21 Maghava, the third, was the son of Samudravijaya and Bhadra and ruled from Sravasti in the interval between the fifteenth and the sixteenth Tirtha karas. Jaya was the queen. Sanatkumara, the fourth, was born in Hastinapura to Asvasena and his wife Sahadevi in the same interval. Vijaya was the queen.22 The three Tirthankaras, namely, Santinatha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha, were the fifth, sixth and seventh Cakravartins respectively.23 The eighth, Subhuma, lived in Hastinapura and was the son of Kstavirya and Tara. The queen was Padmasri. Jaina accounts give a different version of the Hindu mythology of Parasurama. King Anantavirya of Hastinapura was the grandfather of Subhumna. The queen of Anantavirya was a sister of Renuka, the wife of Jamadagni. Once Jamadagni gave Renuka a bambhanacaru and her sister a khuttiyacaru to eat but the two sisters exchanged their dishes. Renuka gave birth to Rama and her sister to Klavirya. Rama killed Anantavirya and gave the throne to Klavirya but later on killed the latter also. Subhuma, the son of K stavirya, took revenge on Rama who was a Brahmana and slew him and was satisfied after slaying Brahmanas of the earth twenty-one times.24 The next Cakravarti was Mahapadma or Padma, son of Padmottara and Jvala who lived with his queen Vasundhara in the city of Varanasi. The tenth, Harisena, son of Mera and Mahahari, lived in Kampilya in the interval between Munisuvrata and Naminatha. Devi was his chief queen. The eleventh Universal Monarch was Jaya or Jayasena, son of Vijaya and Vapra, who reigned with his queen Laksmivati from Rajagrha in the interval between Naminatha and Neminatha. The last Cakravartin of this Avasarpini age was Brahmadatta, the son of Brahma by Culani, who ruled from Kampilya with his queen Kusumavati in the interval between Neminatha and Parsvanatha. He had alliances with the king Diha of Kosala, Kada ya of Kasi, Kanerudatta of Gajapura and Pupphacula of Campa. After Bambha's death, king Diha (Dirgha) is said to have managed the affairs of the kingdom of Kampillapura. Later on a battle ensued between Brahmadatta and Diha in which the former killed the latter. References to Brahmadatta in Hindu and Buddhist literatures suggest the possibility of Brahmadatta being a historical personage. 25 The mother of a Cakravartin sees some dreams at the time of conception. According to the Adipurana, Bharata's mother saw the sun and the moon, the mount Meru, the lake with swans, cartli and the ocean.26 According to Hemacandra, Summangala, the mother of Bharata, sees fourteen great dreams.27 Accounts of world conquests by these different Cakravartins are almost similar in the Jaina Puranas. Bharata, for example,28 started on his conquests, with his cakra-jewel preceding the army, followed by the bearer of the staff-jewel, the senapati (another jewel of a Cakravarti), the horse-jewel, the priest

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Kulakaras and Salakapurusas 73 jewel, etc., and conquered the Magadha-tirtha in the east of Jambudvipa, the Varadama in the south, the Prabhasa in the west, and the goddess Sindhu, the Veyaddha mountain and the Timisa-cave (guha). Crossing the river Sindhu by the carma-jewel, he conquered the Simhalas, Barbara, Anga, Cilaya, Javanadiva, Arabaka, Romaka, Alasanda, the mlecchas known as Pikkhura, Kalamuha and Jonaka, the mlecchas residing on the south of the Vaitadhya, and in the south-west the region upto the Sindhusagara and finally the most beautiful Kaccha. Then, marching through the Timisaguha, Bharata ordered his general to open its southern gate. Then, crossing the rivers Unmagnajala and Nimagnajala, he defeated the rich, arrogant and powerful Cilayas known as Avada, dwelling in the northern half of the Bharata land. Next, he conquered Culla (ksudra) Himavanta mt. and proceeded to Rsabhakuta mt. where with his kagani (kakini) jewel, Bharata inscribed his name as the first universal monarch. When he went to the north of the Veyaddha (Vaitadhya) mountain, Nami and Vinami, the two overlords of the Vidyadharas, offered him the gift of a stri-ratna (woman-jewel), Subhadra by name.29 Next, Bharata conquered the river Ganga along with the cave Khandaprapata on its western bank, where, opening the northern gate of the cave, he obtained the nine nidhis or treasures, namely, Naisarpa, Panduka, Pilizcilu, Sarvaratna, Mahapadma, Kala, Mahakala, Manavaka and Sankha.30 Thus attended by the fourteen jewels, the Cakravarti returned to his capital Vinita where his coronation as a universal monarch was performed with due pomp and splendour. According to both the sects, every universal monarch obtains ratnas or jewels amongst human beings and amongst symbols, weapons or animals. They are: Cakra (disc), Danda (staff), Asi (sword), Chatra (umbrella), Carma (hides), Mani (diamond), Kakini (cowrie), Asva (the horse), Gaja (the elephant), the Commander-in-Chief, the Home Minister, the Architect (Varddhaki), the Priest and lastly the Queen.31 As already noted, Cakravartins have a golden complexion, and the mark of the Srivatsa symbol, formed of hair, adorns their chests.32 Representations of Cakravartins as separate sculptures32a are difficult to obtain. Hitherto only four such sculptures of Bharata, the first Cakravartin, could be obtained. Of these, one from a small shrine in Devgadh is illustrated here in Fig. 156. On his two sides are shown his fourteen ratnas. Another sculpture, illustrated in Fig. 160 is from temple no. 2 at Devgadh, showing Bharata in kayotsarga mudra. The ratnas are distributed on his two sides and on the pedestal. The third sculpture belongs to the Svetambara tradition. It is preserved in one of the cells in the compound of the main Adinatha shrine on the mount Satrunjaya (see Fig. 47). Bharata is here represented as standing in meditation in the kayotsarga posture. On one side of Bharata stands a male with a sword in hand, on another side is another male figure carrying a noli (money-bag) with two hands. Possibly he is a donor. The image is inscribed in the year 1391 v.s. and helps us to identify the sculpture as representing Bharata. Two small cakras are shown just near the fingers of both the hands of Bharata, and a cakra is shown in the centre of the pedestal suggesting that Bharata is a Cakravartin. There is one more sculpture at Devgadh. But representations of the march of a Cakravarti are not unknown on Jaina temple walls. Usually they are on exterior walls of the main shrine, in the part reserved as Nara-thara. A battle scene between Bharata and Bahubali is available in the front ceiling of the Rangamandapa of the Vimalavasahi at Abu, as also in a ceiling of Santinatha temple at Kumbharia. Ratnas or jewels of a Cakravarti are usually represented in miniature paintings of the Samgrahani sutra. For representations in miniatures of Bharata's conquests, see for example Brown, op. cit., fig. 129. The Jaina traditional accounts of the conquest of a Cakravarti are of special value for students of ancient geography. The oldest accounts of these are reminiscent of some old traditions. The Timisa guha for example is interesting. The Prabhasa-tirtha is well known, but Varadama tirtha should be located. Nine Vasudevas Jaina mythology describes lives of nine Vasudevas or Naravanas who are also called Ardha-Cakrins as they ruled over three parts of the earth and enjoyed half the power of the Cakravartins. Belief in

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Vasudevas and their step-brothers Baladevas is very old as they are referred to in the earliest traditions represented by the Agama texts and the works attributed to Bhadrabahu. Both the Svetambaras and the Digambaras give identical lists of Vasudevas which fact shows that the belief antedates the final crisis between the two sects and is probably much earlier. The Samavayanga sutra33 gives the following list of Vasudevas along with names of their parents: (1) Triprstha, son of Prajapati and Mrgavati, (2) Dviprstha, son of Brahma and Uma, (3) Svayambhu, son of Soma and Prthvi, (4) Purusottama, son of Rudra and Sita, (5) Purusasimha or NTsimha, son of Siva and Ammaya, (6) Purusapundarika, son of Mahasiva and Laksmivati, (7) Datta, son of Agnisikha and Sesavati, (8) Narayana, 34 son of Dasaratha and Kekayi and (9) Kssna, son of Vasudeva and Devaki.35 As already noted, the Digambara texts give the same list.36 According to both the sects, all the Vasudevas are black and wear garments of yellow colour.37 The Vasudeva has a chowrie-bearer attending upon him, while an umbrella is held over his head. On his banner is seen the mark of an eagle. The following seven are the weapons and symbols of a Vasudeva, according to the Svetambara traditions: (1) the conch pancajanya, (2) the disc Sudarsana cakra, (3) the club Kaumodaki, (4) the bow Sarriga, (5) the Nandaka sword, (6) the jwei kriuwn as Kaustubha mani, and (7) the long garland of flowers, known as the Vanamala,38 The Prasnavyakarana sutra however adds the sakti in the above list. 39 The following from the Uttaradhyayana is especially noteworthy as the passage refers to only three weapons of Vasudeva: "As Vasudeva, the god with the conch, discus and club, who fights with an irresistible strength, (has no equal), neither has a very learned monk.'40 This is indeed an early tradition of the iconography of Vasudeva-Visnu. The fourth hand is usually held in varada mudra. The Sve. text Pradyumna-carita says that Krsna, the lord of Dvarika and the enemy of Kansa, was dark in complexion and wore yellow garments. Four-armed, he carried the conch Pancajanya, the Nandaka sword, the Sarniga bow and the Kaumodaki club in his hands.41 The Digambara traditions give the following seven weapons of a Vasudeva: Bow, Conch, Discus, Staff, Sword, Sakti, and Club.42 Both the sects agree in regarding all Vasudevas as dark in complexion and having the eagle as their banner-mark. Besides, all the Vasudevas are said to have been born in the Gautama gotra, except the eighth who belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. After death, the Vasudevas go to hell while the Baladevas are said to have obtained emancipation or heaven. This Jaina conception about life after death of the Vasudevas and the Baladevas stands in contrast with the Hindu accounts of Krsna and Balarama or of Rama and Laksmana. But the iconographic resemblance between the Jaina Vasudeva and the Hindu Krsna is quite obvious and unmistakable. The variations from the Hindu mythology, obtained in the Jaina versions of the life stories of Rama or Krsna, are generally due to the new background of Jaina faith. The Vasudevas, Baladevas and the Prati-Vasudevas or enemies of Vasudevas were amongst the earliest of the Brahmanical deities who found a place in the Jaina Mythology.43 It is well known, from the find of the famous Besnagara inscription of Heliodorus, the Ghosundi and Hathibada inscriptions, or of the image of Balarama from Mathura assignable to the first or second century B.C., and from the image of Visnu from Mathura assignable to the first century A.D., that the cult of Vasudeva and Balarama was popular in Mathura, Vidisa, Nagari (Madhyamika) and other places 44 and incorporation of the KrsnaVasudeva cult was necessary if Jainism aimed at appealing to the masses of India. Besides, this cult, based on the doctrine of Bhakti, was in itself a reform on the older Vedic ritualistic faith and the antiVedic Jaina writers found it easier to incorporate the belief in Vasudevas rather than other deities invoked in Vedic sacrifices. 45 Nine Baladevas According to both the sects, each Vasudeva has a step-brother, white in complexion and known as Baladeva. Nine in number, they are intimately associated with the exploits of Vasudevas, and are

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Kulakaras and Salakapurusas 75 depicted as superior to them in as much as the first eight Baladevas obtain emancipation and the last of the list is said to have obtained one of the heavens. The Vasudevas, as already shown, go to one of the different hells after death. The Samavayanga sutra gives the following list of the Baladevas and their mothers, who lived in the present Avasarpini age: (1) Acala, Bhadra; (2) Vijaya, Subhadra; (3) Bhadra, Suprabha; (4) Suprabha, Sudarsana; (5) Sudarsana, Vijaya; (6) Ananda, Vaijayanti; (7) Mandana, Jayanti; (8) Padma, Aparajita; (9) Rama, Rohini.46 The Digambara texts give the following list: Vijaya, Acala, Sudharma, Suprabha, Sudarsana, Nandi, Nandimitra, Rama, and Padma.47 . According to both the sects, they wear garments of dark-blue colour. On their banners is seen the mark of the palm-tree (tala).48 They carry the bow, the plough, the pestle and the arrow according to the Svetambara tradition 49 while the Digambaras describe the following symbols: the club, the garland of jewels, the plough, and the pestle. The Tiloyapannatti however notes the following iconographic marks of a Baladeva: the plough, the pestle, a chariot and a garland of jewels (ratnavali).50 Like the Vasudevas, the Baladevas have their parallels in the Hindu mythology, although of course, changes have been made in the Jaina accounts to suit their own environment. Images of Baladevas and Vasudevas, installed for worship in Jaina temples, are not known hitherto, but scenes depicting their stories are sometimes available in temple carvings. Again, a Baladeva and a Vasudeva are seen on two sides of a Jina, one on each side, especially during the Kusana age at Mathura, and this fact helps us to identify the Jina as Neminatha since, in Jaina mythology, both Krsna (Vasudeva) and Baladeva or Balarama are regarded as cousin brothers of Neminatha. Sculpture no. J.47 in the State Museum, Lucknow, shows Neminatha standing in the centre and to his right is standing Balarama with snake-hoods overhead and holding the gada and the hala (plough) in his two upper hands and the wine-cup in one of the two lower hands. To the left of Neminatha is Klsna, four-armed, wearing a vanamala and showing the gada, the abhava mudra, etc.51 In sculpture no. J.121, in the same Museum, also from the Kankali Tila, Mathura, we find Krsna showing the gada, the sankha (conch), etc., while Balarama with seven snake-hoods overhead is two-armed. The symbols shown by Balarama are not distinct. The sculpture dates from the Gupta age, c. fourth century A.D., for illustration of J. 121 see Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, Paper no. 6 in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, fig. 6. Figure 7 in the same paper, no. J.117, State Museum, Lucknow, is identified as Neminatha by some scholars but the figure on his right with snake-hoods has both his hands in the anjali mudra and the figure on the left is also a two-armed figure with both the hands in the unjali mudri. This figure has no snake-hoods and should be regarded as a Yaksa while the figure to the right of the Jina represents a Naga figure. In the descriptions of the Sasvata Jina Pratimas in Jaina canons we find Yaksa and Naga figures accompanying the Jina figure. No. J.60 in the same museum also has a Naga and a Yaksa as attendants. They are not Baladeva and Vasudeva. This practice of showing Balarama and Krsna with Neminatha lingered on even upto the tenth or eleventh century in U.P. and M.P. as can be seen on a sculpture of Neminatha in Temple no. 2 at Devgadh and another sculpture, probably from Mathura, is no. 66.53 in the State Museum, Lucknow. and dates from c. eleventh century A.D. In both the above sculptures, Krsna and Balarama are fourarmed (for illustrations, see M.N.P. Tiwari, Jaina Pratima Vijnana (Hindi), figs. 27-28). Figure 55 illustrated here is preserved in the Lucknow Museum. In the centre of the pedestal, on the right of the dharmacakru is a bull which shows that the Tirthankara sitting in padmasana must be Rsabhanatha. The head of the Jina is lost. The sculpture hails from Orai in U.P. and may be assigned to c. cighth century A.D. The Jina is attended upon by a camaradhara-vaksa on each side. Beyond the Yaksa on the right is a four-armed standing figure of Balarama with the guda (?) in his right upper hand, the winecup in the right lower one and the plough (hala) in the left upper hand. The left lower is placed on the kati. On the corresponding left side of the Tirthankara is standing four-armed Krsna-Vasudeva showing the mace and the cakra in the right and the left upper hands respectively and the conch in the left lower one. The right lower hand is held in the abhaya mudra. The sculpture is published as figure 98 in

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76 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Vincent Smith's Jaina Stupa ... A sculpture of Tirthankara Munisuvrata, illustrated here as Fig. 72 (no. J.776 in the Lucknow Museum), has on top a miniature figure of a Tirthankara with Balarama and Krsna on his two sides. Perhaps this miniature figure of the Jina was meant to represent Neminatha. Incidentally it may be noted that there are two crowned figures standing in the kayotsarga posture on two sides of the central Jina and the vidyadhara pairs. They are Jivantasvami images. Since no Vasudeva or Baladeva is connected with the life history of Rsabhanatha, the sculpture from Orai discussed above is especially noteworthy. Figures of Balarama and Krsna seem to have been introduced as attendants to or in a position inferior to the Jaina Tirthankara Neminatha in order to underrate Hindu gods, just as Isvara, Garuda, Sanmukha and others were later introduced as Yaksas or Sasanadevatas of different Tirthankaras. Mathura, the birth place of Krsna, was a stronghold of Krspa worship and the Pancaratra cult. Only Krsna and Balarama are introduced as cousins of Neminatha. No other relatives of other Tirthankaras are introduced on Jaina sculptures of the Kusana age. It is therefore reasonable to infer that figures of Krsna and Baladeva were introduced on sculptures of Neminatha in order to counteract Hindu influence in image worship amongst the masses. In a ceiling in front of Devakulika no. 5 in the Vimala Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Ahu, we have a relief slab showing the water-sports (jalakrida) of Krsna, his queens and his cousin brother Neminatha. This is according to the Jaina accounts of the life of Neminatha. Similar scenes are also depicted in the miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra. The Kalpa-sutra miniatures also include scenes of trial of strength between Neminatha and Krsna (for these different types of scenes see Brown, W. Norman, Miniature Paintings of the Kalpa Sutra, figs. 102, 104, 105, 106; Nawab, S.M., Jaina Citra-Kalpa-Druma, figs. 212, 213). One of the ceilings in front of the Devakulikas at Vimala Vasahi contains a beautiful big relief sculpture showing the scene of Kaliya-damana by Krsna. Another such ceiling shows the killing of Hiranyakasipu by the Nasimha incarnation of Visnu. Both these reliefs clearly demonstrate Brahmanical Pauranika influence in Jaina literature and art (see Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. II, chapter 23, and plate 186, figs. A & B). A mutilated slab from Kankali Tila, Mathura, being a part of a Tirtha:kara sculpture, dating from the Kusana period and described by V.S. Agrawala,52 shows a figure of Balarama on one side and suggests that a figure of Krsna-Vasudeva must have existed on the other side of the central Tirthankara image now mutilated and lost. Nine Prati-Vasudevas The Prati-Vasudevas or the enemies of Vasudevas are also nine in Jaina Puranas, each Vasudeva having one such opponent. Both the sects give the same list 53 They are Asvagriva, Taraka, Meraka, Madhukaitabha, Nisumbha, Bali, Prahlada, Ravana or Lankesa and Jarasandha or Magadhesvara.54 The first eight are supposed to have been Vidyadharas while the last was a man of the earth.56 The Prati-Vasudevas, fighting with the cakra-weapon, perished from their own cakras, which went into the service of the Vasudevas at the last moment.56 Names of rivals of Vasudevas are met with in Hindu mythology also where they are generally called raksasas or asuras. Taraka was killed by Kumara or Karttikeya, while Madhu, Bali, Ravana or Jarasandha are well known opponents of gods and men and are usually killed by incarnations of Visnu in the Hindu accounts. The name of Prahlada figuring as an enemy of Vasudeva in Jaina accounts is especially noteworthy as he is a great saint and a devotee of the first rank in the Bhagavata cult. It may be noted that the introduction of these nine arch enemies of Vasudevas in the lists of Salakapurusas or Great Men seems to be a later conception in Jainism, although of course they figured in the accounts of Vasudevas as their opponents. Silanka, for example, called his work a CaupannaMaha-Purisa-Cariyam, thus acknowledging only the twenty-four Tirthankaras + the twelve Cakravartins + the nine Vasudevas and the nine Baladevas as the 54 Salakapurusas or Great Men. The

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Kulakaras and Salakapurusas Jambudvipaprajnapti, 2, su. 34,57 and the Sthananga, 3.1, su. 14358 also lend support to this belief. It must be noted that the Avasyaka Niryukti also omits the Prati-Vasudevas 59 REFERENCES 1. For a fuller account of the Jaina divisions of time, the Golden Age and the Kulakaras, see Hemacandra, Trisasti., I, Transl. GOS, Vol. LI, pp. 93-100; Vasudevahindi, I, 157ff; for Digambara accounts Adi-Puraga, T. ch. 3, v. 53ff, pp. 49ff; Padmacaritam (of Ravisena, Manekchand Dig. Granthamala), ch. 3, vv. 48-88; Tilo yapannatti, vol. 1.4, vv. 313-503, pp. 184ff. 2. Cf.: Prajanam jivanopayamananamanavo matah Aryanam Kulasamstyayakrteh Kulakarah ime 221. Kulanam dharanadete matah Kuladhara iti Yugadipurusah Proktah yugadau prabha visoavah 212. Vrsabhah Tirthakrccaiva Kulakrocaiva sammatah Bharatah Cakrabhrccaiva Kuladhrccaiva kirtitah 213. - Adipurana, ch. 3, op. cit. 3. Samavayanga, pp. 150-155; Sthananga, 7.3, sutra 556, Vol. II, p. 398; Bhagavati, 5.3. 4. Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 147-167; Acaradinakara, I, pp. 33-34. 5. Kalalokaprakasa, ch. 32, vv. 1-27, 31. 6. Jambudvi paprajnapri, 1, pp. 130ff, ch. 2, su. 28ff. 7. Paumacar iyam, 3, vv. 48-56, pp. 10-11. 8. Tiloyapantati, I, pp. 204ff, ch. 4, v. 495-503. 9. Adipurara, 3, vv. 53-216, especially see v. 213 quoted above in n. 2. 10. Varangacarita, 27, w. 33-36, p. 267. 11. See Santicandra's comm. on Jambudvipaprajnapti, I, pr. 132ff. See the footnote of the editor who notes the comments of Jinabhadra from Visesanavati and from the Hira vrtti discussion on the problem. 12. Sthanariga, 10.3.767. p. 518 and 7.3, su. 556, p. 398. This shows that the Sthanariga sutra text, as available to us today, is relatively later and seems to date from a period not earlier than the fourth century A.D. Malavapiya, Dalsukh, Sthandriga-Samara yanga (Ahmedabad, 1955), pp. 687-695. 13. Tiloyapanranti, 1.4, 342-353, pp. 187-188. 14. Paumacari yam, 3.37, p. 10. 15. Sthanariga, op. cit., 10.7; 10.3.766, p. 517f. 16. Sivaramamurti, Sculpture inspired by Kalidasa, Madras. 17. Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society, Vol. XXII, pp. 1-2, 64-80. 18. The detailed descriptions of the various trees given in the Jivajivabhigama Sutra, su. 3, pp. 264ff, are noteworthy for students of Indian art and culture, since they give lists of different types of wincs, edibles. lamps, utensils, architectures, musical instruments, garments etc. Sce Jambudvipuprajnapti, I, su. 20, pp. 995 (with Santicandra's comments on these lists), Jiva su. 3, pp. 26411 and 145fT. 19. Life stories of different Cakravartins may be studied from the Trisasrisalakapurusacarita of Hemacandra, Harivam sa of Jinasena, Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra, Adipura ia of Jinasena, Mahapurana of Puspadanta, etc. For all Cakravartins of present and future ages, see Samava yariga sutra, su. 158. 20. Jambudvi paprajnapti, 3.41-71; Avas yaka Curni, pp. 182ff; Vasudevahindi, I, pp. 186ff. :21. For a short account of Sagara, see Jain, J.C., op. cit., p. 375. Uttaradhyayana Tika, 18, pp. 233ff; Vosudevahindi, II, p. 303, 304ff. Also cf. the Hindu and Buddhist accounts in Mahabharata, DI, 105ff; Ramayana, I.38ff; Calavamsa, Ixxxvii.34. 22. Also see Mahabharata, III.188.24; 1.69.24; Dighonikaya, II, pp. 210ff. 23. Sthonanga, 3.4.231, Vol. I, p. 178. 24. Avasyaka Curni, p. 520; Vasudevahindi, II, pp. 235-40, Mahabharata, II1.1177, XII.48; Ramayana, 1.74-77. 25. Uttaradhyayana Tika, 13, pp. 187ff. Also see the Mahaumagga Jataka, the Swapnavasavadatta, and the Ramayana, I.33.18ff. The Age of Impe rial Unity, pp. 20, 591. 26. Adipurana, 15, vv. 100-101, p. 334. 27. Trisasti, I (GOS), p. 148. 28. Jain, J.C., op. cit., pp. 347f. Jambudvi paprajnapti, 3.41 - 71; Avasyaka Curni, pp. 182-228; Vasudevahindi, T, pp. 186ff. Schubring, Die Lehre Der Jainas, p. 19f. For the details of an early Digambara version of Bharata's conquests, see Mahapurana of Jinasena and Gunabhadra, II, chs. 26-36. 29. The account given here is mainly based on the Svetam bara version available in the Jambudvipaprajnapti etc. referred to in the preceding footnote. It may be compared with other Svetambara versions like that of Hemacandra and others. For Buddhist belief in Cakravartin's jewels (ratnas), see Digha Nikaya, sutta 17; Anguftara, 5.131; 5.144. 30. Sthanarga, 9.3, su. 673, pp. 448f. 31. Sthananga, 7.3, su. 558, vol. II, p. 398; Jambudvipa prajnapti, 3.67, p. 260; Trisasti, I (GOS), p. 262; Tilo yapannatti, 4.1377-82, p. 324; Mahopurana of Jina sena and Gunabhadra, 337, vv. 84ff. 32. Cf.: 3750747119 faut fag fatza (foto) atat futai qua cut 39: 34 T6 : * : -Adipurana, 26, 62ff Also note---afa TeraT FATTOTETT cal! --Aras raka Nirynkti, satha 391 Also see Trisarri, I (GOS), pp. 212, 256, 262. Kalalokaprakasa, 31.20-21: Ayaraka Nir yuk ti, op. cit.; Joubidvi paprajnapti, 3.42, pp. 180-81.

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32a. M.N.P. Tiwari has identified in all five figures of Bharata at Devgadh. Of these some are portrayed with a Tirthankara and Bahubali as Tri-Tirthika images, Tiwari, Elements of Jaina Iconography, pp. 106-109. 33. Samavayanga sutra, pp. 152-58, s. 158-59. Also see Avasyaka Niryukti, gathas 375fT. Trisasi, I (GOS), pp. 350-51 for $ve. lists; the Vasudevahindi gives * accounts of Kanha, Tivitha. Purisapundariya, Purisut tama and Lakhana. 34. Paumacuri yam of Vimalasuri and Padmacarita of Ravi sepa especially deal with the life-story of Laksmana, the 8th Vasudeva and Rama, his brother, the 8th Baladeva. For a discussion on the Jaina versions of the Rama-story, see Narasimhachar, D.L., The Jaina Rama yanas, IHQ, XV, pp. 575-594, Rev. Dr. C. Bulcke, Rama-Katha (Hindi). Kulkarni, V.M., Jaina Ramayanas and their source, The Ramayana : Asia (Delhi, 1980), pp. 226ff. 35. Krsna-Vasudeva is referred to in the Urtaradhyayana, xxii (SBE), p. 113 and Nayadhammakahao, 1.xvi, pp. 68, 176f, Nirayavaliao, v. 1; also see Krsna in Jaina Legends. Deshpande, M.N., Jaina Antiquary, X, pp. 25ff. 36. Trilokasara, gatha 825; Varangacarita, 27, 42, p. 268; Tiloyapannatti, 1.4.1412, p. 329. 37. Avasyaka Niryukli, gatha 402; Trisasi, I (GOS LI), p. 350; Trisasi, IV.1.235ff (GOS CVIII), p. 18. Mahapurana of Puspadanta; Adipurana; Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra, 57, vv. 9011. Harivamia, 35.35; 41.36-37. 38. Kalalokaprakasa, 31, v. 462-483; Brhat-Samgrahani, v. 304, p. 119; Abhidhana-Cintamani, II. 128-37. Trisusti, IV.1.524ff (GOS CVIII), p. 43. Note the following from Samava yanga, su. 158, p. 152/: tacitazgarulakeUmahAdhaNuvikaTTayA'****"addhabharahasAmI...""halamusalakaNakapANI saMkhacakkagayasattinaM dagadharA pavarujjalavimalagotthubhatirIDadhArI kuDalaujjoiyANaNA puMDarIyaNayaNA ekAvalikaNThalaiyavacchA sirivacchasulachaNA varajasA sabbouyasurabhikusumaracitapalabasohaMtakaMtadhikasaMtavicittavaramAla2699581"*****ferrata luuaste g a duve rAmakesavA bhAyaro hotyA....| 39. Prasnavyakarana, pp. 250ff: ...fal after halamasalakaNagapANI saMkhacakkagavasattiNaMdagadharA pavarujjalasukayavimalakothUtirIDadhArI kuMDalaujjoviyA gaNA puMDarIyaNayaNA egAvalIkaMTharaiyavacchA sikhicchamulaMchaNA barajasA samvouyasurabhikusumaraiyapalabasohataviyasaMtavicittavaNamAlaraiyavacchA' ' . 'kaDisutakanIlapIyakosejjaargar EETTI Thus in both the Samavaya and the Prusta, the descriptions are identical, the symbol of sakti is however the special attribute of Kumara Skanda in Hindu Icono graphy. 40. Uttaradhya yana (SBE), p. 113. 41. Pradyumnacarita, 3, vv. 73-76. 42. Tiloyapannatti, 1.4.1434, p. 332; Uttarapura a of Guna bhadra, op. cit. 43. C. Winternitz. History of Indian Literature, II, p. 487. 44. Jaina Agamas often refer to festivals and shrines of Indra, Rudri, Skanda, Mukunda, Vasudeva, Naga. Yaksa and others, apparently as beyond the sphere of Jaina worship, but widely current amongst the masses, and the references show their existence probably as early as the age of Mahavira, see Jain, J.C., op. cit., pp. 215-225. Also see Benjamin Presiado-Solis, The Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Krsna Cycle in the Puranas (Delhi, 1984), chps. 1 and 2. pp. 1-39. 45. Conversely, later on, when the Hindu Puranas were recast, Rsabha, the first Jaina Tirthankara, was given a place in the Vaisnava cult as one of the twenty-four incarnations of Visnu. The Bhagavata Purana reference to Rsabha perhaps shows the spirit of synthesis and assimilation of the Hindu Puranas, or. an ancient Indian deity or sage Rsabha was adopted and assimilated by the Brahmanical faith as well as by Jainas in their Puranas. Rsabha is referred to in Bhagavara, V.3. 20: 4.2; V.4.9, as also in Brahmanda Purana, Purva II.14; Visnu Purana, 11.1.27-32; Vayu Pu., 31.50-52: Markarde ya Pu., 50.39-41, Nrsimha Pu., 30.7, Siva Pu., VII.9.3 etc. However, B.N. Sharma's attempt to prove hoary antiquity of Jaina Rsabha, in his Intro. to the second ed. of B.C. Bhattacharya's Jaina Iconography with the help of Rgvedic passages where the word Rsabha occurs, is not convincing. 46. Samarayanga, su. 159, pp. 153ff. Also, Trisasti I (GOS). P. 350. 47. Varangacarita, 27.43, p. 268; Tiloyapannatti, 1.4.1411, p. 328; Trilokasaru, gatha 827. 48. Kalalokaprakasa, vv. 484ff; Saniavayanga and Prasca vyakarana passages quoted in the section on Vasudevas; Vasudevahindi, 1.78, 81, 312, 326; Uttarapuraca of Guna bhadra, 57, v. 93. 49. The Bhasya-gathi quoted on p. 237 of Avasyaka-Vrtti of Haribhadra, shows that Baladevas fought with the plough and the pestle only: hohinti Vasudeva nava anne nilapiakosija, halamusalacakkajohi sarala-garula-jjhaya... Avasyaka Bhasya, verse 39. Also see Abhidhana Cintamani, 2.138f. Also see Samavayanga satra, su158 and Sthanaigu, su. 672. 50. Tiloyapannatti, 1.4.1435, p. 332, Urtarupurana, 57-93. 51. See Srivastava, V.N., Some Interesting Jaina Sculptures in the State Museumi, Lucknow, Bulletin of Archaeology and Museums, U.P. (Sangrahalanu Puratasha Patrika), no. 9 (1972), pp. 45-52 and figs. 5, Sa, 5b (no. J.47), fig. 6 (no. J.117), fig. 7 (no. J.60), fig. 8 (no. J.83). 52. Agrawala, V.S., A Fragmentary Sculpture of Neminarha in the Lucknow Museum, Jaina Antiquary, VIII.2, pp. 45ff and plate No. J.89 in Lucknow Museum. Also see his paper Some Brahmanical Deities in Jaina Religious Art, in ibid., III. 83-92. Agrawala has referred to no. 2502 of Mathura Museum showing Neminatha with Balarama and Krsna. 53. Samavavariga sutrasu. 159, p. 153: Vasudevahindi, pp. 275-78, 313f, 80ff, 1188. 348f, 240; Trisasi I (GOS), p. 352; Varargacarita, 27.44. p. 268; Tilo rupanratti, 4.1413, Vol. I, p. 329. 54. The Digambara text Mahapuranu (Gunabhadra) how ever gives the following Prati-Vasudevas in its accounts: Asvagrira, Taraka, Madhu, Madhusudana, Madhuhdu. Nisumbhu Bali. Rarara and Jarasandha. 55. Trilokusara, gatha 828. 56. Cr. Trisasti, op. cit. 57. Jambadve puprajnapri, vol. I, p. 164. 58. Sihandriga sulni, vol. I, pp. 75, 123. 59. Cf. Santicandra's commentary on Jambudi paprajnapti, 2, su. 3, p. 161.

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CHAPTER SEVEN Devadhideva Tirthankara The supreme object of veneration in Jainism is variously invoked as a Tirthankara, 1. a Jina.2 or an Arhat.3 Hemacandra in his Abhidhana-Cintamani kosa includes the Tirthankaras un ler une caiegory of Devadhidevas, i.e., God of Gods. Varahamihira says that the Lord of the Arhatas (followers of Arhats, i.e., the Jainas) is to be represented with the arms reaching the knees (obviously when in a standing posture) and a sri-vat sa mark on the chest. Young and beautiful, he has a peaceful (pleasing) countenance while his garment is verily the quarters (i.e., he wears no garments). According to the Manasara, a silpa text of about the sixth cent. A.D., the image of a Jina should have two arms and two eyes, and the head should be clean shaven and there should be no top-knot (usnisa). It (the Jina image) should be in a straight erect or sitting posture. The legs should be uniformly straight and the two long arms should be in the same posture. In the sitting posture, the two feet are placed on the lotus-seat, the whole image being in a somewhat stiff attitude and bearing a look meditating on the Supreme Soul. The right and left hands should be placed (one upon the other) with the palm upwards. The image should be placed upon a throne in an erect sitting posture. At its top should be a pinnacle and a crocodile arch. Above, there should be the Kalpa-tree together with the royal elephant and such other figures. There should be no ornaments and no clothes on any part of the body of the Jina image which is usually beautiful. The sri-vatsa mark should be made in gold over the chest.5 Haribhadra Surie and others emphasise his pleasing countenance. According to the Digambara text Pratistha-saroddhara of Pandit Asadhara (1228 A.D.), the eyes of the Jina should be centred on the tip of his nose ... The Jina image should also be accompanied by the eight prariharyas and the yaksas.? Vasunandi Saiddhantika in his Pratisthasarasamgraha8 (c. 12th cent. A.D.) referes to the sri-vatsa mark on the chest. The images of a Jina are further said to be accompanied by the eight pratiharyas. The soles of the feet show marks of the conch, the cakra, the goad, the lotus, the yara (oat), the chatra (umbrella), etc. The images of Tirthankaras are either in the standing (kayotsarga) or the sitting (paryarikasana, padmasana) postures. The Jina figure is young and void of any garments. In both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, images of each Tirthankara are obtained in both the postures. In the sitting postures they show the dhyana-mudra with the hands resting one upon the other on the lap, with palm upwards. The Tirthankaras sit either in the padmasana posture (lotusposture, with legs crossed), or in the ardha-padmasana (with one leg tucked up and the other tucked up but placed over the first, but not crossed, and the hands in the dhyana-nuudra as in the padmasana). The ardha-padmasana posture is mainly popular in South India amongst the Digambaras. In the kajotsarga posture the Jina stands erect but not stiff, with hands hanging loose, straight and at ease, the eyes engaged in meditation as in the sitting posture. No distinction is made in the selection of postures, all Tirthankaras being represented in both the postures by both the sects. However, Jaina texts have noted postures of various Jinas at the time of Nirvana. Twenty-one Tirthankaras obtained Nirvana while meditating in the kayotsarga posture whereas three attained it while meditating in the sitting posture. These three are Rsabha, Nemi and Mahavira according

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80 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana to the Svetambara view. According to the Digambara text Tiloyapannatti (c. 6th-7th cent. A.D.), these three are. Rsabha, Vasupujya and Nemi.10 According to the Avasyaka Niryukti gatha 969, the Jinas are represented in this world in the posture in which they left it. But in actual worship this is not strictly adhered to. Images of Tirthankaras were made of costly gems, metals, wood, clay, precious jewels or semi-precious stones. The Acara-Dinakara, a Svetambara text of the fourteenth century, provides instructions regarding the selection of any of these materials. One may prepare images of gold, silver or copper, but never of bronze (kamsya), lead or tin. Brass is often used in casting images, though, as a general rule, mixtures of metals are discouraged.11 It is also enjoined that images of iron, stone, wood, clay, ivory or cow-dung or paintings should not be worshipped in private houses by persons desirous of welfare.12 Vasunandi (Digambara), in his Sravakacara, says that images of Jinas and others (Siddhas, Acaryas and others) should be made according to iconographic formulas (padima-lakkhana-vihi), the materials used being gems, gold, jewels, silver, brass, pearls, stone, etc.13 Vasubindu (Dig.), in his Pratistha-patha, adds crystals, and says that the wise praise images accompained by a big lotus-seat,14 the lotus being shown as rising hish. The Acara-Dinakara, while distinguishing the images to be worshipped at home from those to be installed in temples, adds that one should not worship images whose limbs are mutilated or bent etc. Images made of metals, stucco or plaster deserve to be repaired but wooden and stone sculptures need not be repaired for worship. However, images more than one hundred years old or those installed and consecrated by the best of men must be continued in worship even when they are mutilated. They should be preserved in temples but are not to be worshipped at home. 16 Images made of crystal are seen in many Jaina temples. Tirthankara images made of precious stones like ruby, sapphire, emerald, etc. exist in Jaina shrines at Sravana Belagola, Mudabidri, and in some collections in Bihar, Bengal etc. A Tirthankara image in jade, presented to L.D. Institute of Indology by the late Sheth Kasturbhai Lalbhai, is published by us in the Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras. Metal images in brass, bronze, alloys of copper, as also rarely in silver, are available in Jaina shrines. Tirthankara images on wood work of Jaina shrines and private houses are well known. The State Museum, Lucknow, preserves two old terracotta images of Tirthankaras. A third such terracotta image is preserved in the Ashutosh Museum, Calcutta. Recently, B.B. Lal and S.K. Srivastava have found, during excavations at Ayodhya, a terracotta figure of a Jina, which has been assigned to c. third century B.C. with the evidence of stratigraphy.17 This find further supports our belief that already in the third century B.C., worship of the Jina image had started. This further supports the earlier theory of K.P. Jayaswal, supported by this writer, and by some other writers, that the highly polished torso of a Jina image excavated from the site of Lohanipur (an extension of old Pataliputra) dates from the Mauryan period. The high polish was known in the Mauryan period. The terracotta Jina excavated by B.B. Lal further shows that it is reasonable to assign the Lohanipur torso of a Jina image to at least the age of Samprati, the Mauryan ruler well-known for his patronage of Jainism. Jina images painted on cloth, palm-leaves and paper are known. One of the earliest dated Jina image on palm-leaf is dated in v.s. 1157. Earlier paintings on cloth or palm-leaf have not survived in Indian climatic conditions. Wall paintings are known from Ellora. Sittannavasal, Tirumalai etc. The tradition continued from ancient times as is suggested by literary sources. Tirthankara images are carved and installed in sanctums of Jaina shrines and outside in temple-wall niches, in ceilings, on beams of ceilings, in the interior decorations of domes of temple halls, on tops and/or bases of pillars (e.g. the Kahaon pillar, various types of manasthambhas at places like Devgadh, the Jaina Victory pillar at Chitod in Rajasthan, etc.), on door-lintels of temples, in book-illustrations of Jaina manuscripts, on cloth paintings representing various Jaina Tantric diagrams, and even in CitraPatas, in scroll-paintings like the scroll depicting life of Neminatha from the Digambara collection at Karanja, in Vijnapatipatras, on wooden book-covers of palm-leaf manuscripts etc. Some of these bookcovers, discovered hitherto, depict scenes from the previous as well as the last existences of Tirthankaras, Mahavira, Santinatha and Parsvanatha. A set of such wooden bock-covers (kastha-pattikas) show in a

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 81 row the twenty-four Mothers of Tirthankaras of this age, another shows the sixty-three Salakap urusas while a third one shows the sixteen Mahavidyas of Jaina Tantrika worship. An image is called a caitya (ceiya), pratima, a bimba or an archa. A Jaina temple is called a caitya, an ayatana, a vasahi (basadi in the south) or vasati, a Jinalaya, a deula or devakula, according to Jaina texts and inscriptions. The Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra-bhasya, a work of sixth century A.D., refers to a practice in Mathura. The Jina-figures were on lintels of entrance-doors of residential buildings of the Jaina inhabitants.18 Such images were known as margala-caityas. The text classified caityas or images into four types: sadharmikacaityas, sasvata-caitvas, bhakti-caityas, and mangala-caityas. The last type is explained above. The sasvata-caityas are images of sasvata-Jinas installed in heavens. We shall refer to them again later in this chapter. Bhakti-caitras are those prepared by human beings for devotion and worship. Sadharmikacaityas are memorials, portraits, of followers of the same sect. The text cites an instance of the image of one monk Varattaka carrying the mouth-piece (muhapatti) and the broom-stick (rayoharana), installed by his son who followed the same doctrine.19 There is another type of image which is called Jivanta-svami-pratima. The term and the use of such images are known from Svetambara sources only. It means an image of a person installed in his own life-time and was specially used for a life-time sandalwood image of Mahavira. Later on it came to be used for such images of Mahavira as showed the iconographic peculiarities of the original Jivantasvami image. Still later, such Jivantasvami images of Tirthankaras other than Mahavira were also installed. The term was also used in the sense of a life-time image (i.e. installed in the life-time of the person whose image or portrait it is). For example, a stone-image of Merucandra suri in the Cintamani-Parsvanatha temple at Cambay, installed in v.s. 1393=1336 A.D., is called a Jivantasvami image of that suri in the inscription incised on the image (see Fig. 177). Another type of Tirtharkara images is known as images of Viharamana Jinas. We shall discuss them later in this chapter. (A) TIRTHANKARAS OF THE PRESENT AVASARPINI AGE (ARA) Lives of the twenty-four Tirtharkaras of this age (ara, according to the Jaina conception of time) are the subject matter of several works like the Kalpa-sutra (Sve.), and the Mahapurana of Jinasena and Gunabhadra (Dig.). The Samavayanga sutra, a Jaina canonical Anga-text,20 gives lists of Tirthankaras of the Bharata and Airavata ksetras of the Jambudvipa.21 The lists are as under: Bharata Ksetra Airavata Ksetra 1. Rsabha 2. Ajita 3. Sambhava 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumati 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsva 8. Candraprabha 9. Suvidhi (or Puspadanta) 10. Sitala 11. Sreyamsa 12. Vasupujya 13. Vimala 14. Ananta 15. Dharma 1. Candranana 2. Sucandra 3. Agnisena 4. Nandisena 5. Rsidatta 6. Vyavahari 7. Somacandra 8. Yuktisena 9. Ajitasena 10. Sivasena 11. Buddha 12. Devasarman 13. Asamjala (?) 14. Anantaka 15. Amitapani

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82 16. Santi 17. Kunthu 18. Ara 19. Malli 20. 21. Nami 22. Nemi 23. Parsva 24. Mahavira Varddhamana Munisuvrata 16. Upasanta 17. Guptisena 18. Atiparsva 19. Supariva 20. Marudeva 21. Samakostha 22. Agnisena 23. Agnigupta 24. Varisena The Airavata-Ksetra list of the Samavayanga sutra is not clear. The Pravacanasaroddhara (Sve.), verses 296-303, gives a slightly different list for the Airavata-Ksetra. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana The Kalpa-sutra tradition of twenty-four Jinas of this age is certainly older than c. 300 A.D. when Agastyasimha suri commented on it in his Dasa-Curni. The Caturvimsati-stava or the Logassa-sutta attributed to Bhadrabahu I (170 years after Mahavira's Nirvana) pays homage to twenty-four Tirthankaras. The Nayadhammakahao, a conical text, refers to the life of Mallinatha, the nineteenth Jina. The available text of Nayadhammakahao perhaps dates from c. fourth century A.D. Mallinatha is here described as a princess, which is the Svetambara tradition, whereas the Digambaras regard Mallinatha as a male. (The Digambara sect believes that females cannot obtain the Kevalajnana. 22) The Sthananga sutra refers to various Jinas in sutra 108 and notes their complexions. The Avasyaka-niryukti (gathas 949-951) refers to a Jaina stupa of Munisuvrata at a place called Visala. Even though the extant text of the Avasyaka-niryukti does not seem to be earlier than the second century A.D., the stupa referred to must be placed in an earlier period. Belief in the twenty-four Tirthankaras is also known to the Bhagavati-sutra, sataka 16, uddesa 5. This sutra further refers to Munisuvrata in other context, while the Sthananga refers to Malli, Parsva and Aristanemi (in sutras 229, 381). It may therefore be concluded that belief in twenty-four Tirthankaras existed in the beginnings of the Christian Era and probably dates from at least a century or two earlier. All these Jaina canonical Anga texts are regarded as works of direct disciples of Mahavira, but since the texts of the available editions usually follow the Mathura Council edition of c. early fourth century A.D., it is difficult to say how much older is the belief in twenty-four Tirthankaras. The Kalpa-sutra describes in detail lives of only the first (Rsabha), the twenty-second (Nemi), the twenty-third (Parsva) and the twenty-fourth Tirthankara (Mahavira). Details regarding lives of the remaining Jinas given in Kalpa-sutra are scanty and in stereotyped formula form. Further investigation into the problem is necessary. During the Kusana period, at Mathura, sculptures of the different Tirthankaras showed no cognizances (lanchanas, recognising symbols), excepting Rsabhanatha who showed locks of hair on back and shoulders, and Parsvanatha who had a canopy of seven snake-hoods overhead, all other Jina images could be identified only with the help of their names mentioned in the votive inscriptions on their pedestals. During the Kusana period at Mathura we find evidence of worship of at least a few of the list of the 24 Tirthankaras, namely, Rsabhanatha, Sambhavanatha, Munisuvrata, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira.23 The famous pedestal of an image once supposed to be of Arhat Nandyavarta and dated in the year 299 (year 199 according to Van Lohuizen-de-Leeuw) is now identified as an image of Munisuvrata (the twentieth Jina) by K.D. Bajpai who has corrected the older reading of the inscription on the pedestal.24 Smith published an image from Kankali Tila, Mathura, which, according to the inscription on it, is of Sambhavanatha, the third Jina, installed in the year 9. Image no. J.19 in the Lucknow Museum is of Sambhavanatha according to the inscription on it. Fig. no. J.8 in the same museum has an inscription which calls it an image of Aristanemi. Some more images of Aristanemi, partly mutilated, also from Mathura, have been identified. Often one finds in sculptures of Aristanemi a figure of Krsna standing on one side and of Balarama standing on the other side of the central figure of Neminatha.

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 83 Thus the list of twenty-four Tirthankaras was either already evolved or was in the process of being evolved in the age of the Mathura sculptures in the first three centuries of the Christian Era. As noted above, lives of only four Jinas-Rsabha, Nemi, Parava and Mahavira-are described in detail in the Kalpa-sutra. These probably formed the theme of the original text. A glance at the stock treatment, the summary treatment of the lives of the remaining Tirthankaras lends doubt to their antiquity and would suggest their later addition in the Kalpa-sutra. The absence of images of about eighteen Tirthankaras at the Kankali Tila, Mathura, cannot be advanced as an argument in favour of later introduction of these names in the list of 24 Tirthankaras as it is a negative evidence but it would suggest that at least these eighteen Jinas were perhaps less popular in Jaina image-worship of the Kusana period, at Mathura. They could have been relatively later additions in the list. One can say with confidence that at least before the time of the Mathura Council (Mathuri Vacana) in the early part of the fourth century A.D., belief in the twenty-four Tirthankaras was firmly established. 25 Images of different Tirthankaras are generally identified with the help of lanchanas or cognizances usually carved below their seats, on top of the simhasana and sometimes on the lower end of the pedestal. Both the Digambara and the Svetambara sects give lists of such recognising syin bus. However they are not obtained in any early texts. None of the Agamas (canonical texts), not even the Kalpasutra which gives lives of the twenty-four Jinas, nor even the Niryuktis, nor the Bhasias and the Curnis give a list of these cognizances. Only the Avasyaka Niryuk ti at one place refers to the fact that Rsabha was so called because he had the sign of a sabha (bull) on his urus (thighs).26 But it gives no lanchanas of other Jinas. And this Niryukti, as available today, is not regarded earlier than the second or third century A.D. The Vasudevahindi, assigned to c. fifth century A.D., which gives lives of several Tirthankaras (namely, Rsabha, Santi, Kunthu, Ara and others), makes no mention of their cognizances or their attendant Yaksas and Yaksinis. Amongst the Digambaras, carlier works like the Varangacarita of Jatasimhanandi (c. sixth cent. A.D.), or the Adipurana and the Uttarapurana of Jinasena (c. 750-840 A.D.) and his pupil Gunabhadra (c. 830 A.D.) respectively, or the Padmacarita of Ravisena (676 A.D.), or the Harivamsa of Jinasena (783 A.D.) do not give lists of lanchanas. The Tiloyapannatti does give a list, but the text, as it is available today, seems to have later interpolations as is evident from the fact that it refers to Balacandra Saiddhantika at one place. Hence the evidence of the Tiloyapanpatti is to be treated with caution, even though A.N. Upadhye, the editor of the text, assigned the present text to c. sixth century A.D. Cognizances are not mentioned in the ancient lists of atisayas (supernatural elements and beings) attending upon and accompanying a Tirthankara. The canonical list of thirty-four atisayas (mainly supernatural qualities of a Jina includes some which are later separately described as asa-maha-pratiharyas, i.e., eight chief accompanying attendants, including the Asoka tree, the deva-dundubhi (celestial drum), the heavens scattering flowers (symbolised in art by flying garland-bearers), the triple-umbrella, the fly-whisks, the lion-)seat, the divya-ellivani (supernatural or celestial voice or music and the bhamandala, radiating lustre or aura behind the head." The earliest known text describing the atisavas of a Jina is the Samavayanga Sutra, su. 34. The Vasudevahindi (pp. 343f), the Tiloyapannatti (4.896ff: 4.915-927). Adhidhana Cintamani (1.57-64) and several other Jaina works describe these. There are a few variations in the Digambara and the Svetambara lists, which are of minor importance. But especially noteworthy is the fact that the group of eight Pratiharyas so familiar in the evolved iconography of Tirtharkara images of both the sects is not separated in the Samavayanga list. The emphasis on eight atisayas (out of the list of 34 atisayas) as Maha-Pratiharyas came with the emergence of the full-fledged parikara of Tirtharkara images of both the sects. Those atisayas which came to be utilised in representations were grouped together as Maha-Pratiharyas. But the evolution was gradual as is evident from the sculptures obtained from Mathura, Varanasi, Rajgir, etc. of the Kusana and early Gupta periods.28

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Tirthankaras of this Age--Complexions and Cognizances No. Tirthankara Complexion1 Cognizance2 1 Rsabha Ajita Sambhava Abhinandana Sumati Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden Bull Elephant Horse Monkey Kraunca (Sve.) Koka (Dig.) Lotus Svastika (Sve.) Nandyavarta (Dig. TP) Padmaprabha Suparava Red Golden (sve.) Harita (Dig.) Greenish White White Candraprabha Puspadanta (Suvidhi) Sitala Golden Sreyamsa Golden Vasupujya Vimala Ananta Red Golden Golden Crescent Moon Crocodile (Sve.) Crab (Dig.) Srivatsa (Sve.) Svastika (Dig. TP) Khadgi (Sve.) Ganda (Dig.) Buffalo Boar Syena, falcon (Sve.) Sahi (TP) Bear (Dig.)5 Vajra Deer Goat Nandyavarta (Sve.) Tagara kusuma (TP)6 Fish (other Dig.) Water-jar Dharma Santi Kunthu Ara Golden Golden Golden Golden Malli Munisuvrata Tortoise Nami Nemi Dark blue Nila Black (Sve.) Nila (Dig.) Golden Black (Sve.) Nila (Dig.) Nila (Sve.) Harita (Dig.) Golden Blue-lotus Conch Parsva Snake Mahavira Lion 1. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.49 and Tiloyapannatti (TP), 4.588-89, p. 217. 2. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.47-48 and Tiloyapannatti (TP), 4.604-05, p. 209. 3. Svastika according to Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 9, v. 78. 4. Sridruma according to Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 9, v. 78. 5. Sedhika according to ibid., p. 9, v. 78. 6. Tagaram according to ibid., p. 9, v. 79.

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 85 Under such circumstances it is necessary to compare the lists of lanchanas given by the two sects. The list, given here, will show that the points of difference are with regard to the cognizance of the fourteenth Jina Anantanatha whose lanchana is the falcon according to Hemacandra, but the bear according to the Digambaras, regarding that of the tenth Jina Sitalanatha whose lanchana is sri-vatsa according to Hemacandra but svastika (Tiloyapannatti) or the sridruma (Pratisthasaroddhara) according to the Digambaras, and regarding the cognizance of Aranatha the eighteenth Jina whose cognizance is the fish according to the Digambara tradition29 and the nandyavarta according to the Svetambara sect. Amongst the Digambara writers there are a few differences--the Tiloyapannatti gives nandyavar ta for the seventh Jina while the Pratisthasaroddhara gives the svastika (thus agreeing with the Sve. tradition of Hemacandra); according to the Tiloyapannatti, the tenth Jina has the svastika lanchana, but it is sridruma according to the Pratisthasaroddhara. Since the earliest available literary source for lanchanas in any of the two Jaina sects is later than their origin and since there are a few differences in their lists, we must also seek archaeological evidence to arrive at a correct solution regarding the age of origin of the cognizance. So far as the analysis of the literary evidence is concerned, this age must be at least contemporaneous with the age of final separation of the two sects regarding image worship, which age, as we have shown elsewhere, 30 is about the latter half of the fifth century A.D., somewhere near the age of the second Valabhi Council, for otherwise the general concordance between lists of the two sects cannot be satisfactorily explained. This would be the age of finalization of the two different lists and their appearance on pedestals of Tirthankara-images, but not necessarily the date of the origin of the conception of the lanchana. In art they begin to appear by the fifth century A.D. but is that the age of the origin of the conception of the cognizance? The earliest sculpture, known hitherto, showing a cognizance on the pedestal is the sculpture of Neminatha from Rajgir, first published by Ramaprasad Chanda.304 The head is separated and badly defaced, but the rest of the sculpture is well-preserved (Fig. 26). The pedestal shows, in the centre, a young person standing in front of an oblong cakra both beautifully carved, in the unmistakable style of the Gupta age. This is the Cakrapurusa, a typical Gupta period conception in art. The dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal is here personified. On each side of the dharmacakra is a conch which is the cognizance of Neminatha according to both the sects. A partly preserved line of an inscription on the edge of the pedestal, as read by Chanda, refers to Candragupta, whom he has identified with Chandragupta Il on the evidence of the script of the inscription. Cognizances of Tirthankaras are not found on sculptures of the Kusana period, but they do appear on sculptures of the Gupta period at Rajgir, Sira Pahari, Varanasi, etc. However, their postion on the pedestal, or in the parikara of a Jina was not finally fixed. A post-Gupta sculpture on the Vaibhara hill, Rajgir, dating from c. seventh-eighth century A.D., representing Adinatha, shows, on the pedestal, the dharmacakra flanked by a bull on either side (vide Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. I, ed. by A. Ghosh, pl. 90). The bull is the cognizance of Adinatha who is here further recognised by the hair-locks falling on his shoulders. Later we find two deer flanking the two sides of the dharmacakra while the cognizance is either above the dharmacakra or below it, on the pedestal. This practice of showing the dharmacakra flanked by two deer on pedestals of all Tirthankara images was in imitation of Buddha images. Two sculptures from Sira Pahari near Nachna Kuthara in Central India, one of standing Rsabhanatha and the other of sitting Mahavira, published as plates 63 and 62 respectively in Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. 1, show the cognizance on each of the two ends of the pedestal while the dharmacakra is in the centre as usual. The two sculptures seem to represent a stage of transition from the Kusana to the Gupta art and seem to date from c. fourth century A.D. Fig. 61 in the same book, from Vidisa, of an unidentified Tirthankara, and having no cognizance, also dates from the fourth century A.D. (also see Fig. 27 in this book). On a bronze image of Rsabhanatba from the Vasantagadh hoard, now in worship in a Jaina temple in Pindawada, we find the bull cognizance on each end of the pedestal while the dharmacukra is in the centre (Fig. 34).

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86 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Amongst the Rajgir sculptures a very curious specimen is discovered. Here whereas the Tirthankara sitting in the padmasana has seven snake-hoods overhead--and hence he must be Parsvanatha, or at the most Suparsvanatha, since no other Tirthankara has snake-hoods overhead-the lanchana on each side of the dharmacakra is a conch which is the cognizance of Neminatha. Either there was a mistake of the sculptor or the cognizances were not yet finalised. Fig. 24 illustrated here again is from Rajgir and represents Parsvanatha in padmasana, with seven snake-hoods overhead. On two sides of the Jina are miniature figures of the eight planets, four on each side, below the celestial mala-dharas, above them are the drums. Below the planets on each side is an attendant flywhisk-bearer. The Jina sits on a visvapadma, a double-lotus, placed on a pedestal. The right side of the pedestal is much defaced so also the central portion which probably had the dharmacakra. To the left is an elephant facing what possibly was the dharmacakra. If this was the cognizance then again we have another proof that in art either the sculptor made a mistake or that in their early stage the cognizances were not universally fixed. This sculpture is an example of Pala art of about the eighth century A.D. Even though images of not even one of the 24 Tirthankaras are described in the Jaina canonical Arga works, we are able to obtain some conception of the Jina-image from the stock description of the Sasvata-Jina pratimas in the Sasvata-Caityas also called the Siddhayatanas. Jaina traditions of both the sects refer to the Siddhayatanas, discussed in Chapter One. These Siddhayatanas contain images of the Sasvata Jinas, four in number, namely, Candranana, Varisena, Rsabha and Varddhamana.31 They are called Sasvata Jinas because in every utsarpini and avasarpini age names of these four are always repeated and they flourish in any of the fifteen karmabhumis. A long description of Siddhayatanas and Sasvata Jinas is found in the Upanga text called the Jivajivabhigama sutra.32 These eternal shrines are found in various heavens and on mountain peaks. The Nandisvara dvipa, for example, is reported to have fiftytwo Siddhayatanas in all (Fig. 179). These descriptions again make no reference to the lanchanas of the various Tirtharkaras. Varahamihira who described the Jina image did not refer to the cognizance. There was enough scope for introducing the lanchanas in the Samavayanga-sutra, the Kalpa-sutra and the Sthananga-sutra in the age of the vacana (edition of the canon) under Arya Skandila in the Mathura Council of c. 300-315 A.D. or even in the Valabhi vacana of c. 453 A.D., but we do not find any mention of them. But still we find the lanchanas being introduced from late fourth or early fifth century A.D. as at Sira Pahari, Rajgir etc. But their position on the pedestal of a Jina image was not fixed nor was the cognizance universally popular in art. What was the basis or the source from which the list of lanchanas was prepared? In the State Museum, Lucknow, there is a small square pillar, Mu. No. J.268, with low relief carvings on two sides only. It hails from the Kankali Tila, Mathura. A relief on one side shows a male and a female circumambulating a pillar sumounted by a lion. The style of carvings (Fig. 164) suggests an age c. second or first century B.C. Circumambulation of the pillar in this relief shows that this lionpillar was regarded as a sacred object. We are here reminded of the garuda-dhvaja set up by Heliodorus at Vidisa in front of a Visnu-temple. We also know of tala-dhvaja capital (which must have been set up in front of a shrine of Balarama) and a Banyan-tree capital probably from a pillar in front of a shrine of Kubera; a makara-dhaja capital probably came from a pillar in front of a shrine of Kamadeva or Pradyumna, one of the Vrsni Viras, of Pancaratra worship. This Simha-dhvaja (lion-pillar) held sacred by the Jainas of Mathura is a miniature representation in relief of a bigger Simha-dhvaja which might have been erected in front of a shrine dedicated to Varddhamana Mahavira, since the lion is known to have been the cognizance (lanchana) of Mahavira. Acarya Hemacandra while listing the lanchanas of the twenty-four Jinas in his Abhidhana-Cintamani kosa calls them Arhatam dhvajah (the dhvajas or heralds of the Arhats, the signs on the banners of the Tirthankaras).33 This is also the view of the Digambara writer Pandit Asadhara that the herald of the Ksatriya family of each Jina became his lanchana.34 We know from an Ahicchatra terracotta plaque, published by V.S. Agrawala, showing two Mahabharata heroes fighting, that they had two different emblems (boar and the crescent) on their banners (dhvajas).35 According to Jaina traditions, all the Tirthankaras were born in Ksatriya families. So, the emblems or crests on their banners were regarded as their cognizances

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Devadhideva Tirthankara 87 which begin to appear from c. fourth or fifth century onwards on pedestals of Tirthaikara images in order to facilitate their identification. This became necessary because all sculptures of various Tiranthankaras, whether standing or sitting, are of a set form and are not portrait sculptures or copies of old. portraits. In the Kusana period the cognizances were not carved on images of the Tirtharkaras and they could be recognised only when their names were mentioned in the votive inscriptions on their pedestals. It was therefore concluded that lanchanas were not known in the Kusana period and were introduced afterwards. But now that we have a simha-dhvaja as an object of veneration amongst the Jainas at Mathura during the Kusana period, it is reasonable to conclude that in the Kusana age, and in at least c. first or second century B.C., there existed dhvaja-eniblems on different dlvaja-stambhas for shrines of different Tirthankaras. On the Ayagapala illustrated in Fig. 11, dedicated by Sihanadika, discovered from Kankali Tila, Mathura (now no. J.249, State Museum, Lucknow), we find the Jina seated in the centre, and on the two sides, towards the ends of the pata, two pillars, one surmounted by the dharmacakra and the other by an elephant. Elephant is the dhvaja or crest or emblem of Ajitanatha, the second Tirthankara. Hence the Jina in the centre is Ajitanatha. On the Ayagapata set up by Acala, illustrated here in Fig. 10 (no. J.252, State Museum, Lucknow), we find one pillar surmouted by the dharmacakra and the other by a lion. The Jina in the centre of this Ayagapata must, therefore, be identified as Mahavira, whose dhvaja-emblem is the lion. Such dvaja-crests later came to be recognised as cognizances or the lanchanas, on images of the respective Tirtha karas. Tirtharkaras are said to be of different complexions. According to the Sve. tradition represented by Hemacandra in his Abhidana-Cintamani kosa (1.49), Padmaprabha and Vasupujya are red in complexion, Candraprabha and Puspadanta are white, Munisuvrata and Neminatha are black, Mallinatha and Parsva are of nila complexion indigo colour), while the rest, namely, Rsabha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana, Sumati, Suparsva, Sitala, Sreyamsa, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma. Santi. Kunthu, Ara, and Varddhamana Mahavira are golden in complexion. According to the Tiloyapannatti (4.588-89) representing the Digambara tradition, Suparsva and Parsva are of harita-varna (greenish complexion) while Munisuvrata and Nemi are of nila-varna (indigo colour, dark-blue in complexion), Candraprabha and Puspadanta are white and Padmaprabha and Vasupujya are red as in the Sve. tradition while all the remaining Tirthankaras are of golden complexion. Asadhara practically agrees with the Tiloyapannatti. Vasunandi in his Pratisthasaroddhara (in mss.) says that Munisuvrata and Nemi have complexions like the marakata gem (emerald, i.e., greenish complexion) while the other Digambara texts mentioned above say that they are of nila varna. The complexions and the lanchanas help us to identify the various Jinas in images or paintings. Rsabhanatha (Adinatha, the first Lord, the first Tirthao kara) is further identified on account of the hair-locks falling on his shoulders. At the time of diksa, i.e., while renouncing the world and becoming a Jaina monk, every Tirthankara plucks out all the hair on his head in five fist-fulls (panca-musti-loca) and Indra, who comes to celebrate the diksa-kalyanaka, collects them in the hollow of palms of his hands. Rsabhadeva's hair were very beautiful and when Rsabha became a monk and pluked out most of the hair in four fist-fulls, Indra specially requested the Lord to allow the back-hair, falling on the shoulders, to remain as they looked very charming 36 All the other Tirthankaras are reported to have removed all the hair on their heads. Ravisena in his Padmacarita37 praises the jara on the head of Rsabha. In art, one finds big iata on the head of Rsabha (see Figs. 25, 32, 57). Rsabha thus obtains close comparison with the form of Siva, who is known to wear jata on his head. Siva's association with his bull vahana is wellknown in both art and literature. In Jaina iconography we find that the attendant yaksa of Rsabhanatha is a cow or bull-faced yaksa called Go-mukha yaksa. Again the bull or Nandi is the cognizance of first Jina Rsabhanatha. Siva is well-known as Nandikesvara. Every Tirthankara obtained Kevalajnana (Supreme Knowledge) while meditating under a tree. Such a tree. called Caitya-vrksa, being associated with the Kevalajnana of each Tirthankara, is specified in the texts of both the Jaina sects, and in representation, each Tirthankara is shown sitting under a Caitya-vsksa. In iconography, one would, therefore, expect each Tirthankara sitting under the particular tree associated

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88 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana with his Kevalajnana. But it seems that, when the asta-mahapratiharyas common to all Tirthankaras were fixed, it was the Asoka-tree which came to be represented as the Caitya-vrksa over the heads of all the Jinas, so far as image worship is concerned. We must confess, however, that we have not tried to verify in cases of several old Tirthankara sculptures from north and south whether specific Caitya-vrksas were ever carved associated with different Jinas. Tree-worship, popular in ancient times, noticed in the Vedas, found to have existed in the Chalcolithic period (as can be seen from representations on some of the Indus-Valley seals), formed an important part of the religious beliefs and practices of the masses with whom Buddha and Mahavira were mainly concerned in their opposition to the Vedic priestly class and its rituals involving animal-slaughter. The spirits dwelling in the trees were Nagas, Yaksas, Gandharvas, Bhutas etc.,38 easily approachable without undertaking complex sacrificial rituals. It is the Caityas, with udyanas (parks and forest-groves) having Caitya-vyksas in them, that Mahavira is generally reported to have visited and stayed in during his wanderings. People used to sit in meditation under such trees and in such moments Buddha and Mahavira are said to have obtained enlightenment.39 Since the Buddha was not represented in human form in early Buddhist worship, Rodhi-Tree attained greater importance in Buddhist art, while the Jainas were more or less satisfed with recording of the Caitya-trees of different Tirthankaras and giving them only a secondary importance in art. Possibly on account of its age-long existence as an object of worship (not only in India but even amongst other countries and cultures-cf., for example, the tradition of the Christmas Tree), the Caitya-vrksa was introduced in relief sculptures of Tirthankaras, sometimes by showing well spread full foliage and at other times by showing a couple of twigs or branches with a few leaves. Also perhaps because of the intimate association of Yaksas etc. with trees and because the followers of Mahavira were mainly from his audience of masses worshipping the Yaksa-Caityas or Yaksa-ayatanas, Caitya-vrksas were introduced in sculptures of the Devadhideva-Tirthankara. But the Jainas and the Buddhists gave a new meaning to the Tree-Worship. Trees were worshipped, not because they were haunted by spirits, but specially because their patriarchs obtained enlightenment under shades of such trees. That the Caitya-tree was given importance due to the ancient and primitive Tree-Cult of the masses is proved by the fact that even now, in the villages and towns of India, trees like the Asvattha tree or the Vata tree are held very sacred and worshipped. Often, as of old, there is a wide big platform constructed around it which is used by villagers as a meeting place. Also, in both north and south of India one finds small idols or figures of horses etc. placed under such trees near the trunks. As already noted, in some relief sculptures of Tirthankaras, Caitya-trees under which they sit are prominently depicted. Compare, for example, the beautiful rock-cut relief of a Jina sitting under a big Caitya-vrksa, at Kalugumalai, illustrated by this writer in his Studies in Jaina Art, figure 72; figure 73 (in the same book) is another similar example, from Patan, North Gujarat, of a big Caitya-tree, while figure 75 is another such evidence from Surat. With the introduction of the lanchanas on pedestals of sculptures of different Jinas the Caitya-vyksas have lost much of their value in identifying images of different Tirthankaras. A list of Caitya-trees of the 24 Tirthankaras of this avasarpini ara in the Bharata Ksetra is given below. 41. The parikara or the paraphernalia of a Jina or the group of attendant figures on a Jina image was evolved gradually. No. J.60 in the Lucknow Museum, originally from Kankali Tila, Mathura, shows on each side of the Jina an attendant with folded hands and not a flywhisk-bearer (camaradhara) yaksa. No. J.7, Lucknow Museum, representing a standing Jina from Kankali Tila, Mathura, and dating from the Kusana period, has a big tree carved on the back and, on four sides below, near the legs, we find figures of a monk, a nun, a male worshipper (sravaka) and a female worshipper (sravika) with a child. No. 161 in the Bharata Kala Bhavana, representing Mahavira, from Varanasi, is a beautiful Jaina sculpture of the Gupta period, which again does not show the triple umbrella, or the heavenly music, the devadundubhi, etc. Such examples demonstrate the gradual introduction of the various members of the parikara on a Jina image. Perhaps the parikara with astamahapratiharyas was evolved in about sixth century A.D., as is suggested by a beautiful sculpture of Parsvanatha from Gyaraspur in Madhya Pradesh, now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.40

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara Caitya-Vksas of 24 Jinas of this Age No. Tirtharikara Svetambara Digambara* 1. Rsabhanatha 2. Ajitanatha 3. Sambhavanatha 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumatinatha 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsvanatha 8. Candraprabha 9. Puspadanta (Suvidhi) 10. Sitalanatha 11. Sreyamsanatha 12. Vasupujya 13. Vimalanatha Anantanatha Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthunatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha 20. Munisuvrata 21. Naminatha Neminatha 23. Parsvanatha 24. Mahavira Nyagrodha Saptaparna Sala (Shorea Robusta) Piyaka or Priyaka Priyangu (Panicum italicum) Caturabha (Anethum sowa) Sirisa (Acacia sirisha) NagaMaii Pilankhu Tinduga Patala (Bignonia Suaveolens) Jambu (Eugenia jambolana) Asvattha Dadhiparna (Cletoria ternatia) Nandi (Cedrela toona) Tilaka Amra Asoka Campaka (Michelia Campaka) Bakula (Mimusops elengi) Vetasa Dhataki (Grislea tomentosa) Sala Same as in Sve. Same or Sala Same or Prayala Sarala or Priyangu Same or Sala Priyangu or Chatra Same as in Sve. Same as in Sve. Aksa or Sali Dhuli or Priyangu Palasa or Tanduka Tenduva or Patala Pacala or Jambu Same or Asoka Same as in Sve. Same Same 14. Same Same Same Same Mesasonga or Vetasa Dhava or Dhataki Same as in Sve. *The alternative names in Digambara list are from Tiruparuttikunram and Its Temples, pp. 195-196. Several experiments were made in the evolution of the parikara from about the late Gupta period. In the post-Gupta age, especially in Eastern India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa), when belief in astrology and planetary influence might have been very popular, an attempt was made to represent the eight planets on two sides of the Tirthaikara, as we find in Figs. 24 and 25, even though planets have no place amongst the asta-mahapratiharyas or amongst the atisayas. The Samavayanga sutra, referred to before, giving a list of the various atisayas, includes seven of the eight mahapratiharyas (except devadundubhi the eighth), but does not separately specify them. The Avasyaka Niryukti41 says that, in the Samavasarana of a Jina, the Vanamantara gods create (1) the caitya-tree, (2) the simhasana with picha (redestal), (3) the chatra-traya (triple umbrella), (4) the camaradharas (flywhisk-bearers), and (5) other necessary things. The last item, as explained by Haribhadra suri in his comm., is the dharmacakra resting on a lotus. It should be remembered that while the Avasyaka Niryukti gives only five, later traditions describe all the eight maharratiharyas as originating in the Samavasarana. Paumacariyam (c. 473 A.D.),42 describing the various arisayas created by gods when Mahavira obtained Kevalajnana, says that lotuses were placed before the Jina to place his footsteps on. Mahavira

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90 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana used the Ardhamagadhi speech, a simhasana was created for him, heavenly drums (devadundubhi) were beaten, and celestial flowers were scattered over him, a beautiful sound arose (divyadhvani) for a yojana on all sides. The text further says that Mahavira was attended upon by eight pratiharyas. While describing the Samavasarana of Rsabha, the same text specifies, amongst other atisayas, the triple-umbrella, the nimbus, the kalpa (asoka) tree, the heavenly drum, the shower of flowers. The Avasyaka curni of Jinadasa (676 A.D.), 43 describing the Samavasarana of Mahavira, refers to the following only: Asoka-tree, triple-umbrella, camaradharas, simhasana with pitha, and dharmacakra placed on the lotus. Mahavira faces the east while on the three sides gods install his likenesses. This fact is referred to by the Avasyka Niryukti as well. The Harivamsa-purana of Jinasena (783 A.D.)44 refers to 8 pratiharyas and 34 atisayas. According to this Digambar text, the eight celestial accompaniments (pratiharyas-lit. gate-keepers, here attendants) of Neminatha are: sura-puspa-vrsti, divya-dundubhi, Asoka-vyksa, chatra-traya, camaradharanam samuhah (host of flywhisk-bearers), bhamandala, simhasana and bhasa (speech) of the Jina understandable to all creatures. The Adipurina 45 refers to these eight pratiharyas in the Samavasarana of Rsabha, the last one is called divya-dhvani. Both the Harivamsa and the Adipurana differ from the Tiloyapannalist in Owy one point, that is, the last one-divya-dhvani. The Tiloyapannatti says that Ganas (ganadharas or the different followers of ganadharas) attend upon the Jina with folded hands, and omits the divya-dlani.46 These early Digambara traditions omit the dharmacakra in the list of the eight pratiharyas though of course it is not omitted in the description of the congregation (samavasarapa) of the Jina or in the separate list of 34 atisayas as shown above. The Vasudevahindi 47 (c. fifth century A.D.) while describing the Samavasarana of Santinatha, includes all these elements and adds that a dharmacakra was placed near the feet of the Jina. The bhamandala (halo) is however not mentioned while the divya-dhvani seems to have been understood when the author says that the Gandharvas began singing and the Bhutas issued a cry (of victory) resembling simhanada (lion's roar). These have not been specified as asta-mahapratiharyas. It is thus obvious that the conception of the eight maha-pratiharyas took its final form at the end of the Gupta period, probably in the post-Gupta age. Though earliest lists of atisayas included almost all these elements, they were not classified as such upto c. fifth century A.D. According to the Samavayanga sutra list. the dharmacakra moved in the sky in front of the Jina. This early tradition is followed by Hemacandra in his list of atisayas. In representations, the Wheel of Law is always placed in the centre of the simhasana or the pedestal. It is not included in the stock list of the asia-maha-pratiharyas. 18 The Acara-Dinakara49 describes the parikara (lit. paraphernalia, attendant elements) of a Jina image as follows: Below the figure of a Jina is the simhasana, with figures of elephants and lions; on two sides of the Jina (in the centre, sitting in padmasana or standing in the kayotsarga posture) are two chowrie-bearers (camaradharas) and two attendants with folded hands (anjali-kara). Over the head of the Jina are, in order, the triple-umbrella having on two sides two elephants carrying golden pitchers in trunks and surmounted by beaters of Zarzara, a kind of cymbals ((evidently representing the sura-dundubhi ?); over these are the garland-bearers (sura-puspa-vrsti), over them the conch-blowers (representing divya-dhvani ?) and on top of the whole sculpture, the kalasa (water-pot) finial. The bhamandala, though not mentioned here in the parikara of a Jina, was presumed by the author since the practice of representing a halo behind the head of a deity is both ancient and common to all sects in India, and since it is found behind Tirthankaras from ancient times. The two attendants with folded hands (anjalik aras) remind one of the Tiloyapanpati tradition of astapratiharyas which included ganas with folded hands. Some Tirthankara images from Mathura, dating from the Kusana age, have shown Naga figures standing with folded hands on two sides of the Jina. And in the case of the standing Jina-image, no. J.7 in the Lucknow Museum, one each of the four members of the Jaina samgha (sruvaka, sravika, sadhu, sadhvi) stands near the legs with folded hands on each end of the pedestal.50 The Acara-Dinakara further adds that, according to another tradition, the dharma-caka, flanked by two deer, and the planets on its two sides, was to be carved in the centre of the simhasana. This would

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Devadhideva Tirtharikara 91 also suggest that the dharma-cakra etc. were sometimes carved either on top of the simhasana or at base (i.e., on the pipha on which the lion-throne is placed). In the Kusana period, the dharma-cakra was placed in the centre of the lion-throne and on two sides were shown the monks, nuns, sravakas and sravikas constituting the tirtha or the four-fold Jaina Samgha. No early texts refer to the deer on each side of the Wheel. It may therefore be safely concluded that the motif of the two deer flanking the sides of the dharma-cakra on pedestals of Tirthankara images is a later innovation in Jaina iconography. Archaeological evidence from all over India has shown that this deer-motif in Jainism was started somewhere near the beginning of the mediaeval period, probably towards the end of the transitional post-Gupta age in Indian art-history. This motif is in imitation of the Buddhist one symbolising Buddha's first sermon in the Deer-park. Its presence in Jaina iconography cannot be explained. Figure 27 installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta, dating from fourth century A.D., shows the Wheel in the centre of the simha sana but no lanchanas nor the deer-motif are shown. Figure 26 from Vaibhara giri, Rajgir, shows the dharmacakra with the cakrapurusa in the centre of the simhasana. The Wheel of Law is flanked by conches, the cognizance (anriana) of Jina Neminatha. The sculpture dates from the fifth century A.D. Figure 25 from Musee Guimet, originally perhaps from Orissa, shows the bull cognizance in the centre of the pedestal, four planets seated on each side of the standing Jina, a halo, the triple-umbrella, two heavenly garland-bearers (surapuspavrsti), a pair of hands beating the drum and a pair of hands playing the cymbals (divyadhvani), lotus below the feet of the Jina, two attendant standing camaradharas but no sim/:asana and no dharmacakra. The sculpture dates from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. Figure 49 from the ceiling of a shrine in Kambadahalli, Karnataka, shows Mahavira sitting on a simhasana with two lions at two ends and one in the centre. This central lion figure represents the cognizance of Mahavira. This relief sculpture shows a fully evolved parikara from south Karnataka. The Jina has a halo, a triple-umbrella over his head, and over it the Asoka tree, and two heavenly beings on each side in the sky. Of the four camaradaras, two are Nagas and two others are Yaksas. To the right of the lion-throne is the two-armed pot-bellied Sasana-Yaksa and on the corresponding left is the Sasana-Yaksi. Figure 55 probably from Mathura, illustrated by Smith in his book on the Jaina Stupa, now preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow, dates from c. eighth century A.D. It is an interesting specimen as the simhasana shows the dharmacakra in the centre with a devotee on each side of the Wheel, also there is the bull cognizance on the right side of the Wheel while on the left is a figure of a deer. The deer is in imitation of the Buddhist motif while the bull would suggest that the Jina sitting on the throne represented Rsabhanatha. The head is mutilated and lost. On each side of the Jina is a camaradhara standing on a lotus. To the right of the Jina is a four-armed Balarama with snake-hoods overhead and a standing attendant (female ?). To the corresponding left of the Jina is kopa four-armed and a two-armed female attendant. The presence of Balarama and Krsna would have suggested that the Jina figure represented Neminatha, the cousin brother of Kisa according to Jaina Puranas but the bull cognizance and traces of hair-lock on the shoulder of the Jina show that the Jina is Rsabhanatha. The introduction of Krsna and Balarama is here due to the influence of Vaispavism. Equally interesting is no. J.776 in Lucknow Museum, illustrated here as Fig. 72, which shows dharmacakra in the centre of the lion-throne below which in the centre of the inscribed pedestal is the tortoise (kurma) the cognizance of Munisuvrata. Above the triple-umbrella is a small sitting Jina flanked by Krsna and Balarama. The sculpture shows a very evolved parikara and two Jivantasvami figures. In Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh the Planets are shown below the lion-throne, either on top of the pedestal or on the face of the pedestal or on the lower end of the same, see Figs. 87, 189; also Fig. 74 in Studies in Jaina Art. That the dharmacakra is an ancient motif or symbol worshipped by the Jainas is supported by archaeological evidence from Kankali Tila, Mathura, etc. and by the Avasyaka Niryukti51 tradition that Bahubali established, at Taksasila, the dharmacakra, on the spot where Rsabhanatha had stayed for one night. Images of Tirthankaras are worshipped in only two principal varieties, namely, standing or sitting,52

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92 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Both these varieties show the Tirthankara either with parikara or without it. The CeiyavandanaMahabhasa of Santi suri tried to account for the parikara. The Jinas were liberated souls, where was the propriety for a parivara (paraphernalia) accompanying them? According to some, this form of the image, showing the parivara, represented the form of a Jina giving his Sermon (sitting on the simhasana in the dhyana mudra) in a samavasarana. According to the author of the Ceiyavandana-Mahabhasa53 this was the popular explantation (vyavahara) but the real significance (paramartha) was that the three stages (avastha-traya) in a Jina's life, namely, Chadmastha, Kevali and Siddha avasthas were suggested by such a representation. The explanation is not convincing but an explanation became necessary firstly because a liberated soul, a siddha or mukta, needed no attendants and secondly because the parikara was being shown around standing figures as well. It seems that originally the introduction of parikara was based on the conception of the atisayas rather than on anything else. The Vastusara of Thakkara Feru, composed in v.s. 1372 (1316 A.D.), describes the parikara of a Jina image.54 According to it, the simha sana has a yaksi and a yaksa on its two extreme ends while between the two are two lions, two elephants and two chowrie-bearers, 55 one on each side, and in the centre of the seat is the goddess Cakresvari, riding on the eagle. Below her figure is the dh -- - with a deer on each side. The lanchana of the Jina is carved in the centre of the gadi (Gujarati, cushion) placed upon the simhasana. The back-slab in front of which the Jina-figure is placed shows in high relief) chowrie-bearers and other standing Jina figures on both the sides. Over the standing Jinas are two (smaller figures of) Jinas in the sitting posture, above which is a torana motif. The Jina in the centre (the chief deity in such a sculpture) has a triple umbrella overhead, an aureole behind, and on two sides of the chatra are two garland-bearers, two conch-bearers, two elephants surmounted by Harinegamesin and the drum-beaters. The parikara described by Thakkara Feru is of a Panca-Tirthika sculpture, that is, a sculpture which represents five Tirthankaras in all (cf. Fig. 69). If the two sitting Tirthaokaras are omitted then it would be a Tri-Tirthika sculpture, i.e., a sculpture which has images of three Tirthankaras (they may be sitting and/ or standing, cf. Fig. 26) while a sculpture with 24 images of Jinas will be a Caturvimsati-pafa (or a Covisi in modern usage). The sculpture would be a Pancatirthi or Tri-Tirthi or Covisi of Rsabhanatha if the central Jina is Rsabhanatha. In all such groupings usually the lanchana of the main Jina alone is carved on the pedestal. A noteworthy feature of Thakkara Feru's description is the presence of goddess Cakresvari in the centre of the asana.56 This is a late feature in Jaina iconography. Formerly the place was reserved for the dharmacakra. Again, in a majority of sculptures known hitherto, another goddess, four-armed and riding on the elephant, is seen on the lion-thrones of Svetambara sculptures from about twelfth century onwards. The goddess shows the lotus in each of her two upper hands, the rosary and/or the varada mudra in the right lower hand and the water-pot in the left lower. She may be identified as the Santi-devi57 (see Fig. 168). But the practice of adding some such figure started about a couple of centuries earlier, though its position was in the centre of the lowermost edge of the pedestal, see Fig. 87. Besides the figure was not the four-armed goddess described above but a two-armed figure,58 either a pot-bellied male figure with a beard, or a two-armed female figure (see Figure 27 in Paper no. 6, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture). This female figure shows the water-pot in one hand. Perhaps the male figure was intended to be Sarvanubhuti. The figure of four-armed Sinti-devi represents a later stage. The Nirvanakalika (Sve. c. 11th century A.D.) refers to eight pratiharyas, the Yaksa, the Sasana-devi (Yaksi), the motif of dharmacakra with two deer and the ratna-dhvaja (jewelled banner possibly signifying the Indradhvaja).59 It omits any reference to the devi noted above and the introduction of this goddess cannot be assigned to a period much earlier than that of the Nirvanakalika. Vasunandi (c. 12th cent. A.D.), author of the Digambara text Pratistha-sarasamgraha, describing the parikara, refers to the pratiharyas, the Yaksa on the right of the seat and the Yaksi on the corresponding Jeft. The lanchana is to be placed below the pada-pipha (foot-stool or the pedestal ?).60 Pandit Asadhara (v.s. 1285= A.D. 1228) follows the above tradition in his Pratistha-saroddhara.61 Jaina Bhandaras at Patan and Baroda contain copies of relevant Jaina portions of the Silpa text

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Devadhideva Tirthankara 93 Aparajitaprccha, whose printed text has some missing portions. The editors of the Kumarapalacarita of Jayasimha suri printed as Appendix 3 some portion from this work which is not available in the printed text. This portion is published here as Appendix I at the end of this chapter. Verse 12 from it refers to the goddess in the centre of the asana, lotus in hand and described as the Adi-sakti of Jina Rsabhanatha. She is said to be sahaja and kulaja possibly because she is the Gotra-devata or the tutelary mother-goddess of the family (kula) of Rsabhanatha. The description in this portion shows that the elephant and the lion (on the simhasana or the gajasimha motif of the back-seat ?) stand for the eight quarter-elephants. The dharmacakra, the nine planets, the Indra and Upendra holding the fly-whisks, the garland-bearers, the Bharatendras carrying pitchers, the lute and pipe players, the drum-beaters, the triple umbrella, the bhamandala, the Yaksa and the Yaksi are also described. It is said that of the two deer flanking the dharmacakra, one, a male, represents Sattva and the other, a female, stands for Karuna.62 The camaradharas amongst the pratiharyas of a Jina, referred to above, are two yaksas carrying white chowries, according to Hemacandra 63 and all other Svetambara writers. According to the Digambara tradition represented by Adipurana 64 and other texts, sixty-four yaksas attend upon a Jina with flywhisks in hand, in every samavasarana. Un representations both the traditions represent only two male camaradharas, who must be regarded as yaksas. The view of B.C. Bhattacharya 65 that these represent attendant Ganadharas holding chowries is not supported by any text known to us nor has he cited any text in support of his view. He has further given name of one chowrie-bearer at least for every Tirthankara which again is left unsupported by any reference to texts.66 Then, going against his own theory he says that the chowrie-bearer of Ajitanatha is Sagara-Cakravarti, and thus not a Ganadhara of Ajitanatha. The earliest known tradition regarding the iconography of a Tirthankara image is however obtained from Jaina canonical texts. True it is that references to images and temples of Tirthankaras on this earth are extremely rare and their genuineness is sometimes suspected. Even though images of not even one of the twenty-four Tirthankaras are described in the Jaina Agamas, we are able to obtain an early conception of the Jina-Image from the stock description of the Sasvata-Jina-Pratima. Both the Jaina sects refer to Siddhayatanas (lit. shrines of the Siddhas, also called Sasvata-Caityas or Eternal shrines) containing images of Tirthankaras known as Sasvata-Jinas. These images are of four Tirtharkaras known as Candranana, Varisena, Rsabha and Varddhamana.67 The Nandisvara-dvipa, for example, is known to have fifty-two such Siddhayatanas in all. Description of the Siddhayatana in the N.E. of the Sudharma-Sabha of Saudharma Indra, as given in the Jivajivabhigama-sutra,68 is as follows: Like the Sudharma Sabha, it has three gates (entrances) in the east, south and north. Situated in front of these gates are the mukhamandapas while the preksamandapas are erected in front of the latter. In front of preksamandapas are Caitya-sfupas with images (pratima), then are situated the Caitya-vrk sas, then the Mahendra-dhvajas (shafts in honour of Indra), then the Nanda-puskarinis (extensive reservoirs of water, tanks, with flights of steps) and so on. In the centre of the extremely beautiful Siddhayatana is a very big manipilhika (jewelled platform). A Devacchandaka of jewels is erected on the manipishika. This sanctum of the gods has 108 life-size images of the Tirtha karas installed therein. The traditional description of these images is the same in all Agama texts. These Sasvata-pratimas are described as having the palms of hands and soles of feet made of gold, nails of Anka jewels and Johitaksa jewels; the shanks, the knees, the thighs, limbs of the body, navels, nipples, and the Srivatsa mark on the chest all made of gold. The line of hair on the body, the retina of the eyes, eye-lashes and eye-brows are said to have been made of the Rista-jewel while the lips are of coral and the teeth of crystals. The tongue, ears, forehead, cheek etc. are made of gold. At the back of these idols of the Jinas are figures of umbrella-bearers gracefully holding white umbrellas, wreaths and garlands of korapia flowers, extremely white and lustrous like the snow, silver, jasmine and the moon. On each side of the image of the Jina are two figures of the camaradharas, holding in their hands chowries having golden handles. In front of the Jina is a pair (one on each side) of naga-figures, of vaksas, bhutas and of the kundadharas bowing and falling at the feet of the Lord. In front

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94 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana of the images of the Lord are placed bells, candanakalasas (the same as mangalakalasas ?), auspicious pots made of sandal-wood, bhlngaras (jars), mirrors, dishes, vessels, seats, empty jars, boxes of jewels, necks of horses, elephants, men, kinnaras, kimpurusas, mahoragas, gandharvas, bulls, caskets (cangeri) of flowers, garlands, flowers, unguents, etc. or mops of peacock-feathers, baskets of flowers, garlands, powders (curna), etc., 108 each of the lion-thrones, umbrellas, fly-whisks, oil-pots (samudgaka), and pots of kostha, coyaka, tagara, haritala, hingula, manahsila, collyrium and 108 banners.69 On tops of the Siddhoyatanas were placed numerous figures of the auspicious eight symbols (asta-margalas).70 Though the set of astantahapratiharyas is not given the term astamahapratiharya is not known to the Agamas), some of them do figure in the above description. The conception of assamangalas is however an ancient one since it is already known to the Agamas. But the above description obtains interesting comparison with Tirthankara images of the Kusana age obtained from Mathura (nos. J.7, J.60, J.117, Lucknow Museum, J.268, B.63, Mathura Museum, no. 161, Bharata Kala Bhavana, Varanasi, illustrated by us in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper no. 6, figures 3. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10-12). We find here, on each side of Jina, a chowrie-beare- a Nang standing with folded hands, and occasionally a maladhara on each side at top of the sculptu.e; kundadnaras, according to commentators, are minor gods who are issued orders (ajnadharins), but if kunda was understood as a type of water-vessel in those times, then we have a parallel in Mathura where sometimes an attendant figure on one side carries a water-pot as in the well-known inscribed headless image of Sarasvati from Kankali Tila, Mathura. The triple-umbrella is also shown on Mathura sculptures, as also the Caitya-tree, and in rare cases, an umbrella-bearer or the Caitya-tree on the back of the Jina images. The above description makes no mention of the lanchanas or the attendant Yaksas and Yaksinis (Sasanadevatas). These motifs are absent in Mathura sculptures of the Kusana period. Especially noteworthy is the Sri-vatsa mark on the chest mentioned by the canons and almost invariably obtained on Tirtharkara images of the Kusana age. It seems that marks on soles of feet and palms of hands and Sri-vatsa mark on the chest--which are amongst laksanas of a Mahapurusa-were regarded amongst the chief characteristics of a Tirtha kara image. The canonical description does not refer to any garment on the Sasyata-Jina-Pratima which is also the case with all the Jaina images in India, of the Kusana or earlier periods, known hitherto. But nowhere in the above references from Svetambara as well as Digambara texts do we come across a reference to those figures on the simhasana (or pedestal) of a Jina which we find in a number of sculptures of the Kusana period from Kankali Tila, Mathura. Firstly, the dharmacakra, shown in the centre of the lion-throne, is often placed on top of a pillar, sometimes with the rim facing us and sometimes with the broader side with the spokes shown. In a rare case we have a dwarf holding the Wheel of Law above his head. In a few cases the Wheel is placed on a tri-ratna symbol. Secondly, to the right of the Wheel of Law we have a monk with a rajoharana (broom with a handle, a broom-stick) held in his right hand and a broad piece of cloth on the wrist of the left hand held in such a way that the privies are shielded from view. All the Jaina monks on these pedestals and even in the Tablet of Ascetic Kanha (Fig. 21) hold this piece of cloth in this fashion and are otherwise naked. To the right of the monks are found in order figures of one or more monks and/or figures of lay Jaina male devotees in full attire. To the left of the dharmacakra is usually a Jaina nun with a long coat-like garment and an under-garment, and carrying a rajoharana in one of her hands.71 Next to her are either one or more nuns and/or standing female lay worshippers carrying long objects which are either garlands or purses. Sometimes some dwarfish figures accompany the sravikas. They may be children or attendant servants. Obviously, the earliest known tradition showed, in the parikara (or parivara ?) of a Jina, the four-fold Jaina Samgha (constituted by the sadhu, the sadhvi, the sravaka and the sravika) on two sides of the dharmacakra. In the case of the standing figure of Aristanemi (no. J.18, Lucknow Museum, and Fig. 19 in Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolismi, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper 6), there is a

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Devadhideva Tirthankara 95 sravaka standing near the right leg, a sravika near the left leg and on the pedestal a ganadhara to the right of the wheel and a nun to the left. No. J.20 in the Lucknow Museum72 is the pedestal of the image of Arhato Munirsurvrata (Arhat Munisuvrata) as correctly read by K.D. Bajpai and not of Arhat Nandyavarta as read formerly. The pedestal shows the Wheel on a Triratna symbol to the left of which all the standing females seem to be Jaina sravikas. It appears that traditions about the parikara of the Jina-image were crystallised after the Kusana and Gupta periods. Perhaps the tradition of asta-maha-pratiharyas was also finalised later and its application to the image was certainly not finally settled till the end of the Gupta period as suggested by a study of images in the Mathura Museum, Lucknow Museum, at Sira Pahari near Nachana in Madhya Pradesh, the famous sculpture of Neminatha at Rajgir mentioning Candragupta, and the three images installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta, obtained from a place near Vidisa. The description of the Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas makes no mention of the lanchanas of the Jinas nor do we find any reference to the Sasana-devatas or the attendant Yaksa and Yaksi figures. These motifs are absent on Jina images in Mathura during the Kusana period. Especially noteworthy is the sri-vatsa mark on the chest mentioned by the canons and almost invariably obtained on Tirthankara images of the Kusana period. But the canonical reference also cannot be certainly regarded as older than the age of the Mathura Council of the early fourth century A.D. The sri-vatsa mark is not seen on the polished Mauryan torso of a Jina image from Lohanipur near Patna nor is it seen on the standing Parsvanatha bronze in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, which we have assigned to a period c. 1st cent. B.C. or earlier. It seems certain that like the motif of the two deer on the sides of the dharmacakra borrowed from the Buddhists, the sri-vatsa motif was introduced under Vaisnava Pancaratra influence at Mathura. This motif is absent on early Jaina sculptures in the South where the Jainas seem to have penetrated from about the third cent. B.C. In the South even in later periods the sri-vatsa motif is only occasionally seen. This very fact suggests that originally the motif was absent on Jaina images and was introduced under strong Vaisnava influence probably at Mathura.73 It seems that marks on soles of feet and palms of hands and the sri-vatsa mark on the chest, etc. taken from the ancient tradition of Mahapurusa-laksanas came to be regarded as chief characteristics of a Jina image. The texts describing the sasvata-Jina-pratimas do not refer to garments on the figure of the sasvata-Jina. No early Jaina text refers to the lists of (thirty-two) Mahapurusa-laksanas so common in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit texts and other Buddhist works. However, the Aupapatika sutra, an upanga Jaina Agama text (assignable to c. third or fourth century A.D.), giving the stock description (varnaka) of Mahavira's body, gives a very interesting account, which agrees, often in similar phraseology, with the Mahapurusa-laksanas of early Buddhist texts. According to the Aupapatika sutra description of Mahavira's body,74 Mahavira's height was seven cubits and the frame of his body as strong as the vajra, his breath fragrant like the lotus and he was handsome to look at. The body was free from sweating and such other defects. The front of his head (agrasiras) was strong and high like the peak (kutakara), and the hair on the head being dark and of thick growth, lying in schematic curls (pradaksinavartta). The scalp of the Lord, resembling a bunch of pomegranate flowers, was pure and smooth like gold; his head was shaped like an umbrella (chatrakara); his unsullied forehead (lalata) possessed the lustre of the new-moon, ears lovely, proportionate and good, the cheeks healthy and full. His eye-lashes thin, dark and smooth, looked beautiful like a bent bow, the wide eyes resembled the full-blown white-lotus, each eye-lash having a white hair; his nose was long, straight and uplifted like that of an eagle; his lower lip looked lovely and red like the coral, the cherry or the bimba-fruit; the rows of teeth, lustrous like the white moon, conch, milk, etc., were complete, indistinct, unbroken and smooth; his palate and tongue shone like the red-hot gold; his beard and moustache were well-dressed and grown in proportion to his age. His chin was well-set and well-developed like that of a lion; his neck, four angulas in length, looked like the conch (kambu-griva). His shoulder was broad and rounded (pratipurna) like that of a buffalo, the bull, the lion, the boar and the elephant; his round, well-developed, muscular arms, with steady joints, were long like the latch of a city-gate; his hands, big and strong, looked like a cobra with expanded hood; his palms were soft and muscular, red and

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96 - Jaina-Rupa-Mandana endowed with auspicious marks and had webbed-fingers with no intervening space in between (acchidrajala-pani): the fingers again were both thick and soft with nails red and shining like copper. His palms showed marks of the moon, the sun, the conch, the cakra and the svastika, etc. He had a broad chest. well-developed and even, shining like a bar of gold, and having the mark of the sri-vatsa; his back was strong with bones invisible under the muscles. He had a beautiful healthy body shining like gold. His sides were well-developed, beautiful and symmetrical; the hair on his body was pure, soft, slight, oily, delicate and charming. His abdomen was strong and well-developed (pina) like that of the fish and the bird, his belly like that of the fish, all the organs of his body pure and defectless; his navel, deep and developed like the newly-blossomed lotus, was spiral inside like the whirling wave of the Ganga. The torso or the middle of his body was like the tripod, the pestle, the mirror or the thunderbolt, broad at the ends and narrow in the middle; his hips were like those of the best horse or the lion; his privies like those of a horse, clean and well-formed. He had the gait of the best of elephants; his thighs were shaped like the trunk of an elephant: his knee-joints were invisible as if under the lid of a spherical box; his shanks were like those of a deer; his ankles were well-set and invisible under muscles: his feet, beautiful and good-looking and well-built like those of the tortoise, looked beautiful with closi-set fingers having copperred nails. The soles of his feet, soft and red like the lotus-leaf, showed marks of a mountain. a city, crocodile, ocean, disc, etc. Brilliant like a glowing fire, the lightning flash or the rising sun, Mahavira possessed all the one thousand and eight marks of the best of human beings. All the Tirthankara or the Buddha images are based on the fundamental conception of the Mahapurusa-laksanas. The Jaina account given above seems to suggest the usnisa (though not clearly stated) but not the urna. Hardly half a dozen Tirthankara images so far known or published would show the urna, but we do get the circular tilaka mark in a few cases.75 The usnisa is often seen but images without it are also known from Mathura and other sites. The Jaina description of Maha-purusa-laksanas wonderfully agrees with the conception of the Buddha figure in the Ratna-gotra-vibhaga of Sthiramati.78 An ideal abridged description of the Jina-body is also obtained in the Vasudevahindi which is also a work of the early Gupta period. In Jaina worship perhaps more common are single images of each of the twenty-four Tirthan karas, installed either as chief deity in the sanctum or as additional images for worship in the sanctum or in the adioining cells and devakulikas. Such images are either with or without the parikara carved in relief around them. But Tirthankaras are also worshipped in groups of two (Fig. 79), three (Fig. 26), four (Figs. 14. 21), five (Fig. 69), six (Fig. 87), seven, eight, nine, eleven, twenty-four (Figs. 57, 86), fifty-two seventy-two, one hundred and eight, one thousand and eight (sahasrakula sculptures), 77 and so on. But the more common are groups of two, three, five, four, and twenty-four Jinas. Santyacarya in c. Ilth century A.D. has referred to such practices and has attempted to explain the significance of such groupings.78 According to him, a Tri-Tirthika image (three Jinas in one sculpture) signifies the worship of Jnana, Darsana and Caritra,79 A Panca-Tirthika image symbolises the worship of the Five Paramesthins: Covisis or Caturvimsati-patlas are carved out of respect for the Jinas of the Bharatavarsa, of this ara, at the end of the Kalyanaka-tapa in honour of Kalyanakas (chief auspicious events) in the lives of Tirthankaras celebrated in the Bharatavarsa. A person desirous of wealth installs a plaque of 170 Jinas, which is the maximum number of Jinas born in any age amongst human beings. 80 Tirthankaras in groups of two are found only amongst the Digambaras, often they are the first and last Tirthankaras standing near each other with their cognizances on the pedestals, all in one slab of stone, 81 Tri-Tirthika images and Panca-Tirthika images are found in temples of both the sects, but the former grouping is very popular. Four Tirthankaras are represented on four sides of a Caumukha (Caturmukha, the Pratima Sarvatobhadrika of Mathura inscriptions of the Kusana age) sculpture and might have suggested the Samavasarapa in such cases. Camukhas are very common in temples of both the sects. A deviation however from the main concept of a Caumukha is seen from very early times.81 Even amongst finds from Kankali Tila, Mathura, we find, not one and the same Jina on each of the four sides of a Caumukla but a different Jina on each side (Fig. 14). Groups of six and eight seem to be rare. Groups of seven and nine are very rare but groups of seven or eleven are available amongst the

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 97 Digambaras, though of course rarely. Groups of twenty are popular amongst the Sveta mbaras but such a group represents, not 20 Jinas out of the 24 Jinas of this age, but the twenty Viharamana Tirtharkaras, a conception which will be explained later on. Covisis, groups of 170 Jinas, or 1008 Jinas are known to both the sects but the group of 24 Jinas is the most popular amongst both the sects. Such groupings are not known from early sculptures discovered hitherto, and may be said to date from post-Gupta period onwards. Only four-fold images (Caumukhas) and single Tirthankaras are known to the Kusana age. In the Tablet depicting Kanha Sramana (Fig. 21) we have two Jinas sitting on each side of the Stupa in the upper panel. In the Neminatha sculpture from Rajgir (Fig. 26) we find two more Jina figures in padmasana on the pedestal, thus making a group of three Jinas (including the main figure of Neminatha). The sculpture is assigned to early fifth century A.D. Grouping of different Tirthankaras in one sculpture was known as a Pata or Patta in inscriptions, thus a Tri-Tirthika-pata, a Caturvimsati-pata and so on. A Pata of 96 Jinas, installed in V.S. 1503 (A.D. 1446) is preserved in the Parsvanatha temple at Delvada near Eklingji and Udaipur. It comprises images of 24 Past (atita) plus 24 Present (vartamana) plus 24 Future (anagata) plus 20 Contemporary (viharamana) plus Four Eternal or Ever Repeating (sasvata) equal to 96 Jinas. The Pajo was installed by Somasundara suri of Tapagaccha of the Svetambara sect.81) A Pata of 72 Jinas, of c. fitteenth century A.D. is installed in the Lunavasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. A Pata of metal, illustrated in Fig. 183, is in worship in a Jaina shrine in Surat. In the centre is a Pancatirthika image with parikara and all around in thirteen horizontal rows are miniature figures of 180 Jinas sitting in padmasana, dhyana mudra. Thus in all there are 185 Tirthankaras on this metal plaque. Figure 85 illustrates a sculpture, cylindrical in shape, showing in the uppermost row a Jina with two attendant camaradharas. In the seven rows below are miniature figures of standing Tirthankaras. Perhaps on account of the eight rows in all, the sculpture is regarded as a representation of the Jaina mythical mountain asfapada. Obtained from Sat Deulia, Burdwan district, West Bengal, the stela is curvilinear at top (height 43 cms, breadth 23 cms). The total number of Jinas standing in the kayotsarga mudra in the seven rows is 148. If the standing Jinas represent 72 Jinas of the Past, Present and Future Aras plus 20 Viharamana Jinas plus 4 Sasvata Jinas plus 52 Jina images from the 52 shrines of the Nandisvara dvipa, then the total would be 148 Jina figures. P.C. Das Gupta, who first published it, suggested that this interesting stela, assigned to c. 10th century by him, was a symbolic representation of the eightterraced Astapada-giri.82 After the Nirvana of Rsabhanatha, the first Jina, on Mt. Kailash, his son Cakravarti Bharata erected on this mountain a shrine called Simhanisadya Caitya and installed therein images of 24 Jinas of this age. The belief seems to be old since the Acaranga Niryukti, the Jambudvipaprajnapti and the Vasudevahindi refer to Astapada as a place of pilgrimage. Identification of Astapada is not certain and it is also identified with Mt. Satrunjaya in Saurastra, Gujarat. Hemacandra acarya tells us that Bharata also installed statues of his ninety-nine brothers who had also obtained Nirvana on this mountain along with Rsabhanatha. He also raised a statue of himself listening attentively like a faithful devotee. In order to save these from future damage at the hands of mortals, he placed mechanical iron guardsmen and cutting off the projections of the mountain, he made it steep and straight and impossible for men to climb. He then made eight (asta) steps (pada) around it in the form of terraces impossible for men to cross, each step being one yojana apart from the next one. From that time the mountain was called Astapada. Gautama the first Ganadhara of Mahavira was told by his Master that whoever is able to reach the top of this mountain and worship the Caityas thereon obtains emancipation. Gautama, therefore, with his supernatural powers, climbed it like a flash of light. Some tapasas (Brahmanical monks) were attempting to do so but could not go beyond the third terrace. At the sight of Gautama they obtained enlightenment and liberation. Reaching the top and entering the Simhanisadya Caity'a by the South Gate, Gautama first saw the four Jinas beginning with Sambhava and worshipped them. At the West-entrance he worshipped eight Tirtharikaras beginning with Suparsva, entering by the North gate the could worship the ten Jinas beginning with Dharmanatha. From the Eastern doorway of the shrine he worshipped the first two Tirthankaras, Rsabha and Ajitanatha.83

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98 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Thus it will be seen that the Simhanisadya Caitya is a Caumukha shrine with four doorways and having in the centre a platform on which the Jinas are represented in the order described above and worshipped by Gautama. In Svetambara Jaina shrines sometimes a cell is dedicated to Astapada represented in the way shown above. A representation of Astapada of this type, with Gautama shown climbing and the tapasas on the way is in worship in a shrine on Mt. Satrunjaya in Saurastra. A simple representation of the Jinas on the four sides of a pitha in above order is in worship in a Svetambara shrine in Surat. Figure 180 illustrates an elaborate sculpture of Astapada, showing eight horizontal rows of Tirthankaras, installed on the second storey of the Valanaka north, Dharanavihara shrine, Ranakpur, Pali district, Rajasthan. The sculpture was installed in v.s. 1551 = A.D. 1495. Vastupala and Tejapala are said to have built an astapadaprasada and a temple of Adinatha at Prabhasa. patana.84 The Vastupalavihara at Girnar in Saurastra is a triple shrine built by minister Vastupala. An inscription on a stone slab behind the temple shows that Vastupala built in V.S. 1288 (A.D. 1231) a temple of Adinatha adorned with a temple of Kapardi Yaksa at the back. In front of this to the north-west he built a temple of Sammeta-Sikhara adorned with images of 20 Jinas and to the south he constructed an Asta padaprasada with images of 24 Jinas. The Santinatha temple at Kumbharia also has a sculpture of Astapada in a chapel with entrances on all the four si.cs. There is an inscription dated V.S. 1266 (A.D. 1209).85 Representations of Sammeta-Sikhara, obtained sometimes in Jaina shrines, depict 20 Jina figures because in all twenty out of twenty-four Tirthankaras of the present age obtained Nirvana on this mountain. Such representations are known as avatara or uddhara of a particular tirtha. A stone plaque representing avatara of the two Tirthas of Satrunjaya and Girnar now in worship in a Jaina shrine at Varakhana in Rajasthan is illustrated in Fig. 186. Representations of the five (Panca) Meru mountains of five different dvipas, showing a Siddhayatana (suggested by a Caturmukha Jina image) on each tier, one above the other in five tiers and surmounted by a finial, are very popular with the Digambara sect. One such Panca-Meru is also obtained in a Svetambara shrine, in the Hastisala of the Lunavasabi, Mt. Abu. The five Meru mountains are Sudarsana in the midst of Jambudvipa, Vijaya in eastern Dbatakikhanda-dvipa, Acala in western Dhatakikhanda-dvipa, Mandara in eastern Puskarardha-dvipa and Vidyunmali in the western Puskarardha-dvipa. According to Digambara belief there are in all 80 Siddhayatanas on the five Merus. A Digambara Panca-Meru bronze, installed in v.s. 1513 (A.D. 1456), is illustrated in Fig. 180, from a Digambara Jaina shrine in Surat, Gujarat. Certain common facts about the lives of each of the twenty-four Tirtharkaras have to be borne in mind for a proper understanding of Jaina Jataka scences and paintings. A soul after passing through various births as animals and human beings ultimately becomes fit for being born as a would be Tirthankara. He is then said to have acquired Tirthankara-nama-karma. 86 His last birth is in one of the heavens from which he descends into the Mother's womb and becomes a Tirthakara in that birth. This descent from heaven is a subject of Jaina miniatures when he is usually represented as sitting in one of the heavens.87 All the Tirtharkaras are born in Ksatriya royal families. Munisuvrata and Neminatha were born in the Harivamsa, Dharma, Ara and Kunthu in the Kuru-vamsa, Parsva and Mahavira in the Ugra-vamsa, and the rest in the Iksvaku-vamsa. 88 According to the Svetambara tradition, Munisuvrata and Neminatha were born in the Harivamsa while the rest descended in the Iksvaku families. 89 At the time of descent from heavens into the Mother's womb, the Mother of every Jina sees fourteen dreams according to Svetambara traditions and sixteen according to the Digambaras. The dreams are represented on stone and in metals as well as paintings (Fig. 187).90 The Mother immediately gets up from bed and breaks the news to her husband. Next morning the dreams are interpreted by astrologers (svapnapathakas or nimitta-pathakas) as shown in miniatures of the Kalpa-sutra. Jaina texts always note the naksatras of the birth (and other chief events) in the life of a Jina. This is because when the birth dates of Mahavira and Parsvanatha were first recorded the rasis or zodiacal signs were not known. Several extraordinary events take place when a Jina is born. The 56 Dik-kumaris come from various regions and perform the duties of a nurse (sutika-karma) and attend upon the Mother and the Child with

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99 Devadhideva Tirthankara mirrors, fans, music etc. Meanwhile the throne of Sakra (Indra) shakes and he comes in a heavenly car with a host of gods to celebrate the birth-bath ceremony ( janma-kalyanaka) of the newly born Jina. With his magic (avasvapinividya) the Saudharma Indra induces the Mother into deep sleep when the baby-Jina is carried by gods to the top of the Meru mountain where an elaborate bathing ceremony is performed by gods with the Jina seated on the lap of the Indra who assumes more forms and in paintings we find him doing the lustration (abhiseka) in the form of two bulls.91 Then the Indra performs thirty-two types of dances before the Lord and ultimately brings the Jina back to his mother's side. This and the descent are the first two auspicious events known as the Cyavana and the Janma Kalyanakas, in the life of a Tirthankara. The Jina grows up and obtains training in various arts and sciences and is sometimes said to marry a princess. Some Tirthankaras do not marry at all. According to the Digambara sect, Mahavira did not marry while the Svetambaras hold a contrary belief. As in the life of the Buddha, Jaina traditions often describe some incidents in the lives of Tirthankaras which precipitate their decisior to renounce the worldly life. The Digambaras, for example, say that while Rsabha was seeing the dance of Nilanjana (sent by Indra for the purpose) she suddenly disappeared and Rsabha realised the transitoriness of human life (Fig. 18). In the case of Parsvanatha, it is said that he saw a pata depicting the life of the preceding Tirthankara Neminatha which roused in him the desire to turn a Jaina monk. The Lokantika gods appear before the Jina to-be and respectfully inform him that the time for taking diksa had approached and pray to him to save the afflicted humanity by founding the Jaina 'tirtha'. Then for full one year the would-be Jina gives handsome charities (called varsika or varsi-dana in Kalpa-sutra miniatures) at the end of which period, he is carried in a palanquin to a park outside his city-gates where he plucks out his hair in five fistfuls (panca-musti-lonca), removes all ornaments, garments, etc., and turns a Jaina monk. Indra and other gods attend and perform the cermony, Indra catches the plucked out hair in a costly piece of cloth and throws them in the milk-ocean. This is the Dik sa-kalyanaka in the life of every Jina.92 The Jina then begins his austerities, sometimes he fasts, and for all times he bears all hardships. Jaina texts always mention the name of the fortunate donor who was the first person to give alms to the Jipa (for breaking his first long fast). At the end of wanderings and austerities for some years the Jina obtains Kevalajnana while he is standing or sitting in meditation under a tree. Such trees become holy trees and are called caitya-vsksas. The Saudharma Indra comes to know that the Jina has obtained kevalajnana or highest knowledge, omniscience. Again he comes with all the retinue and celebrates this auspicious event known as the Jnana-kalyanaka. Gods erect a special extensive structure, a sort of an amphitheatre, big like a city, with three fortifications and a central dias for the Jina to sit on and deliver his first Sermon to the congregation (Samavasarana) of celestial and human beings and animals assembled in this structure which is called the Samavasarana (Fig. 182).93 For several years again the Jina wanders from place to place and preaches the doctrine, organising the Jaina Tirtha or Sargha constituted of sadhus, sadhvis, sravakas and sravikas. Ultimately he gives up food and drink, sits or stands in meditation and discards his last bondage, namely, the earthly body and becomes a Siddha. The Siddha has no physical body (Fig. 185). His soul ascends to the lsatpragbhara world on top of the Loka, where there is a crescent-shaped platform (siddha-sila) whereon stay all such liberated souls.94 This auspicious event is the Nirvana-kalyanaka which is generally represented by showing the Jina sitting on the Siddha-sila. Again Indra and other gods come at the time of Nirvana and celebrate the event. They lay the body of the Jina on a sandal-wood pyre, perform the cremation rite, collect the Jina's bones and return to heavens where they install the bones (dadha) in round diamondboxes on top of Manavaka-Sthambhas (pillars) and worship them.95 Belief in Kalyanakas is very old. The Kalpa-sutra text suggests that its main object was the narration of the various kalyanakas or chief auspicious events in the lives of Rsabha, Nemi, Parsva and Maha. vira. The conception has its parallel in Buddhism where representations of the main events in the life of

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100 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Buddha on one and the same sculpture had become a favourite theme with the artists of Gandbara and elsewhere. Attempts to represent the Kalyanakas in sculptures after the fashion of the Buddhists are not known in Jainism where one sculpture usually represents one idea. But in ceilings at Abu and Kunbharia we have beautiful big long panels depicting all the main events in the lives of Tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parsvanatha, Santinatha, Rsabha, Neminatha and others.96 In paintings, scrolls, amongst book-illustrations, murals or frescoes and wooden book-covers of palm-leaf manuscripts, the practice of depicting scenes from the lives of Tirthankaras is very old.97 The famous Mathura relief showing Bhagava Nemeso on a throne might have been part of some Jaina mythological story on stone. The partly mutilated relief from Mathura, preserved in the Lucknow Museum and depicting the dance of Nilanjana and renunciation and monkhood of Rsabha (Fig. 18) suggests the popularity of such stone reliefs with the Jainas as well in c. first century B.C. since Fig. 18 dates from first century B.C. It seems that representations of the kalyanaka scenes were not unknown to Jainism in the Kusana period. Sites associated with the events of the kalyanakas were regarded holy as can be seen from the Acaranga Niryukti.98 The Digambara sect also believes in the celebration of five kalvinakas, namely, Garbhavatarana, Janma, Tapa (diksa), kevala-jnana, and moksa (nirvana) kalyanakas. The ati$thasar oddhara refers to the ritual regarding each of these in the Pratisthavidhi of a Jina image.99 (B) SASVATA JINAS AND THE VIHARAMANA JINAS We have referred to the Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas in the Siddhayatanas or Sasvata-Caityas mentioned in Jaina canonical works. According to texts like the Pravacanasaroddhara (11th cent. A.D.) these Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas represent four Tirtha karas, namely, Vrsabhasena, Candranana, Varisena, and Varddhamana. 100 They are called Sasvata Jinas because in every Utsarpini or Avasarpini era names of these four Tirtharkaras are always repeated and they flourish in any of the fifteen karmabhumis. Belief in Sasvata Jinas and Siddhayatanas is fairly old as a long description of these is available in the upaoga canonical text called the Jivajivabhigama sutra.101 These Siddhayatanas are found in various heavens and on several mountain peaks. The Nandisvara-dvipa, for example, is reported to have fifty-two such Siddhayatanas. 102 Since Tirthankaras are born in the 2 continents there are even at present Tirthankaras amongst them. They are therefore called Viharamana or contemporary Tirthankaras living at present. In this age there are twenty such Viharamana Jinas, four in the different Vijayas of the Mahavideha ksetra of Jambudvipa, eight in the Dhataki khanda, and the remaining in the half Puskaravarta-dvipa. According to the Svetambara tradition, their names are as follows: 1. Simandhara, 2. Yugandhara, 3. Sri Bahujina, 4. Subahu. The above four in the Jambudvipa. 5. Sujata swami, 103 6. Svayamprabha, 7. Rsabhanatha, 8. Anantavirya, 9. Suraprabha, 10. Visala, 11. Vajradhara, 12. Candranana, in the Dhataki khanda, 13. Candrabahu, 14. Bhujanga, 15. Isvara, 16. Namiprabha, 17. Varisena or Virasena, 18. Mahabhadra, 19. Candrayasa, 20. Ajitavirya, in the Ardha-Puskaravarta-dvipa. 104 This is the minimum number of Viharamana Jinas while sometimes there flourish a greater number in the different ksetras, the maximum possible number being 170 Jinas. Patas of 170 Jinas have been referred to above. A Pata of 20 Viharamana Jinas in a shrine on mount Girnar is also referred to before. The Jagatcintamani-caityavandana stotra amongst the Pratikramana sutras of the Svetambara Jainas pays homage to the 20 as well as the 170 Jinas. 105 The conception of Viharamana Jinas is known to the Digambara sect also, though it is not so popular as amongst the Svetambaras. Amongst both the sects, earlier representations of Viharamana Jinas are not known, but the conception of Viharamana Jinas is certainly pretty old. The Vasudevahindi, for example, refers to Simandhara at present living in the Apara-videha-ksetra. 106 Simandhara seems to be the most popular Viharamana Jina with both the sects and images and temples dedicated to his worship are available (Fig. 175) though none of them are earlier than the mediaeval period. No cognizances of these Jinas are known in the Svetambara tradition. The Digambara tradition's list of Viharamana Jinas is as under: 107

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Devadhideva Tirthankara 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Viharamana Jina Simandhara Yugandhara Digambara Tradition Bahu Subahu Samyataka Svayamprabha Rsabhanatha Anantavirya Suraprabha Visalakirti jradhara Candranana Candrabahu Bhujangaprabha Jsvara Nemisvara Virasena or Varisena Mahan Devayasa Ajitavirya The above list appended by the Brhat-Jaina-Sabdarnava-kosa is based upon Prakrt, Sanskrt and Hindi works later than 1500 v.s.108 The Trilokasara of Nemicandra109 however does refer to the belief in the maximum number of 170 Jinas and the minimum number of 20 Viharamana Jinas.110 (C) TIRTHANKARAS OF THE PAST AND FUTURE AGES (ARAS) Both the Svetambaras and the Digambaras believe that twenty-four Tirthankaras lived in the Utsarpini age preceding our present Avasarpini age and that an equal number will be born in the future Utsarpini following our present ara. But the lists given by the two sects differ. The following were the Tirthankaras of the Past Utsarpini: Svetombara111 Kevalajnani Nirvani Sagara Mahayasab Vimala Sarvanubhuti Sridhara Datta Damodara Sutejah Swami Cognizance Bull Elephant Deer Monkey Sun Moon Hari or lion Elephant Sun Moon Conch Bull Lotus Moon Atita Jinas Sun Bull Airavata elephant Moon Svastika Lotus 101 Digambara111 Nirvana Sagara Mahasadhu Vimalaprabha Sridhara Sudatta Amalaprabha Uttara Angira Sanmati Sindhu

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102 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Munisuvrata Sumati Sivagati Staga Nimisvara Anila Yasodhara Kftartha Jinesvara Suddhamati Sivakarah Syandana Samprati Kusumanjali Sivagana Utsaha Jnanesvara Paramesvara Vimalesvara Yasodhara Krsna Jnanamati Suddhamati Sribhadra Atikranta Santa Anagata or Bhavi Jinas Svetambara113 Digambara114 Padmanabha or Mahapadma Suradeva Suparsva(ka) Svayamprabha Sarvanubhati Devasruta or Devagupta Udaya or Udaka Pechala or Pedhalaputra Pottila Satakirti115 Munisuvrata Sarvavid Amama Niskasaya Nispulaka Nirmama Citragupta Samadhi Samvara Yasodhara or Anivetti Vijaya Malla or Vimala Deva or Devopapata Anantavirya Bhadra Mahapadma Suradeva Suparsva Svayamprabha Sarvatmabhuta Devaputra or Srideva Kulaputra Udanka Prosthila Jayakirti Munisuvrata Aranatha or Araha Nispapa Niskasaya Vipula Nirmala Citragupta Samadhigupta Svayamvara Anivrtti Jayanatha Sri-Vimala Devapala Anantavirya Both the sects give the names of persons of the present age who are going to be born as Tirthankaras in the next age. Thus king Srenika of our age is going to be the first Future Jina. Such lists were multiplied. Thus a hymn composed by Devendrasuri116 (V.S. 1450) gives names of Tirthankaras of the Past, Present and Future ages in the Bharata and Airavata ksetras. The atita, varttamana and bhavi Tirthankaras of our land are often worshipped in various hymns recited every day. Representations of all the 72 Tirthankaras were carved on stone slabs and installed for worship in Jaina temples.

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Devadhideva Tirthankara 103 In a samatala ceiling of a side aisle of the rangamandapa of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia are carved four series of panels showing representations of the Past (atita) Tirthankaras in two rows and the Future (anagata) Tirthankaras in two more rows. A part of these rows is illustrated in Fig. 84. All the rows have labels inscribed below each figure. An interesting sculpture is preserved in the British Museum, London, 117 Here a male and a female are seated side by side in an architectural design of a niche or vimana on top of which is placed in the centre a smaller figure of a Tirthankara sitting in the padmasana dhyana mudra. The male and the female figure are nicely attired and adorned with ornaments etc. Each of them carries a citron in one hand which would suggest their yaksa character since a number of Jaina yaksas and yaksi is carry the citron in one of their hands. Below, on the lower portion of this sculpture, is carved the title "Anantaviryo" in characters of c. 9th cent. A.D. Nowhere in the available Jaina texts of both the sects do we come across a yaksa Anantavirya for any Tirtharkara. Hence the label is obviously intended for the Tirthankara Anantavirya who is the twenty-fourth Future Tirthankara according to the Digambara list given above. Anantavirya is the twenty-third Future Jina in the above Svetambara list but if Sarvavid or Sarvabhavavid is not taken as an adjective of Munisuvrata in the list given by the Samavayanga sutra. sutra 158, but the Jina next to Munisuvrata, then in the Svetambara list also Anantavirya would be the twenty-fourth Future Jina and Bhadra would be his epithet. The Jina to whom the label is referred to is smaller than the figures of the royal pair sitting in the vimana whose names are not inscribed. In fact the pair reminds us of the type of figures we have identified as Parents of Jinas. And even in the panels at Kumbharia referred to above and illustrated in Fig. 84, each Past and Future Jina is shown with his Parents. We might therefore identify this sculpture in the British Museum as representing the Future Jina Anantavirya, with his Parents. The Future Jinas belong to the coming Utsarpini, the ascending era, whereas our present era is Avasarpipi. the descending one. So, the last Jina of our era and the first Jina of the Future era would be similar in height etc. and the last Jina of the Future Utsarpini will be as great as Rsabhanatha, the first Jina of our present Avasarpini. We can thus understand why the Future Jina Anantavirya is represented in the sculpture under consideration. APPENDIX 1 sumera zikharaM dRSTvA gaurI pRcchati zaMkaram / ko'yaM parvata ityeSa? kasyedaM maMdira? prabho // 1 // ko'yaM madhye punardevaH? pAdAntA kA ca nAyikA? / kimidaM cakramityatra? tadante ko mRgo mRgI? // 2 // ke vA siMhA? gajAH ke vA? ke cAmI puruSA nava? / yakSo vA yakSiNI keyaM? ke vA cAmaradhArakAH? / / 3 / / ke vA mAlAgharA ete? gajArUDhAzca ke narAH? / etAvapi mahAdeva! ko vINAvaMzavAdako? / / 4 / / dundubhedikaH ko vA? ko vA'yaM zaMkha vAdaka:? / chatratrayamidaM ki vA? kiM vA bhAmaNDalaM prabho! // 5 // Izvaro (ra u ) vAcazruNu devi! mahAgaurI! yattvayA pRSTamuttamam / ko'yaM parvata ityeSa? kasyedaM mandiraM? prabho! // 6 // parvato merurityeSa svarNaratnavibhUSitaH / sarvajJamandiraM caitad ratnatoraNamaNDitam // 7 //

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104 ayaM madhye puna: sAkSAt sarvajJo jagadIzvaraH / trayastriMzatkoTisaMkhyA, yaM sevante surA api // 8 // indriyana jito nitya kevalajJAnanirmalaH / pAraMgato bhavAMbhoSe-ya lokAn satyam // 1 // anantarUpo yastatra kaSAyaiH parivarjitaH / yasya citte kRtasthAnA, doSA aSTAdazApi na / / 10 / / siGgarUpeNa vastatra puMrUpegAva vartate / rAgadveSavyatikrAntaH sa eSa paramezvaraH // 11 // Adi zaktijinendrasya Asane garbhasaMsthitA / sahajA kulajA ghyAne, padmahastA varapradA / / 12 / / pakrama devi! dharmapravartakam / 1 sattvaM nAma mRgasso'yaM mRgI ca karuNA matA // 13 // aSTau ca dijA ete gajasiMhasvarUpataH / Aditya ete navamaH smRtAH // 14 // yakSo'yaM gomukho nAma AdinAthasya sevakaH / " yakSiNI rucirAkArA nAmnA cakrezvarI matA / / 15 / indropendrAH svayaM bhartu jatAzcAmaradhArakAH / pArijAto vasantazca mAlAdharatayA sthitau / / 16 / / anyepi RturAjA ye, te'pi mAlAdharAH prabhoH / bhraSTendrA gajamArUDhAH karAgre kuMbhadhAriNaH // 17 // snAyaM kartuM samAyAtAH sarvatApanAzanam / karpUrakukumAdInA dhArayanto jalaM bahu / / 18 / / yathA lakSmIsamAkrAntaM yAcamAnA nijaM padam / tathA muktipadaM kAnta-manantasukhakAraNam / / 16 / / mAnI to vINAvaMzavAdako anantaguNA gAyantI jasto prabhoH // 20 // vAdyamekonapaJcAzadbha edabhinnamanekadhA / catuvidhA amI devA, vAdayanti svabhaktitaH / / 21 / / so'yaM devo mahAdevi yAdavAdakaH / nAnArUpANi vibhrANa ekako'pi surezvaraH / / 22 / / janastu prabhoH / amI ca dvAdazAdityA jAtA bhAmaNDalaM prabhoH / / 23 / / pRSThalagnA amI devA vAyante mokSamuttamam / evaM sarvaguNopetaH sarvasiddhipradAyakaH / / 24 / / eka evaM mahAdevi sarvadevanamaskRtaH / gopyAdgopyataraH zreSTho vyaktAvyaktatayA sthitaH / / 25 / / AdityAcA bhramantyete yaM namaskartumudyatAH / kAlo divasa rAtribhyAM yasya sevA vidhAyakaH / / 26 / / vrssaakaalaadishiitkaalaadivessbhuut| - yatpUjArtha kRtA dhAtrA, AkarA malayAdayaH / / 27 / / kAmIre kukumadevi! tvaM vinirmitam / rohaNe sarvanAni bhUvaNakRte vyadhAt / / 28 / / Jaina-Rupa-Mandana .

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 105 ratnAkaro'pi ratnAni yatpUjArthaM ca dhArayet / tArakAH kusumAyante bhramanto yasya sarvata // 26 / / evaM sAmarthyamasyaiva nAparasya prakIrtitam / / anena sarva kAryANi sidhyantItyavadhAraya / / 30 / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jAnudvayaM zirazcaMva yasya dhRSTa namasyataH / jinasya purato devi! sa yAti paramaM padam // 34 // iti zrIvizvakarmAvirajitA'parAjitavAstuzAstramadhye zrIjinamUrtizlokAH / APPENDIX II (jinabimbalakSaNam) [From Traivarnikacara of Somasena Bhattaraka (A.D. 1610), adhyaya 6, verses 25-41, pp. 160-162] kakSAdiromahInAGgazmazrurekhAvijitam / sthita pralambitahastaM zrIvatsADhayaM digambaram / / 25 / / palyaGkAsanaM vA kuryAcchilpazAstrAnusArataH / nirAyudhaM ca niHstrIkaM bhra kSepAdivijitam // 26 / / nirAbharaNakaM caiva praphullavadanAkSikam / sauvarNa rAjataM vApi paittalaM kAMsyajaM tathA / / 27 / / prAvAlaM mauktika va vaiDUryAdisuratnajam / citraja ca tathA lepyaM kvaciccandanajaM matam // 28 // prAtihAryASTakopetaM sampUrNAvayavaM zubham / bhAvAnurupaviddhAGga kAraye bdimbamahataH / / 26 / / prAtihArya vinA zuddha siddhabimbamapIdRzam / sUrINAM pAThakAnAM ca sAdhUnAM ca yathAgamam / / 30 / / .. vAme ca yakSIM bibhrANa dakSiNe yakSamattamam / navagrahAnadhobhAge madhye ca kSetrapAlakam // 31 / / yakSANAM devatAnAM ca sarvAlaGkArabhUSitam / svavAhanAyudhopetaM kuryAtsarvAGgasundaram / / 32 / / lakSaNairapi saMyukna bimba dRSTivijitam / na zobhate yatastasmAtkuryAd dRSTi prakAzanam / / 33 / / arthanAzaM virodha ca tiryagdRSTayaM tadA / adhastAd putranAzaM ca bhAryAmaraNamUrdhvadRk // 34 // zokamugasantApaM sadA kuryAd dhanakSayam / zAntA saubhAgyaputrArtha zAntivRddhipradAnadRk // 35 / / sadoSA ca na kartavyA yataH syAdazubhAvahA / kuryAdraudrI prabhonAMza kRzAGgI dravyasaMkSayam // 36 / / saMkSiptAGgI kSayaM kuryAccipiTA duHkhdaayinii|| vinetrA netravidhvaMsI hInavaktrA tvabhAginI / / 37 / /

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106 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana vyAdhi mahodarI kuryAda hRdroga hRdaye kRzA / aGgahInA sutaM hanyAcchuSkajavA narendrahA // 38 // pAdahInA janaM hanyAtkaTihInA ca vAhanam / jJAtvava pUjayejjainI pratimA doSavajitAm // 36 / / pratiSThAM ca yathAzakti kuryAd gurUpadezata: / sthiraM cAnucalaM bimba sthApayitvAtra pUjayet // 40 // dvAdazAGgalaparyantaM yavASThAMzAdita: kramAt / svagahe pUjaye bdimbaM na kadAcittato'dhikam / / 41 / / REFERENCES Tirthankara because he helps to cross the ocean of samsara or because he establishes the Tirtha constituted of the four-fold Samgha made up of the Sadhu, the Sadhvi, the ravaka and the Sravika.CO.: tIrthate saMsArasamudro'neneti tIrtha', tacca pravacanAdhArazcaturvidhaH saGghaH prathamagaNadharo vA -Yogasastra of Hemacandra with his own commentary, ___p. 218 This explanation of Tirtha is based on the following passage: titthaM bhaMte! titthaM titthagare titthaM? goyamA, arahA tAva niyamaM titthakare, titthaM puNa cAuvannA ime samaNasaMgho, taM jahA samaNA, samaNIo, sAvayA, saaviyaao| --Bhagavati Sutra, 20.8.15 Also see avasyaka-Vrutti of Haribhadra, pp. 58ff. 2. The word Jina was also used for the Buddha. It was only later on that the sense of the word was restricted to connote the Jaina Tirthankara. Cf.: sarvajJaH sugato buddhaH dharmarAjastathAgataH / / samantabhadro bhagavAnmArajillokajijjinaH / / -Amarakosa The title Jina is explained as follows: rAgadveSa mohAnjayantIti jinAH sarvajJAH, ukta' ca, rAgadveSastathA moho jito yena jinohyasau / astrI zastro kSamAlatvAdaha nnevAnumIyate / / -Abhayadeva's Commentary on the Sthananga Sutra, p. 191 3. Cf.: arhati devAdhikRtAM pUjAmityahat athavA nAsti rahaH pracchanna yeSAM pratyakSajJAnItvAt te arhantaH / lbid., p. 191 jitakohamANamAyA jitalobhA te jiNA hoti / arihA haMtA nyaM hatA arihaMtA teNa vaccati / / -Avasyaka Niryukti, gatha 1087 in Avasyaka Curni, II, pp. 8-9 asogAdi pADiherapUjAM ahaMntIti te ahaMntaH / -Ibid., p.4 Avasyaka Vrtti of Haribhadra, p. 406. Also see Varangacarita, 25.88-91, pp. 252f; Mulacara, 7.41, p.394. 4.ma.nulambabAhaH yAvansAGkaH prazAntamUrtizca / digvAmAstaruNo rUpAMzca kAryo'rhatAM devaH / / -Brhat-Samhita (Biblio. Indica ed.), 58.45, p. 320 5. Manasara, LV.36-42,71-85. 6. Cf.: prazamarasanimagnaM dRSTiyugmaM prasanna vadanakamalamaGkaH kAminImaGgazUnyaH / karayugamapi yatte zastrasambandhavandhyaM tadasi jagati devo vItarAgastvameva / / -Dhanapala 7. zAntaprasannamadhyasthanAsAgrasthAvikAradRk / sampUrNabhAvArUDhAnuviddhAGga lakSaNAnvitam / / raudrAdidoSanirmukta prAtihAlkayakSayuk / nirmApya vidhinA pIThe jinabibaM nivezayet / / -Pratisthasaroddhara, 1.61-62, p.7 8. atha bimba jinendrasya kartavyaM lakSaNAnvitam / RjvAyatastu saMsthAnaM taruNAGga digambaram / / 1 zrIvRkSa (zrIvatsa) bhUSitoraska jAnuprAptakarAgrajam / nijAGagulapramANena sASTAGa, gulazatAyutam // 2 kakSAdiromahInAGgaM zmazru lekhAvivajitam / / 4 pAdayugmaM susaMzliSTa kArya niricchadrasusthitam / zayAcakAkuzAmbhojayavacchannAdhalaGkRtam // 64 prAtihAryASTakopeta sampUrNAvayavaM zubham / bhAvarUpAnuviddhAGga kArayebimbamahata: / / 66 -Pratisthasarasamgraha, chp.4 (in ms.) 9. RSabho'riSTanemivIraH palyaGkasthitAH siddhAH / avazepAstIrthakarAH dhvaMsthAnenopayAnti / / 80 yatmasthAnaM tviha bhavaM tyajatazcaramasamaye / AsIcca pradezadhanaM tasaMsthAnaM tviha tasya / / 81 --(Sanskrit chaya) Caiyarandana mahabhasa, vv.80-81 10. Tiloyapannatti, 4.1210, p. 302; Varangacarita, 2.7.90, p.272. 11. bimba maNimayaM candra sUryakAntamaNImayam / sarva samaguNaM jJeya sarvAmI ratnajAtibhiH / /

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Devadhideva Tirthankara svarNa raupyatAmramayaM vAcyaM dhAtumayaM param / svayaM kadAvikArayet // tatra dhAtumaye rItimayamAdriyate kvacit / niSiddho mizradhAtuH syAdrItiH kaizcicca gRhyate // -Acara-Dinakara, II, verses 4-6 Also see verses 6-11, p. 143. 12. lohAzmakASThamRdantacina goviDmayAni ca / kuna he pUjayet svacit // -Ibid., II, vv. 2-3, p. 142 13. maNi-kaNaya rayaNa ruppaya vittala-muttAlopalAIhi / paDimA lakkhaNa vihiNA jiNAipaDimA ghaDAvijjA | -Vasunandi-Sravakacara (ed. by Pandit Hiralal Jain, Kashi, 1944), v. 390, p. 123 14. svarNaratnamaNiropyanirmita sphATikAmalazilAbhavaM tathA / utthitAM bujamahAsanAGgitaM jainabimbamiha zasyate budhaiH // Vastbindu-Pratisthapatha, v. 69, p. 17 Also cf.: sauvarNa rAjataM vApi paittalaM kAMsyajaM tathA // prAvAlya mauktikaM caiva vaiDUryAdisuratnajam / citrajaM kvaciccandanajaM // -Jina-Yajna-kalpa, quoted in Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara. vol. II, p. 12 showing a big 15. Cf. Akota Bronzes, pl. 27b and pl. 40 lotus seat with a long stalk.. 16. dhAtulepyamayaM sarvaM vyaGgaM saMskAramarhati // 5 kASThapASANa niSpannaM saMskArAhaM punanaM hi / yacca varSazavAtItaM yacca sthApitamuttamaH / / 6 tad vyaGgamapi pUjyaM syAd vimbaM tanniSphalaM na hi / tacca dhAyaM paraM cetye gehe pUjyaM na paNDitaiH // 7 -Acara-Dinakara, II, p. 142 Also see Brhat-Kalpa-sutra with Bhasya, gatha 2504, p. 708. 17. Lal, B.B. and Srivastava, S.K., Perhaps the Earliest Jaina Terracotta so far excavated in India, published in Madhu (Recent Researches in Archaeology and Art History), pp. 329-31. The Lucknow Museum has two terracottas, one the bust of a Jina, no. 67.7 in the Museum, dates from Kusana period, the findspot is Sravasti. The other, no. 53.69 from Lakhimpur Kheri in U.P., is of a Jina in padmasana, dhyana mudra and may be of late Gupta age. 18. Brhat-Kalpa-Sutra with Bhasya etc.. gatha 1776 and comm., vol. II, p. 524. 19. Ibid., gathas 1774-1779, vol. II, pp. 523-24. The comm. refers to Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 1303 ar etc. in connection with the account of the sage Varattaka. 20. For a list of Jaina canonical texts, see Jain, Jagdish Chandra, Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jaina Canons (Bombay, 1947), pp. 1ff; Jaini, Padmanabha, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi, 1979), pp. 47-87; Jaina, Hiralal, Bharatiya Samskyti me Jaina Dharma ka Yogadana (in Hindi, Bhopal, 1962), pp. 49-118. 21. Samavayanga sutra, sutras 157-158. Also see Bhagavati sutra (Vyakhyaprajnapti sutra), 20.8.58-59, 16.5; Kalpa sutra, 2.18.203; Paumacariyam, 1.1-7, 5.145-148. 107 In Paumacariyam, Candraprabha is called Sasiprabha, and Suvidhi or Puspadanta is called Kusumadanta. The practice of translating names or giving their other words is often resorted to in Jaina literature and accounts. Thus Arya Syama became more famous as Arya Kalaka and his grand-pupil Arya Samudra later became famous as Arya Sagara or Sagara Sramana. About the name of the twentieth Tirthankara of Bharata Ksetra, it may be noted that perhaps the name was Muni (monk) (called) Suvrata. He seems to have been an ancient great monk, since the Jaina Canon refers to an ancient Stupa, dedicated to him, existing at Visala (Avasyaka Niryukti. verses 949-51; Haribhadra, Av. Vrtti, p. 437; Av. Curni, p. 567). Suvrata, as an ancient Rsi, is referred to in the Puranas. see PracinaCaritra-Kosa (in Marathi, ed. by Siddhesvara Sastri Chitrav, Poona, 1932), p. 635. For Rsabha, see Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 115. The attempt of many Digambara writers and B.N. Sharma to read reference to Rsabhanatha in several verses of the Rgveda is not at all convincing. Nemi is a shortened name of Aristanemi. For Jambudvipa and Airavata-ksetra, see Collette Caillat, The Jaina Cosmology (Paris, 1981), pp. 142ff and plates. 22. Even though Mallinatha was a male according to the Digambaras and a female according to the Svetambaras, a noteworthy feature in Jaina iconography is the complete agreement in both the sects about the names of the twenty-four Tirthankaras of this age in the Bharataksetra. The sex difference of the nineteenth Jina Mallinatha is based upon the main point of Svetambara and Digambara difference, namely, the acelakattva fer Jaina monks later on reflected in the worship of idols of the Tirthankaras. The real crisis on this point seems to have come in c. fifth century A.D. when perhaps some of the texts might have been adjusted to suit the requirements of each sect. According to Digambara belief. Mallinatha as a princess cannot attain Kevalajnana because females would not discard clothes, and clothes mean parigraha. The Digambaras do not believe in Stri-mukti. However, we must remember that in the Kusina age at Mathura both the sects worshipped Tirthankara images which are without any garment on their person, and we do find on the pedestals Jaina monks who are nude and who hold only a piece of cloth in front of their privies. But we also find well-dressed Jaina nuns on these pedestals. The question of acelakattva had not yet reached its crisis which resulted in a wider schism. All Svetambara images, from about the middle or end of the fifth century A.D., show a lower garment on the person of every Tirthankara. No mark is shown on the person of Mallinatha image in the Svetambara sect which would immediately help us to reccgnise Malli as a female. There is only one image so far discovered which represents Mallinatha clearly as a female with somewhat developed breasts and a vent of hair at the

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108 back. The head of this image, preservea in the State Museum Lucknow (no. J.885 from Unao in U.P.), is lost. The Digambara stand on stri-mukti seems to be a later offshoot in the history of the Jaina Church since in the lists of heads list of Iryikas (nuns) who were direct disciples of various Tirthankaras is carefully maintained by both the sects. Possibly there was no such bar on the fair sex according to the original doctrine, the discarding of garment being optional even for the male sex (monks).. 23. See Luders List of Early Brahmi Inscriptions in Northern India. Epigraphia Indica. Vol. X, Appendix. The pedestal is preserved in the Lucknow Museum, no. J20. For different views on the date of the image, see J.E. van Lohouizen-de-Leeuw, The Scythian Period, FP 281ff. For the corrected reading of the inscription, see Bajpai, K.D., New Reading of the Inscription on Jina Image J.20 in the Lucknow Museum, J.U.P.H.S., 1958. For the age etc. of different Jaina Councils, see Muni Kalyanavijaya, Vira Nirvana Samvata aur Jaina Kalasana (in Hindi). Belief in 24 Jinas is known to Bhagavati sutra, 16.5, 20.8.58-59. Rajaprasnniya sutra refers to images of Jinas. Paumacariyam, 11.2-3, 28.3835. 33.89 refer to images of Jinas, but Paumacariyam should date from 530-57-473 A.D. The text of Rajaprasiya, as available today, contains art data of the Kusana period. Bhagavati sutra text, as available today, also cannot be earlier than the age of the Mathura Council of c. early fourth century A.D. saka Niryukti, V. 1080; Avasyaka Vrtti of Haribhadra, p. 502. Hemacandra, in his comm. on Ana Cintamani, 1.47-48, writes: caviMzatiH ahaMtAM RSabhAdInAM dhvajAH cihnAni / ete ca nivezino lAJchanabhedA iti / Also of: kRtAkAra mahaMtAM lAJchanaM bhavet / yAvayavaM vRSebhanuragAdikam / / --Lokaprakasa of Vinayavijaya, III.32.224 Tre current Digambara verse describing the Eight haryas is: surapuSpavRSTi divyadhvanizcAmaramAsanaM ca / A.s2. 56.115ff; dundubhitapatraM satprAtihAryANi jinezvarANAm // Harivamsa of Jinasena, 9.212; pira, 23.25-73. The Svetambaras give a similar s. see Pravacanasaroddhara, v. 440, p. 106. See Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and sm, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 52gs. 3-14. -akusuma of Tiloyapannatti (TP), 4.605. Tagara of Troddhara. The editors of TP have taken suma fish, which is supported by the Table of Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, -194, based on Digambara Tamil and Kannada 6. S. UP., Age of Differentiation of Svetambara and mara Images, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales . Bombay, Vol. 1, no. 1 (1951). Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 30a.. ASI, AR, 1925-26, pp. 125-126, pl. lvi, b. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pl. VII, fig. 18, p. 14. 31. Sthananga sutra, 4, su. 307; Jivajivabhigama sutra, su. 137, pp. 225f. 32. Jivajivabhigama sutra, su. 139, pp. 232-33. For Siddhayatanas at various places according to Digambara tradition, see Harivamsa (Manikchand Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay), 5-6, pp. 70-140. 33. Cf.: 34. vRSo gajo'zvaH plavagaH krauJco'bjaM svastikaH zazI / makaraH zrIvatsaH khaDgI mahiSaH sUkarastathA || zyeno vacca mRga chAgo nandyAvarto ghaTo'pi ca / kUrmo nIlotpalaM zaGkhaH phaNI siMho'haM tAM dhvajAH // -Abhidhana Cintamani, I.47-48 For lists see Pravacanasaroddhara, 381-82; Tiloyapannatti, 4.604-605; Pratissthasaroddhara, 1.78-79. vaMze jagatpUjyatame pratItaM pRthagvidhaM tIrthakRttAM yadana / tallAJchanaM saMvyavahArasiddhayai bimbe jinasyeha nivezayAmi / -Pratisthasaroddhara, 4.214, p. 115 35. Agrawala, V.S., Terracottas from Ahicchatra, Ancient India, no. 4, pl. LXVI. 36. Jambudvipaprajnapti, sutra 30, p. 135; Avasyaka Vrtti of Haribhadra, p. 142; Trisastisalakapurusacarita, 1.3.66 71. 37. Padmacarita, 3.283; Harivamsa, 9.99; Adipurana, 17.200. 38. Also see Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 232. 39. Cf. Bhagavati sutra, 3.2, su. 144 which describes Mahavira as meditating under a tree on a Prthvisilapata. Also see Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 70ff. 40. For illustrations, see Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 49-74, figs. 5-13. 41. Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 553 in Haribhadra's Avasyaka Vytti, p. 232. 42. Paumacariyam, 2.31ff. 43. Avasyaka Curni, p. 235. 44. Harivamsa, 9.212, 56.115-118. 45. Adipurana, parva 23, 25-73, pp. 542-49. The Kalyanamandira stotra, ascribed to Siddhasena Divakara, follows this list, see Mahaprabhavika Navasmarana, pp. 460-488.. For later Digambara lists following the same tradition, see Pratisthasaroddhara, 4.205-213, pp. 114-115. 46. Tiloyapannatti, 4.919-927, p. 267. Also see Padmapurana of Ravisena, 2.149-154, p. 21 and p. 17, v. 101. 47. Vasudevahindi, p. 341. 48. The stock list is: Asoka tree, shower of celestial flowers, divine music (divyadhvani), flywhisks, lion-throne, nimbus, celestial drum-beating and triple-umbrella. 49. Cf.: bimbAdha gajasiMhakIcakarUpAGkitaM siMhAsanaM, pArzvayoH cAmaradharau tathobahizca mastakopari kramopari tu chatnatrayaM tatpArzvayorubhayoH kAJcana fgegn shog werfenicuwa: gvaregrist mAlAkarI zikhare zaGkhadhmAstadupari kalazaH / matAntare siMhAsanamadhyabhAge hariNayatA reNA (?) GkitadharmacakraM tatpArzvayoH grahamUrtayaH // -Acara-Dinakara, 11, p. 205

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Devadhideva Tirtharkar a 109 50. The Ayaga paja of Sivaghosaka, Smith, Jaina Srapa pl. X, Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 12, shows, in the centre, Parsva attended by a Ganadhara on each side. No. J.19 in the Lucknow Museum, installed in the year 9, obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura, shows a monk and a nun attending upon a standing Jina. No. J.117, Lucknow Museum, obtained from Kankali Tila, shows, on one side of the sitting Jina, a Naga with folded hands. 51. Avasyaka Niryukti, 322, 335; Haribhadra's Vriti, pp. 144-148. 52. Cf.: UrdhvasthAnasthitA athavA palyaGka saMsthitAstAH / maktigatAnAM teSAM yattatIyaM nAsti saMsthAnam // 76 // yatsaMsthAnaM tviha bhavaM tyjtshcrmsmye| AsIcca pradezaghanaM tatsaMsthAnaM tviha tasya // 81 // --Sanskrt Chaya of original PKT, Ceiyavandana Mahabhasa, p. 15 53. Cf.: muktipadasaMsthitAnAmapi parivAraH prAtihAryapramakhaH / pratimAnAM nirmApyate'vasthAvikabhAvanAnimittam / / 82 yatpUnarbhaNanti ke'pi avasaraNajinasya pametatt / janavyavahAra eSa paramArtha IdRzo'nna / / 83 siMhAsane nipaNNaH pAdau sthApayitvA paadpiitthe| karadhRtayogamudro jinanAtho dezanAM karoti // 84 - Ibid., p. 15 Also see Pravacanasaroddhara, v. 70, p. 12 and comm., p. 14 describing the three avasthas, namely, Chadmastha, Kevali and Siddha. These correspond to the Pindastha, Padastha and Rupatita dhyanas of the Jaina system of Yoga. 54. Vastusara, pp. 93ff. 55. This is an uncommon feature on the simhasana of Jaina images hardly obtained in sculptures discovered hitherto. Possibly it was a local tradition of the age of Thakkar Feru and soon died out as there were already two bigger camaradharas in a parikara. 56. See the drawing by Pandit Bhagawandas, the editor, in Vastusara, opposite p. 96. 57. For Santi-Devi, see Shah, U.P., Minor Jaina Deities, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda (JOI), vol. XXXI, no. 3, pp. 281-286, figs. B, C, D. 58. Obtained on Svetambara Jaina bronzes of c. 9th-10th cent. A.D. 59. Cf. OM namo bhagavate ahaMte surakRtAtizayAn zarIre sthApayAmi svAhA / OM yakSezvarAya svAhA / OM hrAM hrahrIM zAsanadevyai svAhA / OMdharmacatrAya svAhA / OM mRgadvayAya svAhA / OM ratnadhvajAya svAhA / OM namo bhagavate arhate jinaprAkArAdinayaM sthApayAmi svAhA / / iti atizayAnAM mantrAH / --Nirva akalika, pp. 23-24 The raina-dhwaja and the prakara-traya are obviously meant for a representation of the samavasarana. 60. Cf.: chanatrayamazokaM ca prbhaamNddlduNdubhii|| 74 AsanaM puSpavRSTi' ca cAmarendrAdikaM tathA / yathAzobhaM yathoktaSu sarvasthAneSu yojayet / / 75 yakSaM ca dakSiNe pAveM vAme zAsanadevatAm / lAJchana pAdapIThAdhaH sthApayedhasya yadbhavet / / 76 --Pratisthasarasamgraha (in mss.), chp. 5, 74-76 61. Pratishasaroddhara, adh. 1, v. 76-79, p. 9. 62. This description of the parikara of a Jina image seems to apply to images of c. 11th cent. A.D. or later. The parikara was not so elaborate before 9th-10th cent. A.D. nor was the adyasakti introduced so early. See Kumarapalacaritam, published by Godiji Jaina Upasraya, Bombay, 1926, app. 3, p. 221a. This is attached here as an appendix. The passage is from Aparajitaprocha. 63. Trisasi., I (transl. in GOS, vol. LI), p. 192 for descrip tion of samavasarana of Rsabhanatha. 64. Adipurana, 23.50-59 (Jnanapitha ed.), pp. 546-547. 65. Bhattacharya, Brindavan C., Jaina Iconography (first ed.), p. 41. 66. See B.C. Bhattacharya's discussion on iconography of the various Tirtharkaras in ibid., pp. 48-49. In ibid., p. 85, Bhattacharya says that the Magadhan king Srenika, better known as Bimbisara, acts as the chowrie-bearer of Mahavira. 67. Sthanariga sutra, 4, su. 307; Pravacanosaroddhara, 491, p. 117. Also for a very early list, see Jivajivabhigama sufra, su. 137, p. 225. For Siddhayatanas at various places according to Digambaras, see Harivamia of Jinasena, parvans 5-6 (Manikchand Dig. Jaina Granthamala edn.), pp. 70-140. 68. Jivaji rabhigama sutra, su. 139, pp. 232-233. Old images of Sasvata-Jinas are not traced hitherto; possibly for want of recognizing symbols, they could not be identified. These images do not show any iconographic difference from those of other Jinas. A few later inscribed images of Sasvata-Jinas are noted in the Jaina Lekhasamgraha, Part 1, edited by Buddhisagara suri, and in the Tirtharaja Abu, vol. I (in Gujarati) by Muni Jayanta vijaya. 69. The Svetambara conception can be compared with a similar but very concise description in the Digambara Harivainsa, parva 5, vv. 361-365 giving the parivara of the Siddha-akytrima or Sasvata images in the Siddhaya tana. 70. They are: Svastika, Srivatsa, Nandyavarta, Vardhama naka (powder-flask), Bhadrasana, Kalasa, Darpana and Matsya-yugma, according to Aupapatika sutru, su. 31. 71. Dress of the Jaina nuns is prescribed in the Jaina canonical texts. "In all four clothes were used for the nuns according to the Icaranga sutra, II.5.1.1 (also Thanaiiga, p. 1866). One of them was two cubits broad (duhartharittharam), two of them were three cubits broad, and the fourth was four cubits in breadth" (Deo, S.B., History of Jaina Monachism, p. 479.). Numerous other details are available in the Nir yukris and the Byhar-Kalpa-Bhasya. The Oghaniryukti (671 - 678) gives a complete list of as many as eleven clothes to be worn by the nun and the Bhar Kalpa-Bhasya (vol. IV, vv. 4080ff) also confirms the same number. Out of

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110 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana these eleven clothes six were worn on the lower part of the body. Of the latter calani or calanika was upto the knees (janupramana) and was worn after the manner of bamboo-top dancers and was unsewn. The Oghaniryukti-bhasya, 317 and the Byhat-KalpaBhasya, IV, 4088-91 refer to the kancuka among clothes worn on the upper part of the body of a Jaina nun. It was probably unsewn. The standard consisted of twoand-half hands in length and one-hand in breadth, and varied according to the body of the persons wearing ... (Deo, S.B., ibid., 480-481). 72. Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbol ism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper 6, fig. 21. Also see ibid., figs. 16-20 and 28. 73. The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions on rock-beds in various caves and caverns in Tamil Nadu prove the penetration of Jaina monks in the South (esp. Tamil Nadu), possibly through Andhra, Orissa and Pratisthanapur, as early as the 3rd cent. B.C. They carried with them the tradition of the Jina image which was current in the North in the 3rd cent. B.c. or a little earlier. This tradition did not include the Sri-vatsa motif as suggested by the Lohanipur torso. Hence the absence of the Sri-vatsa on Jina images in the South. 74. Aupapatika satra, sutra 10 and comm. of Abhayadeva, pp. 26-42. A paper giving analysis of the Jaina and Buddhist descriptions was read by this author before the International Congress of Orientalists which met in New Delhi in 1964, and was sent for publication in the Vogel Commemoration Volume, which unfortunately is still not published. A free translation of the Aupapatika account is given above because of its obvious impor tance. 75. See Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, p. 110, fig. VI and plate 48. The ira is seen on Mathura Museum no. 12.268, ibid., pl. 47b, but the face is later retouched. 76. Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society', vol. XXXVI, pp. 1-119 and chp. III, v. 17-25; Agrawala, V.S., Thirty-two marks of the Buddha-body, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda (JOI), vol. I, no. 1, pp. 20 22. 77. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 64 from Patan; Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. III, pl. 311A. Ibid., pl. 310A is a stone Caumukha from Gwalior; pl. 310B is a bronze Caumukha with 72 Jinas from a Digambara Jaina shrine, Surat. while pl. 311B is a bronze Caumukha with 24 Jinas from the Indian Museum, Calcutta. A four-faced Sahasrakuta stone sculpture is in worship at Satrunjaya, see Acharya Kanchanasagara suri, Shri Shatrunjava Giriraju Darshan in Sculpture and Architecture (Kapadwanj. 1982), fig. 119. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 63 is a fourfold (Caumukha) Nandi svara-bimba in bronze with 13 sitting Tirthankaras on each side (52 Jinas in all). Ibid., fig. 76 represents a big bronze Samavasarana dated in 1065 A.D., originally from Sirohi now in a Jaina shrine in Surat. It shows four Tirthankaras on four sides in the Gandhakuli at the top. 78. Cf.: jaha ega jibiMba tinni va paMca va tahA cauccIsa / sattarasaya pi keI kAreMti vicittapaNihANA // 26 jiNariddhidasaNatthaM ega kArei koi bhttijuo| payaDiyapADiheraM devAgamasohiyaM ceva / / 27 dasaNanANacarittArAhaNakajje jiNatti keha / parameTrinamokkAra urjAmayaM koI paMcajiNe // 28 kallANayatavamahayA ujjayiM bharahavAsabhAvitti / bahumANavisesAo kei kAreMti cauvIsaM / / 26 ukkosasattarisaya naraloe viharai tti bhattIe / sattarisayaM pi kei bibANa kArai dhaNaTo / / 30 -Ceiyavandaramahabhasa, pp. 5-6 79. Such images with three Tirtharkaras are listed as Rarna traya in Digambara Jaina Catalogues of images. Images with five Jina figures are sometimes worshipped and listed as Panca-Paramesthins. 80. A stone plaque with 170 Tirthankara figures is in wor ship in a suin at Satrunjaya, see Acharya Kanchanasa gausu suri, op. cit., fig. 120. 81. See Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 35 from British Museum, London, originally from Orissa. 81a. For Camuha or Caturmukha images, see Sudhin De. Caumukha, a Symbolic Jaina Art, Jaina Journal, vol. VI. no. 1, pp. 27-30 and plates; Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 226, 26, 95, 117, 120. For the beginning of the concept of a four-faced shrine (a temple with entrances facing four different quarters) and of a four-fold image, see Shah, U.P., Jaina Anusrutis about Kalaka and some recent discoveries in Jaina Art, Moti Chandra Memorial Lecture, Journal of Indian Museums, vol. 34 (1978), pp. 1-33 and plates, and Shah, U.P., Iconography, Jaina Art and Architecture. vol. III, chp. 35, pp. 483-485; Symbol Worship in Jain Temples, published in Proceedings of the Seminar on Symbolism in Temple Art and Architecture (Bombay, 1982). 81b. Jaina Lekha-samgraha (ed. by Buddhisagara suri), part 2, no. 19 (Caturvimsati-Jina-Patah karital). dated vis. 1219; also see ibid., nos. 35, 109, 112, 135, 140, etc. and no. 199 for the pata of 96 Jinas installed by Soma sundara suri. 82. Das Gupta, P.C., A Rare Jaina Icon from Sat Deulia, Jaina Journal, vol. VII, no. 3, pp. 130-132 and plates. 83. Trisastisalakapurusacarita, I, transl. in G.O.S.. vol. LI. pp. 358-370; Abhidhana Cintamani, IV.94; Vasudevahindi, p. 301: Jambidvipaprajnapti. sutra 33. The Acaranga Niryukti says: aTTAvaya mujjite gayaggapada dhammacakke ya / pAsarahAkttanaga camarupAyaM ca vadAmi / / 84. Harihara Singh, Jaina Temples of Western India (Varanasi, 1982), p. 15; Dhaky, M.A., Prabhasapaananan Pracina Jaina Mandiro (in Gujarati), Svadhyaya, vol. III, no. 3, p. 328. 85. Harihara Singh, op. cit., p. 154 for the Astapada sculp ture at Vastupalavihara, Girnar and p. 127 for the Astapada in the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia. 86. Tattvartha Sutra, VI.23. 87. Nawab, Sarabhai M., Jaina Paintings, Vol. I (Ahmeda bad, 1980), colour pl. 37 and 31. 88. Tiloyapannatti, 4.550, vol. I, p. 210. For a slightly different Digambara tradition, see larangacarita, 27.86.

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Devadhideva Tirtharkara 111 89. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.35. The Avasyaka Niryukti, gatha 381 merely gives gotra names which suggest the same vamsas as suggested by Hemacandra. 90. Nawab, Sarabhai M., op. cit., colour plates 52, 53, 86, 87. 91. Ibid., colour plates 36, 56, 57, 91 and fig. 305. For Dik-Kumaris, see Shah, U.P., Minor Jaina Deities, JOI, vol. XXXI, no. 3, pp. 277-281 and fig. 1. 92. Nawab, Sarabhai M., op. cit., colour plates 28, 48, 88. 93. Ibid., colour plates 29, 35. 94. Ibid., colour plate 34. 95. For the Nirvana-Kalyanaka of Rsabha, see Jambudvi paprajnaprisitra, sutra 33; Adipurana of Jinasena, chapter 47 96. Harihara Singh, op. cit., pp. 115, 124-125 (Kumbharia); pp. 63, 64, 66 etc. (Abu). Shah, U.P., Jaina Stories in Stone at Abu Na Kumbi aria, Jaina Yuga Journal, Bombay, for September 1959, November 1959, and January 1960. See Nawab, S.M., Jaina Citrakalpadruma, vol. II; Muni Punyavijaya, Jesalmer ni Citrasamrddhi; Sarabhai Na wab, Jaina Paintings, Vol. I. 98. See note 83 above. Acaranga Niryukti, v. 331-332 quoted in the Acarariga Vrtti of Silanka, pp. 418-419. 99. Pratisphasaroddhara, 4.25-221, pp. 89-115. Harivamsa, Adipura a and other puranas describe these events in the lives of different Tirthankaras. For information on different Tirthakaras, esp. see Malavaniya, Dalsukh, Sthanariga-Samavayanga, pp. 696 745. 100. Sthanariga sitra, 4, su. 307; Pravacanasaroddhara, 491, p. 117. For an early list, see Jivajivabhigama sutra, su. 137, p. 225. For Siddhayatanas at various places according to Digambara tradition, see Harivainsa, parvans 5-6, pp. 70-140. 101. Jivajivabhigama satra, su. 139, pp. 232-233. 102. See notes 68 and 69 above 103. Sometimes the epithet **Svami" (Lord, Master) is applied at the end of names of Tirthankaras, e.g., Mahavira svami, Munisuvrata svami, Yugandhara svami, Simandhara svami, Jivita-svami and so on. 104. Pratikrama a sutra, Prabodha Tika, pp. 255ff. The names are also given in Sri-Vimsati-Jina-stavanam, published in Sanskrta-Prakrta-stavana-sandoha, pp. 38-39, hymn 27. 105. See note 104 above. 106. Vasudevahindi, p. 84. 107. Brhat-Jaina-Sabdarnava-kosa, vol. I, p. 264. 108. Ibid., pp. 259-60 under Adhai-dvipa-paha. 109. Trilokasara, v. 681, p. 281. 110. It is not necessary to append here for our purpose the lists of Past, Present and Future Tirthankaras of Airavata-ksetra in Jambudvipa, or of the Purva and Pascima Bharata-ksetras and Purva . and Pascima Airavata-ksetras in the Dhataki khanda, etc. for which see Brhat-Jaina-S abdar: ava-kosa, vol. I, pp. 265-70. 111. For Svetambara lists, see Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.50-53; Lokaprakasa, 34.295ff: Pravacanasaroddhara, 7th dvara, sutras 280-295; Samavayarga safra, su. 157ff, pp. 150ff, though it gives lists of Future Jinas, curiously omits the Past Jinas. 112. The Digambara list is based on the list given by T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparutrikunyam and Its Temples, p. 190, which is based on a Jayamala. Also see Hindi Jaina Encyclopedia (ed. B.L. Jaina), vol. I, p. 265; Jaina Siddhanta Samgraha, p. 19. 113. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.53-56; Samava yariga satra, su. 159, pp. 153-54; Lokaprakasa, 34, vv. 297ff; Pravacana saroddhara, op. cit. 114. Urtarapurana by Gunabhadra, 76, w. 471-481; Triloka sara, gathas 872-876. 115. Samavayariga reads manisuvrata sarvavita (v.1. sarvabhAvavita). If sarvavit is not an epithet of munisuvrata, then sarvavit is no. 12, 3194 becomes no. 13 and so on. The last one then is amantavIrya and bhadra or bhadrakRta is his epithet. See also Malavaniya, Dalsukh, Sthanariga - Samavayanga (Ahmedabad, 1955), pp. 725ff. 116. Jaina Stotra Sandoha, pp. 54-69 and Intro., pp. 69-72. 117. Chanda, Ramaprasad, Mediaeval Indian Sculpture in the British Museum, pl. IX, pp. 41-42.

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CHAPTER EIGHT Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 1. FIRST TIRTHANKARA: RSABHANATHA The first Jaina Tirthankara R$abhanatha (or Visobranatha) is variously invoked as Adinatha, Adisvara. Yugadideva, Nabheya (son of Nabhi), and so on. He was the son of Nabhi and Marudevi ruling from the city of Ayodhya. Nabhiraja was the last of the Kulakaras according to the Svetambaras. whereas Rsabha, the son of Nabhi (also a Kulakara) was the last Kulakara according to the Digambaras. Rsabhanatha is further addressed as Prathama-raja (First King), Prathama-bhiksuka (First Anchoret) and the Prathama or Adi-natha (First Lord or Tirthankara).1 Golden in complexion, Rsabha descended upon this earth from the Sarvarthasiddhi vimana (heaven) of Jaina cosmography and was born in the Uttarasadha naksatra, according to both the sects. The Ayasvaka Niryukti offers two explanations of his name: He was so called because he had the mark of a bull (vrsabha) on his thigh (uru). Or, because the bull was the first amongst the (fourteen-Sve., or sixteen-Dig.) dreams seen by his mother (at the time of his descent from heaven), he was called Vrsabha. 2 Digambara writers generally say that the name of every Tirthaokara was given by Indra at the end of the birth-bath ceremony. In his Adipurana, Jinasena offers various explanations. Being the best and the greatest of all in the universe he was called Vrsabha, or because he showered the nectar of Dharma or because his mother had seen a bull amongst the (sixteen) auspicious dreams and so on.3 The bull also became his cognizance according to both the sects. According to the Adipurana of Jinasena, Yasasvati and Sunanda were the two queens of Rsabha, according to the Harivamsa they were Sunanda and Nanda, while according to Svetambara writers they were Sunanda and Sumangala. Bahubali, a son and Sundari, a daughter, were born to his wife Sunanda while the other queen gave birth to Bharata and a daughter named Brahmi. In all one hundred sons were born. Rsabhadeva first taught people how to kindle fire as also various arts, including the seventy-two arts for females and the sixty-four arts for males. He taught dramaturgy to his son Bharata, as also the various methods of warfare and instructed his two daughters Brahmi and Sundari in writing (scripts) and arithmetic respectively. Rsabha invented town-planning and divided his people into three classes of Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras, on the basis of their professions. Indra built the city of Vinita for Rsabhadeva. Having enjoyed kingship for an extraordinary number of years, Rsabha renounced the world at the request of Laukantika gods. Ravisena and other Digambara authors say that after seeing the dance of Nilanjana Rsabha's mind turned away from worldly pleasures. It is said Indra had sent the dancer for this very purpose and when, in the midst of dance, Nilanjana suddenly disappeared, Rsabha thought of the evanescence of all worldly objects. Two fragments of a frieze from Mathura, assignable to Sunga age, now preserved in the museum at Lucknow (nos. J.354 +609) seem to represent the scene of the dance of Nilanjana and Rsabha meditating after turning a monk (Fig. 18). Under a pavilion, a female is dancing in front of a royal personage. The standing figures on the right appear to be Laukantika gods while the naked figure (half preserved and

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 113 obviously of a Jaina monk) may be Rsabhanatha renouncing the world. Towards the right end of the sculpture we find two partly mutilated figures sitting in ardha-padmasana and dhyana mudra. The panel shows different scenes, one after another, perhaps in some sequence. It seems that the practice of depicting scenes from lives of Tirthankaras was already in vogue in at least the first century B.C. Daily for one year Rsabha gave away in charity money, gold, etc., at the end of which period, after having properly apportioned his territories amongst his sons, he set out for spiritual conquest. Reaching a garden outside the city-gates in a palanquin carried by Indra and other gods, he took his seat under an Asoka (Jonesia asoka) tree and "abandoned all clothes, wreaths, ornaments, as well as the passions. Indra placed on the Lord's shoulders a devadusya (garment or piece of costly cloth)."4 In four handfuls Rsabha tore out the hair on his head. Indra held this hair in the hem of his own garment and requested the Lord not to remove the rest of hair with the fifth and the last handful since these hair at the back, falling in tresses and curls on the Lord's shoulders were extremely beautiful to look at.5 Sculptures of Rsabhanatba unmistakably show hair-locks falling on the shoulders of the Jina. Even in sculptures from the Kankali Tila, Mathura, assignable to the Kusana age, this tradition is followed. Amongst the Digambaras also sculptures of Adinatha show hair-locks on shoulders. But Digambara texts like Adipurana, Harivamsa or Padmacarita say that Rsabha plucked his hair in five handfuls (like all other Tirtharkaras), i.e., he removed all the hair on the head. However, Digambara writers like the author of Harivamsa account for the hair-locks by saying that jata grew over his head when Rsabha was practising penance.? When Rsabha was practising penance, Nami and Vinami, sons of Kaccha and Mahakaccha (royal princes who had turned ascetics along with Rsabha), approached him with a desire to obtain some share in the territories distributed by Rsabha, and stood on his sides, sword in hand, when the Lord was engaged in deep meditation. Dharana, Indra of the Naga-kumaras, saw Nami and Vinami, and gave them Lordship over Vidyadharas and gave them 48,000 Vidyas, Gauri, Prajnapti and others. As directed, Nami and Vinami founded two rows of cities on the sides of the Mt. Vaitadhya and ruled over them. Figure 40 from Satrunjaya is a rare sculpture depicting Nami and Vinami standing by the sides of Rsabha meditating in kayotsarga mudra. Rsabha obtained kevalajnana while he was standing in meditation under a banyan tree (Ficus Indica) in a big garden near the city of Purimatala. Rsabha had a following of several thousands of sadhus, sadhvis, sravakas and sravikas; of his eighty-four ganadharas or chief disciples, Vrsabhasena, also known as Pundarika-swami, was the chief one, while Brahmi was the head of aryikas (nuns) of the order of Rsabhadeva. Rsabha obtained Nirvana while sitting in meditation in the samaparyanka posture (padmasana) on the Mountain called Astapada or Kailasa. Indra and other gods performed the cremation rites while Bharata is said to have erected, on the site of cremation, a Stupa and an Ayatana (shrine) with images of all the 24 Jinas, the sons of Rsabha and of some followers. 9 Both the sects describe the bull as the cognizance of Adinatha and Gomukha and Cakresvari as his attendant yaksa and yaksini respectively. Gomukha, as the name suggests, has the face of a cow or bull (vrsabha) and is also said to ride on the bull vehicle. This bull-faced attendant of Rsabha closely resembles Nandi the vahana of Siva. Rsabha, with his beautiful jata (matted hair) over head and hair-locks falling on shoulders, having the bull as his cognizance, closely resembles the conception of Siva with the bull vehicle (see Figs. 22, 25, 28, 32, 34, 55, 57). Digambara writers address Rsabhanatha variously as Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Tatpurusa, Aghora and also as Hiranyagarbha, Svayambhu and so on. It is also noteworthy that Rsabhanatha is said to have obtained Nirvana on Mt. Kailasa. Of course, the Kailasa, also called Astapada, is variously identified. 10 Mt. Satrunjaya in Saurashtra is especially associated with Rsabhanatha. 11 A hymn, Soparakastvana, is addressed to Rsabhanatha image worshipped at Soparaka (ancient Surparaka tirtha, modern Sopara near Bombay). Authorship of this hymn is not known but it shows that at the ancient port of Surparaka, a big Caitya dedicated to this Jina and enshrining images of Jaina monks like Nagendra and others existed. The city of Soparaka is here described as an ornament of

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114 Kunkanadesa.12 It is said that in the Saiva temple of Kudungesvara at Ujjain, Siddhasena Divakara chanted a hymn before Siva at the end of which the linga burst open and an image of Rsabha came up. Vikramaditya gave a grant of certain villages for the worship of this Jina.13 Shorn of all magic elements, the legend suggests existence of, a Rsabha-shrine at Ujjain with the image possibly consecrated by the great acarya Siddhasena Divakara." Jinaprabha suri notes: "At Satrunjaya is worshipped (the image of Adinatha, installed by Sri Vairaswami (Vajraswami), as also the chief deity on this mount Nandivardhana Yugadinatha, installed by the Pandavas, Sri Kalasa Sri Pundarika-swami installed by Sri Santinatha (the sixteenth Jina), another image known as Purnakalasa (possibly an image of Pundarika the chief Ganadhara of Rsabha) installed by Sri Vairaswami. On this mount is also worshipped an image of Santinatha, installed in the Jina's life-time and known as Sudha-kunda-Jivitaswami. Here is also worshipped the first person to obtain moksa, the mother of Rsabha-Marudeva-swamini."14 Amongst other well-known sites of Rsabha shrines are the temple of Kesariyaji near Udaipur, Rajasthan, the temple of Kulpaka in Madhya Pradesh,15 and the temple of Adinatha built by Vimala Saha on Mt. Abu, and the Adinatha temple at Khajuraho. An image of Rsabhanatha, belonging to the Kusana period, from the bank of the Balabhadra kunda, Mathura, discovered by Pandit Radha Krishna, is preserved in the Curzon Muzeum, Mathura. An inscription on its pedestal, dated in the year 84 of Vasudeva, records that it is a pratima (image) of Bhagavan Arhat Rsabha (Bhagavato Arahato Rsabhasya). 16 Head and the upper portions of the sculpture are lost. There is a srivatsa mark on the chest of the Jina and a cakra and a padma mark on the soles of his feet. Pedestal shows a devotional scene: a dharmacakra surmounted on a pillar with a few male figures on the right and a few females on the left. The first two males standing near the Wheel appear to be Jaina sadhus and the first two females are Jaina nuns. The rest represent Jaina laymen and laywomen. No. B.36 in the Mathura Museum, also of Kusana period, is an image of Rsabha. Nos. J.26 and J.69 in the Lucknow Museum are images of Rsabha of the same age from Mathura. Of the bronzes from Chausa in the Patna Museum, 17 nos. 6538 and 6539 are figures of Rsabha standing and dating from the Kusana period. Nos. 6553 and 6554 from the Chausa hoard in the Patna Museum show Rsabha in padmasana and are of a later period. Nos. 6551 and 6552, identified as Candraprabha, also represent Rsabha. Of the Kusana age, images of Rsabha are also found on the four-fold images known also as Pratima-sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions. One of the four Jinas represents Rsabha who is identified with the help of hairlocks falling on his shoulders. Of the Gupta period we have a few sculptures of Rsabha in the Mathura Museum (Fig. 28, also see figures 25, 26, 27 in Studies in Jaina Art). One of these, no. B.7 in the Mathura Museum shows two more sitting Jina figures on the pedestal on the sides of the dharmacakra and thus this sculpture of Rsabhanatha, sitting in padmasana, is a Tri-Tirthika image. Mathura Museum no. 268 is a standing figure of Rsabha with the face and hair possibly retouched later. The inscription on its pedestal calls him Rsabha. According to the inscription on its simple pedestal with only the dharmacakra in centre, this image of Rsabha was dedicated by Samudra and Sagara to Sangaraka. The image is assigned to early fourth century A.D. The sculpture is illustrated by us in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper no. 6, figure 4. The upper corners of this sculpture are occupied by a pair of garland-bearing celestials and the lower ones by a pair of fly-whisk bearing attendants and the margins on the sides by undulating creepers. Several bronze or brass images of Rsabha, assignable to different ages are obtained in the Akota hoard. Of these two belonging to the fifth and sixth centuries are especially noteworthy. The first, dating from the fifth century (Fig. 22) shows the Jina standing in the kayotsarga mudra. Beautiful hair-locks on his shoulders make the identification possible. The pedestal which perhaps had an inscription is lost. The eyes of the Jina, concentrated in dhyana on the tip of the nose, are studded with silver and the lower lip is shown red with copper inlay. The hair on the head are in schematic curls and with a prominent usnisa The image is a rare specimen of great importance since it is the earliest image discovered so far showing the lower garment on the person of a Tirthankara. The second bronze (Fig. 35) showing the Jina with a dhoti (lower garment) was installed by the famous Jaina pontiff Jinabhadra (gani) Vacanacarya (same as Ksamasramana) according to the inscription on the back, and dates from c. latter half of the sixth Jaina-Rapa-Mandana

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= Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras century A.D. It is the earliest known datable Jaina image showing introduction of attendant Yaksa (Sarvanubhuti) and Yaksi (Ambika). Hair-locks are clearly visible on the shoulders of the Jina. If the two deer flanking the dharmacakra stand for cognizance, then this image is of Santinatha. 18 An interesting metal image of Rsabhanatha, from Vasantagadh hoard, age c. sixth century A.D., illustrated in Fig. 34, shows the dharmacakra (without deer) in the centre of the pedestal and having on each end (in line with the dharmacakra) a bull facing the Wheel of Law. The bull is the cognizance of Rsabhanatha. Similarly, on the pedestal of the standing sculpture of Rsabhanatha at Sira Pahari, M.P., published by us in Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, plate 63, a bull is shown at each end of the pedestal with the dharmacakra in the centre and a worshipper (donor ?) on each side of the Wheel. It is interesting to note here that the bulls do not face the Wheel of Law. Rsabha has hair-locks on his shoulder. The sculpture dates from c. sixth century A.D. Two beautiful rock-cut relief sculptures of Rsabha, one in the sitting posture and the other adjoining one in the kayotsarga mudra, published by us in Jaina Art and Architecture, I, plate 60B, date from c. end of the sixth century or early seventh century A.D. Of about the same period is the rock-cut standing Rsabha, published in Studies in Jaina Art, figure 31, hailing from Dhank, Saurashtra. A beautiful standing metal image of Rsabha, from Vasantagadh, cast by the artist Sivanaga in V.S. 744 A.D. 687, is published in Lalit Kala, nos. 1-2, pp. 56f, pl. IX, figs. 1-2. Of c. 7th cent. A.D. a beautiful inscribed bronze image of Adinatha, from Sirpur in Khandesh, now in the L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad, is published by us in the Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras, while a standing metal image of Rsabha from Bhinmal, Rajasthan, dating from c. seventh century and showing heavy jata-locks on shoulders, is published in Akota Bronzes, fig. 35b. Figure 27a in the same book is a bronze image of Rsabha gifted by Guna, and has two-armed Sarvanubhuti yaksa and the two-armed Ambika on the right and the left respectively of the Jina. On the pedestal are eight small standing figures representing the eight planets. Figure 31b in the same book is another bronze of Adinatha sitting in the padmasana. Both the bronzes are assigned to the seventh century A.D. and show similar iconographic features. From Akota hoard were discovered two more bronzes of Rsabha dating from c. eight century. But the more attractive image is a Covisi of Rsabha standing, gifted by Saranika, published in Akota Bronzes, fig. 59. Also, a Sat-tirthika bronze with a torana in front, showing Rsabha sitting in padmasana, with Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as attendant yaksa and yaksi, with two figures of two-armed Sarasvati and five figures of Tirthankaras in different compartments of the torana, and eight planet heads on the pedestal, obtained from the same hoard, was installed by Dronacarya in c. 975 A.D. (vide Akota Bronzes, fig. 61, pp. 57ff). Of about 1000 A.D. are two more bronzes of Rsabhanatha from Akota, ref. Akota Bronzes, figs. 64-67. 115 Images of Rsabha were very popular in Gujarat and Rajasthan, as in other parts of the country.. From Godhra, Pancha-Mahals, Gujarat, is obtained a beautiful bronze (partly mutilated) of Rsabha, now preserbed in the Baroda Museum. From Lilva Deva, Pancha-Mahals, North Gujarat were obtained seven Jaina bronzes (now in the Baroda Museum)19 of which one is a tri-tirthika image and another is a covisi or Caturvimsati-patta of Rsabhanatha, both the images dating from c. 10th century A.D. Mt. Satrunjaya is a famous temple-city mainly associated with the worship of Rsabhanatha. Vimala Saha in the eleventh century built a temple dedicated to Rsabhanatha, on Mt. Abu. The Vimala vasahi at Abu has a few more sculptures of Rsabhanatha with Gomukha and Cakresvari as attendant Yaksa and Yaksini. In some cases the old pair of Yaksa Sarvanubhuti and Yaksi Ambika are shown (as at Akota in images referred to above).20 M.N.P. Tiwari has noticed a sculpture of Rsabha in dhyana mudra and with Sarvanubhuti and Ambika, carved on the ardhamandapa of the Mahavira temple at Osia.21 U.P. Shah published a beautiful brass or bronze Caturvimsati-patta of Rsabha, installed in v.s. 1151=A.D. 1094, preserved in a Jaina temple at Pindawada and possibly from the Vasantagadh hoard in Rajasthan.22 V.S. Srivastava has noticed two metal images of Rsabha (age c. 11th-12th century A.D.) preserved in the Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner, and hailing from Amarasara.23 The famous magnificent temple at Ranakpur, Rajasthan, is a Caumukha temple, dedicated to Adinatha. The temple known as Kesariyaji. dedicated to Rsabhanatha, situated near Udaipur in Rajasthan, is a famous place of pilgrimage both for the Svetambaras and the Digambaras.

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116 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana A beautiful bronze of Rsabha in padmasana on a big padestal with dharmacakra and two deer in the centre of the pedestal and the attendant Yaksa and the Yaksi to the right and left of the Jina lost. dating from c. 8th century A.D., obtained from Vasantagadh hoard, was published by us in the Lalit Kala, no. 1. Another beautiful brass image of the first Jina in padmasana with only the Ambika Yaksi on his left preserved was published by us in our paper on the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika (as figure 33).24 The image, from a Jaina temple in Sadadi, Rajasthan, dates from c. 8th century A.D. From Amarasara, Rajasthan, a hoard of Jaina bronzes was obtained which is now preserved in the Government Museum at Bikaner. The hoard includes a bronze Pancatirthi of Rsabha sitting in padmasana. On his right side near the pedestal is the two-armed Yaksa Sarvanubhuti and on the corresponding left is a two-armed Yaksi showing the varada mudra and the citron in her right and the left hands respectively. The Yaksa carries the citron in his right hand and the money-bag in the left one. The bronze dates from c. tenth century A.D. At Varmana. Rajasthan, in the Mahavira Jinalaya,25 is a stone sculpture of Adinatha sitting on the simhasana. In the centre we have the dharmacakra with a bull on each side. To the right of the simhasana is a figure of two-armed Sarvanubhuti Yaksa showing the abhaya with his right hand. To the corresponding left is a figure of a two-armed Yaksi. The symbols in aer hands are not distinct. The sculpture dates from c. 800 A.D. A partly mutilated beautiful sculpture of Adinatha was discovered from Udai, district Gangapur, Rajasthan. Here Adinatha sitting in padmasana is accompanied by 48 small miniature figures of Jinas, a few of these figures from the upper part of the sculpture are mutilated. These Jinas are arranged in four rows on two sides of the beautiful ornamental halo. Hair-locks on shoulders, usnisa on head, but no jata. In fact, generally the Adinatha figures in Rajasthan and Gujarat do not show the prominent jata as in images from Eastern India. The Jina sits on a simhasana and in the centre is the dharmacakra with a bull on each side in this Udai sculpture. The Yaksa on the right end is a two-armed Sarvanubhuti while the Yaksi figure on the left end is mutilated. This sculpture, belonging to the Digambara sect, is a fine specimen of the Gurjara-Pratihara art of c. 9th century A.D. A beautiful sculpture of Rsabha, partly mutilated, was lying in the courtyard of the Ukha Mandir, Bayana, Rajasthan. The head of the Jina is lost. On the right end of the simhasana is a figure of a two-armed cow or bull-faced Gomukha Yaksa, while on the corresponding left end we find four-armed Yaksi Cakresvari with her symbols broken. The Yaksa carries in his right hand a mace (gada) while the symbol of his left hand is not distinct. It may be noted that when a Sasanadevata pair was first introduced as attendants in the parikara of a Tirtharkara image, the pair was common to all the twenty-four Tirtha karas and was represented by a two-armed Kubera-like male Yaksa who was invoked variously as Sarvanubhuti or Sarvanha by the Jainas and a twoarmed Yaksi called Ambika who carried a mango-bunch or a lotus in one hand and who held a son with the left hand. 26 The Yaksi, as we shall see later, was reminiscent of and evolved from some ancient concepts like that of Anaitis or Nana on the lion, the Durga, Hariti, etc.27 Later on, from about the ninth century A.D., separate yaksinis begin to appear for the 24 different Tirthankaras. The Bayana sculpture shows the later evolved Yaksa pair for the Adi-Jina. The sculpture dates from c. 1000-1050 A.D. But perhaps the most beautiful sculpture of Rsabhanatha, of mediaeval period, from the whole of Western India, is a marble image from the site of the old city of Chandravati (near Mt. Abu), now preserved in the Rietberg Museum, Zurich, Switzerland.28 The Jina is standing in the kayotsarga mudra and wears a very fine dhoti. He has the usnisa on head and the srivasta mark on the chest. A full parikara is shown but without the Sasanadevatas or the attendant Yaksa and Yaksi. The sculpture dates from c. 10th century A.D. From Sanauli in the Alwar area of Rajasthan were discovered a few Jaina bronzes a few years ago. Shri Krishna Dev kindly brought them to my notice and gave me some photographs. Amongst them is a beautiful bronze, elaborately cast with several small figures in the parikara, including figures of seven other Tirthakaras. Rsabhanatha sits in padmasana in the centre on a simhasana. Below the dharmacakra is the bull cognizance in the centre of the pedestal with four planets and a devotee on each side. The bronze has an inscription on the back giving a date v.s. 1070= A.D. 1013. On the right lower end is a figure of wo-armed cow-faced Goinukha Yaksa showing the citron in his right hand while on the corresponding

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 117 left end is a two-armed Yaksi Cakresvari with the cakra in her left hand. The symbol of the right hand is indistinct. But a bronze Covisi of Rsabhanatha obtained from a hoard of bronzes at Ghogha, Saurashtra, shows a four-armed Gomukha Yaksa riding on the elephant and showing the goad, the noose (?), the citron and the bag along with a four-armed Cakresvari Yaksi riding on the Garuda and showing the cakra in each of the two upper hands and the abhaya mudra and the citron in her right and left lower hands respectively. The bronze is dated in v.s. 1123=A.D. 1067. This shows that at least by about the middle of the eleventh century A.D. the evolved forms of Gomukha and Cakresvari had begun to appear on sculptures of Rsabhanatha. On a bronze Covisi of Rsabha in the Berlin Museum we find a two-armed Gomukha with a fourarmed Cakresvari. The bronze is dated in a year equal to 1144 A.D. In the National Museum (New Delhi) Caturvimsatipatta of Adinatha (Museum no. 47.109/173), assignable to c. 9th century A.D., hailing from Gujarat or Rajasthan, a two-armed Sarvanubhuti Yaksa and a two-armed Ambika figure as the Sasanadevatas. In a bronze Covisi of Adinatha from the cellar of the famous Caumukha Temple at Ranakpur, Rajasthan 29 the Yaksa is two-armed with the human face and shows the abhaya and the bag while the Yaksi is a four-armed Cakresvari riding on the eagle and showing the cakra in each of the two upper hands and the abhaya and the citron with the right and the left lower ones. The bronze can be assigned to the eleventh century A.D. Worship of Rsabhanatha remained popular throughout the ages in Western India. In the Pittalahara temple at Delvada, Mt. Abu, the main image in the sanctum is a big brass image of Rsabha 30 with full parikara and four-armed Gomukha Yaksa and a four-armed Cakresvari Yaksi as the Sasanadevatas. One very interesting bronze Pancatirthi of Rsabhanatha from Sanauli in Rajasthan is noteworthy. The bronze belongs to the Digambara tradition. Adinatha sits in the padmasana on a simhasana with the bull symbol shown in the centre. On the pedestal are small figures of nine planets including Ketu shown as a snake. Below at the end of the pedestal, in the centre is the dharmacakra to the right of which is a small two-armed figure of Ambika while to the left of the Wheel stands a small two-armed figure of a Yaksa. On the right side of Rsabha and a standing Tirthankara, at the end, on a full-blown lotus, is an eight-armed Cakresvari on Garuda. On the corresponding left end of this image is a twoarmed Ambika on lion holding an amralumbi with the right hand and her son with the left. An inscription on the back gives a date Samvata 1068 - A.D. 1011. A figure of Rsabha is carved on one of the faces of the Caumukha preserved in the Son Bhandar Cave, Rajgir, Bihar.31 Here Rsabha is standing under a simple arch supported by two pillars. On each side of the Jina is a chowrie-bearer yaksa and a flying maladhara (garland-bearer) on top of each pillar. The Caitya-vrkca is represented by way of a twig on each side forming an arch over the Jina's head. This appears to be a common characteristic of all the Tirtharkara images of its age found at Rajgir. The image dates from the early mediaeval period and is a specimen of Pala art. There is a triple umbrella on top of the arch with a defaced motif of two hands beating a drum and representing devadundubhi. On the pedestal is a dharma-cakra with a bull on each side. In the mediaeval period, usually the dharmacakra is accompanied by a deer on each side but in many sculptures from Bengal and Bihar, dating from the post-Gupta and mediaeval periods, the cognizance appears on each side of the dharma-cakra. A beautiful sculpture lying in the brick temple at Vaibhara giri, Rajgir, was described by Rama Prasad Chanda.32 The Jina sits in padmasana on a big lotus, resting against a plain back-rest, with a plain halo behind head. He wears a beautiful jata overhead with hair locks falling on shoulders. He is attended upon by two camaradhara yaksas, and garland-bearing gandharva pairs on top near the halo. The halo is surmounted by a triple umbrella, two hands coming up from its sides hold cymbals. In the centre of the pedestal is the dharmacakra with a bull facing it from each side. The sculpture dates from the eighth century A.D. At Suissa, Bihar, are several Jaina sculptures of the mediaeval period. Many such Jaina sculptures from Bihar show the Jina in a miniature shrine suggested by an amalaka on top and a trefoil arch under which a Tirtharkara stands in meditation. One such sculpture from Suissa shows Rsabha with a high

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118 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana cap-like jata standing in kayotsarga pose, on a double lotus, under a trefoil-shaped arch. In the centre of the pedestal is the bull cognizance. The sculpture is a Covisi image with other Tirthankaras represented in miniature forms on two sides of Rsabha. A Covisi sculpture of Rsabha from Manbhum is preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. A sculpture of Rsabha with a similar big jata, attended by two chowriebearers, and with four planets on each side is preserved in the National Museum (no. 74.64). Here too the bull is shown in the centre of the pedestal and just below the double-lotus beneath the feet of Rsabha. The image seems to have hailed from Bihar. All images of Rsabha from Bihar, Bengal and Orissa show a big jata on the head tied high like a big cap. A beautiful sculpture of this Jina, with lower half mutilated, probably from Orissa, shows the Jina standing in the kayotsarga mudra (National Museum no. 74.67). Rsabha sitting in padmasana with the typical jata overhead, hailing from Mayurbhanja, preserved in the National Museum, is published in Jaina Art and Architecture (henceforth referred to as JAA), vol. I, p. 163, pl. 88. The sculpture dates from c. tenth-eleventh century A.D. R.P. Mohapatra published33 an image of Rsabhanatha, from Hatadiha, in Jeypore sub-division of Cuttack district, with the usual characteristics of Rsabhanatha images of tenth century from Orissa. The back-slab is relieved with figures of Tirtnaakaras in two rows of 12 each. Figure 25 represents a standing Rsabha with two rows of planets on the two sides, a triple umbrella above with leaves on its sides suggesting the caitya tree. On each side of the halo is a celestial garland-bearer and hands beating the drum. Rsabha has the usual big jafa and stands on a visva-padma (double-lotus) below which is the bull symbol. The sculpture is now preserved in Musee Guimet, Paris, and seems to have come from Orissa. During the mediaeval period, Khandagiri was perhaps a very important Jaina centre, in Orissa. Here a few caves, excavated earlier for residence of Jaina monks were converted into shrines with the addition of relief sculptures carved on the walls. Cave 7, called the Navamuni, has an inscription of the time of Udyotakesarin of Somavamsi dynasty (eleventh century) which refers to a Jaina monk Khalla Subhacandra of the Desi-gana. Images of seven Tirthankaras are carved in a row in low relief on the back wall, along with their Sasana-devis in a lower row. They are Rsabhanatha and Cakresvari, Ajitanatha and Rohini, Sambhavanatha and Prajnapti, Abhinandana and Vajrasrnkhala, Vasupujya and Gandhari, Parsva and Padmavati, Neminatha and Ambika. The row of Sasana-devis is preceded by a figure of Ganesa. Again on the right wall are carved in high relief figures of Rsabha and Parsva, both in standing posture and nude, but without their attendant yaksis. The sculptures date from c. tenth-eleventh century A.D.34 Cave 8 called Barabhuji has on its walls relief carvings of 24 different Tirthankaras, each with his Sasana-yaksi and a figure of Parsvana tha on the back-wall this time without the yaksi. There is no srivatsa mark on the chest of any of the Tirthankaras in both the caves. In cave 9 there are three standing images of Rsabhanatha in chlorite, installed on pedestals. On top of the hill is a modern Jaina temple preserving some old Jaina sculptures including a few of Rsabhanatha. In the State Museum at Bhuvanesvara, Orissa, are a few Jaina bronzes obtained from Banpur. Amongst them is a beautiful standing Rsabhanatha with the high jata-bhara on head and the bull cognizance in the centre of the pedestal. A similar iconographic type is a beautiful bronze of standing Rsabha from Kakatpur, now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (see Fig. 32). Arun Joshi has brought to light certain interesting Jaina sculptures from the Khijjinga area. 35 He has published a beautiful sculpture of Rsabha in the sitting posture with two attendant chowrie-bearer yaksas and the bull cognizance in the centre of the simhasana. The sculpture, now in Baripada Museum, dates from c. 8th-9th century A.D. Another sculpture published by him, also from Khijjinga, dates from c. 10th century A.D. and shows Rsabha standing with two smaller Tirthankaras standing on each side. He wears a big crown-like jata, has an attendant camaradhara yaksa on each side but no sasana-yaksa and yaksi are shown. The bull symbol is in the centre of the pedestal. In the mediaeval sculptures from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, so far discovered, Sasanadevatas (yaksa and yaksi) do not usually accompany images of Tirthankaras as in Western India and Madhya Pradesh, nor do we always find the dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal. The sculpture described above is a Pancatirthi of Rsabhanatha. Arun Joshi has also published a Covisi of Rsabha from the same area. From Podasingadi in the forest region of Baula hill ranges in Anandapur division, Keonjhar district,

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras Orissa, Jaina images of c. 8th cent. A.D. have been discovered. An inscribed image of Rsabhanatha from Podasingadi is now in the State Museum, Bhuvanesvara. Rsabha sits in padmasana. There is also a standing Rsabha from the same site in the State Museum. He has a jata over head with tufts of hair falling on shoulders. In the same museum there is also an image of Rsabha in kayotsarga mudra from Charampa, Balasore, Orissa. The Jina has a big jata, a single umbrella (not triple) and is accompanied by eight small planet figures.36 It must be remembered that most of these Jaina sculptures from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa belong to the Digambara tradition. From Achutarajpur close to Banpur, district Puri, Orissa, was dug out a hoard of Buddhist and Jaina bronzes, published by Debala Mitra.37 The hoard, now preserved in the State Museum at Bhuvanesvara, contains a beautiful bronze of Adinatha (Acc. no. 257) sitting in padmasana on a big lotus placed on a pedestal in front of which is shown the bull cognizance. Rsabha has a big jata over the head and a big oblong prabhamandala behind, topped by triple umbrella. The bronze dates from c. eighth century A.D. From Jeypore sub-division in Koraput district, Orissa, have been discovered a number of Tirthankara images. Umakanta Subuddhi has published a Caturvimsati Patta of Rsabhanatha from Koraput in Jaina Journal, XVI, 1, pp. 24f. The sculpture was foun from Bhairayasinghpur village in Boriguma tahsil of Jeypore sub-division. Rsabhanatha sits in the padmasana dhyana mudra and has a srivatsa symbol on the chest. Images from Orissa follow the traditions of Bihar and Eastern India and represent the Tirthankaras in padmasana (when shown in sitting postures) and not in the ardha-padmasana as in further south. In this sculpture Rsabha is flanked by two camaradharas and accompanied by 23 other Tirthankara figures, each of whom is shown with his lanchana. The bull lanchana of Rsabha is shown below his seat. No yaksa and yaksi are represented on the right and left ends of the pedestal, but in the centre, at the bottom of the relief is a female deity sitting in meditative posture, which Umakanta Subuddhi has described thus: "The deity has two hands, one of which is in varada mudra and the other is holding a citrus or bijapuraka. She should not be mistaken as yaksini Cakresvari of the Digambara order, for she has two hands while Cakresvaris are generally found having four or eight or twelve hands." We might add that even though a two-armed Cakresvari is known, as she does not hold the disc she is not likely to be Cakresvari. But she is one of the ancient yaksis whose identity is not known. Since this sculpture dates from c. 9th century A.D., this female figure offers a problem. We will see later on that in the mediaeval period, in Western India, first a male figure and then a female figure begins to appear below the dharmacakra at a lower end of the pedestal. Later on, with the Svetambaras of Western India, this female deity is worshipped as four-armed Santi-devi. So far as this two-armed female deity on the Bhairavasinghpur Rsabhanatha sculpture is concerned, we must await more such specimens from Orissa. If a guess is permitted, there is a possibility that the donor's Gotra-devi was represented. In the Jaina Journal, vol. XVI, 3 (1982), pp. 119ff, Umakanta Subuddhi has published two more sculptures of Rsabhanatha from the same site. His figure 2 is a Caturvimsati-Patta of Rsabha sitting in padmasana. His bull lanchana is shown below the seat, on the pedestal. "In the middle of the pedestal is seen a four-armed Cakresvari, seated in lalitasana and riding a Garuda. She holds a citrus, noose, and thunderbolt in her three hands while the fourth hand is laid in varada-mudra." In the photograph published, the female figure is not clearly visible. The identification of the devi as Cakresvari is perhaps based on the Garuda vahana, but it is surprising that the devi does not hold the cakra in any of her hands. The sculpture dates from c. 8th century A.D. The second image, published as figure 1 in Subuddhi's plate, looks more beautiful. It is assigned by the author to a date between the seventh and the ninth century A.D. Rsabha here sits in the padmasana and is flanked by a camaradhara on each side. The Jina wears a jatamukuta arranged beautifully in three parts with hair-locks falling on shoulders. "The Lord's lanchana, the bull, is seen sitting at the bottom of the seat held by two leogriffs facing opposite sides. Between the leogriffs and just below the seat of the Lord is seen a six-armed Cakresvari riding a Garuda and seated in lalitasana. The Sasanadevi is holding a citrus, noose, vajra, disc, and an arrow in five hands while the sixth hand is in varada mudra. On the right side bottom of the image is found a standing figure of Yaksa Gomukha. He is as usual 119

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120 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana bull-faced, pot-bellied and four-armed. He holds a noose, hatchet, rosary in his three hands while the fourth hand is in varada pose." The sculpture dates from c. 9th-10th cent. A.D. The old Manbhum district of Bihar is now divided into the districts of Purulia (West Bengal) and Dhanbad (Bihar). Anai-Jambad or more popularly Paresnath or Paresnath Mahadev-Beda or Mahadev-Beda is a place situated under the Purulia (Mofussil) P.S. of the Purulia district of West Bengal where Sri Sarak Jaina Samiti of Kharkhari, Dhanbad has constructed a modern temple over the ruins of an ancient Jaina settlement. This temple houses six unique images of Jaina Tirtha karas discovered from mounds around the area. They include a Pancatirthika sculpture of Rsabhanatha, and another one of Rsabha standing in kayotsarga on a double-lotus placed on a tri-ratha pedestal which has in the centre the bull lanchana flanked by crouching lions. The saviour is nude, his hair dressed in a tall jatamukusa with curls of hair falling down on shoulders. On either side stands a male chowrie-bearer while on the back slab are shown in bold relief the eight planets, four on each side of the Jina, Ketu being omitted. Behind the head of the Jina is the halo surmounted by triple umbrella. Above the planets are garland-bearing vidyadharas as also a drum and a pair of cymbals struck by disembodied hands. The sculpture is assigned to c. tenth centur A . Pratip Kumar Mitra, writing on the sculptures from Anai-Jambad,38 states: "The sculptural wealth of South-West Bengal as represented or expressed in by the examples of early mediaeval sculptures recovered from this area requires to be treated as a separate entity. The region roughly covering the erstwhile district of Manbhum, the district of Bankura, the north-western part of Midnapore, with extensions into the districts of Singhbhum and Ranchi of the Chhotanagpur subdivision of Bihar, represents a characteristically common trait in icono-plastic art, which is somewhat removed from the main stream of Pala art... In respect of modelling of the body these sculptures are in general more robust and forceful than merely graceful or lyrical ..." From Surohar in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh, was discovered a beautiful sculpture representing Rsabha sitting in the padmasana with small figures of the other 23 Tirthankaras around him on three sides. The Caturvimsati-pafta of Rsabha dates from c. tenth century A.D. The bull cognizance of Rsabha is shown in the centre of the pedestal. Rsabha has a beautiful big jatabhara on head which reminds one of the figure of Siva (Fig. 57).39 An elaborately carved sculpture of Rsabhadeva from Kukkuramatha, Mandla district, old Central Provinces, shows the Jina sitting in padmasana with a beautiful prominent jatabhara on head and hairlocks adorning the shoulders. In a perfectly balanced yogic posture the figure at once reminds one of Siva of the Brahmanical Trinity. In the background, in the upper part of the sculpture are shown, in two rows, beautifully modelled miniature figures of the planets. The ornamental halo, the graceful modelling with the classical touch etc. suggest a date around ninth century A.D. Images of Rsabha are obtained also from Bhelova, Dinajpur, from Sank, Purulia district, Pakbirra and from Sitalpur and Bhangra villages in the same district. Purulia was once part of Manbhum district, Bihar; Manbhum is identified with the ancient Radhadesa visited by Mahavira. Sculptures of Rsabhanatha are also obtained from Ghatesvara and Dharapet in W. Bengal, from Mandoil, Rajshahi district, Bangladesh, from Bhagalpur in Bihar and from places like Palma and Bhavanipur etc. 40 A hoard of Jaina bronzes of the Digambara sect, from Aluara, Bihar, dating from c. 11th-12th cent. A.D., includes two standing figures of Rsabha with the prominent jata and the bull lanchana and one figure sitting in the padmasana (Patna Mu. nos. 10680, 10681 and 10687).41 There is also a dvi-tirthi with Rsabha and Mahavira standing side by side (Patna Mu. no. 10682). A similar dvitirthi in stone, much more beautifully modelled, is preserved in the British Museum and seems to have hailed from Orissa (Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 35 and Ramaprasad Chanda, Mediaeval Indian Sculpture in the British Museum, pl. XXII and p. 71). The first Tirthankara was also very much venerated in U.P. and Madhya Pradesh.42 Few Jaina antiquities are as yet found from Haryana and Punjab. A beautiful sculpture of Rsabhanatha (?) with full parikara found from Bhatinda in Punjab is now preserved in the Archaeological Museum at Chandigarh (JOI, vol. 31, no. 3, last cover page).

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharikaras 121 The Lucknow Museum preserves a sculpture of Adinatha from Kankali Tila, Mathura (Museum no. J.78), 43 illustrated here as Fig. 55. The simhasana shows the dharmacakra in the centre with a worshipper and a bull figure on each side. The bull cognizance definitely proves that the Jina sitting in padmasana (head lost) is to be identified as Adinatha. Traces of hair-locks can be seen on the shoulders. On the right side of this Jina is a four-armed standing male figure with snake-hoods overhead and holding a cup (wine cup) in his right lower hand. The left lower is placed on the kati (girdle region) while the left upper seems to have carried the plough. The figure represents Balarama of Hindu mythology. To the left of the Jina is another four-armed male standing and carrying the mace (gada) and the lotus (padma) in his two upper hands while his left lower hand holds the conch (sankha) and the right lower is held in the abhaya mudra. Evidently he represents Krsna-Vasudeva identified with Visou. The presence of Krsqa, who in Jaina Puranas is described as a cousin brother of Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara, has led some scholars to identify this Jina figure as representing Neminatha. But another explanation can be offered for the presence of Krsna and Baladeva with Adinatha. Firstly, Jaina mythology admits nine Baladevas and nine Vasudevas of whom only one pair of mors flourished in the age of Neminatha. However none of them was contemporary of Adinatha. Secondly, Mathura which is the findspot of this sculpture is well-known as the centre of Kssa-Vasudeva worship, at least from about the second century B.C. Our sculpture dates from about the seventh century A.D. when Visnuism or the Bhagavata cult had already been very popular. It is obvious that an attempt was made to show the Hindu deities in the subordinate position of attendants to the Jaina Tirthankaras. Even the presence of Klsna and Balarama on Mathura sculptures of Neminatha dating from the Kusana age should be interpreted as an attempt to show Brahmanical deities in a subordinate position. We have a small figure of Ganesa on an early mediaeval sculpture of the Jaina Ambika, No. D.7 in the Mathura Museum. The sculpture of Adinatha under review has a figure of two-armed Sarvanubhuti Yaksa on its right end and a figure of two-armed Ambika on the corresponding left end. The presence of Ambika need not tempt us to identify this Jina as Neminatha because, as we have demonstrated long ago, this Yaksa-Yaksi pair was a pair common to all the Tirtha karas from c. sixth century A.D. to about the ninth-tenth century A.D. A somewhat later sculpture of Rsabha, from Orai, district Jalaun, U.P., preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (no. 0.178) is noteworthy.44 The Jina has an usnisa and stylised schematic curls of hair over head and hair-locks on the shoulders. In the centre of the simhasana is the dharmacakra to the left of which can be seen only a part of a boldly carved figure of the vrsabha lanchana. The upper parts of the beautiful sculpture are mutilated but the remaining small figures of sitting Tirthankaras in two rows on each side of the Jina suggest that this was a Caturvimsati-palla of Rsabhanatha. The pedestal of the sculpture is noteworthy. On the right of the simhasana is a beautiful figure of two-armed Kubera-like Yaksa with a money-bag in his left hand and a pot of money (nidhi) below the left leg. Kubera-like, he is the Yaksa Sarvanubhuti of Jaina traditions, found as the Sasanadeva of the various Jinas. On the corresponding left end is Cakresvari eight-armed riding on the eagle. To the right of the dharmacakra is a small figure of Laksmi partly mutilated, while on the left is a small figure of Ambika. Temple no. 4 at Devgadh, M.P., has a big Pancatirthi sculpture of Adinatha (Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 43). Below his seat are two figures of Rsabha's gapadhara (or an acarya) and his disciple with a sthapan, between them. Just above the sthapana on the end of a cloth hanging is the bull cognizance of the Jina. What is more interesting here is that on the right side of the simhasana we find a figure of twoarmed Ambika instead of the Sasana Yaksa, while on the left end we have a figure of four-armed Cakresvari riding on the eagle. M.N.P. Tiwari45 has noted one more such example. In the Jardine Museum, Khajuraho, on a sculpture, Acc. no. 1651, Cakresvari and Ambika are carved on two sides of the dharmacakra and a figure of Laksmi with lotuses in two upper hands at left corner of the throne. We have already noted above a similar case of Cakresvari and Ambika figuring on two ends in a bronze from Sanauli, Rajasthan. A Pancatirthi of Rsabhadeva from the temple of Adinatha, Khajuraho (DGA's negative 142 of 1923-24) shows a small figure of the bull lanchana near the dharmacakra. The Jina has usnisa on top of the head but no jata; there are traces of hair-locks on the shoulders. On the right of the simhasana

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122 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana is a small figure of pot-bellied two-armed Yaksa with the cup and the money-bag in his right and left hands respectively while on the left end of the sculpture is a small figure of four-armed Cakresvari with the Garuda-vahana and a cakra in each of the two upper hands. The sculpture dates from c. late tenth or early eleventh century A.D. There is another Pancatirthi of Adinatha with similar iconography in the Khajuraho Museum (DGA's negative 179 of 1923-24). An elaborately carved Caturvimsati-Pasta sculpture of Rsabhanatha in the Adinatha temple at Khajuraho has the same iconographic type of the Yaksa and the Yaksi. The Jina has prominent hair-locks on the shoulders, a mutilated bull lanchana on the right side of the dharmacakra. The Jina is sitting in padmasana on a cushioned decorated seat with a lotus bud in front of the central diamond motif and one lotus bud on each end (DGA's negative 143 of 1923-24). These three lotus buds placed in this position do not signify the lanchana of the Jina since the Jina in this case is unmistakably Rsabhanatha but we meet with such instances in other sculptures where there is no other lanchang shown and where the Jina has no hair-locks. In all such cases it would be difficult to identify the Tirthankara as Padmaprabha with the padma lanchana or as Naminatha with the nilotpala Inc . In such cases we must await further research. One more Covisi of Rsabhanatha in the Archaeological Museum at Khajuraho needs consideration (DGA's negative 123 of 1908-09). The sculpture was collected from the ruined Ghantai temple at Khajuraho and in the photograph we find Ghantai written with chalk on the lowermost end of the pedestal to mark its findspot. Rsabhanatha here sits in padmasana on a decorated cushion and wears a jata overhead. On the pedestal are eight planets with the bull cognizance placed in the centre. On the right end of the simhasana is the four-armed Gomukha Yaksa while on the corresponding left end is a fourarmed Cakresvari on the eagle. The sculpture seems to date from late eleventh century A.D.46 In the Khajuraho Museum there is another big sculpture from Ghantai temple. Elaborately carved are in all 52 figures of Tirthankaras including a big central figure of Rsabha standing in the kayotsarga posture. The total of 52 Jinas signifies that this group symbolises the worship of 52 shrines of the Nandisvara-dvipa. The Yaksa is two-armed Sarvanubhuti on the right end while on the left end is a four-armed Cakresvari (DGA's negative 1633/60). In another sculpture in the Jardine Museum at Khajuraho, Mu. no. 1651, one finds figures of Laksmi and Ambika also besides the usual Sasanadevata pair. The Parsvanatha templo at Khajuraho was originally dedicated to Adinatha, so also the ruined Ghantai temple. Worship of Rsabha was indeed popular in Khajuraho. At Devgadh fort in Madhya Pradesh images of Rsabha were widely worshipped, more than fifty images of Rsabha are known to have survived at the site. Here we find Rsabha with a jasa in some images. On the simhasana of one Rsabha image in temple no. 12 is found a four-armed goddess showing the lotus in each of the two upper hands and the abhaya mudra and the kalasa in the two lower ones. This is identified by some as Laksmi. In Svetambara traditions such a goddess figuring in the centre of the simhasana is identified as the Santidevata, the Goddess of Peace. In the courtyard of the Jaina temple at Budhi Chanderi, M.P., is a beautiful sculpture of Rsabha in padmasana with eight more small figures of Tirthankaras. Rsabha has hair-locks falling on his shoulders but no japa. Rsabha images at this site show Gomukha and Cakresvari as the Sasana devatas. A well-preserved sculpture of seated Rsabhanatha from Garh, Rewa district, M.P., now preserved in the Tulsi Sangrahalaya, Ramvan, Satna, M.P., shows the same Yaksa pair. The sculpture dates from c. 11th cent. A.D. A sculpture of Rsabha in the Dhubela Museum (Museum no. 38), dating from c. Ilth century A.D., shows no figures of Sasanadevatas but in the centre of the simhasana we have a four-armed goddess like the one on the Rsabha image in temple no. 12 at Devgadh which can be identified as fourarmed Cakresvari. A Covisi of Rsabha standing with the head and upper part of the sculpture mutilated is preserved as no. G.322 in the Lucknow Museum. The sculpture, of c. 11th century A.D., came from Mahoba in Hamirpur district, U.P. On the right end of the pedestal we have a figure of four-armed Cakresvari, but the Yaksa figure was not carved, and on the corresponding left end of the sculpture we find a small figure of a Jina in padmasana. Similarly a Covisi (?) sculpture of Rsabha, partly mutilated, hailing from Jaso, Satna. M.P., now preserved in the Allahabad Municipal Museum (no. 505) shows only a two-armed

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 123 Yaksi at the right end while there is figure of Parsvanatha sitting at the left end. Rsabha here wears a prominent jata on his head. The sculpture may be assigned to the tenth century A.D. It will be seen that the full parikara is not shown here even though the parikara was already evolved. There is another sculpture of Rsabha, a Pancatirthi, from Jaso in the Allahabad Museum (Museum no. 520), illustrated on pl. CXXI by Pramod Chandra in his Stone Sculpture in the Allahabad Museum. Here we have the two camaradharas, the triple-umbrella, the maladharas, the simhasana with the dharmacakra in the centre and small figures of the Gomukha Yaksa and Cakresvari Yaksi at the two ends of the back slab. Here also Rsabha is adorned with a big jata-juta on his head. The sculpture may be assigned to late tenth or early eleventh century A.D. In this museum is a standing Rsabha from Gaya showing a big jafa. Another sculpture of Adinatha with a group of 23 more Jinas hails from Sahet Mahet, the site of ancient Sravasti. Here also the full parikara is not seen, only two camaradharas, the halo, the triple umbrella, the elephants and a drum-beater on top of the chatra are shown while the garland-bearers are omitted. Such instances show that even though the eight pratiharyas were known and acknowledged, in actual representations one or more could be easily omitted. Another noteworthy, feature in this sculpture is the omission of the Yaksa and the placing of the figure of akresvati Yaksi on the right end instead of her more common position on the left end. The sculpture is published by B.C. Bhattacharya in his Jaina Iconography, 2nd ed., pl. IV. B.C. Bhattacharya, op. cit., pl. V, has also published a richly decorated sculpture of Adinatha, in padmasana, from Tripuri, M.P., now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. There are prominent hair-locks on shoulders, and an usnisa but no jata on the head. Two-armed Yaksa Sarvanubhuti is shown near the left end of the simhasana while the beautiful Yaksi figure on the right end is much damaged. There is an interesting sculpture of Rsabha from Gyarasapur in the old Gwalior State, M.P. Old Gwalior State was a centre of Digambara Jainas for the area is rich in sculptural finds belonging to this sect. This figure (Negative no. 13/93, Dept. of Archaeology, Old Gwalior State) is noteworthy, firstly because it is group of eleven Tirthankaras and secondly because of the simple parikara containing only the two chowrie-bearers, the triple-umbrella and the simhasana with the Wheel of Dharma. The position of the camaradharas represented as flying in the air is interesting and rare. Sculptures of Adinatha are obtained from several sites in the Old Gwalior State. There is a big figure of Adinatha from Tumain, district Esargadh, which is worshipped as Baithadeva. The simhasana etc. are very much mutilated but the sculpture is a fine specimen of c. 9th cent. A.D. A black stone image from Golakot in the Gwalior area is a beautiful example of Jaina sculpture, finely carved with figures having graceful limbs delicately modelled (Negative no. 1012 of Old Gwalior State). The Yaksa here is four-armed Gomukha while the figure of Cakresvari is not fully visible in the photograph. The Jina has a full parikara including a pair of maladharas, elephants with pitchers, a conch-blower on top of the triple-umbrella, the bhamandala (halo), two camaradharas standing on elephants, the lion-throne, the dharmacakra, the bull cognizance, the Yaksa and the Yaksi. The Jina sits on an embroidered big round cushion. Marks of lotuses are visible on the soles of his feet and palms of hands. Compare Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh, figs. 187-8, 211-13. A sculpture in the Gwalior Museum shows Rsabha in padmasana with usnisa on head and hair-locks on shoulders. The dharmacakra in the centre of simhasana has a female devotee on each side. There is no lanchana. Beautifully modelled figure of the Jina is attractive (Gwalior Museum no. 5/C 20, DGA's neg. no. 1573/63). The sculpture dates from c. 9th cent. A.D. and probably came from Vidisa. Another beautiful sculpture in the Gwalior Museum is a Covisi of Rsabha sitting in the padmasana on simhasana. The sculpture is partly mutilated, the Yaksa is a two-armed Sarvanubhuti while the Yaksi figure is mutilated (Old Gwalior State Dept. of Arch., neg. no. 63/93). The sculpture dates from c. 9th cent. A.D. There are over fifty sculptures of Rsabhanatha in the group of Jaina temples at Devgadh. Somes how Rsabha in the kavotsarga mudra with full parikara and Sasanadevatas or with few elements of the parikara and without the Sasana Yaksa and Yaksi. For illustration see Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh (JID), figs. 44, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 94, 95, 97, 108, 257, 258. Similarly we have sculptures with Rsabhanathe sitting in padmasana, see, for example, Bruhn, ibid., fig. 24 (showing two-armed Yaksa Sarvinubhuti

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124 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana to the right of the dharmacakra and two-armed Ambika Yaksi on the left), fig. 187 from temple 15 (showing Sarvanubhuti on the left of the simhasana and Ambika on the right), fig. 192 from Temple no. 2, fig. 195 from Temple 2 (Tri-tirthika sculpture of Rsabhanatha with full parikara showing two-armed cowfaced Yaksa on the right end of the simhasana and a two-armed Yaksi on the left end). This figure is dated in Samvat 1051 A.D. 994. The Yaksa shows the abhaya and the water-jar in his two hands, the Yaksi shows the disc and the fruit in her hands. In Fig. 207 from Temple no. 4, there are in all thirteen Tirthaokaras, including the central figure of Adinatha with his bull cognizance. No Yaksa and Yaksi are shown. The sculpture seems to be of the same age as Bruhn's fig. 206, image no. 248 dated in v.s. 1095, see Bruhn's page 165, Fig. 211 from Temple no. 21 where the Yaksa is two-armed with the human face and the Yaksi is two-armed showing the abhaya and the fruit in her two hands. Bruhn's fig. 212 from Budhi Chanderi shows the Cakresvari Yaksi while the Yaksa figure is indistinct; we have already described above Bruhn's fig. 213 from Golakot. These figures are in general similar in conception and perhaps not much removed in age from each other and we may assign Bruhn's figs. 207, 211-213, 214-218 to the same perind around Samvat 1095 (A.D. 1038). Fig. 218 is from Siron Khurd and seems to be somewhat later in his group. It shows four-armed Gomukha Yaksa and four-armed Cakresvari as the Sasanadevatas of Rsabhanatha. Fig. 231 from temple 4 is already discussed before. Figures 239 and 239 A belong to the same class as figs. 211-218. Figs. 261-263 also show Rsabha in the sitting posture. Bruhn has discussed on his pages 198f a typical Parsva image from Temple 6, Devgadh. It is illustrated by him in his fig. 260. It will be obvious from the illustration that hair-locks touch both the shoulders of Parsvanatha. In Jaina iconographic traditions only in the case of Rsabhanatha images the hair-locks can be depicted falling on the Jina's shoulders. We have another instance also of such an irregularity. Sculpture no. B.23 in the Nagpur Museum (DGA's negative no. 1659/62) shows Parsvanatha, canopied by seven snake-hoods, sitting in the padmasana on a double lotus with the snake cognizance also shown in front of the lotus in its centre. Triple hair strands on each shoulder are clearly marked out. Pratapaditya Pal has published a colour plate of a beautiful bronze in his Sensuous Immortals, fig. 50, p. 86, and described it as a Jaina Tirthankara. Hair-locks from the back of the Jina's head are prominently displayed in a curly way all over his both shoulders. But the lanchana in the centre of the pedestal, much worn out, looks more like a goat or an antelope than a bull in the beautiful plate published in the book. Pal feels that it looks more like an antelope. Pal has assigned the bronze to seventh century; provenance is supposed to be Bihar. On each side of the Jina is standing a male camaradhara yaksa. The bronze is gold-plated and is a very fine early Jaina bronze. This is another instance which shows that sometimes, perhaps through mistake, other Tirthankaras were also shown with hair-locks adorning their shoulders. Worship of Adinatha was popular in U.P. and Madhya Pradesh. We need not refer to many more sculptures of Adinatha from the Lucknow Museum, the Mathura Museum, the Jhansi Museum etc. The worship remained popular through the ages. In a shrine in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh is a bronze image of Rsabha sitting in the padmasana with full parikara and the bull cognizance below simhasana on the pedestal. A pair of feet by the side of the bull show the Carana-puja which is an ancient custom amongst all the sects in India. Below are planet-heads. Still below in the centre is an unidentified two-armed standing male. He is not the donor since small figures of the donor male and female occur on an upper level of the pedestal. On the right end of the pedestal is the goddess Padmavati, two-armed, with three snake-hoods over her head. To her left is the Gomukha Yaksa, two-armed. Symbols held by the figures are not distinct. On the corresponding left end is a two-armed Yaksi carrying a kalasa in her left hand. The other symbol is not distinct. To her left is a figure of two-armed Ambika. The bronze is dated in Samvat 1527=A.D. 1470 and belongs to the Digambara tradition. A beautiful bronze of Rsabha sitting in the padmasana, now preserved in the Punyavijaya Collection of the L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad, was published in Treasures of the Jaina Bhandaras. The bronze was given as a gift by the Jainas of Sirpur in Khandesh. There is an inscription on the back which refers to the Vagendra kula. The Yaksa to the right of the Jina is mutilated but what remains shows that he was riding on the elephant and held a money bag in his left hand. Obviously the figure was of two-armed

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 125 Sarvanubhuti. On the corresponding left end was the Yaksi whose figure is lost but her lion mount remains. She must have been two-armed Ambika Yaksi. The bronze is assigned to the seventh century A.D. Another beautiful bronze of Adinatha with 23 other Tirthankaras comes from Chahardi in Khandesh and is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Rsabha here is standing in kayotsarga mudra. The Jina has hair-locks on his shoulders (Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. III, pl. 351, and pp. 568-69). The two-armed Sarvanubhuti, with the citron and the nakulika (purse) in his right and the left hands respectively, is shown on the right lower end while on the corresponding left end is the two-armed Ambika Yaksi. Age, c. ninth century A.D. In the same museum there is another beautiful bronze of Rsabha sitting in padmasana on a simhasana placed on a pedestal. The attendant Yaksa and Yaksi are two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika (JAA, vol. III, pl. 353B and p. 570). The Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay has some beautiful Jaina sculptures from Maharashtra and Karnataka, besides bronzes from Vala, etc. in Gujarat and a very early bronze of Paravanatha whose findspot is not known. A Tri-Tirthika stone sculpture, from Ankai-Tankai, Nasik district, Maharashtra. is published by Moti Chandra and Gorakshakara in JAA, vol. IIT, PI: 347A ind a Panca-Tirthika from the same site in ibid., pl. 347B, p. 566. Three standing Tirtharkaras in a row in each of these sculptures show hair-locks on the shoulders. The authors mentioned above write: "It may be observed here that the hair-locks falling on shoulders, which generally helps in identifying Rsabhanatha, appear as a cliche in the Ankai sculptures, for even Parsvanatha has been depicted with hair-locks falling on the shoulders. Circa ninth-tenth century." The same practice of showing hair-locks on shoulders of Tirtharkaras other than Rsabhadeva is seen in other parts of Maharashtra. In the Nagpur Museum is a sculpture of a Tirtha nkara with the horse cognizance on the pedestal but showing hair-locks on the shoulders of the Jina. The sculpture came from Barsi Takli, Akola district. In the Nagpur Museum there is a stone sculpture of Parsvanatha (Mu, no. B.23). Here Parsva with seven snake-hoods overhead is sitting in padmasana. His snake cognizance is shown in centre-front of his lotus seat. Parsva has prominent hair-locks on his shoulders. The Nagpur Museum preserves a hoard of beautiful Jaina bronzes from Rajnapur Khinkhini in the Akola district, Maharashtra.47 of these one is a Caturvimsati-Pafta of Adinatha sitting in ardha-padmasana in the centre on a big lotus. Below on the lower end of the pedestal is a small male figure carrying the lotus and the citron in his right and left hands respectively. On his left, close to him sits a female holding the citron and the lotus in the right and the left hands respectively. Are they donors of the bronze? Since they are holding a citron-like fruit in one hand each they seem to be the earlier Yaksa pair of Jaina traditions or the Parents of the Jina. The latter alternative is less likely in this case. From near the top of the pedestal springs a lotus on each side, on the right side sits a four-armed human-faced Yaksa holding the purse and the fruit in his two left hands while the symbols of the right hands are not distinct. On the corresponding left end of the pedestal sits the Yaksi Cakresvari holding the cakra in each of her two upper hands, and the fruit in her left lower hand while the right lower is held in the abhaya mudra. Age, c. tenth century A.D. The hoard contains another bronze of Rsabha sitting on a lotus placed on a simhasana. The workmanship is poor. He has a two-armed Yaksa and a two-armed Yaksi on the right and left ends of his pedestal. He is identified as Rsabha with the help of hair-locks on his shoulders. Two crudely rendered lion figures below the lotus seat may signify the simhasana or as an alternative this Jina is Mahavira and not Rsabhanatha. But there is another such Eka-Tirthika bronze of Rsabhanatha with the dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal and a bull to its right. The Jina shows hair-locks on the shoulders. The hoard also includes two bronze Pancatirthis of Rsabha with hair-locks on his shoulders. A beautiful stone sculpture, a Caturvimsati-patta of Adinatha was published long ago by Cousins, from a Jaina temple in Aminbhavi in the Dharwar district, now in Karnataka (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 205. also fig. 17). Rsabha is standing in the kayotsarga mudra with hair-locks on his shoulders. near his right leg is sitting a four-armed Yaksa with human face and holding the rosary and the axe in his right and left upper hands and showing the varada mudra and the fruit with the corresponding lower ones.

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126 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana He is the Gomukha Yaksa of the Digambara tradition but without the cow-face. To the left of the Jina is sitting the Cakresvari Yaksi with cakra in her two upper hands, her right hand showing the varada mudra and the left holding an object which is indistinct. Karnataka is full of Jaina temples including those of Adinatha. In the Pancakuta-Basti group at Kambadahalli there is a shrine dedicated to Adinatha. So also there is one such Adinatha shrine in the Kattale-Basti group at Sravana Belagola. The Pancakuta Basti at Markuli is for Adinatha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha, Puspadanta and Suparsvanatha and has a fine twelve-armed sculpture of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha. At Halebid there are three large temples, in one compound, dedicated to Parsvanatha, Adinatha and Santina tha.48 A figure of Adinatha from Kattale Basti, Sravana Belagola, shows the Jina seated in the ardha-padmasana, dhyana mudra. The hair-locks are arranged in a straight line over the shoulders. There is a simple halo behind the head of the Jina, over which is the triple chatra. The Jina rests against a back formed of a horizontal bar ending in makara-heads and resting on two small pillars. A vyala also supports the bar on the outer side of each pillar and from this back emerge two male yaksas holding a citron in one hand and carrying a camara (chowrie) with the other. An inscription on the pedestal shows that the Basti was constructed by Dandanas aka Gangarayya. According to Hiralal he was the Commander in the service of Hoyasala king Visnuvardhana (c. 1118 A.D.). This Gangaraja was patron of an artist-architect and sculptor-Gangachari also called Vardhamanachari who fashioned the Adinatha image worshipped in the Cavundaraya Basti, Sravana Belagola. Gangaraja is stated to have built the Kattale Basti and the Sasana Basti. In the Sasana Basti the main image in the sanctum is of Adinatha, seated in the paryankasana, on a lion throne. The image bears an inscription which states that this Indrakulagrha (abode of Laksmi) was built by Gangaraja. The shrine has images of Ambika Yaksi and Sarvanha Yaksa. The Eradukatte Basti, built by Laksmidevi, wife of Gangaraja, in c. 1117 A.D., also was dedicated to Adinatha.49 At Venur in south Karnataka, in a Jaina temple are preserved stone images of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras with their cognizances on the pedestals and their Yaksas and Yaksinis standing by the sides of the Jina's legs. These sculptures are later than the set of 24 Tirthankaras in the Bhandara Basti at Sravana Belagola. The Venur set perhaps dates from c. 14th century A.D. or a little later. At Venur the sculpture of Adinatha shows the bull lanchana on pedestal. The Yaksa is four-armed, has a human face and not cow-face, and carries the rosary, the axe, the goad, and the citron in his four hands. Yaksi Cakresvari is twelve-armed and carries the vajra in each hand of the uppermost pair of hands, four pairs of hands in the middle all carry a disc each, while the lowermost pair shows the lotus and the varada mudra.50 A sculpture of Adinatha in worship in the Settara Basadi, Mudabidri, Karnataka, also shows the same type of Yaksa and Yaksi. However, the twelve-armed Cakresvari here has a slightly different set of symbols.51 The Bhandara Basti set of Tirthankara images dates from 1159 A.D. and the images are good examples of Hoyasala art of the period. The Jina stands under an ornamental wavy torana-arch supported by two pillars. The Jina stands under a triple-chatra and has a plain halo behind his head. The sign of his lanchana is engraved in the centre of a plain pedestal on which the Jina stands in kayotsarga mudra. All the sculptures at Sravana Belagola are of Digambara sect. The Yaksa of Rsabha here is four-armed with a human face and holds the goad and the rosary in his right and left upper hands respectively; while the right lower hand holds the citron, the left lower is held in the varada pose. Cakresvari, also standing, shows the disc in her two upper hands and the vajra in the middle pair of hands. Her left lower hand holds a conch while the right lower hand is held in the varada mudra. The set of 24 Tirthankara images in the Suttalaya of Gommata dates from c. late twelfth century A.D. Here no. 5 from the beginning is Adinatha. The Yaksa is four-armed with a human face while the Yaksi Cakresvari also has four arms. In Northern Karnataka also the worship of Adinatha has remained popular. In the Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar, is preserved a beautiful sculpture of Rsabha sitting in the paryankasana (same as the ardha-padmasana) with hair-locks shown on his shoulders. The head has schematic curls of hair but no jata and no usnisa. The sculpture is carved in the round. The pedestal below the Jina's big lotus-seat is lost. There is no parikara. The sculpture was recovered from the famous Jaina site called Lakkundi (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 252).

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 127 There is a beautiful bronze of Rsabha in paryankasana resting against a back made of two pilasters surmounted by a horizontal bar from behind which are springing, as it were, two male camaradharas. The Jina has hair-locks on shoulders carefully marked. He sits under a triple-umbrella. Leaves of the Caitya-tree are shown on both the sides of the chatra. The bronze seems to date from c, tenth century A.D. It is preserved in the Malli Jinalaya at Halli, Jewarji Taluq, Gulbarga district, Karnataka (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 333). Another beautiful bronze, a Caturvimsati-patta, shows Adinatha sitting in padmasana on a simhasana below which is the bull cognizance and below the lanchana seems to be standing a two-armed ksetrapala. At the right end of the simhasana is a four-armed bull-faced Gomukha Yaksa and on the left end of the simhasana is the four-armed Cakresvari Yaksi. At the farther right end of the bronze is a small figure of four-armed Padmavati while on the corresponding left end is a two-armed Ambika. The bronze is in worship in a Jinalaya at Ergal in the Sindgi Taluq, Bijapur district. This beautiful bronze is in the north Indian style and might have come from Maharashtra or Gujarat. The bronze dates from late eleventh century. In the Government Museum, Madras, is a bronze Caturvimsati-pata from Kogali, Harpanahalli, Bellary district. The bronze is assigned to c. 9th or 10th century. In the centre stands a big figure of a Tirthankara with hair-locks falling on his shoulders. The bronze is partly mutilated on top right end (Mu. no. 36-2/35). The bronze is wrongly identified as a Covisi of Mahavira. On the right end is a twoarmed pot-bellied Sarvanubhuti while on the left end is a two-armed Ambika (C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 317). In the same Museum is a stone sculpture of Adinatha standing in the centre with 24 miniature figures of Tirthaakaras sitting in paryarkasana on all the three sides of Adinatha. Adinatha is recognised by hairlocks on his shoulders. There is no cognizance, nor are there any Sasanadevatas. No elements of the parikara are shown. Museum no. 2511, findspot unknown. Age, c. 14th century A.D. In the Puddukottai Museum, Tamil Nadu, is a small bronze Caturvimsati-pata, with Adinatha standing in the centre. He has hair-locks on his shoulders, but no jata and no usnisa. The attendant Yaksa is cow-faced and four-armed while the Yaksi is four-armed Cakresvari. The bronze was dug out from the site of the Maharaja's College at Puddukottai. T.S. Sundaran published it in Lalit Kala, 1-2, pl. XX, fig. 2, p. 79. The bronze can be dated around 1000 A.D. Art style of the bronze suggests that it might have come originally from some area under the rule of Rastrakutas or the Kalyani Calukyas. A beautiful sculpture of Rsabhanatha, carved in the round, from Warangal, A.P., is now preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. The Jina sits in the paryarkasana and his hair are shown as if they are combed, with parallel lines going upwards. Hair-locks on his shoulders help us to identify the Jina as Rsabhanatha, as in the case of the Lakkundi Adinatha noted above. The sculpture can be assigned to c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. and has some Karnataka influence (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 19). In a brick-shrine on top of Bodikunda, Ramatirtham, Vizagapattam district are two Jaina sculptures assignable to 10th century A.D. One of them is a beautiful sculpture of Adinatha with a jata on his head and a back-rest with two camaradharas springing as it were from the horizontal bar of the back. The Jina sits on a visvapadma (double lotus) below which in front of the pedestal is prominently carved the bull cognizance (negative no. C.13, Southern Circle, Madras, Arch. Survey of India) (C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 284). Sivaramamurti, in his Panorama of Jaina Art, has illustrated some single figures of Adinatha, e.g., fig. 20 from Talkad, Dharwar, Karnataka. There is no lanchana and the Jina has the hair-locks on shoulders but no jata. Again, his figure 230 is a seated Tirthankara from Halebid, Chalukyan influence, c. 11th-12th cent. A.D. Sivaramamurti has illustrated some fine ornate sculptures showing Adinatha sitting in the paryankasana and resting his back against a cushion placed in front of a back-seat made of two pillars and topped by a horizontal bar. There are two camaradharas at the back and the triple-umbrella and the caitya-tree are shown. A beautiful example is illustrated in Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 270 from Sedum, Gulbarga, Chalukyan, c. 11th cent. A.D. Another noteworthy example is his fig. 440 from Aland, Gulbarga district.

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128 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana A third example is his fig. 470, Adinatha, from Gudigeri, Dharwar district, Western Chalukyan, 12th cent. A.D. Our Fig. 178A illustrates a bronze figure of a nude standing Jina in the Madras Museum. It was discovered from a place called Tindivaram, in Tamil Nadu. An inscription on its back shows that this is a figure of the Adi-Jina. It may be noted that no hair-locks on shoulders are visible. The bronze is a specimen of Chola art of 12th century A.D. Scenes from the life of Rsabhanatha are available in the ceilings of the Santinatha and Mahavira temples at Kumbharia, N. Gujarat. M.N.P. Tiwari has identified a few such scenes on the walls of a Devakulika near the main Jaina shrine at Osia. The earliest known representation is the frieze depicting the Dance of Nilanjana, Fig. 18, referred to before. We also get some scenes in miniature paintings of Kalpa-sutra. 2. SECOND TIRTHANKARA: AJITANATHA Ajitanatha, the second Jina, the son of king Jitasatru and queen Vijaya of Ayodhya (Vinita-Saketa), was born in the Rohini naksatra, having descended upon the earth from Vijaya Vimana, according to traditions of both the sects.52 According to Hemacandra, the king gave the name Ajita to his son because the mother could not be defeated in gambling by the king, so long as the Jina was in the Mother's womb,53 The Digambara text Uttarapurana explains the name in another way: he was called Ajita because he could not be conquered by sin or by all heretics.54 Both the sects agree in calling him golden in complexion, having the elephant as his cognizance. He obtained Kevalajnana under a Saptaparna (Alstoma Scholaris) tree.55 He is said to have obtained Nirvana on the Mount Sammeta Sikhara (Mt. Parasanatha) in West Bengal. The second Jina had 90 ganadharas, Simhasena being the chief amongst them. Falgu (Svetambara) or Prakubja (Digambara tradition) was the chief Aryika or the leader of his order of nuns. 56 Mahayaksa was his attendant Yaksa and Ajita (Sve.) or Rohini (Dig.), the attendant Yaksini.57 Sagara, the second Cakravartin of Jaina Puranas, was his cousin brother. The elephant, which is the chief distinguishing mark of this Jina, also becomes the vahana of his yaksa, while the attendant yaksi, Ajita, seems to have been named after the name of Ajitanatha. The earliest known image of Ajitanatha is in the ayagapata from Mathura illustrated in Fig. 11. A figure of standing Ajitanatha from Sarnath dates from Gupta age.58 In the Son Bhandar Cave, Rajgir, is a Pratima-Sarvatobhadrika of stone, with a standing Tirthankara carved on each face. The quadruple image has a domical top and the stela on each side shows a dharmacakra with a symbol on each side, carved on the base. On one side, two elephants flank the wheel, on another are two monkeys. On the third side is shown a horse on each side of the cakra. Thus these animals represent cognizances of different Jinas represented on the four sides. Ajitanatha is here represented with the elephant symbol on two sides of the dharma-cakra; he stands on a lotus in the kayotsarga pose under a Caitya-tree represented by two twigs on the sides of the Jina's head. Near the legs is standing an attendant male chowrie-bearer on each side. The sculpture is assignable to c. 7th-8th century A.D. The Jina is represented as standing under an arch supported by two pillars on tops of which are two divine garland-bearers. Above the arch is a triple-chatra while two hands beating a drum represent divine music. The sculpture is a noteworthy specimen marking a stage in the development of the parikara (Pratiharvas) of a Jina. The Asoka tree, or the Caitya-tree, the divine garlands, the divine music, the divine camaradharas, the asana (here it is understood by the marking of the lotus below the feet, as the Jina is represented in a standing pose), the dharma-cakra, as well as the triple-umbrella and halo are shown. The parikara is fully developed so far as its constituents are concerned. At a later stage, the mode of representation of the divine music changes, and the grouping becomes more ornamental. But the mode of representation of the lanchana or symbol of the Jina is especially noteworthy. In later sculptures, the dharma-cakra is generally flanked by the two deer, obviously in imitation of the Buddhist symbol. Here, one of the earliest stages of the mode of representation of the symbol of a

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 129 Tirthankara is obtained. The symbol is placed on each side of the Wheel of Law. A still earlier specimen of this type, assignable to the Gupta age, c. fifth century A.D., is the sculpture of Neminatha from Rajgir, discussed by R.P. Chanda. Here the conch symbol of Neminatha is placed on each side of the dharmacakra in the centre (see Fig. 26). Our sculpture represented an intermediate stage, between the parikara of the Kusana period and the fully evolved, stereotyped parikara of the mediaeval ages. The attendant yaksa and yaksipi are absent here, though a pair common to all Tirthankaras was already evolved before this sculpture was carved. This sculpture helps us to identify some other sculptures of the post-Gupta age where the dharmacakra on pedestal is flanked by a deer on each side. In such cases, one need not suppose that the dharmacakra +2 deer is the general representation of the Wheel symbol only as in later or mediaeval sculptures. but it is advisable to treat the deer as the cognizance of Santinatha on the basis of this and other such Tirthankara sculptures from Rajgir. Thus for example, the big bronze of a Jina from Mahudi (North Gujarat) can now be identified as representing the Jina Santinatha, since the pedestal shows the Wheel flanked by two deer. 59 It is not easy to ascertain when this mode of representating the Symui was given up. But it would seem that it was done so in c. 8th-9th century A.D. The Mahudi sculpture, a beautiful example of bronzecasting, comparable with some excellent specimens from Nalanda, is certainly not later than c. 700 A.D. In the centre of the pedestal the dharmacakra is flanked by two deer. Here the deer represent the cognizance of Santinatha. But a post-Gupta stone specimen from Rajgir shows a Jina sitting with snakehoods above head and the dharma-cakra below his seat has a conch on each side. A peculiar case, going against the known canons of Jaina iconography, and since the sculpture does not seem to be older than the Ajitanatha or Santinatha discussed above, no explanation of the departure is possible. The symbol for every Jina was already fixed in the age in which this figure is supposed to have been carved. In the light of the above discussion, a bronze figure of a Jina sitting in a padmasana on a high pedestal, obtained from Vasantagadh discussed in Lalit Kala, 1-2, pl. XI, fig. 5, may be considered. Here the pedestal shows the dharma-cakra flanked by two deer. Hair-locks falling on the shoulders of the Jina would suggest that he is Adinatha. There is no inscription on the bronze, the evidence from style would be uncertain, but the sculpture seems to be assignable to late seventh or early eighth century A.D. There were attached to it, on two ends, figures of the attendant yaksa and yaksini, as can be inferred from the wire end on one side. Here, on the basis of the line of argument noted above, the Jina would have been identified as Santinatha but the prominent hair-locks show that he is Adinatha. Either it is a case like the second Rajgir sculpture discussed above, showing exceptions to the rule, and a mistake on the part of the artist who represented hair-locks on Santinatha as the image looked more beautiful thereby, or that in Western India, the practice of representing the symbol on two sides of the Wheel was given up at an earlier stage than in Bihar. I am inclined to propose the following tentative identifications. The Mahudi image represents Santinatha, the Vasantagadh bronze also may represent Santinatha. An early sculpture of Ajitanatha standing, obtained from Varanasi, is now preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (no. 49.199). R.C. Sharma described it thus: "The pedestal represents his Lanchana. i.e., elephants who are standing face to face. Curiously enough the forehead of the deity is marked with a flower-shaped Tilaka. The mark of the Sri-vatsa has not been given at its proper place, while the halo has been shown by an incised line. On the whole the image has been crudely modelled. It may be assigned to the late sixth or early seventh century A.D."80 The sculpture seems to be still later. In the Son Bhandara cave, Rajgir, is carved in relief a figure of a Jina sitting in padma sana. The asana has two elephants in place of the lions of a simhasana and hence the elephants may be regarded as cognizances of the Jina above. There are two camaradharas and two garland-bearers. The sculpture is assigned to c. 9th cent. A.D. No. 85 in the Bharata Kala Bhavana, Varanasi, is a beautiful Jaina Caumukha (Caturmukha) sculpture probably from Varanasi (or Sarnath ?). On one side is a figure of Ajitanatha standing (Fig. 33) on a lotus below which on the pedestal is the dharmacakra in the centre with an elephant on each side. The

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130 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana head of the Jina is lost but the elephant cognizance on the pedestal helps us to identify the Jina as Ajitanatha. A small sitting Tirthaokara figure is shown on each side of the Jina. The sculpture dates from c. late sixth or early seventh century A.D. At Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, in the open air museum adjacent to the Adinatha temple there are about four sculptures of Ajitanatha. One of them, no K.22, shows the Jina standing in kayotsarga mudra. No yaksa and yaksi figure on the sculpture. The elephant cognizance is shown below the dharmacakra. The head of the Jina is lost. The sculpture dates from c. 12th cent. A.D. No. K.43 in the same museum, assignable to c. 11th century A.D., has the yaksa-yaksi pair. Symbols of the yaksa on the left end are hidden under plaster while the yaksi on the corresponding right end holds the sword in her extant right hand. If a guess be allowed, the missing hand might have held the shield. The Jina is sitting in the padmasana dhyana mudra. The sculpture is a Tri-Tirthika image with a small figure of standing Jina over the head of camaradhara on each side. No. K.59, damaged on one corner, was perhaps a Caturvimsati-Pasta, with Ajitanatha sitting in padmasana. No yaksa-yaksi pair. No. K.66 also shows the Jina in sitting posture without the yaksa-yaksi pair, with the elephant cognizance shown on the left of the dharmacakra. There are in all seven Jina figures on this sculpture, including the main figure of Ajitanatha in padmasana. M.N.P. Tiwari has published a paper entitled A Unique Tri-Tirthika Jina Image from Deogarh' on a sculpture, from Temple no. 1, Devgadh, in which are represented two Jinas on its front and the third one on its left side face. All the three Jinas stand in the kayot sarga pose on simhasana over which hang ends of covering carpets with cognizances of the Jinas shown on them. The two frontal Jinas are Ajitanatha and Sambhavanatha with their elephant and horse lanchana respectively. At the right extremity of the image, beside the figure of Ajitanatha, stands a four-armed Sarasvati depicted in the same size as the standing Jina. Such a representation with Sarasvati is rare which makes this a unique image.61 Bruhn's Fig. No. 144, from Wall section XII, Devgadh, is a beautiful sculpture of Ajitanatha sitting in the padmasana on a cushion placed on a simhasana. The figure of the elephant cognizance is shown just below the wavy lines of an end of a carpet placed on the simhasana below the cushion-seat. The elephant is shown just above the dharmacakra in the centre of the simhasana. On the right end of the simhasana is a two-armed standing sasana-yaksa Sarvanubhuti with a purse in left hand and the raised right hand seems to be in the abhaya mudra. Symbols in the hands of the standing two-armed yaksi on the corresponding left end are not clear. A Tri-Tirthika image of standing Ajitanatha from Temple no. 21, Devgadh, is illustrated by Bruhn in his book as figs. 202, 202A, and 203. The sculpture dates from c. 10th cent. A.D. No yaksa-yaksi are shown. M.N.P. Tiwari has referred to an image of Ajitanatha in Temple 29, Devgadh, having fourarmed Sasana yaksa-yaksi pair and with figures of maladharas and kumbhadharas shown near the camaradharas. From Bihar, besides the sculptures from Rajgir, we find a bronze image of standing Ajitanatha with the elephant cognizance on the simhasana. The bronze, obtained in the Aluara hoard in Manbhum district, dates from c. 11th cent. A.D., and is now preserved in the Patna Museum (Patna Museum No. 10697). In the Orissa State Museum at Bhuvanesvara is an Ajitanatha scpluture from Charampa. In the Nayamuni. Barabhuji and Trisula caves at Khanda giri, Orissa, are obtained sculptures of the second Tirthankara Ajitanatha. From Palma in Manbhum district also comes a sculpture of Ajitanatha (JAA, Vol. II, plate 158B). The Jina stands within a shrine fronted by a trefoil arch and surmounted by a sikhara with amalaka on top. This image is of colossal size (now preserved in the Patna Museum) and shows the elephant lanchana of the Jina in the centre of the pedestal, just below the double-lotus on which the Jina stands. Twelve miniature figures of Tirthankaras are shown on each side of the Jina. In Madhya Pradesh, the Shivpuri Museum has an interesting collection of Jaina sculptures, mainly from Narwar. A sculpture represents Ajitanatha standing in the kayotsarga posture under a triple umbrella. The Museum also has some Dvi-Tirthika images, in which two Tirtharkaras are represented as standing by the side of each other, represented on one slab. One such sculpture shows Ajitanatha and Sam bhavanatha grouped together. At Padhavali are two separate sculptures of Tirthankaras standing

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 131 on simhasanas and identified as Ajitanatha and Sambhavanatha on the basis of small figures of their lanchanas shown on the ends of decorated cloth hanging from the top of the simhasanas. For a Dvi-Tirthi of Ajita and Sambhava from Karitalai in Raipur Museum, Madhya Pradesh, see JAA, Vol. III, plate 373B. In the Nagpur Museum is a stone sculpture with full parikara representing Ajitanatha sitting in padmasana on a simhasana. On the hanging end of the cloth on which the Jina is sitting is shown the gaja-lanchana of Ajitanatha. On the right end of the simhasana is a two-armed yaksi showing the abhaya mudra with her right hand and carrying the kalasa in her left hand. On the corresponding left end is a two-armed pot-bellied yaksa with the citron in his right hand. The symbol of the left hand is mutilated. The sculpture dates from c. 10th cent. A.D. and hails from some part of Maharashtra. In Gujarat and Rajasthan, Ajitanatha was also worshipped in stone and metal images. The National Museum, New Delhi, has a metal image, No. 48.4/19, which shows Ajitanatha sitting on a cushioned lion-throne mounted on a terraced pedestal. The deity is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras and an attendant on either side. The sasana yaksa Mahayaksa and the yaksi Ajitabala are shown on the pedestal. The inscription on the back of the image is dated in Somyat 1471 -A.D. 1414. However a bigger and beautiful earlier metal sculpture of Ajitanaca is preserved in a Svetambara Jaina shrine in Ahmedabad. The Jina stands under an arch supported by two long pillars. Near the legs of the Jina are the two camaradharas. The lanchana as well as the yaksa-yaksi are not shown but the inscription on the pedestal identifies the Jina as Ajitanatha, installed in Samvat 1110 A.D. 1053. First published by N.C. Mehta, 62 this beautiful brass or bronze image is a typical example of the metal art of the period. In the Parsvanatha temple at Kumbharia is a beautiful big stone sculpture of Ajitanatha standing on a pedestal with the elephant shown as his cognizance. No yaksa-yaksi are depicted but on the toranastambhas on two sides of the Jina are shown, in separate compartments, the Vidyadevis Apraticakra, Purusadatta. Mahakali, Vajraisokhala, Vajrankusa, Rohini and a goddess which looks like the Santi-devi but which may also be one of the Vidyadevis. In the sanctum of Mahavira temple, Kumbharia, North Gujarat, are two large saparikara images of Tirthankaras placed against the south wall; both are standing in the kayotsarga mudra, one is Santinatha with the deer lanchana while the other is Ajitanatha with the elephant as his cognizance. Both the images are dated in Samvat 1118=A.D. 1061. According to inscription no. 8, published by Muni Visalavijaya in his Gujarati book entitled Sri Kumbhariaji Tirtha, a pair of standing Ajitanatha images was installed in the Neminatha shrine at Kumbharia in Samvat 1314-A.D. 1257 (inscribed on the sculpture showing this pair). In the devakulika to the left as you enter the shrine of Neminatha at Kumbharia there is a saparikara image of Ajitanatha enshrined in v.s. 1335A.D. 1278 according to an inscription on the image (Inscr. no. 10 in Sri Kumbhariaji Tirtha, p. 25). In cell no. 37 of the Lunavasahika, Delvada, Mt. Abu, was installed an image of Ajitanatha by merchant Khetala in v.s. 1287 = A.D. 1230 (Insc. no. 343 at Abu).03 According to Inscr. no. 142 at Abu, an image of Ajitanatha was installed in cell no. 42 of Vimala Vasahi, Abu, by Devacandra suri, pupil of Yasodeva suri in Samvat 1245=A.D. 1188. Kumarapala built a big shrine dedicated to Ajitanatha, on the Taranga hill in Gujarat. The shrine is still standing though the main image in the sanctum was destroyed and later another image had to be installed. Inside the garbhagha of this temple is a colossal white marble image of Ajitanatha sitting in the padmasana, dhyana mudra; the image was consecrated in A.D. 1422 by one Govinda probably after the original was desecrated by Muslims. On two sides of the mulanayaka and placed against the north and south walls are two images in white marble of standing Jinas, dated 1297 A.D., brought from a nearby village. The garbhagiha also contains two small images of Ajitanatha, one of 1247 A.D. and the other of 1248 A.D. Ajitanatha was worshipped at Satrunjaya also. According to inscription no. 141, in deri (cell, devakulika) no. 884/34, on the Mt. Satrunjaya,64 an image of Ajitanatha was installed in Samvat 1675=A.D.

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132 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 1618 by some donors from Rajanagara (Ahmedabad). In deri no. 228/2 was installed a Panca-Tirthi of Ajitanatha in Samvat 1523 A.D. 1466, as shown in inscription no. 184 on this image. Similarly a Pancatirthi of Ajitanatha was installed in deri no. 13/1 in Samvat 1542=A.D. 1485, as per inscription no. 302. Another such image was installed in deri no. 630/2/2 in v.s. 1446. Instances can be multiplied from hundreds of stone and metal images of different Jinas in worship in the various Svetambara and Digambara shrines all over the country. We have not attempted to make an exhaustive study of any site or of Jaina images in any particular State or region. Our study was more or less one of the pioneer types covering almost the whole of India and of both the sects of the Jainas. It was intended to solve some of the unsolved problems of Jaina iconography and to prepare a standard work for identifying Jaina images. We will therefore not pile up lists of all Tirthankara and other images in different temples nor describe them all. We have nowhere claimed to have made such exhaustive studies. Merely visiting museums and some well-known temple sites will not provide a complete picture regarding the number of images of any deity worshipped in any State of India. We have visited a number of Jaina temples still continued in worship. They are full of stone and metal images, some old, some relatively new. Even ta fodern temple one would find a very old image brought from some extinct temple and reinstalled. 65 Detailed studies of individual sites and temples are expected from future young scholars. Our object was to provide a fairly reliable basic study with the help of published works and works in mss., supported by archaeological evidence and as far as possible to tabulate the results. One must always remember that Jainism is a living religion in India and as in the study of Hindu iconography it is difficult to exhaust every aspect of the study of Jaina iconography in one life. An early bronze of Ajitanatha, of c. 8th cent. A.D., was obtained in the Akota Hoard from Gujarat and published by us in Akota Bronzes, fig. 41B. In the centre of the pedestal is the dharmacakra flanked by elephants. The yaksa and yaksi figures are of the early pair of Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. In the south we do have sculptures of Ajitanatha in sites like Sravana Belagola, Venur, Mudabidri, etc. where all the twenty-four Tirtharkaras are installed in a temple. In the Suttalaya of Gommata at Sravana Belagola we have Ajitanatha in the whole group of Jinas installed in late 12th century A.D. (Fig. 59). The sculpture in the Bhandara Basti set at Sravana Belagola dates from 1159 A.D. The Venur set is later and dates from c. fourteenth century A.D. In all such sculptures the Jina is standing in the kayotsarga mudra under an arch and Mahayaksa the yaksa of Ajita, and Rohini, the yaksi, accompany him and attend upon him near the legs. The cognizance figure is incised on the pedestal. Instead of the male camaradhara figures being carved near the legs, a camara (chowrie) is placed symbolically on each side of the Jina on top of the pillar supporting the arch under which the Jina stands. The chowries are usually near the shoulders of the Jina. In all these three sets the full parikara is not given, only the triple umbrella, the halo, the yaksa-yaksi pair and the cognizance are shown. 3. THIRD TIRTHANKARA: SAMBHAVANATHA Sambhava was born as the prince of king Jitari (according to Sve. tradition) or DIdharaja (according to Dig. tradition) and queen Sena or Susena of the city of Sravasti, in the naksatra known as Mrgasiras. Sambhava descended (upon this earth, into his mother's womb-cyavana) from the Sudarsana Vimana of the first Graiveyaka heavens.66 Sambhava was so called because, when he was in his mother's womb, grains increased in his father's kingdom. Hemacandra, giving a second explanation, says that he is called Sambhava because happiness (sam) increases (bhavati) by offering prayers to the Jina.67 Sambhava obtained Kevalajnana under a Sala tree (Shorea robusta). Caru (Sve.) or Carusena (Dig.) was his chief Ganadhara, while the chief Aryika (head of the nuns' order) was known as Sama or Syama (Sve.) or Dharmarya (Dig.). Golden in complexion, Sambhavanatha, the scion of the Iksvaku family, has the horse as his diraja (cognizance, lanchana). Trimukha and Duritari (Sve.) or Trimukha and Prajnapti (Dig.) are his sasana Yaksa and yaksini respectively.68 Sambhava obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta Sikhara.

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 133 The earliest known image of Sambhava hails from Mathura of the Kusana age and is dated in Samvat 48=146 AD. It is preserved in the Lucknow Museum (no. J.19). The Jina sits in padmasana on a simhasana in the centre of which is the dharmacakra placed on a tri-ratna symbol. A male and a female worshipper stand on the right and the left respectively of the Wheel of Law. The Lucknow Museum has two more sculptures of later periods (nos. J.855 and 0.118) both from U.P. No. J.855 represents this Jina with a chowrie-bearer on each side, the attendant on the left being mutilated. A celestial garland-bearer on each side, a triple-umbrella over the head and a dharmacakra flanked by two horses on the pedestal are the only members of the parikara carved in this sculpture. The long ear-lobes and the absence of the halo may be noted. It seems that the image belonged to the early Gupta period. The findspot is not known but the sculpture seems to have been influenced by the Mathura School. A figure from Banpur Khas, Jhansi district,69 an example of a different style of sculpture of Sambhava, assignable to c. seventh century A.D., is another known early sculpture of Sambhavanatha. The high caps of the attendant male flywhisk-bearers and the ekavali Aucklace worn by them may be noted. The Jina stands on a lotus. A group of Tirtha karas are calved in miniature reliefs on two sides of Sambhava standing in the centre. A small figure of the horse symbol is seen on the right side of the pedestal. The sculpture is mutilated at the top. In the Moti Katara Panchayati Digambara Jaina Mandir, Agra, is an image of Sambhavanatha which, according to an inscription on it, was originally installed in v.s. 1147 (1090 A.D.). The Jina sits in padmasana on a cushion. There is no parikara.70 There is an image of a Jaina Tirthankara at Parasanatha Killa, Bijnaur, which has an inscription dated in Samvat 1067 - 1010 A.D. Some scholars identified the image as representing Sambhavanathal on the evidence of a paper by K.D. Bajpai.72 But K.D. Bajpai has identified the image as that of Varddhamana svami (Mahavira) and has given the reading of the inscription thus: Sri Viruddhamana Sami devah sma 1067 Ranalasutta Bharatha pratima prathapi. Obviously the inscription, engraved in incorrect Sanskst, refers to Varddhamana Svami. At Devgadh there are about eleven images of Sambhavanatha, all showing the Jina standing in the kayotsarga mudra. In a few cases the yaksa and yaksi are based upon an old now lost tradition which shows them two-armed and showing the abhaya or the mace (or sometimes the purse ?) in one hand and the fruit or the kalasa in the other. This whole tradition requires further exploration and research. So far as we know, no literary tradition has been traced as yet for this. By this time already the new set of forms of yaksas and yaksinis had also come into vogue but in art the new traditions were not yet universally followed. In Devgadh temple no. 15 we have an image of Sambhava, assignable to c. 11th century A.D., which has a four-armed yaksa and a two-armed yaksi. In a later image of Sambhava in temple no. 30 at Devgadh we have both the yaksa and yaksi with four arms each. M.N.P. Tiwari has made an exhaustive study of Jina images at Khajuraho.73 As shown by him, the image of standing Sambhava in temple no. 27 is dated in Samvat 1215 but has no accessory iconographic details. In the remaining three sculptures of Sambhava at Khajuraho the Jina is shown sitting in the padmasana, with the horse cognizance generally shown in or near the centre of the simhasana. No. K.50 in the Open Air Museum does not show a figure of the sasana yaksa. Both the ends of the throne are occupied by two identical figures of two-armed goddesses seated in lalitasana and holding a sword and some indistinct object in their hands.74 The image is assigned to c. eleventh century A.D. The yaksa and yaksi of another image, Acc. no. 1715 in the Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho, are noteworthy. "The yaksi on the left corner shows the abhaya mudra and a lotus respectively in her right and left arms. The yaksa of the corresponding right end holds probably a skull cup in his right hand and a mongoose-skin purse in the left.'75 Such a purse is called Nakulika, Naulia or Noli. In the Archaeological Museuin at Jhansi there is Tri-tirthika stone sculpture with heads of all the Tirthankaras mutilated possibly by art thieves. In the centre sits Adinatha while on his left stands Sambhava with an attendant camaradhara on each side and a devotee with folded hands. On the pedestal is the figure of a running horse. On the corresponding right side of Adinatha is standing Santinatha with. the deer symbol.

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134 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana At Padhavali is a sculpture of standing Sambhava with the figure of his horse lanchana shown on the hanging end of the carpet below the Jina's feet. The simhasana has the dharmacakra in the centre. There are camaradharas, fiying maladharas and a drum-beater on top of the triple-umbrella. No yaksa and yaksi are shown; the sculpture can be assigned to eleventh century A.D. A beautiful sculpture of standing Sambhava from Narwar, Shivpuri district, M.P., is preserved in the Shivpuri District Museum (Acc. no. 3). The sculpture, like the one from Padhavali discussed above, belongs to the Digambara tradition. The very artistic simhasana of the Jina shows two ferocious lions, and in the centre, in a small niche, is a small figure of a Jina or an acarya in padmasana with the dharmacakra shown below his seat. On two sides are small figures of male and female devotees with folded hands. At the lower end of the simhasana is the tiny figure of horse cognizance. There is also a DviTirthika image of Sambhava and Nemi standing, from Narwar, now in the Shivpuri Museum. No. 406. Rani Durgavati Museum, Jabalpur, represents a standing Sambhavanatha, assignable to c. eleventh cent. A.D., from Tewar in the Jabalpur district. The Jina stands on a simhasana with camaradharas, ma doares, ple-umbrella, and elephants with kalasas in the parikara but no yaksa and yaksi are shown. In Orissa, at Khandagiri, caves 7, 8, 9, called Navamuni, Barabhuji (Fig. 53) and Mahavira gumpha respectively, are in all three rock carvings, one in each cave, of Sambhava sitting in the padmasana under a triple umbrella and with a standing camaradhara on each side. In one case there is a flying maladhara on each side of the umbrella while in two cases are cymbals being played by two disembodied hands. The Jina sits on a big full-blown lotus placed above the simhasana with the horse symbol shown on one side. None of Tirthankaras in these caves have the sri-vatsa on their chests. The Jinas usually have a rather prominent jata top on their heads instead of the usnisa. In two cases we have a figure of the yaksini of this Jina carved separately below the Jina's figure. Temples and sculptures of Sambhavanatha are also known from Rajasthan and Gujarat. There is a temple dedicated to Sambhavanatha at Kumbharia. The original image seems to have been mutilated and later replaced by a new one. In Radhanpur, North Gujarat, is a shrine dedicated to Sambhavanatha. According to an inscription on the main image in the sanctum, it was installed in Samvat 1682=1625 A.D. The inscription on the image of Sambhavanatha, in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, says that the image was the gift of one sravika named Pahini, mother of Bhandagarika Jinduka, (installed) in samvat 1142 - A.D. 1085. In the famous Lunavasahi temple built by Tejapala at Delvada, Mt. Abu, are two ornamental niches, khartakas, flanking the gudhamandapa and placed against its west wall, popularly known as Gokhalas of Derani and Jethani. The image in the proper right khattaka is of Santinatha while that in proper left one is of Sambhavanatha. At Satrunjaya also there are some inscribed stone and metal images of Sambhavanatha.76 In the Digambara Jaina Samgrahalaya at Ujjain there are a few sculptures of Sambhava obtained from places like Sundarsi, Jamner, Badnawar etc. in Malwa region. in the south, in Karnataka, at Venur, in the set of 24 different Tirthankaras in Jaina temple, we have Sambhava standing under an arch and a triple umbrella overhead, with the Trimukha Yaksa and the Prajnapti Yaksi standing by his sides. The figure of his horse lanchana is incised on the plain pedestal below. In the Bhandara Basti set and in the set of Suttalaya of Gommata we also have sculptures of Sambhava with Trimukha Yaksa and Prajnapti Yaksi standing by his sides near the legs and the horse cognizance carved on the pedestal. These two sets at Sravana Belagola belong to the Hoyasala period. 4. FOURTH TIRTHANKARA: ABHINANDANA Abhinandana, the son of king Samvara or Svayamvara and queen Siddhartha of the city of Ayodhya, was born in the Punarvasu naksatra, having descended from the Jayanta Vimana.77 As he was honoured (abhinandyate) by gods he was called Abhinandana.78 Golden in complexion, Abhinandana became a monk after ruling over his kingdom for some time. and, practising penance, obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Piyaka or Piyala (Sarala) tree. 79

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 135 He is said to have obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. Yaksesvara (Dig.) or Yaksanayaka (Sve.) and Vajrasrokhala (Dig.) or Kalika (Sve) are the attendant yaksa and yaksini respectively who are said to protect the sasana or the Jaina Samgha of this Tirthankara. The chief ganadhara of this Jina was Vajranabha while Ajita was the chief aryika. Abhinandana had the monkey as his dovaja or lanchana. B.C. Bhattacharya, in his Jaina Iconography, writes: "In treating of his symbolism, we encounter some difficulties. His main symbol is a monkey. If we interpret hari, one of the dreams of Jina's mothers, to stand for a monkey, the propriety of the emblem is explained. Hari also means a lion, which makes it a symbol of Mahavira. The real nature of his Yaksa and Yaksini may, to some extent, help us to get at the meaning of the symbols. Yaksa, as we have seen, is Isvara and Yaksini is named Kali. Clearly they are Saivite deities borrowed from the Brahmanic pantheon. Thus it is likeliest to connect the ape of the Jina with the apish incarnation of Isvara or Siva."80 The above remarks are too far-fetched. There does not seem to have existed any special connection between the lanchanas and the Sasanadevatas of the different Tirthankaras. Only in the case of Rsabha the similarities of Rsabha-Siva, Bull-Nandi, Gomukha-Nandikesvara are noticeable. But what about Rsabha's yaksi Cakresvari who can be equated with Vaisnavi and not with the Saivite Gauri? How can we connect the horse symbol of Sambhava with the Jina's yaksa Trimukha? The relation of Isvara Yaksa and Kali can be understood but not of these two with the ape cognizance. In fact, the recognising symbols or the lanchanas-the dhivajas-were introduced much earlier than the twenty-four different yaksas and yaksinis known as Sasanadevatas. There was no inherent significance or background nor was any uniform principal followed in the selection of such names and symbols. We cannot associate Gomukha with Cakresvari in the same way as we can Isvara with Kali. To seek any significance in the Janchanas from the list of fourteen or sixteen dreams seen by the Jina's mother is equally unwarranted. Images of Abhinandana are not so common as those of Rsabha, Parsva or Mahavira and not many have reached the different museums from old sites. However it would not be proper to state that he was not popular, for, a glance at different articles and works giving inscriptions on the various stone and metal images in worship in different temples and Jaina temple-cities will show that images of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras used to be worshipped. Abhinandana is represented on one of the four sides of the Quadruple image in the Son Bhandara cave, Rajgir, referred to before while describing images of Sambhavanatha. A relief sculpture of Abhinandana with the ape symbol also figures on the wall of the Navamuni Cave. Khandagiri, Orissa. Abhinandana also figures on the walls of the Barabhuji (Fig. 53) and the Mahavira Caves, Khandagiri, Orissa. Only one sculpture of Abhinandana, with the cognizance of a monkey, is so far known from Devgadh. The Jina is shown in the kayotsarga mudra. The yaksa and the yaksi on the pedestal are of the usual two-armed variety showing the abhaya and the kalasa. At Khajuraho, a sculpture of this Jina in the sitting posture figures in the Parsvanatha temple while another image is preserved in Temple 29. In both cases the yaksa and the yaksi, each two-armed, show the abhaya and the fruit or the kalasa. In the Malava-Prantiya-Digambara-Jaina-Samgrahalaya, Ujjain, are preserved a few sculptures of Ajitanatha standing in the kayotsarga mudra with the kapi (ape) shown as his lanchana. At Kumbharia, an inscription on the pedestal of an image of Abhinandana shows that it was installed in samvat 1142=1085 A.D. The image was installed in the Mahavira svami temple (Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 121, inscr. no. 6-69). Similarly in cell no. 22, Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, was installed an image of Abhinandana in samvat 12591202 A.D. In the Santinatha temple at Radhanpur, N. Gujarat, is in worship a metal Panca-tirthika image of Abhinandana installed in samvat 1505=1448 A.D. Minister Dhanapala, a descendent of the family of the elder brother of Vimala Saha, had installed a sculpture of Abhinandana in cell no. 26, Vimala Vasahi, in Samvat 1245. In the National Museum, New Delhi, No. 48.4/88 is a metal sculp ure of Abhinandana, dated samvat 1610 with figures of Isvara yaksa and Kali yaksi on the ends of simhasana (JAA, III, p. 560). Sculptures of Abhinandana are obtained in South India in Karnataka in the sets of 24 Tirthankaras

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136 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana at Venur, Mudabidri, and in the Bhandara Basti and Suttalaya sets at Sravana Belagola. In all such cases the yaksa and the yaksi stand on the sides near the legs of the Jina. No camaradharas are shown, not even the dharmacakra or the sri-vatsa symbol on the chest of the Jina. The Jina stands under an ornamental arch and there is a triple-umbrella over his head. 5. FIFTH TIRTHANKARA: SUMATINATHA Sumati, the fifth Tirthankara, was born as the prince of king Megha or Megha prabha and queen Mangala or Sumangala, at Ayodhya in the Magha naksatra. He descended upon this earth from his previous existence as an Indra in the Jayanta Vimana.81 While he was in the mother's womb, his mother's mind and intellect remained good and benevolent (sobhana matih) whereupon he was called Sumati.82 Golden in complexion, Sumatinatha, of the Iksvaku race, had the red goose (kokah, or kraunca according to some texts) as his dhvaja or lanchana. T.N. Ramachandran has given the wheel or circle as an alternative symbol vasca on some other tradition not specified.83 Sumati obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Priyangu tree (Panicum Italicum).84 He had 116 Ganadharas of whom Camara (Sve.) or Vajra (Dig. Tiloyapannatti, but Camara according to Uttarapurana, 51.76, and Carama according to Ramachandran) was the leader; the chief aryika of his order of nuns was Kasyapi. Sumatinatha obtained moksa on the Mt. Sammeta Sikhara, Tumburu officiated as his attendant Yaksa and Purusadatta (Dig.) or Mahakali (Sve.) was the attendant Yaksi of his tirtha. An old sculpture of Sumatinatha, very much defaced, was recovered from Sahet-Mabet, Gonda district, U.P., the site of ancient Sravasti. The red-goose, the symbol of Sumati, is visible below the dharmacakra in the centre of the simhasana. There is a group of 23 other Tirthankaras arranged in two verticle rows on two sides of the central figure of Sumati.85 Amongst the Digambaras of Northern India, representation of two Tirthankaras side by side in one sculpture, i.e., the Dvi-tirthika image, was very popular. Compare, for example, the Dvi-tirthi of Rsabha and Mahavira, now in the British Museum, published by us in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 35, and Fig. 79 here of Ajitanatha and Sambhavanatha from Narwar, now in the Shivpuri Museum, Shivpuri, M.P. Both the Jinas stand side by side with attendant chowrie-bearers, chatra, etc. for each Jina represented separately. Some of these examples are fine specimens of art. A sculpture from Ghusai, now in the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior, shows two Jinas standing on two beautiful lotuses with small figures of male camaradharas by their side. The Caitya-trees are represented by hanging a few leaves from the ends of the triple umbrellas above the Jinas. On the left end of the pedestal is a miniature yaksa Sarvanubhuti (also known as Sarvanha) carrying the citron and the bag. Below him is the small figure of a goose. which shows that the Tirthankara standing on this (left) side is Sumatinatha whose cognizance is the red goose according to the Digambara texts. The pilaster on the right end is mutilated and lost and along with it the symbol of the Jina on the right end is lost, so he cannot be identified. A sculpture of Sumati standing on a simhasana with parikara but without the yaksa and yaksi, hailing from Narwar, is in Shivpuri Museum, M.P. At Khajuraho two sculptures of Sumati are noted by Tiwari, one in the sanctum of the Parsvanatha temple and the other in temple no. 30. The Jina sits in the padmasana in both cases. The vaksa and vaksi are of the usual two-armed type showing the abhaya and, the fruit.87 V.A. Smith has also noted the existence of an image of Sumatinatha from Mahoba, assigned to 1158 A.D.88 In the Malava-Prantiya Digambara Jaina Samgrahalaya, Ujjain, Mu. no. 29 is a standing Sumatinatha with the goose symbol and Tumburu and Mahakali as his yaksa and yaksini. The sculpture dates from c. fourteenth century A.D. Three more images of Sumati, from Javas, Gondalmau and Guna, are also preserved in the Museum. At Orissa, Khanda giri, in Caves nos. 8 and 9, we find figures of Sumatinatha sitting in the padmasana with his goose symbol on the simhasana below his seat (Fig. 54 from Cave 8).86 At Kumbharia, in the Parsvanatha temple, cell no. 21, an image of Sumati was installed in samvat

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 137 1259=A.D. 1202 according to the inscription on the pedestal preserved in the cell (Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 133). According to another inscription by the side of the torana in this cell, it was installed in Samvat 1265 by Sajana who is perhaps the same as Sajjana of the earlier inscription just noted. Tiwari has noted that on the torana pillars are figures of Apraticakra, Vajrarkusi, Vajrasrrikhala. Vairofya, Rohini, Manavi, Sarvastramahajvala and Mahamansi Vidyadevis but it must be remembered that they have nothing to do with the iconography of the Tirthankara. There are indeed some cases where some Vidyadevis figure as part of the accessory figures as in the Tri-tirthika metal images from Vasantagadh published by us in Lalit Kala, nos. 1-2, but it must be remembered that they are not enjoined as part of a parikara of a Tirthankara image. In cell 27, Vimala-vasahi, Abu, an image of Sumatinatha was installed in samvat 1245 by the wife of Mahamatya Psthvipala. The image is lost but the pedestal with the inscription is still preserved in the cell. This has happened with the sculptures of most of the Devakulikas (cells) in the temples at Kumbharia and Abu. The yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal in the Vimala-vasahi cell 27 are Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. A Panca-tirthika sculpture of Sumatinatha installed in samvat 170 is in worship in Celt no. 593/2 at Satrunjaya (inscr. no. 225 of Kanchanasagarasuri, op. cit., p. 57) and another Panca-tirthi of Sumati dated in samvat 1554 is in worship in Cell 600/1, inscr. no 232, at Satrunjaya. There is a similar third sculpture dated samvat 1694 in Cell no. 596/2 at Satrunjaya. A fourth Panca-tirthi of Sumati in the same site is dated in V.S. 1497, preserved in what is called Kothara, inscr. no. 238, Satrunjaya, op. cit. There are some more such Panca-tirthis of Sumati at Satrunjaya. But the inscription no. 273 in Cell no. 613/9/ 10, dated samvat 1530 is more interesting because here the image is called Sri-Jivatasvami-Sri-Sumatinathabimbam. This as we have noted before is a later wrong application of the epithet Jivat-svami for images of Tirthankaras other than Maha vira. Iconography of Jivantasvami images of Mahavira was of course believed to have been based on an original life-time portrait statue of Mahavira which is not the case with much later Jivitasvami images of other Tirthao karas. In the National Museum, New Delhi, there is a metal sculpture of Sumati (No. 48.4/44) with yaksa Tumburu and Mahakali yaksi (JAA, III, p. 560), installed in samvat 1532. In the south as usual we have sculptures of Sumatinatha in the various sets of 24 Tirthaskaras at Sravana Belagola, Venur, Mudabidri. In such sets all the sculptures are of a uniform type in each set, the differences lying only in the forms of sasana yaksa and yaksi and the cognizance on the pedestal. 6. SIXTH TIRTHANKARA: PADMAPRABHA Padmaprabha was born as the son of king Dharana (Dig.), Dhara or Sridhara (Sve.) and queen Susima ruling over the city of Kausambi, in the Citra naksatra, having descended from the UparimaGraiveyaka Vimana.89 Hemacandra states that his father named him Padmaprabha because his mother had a pregnancywish of (lying on a bed of lotuses while the Jina was still in her womb and secondly because of his lotuslike complexion.90 Shining like red-lotus, Padmaprabha also has the red-lotus as his lanchana or dhvaja. He obtained kevalajnana under a banyan tree according to the Svetambara view represented by Hemacandra. According to the Digambara tradition noted by Ramachandran, the Chatra (Anethumsowa) was his Caitya-vr'ksa. The Samavayanga sutra, which represents an earlier tradition, calls it Chatrabha.91 One hundred and ten ganadharas headed by Vajracamara (Dig.) or one hundred and seven ganadharas headed by Suvrata (Sve.) followed him. Rati or Ratisen, was the leader of his order of arvikas. He obtained moksa on Mt. Sammeta Sikhara. Kusuma and Acyuta were his yaksa and yaksini respectively according to Sve. tradition, while they were known as Matanga and Apraticakra (Tiloyapannatti) or Kusuma and Manovega (Vasunandi and other writers) according to the traditions of the Dig. sect. Early sculptures of Padmaprabha are not yet known. At Khajuraho in the mandapa of the Parsva

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138 : Jaina-Rupa-Mandana natha temple is a big sculpture of this Jina sitting in the padmasana. In the Indian Museum, Calcutta is an image of this Jina obtained from Gwalior and assigned to c. 10th-11th century A.D. Lucknow Museum no. 0.122 is a sculpture of standing Padmaprabha dated in A.D. 1149 and obtained from Chhattarpur. Kamtaprasad Jaina has noted a sculpture of Padmaprabha, from Urdamau, M.P., standing in the kayotsarga posture, and dated in the year equal to 1114 A.D.910 There is a sculpture of standing Padmaprabha in temple 1 at Devgadh. There is a sculpture of standing Padmaprabha from Narwar in the Shivpuri Museum, M.P. The Jina stands on a lotus placed on a simhasana in the centre of which is a miniature figure of a Siddha or a Tirthankara in padmasana, dhyana mudra and below him is the dharmacakra. The cognizance of the Jina is at the lower end of the sculpture, below the dharmacakra. On each side of the Jina stands a camaradhara. Above the Jina is the triple-umbrella with an elephant on each side, and on top of the chatra is a kalasa. On each side of the head of the Jina is a celestial maladhara. Almost all the sculptures of standing Tirthaokaras from Narwar in the Shivpuri Museum are of this type. Rock-cut figures of Padmaprabha are available in Caves 8 and 9 at Khandagiri (Fig. 54). The yaksi of this jina is carved separately below him in cave 8. Mohapatra has published a sculpture of Padmaprabha from a Jaina temple in Cuttack.910 A sculpture on the wall of a rock-cut cave at Kuppalanatham in the Madurai district, Tamil Nadu, shows the Jina seated in the ardha-padmasana under a triple umbrella and on a simhasana with figures of two lions at the ends and a lotus in the centre. Two male flywhisk-bearers stand by the sides of the Tirthankara. On the left side of this sculpture is carved another separate sculpture representing Mahavira. In the south, the cognizance is carved generally in the central compartment of the pedestal while in the compartments at the two ends are figures of lions of the simhasana. These two lions at the ends face different directions while the lion in the centre faces the worshipper. Sometimes all the lions might face the worshipper. But in all such cases when there is a central lion figure we feel that the sculpture is to be identified as representing Mahavira whose cognizance is the lion. On this analogy when in the centre we find a lotus we prefer to regard the sculpture as representing Padmaprabha. Unfortunately in sculpture we often find the Wheel of Law carved like an open petalled lotus as we find on pedestals of some of the sculptures at Rajgir etc. But in the south the practice of carving the dharmacakra in the central part of the pedestal or the simhasana is hardly seen. In the Bhandara Basti set, and the Suttalaya set at Sravana Belagola and in the sets at Mudabidri and Venur in Karnataka we find sculptures of this Jina with attendant figures of the Puspa (Kusuma) yaksa and Manovega yaksi and the lotus cognizance. In cell 20 of Parsvanatha Temple at Kumbharia is preserved the pedestal of a sculpture of Padmaprabha which shows that the image was installed by merchant Sajjana in samvat 1259 - 1202 A.D. Similarly, in the devakulika no. 7 in the Santinatha temple at Kumbharia was installed a sculpture of Padmaprabha in v.s. 1146=A.D. 1089 (Visalavijaya, op. cit., pp. 132, 147). Inscription no. 6, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, on one of the two big metal images in the gudhamandapa of the shrine shows that this image of Padmaprabha was installed in samvat 1550 - A.D. 1493 by Mantris Alhana and Molhana of Pragvata caste. The figure is a big single Jina-image without any parikara ( Muni Jayantavijaya, Sri-ArbudaPracina-Jaina-Lekhasamdoha, p. 11). In Cell 24 of Vimala Vasahi there is a sculpture of Padmaprabha with full parikara. Minister Dhanapala, son of Mahamatya Psthvipala in the lineage of Nedha, the elder brother of Vimala Saha, installed images of Santinatha (in Devakulika 24, Vimala Vasahi), Rsabhadeva (in cell 23. same shrine), Sambhavanatha (in cell 25), and Abhinandana (in cell 26, same shrine), in v.s. 1245=A.D. 1198 (Inscriptions nos. 98, 95, 100, 103 of Jayantavijaya, op. cit.). Namaladevi, wife of Minister Prthvipala, installed an image of Sri Padmaprabha (in cell 28) and Srimaladevi, wife of Jagadeva, elder brother of Dhanapala, gave an image of Suparsva (cell 29), and Rupini, wife of Minister Dhanapala, installed an image (bimba) of Sri Candraprabha, in the same year, according to inscriptions nos. 104, 106, 108 and 109 respectively. In many cells in the Vimala Vasahi and the Lunavasahi at Abu, and in the temples at Kumbharia, the original sculptures installed are lost and only the simhasanas or the pedestals

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 139 remain. In some cases new images are installed which are not necessarily of the same Jinas. These are installed on the old pedestals preserving the original inscriptions referred to here. In the temple of Adisvara at Radhanpur, N. Gujarat, a metal Pancatirthi of Padmaprabha is in worship. According to an inscription on it the image was installed in v.s. 1570= A.D. 1513. 7. SEVENTH TIRTHANKARA: SUPARSVANATHA Suparsvanatha, the seventh Tirtha okara, was born as the son of king Supratistha or Pratistha and queen Psthvi of Varanasi when the moon was in the asterism Visakha. He descended from the madhyama Graiveyaka heaven, Subhadra Vimana.92 In dream, the queen mother of Suparsva saw herself lying on the coils of snakes with one, five and nine snake-hoods respectively when the Jina was in her womb. In the Samavasarana of Suparsva were, on this account, raised by Sakra, similar snake-hoods, like an umbrella as it were, over the head of the Jina.93 The Avasyaka Niryukti says that Suparsva was so called because his mother's sides looked beautiful (su-parsva) while he was in the womb.94 He was born with a golden complexion according to the Svetambaras but he had greenish appear. ance95 according to the Digambara sect. According to both the sects, his dhvaja or the lanchana is the svastika.96 He obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Sirisa (Acacia Sirisa) tree, and moksa on the Mount Sammeta. Vidarbha and Soma or Sumana were his chief ganadhara and aryika respectively according to the Svetambaras while the Digambaras call them Bala (Baladatta) and Minarya (Mina). Matanga and Santa were the sasa nadevatas of his tirtha according to Svetambara writers, according to the Digambara authors they were known as Varanandi (Vijaya acc. to Tiloyapannatti) and Kali (Purusadatta acc. to Tiloyapannatti). Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, is also represented with a canopy of snake-hoods overhead which often renders it difficult to differentiate between images of Parsva and Suparsva in the absence of an inscription or the cognizance on the pedestal. Usually Parsva is shown with coils of snake behind his body, while in the case of Suparsva only the snake-hoods overhead are carved or painted. But this is not an unfailing guide since Parsva is sometimes represented with the snake-hoods only without the coils all over the back. It is not unlikely that because of a certain similarity of names Suparsva also came to be associated with snake-hoods. No early image of the Kusana period representing Suparsva is known as yet from Mathura. At Mathura in the Kusana period, in the four-fold images (caumukha or PratimaSarvatobhadrika), we find Adinatha on one side, another Jina must be Mahavira, the third cannot be identified while the fourth, with seven snake-hoods overhead, has to be identified as Parsvanatha.97 Figure 23 illustrates a separate image of Parsva with seven snake-hoods from Kankali Tila, Mathura and Fig. 8 illustrates a standing Parsva from the Chausa hoard.98 Jinaprabha Suri, a Svetambara acarya of the fourteenth century A.D., refers to a stupa of Suparsvanatha at Mathura, built by gods (devanirmita).99 As yet not a single image of Suparsva is found or identified from the Kankali Tila site of the Jaina stupa. An inscription on one of the images obtained from this stupa site refers to installation of two images (Pratimavo dve) in the stupa built by gods (thubhe devanirmite). Even though the stupa of Kankali Tila can be identified as the devanirmita stupa of Jaina traditions, it is difficult to accept it as a stupa dedicated to Suparsvanatha. Jinaprabha is the only writer who explicitly said so. 100 A very late but a well-preserved image of Suparsvanatha was obtained from Tonk along with several marble images of other Tirthankaras, all in the same style and without any parikara. The symbols are marked in the centre of cushion seats of these Jinas. Suparsvanatha is here identified with the help of the svastika symbol on his seat. But he has seven snake-hoods overhead. No coils of snake are shown on his back. This case is a pointer to the fact that there are exceptions to the general rule of one, five or nine snake-hoods for Suparsva and three or seven snake-hoods for Parsvanatha. But Vastuidva, 22.27, as noted by M.N.P. Tiwari101 prescribes three or five snake-hoods for Suparsva and seven or nine for Parsvanatha.

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140 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana At Paladi, a few miles from Sirohi, Rajasthan, in the Jaina temple, is a standing Suparsvanatha installed in v.s. 1348 = A.D. 1291. The inscription expressly says that this is an image of Suparsva. The beautiful marble sculpture belongs to the Svetambara tradition and shows five snake-hoods over the head of the Jina. There is no lanchana nor are there any snake-coils behind the Jina's body. In the Neminatha temple, Kumbharia, in the gudhamandapa is a sculpture of Suparsva standing with five snake-hoods overhead and the svastika cognizance shown on the pedestal. Sarvanubhuti and Ambika are shown as the attendant yaksa and yaksi, by their sides are figures of Mahavidyas Rohini and Vairotya, each four-armed. In the parikara are shown figures of Sarasvati, Prajnapti, Vajrankusi, Vajrassokhala and Sarvastramahajvala. In the Devakulika no. 7, Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is an inscribed sculpture dated in 1202 A.D. with a canopy of five snake-hoods over the head of the Jina who is called Suparsvanatha in the inscription. A mediaeval sculpture in the Baroda Museum also shows five snake-hoods and the svastika cognizance which helps us to identify the Jina as Suparsva.102 Tiwari has noted some figures of Suparsva on the Devakulikas of the Mahavira temple at Osia.103 Tiwari has shown that photo no. 59.28 of the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, is of a sis adise Suparsva from Shahdol with five snake-hoods and is assigned to the tenth cent. A.D. 104 The same Institute has supplied a photograph to this writer, with the no. AAB, Neg. No. 59.28, from "M.P. Singpur, Shahdol District, Pancamatha temple, Parsvanatha, standing. Mid 10th cent." On the pedestal of this sculpture is a figure of a snake which can also be taken as the tail of the big snake whose coils are shown behind the whole body of the Jina. The snake-hoods over his head are partly mutilated and although five snake-hoods can be marked out it is not unlikely that the two mutilated sides of the snake canopy had one more snake-hood on each side end. If M.N.P. Tiwari is referring to this same photograph then the identification of this image is doubtful especially because an attempt is made to show a serpent or even a tail of the snake on the pedestal, the snake being the cognizance of Parsvanatha. This would be an instance of Parsva image with five snake-hoods. It seems that in northern, eastern and western India Parsva was almost always shown with seven and not five snake-hoods. This canopy of snake-hoods represents the demi-god Nagakumara Dharanendra sheltering Parsvanatha from the attacks of Kamatha (Sve.) or Meghamalin (Dig.). At Mathura during the Kusana period Jina images with a canopy of seven snake-hoods were installed. In Khandagiri, Orissa, we have figures of Parava with seven snake-hoods. But the rock-cut sculpture of Suparsva in padmasana in cave 8 (Barabhuji) at Khandagiri shows the svastika cognizance but no snake canopy at all over the head of the Jina. At Ellora also in the scenes of attack of Kamatha on Parsva, the Jina is protected by a canopy of seven cobra-hoods. But in the famous relief panel of the same scene in Badami Cave IV, assignable to c. late sixth or early seventh century A.D., there is a canopy of only five cobra-hoods over the head of Parsvanatha. 105 In a similar scene at Anaimalai, Madurai district, amongst the Jaina reliefs cut on a boulder at Samanarakoil is a big relief panel showing the scene of the attack of Meghamalin (Kamatha) on Parsvanatha. Dharanendra with his canopy of five hoods protects the Jina from the attack. These reliefs from Pandyan territory are assignable to c. eighth-ninth century A.D. Thus the Badami tradition of Parsva with a canopy of five snake-hoods continues even in the eighth-ninth centuries in the south. In the relief panel in the Jaina Cave, Aihole, assigned to the seventh century A.D., showing the scene of attack on Parsvanatha, Parsvanatha is shown with a canopy of five hoods only.106 Thus there is this confusion. In some cases at least, and especially in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, we have instances of Parsva with a canopy of five cobra-hoods, though as a general rule Parsva is often met with as having a canopy of seven hoods. Whenever there is a snake king and a snake queen shown as attending on the Jina, the Jina can easily be identified as Parsvanatha; there is such a stone sculpture from Godavari district in the Madras Museum. But in this case the Jina has a canopy of seven snakehoods. There is no cognizance shown. In the twelfth century set of 24 Tirthao karas, we have, in the Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, a sculpture of Suparsva with the svastika symbol and five snake-hoods over the head of the Jina. So we will tentatively identify the National Museum No. 59.153/176 of a standing Jina with a canopy

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 141 of five hoods and the snake coils behind his body as Suparsva. There is no attendant figure. The sculpture is a fine specimen of Cola art of eleventh century A.D. The rock-cut sculpture in the southern wall of the facade of the Sittannavasal cave, Tamil Nadu, shows a Jina sitting in the ardhapadmasana and having a canopy of five snake-hoods over head.107 There is no cognizance nor any scene of attack on the Jina. The sculpture probably represents Suparsva. In the Bellur village a few miles from Bangalore on the way to Kambadhalli, there is a beautiful single image of a Jina with five snake-hoods, said to have been brought there from Nagamangalam. The sculpture is a fine specimen of Ganga art of tenth century. There is no parikara, no pedestal, no cognizance. We are inclined to identify this sculpture as representing Suparsvanatha. There is a black stone sculpture of a standing Jina from Patancheru, Medak district, A.P., inscribed and assigned to the 12th century A.D. The sculpture is preserved in the Government Museum, Hyderabad, A.P. There are only five snake-hoods over the head of the Jina. Coils of the huge snake are shown behind the whole body of the standing Jina who is identified as Suparsvanatha. There is another standing Tirthankara from Patancheru with coils of the snake behind the whole body of the Jina (though parts of them are now mutilated). The Jina had seven snake-hands as can be easily inferred from the partly mutilated hoods. The sculpture can be assigned to the eleventh century A.D. Thus we have a case of fivehooded Suparsva and a seven-hooded Parsva from the same spot. It must be remembered that the yaksa and yaksi of Parsva alone have snake-hoods over their crowns. The yaksa and yaksi of Suparsva in the Sve. and the Dig. traditions have no snake-hoods over their heads. So the present writer is not in favour of identifying the Lucknow Museum sculpture no. J.935 as representing Suparsvanatha because the yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal have three snake-hoods over their crowns. 108 Unfortunately the upper part of this sculpture is mutilated and lost along with the snake-hoods over the head of the Jina. Madras Museum No. 2478 is an inscribed Nisidhi stone sculpture from Danavulappadu, Cuddapah district. The Jina in the upper panel sits in the ardhapadmasana with the coils of snake shown behind his back and a big cobra head with only one snake-hood holding a canopy over the head of the Jina. Below the seat of the Jina, on the pedestal, is a big svastika which is the cognizance of Suparsva. Images of Suparsva with one snake-hood are rare to find. Images of Suparsva with five snake-hoods are also known from Bajramath, Gyaraspur, Baijanath (Kangda),109 Deogadh and Khajuraho. At Deogadh all the images of this Jina show him in the kayotsarga mudra. In one case the Jina is shown with hair-lock on the shoulders. A sculpture of a Jina in Devgadh temple no. 4, showing the Jina with five snake-hoods, may not represent Suparava since the yaksa and the yak si here have three snake-hoods over their heads. 120 There is a sculpture of Suparsva standing in temple no. 5 at Khajuraho. Another figure of standing Suparsva is in temple no. 28 at Khajuraho. Here the svastika cognizance is also shown. In both the cases the Jina has a canopy of five snake-hoods. In the Nagpur Museum there is a beautiful sculpture of a Jina sitting in the padmasana on a decorated cushion placed on a simhasana. The embroidered cloth hanging over the centre of the simhasana has the svastika mark which is the cognizance of Suparsva. The upper part of the back slab of the Jina figure is mutilated and so it is difficult to say whether there were any snake-hoods over the Jina's head. But the beautiful sculpture of a seated Jina (with arms broken) preserved as no. 6 in the Shivapuri Museum and hailing from Narwar, is identified as Suparsvanatha on account of the canopy of five snake-hoods over the head of the Jina. The sculpture dates from the twelfth century A.D. No. B.62 in the Nagpur Museum is from Katoli in Chanda district and dates from the eleventh century A.D. The Jina sits in the ardhapadmasana and behind his back are coils of a big snake who with his five snake-hoods is holding a canopy over the Jina's head. There is no pedestal, no parikara, no cognizance. But because of the five snake-hoods it is possible to identify the Jina as Suparsvanatha. B.23 in the same museum is a Panca-tirthi of Parsva with snake cognizance and seven snake-hoods for canopy.

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142 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to Jinaprabha suri, Suparsva was also worshipped in the city of Dasapura (modern Mandsor).111 A metal Panca-tirthi of Suparsva, in worship in the Cintamani-Parsvanatha temple at Radhanpur, was installed in samvat 1528 according to the inscription on the back of the image. In samvat 1245, Srimaladevi, the wife of Thakkura Jagadeva, the son of Mahamatya Psthvipala, installed a sculpture of Suparsvanatha in cell 29, Vimala Vasabi. 8. EIGHTH TIRTHANKARA: CANDRAPRABHA Candraprabha, the eighth Tirthankara, is white like the moon. Son of king Mahasena and queen Laksmana (or Laksmimati) of Candrapura, he descended from the Vaijayanta Vimana and was born in the Anuradha naksatra. 112 Because the Jina's mother had a pregnancy wish (dohada) for drinking the moon, while he was still in embryo, and because he was white in complexion like the moon, his father named him Candraprapha. 113 to the Uttarapurana, Indra called him Candraprabba because at his birth the earth as weil as the night-lotus were delighted (blossomed). In the south Candraprabha is now also worshipped as Candranatha. He obtained highest knowledge while meditating under a Naga-tree (Punnaga acc. to Hemacandra).114 Vaidarbha and Varuna were his chief ganadhara and aryika respectively according to Digambara belief; according to the Svetambaras they were known as Dinna (Skt. Datta) and Varuni. According to the Svetambaras, yaksa Vijaya and yaksi Bhskuti originated as the protectors of the tirtha founded by Candraprabha; according to the Digambaras, the Sasanadevatas of his tirtha were Syama (Ajita according to Tiloyapannatti) and Jvalamalini (Manovega acc. to Tiloyapanotti) respectively. Candraprabha obtained nirvana on the Mt. Sammeta in Western Bengal. Both the sects prescribe the moon (crescent moon) as his cognizance. A temple dedicated to Candraprabha exists at Somanatha-Patana in Saurashtra. Jinaprabha suri states that the image of Candraprabha was brought to Devapattana (same as Somanatha-Patan or Prabhasa-Patan) by air from Valabhi along with images of Amba and Ksetrapala. 115 In another context the same author says that an image of Candraprabha made of Candrakanta stone is installed at Prabhasa, along with an image of Jvalinidevi. The image came from Valabhi where it was reported to have been consecrated by Sri Gautama-svami and was the gift of Nandivardhana (the elder brother of Mahavira). According to Jinaprabha suri, an image of Sri Candraprabha, installed in the Jina's life-time, existed in a shrine at Nasikkapura (Nasik). An image of this Jina was well-known at Varanasi while another was worshipped in Candravati. 116 The earliest sculpture of Candraprabha, so far discovered, was installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta, according to an inscription on the simhasana which has a dharmacakra (without the two deer flanking the Wheel as in mediaeval sculptures) in the centre. 117 The cognizance of the Jina is not shown. On each side of the Jina sitting in the padmasana is a standing camaradhara. The head of the attendant on the right is mutilated along with the upper half of the halo and the head of the Jina. The malo camaradhara on the right of the Jina wears a conical crown (reminding one of the later kullah caps!) with a motif like the one found in Kusana headdress. The sculpture is rightly assigned to the fourth century A.D., to the age of the Gupta ruler Ramagupta, the elder brother of Candragupta II. The Sri-vatsa mark on the chest of the Jina is still of the early type met with in the Kusana art of Mathura. Candraprabha is here identified because the inscription on the simhasana gives the name of the Jina. A stone sculpture of Candraprabha sitting in padmasana on a big visva-padma placed on a simhasana was found in the Jaina temple at Vaibharagiri, Rajgir. In the centre of the simhasana is a dharmacakra which looks like a full-blown lotus. Above it is the crescent moon, the cognizance of the Jina. Besides a male standing camaradhara there are, on each side of the Jina, three miniature figures of Tirtharkaras sitting in padmasana. Thus this is a Sapta-tirthi image of Candraprabha. There are on top two maladharas, two drums and a triple umbrella. The sculpture belongs to the eighth century A.D. 118

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 143 Patna Museum no. 10695 is a standing Candraprabha from Aluara with the crescent shown on the pedestal. The bronze can be assigned to c. 11th-12th cent. A.D. A more beautiful bronze of standing Candraprabha from Achyutarajapura, Orissa, dating from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D., is preserved in the State Museum, Bhuvanesvara. A metal image of standing Candraprabha from Kakatpur, Orissa, is preserved in the Ashutosh Museum, Calcutta. 119 The same museum has a stone Caturmukha shrine from Dewalia, Burdwan, on one side of which is a standing Candraprabha with the moon symbol and figures of standing Rsabha, Mahavira and Parsvanatha on the remaining three sides. 120 The Indian Museum Calcutta has a beautiful miniature stone shrine of Candraprabha from Bihar showing the Jina standing on a double lotus below which in the centre of the pedestal is his crescent moon symbol.121 There are 23 more miniature figures of standing Tirtha karas. The pedestal shows four-armed figures of his yaksa and yaksi. Cave 7, Khandagiri, Orissa, has a rock-cut figure of Candraprabha sitting on a big lotus with a long stalk. Below the lotus is a mark of a big crescent. Caves 8 and 9 each also have a figure of Candraprabha in the sitting posture. 122 Candraprabha seems to have been popular in Eastern India in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. Allahabad Museum no. 295 is a sculpture of Candraprabha in padmasana sitting on a big lotus placed on a simhasana. 123 In the centre of the lotus is the crescent symbol. On the right end of the pedestal is the two-armed yaksa Sarvanubhuti while on the left end is a two-armed yaksi with the lotus in the right hand and the left arm and legs mutilated. The sculpture is assigned to c. ninth cent. A.D. At Devgadh, Candraprabha was popular. His images are found in temples nos. 1, 4, 12, 20, 21. In the image in no. 21, hair-locks are shown on his shoulders. All the sculptures date from c. 10th-11th centuries. At Khajuraho, one sculpture on the west wall of the sanctum of the Parsvanatha shrine shows him sitting in the padmasana with two more standing Tirtha karas and two-armed yaksa-yaksini. The second image, also showing him in the sitting posture, is in temple no. 32 and is assigned to c. 12th century A.D. Nos. J.880, J.881 and G. 113 in the State Museum, Lucknow, represent the Jina Candraprabha. On a Panca-tirthi sculpture of Candraprabha from Padhavali, Gwalior, M.P., the symbol is given at the foot of the pedestal below the dharmacakra while a pot-bellied two-armed yaksa is shown at the right end. The yaksi shown on the left end carries a garland of flowers with both the hands. Since there are two female standing garland-bearers and a male and a female sitting devotee near the feet of the Jina, it seems that the two-armed sitting female on the left end of the simhasana might have been regarded as a yaksini. If so, this would be an exceptional form. In Devakulika no. 13, Vimala Vasahi there is in worship a Panca-tirthika sculpture of Candraprabha; in cell no. 26 of the same temple is in worship a Tri-tirthika sculpture of this Jina. In cell no. 30, Rupini, the wife of Mahamatya Dhanapala, had installed a sculpture of Candraprabha in samvat 1245, according to the inscription on the pedestal preserved in the cell. According to an inscription on a pedestal in the Neminatha shrine, Kumbharia (Muni Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 104, inscr. no. 31) a sculpture of Candraprabha was installed there in samvat 1335. In the same temple there is an image of Candraprabha installed in v.s. 1338A.D. 1281 (ibid., p. 106, no. 36). A pedestal in cell 18 of the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, has an inscription which says that this image (now lost which was on the pedestal) of Candraprabha was installed in samvat 1259= A.D. 1202. In the temple of Dharmanatha at Radhanpur there is a metal image of Candraprabha installed in samvat 1306; in the temple of Ajitanatha at Radhanpur there is in worship another metal image of this Jina installed in samvat 1423; in the Cintamani Parsvanatha temple, Radhanpur is in worship a metal Panca-tirthi of Candraprabha, installed in samvat 1439. A beautiful sculpture of Candraprabha, of white marble and with full parikara and every detail minutely carved, is preserved in the sanctum of a shrine of Candraprabha at Patan, North Gujarat. The sculpture dates from c. late fifteenth or early sixteenth century A.D. The crescent moon is shown in the centre of the decorated cushion on which the Jina is sitting in padmasana. In the centre of the simhasana is the four-armed Santi-devi, while at the right end of simhasana is the four-armed Vijaya yaksa and

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144 Jaina-Rupa-Mardana on the corresponding left end of the throne is the four-armed Brukuti yaksi of the Svetambara tradition. At Sravana Belagola, in the set of Bhandara Basti (1159 A.D.), Candraprabha, standing in kayotsarga pose, has by his right side the four-armed yaksa who may be Syama or Ajita and the four-armed yaksi on the left who seems to be Manovega (acc. to Tiloyapannatti) and not the Jvalamalini (of other Digambara texts). In Humaca, south Karnataka, we have a standing Candraprabha with the cognizance carved on the pedestal. As usual in Sravana Belagola and other sets here also the Jina has a halo and a triple umbrella and no other member of the parikara except the four-armed yaksa and yaksi standing on his right and the left sides respectively. In the sculpture of Candraprabha at Venur we have a four-armed yaksa but the yaksi is six-armed. In the Suttalaya set, at Sravana Belagola, of late 12th century, both the yaksa and the yaksi are four-armed while in the Mudabidri group of twenty-four Tirthankaras, the yaksi of Candraprabha is six-armed. This set is later and dates from c. 14th or 15th century A.D. There is a sculpture of Candraprabha standing at Bhatkal in Karnataka. Here the yaksi is eight-armed Jvalamalini. A rather modern example of Candraprabha image, cast in metal, according to Digambara tradition, is in worship in a shrine in Venkundram, North Arcot district, Madras. The Jina stands on a lotus device placed on a pedestal with the crescent symbol of the Jina shown in its centre. The total absence of the sri-vatsa mark in all the south Indian images noted above is noteworthy. In the Venkundram bronze we find a small triangle carved on the right side of the chest of the Jina. We find such a mark on metal images of other Jinas in this shrine. Candraprabha, also called Candranatha in the south, has been popular amongst the Jainas almost everywhere in India. P. Gururaja Bhatt, in his Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, discussing Jainism in Tulunadu, lists some noteworthy Jaina Bastis in places in Tulunadu. The list shows that there are several Bastis (shrines) with Candranatha in the sanctum at places like Mudabidure, Karentitodi, Venuru, Beltangadi, Dharmasthala, Mardala, Nerenki, Uppinangadi, Panantabailu, Mularappatna, Manjesvara, Omanjuru, Bailballa, Mulki, Madhura-patna, Iruvattur, Humbucha, Angadtyaru, Karkala-Hiriyangadi, Mala, Mulivaru, Keravase, Varanga, etc. Such a survey of important Jaina shrines in different parts of India, along with the images worshipped therein, is not yet completed for any State or district in a State and so it is not advisable to draw hasty conclusions and say, for example, that maximum number of images of Candraprabha were carved in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. 124 Even if such a statement is with references to States in India Lorth of the Vindhyas, I humbly believe that without a full survey one need not hasten to draw such conclusions. Jaina temples in Patan or Cambay or in Satrunjaya etc. have never been fully surveyed from such a point of view. A nisidhi stone with a figure of Candraprabha in upper panel along with the cognizance, from Danavulpadu, is preserved in the Madras Museum. 9. NINTH TIRTHANKARA: SUVIDHI OR PUSPADANTA Both the sects worship the ninth Jina as Puspadanta or Suvidhi. He was born as prince of king Sgriva and queen Mahadevi (Dig.) or Rama (Sve.) of the city of Kakandi (modern Kekind in Bihar). White in appearance and born in the Mula naksatra, Suvidhi had descended upon this earth from the Pinata (acc. to Uttarapurana) or Apata (acc. to Hemacandra) heaven. 125 While he was still in embryo, his mother became adept in all rites and arts (Suvidhi-kusala) and because a tooth appeared from a pregnancy wish for flowers, his parents gave him two names: Suvidhi and padanta,126 Puspadanta obtained kevalajnana under a Malura tree according to Hemacandra (Sve.), but under a Nga tree according to the Digambara text Uttarapurana and under an Aksa tree according to the yapappatti (Dig.). T.N. Ramachandran has noted that it was the Sala tree. 127 Possibly he relied on Varaha or Varahaka Svetambara traditions, Kannada tradition. The Samavayanga sutra states that it was the Mali tree. Sulasa were the leaders of his gapadharas and aryikas respectively according to

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 145 and Vaidarbha (Naga according to Tiloyapannatti) and Ghosarya were the leaders according to Digambara traditions. Ajita was his yaksa according to both the sects. The yaksi was Sutara (Sve.) or Mahakalika (Dig. Uttarapurana). The Digambara text Tiloyapannatti gives Brahma yaksa and Kali as the sasana yaksa and yaksini respectively of this Jina. Suvidhinatha obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. In both the traditions, the crocodile (makara) is the dhvaja or lanchana of this Jina. According to a Canarese (Kannada) tradition noted by Burgess as well as Ramachandran, the crab is his cognizance. 128 Images of this Jina are not so common (especially in Museum collections as those of Rsabha. Mahavira, Parsva or Santinatha, but they are obtained in temples of both the sects. A sculpture of Suvidhi from some site in the South (not specified, but probably Karnataka) was published by Kamta Prasad Jaina. 129 It represents him along with miniature figures of the 23 other Tirthankaras and belongs to the Digambara tradition. Jinaprabha Sori states that Sri Suvidhinatha is worshipped at Kayadvara. The identification of this tirtha of Suvidhi is not certain. 130 The earliest image of Puspadanta so far discovered dates from the fourth century A.D. Along with the image of Candraprabha referred to before, this sculpture was al installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta. The Jina is identified with the help of the inscription on the pedestal. 131 No lanchana is shown. A third image of some unidentified Jina was also found along with the above two images from a village called Durjanapur near Vidisha. Inscription on the third image is defaced and hence the third image cannot be identified. All the three images are now preserved in the Vidisha Museum, M.P. Hirananda Shastri has referred to an image of standing Puspadanta, of c. 11th cent. A.D., obtained from Chattarpur, and having the makara as the cognizance. 132 At Khandagiri, in caves 8 and 9 we have rock-cut sculptures of Puspadanta in padmasana with the makara as his cognizance. 133 In the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, in cell no. 9 is an image of Suvidhi with his name inscribed in the inscription on the pedestal dated in v.s. 1276=A.D. 1219 (Visalavijaya, Sri Kumbhariyaji Tirtha, p. 50. inscr. no. 9-32). In the temple of Santinatha, Kumbharia, is an image of Suvidhi installed in V.S. 1138=A.D. 1081 (ibid., p. 56, inscr. no. 3-37). In the Kalyana-Parsvanatha temple at Radhanpur, N. Gujarat, there is in worship a metal Panca-tirthi image of Suvidhi installed in samvat 1464 according to the inscription on the back. Another such Panca-tirthi installed in samvat 1485 is in worship in the Neminatha temple, Radhanpur. There is a Panca-tirthi sculpture of Suvidhi, with parikara, in cell 31 in Vimala Saha's temple at Abu. In cell 38 of the same temple was installed a sculpture of Suvidhi in V.S. 1245 according to the inscription on the pedestal of the Mulanayaka image (main image) in this cell. In the Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, we have a sculpture of Suvidhi with Ajita yaksa standing on his right side and Mahakali yaksi standing on the left. On the pedestal a figure of karimakara is carved as the cognizance. In the Suttalaya of Gommata at Sravana Belago!a, and at Veour and Mudabidri we also find sculptures of Suvidhi standing with his yaksa and yaksini by his sides. 10. TENTH TIRTHANKARA: SITALANATHA Sitalanatha was the son of king Drdharatha of Bhadrapura or Bhaddila (in the Malaya country) by queen Sunanda and was born in Purvasadha naksatra, having descended from the Acyuta heaven according to Hemacandra and from Arana heaven according to the author of the Uttarapurana. 134 The name Sitala was given to him because the king's body, when it was hot, became cool at the touch of the queen, while the Jina was in her womb. 135 Sitalanatha, says the Uttarapurana, obtained kevalajnana under a Bilva-tree; Hemacandra says that it was a Pippala-tree (Ficus Religiosa) while Ramachandran, on the evidence of scme Kannada tradition, says that it was a Priyangu-tree (Panicum italicum). The Tiloyapannatti says it was the Dhuli-tree. The Samavayanga sutra calls it Pilankkhu (Priyangu ?) tree. 136 According to the Sveta mbara tradition, Nanda and Suyasa were his chief ganadhara and aryika respectively, 137 while according to the Digambara text Uttarapurana, they were Anagara and Dharana.

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146 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to the Tiloyapannatti, they were known as Kunthu and Dharana respectively. The Sasanadevatas of the tirtha of Sitalanatha were Brahma yaksa and Asoka yaksi according to the Svetambara belief and Brahma yaksa and Manavi yaksi according to the Digambara sect. The Tiloyapannatti however says that they were Brahmesvara and Jvalamalini. Sitala obtained nirvapa on Mt. Sammeta. Golden yellow in complexion, Sitalanatha had Sri-vsksa as his cognizance according to Digambara texts (except the Tiloyapannatti which gives the svastika as his lanchana); the Svetambara writers prescribe sri-yatsa mark as his cognizance. In the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior, is a sculpture of a Jina sitting in padmasana upon a seat with an inscription on it dated in samvat 1552 (?). In the centre of the seat is the tree symbol. The figure, with the head lost, is placed on a pedestal of another image. The pedestal is a simhasana with two lions, the dharmacakra in the centre and a yaksa and a yaksini figure at the right and left ends respectively. At the lowermost end of this simhasana, below the dharmacakra, is a small figure of the cognizance which looks like a lion. So this simhasana belonged to another Jina figure, whereas the Jina with the tree symbol is of course raranatha Tiwari refers to an image of Sitala from Tripuri, M.P., preserved in the Indian Museum. It is a partly mutilated piece with the lower portion constituting the pedestal and part of the top portions broken and lost. The cognizance of the Jina is therefore not known and it is difficult to identify the Tirth ankara represented by the sculpture. 138 However it is a good specimen of art of Tripuri of the mediaeval age. : According to Jinaprabha suri, Sitalanatha was worshipped in a shrine in the Prayaga-tirtha (Allahabad).139 The Jainas of Vidisha today regard Vidisha as the old Bhaddilapura, the birth place of Sitala and have a shrine dedicated to this Jina. In the Khandagiri caves at Orissa, Sitalanatha is shown sitting in Cave 8 and standing in Cave 9.140 In the National Museum, New Delhi, no. 48.4/46 is a metal image of Sitala sitting on a lion-throne. Between the lions is depicted the sri-vatsa which is his cognizance. The simhasana is flanked by yaksa Brahma and yaksi Asoka. On the pedestal are depicted the nine planets, the dharmacakra flanked by two deer and a seated devotee at each extreme. The inscription on the back of the image is dated samvat 1542. In the Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, we have a standing figure of Sitala with the Brahma yaksa and Manavi yaksi by this sides. We also have a figure of this Jina in the Mudabidri set of Tirthankaras and one figure in the Venur set. P. Gururaja Bhatt has published a white stone sculpture of Sitala standing from Kallu-Basti. Mudabidure. 141 He has also noticed images of Sitala in Eda-Bala-Basti and Ammanavara-Basti at Karkala-Hiriyangadi. In the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia, an inscription on an image of Sitalanatha shows that the image was installed in samvat 1138. Of an image of Sitala in the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, only the inscribed pedestal is preserved which shows that the image was installed in samvat 1161. In cell 16 of the same temple there was installed an image of Sitala whose pedestal alone dated samvat 1259 is preserved. Inscription on the pedestal of an image of Sitala in cell 37, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, shows that the image was installed in samvat 1245. In cell no. 593/4 at Satrunjaya is a Panca-tirthi image of Sitala installed in samvat 1517 (inscription no. 227, Kanchanasagara suri, op. cit.). At Chandravati, Zalrapatana, Rajasthan, there is a famous old shrine of Sitalanatha erected in the tenth century. 11. ELEVENTH TIRTHANKARA: SREYAMSANATHA Sreyamsanatha was the son of Visnuraja and Visnudevi (acc. to Hemacandra, but Venudevi acc. to Tiloyapannatti) or Nanda (acc. to Uttarapurana and other Digambara sources), king and queen of the city of Simhapura. Golden in appearance, Sreyamsa was born in the Sravana naksatra, having descended from the Acyuta or Puspottara Vimana, 142

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 147 Hemacandra's two explanations of the name are far-fetched as almost all others for different Jinas are. He has somehow tried to connect Sreyamsa with sreyas (spiritual good or merit).143 The Jina obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Tumbura tree (Uttarapurana) or Palasa tree (Tiloyapannatti). According to Hemacandra it was the Asoka tree. T.N. Ramachandran's Table gives Tanduka as the Caitya tree. The Samavayanga sutra reads it as Tinduga. The cognizance of Sreyamsa is Rhinoceros (khadgi, gandah) according to both the sects. Ramachandran has noted three different traditions about this Jina's cognizance: (1) Rhinoceros, (2) Deer, (3) Garuda. The last two alternatives seem to have been based on some Kannada traditions. The Jina was followed by a band of 77 ganadharas with Kunthu as their leader according to the Uttarapurana, but Dharma according to Tiloyapannatti, Gostubha according to Samavayanga sutra and Kasyapa according to others. Dharana (Dig.) or Carana (TP) or Dharini (Sve.) was the head of the order of aryikas of this Jina. Sreyamsa obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. Isvara and Gauri are his yaksa and yaksini respectively according to the Digambara traditions (except the Tiloyapannatti which gives Kumara and Mahakali) while the Svetambaras invoke them as Yakset and Manavi. Triprstha, the first Vasudeva and Vijaya, the first Baladeva, of Jaina Puranas, lived in this age. According to Jinaprabha suri, Tirthas (places of pilgrimage) of Sreyamsa existed on the Vindhya-giri and Malaya-giri. A. Bannerji has noticed an image of Sreyamsa in kayotsarga mudra at Pakbira (Purulia), W. Bengal.144 There is an image of Sreyamsa in the Indore Museum, M.P. Sculptures of Sreyamsa are found in caves 8 and 9 at Khandagiri, Orissa. 145 B.C. Bhattacharya writes, "At Sarnath, in Benares, the traditional place of the Jina, there is a Jaina temple dedicated to this patriarch. An old image of the same Jina may be seen in the Brahmanical sculpture shed attached to the Museum." According to him the image is no. C.62 in the Museum.146 In the Nagpur Museum is a sculpture from Cedi area, Madhya Pradesh, assignable to c. 10th-11th cent. A.D., which has on the pedestal a figure of the cognizance looking like a rhinoceros. It has been published as representing Sreyamsa in the second edition of B.C. Bhattacharya's Jaina Iconography (plate XVI). In the Provincial Museum, Lucknow, no. J.856 is a Panca-tirthi sculpture of this Jina from SahetMahet (ancient Sravasti), district Gonda, U.P. Below the dharmacakra in the centre of the simhasana is the figure of rhinoceros, the cognizance of Sreyamsanatha. It may be noted that the Jina has hair-locks on his shoulders which is unwarranted. No. 8 in the Shivpuri Museum, M.P. is a sculpture of Sreyamsa standing on a simhasana in the centre of which in a niche is a small figure of an acarya with his right hand in the vyakhyana mudra. He is sitting in padmasana and the figure could also represent the Jina giving the sermon. Below the seat of this figure is the dharmacakra below which at the lowermost end of the pedestal is the figure of the cognizance of Sreyamsa. The sculpture came from Narwar, M.P. In the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, is a Pancatirthi brass image of Sreyamsa dated samvat 1525 according to an inscription on its back. In Cell no. 11, Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is the pedestal of a sculpture of this Jina. Inscription on the pedestal shows that the image of Sreyamsa was installed in samvat 1202.147 Muni Visalavijaya (op. cit., p. 56) refers to an image of Sreyamsa installed in samvat 1138, in the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia. A Panca-tirthi brass image installed in samvat 1569 is in worship in the Kharatara vasahi temple at Satrunjaya (Kanchanasagara suri, op. cit., inscr. no. 433). Sculptures of Sreyamsa are also found in the sets of 24 Tirthankaras at Sravana Belagola, Venur and Mudabidri. In each case the Jina is accompanied by his yaksa and yaksini. 12. TWELFTH TIRTHANKARA: VASUPOJYA King Vasupujya and queen Jaya (Sve.) or Vijaya (Dig.) had a prince named Vasupujya who became the twelfth Jina. Reddish in complexion, Vasupujya was born in the Satabhisa naksatra, having descended

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148 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana on this earth from the Mahasukra Vimana according to the Uttarapurana and Pranata according to Svetambara texts. The buffalo is his cognizance in both the traditions.148 He was called Vasupujya because he was the son of Vasupujya or because he was the object of worship for Indra (Vasu). 149 The Patala tree (Bignonia Suaveolens) was his Caitya-vsksa according to the Samavayanga sutra and Hemacandra, but Kadamba tree according to the Uttarapurana. The Tiloyapanpatti calls it Tenduva which is the same as Tinduka of Asadhara. Sixty-three ganadharas headed by Dharma followed him according to the Digambara text Uttarapurana. According to Tiloyapanpatti Mandira was the leader of ganadharas and according to other traditions Subhuma was the leader. Sena (Dig. Uttarapurana) or Varasena (Tiloyapannatti) or Dharanidhara (Sve.) was the head of the aryikas of his order. His father was ruler of Campa (modern Bhagalpur) which was the birth-place of this Jina. Vasupujya became a monk and did not marry, nor did he become a king. He obtained nirvana while sitting in the paryarkasana (same as padmasana in Sve. traditions but perhaps ardha-padmasana in Dig. traditions) and meditating on the Mandara mountain near the river Rajatamulika.150 Hemacandra says that he died in the city of Camp 152 The yaksa of Vasupujya was known as Kumara according to both the traditions and is called Sammukha (which is another name of Kumara) by the Tiloyapannatti. The yaksini is Canda or Candra according to the Svetambaras and Gandhari according to Digambaras. The Tiloyapannatti calls her Gauri. The second Vasudeva Dviprstha and his step-brother Acalastoka, the second Baladeva, of Jaina mythology, lived in the age of Vasupujya. Jinapabha suri says that there was a temple of) Visvatilaka Vasupujya at Campa. 152 Tiwari has referred to a Caturvimsati-patta of Vasupujya from Shahdol, M.P. The sculpture shows the buffalo cognizance and the yaksa and the yaksi on the pedestal. 153 Caves 8 and 9, Khandagiri, Orissa, have rock-cut sculptures of Vasupujya.154 A big brass image of Vasupujya is in worship in the Jaina temple in the Marfatia Mehta's pada, Patan, N. Gujarat. The image (size 28.2 x 18 inches) illustrates the fully evolved parikara as depicted in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the mediaeval period. The image has an inscription on its back giving samvat 1582 (A.D. 1525) as the date of installation. The buffalo cognizance of the Jina is seen in the centre of the seat of Vasupujya. There is a miniature figure of a four-armed Santi-devi in the centre of the simhasana. Figures of the yaksa and yaksi of Vasupujya are also shown on two ends of the simhasana. An interesting type of sculpture of Vasupujya from Pancasara Parsvanatha temple, Patan, was illustrated by us in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 73. The Jina sits in padmasana, dhyana mudra, on a seat placed on a big lotus with a long stalk. On his right a male attendant stands with a chowrie in one hand while on the left a female figure with perhaps a camara in one hand and the other hand placed on her kati. Over the head of the Jina is the usual umbrella. The upper part of this sculpture is covered with the foliage of a big Caitya-tree, the branch of the tree depicted in a semi-circular arch-like way. Inscription on the pedestal of the sculpture shows that it was installed in samvat 135(6) in commemoration of some penance practised by a certain lay worshipper. The inscription calls this a bimba (image) of Vasupujya. An important characteristic of the sculpture is the representation of the big Caitya-tree under whose shade the Jina sits and the omission of almost all other members of the usual parikara. Again, instead of two attendant males holding the fly-whisk, a male and a female are generally represented on two sides of the Tirtharkara. Another sculpture of a similar type was illustrated by us as fig. 75 in Studies in Jaina Art. This sculpture, from a Digambara Jaina temple in Surat, Gujarat, is not inscribed and so it is difficult to identify the Jina. The Patan sculpture discussed above belongs to the Svetambara tradition. A small sculpture of this type was seen by me years ago in one of the devakulikas of Vimala Vasahi. It was fixed into a side wall and had no inscription nor a recognizing symbol. In Sambodi, Vol. 3, no. 2-3, pp. 21-24, T.O. Shah, M. Vora and M.A. Dhaky published two more such images ---one from Porbandar, Saurashtra, Gujarat and another from Cambay. The Porbandar image is dated in Samvat 1304 and the

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 149 Cambay one is somewhat earlier. The authors suggested that the male and female figures represent Asokacandra and Rohini who are said to have worshipped Vasupujya. In cell no. 53, on the left of the mulanayaka (chief image) is a sculpture of Vasupujya installed in samvat 1401 according to the inscription on it. In devakulika no. 41, Vimala Vasahi, there is still in worship a sculpture of Vasupujya installed in samvat 1245 at the hands of Devacandra suri. In cell 14 of the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, a sculpture of Vasupujya was installed in samvat 1259 (Visalavijaya, Kumbhariyaji Tirtha, pp. 129-30). A metal image of Vasupujya (height about 10 inches) is in worship as mulanayaka in the Dig. Jaina Gujarati Mandir, Navapura, Surat. The image was installed in samvat 1679. In the same temple there is a smaller metal image of Vasupujya installed in samvat 1617. In cell 612/8/1 at Satrunjaya is in worship a Panca-firthi image of Vasupujya installed in samvat 1517 (inscription no. 272 of Kanchanasagara suri). Another Panca-tirthi in worship in Kothara, Satrunjaya, was installed in samvat 1431 (inscription no. 255 of Kanchanasagara suri). Sculptures of Vasupujya with his yaksa and yaksi are in worship amongst the different sets in Sravana Belagola, Mudabidri and Venur referred to before. 13. THIRTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: VIMALANATHA Vimala was the son of king Krtavarma and queen Syama of the city of Kampilya. Golden in complexion, the Jina descended upon this earth from the Sahasrara heaven according to the Uttarapurana and from Mahasukra Vimana according to others. According to Uttarapurana, the naksatra of his birth was Uttarabhadrapada, but Uttarasadha according to others. 155 Vimala's dhvaja or lanchana was the boar according to both the sects. His father called him Vimala because the queen's mind became more pure while, the Jina was in her womb. 156 According to Uttarapurana, Indra called him Vimalavahana.157 He obtained kevalajnana under a Jambu-tree (Eugenia jambolana) according to Hemacandra, the author of Uttarapurana and others. Mandara was his chief ganadhara while the chief of aryikas was Padma (Dig.) or Dhara (Sve.). Vimala obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. According to the Svetambaras, Sanmukha and Vidita were his sasana yaksa and yaksi respectively; according to Digambara writers, they were known as Sanmukha and Vairoti or Vairotya. The Digambara Tiloyapannatti however calls them Patala and Gandhari respectively. Dharma and Svayambhu, the third Baladeva and Vasudeva (also called Balabhadra and Narayana) respectively, flourished in the age of Vimalanatha. According to Jinaprabha suri (14th cent. A.D.), temples of Vimala existed at Kampilya, at the origin of the Ganges, and at Simhapura.158 A beautiful sculpture of Vimala (c. 9th cent. A.D.) is preserved in the Sarnath Museum (no. 236). The upper part is mutilated as also the heads of the Jina and his attendant male camaradharas. The Jina is standing on a lotus placed on a pedestal. The boar cognizance is carved in the centre of the pedestal. The figure belongs to the Digambara tradition. A sculpture of Vimala standing (Dig.) on a simhasana, obtained from Batesvara (Agra) is preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (no. J.791). The boar is carved in the centre of the lowermost end of the pedestal. At the right and the left ends of the simhasana are the two-armed yaksa and yaksi respectively, each showing the abhaya mudra and the water-pot. A sculpture of Vimala in kayotsarga mudra from Narwar, M.P., is preserved in Raipur, M.G.M. Museum (no. 20). The yaksa and yaksi are not shown. The sculpture is assigned to c. 12th cent. A.D. Amongst Aluara bronzes in the Patna Museum is a small standing image of this Jina (Mu. no. 10674). In Caves 8 and 9, Khandagiri, Orissa, we have sculptures of Vimalanatha, in the sitting and standing postures respectively. 159 A brass Panca-tirthi of Vimalanatha is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. It was installed in samvat 1686, according to the inscription on its back. A full parikara is shown here. A Pancatirthi metal image of Vimala inscribed in V.S. 1436 is in worship in the Jaina temple at Chini near

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150 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Baroda. An image of Vimala in the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia, was installed in samvat 1138 (Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 56). In cell 50, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, was installed a sculpture of Vimala in samvat 1245. Only the pedestal with the inscription now remains (inscr. no. 163, Sri-Arbuda-PracinaLekha-Samdoha, by Muni Jayanavijaya) 160 "The Vimalanatha-basti at Bellur, in Mysore district, has a 76 cm high image of Vimalanatha with an inscription on the pedestal of a date earlier than the thirteenth century."161 For a metal Panca-tirthi of Vimala (from west India) in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, see Jaina Art and Architecture, III, pl. 333. Images of this Jina are obtained at Srava a Belago!a, Venur and Mudabidri. 14. FOURTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: ANANTANATHA Ananta was the son of king Simhasena and Suyasa (or Sarvayasa) of Ayodhya, descended from the Pranata Vimana (Uttarapurana) or the Puspottara Vimana (Hemacandra). The Uttarapurana further differs from other sourou by giving Jayasyama as the name of the queen mother. The Jina is said to have been born in the Revati naksatra, according to both the traditions. 162 Golden in appearance, Anantajit was so called because his father could conquer inestimable (ananta) armies of his opponents while the Jina was in the embryo state. 163 The falcon was his lanchana according to Svetambaras and the bear according to Digambaras. 164 Patala served as his yaksa 165 while Anantamati (Dig.) or Ankusa (Sve.) officiated as the yaksini of his tirtha. Ananta obtained kevalajnana under an Asvattha tree (Ficus Religiosa) according to the Digambaras and the Svetambara text Samavayanga sutra, but under an Asoka tree according to Hemacandra.166 Yasa and Anjuya were the first ganadhara and aryika respectively according to the Samavayanga - sutra, Sarvasri was the chief aryika according to Tiloyapanpatti and Padma according to other Digambara texts. Anantanatha obtained nirvana on the Mt. Sammeta. Suprabha and Purusottama, the fourth Balabhadra and Narayana respectively lived in this age. Giving a list of famous tirthas of Ananta, Jinaprabha suri says that Ananta natha was worshipped at Yamuna-brada in Mathura, at Dvarika in the sea, and in the city of Sakapani.167 In Caves 8 and 9, Khandagiri, Orissa, we find rock-cut sculptures of Ananta in the sitting posturt.168 No. 48.4/52 in the National Museum, New Delhi, is a metal sculpture of Ananta seated in the dhyana mudra on a lion-throne and under a triple-umbrella. Patala yaksa and Anantamati yaksi flank the simhasana. The image was installed in samvat 1507.169 A Caturvimsati-pasta (Covisi) of Ananta, in metal, installed in v.s. 1477, is in worship in the Jaina shrine in Chani, near Baroda. In Cell 33, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, is a pedestal of a sculpture of Ananta installed in samvat 1245.170 An image of Anantanatha was installed in samvat 1145 in the Mahavira temple, Kumbharia (Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 122). A metal Panca-tirthi of Ananta is in worship in the Ajitanatha temple at Radhanpur. It was installed in Samvat 1475. P. Gururaja Bhatt, in his Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, pl. 411(b), illustrates a figure of Ananta from Baikanatikari-Basti, Mudabidure, and another figure from Padu-Basti, Mudabidure in pl. 412(b). Sculptures of Ananta are available in all Tirthankara-Bastis in Karnataka where sets of all the 24 Tirthankara images are installed. We find images of this Jina in the Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, and in such sets at Mudabidri and Venur. For some more images and shrines dedicated to Anantanatha, see P. Gururaja Bhatt, op. cit., pp. 438-439. 15. FIFTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: DHARMANATHA The fifteenth Jina descended upon this earth from the Sarvarthasiddha Vimana, his birth naksatra being the Pusya according to both the sects. Golden in complexion, Dharmanatha was born as the prince of king Bhanu and queen Suvrata of the city of Ratnapur.171

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras While the Jina was in his mother's womb, the queen-mother had the pregnancy-wish of performing various religious acts (Dharmavidhi), so the Jina was named Dharma by the king. 172 Both the sects give the vajra (thunderbolt) as the cognizance of Dharmanatha. The Jina obtained kevalajnana under a Dadhiparna (Clitorea ternatea) tree. The Uttarapurana however, against the rest of the Digambara texts, gives Saptacchada as the Caitya-tree. Dharmanatha obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. Arista or Aristasena was his chief ganadhara; Suvrata was his chief aryika according to Tiloyapannatti and Uttarapurana, Bhaviyappa according to Samavayanga and Arthasiva as noted by Ramachandran. 173 Kinnara officiated as the yaksa of this Jina according to both the sects (except the tradition represented by Tiloyapannatti which calls him Kimpurusa). Manasi was the yaksi according to most of the Digambara texts, Solasa (Sulasa) according to Tiloyapannatti and Kandarpa according to the Svetambara tradition. 151 The third Cakravarti Maghavan and the fourth one known as Sanatkumara lived one after the other during the tirtha-period of Dharmanatha. The latter Cakravarti had an extremely beautiful body and was therefore also known as one of the Kamadevas of Jaina traditions. Sanatkumara was a popular figure with the Jaina Puranas. According to Jinaprabha suri, a tirtha of Dharmanatha existed at Ranavahapura near Ayodhya where (the image of) Dharmanatha was honoured by a Naga.174 A metal image of this Jina, originally installed in the Santinatha-Caitya at Anahillapuri (modern Patan, N. Gujarat) in v.s. 1181 is now preserved in a Jaina shrine at Nadol, Rajasthan. There is a shrine dedicated to Dharmanatha at Radhanpur, N. Gujarat. At Radhanpur are also in worship shrines dedicated to Sitalanatha, Vimalanatha, Vasupujya, Sambhavanatha, Ajitanatha, Rsabhanatha (Adisvara), Mahavira, Simandhara svami, Santinatha, Neminatha, Cintamani Parsvanatha, Sahasraphana Parsvanatha, Godi Parsvanatha, Kalyana Parsvanatha, and Kunthunatha. The Dharmanatha temple here is a Caturmukha (Caumukha) shrine. In cell no. 1, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, was once installed a sculpture of Dharmanatha in samvat 1202= A.D. 1145. Only the simhasana now remains. The yaksa on one end of the seat is two-armed showing the varada mudra and the citron and riding on the elephant. The yaksi on the other end is a four-armed Ambika with lion as vahana and showing the mango-bunch in three hands while holding with her left lower hand the child on her lap. In the Shivpuri Museum (no. 10) is preserved a sculpture of Dharma obtained from Narwar, M.P. and assignable to c. 12th cent. A.D. D.B. Diskalkar has noticed a sculpture of this Jina in the Indore Museum. 175 A Dvi-murtika sculpture of Dharmanatha and Santinatha from Karitalai is in the Raipur Museum, M.P.176 Caves 8 and 9 (Barabhuji and Mahavira Gumpha respectively), Khandagiri, Orissa, have figures of Dharmanatha with the vajra lanchana.177 In Karnataka in Sravana Belagola, Mudabidri and Venur sets we have sculptures of Dharmanatha. 16. SIXTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: SANTINATHA Santinatha is one of the most popular of the Jaina Tirthankaras. He was born as the prince of king Visvasena and queen Acira of Hastinapura, in the Bharani naksatra, having descended on this earth from the Sarvarthasiddhi Vimana.178 Golden in appearance, Santinatha had the deer as his cognizance, according to both the sects. Burgess, on the evidence of late Canarese dhyana-slokas, gives the tortoise as the lanchana but this tradition does not seem to have been either old or popular. 179 Because the Jina loved peace, Indra called him Santi at the end of the birth-bath ceremony, 180 According to Hemacandra, the Jina was so called by his father because epidemics, evils and miseries were destroyed in the land when the Jina was in his mother's womb.180 He obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Nandi tree (Cedrela toona). Cakrayudha was the leader of his ganadharas. Harisena was

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152 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana the chief aryika according to all Digambara texts, Rakkhi according to the Samavayanga sutra and Suci according to other Svetambara traditions. Santinatha obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. Kimpurusa and Mahamanasi were his yaksa and yaksini according to Digambara traditions and Garuda and Nirvani respectively according to the Svetambaras. Tiloyapannatti seems to follow the Svetambara tradition in giving Garuda as the name of the yaksa of this Jina. According to this text the sasana yaksi was Manasi.181 The name of Santinatha suggests the idea of peace and tranquillity and hence the Jainas gradually began invoking Santi-natha (Santi-peace, natha-lord) for averting calamities in the form of epidemics, fire, famine, foreign invasion, robbers etc. 182 He was thus specially associated with rites known as Santikarma. When Sakti-worship grew stronger in Indian Tantra, the Svetambara Jainas also invoked a female deity for Santi or Peace-rites and addressed her as Santi-deri. This goddess seems to be no other than the attendant yaksi of Santinatha. Note that this yaksi is called Nirvani (the name signifies nirvana or final peace and bliss, freedom from all bondage and miseries) in the Svetambara traditions. The popularity of Santinatha seems to he due to this role of giver of peace in the Jaina rituals. 183 A hymn, luown as Ajita-Santi-stava, is well-known in Svetambara Jaina literature, as the work of one Nandisena acarya. In alternate verses it invokes Ajitanatha and Santinatha. The use of different metres and accurate scientific knowledge of Indian musical terms are some of its special features. According to Pastavalis, one ancient Jaina acarya Nandisena who lived in 527 B.C. is supposed to have been a disciple of Mahavira. The fact that in the hymn the word Janapada is used for geographical divisons suggests that the hymn is a very old one and probably dates from at least before the beginning of the Christian era, being reminiscent of the Janapada Period of Indian history. The Laghu-Santi-stava of Manadeva suri, composed in c. 7th cent. A.D. is also noteworthy. The whole hymn is fused with Tantric usages, and here the author has, by the use of slesa (pun, double meaning), identified Santinatha with Siva, the Lord of Santa (peace or Parvati). 184 According to Jinaprabha suri, tirthas or temples dedicated to the worship of Santinatha existed at Kiskindha, Lanka (and Patalalanka also according to one ms.), and on the mount Trikata. 185 Santinatha is one of the five Tirthankaras popular in Jaina worship from olden days. The identification of earlier images of Santinatha however becomes difficult for the following reason. In the earlier stage of introduction of cognizances, on images of Jinas, these symbols were placed on both sides of the dharmacakra while in the later stage they were represented either somewhere above or below the Wheel. The dharmacakra is accompanied by two deer in all the Jaina images from at least about the tenth century onwards (and perhaps a century carlier) and the cognizance of a Jina is represented separately. It is not easy to determine exactly when this last mentioned practice started in any particular district nor is it easy to lay down exact dates of a large number of loose images whether they may be Jaina, Buddhist or Brahmanical. This practice of showing the dharmacakra flanked by two deer (the cognizance being shown separately) seems to be in imitation of the Buddhist practice where such a depiction signifies the first Sermon of the Buddha in the Deer-park. In Jaina sculptures of the Kusana and Gupta periods, the dharmacakra is not flanked by the two deer. When the depiction of cognizance on simhasana or pedestal was introduced (in at least the fifth century A.D.), figures of the cognizances flanked the dharmacakra. In such early cases when we find the deer flanking the dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal or the simhasana one has to identifiy the Jina as Santinatha whose cognizance is the deer. The Caumukha sculpture in the Son Bhandara cave, Rajgir, figure 58, shows the dharmacakra flanked by the cognizance of the Jina above. Each side has a different Jina with a different cognizance flanking the dharmacakra.186 If this sculpture dates from late seventh or the eighth century then we can say that at least upto the late seventh or the early eighth century in all cases where the dharmacakra is flanked by the deer (and there is no cognizance of the Jina in the parikara or any other thing to identify the Jina) the deer flanking the Jina may be taken as cognizance of Santinatha. This would be true at least for Bihar and perhaps eastern India as a whole including Bengal, Orissa and parts of U.P. So far as western India is concerned we find, in the Akota hoard, a standing Parsvanatha, inscribed, installed by a sravika, and assignable to c. 600 A.D.,187 whose pedestal shows Dharanendra and his queen (half human,

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 153 half snake) with their tails entwined in a beautiful knot below the lotus on which the Jina is standing. Below this on the pedestal are eight standing planets and in the centre the dharmacakra flanked by two deer. Here the deer cannot be the cognizance of the Jina standing who is certainly Parsvanatha identified with the help of the snake attendants on the pedestal and the big coiled snake on the back. So in western India, at least by the beginning of the seventh century A.D., imitation of the Buddhist motif of dharmacakra with the two deer had already started. The problem is still unsolved because in the case of Rsabhanatha installed by Jinabhadra Vacanacarya (Fig. 35) assigned to middle sixth century A.D., published by us in Akota Bronzes, fig. 11, the Jina was identified as Rsabha on account of hair locks adorning his shoulders. Here the dharmacakra, in front of the feet of the standing Jina, is flanked by two deer. Because of the script of the inscription and because of the identification of Jinabhadra Vacanacarya, the image, assigned to c. 525-550 A.D., cannot be placed later than c. 600 A.D. If the image represented Santinatha then the hair-locks on the shoulders would be unwarranted. Exceptions to the general practice of showing hair-locks on the shoulders of Rsabhanatha are known and we have cited a few such exceptions while diseussing the iconography of Rsabhanatha but these are rare considering the widespread popularity oi images of Rsabia all over India from at least the first century A.D. This Akota bronze of Rsabha would lead one to believe that in the second half of the sixth century the Jainas in western India had already started imitating the Buddhist motif. But we have in the Akota hoard a bronze of Ajitanatha identified with the help of elephants flanking the dharmacakra on the pedestal, vide Akota Bronzes, fig. 41b. This figure is assigned by us to the middle of the eighth century and it cannot be much earlier. So the practice of cognizance flanking the dharmacakra lingered on upto the eighth century, in western India also. Such a situation creates problems. The beautiful bronze installed by Jinabhadra, discussed above, should therefore represent Santinatha. The bronze of Rsabha from Vasantagadh, illustrated here in Fig. 34 and assigned to sixth century also shows the cognizance on each side of dharmacakra. Thus the beautiful big metal image of a Jina sitting in padmasana, discovered by Hirananda Shastri from Mabudi, N. Gujarat, showing in the centre of the high pedestal the dharmacakra flanked by two deer, should be identified as representing Santinatha. There are no hair-locks, jata, snake-hoods or attendant yaksa-yaksini to help in the identification. This beautiful bronze from Mahudi dates from the seventh century A.D. 188 A somewhat earlier sculpture in schist, obtained from Khed Brahma, an ancient site in Sabarakantha district, N. Gujarat, published by me in Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. X, pp. 61ff with plate, offers a similar problem. The modelling of the different figures clearly reveals the classical style. The sculpture cannot be later than c. 600+20 A.D. The Jina is attended by figures of Sarvanubhuti yaksa and yaksi Ambika, both two-armed. The dharmacakra is flanked by two deer. No other cognizance or symbol is shown to identify the Jina. I am inclined to identify this figure as representing Santinatha. A partly preserved inscription on the pedestal of a Quadruple image (Caturmukha, Caumukha, Pratima-sarvato-bhadrika) from Mathura, assigned to the Kusana period and dated in samvat 19, refers (either to a temple or) to an image of the Lord (Bhagavato) Santi (Santi),189 which shows that Santinatha was worshipped in circa second century A.D. No. B.75, Mathura Museum, obtained from Potra kunda, Mathura, shows the Jina sitting in padmasana on a big lotus placed on a simhasana. In the centre of the throne is the dharmacakra flanked by two deer. On the pedestal are the Sarvanubhuti yaksa and two-armed Ambika yaksi. Above the attendant camaradharas on two sides of the Jina are the eight planets in two rows above which are the flying vidyadhara-maladhara pairs. The sculpture dates from c. eighth cent. A.D. The figure may be identified as santinatha. Of about the same age is a sculpture of a Jina sitting in padmasana from Kausambi (modern Kosam) now preserved in the Allahabad Museum (no. 535). 190 The yaksa and the yaksi as well as the planets are absent here. Above the head of each camaradhara is an elephant with a rider. Here too the dharmacakra is flanked by a deer on each side. Perhaps this sculpture and the Mathura Museum no. B.75 discussed above date from the end of the seventh century and both may be identified as images of Santinatha. Mathura Museum no. 1504 is a sculpture of a Jina from Barasana, U.P. The Jina is sitting in

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154 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana padmasana. There is a row of four sitting miniature Jina figures on the top which makes this a Pancatirthika sculpture. On the right end of the simhasana, where usually the yaksa figure is shown, we find a figure of the deer lanchana while on the corresponding left end is a figure of a devotee. The sculpture dates from c. ninth century A.D. The Jina is obviously Santinatha. Here the dharmacakra is not flanked by two deer and the deer cognizance is shown separately. No. G.308, Lucknow Museum is a pedestal of a sculpure of Santinatha. The Jina figure is lost. The dharmacakra is flanked by two decr which suggests the identification. This is supported by a figure of the yaksi carrying lotuses in her two upper bands and the pot in the left lower hand. She is Nirvani, the yaksi of Santinatha. A sculpture of Santinatha standing, from Vaibharagiri, Rajgir, belongs to the post-Gupta period. The Jina has a simple parikara consisting of a chatra, two celestial garland-bearers, and two standing camarad haras. There is no prabhamandala but the usnisa on the head of the Jina as also the circular tilaka-mark on his forehead are noteworthy. The Jina stands on a full-blown lotus on the right side of which is seen a figure of a deer on the pedestal. The figure on the left also appears to be the deer cognizance of Santinatha. Bruhn has referred to an image of a standing Jina from Dudahi,191 assignable to c. tenth cent. and of Digambara tradition, with the two deer on two sides of the dharmacakra. Of about the same period is the figure of a Jina in padmasana in the mandapa of the Maladevi shrine, Gyaraspur, M.P., with the deer cognizance and four-armed yaksa and yaksini. This is a Panca-tirthika image referred to by Tiwari. 192 All the Devgadh Jaina images are of the Digambara sect. The mulanayaka in the sanctum of Temple 12, Devgadh, is an image of Santinatha in the kayotsarga mudra. Two images of Saninatha in Temple 4, dating from c. eleventh century, show hair-locks on shoulders. About five figures of Santinatha at Devgadh are in the kayotsarga mudra. Bruhn's fig. 146, from Temple 17, now shifted to the Dharmasala at Devgadh, is a beautiful sculpture of Santi sitting in padmasana on a cushion below which are figures of the planets. The deer cognizance is shown in the centre of the throne. Bruhn's fig. 228 is a seated image of Santinatha dated in v.s. 1052995 A.D. Bhagchandra Jaina in his Devgadh ki Jaina Kala (Hindi, 1974), p. 75, describes an image of Santinatha in padmasana in Devgadh Temple 13. Bruhn's figs. 235-236 show the Jina in a standing attitude. Nos. K.39 and K.63 in the Khajuraho Museum are figures of Santinatha. There is one more image of this Jina in the Jardine Museum at Khajuraho. In Temple no. 1, Khajuraho, there is a big standing image of Santinatha, dated in samvat equal to 1028 A.D., and with four-armed attendant yaksa and yaksini. 193 A Panca-tirthika sculpture of Santinatha sitting, from Pabhosa, U.P., is preserved in the Allahabad Museum (no. 533). 194 The pedestal shows two-armed Sarvanubhuti yaksa and two-armed Ambika yaksi. In the sanctum of the old Jaina shrine at Arang, M.P., are installed three big images in one row. Beginning from the right, the Jinas, standing in kayotsarga mudra, represent Santi, Kunthu and Ara, the 16th, 17th and 18th Tirtharkaras respectively. 195 No. 331, Rani Durgavati Museum, Jabalpur, M.P., is a very interesting sculpture of Santinatha standing obtained from Kankhedi, Jabalpur district, M.P. The Jina stands in the kayotsarga mudra on a lotus. Near his legs on each side stands a male camaradhara, from behind the camaradharas peep the figures of the deer cognizance of the Jina Santinatha. Near the legs of the camaradharas and above their heads are shown, in groups of two each, figures of Jaina devotees. Representation of the deer cognizance standing on each side of the Jina is a unique instance so far known. The composition and grouping of different figures in this sculpture is typical and renders further charm to this sculpture which may be assigned to early eleventh century A.D. In the Shivpuri district Museum is a dvi-tirthika sculpture of Santinatha (on the right side) and Mahavira (on the left) standing side by side but on their own different simhasanas and each Jina having his own parikara of camaradharas, maladharas, triple-umbrella, etc. A small figure of cognizance of each Jina is engraved on the upper rim of the lion-throne just above the head of one of the two lions of each

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 155 throne. All the figures are carved from one stone. The sculpture dates from c. 12th cent. A.D. and was obtained from Narwar, M.P. Shivpuri Museum no. 11 is a loose sculpture of Santinatha standing, obtained from Narwar, and dating from c. 12th century A.D. In the Raipur Museum, M.P., there is a Dvi-tirthika sculpture of Dharmanatha and Santinatha, from Karitalai, M.P. (JAA, III, p. 591). A metal Caturvimsati-patta of Santinatha from West India, in Los Angeles County Museum of Art, is illustrated in JAA, III, plate 334. Tiwari refers to a sculpture of Santinatha from Padhavali and another from Ahar in M.P.196 Balacandra Jaina has reported the existence of an image of this Jina, dated in samvat equal to 1146 A.D., preserved in the Dhubela Museum, M.P.,197 while Niraj Jain speaks of an image dated 1179 A.D. at Bajrangagadh, Guna, M.P.198 A Covisi sculpture of Santinatha standing on a lotus, obtained from Mandoil, is preserved in the Rajshahi Museum. The Jina is identified from the two deer flanking the dharmacakra. On the pedestal are figures of nine planets with a figure of Laksmi lustrated by elephants shown in the centre. An image from Manbhum, preserved in the Patna Museum, is a typical specimen of a miniature Caitya or shrine. Santinatha stands on a lotus in the centre with miniature figures of 23 other Tirthankaras on the sides. The pedestal shows a deer with a lay worshipper on each side sitting with folded hands. There is a bronze image of Santinatha standing amongst the Aluara bronzes preserved in the Patna Museum. The deer cognizance is shown on the pedestal. P.C. Das Gupta refers to a sculpture of Santinatha with the deer lanchana obtained from Rajpara, Midnapur, Bengal. The sculpture is assigned to c. ninth cent. A.D.199 Sudhin De refers to an interesting sculpture of this Jina standing, obtained from Pakbira, Purulia district, West Bengal.200 According to Sudhin De, the Jina "stands on a double-petalled lotus placed on a saptaratha pedestal... The central projection of the pedestal bears the lanchana mark, an antelope. The pedestal is embellished by two lions... Among the miniature figures from the left to the right, a goat-headed male figure is identified as Naigamesin... Besides four sitting female figures in anjali mudra are represented... At the bottom of the pedestal, at the left is a kalasa and at the right a Saiva emblem or a phallus representation-a most interesting feature to note." For illustration see JAA, I, pl. 84A. An image of Santinatha is also reported from Ambikanagara. In the Barabhuji cave (Cave 8) and in the Mahavira gumpha (Cave 9), Khandagiri, Orissa, there are rock-cut figures (one in each cave) of this Jina. A Santinatha from Charampa, Orissa, in the Bhuvanesvara Museum is illustrated in JAA, I, pl. 85B. In the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, is a big sculpture of Santinatha standing on an inscribed pedestal. The inscription dated samvat 1326-A.D. 1269 calls the Jina as Santinatha. There is no cognizance, no dharmacakra, no simhasana. Other members of the parikara are shown. There are no figures of the sasana yaksa and yaksini. The sculpture came from Ladol (Latapalli), N. Gujarat. There is a temple of Santinatha at Kumbharia, originally built in the eleventh century A.D. (perhaps before samvat 1087). Originally it was a temple of Adinatha but the inscription on the seat of the present image worshipped in the sanctum speaks of Santinatha installed in samvat 1302. In the gudhamandapa of the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is a stone sculpture of Santinatha standing and installed in 1119-20 A.D., according to the inscription on it which names the Jina as Santinatha. The deer cognizance is also shown on the pedestal. On two sides of the Jina are carved miniature figures of Vajrankusa, Manavi, Sarvastramahajvala, Acchupta, Mahamanasi and Santi-devi as identified by Tiwari.201 In Cell no. 1, Santinatha temple, there is an inscribed image of Santinatha with 23 miniature figures of Tirthankaras. Two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika figure as the yaksa and the yaksini. An inscribed image of Santinatha in padmasana is preserved in the Rajputana Museum (no. 468), Ajmer. A superb example of Cahamana art is an elegantly cast bronze image of Santinatha, bearing an inscription dated in samvat 1224-A.D. 1168. The Jina sits in dhyana mudra on a cushioned seat (see frontispiece, Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. III). Besides the elephant riders and celestial musicians, a number of human figures are carved on the back-frame of this image. The modelling of the human

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156 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana figures and also the decorative designs are all skilfully done. The pedestal and/or the simhasana seems to have been lost. The bronze is preserved in the V. and A. Museum, London. In cell 15, Vimala Vasahi, Abu was an image of Santinatha installed in v.s. 1131 (inscription no. 74 of Muni Jayantavijaya). Only the pedestal remained showing the inscription, and a four-armed yaksa carrying the goad and the noose in the right and the left upper hands and the citron and the bag in the corresponding lower ones. The elephant is shown as his vahana. The yaksi is a figure of four-armed Ambika with the lion vehicle and the child held on the lap with the left lower hand; her three remaining hands carry the amralumbi (bunch of mangoes). Cell 24 (inscription no. 98 of Jayantavijaya), Vimala Vasahi has a sculpture of Santinatha installed in v.s. 1245 by Mahamatya Dhanapala the son of Mahamatya Ptthvipala. The yaksi is four-armed Ambika showing the same symbols as described above and the four-armed yaksa Sarvanubhuti showing the varada and the money-bag in his right and left lower hands and the goad and the noose in the corresponding upper ones. There is an image of Santinatha installed (by the right side of the main image) in cell 35, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, in v.s. 1288. In cell 47 was installed in samvat 1378 an image of Santinatha (inscription no. 157 of Muni Jayantavijaya). In Cell 5 of the animalia emple, Kumbharia, was installed in samvat 1138 a sculpture of Santinatha (Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 141). A brass image of Santinatha in padmasana dhyana mudra is preserved in the Sambhavanatha temple, Cambay, Gujarat. The whole parikara and the deer cognizance are shown. It may be noted that the male camaradhara on each side carries a pitcher with his other hand. The image was installed in samvat 1586 according to the inscription on its back. The Bharata Kala Bhavana, Varanasi, has a Covisi metal sculpture of Santinatha installed in 1510 A.D. The image hails from Gujarat or Rajasthan. There are numerous images in stone and metal as also several temples of Santinatha all over Gujarat and Rajasthan, amongst the Svetambaras as well as the Digambaras. Around A.D. 1192, a fine Jinalaya of the god Abhinava Santinathadeva, called Nagarajinalaya, was erected by some business magnates at Dorasamudra, the capital of Hoyasala kings in Karnataka.202 In A.D. 1154, Parsvasena Bhattaraka repaired the ruined Basti of Santinatha at Holakere.203 Earlier still, Rastrakuta king Khottiga Nityavarsa, who came to the throne in A.D. 968, had, according to a record found in a ruined temple at Danavulapadu, Cuddapah district, caused a pedestal to be made for the bathing ceremony of the god Santinatha,204 General Recarasa set up in the year 1200 A.D. the god Santinatha at Sravana Belagola and made over the Basadi to his guru Sagaranandi Siddhantadeva.205 There was a Santinatha Basadi at Belur also.206 At Sravana Belagola, Mulabidure and Venur in the sets of 24 Tirthankara images we obtain images of Santinatha also. In the ceilings of the Santinatha and Mahavira temples at Kumbharia and in a ceiling in front of Cell no. 12 at Vimala Vasahi, Abu, we find scenes of not only the five main events of the life of Santinatha (panca kalyanakas) but also scenes from some of the noteworthy previous existences of this Jina 207 Santinatha was a Cakravarti ruler before he became a monk and a Tirthaikara. So amongst such scenes we also find the different ratnas of a Cakravarti emperor. In one of his previous births as king Megharatha, the soul of Santinatha offers his whole flesh to a falcon in order to save the life of a dove who sought refuge with Megharatha. This is a famous ancient theme popular in the Brahmanical as well as the Buddhist and the Jaina literatures. In Brahmanical legend king Sibi protects the dove by offering his whole body to be weighed in balance against the body of the dove. In all the scenes from the life of Santinatha both at Kumbharia and at Vimala Vasahi we do find this scene of king Megharatha weighing his body in the balance. Two long wooden book-covers of a palm-leaf manuscript, painted with a series of scenes from the previous existences and the last existence of Santinatha, are preserved in Dehlana Upasraya no bhandara, Ahmedabad. The paintings covering all the four sides of these two long pastikas were done in Jalor in Marvad (south western Rajasthan) in the thirteenth century of the Vikrama era,208 in c. 1260 A.D. The scenes include this incident of Megharatha offering his whole body to save the life of the dove.

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 17. SEVENTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: KUNTHUNATHA Kunthu was the son of Surasena and Srikanta ruling in Hastinapura, according to the Digambara text Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra. The Tiloyapannatti calls them king Suryasena and queen Srimati, the names being almost similar to Sura and Sridevi given by Hemacandra. Golden in complexion, Kunthu had descended from the Sarvarthasiddhi Vimana, his birth naksatra being Krttika,209 157 Kunthu was so called because, according to Hemacandra, the Jina's mother saw (in dream) a heap of jewels known as Kunthu, while he was in her womb.210 Kunthu obtained kevalajnana under a Tilaka-tree. Ramachandran211 calls it Bhilaka which is probably a misprint or an incorrect ms. reading since all texts including the Samavayanga and the Tiloyapannatti read Tilaka. Svayambhu was the chief ganadhara of Kunthu according to Uttarapurana and Tiloyapa patti. Svetambara text Samavayanga sutra agrees with this tradition. Name Samba given by other Sve. traditions seems to be a later tradition. Both Svayambhu and Samba are appellations of Siva. Kunthu's chief female aryika was Bandhuvati according to Samavayanga sutra and Damini according to other Sve. traditions. The Digambaras call her Bhavita. The goat is the dhvaja or cognizance of Kunthu in both the traditions. Gandharva and Vijaya or Jaya were his yaksa and yaksini respectively according to Digambara traditions except the Tiloyapannatti which gives the name Mahamanasi for Vijaya yaksi. According to Svetambara writers Gandharva and Bala were the yaksa and yaksini respectively of this Jina. Kunthunatha obtained moksa on the Mt. Sammeta. He was also a Cakravarti before he became a monk. According to Jinaprabha suri, tirthas of Kunthunitha and Aranatha existed near the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamuna,212 Bronze images of Kunthunatha are found in the Aluara hoard of Jaina bronzes now in the Patna Museum (Mu. nos. 10675, 10689 to 10693). All Aluara bronzes are of the Digambara tradition which worships the Jina figures without any garment on them. The goat is shown on the pedestal in the above figures which are in a standing posture. The Aluara bronzes date from about the eleventh century A.D. In Caves 8 and 9, Khandagiri, Orissa,213 we have figures of this Jina sitting in padmasana with the goat symbol in the centre of the simhasana. At Pakbira, W. Bengal an image of Kunthu (c. 10th-11th cent.) is also found along with images of Mahavira, Rsabha, Neminatha and Santinatha.214 Niraj Jain has referred to a big standing image of Kunthunitha at Bajrangagadha, Guna, M.P., dating from c. 12th century A.D.215 In the Urwahi group of rock-cut sculptures at Gwalior we have two sculptures of Kunthu with the goat cognizance. No. 85 in the Bharata Kala Bhavana, Varanasi, is a beautiful Caturmukha sculpture of standing Tirthankaras. On one side is Kunthunatha with a figure of a goat on the pedestal. On each side of this Jina is a small figure of a Jina sitting in padmisana. The sculpture dates from c. 7th-8th cent. A.D. A sculpture of Kunthunatha standing in the kayotsarga mudra, obtained from Narwar, M.P., is preserved in the Shivpuri district Museum (Mu. no. 12). The sculpture dates from c. 12th century A.D. These sculptures from Narwar belong to the Digambara tradition. In the Rajputana Museum, Ajmere, is a standing figure of Kunthunitha, nude in appearance, installed in samvat equal to 1144 A.D., probably hailing from Arthuna, Rajasthan. The yaksa Sarvanubhuti and the yaksi Ambika stand by the sides of the camaradharas in this sculpture. At Nagda in the vicinity of the Ekalingji temple there is a Jaina temple known as Padmavati Mandira and two more Jaina temples one of which is known as Adbhudji temple. Of this only the garbhagrha and the antarala remain containing a colossal image of Sintin itha set up in v.s. 1495. A few more sculptures are lying here of which two were recognised by Cousens as Tirthankaras Kunthunitha and Abhinandana.216 An epigraph from Gudar in Shivpuri district, M.P., dated in v.s. 1206 (A.D. 1149) refers to installation of images of Santinatha, Kunthunatha, and Aranatha.217 Jainism was popular in the early part of the history of the Vijayanagara empire. Several temples of Tirthankaras and Manastambhas of beauty were erected. In the reign of Harihara II in c. 1395 A.D.,

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158 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Immadi-Bukka, a minister of this ruler, constructed a caityalaya at Kurnool enshrining an image of Kunthu Tirthaikara. 218 Images of Kunthu are found at places like Sravana Belagola, Mudabidri and Venur where images of all the 24 Tirthankaras are set up in some shrines. These shrines are often known as Tirthankara Basadis. In Tamil Nadu also, the fact that images of all the 24 Tirthankaras singly or in group were installed by donors is known from "the appellation caturvimsati-sthapaka of the donor Vasudeva-siddhanta-bhatarar met with in a grantha inscription near a niche containing the elevation of a Jinalaya with a sculpture of Suparsvanatha on a boulder in the rock called Nagamalai at Veralur in Madhurantakam Taluk, Chingleput district. In a few cases only the names of the Tirthankaras are mentioned in the inscriptions, like Vardhamana from Tirupparuttikunram, Vimala-Sri-Arya-Tirtha (i.e., Vimalanatha) from Kil-Sattamangalam, Parsvanatha from Aivarmalai and Ponnur, Kunthunatha from Karandai and Adisvara from Ponnur."219 In Cell no. 33. Vimala Vasahi, Abu, there is an image of Kunthunatha installed as the main image (mulanayaka) in the cell. The image was installed in samvat 1394 (inscription no. 117 of Muni Jayantavijaya). In Cal! 2 90 image of Kunthu was installed in samvat 1245 (inscr. no. 134 of Jayanta vijaya). 18. EIGHTEENTH TIRTHANKARA: ARANATHA Aranatha, the eighteenth Tirthankara, was the son of king Sudarsana and queen Mitra or Mitrasena of the city of Hastinapura in the Kurujangala country. He was born in the Pusya naksatra according to Uttarapurana and in the Revati naksatra according to Trisastisalakapurusacarita. He descended upon this earth from the Jayanta Vimana according to the Digambara belief and from Sarvarthasiddhi Vimana according to the Svetambaras.220 Since his mother saw in a dream a spoke of wheel (ara) while the Jina was in his mother's womb, the father of the Jina named him Ara.221 Golden in complexion, Aranatha had the cognizance or dhvaja of Nandyavarta symbol according to the Svetambaras and fish according to the Digambaras.222 According to Tiloyapanpatti, the symbol was Tagara-kusuma 223 Ara became a Cakravarti emperor. Aranatha obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a mango-tree. Kumbha was his chief ganadhara and Yaksila the chief aryika according to all Digambara texts except the Tiloyapanpatti which gives Kunthusena for Yaksila. According to the Samavayanga sutra, they were Kumbha and Puspavati respectively. Ramachandran notes Raksila for Puspavati. Ara obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. Kubera and Jaya were his attendant sasana devatas according to the Tiloyapannatti, Khendra and Ajita according to other Digambara traditions and Yaksendra (or Yaksesa or Yakset) and Dharini according to Svetambara writers. Subhuma Cakravarti lived in the time of Aranatha. Jaina versions of the Parasurama story are available in the accounts of this Cakravarti. Nandisena and Pundarika, the fifth Baladeva and Vasudeva (Narayapa) of Jaina mythology also lived in this age. Jinaprabha suri notes that tirthas of Kunthu and Ara exist at the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna.224 This suggests that temples dedicated to these two Jinas existed at Prayaga (Allahabad) and/or Kausambi nearby. A fragmentary pedestal of a Tirthaikara image from Kankali Tila, Mathura, preserved in the Lucknow Museum (Mu. no. J.20) was supposed to have belonged to a sculpture of Aranatha since the words Arhat Nandyavarta were read in the inscription on this pedestal. It was argued that since Nandyavarta is regarded as the lanchana of Aranatha, the pedestal belonged to an image of Aranatha. K.D. Bajpai corrected the reading of the inscription and showed that the Arhat Munisuvrata is referred to 225 Bajpai's reading is correct. I have checked it and am convinced of it. Besides, the earlier interpretation of naming a Tirthankara from his lanchana has no support in Jaina traditions. Again only the Svetambaras give Nandyavarta as the cognizance of Aranatha while the Digambaras believe that fish was his lanchana. The finds from

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 159 Kankali Tila show that they belong to an age when Digambara-Svetambara schism had not much advanced even if it had already started. V.S. Agrawala describes Mathura Mu. no. 1388 thus: "Pedestal (ht. 8") consisting of crossed legs of a Jaina Tirthankara. On the front side between two crouching lions is a symbol composed of minamithuna heads with open mouths from which a string is pendant. The sign of fish is according to the Digambaras the cognizance of the Tirthankara Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Arhat ... Judging from its style the pedestal belongs to the Gupta period. Obtained in the Bajna Excavations in January 1918."*226 No. 861 in the Lucknow Museum, from Sahet-Mahet (ancient Sravasti), U.P. shows the fish cognizance on the pedestal. Niraj Jain has noted that a big standing image of this Jina with the fish lanchana dated in 1145 A.D. exists at Navagadh (Tikamgadh), M.P.227 In temple no. 1 on Madanpur hill there is a standing figure of this Jina inscribed in 1053 A.D., according to Darbarilal Kothia. 228 There is also a standing Aranatha in temple 2 at the same place and dates from 1147 A.D. Niraj Jain has also noted a standing Aranatha at Bajrangagadh, dated in 1179 A.D.229 All the images belong to the Digambara tradition. An epigraph from Gudar in the Shivpuri district, dated in 1206 V.S.=1149 A.D., refers to the installation of images of Santinatha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha. We have already referred to the images of these three Jinas installed in the sanctum of the Jaina temple at Arang, M.P. At Deoli, Purulia district, there was a pancayatana group of temples. From this area was discovered a life-size statue of Aranatha. 230 In the Barabhuji and the Mahavira Caves at Khandagiri, Orissa, we find figures of Aranatha sitting in padmasana with the fish symbol shown in the centre of the simhasana.231 All the sculptures in these caves belong to the Digambara tradition. In Karnataka images of Aranatha are found in the sets of 24 Jina-images at Sravana Belagola, Mudabidure and Venur. In the Madras Museum (no. 2499) is a sculpture of Jina sitting in padmasana with the fish symbol in the centre of the pedestal. The Jina figure represents Aranatha. 19. NINETEENTH TIRTHANKARA: MALLINATHA There are two different Tirtharkaras bearing the title of Mallinatha--one is a male while the other is a female. Unlike the Svetambaras, the Digambaras do not believe that a woman can obtain moksa or kevalajnana and hence the nineteenth Jina Mallinatha, a female in the Svetambara traditions, is worshipped as a male by the Digambaras. It is indeed difficult to decide which tradition is older and more reliable, but if the tradition of Nayadhammakahao is to be accepted as more ancient and authentic, then the nineteenth Tirthankara was a female. According to the Nayadhammakahao, Malli was one of the most beautiful princesses of her age.232 Nayadhammakahao is a canonical text acknowledged by the Svetambaras; modern research shows that this canonical text, as available today, is not earlier than c. fourth century A.D., the age of the Mathura council under the leadership of Arya Skandila. According to the Digambara traditions, Mallinatha was the son of king Kumbha and queen Prajavati of Mithila in the Vanga country. He descended on this earth from Aparajita Vimana, his birth took place in the Asvini naksatra. He was golden in complexion and kalasa (water-pot) was his dhvaja or cognizance. Uttarapurana says that he was called Malli as he had conquered the wrestler (malla) in the form of infatuation.233 Mallinatha obtained kevalajnana under an Asoka tree (Jhonesia Ashoka). He had a following of 28 ganadharas with Visakha at their helm while Bandhusena led the community of nuns of his tirtha. Mallinatha obtained moksa on Mt. Sammeta. Kubera and Aparajita (Varuna and Vijay, according to Tiloyapannatti) were his yaksa and yaksini respectively. In the Svetambara tradition they are known as Kubera and Vairotya or Dharanapriya. In the Svetambara traditions, Malli is said to have been the princess of king Kumbha and queen Prabhavati of Mithila, born in the Asvini naksatra. Except the sex, almost all other details about Malli given above are common in both the Jaina traditions. In the Svetambara tradition, several kings are said to have attacked Mithila with their armies in order

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160 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana to carry off this most beautiful princess but the learned and pious Malli succeeded in dissuading them from this act and reforming them all after which she renounced the worldly life and ultimately obtained kevalajnana. For reforming these kings, the princess is said to have ordered casting of a life-like golden statue of herself, hollow inside, stuffed with all sweets and eatables covered with a lid at the top concealed under a lotus device on the head of the statue. When the kings were summoned into the hall they first saw the statue which was so beautiful and life-like that they mistook it for the real princess. The princess, entering by another door, opened the lid and the hall was filled with foul smell of rotting eatables in the statue. Giving analogy of this statue Malli told the kings that all appearances were false and that the body of even a beautiful lady was after all constituted of bone, marrow, flesh, blood, pus etc. The lesson carried its desired effect. Nayadhammakahao narrates this incident. In Svetambara traditions, Malli is described as bluish (nila) in appearance. She had 28 ganadharas with Kumbha as their leader and Arya as the chief nun according to Samavayanga sutra. According to other texts they were Abhiseka and Bandhumati. According to Hemacandra, this Jina was called Malli because, when she was in her mother's womb, the mother had a pregnancy desire for flower-garlands.234 Padma, the Cakravarti, lived in this age. Nandimitra, the Baladeva and Datta, the Vasudeva also lived in this age. Malli obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. According to Jinaprabha suri, a tirtha of Malli existed on Mt. Sri-Parvata. A rare specimen of the female form of Mallinatha is preserved in the Lucknow Museum.235 Unfortunately the head is mutilated and lost. The cognizance, water-pot, in the centre of the seat is much defaced. The dhyana mudra and padmasana posture, and the developed breasts make it quite certain that the sculpture represents Tirthankara Malli according to Svetambara tradition. On the back the braid of hair (veni) is well preserved. There are lotus marks on palms of hands of the Jina. The sculpture (no. J.885) was obtained from Unao (Unnava) in U.P. This is the only specimen, so far discovered, of Malli image in female form. It is interesting to note that as yet no Malli image in any Svetambara shrine is known to have breasts or any mark of a female's braid or dress. And the Lucknow Museum sculpture referred to above does not date from the Kusana or Gupta period. It is generally assigned to c. ninth century A.D. Nagpur Museum no. B.18 is a sculpture of Mallinatha sitting in padmasana on a simhasana. The cloth hanging on the simhasana shows an embroidered figure of a water-pot. Like other sculptures in the Museum, obtained from different areas of Maharashtra, this figure, of mediaeval period, seems to have belonged to the Digambara sect. Another stone sculpture of Malli, of c. 10th century A.D., showing him sitting in padmasana on a simhasana, is preserved in the Tulasi Samgrahalaya, Ramvan, Satna, M.P. Here also the kumbha lanchana is shown on the cloth hanging. A sculpture of standing Mallinatha, of Digambara tradition, from Narwar, M.P., is preserved in the Shivpuri district Museum (Mu. no. 13) and dates from c. 12th century A.D. Amongst sculptures from Karitalai, M.P. in the Raipur Museum, M.P., is a Dvi-tirthika white stone sculpture of Mallinatha and Munisuvrata.236 In the National Museum, New Delhi, is a metal Pancatirthika sculpture of Malli (no. 47.109/170). On either side of the simhasana are Kubera and Dharanapriya, the yaksa couple attending on the Jina. The inscription on the back is dated samvat 1531 (Vikrama) and samvat 1427 (Saka).237 In the Barabhuji cave and the Mahavira-gumpha, Khandagiri, Orissa, we have figures of Mallinatha sitting in the padmasana on simhasana with the pot symbol in the centre of the throne.238 No dharmacakra is shown in these sculptures. In the Khajana Building Museum, Golconda, A.P., Mallinatha carved on highly polished black basalt is shown standing in the kayotsarga mudra. The sculpture dates from c. 12th century A.D.239 In the North Arcot district, T.N., Tirumalai, called Vaikavur in inscriptions, has, on its hill, a Jaina temple complex dedicated to Mallinatha and Nemisvara 240 At Karkal, Karnataka, there is a famous Caturmukha-Basti built in 1586-87. "Each of its four doors opens on three black stone images of three Tirthankaras, Ara, Malli and Munisuvrata, of identical size and shape."241 There is beautiful image of

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 161 Mallinatha (c. 12th cent. A.D.) in the Kere-Basti, Mudabidure.242 Sculptures of this Jina are also available in the Bhandara Basti and the Suttalaya of Gommata at Sravana Belagola and in the groups at Mudabidure and Venur. 20. TWENTIETH TIRTHANKARA: MUNISUVRATA Munisuvrata was the son of king Sumitra and queen Padma of the city of Rajagsha, born in the Sravana naksatra, having descended on this earth from Pranata heaven, according to Uttarapurana and Aparajita Vimana according to Svetambara tradition. The Tiloyapanpatti agrees with the Svetambara and other traditions in giving the above names of Parents of this Jina, but Uttarapurapa says that the Jina's mother was called Soma.243 Since during pregnancy, the queen-mother was devoted to religious practices (suvrata) like a pious monk (muni-vat), the Jina was called Munisuvrata by the king.241 Munisuvrata obtained kevalajnana under a Campaka-tree (Michelia Champaka). He had a following of eighteen ganadharas with Malli as their head while Puspavati or Puspadatta was the chief nun of his Order 24 According to Samavayanga sutra they were Kumbha and Amila respectively.246 Munisuvrata had a dark complexion and his recognizing symbol was a tortoise (kurma) according to both the sects. He obtained nirvana on Mt. Sammeta. His sasana yaksa was Varuna (Bhskuti according to the Tiloyapannatti). His yaksini was Bahurupini according to Digambara traditions and Naradatta according to the Svetambaras. Harisena, the Cakravarti, lived in this age. Rama (called Padma) and Laksmana, the eighth Baladeva and Vasudeva respectively and heroes of the Jaina version of the Ramayana story, also flourished in this age. According to Jinaprabha suri an idol of Munisuvrata with a crown of priceless gems was worshipped at Bhsgupattana (modern Broach or Bharucha in Gujarat). Tirthas of Munisuvrata also existed at Pratisthanapura, Ayodhya, Vindhya mountain, and Manikyadandaka.247 A fragmentary pedestal of a sculpture supposed to have been of Arhat Nandyavarta-Aranatha, found from Kankali Tila, Mathura, is preserved in the Lucknow Museum (no. J.20). The specimen shows a bas-relief with a tri-ratna symbol in the centre surmounted by a dharmacakra. The right half of the pedestal is mutilated and lost, only a headless figure of a nude Jaina monk, with a piece of cloth held in the raised left hand covering his nudity, remains. To the left of the tri-ratna symbol are four standing females, three of them, dressed in similar garments, hold in their right hands long purse-like objects with an ornamental lotus-bud or camara-like tops. The fourth female, younger and of smaller stature, has her hands folded in adoration. There is a two line inscription on the upper rim of the pedestal and a one line inscription at base.248 The date in the inscription is read as 79=157 A.D. by Buhler and others and as 49 by J.E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw. The last part of the second line in the upper rim reads: Arahato Munisuvratasa pratima nirvartayati, and the last part of the line in the lower rim reads: pratimavo dve thupe devanirmite. Thus the pedestal belonged to an image of Munisuvrata installed in the Devanirmita Stupa at Mathura, in the year 127 or 157 A.D. A stupa of Munisuvrata existed at Visala (Vaisali ?) according to the Avasyaka Curni which gives the story of the Thubha in illustration of Parinamiki Buddhi. The Avasyaka Niryukti merely gives the catchword thubha which suggests that the author of the Niryukti knew of the stupa of Munisuvrata at Visala 249 An interesting image of a Jina, in the old Jaina temple, Vaibharagiri, Rajgir, and dating from c. ninth century A.D., has, on a cot below the pedestal of the Jina, a figure of a reclining lady (see Fig. 70 A). On the evidence of a reclining lady shown below the figure of Munisuvrata, in the row of yaksis in the Barabhuji cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, Debala Mitra showed that in the case of the Vaibharagiri image just described, the Jina should be identified as Munisuvrata 250 Debala Mitra cited a few more images known to her. One of them belongs to Shri Bejoy Singh Nahar of Calcutta, and another of

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162 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Barabhuji cave referred to above. According to Shri Nahar his figure was obtained from somewhere in Bengal by the late Shri P.C. Nahar. Debala Mitra writes: "A third fragmentary sculpture discovered at Rajghat (Varanasi) and now in the Ashutosh Museum of Fine Art, University of Calcutta, shows a lying female below the pedestal of a lanchana-less Jina figure, the upper part of which is missing ... The cognizance immediately to the left of the wheel of the Vaibhara specimen is too small to be readily noticed ... the relief is so low that it is almost invisible in the photograph published here ..."251 About forty-three years back the present writer had seen one small sculpture in the vicinity of Temple 12, Devgadh, which showed, as in the image in Nahar's collection, a Jina in padmasana in the upper panel and a lady reclining in the lower panel. The figures were somewhat worn out. Now the Jina can be identified as Munisuvrata in view of what Debala Mitra proved. Another interesting sculpture, obtained from Kausambi, and dating from c. ninth century A.D., is preserved in the Allahabad Museum (no. 560). Pramod Chandra, in his Stone Sculpture in the Allahabad Museum, pl. CXXXI, and p. 143, describing it writes: "... The central projection of the pedestal has a cakra flanked by two crouching lions, the recesses at the sides accommodating sunken panels containing images of a pot-bellied yakpa and a yaksi. The lotus on which the Tirthankara sits has a narrow rectangular panel in the centre in which is placed the image of a reclining lady .. What Pramod Chandra described as .yaksi, on the left end of the pedestal, seems to be a female devotee with folded hands and the reclining lady mentioned above may be the yaksi Bahurupini. Thus the Jina from Kausambi referred to above can be identified as Munisuvrata. In the State Museum, Dhubela, M.P. are some Jaina sculptures from Mau and Nowgong. Amongst them is a black granite image of Munisuvrata,252 seated in padmasana, the upper part being damaged. The pedestal contains an inscription saying that the image was installed in samvat 1119 by one Sulbana of the Golapurva-kula. The Jaisinghapura Jaina Archaeological Museum, Ujjain, preserves two black stone images of Suvratanatha (nos. 49 and 56) from Ashta and Karcha, with inscriptions in twelfth century characters.253 Tiwari refers to a sculpture of this Jina in temple 20, Khajuraho.254 In the Raipur Museum, M.P., are Dvi-tirthika images from Karitalai having short inscriptions incised at the bottom of pedestals. Amongst them we have pairs of Ajitanatha and Sambhavanatha, Puspadanta and Sitalanatha, Dharmanatha and Santinatha, and Mallinatha and Munisuvrata. Dvi-tirthikas of perhaps all the 24 Tirthankaras were installed at Karitalai, just as it seems that individual images of all the 24 Jinas were perhaps installed at Narwar, M.P.255 The Central Museum, Jaipur, preserves an elegant early mediaeval sculpture of black stone representing Munisuvrata standing in the kayotsarga posture. This and another similar sculpture of standing Neminatha were found from Narhad near Pilani, Rajasthan. The Neminatba image is in the National Museum, New Delhi.256 National Museum no. 48.427 is a metal pancatirthi of Munisuvrata with Varuna and Naradatta as the yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal. The tortoise cognizance is also shown. On the back is an inscription dated samvat 1509. Muni Visalavijaya has published an inscription on a Jina image in the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia, which shows that the image of Munisuvrata was prepared at the instance of Pahada of Pragvatavamsa, in samvat 1145= A.D. 1088 (Muni Visalavijaya, op. cit., p. 144). Muni Visalavijaya has also published (op. cit., p. 136) an inscription from Devakulika no. 6 in the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, which says that an image of Munisuvrata was gifted by Sresthi Asadhara in samvat 1276. In cell no. 11 of Vimala Vasabi, there is an image of Munisuvrata with Sarvanubhuti and four-armed Ambika as yaksa and yaksiqi. The sculpture was installed in samvat 1200 according to the inscription on it. There is also a Munisuvrata Jina in cell 31 of the Vimala Vasahi. In the Mahavira temple, Kumbharia, there is, at present, a stone slab (sila-pasta) representing the Asvavabodha-samalikavihara-tirtha. The panel originally belonged to the Neminatha temple, Kumbharia, where half of this slab is still preserved. The patta is dated in v.s. 1338=1281 A.D. by an inscription incised on it. A similar patta is also preserved in cell no. 19 of the Luna Vasahi built by Tejpala at Abu. The Lunavasahi-pata was installed in samvat 1335 by Asapala of Pragvata caste, according to an

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 163 inscription in cell 18 (see Jayantavijaya, Arbuda-pracina-Jaina-lekha-sandoha, inscr. no. 297, p. 124). The pata in the Neminatha shrine Kumbharia also has an inscription on it showing that the Munisuvratabimba with the Asvavabodha-Samalikavihara-tirthoddhara was installed in v.s. 1338. Except the date the rest of the inscription regarding the donor and the monk installing the sculpture is identical in both the inscriptions (see Arbudacala-pradaksina-Jaina-lekha-sandoha, inscr. no. 31). D.R. Bhandarkar first published the sculpture and gave a detailed account of the story of preaching the Asva (horse) by the Jina, and the story of the sakunika (bird) who was born a princess of Lanka in the next birth and who came to Broach to pay her respects to Munisuvrata whose shrine existed at the port of Bharukaccha.257 A stone slab (pata) of the type at Abu and Kumbharia exists in the Parsvanatha temple at Jalor, as noted by Tiwari. Long ago this writer published a beautiful marble pata depicting the story of Asvavabodha and Sakunika-vihara from a temple in Cambay. This pata as well as the Abu and Kumbharia patas are now being published by U.P. Shah in the C. Sivaramamurti Memorial Volume. A valuable interesting sculpture in black stone, found from near Agra, is preserved in the Lucknow Museum (no. J.776). In the centre sits Munisuvrata in dhyana mudra on a cushion-like seat. Marks of cakra are seen on the soles of the Jina's feet and on palms of hands: The Jina has an usnisa on top of his head. The triple umbrella is shown over the stem of the Caitya-tree. On each side of the Jina is a male fly-whisk bearer and a standing Tirthankara wearing dhoti (lower garment) thus showing that the sculpture belongs to the Svetambara tradition. Over the standing Jina on each side is a male figure standing in kayotsarga mudra on a lotus and wearing a crown and other ornaments. Obviously they are meant to be represented as Jivantasvami images. Whether both such figures are meant to be of Mahavira as Jivantasvami meditating in his home before diksa or one only of Mahavira and the other of Munisuvrata as Jivantasvami, we cannot determine. Over the triple umbrella is a miniature figure of a Jina in padmasana placed in a small cell while on his right stands a four-armed Baladeva and on the left a four-armed Vasudeva carrying the mace in his right hand (Fig. 72). In the lower section is the lion-throne with the dharmacakra in the centre but without the deer flanking it. On the right side of the simhasana is pot-bellied two-armed yaksa carrying the citron and the bag in his two hands while on the left side of the throne is seated a two-armed Ambika with a child on her lap. Below the dharmacakra is a tortoise, the cognizance of Munisuvrata. An inscription on the lowermost part of the sculpture says that this image of Munisuvrata was installed in samvat 1063=A.D. 1006. The Caumukha Basti at Karkal in Karnataka, built in 1586-87 with images of Malli, Ara, and Munisuvrata facing each door, is already referred to before. Munisuvrata is installed in Pathasala-Basti in Mudabidure. Images of this Jina are also found amongst the different sets of 24 Jinas at Sravana Belagola, Mudabidure and Venur noted before. 21. TWENTY-FIRST TIRTHANKARA: NAMINATHA Naminatha descended from the Aparajita Vimana of the Anuttara heavens, according to the Digambaras and from Pranata according to the other sect. Son of king Srivijaya or Vijaya and queen Vapra (Vappila-Uttarapurana) ruling in Mithila, Nami was born in the Svati naksatra.258 While the Jina was in his mother's womb, his father's enemies bowed down (pranam) in submission whereat the king gave the name Nami (from nam to bow down) to the newly born would-be Jina.259 He was golden in complexion. The recognising symbol of this Jina is the blue-lotus. B.C. Bhattacharya260 writes: "The emblem which is associated with this Jina is a blue-lotus or the Asoka tree, according to the sectarian view of the Digambaras." Unfortunately he has not cited any text in support of the statement. No text known to us prescribes Asoka-tree as the recognising symbol of Nami (or Nimi)natha, nor is Asoka his Caityatree, for Nami obtained kevalajnana under a Bakula-tree (Mimusops elengi) according to all traditions. Naminatha was followed by 17 ganadharas with Suprabha (Dig.) or Subha (Sve.) as their leader. The chief aryika was Margini according to the Digambaras and Anila according to the Svetambaras.

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164 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Bhrukuti and Camundi were his yaksa and yaksini respectively according to Digambara sources. The Svetambara texts call them Bhrukuti and Gandhari. The Digambara text Tiloyapanpatti however says that they were known as Gomedha and Bahurupinl. Nami obtained moksa on Sammeta-Sikhara. Jayasena, the eleventh Cakravarth of Jaina mythology, lived in this age. Jinaprabba suri says that Nami was worshipped at Ayodhya which is described as a moksa-tirtha.261 Muni Jayantavijaya, in his Tirtharaja Abu (p. 194), has noted a sculpture of Naminatha being worshipped in a cell in the Sabhamandapa of the Caumukha temple, Acalagadh, Mt. Abu. An inscription on a pedestal preserved in devakulika 45 of Vimala Vasabi refers to the setting of the stone sculpture of Naminatha by minister Yasovira in v.s. 1245= A.D. 1188 (inscr. no. 150, Sri-Arbuda-Pracina-Jainalekhasandoha). In the Parsvanatha temple at Rohida, near Abu, Rajasthan, are a number of bronzes. Amongst them there is one dated samvat 1493 of Naminatha and another Pancatirthi metal image dated 1565 samvat, installed by Sri-Samgha in Pattana-nagara (Pra. Sri-Samghena Pattana nagare). It seems that the image was originally installed in Patan and later it seems to have been brought to Rohida (inscriptions nos. 575 and 594 in Arhudorola-Pradaksina-Jaina-lekhasandoha). In the bigger Santinatha temple, Radhanapur, North Gujarat, is a metal Panca-tirthi of Naminatha installed in samvat 1517. Images of this Jina are also found at Satrunjaya. P.L. Gupta in the Catalogue of Antiquities, Patna Museum, has identified a stone sculpture from Palma in Manbhum district as representing Naminatha but S.K. Sarasvati doubts the identification and suggests that the image represents Ajitanatha.262 Kalidasa Datta has referred to a standing image of Naminatha of Svetambara tradition found at Mathurapur near Raidighi, Bengal.263 Tiwari has referred to an image of Nami in cell no. 19 of the Lunavashi, dated in 1233 A.D.264 This cell once contained the Asvavabodha-Sakunikavihara-tirtha-uddhara pata referred to above while discussing the iconography of Munisuvrata. I do not know whether after my visit in 1950-51 some image is transferred to this cell. Muni Jayanta vijaya has not referred to any such inscribed image of Naminatha in Lanavasahi. He might have missed it. A sculpture of Naminatha sitting is carved on the wall of Barabhuji cave, Khandagiri, Orissa and another rock-cut figure of Nami is seen on the wall of the Mahavira gumpha nearby. We have sculptures of Nami at Sravana Belago!a, Mudabidri, and Venur in the groups of images of 24 Tirthankaras.265 There is a sculpture of Naminatha in the group of big sculptures of the Urwahi group, Gwalior fort. A water-lily is shown as the cognizance. Bhagchandra Jaina in his Devagadhu ki Jaina Kala (Hindi), p. 74 refers to a big standing image of Naminatha (his fig. 62) at Devgadh, temple 28, with lotus symbol on pedestal. 22. TWENTY-SECOND TIRTHANKARA: NEMINATHA (ARISTANEMI) Aristanemi or Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara, descended from the Jayanta Vimana according to the Uttarapurana and from Aparajita Vimana according to Tiloyapannatti and Svetambara texts. He was the son of Samudravijaya and Siva devi of Sauripura and was born in the Citra naksatra.266 Neminatha was a cousin brother of Krspa and Balabhadra, the ninth Vasudeva and Balarama of Jaina mythology. Jaina legends of Krsna and Balarama offer interesting comparison with the Hindu accounts of Krsna and Balarama in the Visnupurana, Harivamsa, Mahabharata and the Bhagavata. According to the Uttarapurana, Indra called him Neminatha 267 because the Jina was as it were the spoke (nemi) of the Wheel of True Law. Hemacandra gives a similar explanation. According to another explanation offered by Svetambara writers, he was called Aristanemi because while he was in the womb, his mother saw, in dream, a wheel of Arista-jewels.268 Dark-blue in appearance, Neminatha had the cognizance of a conch according to both the sects. Nemi obtained kevalajnana on Mt. Raivataka while meditating under a Vetasa-tree (reed-tree, bambootree) according to the Kalpa-sutra. The Uttarapurana refers to the same tree when it calls it Mahavenu. Tiloyapannatti says it was a Mesasnga-tree. Nemi had a following of 11 ganadharas (18 acc. to Kalpa

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 165 sutra) with Varadatta as their chief according to both the sects. Yaksi or Yaksini was the leader of the aryikas. There were besides some well-known asyikas like Rujimati and Katyayani. Nemi obtained nirvana on Ujjayanta (Urjayanta) or Mt. Girnar, identified as Raivataka of old texts. According to Tiloyapannatti, Parsva and Kusmandi were the yaksa and yaksini respectively of Neminatha. According to others they are known as Gomedha and Ambika (same as Kusmandi). The Digambaras sometimes describe Sarvanha as the yaksa of Neminatha. Jinaprabha suri says that Neminatha was worshipped at Sauryapura in the Sankha-Jinalaya, in the city called Patala, in Mathura, Dvaraka, Simhapura and Stambhatirtha (Cambay in Gujarat). At Cambay he was known as Patala-linga-Neminatha269 Scenes from the life of Neminatha have been very popular in Jaina art. Nemi (also called Aristanemi), a very brave prince, was, from the very beginning, a person of a pious nature and averse to worldly pleasures. He was reluctant to marry. Ultimately, his marriage with princess Rajimati, daughter of king Ugrasena, was arranged. When the marriage procession was going towards the bridal pavilion, with the bridegroom Nemi in a chariot, Aristanemi saw a large number of animals captured in a yard by the wayside, apparently with a view to kill them for serving the guests with meat. He snuddered at the idea of the impending great animal slaughter for which sin his own marriage was responsible, and decided to give up marriage and instead become a Jaina recluse. He immediately ordered his charioteer to turn back and, going on the Mt. Raivataka (Girnar), took diksa as a Jaina monk. Rajimati the bride, a pious lady following the Indian ideal of womanhood, regarded Neminatha as her husband though not formally married (but already the engagement has taken place), and following Nemi's footsteps, became a Jaina nun. Rathanemi, a younger brother of Neminatha, also became a Jaina monk. Once upon a time, on Mt. Girnar, when at dead of night there was a heavy downpour of rains, Rajimati, the nun, took shelter under a cave, and, taking off all her drenched clothes, began drying them. A flash of lightning revealed her naked lovely form to Rathanemi who also had taken refuge in the samo cave. Rathanemi's weak mind was tempted to enjoy sexual pleasure but Rajimati, the pious nun, explained to him that desire to have her was like licking what was vomitted by another person. This saved the situation and Rathanemi repented for his evil thought. This incident between Rathanemi and Rajimati forms the theme of a very old ballad in the Jaina canonical text called the Uttaradhyayana sutra.270 Belief in Aristanemi thus goes back to some centuries before the Christian era. The historicity of Neminatha or Aristanemi is linked up with that of Kssna the hero of Harivamsa, Bhagavata, etc., since both of them are cousin brothers according to Jaina Puranas. The Uttaradhyayana sutra ballad is certainly an ancient onc as shown by Charpentier.271 An Aristanemi is known to Vedic literature though his identity with the Jaina Tirthankara cannot be confidently asserted.272 As stated before, scenes from the life of Neminatha have been very popular in Jaina art. Paperboard covers to hold mss. for reading have sometimes painted on them the scene of marriage procession of Neminatha. Wooden book-covers of palm-leaf manuscripts are found painted with scenes from the life of Neminatha. We have already referred to such book-covers with scenes from the life of Santinatha. In the collections of the L.D. Institute of Indology are book-covers with scenes from the life of Mahavira as also covers with the scenes from the life of Parsvanatha. In one of the ceilings of the bhamati of the Luna Vasahi built in the thirteenth century by Tejpala at Abu, we have scenes from the life of Neminatha, and in another ceiling some scenes from the early life of Krsna at Gokula. In one of the ceilings of the bhamati (corridor) of the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia, we have scenes from the life of Naminatha, carved in the eleventh century A.D. Of the same age is an other ceiling in the Mahavira temple, Kumbharia, depicting scenes from the lives of Santinatha and Neminatha. In a ceiling in front of cell no. 10, Vimala Vasahi, we have a scene 273 of the water-sports (jala-krida) of Krsna's queens, Krsna and Nemi, and also the scene about testing the valour between Krsna and Neminatha, and the scene of marriage procession etc. The scenes in the Lunavasahi ceiling are elaborate and include scene of fight between Krspa and Jarasandha besides the marriage procession, a scene of marriage of Nemi and Rajimati in the marriage pandal, and their returning home in a palanquin and the scene of renunciation of worldly life (diksa) of Neminatha etc. 274

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166 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Scenes of the main events in the lives of Rsabha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira are also found in the miniature paintings of the Kalpa Sutra, already described by Coomaraswamy, Brown, Moti Chandra and others. For detailed accounts from the previous lives and the last life of these Tirtha karas one may refer to Trisastisalakapurusacarita (Sve.) and the Mahapurana (Adipurana+Uttarapurana) of Jinasena and Gunabhadra (Dig.) and the Harivamsa of Jinasena. One may also refer to the Paumacariyam of Vimala suri. The earliest known images of Neminatha are from the Kankali Tila, Mathura, preserved in the Lucknow and Mathura museums. One of them, no. J.8 in the Lucknow Museum, had an inscription on its pedestal dated in the year 18, expressly stating that the Jina represented is Aristanemi. According to Lohuizen-de Leeuw, this date is with the figure of 100 of the Kaniska's era omitted which means that the image is dated in 118 196 A.D. The cognizance is not shown on the sculpture and the Jina is identified only with the help of the inscription.275 V.S. Agrawala has referred to another sculpture, no. 2502 in the Mathura Museum,276 with figures of Balarama and Krsna shown on the right and the left side respectively of the Jina. Four-armed Baladeva carries the plough in one hand while another is placed on the kati. Symbols of the two remaining hands are broken. ir tt , remaining hands of the four-armed Krsna, are the gada (mace) and the cakra (discus). No. J.121, Lucknow is another early sculpture of standing Neminatha dating from c. late fourth century A.D. On the right of the Jina stands a four-armed Balarama with five snake-hoods overhead and carrying the wine cup (casaka) in one of his hands. To the left stands Krsna showing the gada and the conch in two hands. Symbols of the other hands are not distinct. No. 37.2738 in the Mathura Museum, dating from c. tenth century A.D., is a similar sculpture of Neminatha with four-armed Balarama and Kespa standing on his right and left side respectively. Heads of the Jina, Balarama and Krspa are mutilated and lost. As we have suggested in the previous chapter, Nos. J.117 and J.60 in the Lucknow Museum cannot be certainly identified as Neminatha. The snake-hooded figure on the right may be just a naga figure. Besides in J. 117 the figures on the right as well as the left have their two hands folded. We have shown in the last chapter that maladharas, kundadharas and Nagas are enjoined as attendant figures in a sculpture of a Tirthankara. Mathura Museum no. 2502 is a sculpture of Neminatha since the figure on his right showing a plough can be identified as Baladeva and the one on the left with the gada and the cakra must be Krsna. No. J.47 in the Lucknow Museum also represents Neminatha sitting in padmasana. Here the figure on the right shows the plough, the mace and the wine cup, and is therefore Balarama while the figure on the left, four-armed, shows the gada, the abhaya mudra, etc. These are sculptures of the Kusana period. No. B.77 in Mathura Museum represents Nemi with conch symbol. The Vaibhara giri, Rajgir, sculpture of Neminatha sitting in padmasana with the conch cognizance on each side of the dharmacakra (shown as cakrapurusa, a Gupta period motif) shown in the middle of the simhasana has a small inscription mentioning Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandra ... and with the help of the paleography of the inscription is rightly assigned by Rama Prasad Chanda to the reign of the Gupta Maharajadbiraja Chandragupta 11.277 A sculpture on the Vipula giri, Rajgir (Indian Museum Photo-negative no. 635) shows the Jina sitting in padmasana, dhyana mudra, on a big visva-padma, with an attendant standing camaradhara on each side. In the centre of the simhasana is a dharmacakra with a conch on each side. A sculpture of a Jina sitting in padmasana on a big lotus (Photo no. 646, Indian Museum, Calcutta) with a dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal was found on Udayagiri, Rajgir. On two sides of the wheel are still visible portions of the conch. The Jina has a small usnisa on top of the head. There is also a sculpture of Neminatha on the eastern wall of Temple no. 1, Ratnagiri, Rajgir. Here also the conch is placed on each side of the dharmacakra in the centre. The Jina sits in padmasana on a simhasana. A plain halo, triple-umbrella and a big cushion at the back of the Jina are shown. Instead of twigs or leaves of a Caitya-tree hanging from two sides of the chatratraya, two ends of what looks like a piece of cloth are shown hanging on both the sides (Indian Museum, Negative no. 641). Tiwari identifies no. 212 in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, as Neminatha sitting on a sit . sana. This is really placed on top of a tall tree. On one side of the tree is a standing male figure wid

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 167 ing a flower or a camara (2) in his right hand while with his left hand he holds a vessel.278 But just below it sits a child with a raised right hand which reaches the vessel. On the left of the tree stands a female with a child held by her left hand and a flower-like object held in her right hand. No lanchana of the Jina is shown. It is difficult to explain the Jina's position above the tree if this is a kalpa-vrksa. It cannot be a caitya-tree if the main object intended here is the Tirthankara because then he would be sitting under a caitya-tree. We believe that perhaps here also the Parents of a Jina are the main objects of worship intended to be represented. What Tiwari seems to have missed is the explanation of a child below the left hand of the male figure. Tiwari says that since images of Nemi and Mahavira, earlier than ninth century, are not found in Gujarat and Rajasthan, this fact suggests somewhat limited (or relatively less) popularity of these two Jinas than of Rsabha and Parsva whose images of sixth-seventh century are found at Akota.279 Unfortunately Tiwari is fond of drawing conclusions based on such a negative evidence. He perhaps does not know that there is in worship a beautiful image of Mahavira worshipped as Jivantasvami at Nandia, Rajasthan, near Abu and Sirohi area. This beautiful sculpture dates from the seventh century A.D. Here Mahavira is not shown with a crown etc. He is sitting in padmasana. But Svetambara Jaina tradition worships this image as Jivantasyami. Again the find of two very early i.e. one of late fifth and the other of sixth century) images of Jivantasvami in the Akota hoard means worship of Mahavira himself in Gujarat. Jaina traditions associate Neminatha and Krsna with Dvaraka and Mt. Raivataka (Girnar). Harivamsa of Jinasena, a Digambara writer, was composed at Wadhavan in Saurashtra according to the author himself. Harivamsa is the family of Kespa and Neminatha whose account is the subject matter of Jinasena's famous Purana. There are about eight sculptures of Neminatha, assigned to the mediaeval period, in the Lucknow Museum. All except no. 66.53 belong to the Digambara tradition. When the yaksa and yaksi are shown in these images dating from the tenth to twelfth century, they are the yaksa Sarvanubhuti and the yaksi Ambika. No. J.793 in the museum is a Neminatha obtained from Batesvara near Agra. Here the Jina is accompanied by Balarama and Krsna, each two-armed. The conch is shown on top of the simhasana, in the centre. No. 0.123 in the Lucknow Museum is a black stone sculpture of Neminatha standing, from Chattarpur, M.P. with an inscription on the pedestal giving the date of installation as samvat 1208=A.D. 1151. At the end of the small inscription is carved a figure of the conch cognizance. The Jina is standing and wears no garment, but has hair-locks on shoulders. A sculpture of Neminatha sitting on a simhasana with the conch lanchana carved on the lower rim of the throne and with camaradharas, maladharas, triple umbrella, halo and the Caitya-tree as members of the parikara is preserved in the Mathura Museum. The dharmacakra is shown in the centre of the throne. No yaksa apd yaksi are shown. The sculpture dates from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. The Lucknow Museum has a standing Neminatha from Maihar, M.P., with Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as the sasana-devatas on one side of the Jina. In the parikara, as noted by Tiwari, there is a four-armed goddess showing the lotus in two hands and the abhaya mudra and the kalasa in the remaining hands. No. J.936, dated in 1177 A.D., is a figure of a Jina sitting in padmasana and with Sarvanubhuti as attendant Sasana-yaksa. There is no yaksi figure, no lanchana. Tiwari identifies this figure as Neminatha simply because Sarvanubhuti figures as the yaksa. This is a rather doubtful procedure because we know that for a long time from c. sixth century upto the eleventh and sometimes a little later yaksa Sarvanubhuti and variations of his form figure as yaksa of any of the 24 Jinas, along with Ambika as yaksi even at Ellora, Abu, Kumbharia etc. This will be more clear in the chapter on Yaksa Worship in Jainism. No. J.858 in the same museum shows the cognizance as well as Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. The sculpture hails from Sahet-Mahet, the site of Sravasti, and is identified as Neminatha with the help of the cognizance. There are more than two dozen sculptures of Neminatha at Devgadh, all of the Digambara tradition, including several figures showing Neminatha standing in the kayotsarga mudra. In all cases when the cognizance is not given, nor is there an inscription; then merely on the evidence of Sarvanubhuti and Ambik, we cannot identify such sculptures as definitely representing Neminatha. In our earlier writings

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168 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana on Ambika and on the introduction of Sasanadevatas in Jainism we have shown the association of this Sasanadevata pair with other Tirtha karas. A beautiful specimen of a figure of standing Neminatha, of c. 10th cent. A.D., is preserved in temple no. 2. Devgadh. Here miniature figures of Balarama and Krsna are also shown standing on the right and the left respectively of the Jina. Lucknow Museum no. 66.53 of standing Neminatha, of Svetambara tradition has a similar arrangement of the figures of Krspa and Balarama on the sides of the Jina. Devgadh Temple no. 15 was known as Neminatha Jinalaya according to an inscription from this temple as noted by Bhagchandra Jain, op. cit., p. 72 note. There is a beautiful figure of Neminatha in padmasana in the Bharatpur Museum. The conch is shown in the centre of his seat. There is no parikara, no throne, no pedestal. Ac sixth century sculpture of standing Neminatha, obtained from Padhavali, M.P., is preserved in the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior. On the pedestal, the conch symbol is on one side while the cakra is on the other end and between the two, near the cakra is a worshipper (Fig. 52). A standing Neminatha from Narwar, M.P. is preserved in the Shivpuri district Museum, Shivpuri. M.P. The sculpture is assignable to the twelfth century AD. A beautiful ornate simhasana of another sculpture of Neminatha, also from Narwar, is preserved in the above museum. There is a small figure of a conch carved below the dharmacakra. Looking to the shape and size of the pedestal, on the analogy of other sculptures from Narwar it may be assumed that this simhasana had on it a figure of Neminatha sitting in the padmasana. There is another sculpture from Padhavali in the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior. Here the Jina sits in padmasana on a simhasana. The conch symbol is carved on the lower end of the simhasana. A standing Neminatha from Gurgi, Rewa, is preserved in the Allahabad Museum (no. AM 498). The conch and the yaksa and the yaksi also are shown (Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Museum, fig. 287). No. K.14 in the Khajuraho Museum represents Nemi in padmasana, with 23 other Jinas around, conch symbol and Sarvanubhuti and Ambika on the pedestal. In the Dhubela Museum, M.P., is a sculpture of Neminatha in padmasana, probably from Shahdol (AA. III. pl. 367B). Above him are 21 seated Tirtharkaras in three rows and a standing Tirtharkara by the side of the elephants on either side. Thus this is a Caturvimsati-pasa of Neminatha. The central Jina is recognised with the help of the farkha lanchana on the ornamental pedestal. On the right extremity of the simhasana is a two-armed yaksa while on the left end is a beautiful standing two-armed Ambika with her lion vahana. The Dhubela Museum has an image of Nemi with his name given in the inscription on pedestal dated in 1142 A.D. Kielhorn bas referred to an image of Neminatha in the Horniman Museum. The image is dated in 1151 A.D. The conch is shown on the pedestal and according to Kielhorn the conch figure occurs on the chest of the Jina also. of the two images unearthed a few years ago at Narhad near Pilani, Rajasthan, one, of Neminatha, is now preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi (no. 69.132) while the other of Munisuvrata is in the State Museum, Jaipur. Neminatha stands in the kayotsarga pose and shows camaradhara attendants standing near his feet. The conch cognizance of the Jina is carved on the base in front (JAA, III, plate 336B). A bronze image of Neminatha, obtained in the Aluara hoard, is in the Patna Museum (no. 10688). Rock-cut figures of Neminatha are found on the walls of the Navamuni, Barabhuji and the Mahavira caves at Khandagiri, Orissa. R.P. Mohapatra, in his Jaina Monuments from Orissa, fig. 89, has illustrated a sculpture of Ambika with a Jina above on simhasana, from Jambhira, district Keonjhar. In cases like this the Jina can be identified as Neminatha because in the mediaeval period when different yaksi is for different Jinas were evolved and worshipped, Ambika remained the yaksini of Neminatha. Neminatha standing in kayotsarga mudra on a big conch, from a temple in Mudabidri, is illustrated in Fig. 45. This is a typical representation which reminds of the Sarkha Jinalaya at Sauryapura referred to by Jinaprabha suri. There was a famous Sarkha-Jinalaya in the South. B.A. Saletore writes: "... in the 7th or 8th regnal year of Western Calukya monarch Vinayaditya Satyasraya (A.D. 680-A.D. 696), a grant was made to the Jaina priest Udayadeva Pandita also known as Niravadyapandita, who belonged to Devagana sect attached to the Mula Samgha and the Sarkhabasti at Puligere (modern Lakshmes

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 169 vara)..."278 A Sankha basadi existed at Huligere during the reign of Bukka Raya of Vijayanagara.279 Perhaps because of the big Sarkha (conch, the cognizance of Nemi) on which Neminatha stood, as in Fig. 45 (from Mudabidri), Neminatha came to be worshipped as Sarkha-Jina and a temple with such an image came to be known as Sankha-Jinalaya or Sankha basadi. Neminatha is installed as a chief deity in various temples in Tulu-Nadu (south Karnataka) at Koto-setti-Basti, Mudabidure, at Purusa-gudde, at Karkal, at Varanga etc.280 Images of this Jina are also found in shrines where sets of 24 Tirthankaras are worshipped as at Sravana Belagola, Mudabidure, Venur etc. At Kambadahalli in Karnataka, in the Pancakuta-Basti there is a tri-kutacala nucleus. Of the three shrines in the tri-kuta complex, the central one facing north enshrines Adinatha, the one facing east Neminatha, and the one facing west Santinatha (JAA, II, p. 218). The Pancakuta-Basti at Markuli, of the time of Ballala II, erected in 1173 by his minister Bucchimayya, is for Adinatha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha, Puspadanta and Suparsvanatha (JAA, II, p. 318). In Tamil Nadu, the Poyagaimalai at Kuppalanatham and Karupannasami rock at Uttama palaiyam have rows of Jaina Tirthankaras, Adinatha, Neminatha and others.281 In North Arcot district, the celebrated Jaina centre Tirumalai, called Vaikavur in inscriptions, has on its hill a Jaina temple complex dedicated to Mallinatha and NemIsvara and is noted for a large monolithic image of Neminatha on the hill. It is also noted for its wall paintings as well as for fine sculptures of Kusmandini, Parsvanatha, Bahubali and others.282 To the Nayaka phase belong later paintings in the Mahavira temple, at Tiruparuttikunram, of 16th17th centuries. Scenes from the lives of Rsabhadeva, Vardhamana, Klsma and his cousin Aristanemi, and the life of Neminatha himself are graphically painted with labels in Tamil clearly explaining each scene (JAA, II, pp. 388-89). Neminatha or Aristanemi, the cousin brother of Krsna according to Jaina Puranas, is associated with Dvaraka and Girnar (Mt. Raivataka) in Saurashtra, Gujarat. His images and scenes from his life, especially his marriage procession when he sees the animals caged for slaughter for his marriage feast and turns back and becomes a Jaina monk, are very popular in Gujarat and Rajasthan and many Pathas (wooden and cardboard sheets for holding paper manuscripts) have paintings and embroidery work on cloth covering them. A very interesting frieze showing the marriage procession of Neminatha is in the collections of Shri Haridas K. Swali, Bombay (JAA, III, 438). It shows two horse-riders, a bullock-cart, trumpet-blower, drummer, a royal figure holding garlands, female figures, marriage pandal (mandapa), house scenes, animals caged, scene of preparation of sweets etc. Traces of paint on the scenes are still preserved. The Nadloi (Rajasthan) inscription of 1138 records a grant of 1/20th part of tax levied on incoming and outgoing merchandise of the city for the puja (worship) of Jina Neminatha (JAA, II, p. 240). The Neminatha temple at Kumbharia was built during the later part of Siddharaja's reign. The Neminatha temple on Girnar was built by Danda-Nayaka Sajjana also in the reign of Siddharaja Jayasimha of the Chaulukya dynasty of Anahilapataka or Patan, Gujarat. King Kumarapala (1144-1174 A.D.), successor of Siddharaja, built at Patan a Kumara-Vihara sacred to Parsvanatha with 24 devakulikas. He also built Kumara-Viharas, Jaina temples, at centres like Girnar, Satrunjaya, Prabhasa, Abu, Khambhat and in towns like Tharad, Idar, Jalor, Div, Mangrol etc. In memory of his father Tribhuvanapala, he built the Tribhuvana-Vihara, dedicated to Neminatha with 72 devakulikas and a tri-vihara in 1160 (JAA, II, p. 303). The Luna-vasahi on Mt. Abu is a temple dedicated to Neminatha, built by Minister Tejapala in memory of his brother. In the gudhamandapa of the Luna-vasahi is an image of Neminatha installed in Samvat 1394, and another in Samvat 1321. In this shrine there is also a rare image of Rajimati who was to marry Aristanemi and who also became a Jaina nun. The image is dated in Samvat 1515. In the devakulika no. 22 in Luna-vasahi an image of Nemi was installed in Samvat 1293 by one Kumaraka of Candravati (Jayantavijaya's Arbudacala- Prucina-Jaina-Lekhasandoha, inscr. no. 307). Cell no. 23 in the same shrine was also dedicated to Neminatha (ibid., inscr. no. 313), in V.S. 1293. In the same year one Lahada set up an image of Neminatha in cell 39. In cell no. 10 of Vimala vasahi, Abu, an image of Neminatha was installed by Dasaratha, the son of Mahinduka, the grandson of Mantri Nedha, and an

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170 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana image of this Jina was installed in Cell no. 9, Vimala vasahi in Samvat 1382 by Jivaka of Pragvata caste. In cell 12 an image of Nemi was installed in Samvat 1309 (Muni Jayantavijaya, ibid., incriptions nos. 46, 47, 51, 62). Also in cell 43 an image of the same Jina was installed in Samvat 1302 (ibid., inscr. no. 145). In the Devakulika no. 22 of the Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is a figure of Neminatha in padmasana installed in 1179 A.D. Of circa twelfth century an image of Nemi, obtained from Amarasar, Rajasthan, is preserved in the Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner. All over Rajasthan and Gujarat temples and images of Neminatha are available at various places. At Khajuraho, in the Chattarpur district, M.P., only two images of Neminatha have been identified so far; one, in modern temple no. 10, is in the sitting posture and his cognizance on the lowermost portion of the throne is much defaced. The second image lying in the open air museum (no. K.14) also represents this Jina in a sitting posture. Below the dharmacakra on the pedestal is depicted his conch emblem. With 23 miniature figures of other Jinas carved in the parikara, this image is thus a Covisi of Neminatha. The sculpture dates from c. 12th century A.D. 23. TWENTY-THIRD TIRTHANKARA: PARSYANATI. Parsvanatha is regarded as a historical figure. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth or the last Jina, died two hundred and fifty years after the nirvana of Parsvanatha. This interval between the last two Tirthankaras is the same in both the Svetambara and the Digambara accounts.283 Again, the interval is not so extraordinarily long as to create doubts in our mind as in the case of any two other Tirthankaras. Parsva and his followers are referred to in the Jaina canons. According to the Acaranga sutra, 284 Mahavira's parents were lay followers of the Order of Parsva and were adherents of the Samanas. The Avasyaka Curni refers to several monks of Parsva's sect as contemporaries of Mahavira during his wanderings.285 Gosala asked Municandra, a follower of Parava, how they could be called Samana Niganthas when they had so many possessions with them. These samanas indulged in certain activities which according to Mahavira constituted preliminary sin (sarambha). They put on clothes and also practised Jinakalpa towards the end of their lives. The Bhagavati sutra286 records a discussion between Mahavira and Samana Gangeya, a follower of Parsvanatha in Vaniyagama. Gangeya gave up the Cauijamadhamma (the doctrine of four-fold restraint) and embraced the Pancamahavvaya (the five greater vows) of Mahavira. The city of Tungiya is stated to have been a centre of the theras following the doctrine of Parsva, who moved in a congregation of five hundred monks.287 Udaya Pedhalaputta was a Niggantha follower of Parsva of the Meyajja (Sk. Metarya) gotra, who had discussions with Indrabhuti, the first Ganadhara of Mahavira.288 Kesi289 is also referred to in the Uttaradhyayana where his discussions with Gautama Indrabhuti on the doctrines of Parsva and Mahavira are recorded. 290 As usual, some preceding births of this Jina are described by the Jaina Puranas. In one such existence, Parsva was a Brahamana named Marubhuti and had a younger brother called Kamatha. From this birth, seeds of enmity between the two souls were sown and in each succeeding birth, except the last, Kamaha went on taking the life of Marubhuti. In his last birth as Parsva, the soul of Marubhuti was born as the prince of king Asvasena and queen Vamadevi of the city of Varanasi. The Digambara text Uttarapurana gives Visvasena and Brahmidevi as names of Parsva's Parents. According to Tiloyapannatti, they were Asvasena and Varmila. Parsva was born under the asterism Visakha having descended upon this earth from Pranata Vimana in the Anata heaven.291 According to both the sects, the Jina was dark-blue in complexion and had the snake as his cognizance. According to the Svetambaras, he was called Parsva because his mother had seen, in dream, a black cobra passing by her side (parsva) during the period of confinement.292 When Parsva grew up, he once saw a sage practising the Pancagni-tapa, a type of penance with burning logs of wood in four groups all around and the fifth fire being the scorching sun above. In one of the logs was a pair293 of snakes which was being burnt alive. Parava rescued the snakes and remonstrated the sage who was no other than

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 171 the soul of Kamatha reborn as a tapasa. The snakes, half-burnt, died immediately after Parsva chanted before them the Navakara mantra and were reborn as Dharanendra (Indra of the Nagakumara class of demi-gods) and his queen (Padmavati). Kamatha, after death, was reborn as a god called Samvara according to the Digambaras and Meghamali according to the Svetambaras. King Prasenajit, son of Naravarman, the ruler Kusasthala, had a beautiful daughter called Prabhavati who, on hearing the virtues of Parsvanatha, fell in love with him and decided to marry him. Her parents agreed, but kings of neighouring states of Kalinga etc., desiring to marry the princess, attacked Kusasthala and besieged it. Pareva, requested by Prasenajit, ran to his resue, subdued the opponents and married Prabhavati. According to Hemacandra, the ruler of Kalinga was a Yavana king.294 It is interesting to note that the snake, which is a special cognizance of Parsvanatha, figures on the archway of Anantagumpha, Khanda giri, Orissa, and that two Yavana warriors are carved in relief in the Ranigumpha. The caves are generally regarded as Jaina, while some of the reliefs of the caves are identified by V.S. Agrawala as referring to the Udayana story. The reference to the Kalinga-Jina in the Hathigumpha inscription may be to an image of Parsvanatha.295 Readings of the inscription, however, are largely disputed and uncertain in several cases. For thirty years Parsva remained a householder and then renounced worldly ties, practised rigorous austerities and obtained kevalajnana while meditating under a Dhataki-tree (Grislea tomentosa). He had ten ganadharas with Svayambhu as their leader according to Digambara traditions and eight ganadharas with Subha or Subhadatta as the chief according to some Svetambara traditions.296 The Samavayanga sutra however calls him Dinna, while the Avasyaka Niryukti speaks of ten ganadharas.297 Puspacula was his chief aryika as stated by the Samavayanga and the Kalpa-sutra. According to the Digambaras she was known as Sulocana (called Suloka by Tiloyapannatti). According to Tiloyapannatti Parsva's yaksa and yaksini were Matanga and Padma respectively while according to other Digambara and Svetambara traditions they were Parsva and Padmavati. Kamatha (also called Katha) tapasa who was reborn as Samvara (Dig.) or Meghamali (Sve.) obstructed Parsvanatha when he was practising penance. For seven days he poured heavy rains and made terrific noises and hurled stones etc. on him. In order to frighten Parsvanatha he created lions, scorpions, terrific genii like Vetalas and others who issued fire from their mouths. But the great sage, unaffected by these obstructions (upasarga), remained steadfast in meditation. Dharana, the Indra of Nagakumara gods, remembering the obligation of Parsva in the previous existence, came to the rescue of the Lord and, standing behind the Jina, held a canopy of his seven snake-hoods over Parsva's head, in order to protect the Lord's person from rains, stones, etc. His four queens staged dance with music before the meditating sage but the great sage was equally unmindful of this pleasure of music and dance and of the pain inflicted by Samvara (also known as Meghamali). The villainy of the soul of Kamatha becoming fruitless, he repented, stopped all obstructions and bowing down before the Lord and begging his pardon, went away ashamed and repenting.298 It is said that Meghamali had so much flooded the area that water level rose upto the tip of the nose of Parsva and that Dharanendra wrapping his coils all around the body of Parsva and holding the hoods as a canopy over the sage's head lifted out of water the whole body of the sage. Both the sects agree in giving a cobra as the cognizance (dhvaja mark or lanchana) of Parsva and generally represent five or seven snake-hoods over his head. The snake cognizance is shown on the pedestal and often coils of the snake's body are shown behind the body of the Jina either standing or sitting in meditation. The snake-hoods as well as the coils suggest Dharana Naga protecting the body of Parsvanatha. It will be remembered that Suparsvanatha, the seventh Tirthankara, is said to have a canopy of one, three or nine snake-hoods. Hemacandra and others speak of seven snake-hoods held over the head of Parsva; the difference in the number of hoods for Parsva and Suparsva often helps us in identifying their images. Amongst the earliest known images of Parsvanatha are some sculptures obtained from the Kankali Tila, Mathura. The first is an Ayagapata, no. J.253 in the Lucknow Museum, assignable to the first

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172 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana century B.C. on the evidence of the characters of the inscription on it. The Jina sits in the centre, in paryankasana on a raised seat and has five snake-hoods overhead. Just above the hoods is a chatra with two garland-like festoons hanging on two sides. On each side of the Jina is a standing figure of a naked ascetic, one of whom has his hands folded in respect while the other carries an indistinct object. In view of our foregoing remarks about snake-hoods and in view of the remarks made earlier in discussing the iconography of Suparsvanatha, the Jina in this Ayagapata is identified as Parsvanatha. Followers of Parsva seem to have continued even after Mahavira for some time, and even when they were assimilated in one or the other of the Jaina sects, Parsva has continued to be very popular in Jaina worship. The attendant ascetics in this Ayagapata are the ganadharas of Parsva, one of whom may be Subha, Svayambhu or Dinna. It is noteworthy that these ganadharas are represented naked and carry no piece of cloth on one hand to cover their nudity whereas in other sculptures from Kankali Tila we often meet with figures of monks carrying such a piece on one hand. For example, in the Ayagapata representing the ascetic Kanha (fig. 21) we find Kanha Samana holding such a piece of cloth. In this Tablet which was the gift of Dhanasri in Samvat 95, the nnner panel shows a Stupa with two miniature figures of Jinas on each side; the figure on the left side of the Stupa shows seven snake-hoods overhead and therefore is to be identified as Parsvanatha. Figure 23 illustrates a loose sculpture of Parsva (no. J.39 in the Lucknow Museum), from Kankali Tila, showing seven snake-hoods over the head and the coils of snake on the back of the Jina. This sculpture formerly published by Coomaraswamy belongs to the Kusana age.299 Nos. J.69 and J.77 are sculptures of this Jina, from Kankali Tila, in the Lucknow Museum. Nos. J.96, J.113 and J.114 are loose heads of Kusana age in the same Museum. No. B.62 Mathura Museum is another loose head of Parsva from Kankali Tila. Marks of svastika, fri-vatsa, dharmacakra, triratna etc. are also found on snake-hoods of this age. A Sarvvatobhadra Pratima (quadruple image) from the same site, no. B.70, Mathura Museum 300 shows, on one side, Parsvanatha standing with a sri-vatsa mark on his chest. There is no usnisa and the hair on the head are arranged in schematic curls. Snake-hoods over head are mutilated and only partly visible. Another such sculpture of the Kusapa age is no. B.67 in the Mathura Museum. A third such sculpture (no. B.65) of Pratima Sarvvatobhadrika shows the Jina Parsvanatha in a sitting posture upon a simhasana supported by couchant lions. The sculpture is later in age than the two Caturmukha images mentioned. There are similar quadruple images from Kankali Tila in the Lucknow Museum (e.g., nos. 230, 231 etc.). But in none of these sculptures are represented separately the attendant figures of Dharanendra and his queens. The Kalpa sutra does not refer to the upasarga incident in the life of Parsvanatha, so familiar to later texts and to representations in sculptures and paintings. But the association of Parsva with snake undoubtedly dates from very early times and it is reasonable to acknowledge Parsva's early association with the Naga-cult (Serpent-worship) and/or with Naga tribe. Mathura is known from Hindu sources as a haunt of the Nagas (compare the story of subduing the Kaliya Naga by Krsna, popularly known as Kaliya-damana), and statues of Dadhikarna Naga etc. are recovered from Mathura.301 Again, excavations at Sonkh nearby have revealed the existence of a Naga shrine and a beautiful long panel with a Naga king enthroned in the centre. This association of Parsva with the Naga-cult and the fact that he lived in the eighth century B.C. should suggest a line of further investigation into the origin of his sect. It is said that the ancient city of Ahicchatra was so called because at this place, as mentioned by Devabhadra 302 Dharanendra came to worship Parsva standing in meditation and in order to protect the Lord from the heat of the tropical sun the snake-king (ahi) held his hoods as an umbrella (chatra) over the Jina engaged in meditation. Since then the place, which was formerly known as Sivapuri, came to be called Ahicchatra.303 Parsva hailed from Varanasi and is reported to have widely travelled in eastern parts of India and in Kalinga. Both U.P. and Magadha were known to have been inhabited by Naga tribes and by followers of the Naga cult from ancient times. In the Vasudevahindi it is said that when Bhagiratha brought the Ganges to the plains abodes of Nagas were swept away in the forceful current of the river. The story of Kamatha's attack on Parsva reminds one of the attack by Mara on Buddha, both

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 173 accounts are essentially similar. At the end of the attack both attain perfection, the supreme knowledge. Both themes have been popular in Indian art.304 The Jaina cave at Aihole, Bijapur district, Karnataka, contains one of the earliest known representations of the scene of attack on Parsvanatha (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 121). The relief shows Parsva standing in meditation while Kamatha attacks him from upper left corner. Dharanendra shields Parsva by holding his five snake-hoods over the head of the latter. His queen, represented in human form with a snake-hood above her head, stands on the right of the Jina and holds a big parasol over the lord. Behind the snake-queen is seen the head of another figure with a snake-hood above the head. The male figure sitting with folded hands on the left of the Jina represents tho unsuccessful Kamatha bowing down and repenting. The sculpture dates from c. late sixth or early seventh century A.D. But perhaps the finest known and very elaborate sculpture of this theme of Kamatha's upasarga is preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (see Frontispiece). On both the sides of the standing sage are shown hosts of ferocious beings taking part in the attack at the bidding of Kamatha. The figures are carved in classical Gupta traditions. The sculpture is reported to have come from Bihar but it is not a specimen of Pala art as can be seen from the figure of the snake-queen holding a parasol with a long handle) over the head of Parsva. The sculpture is sometimes assigned to the 5th-6th cent. A.D. as in Panorama of Jaina Art, figs. 38 and 39, but the rendering of the figure of the snake-queen suggests a post-Gupta date in c. early seventh century A.D. Most of the early reliefs of this theme from South India are simpler than the Indian Museum specimen just discussed. As in the Aihole Cave panel there is only one figure attacking with a big rock, and not the army of goblins, etc. In the Jaina cave at Badami there is a big panel representing this scene of Kamatha's attack (JAA, I, pl. 115; Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 128) dating from late sixth or early seventh century A.D. The Naga figure behind the snake queen shown in the Aihole relief is not found here. This big figure of Parsva is a typical specimen of early Western Chalukyan art. There is a beautiful relief panel of this scene on a boulder at Tirakkol, North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, which shows the treatment of this theme in Pallava art of c. eighth century A.D. Kamatha flying in the air carrying a big rock, about to throw on Parsva, is shown here in the upper corner to the right of the sage while the snake queen holding the umbrella stands to the left and the kneeling figure of Kamatha filled with remorse is near the right foot of Parsva standing on a double-lotus. In the Pandyan territory, though a similar simple treatment of the theme is seen at places at Kilakkudu, Ummanamalai hill, Madura district, Samnar-Koyil, Anamalai, Madura district, at Karaikoyil and at Kalugumalai, Tinneveli district, yet one important departure from the Tirakkol and Bada mi reliefs lies in the beautiful and powerfully carved head and bust of the snake demi-god Dharanendra protecting Parsva from behind and shown above the latter's body in the beautiful rock-cut relief at Kalugumalai (see Fig. 50, and Panorama of Jaina Art, figs. 1 and 37), or at Samnar-Koyil, Kilakkudi etc. The Kalugumalai relief and the Samnar-Koyil reliefs date from c. eighth century A.D. The Karaikoyil relief (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 81) of c. 8th century A.D. however follows the tradition of Badami and Aihole reliefs and does not show the human bust and head of Dharanendra. Among the row of rock-cut Jaina sculptures at the cave front at Annamalai (Madurai district) is a relief of this incident with the head and bust of Dharanendra protecting Parsva.305 In this relief the defeated Kamatha is kneeling on all fours before Parsvanatha. The cave temple is known as Samnar-Koyil and probably dates from the eighth century. At Ummanamalai hill (Kilakkudi, Madurai district) one of a few relief sculptures shows Parsva standing with head and bust of Dharanendra behind but omits the other figures like the snake-queen, Kamatha attacking and Kamasha repenting. But the head and bust of Dharanendra suggest that the relief was intended to indicate the incident of Kamatha's upasarga. At this place there is another rock-cut relief showing the other figures also but not the head and bust of Dharanendra. At Chitharal in Kerala we have a few rock-cut reliefs, one of these is a scene showing Kamatha (reborn as Samvara) hurling the rock, the snake-queen standing with the umbrella, and Kamatha praying after defeat. The theme of Kamatha's attack became very popular among the Digambaras, especially in the South. At Ellora in the group of Jaina caves are found several big panels of this scene, usually more

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174 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana elaborate and showing a host of attacking spirits of Kamatha's bidding carved on three sides of the figure of Parsvanatha (Panorama of Jaina Art, figs. 136, 138, 142, 422; JAA, I, pl. 118A, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, December, 1970, p. 309, figs. 10, 11, 12). It will be seen that in all these panels in the Ellora Jaina Caves, the figure ultimately sitting near the legs of the Jina and paying him respects with anjali mudra, identified as the soul of Kamatha reborn as Samvara or Meghamali, is here accompanied by a female. We might therefore regard this as an innovation by Ellora artists and identify this female as the queen of the demi-god Samvara or Meghamali. In one of the panels at Ellora we find two smaller figures of females with half-snake and half-human bodies, by the sides of the standing snake-king holding the parasol. They may be some of the other queens of Dharanendra or attendants of the snakequeen. Whereas at Aihole and Badami Parsva has a canopy of five hoods of Dharanendra, at Ellora he has a canopy of seven snake-hoods overhead. Dhaky bas published two beautiful elaborate sculptures of Santara art from south Karnataka, representing the theme of attack on Parsva.306 Both these stelas are in worship in the temple of Parsvanatha at Humca (J.I.S.O.A., new series, Vol. IV, pl. XVIII, fig. 9 and pl. XIX, fig. 13). Dhaky has assigned them to the period of Vikrama Sanata c. 787-920 A.D.). In fig. 9 of J.I.S.O.A., op. cit., Parava sky-clad stands on a double-lotus upheld by two handsome nagas in human form thus suggesting that the body of Parsva was lifted above the flood waters which had reached upto his neck (or chin). Behind the Jina is Dharanendra spreading his seven hoods over the sage's head to form a canopy sheltering Parsva against the attacking hosts of Kamatha. On the right side of Parsva absorbed in meditation we find a charging bull, a leaping lion, a demon shooting a dart and, above, another demon menacingly balancing a huge boulder aimed at the figure of the sage. To the left of the sage Kamatha's fury has sent a rushing tiger, a maddened elephant, a demon carrying a dagger in his right hand and releasing a venomous serpent with the left, and above him a Kumbhanda monster carrying a heavy mace over his shoulder. At the lower end, stand Dharanendra and his consort, on the right and the left respectively of the sage, the consort holding the long handle of the parasol passing behind the coils and hoods of the Naga-king. At the base is depicted Kamatba, sobered after failing to shake Parava from meditation, remorseful at heart and bowing down asking for forgiveness; his consort on the opposite side, half-knelt, is shown raising her right hand in praise of the great sage. The other stela, somewhat varying in detail but repeating the same theme, is the work of another craftsman. The closest analogues, iconographically speaking, of these two stelas are carved panels of the Indra-Sabha cave at Ellora (Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, op. cit., figs. 10, 12). An elaborate but different treatment of the theme is found in a c. ninth century sculpture from probably Madhya Pradesh, now preserved in the Cleveland Museum of Art, U.S.A. (Museum no. 61.419, stone, 63-1/4 X 26-3/8 inches). It is a well preserved beautiful sculpture.307 The topmost figures, in this image, with their heads mutilated and lost, show heavenly worshippers, gandharva-pair, conchblower, etc. In the centre is the triple umbrella below which is the canopy of seven cobra-hoods of Dharanendra whose long coiled body is shown behind the whole, almost life-size figure of Parsvanatha standing in the kayotsarga mudra. On the sides of the serpent-hoods are two flying celestial garland-bearers (maladharas) whose headdresses are similar to and derived from the headdress found on early Gurjara-Pratihara sculptures, both male and female figures, of which a typical specimen of c. late seventh century is seen on the bronze figure of a female chowrie-bearer (camaradharini) from Akot 308 Below the flying garland-bearers (accompanied by their wives) are figures of vyalas standing on hind legs upon elephants, all atop a pilaster on each side. By the side of this vyala and elephant motif and the pilaster, females in various attitudes are shown on each side playing musical instruments or singing, or holding a lotus etc. They are Naginis, queens of the snake-king Dharanendra Naga, who is protecting Parsvanatha from the attacks of Kamatha and his hosts of goblins etc. Near the feet of the Tirthankara are standing two yaksas carrying fly-whisks (camaradhara yaksas), and four more snake-queens. It is likely that all the small figures of Nagin's were not intended to represent queens of Dharanendra but were attendants of the queens.

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 175 of about the same age as the Cleveland Museum Parsvanatha and possibly hailing from Eastern Rajasthan is another sculpture, no. 59.202 in the National Museum, New Delhi. On both sides of the Jina are shown Nagas and Naginis, half-snake and half-human, dancing, playing music or carrying garlands. The top portion is less elaborate than in the Cleveland image (Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, op. cit., fig. 16). The ornaments and drapery suggest that it may be somewhat earlier in age. In the Rajputana Museum, Ajmere, is preserved a partly mutilated sculpture, obtained from Arthuna (now in Rajasthan, formerly in the Banswada state). It is a beautiful specimen of Gurjara-Pratihara art with minute carving of the details on the skin of the cobra's body beautifully arranged to form a full back-rest or stela behind the Jina's figure. Dharanendra stands on the right while his chief queen stands on the left of Parsva, with folded hands (Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, op. cit., fig. 15). They are recognised by the presence of a cobra-head over their crowns. Below, on the pedestal are more queens of Dharanendra, all shown with half-human and half-snake bodies. The possibility of obtaining more examples of this theme from Digambara sites in Northern India cannot be ruled out. In fact a badly mutilated sculpture of this scene, dating from c. ninth century, preserved in the beautiful Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur, in Madhya Pradesh, was discovered by Klaus Bruhn who kindly gave me its photograph which I have published in the Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, op. cit., p. 310, fig. 14). It is however significant to note that scenes of attack on Parsvanatha or on Mahavira are hard to obtain in Svetambara sites. It is true that a ceiling of one of the shrines at Kumbharia, north Gujarat, giving incidents from the life of Mahavira shows different scenes of upasargas of Mahavira. It is also true that in the ceilings of the Santinatha and Mahavira temples at Kumbharia we find sculptured narration of scenes from previous births of Parsva and Kamatha and scenes from his life as Parsva including attacks by Kamatha's soul when Parsva was meditating. Tiwari has noted a few scenes from Parsva's lifo on the wall of the eastern Devakulika of the shrine of Mahavira at Osia.309 In the ceiling in front of Devakulika no. 16 at Luna-vasahi, Mt. Abu, is carved the story of the origin of Hastikalikunda-tirtha and the city of Ahicchatra, connected with the life of Parsva.310 It is also true that in the miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra we have scenes of attack on Parsva311 but not a single loose relief sculpture like the ones described above is as yet found from Svetambara shrines. It seems that the Svetambaras tried to avoid carving such sculptures because in them they would be required to depict the figures of Parsva or Mahavira as nude since they were practising rigorous austerities and observing total aparigraha as sadhus following the Jinakalpa. Buddha is also associated with a snake-the Mucalinda Naga who protected him during a storm. Images of Buddha with cobra-hoods over the head, as in the case of Parsvanatha, are known from sites like Nagarjunikonda, Amaravati etc. Thus we have parallels in Buddhist art and traditions. In Hinduism, the snake Kaliya was subdued by Krsna. But when Kssoa was born and was being immediately transferred by his father from prison to Gokul across the river Yamuna, the serpent Sesa is said to have acted as a canopy over the child Krsna being carried in a basket and protected him from rains pouring at that time. Siva is also associated with snakes. Visnu rests on the coils of the great Sesa Naga whose thousand heads are held as a canopy over the Lord. During the Vedic period, we have the famous Indra-Vstra fight. Vstra, conceived as a snake, is malevolent, like Kaliya of the Yamuna river, and not benevolent like Dharanendra or Mucalinda. There is an ever existing contest between forces of light and darkness, between good and evil, between gods and demons, between forces of life and death. Klsna, Visnu, Siva, Indra, Buddha and Parsvanatha represent forces of life and light, of good and immortality, while Vstra, Kaliya, Mara, Kamatha and others represent forces of evil, darkness and death. Naga with his thousand snake-heads represents mind with its innumerable evil instincts, attitudes, feelings, tempers, and thoughts. When subdued, reformed and sublimated the same mind is transformed from a malevolent to a benevolent force. Mythology of Buddha or Parsvanatha or of Sesasa yi-Visnu. Siva and baby Krsna carried across the river Yamuna, represents an advancement upon the earlier Vedic conception of the Indra-Vstra contest. In later conceptions it is recognized that the mind which is a bondage and an obstacle can be transformed into a protector, friend or benefactor. So says the Gita:

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176 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana mana eva manusyanam karanam bandha-moksayoh (the same mind is the root-cause of bondage as well as emancipation). There are some sculptures of Parsvanatha which do not show Kamatha's hordes attacking the sage but which show the queen of Dharanendra standing on one side of the sage and holding an umbrella with a long handle as in the relief panels from Ellora etc. Of this type is a sculpture of Parsva standing, obtained from Bujgarh, Mandsore district, M.P., age c. 10th century A.D., now in the Bhanpura Museum, no. 42 (American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, photo no. 234.3). Of course Dharanendra with his coils at the back and the cobra-hoods over the head of the Jina figures in all such sculptures. In the Mathura Museum there is a sculpture (no. 1505) from Kosi Kalan showing Parsva sitting in the padmasana on a lion-throne with a canopy of seven cobra-hoods overhead and a male standing camaradhara on the right side. On the left of the Jina stands the Naga queen in graceful tribhanga, holding the umbrella. The sculpture dates from c. late seventh century. Of about the same age, perhaps somewhat earlier, is a beautiful sculpture of this Jina in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, obtained from Gyaraspur, M.P. Here also the Jina sits in padmasana on a lion-throne and has a canopy of seven cobraheads. A male camaradhan stands on each side. Behind the chowrie-bearer on the left stands snakequeen holding the umbrella with a long handle. These sculptures may be regarded as suggestive of the scene of Kamatha's attack. Lucknow Museum no. G.310 shows Parsva sitting in the padmasana and having a canopy of seven snake-hoods above which is seen one umbrella and still above the usual triple umbrella. Usually the umbrella held by the snake queen is shown above the triple umbrella as in the Gyaraspur image just discussed. In this sculpture, a human figure of a Naga with three snake-hoods overhead stands on the right of the Jina waving a chowrie with his raised left hand, while to the left of the Jina stands the snakequeen with three snake-hoods overhead and holding the umbrella with her raised right hand. In the last cave at Ellora is a small relief panel sunk into the wall. Parsva stands in meditation on a lotus. Dharanendra's coils are shown behind the Jina's body. There is a canopy of seven snake-hoods above which is the umbrella with a long handle held by the snake-queen standing on the right of the sage. To the left of Parsva stands a figure of a tapasa in anjali mudra and carrying a water-vessel with his right hand. This could be Kamatha humbled and repenting. Klaus Bruhn, besides discussing Parsva images at Devgadh in his book, The Jina Images of Deogarh, contributed a paper entitled Further Observations on the Iconography of Parsvanatha,312 and discussed unusual images, one from a temple in Golakot and two images from Devgadh. In all the three sculptures there is a figure of a Rsi standing on the right of Parsva standing in meditation. The standing Rsi carries a water-vessel in his left hand and the right hand raised in the abhaya mudra carries an aksamala (rosary of beads). Of the two Devgadh figures, one is in a panel on the door-frame of temple no. 18 while the other, a loose piece, is badly mutilated and both the hand-attributes of the standing Rsi have disappeared. In view of the Ellora figure discussed above we might identify this Rsi-like figure as that of Kamatha tapasa. No. 2502 in the Madras Museum is a well preserved sculpture of Parsva sitting in the ardhapadmasana under a canopy of seven snake-hoods crowned by a triple umbrella. On each side behind the Jina stands a towering male figure with both hands folded and having a big cobra-hood above the crown on his head. Obviously these are supposed to be attendant figures of Nagas. We have already seen that some Jaina texts do refer to Naga figures attending upon the Jina image. The Jina image may be of any Tirthankara. So this sculpture need not be regarded as referring to the Kamatha-upasarga. We have referred to some old images of Parsva from Kankali Tila, Mathura, which date from the early centuries of the Christian era, the Kusana period. Of perhaps first century B.C., or early first century A.D. is a partly corroded and mutilated bronze of Parsva standing with a canopy of seven snake-hoods, obtained in the Chausa hoard, now preserved in the Patna Museum (Arch. no. 6531), illustrated in figure 8. A metal image of Parsvanatha standing in the kayotsarga posture, preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, illustrated in figure 3, dates from c. first or second century B.C, as we have argued elsewhere.313 There is one more bronze of Parsvanatha standing in kayotsarga mudra, in the Chausa hoard

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 177 preserved in the Patna Museum (Arch. no. 6533). The Jina stands on a rectangular pedestal. All along his back are a serpent's coil with the cobra-hoods broken and lost. All the standing Jaina bronzes in this hoard are Digambara, i.e., they show no garment on the person of the Jina. These standing figures are mostly of the Kusana age. Pramod Chandra published a stone sculpture of standing Parsva from Patna, now in Shri Kanodia's collection. The image shows snake's coils all over the back of the Jina. The sculpture dates from c. fourth century A.D.314 At Sira Pahari near Nachna Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, is a standing Parsva image assignable to c. fourth century A.D. There is an almost circular canopy of seven hoods behind the head of the Jina. Over the hoods is a single umbrella. Thick coils of the snake, carefully arranged one above the other on the back of the Jina, leave no intervening space and form as it were an artistic stela behind the figure of the Jina (JAA, Vol. I, pp. 129-130, pl. 64). Parsva images show what Klaus Bruhn calls "hood-circle" in a conventional manner or unconventional manner. The snake coils behind the body of the Jina are indicated either in a cursory manner or they are missing altogether (see Bruhn's The Jina Images of Deogarh, fig. 225) or in an unconventional manner as in Bruhn's Deogarh, figs. 338, 339. The Rajgir image (see.Bruhn's fig. 341) seems to show two snakes. But the two smaller snakes near the shoulders of the Jina in Bruhn's fig. 338 (drawing of a Vasantagadh image of Parsvanatha) are actually two queens of Dharana or Dharana and his queen in anjali mudra. Bruhn's figure 260 shows a standing Parsva flanked by two theriomorphous Nagas. Here Parsva has no canopy of snake-hoods nor coils behind his body. This is a very rare type of Parsvanatha image (Bruhn's p. 198). An image of standing Parsvanatha, no. J. 100 in Lucknow Museum, is assignable to c. 4th-5th cent. A.D. On the right of the Jina is a male figure and on the left a female with a snake-hood overhead (a Nagini) holding an umbrella with both the hands. In the Pudukkottai Museum, Tamil Nadu, is a bronze image of standing Parsva with five snake-hoods overhead and coils of the snake on the back. With thin, slender limbs and typical nigroid face, the style of this bronze obtains comparisons with the style of Nilgiri terracottas in the British Museum and to some extent with the archaic style of face and limbs) of the Mohen-Jo Daro and Chhahnu-Daro dancer figurines and the bronze figure of Chalcolithic period from Adicchanallur. We have assigned this bronze to a period around third or fourth century A.D.315 In the Tulasi Samgrahalaya, Ramvan, Satna, M.P., is a sculpture of Parsva sitting in dhyana mudra on snake coils. Two fly-whisk bearers attend on him. The image is assigned to c. Sth-6th cent. A.D.316 Of about 600-625 A.D., we have from Akota (Gujarat) an important bronze image of Parsva gifted by a sravika of the Nivsti kula according to an inscription on the partly mutilated pedestal. Parsva stands on a lotus pedestal in kayotsarga pose (Akota Bronzes, pls. 17a, 17b). The arrangement of the dhoti folds is analogous to that on the Jina installed by Jinabhadra obtained in the Akota hoard (ibid., pl. 12b), assigned to c. 550-600 A.D. Both are modelled in the same style though the head of the latter is more beautiful. Dharanendra, the snake-king who protected Parsva from the attack of Kamatha, is shown with a beautiful coiled body and seven snake-hoods held like a chatra over the Jina. The two Naga figures on top of the pedestal also represent Dharanendra and his chief queen, both wearing ekavalis. They have half-human and half-snake bodies and their tails are entwined into a fine knot (naga-pasa) in the centre. Dharanendra on the right has one snake-hood overhead and holds an indistinct object in each hand, the right hand extended a little was perhaps meant to show the abhaya mudra. Dharanendra's queen on the left end of the pedestal also shows the abhaya mudra with her right hand and holds a lotus-like object in her left hand. In front of the pedestal are small standing figures of the (eight) planets excluding Ketu. On a lower level in the centre and on a full-blown inverted lotus motif is the dharmacakra flanked by a deer on each side. A type of Tri-Tirthika image of Parsvanatha became very popular probably from the seventh century in Gujarat and Rajasthan. A beautiful Tri-Tirthika brass or bronze image of Parsvanatha, gifted by the ariik, Khambhili in c. middle of seventh century A.D., is obtained in the Akota hoard (Akota Bronzes, pls. 22, 23a, 23b). The image is almost completely preserved except for the seven partly mutilated hoods of the snake-canopy and the haloes of the two Tirtharkaras standing on the sides of Parsva seated in

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178 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana padmasana in the centre. Silver is inlaid in the eyes, on the cushion and in the drapery hanging on the simhasana. The simhasana of Parsva is placed on a broad pedestal. In the centre is the dharmacakra with two deer. From the sides spring two lotuses with long stalks on which stand two TirtharkarasRsabhanatha on the right and Mahavira (?) on the left. On top of the big pedestal, on its right end, sits a two-armed figuro of yaksa Sarvanubhuti showing a citron in his right hand and the nakulika (moneybag) in his left. On the corresponding left side sits a figure of two-armed yaksi Ambika carrying an amra-lumbi (mango-bunch) in her right hand and holding the child on her lap with the left hand. Both the yaksa and the yaksi sit on full-blown lotuses springing from the sides of the pedestal. In the centre of the simhasana is the dharmacakra flanked by two deer. On a lower level, on top of the pedestal are heads of the eight planets. Introduction of planets, either on pedestals as in Western India or on two sides of the Jina-figure as in Eastern India, is seen from c. seventh century A.D. and may have started a little earlier in the latter half of the sixth century after Vara hamihira's works on astronomy and astrology became popular. The treatment of the knot of tails of Dharana and his queen is also a favourite motif of Western Indian artists. For another Tri-Tirthika metal image of Parsva from Akota and assignable to about the same age, see Akoin kron? Eg. 25. Fig. 26a from the same book is a single image of Parsva with snake-coils on his back and the canopy of hoods broken, inscribed and gifted by Sagabharjika in c. 625 A.D. In this image as well as in Akota Bronzes, figs. 306, 31a, 32c, 46a, the attendant yaksa and yaksini are Sarvanubhuti and Ambika, each two-armed and carrying the same symbols. These images are Eka-Tirthika images of Parsvanatha sitting in padmasana and date from the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. Akota bronzes, fig 34 is an image of Parsva standing with Dharana and his queen, half-human, halfsnake, each in anjali mudra, shown at ends on top of the pedestal with their tails tied in a typical naga pasa in the centre. More elaborate and ornamental Tri-Tirthika metal sculptures however are found in the Vasantagadh hoard (Lalit Kala, nos. 1-2, pp. 55ff, pl. XIII, fig. 12; Akota Bronzes, fig. 49, 4spects of Jaina Art and Architecture, figs. 11-12 of Paper 26). One of these is dated in Samvat 726 and another in Samvat 756 (=699 A.D.). These brass or bronze images also are silver studded as in the Akota bronze mentioned. Besides the figures seen in Akota Bronzes, pl. 25 mentioned above, a standing four-armed Vidyadevi is added on each end behind the yaksa and yaksini figures. A similar very elaborate and well preserved TriTirthika metal sculpture of Parsva is also found in the Akota hoard (Akota Bronzes, pls. 54, 55). Inscription on the back shows that it was installed by one Regata. Paleographically the inscription can be assigned to c. 890-920 A.D. Beautiful small figures of a male and a female donor are also added on the pedestal. A very beautiful Tri-Tirthika metal image of Parsva, showing similar composition, formerly in Kadi (Gujarat), has now reached the Los Angeles Museum, U.S.A. (Akota Bronzes, fig. 56a). It was installed in Bhrgutirtha (modern Bharuch, Gujarat) in Saka year 910 (A.D. 988) by Parsvilla gani. (For a few more Tri-Tirthika bronzes from Akota, see Akota Bronzes, figs. 56b, 57b, 60.) Figure 87, illustrated in this book, is a beautiful Sat-Tirthika bronze of Parsva with an artistic torana in front, dated in V.S. 1088 (A.D. 1031).317 Fig. 68, Akota Bronzes, is an Asta-Tirthika image of Parsva with seven miniature Jinas installed in niches on the torana. Parsvanatha has been popular in Western India, in fact in the whole of India. At Charupa in North Gujarat there is an early stone sculpture of Parsva installed in c. eighth century A.D. In Patan, North Gujarat, is the famous temple of Pancasara Parsvanatha, the image was formerly worshipped in Pancasara, the capital of Capotkata rulers of Gujarat. The temple of Parsvanatha at Sankhesvara, north Gujarat, is very popular amongst devout Jainas of Gujarat. At Bhiladiyaji in the Banaskantha district, North Gujarat, is a popular Tirtha of this Jina. Temples and images of Cintamani-Parsvanatha are at many places in Gujarat. At Dhank, Saurashtra, Gujarat, is a rock-cut figure of Parsva standing without any garment on his person (Digambara tradition) and attended by smaller figures of Sarvanubhuti and Ambika (both twoarmed) by his sides. The relief dates from c. seventh century A.D.318 In Rajasthan, about 40 miles from Rsabhadeva (Kesariyaji) tirtha, near Vichhivada on a hill is a shrine of Nagaphana-Parsvanatha. The image in worship is a two-armed Nagaraja sitting in the lalitasana and having a canopy of seven snake

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 179 hoods. On his head is a miniature figure which seems to be of a Jina in padmasana. If this miniature figure is of a Jina (and not of Buddha) then the Nagaraja can be identified as a figure of Dharanendra as the Jainas have done. The sculpture seems to date from c. sixth century A.D. Further exploration on the hill is necessary as this seems to be a promising early Jaina site of about the sixth century A.D.319 Between Kusalagadh and Kalinjara, in the Banswada district, Rajasthan, is a Jaina shrine of Andesvara-Parsvanatha on a small hill. Parsvanatha is so called because of the place-name of Andesvara. The sculpture dates from c. 12th-13th cent. A.D.320 Between Zalavad Road station and the Zalrapatan town, Rajasthan, is a place known as Nasiyan which has a shrine of Paravanatha. The inscription on the sculpture shows that it was installed in Samvat 1226 (1169-70 A.D.). This is a Covisi sculpture of Parsvanatha sitting in the padmasana. On two ends of the lion-throne are figures of Dharanendra and Padmavati, the yaksa and yaksini of Parsva.321 In the Bhilvada district, Rajasthan, near a place called Parauli, is a shrine of Cambalesvara-Parsvanatha. It is said that the temple was formerly known as Culesvara-Parsvanatha. Situated on a small hill and with beautiful natural surroundings of Aravalli hills around it, the temple belongs to the Digambara sect. The sculpture in the sanctum was installed in Samvat 1007, i.e. A.D. SS0.3??' In the gudhamandapa of Mahavira shrine, Osia, are two figures of Parsva seated on coils of the snake. On the wall of Devakulika no. 1, of this shrine, is a figure of seated Parsva, of about eleventh century A.D., accompanied by Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. Tiwari has noted that in the balanaka of Mahavira shrine, Osia, is a sculpture of Parsva seated in padmasana and dated in the Samvat year equivalent to 1031 A.D. On two ends of the pedestal are two-armed yaksa and yaksi each with snakehoods overhead. In the Rajputana Museum, Ajmere, is an interesting sculpture of this Jina with four more miniature Jina figures each with three snake-hoods overhead. On side of the central image of Parsva is a camaradhara with three snake-hoods overhead. On the pedestal are figures of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. The sculpture is assignable to c. 10th-11th cent. and hails from Bharatpur.323 In Jesalmer, Rajasthan, there is a temple of Parsvanatha consecrated in A.D. 1416.324 The image is said to have been brought from Lodrava village near Jesalmer. At Lodurva (same as Lodrava) itself there was a gorgeous temple of Parsvanatha which was destroyed during the upsurge of Ghori in A.D. 1152. A new temple was built for this Jina in A.D. 1615.325 A big stone plaque of Sahasraphana-Parsvanatha with intertwined coils all around the standing figure of Parsva, installed in the famous Dharana-vihara temple at Ranakpur, Rajasthan, was published by U.P. Shah in J.I.S.O.A. (old series), Vol. VI (Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 79). In cell 23 of Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is an image of Parsva dated in 1179 A.D. A twelfth century sculpture of this Jina in standing posture is preserved in the gudhamandapa of this shrine. Here Sarvanubhuti and Ambika figure as sasana-devatas but they have been given snake-hoods overhead. In the gudhamandapa of Neminatha temple, Kumbharia, there is a standing Parsvanatha dated in 1157 A.D. and accompanied by Sarvanubhuti and Ambika on the ends of the simhasana. In the parikara are some four-armed figures including Vidyadevis like Apraticakra, Vajrassokhala, Sarvastra-Mahajvala, Rohini and Vairotya. This practice of carving miniature figures of Vidyadevis on two sides of the Jina in small niches of the pillars supporting a torana or a simple semi-circular arch seems to have been popular in Western India during eleventh and twelfth centuries as can be seen from various specimens at Kumbharia and Abu. In the Sat-tirthika bronze of Parsva, dated in v.s. 1008, from Vasantagadh (Akota Bronzes, fig. 63a), the two-armed standing females also seem to be Vairotya and other Vidyadevis. We also find Apraticakra, Rohini, Vajraspokhala, Vairotya, etc. on a sculpture of standing Ajitanatha, dated in v.s. 1176 (A.D. 1126), in worship in the Paravanatha temple, Kumbharia.326 Similar miniature figures are also found on door-frames of cells in these temples.327 In the Devakulika no. 4, Vimala Vasahi, Abu, is a sculpture of Parsva dated 1188 A.D. and accompanied by Parsva yaksa and Padmavati yaksi. In cells 25 and 53 of the same shrine there are images of Parsvanatha. An image of this Jina was installed in cell 1 in Samvat 1389, the image is lost but the parikara and throne etc. with inscription remain (Jayantavijaya, Arbudacala-Pracina-Jaina-Lekhasamdoha, inscr. no. 25). Similarly, we find that images of Parsva were installed in cells 11, 39, 44, and 54 in

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180 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Samvat 1245, S. 1319, s. 1245, and s. 1222 respectively (ibid., inscriptions nos. 55, 135, 147, 171 respectively). It is not necessary to list here a large number of stone and metal images of this Jina from various temples in different States of India. No complete survey of all images of all the different Jinas in each and every Jaina temple of India is made. It is therefore not advisable every time to draw final conclusions regarding beginning and/or popularity etc. of images of each and every Jina in the different States of India. However from a study of different sites and museums and a few temples in each State it seems that Rsabha, Nemi, Parava, Mahavira and to a lesser extent Santinatha were more popular in Jaina worship. This is supported by two famous verses in the Rupamandana: Jinasya murttayo=anantah pujitah sarvasaukhyadahl Catasroatisayairyuktastasam pujya visesatah// 25 Sri-Adinatho Nemisca Parsvo Virascaturthakah/ Cakresvari-Ambika Padmavati Siddhayiketi ca// 26 Rupamandana, adh. VI, v. 25-26, p. 45 In the museum at Kota, Rajasthan are four sculptures of Parsva assignable to c. 9th-10th cent. A.D., obtained from Ramgadh and Ataru. Similarly there are seven images of mediaeval period in the museum at Bikaner. Bronzes from Lilvadeva, North Gujarat, preserved in the Baroda Museum, include three beautiful bronzes of Parsva--one datable in the 11th cent., another assignable to c. end of 8th century and a third elaborate Tri-Tirthika dated in v.s. 1093 gifted by one Maika of Siddhasena-Divakara-gaccha in the Nagendra kula.328 The National Museum, New Delhi has a few interesting bronzes of Parsvanitha. No. 68.89 in this museum is a c. 8th century bronze of Parsva in padmasana with Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as sasanadevatas. Dharanendra and his queen, each with a snake-hood overhead with half-human and half-snake body, spring from the coils on the back of the Jina and have both the arms folded in anjali mudra.329 No. 64.357, No. 64.355 and No. 63.37 are Tri-Tirthika bronzes of Parsva from Western India; the first is assignable to late 11th cent. A.D., the second is dated in Samvat 1112, and the third in Samvat 1126. No. 63.1081 is a single image dated in s. 1180.330 We have already referred to the elaborate stone sculpture from Rajasthan, in the National Museum (no. 39.202), showing Parsva standing with a background of snake-coils and having in the parikara small figures of snakes playing on vina and venu. From Astal Bohr, Rohtak, was discovered a fine sculpture of Parsva standing with a canopy of seven cobra-hoods. The sculpture dates from c. 8th-9th cent. A.D.331 Two camaradharas stand near the legs of the Jina. In front of these two are two smaller standing females, one carrying a lotus and the other holding a sword. In front of these females are smaller seated figures of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. In another sculpture from the same spot, Parsva sits in padmasana on a lion throne. There are two standing attendant camaradharas, flying garland bearers, triple umbrella etc. The Jina has a canopy of seven snake-hoods. A cloth hanging on the pedestal shows, in the centre, small half-snake and halfhuman figures of Dharama and his queen sitting in anjali mudra. On two ends of the throne are two-armed figures of Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. In the Lucknow Museum there are several images of Parsvanatha. Of these nos. J.846, J.859. J.882. G.223, G.310, no. 48.182, no. 40.121 are assignable to a period ranging from eighth to tenth cent. A.D. No. J.794 from Vatesvara, Agra district, represents Parsva in kayotsarga pose and is assignable to c. 11th cent. A.D. Yaksi Padmavati figures on the lion-throne and has five snake-hoods. Dharanendra yaksa with five snake-hoods figures on one end of the simhasana. No. G.223 dated in 1196 A.D. shows Parsva with hair-locks on shoulders and standing in the kayotsarga mudra. The snake cognizance is shown on the pedestal There are several images of Parsva at Devgadh. In most of them he is shown in a standing posture. Sometimes he is attended by Dharana's queen holding the umbrella and a camaradhara with snake-hoods overhead. In Parsva images from temples 6 and 9, Devgadh, the Jina shows hair-locks on shoulders. We have already noted before some sculptures of Parsvanatha from Devgadh discussed by www.jainelibrary.one

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 181 Klaus Bruhn. There are also some images of Parsva in Devgadh temples 3, 4, 8, 9, and 12. Image no. 2874 from Kagarol in Mathura Museum shows Parsva with figures of the usual two-armed yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal. This is a sculpture of Parsva sitting in padmasana on coils of the snake Dharanendra holding a canopy of cobra-hoods from the back. On the ends of the pedestal are figures of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. In the State Museum, Bhanpur, M.P., there is a sculpture (Mu, no. 36 of Parsvanatha assignable to c. 10th cent. A.D. obtained from Bujgund, Mandsore district. Surface of the pedestal and parts of attendants are mutilated but it is a beautiful sculpture with artistic representation of the canopy of snake-hoods over Parsva's head. In the same museum there is another sculpture (Mu. no. 290) of this Jina from Hinglajgadh, assignable to c. 9th century A.D. Beautiful coils of snake are shown at the back. Camaradharas standing cn lotuses on two sides of the Jina are mutilated but beyond them on lotuses sit lay Jaina worshippers. Near the right end of the simhasana is a two-armed yaksa showing a purse in one hand and having three snake-hoods overhead. On the corresponding left end is a four-armed yaksi with three snake-hoods, carrying a lotus in the right upper hand and showing the abhaya mudra with the right lower one. Symbols of the two left hands are mutilated. An early interesting sculpture of Parsvanatha with seven snake-hoods is found at Tumain, district Guna, M.P. Parsvanatha sits in padmasana on a simhasana and is attended on each side, not by a camaradhara or a Naga, but by an elephant carrying, in its raised trunk, a lotus-bud with a long stalk. The upper parts of this sculpture are badly mutilated; however, on the left upper end is seen a figure of an elephant. Perhaps there was an elephant on the other side and both the elephants were performing an abhiseka on the Jina. The sculpture is assignable to the seventh century A.D. The Jaina cave at Udayagiri near Vidisha has on its wall a relief sculpture of Parsvanatha sitting in padmasana on a simhasana, with an attendant standing on each side of the Jina. The sculpture is badly worn out and mutilated. An inscription in this cave records its excavation in Gupta Era 106 (reign of Kumaragupta I) along with a figure of Parsvanatha. At Kahaon in U.P. is a free-standing pillar, a manastambha, with an inscription dated in G.E. 141, and having a standing figure of Parsvanatha at base and four Jina figures on top.332 A beautiful sculpture of Parsva standing is preserved amongst the ruins at Budhi Chanderi (Old Gwalior State negative no. 51/81). On two ends near the simhasana are small figures of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. The sculpture is assignable to c. 9th century A.D. A Tri-Tirthika sculpture of standing Parsva, obtained from Bhojpur, Raisen district, and assignable to 10th-11th cent. A.D. is preserved in the Vidisha Museum (no. 349/1287). On the pedestal is the snake cognizance and coils of snake are along the back of the Jina. Near the feet are two devout worshippers who may be the donors of the image. A beautiful Panca-Tirthi of Parsva standing, with camaradharas on two sides of the mutilated legs of the Jina, is preserved in the State Museum (no. G.D.P. 81) at Gandharvapuri, Dewas district, M.P. It was obtained from the same place, and dates from c. 11th cent. A.D. A sculpture of Parsvanatha sitting in padmasana on a cushion placed on a simhasana is found at Padhavali (old Gwalior State negative no. 784). The front rim of the cushion-like device shows a twisted design which may be of the snake's body. On two sides of the Jina are standing attendants, the one on the left side is badly mutilated. The attendants are Naga figures with snake-hoods over head. The figure on the right side, better preserved, shows in his raised left hand an object which is a lotus or a kumbha. All the four small figures of standing Jinas in this sculpture show snake-hoods overhead and thus this is a rare example of Panca-Tirthi of Parsvanatha with all the five Jina figures representing the same Jina, namely, Parsvanatha. On the cloth hanging on the centre of the simhasana is a miniature figure of a ganadhara or an acarya sitting. Such a practice was very popular in mediaeval period in M.P. as can be seen from various sculptures obtained from Shivpuri, Hinglajgadh, etc. A Caturvimsati-Patta sculpture of Parsva sitting in padmasana on a simhasana (old Gwalior State negative no. 61/93) preserved in the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior, has on its pedestal a four-armed yaksi on the right end and a figure of Ambika yaksi (two-armed) on the left end. In front of the cloth hanging on the centre of the simhasana is a small figure of Ksetrapala, two-armed and standing and

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana holding a stick-like object in the right hand and a dog with a chain with the left hand. The sculpture dates from c. 12th century A.D. 182 A Covisi sculpture of Parsvanatha standing, preserved in the Jhansi Museum, shows, on the right end of the pedestal, a small figure of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and on the left end a two-armed Ambika. The sculpture dates from c. 11th cent. A.D. There is a partly mutilated but finely carved sculpture of Parsva in kayotsarga mudra, a Caturvimsati-Patta, from Narwar, in the Shivpuri Museum, M.P. (no. 15), with a small figure of a ganadhara in the centre of the simhasana. The sculpture dates from c. 12th-13th cent. A.D. A sculpture of Parsvanatha, with full parikara and figures of eight planets in a row on top of the simhasana and below the cushion on which the Jina sits in padmasana, hails from Jabalpur district and is preserved in the Rani Durgavati Museum, Jabalpur, M.P. The sculpture dates from c. 11th cent. A.D. On the right end of the pedestal is a four-armed Dharanendra yaksa with a snake-hood over head. His left hands show the snake (?) and the water-pot. The right hands are mutilated. On the corresponding left end of the pedestal is sitting the four-armed yaksi Padmavati with three snake-hoods over the crown. Her right up and holds an indistinct object, the right lower hand is in the abhaya mudra. Symbols of the two left hands are mutilated. On the cloth hanging on the centre of the pedestal is the snake cognizance of this Jina. In the Jardine Museum, Khajuraho, is a sculpture (no. 1668) of Parsva sitting with six more Jina figures. There are about ten sculptures of Parsva at Khajuraho. Five of them show Parsva sitting on coils of the snake. In temples 28 and 5, Khajuraho, are two sculptures of Parsva in a standing posture. On two sides of the Jina are attendant camaradhara female figures with three snake-hoods above each of them. In the Jardine Museum image noted above there is a camaradhara Naga on one side and a Nagi holding an umbrella over the Jina from the other side. No. K.68 in the Khajuraho Museum has fourarmed Dharanendra and Padmavati as the yaksa and yaksi and has 20 other Jina figures in the parikara. An image of Parsva in temple 5 is more elaborate and shows on two sides of the sitting Jina two camaradhara yaksas and two more figures of camaradhara yaksa and yaksi near the latter, each having seven snake-hoods. Santidevi figures in the centre of the pedestal. According to Tiwari, No. K.9 in the Khajuraho Museum is a sculpture of Parsva with 46 other miniature Jina figures in the parikara and figures of 4 planets on the pedestal.333 In the Pancamatha temple, Singpur, Shahdol district, M.P., is a stone sculpture of standing Parsva with two camaradharas near the legs and a canopy of snake-hoods overhead, surmounted by tripleumbrella etc. Coils of the snake are shown at the back of the whole body. The snake cognizance is shown on the pedestal. No yaksa and yaksi are carved. The sculpture dates from c. middle tenth century A.D. An Eka-Tirthi sculpture of Parsva standing is preserved at the Collector's bungalow, Shahdol, M.P. The sculpture dates from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. Here the tail end of Dharanendra's coils is shown on the pedestal to represent the snake cognizance of Parsvanatha. At Rajgir in Bihar are some interesting sculptures of Parsvanatha. A ninth century sculpture of this Jina on Udayagiri, Rajgir, shows the Jina sitting in padmasana on a visva-padma with typically arranged coils of the snake on his two sides and below the visva-padma with a central naga-pasa knot. A beautiful almost circular canopy of finely carved cobra-hoods rises from the back. No other member of the parikara is shown.334 Indian Museum, Arch. Section, Neg. no. 680 shows a photograph of an architectural piece from Rajgir. The Jina sits in padmasana in a niche with an ornamental caitya-arch above, assignable to c. sixth century A.D. Over the arch, in a row, are small figures of three Jinas sitting in padmasana. The Jina figure in the niche has five snake-hoods overhead and below his seat is a dharmacakra flanked by a conch on each side. The Jina in the niche can be identified as Parsvanatha whereas the conch cognizance flanking the dharmacakra is not prescribed for Parsva images in any Jaina tradition, the conch is unanimously regarded as the lanchana of Neminatha. This sculpture therefore demonstrates that the cognizances were not yet finally settled up to the sixth century or that this is a case of mistake of the sculptor. Since there is one more such case at Rajgir we have to prefer the first alternative. There is a sculpture of Parsva sitting in padmasana, preserved in the old Jaina temple at Rajgir, illustrated as

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 183 Fig. 24 in this book. Part of the pedestal is mutilated but we find an elephant just to the left of the place where the dharmacakra was but is now mutilated. Thus here also the cognizance of Parsva is not seen but instead an elephant is flanking the dharmacakra. There are four planets on each side of the Jina. In eastern India the planets are shown on two sides of the Jina, in central and western India they are generally placed on top or bottom of the pedestal. In temple no. 7 at Vaibharagiri, Rajgir, there is one more sculpture of Parsva of a somewhat later date. The Jina sits under a canopy of seven snakehoods on a simhasana. There is no dharmacakra and no cognizance. On the right end of the pedestal is a female with folded hands and three snake-hoods overhead. On the left end is a male worshipper carrying a garland.335 Large Jaina ruins exist in the village Chatra (Charra) near Purulia in the Manbhum district. Built into the walls of a late Hindu temple are Jaina sculptures of c. 10th-11th centuries, including images of Parents of a Jina, Santinatha, and monumental figures of Parsvanatha and Rsabhanatha.336 Parasanatha village, Ambikanagar, Kedua, Barkola, Harmashra and Dharapat in Bankura district, West Bengal have several Jaina ruins of temples and sculptures. The village of Parasanatha, northwards after crossing the confluence of Kumari and Kangsvati rivers, is named after the shrine of Jina Parsvanatha. Here are lying fragments of a gigantic sculpture of this Jina. That the Jaina Tirthankara Parsvanatha was greatly venerated by the Jainas of this district is corroborated by the presence of this deity enshrined in temples at Bahulara and Dharapat situated near Vishnupur, now worshipped as Manasi-devi. In Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 38, we have illustrated a sculpture of Parsvanatha from Bahulara, showing him standing in kayotsarga mudra with miniature figures of four planets on each side. On the pedestal are small figures of Dharanendra and his queen, half human with tails of their lower snake-half tied into a naga-pasa knot in the centre. Parsva has coils of the big snake at the back with a canopy of seven snake-hoods held over his head. 337 Worship of Parsva was also popular in Bihar. Amongst Aluara bronzes in the Patna Museum we have two images of Parsva sitting in the padmasana and two more bronzes representing him in the standing posture (Patna Museum, nos. 6531, 6533, 10678, 10679),338 Worship of Parsvanatha remained popular in Orissa also. There are several reliefs of Parsva in the Barabhuji, Navamuni and Trisula caves at Khandagiri, Orissa. In the Navamuni cave, right wall, is a relief of Parsva sitting in padmasana on a double lotus under a canopy of seven snake-hoods. On two sides are two camaradharas and below the double-lotus, in the centre is a partly defaced figure which looks like a kumbha (water-pot). On the right and left ends of this are figures of Dharanendra and his queen, half-snake and half-human with snake-hoods overhead. Dharanendra has his hands folded in anjali mudra while his queen at the other end (also sitting) carries the long handle of the umbrella held over the Jina. What is especially noteworthy is the crown-like motif on the head of the Jina. It may be a jala or usnisa on the head of Parsva. In cave 7, there is another figure of Parsva sitting on a double lotus. Below the lotus is a dharmacakra carved like a lotus to the right of which is a figure of Dharanendra sitting with folded hands while to the left is a small rudely carved kukkuta-sarpa. At the left end is the snake-queen sitting with folded hands. In the Barabhuji cave is a figure of standing Parsva with coils of the snake all along the back of the Jina who has a fine canopy of seven snake-hoods overhead. On two ends near the legs of the Jina are Dharanendra and his queen, both with folded hands and having half-snake and half-human bodies.339 On a wall of the Barabhuji cave is another figure of Parsva sitting in padmasana on a big doublelotus which has a thick long stalk. The stalk seems to have been mistaken for a snake by Tiwari.340 At two ends the two lions standing on their hind legs seem to represent the simhasana. To the right of the lotus stalk is a half-human half-snake figure with folded hands. A little below this relief is a relief of Padmavati, the yaksi of Parsvanatha. Arun Joshi has published a sculpture of standing Parsva from Khijjinga, Orissa. There are three standing miniature Tirthankaras on each side of Parsva. Snake-hoods are partly mutilated. The sculpture dates from c. 10th cent. A.D. This sculpture is thus a Sapta-Tirthika image of Parsva.341 There is a sculpture of standing Parsva at Badasahi in Mayurbhanj district. R.P. Mohapatra has published

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184 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana some more sculptures of this Jina in his Jaina Monuments of Orissa, fig. 56 from Kakatpur in the Orissa State Museum, Bhuvanesvara, fig. 58 from Sisupalagadh in the same museum, figs. 70, 72 from Cuttack Jaina temple, fig. 79 bronze from Bhanpur, fig. 78 from Pratapnagari, district Cuttack, fig. 90 from Ana and figs. 93, 94 from Sainkul, fig. 92 from Vaidakhia and figs. 82, 84 from Podasingidi, all in Keonjhar district. fig. 88 from Gadachandi Vaidakhia, Keonjhar district, figs. 100, 101 from Ayodhya, district Balasore, 105, 107 from Baripada, district Mayurbhanj, 108 from Khuntapal, district Mayurbhanj and fig. 110 Sapta-Tirthika standing Paravanatha from Khiching in the Khiching Museum, discussed also by Arun Joshi, referred to above. Mohapatra's fig. 135 is partly mutilated on its right half. The sculpture is obtained from Jamunda, Koraput district, and is now in the Jeypore Museum. Parsva sits in the padmasana on a simhasana and has a standing camaradhara on each side. In the centre of the simbasana sits four-armed Padmavati with three snake-hoods overhead. On the left side of the simhasana is a twoarmed Nagini with folded hands. There is no dharmacakra. Two figures in sitting position in Bada Jagannatha temple, Baripada, have canopies of nine and thirteen snake-hoods. The one with 13 snake-hoods may be of Parsvanatha (Mohapatra's fig. 105) while the one with aine hoods could be of Suparsvanatha. Fig. 107 of Mohapatra from Jagannatha temple: Baripada shows Parsvanatha standing with snake-hoods overhead, coils of snake at back, planets and camaradharas on two sides and on the pedestal the lower snake-halfs of the bodies of Dharanendra and his queen are tied into a naga-pasa knot at the centre of the pedestal just below the double-lotus on which stands Parsvanatha. Of this iconographic type is the beautiful standing Parsva figure from Ayodhya, Balasore district, illustrated by Mohapatra, op. cit., fig. 100. Here on the right end of the pedestal we have a female worshipper sitting with folded hands in front of a vessel of flowers or sweets (?) while on the corresponding left end is a similar object and flaming objects only. The camaradharas on the sides of Parsvanatha in the image from Vaidakhia now in the State Museum, Bhuvanesvara, stand on elephants. The Parsvanatha image of Vaidakhia is depicted with figures of Rsabhanatha, Santinatha, Mahavira and Candraprabha each having his cognizance clearly carved below his figure.342 For another standing Parsvanatha from Ayodhya, see Fig. 47 illustrated in this book. In Maharashtra also there are several images of Parsvanatha. Parsva was very popular at Ellora as can be seen from several reliefs of this Jina in the Jaina caves at Ellora. Sculptures of Parsvanatha are found at Erandol in East Khandesh. There is a Digambara Pancatirthi of Parsva with two Jinas standing by the sides of Parsva and two above the standing Jinas. Coils of the big snake with five-hoods are seen behind the figure of Parsvanatha. There are no members of the usual parikara, the beautiful sculpture dates from c. 10th cent. A.D. All the Tirthankaras in this rare sculpture have snake-hoods over their heads (Photo Negative no. 8390 of 1934-35, Western Circle, Arch. Survey of India). There is a sculpture of Parsva in padmasana at this site. Here also the two standing Tirtharkaras by the sides of Parsva have snake-hoods over their heads. There are two more sitting miniature Jina figures above but since the top portions over their heads are damaged it is difficult to say with certainty whether they had snakehoods overhead or not. Parsvanatha here sits on a simhasana having in its centre a dharmacakra flanked by a male and a female worshipper. From Ankai Tankai, in Maharashtra, several beautiful Jaina sculptures of Western Chalukyan influence and assignable to c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. were found. Most of them are now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. One of these is a beautiful sculpture of Parsva standing under a canopy of five snake-hoods (as in both the sculptures from Erandol discussed above) and a caitya-tree above. Near the shoulders are flying garland-bearers and near the legs are small figures of camaradharas. Stylised marks of hair are shown on the shoulders. In a Pancatirthi sculpture of Parsva sitting in padmasana preserved in the Nagpur Museum (no. B.23) we also find hair-locks on the shoulders of Parsvanatha. There is also in this museum a standing Parsva with coils of cobra behind his back and seven cobra-hoods above. The sculpture hails from Rajnakin Khinkhini, Akola district, and dates from c. 11th cent. A.D. No other member of the parikara is shown. A beautiful sculpture of Parsva in ardha-pudmasana with a fine canopy of seven snake-hoods and snake-coils behind serving as a sort of back-rest is in worship in the Parsvanatha Basadi at Yamakana

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 185 maradi in Belgaum district. The sculpture is assignable to c. 10th cent. A.D. A later sculpture of standing Parsva, with a canopy of five snake-hoods and the coils of Dharanendra behind, is in worship in Panca Basadi, Stavanidhi, Belgaum district, Chikkodi Taluq. The Jina here stands under an arch supported by two pillars on tops of which in niches are two small sitting Jina figures. Near the right leg of Parsva sits four-armed Dharanendra yaksa while on the corresponding left end sits four-armed Padmavati yaksi, both of them having a snake-hood above the crown. The sculpture dates from c. 13th cent. A.D. A somewhat earlier and more beautiful sculpture of Parsva, from neck upwards and with feet and pedestal also broken, is preserved in the museum at Bidar and hails from Basavakalyana in the Humnabad Taluq of Bidar district. This is a Covisi Digambara sculpture with rows of sitting Tirthankaras on two sides and an attendant male camaradhara on each side. A much later figure of standing Parsva with four-armed yaksa and yaksi near his legs is in worship at Rona in Dharwar district. Here small figures of sitting Jinas are shown in the hollows of the torana arches above and one more row on lotuses springing from them, thus making this a Caturvimsati-Patta image of Parsvanatha. Another late sculpture of standing Parsva with four-armed yaksa and yaksi is in worship in the Adinatha Basadi. Mugadd in Dharwar district. Another Eka-Tirthi of Parsvaratha with a canopy of seven hoods and fourarmed yaksa and yaksi sitting near the legs is found from Lakkundi in Dharwar district. The beautiful sculpture dates from c. 12th century A.D. Of about thirteenth century is a standing Parsvanatha with standing four-armed yaksa and yaksi by the side of his legs in worship in Sankesvara Basadi in Dharwar district. A much later stone sculpture of Parsva sitting on a big seat is preserved in the Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar. Here also fourarmed Dharanendra yaksa and Padmavati yaksi are standing on two sides of the high seat. A beautiful sculpture of standing Parsva with a fine circular canopy of seven snake-hoods is found from Lakkundi. The sculpture of fine Chalukyan style dates from c. ninth century A.D. There are no other members of the parikara nor a back slab. This is a sculpture in the round unfortunately broken below the knees. It is now preserved in the local museum. Of about the same age is a similar sculpture in the round with part of the snake-hoods mutilated and broken from below the knees. It is found from the site of the ancient Jaina Tirtha Kulpak in the Nalgonda district. It is now preserved in the local site museum of Somesvara temple. Kirit Mankodi has published two single figures of Paravanatha from the wall of the Jaina temple at Hallur in north Karnataka.343 A beautiful standing figure of this Jina with seven snake-hoods and coils of the snake behind his body is preserved in the Panchakuta Basadi at Kambadahalli, Karnataka. In a small village known as Bellur on the way to Bangalore from Kambadahalli is a fine sculpture in the round of Parsva sitting in ardhapadmasana with five snake-hoods overhead and coils of the snake at his back. Dating from c. 10th century and of the style under the Gangas, this sculpture is said to have been brought here from Nagamangalam. A beautiful early sculpture of Parsva seated in the ardhapadmasana against a back seat made of a horizontal bar supported by two dwarf pillars with lions standing on hind legs is found from a ruined Basadi at Bankur, Chitapur Talug, Gulbarga district. Between the back-rest and the body of the Jina are the coils of the seven-hooded Dharanendra at the back of the Jina. From two ends of the back-rest spring two camaradhara yaksas. There is a triple umbrella over the snake-hoods. The sculpture dates from c. 8th cent. A.D. There is a beautiful sculpture of Parsvanatha standing with coils of Dharapendra at the back in worship in a shrine at Sravana Belagola. The canopy of seven snake-hoods is arranged in an almost complete circle. The sculpture is a beautiful specimen of the Ganga art of c. 10th cent. A.D. Of c. late 11th century is a fine sculpture of Parsva standing preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (see fig. 46). Four-armed Dharanendra yaksa and Padmavati yaksi are sitting on two sides near the legs of the Jina. The sculpture hails from northern Karnataka. Of about the 11th cent. A.D. there is also a sculpture of Parsva sitting in the ardhapadmasana against the back-seat with a horizontal bar supported by two pillars. On the back of the Jina is also a big cushion. Two camaradharas are shown springing as it were from the back-seat. In all these cases the Jina has canopy of seven snake-hoods. This sculpture is preserved in a shrine in Sravana Belagola. In

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186 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana the Bhandare Basti at Sravana Belagola in the set of 24 standing Tirthankaras we find an image of Parsvanatha standing with four-armed Dharanendra and Padmavati standing on his two sides near the legs (see fig. 78). Such figures of this Tirthankara are in worship in the sets of Jinas in the Suttalaya of Gommata, Sravana Belagola, at Venur, Karkala, and other places in South Karnataka. Dhaky has published two beautiful sculptures of Parsvanatha sitting from temples in Humca. They are specimens of Santara art of the eleventh and twelfth century A.D.344 Dhaky has also published a sculpture of standing Parsvanatha from Hiriya Basadi at Gerrosoppe in Karnataka. Four-armed yaksa and yaksi stand near the legs of the Jina. The Jina is worshipped as Candogra-Parsvanatha. The sculpture is assigned to c. 14th-15th cent. A.D.345 An inscription refers to Candogra-Parsvanatha of Hiriya Basti.346 Atwelfth century sculpture of the same iconographic type is preserved in the site museum at Halebid (Basti-Halli). C. Sivaramamurti has published an exquisitely carved elaborate sculpture of standing Parsvanatha from Karnataka, in his Panorama of Jaina Art, South India, fig. 18. The Jina stands under an illikavalayatorana arch supported by two pillars. In front of the pillar on the right is sitting four-armed Dharanendra yaksa and on the left side of the Jina is the four-armed Padmavati. Of Western Chalukyan style and assignable to c. 11th-12th cent. A.D., the sculpture hails from Pattankudi in Karnataka. P. Gururaja Bhatt has listed several images and temples in Tulu-Nadu, South Karnataka; ior example, Mudabidri in the Guru-Basti, the Mathada-Basti, the Tirthankara-Basti, in the Hosangadi-Basti at Hosangadi, in the Jaina Basti at Belli-bidu, in Venur in the Kelagina-Basti and the Tirthankara-Basti, in the Dodda-Basti at Aladangadi, the Tirthaikara-Basti at Bangavadi, Chikka-Basti at Buleri-Puddabettu, Jaina Bastis at Arikallu, Kudi-bailu, Mijaru, etc., in the Parsvanatha Basti at Manjesvara, in HallaraBasti and Adda-keri Basti, Bommaraja-Basti etc. at Karkala, and so on.347 He has also illustrated some stone and metal images of this Jina in his book Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, pl. 409, figs. a, b, pl. 413, fig. c, pl. 417, fig. b, pl. 418, fig. a, pl. 420, fig. b, pl. 423, fig. a, pl. 425, fig. a, pl. 431, fig. b, pl. 432, fig. b, etc. We have already referred to some sites in Tamil Nadu which have rock-cut reliefs of the scene of attack of Kamatha. Besides these there other reliefs and sculptures of this Jina found from different sites. Sivaramamurti, op. cit., fig. 83 illustrates a standing Parsva with attendant camaradharas in worship at Tirumalai. The sculpture dates from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. Here Parsva has a canopy of five snake-hoods. His fig. 43 illustrates Parsva seated with five snake-hoods in recess in the side wall of the front wall of the Pallava period cave at Sittannavasal, Tiruchirapalli district. The sculpture dates from the seventh century A.D. A beautiful head of this Jina with five snake-hoods from Chettipatti is illustrated by Sivaramamurti in his fig. 61. This is a Chola sculpture of c. 9th cent. A.D. In the National Museum, New Delhi is preserved a beautiful Chola period sculpture of Parsva standing in kayotsarga mudra with five snake-hoods overhead. The Jina is flanked by padma and sarkha nidhis. This is a very rare type of Tirthankara image assignable to c. 10th cent. A.D., illustrated by Sivaramamurti, op. cit., fig. 13. Tho Madras Museum has two partly mutilated sculptures in the round of Paravanatha from Danavulpadu in Cuddapah district. Sivaramamurti's figs. 55, 56 and fig. 69 are illustrations of rock-cut Jaina reliefs from Vallimalai in Andhra Pradesh. They include sculptures of Parsvanatha, assignable to 9th10th cent., Chola-Pallava transition style. In the Khajana Building Museum, Golkonda, is a colossal sculpture of standing Parsva, carved in the round, assignable to c. 9th century A.D. Another big free standing Parsva sculpture from Pattancheru, A.P., assignable to 11th cent. A.D., is preserved in the Government Museum of Archaeology, A.P. State, Hyderabad. In the office of the Department of Archaeology, A.P. State, Hyderabad there is an interesting black stone Covisi of Parsvanatha standing under a canopy of seven snake-hoods. Two small figures of camaradharas stand on elephants by the side of Parsva's shoulders. On both the sides and on top are small figures of other 23 Jinas in sitting postures. On two ends of the back stela, near the legs of Parsvanatha are standing four-armed figures of the yaksa and yaksini. The sculpture is assigned to c. 12th cent. A.D.At Durgakonda, Ramatirtham, Vizagapattam district, is a figure of Parsva standing on a full-blown lotus. The sculpture dates from c. latter half of the eleventh century A.D. Sivaramamurti, op. cit., figs. 282, 282A, 534 illustrate a beautiful sculpture of standing Parsva from Penukonda, Anantapur district, A.P. The sculpture is assignable to

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 187 c. 11th cent. A.D. and is a fine specimen of Western Chalukyan art. Sivaramamurti's fig. 285 illustrates rock-cut seated Parsva with princely attendant and his consort, believed to be Mallamadevi and Betana, from Hanamkonda, assignable to 12th-13th century, of art under the Kakatiyas. Fig. 288 from Hanamkonda is a rock-cut standing Parsva, Kakatiya, c. 12th-13th cent. A.D., and Sivaramamurti's fig. 289 is of a standing Parsva from Hindupur, Anantapur district. Parsvanatha is said to have visited the Kadambari forest where there was a mountain named Kali with a tank (kunda) nearby. Here an elephant worshipped him. King Karakandu, of Campa 348 nearby, knowing this, visited the spot but by this time Pasivanatha had left the place. The king was dejected but on digging near the spot a beautiful jewel-image of the Jina was discovered which was then installed in a big shrine and the image came to be known as Kalikunda-Parsvanatha. Even today, almost all over India, there are several shrines of Parsvanatha known as Kalikunda-Parsvanatha temples. Since Parsvanatha is invoked for obtaining various desires, especially in different Tantric rites, he is verily regarded as a Cintamani, a wish-fulfilling gem, and a Tantric diagram known as Cinta nani-Yantra is also worshipped.349 Often some images of this Jina are called Cintamani-Parsvanatha and temples are named after him. There is no special iconographic significance behind these names. Artists introduced some variations in the representation of the canopy of snake-hoods for Parsvanatha. Thus a Sahasraphana-Parsvanatha image came into being. This enabled the artists to create beautiful arch-like hoods or a thick cluster of hoods over the head of the Jina. At Satrunjaya there is a Sahasraphana-Parsvanatha sculpture of late mediaeval period. A painted Pata of Sahasraphana Parsvanatha was published by Sarabhai Nawab in Jaina Citrakalpadruma, Vol. I. A big stone plaque, with an inscription dated in V.S. 1903 (A.D. 1847) installed in the Caumukha shrine at Ranakpur is illustrated in Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 79. Stambhana-Parsvanatha, worshipped at Cambay (Khambhat) in Gujarat, is so called because, originally, Nagarjuna, a great Jaina monk pupil of Padalipta, is reported to have solidified mercury with the help of miraculous power of an image of this Jina. The process of solidifying is called stambhana, whereby the image was known as Stambhana-Parsvanatha and in course of time it was installed in Cambay.350 Parsvanatha is an eminent deity in Jaina Tantra. He is especially invoked for protecting a worshipper from supernatural beings like Bhuta, Preta, Sakini, Vetala, etc.,351 from epidemics and other mishaps and for fulfilling various desires of the worshipper. Parsvanatha is the deity par excellence of the Jaina Mantrasastra 352 Jinaprabha suri gives the following list of various shrines of this Jina situated at different places: Navanidhi-Parsvanatha at Ajagraha, Bhavabhayahara-Parsvanatha at Stambhanaka, Visvakalpalata. Parsvanatha at Falavardhika (modern Falodhi in Rajasthan), Upasargahara-P. at Karahetaka (Karbad in Maharashtra), Tribhuvanabhanu-P. at Abicchatra, Sri-Parsvanatha at Kalikunda and Nagahrada, Visvagaja-P. at Kukkutesvara, Chaya-P. on the Mahendra mountain, Sahasraphani-Parsvanatha on the Omkara parvata (on the banks of Narmada, in M.P.), Bhavyapuskaravartaka-P. at Dandakata in Varanasi, Patalacakravarti-P. in the Mahakala shrine (Ujjain), Kalpadruma-P. at Mathura, Asoka-P. at Campa and Sri-Parava on the Malayagiri 353 Scenes from the life of Parsva are found in Kalpasutra miniatures and in paintings on wooden bookcovers of palm-leaf manuscripts. One such book-cover is preserved in the collections of the L.D. Institute of Indology. Scenes from Parsva's life including some from his previous births are carved, with labels, in ceilings in the Mahavira and Santinatha temples at Kumbharia and in a ceiling of a devakulika (no. 16) of Lupavasahi, Abu. Tiwari thinks that on the wall of the eastern devakulika of Mahavira shrine, Osia, there are scenes from the life of Parsva. 24. TWENTY-FOURTH TIRTHANKARA: MAHAVIRA VARDHAMANA The twenty-fourth Tirthankara Vardhamana Mahavira was a senior contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Both Mahavira and Buddha were contemporaries of Bimbisara and Aja tasatru of Magadha.354 ional

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188 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to traditional Svetambara calculations, the date of Mahavira's Nirvana, at the age of 72, falls in 527 B.C.355 Mahavira was born as the son of Siddhartha and Trisala, leaders of the Jnatc clan of the Ksatriyas of Kundapura (Kunda grama), probably a suburb of the ancient city of Vaisali, the capital of Videha country. Svetambara Jaina accounts show that Mahavira was first conceived in the womb of Devananda, a Brahmana lady residing in another suburb of Vaisali, known as Brahmanakundagrama. Seeing that no Jaina Patriarch was ever born of Brahmana blood, Sakra-Indra ordered his Commander of Infantry, Harinegamesin or Negamesin by name, to transfer the embryo to the womb of Trisala, wife of Ksatriya chief Siddhartha. This Svetambara legend of the Transfer of Embryo is not known to Digambara sources who describe Mahavira as the son of Prince Siddhartha and his wife Priyakarinl, ruling at Kundapura, 356 According to Svetambara Jaina canon, Trisala was the sister of king Cetaka of Vaisali,357 the capital of Videha and was, therefore, known as Videhadinna (Videbadatta). The Digambara Purapa Harivamsa (of Jinasena), composed in 783 A.D., addresses the mother of Mahavira as both Trisala and Priyakarini. According to this text as well as the Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra, Priyakarini was the daughter of Cetaka 358 Golden in appearance, Mahavira descended from the Pranata heaven, in the Hasta naksatra according to Svetambara belief and in the Uttrafalguni according to Harivamsa. His parents called him Vardhamana or the prosperous one because wealth, fame and merit of his family began increasing with his birth. Gods called him Mahavira or the Great Hero on account of his great valour, fortitude and hardiness in enduring hardships. 359 He was also known as Jnats-putra or the Scion of the Jnats Sect of the Ksatriyas. An incident demonstrating his great valour in childhood is narrated by Jaina texts. Svetambara accounts call it Amalaki-krida (the game known as Amalaki) and describe it as follows: Vardhamana was playing the Amalaki game near a tree with a group of lads when a god came to test the valour of the young would-be Jina. He first assumed the form of a big snake and went round the stem of the tree. All the boys except Vardhamana were frightened and ran away while Vardhamana boldly approached the cobra, caught him and threw him away.360 According to Digambara account, god Sanga maka, who came to test the valour of Vira, assumed the form of a huge snake and entwining his body round the whole length of the stem of the tree frightened the lads playing on the branches. Vira, unperturbed, danced on the cobra's hoods (compare the Hindu legend of Krspa dancing on the hoods of the Kaliya snake). The god was pleased at the courage and valour of the Lord and called him Mahavira.361 Svetambaras narrate one more test taken by this god. Leaving the form of a cobra, Sangamaka assumed the form of a human lad and joined the boys in their new game called the Tindusaka, 362 played between two boys every time wherein the victor was to be carried on shoulders by the vanquished. The god was defeated and Vardhamana mounted himself on the former's shoulders. Immediately the god assumed the form of a Pisaca (demon) and grew taller and taller. Undaunted, Vardhamana gave with his fist such a strong blow on the back of the Pisaca that the latter was obliged to give up all further attempts at mischief. The god then praised Vardhamana and called him Mahavira.363 In school, Indra came in the form of a Brahmana and asked Mahavira certain difficult questions on grammar which were immediately answered by young Mahavira, to the surprise of the teacher and other pupils. Indra informed the teacher that Mahavira was a would-be Tirthaokara.304 According to Svetambara belief, Mahavira was married to a princess named Yasoda from whom he had a daughter Priyadarsa or Anojja by name. Anojja was given in marriage to one Jamali who later became a disciple of Mahavira and was responsible for the first schism in the Jaina Church.365 The Digambara sect does not believe that Mahavira was ever married but according to some scholars the difference is due to a misunderstanding of certain verses in the Paumacariyam, the Padmacarita of Ravisena and the Avasyaka Niryukti.366 According to both the sects, Mahavira took diksa at the age of thirty. The Svetambaras say that his parents died when he was 28 years old; at the request of his elder brother Nandivardhana and others he stayed at home for about a couple of years. During this period he spent his time at home in observance of vows and in standing in meditation,367 The Kalpa-sutra says: "A year before the Jinas retire from the

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 189 world, they continue to give away their property in charity, from the rising of the Sun. One crore and eight lacs of gold is his gift at the rising Sun, as if it were his daily meal. 388 crores and 80 lacs were given in one year."368 Mahavira similarly gave charities for one year. Then the Laukantika gods approaching him requested him to propagate the religion. Mahavira, mounting on a palanquin called Candraprabha, went to a garden outside the city, removed all ornaments etc., and plucked out his hair in five handfuls.369 According to the Digambara sect, Mahavira practised rigorous austerities for twelve years. An obstacle (upasarga) from Mahadeva or Sthanu, created with a view to test Mahavira's steadfastness, at Ujjain in the cremation ground known as Atimuktaka-smasana, is narrated by the Uttarapurana.370 Siva tried to frighten Vardhamana with forms of Vetalas etc., but the sage remained unperturbed and steadfast in meditation at which Mahadeva called him a great hero (Maha-Vira) and praised in many ways. This Digambara account suggesting some strong Saivite opposition has its parallel in the Svetambara account of upasargas from yaksa Sulapani (one with trident in hand, a name of Siva) at Asthikagrama, known as Vardhamanapura (modern Burdwan).371 Says the Kalpa-sutra: "The Venerable ascetic Mahavira for a year and a month wore clothes; after that time he walked about naked, and accepted alms in the hollow of his palms."372 Svetambara texts, Kalpa-sutra, Avasyaka Niryukti and Avasyaka-Curni, as also later commentaries and biographies of Mahavira, give more interesting details about Mahavira's itinerary which have been discussed by Muni Kalyanavijaya in his Sramana Bhagavana Mahavira and summarised by J.C. Jaina in his Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jaina Canons.373 In the second year after taking diksa, on his way to Uttaravacala and Svetavi, Mahavira met a deadly huge serpent called Canda-Kausika, whose very sight and breath were poisonous enough to kill any living being (drstivisa-sarpa). But even repeated bites by the serpent bore no effect in the case of Mahavira and the serpent was converted. The snake then remembered his past existence and, following the Jaina path of virtue, died of starvation. The Jina's first meeting with Gosala (leader of the Ajivika sect) took place at Nalanda in the second year of Mahavira's monkhood. In the fifth year Mahavira and Gosala went to Haledduga from Savatthi. Here under a turmeric tree, while Mahavira was standing in meditation, his feet are said to have been burnt by some fire. Wandering they both reached Coraya Sannivesa from which place they went to Kalambuka Sannivesa where both were tied and beaten by one Kalahasti and were later on set at liberty by Megha. Then both of them proceeded to the country of Ladha (Radha).374 Here Mahavira had to endure various kinds of sufferings. 375 Dogs were let loose on them and they were molested in various ways. While leaving the country, two thieves, in a border village, tried to assassinate them but were saved at the intervention of the god Sakra. They then went to Bhaddiya or Bhaddiyapura. In the sixth year Gosala went away and Mahavira wandered alone. At Salistyagama he met with an upasarga from a Vyantara demi-goddess Kataputana.376 It seems that this Salisirsa was a centre of worship of this child-devouring deity and that Mahavira met with some opposition from worshippers of these Bala-grahas.377 Again Gosala joined Mahavira. In the ninth year both of them proceeded to Ladha and wandered in Vajjabhumi and Subbabhumi where Mahavira had to undergo all sorts of tortures. Sometimes people set dogs on him and did not give him shelter. The ninth rainy season was spent in this country. In the eleventh year Mahavira went to Sanulatthi from Sravasti and thence to Drdhabhumi, a land of the Mlecchas. From here he proceeded to Padhalagima and stood in meditation in the Polasa caitya. A god, Sangamaka by name, thinking that no human being can stand divine tests, created obstacles (upasargas) and caused unbearable severe pain to the person of Mahavira, with several insects, ants, scorpions, lions, elephant etc. as also by blowing terrific winds, by throwing heavy stones and weapons on him and so on.378 For six months from here the god followed Mahavira and put obstacles even in obtaining alms from local population. But all his attempts to deviate Mahavira from his path failed. In the thirteenth year Mahavira went to Chhamanigama where a cow-boy left his two bullocks by the side of Mahavira meditating and entered the village. The bulls ran away. Returning, the cowboy inquired of Mahavira about his animals but the sage, in meditation and observing silence (maunavrata), gave no reply. Enraged, the villager thrust a long nail in each ear of the sage. Mahavira then

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190 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana went to Madhyama-Pava where a physician, Kharaka by name, removed the nails and cured the wounds. Next, Mahavira proceeded to Jambhiyagama (Jsmbhikagrama) on the northern bank of the river Rjupalika (Ujjupaliya). In the field of the householder Samaga, in a north-eastern direction from the Veyavatta shrine (i.e. shrine of Vaiyavstta=yaksa), under a Sala tree (Shorea Robusta), Mahavira obtained Kevala-jnana during deep meditation in a squatting position with knees up (ukkuda-janu), known as Godohika position.379 Representations of some of the upasargas suffered by Mahavira are available in miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra,380 but stone plaques depicting these are rare. However in a ceiling slab of a bay in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, and in the Santinatha temple at the same place we find, elaborately carved with appropriate labels incised below each figure, scenes from previous births as well as this birth of Mahavira. The reliefs date from the eleventh century A.D. These reliefs include scenes of upasargas of Mahavira, but unlike the upasargas by Kamatha to Parsvanatha, the upasargas suffered by Mahavira did not become popular in Svetambara and Digambara shrines. ding to both the sects, Mahavira had eleven Ganadharas headed by Gautama Indrabhiti Candana or Candanabala is reported to have been the head of Mahavira's order of nuns. According to the Digambaras, Mahavira obtained Nirvana at Pavapura in the Manohara-vana, on a jewelled platform (mahamanisila) in the midst of a lake.381 According to the Svetambaras, Mahavira died in the town of Papa (Pava) in king Hastipala's office of writers. In that night in which Mahavira died, the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala, the nine Mallakis and the nine Licchavis instituted an illumination.382 This is now celebrated as Dipavali Parva, according to the Jainas. Matanga was his yaksa and Siddhayika the yaksini according to both the sects, though the symbols held by them are different in the two traditions. A pedestal of a Jina image, with only the feet of the Jina left on it, obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura, is now preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (Mu. no. J.2). There is no trace of a cognizance anywhere on the pedestal or below the feet of the Jina but the inscription on the pedestal records, after an invocation to Siddhas, the setting up of an image of Arhat Mahavira in the temple of the Arhats. 383 The image is dated in Samvat 299. Referred to the era of 57 B.C. it would be dated in 242 A.D., but if referred to the era of 78 A.D. the date would be 377 A.D. The pedestal with the inscription is partly mutilated but it seems that the daughter of Okharika and the lay sister of Ujhatika and Okha and Sirika and Sivadina were amongst the donors of this image as well as the Devakula referred to in the last line of the inscription.384 J.E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw referred the inscription to the old Saka era of 129 B.C. and read the date as 199 A.D.385 But as R.C. Sharma has proved the date is 299. When referred to the old Saka era this date would then be 170 A.D. Another noteworthy image of Vardhamana is the one set up by Okharika, daughter of Damitra (Demetrius) in the year 84 of the reign of Vasudeva. The sculpture was obtained from Kankali Tila, Mathura, and is now in the Mathura Museum (no. 490). The date would be equivalent to 162 A.D. acc. to its usual calculation in the era of 78 A.D. Then Okharika of this inscription and Okharika of J.2 Lucknow Museum just discussed could be contemporary or identical. 386 This sculpture is also mutilated with only the pedestal and the crossed legs and palms of hands remaining. A lotus and a cakra are carved on the soles of each foot as marks of a Mahapurusa. In the centre of the simhasana is a dharmacakra on pillar on two sides of which are two worshippers sitting with folded hands. Next in order on the right is standing a naked Jaina monk with a piece of cloth hanging from his hand and concealing his nudity. The monk further seems to have carried a broom (rajoharana) in one of his hands. Two more standing males represent lay Jaina worshippers (Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper no. 6, fig. 16). On the corresponding left side of the dharmacakra stands a lady with an object in one hand (possibly a rajoharana) and two more ladies with hands folded in adoration represent Jaina female lay worshippers (sra vikas). Thus the pedestal shows worship of the Jina above and/or the dharmacakra by all the four constituents of the Jaina Samgha, namely, the sadhu, the sadhvi, the sravaka and the sravika. The dharmacakra is placed on a pillar in this and many other specimens from Mathura. The conception of cakra-pravartana, religious or political, was common to all sects.

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 191 Nos. J.14, J.16, J.22, J.31, J.53 and J.66 from Mathura in the State Museum, Lucknow, are also images of this Jina, called Vardhamana in the inscriptions on them, and date roughly in the Kusana period. In the inscription on J.2 noted above the Jina is called Mahavira. Figure 78 illustruted in this book is no. 5.16 in the Lucknow Museum. Of the images and fragments of images of Mahavira discovered from Mathura of the Scythian period, one is dated in the year 50 (?) (Luders List, no. 50), another in the year 20 (Luders list, no. 28), a third in the year 5 of Kaniska (ibid., no. 18), a fourth in the year 29, while one more gives the year 22 (ibid., no. 31).387 A dated specimen of Mahavira image of the early Gupta period, preserved in the Lucknow Museum, is published by R.D. Bannerji in his Age of the Imperial Guptas. It shows the Jina seated in dhyana mudra on a lion-throne having two lions standing near its ends and a dharmacakra placed on a small platform in the middle. On both sides of the Wheel of Law are devotees with folded hands. The inscription shows that it was dedicated at Mathura, in the Gupta year 113, by a Jaina lady named Samadhya.388 There is neither a recognizing symbol nor a yaksa pair on the pedestal of this sculpture of early Gupta period (433 A.D.). In Chhabi Vol. I, U.P. Shah published a beautiful sculpture preserved in the Bharata Kala Bhavana, Varanasi (no. 161). The Jina sits on a high pedestal in front of which is spread a big part of a large double lotus suggesting that the Jina sits on the visva-padma. The motif can also be interpreted as a carpet or an embroidered cloth spread over the seat. There is a standing camaradhara on each side of the Jina and a maladhara on each side of the halo. On the lower end of the pedestal in the centre is a dharmacakra fanked by two lions. Near the end of the pedestal on each side is a small seated Jina figure. This is thus a Tri-Tirthika image of Mahavira, assignable to c. sixth century A.D. The image is said to have been found in Varanasi. Two Jivantasvam images of Mahavira, assignable to sixth century A.D. obtained from Akota near Baroda (Vadodara), published in Akota Bronzes, pp. 26-28, are illustrated as Figs. 29, 30 in this book. Of these fig. 30 can be assigned to c. 500 A.D. Many later images of Jivantasvami-Mahavira are found from places like Osia, Jodhpur, Sirohi, etc. which have been referred to and discussed in Chapter 2 above. A beautiful seventh century sculpture of Mahavira in padmasana is being worshipped as Jivantasvami in the sanctum of the Jaina temple at Nandia, Rajasthan. A relief sculpture of Mahavira standing is seen among the group of rock carvings at Dhank, Saurashtra, Gujarat. The lion cognizance of Mahavira is carved in the centre of the simhasana represented by two more lions at the two ends of the seat. The Jina sits in padmasana and is attended by two standing camaradharas on two sides. Over the head of the Jina is a triple-umbrella with branches of the Caitya-tree carved on its sides. Below the figure of the lion cognizance is a dharmacakra with its rim facing us, very much weather-worn and not easily recognisable. The relief dates from c. seventh century A.D. All the Jainas in India take pride in calling themselves followers of Mahavira. He is popular throughout India. Temples and images of Mahavira are found all over India wherever Jainism has spread and survived. A relief sculpture of Mahavira in the sanctum of the Jaina Cave at Aihole is noteworthy. It shows the Jina seated in ardha-padmasana in front of a big cushion placed against an architectural device of a horizontal cross-bar supported by two pilasters and having makara-motif at the ends of the bar. There is a camaradhara on each side behind the figure of Mahavira. There is one more male figure on each side standing with both the hands folded in adoration. The pedestal shows three lions, two at the ends suggesting that this is a simhasana and one in the centre. On the right side of the throne is a bust of a female (?) with folded hands and five snake-hoods overhead while on the left is another bust with one snake-hood overhead. There is a simple prabhavali behind the head of the Jina and a tripleumbrella above. The sculpture is interesting as an old specimen from Karnataka and shows an early stage in the iconography of Tirthankara sculptures. The attendant figures with snake-hoods cannot be identified, but they seem to be Naga attendants mentioned in early Jaina texts and referred to before. The sculpture certainly represents Mahavira because of the lion cognizance in the centre of the pedestal.

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192 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Absence of the Caitya-tree and other members of the parikara as well as of the yaksa and yaksi may be noted. This elaborate sculpture dates from c. seventh century A.D. or earlier. In the sanctum of the Badami Jaina cave (cave no. IV) is another beautiful elaborately carved sculpture with Mahavira sitting in ardha-padmasana in the centre, and resting against a big cushion behind which is the back-seat with a horizontal bar resting on two dwarf pillars. Lions standing on hind legs are attached to these pillars while the bar has makara-ends. The Jina has a plain halo and sits under a triple umbrella and a Caitya-tree. On two sides of the tree are flying maladhara (garland-bearing) couples. The simhasana shows, besides the two lions at the ends, a lion in the centre, facing us. The central lion is the cognizance of Mahavira. Behind the back-rest stand two male camaradharas. The sculpture dates from c. late sixth century A.D. and is an early iconographic specimen from Karnataka. Representation of the lion cognizance in the centre instead of the usual dharmacakra in north India is typical of all sculptures of Mahavira in the different areas of South India but there are a few exceptions which cannot be explained satisfactorily at present. One such case is fig. 235 in Panorama of Jaina Art, South India, showing seated Parsvanatha with chowrie-bearers, Calukya, 11th century, from Candini The Jina sits on a cushion with lotus petal design, placed on a simhasana having all five lions in different compartments. The Jina has a canopy of seven snake-hoods and represents Parsvanatha. But in the centre of the simhasana is the lion cognizance. It is just possible that the sculpture of Parsva is placed on a simhasana which once had on it a sculpture of Mahavira. Another such case is of a sculpture of Parsvanatha, Calukya, from Humcha in Shimoga district. illustrated as fig. 248 in Panorama of Jaina Art, South India. A third case is of fig. 285 in the same book illustrating rock-cut seated Parsvanatha, with princely attendant and his consort, Kakatiya, from Hanamkonda, A.P., which shows a central lion on the simhasana. In this case there is no question of replacement of another sculpture on a pedestal of Mahavira. So this is one of the exceptional cases. Of course in most cases the lion in the centre would indicate that the Jina above is Mahavira. Of this type is a very important Jaina bronze in the Brooklyn Museum, published as fig. 10, Paper no. 26, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 269ff. This is a late Pallava bronze with inscription on three sides of the simhasana with three lions in three compartments. The bronze dates from late 8th or early 9th century A.D. In the same paper, fig. 33, U.P. Shah has published a bronze image of Mahavira with a Kannada inscription, from the collection of Shri Bijoy Sinh Nabar, Calcutta. The image shows four-armed yaksa and yaksini of Mahavira. The bronze dates from c. 10th century A.D. Fig. 61 in the same paper is another bronze of Mahavira from south Karnataka, now preserved in Musee Guimet, Paris. The yaksa and yaksi in this case are two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. On one side of Mahavira (seated in the centre) stands Parsvanatha with seven hoods above head while on the left stands Bahubali in the kayotsarga mudra. In C. Sivaramamurti's Panorama of Jaina Art, referred to above, we find several sculptures and rockcut figures of Mahavira with the lion in the centre of the simhasana, instead of the dharmacakra. In this book fig. 73 shows two rock-cut figures of Mahavira with a separately carved figure of two-armed Sarvanubhuti on the right side, and Ambika with lion vehicle on the extreme left. These reliefs from Vallimalai, Chittoor district, A.P., date from c. 9th-10th century A.D. Sivaramamurti's figures 74, 75 illustrate rock-cut sculptures of Mahavira at Kalugumalai, Tamil Nadu. They are of c. 8th-9th century, Pandyan style. Fig. 95 in the same book illustrates an early relief from Chera territory, Chitharal, Kerala, dating from c. 7th-8th century A.D. and fig. 181 is of seated Mahavira from Hemavati, c. 9th century A.D., Nolamba style. In a ceiling of the Pancakuta Basti, Kambadahalli, Mandya district, Karnataka, is an elaborately carved sculpture of Mahavira sitting in ardha-padmasana with seated figures of two-armed Sarvanubhuti and Ambika on the right and the left side respectively of the simhasana. Full parikara is shown. The whole relief is in the centre of the ceiling and on all sides of this relief are figures of the eight Dikpalas in separate compartments. The whole ceiling panel dates from c. 10th cent. A.D. (Fig. 49 in this book). Figure 442 of Sivaramamurti, op. cit., illustrates a Tri-Tirthi bronze of Mahavira from Hunchalige in Gulbarga district, and fig. 484 a bronze Caturvimsati-Pasta, c. 12th cent. A.D., from Yadwad in

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193 Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras Belgaum district, while fig. 490 is a stone sculpture of seated Mahavira from Humcha, Shimoga district, Karnataka. The Jaina cave at Badami has two more big relief panels of Mahavira standing. In addition to the lanchana, in the centre of the simhasana, are found, near the feet of the Jina, figures of a yaksa and a yaksini. One of these panels is a big Caturvimsati-Patta assignable to c. 10th century A.D. Sculptures of Mahavira are found at Annavasal and Marudar in Tiruchi district, at Villivakkam in Chingleput district, at Chettipatti in old Pudukkottai territory, Tamil Nadu, also at Mavilapatti in the same district, at Korkai and Tenkarai in Tinnevelly district, at Karadipatti in Madurai district, at Peddatumbalam in Bellary district, at Sailada in Ganjam district, and many other places in south India. In Karnataka at Sravana Belagola, Venur, Mudabidri, etc. sculptures of Mahavira standing with his yaksa and yaksi by the sides are found amongst the groups of images of 24 Tirthankaras and even separately in temples as at Kambadahalli, Akkana-Basti, Sravana Belagola etc. In Gujarat and Rajasthan there are several temples and images of Mahavira at Osia, Ghanerao, Abu, Satrunjaya, Akota, Baroda, Ahmedabad, Surat, Bharatpur, etc. No. 279 in Ajmere museum is from Katara in Bharatpur district and is dated in 1004 A... Two-armed yaksa and yaksi figure on two ends of the simhasana; there is a nude standing Jina on either side of Mahavira seated in the centre. There is an image dated 1186 in a niche on the wall of the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia. In devakulika no. 24 of Parsvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is an image of Mahavira dated 1179 A.D. An image of Mahavira was installed in v.s. 1212 in cell 47 of Vimala Vasahi, Abu, according to an inscription on the pedestal. There is an image of this Jina installed in v.s. 1394 in cell no. 50 of the same temple. Also in cell 57 an image of Mahavira was installed in v.s. 1394. In the State Museum, Lucknow, there are about five images of Mahavira. No. J.808 has a yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal. No. J.880 in the same museum is dated in 1007 A.D. This is a Panca-tirthi of Mahavira with Mahavira sitting in the centre with other Jinas standing. In no. J.782 we find a twoarmed goddess standing in the centre of the pedestal instead of the dharmacakra. This sculpture from Itava is dated in 1166 A.D. There is a figure of standing Ksetrapala on the left end of the sculpture. According to Tiwari, figures of Cakresvari, Ambika and Padmavati are also found in this sculpture. At Devgadh there are a few sculptures assignable to c. 12th century A.D. They not only show the lion cognizance but also show the yaksa and yaksi on most of the pedestals. In temple 1, there is a sculpture of Mahavira assignable to c. 10th cent. A.D. In temple 11, on an image dated 1048 A.D. we also have figures of Ambika and Padmavati. Mahavira has hair-locks on his shoulders. Mahavira sculptures here are also sometimes Panca-Tirthika, or have also 2 or 4 or 8 or 15 or 20 more Jina images. There is a fine sculpture of Mahavira on a wall of the Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur. At Khajuraho Mahavira is generally found in a sitting posture. Sometimes he has Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as the yaksa and yaksi. In temple no. 2 at Khajuraho, on a sculpture of this Jina dated 1092 A.D., we have a figure of a four-armed goddess (Santidevi ?) besides the four-armed yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal. In the cave adjoining the Son Bhandar cave at Rajgir, Bihar, there is a relief sculpture of Mahavira on the back wall. Ravindra Nath Choudhari has noted a standing Mahavira figure at Dharpat temple in Visnupur, Bankura district. 389 Five bronze figures of Mahavira are preserved in the Aluara hoard in the Patna Museum. A Mahavira image from Carmpa, Orissa, is preserved in the State Museum, Bhuvaneshwar.390 In the Barabhuji Cave, Khandagiri, we have a relief of Mahavira.391 A Dvi-Tirthi of Rsabha and Mahavira is in the British Museum, London. It seems to have hailed from Orissa. A Dvi-Tirth of Santinatha and Mahavira (c. 12th cent. A.D.) from Narwar, M.P. is in the Shivpuri Museum, M.P. A standing Mahavira from Bilhari, Jabalpur district is in the Rani Durgavati Museum, Jabalpur.

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194 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana REFERENCES 1. Trisastisalakapurusacarita, parva 1; Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Hariramsa, sargas 8-13; Padmacarita of Ravisena, parva 4, pp. 56ff; Paumacariyam of Vimala suri, uddesa 3-4. 2. Avasyaka Niryukti, verses 1080ff; Avasyaka Carni, pp. 131ff; Vasudevahindi, pp. 157-185. Kalpasutra describes the lives of all the 24 Tirthankaras, for which see Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., vol. XXII, pp. 217-311 for life of Rsabha. Lives of only Rsabha, Nemi, Parsva and Mahavira are given in greater detail. Being the earliest known source for lives of the Jinas, it would be interesting to compare this source with later accounts. For a standard text of Kalpa-sutra refer to Pavitra Kalpa-sitra edited by Muni Punyavijayaji with a Very carly Curni by Agastyasimha suri. 3. bRSabho'yaM jagajyeSTho vaSiSyati jagaddhitam / dharmAmRtA matIndrAstamAkA!vaSabhAhvayam // vRSo hi bhagavAndharmastena yaddhAti tIrthakRta / tato'yaM vRSabhasvAmItyAhvAstena puraMdaraH / svargAvataraNe dRSTaH svapne'sya vRSabho yataH / jananyA tadayaM devo AhUto vRSabhAravyayA / / -Adipurana, 4.160-162 Note that the Padmacarita (Padmapurana), 3.219, following the Svetambara tradition, says that name was given by the parents; cf. surendrapUjayA prApto pradhAnanvaM jino yataH / tastaM RSabhAbhikhyA ninyatuH pitarI sutam / / Also cf. tasmingarbhasthite yasmAjjAtA vRssttihirnnmyii| hiraNyagarbhanAmnAsI stutastasmAtsurezvaraiH / / op. cit., 3.216 4. Kalpa-sutra, 211, S.B.E., vol. XXII, pp. 282-283. 5. Jambudvi paprajnapti, sutra 30, p. 135; Avasyaka Vrti of Haribhadra, p. 142. Trisasi.. .3.66-71. 6. Padmapura::a, 3.283: Harivamsa, 9.99; Adipurana, 17.200. 7. Cf.: TETTHETSTECUTfacraat rUtuprarohazAkhAgro yathA nyagrodhapAdapaH / / -Harivamsa, 9.204 ciraM tapasyato tasya jaTA mUni bamustarAm / dhyAnAgnidagdhakarmendhaniyaMdhUmazikhA iva / / --Adipurana, 1.9 8. Vasudevahindi, pp. 163-164. 9. Ibid., p. 185; Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 435 and Mulabhasya gatha 45; Haribhadra's Avasyaka Vrtti, p. 169. 10. For Astapada, see Astapada giri-kalpa in Vividha-Tirtha Kalpa (ed. by Muni Jinavijaya in Singhi Series), pp. 91ff. 11. Ibid., pp. 1-6. 12. Sri Soparaka-stavana published in Jaina Stotra- Samuccaya, pp. 7-14. 13. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 88-89 Kudungesvara-Nabheya deva-Kalpa. 14. Ibid., p. 85. 15. Ibid., p. 97. 16. Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, J.U.P H.S., vol. XXIII (1950), pp. 39-40. Image no. B4. The date is regarded as equivalent to 152 A.D. 17. Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I (Bombay, 1968), pp. 275ff. 18. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, pp. 26 and 28. 19. Shah, U.P., Seven Bronzes from Lilva Deva (Pancha Mahals), Bulletin of the Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda, IX.1-2, pp. 43-52 and plates. 20. Also see Harihar Singh, Jaina Temples of Western India (Varanasi, 1982). 21. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi, Varanasi, 1981), p. 87. 22. Shah, U.P., Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, ...wir mig (New Delhi), 1-2, pp. 55-65 and plates. For a later ornate bronze from Gujarat, see Shah, U.P., A PancaTirthika Metal Image with a Torana from Patan, JISOA, Special no. on Western Indian Art, New Series Vol. I (1965-66), pp. 23-24 and plate. 23. Srivastava, V.S., Catalogue and Guide to Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner (Bombay, 1961). Published in the Journal of the University of Bombay, vol. IX, September, 1940, pp. 147-169. 25. Dhaky, M.A., Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, part I, pp. 290-347 and pls. 26. Shah, U.P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. IX (Sept. 1940); Introduction of Sasanadevatas in Jaina Worship, Proceedings & Transactions of the All India Oriental Conference, 20th Session, Bhuvanesvara (1959), pp. 141 152. 27. Shah, U.P., Origin of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, paper being published in the forthcoming Amalananda Ghosh Memorial Volume. 28. Lohuizen-De Leeuw, J.E. van, Indische Skulpturen der Sammlung von der Heydt im Museum Reitberg, Zurich (1964), pp. 110ff. Jain, Jyotindra and Eberhard Fischer, Jaina Iconography, part one (Leiden, 1971), pl. XXXVIII, p. 31. 29. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, Journ. of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. XX.3 (1971), fig. 8. 30. Ibid., fig. 14. 31. Chanda, Ramaprasad, in Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report for 1925-26, pp. 125ff. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art (Varanasi, 1955), p. 17, and note 6; Muni Vairadeva of Son Bhandara Cave Inscription, Jour. of the Bihar Research Society, Decemos, 1953, pp. 410-12 32. Chanda, Ramaprasad, A.S.I., A.R., 1925-26, pp. 125ff. 33. In Marr bhumi, a daily in Oriya, dated January 12, 1970. Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, p. 163. 34. JAA, vol. I, pp. 73ff; Debala Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri (New Delhi, 1960); Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves (Delhi, 1981); R.P.

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195 Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments of Orissa (Delhi, 1984). Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves, Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta), Vol. L, no. 2 (1950), pp. 127-133; Iconographic Notes, ibid., Vol. I, no. 1 (1959), pp. 37-39. 35. Arun Joshi, History and Culture of Khijjingakotta under the Bhanjas (Bombay, 1983), figs. 40, 45, 47 and pp. 156 160. 36. P. Bannerji in JAA, vol. I, pp. 159ff. For sculptures of R$abhanatha from various sites in Koraput district, Orissa, Jeypore Museum, from Mayurbhanja district and in Baripada Museum, from Podasingidi in Keonjhar district, from Adaspur and Hatadiha in Cuttack district. etc., see Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, figs. 74, 77, 78, 81, 87, 109, 111, 113, 115, 116, 123, 124, 125, 134, 137. 37. Mitra, Debala, Bronzes from Achutrajpur, Orissa (Delhi, 1978), fig. 31. 38. Mitra, Pratip Kumar, Jaina Sculptures from Anai-Jambau. Jaina Journal, Vol. XVIII.2 (1983), pp. 67-72 and plates. 39. See Jainism in Bengal, Jaina Journal, vol. VIII.4 (1969), pp. 160-166 and plates illustrating Adinatha from Surohar, and Covisi of standing Rsabha from Sanka, Purulia, Bengal. Also Ganguli, Kalyan Kumar, Jaina Art of Bengal, Jaina Journal (D)), vol. XVIII.4 (1984), pp. 130-31, and plates; Mitra, Debala, Some Jaina Antiquarian Remains from Bankura, W. Bengal, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Letters, vol. 24; Chakravarty, D.K., A Survey of Jaina Antiquarian Remains in Bengal, Jaina Journal, XVIII.4, pp. 143-149; Mazumdar, R.C., Jainism in Ancient Bengal, Jaina Journal, XVIII.4, pp. 122-129; Devi Prasad Ghosh, Traces of Jainism in Bengal, ibid., 137-142; Dasgupta, Paresh Chandra, Jainism in Ancient Bengal, Jaina Journal, XVII.3 (1983); De, Gourishankar, The Jaina Background of 24Paraganas, Jaina Journal, XVII.4, pp. 140-144 with plate of Rsabhanatha from Ghareswara. 40. Roychoudhary, P.C., Jainism in Manbhum, Jaina Journal, XVIII.4, pp. 152-155, Mukhopadhyaya, Subhas Chandra, Some Jaina Temples of Purulia, Jaina Journal, XVIII.4, pp. 156-164 with plates; Bhowmik, Atul Chandra, Jaina Sculptures from Bhavanipur, Haruyara and Golamara, Jaina Journal (JJ), ibid., pp. 165-170; A Note on Jaina Sculptural Remains at Sitalpur, Bhangra, Harup and Deoli villages in Purulia District, JJ, XVIII.1 (1983), pp. 38-42; Mitra, Pratip Kumar, A Note on Jain Sculptures at Palma, JJ, XVIII.4 (1984), pp. 171-174 with plates. For a plate of Adinatha from Dharapat, West Bergal, see JJ, XII.3. Patil, D.R., Antiquarian Remains of Bihar (Patna, 1963), Jainism in Bihar, JJ, 111.4 (1969), pp. 152-156; McCutchion, David J., Notes on the Temples of Purulia, District Census Handbook, Purulia, W. Bengal (Calcutta, 1961); Simha, Ajoy Kumar, More Sculptures from Bhagalpur, JJ, XVIII.3, pp. 112-117 and plates; Some Unpublished Jaina Images of Bihar, ibid., XVII.4 (1983), pp. 127-134 with plates; Mukhopadhyaya, Subhas Chandra, Pakbirra-A Lost Jaina Site of Purulia, ibid., XVI.1 (1977), pp. 27-35 and plates. 41. Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum, Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I (Bombay, 1968), pp. 275-279, and plates. 42. See Jaina Journal, Vol. III.4 (1969), Mahavira Jayanti Special Number, for Jainism in Madhya Pradesh (pp. 175. 182), Jainism in Uttar Pradesh (pp. 183-190) and Jainism in Punjab (pp. 190-198). Also see Jaina Art and Architecture (JAA), ed. by A. Ghosh, Volumes I and II. 43. Illustrated by V.A. Smith in Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities from Mathura. Also see Agrawala, V.S., Some Brahmanical Deities in Jaina Religious Art, Jaina Antiquary, Vol. III.4 (March, 1938), pp. 83-92. 44. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, A Unique Jaina Image of Ryabhanatha in the State Museum, Lucknow, Jaina Journal, XVI.1 (1981), pp. 20-23 and plate. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhand tha, JOI Vol. XX.3, pp. 280-313, especially p. 294. 45. In JJ, XVI.1, p. 22. For the Devgadh image discussed here, see Klaus, Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh (Leiden, 1969), pp. 183-184, figs. 231-233. 46. For various Jina images at Khajuraho, see Tiwari, M.N.P., Elements of Jaina Iconography, pp. 14-43. 47. Jaina, Balachandra, Jaina Bronzes from Rajanapur Khinkhini, Journal of Indian Museums, Vol. XI (1955), pp. 15-20 and plates. For Jainism in Maharashtra, see JJ, III.4. pp. 222-226 and A. Ghosh, JAA, Vol. II. 48. For Adinatha from Aminbhavi, see C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 17. See JJ, III.4. for Jainism in Mysore (pp. 227-237), Jainism in Andhra Pradesh (pp. 238-247), Jainism in Tamil Nadu (pp. 248 257), Jainism in Kerala (pp. 258ff). 49. Settar, S., Sravana Belagola (Dharwar, 1981), pp. 17ff. 50. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, Journal of the Oriental Institute (JOI). XX.3, fig. 33, pp. 297-298. 51. Ibid., p. 298. 52. Trisasi., vol. II (GOS, Vol. 77), pp. 28ff'; Uttarapurana, parva 48; Tilo yapannatti, 4.527, Vol. I, p. 208. 53. miferae HTAISEU Tuy fueT HAT iti sUnojita ityakArSInnAma bhUpatiH / / - Trisasti., parva 2, 2.579 In his commentary of Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.26, Hemacandra explains the name as: parISahAdibhinaM jitaH iti ajitaH, yadA garbhasthe'smin dyUte rAjJA jananI na jite'tyajitaH / Also compare Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 1080. Also cf.: iMdiyavisayakasAyAiehi dhorataraMgaverIhi / na jio maNayaM piao bhannai ajio jiNo teNa / / 547 / / -Ceiavandana-mahabhasa, p. 99 54. Cf.: pApaH kvApi na jIyate'yamiti vA durvaadibhishcaakhilH| namAnvartha mavAptavAniti vidA stotrasya pAtraM bhavan / -Uttarapurana, parva 48 55. Tiloyapamatti, 4.508ff, 916ff. According to Trisasti. the tree is Saptacchada. 56. Tilo yapannatti, 4.964, 1178; Samavayariga sutra, su. 157.

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196 65. 57. Trisasi., op. cit., Tiloyapannatti, 4.934-937. 58. Sahni, Daya Ram, Catalogue of the Sarnath Museum, no. G.61. 59. Shastri, Hirananda, Report of the Department of Archaeology, Baroda State, 1937-38, pl. IVa. 60. Sharma, R.C., Jaina Sculptures of the Gupta Age in the State Museum, Lucknow, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I (Bombay, 1968), p. 155 and plate. 61. All such references to Bruhn's Figures and Bruhn's book are to Klaus, Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh (Leiden, 1969). Mehta, N.C., A Mediaeval Jaina Image of Ajitanatha1053 A.D., Indian Antiquary, vol. 56, pp. 72-74. Later, Muni Jinavijayaji published it in a Gujarati article in Jaina Sahitya Samsodhaka. 03. 11 such references to Inscriptions Nos. from Abu are from Muni Jayantavijaya, Sri-Arbuda-Pracina-LekhaSamdoha (Abu vol. II), published as Sri Vijaya DharmaSuri-Jaina-Granthamala, no. 40, Ujjain, v.s. 1994 (A.D. 1937). 64. All references here to Inscriptions nos. from Mt. Satrunjaya are from Agamoddharaka Acarya Kanchanasagarasuri's Sri Satrunjaya Giriraja Darshana in Sculpture and Architecture (Kapadwanj, 1982). For example, in the Digambara Jaina Temple at Vatesvara (Batesvara), about 70 km S.E. of Agra, a 5 ft high black stone image of Ajitanatha sitting in padmasana, brought from Mahoba, is installed and worshipped. It was originally consecrated in v.s. 1224 by Jalhada father of Alha-Udala-see fig. 18 in Bharata ke Digambara Jaina Tirtha, Part 1, Uttara Pradesh. The Malava Prantiya Digambara Jaina Samgrahalaya has about a dozen sculptures of Ajitanatha from Badnavar, Gondalmau and other sites. 66. Trisasti., vol. II (GOS, vol. 77), pp. 225ff for all details of Sambhava according to Sve. tradition. Uttarapurana, parva 49 for Digambara version. 67. zaM sukhaM bhavatyasminstute zambhavaH / yadvA gabhaMgate'pyasminnadhikasasya- sambhavAt / -Comm. of Hemacandra on Abhi. Cin., 1.36 Cf.: saMbhave tava lokAnAM zaM bhavatpadya zaMbhava / vinApi paripAkena tIrthakRnnAmakarmaNaH // -Uttarapurana, 49.20 68. Hemacandra, Trisasii., op. cit., Tiloyapannati, 588-937, pp. 217ff. 69. Negative no. D9206, List of Archaeological Photo. Negatives in the Office of Director-General of Archaeology in India. 70. Bharata ke Digambara Jaina Tirtha, Part I, fig. 13. 71. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi, Varanasi, 1981), p. 98. 72. Bajpai, K.D., Parasanatha Kila ke Jaina Avasesa (Hindi). Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Suvarna Mahotsava Grantha, I, Hindi Vibhaga, pp. 81-83. 73. Tiwari, M.N.P., The Jaina Images of Khajuraho with special reference to Ajitana tha, JJ, X.1 (1975), pp. 22-25; Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Images of Sambhavanatha at Khajuraho, Elements of Jaina Iconography, pp. 38-40. 74. Tiwari, M.N.P., Elements of Jaina Iconography, p. 39. 75. Ibid., p. 39. 76. For Sambhavadatha temple at Kumbharia, North Gujarat, see Singh, Harihar, Jaina Temples of Western India (Varanasi, 1982), pp. 144-145 and Muni Visalavijaya, Sri Kumbhariaji Tirtha (Gujarati, Bhavnagar, 1961), pp. 49, 57ff, 120, 134, 140. Harihar Singh, op. cit., pp. 85-86 for Sambhavanatha at Lunavasabi; Muni Visala vijayaji, Sri Radhanapura-Pratima-lekhaSandoha (Bhavnagar, 1960), p. 8. Kanchanasagarasuri, op. cit., pp. 24, 54, 55 etc. 77. Trisasti., parva 3.2; Uttarapurana, parva 50; Tiloyapan natti, 4.522ff. 78. afara garaif fftafe: 1 ---Abhi. Cin., 1.26 and comm. Also see Trisaspi., III.2.63. 79. Piyaka or Priyaka (Piyae in Praket) according to Samavayaniga sufra, sutra 157; Piyala according to Hemacandra, Trisasti, parva III.2.119. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pp. 192-193 gives Prayala as the Caitya-tree of Sambhava and Priyangu of Abhinandana. Sala which is the Caityatree of Sambhava is given as the tree of Ajita. The Table referred to above does not agree with either Hemacandra or with the Uttarapurana etc. Possibly there was some mistake due to oversight in the above Table. The Tiloyapannatti, 4.916, p. 264, gives Sarala as the Caitya-tree of Abhinandana. 80. Bhattacharya, B.C., The Jaina Iconography (second ed., Delhi, 1972), p. 40. P.C. Dasgupta has made some remarks on the ape-cult in a paper, On the Emblem of Abhinandana, published in Jaina Journal, XI.3 (1977). pp. 81-88. 81. Trisasi., parva III.2; Uttarapurana, parva 50; Tiloyapan natti, 4.522ff for details about this Jina in both the Sve. and the Dig. traditions. 82. zobhanA matiryasya sumatiH / yadvA garbhasthe jananyAH sunizcitA madirabhUditi sumatiH / ----Abhi. Cin., 1.26 and comm. Also see Trisassi., III.3.196; Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 52. 83. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, Table on pp. 192-93. 84. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., gives the Sala tree. There seems to have been a mistake due to oversight from no. 2 onwards in the printed table, and it continues further. 85. Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, for 1907 1908, pp. 113ff. 86. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, pp. 64ff, fig. 39. Also see his Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves for references to all Jaina sculptures in these caves. 87. Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi), p. 99. 88. Observation on some Chandel antiquities, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LVIII, no. 4, p. 288. 89. Trisasti., III.4 (GOS, Vol. 7), p. 244; Uttarapurana (also

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 197 published under the title Mahapurana, vols. I-III, by the Bharatiya-Jhanapitha, Delhi), parva 52; Tiloyapannatti, 4.522ff, pp. 217ff for details about this Jina. 90. 941STE SHarhit wat padmAbharacetya, padmaprabha ityAhvayatpitA / / -Trisasti., III.4.51 91. Tiloyapanpatti, 4.916, p. 264; Trisasti., 111.4.64; Samava yarga sutra, su. 157. 91a. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, fig. 71. 92. Tiloyapannarri, op. cit., pp. 217ff; Trisasi., III, sarga 5; Uttarapuraya (also called Mahapurana of Jinasena), parva 53; Kalalokaprakasa, 32.454ff. 93. Cr.: suptamekaphaNe paJcaphaNe navaphaNe'pi ca / nAgavalpe dadarza svaM devI garne pradhini // 30 // garbhasthe'sminsupAcA'bhUjjananI yat tataH prabhoH / supAva ityabhidhAna pratiSThaH pratyatiSThipat / / 48 / / pRthvIdevyA tadA svapne dRSTaM tAdRramahoragaM / zako vicakre bhagavanmUni cchatamivAparam // 79 // tadAdi cAbhUt samavasaraNeSvarareSvapi / nAga ekaphaNaH paJcaphaNo navaphaNo'yavA / / 80 // --Trisasti., III.5.30, 48, 79-80 Also see Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., pp. 43-44. 94. TOTT U sporoft Ta YTTET at prufatti -- Avaiyaka Niryukti, gatha 1083, comm. of Haribhadra, vol. III, p. 503. 95. According to Tilo yapannatti, 4.916ff. According to Uttarapurara, 54.62, he shines like Priyangu flower. 96. According to Tiloyapannatti, Nandyavarta is the cognizance of Suparava. 97. Compare B.67, B.70 in the Mathura Museum. 98. Also see Coomaraswamy, A.K., History of Indian and Indonesian Art, fig. 86, and no. 5.77 from Kankali Tila in the Lucknow Museum showing the Jina (Parsva) with seven snake-hoods. 99. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17-20. 100. Also see Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pl. 12. 101. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Prurima-Vijnana, p. 101, n. 3. 102. Shah, U.P., Jaina Sculptures in the Baroda Museum, Bulletin of the Baroda Museum, Vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 29-30. 103. Tiwari, M.N.P., op. cit., p. 101. 104. Ibid., p. 102. 105. C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art (New Delhi, 1983), figs. 127-128. 106. Ibid., fig. 121. Fig. 81 represents Kamajha's attack carved on the rock at Karaikoyil (Pandya, 8th-9th cent.). Here Parsva has a canopy of five snake-hoods, so also in fig. 1 from Kalugumalai (Pandya, 8th cent.), and fig. 44 from Tirakkol (Pallava, 8th cent.), or fig. 48 from Melsittamur, south Arcot district, TN (PallavaChola transition, 8th-9th cent.), or fig. 85 from Kilakuyilkudi (Pandya, 9th cent.). 107. Ibid., fig. 43. 108. Tiwari, op. cit., p. 102 identifies J.935 as Parsvanatha. 109. Tiwari, ibid., p. 102 and Vats, M.S., A Note on Two Images from Banipar Maharaj and Baijanatha, A.S.I., A.R., for 1929-30, p. 228. 110. Tiwari, op. cir., identifies as Suparsvanatha. 111. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 85. 112. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 54; Trisasti, parva III, sarga 4. 113. Cf.: garbhasthe'sminmAturAsIccandrapAnAya dohadaH / candrAbhazcaiSa ityAhvayaccandraprabhama, pitA / / -- Trisasti., IIL.6.49 Also cf.: kulaM kuvalayaM yasya saMbhave vyaktasattayaM / yatastatazcakArAkhyAM sAthaM candraprabhaprabhoH / / --Uttarapurana, 54.173 114. Punnaga, probably Calophyllum inophyllum, a large tree of Coromandel coast with beautiful white fragrant blossoms and numerous stamens arranged in rows. Trisasi., vol. II (Transl. GOS, vol. 77), p. 352. 1:5. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 29. 116. Ibid., pp. 53-54, 85. 117. Gai, G.S., Three Inscriptions of Ramagupta, Epi. Ind. Vol. XXXVIII, no. 1, pp. 46ff, and plate; Journal of the Oriental Institute, vol. XVIII, pp. 247ff. 118. For a sculpture of standing Candraprabha from Sona giri, Rajgir, see Voice of Ahimsa, vol. 12, no. 9. 119. For Aluara bronzes in the Patna Museum, see Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Parna Museum, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Part I (Bombay, 1968), pp. 275-89. Mitra, Debala, Bronzes from Achutrajpur, Orissa (Delhi, 1978), figs. 29. 32. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, fig. 63. Fig. 62 shows a metal image of Candraprabha in padmasana, from Acutarajpur. A. Ghosh (ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. II, plate 161, fig. A from Banpur and pl. 162, fig. B from Kakatpur. 120. JAA, vol. II, pl. 159, fig. A. 121. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 44. 122. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 84, fig. 2; pl. 89, fig. 1; pl. 98, fig. 1. 123. Chandra, Pramod, Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Museum (Poona, 1971), fig. 406. 124. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratimi-Vijnana (Hindi), p. 103. 125. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff: Uttarapurana, parva 55; Trisasi., III, parva 7. 126. aafar Di puSpadohadato daMtodgamo'sya samabhUditi / / 46 / / suvidhiH puSpadaMtazcetyabhidhAnadvayaM vibhoH / - Trisaspi., III.7.49-50 Also cf.: kSArAbhiSekabhUSAnte puSpadaMtAkhyamabruvan / kundapuSpaprabhAbhAsi dehadIptyA virAjitam / / -Uttarapurana, 55.28 127. Ramachandran, T.N., Tiruparuttiku sram and its Temples, p. 192. 128. Ibid.; Burgess, J., Digambara Jaina Iconography, Indian Antiquary, XXXII, pp. 459ff, XXXIII, pp. 330ff. 129. Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Vol. II, pl. opp. p. 8. 130. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 85. 131. Gai, G.S., op. cit.

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198 132. Shastri, Hirananda, Some Recently Added Sculptures in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow, Memoir of the Archaeological Survey of India, no. 11, p. 14. 133. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, Vol. I, no. 1 (1959), p. 131, pl. IVA; Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 89, fig. 1 and pl. 100, fig. 2. 134. Tiloyapaanatti, 4.512ff; Uttarapurana, parva 56; Trisasi, III.8. 135. #: atacy TTETT VETI garbhasthe'sminniti tasya nAma zItala ityabhUt it --Trisasti., 111.8.47 136. Samavayarga sutra, su. 157 for a list of Caitya-trees of all the 24 Tirthankaras. Tiloyapannatti, 4.916-918, gives a list of all the 24 Caitya-trees. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., pp. 192f. 137. Samavayaniga sutra, su. 157 calls them Ananda and 138. Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi), p. 105. He refers to Anderson's Catalogue, p. 206. It seems that Anderson could not identify the image correctly and somebody might have done the identification for him. Also see Bhattacharya, B.C., Jaina Iconography, 2nd ed., p. 47, note 1. 139. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 85. 140. Mitra, Debala, op. cit.; Mohapatra, R.P., op. cit., pl. 89, fig. 2, and pl. 98, fig. 2. 141. Bhatt, P. Gururaja, Studies in Tuluva History and Culture (1975), plate 424(b). 142. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 57; Trisasi., IV.1; Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., p. 48. 143. for the stafqazt seh r afwat af faat sute fa : 11 --Trisasti., IV.1.88 yathA garbhasthe'sminkenApyanAkrAntapUrvA devatAdhiSThitazayyA jananyAkrAnteti yo jAtamiti zreyAMsaH / / --Comm. on Abhi. Cin., 1.26ff For the story regarding this bed, see Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 53; Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., p. 47. 144. Bannerji, A., Two Jaina Images, Journ of the Bihar & Orissa Research Society, Vol. 28, part 1, p. 44. 145. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 89, 2 and pl. 102, 2; Mitra, Debala, Journ. of Asiatic Sociery, op. cit. 146. Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., p. 47. 147. Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi), p. 105. 148. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurara, 58; Trisasi., IV.2. 149. 24994-uront aggou sfa +994 yathArtha nAma cakrAte zubhe'hani jagatpateH / / ---Trisasli., IV.2.56 vasorindrasya pUjyo'yaM vasupUjyasya vA sutaH / vAsupUjyaH satAM pUjyaH sa jJAnena punAtu vaH / / -Uttarapurara, 58.1 150. Urtarapurana, 58.51-52. 151. Trisasti., IV.2.359-60. 152. Vividha-Tiriha-Kalpa, p. 85. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 153. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi), p. 106. He refers to fig. 17 of his book but that is Candraprabha from Kausambi. He also refers to Photographs nos. 59.36 and 102.6 of the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, for the Shahdol image. 154. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves, op. cit., p. 131, pl. IVB; Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 89, fig. 2, and pl. 99, fig. 2. 155. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 2121; Uttarapurana, parva 59; Trisasi., IV.3. 156. & af affufael 2014 tato vimala ityAkhyAM tasya cakre pitA svayam // -Trisasti., IV.3.48 157. Uttarapurana, 59.22. 158. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 85. 159. Mitra, Debala, ibid., p. 131, pl. IVB; Mohapatra, R.P., ibid., pl. 90, fig. 1, and pl. 100, fig. 1. 160. Tiwari, M.N.P., ibid., p. 107 speaks of the sam image. 161. A. Ghosh (ed.), JAA, Vol. II, p. 319. 162. Tiloyapanr,atti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 60; Trisasti., IV.4. 163. miestenfria feat ad raua: tatazcakre'nantajidityAkhyA paramezituH / / -Trisasti., IV.4.47 164. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 194. Sahi according to Tiloyapannatti, 4.605, p. 219. 165. Kinnara according to Tilo yapannatti, 4.945, p. 216. 166. Trisasti., IV.4.197. 167. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 85. 168. Mohapatra, R.P., op. cit., pl. 90, fig. 1, and pl. 98, fig. 1. 169. JAA, Vol. III, p. 562. 170. Only the pedestal remains. Later in samvat 1394 an image of Kunthunatha was installed in the cell accord ing to inscription no. 117 of Muni Jayanta vijaya. 171. Tiloyapannarri, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 61; Trisasti., IV.5. 172. sitesferu fagt Targetas tenAsya dharma ityAdhyamakArSIdbhAnubhUpatiH / / --Trisassi., IV.5.49 173. Tiloyapanralli, 4.1178-79, p. 298; Samava yariga sutra, su. 157; Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., pp. 194-95. 174. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 175. Diskalkar, D.B., The Indore Museum (Indore, 1942). p. 5. 176. A. Ghosh (ed.), JAA, III, p. 591. The National Museum, New Delhi, has a metal Panca-tirthi of Dharmanatha made in samvat 1572, see JAA, NII, p. 562. 177. Mohapatra, R.P., op. cit., pl. 91, fig. 1; pl. 100, fig. 2. 178. Tiloyapar atti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 63; Trisasi., V.1. 179. Burgess, Indian Antiquary, Vol. 32, pp. 459ff. 180. 19 vafaat ta: maftung UE! iti tasyAbhiSekAnte nAmAsau niravartayat / / -Uttarapurara, 63.406 180a. 3 aftarafturita gayofa: tasya nAmAkarotprItaH zAntiriyAtmajanmanaH / / / -Trisasti., V.1.104

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 181. Tiloyapannatti, 4.934-939, pp. 266-67. 182. Compare Mantra of Santinatha and Santi-devi in AcaraDinakara, Vol. I, p. 6 (first ed.): OM namo nizcitavacase bhagavate pUjAmahaMte lokyapUjitAya ..... ajitAya duSTagrahabhUtapizAcazAkinInAM pramathanAya tasyeti nAmamantrasmaraNatuSTA bhagavatI tatpadabhaktA vijayA devI / OM hrIM namaste etc. Also compare: OM namaH zAntidevAya sarvaduritoSanAzanakarAya sarvAzivaprazamanAya duSTagrahabhUta pizAcazA kinInAM pramathanAya etc. -Laghusanti, 3-6 183. Cf.: taM saMni saMtikara satiSNaM satvamayA / saMti dhuNAmi jiNaM saMti vihaDa me / / 184 zAnti zAntinizAntaM zAntaM zAntAzivaM namaskRtya / stotuH zAntinimittaM mantrapadaiH zAntaye staumi // -Ajita-Santi-stava, v. 12 -Laghu-Santi-stava, v. 1 185. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 85-86. 186. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, p. 17, fig. 28; Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report for 1925-26, pp. 125ff and plates; Kuraishi and Ghosh, A Guide to Rajgir. 187. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, figs. 17a, 17b. 188. Ibid., figs. 11 and 74a for the Jina installed by Jinabhadra Vacanacarya, and fig. 41b for Ajitanatha. Figs. 34 and 31b and 36a show no dharmacakra motif at all. 189. Luders' List, no. 27. The image is now preserved in the Lucknow Museum. Also see New Jaina Inscriptions from Mathura, Epi. Ind., I, pp. 371ff. As shown by J.E. van Lohuizen de Leeuw, The Scythian Period, pp. 269f, the inscription belongs to the group in which the number for 100 is omitted and therefore gives a date 119-197 A.D. 190. Chandra, Pramod, op. cit., p. 143. 191. Bruhn, Klaus, Jaina Tirthas in Madhyadesh, Jaina Yuga (Bombay), Vol. I (Nov. 1958), pp. 32-33. 192. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, p. 109. 193. Ibid., p. 109. 194. Chandra, Pramod, op. cit., p. 158. 195. A. Ghosh (ed.), JAA, II, pp. 297-298, pl. 178. 196. Tiwari, op. cit., p. 110. 197. Jain, Balachandra, Dhubela Samgrahalaya ke Jaina Murtilekha, Anekanta, Vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 244-45. 198. Jain, Niraj, Bajarangagadh ka visada Jinalaya, ibid., Vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 65-66. 199. Das Gupta, P.C., Archaeological Discovery in West Bengal, Bulletin of the Directorate of Archaeology, West Bengal, no. 1 (1963), p. 12. 200. De, Sudhin, Two Unique Inscribed Jaina Sculptures, Jaina Journal, Vol. V, no. 1, pp. 24-26. 201. Tiwari, M.N.P., op. cit., p. 108. 202. Saletore, B.A., Mediaeval Jainism with special reference to Vijayanagara Empire (Bombay, 1938), pp. 82-83. 203. Ibid., p. 180. 204. Ibid., p. 40. 205. Ibid., p. 149. 206. Ibid., pp. 364-65, also p. 345 for an image of Santi-Jina set up by Saluva Deva Raya at Gerasoppe. 199 207. Shah, U.P., Jaina Jataka Stories in Art, in the forthcoming C. Sivaramamurti Memorial Volume. Also Jain Stories in Stone in the Dilwara Temples, Abu, Jaina Yuga, Sept. 1959, also in Jaina Yuga, Nov. 1959. 208. Muni Silavijaya's book on these paintings is being published by the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. U.P. Shah's article on these two pattikas is being published in the Pandit Bhagawanlal Indraji number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Bombay (forthcoming issue). 209. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 64; Trisasti., VI.1. 210. dRSTo devyA garbhage'sminkunthvAkhyo ratnasaMcayaH / kunthurityabhidhAM tena svAmino vidadhe pitA / / -Trisasti., VI.1.50 21. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., pp. 194-95. 212. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 213. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves (Delhi, 1981), pl. 92, fig. 1, pl. 101, fig. 1. 214. JAA, Vol. I, p. 158. 215. Jain, Niraj, Bajarangagadh ka visada Jinalaya, Anekanta, Vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 65-66. 216. JAA, II, 343; Cousens, Henry, Progress Report, Arch. Survey of Western India, for the year ending 1905, p. 62. 217. JAA, III, p. 445. 218. Ibid., p. 450. 219. Ibid., p. 452. 220. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 65; Trisasti., VI.2. 221. ara ityabhidhAnaM ca devyA svapne'radarzanAt / -Trisasti., VI.2.42 222. Burgess, on the evidence of Canarese (Kannada) dhyana-slokas, gives the deer symbol, Indian Antiquary, Vol. 32, pp. 460ff, but Ramachandran who also referred to some Canarese traditions, omits the deer and only gives the fish (Dig.) or Nandyavarta (Sve). 223. Tiloyapannatti, 4.605, p. 219. Tagarakusuma = fish according to translators of this text. Tagara plant is Valariana Hardwickii (Indian Medicinal Plants, p. 667). Tagara plant is not known to have been depicted as a cognizance of this Jina in any known sculpture. 224. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 225. Luders' List, no. 47. Nigam, M.L., Glimpses of Jainism through Archaeology in Uttara Pradesh, Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, p. 215 and fig. 2. JAA, I, p. 53. For the corrected reading by K.D. Bajpai, see Shri Mahavira Commemoration Volume, I (Agra), pp. 189-190. Also see Leeuw, J.E. van Lohuizen-De, The Scythian Period (Leiden, 1949), pp. 281ff. The pedestal is no. J.20 in the Lucknow Museum. Smith, V.A., Jaina Stupa..., pl. VI. 226. Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, Vol. 23, pts. 1-2, p. 57. 227. Jain, Niraj, Navagadh: Eka Mahatvapura Madhyakolina Jaina Tirtha, Anekanta, Vol. 15, no. 6, p. 277. 228. Kothia Darbarilal, Hamara Pracina Vismyta Vaibhava, Anekanta, Vol. 14, August 1956, p. 31.

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200 229. Jain, Niraj, Bajarangagadh ka visada Jinalaya, Anekanta, Vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 65-66. 230. JAA, I, p. 157. 231. Mohapatra, R.P., op. cit., pl. 92, fig. 1, pl. 101, fig. 1. 232. Tilovapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 66; Trisasti., VI.6; Nayadhammakahao, 8 (Vaidya's ed.), pp. 90ff. 233. mohamallamamallaM vyajeSTAniSTakAriNaM / adar eft: as after: megse 234. garbhasyAyAM tatra mAturyanmAlyasvApadohRdaH / jajJe tadakarottasyA nAma mallIti bhUpatiH // -Trisasti., VI.6.52 235. Shah, U.P., A Rare Sculpture of Mallinatha, Acarya Vijaya Vallabhasuri Smrti Grantha (Bombay, 1956), p. 128. : 11 -Uttarapurana, 66.1 236. JAA, III, p. 591. 237. JAA, III, p. 562. 238. Mohapatra, R.P., op. cit., pl. 93, fig. 1, pl. 101, fig. 2. 239. JAA, III, p. 575. 240. JAA, II, p. 227. 241. JAA, II, p. 371. 242. Bhatt, P. Gururaja, Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, p. 449. 243. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 67; Trisasti., VI.7. 244. asmingarbhasthite mAtA munivatsuvratA bhavat / munisuvrata ityAkhyAM tenA'sya vidadhe pitA // -Trisasti., VI.7.141 245. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., pp. 194-95. 246. Samavayanga sutra, su. 157. Also see Malavaniya, Dalsukh D., Sthananga-Samvayanga, pp. 696ff. 247. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 248. Nigam, M.L., Glimpses of Jainism through Archaeology in Uttar Pradesh, Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I, pp. 213ff, and fig. 2. Smith, V.A., The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura, and fig. 2. See note 225 above. 249. Avasyaka Niryukti, vv. 949-51; Haribhadra's Vrtti, p. 437; Avasyaka Curni, p. 567. 250. Mitra, Debala, Iconographic Notes, Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta), vol. I, no. 1, p. 39, pl. III, fig. B. 251. See note 250 above. 252. JAA, III, p. 578. 253. JAA, III, p. 588. 254. Tiwari, op. cit., p. 115. 255. JAA, III, p. 591. 256. JAA, III, p. 572, plate 358B. 257. For detailed account about the stories connected with the Pata, see Holy Abu, by Muni Shri Jayantavijaya (transl. in English by U.P. Shah, Bhavanagar, 1954), pp. 100-105; Trisastisalakapurusacarita, parva VI, sarga 2; Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 20ff; Bhandarkar, D.R., Jaina Iconography, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1905-06, pp. 141-149. 258. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206ff; Uttarapurana, parva 69; Trisasti., VII. 259. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography (2nd edn.), Jaina-Rupa-Mandana p. 57, noted that "according to the disputed opinion, the place was not Mithila but Mathura." He has however not cited reference to the disputed opinion against the Uttarapurana tradition noted by him. Tiloyapannatti, 4.546, Vol. I, p. 210 also gives Mithila and not Mathura. Cf.: garbhasthe bhagavati paracakrana pairapi praNatiH kRteti namiH / -Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.26ff and comm. of Hemacandra Also see Uttarapurana, 69.1 and 69.72. 260. Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., p. 56. 261. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 262. Gupta, P.L., The Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities (Patna, 1965), p. 90; S.K. Saraswati in JAA, II, p. 265. 263. Datta, Kalidas, The Antiquities of Khari, Ann. Rep. of the Varendra Research Society, 1928-29, pp. 1-11. 264. Tiwari, op. cit., p. 117. 265. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 94, fig. 1 and plate 101, fig. 2. 266. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff; Uttarapurana, parvas 70 & 71; Trisasti, Nemicaritra; Vasudevahindi. p. 71; Harivamsapurana, of Jinasena, chp. 37ff. 267. abhiSicya yathAkAmaM alaGkRtya yathocitam / nemi saddha maMcakrasya neminAmAnabhyadhAt // dharmacakrasya nemivannemiH / -Uttarapurana, 71.46 -Abhidhana Cintamani, op. cit. 268. yasmAtbhagavati garbhasthe mAtA'riSTaratnamayaM nemi svapne adrAkSIt tato afectif: 1 -Kalpasutra-Subodhika-tika, p. 133 269. The title Patala-linga is interesting as Stambhatirtha is also an ancient Saiva site according to Puranas. Stambha-pillar. 270. Uttaradhyayana sutra, ed. by Charpentier (Rathanemi Adhyayana), chp. XXII. Also see Dasavaikalika sutra, 2.7-11. 271. Ibid., Introduction. 272. Yajur Veda, 9.25; Rg Veda, I.1.16; Vedix Index under Nemi and Aristanemi. 273. For descriptions of such scenes in Vimala Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi, see Holy Abu, pp. 67ff etc. Also see Sankalia, H.D., Archaeology of Gujarat, fig. 50. 274. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, Vol. I, figs. 180, 212-214. 275. The Scythian Period, pp. 268ff, fig. 63; Ep. Ind., Vol. IIFurther Inscriptions from Mathura-Inscr. no. 14. 276. Agrawala, V.S., Some Brahmanical Deities in Jaina Art, Jaina Antiquary, Vol. II, p. 91 and J.U.P.H.S., Vol. XXIII, pp. 50-51. 277. Chanda, R.P., in A.S.I., A.R., 1925-26, pp. 125ff. 278. Elements of Jaina Iconography, p. 44, fig. 13. 278a. Ibid., pp. 41-43, 48-49. 278b. Saletore, B.A., Mediaeval Jainism, op. cit., pp. 28n, 42, 343. 279. Ibid., p. 327, also see p. 346 for a Nemisvara-Caityalaya erected by Yojana Sresthi at Gera soppe. The builder was an ancestor of Ambavana Sresthi, a business magnate of the time of Saluva Immadi Deva Raya. 280. Bhatt, P. Gururaja, Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, pp. 438-441. Also ibid., pl. 412a, c, for figures of

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Iconography of 24 Tirthankaras 201 296. Uttarapurana, 73; Tiloyapannatti, 4.966, p. 271; Kalpa. sutra (Punyavijayaji's ed.), su. 160. 297. Samavdyanga satra, sutra 157. Hemacandra in Trisasi., IX.3.358 calls him Arya-Datta. Dinna (Pkt.) - Datta (Skt.). 298. Both the Svetambaras and the Digambaras give graphic accounts of this Upasarga. Below are cited a few passages which would help one to understand and interpret representations of this Jaina version of the Buddhist theme of "the Attack of Mara": (1) roSAtkRtamahAghoSo mahAvRSTi mapAtayat / / vyadhAta tathaiva saptAhAnyanyAMzca vividhAnvidhIH / mahopasadizailopanipAtAntAnivAntakaH / / tad jJAtvAvadhibodhena dharaNIzo vinirgataH / dharaNyA: prasphuradratnaphaNAmaMDapamaMDitaH / / bhAramasthAdAvRtya tatpatnI ca phaNAtateH / uparyuccassamaddhRtya sthitA bajrAtapacchama / / -Uttarapurana, 73.137-41 Also see Parsvanathacaritam of Vadiraja suri, canto XI, verses 51-87. (2) pApAcArasya duzceSTAmavIkSya crickssupaa| padmAvatyA samaM devamupatasthau phaNIzvaraH / / tasya vistArayAmAsa sa dhairya stavapUrvakam / sphuranmaNirucisphArasphuTA (sphaTA) maMDalamaMhapam / / AvibaM bhUva devasya tatkSaNAdeva kevalam / Neminatha in the Santinatha-Basti, Bangadi; pl. 414a, for Nomi in sitting posture in the Neminatha-Basti, Hiriyangadi, Karkal; pl. 428b, c, for Neminatha in the Neminatha-Basti, Varanga. 281. Jaina Art and Architecture (JAA), Vol. II, p. 229; also seep. 228 and pl. 135B. 282. Tbid., pp. 227,328-329. 283. Tiloyapannatti, 4.51211, pp. 21611; Pavitra Kalpa-Sutra, ___ed., Muni Punyavijaya. 284. Acaranga satra, II.3.401, p. 389. 285. Avasyaka Curni, p. 273. Uppala was a Pasavaccijja who after giving up monastic life became a householder and earned his living from fortune telling (nimitta) in Atthiyagama. His two sisters Soma and Jayanti who had once joined Parsva's Order are reported to have rescued Gosala and Mahavira in the Corayasannivesa (ibid., p. 286). Municandra, who called himself a Samana Nigantha, was a follower of Parsva. Also see Avasyaka Curni, p. 291. 286. Bhagavati sitra, 9.32. For Kalasaveiyaputta, another follower of Parsva, converted by Mahavira, see ibid., 1.9. Pundariya was a follower of the four vows, according to Nayadhammakahao, XIX. 287. Kaliyaputta, Mehila, Anandarakkhiya and Kasava were chief amongst them, Bhagavati satra, 2.5. For references to lay women and female ascetics of the order of Parsva, see Nayadhammakahao, II, Nirayavaliyao, 4. 288. Sayagadanga sutta, II.7. 289. Rayapasenaiya sutta, sti. 147f refers to him as a young monk of the Order of Parsva and states that he knew the fourteen Parvas. 290. Jaina Sutras (S.B.E., Vol.XLV), pp. xiv-xxi, Uttara dhyayana sutra, 23. 291. Tiloyapannatti, 4.512ff, pp. 206f1; Uttarapurara, parva 73; Trisasi., parva 8; Siri-Pasanaha-cariyam (Prakrt) of Devabhadra suri (Sve.); Parsvanathacaritam (Sanskrit) of Vadiraja suri (Dig.). 292. tantra prabhoH garbhasthe sati zayanIyasthA mAtA pArve sarpantaM kRSNasarpa dadarza tataH pAti nAmakRtiH / -Kalpa-satra-Subodhika, p. 128 spRzati jJAnena sarvabhAvAniti pAvaH / tathA garbhasthe jananyA nizi sayoM dRSTaH iti garbhAnubhAvo'yamiti matvA pazyatIti niruktatvAtpAvaH / pAzvo'sya yAvRtyakaraH yakSaH tasya nAthaH pAzrvanAthaH / -Comm. on Abhidhona Cintamani, I.26ff Also see.Avasyaka Niryukti, gatha 1091; Siri-Pasanaha cariyam, prastava 3, p. 152. 293. Siri Pasanaha-cariyam, 3, p. 167 speaks of only one snake who became Dharanendra after death. The Digambara texts speak of a pair of snakes. 294. Trisasti., parva 9.3.991f. 295. Barua, B.M., Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Orissa, pp. 22, 23, 45. Jayaswal and R.D. Banerji in Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vols. III, IV, XIII, read in line 13 a reference to this statue carried away by Nanda King, but B.M. Barua later, in I.H.Q., XIV, p. 468, rejected the old reading ananyazaraNAstadA prabhumapetya baddhAJjali jinendra jagatAMpate jaya jayAbhirakSeti mAm / nanAma mukuTollasanmaNibhirullikha nuvarAM jagantrayaguruM ripurvipulabodhalakSmInidhim / / / --Parsvanathacarita, of Vadiraja suri, XI.77-81 According to this work the attacking demi-god was called Bhutananda. (3) pAzvanAthamudrotu mettu madrimiva dvipaH / samAyayAvamarSAndho meghamAlI murAdhamaH / / daMSTrAkrakacabhImAsyAn zrRNyAkAranakhAMkurAn / zArdUlAnpigaladRzo bicake tantra somaraH / / puccharAcchoTayAmAsubhUpITa te muhuma haH / caRbakAramaccaizca mRtyormantrAkSaropamam / / vikRtAstana cApeturgajanto madavapiNaH / utkarAH kariNasttuMgAH parvatA iva jaMgamAH / / hikkAnAdApUrNa dikkA bhallUkAH zUkajitAH / anekazazcitra kAzca krUga yamavasUnibhAH / / zilA api sphoTayantaH kaMTakAgreNa vRzcikAH / tamnapi nirdahanto dRSTayA dRSTiviSA api / / betAlAnkatrikAhastAnsavidyuta ivAmbudAt / ucca: kilakilArAvAnudaMSTrAna vyakarontataH / / pralambajihAzidhanAste labisarpA iva drumAH /

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202 dIrghajaMghAjhyastAladrumArUDhA ivoccakaiH / / jvAlAmukhena muJcanto jaTharAgniriivAyatAH / te prabhu parito'dhAvan sArameyA iva dvipam / / prabhustai rapi nAkSubhyallIno dhyAnasudhAhade / vizeSeNa tataH Rddho meghamAlyasuraH svayam / meghAnvicake nabhasi kAlarAtrisahodarAn / / svAmI ratnazilAstambha ivAMbhasyapi nizcalaH / nAsAgranyastadRgdhyAnAnmanAgapi cacAla na / AnAsAna yAvardabhaH zrIpAzrvasvAmino'bhavat / dharaNasyoragendrasyAsanaM tAvadakampayat // cor: Farfe SFATEC unnAlamaMbujaM tugaM kevalyAsanasannibham // pRSThapAzrvoraH pidadhe sa svabhogena yogirAT / / phaNazca saptabhizcchavaM cakAra zirasi prabhoH / dharaNendra mahiSyo'pi zrIpAlasvAminaH purH| vidadhurgItanRtyAdi bhaktibhAvitacetasaH / / dhyAnalInaH prabhuzcAsthAnnibizeSo dvayorapi / nAgAdhirAje dharaNe meghamAlini cAsure / / ---Trisasi., parva IX.3.249-81 299. Coomaraswamy, A.K., History of Indian and Indonesian Art, fig. 86. 300. For this and other Caumukha sculptures with Parsvanatha as one of the four Jinas see J.U.P.H.S., vol. XXIII (1950), pp. 55ff; Epi. Ind., II, 207ff. 301. Coomaraswamy, A.K., History of Indian and Indonesian Art, pp. 68-69. For sculptures of Nagas from Mathura, sec V.S. Agrawala's Catalogue of Brahmanical Images in Mathura Art (Lucknow), pp. 98ff; J. Ph. Vogel, Naga Worship in Ancient Mathura, A.S.I., A.R., for 1908-09. For Naga Cult, see Coomaraswamy, The Yaksas, parts I and II (Washington, 1928-31) or reprint (Delhi). 302. Siri-Pasanaha-cariyam, prastava 3, 1-7, pp. 187f. 303. Ahicchatra is modern Ramnagar in Bareilly district, U.P. For Ahicchatra, with Adi-Naga as its presiding deity and for Naga-worship in India from Vedic times, see The Age of Imperial Uniry, pp. 471ff, Fergusson, J., Tree and Serpent Worship in India; Vogel, J. Ph., Indian Serpent Lore or the Nagas in Hindu Legend and Art. 304. For Buddhist representations, cf. Benjamin Rowland, Jr., Gandhara Sculptures from Pakistan Museums (New York, 1960), p. 32 showing a sculpture from Peshawar Museum and plate on p. 55 showing host of Mara, from Central Museum, Lahore. Harold Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan (New York, 1957), figs. 61-66; Joshi, N.P., Mathura Sculptures (Mathura, 1966), pl. 86. 305. Shah, U.P., A Parsvanatha Sculpture in Cleveland Museum, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art for December 1970, p. 303, fig. 6. 306. Dhaky, M.A., Santara Sculpture, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, Vol. IV (Dr. Vasu- Jaina-Rupa-Mandana deva Saran Agrawala Commemoration Volume, Part I). pp. 78-97 and plates. 307. Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art for 1970, op. cit., fig. 1. 308. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes (Bombay, 1959), figs. 42a, 42b. Also compare ibid., figs. 54-54g, ca. 890-920. 309. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijana (Hindi, Varanasi, 1981), p. 134. 310. Muni Jayantavijaya and U.P. Shah, Holy Abu, pp. 123 25. 311. Brown, W. Norman, A Descriptive and Illustrated Cata logue of Miniature Paintings of the Kalpa-sarra (Washing ton, 1934), pp. 41-44, figs. 97-98. 312. Bruhn, Klaus, Further Observations on the Iconography of Parsvanatha, Mahavira and His Teachings (Ahmedabad, 1977), pp. 379-388 and plates. 313. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architectura, n. 273-275. Shah, U.P., An Early Bronze Parsvanarna, Bulletin of Prince of Wales Museum, no. 3, pp. 63ff. 314. Pramod Chandra, Some Remarks on Bihar Sculptures, Aspects of Indian Art (Los Angeles, 1972), pp. 78ff, pl. XXVI. 315. Especially read our remarks on pp. 273-275 in our article, Jaina Bronzes- A Brief Survey, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture (Ahmedabad, 1975). This bronze is very light in weight, though there is core inside. There is predominance of copper in the alloy and it looks like made of copper mostly. It is unlike all Jaina bronzes known so far, especially in the treatment of physiognomy and limbs, except the figure of Parsvanatha in the Pudukkottai Museum. 316. Jain, Niraj, Tulsi Samgrahalaya, Ramvan ka Jaina Puratattva (Hindi), Anekanta, Vol. 16, no. 6, p. 279. 317. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes (Bombay, 1959), fig. 63a. 318. Sankalia, H.D., The Archaeology of Gujarat (Bombay, 1941), p. 167; Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, p. 17. 319. Bharata ke Digambara Jaina Tirtha (Hindi, Bombay, 1978), Vol. IV, pp. 103-105, fig. 26; Shah, U.P., A Rare Naga Sculpture from Rajasthan, Lalit Kala, no. 13. p. 51 and pl. XXVI, fig. 1. This is being discussed again in Researcher (Jaipur) forthcoming issue, by U.P. Shah. 37 0. Bharata ke Digambara Jaina Tirtha, Vol. IV, pp. 101 102, fig. 24. 321. Ibid.. pp. 34-38. fig. 10. 322. Ibid., pp. 85-87. 323. Jaina Pratima-Vijfana, p. 127. 324. Agrawala, R.A., History, Art & Architecture of Jaisal mer (Delhi, 1980), p. 39 and fig. 58. 325. Ibid., p. 43, fig. 59. 326. Sri Vijaya-Vallabha-Suri Smaraka-Grantha (Bombay, 1955), plate between pp. 64 and 65 of the Hindi Section. 327. See pote 326 above. 328. Shah, U.P., Seven Bronzes from Lilva Deva (Pancha Mahals), Bulletin of the Baroda Museum, Vol. IX, nos. 1-2, pp. 43-51, figs. 2, 2A, 5, 5A, and 7. 329. Sharma, B.N., Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, JOI, Vol. XIX, no. 3, pp. 275-277 and plates. 330. Shah, U.P., A Few Jaina Bronzes in the National

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Iconography of 24 Tirtharkaras 203 Museum, New Delhi, JOI, Vol. XXIV, nos. 1-2, pp. 238-242, figs. 1, 2, 5, 6. 331. Bhattacharya, B.C., Jaina Iconography, First Edition, pl. VI. 332. Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, 66-68. 333. Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, p. 130. 334. A.S.I., A. Rep. for 1925-26, pl. 60, fig. E, p. 115. Negative no. 643 of Indian Museum, Archaeological Section 335. Negative no. 676 of Indian Museum, Arch. Section. 336. Ghosh, Deva Prasada, Traces of Jainism in Bengal, Jaina Journal, Vol. XVIII, no. 4 (1984), pp. 137-142. 337. For Jaina sculptures from Bengal, also see History of Bengal, I, pp. 464ff, figs. 47-49, 153; Banerji, R.D., Eastern School of Mediaeval Indian Sculpture, pp. 144ff, pls. Ixxyizlxxvii. A.S.I., A. Report for 1925-26, pp. 115 pl. Ix, e;-ibid., for 1921-22, p. 84, pl. xxi; ibid., for 192223, pp. 112ff. Indian Culture, Vol. III, pp. 524ff. Jaina Journal, Vol. XVIII, no. 4, pl. opposite page 148 illustrates Parsva images at Siddhesvara, Bahulara, Dharapat, and at Biharimath in Bankura district. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 78, Parsvanatha from Bahulara. Mitra, Debala, Some Jaina Antiquities from Bankura, West Bengal, Journ. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 133-134. 338. Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, pp. 281-288 and plates. 339. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves. 340. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, p. 131, fig. 59. 341. Joshi, Arun, History & Culture of Khijjingakotta under the Bhanjas (Delhi, 1983), fig. 46. 342. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, pp. 220 221. 343. Mankodi, Kirit, A Rashtrakuta Temple at Hallur in Bijapur District, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 205-214, figs. 8, 10. 344. Dhaky, M.A., Santara Sculpture, J.J.S.O.A. (New Series), Vol. IV, pp. 78-97, figs. 24, 27. 345. Dhaky, M.A., Gerasappina Jinomandiro (Gujarati), Svadhyaya, Vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 80-85, fig. 2. 346. Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1939.40, p. 237, inscr. no. 108. 347. Bhatt, P. Gururaja, Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, pp. 438-441. 348. For the story see Pasanahacariyam, 1871; Vividla Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 26. Karakandacariu gives a slightly different account. 349. See also Cintamani-Kalpa, of Dharmaghosa suri (c. 14th cent. A.D.), published in Mantradhiraja-Cintamani, 354. Called Seniya (Srenika) and Kuniya (Kunika) in Jaina works. For various accounts see Jaina, J.C., Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jaina Canons, pp. 378ff", 398fT. 355. The date has been a matter of great controversy. A noteworthy work on the subject is a critical essay by Muni Kalyanavijaya, in Hindi, entitled Vira Nirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kalaganana, Nagari Pracharini Parrika, vols. X, XI. Also see Schubring. Der Lehre Der Jainas, pp. 5, 30. According to some, including Jacobi, the date is taken as 467 B.C. Also see Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 36-38; for dates of Buddha and Mahavira and for their relations with Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, ibid., pp. 19-28. Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 156. Muni Nagaraja, Agama aur Tripitaka, Vol. I. 356. Uttarapuraia, of Gunabhadra, 74, v. 252-256. 357. Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, Introduction, pp. XIIff. 338. 39: Faze a Bathgafati mahiSI zrIsamadrasya tasyAsIt priyakAriNI / / cetazceTakarAjasya yAstAH sapta shriirjaaH| atisnehAkulaM cakrustAsvAdhA priyakAriNI / / kastA yojayituM zaktaritrazalAM guNavarNanaH / yA svapuNya mahAvIraprasavAya niyojitA // -Harivamsa, 2.16-18 This difference in Svetambara and Digambara traditions is noteworthy. Also see Chp. I above, pr. 2ff. Uttarapurana, 74. For Mahavira's relationship with Bimbisara, Uda yana, Pradyota and others, see Jaina, J.C., op. cit., pp. 382ff. For remarks on the legend of Transfer of Embryo, see above, Chp. I, pp. 2ff. 359. As usual in the Digambara tradition, Indra named him Vira ard Vardhamana, Uttarapurara, 74.276. For names of Mahavira, see Kalpa-sutra, 108, 110; Trisasi., X.2.100; cf. Avasyaka-Niryukti, 1091. 360. Trisasi., X.2.106ff. 361. Uttarapurara, 74.287ff. 362. Also called Kanduka-krida, see Kalpa-sutra-Subodhika, pp. 264-265. 363. For upasarga by Sangamaka, see Trisasi, X.2.106ff; Uttarapurana, 74.287ff. 364. The incidents are not described in the Kalpa-sutra and the Acaranga-sutra, but see Trisasti., X.2.119-122. Kalpa-sutra-Subodhika (a comm. on Kalpa-sutra), pp. 266-267. 365. Trisasti., X.2.150ff; Kalpa-sutra, 110. For Jamali, see Bhagavari-sutra, 9.33. For Anojja, Acaranga satra, S.B.E., pp. 193ff. 366. For a discussion on this with citations, see Bool Chard, Lord Mahavira, pp. 28f1. 367. Acaranga-sutra, 11.15.17, S.B.E., XXII, p. 194; Kalpa sutra, 110, S.B.E., XXII, p. 256; Trisasti., X.2.156ff. Cf.: evaM ca jyAyaso bhrAtuH sazAkasyoparodhataH / jagatpatirbhAvatiralakArairalakRtaH / / kAyotsarga dharo nitya brahmacaryaparAyaNaH / Pp. 30ff. 350. Puratana-Prabandha-Sangraha (Singhi Serics), pp. 95.96; Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 104-105. 351. For further details, see Shah, U.P., Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Tantras, Acharya Dhruva Commemoration Volume, part III. 352. Ibid., p. 83. 353. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86 and pp. 102-106.

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204 snAnAMgarAgarahito vizuddhadhyAnatatparaH / / eSaNIyaprAsukAnnaprANavRttimahAmanAH / varSa mekaM kathamapi gRhavAse'tyavAhayat / / Trisasi., X.2.166-168 Digambara sources merely state that he took diksa at the age of 30. Harivamsa, 2.47; Uttarapurana, 74.280ff. 368. Kalpa-sutra, S.B.E., op. cit., p. 195. 369. Ibid., pp. 195-200; Uttarapurana, 74.266ff. 370. Uttarapurana, 74.331 ff. 371. Also see Shah, U.P., Kaparddi Yaksa and Brahmasanti Yaksa, Journal of the M.S. University of Baroda, Vol. 7, pp. 59-72. The upasarga by Salapani took place in the first year after Mahavira's renunciation, according to sve. traditions. 372. Kalpa-sutra, 117, S.B.E., XXII, pp. 259-260; Acaranga- sutra, 1.8.1, S.B.E., op. cit., p. 79. 373. The Kalpa-sutra does not give details, see S.B.E., op. cit., pp. 260ff. But the Avasyaka Niryukti gives in a very concise form, by way of catch-words, the account of his itinerary and the various upasargas, see Ivasyaka Niryukti, gathas 161ff, Haribhadra's vivasyaka Vitti, pp. 188ff. 374. Kodivarsa was the capital of Ladha country which was divided into Vajjabhumi and Subbabhumi. Ladha or Radha comprised the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah, Bankura, Burdwan and eastern parts of Midnapore. Ladha was regarded an anarya-desa. 375. Acaranga, 9.3, S.B.E., op. cit., p. 281; Avasyaka Cirni, p. 318. 376. Trisasi., X.3.556ff; Avasyaka Nir., gatha 484. 377. Avasyaka Niryukri, v. 486, comm. of Haribhadra there on, p. 209; for Putana see U.P. Shah, Harinega- mesin, J.I.S.O.A. (old series), Vol. XIX. Compare also Buddha converting the child-devouring Hariti and Krsna killing Putana. 378. This is the Svetambara version. Account of Sangamaka in the Digambara tradition is given before. This attack of Sangamaka (Sve.) as described by Hemacandra may be compared with the attack of Kamajha on Parsva natha discussed in the preceding section. 379. Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 526 and comm. of Haribhadra, Jaina-Rupa-Mandana p. 227; Kalpa-sutra, 120, S.B.E., Vol. XII, p. 263; Harivamsa, 2.57-58; Uttarapurana, 74.348-352; PavitraKalpa-sutra (ed. by Muni Punya vijaya), su. 120; Acaraliga sutra, 2.15.24-25, S.B.E., op. cit., p. 201. 380. Brown, W. Norman, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpa-sa tra, figs. 75-78; Pavitra Kalpa-sutra, figs. 12-18, 20-37, 68-91, 110-153, 224-25, 227-234, 269. 381. Uttarapurana, 76.508ff. 382. Kalpa-sutra, S.B.E., op. cit., p. 266. 383. Luders' List, no. 78, Buhler, G., Epigraphic Discoveries at Mathura, J.R.A.S., 1896, pp. 578-81; Banerji, R.D., The Scythian Period of Indian History, Indian Antiquary, Vol. 37, pp. 25-75 and plate. Konow, S., Note on Mathura Inscription of Samvat 299, K.B. Pathak Commemoration Volume, pp. 264ff. 384. Sharma, R.C., Jaina Images of the Gupta Period in State Museum, Lucknow, Mahavira Tning Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Vol. 1. 385. The Scythian Period, pp. 52-64. Sahani, R.B. Daya Ram, Seven Inscriptions from Mathura, Epi. Ind., Vol. XIX, p. 67; Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, J.U.P.H.S., vol. XXIII, p. 38. 386. Agrawala, V.S., ibid., p. 38. Note his remarks about Okharika mentioned in the inscription and in the inscr. dated 299 discussed above. J.E. Van Lohuizen de-Leeuw takes year 84 of this image=162 A.D. which would suggest that the two Okharikas are not identical accor ding to her calculations. 387. For these and other images, see Epi. Ind., Vol. I, pp. 371ff; Epi. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 195-212, 311ff; J.U.P.H.S., XXIII, pp. 35ff. 388. Banerji, R.D., The Age of the Imperial Guptas, pp. 103, 162; Epi. Ind., Vol. II, p. 210, no. 39. 389. Modern Review, Vol. 88, no. 4, p. 297. 390. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa; Dash, M.P., Antiquities from Charmpa, Orissa Historical Research Journal, Vol. XI, no. 1 (1962), pp. 50-53. 391. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves, Journ. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 1.2 (1959), pp. 127-133; Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, pl. 94, fig. 2.

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CHAPTER NINE Sasana-Devatas A. YAKSA WORSHIP IN JAINISM Ancient Indian literature, Hindu, Buddhist or Jaina is full of references to Yaksas, as also to other spirits like the Nagas, Apsarasas, Gandharvas, and so on. Coomaraswamy in his excellent pioneer work on the Yaksas has shown that the designation Yaksa was originally practically synonymous with Deva or Devata and no essential distinction can be made between Yaksas and Devas. In the earlier Vedic texts there is a total absence of many of the most fundamental features of Hinduism properly so called, it is only in the Brahmanas and Upanisads that the ideas of Sarnsara, Karma, Yoga, Bhakti etc. begin to appear and the same applies to the cults of Siva, Krsna, Yaksas, Nagas, innumerable gods and goddesses and localised deities. These ideas and deities derive, not from the Vedic Aryan tradition, but as De la Vallee Poussin expresses it, "From uncertain fond common, tres riche, et que nons ne connaissous pas par faitement." It must not be overlooked that in the Vedas, and in the literature before the second century B.C., we possess only one-sided view of the Indian religion and representing, quantitatively at least, the smaller part of the Indian religion. The mass of the people worshipped, not the abstract deities of priestly theology, but local genii, yaksas and nagas, and feminine divinities of increase and mother-goddesses. These popular beliefs and cults were probably of non-Aryan origin, at least a large number of them appear to be of Dravidian, non-Aryan or indigenous origin. It should be noted that the clans particularly associated with such beliefs and cults were by no means completely Brahmanised, and most of the earliest figures of the yaksas, nagas, vsksa-devatas are to be found in the Buddhist remains at Bharhut.2 The word yaksa occurs several times in the Rgveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas and the Upanisads. The word yaksa in the Jaiminiyu Bralmana (iii. 203-272) means nothing more than a 'wondrous thing'. In the sense of a spirit or genius, usually associated with Kubera, it does not appear before the age of the Grhya-sutras where yaksas are invoked together with the numerous other major and minor deities all classed as Bhutas. In a somewhat later book they are possessing spirits of diseases-grahas (Manava-GrhyaSutra. IL. 14), while the Sankhayana Grhya Sutra mentions Manibhadra. In the Satapatha Brahmana, Kubera is a Raksasa and lord of robbers and evil doers which suggests that he was an aboriginal deity alien to Brahmanical pantheon. In the Satras he is invoked with Isana for the husband in the marriage ritual and his hosts plague children. In earlier Buddhist records, Yakkha as an appellation is, like Niga, anything but deprecative. Not only is Sakka so called but Buddha himself is so referred to in poetic diction (M ujjhima Nikaya, 1.252, 353). In the Angutiara Nikaya, II.37, Buddha finds it necessary to say that he is not a Deva, Gandhabba or Yakkha. In the Anguttara Nikaya, Buddhist literature, Yakklas are sometimes represented as teachers of good morals and as guardian spirits (Thera-Theri gathi, XLIV). Tibetan sources cited by A. Schneifner (Tibetan Tales from Kah-gjur, Ralston, p. 81) show that the Sikyas honoured a yaksa by name Sakyavardhana as a tutelary deity. The inscription on the Pawaya image of Minibhadra shows that the vaksa was worshipped by the gosthas or merchants." The Mahamivuri which gives a list of Yakas of different places a list of well-known shrines of

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206 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana different deities at different places, and of different sects-used the term Yaksa in the sense of Deva, Doity of worship (e.g. Visnur-yakso Dvarikayam). The evidence collected by Coomaraswamy shows that Kubera's yaksa followers possess the power of assuming any shape, they are kindly but at the same time can fight fiercely as guardians, and it is as guardians and gate-keepers that they appear in the Buddhist art; they are sometimes specifically grouped with the Nagas, more often with the gods, Gandharvas and Nagas. The Ramayana (3.11.94) speaks of yaksatva (spirithopd) and amaratva (immortality) together as boons bestowed by a god or gods, while the Mahabharata (6.41.4) tells us that men of the Sattvika class worship gods or Devas, of the Rajasika class, the Yaksas and Raksasas, and of the Tamasika class, the Pretas and Bhutas. The Yaksas in the Epics are sometimes sylvan deities, usually but not always gentle. The Yaksas are also known as Guhyakas. But the Yaksas were regarded as both benefic and malefic by all the three traditions-Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina. Some Yaksagrahas are attendants of Skanda, who is called Guha (Hopkins, Epic Mythology, pp. 145, 229).4 The Atanatiya suttanta (Digha Nikaya, III, 195) speaks of good and bad yakkhas. If any of these assail a Buddhist monk or layman, he is to appeal to the higher yakkhas. The text gives a list of Yakkha chiefs which includes Indra, Soma, Varuna, Prajapati, Matinhadrat Alavaka etc. Here is an unequivocal attempt at assigning to some of the well-known Vedic gods the position of yaksa chiefs who are said to be obedient to Vessavana or Kubera. The Jaina Bhagavati sutra gives a list of gods who are obedient like his children to Vaisramana;5 they are: 1. Punnabhadda, 2. Manibhadda, 3. Salibhadda, 4. Sumanabhadda, 5. Cakka, 6. Rakkha, 7. Punnarakkha, 8. Savvana (Sarvahna ?), 9. Savvajasa, 10. Samiddha, 11. Amoha, 12. Asanga, 13. Savvakama. The Tattvartha-Bhasya of Umasvatie gives the following list of thirteen types of yaksas: 1. Purnabhadras, 2. Manibhadras, 3. Svetabhadras, 4. Haribhadras, 5. Sumanobhadras, 6. Vyaptibhadras. 7. Subhadras, 8. Sarvatobhadras, 9. Manusyayaksas, 10. Vanaharas, 11. Vanadhipatis, 12. Rupayaksas, 13. Yaksottamas. The above list is also given in the comm. of Malayagiri on the Pannavana (Prajnapana) sutta where the sixth class is called Vyatipatikabhadras, other names being the same. According to the Kalpa sutra. from the moment of the descent of Mahavira into the mother's womb, many Jrmbhaka-gods in Vaisramana's service, residing in the tiryak (lower) world, brought, on Sakra's command, to the palace of King Siddhartha, old and ancient treasures from various places. 8 The benefic character of yaksas, nagas and others is referred to in a number of stories. Bhadda, the wife of a merchant (satthavaha) Dhanna, worships with flowers, scented pastes etc. several representations, outside the city of Rajagpha, of Nagas, Bhutas, Yaksas, Indras, Skandas, Rudras, Sivas, Vaisramana (Vesamana), in order to obtain a child. The shrines are referred to as Nagaghara, Bhuyaghara, Jakkhadeula and so on. Subhadra promised Surambara Jakkha one hundred buffaloes if she was blessed with a son. 10 The Vivagasuya says that one Gangadatta, who had no issue, visited the shrine of Umbaradatta Jakkha outside the city of Patalikhanda, in company of female friends of her caste and worshipped the yaksa. She first bowed down to the image, then cleaned it with a brush of peacock-feathers (lomahattha), bathed it with water, wiped it with a woollen cloth (Pamhala-paksmala), dressed it with garments. adorned it with flowers, garlands, applied scents, scented powders, placed incense-burners in front and kneeling down, prayed for an issue. She promised a sacrificial rite (yaga), a gift (daya), a part of income or grains (bhaga) or an aksayanidhi (a special fund deposited for the purpose of worship). It may incidentally be noted that this is the form of worship of Tirthankaras also as can be seen from the worships performed by Draupadi or the gods Suriyabha and Vijaya, noted in Jaina canons. The Nayadhammakahao also refers to a shrine of Selaga Jakkha, who had the form of a horse, situated in a forestgrove (vankhanda) of Ratnadvipa. The Jakkha saved two merchants from the clutches of cruel robbers and carried them back to the city of Campa.11 A Jakkha Ganditinduga of Varanasi is said to have guarded the sage Matanga in the Tinduya garden.12 The Uttaradhyayana further says that by practising self-restraint one is born among the yaksas, 13 and that the yaksas, devas, danavas, and kinnaras pay veneration to those who practise celibacy. 14 According to the Avasyaka Niryukti, the Vibhelaga Jakkha in the Gamaya Sannivesa, paid reverence to Mahavira when the latter was engaged in meditation. 15

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Sasana-Devatas 207 The Pindaniryukti refers to the shrine of Manibhadra yaksa which lay outside the town of Samilla in a garden (udyana) and was furnished with an assembly-hall (sabha). When small-pox broke out in the town, he was requested by the inhabitants to save them from the epidemic. When the trouble subsided, the citizens besmeared the hall with cow-dung on every astami and other days.16 The Yaksas are reported to be constructive genii, skilled in town-planning and architecture. All through the ages, even to this day, folk-tales speak of construction of palaces, roads, etc., in a night by the yaksas. The Vasudevahindi describes the city of Vinita, the capital of Rsabhanatha, planned and constructed by Vesamana, at the bidding of Sakra. 17 The yaksas are famous for their function as gatekeepers in the Samavasarana of a Jina,18 and as Lords of Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparajita dvaras or gates of the jagati of the Jambudvipa.18 Kautilya's reference to the shrines of Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparajita19 in the centre of the city-fortifications is especially noteworthy. They are Yaksa-devatas as can be inferred from the Jaina evidence noted above. A Yaksa Anadhiya20 (Anadrta) is the Lord of the whole of Jambudvipa according to the Jaina traditions, and it is obvious that this function as a superintending deity is based upon the conception that he is the protector of Jambudvipa... The malefic character of Yaksas from earlier Jaina texts may now be examined. Sulapani Yaksa at Asthikagrama (bone-city) near Vardhamana-pura used to kill the local people and those who stayed in his shrine. The village came to be so called from the heap of bones of such dead bodies. A shrine was built for this Yaksa on the ashes of a bull who after death was reborn as Yaksa Sulapani.21 He tried to disturb Mahavira in his meditations when the sage spent a night in this shrine but the Yaksa was ultimately overpowered and worshipped Mahavira. A wooden statue of Yaksa Surapriya which was carved along with attendant pratiharyas (sannihitapadihere) was painted every year, the painter being finally killed by the Yaksa himself. The shrine (Jakkhayayana) of Surapriya was situated to the north-east outside the city of Saketa.22 A Yaksa indulging in the habit of violating vows of Jaina monks is referred to in the Brhatkalpa-Bhasya.23 People were believed to have been possessed by Yaksas (Jakkhavesa, Yaksagraha), Bhutas and other spirits; Ajjunaya, a garland bearer of Rajagrha, obsessed by Moggarapani Yaksa, killed six gangsters and his own wife with the iron-mace which the Yaksa (statue of wood) held in his hand.24 The Jambudvipaprajnapti25 refers to Indaggaha, Khandaggaha, Kumaraggaha, Jakkhaggaha and Bhuyaggaha. Yaksas used to enjoy sexual intercourse with girls.20 While the Vanamantari (Vyantari Yaksas belong to this Vyantara or Vanamantara class) Salejja is said to have paid reverence to Mahavira, in the Salavana-Udyana outside the village of Bahusalaka, another Vanamantari, Kadapayana (Katha-putana) by name, caused him trouble but was ultimately subdued.27 The Adambara Jakkha, also known as Hiradikka Jakkha, was the Yaksa of the Matangas,28 who were regarded as low-class people, similarly the people known as Dombas worshipped as their tutelary deity the Ghantika Jakkha, who whispered in the ear when questioned about future.29 This Yaksa seems to have been incorporated in Saivism as a Vira, Ghantakarna by name.30 Thus the deities of people who formed the earliest inhabitants of India, the Mundas, Nagas, etc. (perhaps Negritos, Austrics and others), were being incorporated gradually by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. They were mainly popular deities, worshipped by various classes of the Indian masses, sometimes benefic and at times malefic in nature. As we shall see later on, Kali and other Vidyas are regarded as Vidyas of the Matanga class, at times called Candalas in Indian literature, and it is in the beliefs and practices of these ancient inhabitants of India that the origin of the worship of a large number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina deities ultimately lies. The railing pillar figures of Yaksas and Yaksints at Bharhut show that they had to be included in places of worship though an inferior status of decorative pillar sculptures was assigned to them. The same is the case with such figures from the Kankali Tila, Mathura.31 For want of names inscribed below them, it is not possible to recognise them, but it is noteworthy that they have vahanas (dwarf, elephant, etc.) below their feet. The earliest known Yaksa and Yaksi statues are the Didarganj Yaksi, the Yaksa from Baroda, near Mathura, the Parkham Yaksa, the two Patna statues in the Indian Museum, the

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208 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Besnagar Yaksi, the statue of Yaksi Lawaya still worshipped as Manasa devi, at Mathura, the Yaksa from Noh, etc.32 Some of these early free standing Yaksa figures appear to have held the flywhisk, as suggested by R.P. Chanda.33 (It is significant that the Jaina texts assign to Yaksas the attendant position of flywhiskbearers in the parikara of a Tirthankara image. It seems however that in the Yaksa-cult, fly-whisk was regarded as a mark of royalty or dignity since otherwise the ancient Yaksa statues worshipped as deities would not hold them. of the Yaksas mentioned in the Jaina texts, Manibhadra and Purnabhadra invite special attention. They are said to be the two Indras of the Yaksa class of Vyantara gods, in Jaina Cosmography. Offerings (niveyanapinda) were made to them.34 The two Yaksas are said to have paid their veneration to Mahavira at Campa.35 A Caitya of Manibhadra stood to the north-east outside the city of Mithila, the ancient capital of Tirhut.36 The description of the Purnabhadra Caitya to the north-east of the city of Campa given in the Aupapatika sutra37 is the stock description for all such Caityas mentioned in the Jaina canons. A temple of Baluputrika near Visala (Ujjain ? Vaisali ?) is referred to in the Bhagavati sutra.38 The same text further refers to Bahuputrika as one of the four chief. cts of each of the two Yaksendras. Manibhadra and Purnabhadra.39 Manibhadra (Manivara, Manicara, Manimat) in the Mahabharata (5.192,44f) is a Yaksaraja and Kubera's chief attendant. He is invoked as a patron of merchants, this may be, according to Coomaraswamy, the explanation of his statue from Pawaya, set up by a guild (gostha) who were Manibhadra-bhaktas. And the fact that one of his chief queens is called Bahuputrika (one having many children) in the Jaina canon, at once suggests that the Jambhala and Hariti or the Jaina Sarvanha (Sarvanubhuti, or Matanga or Gomedha)40 and Ambika are based upon the ancient worship of Manibhadra-Purnabhadra and Bahuputrika. Elsewhere in this work 41 the relation of Bahuputrika with Revati-Sasthi and Hariti is shown. The Manibhadra-bhaktas continued at least upto the age of the Niddesa commentary which mentions them, but the growing popularity of Buddhist Jambhala and Hariti, of the Jaina Yaksa pair of Sarvanha or Sarvanubhuti and Ambika and of Siva. Ganesa, Gauri and Laksmi in Hinduism, seems to have wiped off their separate cult.414 Offerings to Yaksas, with a long list of other beings, are referred to in the GThya-sutras as being made at the end of Vedic studies; the Sankhayana srauta surra (I.II.6) mentions Manibhadra. 42 It would be useful to collect the names of the different Caityas of different places, mentioned in the Jaina Agamas, especially where Mahavira is reported to have stayed. The following are mentioned in the Bhagavati sutra: Caitya Town or Village 1. Dutipalasa 2. Kosthaka 3. Candravatarana 4. Purnabhadra 5. Jambuka 6. Bahuputrika 7. Gunasila 8. Bahusalaka 9. Kundiyayana 10. Sanakosthaka 11. Nandana 12. Puspavati 13. Mandikuksi 14. Candravatarana 15. Adgamandira 16. Prapatakala (?) Vanijya-grama Sravasti (Sahet-Mahet) Kosambi (Kausambi--Kosam) Campa (near Bhagalpur) Ulluka-tira-nagara Visala (Ujjain) (or Vaisali) Rajagrha Brahmanakundagrama (near Vaisali) Vaisali (Basah) Mendhika Moka Tungika Rajagsha Uddandapura Campa Alabhika

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Sasana-Devatas 209 17. Sankhavana 18. Chhatrapalasa Alabhika Ketangala All the Caityas above may or may not be Yaksa-temples, they may be temples of deities of the allied groups, Nagas, Bhutas and others, nor do the names of shrines always represent the names of deities enshrined in them. This is evidenced from the following analysis of shrines referred to in the Vivagasuyam (Vipaka sutra): City Udyana Ayatana of 1. Campa 2. Miyagama (Mrgagrama) Gandanapayana 3. Vaniyagama Dutipalasa 5 4. Purimatala Amohadamsi Purnabhadra Suhamma-jakkha (Ciratitam, ancient) Suhamma jakkha (Sudharma-yaksa) Amohadamsi-jakkha (Amoghadarsi yaksa) Amoha jakkha (Purane-old) Svetabhadra Sudarsana Umbaradatta Soriya-jakkha Dharana-jakkha 5. Sahanjani 6. Kosambi 7. Mahura (Mathura) 8. Patalikhanda 9. Soriyapura (Saurikapura) 10. Rohidaa (Rohitaka-Rohtak) Devaramana Gandotarayanam Bhandira Vanakhanda Soriyavacimsagam Pudhavivadamsa (Psthivyavatamsa) Vijayavaddhamana Manibhadra 11. Vaddamanapura (Vardhamanapura) 12. Hatthisisa (Hastisirsa) Kayavanamalapiya (Ketavanamalapriya) Dhanna (Dhanya) 13. Usabhapura (Vrsabhapura) 14. Vira or Vijayapura 15. Vijayapura 16. Sogandhiya (Saugandhika) 17. Mahapuram 18. Kanagapuram 19. Sughos 20. Campa 21. Saeyam (Saketa) Pupphakaranda (Puspakarandaka) Thubhakarandaga (Stupa-Karandaka) Manorama Mandanavanam Nilasogam Rattasogam Setasoyam (Svetasoka) Devaramana Punnabhadda Uttarakuru Asoga (Asoka) Sukala Rattapao (Raktapadah) Virabhaddo (Virabhadrah) Virasena Purnabhadra Pasamiyo (Paravamrgah) It will be seen that the Vipaka has often used the term udyana for Caitya of other texts.43 The descriptions of Caityas show that they are made up of a garden, grove or park (udyana or vanakharda), a shrine and attendants' houses. Ceiya, Ujjana and Vanasanda are often used as synonyms as in Vipaka, 11.2, where Duipalasa Ceiya is called Dutipalasa Vijana. But more noteworthy is the fact that the name of the Yaksa is often different from that of the Caitya-Udyana. This list further helps us to find out that most of the thirteen classes of Yaksas of the Bhagavati sutra are taken from the known famous ancient shrines at various places. It is interesting to note that there existed a shrine of Dharana-Jakkha at Rohitaka, the Mahamayuri list speaks of Kumara as the Yaksa of this place. Only further research can show whether Dharana and Kumara are identical or different. However it seems that the lists of Caityas in the Bhagavati, Vipaka, Jnatadharmakatha,

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210 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Upasakadasah and such other Jaina canonical texts represent traditions which are older than the Mahamayuri, even though parts of the available text editions may be of a later date. The Mahabharata (3.83.23) speaks of a Yaksini shrine at RajagTha as "world renowned". The Bhagavati refers to the Gunasila Caitya at Rajagrha, but we do not know to whom it was dedicated. However, it seems that the Mahabharata probably referred to the ancient Yaksi shrine of the tutelary goddess of Magadha, called Nanda, whom, even in Hiuen-Tasang's time, people prayed for offspring, she is called the wife of Panchika, a yaksa, and is represented in Buddhist legend as a devouress of children by small-pox, an ogress, whom Buddha converted and promised offerings as a patroness of fertility and children. If a conjecture be allowed this Nanda is the same as Revati or Sasthi of the Kasyapa Samhita.44 Hariti of the Buddhists,45 Bahuputrika, the queen of Manibhadra-Purnabhadra according to Jaina texts who in her malefic aspects was known as various Putanas, and who in Jainism became popular in the benefic form of Ambika-devi. The very fact that Ambika sits under the shade of a mango-tree is reminiscent of the old practice of worshipping the yaksas and yaksinis on stone platforms under trees. 452 Coomaraswamy, after a careful analysis of Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina evidences, wrote: "The essential element of a Yaksa holystead is a stone-table or altar (veyaddi-manco) placed beaeath the tree sacred to the yaksa. The bhavanam of the yakkha Suciloma at Gaya is particularly described as a stone couch (dias or altar) by or on which the Buddha rested, the words used are tankita manco, explained in the commentary to mean a stone slab resting on four other stones (Samyutta Nikaya, Yakkha Suttas, Chp. X, Kindred Sayings I, p. 264). At the Pungabhaddaceiya ... there were not only altars (and probably an image) in an elaborate temple, but also a decorated altar beneath an Asoka tree in the grove. It was just such an altar beneath a sacred tree that served as the Bodhisattva's seat on the night of the Great Enlightenment; Sujata's maid-servant, indeed, mistakes the Bodhisattva for the tree-spirit himself (Nidanakatha). It is very evident that the sacred tree and altar represent a combination taken over by Buddhism from older cults, and in the case of the Bodhi-tree we see the transference actually in progress."46 This obtains confirmation from a passage in the Jaina Vasudevahindi which says: "In the Saliggama in the Magaha (Magadha) Janapada, of the Bharata (Ksetra), there is the Jakkha called Sumano (Sumanah), his platform (sila -altar, vedika) under the Asoka-tree was called Sumana-sila, there the people worship him (tattha nam jana puyamti)."47 This then is the reason for regarding the Jaina Ambika, sitting under a tree and accompanied by children, as being modelled after an earlier most popular Yaksini image, associated with children, who must be Bahuputrika, or Revati-Sasthi or Nanda. Possibly these are different names or aspects, evolved in different periods, of one and the same ancient goddess. Coomaraswamy's remarks about the Buddha image apply equally to the Jina image. The canonical works note the Caitya-trees of each of the twenty-four Tirtharkaras and in the description of the Samavasarana, the Asoka tree spreads over the caitya-trees. It is one of the Eight Maha-Pratiharyas of a Jina. The conception of the Pratiharyas is again borrowed from the ancient Yaksa worship, for, as we have seen, the yaksa image is often described as Sannihiya-padihere. Older forms, beliefs and practices continue for ages in art and society with changes effected according to the requirements of the age and the sect adopting them and are revived over and over again in different ways. A similar instance is the type of the Tirthankara image once very popular in the South, occasionally also met with in the North in Gujarat, wherein the Jina sits on a big pitha, under a big tree whose foliage is spread out over the figure of the Jina.48 Some of the icons of this type found in the Puddhukotta State go back to the post-Gupta age and it would appear they had as their model the tree and Yaksa worship of ancient times obtained in the South.49 To revert to Nanda who was converted by Buddha and who was the tutelary goddess of Rajagsha, it must be remembered that Nanda is an ancient goddess. She is one of the forms of Devi, a name of Gauri;50 her name signifies joy, affluence, prosperity. In the Kubera-Hariti group of sculptures, described by Dr. Agrawala from the Mathura Museum, the wives of Kubera have been identified as Laksmi, Hariti and Bhadra. They might be called Laksmi, Nanda and Bhadra, all the three signifying Beauty, Prosperity and Auspiciousness, or Beauty, Abundance, Bliss and Auspiciousness. The first, sixth and eleventh days

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Sasana-Devatas 211 of the lunar fortnight are called Nanda-tithis, possibly because they were the days sacred to this goddess. The second, seventh and twelfth are Bhadra-tithis, sacred to the goddess Bhadra. The Jaina list of the fifty-six Dik-Kumaris is an attempt to include in the Jaina pantheon a number of foreign goddesses, that is, those popular in worship amongst the masses, and originally non-Jaina, are adopted in Jaina mythology. The names include such known Vedic goddesses as Sinivali, Pithvi or Ila. Nanda is included in this list.51 Nanaia, the ancient Iranian mother-goddess, has perhaps the closest parallel in the name Nanda. In the discussion of the Iconography of Ambika-Yaksi, the relations between Ambika, Uma and Nanaia have been discussed. In the light of all these facts, the tutelary goddess of Rajagtha, whose shrine according to the Mahabharata was very famous, can be clearly identified.52 A temple of Hundika-yaksa was erected at Mathura, in front of Deva-nimmiya (stupa),53 according to the Avasyaka Curni. A thief Hundi or Hundika was reborn as this yaksa by virtue of his muttering Navakara-Mantra at the time of death on gallows.54 The Pustaka-Lekhaka's (scribe's) Namaskara, obtained at the end of the Bhagavati, pays homage to Srutadevata, Kumbhadhara-Yaksa,55 Brahmasanti, Vairotya vidya and Antahundi. Probably the shrine of Hundi-Yaksa was very famous and continued in worship for several couturies and the Yaksa paid homage here as Antahundi. We hear of Bhandiravana and Sudarsana Yaksa at Mathura in the Vipaka-sutra. A yatra to Bhandiravana used to be celebrated even in the age of Mahavira.56 The Bhandira-vata (tree) is said to be the object of this pilgrimage. Obviously, this refers to the old practice of worshipping the yaksa under the tree. According to the Mahabharata (11.53.8), the famous.nygrodha-tree of Vindavana was called Bhandira. Worship of the Nagas was equally popular and closely allied to that of the Yaksas. They were also approached for obtaining children by Bhadra, wife of Dhanya.57 A big Naga-ghara (Naga-grha) to the north-east outside Saketa in the Kosala Janapada is referred to in the Nayadhammakahao.58 Queen Padmavati celebrates a Naga-Yajna in this shrine, which again is said to be sannihiya-padihere. Offering of a Sri-dama-ganda to this shrine is regarded as a very auspicious and meritorious act. A Naga-ghara by the side of the highway at or near Tamralipti is mentioned in the Vasudevahindi and is also called devaula (devakula). It is said that a lamp was hanging in the shrine which was filled with the fragrance of continuously burning incense. It seems that offering of dhupa (incense) was regarded as specially sacred in Naga-worship.59 It seems, from this and the reference to another Naga-ghara at Kundinapura (on the bank of the river Varada in the Vidarbha country), in the Vasudevahindi, 60 that maidens specially worshipped the Naga for obtaining best or desired husbands. Priyangusundari is said to enter the Nagagrha in an udyana at Mathura where she meets her lover Vasudeva and enters into marriage-relations by Gandharvavivaha.61 Bhagiratha is said to have brought the Ganges from Astapada (Kailasa-Himalayas) to the sea by digging her forward course with the help of a Danda-ratna, and with the permission of the Nagas king. Bhagiratha was the first person to start Naga-bali or offerings to Nagas. 62 Mathura is mentioned as a big centre of Naga worship where a number of Naga images have been recovered. Ahicchatra, the site of present Ramnagar, is also associated with Nagas, since the snake-king Dharana is said to have protected Par vanatha from heat etc. (when he was in meditation) by holding his hoods as a canopy over the sage. The Jaina texts refer to images and shrines of Nagas, Yaksas, Rudras and others in various contexts and such shrines seem to have existed in almost every village, town or city. Raja grha has been well known as the site of the worship of Mani-Naga, as is proved by the excavations of Maniyara Math.63 The legend of Dharana-Naga, offering protection to Paravanatha during the latter's austerities, has its parallel in the Buddhist legend of Mucilinda, the snake-king, sheltering Buddha against wind and rain. 64 It is especially significant to find that Jaina traditions speak of an ancient stupa of Suparsva existing at Mathura, and Suparava again is associated with snake-hoods canopied over his head. As suggested by us in Studies in Jaina Art, the stupa belonged to Parsvanatha who is so intimately associated with the snake-king Dharana in Jaina Mythology. Parsva's close association with the Nagas is further noteworthy because it suggests that this leader of a heterodox cult had a following of the Naga-tribe or worshippers of Naga cult against the Aryans who followed Vedic ritualism.

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212 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Parsvanatha's attendant Yaksa and Yaksini in Jaina iconography are the snake king and queen Dharanendra and Padmavati. Parsva's birth-place is Varanasi, and as the legend of the Ganges narrated in the Vasudevahindi shows, the Nagas lived in the regions through which the Ganges flowed towards the sea, and in the first flow their buildings were often swept away. By the time of Mahavira, the Nagas were pushed further eastwards and southwards of Madhyadesa and Magadha. Nagas are intimately associated with waters. And as the late Dr. Coomaraswamy has shown, the Yaksas are also similarly intimately associated with water cosmology. 65 As shown by him, the Atharvaveda (X.7.38) referring to Varuna, Brahman or Prajapati as the supreme and ultimate source of life says: A great Yaksa in the midst of the universe, reclining in concentrated energy (tapas) on the back of the waters, therein are set whatever gods thereby, like the branches of a tree about a trunk. "Significance is to be attached to this concept of the tree of life springing from a navel. For Yaksas are primarily vegetation spirits, guardians of the vegetable source of life, and thus closely connected with the waters."66 He writes, 67 "we have recognised that all these Yaksas, great or small, are vegetal spirits, directly controlling and bestowing upon their bhaktas fertility and wealth, or to use a single word, abundance ... Kubera's inexhaustible treasuries are a lotus and a conch, innumerable Yaksis have a makara or other fish-tailed animal as their vehicle, Kamadeva has the makara as his cognizance, the greater tutelary Yaksas control the rains essential to prosperity and in the earliest mythology "that germ which the waters held fast, and in which all gods exist", rose like a tree, ''from the navel of the unborn", who in the oldest passage is Varuna and in the Atharva Veda is called a Yaksa; moreover in the Indian "decorative art", vegetation is represented indifferently as springing either (1) from the mouth or navel of a Yaksa, or (2) from the open jaws of a makara or other fish-tailed animal, or (3) from a "brimming-vessel" or (4) from a conch, but never directly from any symbol representing earth ... A priori it might have been supposed that the Nagas, who are water deities, and who control the activity of the waters, should have been the gods of abundance, but they are not, as the Yaksas are worshipped by those desiring children." "Closely connected with the water cosmology and with Yaksas, is the idea of the productive pair, mithuna: the prominence of such procreative pairs in later art has been discussed by Ganguly, 68 while in the earlier art, such pairs are constantly recognisable as a Yaksa and a Yaksi, and it may be remarked that the formula appears commonly in Sunga terracottas."69 The most famous of all yaksa pairs is the Buddhist Jambhala and Hariti. Kubera with Hariti or Kubera with Laksmi, Bhadra or Hariti, assignablo to the Kusana age, are obtained from Mathura.70 Kubera or Jambhala and Hariti are also obtained from Gandhara.71 The Sahri-Bahlol sculpture shows Hariti and Kubera with at least five children, one being on the lap of the goddess. The sixth child on the right shoulder of Kubera, corresponding to the one on Hariti is lost. Hariti held in her hand some object which is lost and whose long end alone remains. At Mathura, in the numerous figures of this group, we find that the goddess either shows one hand in abhaya mudra or carrying a cup. The other hand remains engaged in holding a child. /In Jaina iconography, before the end of the fifth century A.D., we do not find any attendant yaksa and yaksi accompanying a Tirthankara; nor do we find separate sculptures of any Sasanadevata which can with confidence be assigned to a period before c. 500 A.D. A headless statue of Mahavira in the Lucknow Museum, inscribed and dated in the Gupta year 113, is perhaps the only known Jaina sculpture of the Gupta period, discovered hitherto, which bears a date.72 It does not show the sasanadevatas on the pedestal. Nor do we find sasanadevatas with the Tirthankara figures on the Kahaon Pillar73 dated in the year equivalent to 461 A.D. A seated figure of Neminatha on the Vaibhara hill, Rajgir (Fig. 26), bears a fragmentary inscription, in Gupta characters, referring to Chandragupta (the second). This is the earliest known sculpture of a Jina showing the cognizance on its pedestal but the attendant sasanadevatas are absent. None of the known Tirtha okara images of the Kusana period show on their pedestals either the lanchanas or the attendant yaksa pair, cven though yaksa Kubera and a two-armed yaksi, perhaps a prototype of Ambika, were known74 and were probably worshipped by the Jainas also as yaksa-deva and yaksi devi but not as sasanadevatas of a Tirthankara.

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213 Sasana-Devatas Agama texts of the Jainas are silent about attendant Yaksa pairs. Even the Kalpa-sutra which could have referred to them is completely silent about the sasanadevatas and the lanchanas of the different Tirthankaras even though the text deals with lives of the 24 Jinas. Nor do we find them in the Vasudevahindi which also gives lives of some of the Tirthankaras. We can, therefore, safely assume that the sasanadevatas were not evolved before c. 500 A.D. The brass or bronze image, from Akota, of standing Rsabhanatha (?) illustrated in Fig. 35 is as yet the earliest known Jaina image showing sasanadevatas accompanying a Tirthankara. The inscription on the back of this image, in Brahmi characters of c. 550 A.D., shows that "it belonged to" (i.e., was being worshipped by or was installed by) Jinabhadra Vacanacarya who is identified as Jinabhadra gani Ksamasramana, the author of Visesavasyaka-bhasya.75 Of about the same age, c. sixth century A.D., is obtained a separate metal image of Ambika yaksi from the Akota hoard.76 An elaborately carved beautiful sculpture of Ambika yaksi is preserved in the Meguti temple at Aihole (Fig. 88), dating from the seventh century A.D. Of about the same age is the Dhank group of sculptures in Saurashtra77 where the Kubera-like yaksa and two-armed Ambika-yaksi are shown on the right and the left of Parsvanatha standing in the kayotsarga posture. The same pair accompanies Rsabha (?) from Akota just noted (Fig. 35) and in other bronzes from Akota or Vasantagadh78 we obtain the same yaksa-yaksi pair for Parsvanatha and other Tirthankaras, and also in the bronze installed at Broach in Saka year 910-988 A.D.,79 discussed elsewhere by us and now preserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Upto the end of the tenth century at least, and even a little later, we do not find any specimen showing different attendant yaksa-yaksi pairs for different Jinas, the only exception being the yaksinis (with their names and the names of their respective Tirthankara masters inscribed), obtained on the wall of Temple no. 12 at Devgadh; the original shirne is assigned to the last quarter of the eighth century A.D. by Michael Meister.80 Later repairs include a doorway dating from 994 A.D. The yaksini set seems to date from c. late eighth century and is a very early attempt to differentiate the sasanadevatas for different Tirthankaras, but the attempt did not become popular for two or three centuries more. In the Mahavira temple at Osia (which dates from eighth or ninth century according to different scholars and which may in our opinion be assigned to the late eighth century A.D.), we find represented the Kubera-like yaksa Sarvanubhuti and amongst yaksis only Ambika and Padmavati. Some of the forms of Cakresvari are common to Cakresvari Vidya and the yaksi Cakresvari. Images of most of the 'Vidyadevis are found on the walls of the Mahavira temple and its adjoining Devakulikas. The Devakulikas to the east and west of the Mahavira shrine and the Torana in front (now removed and stored elsewhere) were erected in 1018 A.D. and the balanaka as well as the Devakulika to its east were erected in v.s. 1013 A.D. 956,81 In the Jaina cave at Badami, Karnataka, we have a big relief panel of Mahavira standing with attendant yaksa and yaksi who are different from the original pair.82 But the whole relief is later and the diffefence in style and motifs from the earlier reliefs in this cave can be easily marked out. The Mahavira panel dates from c. tenth century or a little later. At Ellora in all the Jaina caves one finds only the original sasanadevata pair of Kubera-like two-armed Sarvanha yaksa riding on the elephant and the two-armed Ambika with the lion-vehicle.83 In the paper on the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, published in the Journal of the University of Bombay (Sept. 1940), it was already shown that for a long time this pair was common to all the Tirthankaras. In sculptures and bronzes, at least upto the end of the ninth century A.D., only this pair of sasanadevatas is found. This pair in Jainism is later than the Jambhala and Hiriti in Buddhism, as no such Jaina sculpture assignable to an age earlier than the sixth century A.D. is found. This would suggest that for a long time Jaina worship could remain unchanged. But it does not mean that Jaina lay worshippers did not worship the yaksas, nigas etc. or had no superstitious beliefs common to human beings of all places and ages. Jaina story literature is full of references to Yaksas, Nagas, Vidyadharas, etc. We are told that the Jainas of Mathura had erected a shrine of Hundika Yaksa at Mathura. It seems that all these beliefs and practices were tolerated because theorically a Tirthankara could not be approached for fulfilment of worldly desires. The Jina was himself detached from all such attachments that lead to bondage. His worship only roused higher sentiments and held an ideal

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214 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana before the worshipper. But maidens pined for their cherished husbands, ladies longed for male issues, merchants on voyages wanted immunity from shipwrecks nnd other calamities, mothers were anxious to see their babies safe from small-pox, separated lovers wanted to unite again, kings wanted to ensure victory for their armies--for all these we find Yaksas, Nagas, Vidyadharas and a host of other gods and goddesses invoked, and the deities taking active part in the well-being of their worshippers. But there must be scriptural sanction for the introduction and assimilation of these deities in Jaina worship and this was achieved with the help of Jaina cosmological and cosmographical accounts. The period of transition from the Gupta age to the middle ages, i.e., from c. sixth century to c. - eleventh century A.D., is a period of new impetus to Tantrism in all the three main Indian sects, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. This brought into existence worship of new deities and additions to the existing number of iconographic varieties of old ones. The new activity continued even upto the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A.D. which period (6th-7th to 13th-14th centuries) has witnessed temple-building activity on a large scale all over India. The earlier simplicity of forms in architecture and sculpture was gradually replaced by complex forms overloaded with ornamental details. The two or four arms of gods and goddesses multiplied so much that we had deities like the thousand-armed Avalokitesvara! The different sects vied with one another in the race for multiplication of their respective pantheons and mystifying their rituals with complex details. Jainism, which has shown greater conservatism than other sects in preserving their acara-vidhi, was also obliged to introduce new deities, though of course in a role subordinate to the Tirthankaras, or to compose Tantric works like the Jvalini-kalpa, or the BhairavaPadmavati-kalpa, the Sarasvati-kalpa, the Ambika-devi-kalpa, or the Vidyanusa sana. The Acara-Dinakara of Vardhamana suri is a product of this spirit and was composed in V.S. 1468 (A.D. 1411). It is full of Brahmanical influence. The Nirvanakalika, ascribed by some to the Old Padalipta suri, but composed in c. eleventh century A.D., and works like the Pratisthasaroddhara of Pandit Asadhara were also composed under similar influences. It was towards the end of the Imperial Gupta rule and the beginning of the transitional period that this sasanadevata pair was introduced in Jaina iconography. The two-armed Kubera-like yaksa was called Sarvanubhuti alias Sarvanha by us84 from several considerations: (1) There is no early tradition in Jaina literature which describes this yaksa as Gomedha or Matanga yaksa who are attendant yaksas of Neminatha and Mahavira respectively. Since this early yaksa accompanies Ambika, the yaksini of Neminatha in later iconography, one would expect that in the early pair also he was Gomedha the yaksa of Neminatha. But the iconography of Gomedha in both the sects is different. One would also expect that this early yaksa was either Matanga, the yaksa of Mahavira in later iconography or Gomukha, the yaksa of Adinatha or Parsva or Dharana, the yaksa of Parsvanatha. But the iconography in all the above cases is different. (2) We have a verse addressed to one Sarvanha Yaksa in the Snatasya stuti included in the daily worship of the Svetambara sect, in its Pancapratikramana sutra. Sarvanubluti is two-armed and rides on the elephant. (3) Sarvanha yaksa in Digambara worship has the same iconography as this early yaksa and as the Sarvanubhuti yaksa. He is very popular in Digambara worship and installed even on the Manastambhas as shown by Settar.85 (4) The Ksamasramapa-Mahattariya-lika on the Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya of Jinabhadra gani ksamasramana dates from the sixth century A.D. It refers to Amba-Kusmandi, Vidyarajah Harinegamesi, and Sarvene (scribal error for Sarvanha) vaksa. It is, therefore, quite certain that this earliest pair was known as Sarvanha yaksa and Amba-Kusmandi yaksi. Some early descriptions of Ambika came from the Svetambara hymn Caturvimsatika of Bappabhatti suri (c. 800-895 V. S c. 743-837 A.D.) and the Digambara Purana Harivamsa of Jinasena (783 A.D.). Jinasena also refers to Apraticakra in the same verse in which Ambika is referred to. But Apraticakra is also known as a Vidyadevi in ancient Jaina traditions, however it is certain that in the age of Harivamsa, Cakresvari was already introduced as the sasanadevi of Rsabhanatha, as shown below. Earlier reference to Ambika comes from the Lalitavistara-fika of Haribhadra suri whose date is not later than 650 A.D. An Amba-Kasmandi Vidya is referred to by the same writer in his tika on the Avas

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Sasana-Devatas 215 yaka-niryukti, gatha 931. In both these cases however neither the vahana nor the symbols or ayudhas are specified. A still earlier reference comes from the Visesavasyaka-bhasya with the Ksamasramana-Mahattariyatika which says: yasmin mantra-devata stri sa Vidya Amba-Kusmandi-adih. Here Amba-Kusmandi is referred to as a Vidya but since we do not find Amba or Kusmandi in the Jaina lists of Vidyadevis it is very likely that this refers to the tantric vidya-sadhana of the same goddess Ambika who accompanied the different Tirthankaras as their sasanadevata and who later came to be recognised as the sasana-yaksi of Tirthankara Neminatha (alone). This last reference cited from the tika on the Visesavasyaka-bhasya dates from the sixth century A.D. The origin of the Ambika yaksi is an interesting subject of study. In a separate paper being published in the A. Ghosh Memorial Volume we have discussed the problem at length and shown that she is related to several ancient goddesses, Arya, the peaceful form of Durga, Nana or Nanaia on the lion, Anihata and Anaitis, Durga as Kusmandini, and an Amra or Amra-Kusmandini carrying a mango-bunch in one hand. A headless kaolin figure of such a yaksi is found from the Satavahana site at Paithan. In Brahmanical literature Ambika is invoked as the Mother of Vinayaka. One of the ancient Vinayakas is called Kusmanda-rajaputra. Ambika's form further shows close iconographic relation with the form of Ganga in the Boston Museum or on doorframes of shrines of the Gupta period since the river goddess stands under a mango-tree and has a playful child or gana beside her. The Jaina Ambika is an assimilation of conceptions of several old goddesses. These sasanadevatas or attendant yaksas and yaksinis are said to protect the tirthas of their respective Tirthankara Masters. 86 They are known as Sasanadevatas or Vaiyavrttakaras (Veyavaccakaras).87 Vaiyavrtta means help in the practice of Dharma, both material and spiritual. The Bhagavati sutra describes ten types of veyavacca or services to others which includes rendering service to acarya, upadhyaya, tapasvi, glana (sick), saiksa (newly initiated) and others.88 According to the Uttaradhyayana sutra, a person accrues, by veyavacca, merit (karma) which makes him acquire Tirthankara-nama-gotra.89 It is therefore quite obvious that these yaksas and yaksinis are given a subordinate position of service to the different members of the Jaina Samgha. The next stage in yaksa-worship amongst the Jainas is marked by a variation of forms of this first pair of Sarvanubhuti alias Sarvarha and Amba-Kusmandi or Ambika. The Yaksa retains his Kubera-like appearance and the elephant vehicle for a long time and this tradition lingered on in some form or the other upto about the thirteenth century A.D. even when new names and forms with different vahanas of yaksas were evolved and carved. This is proved by the pedestals of numerous Tirthankara images in the temples at Abu, Kumbharia, Devgadh etc. The yaksi often remained as Ambika but the two arms were increased to four at Kumbharia and Abu. At Devgadh two more stages are marked-one replaced the old Yaksi Ambika for Tirthankaras other than Neminatha and inserted a two-armed yaksi showing abhaya or varada and a pot or a citron; another stage was the evolution of different yaksinis with different iconography and new names. Temple no. 12 at Devgadh has on its back wall and the inter-columnations of the verandah a series of 24 yaksinis carved on different slabs. This set shows some forms of better workmanship and looking a little older than others which are crude, stiff, unfinished or of inferior workmanship. Each Yaksi is represented as standing and above her is a figure of a sitting Jina (in a caitya-window ornament) whose attendant the yaksi is shown to be. Names of the Jina as well as the yaksi are inscribed on each slab.90 The dating of the labels on the basis of the script or of the yaksi figures on the basis of style is only approximate and tentative. All the figures are not of the same quality and either they are carved by different hands or some of them are later replacements. Again in texts like the Tiloyapannatti etc. Jvalamalini is the yaksi of Candraprabha while here Sumalini is the yaksi of Candraprabha and the Jina's name with Jvalamalini yaksi in this set is not clearly read. In this set, Sidhai (Siddhayika) is the yaksi of Munisuvrata while she is generally the yaksi of Mahavira; Bahurupi is shown as yaksi of Puspadanta while she is usually the yaksi of Munisuvrata. But there are several names which are not found as yaksinis in Digambara texts. Such names are Sarasvati, Mayuravahi, Himadevi or Bhimadevi, Sriyadevi, Suraksita, Abhogaratina or

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216 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Abhogarohini, Vahani or Vahni, Sumalini and Sulocana. So it seems that this list of yaksinis represents a lost tradition and we cannot say with confidence that the labels were incised at a later date. We might tentatively assign the Devghad temple no. 12 set to the age of original construction of the shrine in c. late eighth century A.D., or in about 800 A.D., and not to any age of later repairs of this temple. Thus this is the earliest known set of the twenty-four yaksinis. The Tiloyapannatti gives us another list of the 24 yaksinis and the list of another iDigambara text Pratisthasaroddhara also shows some variations. The age of the available text of the Tiloyapannatti, though assigned to c. sixth century in the introduction to its second part, is uncertain because at one place the text refers to Bulacandra Saiddhantika who does not seem to be earlier than c. tenth cent. A.D. The accompanying comparative table shows names of the yaksinis according to Devgadh Temple no. 12 (DT), Tiloyapannatti (TP), Pratisthasaroddhara (PS) and Hemacandra's Trisastisala kapurusacarita (HT) (Svetambara). DT, TP and PS represent Digambara tradition. Jina DT TP HT Cakresvari 1. Rsabha 2. Ajita 3. Sambhava Cakresvari Rohini Prajnapti Cakresvari Ajity Duritari Cakresvari Rohini Prajnapti or Namra Vajrasrnkhala or Duritari Khadgavara or Mohini 4. Abhinandana Sarasvati Kalika Vajras;khala Vajrankusi 5. Sumati Mahakali 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparava 8. Candraprabha 9. Puspadanta Sulocana Mayuravahi Sumalini Bahurupi Apraticakra Purusadatta Manovega Syama Santa Bhrukuti Sutaraka Kali 10. Sitala Sriyadevi Jvalamalini Asoka 11. Sreyamsa Vahni-devi Mahakali Manavi 12. Vasupujya Abhogarohini (2) Gauri Canda 13. Vimala Sulaksana Gandhari Vidita Kali or Manavi Jvalini MahakaliBhrukuti Manavi or Camunda Gauri or Gomedhaki Gandhari or Vidyunmalini Vairoti Vidyadevi AnantamatiKumbhini Manasi Parabhita MahamanasiKandarpa JayaGandharini Taravati-Kali AparajitaManjula 14. Ananta Anantavirya Vairotya Ankusa 15. Dharma Suraksita Anantamati Kandarpa 16. Santi Manasi Nirvani Sriyadevi or Anantavirya Arakarabhi 17. Kunthu Mahamanasi Bala 18. Ara 19. Malli Taradevi Bhimadevi Jaya Vijaya Dharini Vairotva (Dharanapriya)

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Sasana-Devatas 217 Jina DT TR PS HT 20. Manisuvrata Sidhai Aparajita 21. Nami Bahurupini Bahurupini Naradatta Sugandhini Camunda Gandhari Kusumamalini Amra-Kus-mandini Ambika Padmavati Padmavati Siddhayini Siddhayika 22. Nemi 23. Parsva 24. Mahavira Ambayika Padmavati Aparajita Kusmandini Padma Siddhayini A later set of yaksis is obtained in the Barabhuji Cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, As Debala Mitra has shown, these figures "may even be as late as the eleventh-twelfth century A.D."91 The Navamuni cave, near the above cave, has reliefs representing only seven sasanadevatas and contains an inscription dated in the reign of Somavamsi king Udyotakesari,o2 assignable to c. eleventh century A.D. The reliefs in the Navamuni cave are however earlier in age and may be assigned to c. ninth-tenth century A.D. The Maladevi Jaina temple at Gyaraspur, M.P., also shows that the twenty-four different yaksin Is were already evolved in the ninth century A.D. We obtain there, on the pedestal of an image of Mahavira, the figure of yaksi Siddhayika. The earliest reference to the separate sasanadevatas is obtained in the Harivamsa of Jinasena (783 A.D.) who speaks of sasanadevatas of great prowess, like Apraticakra and others, paying respects to Vrsabha, the Dharmacakravartin. It is therefore safer to conclude that the different sasanadevatas were evolved in the eighth century A.D., but did not become very popular till about the tentheleventh century A.D. Debala Mitra has listed and identified the Tirtharkaras with their cognizances and yaksinis in the Navamuni and the Barabhuji caves. They are as follows: The Navamuni Cave, Khandagiri, Orissa Tirtharkara 1. Rsabha (on back wall) 2. Ajita ( " " ) . 3. Sambhava (" " ) 4. Abhinandana (" " ) 5. Vasupujya (" " ) 6. Parsvanatha (" " ) 7. Neminatha (" " ) 8. Parsvanatha (right wall) 9. Rsabhanatha (right wall) 10. Candraprabha (" ") Cognizance Bull Elephant Horse (damaged) Monkey Buffalo (damaged) Naga (snake) Conch Snake Bull Moon Yaksi Cakresvari Robini Prajnapti Vajraisokhala (Vaisnavi ?) Gandhari (Kaumari ?) Padmavati Ambika or Amra X The Barabhuji Cave, Khandagiri, Orissa Tirthankara 1. Rsabhanatha 2. Ajita 3. Sambhava 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumati 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsva 8. Candraprabha Cognizance Bull Elephant Horse (broken) Ape (indistinct) Lotus Six-petalled flower Moon Yaksi Cakresvari Rohini Duritari or Prajnapti Vajraspokhala ? Kali? Purusadatta ? Manovega ? Kali? Jvalini ?

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218 9. Puspadanta 10. Sitala 11. Sreyamsa 12. Vasupujya 13. Vimala 14. Ananta 15. Dharma 16. Santinatha Makara Sri-vatsa Rhinoceros Buffalo Boar Porcupine ? Thunderbolt Antelope Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Mahakali or Sutara ? Manavi ? Gauri? Gandhari? Vairoti ? Anantamati? Manasi Mahamanasi? Laksmi ? Nirvani ? Jaya or Vijaya ? Tara Aparajita Bahurupini Camunda ? Brahmani ? Amra Padmavati Siddhayika Cakresvari Rohini 17. Kunthu Goat 18. Ara Fish 19. Malli Water-pot 20. Munisuvrata Tortoise 21. Nami Blue lotus 22. Nemi Flower or Disc 23. Parsva (right wall) Naga 24. Mahavira ( , ) Lion A. ............... (left wall) B. .............. ( ) Parsvanatha is standing as mulanayaka in this cave. At Pithaura, old Nagod State, now in Madhya Pradesh, is a shrine of Patyana-dayi (once called Pattini Devi) where the chief deity worshipped was a sculpture of the goddess Ambika-devi accompanied on her sides by small figures of the other twenty-three yaksinis. Names of these yaksinis are inscribed below their figures. They are: Bahurupini, Camunda, Sarasati (Sarasvati), Padumavati (Padmavati), Vijaya, Jaya, Anantamati, Vairotya, Gauri, Mahakali, Kali, Budhadaghi ? (Pusadadhi ?) (? Purusadatta ?), Prajapati (Prajwapti?), Vajrasankala (Vajrasrikhala), Aparajita, Mahamunusi (Mahamanasi), Anantamati, Gandhari, Manusi (Manasi), Jalamalini (Jvalamalini), Manuja (? Manovega ?), (Cakresvari), (Rohini). The symbols of these yaksinis are not clearly identified. The sculpture of Patiyanadai temple may be assigned to c. eleventh century A.D. The above list seems to be generally akin to the list of the Tiloyapannatti. At Devgadh inscribed four-armed loose sculptures of Yaksi Sarasvati and Yaksi Sumalint are found. They are dated in the year equivalent to 1070 A.D. and are later than the set in Temple no. 12 at the same site. Literary traditions of both the sects show that by c. 12th cent. A.D. the lists of the various Yaksas and Yaksinis were finalised in both the Jaina sects. It may be noted that in the Digambara lists of Pandit Asadhara and others many names of Yaksinis are borrowed from the lists of the sixteen Mahavidyas of Jainism. Since the lists of Vidyadevis are earlier in age the above conclusion is inevitable. It has been shown above that at Abu (Vimala Vasahi temple) and Kumbharia are preserved forms of Yaksas and Yaksinis which are based upon some old tradition. This tradition is possibly earlier than the Nirvanakalika (Svetambara) and the Trisastisalakapurusacarita of Hemacandra (also Sve.). We similarly find with some Dig. Tirthankaras a two-armed Yaksa and a two-armed Yaksi showing abhaya or varada mudra and carrying a pot or a citron or a flower. This iconography is different from what is prescribed in texts like the Pratisthasaroddhara. The tradition is not yet traced in literature. In Svetambara tradition a two-armed Kubera-iike yaksa (Sarvanha or Sarvanubhuti) with variations sometimes in the symbols continued possibly upto thirteenth century even when new iconography was prescribed in texts like the Nirvanakalika or the Trisastisalakapurusacarita. The Yaksi in such cases was usually Ambika either two-armed or four-armed. Only a few inscribed pedestals are noted below to demonstrate what is stated above. The cell numbers given below are of the Devakulikas (cells) of the Vimala Vasahi shrine, Abu. The date given is from the inscription on the pedestal on which the yaksa and the yaksini are carved. The inscriptions also give the name of the Jina to whose image the pedestal belonged.

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Sasana-Devatas 219 (1) Cell 3, Image of santinatha, dated 1202 V.S. (1145 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi right hand 1. bag 1.b. 1. bag r.h. I. mango bunch 1.h. 1. mango bunch r.h. 2. varada I.h. 2. citron r.h. 2. mango bunch 1.h. 2. child Vahana-Elephant Vahana x x (2) Cell 5, Image of Kunthunatha, dated 1202 V.S. (1145 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Money bag with two upper hands 1. 1. mango 1. 1. mango r. 2. varada 1. 2. citron r. 2. citron 1. 2. child Vahana-Elephant Vahana-Lion (3) Cell 7, Aranatha, dated 1202 V.S (1145 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Yaksa as above Yaksi as above (4) Cell 9, Rsabranazhe, dated 1202 V.S. (1145 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika r. hand varada 1. hand bag Yaksi as above Vahana-Elepbant (5) Cell 11, Munisuvrata, d. 1200 V.S. (1143 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika Money bag with two upper hands as above T. 2. abhaya 1. 2. citron Vahana-Elephant (6) Cell 14, Rsabhanatha, d. 1186 V.S. (1129 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika 1. 1. goad 1.1. noose as above r. 2. abhaya 1. 2. bag Vahana-Elephant (7) Cell 15, Santinatha, d. 1131 V.S. (1074 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika r. 1. goad 1. 1. noose as above 1. 2. citron 1. 2. bag Vahana-Elephant (8) Cell 16, Suparsva, d. 1153 V.S. (1096 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika r. 1. goad 1.1. noose as above 1. 2. ? 1. 2. bag Vahana--Elephant (9) Cell 22, Rsabhanatha, d. 1358 (1301 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika r. 1. goad 1. 1. noose as above r. 2. varada 1. 2. citron Vahana--Elephant (10) Cell 52, Mahavira, dated 1378 V.S. (1321 A.D.) Yaksa Yaksi Ambika r. l. goad 1. 1. noose as above r. 2. varada 1. 2. bag Vahana--Elephant In the above few examples, it seems that the four-armed Yaksa is evolved from the two-armed Yaksa showing the fruit or varada and the money-bag. Possibly this evolved Yaksa in the above tradition

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana continued to be called Sarvanubhuti or Sarvanha since the accompanying yaksi continues to be Ambika even when the yaksi is four-armed. The Vahanas of the Yaksa as well as the Yaksi remain unchanged. It is therefore advisable to regard this tradition as the second stage in the evolution of Yaksas and Yaksinis, the first stage being represented by examples from Akota, Dhank, Ellora, Kumbharia etc. A similar stage is observed in the Digambara tradition in temples 2, 3, 4 etc. at Devgadh and a few sites in the old Gwalior State territory etc. where a two-armed Yaksa shows varada or abhaya and the waterpot or money bag in his two hands. The corresponding Yaksi shows the varada or abhaya and the pot or child in her two hands. 220 Comparisons of the different yaksas and yaksinis with deities of the Buddhist and Brahmanical pantheons would be highly interesting. The Jaina lists contain names which are distinctly Hindu, for example, Brahma yaksa, Nandi, Kumara, Sanmukha, Varuna, Isvara, Canda, Gauri, Camunda, Kall, Mahakali, Sulapani yaksa, Kaparddi yaksa and so on. The iconography, however, as described in the Jaina and Hindu texts, often differs, but the borrowings are unmistakable. Sometimes the Hindu name is retained, in other cases the Hindu iconographical traits with a ditteres ame are marked out. In the latter type of borrowing, sometimes both the Hindu and the Jaina traditions might have borrowed or evolved from an earlier common heritage of gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient India. Indra, Varuna, Kubera, Sri, Manibhadra yaksa, etc. can be cited as such examples. Vasudeva, Baladeva, Rudra, Kamadeva and others figure in the Jaina Puranas. In works like the Adipurana of Jinasena, the Tirthankara is called Isana, Tatpurusa, etc., and a Jaina version is given in explanation of meaning of such epithets. A painting of Mahisamarddini occurs in a palm-leaf manuscript of Uttaradhyayana sutra with Sukhabodha-vrtti, dated in V.S. 1352=A.D. 1295, preserved in the Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay. R.C. Agrawala has suggested that Mahisamarddini was worshipped as Saccika-devi or Sacciya-mata, the gotra devi or the kula devi of the Jaina Oswala baniyas who are reported to have hailed originally from Osia in Rajasthan. A temple dedicated to Saccika devi exists in Osia. Dhaky has shown that originally it was the Hindu goddess Ksemankari, a form of Gauri or Parvati, that was worshipped as Saccika by the Jaina Oswala baniyas. Of Buddhist influence we have a few cases only like Taradevi, Vajrasrnkhala and Vajrankusi. To obtain a following, to attract the masses into its fold, a sect had to show the superiority of its deities over the deities of other sects. Mahayana Buddhism did this by making their gods trample over or ride over Hindu gods. The Jainas were not so cruel or discourteous and were satisfied with assigning a subordinate position to the Hindu deities by making them attendant yaksas and yaksinis. It is impossible for any sect to gather strength without incorporating in one form or the other the beliefs and practices of the masses. The Jainas, as the march of its history through the ages shows us, had to meet strong Saiva opposition which made it necessary for them to show the superiority of their deities over those of the rival sect. The story of Sulapani yaksa (a somewhat later addition ?) in the life of Mahavira indicates Saiva rivalry. Sometimes the Tirthankaras were hailed as Isana, Vamadeva, Tatpurusa or Aghora as was done by the author of Adipurana in the ninth century. This was another way of meeting Saiva opposition in the South of India. From very early times in the history of the Jaina Church the Vedic Indra was assigned the function of celebrating the different Kalyanakas (auspicious events) in the lives of Tirthankaras. The idea of Indra as a ruler of gods was extended and as many as sixty-four Indras grew up, in Jainism, amongst whom Isanendra, a form of Siva, is noteworthy. Sakra or Saudharmendra is clearly the Vedic Sahasraksa Indra. At a later stage the Bhairavas and Yoginis and even the seven or eight Matrkas and Ganesa had to be included in Jaina worship. The Navagrahas and the Dikpalas remained the common heritage of all sects. Even though 24 Yaksas and Yaksinis are venerated in Jaina rituals and art, only four Yaksinis have been the most popular. They are: Cakresvari or Apraticakra, the Yaksi of the first Jina Rsabhanatha, Ambika, the Yaksi of the twenty-second Jina Neminatha, Padmavati, the Sasanadevata of the twenty-third Jina Parsvanatha, and Siddhayika, the Yaksi of the twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira. This is mainly because the above four Tirthankaras have been the most popular in Jainism from ancient times. The Kalpa sutra dealing with the lives of 24 Tirthankaras describes in detail lives of the above-mentioned four

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Sasana-Devatas 221 Jinas only. Attendant Yaksis of these four Jinas naturally get preference over other Yaksinis. Of these four Yaksinis, Ambika and Padmavati seem to have been the most popular ones, especially in Tantric rituals and special Tantric texts like Ambika-Kalpa, Bhairava-Padmivati-Kalpa, Adbhuta-PadmavatiKalpa were composed. Another Yaksi who became more popular in the Jaina Tantra is Jvalamalini, the Yaksi of Candraprabha. 1. Coomaraswamy, The Yaksas, I, p. 2 and note. Also see Shah, U.P., Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literature, Journal of the Oriental Institute (JOI), Vol. III, no. 1 (Sept. 1953), pp. 54-71; and Introduction of SasanaDevatas in Jaina Worship, Proceedings of the All India Oriental Conference, Twentieth Session, Bhuvaneshwar, Vol. II, Part I Meti Chandra, Some Aspects of Yaksa Cult in Ancient India, Bull. Prince of W. Museum, No. 3, pp. 43-62. 2. The following are some of the names of yaksas and yaksinis available at Bharhut: Supavasu Yakho Virudhako Gangita Suciloma 33 Sudasana Cada Sirima devata Mahakoka REFERENCES Yakhi (Sudarsana) (Canda) (Sri-devi) (Kubera ?) Ajakalako Culakoka 3. Also see Ramaprasad Chanda, Four Yaksa Statues, Jour. of Dept. of Letters (Calcutta, 1921), Vol. IV. 8. Pavitra-Kalpa-sutra, su. 84, p. 29. 9. Nayadhammakahao, 11, pp. 47-50. 4. See also Shah, U.P., Harinegamesin, JISOA, old series, Vol. XIX, where evidence from Ayurvedic and other texts on the Bala-grahas is collected. 5. Bhagavati-sutra, 3.7, su. 168 (Agamudaya samiti ed.), Vol. I, pp. 200ff. 6. Tattvartha Bhasya (Ratlam ed.), p. 49. 7. Prajnopana sutra, pada 1, comm. on su. 38, p. 70. The Tiloyapannatti, 6.42-43, Vol. II, p. 647 gives twelve slightly different names of twelve classes of yaksas. 10. Avasyaka Curai, vol. II, p. 193. 11. Nayadhammakahao, IX, pp. 127ff. A yaksa of the form of a horse is interesting. Later conceptions like the Hayagriva, etc. were possibly the results of assimilations of such yaksas. Also see Coomaraswamy, HIIA, 26, 33 for ref. to Yakkhi Assamukhi. 12. Uttaradhyayana sutra, 12 and commentary of Kamalasamyama, p. 173. 13. Ibid., 3.14f. 14. Ibid., 16.16. 15. Avasyaka Niryukti, verse 487. 16. Pinda-Niryukti, v. 245f. Yaksas also detected the unchastity of woman, see Dasa-curni, p. 90. 17. Vasudevahindi, pp. 162-163. 18. Samavasarana is the assembly hall erected by gods when a Jina delivers his sermon. See Indian Antiquary, vol. XL (1911), pp. 125ff, 153ff and Studies in Jaina Art. 18a. Jambudvipaprajnapti, su. 7ff, pp. 45ff. 19. Kautilya's Arthasastra, Shamasastry's Translation, p. 59. 20. Anadhiya is especially interesting and seems to be the male counterpart of another goddess Anihae or Anihate worshipped in the Jaina Varddhamana Vidya. This goddess has been identified by the present writer with the Iranian Anaiitis. Anahita would have her male counterpart in Anadhiya-Anahiya. For Anadrta or Anadhiya yaksa, see Vasudevahindi, pp. 25-26. Also see Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature, by U.P. Shah, Indian Historical Quarterly, IHQ, Vol. XXIX, Sept. 1953, pp. 260ff. 21. Avasyaka Curni, pp. 272-4. Avasyaka Niryukti, 463ff. Avasyaka Vrtti, pp. 193ff quoting verses from MulaBhasya. 22. Avasyaka Curni, I, pp. 85ff. This is noteworthy, the Tirthankara statues also have the pratiharyas and, like the mode of worship, this practice too has been borrowed by the Jainas from the old Yaksa Cult. Mr. Raivataka, Naya., V, p. 68. 23. Brhat-Kalpa-Bhasya, IV, 4963f. 24. Antagadadasao, 6. 25. Jambudvipaprajnapti, p. 120. 26. Uttaradhyayana Curni, p. 89 noted by Jaini, J.C., Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jaina Canons, pp. 221222. He also refers to the Ganditinduga Yaksa molesting princess Bhadra. 27. Avasyaka Curni, p. 294; Nirukti verse 489. Putanas are thus regarded as belonging to Vanamantara class. Compare similar tradition which says that a Putana who wanted to poison Krishna was killed by the latter. 28. Avasyaka Cirni, Vol. II, pp. 227ff. 29. Vyvahara Bhasya, 7, 313; Avaiyaka Curni, II, p. 229. and Brhat-Kalpa-Bhasya, 2.1312, pp. 403-04. 30. Abhidhana-Cintamani, comm. of Hemacandra on 2.124, pp. 89f quoting Sesa giving a list of ganas of Siva. Virabhadra a wellknown gana of Siva having a name ending in bhadra, like the thirteen types of yaksas of the Bhagavati, and the Tattvartha-Bhasya lists, seems to be an ancient deity of this class, later assimilated in the Saiva Pantheon. 31. For example, see Coomaraswamy's History of Indian and Indonesian Art, figs. 73, 74 (identified by Dr. Moticandra as Padmi-Sri, the Sirimi-devata of Bharhut), 81; figs. 73 and 74 seem to have been prototypes of the later Ambiki-yaksi. Also see sculptures nos. J.275, J.276, J.277, B.90, and B.95 in the State Museum, Lucknow. 32. For all these statues and references, see Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, pp. 16-17 and plates. The following remarks of Coomaraswamy are noteworthy: "Whatever the actual age of this group of four large sculptures in the round. thev illnetrate and ade

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222 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana quately establish the character of the indigenous school in and before the Mauryan period. With the group must be associated the Besnagar Kalpavrksa.' Also Chanda, R.P., Four Yaksa Statues, Journal of the Department of Letters, Vol. IV. Many more Yaksa statues have been published. See Agrawala, V.S., Indian Art, Vol. I. The Yaksa from Noh dates perhaps from before the Christian era, Agrawala, R.C., Yaksa Torso from Bharatpur Region, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. 17, pp. 64ff. 33. Four Yaksa Statues, Journal of Department of Letters IV. Banerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography, p. 109. 34. Nisitha Sutra with Nisitha Curni, 11th uddesa, Vol. III, p. 224. 35. Avasyaka Cirni, 1, p. 320 and Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 523. 36. Chanda, R.P., in Memoir, Archaeological Survey of India, No. 30, p. 7. 37. Aupapatika sutra, sutra 2. 38. Bhagavati sutra, 18.2. Visala=Ujjain according to the Abhidhana Cintanani, 4.42, but in Jaina canons it generally stands for Vaisali. There it is better to take Visala =Vaisali. 39. Bhagavati, 10.5. A goddess Bahuputrika is also referred to in the Nirayavalido, III, 4, p. 79. 40. This will be made clear later on. In the earliest repre sentations of the attendant yaksa pair of a Tirthankara image, the yaksi is certainly Ambika but the name of the yaksa is not settled and hence these alternative names. 41. In the chapter on Harinegamesin in Vol. II. 41a. A Mapibhadra riding an elephant became very popular amongst Jainas in Rajasthan and Gujarat during the mediaeval period. Even today he is worshipped in several shrines of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat. A legend of his origin is also current amongst the Svetambaras. 42. Coomaraswamy, Yaksas, I, pp. 24-26. According to Manu, XI, 96 meat and intoxicating drinks are the food of Yaksas, Raksasas and Pisacas. For offerings to Yaksa Mudgarapani, see Antagadadasao, 6, and for those to Puroabhadra and Umbaradatta, see Aupapatika, 2, and Vipaka, pp. 76ff respectively. 43. The extant Vipaka is a later (revised) text containing later data, perhaps of the age of second and third councils (Vacana), mixed with some genuine earlier tradition of age of ganadharas. 44. Shah, U.P., Harinegamesin, Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XIX. 45. For Hariti, see Foucher, The Buddhist Madonna and Tutelary Pair, in the Beginning of Buddhist Art, L'Art Greco-Bouddhique dur Gandhara; Vogel. The Mathura School of Sculpture, Arch. Survey of India, Annual Report, 1909-10, p. 77. Beal, Buddhist Records, Vol. I, p. 110; Waddell, Lamaism, p. 90. 45a. Ganesa is the son of Gauri or Durga, The Hindu Ambika or the Mother-Goddess. The parallelism between Hindu Durga and Jaina Ambika is treated later on. But a few sculptures of Ganesa in the Pala Art show him stand ing under a mango-tree represented by a bunch of mangoes. This emphasises Ganesa's origin from the ancient Yaksa cult, and suggests relation between the Jaina Ambika and the Hindu Ambika (Durga, Parvati, Gauri) and Ganesa. 46. Coomaraswamy, A.K., Yaksas, I, p. 17. 47. Vasudevahindi, p. 85. The use of the term Janapada for Magadha is also noteworthy and suggests that the story in this context is borrowed from an earlier source by the author. 48. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, figs. 72, 73, 75. 49. Even though the present work is based upon a study of a number of photographs from the South, a special study of the various Jaina images in the South, carried out on the basis of some more exploration and a study of the imaons in the various Jaina shrines is essential. It is loped that this work will serve as an indicator to the future line of exploration in the South. One would not be surprised if such studies help us to revise some of the conclusions arrived at in this book. 50. See Sesa quoted by Hemacandra in his common Abhidhana Cintamavi, 2.117ff. Here Gauri is also called Bahupuutri. 51. For the list of Dik-Kumaris, see Vasudevahindi. part 1, pp. 159-160. The names given in Prakt are - Blogamkara, Bhogavati, Subhoga, Bhogamalini, Toyadhara, Vicitta, Pupphamala, Anindiya, Mehamkara, Mehavari, Sumeha, Mehamalini, Suvartha, Vatthamitta, Varisena, Balahaga, Nanduftara, Nanda, Aranda, Nandivaddhaya, Vijaya, Veja yamti, Jayanti, Aparajiya, Samahard, Suppatinna, Suppasiddha, Jasohara, Lacchivali. Sesavati, Cittagurta. Vasundhara, Iladevi, Suridevi, Puhavi, Paumavati, Eganasa, Nawamiga, Bhaddi, Siya, Alambusa, Missakesi, Pundarigini, Varuni, Hasa, Savvappabha, Siri, Hiri, Citra, Cittakanaga, Satera, Sotamani, Yagaru (v.7. Ruyagi), Ruyagasaha (v.l. Ryamsa), Suriva, Ruyagavati. The Angavija (Varanasi, 1957), ed. by Muni Punyavijaya, dates from c. 4th century and contains still earlier material. In this work, in chp. 9, p. 69, several goddesses are mentioned. They are: liri, Siri, Lacchi, Kitti, Medha, Sati (Smrti). Dhiti, Buddhi, Dhi, lla, sita, Vijja, Vijjara, Candaleha, Ukkosasa, Abbharaya, Ahodevi, Devi, Derakanna, Asurakanna, Indaggamahisi, Asuraggamalisi, Airika (v.l. Airaka). Bhagavati, Alambusa, Missakesi, Minaka, Miyadam savid, Apala, Azadita, Airani, Timissakesi, Tidhiri, (v.l. Tidhani), Salimalini, Tilottama, Citraradha, Cittaleha, Urvasi. In chp. 51 called Devata-Vijaya, we get more names of gods and goddesses. The goddesses are: Siri, Airant, Pudhavi, Ekanasa, Navamiga, Suradevi, Nagi, Suvanna, Nadidevata, Buddhi, Meha, Latadevata, Nagaradevati, Ukkurudika-devati (?). Ariyaderatu, Milakkhadevata etc. In chp. 58, pp. 223-224 we get some more names of goddesses: Nadi, Ala a (?), Ajja, Airani, Mouya, Sauri, Ekanamsai, Siri, Buddhi, Medhi, Kitti, Sarassari, Nagi, Rakkhasi, Asurakama, Gandharvi, Kimpurisakama, Jakkhi, Girikumari, Samuddakumari, Divakumari, Patakar , Prudhavi, Kuladevata, Vijjadevata, etc.

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Sasana-Devatas 223 82. Moti Chandra, in his Introduction to Angavijja (p. 42). writes: "In the above list the names of certain foreign goddesses are of great interest. Apala may be identified with the Greek goddess Pallas Athene. Anadita is the Avestic goddess Anahita whose cult was later on mixed with the cult of Nana or Nanaia. Airapi may be the Roman goddess Irene, Timissakesi may be the nymph Themis from whom her son Evander learned his letters, Tidhani cannot be identified, Salimalini may be identified with the moon-goddess Selene. From what source this tit-bit of information came in Angavijja is not known, but it must be fairly early when the Greek influence was not completely lost from North-Western India and Mathura." Also see Shah, U.P., Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature, IHQ, XXIX.3, pp. 260-265. 52. This along with a study of all the Kubera-Hariti group of sculptures, and of Matrka sculptures at Mathura, described by Dr. Agrawala in his Catalogue of Brahmanical Sculptures in the Mathura Museum, should suggest that the prototype of Ambika-yaksi, Hariti and Uma-Gauri possibly showed a child held with one hand, while the other carried a lotus bud with a stalk, which the Jainas either misunderstood or changed into a mango-bunch. Besides the sculptures referred to by Agrawala, also cf. 73 and 81 of Coomaraswamy's HIIA, or was it originally a Camara (chowrie)? Also see below on Iconography of the Yaksi Ambika. 53. The Deva-Nimmiya may be the Jaina Devanirmata stupa of Mathura. 54. Avasyaka Curni, I, p. 591, also Avasyaka-vrti, p. 453. 55. A Yaksi carrying a big vessel, Mathura Museum no. 3549, has been assigned to Kusana age by Bajpai, K.D., Siksa (Hindi Journal), October, 1951, p. 156. She is a Kumbha yaksi and probably dates from late Kusana or early Gupta Age. 56. Avasyaka Curi, p. 281, Hundi or Hundika Konanda Susamanda. 57. Nayadhammakahao, II, pp. 48-49. 58. Nayadhammakahao, VIII, p. 95ff. 59. Vasudevahindi. p. 65, also in Nividhammakahao, VIII, p. 95ff. 60. Vasudevahindi, p. 80ff. 61. Vasudevahindi, p. 307. 62. Ibid., p. 305. 63. The river Vitasta is said to be the abode of Naga Taksaka. For various theories of and references to Naga worship see Vogel, Indian Serpent Lore. Also Pali Dictionary (Malalasekhara's), Vol. II, p. 675ff; Milindapanha, p. 271ff'. 64. Vogel, Tree and Serpent Worship. pp. 102-4, 126, Acararga Niryukri, 335, Acaranga-Tika, p. 385. 65. Coomaraswamy, A.K., The Yaksas, Part II. 66. Yaksas, Part II, p. 2. He further refers to RV VI1.65.2 and 88.6; also Digha Nikaya 11.204 where Varuna is called a Yaksa; AV XI.2.24. In Jaina references also, Kubera and his followers shower riches in the palaces of the Parents of the Jinas. 68. Ganguly, O.C., The Mithuna in Indian Art, Ruram, 22-23 (1925). 69. Yaksas, II, p. 23. 70. Agrawala. V.S., Catalogue of Brahmanical Images in Mathura Art, pp. 75-91. 71. Note especially the specimen in the British Museum, Journal of Indian Art, vol. VIII, no. 62, pl. IV 2. Smith and Codrington, Fine Art in India and Ceylon, pl. 31, fig. B. For references to sculptures in the Mathura Museum, mentioned in this discussion, please refer to V.S. Agrawala's Catalogue, op. cit. 72. Banerji, R.D., Age of the Imperial Guptas, pp. 104, 106, 108, 129, pl. xviii. 73. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, II1.66-68. 74. The figures are seen on a tympanum from Mathura, now in the Lucknow Museum, no. B.207. 75. See fig. 35 in this book. Also, Shah, U.P., Akora Bronzes, figs. 10a, 10b, 11 and p. 28. 76. Ibid., fig. 14 and pp. 30-32. 77. Sankalia, H.D., in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. July, 1938, 427ff. Archaeology of Gujarat, 160ff. 78. Shah, U.P., Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, Lalit Kala, 1-2 (April, 1955-March, 1956), pp. 55-65 and plates. Akota Bronzes, fig. 49. 79. Akota Bronzes, figs. 56 and 77c. 80. Michael W. Meister, Jaina Temples in Central India, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 223-242. 81. Devendra Handa, Jaina Sculptures from Osia, Punjab University Research Bulletin (Arts), vol. XIV, no. 1 (April, 1983), pp. 149-194. Sankalia. H.D., in Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, vol. I, parts 2-4, fig. 2 and pp. 157ff. 83. Jose Pereira, Monolithic Jinas (Delhi, 1977). 84. Shah, U.P., A Female Chanri-bearer from Ankopfaka and the School of Ancient West, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, I, pp. 43-6. 85. Settar, S., The Brahmadeva Pillars, Artibus Asiae, vol. XXXIII, 1-2, pp. 17-38 and plates. 86. cf. et a fanfara T T T Nemicandra, Nityamahotsava, v. 55, in Abhisekapahasamgraha. Also see Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 115 and vv. 215-216. 87. In the Caityavandana, a kayotsarga is prescribed in honour of the following: atra T TATT - THTETRIT PT Arufafa"** Haribhadra suri, commenting on the above writes: yAvatpakarANAM pravacanArtha vyApRtabhAbAnAM yathA'mbakuSmANDI-AdInAM zAntikarANAM kSudropadraveSu sabhyandRSTInA....'nepAmeva svarUpamevaMtaaitafa FETA:**** Lalitavistara (Cuit yarandanasitra-vitri), p. 60 Also cf. yA pAti zAsana jaina sadyaH prtyhnaashinii| sAbhipretasamaddhArtha bhUyAcchAmanadevatAH / / Icara-Dinakara For Vaiyavrttakaras, see Pravacanasdroddhara, 6th dvara. 88. Bhagavati Sutra, 25.7; Aupapatika Sutra, 20; Sthananga Satra, sutra 397. 89. Uttaradhyayana Sitra, adhyayana 29. 90. Annual Progress Report, Hindi and Buddhist Monuments, Northern Circle, for the year 1918. Sankalia, H.D., Jaina Mortiments from Devgadh, JISO 4, vol. IX (1941), pp. 977r. Klaus Bruhn, The Jing Images of Deogarh, figs. 47-74, 342, and chp. 8. 91. Mitra, Debala, Susanaderis in the Khandagiri Caves, J.AS, vol. I, no. 2 (1959), pp. 127-133. 92. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri & Khanlagiri Caves, p. 260.

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CHAPTER TEN Four More Popular Yaksinis I. Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha Cakresvari or Apraticakra is regarded as the fi sana yaksi of Rsabhanatha or Adinatha, the first Tirthankara, by Jainas of both the Svetambara and the Digambara sects. She is so called because she holds the cakra or the disc which is her chief distinguishing symbol. The eagle is her vahana. It is difficult to distinguish her form from the Svetambara Vidyadevi of the same name who also holds the disc and rides the eagle. As Vidyadevi she is described as carrying the discs in all her four hands. This would have made it easier to distinguish the Yaksi from the Vidyadevi but for the fact that the Vimala vasahi at Abu contains figures of the Cakresvari-vidya with discs in only two upper hands and shows the citron and the varada mudra with the two lower ones. These figures are of the Svetambara tradition. Again the same symbols are found with the Cakresvari-yaksi in this tradition. Moreover, as will be seen below, a form of the yaksi Cakresvari carries discs in all the four hands, thereby supporting the inference that the forms of Cakresvari, the yaksi, and Cakresvari, the vidyadevi, are closely related, and were possibly interchanged. This close similarity between some forms of the yaksi and the vidyadevi makes it difficult to say who was the prototype of whom. A. CAKRESVARI OR APRATICAKRA (SVETAMBARA) In the Svetambara pantheon, the yaksini of Rsabhanatha is found worshipped in three varieties of forms, namely, the two-armed, the four-armed and the eight-armed. 1. Two-Armed Variety Dhaky has referred to a two-armed form of yaksi Cakresvari found in the Jaina temple at Sevadi, Rajasthan. Here Cakresvari carries the cakra in her right hand while her left hand is mutilated.14 The eagle is her vabana. No literary evidence is known. 2. Four-Armed Variety Though no literary evidence for the four-armed form is forthcoming, quite a large number of figures of this variety obtained on pedestals of images of Adinatha attest to the frequent occurrence in worship of this form. Moreover, the form represents an old tradition since a beautiful figure on a mutilated bronze image of c. eleventh century is still worshipped in a Jaina temple at Prabhasa-Patapa, in Saurashtra.2 In this image which is a mutilated part of a bigger metal sculpture-probably a covisi-is shown a figure of Cakresvari seated in the lalita pose. She carries the disc in each of two upper hands, while the right and the left lower ones show the yarada and the conch respectively. The eagle is shown as her vahana. On one side of the yaksi Cakresvari is represented in one section a standing two-armed Ambika with a child and an amralumbi in her two bands. The presence of this early variety of foum of !

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 225 ** Ambika also supports the view that the sculpture represents an early tradition and that Cakresvari here is a yaksi and not a vidyadevi. A similar form of this yaksi Cakresvari is preserved in the Dhubela Museum, Nowgong, M.P.3 A similar form of Cakresvari is seen on a loose pedestal of an Adinatha image lying in the compound of the Adisvara temple in Manek-Chowk, Cambay (Iconograghy of Cakresvari, JOI, XX.3, pp. 280ff, fig. 2). The sculpture can be assigned to c. 12th-13th cent. A.D. A figure from a ceiling corner opposite cell 53, Vimala vasahi, Abu, is another good specimen of this variety (JOI, op. cit., fig. 3). The eagle vehicle is absent here but the symbols suggest the identity of Cakresvari.4 Even though this figure represents Cakresvari or Apraticakra, a question arises whether this Vimala vasahi figure is of the vaksi Cakresvari or of the vidyadevi Apraticakra who also has the cakra as her chief distinguishing symbol and who like the yaksi Cakresvari rides the eagle. Firstly, there is no such vidyadevi in the Digambara pantheon (which replaces a goddess called Jambunada for Apraticakra) and hence the confusion between the yaksi and the vidyadevi arises only in case of Svetambara images. Secondly, Svetambara texts like the Acaradinakara of Vardhamana suri and the Caturvimsatika of Bappabhatti suri merely refer to the disc symbol of the vidyadevi called Apraticakra,5 whereas the Nirvanakalika (Sve.)6 specifies that this vidya devi carries the disc in each of her four hands. A sculpture of this vidya almost agreeing with this tradition is seen on the fansana of the Jaina temple at Osia and dates from the last quarter of the eighth century A.D.7 The Mantradhiraja-kalpa of Sagaracandra follows the Nirvanakalika in giving the disc in all the four hands of the Cakresvari vidya but differs in giving a human being as her vahana instead of the usual eagle. In actual practice, however, the painters and the sculptors are found to have represented even the eagle like a human being and the Osia figure of this goddess has the vahana shown like a human being but our figure from Abu has no vahana at all. Thirdly, available Svetambara literary traditions describe only an eightarmed form of the yaksi Cakresvari whereas a four-armed figure of the yaksi is frequently met with on pedestals of Adinatha sculptures. Against these difficulties there are several factors which suggest that the Vimala vasahi figure under discussion is preferably that of the yaksi rather than of the vidyadevi. In Vimala-vasahi itself, the Vidyadevi Apraticakra is represented with a different set of symbols, namely, the discs in two upper hands, the varada in the right lower and the fruit in the left lower hands. In a ceiling we find a group of four goddesses seated opposite one another with a full-blown lotus in the centre. One of these figures is Cakresvari vidya with the varada and the fruit in the two lower hands while the remaining three goddesses in this group can be definitely identified as the three vidyadevis called Prajnapti, Vajrasnkhala and Vajrankusi. The fourth figure should naturally be regarded as representing a vidyadevi and not a yaksi. Again, in the central mandapa we have around the big lotus-pendant a set of figures of all the sixteen vidyadevis wherein the Apraticakra or Cakresvari vidya shows the varada and the fruit in her two lower hands. Hence it is advisable to regard the figure in the ceiling opposite cell 53, Vimala vasahi, with the conch symbol in her left lower hand, as representing the yaksini of Adinatha.8 The evidence of the Prabhasa-Patana and the Cambay figures only supports the above conclusion. This form of yaksi is also found in one of the two sets of vidyadevis on the outer wall of the Caumukha shrine called the Kharatara-vasahi at Delvada, Mt. Abu. But since this Kharatara-vasa hi is a later shrine belonging to circa fifteenth century it may be argued that this form of the vidya in the Kharatara-vasahi is the result of a borrowing of an earlier form of the yaksi Cakresvari. Such cases have led to a good deal of confusion in correctly differentiating the yaksi from the vidyadevi. Of this variety of the yaksi another specimen is preserved in a ceiling plaque describing the life of Adinatha in the Santinatha temple at Kumbharia. A slightly different form of the yaksi with the varada symbol of the right lower hand replaced by the rosary is preserved in the temple built by Vastupala and his brother on Mt. Girnar in Saurashtra. This form of the yaksi is again later represented as a vidya in the second set of vidyadevis on the wall of the Kharatara-vasahi. In this second set the vidyas are in a standing posture whereas in the first set noted above they are in a sitting posture. On a metal image of Adinatha in the Parsvanatha temple, Khataravasi pada, Patan (North Gujarat), is a small figure of the goddess showing the discs in the two upper hands, the fruit in the left lower and

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226 Jaina-Rapa-Mandana the varada pose in the right lower hands. Similar representations of the yaksi are found at Ranakapur (Jodhpur State) in the Dharanavihara temple, on the pedestal of Adinatha on the northern side of the central Caumukha sculpture and on the door-frame of the cell no. 3. The same form is also available on the pedestal of a sculpture of Rsabhanatha in the Pancasara temple, Patan, and in a cell in the Caumukha tunka, Satrunjaya. The latter pedestal is inscribed in the year 1380 v.s. It seems that this form which, as noted above, was worshipped as the Cakresvart vidya in the Vimala-vasahi was later borrowed for the yaksini of the same name from at least the fourteenth century A.D. A sculpture, worshipped as 'Sri Cakresvari Mata' in the Balabhai tunka, Satrunjaya, and inscribed in the year 1758 v.s. (=1701 A.D.), shows the goddess seated in the lalita pose on a tiger vehicle and carrying the same set of symbols in her four hands. This change of her vahana is seen in two more cases in Vaghapa pole, Satrunjaya, noticed in the following pages. A miniature painting on folio 2 of the palm-leaf manuscript of the first parva of the Trisastisalakapurusa-carita (of Hemacandra) also represents the goddess with the discs in her two upper hands and the varada-mudra and the citron in the right and the left lower hands respectively. Golden in complexion, the goddess sits in the lalita pose on a cushion, in front of which is seen a partly defaced face of her garuda vahana (JOI, XX.3, op. cit., fig. 7).9 An earlier figure of Cakresvari, with the varada-mudra in the above form replaced by the abhaya is available on a bronze Covisi of Rsabhanatha (JOI, op. cit., fig. 8) from an underground cell of the Dharanavihara temple at Ranakapur. The sculpture can be assigned to c. late eleventh century A.D. on stylistic grounds and on the grounds of the small inscription on its back. A noteworthy feature of this bronze is the presence of a two-armed yaksa carrying the citron and the bag instead of the cow-faced four-armed Gomukha, the yaksa of Rsabhanatha according to the Jaina texts. On the Covisi bronze from Gogha, dated in V.S. 1123=A.D. 1067, we obtain a similar form of Yaksi Cakresvari. A similar form of Cakresvari is also seen on the pedestal of a sculpture of Adinatha, of a later date of course, in the Adisvara temple, Khadakhotadi, Patan (JOI, op. cit., fig. 10). The representation of the disc, done in a rather curious fashion, is the work of a crude hand. A beautiful bronze image of Rsabhanatha being worshipped in the Covisi temple, Godadano pado, Patan (JOI, op. cit., fig. 9) and consecrated in the year 1606 v.s., according to the inscription on its back, shows yet another variety of the four-armed Cakresvari figures. Here the yaksi carries the cakra in each of the two upper hands and shows the varada mudra and the pot in her right and the left lower hands respectively.10 The goddess sits in the lalita posture. A similar form of the yaksi represented in a standing posture is available on a pillar in the Parsvanatha temple at Kumbharia. In the Vimalavasahi, on two pillars in the mandapa facing the central shrine are available two standing figures of Cakresvari (JOI, op. cit., figs. 12-13). Fig. 12 shows the goddess standing in the tribhanga with the discs in the two upper hands and the pot in the left lower one; the right lower hand is mutilated. Fig. 13 shows the goddess in a similar posture but with the left lower hand mutilated and the right lower showing the varada-mudra. It is interesting to find a lotus symbol near the right leg of each of the two figures. A standing figure with these four symbols is also found on the right side of the door-frame of the cell no. 39 in the Vimala-vasahi. We have no means to ascertain whether this form of Cakresvar! was regarded as representing a vidyadevi or a yaksi of the same name in the age of the Vimala-vasahi. At Kumbharia, however, the case is somewhat different. In the first place, the vahana is the eagle instead of the lotus symbol of the above figures from the Vimala-vasahi. But the lotus symbol is not unknown for Cakresvari at Kumbharia since on a pillar in a temple we find Cakresvari with two discs, the varada and the conch and having the lotus as her symbol. In the case of figures showing the varada and the pot in the two lower hands at Kumbharia, the position is as follows: Each pillar has usually four standing deities on its four sides. Now in the case of pillars with this form of Cakresvari in the Parsvanatha temple at Kumbharia, the other deities are Vairotya, Sarasvati, Vajrankusi or Rohini or a goddess which cannot be recognised. This would, therefore, suggest that at Kumbharia, this form of Cakresvari probably represented the Cakresvari vidya. But since no other definite example of Cakresvari vidya with this form is hitherto available and since mutual borrowings of forms of

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 227 the yaksior and the vidyadevi are already known it is not impossible that the figures in the Vimala-vasahi might have represented the Cakresvari yaksini even though the form might have been later borrowed for the vidyadevi at Kumbharia. These identifications should be regarded as tentative and may be revised in the light of future definite evidence from stone, canvas or metal. A later form of Cakresvari of c. sixteenth century A.D., with the varada symbol replaced by the rosary, is available in the case of the big sculpture of Cakresvari, worshipped as Vyaghresvari in the Vaghana pole, Satrunjaya. Here the eagle vehicle is replaced by the tiger which gives the name Vyaghresvari to the goddess in layman's worship. Almost all later examples of Cakresvari at Satrunjaya demonstrate this change of vehicle, another example being preserved in the same locality in a small temple of Cakresvari. Here a small four-armed figure, with the disc in the two upper hands and the varada-mudra shown by the two lower ones, sits in the lalita pose with the tiger as her vehicle. The whole figure is covered with red paint. A temple supposed to have been built by Vimala sa ha in the Vaghana pole, Satrunjaya, has many interesting figures for a student of iconography. On the front wall of cell no. 392, is a figure of Cakresvar in a standing attitude with the eagle as her vahana. She carries the cakra in her right upper hand, the noose in the left upper, and the goad (?) in the right lower one, while the left lower hand is held in the varada pose. The door-frame of the santinatha temple at Acalagarh, Mt. Abu, has on one side a figure of Gomukha, the yaksa of Adinatha while on the other is a figure of a goddess carrying the noose and the goad in the right and the left upper hands respectively while showing the varada and the conch in the corresponding lower hands. The eagle is her vahana. Obviously, she must be Cakresvari, the yaksini of Adinatha whose yaksa, Gomukha by name, already figures on the other side. The temple was, therefore, originally dedicated to Adinatha. The central shrine of the Pittalahara temple at Dilwara, Mt. Abu, contains a big metal sculpture of Adinatha with figures of Gomukha and Cakesvari on its pedestal (JOT, op. cit., fig. 14). Cakresvari here sits in the lalita pose and carries the cakra in each of the two upper hands and the rosary in the right lower one. The left lower carries an object which looks like the vajra (?). A miniature figure of the eagle is shown as her vahana. The image is dated 1525 v.s., according to the inscriptions on the pedestal and the parikara. On the back wall of the shrine of Neminatha at Kumbharia is a figure of a goddess sitting in the lalita pose with the club and the disc in the right and the left upper hands respectively and showing the varada and the conch in the corresponding lower ones (JOI, op. cit., fig. 15). There is also a figure of the Hindu Ganesa on this wall. A standing goddess with the same set of symbols is also available on a pillar in the same temple. This pillar has a standing Sarasvati on another side, a goddess with all the symbols mutilated on the third side and on the fourth side an unidentified goddess showing the sword, the shield, the parada and the citron in her four hands and with the lotus as her cognizance. It has to be seen whether the type of figure illustrated in JOI, op. cit., fig. 15, with the club and the disc in her upper hands represents Cakresvari, the yaksi, or Apraticakra, the vidyadevi or any other deity. Since it is not certain whether the other three figures on the pillar noted above form a group with this goddess, either of yaksinis or of vidyadevis, the goddess on this pillar can be either of them. Now even if JOI, op. cit., fig. 15 on the shrine wall were regarded as one of the Matskas, Vaisnavi by name, since at least Ganesa who is known to accompany a set of Matskas, is figured on the same wall, the pillar sculpture of the same variety of form, just referred to, does not seem to have been intended to represent the Vaisnavi Matyka as no other Matyka is found in this group of pillars. She may, therefore, be Cakresvari, the yaksini of Adinatha with her form borrowed directly from the Vaisnavi Matka or indirectly through a similar form of the Digambara yaksi Cakre vari discussed in the following pages. Matrkas are not unknown to Jaina ritual and sculpture. The Acuradinakara invokes eight Matkas in the Sasthisamskaravidhi.! They are also invoked in a rite prescribed in the Digambara text Vidyanusasana. The Vimala-vasahi preserves figures of Brahmani, Kaumari and Mahesvari in the ceiling facing cell no. 23.11<< The fourth goddess in this ceiling cannot be identified. In the adjoining ceiling opposite Education International

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228 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana cell no. 24, figures of Aindri and Vaispavi with the eagle vehicle along with two other goddesses are represented. All the Matskas along with a figure of Ganesa are repeated in the set of miniature figures on the three sides of a multi-armed goddess in the bhava no. 18 of the same Vimala-vasahi. This form of the Matlka Vaisnavi demonstrates the close relation existing between the Jaina Cakresvari and the Brahmanical Vaisnavi. Another example of such a difficulty may be cited. A standing figure of a four-armed Cakresvari is preserved in a niche in a temple in Aduvasino pado, Patan (JOT, op. cit., fig. 17). The goddess stands in the tribhanga and carries the cakra in each of her four hands. A miniature figure of a Tirthankara is carved above her crown, on the top of the sculpture. According to the literary traditions cited before, such a form is prescribed for the vidyadevi called Apraticakra or Carkesvari whereas no such dhyana exists for the yaksi of the same name in the Svetambara pantheon. One would, therefore, be tempted to identify this figure as representing the vidyadevi. But the miniature figure of a Jina shows that the sculptor intended to represent the yaksi Cakresvari. It may however be remembered that the practice of carving such figures of Tirtha okaras over crowns of different yaksas or yaksinis is not universal in Jainism. As no other example of the Cakresvar showing these symbols is brought to light, and because of literary evidence noted above, this form is also discussed as a vidyadevi by the present writer.12 3. Eight-Armed Variety Hemacandra says that Apraticakra is golden in appearance and rides the eagle. In her right hands she shows the varada, the arrow, the disc, and the noose while in her left hands she carries the bow, the bolt (vajra), the disc and the goad.13 The Nirvanakalika, 14 the Pravacanasaroddhara-tika, 15 the Mantradhirajakalpa, 16 the Acaradinakara17 and the Lokaprakasa18 describe the same form and address her variously as Cakresvari or Apraticakra. According to the Acaradinakara and the Mantradhirajakalpa 19 she holds a bundle of arrows instead of one according to the other texts. Silpa works like the Devata-murti-prakarana and the Rupamandana also follow the above tradition 20 of this variety quite a large number of representations can be traced in various Svetambara sites. On the outer wall of the Kharatara-vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu, are carved, on the lowermost portion, all the twenty-four yaksinis of the Jaina pantheon. Here Cakresvari is seated on a bhadrasana in the lalita pose and carries, in the topmost pair of hands, the noose in the left and the goad in the right; of the second pair, the left shows the thunderbolt while the right is mutilated. The third pair of hands carries the bow in the left) and the arrow in the right), while the fourth one shows the disc in the left and the varada-mudra in the right. To the left of the goddess is seen a small figure of her eagle vehicle (JOI, op. cit., fig. 20). A similar figure of the goddess with a little difference in the order of symbols is found on the outer wall of the sanctum of the central shrine of the Dharana-vihara at Ranakapura (JOI, op. cit., fig. 18). Here the goddess carries the following symbols in her four left hands, beginning from the top-the cakra, the goad, the bow and the vajra, the corresponding right hands show the noose, the arrow, the cakra and varada-mudra. The eagle is her vahana. Two more representations of the deity are carved on the outer wall of the second and the smaller temple at Ranakapura. Once again, the order is changed here and the goddess shows in her right hands from the top, the noose, the disc, the arrow and the varada pose. The bow, the vajra, the goad and the disc appear in the corresponding lower hands (JOI, op. cit., fig. 19). The temple attributed to Vimala saha in the Vaghana pole, Satrunjaya, has on the door-frame of its cell no. 371 a figure of Cakresvari with the eagle vehicle and attended upon by a female fly-whisk bearer on each side. The goddess carries the disc in the uppermost pair of hands, in the second pair from the top, she carries the noose and the vajra in the right and the left hands respectively; in the third pair are shown the arrow and the goad in a corresponding order while in the last pair are shown the varada and the bow symbols in the same order. An image of Cakresvari, installed by Jinarajasuri of the Kharatara-gaccha of the Svetamba

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 229 year 1675 v.s., according to the inscription on its pedestal, is being worshipped in the temple of Ajitanatha, Caumukha tuoka, Satrunjaya. The goddess sits in the lalita pose and shows, in her four right hands beginning from the top, the abhaya, the noose, the goad and the bow. In her topmost left hand is carried the arrow while in the lowermost one is shown the vajra; symbols of the two remaining left hands cannot be identified. Another image of Cakresvari, from a niche in the same furika (mountain way or street) at Satrunjaya, though of a date as late as the year 1893 v.s., according to the inscription on its pedestal, is noteworthy. It represents the goddess sitting in padmasana with the eagle as her vahana and showing, in her four right hands, the abhaya, the arrow, the cakra, and the snake in order beginning from the topmost one, while in her left hands are shown, in a similar order, the bow, the disc, an unidentified symbol and the goad. There is a miniature figure of Adinatha overhead. A bronze figure of Cakresvari, eight-armed, with a small figure of a Jina overhead, and the eagle vehicle on the pedestal, shows her carrying the cakra in each of the three upper pairs of hands and showing the varada mudra with the lower right hand and the citron with the lower left.21 The bronze is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. . Tiwari has noted a figure of Cakresvari in ceiling of cell no. 10, Luna-vasahi, Abu, datable in c. 1230 A.D., showing the varada mudra, the cakra, the vyakhyana mudra, cakra, cakra, lotus-bud, cakra and fruit.21a 4. Eighteen-Armed Variety No dhyana is known for this variety but a miniature painting (figure 77) on a folio from a palm-leaf manuscript of Trisastisalakapurusacarita, copied in c. fourteenth century, shows the goddess carrying, in her right hands, the cakra, arrow, goad, lotus, vajra, sword and an indistinct object and showing the varada and the vyakhyana mudras. Corresponding left hands show the cakra, bow, noose, sword (?), shield, vajra, indistinct object and the abhaya (?). The eagle vahana is shown in the right corner. The folio is in the collection of Sri Rajendrasimhaji Singhi who kindly permitted me to photograph it. B. CAKRESVARI OR APRATICAKRA (DIGAMBARA) In the Digambara tradition, Cakresvari is worshipped in eight different varieties of forms: (1) the two-armed, (2) the four-armed, (3) the six-armed, (4) the eight-armed, (5) the ten-armed, (6) the twelvearmed, (7) the sixteen-armed and (8) the twenty-armed. The goddess is worshipped in both the sitting and the standing postures although her standing figures are rare. She is generally represented seated in the lalita pose and her vahana is invariably the eagle. Dhyanas for only the four, twelve and sixteen-armed forms are found in literature, but the popularity of the goddess in Digambara worship, especially in sites like Devgadh and Khajuraho, is evident from a large number of figures traced hitherto. The cakra (disc) remains the chief distinguishing symbol of Cakresvari in Digambara tradition also. 1. Two-Armed Variety A Covisi (Caturvimsati-par/a) of Adin itha, preserved in temple no. 9 at Devgadh, near Lalitpur, has a small figure of the two-armed Cakresvari carrying the cakra in the right hand and the kalasa (pot) in the left one. The sculpture belongs to c. twelfth century A.D. On a sculpture of Rsabhanatha, no, K.44 in the Khajuraho Museum, two-armed yaksi Cakresvari shows the abhaya mudra and the cakra in her hands. We have referred to a bronze image of Adinatha from Sanauli, Alwar district, Rajasthan. The bronze is dated in V.s. 1070 = A.D. 1013. On the right lower end is a two-armed cow-faced Gomukha Yaksa showing the citron in his right hand while on the corresponding left end is a two-armed Yaksi Cakresvari with the cakra in her left hand. The symbol of her right hand is indistinct.

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230 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana At Devgadh, in temples 2 and 19 is found two-armed yaksi Cakresvari on images of Rsabha. The yaksi shows the cakra and the sarkha (conch). On the Lucknow Museum image no. J. 856 of Rsabhanatha, yaksi Cakresvari carries the cakra and the conch. Tiwari has noted a two-armed Cakresvari on a Manastambha near temple 16 at Devgadh. The goddess shows the cakra in each of her two hands. Another specimen of two-armed variety hails from temple 2, Devgadh. Here, on an image of Adinatha, the yaksi is represented showing the abhaya mudra with the right hand and carrying the kalasa (water-jar) with the left. This is certainly curious since the disc which is her chief symbol and from which the yaksi derives her name is absent here. It seems that a special tradition existed amongst the Digambaras, at least at Devgadh, which prescribed the abhaya and the kalasa (pot) for yaksinis of more than one Tirthankaras. Was the yaksi known as Cakresvari in this form and tradition? Mohapatra has noted a two-armed yaksi Cakresvari, below the Rsabhanatha figure of Jamunda (D.M. 35) in Jeypore branch museum, seated in lalitasana pose, and displaying varada mudru in both hands.216 Was the yaksi called Cakrecvart in this form? This form is illustrated by the sculptures of Mahavira and Santinatha with yaxsinis bearing the same symbols in the temple no. 2, as also by the figures of the yaksinis of Ajitanatha, Suparsva and Abhinandana (c. 12th century A.D.) in the temple no. 3 at Devgadh. The same iconographic tradition was also current at Mohandra about a hundred miles from Panna in Central India where yaksinis of Mahavira and Santinatha were represented in precisely the same fashion. The sculptures are at present preserved in a newly built temple in Panna. So the name of this form of yaksi was perhaps not Cakresvari. 2. Four-Armed Variety Vasunandi in his Pratisthasaroddhara refers to a four-armed form of the goddess with discs in two hands and riding the eagle.22 But he does not mention the symbols held in the remaining hands of the deity. Pratisthatilaka of Nemicandra also refers to this form but adds that the goddess shows the varada and the fruit in the other two hands.23 Ekasandhi also follows the same tradition in his Jinasamhita.24 In the temple no. 3 at Devgadh is preserved a sculpture of Adinatha, dated v.s. 1102, with a small figure of the yaksi Cakresvari carved on the lower portion. The devi is represented as carrying the discs in the two upper hands, and as showing the abhaya and the fruit in the right and the left lower ones. A similar representation of the devi is carved on the pedestal of a large sculpture of Adinatha preserved in the Khajuraho Museum. Here the vahana appears like a human being. Mathura Museum no. B.21 of Rsabhanatha shows the yaksi Cakresvari carrying the disc in each of the two upper hands, and the conch in the left lower one. Her right lower hand is held in the abhava nudra. No. 0.75 in the Lucknow Museum is a sculpture of Adinatha with a figure of Cakresvari showing another form. The deity carries the disc in each of her two upper hands and shows the varudia-mudra with the right lower one. The left lower is mutilated but it probably held the conch symbol. This is inferred with the help of another figure of the goddess showing identical symbols in the Jain temple no. 31 at Khajuraho. The yaksi rides the eagle. A loose sculpture of Cakresvari is preserved in the navaranga of the Santinatha Basti, Kambacahalli, Mysore State. Installed by the Gangas in late ninth or early tenth century, it is remarkable for its grace and can be compared with the finest of the Cola images. Here the goddess shows the cakra in the two upper hands, the abhaya mudra in the right lower and the padma or citron in the left lower one. The eagle is her vahana (figure 94).25 Another form of the goddess is found on a figure of Adinatha in the temple no. 2 at Devgach: The goddess here carries the gada (club) in her right upper hand, the disc in the left upper, and the concr. in the left lower one, and shows the abhaya in the right lower hand. The garuda is her vahana. A similar figure can be seen on the pedestal of another figure of Adinatha in the same temple. Two more represen:ations of this form are found at Khajuraho, one on the pedestal of a sculpture of Adinatha in the Khajuraho

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 231 Museum and the other on the door-frame of the Jaina temple no. 19. On an image at Khajuraho, abhaya is replaced by varada mudra. So also at Devgadh T. 2, 5 and 11, we find these two varieties of forms. There is a big rock-cut sculpture of Adinatha in the Gwalior fort, with a standing two-armed Ambika carved on his right and a four-armed standing Cakresvari on his left side. Cakresvari (JOI, op. cit., fig. 22) here carries the same set of symbols as in the figures just noted. On the left end of the pedestal of a large mutilated sculpture of Adinatha lying on the roadside in the village of Manhwara in the Jubbulpur District. Madhya Pradesh, is a small figure of the yaksi riding the eagle and showing the club and the abhaya in the right upper and lower hands while the symbols of two mutilated left hands are not recognisable, but the left upper hand appears to have held the disc symbol. On the west wall of the temple no. 1, Devgadh, there are some sculptures studded into it, possibly during repairs, from the scattered images near the temple. On the northern end of this wall is a sculpture of Adinatha with the yaksa Gomukha and the yaksi Cakresvari on the right and the left sides of its pedestal. Cakresvari is riding the eagle and carrying the gada and the cakra in the right and the left upper hands respectively while showing the varada-mudra and the sarkha (concla) with the corresponding lower hands. We find similar forms in T. 12, 1, 4 and 26. A sculpture of Adinatha from Batesvara in the Agra district, now preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (no. 789), also shows Cakresvari with identical symbols. A similar figure of the yaksi is also carved on a sculpture of Adinatha preserved in the Khajuraho Museum. Also see figure 91 from Khajuraho. Here the symbol of the left lower hand is mutilated. On the entrance door of the temple no. 9, Devgadh appears another variety of the four-armed Cakresvari. Here the conch in the preceding figure is replaced by the rosary, while the other symbols remain unchanged. There is a lintel of a Jaina temple in the Khajuraho Museum with a figure of Cakresvari in the centre and Ambika and Padmavati occupying the right and the left ends respectively. In the intervening space are represented figures of the nine planets. The goddess Cakresvari holds the club and the disc in the two upper hands and shows the varada pose in the right lower one. The symbol of the fourth hand is mutilated. On a pillar in the temple no. 12, Devgadh, there is a standing figure of Cakresvari carrying the club and the conch in her right and the left upper hands respectively, while the right lower is held in the raradu pose and the left lower holds the disc. A miniature figure of her usual vehicle is seen in the left lower corner. A female chowrie-bearer is seen on either side of the yaksi (JOT, op. cit., fig. 23). On the pillar no. 1, west gate, Devgadh fort, there is a beautiful well-preserved representation of Cakresvari sitting with her right foot hanging in the lalita pose. She carries the disc and the conch in the left upper and lower hands; her right upper hand shows the abhaya-mudra while the right lower one holds the club. The garuda vehicle of the goddess, full of life and vigour, lends additional charm to this sculpture (JOI, op. cit., fig. 24). A figure of Cakresvari on a sculpture of Adinatha, in the temple no. 9 at Devgadh, also shows identical symbols. On the south wall of the Jaina temple at Jinanathapura in the Mysore State, is a Cakresvari sitting in the lalita pose on a bhadrasana. A miniature figure of her guruda vahana is seen in the left lower corner of the sculpture. Cakresvari carries the cakra in her right as well as the left upper hands and the lotus in the right lower one. The left lower is held in the varalla pose. The ornamental halo behind her face, the crown over her head and the various ornaments over her person may be noted; stylistically, the figure is typical of the art of the Hoyasala period (figure 102A). On a slab in the temple no. 12, appears one more form of the four-armed variety. The devi is here shown in a standing attitude carrying the cakra in cach of her four hands. A similar form of the goddess is available on the pedestal of a sculpture of Adin itha preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (no. 6.322). Here Cakresvari is represented in a sitting posture. The Devgadh figure just described represents an older tradition as it can be assigned to c. tenth century A.D. on stylistic grounds and on account of the script of the labels inscribed on the set of the yaksinis preserved in this temple. The sculpture is one of the carlier specimens of the yaksi Cakresvari. With this last form may be compared the Svetimbara vidyadevi Apraticakra or Cakresvari who

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232 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana also carries the discs in her four hands and has the eagle as her vahana. It may be noted that in the Digambara tradition, list of the sixteen Mahavidyas replaces another vidyadevi called Jambunada for Cakresvari of the Svetambara lists. There is a big sculpture of Adinatha, in the Khajuraho Museum, with the bull symbol and a row of the nine planets on its pedestal. On the right end of the pedestal sits the four-armed cow-faced yaksa Gomukha, with two pots of money near his leg. On the left end of the pedestal sits the yaksi of Adinatha, namely, Cakresvari, riding the eagle and carrying the vajra and the cakra in the right and the left upper hands respectively and the rosary in the right lower one. The symbol of the left lower hand is mutilated. An image of Rsabha in the Pudukkota Museum, Tamil Nadu, shows a four-armed Yaksi Cakresvari carrying the cakra and the conch in her right and left upper hands respectively and the fruit in the right lower one. The left lower hand is held in the abhaya mudra.26 No. 1667 in the Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho is a sculpture of Rsabhanatha whose yaksi shows the abhaya, padma, cakra and sankha in her four hands. 3. Six-Armed Variety On the outer wall of the compound of temple no. 8 at Devgadh is a figure of Cakresvari with six arms, the uppermost pair of hands showing the discs while sword and the club are held in the right and the left hands respectively of the middle pair. The lowest pair shows the varada pose in the right and the conch in the left hands. The goddess rides the eagle. On the pedestal of a large sculpture of Adinatha, from the temple no. 4, Devgadh, is found a slightly modified form of the goddess. The symbols in the first and the last pair of hands remain unchanged, but the middle pair here carries the club in the right and the lotus in the left hands. The eagle is her vahana. The figure belongs roughly to the twelfth century A.D. A third form of the six-armed variety is preserved on the door-frame of the Jaina temple no. 14 at Khajuraho. On two sides of Cakresvari are the figures of Laksmi and Sarasvati. Cakresvari here carries four discs in the four hands of the first and the middle pairs while the lowest pair shows the varada in the right and the conch in the left hands. The eagle is her vahana. On an image in Temple 27 at Khajuraho and on Kha. Mu. no. K 27.50, the yaksi shows the abhaya, gada, cakra, cakra, padma and the conch. On the outer wall of the Jaina temple at Jinanathapura, Mysore State,27 is a figure of Cakresvari facing the North and sitting in the lalita posture with a miniature figure of an eagle vehicle below her left leg. She carries the disc in each of the two uppermost hands, the vajra in each of the two middle ones and the lotus in the last left hand while the corresponding right one is held in the varada-mudra. The goddess sits under an ornamental arch of a creeper and wears a crown and various other ornaments.28 Another figure of Cakresvari of this last variety is available on a sculpture of Rsabhanatha in the Bhandare Basadi (early twelfth century) at Sravana Belagola, Mysore State. Here the yaksi is represented in a standing attitude and carrying the same set of symbols. No descriptive dhyana is available in Jaina literature for the six-armed variety, but it seems pretty clear that the form was popular in Digambara tradition in the middle ages. 4. Eight-Armed Variety The eight-armed form of the goddess likewise was popular in art, but no dhyana is available in literature. It seems that the six or eight-armed varieties were mere expansion of the conception underlying the four-armed forms since they can be easily reduced to the four-armed variety by merely omitting the second and the third pairs of hands. At Gyaraspur, in the Maladevi temple (c. late 9th century A.D.), between the two eastern balconyprojections of the south facade the last course of the roof shows a niche containing an image of eight

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 233 armed Cakresvari, seated on garuda. The goddess carries the pasa (noose), an indistinct object, and the vajra (thunderbolt) in her right hands while her three left hands show the vajra, an indistinct object, and the cakra (wheel or discus). The (fourth) left lowermost hand is broken. The attributes are reckoned clock-wise starting from the lower right hand. The figure is flanked by a female attendant.29 On the pillar no. II, temple no. 1, Devgadh fort, is found a beautiful figure of Cakresvari facing the eastern direction (Fig. 114). The yaksi sits in lalitasana over her eagle vehicle and shows in her right hands, in a descending order, the disc, the noose (?), the club and the varada pose, while the left hands carry, in a corresponding order, the disc, the vajra, the money-bag (?) and the conch (JOI, op. cit., fig. 26). Arother variety is obtained on a broken pillar to the south of the temple no. 12 at Devgadh. The deity is shown in a standing posture and carrying the discs in the two uppermost hands. In the second pair of hands are shown the abhaya and the shield, in the third, the sword and the axe, and in the last, the club and the conch in the right and the left hands respectively. On each side of the devi is found the familiar figure of the garuda vahana. A third type of form in this variety is found on the pedestal of a large sculpture of Adinatha preserved in the Lucknow Museum (no. 178 from Orai). In this figure the goddess sits in lalinis na on the eagle (JOI, op. cit., fig. 27), carrying in her left hands, the disc in the uppermost one, an unidentified symbol in the second from above, the bow in the third and the bag (?) in the fourth or the normal hand. In her right hands, she shows a bundle of arrows in the uppermost one and carries the disc in the third hand. Symbols of the two remaining hands are mutilated. The goddess rides the eagle represented in a human form. A female worshipper sits on each side of the vahana while in the uppermost corners are seen two more attendants, one of them carrying a pitcher with both hands, perhaps suggestive of abhiseka or lustration of the goddess, a motif which became popular in Hindu iconography in the medieval period. An early eight-armed figure of Cakresvari, carved in low relief at Gangadharam in the Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh, discovered by N. Venkataramanayya, is described and illustrated by S. Settar. Her two upper pairs of hands show the cakra, the lowermost right holds the fruit, the corresponding left seems to carry the lotus, while the remaining two hold the vajra (thunderbolt),30 At Ellora, cave 32, first floor, in a left side shrine, is a fine relief of Cakresvari sitting in ardhapadmasana and holding in her two upper left arms the cakra, and the cakra and the trident in the two upper right hands. The two lower right hands show the sword and the varada mudra, while the lowermost left hand is held in the abhaya pose. Symbol of the remaining left hand is indistinct (Fig. 115). A bronze figure of Rsabhanatha, no. 67.152 in the National Museum, New Delhi, represents the yaksi Cakresvari eight-armed, carrying the cakra in each of the three upper six hands and the fruit in the lowermost left hand. Her corresponding right hand shows the varada-mudro.31 It is not certain whether this image belongs to the Sve. or the Dig. tradition. So the form is tentatively treated in both the traditions. Tiwari has noted two eight-armed forms on the sikhara of the Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur, M.P. According to him, the one on the south side shows the cakra in the two upper pairs of hands, the vajra and the conch in the third pair of hands while the symbols of the two lowermost hands are mutilated. The eagle is her vahana. The figure of Cakresvari on the northern side of the sikhara carries the sword, the lotus (?), the disc, the shield, the conch and the mace (gada) in her six hands while the remaining two symbols are mutilated. The eagle is her vahana 32 Tiwari has also noted an eight-armed Cakresvari on the uttaranga of the Ghantai temple (c. 10th cent.) at Khajuraho. Here the goddess carries, according to Tiwari, the fruit (?), bell (ghanta), cakra, cakra, cakra, cakra, bow (?) and kalasa.33 A standing Cakresvari on a pillar in front of temple 14. Devgadh shows the staff (danda). sword (khadga), abhaya mudra, cakra, cakra, cakra, axe (parasu) and conch (sarkha) in her eight hands.34 Of the eight-armed variety a mutilated sculpture is preserved in the Khajuraho Museum (J01, op. cit., fig. 28). The goddess is sitting in the lalita pose on the eagle and carries the citron in her normal right

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234 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana hand and the conch in the corresponding left one. One of the left holds the cakra while the remaining symbols are mutilated. A female attendant is shown on each side, while two worshippers appear near the feet along with two more figures of musicians. On the top of the sculpture are carved flying garlandbearers. The image certainly does not represent the Brahmanical goddess Vaisnavi who is also said to ride the eagle and carry the disc but is never known to have carried the citron. Khajuraho is a veritable mine of sculptures of both the Brahmanical and the Jaina pantheons and the find of an eightarmed Jaina Cakresvari is not at all unlikely. Fig. 99 from the British Museum probably represents (Cakra-)dhsti-Cakresvari. 5. Ten-Armed Variety On a pillar in the compound of the temple no. 12 at Devgadh is a figure of Cakresvari with ten arms. The devi sits in lalitasana, and carries in her left hands in descending order the cakra, the shield, the vajra, the bow and the conch while in the corresponding right hands are shown the cakra, the sword, the club, the arrow and the vardaud The eagle is her vahana (JOI, XX, op. cit., fig. 29). The figure may be said to date from c. twelfth century A.D. Another ten-armed figure of the goddess is found in the Navamuni Cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, where the devi sits in the padmasana and carries the disc in each of the first three pairs of hands while the lowest pair shows the pravacana mudra (gesture of discourse) in the right hand and the left one placed on the lap with the palm turned upwards (JOI, XX, op. cit., fig. 30). Of the remaining hands one holds a disc and the other a shield. The sculpture is assignable to c. ninth century A.D.35 A third form of the ten-armed variety is preserved in the Curzon Museum, Mathura. The goddess is represented in a standing attitude with the cakra in each of her ten hands. Over her head is a figure of her lord Rsabhanatha and the eagle is shown as her vahana. The figure was wrongly described by Vogel as Vaisnavi of the Brahmanical pantheon;36 the mistake was probably due to the fact that a close relationship seems to have been maintained amongst the forms of these two goddesses. The sculpture appears to be a product of c. ninth century A.D. (JAA, I, plate 78). Another ten-armed form of the goddess is preserved in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow (JOI, XX, op. cit., fig. 31), on a fragment of an elaborately carved lintel along with the figures of standing Tirthankaras and the nine planets represented in a sitting posture. The sculpture comes from Siron Khurd, District Lalitapur in Madhya Pradesh. The goddess sits on an eagle represented like a human being. Although some of the symbols are mutilated, the remaining symbols leave no doubt regarding her identity. Beginning from the topmost hand they are in the following order: r. 1-disc, r. 2-diso, r. 3-?, r. 4--?, r. 5-varada-mudra, and 1.1-bell ?, 1. 2-disc, 1. 3-lotus, 1. 4-bow, and I. 5-arrow (?). There is a large unidentified sculpture of a goddess in the Khajuraho Museum. This seems to represent a rare form of the goddess Cakresvari (JO1, XX, op. cit., fig. 32). She is terrific in appearance with a gaping mouth and big rolling eye-balls. She is shown as riding a bird which can be easily taken as the eagle. On top of the sculpture was probably a miniature figure of a Jina now mutilated and lost; just below this are two garland-bearers and two female musicians while on each side of the head of Cakresvari, on each upper corner of the sculpture is a miniature figure of a goddess, seated in the lalitasana, and four-armed. The figure on the right shows the abhaya and the citron in the two lower hands while the deity on the left shows the varada (?) and the pot in the two lower hands. As the heads and the two upper hands of both the deities are mutilated, it is not possible to identify them correctly. Two female attendants stand on each side of the eagle beside four sitting worshippers. Almost all the hands of the goddess are mutilated. The partly mutilated symbol in her upper left hand is either a cakra or a shield. The ten arms of the goddess can however be counted. The sculpture is an excellent example of the early Candella art. The whole sculpture offers close similarity in the arrangement of figures, design, etc., with the other well-known Jaina sculptures like the twenty-armed Cakresvari (JOT, op. cit., fig. 36) discussed below, or the four-armed Sarasvati from Khajuraho.37 The method of grouping three goddesses, one in the centre and two miniatures on the top, is common to all

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 235 these three sculptures. Khajuraho, the findspot of this sculpture, was also a strong Jaina centre. However if the vahana is not the eagle here this sculpture may represent any other goddess, perhaps a Hindu devi. Prajnapti, the yaksi of the third Tirthankara Sambhava, is the only other Jaina goddess who has, like Cakresvari, a bird as her vahana. But the bird in the case of Prajnapti is not always specified and the Canarese dhyana slokas referred to by Ramachandran inform us that it is the swan (hamsa). Again, Prajnapti is known to have been worshipped in only two varieties of forms, namely, the two-armed and the six-armed. Thus she is different from Cakresvari, ten-armed forms of whom are already known. Further, Cakresvari was more popular amongst the Jaina devotees of Khajuraho, and a terrific form of the goddess is not wholly unwarranted in Jaina traditions. A Cakresvari-astakam of unknown authorship prescribes a terrific form of the goddess for worship in various Jaina Tantric rites.38 A ten-armed form portrayed on one of the door-lintels of the Parsvanatha temple, Khajuraho, has been noted by Klaus Bruhn.39 According to him, the goddess shows in her right hands the padma (?), the cakra, the gada, the khadga and the abhaya-mudra and in the left ones, the cakra, the bow, the khetaka, the gada and the conch. Tiwari has noted a ten-armed form of this yaksi on a sculpture of Rsabhanatha in the Parsvanatha temple, Khajuraho. The yaksi shows the varada, sword, mace (gada), cakra, padna (?), cakra, bow, shield, gada and conch in her ten hands. 6. Twelve-Armed Variety The twelve-armed form of the goddess seems to have been very popular since several texts describe it. According to the Pratisthasarasamgraha of Vasunandi,40 the Pratisthasaroddhara of Asadhara 41 and the Pratistha-tilaka of Nemicandra, 42 the goddess Cakresvari has either twelve or four arms. In the former case, she carries the vajra in each hand of the uppermost pair, four pairs of hands in the middle all carry a disc, while the lowermost pair shows the varada and the citron. Yellow in complexion, the goddess sits on the lotus and rides the garuda. The above tradition is followed by the palm-leaf manuscript of Yaksa-Yaksi-laksana noted by Ramachandran.43 But the earliest known Digambara text describing this form is the Kannada Adipuranam of Pampa completed in 941 A.D. S. Settar, quoting from it, 44 has shown that according to Pampa, Cakresvari, riding on the eagle, has twelve arms, with the varuda mudra and the padma in two, the vajras in two others and the disc (cakra) in each of the remaining eight hands. Golden in complexion, she is terrific in appearance. A figure of Cakresvari illustrating this variety is available at Venur in the Mysore State where in a Jaina temple are preserved sculptures of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras with their yaksas and yaksinis. Here Cakresvari stands on the left of a figure of Adinatha and carries (JOI, op. cit., fig. 33) the vajra in each of the two uppermost pair of hands, the cakra in each hand of the four middle pairs and the lotus in the lowermost right hand; the corresponding left one is held in the varada pose. A fragment of a sculpture representing a Covisi of Adinatha is preserved in the Museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Bombay (JOI, op. cit., fig. 34).45 Cakresvart here stands in the tribhanga and carries the same set of symbols but in a slightly modified order. The four upper pairs of hands carry the cakra, the fifth holds the vajra in each hand, the lowermost right hand shows the lotus while the mutilated corresponding left one probably showed the varada-mudra. A sculpture of Adinatha is being worshipped in the Settara Basadi, Mudabidri, Mysore State. Here on the left side of the Jina is carved a standing Cakresvari carrying the discs in the first eight hands beginning from the top, and the vajra in each of the two next ones. But the symbols of the lowermost pair of hands are interchanged and the goddess here carries the lotus in her left hand and shows the right one in the varada-mudra. Markuli, a small village in the Mysore State, has a Jaina Basti constructed in 1173 A.D. In the chief cell, in the main temple, is an image of Adisvara and in the sukanasi are a male and a female

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236 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana figures, both in the sitting postures. The female figure, apparently a yaksi, has twelve arms. In her four right and four left hands, she carries the cakra; in one right and one left hand, she holds the vajra, while she holds the lotus in the sixth left hand and shows the varada-mudra in the corresponding right one.46 Obviously, she represents the Digambara Jaina yaksi Cakresvari (Fig. 113). The Aparajita-prccha, a silpa text, describes the above-mentioned set of symbols with the difference that the varada is replaced by the abhaya-mudra. She sits on the lotus and has the eagle as her vahana.47 The Devatamurtiprakarana also describes this form besides the four-armed one already discussed.48 A big relief sculpture of Cakresvari is carved on the left wall of the verandah of the Barabhuji cave, Khandagiri, Orissa (figure 70). The cave derives its name from this twelve-armed figure of Cakresvari. The goddess sits in the lalita asana on a big double-lotus below which are carved miniature figures of a male and a female worshippers. Above the goddess-figure is a miniature figure of Rsabhanatha with his bull symbol. The devi therefore represents the yaksi of the first Jina. Cakresvari here shows in her left hands the following symbols in a descending order, namely, the cakra, an unidentified symbol, the shield, the cakra, the vajra, and the pravacana (or vitarka) mudra. In her right hands are shown in a corresponding order the cake, the sword, a symbol now mutilated, an unidentified symbol, the vajra and the varada mudra.49 On the left wall of the cave are figures of five Tirthankaras. The first is Rsabha with the bull symbol. Below the relief of this Jina is his twelve-armed yaksi Cakresvari with the eagle (garuda) vahana. Of her six right hands one is in varada and the rest hold a thunderbolt (vajra), two discs (cakra), rosary (aksamala) and a sword; three of her left hands hold a shield, disc and the stalk of a flower; the attributes of the three others are badly damaged.50 In a big relief panel in a wall to the left of the passage near the entrance of Cave 30, Ellora,51 is carved a beautiful figure of Cakresvari sitting in padmasana on a big lotus (very much worn out) below which is her human-faced eagle vehicle. The sculpture dates from c. end of the ninth century A.D. Above the head of the devi is a figure of a Jina sitting in padmasana on a lotus. Almost all the right hands of the devi except two are broken and lost. The symbol of the lowermost right hand is mutilated while the hand just above it holds a big sword. Of the six left hands, beginning from the topmost one, the symbols visible are a mace-like object, the cakra, and the conch. Symbol of the normal left hand is mutilated (Fig. 155). The unidentified manuscript from Jina-Kanchi noticed by Ramachandran gives different iconographic details.52 According to it Cakresvari has three eyes and rides the eagle. The deity shows the sakti and the vajra in two hands, eight discs in eight hands, and the varada and the lotus in the two remaining hands. 7. Sixteen-Armed Variety The Canarese Dhyana slokas referred to by T.N. Ramachandran53 describe a sixteen-armed form of this yaksi. According to this text, one right hand shows the varada mudra while the corresponding left shows the kataka pose. Another right and its corresponding left rest on the lap (perhaps in the dhyana mudra), while the remaining hands hold different weapons of war (not specified). The garuda is her vahana. The drawing published by Burgess from a Canarese tradition may be compared with this form.54 Here the two uppermost hands show the discs (?), while the two lowermost are placed on the lap. One right hand is held in the abhaya mudra while the corresponding left shows the pravacana mudra. The goddess sits in the lalita pose with the eagle vehicle beside her left leg. Symbols of the ten remaining hands are not given in the drawing, but they are supposed to carry various weapons. A sixteen-armed standing Cakresvari was discovered at Gandhaval, old Gwalior state, now in M.P. In her upper right hands are seen the sword and the disc, in one of the left hands is seen the cakra. Symbols of remaining hands are mutilated and indistinct (JOI, op. cit., fig. 37),55 R.P. Mohapatra has referred to some more twenty-armed figures of Cakresvari in Orissa.56

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 237 According to him, "one is worshipped as Bhagavati at Jeypore and the other kept half buried under earth in a temple at Suai of Koraput district." "The Jeypore figure represents the yaksi seated in padmasana on a double lotus. On the pedestal is the garuda vahana. Above the figure of the yaksi is a Jina sitting in padmasana. "Of her sixteen hands, the eight in the right represent attributes like sword, conical object (?), crescent moon, cakra (disc), sankha (conch), vajra (thunderbolt), japamala (rosary) and varada mudra and the remaining eight of the left side display conical object (?), shield, gada (mace), cakra, trident, vajra, kalasa (pot) and an indistinct object. The third eye on her forehead is distinctly visible." The Suai image also represents the yaksi as seated in the padmasana. "From her sixteen hands the available ones of the right side contain mace, sword, trident, disc, bow and pot and the left side displays spear, shield, arrow, dagger, and a conical object. The attributes of the remaining hands are damaged and missing." Above is a figure of a Jina. 8. Twenty-Armed Variety A beautiful and elaborately carved sculpture of the goddess gomes from Devgadh fort, temple no. 19 (JOI, op. cit., fig. 36).57 On the top of the sculpture are figures of three Tirtha karas with Adinatha seated in the centre, along with miniature figures of garland-bearers and musicians. On two sides appear two small figures of Jaina goddesses the one on the right being Padmavati and the other on the left being Sarasvati. The goddess is shown gracefully sitting in the lalitasana upon a beautiful lotus with the eagle below her left leg. Three female attendants on each side possibly represent the parivara of the goddess. The symbols held in her hands are mostly mutilated but three discs, the upper portion of a club and the rosary are still visible in her right hands, while two discs, the shield and the conch can be seen in her left hands. Stylistically, the figure belongs to the same age as that of the figure of Malini from the same spot, dated 1070 v.s. Another twenty-armed figure of the yaksi is preserved in the temple no. 2 at Devgadh. It is a large sculpture and represents the goddess in a sitting posture on the eagle. All the symbols held in her hands are mutilated with the exception of one cakra. This belongs to a somewhat earlier age than the preceding one. A third twenty-armed sculpture with all the symbols well preserved is also found at Devgadh in temple no. 12. It is placed in a dark cell adjoining the central shrine. The goddess sits in lalitasana on a full-blown lotus (JOI, vol. XX, op. cit., fig. 38) with a four-armed eagle underneath. With two hands the eagle lifts the devi while the other two are folded together in adoration. Cakresvari holds with one of the uppermost pair of hands the cakra over the head, the artist possibly wanted to convey the idea that the yaksi carried overhead the dharmacakra of her Master Adinatha. Her two normal hands forming the lowest pair also hold the discs. In the intervening right hands, the following symbols can be identified-vajra, goad (?), rosary, mudgara (mace), disc, sword, a club-like weapon with a small handle, and bag (?); in the intervening left hands the following are recognisable-bell, shield, staff (?), bow, conch, disc, disc, arrow, disc. An attendant female chowrie-bearer stands on each side of Cakresvari near the legs (Fig. 175). The above study of the various forms of Cakresvari worshipped by both the Jaina sects will make it quite clear to anyone familiar with the Hindu sculptures that Cakresvari offers an interesting comparison with the well-known Brahmanical goddess Vaisnavi, the sakti of Visnu. According to the Amsumadbhedagama, Devipurana and Rupamandana, Vaisnavi is four-armed and rides the eagle. The Visnudharmottara calls her six-armed. When four-armed, she shows sometimes the conch, the disc, the varada and the abhaya, and sometimes the conch, the disc, the club and the lotus. In all cases the garuda vahana remains unchanged. When six-armed, she shows the varada, the club, the garland of lotuses, the conch, the disc, and the abhaya-mudra. The garuda acts as the vehicle. Thus it will be seen that at least three symbols, namely, the conch, the cakra and the club, as also the garuda vahana are common to both the Cakresvari and the Vaisnavi. In fact, some of the sculptures of Cakresvari can be easily mistaken for those of Vaisnavi as was at least once done by Vogel.

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238 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana In both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, Cakresvari is well known as the yaksini or sasana-devata of Adinatha, while the corresponding yaksa is the cow-faced yaksa Gomukha. But curiously enough, a metal sculpture representing a Covisi of Adinatha (i.e. with Adinatha as the main figure in the centre) has a miniature figure of Ambika placed as the yaksini. The yaksa here is the Gomukha who is well-known as the yaksa of Adinatha. The image is preserved in a temple in Pindwada, Sirohi State and is installed in the year 1151 v.s. according to an inscription on its back. Two more examples of Ambika associated with Adinatha in metal sculptures from Sadadi (Jodhapura State) and Idar in the North Gujarat (belonging to c. 10th and 11th centuries respectively) have been discussed elsewhere by this writer.58 Ambika is further found associated with Mallinatha, Santinatha and Mahavira on some pedestals preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and in the Baroda Museum. Similar examples can be multiplied. Thus, though Ambika is the Sasana-yaksi of the twentysecond Jina Neminatha, in earlier examples she is similarly associated with different Tirthankaras. For examples, at Akota in Gujarat and Dhanka in Kathiawar, she is associated with Rsabhanatha, Parsvanatha respectively. Here the yaksa is a two-armed pot-bellied figure showing close similarity with Kubera and Jambhala of the Hindu and Wirantheons. Let us call him Yaksesvara or Sarvanubhuti ar Sarvanha.59 A similar pair oi yaksa and yaksini is seen on the pedestal of the sculpture of Adinatha from Mathura, no. 78 in the Lucknow Museum. At Ellora, again the same yaksa and Ambika are met with. It seems, therefore, that in early Jaina sculpture this yaksa pair of Kubera-like Yaksa and Ambika) was installed as the attendant yaksa and yaksini of all the Jinas. We have discussed the problem in the preceding chapter. The introduction of separate sasana-devatas for each of the twenty-four Jinas replaced the earlier pair of Yaksesvara and Ambika (common to all the 24 Jinas) during the transition from the Gupta period to the middle ages and should be assigned to a period between the sixth and the eighth cent. A.D. Of all the images of Cakresvari discovered hitherto, the earlier specimens are the four-armed figures from Prabhasa-Patan, Ranakpur, Vimala vasahi, Abu, and Devgadh fort, the ten-armed figure from the Navamuni cave and the twelve-armed one from the Dasabhuja cave, Orissa discussed above. All these figures belong to a period later than the eighth century A.D., which is the lower limit for the introduction of the set of twenty-four sasana-devatas. The canonical literature of the Jainas does not give a list of the Jaina sasana-devatas. The Svetambara Jaina Canon was finally written down by the Valabhi council under the chairmanship of Devarddhigani ksamasramana in the fifth century A.D. According to the Digambaras, the ancient Agamas are now lost and none of the works composed before the eighth century A.D. makes a reference to the attendant sasana-yaksa pairs. The Tiloyapannatti, supposed to have been composed by Yativrsabha who flourished sometime in the fist century A.D. or a little later, is a work on Jaina cosmography 60 and gives a list of the twenty-four yaksas and yaksinis according to the Digambara tradition. But the printed text of the Tiloyapannatti seems to have been a revised and enlarged edition of an earlier (now lost) Tiloyapannatti sutra composed by Yativrsabha. Virasena, the author of the Dhavala and the Jayadhavala refers to a Tiloyapannatti sutra in a passage which is also found in the printed text of the Tiloyapannatti.61 Hence both the author of the extant Tiloyapanyatti and Virasena had another text of the Tiloyapannatti before them. Besides internal evidence also points to the conclusion that the modern text of this work was prepared sometime after the reign of Kalki and his son whose rule is said to have ended in the year 1002 after Mahavira. Again. the text itself pays homage to Yativssabha in one verse at the end, 62 and in another invokes benediction for a certain Balacandra Saiddhantika.63 Two Balacandras are known to us from the inscriptions at Sravana Belagola both of whom cannot be placed earlier than the eighth century A.D.64 Hence it is reasonable to conclude that the extant copy of the Tiloya pannatti is not the original work of the ancient writer Yativrsabha but is a revised and enlarged copy of the original Tiloyapannatti sutra referred to by Virasena in the eighth century A.D. The Trilokasara of Nemicandra who was a contemporary of the famous Camundariya is supposed to have been based on the Tiloyapannatti. 65 We do not know whether it was based on the extant copy

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 239 of Tiloyapannatti or its original by Yativrsabha and only a detailed comparative study of the two texts can help to decide the issue but unlike the extant Tiloyapannatti, the Trilokasara does not give the lists of the attendant yaksas and yaksinis even though it gives the names and other details of the Tirthankaras Cakravartins and others like the Tiloyapannatti. Nor does the Trilokasara give the cognizances of the twenty-four Jinas. It is therefore more likely that the Trilokasara of Nemicandra is based on the original Tiloyapannatti. The extant Tiloyapannatti, even if it be earlier than the Trilokasara, it is not far removed from the latter and Balacandra Saiddhantika referred to in the text itself may either be the author or a contemporary (a teacher or a colleague) of the author of the new, revised and enlarged edition (or portions) of the Tiloyapannatti. This digression was necessary to show that the evidence of the extant Tiloyapannatti does not contradict the results arrived at with the help of archaeological evidence. The first reliable reference to the Apraticakra yaksini of the Digambara pantheon is supplied by the Harivamsa of Jinasena I (783 A.D.).66 According to this text, sasana-devatas of great prowess headed by Apraticakra paid their homage to the Lord Vrsabha, the dharmacakrin, in the latter's samavasarana. Later Digambara writer Puspadanta invokes Cakresvari along with Ambika, Siddhayika, Gauri and Gandhari of the Jaina pantheon in his Apabhramsa work Mahapurana (c. 960 A.D.).67 Puspadanta addresses Cakresvari as "vigghaviddavini" or the dispeller of obstacles and 'caru' or the beautiful one. Amongst the Svetambaras, the two limits noted above, namely, the fifth century A.D. and the eighth century A.D. may now be checked. It has been noted above that the Jaina Agama texts do not refer to the twenty-four sasana-devatas. Jinadasa Mahattara, the author of Curnis on some of the Agama texts, who completed his Curni on the Nandi-sutra in the Saka year 598 (676 A.D.), does not refer to the yaksa pairs even when an opportunity is available while dealing with the lives of Mahavira and Rsabhanatha in his Avasyaka-Curni. But Haribhadrasuri, the famous Svetambara writer, refers to Siddhayika along with Kali, Rohini and others in his Pancasaka,68 and to Amba-Kusmandi as yaksi in his Lalitavistaratika. Muni Jinavijayaji first discussed his date and fixed it as 757-857 v.s. (=700-800 A.D.) but later revised it and finally placed him in Saka years 600-650, i.e. 678-728 A.D. He may have flourished in c. 550-650 A.D. Sanghadasagani, the author of the Vasudevahindi, part one, who flourished before Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana, is generally assigned to c. 5th or 6th century A.D. He does not refer to the yaksa pairs even when opportunities are available in describing lives of some of the Tirthankaras. Bappabhatti, perhaps a junior contemporary of Haribhadra, who is supposed to have flourished in c. 800-895 v.s., offers invokations to the twenty-four Jinas in his Caturvimsatika. This work is made up of a group of 24 hymns, each one assigned to one Tirthankara. In each hymn, the first verse is devoted to one of the twenty-four Jinas, the second to all the Jinas, the third to the Jaina siddhanta or the speech of the Jinas and the fourth to one of the following deities-the Srutadevata, the sixteen Mahavidyas, the chief queen of Dharana, the Yaksaraja and the goddess Amba. This Yaksaraja again is closely related to Kubera, the lord of the yaksas, so far as the iconography of the two deities is concerned. It has already been shown that the earliest yaksa pair discovered on Tirthankara-images is that of Yaksesvara and Ambika who are the only yaksa and yaksini invoked by Bappabhat. It would, therefore, be reasonable to conclude that the sets of sasana-devatas were a comparatively recent growth if not altogether unknown in the age of Bappabhatti and that the author possibly followed an older practice of invoking deities in such hymns. Considering all these evidences, both literary and archaeological, available in the traditions of both the Jaina sects, it will be reasonable to conclude that the sets of the twenty-four yaksas and yaksinis were introduced sometime after the seventh century A.D. but before the end of the eighth century and probably in the first half of it. But their forms were possibly different from what Hemacandra and Asadhara describe. Since the Cakresvari figures both as the yaksini and the vidyadevi in the Svetambara pantheon, it remains to be seen whether the Apraticakra invoked by Bappabhatti was the yaksini or the vidyadevi. Firstly, Bappabhatti invokes her in the group of verses assigned to Suparsvanatha and not Adinatha.

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240 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Secondly, the form suggested by the author agrees more with the later dhyanas of the Cakresvari vidya than with those of the yaksi, and thirdly almost all the other goddesses invoked in the Caturvimsatika are vidyadevis. Lastly, the worship of vidyadevis in Jainism is older than that of the twenty-four sasanadevatas since some of the vidyas are met with in earlier texts like the Vasudevahindi and in the still earlier Paumacariyam of Vimalasuri. To revert to Cakresvari, frequent occurrence of images of the various forms of the goddess in Jaina temples of both the sects shows that her worship was both ancient and widespread. Separate temples dedicated to Cakresvari, though not common, were not unknown. According to Jinaprabhasuri, the author of the Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, a temple of the goddess Cakresvari was in existence at Ayodhya 69 and at Kulpaka-tirtha in the C.P., there was an image of the goddess with discs in her hands.70 The goddess was invoked in various Tantric rites. She, however, could not attain the same exalted position as that of Padmavati, Ambika, Sarasvati or Jvala malini, especially in the Jaina Tantra. It may be remembered, however, that she is one of the four chief yaksinis in Jaina pantheon, along with three others, namely, Ambika, Padmavati and Siddhayika.71 The different iconographic tables for the various forms of Cakresvari are given below. Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha A. CAKRESVARI (SVETAMBARA) I. Two-Armed Variety No. Symbols Vahana 1. cakra, x (not known) Complexion II. Four-Armed Variety Vahana eagle Complexion eagle eagle golden 1. u. cakra 1. 1. sarkha 1. u. cakra 1. 1. sarkha 1. u. cakra 1. l. citron 1. u. -cakra 1. 1. citron 1. u. cakra 1. l. citron 1. u. cakra 1. 1. pot tiger eagle eagle Nos. Symbols 1. r. u. cakra r. l. varada 2. r. u. cakra r. l. rosary r. u. cakra r. 1. varada 4. r. u. cakra r. 1. varada 5. r. u. cakra r. l. abhaya 6. r. u. cakra r. 1. varada 7. same as above r. u. cakra r. 1. rosary 9. r. u. and 1. u. cakra r. 1. and 1. 1. varada 10. r. u. cakra r. 1. goad? 11. r. u. noose r. 1. varada 12. r. u. cakra r. 1. rosary 13. r. u. club (gada) r. 1. varada 14 rokra in four hands lotus tiger 1. u. cakra 1. 1. pot tiger eagle eagle 1. u. noose 1. 1. varada 1. u. goad 1. I. conch 1. u. cakra 1. 1. vajra? 1. u. cakra 1. 1. conch eagle eagle (? identification as a yaksi is doubtful)

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 241 III. Eight-Armed Variety Nos. Symbols Vahana Complexion eagle golden eagle eagle eagle eagle 1. right-varada, arrow, disc, noose left--bow, vajra, disc, goad 2. r. 1. goad 1. 1. noose r. 2. (cakra) 1. 2. vajra r. 3. arrow 1. 3. bow r. 4. Yarada 1. 4. cakra 3. r. 1. noose 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. arrow 1. 2. goad r. 3. cakra 1. 3. bow r. 4. varada 1. 4. vajra 1.1. noose 1. 1. bow r. 2. cakra 1. 2. vajra r. 3. arrow 1. 3. cakra r. 4. varada 1. 4. goad 5. r. l. cakra 1. 1. cakra r. 2. noose 1. 2. vajra r. 3. arrow 1. 3. goad r. 4. varada 1. 4. bow r. 1. abhaya 1. 1. arrow r. 2. noose 1. 2. ? r. 3. goad 1. 3. ? r. 4. bow 1. 4. vajra 7. r. 1. abhaya 1. 1. bow r. 2. arrow 1. 2. cakra r. 3. cakra 1. 3. ? r. 4. snake 1. 4. goad 8. r. 1. cakra 1. 1. cakra r. 2. cakra 1. 2. cakra r. 3. cakra 1. 3. cakra r. 4. varada 1. 4. citron 9. varada, cakra, ypakhyana, cakra, cakra, lotus-bud, cakra, fruit eagle eagle (padmasana) eagle IV. Eighteen-Armed Variety No. Symbols Vahana Complexion 1. r. cakra, arrow, goad, lotus, vajra, sword, stick (?), varada, vyakhyana 1. cakra, bow, noose, stick (?), shield, vajra, indistinct, abhaya, x

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242 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana B. CAKRESVARI (DIGAMBARA) V. Two-Armed Variety Nos. Symbols Vahana Complexion 1. r. cakra 2. r. abhaya 3. r. cakra 4. r. cakra 5. r. abhaya 6. 1. varada 1. pot I. cakra 1. sarkha I. cakra 1. kalasa 1. varada VI. Four-Armed Variety Nos. Symbols Vahana Complexion eagle golden eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle 1. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. I. varada 1. 1. citron 2. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. 1. abhaya 1. ). citron 3. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. 1. varada 1. I. conch 4. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. l. abhaya 1. 1. padma 5. r. u. gada 1. u. cakra r. 1. abhaya 1. I. sankha 6. r. u. gada 1. u. cakra r. 1. varada 1. 1. rosary 7. r. u. gada 1. u. cakra r. l. varada 1. 1. conch 8. r. u. gada 1. u. sarkha r. l. varada 1. 1. cakra 9. r. u. abhaya 1. u. cakra r. l. gada 1. 1. sankha 10. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. 1. padma 1. 1. rarada 11. cakra in all the four hands 12. r. u. vajra 1. u. cakra r. l. x 1. l. rosary 13. abhaya, padma, cakra, sankha 14. r. u. cakra 1. u. cakra r. 1. fruit 1. I. abhaya eagle eagle eagle eagle

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Four More Popular Yaksinis Nos. 1. r. 1. cakra r. 2. sword r. 3. varada 2. r. 1. cakra r. 2. gada r. 3. varada 3. r. 1. cakra r. 2. cakra r. 3. varada 4. r. 1. cakra r. 2. vajra r. 3. varada 5. abhaya, gada, cakra, cakra, padma, sankha Nos. 1. r. 1. cakra r. 4. varada 2. r. 1. cakra r. 2. pasa (?) r. 3. gada r. 2. abhaya r. 3. sword r. 4. gada 3. r. 1. arrows r. 2. ? 5. r. 1. noose r. 2. (?) r. 3. (?) Symbols r. 3. cakra r. 4. X 4. r. 1, 2, 3. mutilated r. 4. citron r. 4. vajra 6. r. 1. cakra r. 2. cakra g. 3. vajra r. 4. fruit Symbols 7. r. 1, 2, 3. cakra r. 4. varada 8. r. 1, 2. cakra r. 3. vajra r. 4. X 1. 1. cakra 1.2. gada 1. 3. sankha 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. padma 1. 3. sankha 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. sankha 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. vajra 1. 3. lotus 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. shield VII. Six-Armed Variety 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. vajra 1. 3. bag (?) 1. 4. sankha 1. 4. x 1. 1. cakra 1. 3. axe 1. 4. sarkha 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. ? 1. 3. bow 1. 4. bag (?) 1. 1, 2, 3. mutilated 1. 4. Sankha 1. 1. vajra 1. 2. (?) 1. 3. cakra Vahana eagle VIII. Eight-Armed Variety 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. vajra 1. 4. lotus (?) 1. 1, 2, 3. cakra 1. 4. fruit 1. 1, 2. cakra 1. 3. conch 1. 4. X eagle eagle Vahana eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle Complexion Complexion : 243

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244 Nos. 9. sword, lotus (?), cakra, x, shield, conch, gada, x 10. fruit, (?), bell (ghanta), cakra, cakra, cakra, cakra, bow, kalasa 11. r. 1. cakra 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. X 1. 4. abhaya r. 2. trident (?) r. 3. sword r. 4. varada 12. danda, khadga, abhaya, cakra, cakra, cakra, axe and conch Nos. Symbols 1. r. 1. cakra r. 2. sword r. 3. gada r. 4. arrow r. 5. varada 2. r. 1. cakra r. 2. r. 3.,, r. 4. r. 5. pravacana 3. cakra in all hands 4. r. 1. cakra r. 2. cakra 33 r. 3. ? r. 4. ? r. 5. varada 5. r. 1. sword 6. r. 1. padma r. 2. cakra Symbols appearance terrific r. 3. gada r. 4. khadga 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. shield 1. 3. vajra 1. 4. bow 1. 5. sankha 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. 1. 3. other symbols mutilated 27 1. 4. 1. 5. placed on lap 1. 1. bell 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. lotus 1. 4. bow 1. 5. arrow (?) 1. 1. shield 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. bow 1. 3. khetaka 1. 4. gada 1. 5. conch r. 5. abhaya 7. varada, sword, lotus (?), cakra, x, padma (?), cakra, bow, shield, gada, conch IX. Ten-Armed Variety Vahana Vahana eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Complexion Complexion

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Four More Popular Yaksinis Nos. 33 1. r. 1. vajra r. 2. cakra r. 3. r. 4. r. 5. sixth pair of hands 2. first five pairs of hands as in no. 1 last pair-citron, abhaya 3. first four pairs-cakra fifth pair-vajra r. 6. lotus 4. first five pairs as in no. 3 g. 6. varada 5. r. 1. cakra r. 2. sword r. 3. ? r. 4. cakra (?) r. 5. vajra r. 6. varada 33 6. r. 1. sakti r. 2. cakra r. 3. Symbols 33 I. 1. vajra 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. 1. 4. 8. r. 1 to 4. mutilated r. 5. sword r. 6. mutilated 1. 1. vajra 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. r. 4. 1. 4. r. 5. ", 1. 5. sixth pair-varada, lotus (the goddess has three eyes) 7. r. varada, vajra, cakra, cakra, 2. first pair-cakra 1. 5. 13 citron, varada 3 1. 6. varada rosary, sword 1. shield, disc, stalk of flower rest mutilated 1. 6. lotus 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. ? 1. 3. shield 1. 4. cakra 1. 5. vajra 1. 6. pravacana Nos. Symbols 1. six pairs-weapons of war one pair on the lap one pair-varada, kataka 53 39 X. Twelve-Armed Variety 1. 1. mace (?) 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. conch 1. 4 to 6. mutilated next six pairs-weapons of war last pair-abhaya, pravacana Vahana eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle XI. Sixteen-Armed Variety Vahana eagle eagle Complexion Complexion 245

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246 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Nos. Symbols Vahana Complexion eagle 3. sword and disc in two right hands, one left hand carries the cakra, rest symbols mutilated 4. r. sword, ?, crescent moon, cakra, sarkha, vajra, japanala, varada 1. conical object(?), shield, gada, cakra, trident, vajra, kalasa, indistinct (three eyes) 5. r. mace, sword, trident, disc, bow, pot, X, X 1. spear, shield, arrow, dagger, conical object (?), X. X, X XII. Twenty-Armed Variety Nos. Symbols Vahana eagle 1. r. 1. cakra r. 2. vajra r. 3. goad (?) r. 4. rosary r. 5. mudgara r. 6. cakra r. 7. sword r. 8. club (?) r. 9. bag (?) r. 10. cakra r. 1. cakra r. 2. cakra r. 3. cakra r. 4. X r. 5. X 1. 6. X r. 7. X 1. 8. x (gada) r. 9. X r. 10. rosary 2. 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. bell 1. 3. shield 1. 4. ? (staff) 1. 5. bow 1. 6. sankha 1. 7. cakra 1. 8. cakra 1. 9. arrow 1. 10. cakra 1. 1. cakra 1. 2. cakra 1. 3. shield 1. 4. X 1. 5. X 1. 6. x 1. 7. x 1. 8. X 1. 9. X 1. 10. sarkha eagle II. Yaksi Ambika--the Sasanadevata of Neminatha Ambika-devi is well-known in the Jaina Pantheon as the Yaksi or the Sasanadevata of the twentysecond Tirthankara known variously as Nemi, Neminatha or Aristanemi. The origin of this deity is shrouded in mystery, but legendary accounts are found in the Jaina Puranas and other works. An account from the Ambika-devi-kalpa composed by Jinaprabhasuri in the fourteenth century A.D. is given below.72 In the city of Kodinar, situated in Saurastra, there once lived an orthodox learned Brahmana called

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Four More Popular Yak sinis 247 Soma who had a virtuous and devoted wife in Ambika (called Ambini in the Prakrit text). The couple had two sons Siddha and Buddha. Once upon a time Soma invited several Brahmins to a dinner at his place on the occasion of the Sraddha ceremony of his ancestor.When meals were ready Ambika's mother-in-law went out for bath. In the meantime a Muni who had fasted for full one month turned up and asked Ambika to give him food to break his fast. Greatly delighted, Ambika fed the Muni with dishes prepared for the Brahmins. On the matter being reported by her mother-in-law to Somabhatta, the latter became wild with rage and drove Ambika out of the house. Consequently, Ambika had to leave the place in a helpless condition along with her two children. Strange miracles occurred as Ambika went on and on her weary way. Her sons, hungry and exhausted, cried out for food and water. Ambika had nothing to give. Instantly, a dried mango-tree by the road-side offered them fine ripe mangoes, and a dry lake nearby was filled all at once with water. Exhausted, Ambika rested for a while under the shade of the mango-tree. At home too miracles occurred. This opened the eyes of Soma and his mother, and they were filled with remorse. Soma came running after Ambika in order to restore her to the house. Poor Ambika, on seeing Soma running after her, misunderstood his intentions and looking around for a hiding place to save herself from his wrath, saw a big well and jumped into it with both the sons and died.73 She was reborn in the heaven called the Kohanda Vimana-situated four yojanas before the Saudharma Kalpa-as a Yaksi devoted to the Sasana of Neminatha. She is otherwise known as Kohandi (Kusmandi or Kusmandini) on account of her residence in the Kohanda Vimana. Her husband too filled with remorse died after her, but due to his Abhiyaugic Karma was born a lion and became a vahana of Ambika. The above is a Svetambara account of the origin of Ambika.74 A Digambara version of the story of her origin is supplied by the "Yaksi-Katha" found in a work called Punyasrava- katha, a palm-leaf Ms. of which is in the possession of the temple-priest at Jina-Kanchi. According to this version, which is slightly different from the Svetambara one, she was the wife of Somasarman, a Brahmin of Girinagara. Her name was Agnila and her sons were called Subhankara and Prabhankara, aged seven and five years respectively. Here she leaves her husband in company of her two sons and a faithful maid-servant and repairs to the Urjjayant hill where Varadatta, the Muni whom she had given food for breaking his fast, was living. 75 The iconography of Ambika can be explained almost wholly with the help of the legends narrated above. When represented, Ambika is invariably accompanied by two children, apparently Siddha and Buddha, and she holds a bunch of mangoes which saved them from starvation, and a noose, apparently the rope, meant for drawing water from an Indian well. The story of Agnila is however illustrated in the wall-paintings in the sangita-mandapa of the Vardhamana temple at Tiruparuttikuppam (Jina-Kanchi).76 The Yaksi is seated cross-legged and wears a conical crown over her head. She is flanked on two sides by her two sons. Behind the son on the right stands the attendant woman with a garland in her hands. On another panel she is shown sitting cross-legged, with a conical crown over her head, and is four-armed, the two lower ones showing the abhaya and varada poses and the upper ones carrying a goad and a noose. On her left stands a party of women, two of whom are discernible in the old painting, the rest being completely obliterated. One of them, or the one standing nearest to the Yaksi holds in her hands a vessel pouring forth flames of fire. The other has a tray with burning fire. Both the vessel and the tray are intended for the purpose of Arati as a mark of respect and devotion towards gods or saints. Images of Ambika san broadly be divided into three groups according to the number of arms they bear, namely, (A) two-armed, (B) four-armed, and (C) having move than four arms. They can further be sub-divided into Svetambara and Digambara images. The vahana in all cases remains the same, namely, a lion.77 Her complexion, too, is usually golden, but red in some Tantric rites.78 1. Two-Armed Variety sitting. The two-armed variety is represented in two postures, namely, the standing and the Jinaprabhasuri invokes her as follows in his Urjjayanta-stava (v. 13):79

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248 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana "May Ambika, of golden colour, riding on a lion and accompanied by (her two sons) Siddha and Buddha and holding a bunch of mangoes in her hand, protect the Jaina Sangha from obstacles." The earliest available reference to Ambika comes from the commentary of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana himself on his own Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya.80 Here the goddess is called Amba-Kusmandi Vidya. An Amba-Kusmandi Vidya is referred to by Haribhadra suri (c. 550-650 A.D.) in his commentary (vrtti) on the Avasyaka-Niryukti, v. 931 (p. 411). Haribhadra suri refers to this goddess Amba-Kusmandi in his Lalitavistara commentary also.81 In his Harivamsa purana, the Digambara writer Jinasena (783 A.D.) invokes her as Simhavahini (who rides on the lion), who has her abode (alaya, temple, resort) on the Mt. Urjjayanta 82 (Mt. Girnar). It may be noted that a controversy between Svetambara and Digambara sects is said to have been set at nought by the goddess Ambika residing at this place.83 Another early reference to the two-armed form of Ambika is found in the Caturvinnsatika of Bappabhatti Suri (V.S. 800-895) where she is adored twice by the author. Unfortunately, the author does not give much information regarding her symbols. He only says that she retires under a mango-tree and that she bears the li avenly colour of the lightning (divya-saudamani-ruk). Her golden form seated on a white lion is compared to a lightning in the clouds. She is believed to possess very sharp nails which can easily break the sword (of an enemy).84 Presumably, this refers to the two-armed variety of the goddess. Vastupala, the famous Jaina minister who flourished in the thirteenth century A.D. devoted one whole hymn to her praise. She is addressed as Kusmandini, Padmalaya (seated on a lotus) and Amba. Her right hand is said to hold a bunch of mangoes.85 Jinesvara Suri too refers to the bunch of mangoes held in her hand.86 He further describes her ornaments like the ear-rings, the anklets and the shining garlands on her breasts. It seems that both Vastupala and Jinesvara Suri had in mind a form of Ambika having only two arms. Sobhana Muni, the younger brother of Dhanapala, the author of Tilakamanjari (11th cent A.D.) refers to her twice in his Stuticaturvimsatika (vv. 88 and 96). Verse 88 suggests that the author meditates over a form with two arms only, 87 and addresses her as cariputra which is explained by commentators as 'one whose sons are fond of wandering'. The Ambikastaka,88 supposed to have been composed by Ambaprasada,89 also gives the same form of Ambika. The hymn is of unusual interest because here details are given of all her ornaments and symbols besides recording an account of her past life. It is expressly stated that the colour of the deity is to be different in different rites, e.g., white in the santikarma, yellow in the vasyakarma, and red in the cruel rites such as marana, stambhana, etc.90 This principle of varying the colour is in consonance with the Buddhist and Hindu Tantras. Amongst references to this form in the Digambara tradition, the Harivamsa of Jinasena is already noted. Here Ambika is called Simhavahini-one with the lion-vehicle but no other details are given. However, he possibly referred to a two-armed form only. Puspadanta also refers to her in his Apabhramsa work Mahapurana but gives no details of the symbols held by the goddess. Puspadanta, in his introductory verses to the Mahapurana, invoking Ambika with Cakkesari, Gori, Gandhari and Siddhaini, adds that Ambika was a Brahmana lady in her former existence and became a yaksini by virtue of her giving alms to a (Jaina) monk. She is further said to reside in the forests of Ujjayanta (Girnar) and is called the source or propeller of all literary activity. She is further said to have resorted to the banyan-free (rather than the mango-tree of all other accounts). Her child is also referred to. Perhaps the author refers to only one child. As we shall see later on, in all early sculptures and in several of the images where she accompanies a Tirtharkara figure as a yaksini, she is shown with only one child.91 The Pratisthasaroddhara of Pandit Asadhara (13th cent. A.D.) invokes Ambika as follows: "Here do I worship the Goddess Amra, devoted as she is to the Jina whose height is ten DhanusAmra of dark-blue complexion, who is in the habit of resting under a mango-tree, who rides on the lion that was her own husband in the past existence, who bears in her left hand a bunch of heavenly mangoes

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 249 for the delight of her son Priyankara seated on her left lap and whose fingers of the right arm are held tight by Subhankara." It is interesting to note that Ambika is described as dark-blue in colour. A similar description is found in the Pratisthatilaka of Nemicandra, who flourished in the 15th cent. A.D.92 Several images and paintings of two-armed Ambika, obtained from all over India, in Jaina shrines, manuscripts collections, and in collections of various museums in India and abroad, prove the immense popularity that this goddess enjoyed, next only to the Tirthankaras (Devadhidevas), but perhaps more than any other Jaina deity. Of forms of Ambika, the two-armed one seems to be the earliest. Even in the two-armed variety there are more than one forms, but the form with the mango-bunch in the right hand and a son held by her left hand, sitting on her left lap (when the devi is shown sitting), seems to be the earliest (see figs. 162, 96, 97). In Figure 35 is represented the earliest known image of Ambika, shown as the attendant yaksi of a standing Tirthankara93 (the corresponding yaksa bei ng Sarvanha yaksa), dedicated by Jinabhadra Vacanacarya, obtained amongst bronzes of the Akota hoard.94 The inscription on the back is engraved in a script of c. 550-600 A.D. This Jinabhadra Vacanacarya is identified with the famous Jinabhadra gani ksamasramana, the author of Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya (quotect bove), who lived in c. 520-623 A.D.95 In this bronze, Ambika sits in the lalita pose on a big lotus, carrying a mango-bunch in her right hand and holding with her left hand a son sitting on her left lap. From the same hoard came an ornate bronze figure of Ambika worshipped as an independent image not accompanying Neminatha figure on a pedestal. The devi wears an elaborate crown, an astamangala-mala, ear-rings, armlets, bracelets, etc. and her eyes are studded with silver. There is a cudamani ornament on the crown. The devi holds the amra-lumbi (mango-bunch) and the child with her right and left hands respectively. The image shows the goddess accompanied by both her sons. The goddess sits in lalitasana on a cushion placed on her couchant lion-mount. Script of an inscription on the back and the style of the figures etc. suggest an age not later than c. 600 A.D. Figure 87 represents a Sat-Tirthika bronze image of Parsva, dated in Samvat 1055998 A.D., and having the two-armed Sarvanha yaksa on the right end of the pedestal, the corresponding left end being occupied by a figure of two-armed Ambika of this variety of form. She has only one son with her. The bronze was discovered in the Vasantagadh hoard.97 The same form of Ambika is seen on a Tri-Tirthika bronze of Parsvanatha in the Akota hoard.98 Two elaborate Tri-Tirthika bronzes of Parsvanatha in the Vasantagadh hoard,99 inscribed in samvat 726 and 756, also show Ambika in the same form and with only one child. Some more images and paintings of this form were published by us in Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika. Journal of the University of Bombay (henceforth referred to as JUB), Vol. IX, part 2 (September 1940), pp. 147-169 and plates, especially see figs. 2 and 3 from Devgadh fort, fig. 4 from Orissa, now in the British Museum, fig. 5 from Vimala vasahi, Abu, fig. 6 bronze from Baroda, fig. 7 bronze in Museum of Saint Xavier's College, Bombay, fig. 8 from Angadi in Karnataka State. Of the above, figs. 2, 3 and 4 show the second son of Ambika standing near the mango-bunch held by the mother; in fig. 8 the second son rides on the lion pear the right leg of Ambika, and in fig. 6 behind the right leg of the mother. In fig. 5 from Vimala vasahi. Ambika has only one son. In fig. I in the paper referred to above, a painting of two-armed Ambika from a palm-leaf manuscript of Jnata sutra and other texts, preserved in Jaina Bhandara at Chani, Gujarat, is shown. Here the devi carries her son with the right hand and holds the amra-lumbi with the left. A small figure of the lion vehicle is seen below the devi's right leg. In fig. 8 of above paper, the goddess has placed her left hand on the head of her son standing on her left side, while the second son is riding on the lion on the right side of the two-armed standing Ambika from Angadi, Karnataka. The devi holds a mango-bunch in her right hand. A big rock-cut relief panel of Sarvanha yaksa and Ambika yaksi is preserved on a rock at Gwalior, M.P. This is illustrated in Fig. 195 in this book. The right arm of the goddess is mutilated while with her left hand she holds the child in her lap. The second son stands on the right side of the mother. In

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250 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana the British Museum, London, is a beautiful sculpture of two-armed standing Ambika holding a son with her left hand while another son catches the mango-bunch held in Ambika's right hand. The sculpture hails from Orissa (JAA, III, plate 318B). Of the same two-armed form another beautiful sculpture of Ambika sitting is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (JAA, III, pl. 324). The image hails from Orissa. A third beautiful sculpture of Ambika, from Bihar, preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi, is interesting as two small dancing figures are depicted on her two sides. Her smaller son stands on her left and the goddess holds him by the hand. The elder son stands on her right side (JAA, III, pl. 338B). A beautiful bronze figure of standing Ambika of this iconographic variety, hailing from Nalgora, Bengal, is illustrated in JAA, III, pl. 343B. But in Navamuni cave, Orissa, Ambika shows amralumbi and abhaya and child. 100 Two beautiful sculptures of standing Ambika of this variety of form are preserved in Temple no. 12, Devgadh (Fig. 162).101 Two-armed Ambika with only one child is also seen on Tirthankara sculptures at Devgadh.102 Figure 96 illustrates a sculpture of this forin of Ambika preserved in the Museum at Vidisha, M.P. Figure 97 illustrates a sculpture from Vimala vasahi, Abu, assignable to c. 1032, the date of building of the temple. Two bronzes of this variety, showing the addoss in a standing posture, hailing from Karnataka are noteworthy. They are illustrated by us in Jaina Bronzes- A Brief Survey (Paper 26) in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 269ff, figures 37 and 68. Fig. 37 is a beautiful bronze of c. 10th century Ganga art. The devi places her left hand on the head of the child standing on her left while she carries the amra-lumbi in her right hand. The second son leans against the lion vahana on the right side. The bronze is in worship in a shrine in Mudabidri, Karnataka. Fig. 68 is preserved in the Los Angeles Museum of Art, U.S.A. Fig. 67 in the above paper, from Bickford collection, Cleveland Museum, U.S.A. is probably from Northern Karnataka showing Chalukyan influence. Here the two sons are on two sides of the mother and Ambika holds an amra-lumbi in her right hand. Her left hand is broken at the wrist. It is in such a position that it cannot have held the son on her left. This hand probably held a citron as can be inferred from other images discussed below. This would be another variety of two-armed form of yaksi Ambika. In figure 71 in the above paper is illustrated another bronze of standing Ambika, now in the National Museum and perhaps hailing from Northern Karnataka. Here again the left hand is broken at the wrist but it might have held a citron. The above inference will be accepted by referring to fig. 9 in our article on Ambika in JUB, IX (1940), op. cit., illustrating a bronze figure of standing Ambika from Rajnakin Khinkhini, Akola district, Maharashtra, now preserved in the Nagpur Museum. Here the treatment and position of figures is similar to those in the above two images and the right hand holds the amra-lumbi while the left hand holds the citron. Figure 93 in this book illustrates a stone sculpture of Ambika seated under a big mango-tree in worship in the Chamundaraya Basti, Sravana Belagola. The devi carries an amra-lumbi and a citron in her right and the left hands respectively. But in a bronze figure of seated Ambika from Rajnakin Khink hini, now in Nagpur Museum, there is only one son and the position of her symbols is changed. She holds the child on the right lap with her right hand and the citron remains in the left hand. The bronze is illustrated as fig. 11 in JUB, op. cit. In one of the cloistures in the enclosure around Gommatesvara at Sravana Belagola is an image of this goddess called Yaksadevata in the pedestal-inscription, assigned to c. 1231 A.D., by Narasimhachariar, who identifies her as Kusmandini. The goddess shows a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and a fruit in the left one. 103 Debala Mitra has published four bronzes of Amra or Ambika of a two-armed variety of form wherein the goddess carries the imra-lumbi and the child with the right and left hands respectively. In all these images she is shown sitting in lalitasana on a full-blown lotus placed on a pedestal with the lion vehicle in its centre. 104 A seated Ambika, of c. tenth century A.D., from Hingalajgadh in Mandsore district, M.P., is preserved in the Bhanpur State Museum, M.P. (Mu. no. 292). She shows similar symbols. Representation of the tree behind is done in some different artistic ways at Hingalajgadh. At Khajuraho, Parsvanatha temple, on the wall of the garbhagrha, south jangha, is a fine sculpture of

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 251 standing Ambika of this two-armed variety of from, dating form c. late tenth cent. A.D. The second son is standing near Ambika's right leg. A similar form of standing Ambika is found in the Santinatha temple at Thubon, Guna district, M.P. Amongst bronzes from Aluara hoard, Bihar, in the Patna Museum, we find a standing Ambika with this variety of form. The second son on the right is mutilated and only his feet remain. Two early mediaeval sculptures of Ambika from Vaibhara giri, Rajgir show the same iconographic symbols. But in the Sasana Basti at Sravana Belagola there are two different sculptures of Ambika seated under mango tree with a big foliage overhead and showing the amra-lumbi and the citron in her right and left hands respectively. Some examples of this variety are already noted before. A bronze figure of the goddess with the above symbols, obtained in the Bapatla hoard and preserved in the State Museum, Hyderabad, M.P. shows similar symbols. A beautiful bold relief panel of Ambika riding on a big lion, from cave 32, Ellora, shows the goddess carrying similar symbols. A fine painting showing two-armed Ambika of this variety of form is obtained on one of the palm-leaves of the Dhavala-Tika at Mudabidri. In JAA, I, plate 91 A is illustrated a stone sculpture of two-armed Ambika from Bihar, now in Bejoy Singh Nahar's collection, Calcutta. Here one son stands nerr the lion behind the right leg of Ambika sitting in lalitasana. The younger son is held with her left hand on the lap while Ambika's right hand shows the varada mudra. A small circular mark on the palm of the right hand may either signify some fruit or may just signify a red kumkum mark which ladies sometimes do in the palms of their hands. In JAA, I, pl. 91B is published a bronze figure of Ambika sitting in the lalita pose and holding a child on the lap with her left hand. The second son is not seen. The bronze hails possibly from Bihar and is now preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. In her right hand Ambika holds what seem to be a few lotus buds. Amango-bunch would generally by shown with the mangoes held down and the twigs connecting them held in the hand. One or more lotus buds can be held upwards with the stalks held by the hand. In this bronze Ambika seems to have held some lotus buds. The way in which the lotus bud is held upwards is demonstrated by a look at the bronze figure of Jaina Sarasvati now in the British Museum, illustrated in JAA, III, pl. 319B. That there was a tradition of two-armed Ambika holding a lotus-bud in one hand (usually the right hand) is demonstrated by a bronze figure of standing Ambika from Jina-Kanchi, illustrated by us in JUB, op. cit., fig. 12. Here Ambika's left hand is hanging without holding anything. Images of this form were first described by T.N. Ramachandran who could not find the relevant dhyana verse. This form is known as Dharmadevi, the yaksi of Neminatha. An independent shrine is dedicated to her and it stands to the south of the Vardhamana shrine at Tiruparuttikunram. Ramachandran has described the left hand as hanging like the tail of a cow'. A similar figure of the goddess is found in a rock-cut relief at Chitha ral in Kerala state (fig. 204). The symbol in her right hand is not clear. 105 Both the sons stand beside her on the left while a female attendant stands on her right. The relief is assigned to c. 800 A.D. (Sivaramamurti, Panoramu of Jaina Art, figures 95 and 118). With this may also be compared the rockcut relief of Ambika on a boulder at Kalugumalai (see fig. 83 in this book) dating from c. 8th 9th century A.D. Here the right hand of Ambika resting on the head of the attendant on the right may be interpreted as hanging. The left hand holds an indistinct object which might have been a lotus-bud. The imposing later figure of standing Ambika at Tirumalai, Tamil Nadu (Panorama of Jaina Art. fig. 88) shows Ambika holding a lotus-like thing in the right hand while her left hand raised upwards seems to hold some thing or rests on something which cannot be identified. The standing Ambika of Pallava-Chola transition, from Melsittamur, South Arcot district, Tamil Nadu (Panorama of Jaina Art, figs. 46. 47) shows a similar form. Ambika in Ellora cave 32 (Panorama of Jaina Art, figs. 152A, 153) possibly held the lotus-bud in her right hand while supporting a son on the lap with her left hand. Two santara sculptures of Ambika, published by Dhaky from Humca and Kambadahalli, South Karnataka, 108 show Ambika sitting in the lalitasana and holding the lotus and the child with her right and left hands respectively. The sculptures date from late ninth and early tenth cent. A.D. (Figs. 149 and 150 in this book).

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252 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana T.N. Ramachandran has referred to a form supplied by a palm-leaf manuscript in possession of the temple-priest at Jina-Kanchi. The ms. is titleless and bears no date. Ambika is here represented as dark-blue in complexion with two hands showing the fruit and the varada mudra. The vahana as usual is the lion 107 Vasunandi, the author of the unpublished Pratisthasarasamgraha describes Ambika-Amra as dvibhuji simhamarudha Amradevi haritprabha. The Aparajitaprccha of Bhuvanadevacarya prescribes the same form. According to it, Ambika has a dark-blue complexion, a child sits on her lap and another stands by. Her two hands show the fruit and the varada mudra. A stone sculpture of Ambika sitting, from Pancakuta Basti, Kambadahalli, Karnataka, published by Settar, shows yet another variety of form. 108 The symbol of the right hand, partly defaced, must have been a lotus-bud with stalk while in the left hand the goddess holds the citron. Both the sons are playfully riding on the lion vahana depicted on the pedestal. Similar symbols are held by a figure of Ambika found at Mangadevanpatti, Tiruchi district, Tamil Nadu. This sculpture is somewhat earlier than the tenth century Kambada halli figure just discussed. The Meguti tespit at Aihole, Karnataka, contains a beautiful early sculpture of Ambika, assignable to 634 A.D., the daie of the temple-consecration. Ambika sits with her right leg placed a little upwards on the pedestal and the left foot hanging (see figure 88 in this book). In front of the pitha is her lion mount and one of the two sons is looking towards the mother from behind the lion. The goddess is attended by three ladies on her right and two on the left side. One of the ladies on the right holds one of the sons of Ambika in her hand. Heads of the lady as well as the child in her hand are mutilated. Ambika's right arm, raised up at the elbow, probably held a lotus with a stalk. The left forearm is broken but the palm of the hand resting on the pitha would suggest that this variety of form of twoarmed Ambika should correspond with the Chitharal Ambika discussed above. A sculpture of Ambika from Sembuthu, Puddukottai, Tamil Nadu, showing the lotus-stalk in the right hand raised at the elbow and the left resting on the lap further supports our inference about the form of Ambika in the Meguti temple (Fig. 202 in this book). Of the variety showing the lotus-stalk in the right hand and the citron in the left, a fine lively miniature painting is preserved in one of the palm-leaves of the Dhavala tika at Mudabidri (Panorama of Jaina Art. fig. 408). In another miniature, the two sons playfully ride on lions, one on each side while Ambika sitting in the centre shows the abhaya mudra and the citron in her right and the left hands respectively (Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 397 and fig 172. in this book). Figure 196 in this book illustrates an interesting sculpture of two-armed Ambika from the Mathura Museum (Mu. no. D7). In her right hand the goddess held a bunch of flowers according to Vogel. 109 The symbol is partly damaged. With her left hand the devi holds one of her sons on the left lap. On top of the sculpture, in the centre is the Jina (Neminatha) sitting in padmasana with Krsna standing on his left side and Balarama standing on the right. Near the right leg of the goddess is a figure of the second son standing beside whom is a small seated figure of Ganesa. On the corresponding left side is another small seated figure with the face and crown damaged. This figure represents Kubera according to Vogel's suggestion. This sculpture suggests the close relationship of the conception of the Jaina Ambika with the Brahmanical conception of the Durga-Parvati (also called Amba) whose son is Ganesa and who also rides the lion. Rock-cut reliefs at Anandamangalam in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, include a figure of Ambika standing with the two sons by her side. The goddess stands on her lion vehicle. Her right hand rests on the kai while the left hand is placed on the head of a female attendant standing beside the goddess. The form is unusual (se: figure 48 in this book). 2. Four-Armed Variety A striking feature of the four-armed variety of form of Ambika is that instead of showing the amra-lumbi in one hand the goddess holds it in three hands while the fourth hand as usual supports the child on the lap. This is an easy way to multiply the forms of Ambika.

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253 Four More Popular Yaksinis The Vimala vasahi, Abu, provides a number of images of this type. One such specimen from the south-west corner of the ceiling of the sabhamandapa of Vimala's shrine is illustrated in figure 154 in this book. It dates from around v.s. 1201-1144 A.D. when Prthvipala rebuilt the sabhamandapa. A beautiful loose bronze image of this variety from a cell in the same shrine was illustrated by us in our article on the iconography of the Jaina Ambika. 110 This bronze dates from c. eleventh century A.D. Images of this variety are found at Gandhaval, M.P., in the Santinatha and Neminatha temples in Kumbharia and at many other places in Gujarat. An image of this type is preserved in the Baroda Museum. No literary dhyana for this form is yet known. Perhaps the two-armed form served as a model for this form by multiplying the amra-lumbi symbol in the two upper hands, to produce an artistic effect. A painting of Ambika from the palm-leaf manuscript of Neminatha-Carita, dated in v.s. 1198=1142 A.D. preserved in the Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay, represents the goddess in this form.111 She has a golden complexion. Here the child is held by the right lower hand instead of the right one as in the above figures. A painting on the last folio of a palm-leaf ms. of the Jnatadharmakatha sutra, in the collection of Shri Rajendrasinhji Singhi of Calcutta, shows the same four-armed form but the right lower hand of the goddess is here held in the varada mudra while the left lower hand holds the child on the lap.112 The two upper hands carry the amra-lumbi. The second son is standing near the right leg of the devi. Coomaraswamy had published an old Jaina painted Pata on cloth probably done in the fifteenth century.113 In the centre is Parsvanatha and the figure on his extreme left is Ambika carrying the amralumbi in her two upper hands; her right lower hand is held in the varada-mudra while the left one grasps the child. A sculpture on the outer wall of the Jaina shrine at Ranakpur, Rajasthan, shows the same form (Fig. 199). In a sculpture in a Jaina shrine at Cambay, the right lower hand of the goddess, held in the varada mudra, carries the rosary, all other symbols remain the same. A palm-leaf ms. of Pandavacarita in the Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay, contains on the first folio a painting of Ambika-devi.114 Under a full-grown mango-tree is seated Ambika holding the amra-lumbi in both the upper hands. The left lower hand is held in the varada mudra while the right lower hand holds the child. A lion on the left represents the vahana of the goddess. Below the end of her scarf on the right is seen only half of the figure of her second child. An earlier brass image of Ambika sitting in the lalitasana, preserved in the Museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Bombay, and dated in v.s. 1198 1141 A.D., shows the citron instead of the varada in the right lower hand of the goddess. 115 Another metal image of Ambika, dated v.s. 1505-1448 A.D., preserved in the same Institute, illustrates yet another variety of four-armed Ambika images. As usual, the two upper arms hold the amra-lumbi but both the lower ones are engaged in supporting her two sons on her laps.116 According to Yaksa-Yaksi-laksana, a work of the Digambara sect, Dharma-devi or Ambika is seated with two sons on her lap, one on each thigh. Two of the arms hold the sons, one left arm shows a bunch of mangoflowers while the corresponding right is extended towards the lion, her vahana.117 In another form based on a Canarese (Karnataka) tradition given by T.N. Ramachandran,118 Dharmadevi shows, in the two upper hands, the sword and the cakra (disc), while the two lower hands are placed on her lap as a support to the seated sons. Burgess had published a drawing prepared from the Canarese (Karnataka) tradition collected by Alexander Rea.119 According to Burgess, "the Yaksi is Kusmindini... four armed, with two children on her lap and lion as her cognizance. She is the only attendant who has not the front right hand in the varada-hasta attitude." In the drawing she is shown holding a sword and a cakra in the right and the left upper hands respectively while the two lower ones support the sons seated on the thighs. In these drawings of Burgess, what we know as abhaya mudra is described as varada. Digambara tradition provides an interesting form of Ambika found amongst the wall-paintings of Jina-Kanchi. Here she is represented sitting in padmasana with four arms. Her two upper hands show the goad and the noose, while the right and the left lower ones exhibit the abhaya and the varada mudra respectively, 120

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254 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Many descriptions of Ambika with four arms are found in the Svetambara works. Hemacandra acarya in his Trisastisalakapurusacarita says:121 "In his (Neminatha's) tirtha was born Kusmandi of golden appearance whose vahana was a lion and who showed in her two right hands an amra-lumbi and a noose and held in the two left ones a child and a goad. (Popularly known as Ambika, she became the sasanadevata of the Lord." Siddhasena suri, the commentator of Pravacanasaroddhara of Nemicandra, describes an exactly similar form of Ambika, 122 The Ambikadevi-Kalpa of Jinaprabha Suri 123 referred to above, and the Acaradinakara124 of Vardhamana Suri (V.S. 1468) also follow the same tradition. A Ms. of Rupavatara preserved in the Oriental Institute, Baroda, gives a similar Dhyana of Ambika.125 The Devatamurtiprakarnam and the Rupamandana also give the same form. 126 A brass image from a Jain temple in Baroda 127 illustrates this form of Ambika. It has an inscription on its back dated v.s. 1534. A similar image was found in the Cintamani Parsvanatha temple in Cambay. It is dated v.s. 1547. In the Baroda image the pasa is held in the upper right hand and the arkusa in the upper left, but in the Cambay image the symbols are interchanged. Images of this variety seem to have bera m ore popular in the fifteenth century. The Nirvanakalika of Padaliptacarya 128 gives a slightly different Dhyana: "In the same tirtha is born Kusmardi who is four-armed and of golden complexion, whose va hana is a lion and who bears in her right hands a matulinga (citron) and a noose, and in the left a child and an arkusa." Thus the umra-lumbi in the form given by caradinakara is here replaced by a matulinga. The Ambika-tadankam129 gives another Dhyana of Ambika: "In rakta-dhyana one should meditate over a form of Ambika-devi golden in complexion, wearing red garmenf, adorned with golden ornaments and riding on a lion, with one child holding her finger and the other seated on the lap. Four-armed, she bears a goad in her upper left hand and an aniralumbi in the upper right; a bijapura is held in the lower right and a pasa in the lower left." It may be remembered that this form is for the rakta-dhyana only. Sagaracandra in his Mantradhiraja-kalpa 130 follows the same tradition when he says that Ambika holds the pasa, the amralumnbi, the goad and the fruit in her arms.131 Another variety of Ambika images with four arms is supplied by a stone sculpture from Mahoba now preserved in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow. 132 Here Ambika is shown seated under a mangotree over which is a small figure of Neminatha in dhyana mudra. She holds a pasa in the right upper hand and an amralumbi in the right lower. With the left lower she supports the child on her lap while in the left upper hand she holds a vajraghanta instead of a goad. The second child is seen standing on her right (Fig. 165). I am unable to trace a dhyana for the same. In the Devgadh Temple no. 12 set of Tirthankaras with their yaksinis, Ambika, labelled as Ambavika, is four-armed, carrying, as Klaus Bruhn describes, 133 in her right upper and lower hands, the "camarapadma" and the "blossom (?) held before her breast" and in the corresponding left ones, the "comarapadma" and the "child standing on the hand of the goddess and reaching for her ear-ornament" respectively. On a pillar (monastambha) dated equal to 1059 A.D., in front of Temple no. 11 at Devgadh, is a figure of four-armed Ambika showing the amralumbi and the ankusa (goad) in her right lower and upper hands respectively and the child and the pasa (noose) in the corresponding left ones. The lion is shown as her vahana. On a later pillar in front of Temple 16 at Devgadh Ambika seems to have shown the same symbols which are partly defaced. A similar form of seated Ambika is noticed in Khajuraho, Temple 27, by M.N.P. Tiwari. At Khajuraho the four-armed form of Ambika predominates whereas at Devgadh there are more two-armed images of Ambika than the four-armed ones. The four-armed Ambika with the goad, the noose, the mango-bunch and the child, obtained at Devgadh and Khajuraho, is, as remarked by M.N.P. Tiwari, probably due to Svetambara influence 134 Figure 91 represents a door-lintel found in the compound of the Matangesvara temple, Khajuraho. It shows on the right end a figure of four-armed Ambika sitting in the lalitu posture and holding the

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 255 child on the lap with her left lower hand and the amralunbi in the right lower hand. She sits under a mango-tree. In her two upper hands she carries what looks like a lotus with a long stalk. Tiwari notes another form of four-armed Ambika on the northern wall of the Sve. Jaina temple of Ajitanatha at Taranga, Gujarat. Here Ambika standing in tribhanga has her lion vehicle on her left and shows the varada mudra, imralumbi, pasa and the son with her four hands. No. 6.312 in the Lucknow Museum, published earlier by us in JUB, IX.2, op. cit., fig. 30. represents another variety of four-armed Ambika images. Ambika here holds a book in her right upper hand and a mirror in the left upper one. The right lower hand shows an amralumbi while the left lower hand supports the child on the lap. Above the two upper hands are seen figures of maladharas, one on each side. The goddess is seated under a mango-tree surmounted by a figure of a Jina (Neminatha) in the dhyana mudra (Fig. 173). A crouching figure of a lion below her feet represents the vahana of the goddess. Obviously the sculpture represents Ambika though no dhyana for this form is yet known. A brass image of Ambika is preserved in the Boston Museum (JUB, IX.2, op. cit., fig. 31). It has an inscription on its back which shows that it was installed in Samvat 1547 (A.D. 1490) by Jinasamudra suri of Kharatara gaccha in the line of Jinabhadra suri. Ambika shows in her four hands, the simralumbi, the child, the trident and the damaru (Fig. 164). A big sculpture reputed to be of Pattaini Devi, now preserved in the Museum at Allahabad, came from the temple of Pattaini Devi at Pithaura in the old Nagod State, now in M.P. (JUB, IX.2, op. cit., fig. 28). The standing goddess has four hands but unfortunately all the symbols are mutilated. Two youths flank her; at their feet are a male and a female devotee, flanked by two four-armed goddesses. These and the compartmented flanking pilasters have attendant goddesses, all labelled. In all there are 23 such labelled figures who seem to be twenty-three yaksinis of Digambara tradition, with the main figure of Ambika these make a group of 24 Jaina yaksinis. The sculpture dates from c. Ilth century A.D., though the shrine of Patian-dei (Pattaini devi) at Pithaura seems to date from c. 900 A.D. Not all the names in the labels are clear. They were mentioned in the Western Circle Report for 1920 (JUB, op. cit., p. 163, note 2). Tiwari read them as: Aparajita, Mahamunusi, Anantamati, Gandhari, Manusi (Manasi), Jalamalini, and Manuja on the right side, Jaya, Anantamati, Vairota, Gauri, Mahakali, Kali, Pusadadhi (?) on the left side, Bahurupini, Camunda, Sarasati, Padumavati, and Vijaya in the upper row and Prajipati (? Prajnapti), Vajrasrokhala, Rohini and Cakresvari in the lower row. 135 The names correspond in some respects with the names in the Tiloyapannatti of the 24 yaksis. A colossal image of a Jaina goddess preserved in the Khajuraho Museum was discussed by us in JUB, op. cit., fig. 29, p. 163. The four-armed goddess stands in the sanabhanga posture. Her two lower arms are mutilated. The two upper hands carry lotuscs with long stalks. Two female attendants are standing beside her and a male and a female devotee are seated near the feet. Just above the crown is a seated figure of a Jina with an attendant and an elephant on each side. Below the elephant are seen mangoes hanging. Alion is shown on the pedestal. The figure can be identified as representing Ambika devi. Vidimisana, an unpublished Digambara Jaina Tantra-work, describes a different form:136 "On a pata one should draw a figure of the goddess, black in colour, and having four hands exhibiting the conch, the disc, the varacla and the noose. She is shown seated on a simhasana and a derakanta (lieavenly damsel) stands by with rimupak disramatam (?) written on her left hand." Obviously this is a form employed for cruel rite as the goddess is to be painted black in complexion. 3. Eight-trmed Varier The unpublished Vidyanu sisana also records a dhyana of Ambika with as many as eight arms. 137 According to it, just below the figure of Neminatha is to be represented, on a pata, a figure of Amrakusmandi, black in colour and having in her eight arns the conch, the cukra, the bow, the axe, the javelin, the sword, the pasu and corn (ear of corn). A late painting in our collection, published in JUB, LX.2, op. cit., fig. 24. gives a similar form of

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256 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Ambika but with some difference in the symbols held in her hands. In her right hands she shows the corn, the trident, the bow, and the abhaya mudra, while in her left hands she holds the goad, the lotus, the arrow, and the amralumbi. The lion vehicle also helps us to identify the goddess as Ambika. 4. Multi-Armed Variety The Ambika-tatarkah138 provides for us a terrific form of the goddess. She is addressed as Sive, Sankare, Stambhini, Mohini, Dipani, Sosani etc., thus showing that she is invoked in diverse Tantric rites. 139 She is also invoked as Bhumanade, Candike, Candarupe, Aghore, and so on. In her terrific form she is the destroyer of the whole universe (srstisamharakartri). In this form she holds a number of weapons in her hands: the bow, the arrow, the staff, the sword, the cakra, the lotus etc. (dhanurbanacakrambujanekasastrodite), and is also said to hold mangoes in her hand (amrahaste). She puts on various ornaments such as anklets, necklace, etc., and rides on a fierce lion. Fortunately fo. us one such sculpture preserved in the famous temple of Vimala Saha at Mt. Abu, in bhava No. 25, in the second ceiling opposite cell No. 35 can be identified as Ambika devi. Upon a raised seat sits Ambika in lalitasana, with the lion as the mount. She has twenty arms but unfortunately most of them are broken. She shows the khadga, the sakti, the snake, the mace, the shield, the axe, the kamandalu, the lotus, the abhaya and the varada mudras. The rest of the symbols cannot be identified as they are wholly or partly broken. The goddess wears a crown, ear-rings, necklaces, garland, mekhald, bracelets, anklets, lower garment, and a scarf. The sculpture has not been identified so far but it appears that this rare sculpture represents the terrific form of the goddess Ambika (JUB, IX.2, op. cit., fig. 25). On each side of Ambika stands an eight-armed male figure in the tribhanga pose. The vajra (or possibly a vajra-ghanta) and the ankusa are seen in the hands of the figure on the right, the other hands showing different mudras. Similarly, the figure on the left holds the noose. It appears probable that Ambika-devi has her own parivara though full information on this is not yet available. In this sculpture she is flanked on either side by two eight-armed male figures. I am inclined to take them as her two sons, whom we know already as Siddha and Buddha. The identification is tentative. Two elaborate sculptures occur on the architrave in the corridor of the temple built by Tejapala at Abu (JUB, op. cit., figs. 26, 27). They show her accompanied by attendant figures. In Fig. 26 we find one female chowrie-bearer on each side of Ambika, and two dancing female figures on the right and three on the left. In JUB, op. cit., fig. 27 there are three such figures on her right and two on her left. In both these panels the goddess has two arms and one child only. The Ambika-devi-kalpa (in ms.) of Subhacandra prescribes a sadhana of Rand, who is called a yaksini and an attendant of Kusmandini. It will not be surprising if details regarding the parivara of Ambika are found in some unpublished Jaina Tantra-work. We have already shown that at Akota and many other sites Ambika accompanied Adinatha, Parsvanatha, Santinatha and other Tirthankaras as a yaksi along with the Kubera-like Sarvanha yaksa. This pair was the earliest sasanadevata pair par excellence (see figs. 55, 86, 87, 195), common to all Tirthankaras in the Sve, as well as the Dig. tradition before 24 different yaksas and yaksinis for 24 Tirthankaras were evolved. Worship of Ambika seems to be very old. Images (and temples) of Ambika were consecrated at Mathura, Ujjayantagiri (Girnar), Hastinapura, Ahicchatra, Pratisthanapura, and other places in ancient times. Jinaprabha suri refers to such images and temples in his Ujjayantamahatirtha-kalpa, Raivatakagiri-kalpa, Pratisthanapattana-Kalpa. Arbuda-giri-kalpa, Kanyayanamahavira-kalpavisesa, Hastinapura-tirtha-stavana, Dhimpuri-stava, Ahicchatra nagari-kalpa, Mathurapuri-kalpa, Sripura-AntariksaParsvanatha-kalpa, etc.140 Riding on a lion Ambika is said to have guarded the ancient tirtha of Mathura.141 Near the rampart in Ahicchatra, stood the goddess Ambika riding on a lion and holding

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 257 a bunch of mangoes in her hand. She was accompanied by Siddha and Buddha and held the image of Sri Neminatha over her head. 142 We have seen that Ambika has two, four, eight or more arms. Of these various forms, worship of images with two arms represents the older tradition all over India and the form continued in worship even when forms with four or more arms were introduced. Origin of the Jaina Goddess Ambika When the present writer first published his paper on the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika in the Journal of the University of Bombay, vol. IX, part 2, September, 1940, pp. 147-169, he was not able to find out and show why the Jaina Ambika was identified with and addressed as Kusmandini. Haribhadra suri (c. 550 A.D.-c. 640 A.D.) writes, in his comm. called the Lalitavistara:143 "... Vaiyavittakaranam pravacanartham vyapstabhavanam yatha Amba-Kusmandi=adinem santikaranam ..." Here Amba-Kusmandi is referred to as a Vaiyavsttakara, . Sasalade vata. An Amba-Ku mandi Vidya has also been referred to by the same author in his gloss on the Avasyaka-Niryukti. 144 In the account of the origin of the Jaina goddess Ambika, given by Jinaprabha suri in his Ambikadevi-Kalpa, 145 it is said that, after death, Ambika, the Brahmana lady, was born in one of the heavens called Kohanda Vimana and that the devi is also known as Kohundi (Kusmandi or Kusmandini). In the unpublished Ambika-devi-kalpa of Subhacandra, one mantra of this goddess reads: "Om Kusmandini rakte rakta-mahisa-samarudhe subhasubham kathaya jhvim svohi." Ambika is variously addressed as Amba, Amra, Kusmandini, Simhavahini, and Ambika. In the mulamantra of Ambika, published in the Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa, Appendix 19, p. 92, she is addressed as Amra-Kusmandini. The Digambara tantric work Vidyanusasana (still unpublished) also refers to an eight-armed form of Amra-Kusmandi.146 Thus it would appear that in the origin and development of the Jaina Yaksi Ambika, elements of perhaps three different ancient deities have contributed: first, a mother-goddess (amba=mother), probably a form of Durga riding on the lion or a prototype of the Brahmanical Durga; secondly, some goddess associated with the mangoes and the mango-tree (amra= mango); thirdly, some goddess associated with the Kusmandas. Let us first consider the name Amba or Ambika. The Sukla-Yajurvediya-Vajasaneyi Samhita has the following well-known mantra: Ambe Ambalike Ambitame na ma navati kascana/ sasatyasvakah subhadrikam Kampilavasinim //147 The Jaina Ambika, since she is associated usually with one or two sons, is a mother-goddess, and as such is rightly addressed as Ambika or Amba. In Brahmanical mythology, Ambika is generally the name of Parvati, the consort of Siva. Compare: Siva Bhavani Rudrani Sarvani Sarvamangala / Aparna Porvati Durga Mrdani Candika = Ambika / Amarakosa, 1.37-38 Ambika is further explained as Ambika Parvati Matror-Dhriarastrasya Matari. In the Amarakosa Ambika has three meanings, the name of Parvati, the Mother and the mother of Dhstarastra. In the Rgveda the sense of "mother" is expressed by Amba or Ambitama. In the Rgvedic age Ambika was a MotherGoddess. Her association with Rudra, as pointed out by Bhandarkar, is clear from a reference in the Vajasaneyi Samhita (111.58) where she is mentioned as sister of Rudra. The Taittiriya Samhita, 1.8.6.4 also speaks of the same relation of brother and sister between Ambika and Rudra.

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana According to Hindu iconography, Ambika is generally seated up on a lion and has three eyes. She holds a mirror in her left hand. Her one right hand shows the varada pose. In her two other hands are carried the sword and the shield. 148 A four-armed figure of the Jaina Ambika, preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow, illustrated in Fig 173,149 represents her as holding the book and the mirror in her two upper hands while holding the amra-lumbi and the child with the two lower ones. Thus the mirror, which is a known characteristic symbol of the Hindu Gauri, is given here in one of the hands of the Jaina Ambika. 258 In the Yajnavalkya-smrti, chapter IX (acara adhyaya) on Vinayaka-puja, we find: Vinayakasya jananim upatisthettato Ambikam. Ambika was famous as the Mother of Vinayaka. This is remembered in the famous image of the Jaina Ambika in the Mathura Museum (no. D.7) where small figures of Ganesa and Kubera are shown on two sides of Ambika,150 The Anuyogadvara-sutra, a Jaina canonical text, has the following passage: "... teyasa jalante Indassa va Khandassa va Ruddassa va Sivassa va Vesamanassa va Devassa va Nagassa va Jakkhassa va Bhuyassa va Mugundassa va Ajjae va (Duggae va) Kottakiriyae va uvalevanasammajjanasanavariadipupphagandhamallaisim durvavassaydim karenti..." -Anuyogadvara-sutra, su. 20 Commenting on this, Haribhadra suri writes: "... Arya prasantar upa Durga, Kottakiriya saiva mahisarudha..." The Curni on the above passage (possibly by Jinadasa Mahattara, 7th cent. A.D.) reads: "Durgayah purvarupam Amra-Kusmanivat (Amra-Kusmandivat) tadha thita Ajja bhannati, saiva mahisavyapadanakalatprabhrti tadrupasthita Kottavya (Kottakiriya) bhannati..." Thus the Anuyogadvara sutra refers to the worship of Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Siva, Vaisramana, Deva, Naga, Yaksa, Bhuta, Mukunda (= Baladeva, acc. to Maladhari Hemaprabha), Arya and Kottakiriya. Arya is explained as a pacific (santa) form of Durga while Kottakiriya (Kottavi of the Curni) is the terrific form of Durga, destroying the Mahisa demon (Mahisasuramarddini). The author of the Curoi further adds that Arya, the original form of Durga, is like Amra (Amba ?)-Kusmandini. The close similarity of the Brahmanical Durga-Arya and the Jaina Ambika was obvious to the author of the Curni. This was also known to the Jaina writers like Haribhadra suri. Incidentally, an interesting point deserving investigation may be mentioned here. Svetambara Jaina legends acknowledge Kodinira151 in Saurashtra as the place of origin of Ambika and also associate Mt. Raivataka (Girnar) with Ambika devi. Ambika as Kuttanapara, worshipped in the place, might have led to the place-name Kuttani-nagara-Kodinagara-Kodinara. Kodinara perhaps obtained its name from the ancient goddess Kotakiriya-Kottavya-Kut anapara (Kuttani) of the Jaina references cited above. Girnar is well-known as an ancient Tirtha of Ambika worshipped by both the Jainas as well as the Hindus. Kottavi-Korravai, in South India, is Vana-Durga, giver of victory. Kotra Mahisa in Dravidian language. In his Abhidhana-Cintamani-Kosa,152 Hemacandra acarya gives the following synonyms of the Brahmanical Durga: Gauri, Kali, Parvati, Matr, Aparna, Rudrani, Ambika, Tryambaka, Uma, Durga, Candi, Simhayana, Mrdani, Katyayani, Daksaja, Arya, Kumari, Satl, Siva, Mahadevi, Sarvani, Sarvamangala, Bhavani, Mahisamathani, Bhutanayika, Menadrija, etc. etc. In his own commentary on the above, Hemacandra quotes Sesa giving 108 names of the goddess. These include names like Prakusmandi, Revati, Haimavati, Bahuputri, Skandamata, Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanti, Sinivali, Ekanasi (Ekanamsa), Sunanda, Nanda, Sasthi, etc. Even in Brahmanical tradition Arya or Durga was known both as Ambika and Kusmandi. Kusmandas are a class of Vyantaras according to Jaina accounts. The Digambara text Tiloyapannatti153 speaks of eight classes of Vyantaras, namely, Kinnaras, Kimpurusas, Gandharvas, Yaksas, Raksasas, Bhutas and Pisacas. The Svetambara tradition speaks of the same eight classes.154 The Digambara Tiloyapannatti further divides Pisacas into 14 classes, namely, Kusmanda, Yaksa, Raksasa, Sammoha, Taraka, Asucinamaka, Kala, Mahakala, Suci, Satalaka, Deha, Mahadeha, Tusnika, Pravacana. The Svetambara tradition gives 16 classes of Pisacas, namely, Kusmanda, Palaka, Sujosa, Ahnika, Kala, Mahakala, Coksa, Acoksa, Talapisaca, Mukharapisaca, Adhastaraka, Deha, Videha, Mahadeha, Tusnika, and Vanapisaca. 155

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Four More Popular Yaksinis Of the Vyantaras there are eight more classes given by the Prajna pana sutra and other Svetambara texts. They are: Anapanni, Panapanni, Isivai, Bhuyavai, Kandi, Mahakandi, Kohanda, and Piyanga. Thus Kusmanda-Kohanda belong to the class of semi-divine beings called Vyantaras. In Brahmanical traditions, Kusmandas are a class of Siva's Ganas, according to Visnupurana, I.12.13. Kubhandas or Kusmandas are mentioned as super-human beings in the Kathasaritsagara. 156 The Visnupurana also refers to them as Pisaca-ganas harassing children. They created obstacles in the meditation of Dhruva.157 In the tadagotsarga-vidhi, a Kusmanda-stotra is recited from the Yajurveda.158 Kusmanda (Kohla in Gujarati and Hindi) is a big melon-like fruit of a creeper. The skin is thick and the kernel is used for eating. One variety with yellow or reddish yellow kernel is cooked as a vegetable while the second variety with white kernel is boiled and sweets are prepared from it. In Northern India this sweet is very popular and is known as petha. This second variety of Kusmanda is also used as bali or offering. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka (2.7), Kusmanda-homa is prescribed before beginning any rite or karma. 159 In a KusmandaVrata, the creeper of Kusmanda is worshipped as Laksmi on the Karttika full-moon day, according to the text called Vrataraja:160 Kusmindavallim subhagam suphalam visvarupinim Laksmirupam suvistaram dhyayami Harivallabham || In Vrataraja and in another text called Rgvediya Brahmakarma-samuccaya, is prescribed a Kusmandivrata wherein the creeper of Kusmanda is worshipped for six months daily, beginning from Vaisakha sukla 14 and ending on Karttika Purnima, along with the following prayer: Kusmandyai kamadayinyai Bhrahmanyai sukhahetave | namo stu Sivarupayai saphalam kuru me vratam || 259 Kumbhandas are said to be servants of Rudra.161 Vidudhaka, the ruler of the Kumbhandas, is the Guardian of the Southern Quarter according to Buddhist Sanskrit literature, 162 Thus Amba or Ambika, riding on the lion, like the Hindu Durga-Arya, can be easily identified as Kusmandi by the Jainas. But was there a very ancient Mother-Goddess who was so popular that she became the prototype or the origin of the Hindu Durga, the Jaina Ambika and the Buddhist Hariti? The Buddhist Hariti is intimately associated with children. According to Buddhist accounts she was the child-devouring tutelary goddess of Rajagrha and was called Nanda according to one tradition. 163 She was later converted by the Buddha. Thus Hariti is both a benefic and a malefic goddess and in this sense she reminds one of the Bala-grahas (child possessing or child-molesting demi-gods and goddesses) of whom Sasthi or Revati is a principal deity. In an earlier paper on Harinegamesin, 164 U.P. Shah has suggested the relation between Bahuputrika and Revati-Putana. The account of Hariti shows that she was formerly known as Nanda. We have seen above that Nanda is one of the names and forms of Gauri or Parvati or Durga. Thus Nanda, Gauri, Ambika, Arya, Bahuputrika and Hariti are all intimately related Mother-Goddesses especially associated with children, and are based on one or more ancient Mother-Goddesses. It seems that Nanda is a Sanskrit adopted name for Nana or Nanaia. The identity of Nana or Nanaia with Hindu Ambika-Durga was discussed by D.R. Bhandarkar and Baijnatha Puri. 165 A coin in the British Museum Cabinet mentioned by Whitehead in his Supplementary List of the Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, p. 214, no. 10, plate 20, actually shows Nana seated on lion; another coin noticed by Cunningham,166 as also by Whitehead (op. cit., p. 207, no. 29 unrepresented type), shows the Goddess Nana (or Amba) worshipped by the Kusana king Huviska. The goddess Nana (or Nanaia) appears on coins of Vasudeva and Huviska. A type of Huviska's coin shows the goddess Nana and the god OPHO facing each other.167 D.R. Bhandarkar identified OPHO with Umesa or Lord Siva, the husband of Uma. The presence of Nandi along with OPHO and the fact that the god holds the trident

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260 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana show the correctness of the identification. On one coin of Sapaleiges the name Nanaia appears and is associated with lion. Recently B.N. Mukerjee has treated the problem thoroughly in his brilliant monograph "Nana on the Lion"168 and has shown that Nana of the coins must be a prototype of Durga. Nana or Nanaia however has no correspondence with the name Durga, but in RV IX.112.33, Nana means 'Mother' (=Amba),169 Even today Nani - Mother's mother in North India. B.N. Mukerjee writes,170 "The appearance of the famous ancient Babylonian (Sumerian) goddess Nana on several coins of the Kusana empire171 is a well-known fact. So is also her identification with the ancient Akkadian-Assyrian deity Ishtar and the Persian goddess Anahita. 172 Anahata (Anahita), whose cult was perhaps not so ancient as that of Ishtar or Nana, was described in an epigraph from Susa as being invoked by Artexerxes (II Mnemon) (405-361 B.C.). The same Achaemenid emperor was described by Berossos as having created statues of Aphrodite-Anaitis in the temples of the great cities of the empire including Bactra. Several classical sources speak of an attack on the temple of ArtemisNanaia in Elymais by (the Seleucid king) Antiochus (IV). Epigraphic evidence found in a temple complex at Dura-Europar, dod roughly to the third and second century B.C., refers to Nanaia (i.e. Nana). A cult image of Nanaia has been discovered at Hatra. She also appears on clay votive tablets at Palmyra, while a few seals found there carry the figure of Ishtar. The lion of Nana and the inscription Nanaia can be noticed on coins of Sapadbizes found in the territories on the Oxus and datable to a period before the rise of the Kusana empire... The above evidence also indicates the existence of the cult of the goddesses (Babylonian Nana and the Assyrian Ishtar) and also of Anahita in territories later included in the Kusana empire. . ."173 Incidentally we may note here that a goddess Anihata (Anaitis ?), Anahiya, Anahita, appears in the old Jaina Tantric formula known as the Varddhamana Vidya. 174 Also a god Anadhiya is spoken of as the Gate-Keeper or protector of the Jambu-dvipa, in Jaina traditions. 175 B.N. Mukerjee writes in his Epilogue: 176 "The coins bearing the figure of Nana... were probably known in the early period as Nanaka. In the Angavijja the expression Nanam ca Masako refers to the term Nana (which may be related to the name of Nana) as signifying a particular class or species (of coins). It has been observed that the term Nanaka was explained by a commentator on the Yajnavalkya Smrti as denoting the coins having Nana (Nani?) as their cognizance (Nananka-tanka).177 Mukerjee's following remarks are noteworthy: "... icons, particularly syncretic ones, indeed mirror fusion of thoughts. This is not only true of Kusana icons, but also of those of later periods and even of the late mediaeval age. Nevertheless, the tendency of imbibing foreign influence in this field of Indian art had never been so pronounced as in the age of the Kusanas." Trade was one of the carriers of thought. It helped India to get acquainted with the "West". Again, probably through the same or associated channel of human activities an Indian concept influenced as artist of the Alexandrian (or West Asiatic ?) school of the first or second or the third century A.D. who engraved a figure of the Hermaphrodite figure on a silver dish found at Lampracus in Turkey. It is not difficult to recognise in this figure a representation of the Indian Ardhanarisvara. Such an identification is strengthened by the evidence of Dio Coccieanus regarding the presence of Indians as well as Bactrians in Alexandria in the second century A.D., apparently for carrying on trade and commerce... The artists of the Kusana empire exerted as well as imbibed influence. The Kusana age, like some other periods of Indian history, brought the world in India and presented India to the outside world."178 Since the Jainas have assimilated, in their ancient tantric formula known as the Varddhamana-Vidya, the Iranian goddess Anaitis-Anahita as a separate deity along with ancient Indian goddesses Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanta and Aparajita, it would be worthwhile noting here something more about Anahita. Yasht V of the Avesta is dedicated to Anahita. Yasht V.64 describes her thus: "Then Ar@dvi Sura Anahita approached in the form of a beautiful maiden, very powerful, beautifully formed, who is high-girded, tall of stature (?), of noble descent, exalted, whose feet are shod with shining gold-laced shoes."179 Anahita is well-known as a goddess of water and a fertility goddess. In the same Yasht, the

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 261 supreme god Ahura Mazda says: "Worship for me, O Spitama Zarathustra, the heroic pure Aradvi (Ar@dvi Sura Anahita), who extends herself widely, who is health-giving ... holy, who furthers waterchannels, the holy, who furthers herds, the holy, who furthers fields, the holy, who furthers possessions, the holy, who furthers the land, who prepares the seeds of all males, who makes ready for birth the offspring of all males, (who) makes all females deliver easily, who provides milk for all females at the proper time, the great, far-famed, who is of the magnitude of all the waters that flow on this earth ..."180 Anahita has another aspeet as well; in this Yasht V (7) reads: "O Zarathustra, Ar@dvi Sura Anahita came forth from the Creator, the wise; beautiful were her white arms, as strong as horses ... (Anahita) who flows ( ? hastens) with her strong arms..." Again, in Yasht V (11) we find, Anahita is she "who drives the chariot ahead, holding the reins of the chariot as she travels on this chariot ... who has four steeds to draw (her), all uniformly white, equally fast and tall, who vanquish the hostility of all enemies, of the devil and of men, of sorcerers and witches, of tyrants, of obdurant princes and priests ... It is she who grants boons to the Iranian heroes that they may smite the daevas and their mortal enemies ..." "Thus we see in this Yasht that Anihita is worshipped both as a fertility and water-goddess and as a war goddess, ... a protectress who assures victory to the Iranian heroes who worship her and denies it to their enemies."181 We have records of Anahita cult in Iran from Achaemenian times to the present day. It is recorded that Aratexerxes II (404-359 B.C.) caused the cult of Anahita to flourish along with other cults. He established shrines to Anihita in Susa, Ecbatana, and elsewhere. Once the cult was established it spread widely beyond the borders of Iran, and took root strongly in Armenia and Asia Minor. 182 A temple or sanctuary of Anahita near Persepolis was known since the time of Artexerxes II and a fire temple of Anahiti at Istakhr is mentioned in the third century inscription of Kartir at Naqsh-eRostam. The cult of Anahita as a war-goddess attained widespread popularity during the Parthian period and continued even during the reign of Ardashir I (A.D. 226 ?-240). After defeating Ardavan. Ardashir sent the severed heads of his enemies to an Anahita temple. Shapur 1 (A.D. 309-379) did the same with the heads of Christians executed in Pars. Chaumont states that Anahita was the only one amongst the gods to whom heads were offered in the temple. 183 Hanaway notes that "an important element in the iconography of Anahiti is her frequent association with the bird. She is often depicted on Sassanian vessels and trays of silver and bronze as accompanied by doves and peacocks. 181 A coin from the collection of Narendra Sinhji Singhi of Calcutta shows on the obverse the figure of Kusana King Kaniska I with the legend in Greek script reading Kaneshko Koshano. B.N. Mukherjee discussed this coin elaborately and described the female figure on its reverse as "facing to front, and seated on a lion, standing (or walking) to left. She has a crescent above her shoulders. Locks of hair, along two sides of her head, hang down to the shoulders ... Another crescent is seen above her head. She wears a chiton reaching near her feet, which rest on a lotus (?). She holds a sceptre in her left hand, and a fillet in the right."185 The blundered legend on the right, in Greek script, is deciphered by B.N. Mukherjee as NWNA CAO, i.e., NwNa SAO 'which reminds one of the legend NANA SHAO appearing along with a female deity on a number of Kusana coins. 186 Mukherjee writes: "Apparently the goddess (with sceptre and patera), described as Nana Shao in certain coin legends is referred to as Nana (or Nanaia, or Nano or Shao Nano) in some others."187 The female figure on lion on the coin under discussion is called NANA SHAO in the legend, and the name judged against the background of our knowledge of the appearance of the West and Central Asian deities on Kusa na coins, 188 connects or identifies her with Nana, 189 the Babylonian (Sumerian) goddess. The latter was considered to be the same as the Akkadian as well as the Assyrian deity Ishtar." Ishtar is also conceived as a mother-goddess. Lion was sacred to her, and is a symbol emphasising her war-like character. In Mesopotamian glyptic art and statuary she is shown as war-goddess armed with a bow, quivers, arrows and a sword (or a sceptre) and standing on a lion. Mukherjee has shown that Ishtar and Nani were also connected with the Persian Anahita, a common link having been their supposed identity with the planet Venus. 190

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana We have thus seen that Nana-Ishtar-Anahita, closely associated with one another and often identified, have two aspects; one, that of a mother-goddess and peaceful and the other, that of a war-goddess and therefore terrific. We have noted above the two aspects of Arya; one, peaceful, as Durga, and the other, terrific, as Kottakiriya or Kottavya (Mahisasuramarddini). The conception of Durga-Arya seems to have as its prototype this Nana riding on the lion. The Jaina yaksi Ambika similarly has the Nana-Durga conception as its prototype and imbibes also the mother-goddess aspect of Ishtar referred to above. Anahita too has two aspects, one peaceful, connected with waters, and the other terrific, as a wargoddess. As Hanaway has pointed out in his analysis of the Iranian legend of Darab Nama, Anahita is associated with waters and fish. In India, too, certain aspects of the Devi (Camunda for example) are sometimes associated with fish. Camunda and Kali are terrific aspects of the Devi wearing a garland of skulls and/or holding a severed head in one hand. As shown above, Anahita was offered severed heads. Mukherjee 191 has discussed and illustrated a unique gold medal, coin or token, in the British Museum, displaying, on the obverse, a female figure wearing a turreted crown (similar to turreted crown worn by Tyche on Imperial Parthian coins), clad in a loose robe or chiton reaching down to the feet, and noiam in her half-raised right hand the stalk of a half-opened lotus. Her left hand, clutching a part of her garment, is placed on her left thigh (kati-hasta ?). A Kharoshthi inscription on the obverse refers to Ampa, the deity of Pakhalavadi, i.e., Pushkalavati or Pushkaravati of ancient Gandhara (modern Charsadda region of Pakistan). The city-goddess aspect of the deity is also emphasized by her turreted head-dress. According to Mukherjee: "The expression Ampa may stand for Ampa or Amva or Amba. The term Amba denotes, inter alia, a mother as well as Durga, the consort of Siva." Mukherjee is right in his interpretation because on the reverse is a figure of a bull with a Greek legend deciphered as "Tauros" and a Kharoshthi inscription reading (U)sabhe. This distinguishes the goddess as Siva's consort. In this context Mukherjee has also mentioned that "a lady holding a lotus, delineated by the side of the figure of Oesho, on some coins of Huvishka, is described as Ommo." Oesho is perhaps based on some Prakrit rendering of Vrsa. Vrsa or Bull on several early Indian coins is considered to be theriomorphic representation of Siva. Ommo either stands for Uma or for Amma (Amba ?). Uma is another name of Durga or Amba. Mukherjee writes: "If the Ommo refers to Uma, her relation with Amba, the citygoddess, is indicated by the flower held by her. On a few other pieces of Huvishka, the female figure, standing by the side of Oesho, is referred to as Nana. This numismatic evidence thus distinguishes Nana as a consort of Siva and identifies, or at least associates, her with Uma, alias Amba."192 262 The process of assimilation and fusion of different concepts and forms that goes on in the iconography of any pantheon forms an interesting subject of study. Hanaway has made some illuminating remarks regarding the Iranian goddess Anahita. He writes:193 "The rock reliefs, coins, and silver objects testify to the existence of Anahita worship, in one form or another, until at least the seventh century and probably later. Thus there would have been sufficient opportunity for the worship of this goddess to assume various popular or non-official forms, and for it to penetrate and be penetrated by folk-lore and popular story-telling. In such a process the standard iconographical or symbolic elements will assume new forms as they move into new milieus and contexts. They will shed some of their characteristic features, acquire others not previously possessed, and emphasize or suppress certain of their original aspects so as to render the new forms in some measure unlike their source." There is no literary or archaeological evidence so far discovered which can show the origin or existence of the Jaina Ambika before the fifth century A.D. The earliest literary reference to AmbaKusmandi Vidya occurs in the Svopajna commentary on the Visesavasyaka-bhasya of Jinabhadra gani Ksamasramana, left incomplete and completed by Kottacarya in the sixth century A.D. The earliest image of the Jaina Ambika so far discovered is on a metal image of Rsabhanatha (or Santinatha) from Akota, installed by this very Jinabhadra in the sixth century as proved on the basis of the inscription on the back of the image. 104 So far we have been able to establish the relation between the Jaina Ambika and the Brahmanical Durga, both having their origin in the ancient Nana-Nanaia-Ishtar. Also the relation between the

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 263 above goddesses and Hariti, Bahuputrika, is obvious. But the Jaina Ambika's association with the mangotree deserves further investigation. Since the yaksas in ancient Indian literature are known as sylvan deities, Ambika-yaksi's association with a tree is natural and should not be surprising. However none of the other Jaina yaksas and yaksinis in the group of sasanadevatas of the different Tirthankaras are shown sitting or standing under a tree. We know that the conception of the Jaina Ambika is strongly influenced by the conception of a Mother-Goddess and by the Brahmanical deity Durga. Mother-Goddesses in Brahmanical rites are to be invoked with Amra-pallavas (tender leaves of a mango-tree) according to the Katyayana Smrti. Again, in a group of sculptures of Ganesa (Vinayaka), obtained from Bengal and Bihar,195 Ganesa is shown standing or sitting under a canopy or torana (suggestive of a tree) of mangoes. This characteristic of Ganesa, standing or sitting or dancing under a mango-tree, seems to have been based on a hitherto untraced literary tradition which very well preserved the original Yaksa character of the Hindu Ganesa or Vinayaka. The Yajnavalkya Smrti, acaradhyaya,196 chp. IX, which seems to be an abridgement and versification of the XIV khanda of the second purusa of the Manavagrhyasutra, refers to the worship of Vinayakas (verse 1). They are Salakatankala, Kusmandarajuputra, Usmita and Devayajana (verse 2). The signs manifested by persons possessed by these are referred and the penance for removal of these obstacles is described and the mantras for the Vinayakas are given. Then we find: Vinayakasya jananim upatisthet= tato Ambikam (v. 30). The following prayer for Ambika is prescribed at night: "O Lady of Prosperity (bhagavati), give me prosperity, O Lady of Good Complexion (varnavati), give me good complexion, O Lady possessing many sons, give me sons, O Lady of Beauty, give me beauty, O Lady having everything, grant me all desires." These passages not only explain the purpose of Ambika's name Kusmandini but also explain her association with Ganesa (Vinayaka) and Kubera (lord of the yaksas) in the mediaeval image no. D.7 in the Mathura Museum. We have also seen that in a certain group of sculptures Ganesa is associated with the mango-tree. Yaksa worship is intimately associated with tree-worship and water cosmology as demonstrated by Coomaraswamy. It can be demonstrated that a goddess with one or two children, standing under a mango-tree and associated with waters, existed in c. fifth century A.D. and continued later; the conception might have for its basis some earlier one or more mother-goddesses. The conception of Ganga-the river-goddess who, with Yamuna, was a favourite deity on the door frames of the Gupta period-fulfils all the above requirements and shows the above iconographic characteristics. One of the most beautiful specimens of this river-goddess, from Besnagar, now in the Boston Museum, illustrated by Coomaraswamy,197 shows its close similarity with the conception of the Jaina Ambika. Catherine Glynn tried to trace the origin of this type of the Ganga image and showed parallelism with the image of the Sudarsana Yaksi from Bharhut (second century B.C.),198 The child is absent but the mango on two sides of the head of the Yaksi and the form of the vahana below are noteworthy. Glynn identifies the tree in the Bharhut example with the tree in the Besnagar figure of Ganga referred to above and calls it "tree of fertility". In the Besnagar example it is clearly a mango-tree. Ganga is associated with children which she bore to Santanu according to the Mahabharata. She destroyed eight of them. Thus both the malefic and the benefic aspects of Ganga as a Mother Goddess are retained along with her treatment as a River Goddess. 199 Further investigation into the origin of the iconography of Ganga will be welcome. It seems that there existed a conception of a yaksi or a salabhanjika or a goddess standing under a mango-tree and having a child by her side. This conception was the prototype of the form of Ganga, the Jaina Ambika and the Brahmanical Tripurasundari. This is inferred from a figure on the entrance doorway of cave 19 at Ajanta and some figures in Ellora cave 21. In the sculpture from Besnagar illustrated by Coomaraswamy, we find the river goddess standing under a mango-tree, with a bird (parrot ?) perched

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264 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana on her right shoulder. A small figure of a dwarf stands to her left. The goddess has placed her left hand on the head of the dwarfish child-like figure. A sculpture from cave 21, Ellora, shows the salabhanjika-like goddess standing under a full-grown mango-tree with the goddess touching it with her raised (mutilated) left hand while her right hand rests on a child standing beside her right leg. No vahana is seen and, if it was shown on her left, it is now mutilated and lost. In another sculpture, also a bracket figure from cave 21, Ellora, the right hand is raised up while her left hand rests on the shoulder of a female figure standing beside her. A male figure stands beside her on her right side. There is a loose architectural piece representing a salabhanjika, now preserved in the site museum at Halebid. Here the standing goddess looks very much like the Jaina Ambika with a child held by her left hand while her right hand holds an amra-lumbi. This hand is shown touching the tree above and the figure was possibly treated as a salabhanjika rather than the Jaina yaksi Ambika. However the origin of 10 yaksi Ambika is quite discernible from such traditions continued even in the Hoyasala period. But earlier examples of a yaksi associated with the mango and/or a mango-tree are also kriowa). Perhaps she was then known as Amra or Amra-Kusmandi or simply Kusmandi. It this form she is seen carrying a bunch of mangoes (amra-lumbi) in one hand. Dhavalikar published a beautiful Kaoline-moulded yaksi figurine 200 with the head mutilated and lost. Her pose indicates that she was riding on some animal. The figure is decked with ornaments and wears a beaded yajnopavita (sacred-thread). In her right hand she holds a mango bunch and a parrot is perched on her left hand. The figure hails from Paithan (Pratisthanapura) and dates from the Satavahana period. It seems that the yaksi is shown naked (Fig. 145). A male counterpart of this yaksi, perhaps Kusmandarajaputra, a Vinayaka referred to above, or a yaksa of unknown identity but showing the same symbols of amralumbi and a parrot hails from Paithan201 as well as from Ter. The yaksa is shown naked. It is thus quite clear that an ancient yaksa and a yaksi associated with the mango existed in the early centuries of the Christian era and the Jaina Yaksi Amra (another name of Ambika) was evolved from this ancient yaksi. The Jaina Ambika also imbibed the conception of the ancient Mother Goddess Nanaia or Nana riding on the lion either directly or through the form of Durga-Arya. Iconography of Ambika, the Yaksi of twenty-second Tirthankara Neminatha Two-Armed Variety Symbols No. Colour Vehicle Golden Dark-blue r. h. bunch of mangoes 1. h. child Lion (another son sometimes accompanies) for r. h. child 1. h. amralunbi all same as above nos. 1 and 2 forms r. h. amralumbi 1. h. citron r. h. child 1. h. citron r. h citron 1. h. child r. h. varada 1. h. child r. h. lotus 1. h. child r. h. lotus 1. h. citron (1) fruit (2) varuda mudra one child on lap, another beside, acc. to Aparajitaprccha r. h. abhaya 1. h. citron (1) blue-lotus (2) hanging down r. h. abhaya 1. h. varada r. h. abhaya 1. h. child Dark-blue Greenish

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 265 Four-Armed Variety No. Colour Symbols Golden Golden Amralumbi in three hands child in the left lower two upper-amralumbi two lower-abhaya, child two upper-amralumbi r. 1. citron 1. I. child two upper-amralumbi two lower-supporting two sons on the lap two arms supporting two sons on the lap amralumbi in one left, corresponding right extended towards the lion two apper-sword, cakra two lower supporting sons on lap r. u. goad 1. u. noose 1. r. abhaya 1. 1. varada r. U. noose 1. u. goad r. l. amralumbi 1. 1. child two upper-noose, goad r. 1. citron 1. 1. child garment-red r. u. amralumbi 1. u. goad r. l. citron 1. 1. noose r. u. pasa 1. u. vajraghanta r. 1. amralumbi 1. 1. son r. u. book 1. u. mirror r. l. amralumbi 1. 1. child r. u. trident 1. u. damaru r. l. amralumbi 1. 1. child (1) conch, (2) disc, (3) varada, (4) pasa (Lion Vahana for all forms). Golden Golden Golden Black Eight-Armed Variety No. Colour Symbols Black conch, cakra, bow, axe, javelin, sword, pasa, corn corn, trident, bow, abhaya, goad, lotus, arrow, amralumbi (Lion Vahana for all forms) Twenty-Arned Variety No. Appearance Fierce Symbols khadga, sakti, snake, mace, shield, kamandalu, lotus, abhaya, varada, etc. (not specifically mentioned) (Lion Vahana)

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266 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana XXII. Padmavati, the Yaksi of Parsvanatha Jainas of both the sects--the Svetambara and the Digambara-associate Padmavati with the account of the austerities of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, and give her the role of a sasanadewata, the attendant yaksi protecting the Samgha or Church of Parsvanatha. Earlier texts like the Kalpa-sutra speak nothing about either Dharanendra or Padmavati, either in their role of protecting Parsvanatha during Kamatha's attack or as his yaksa and yaksi, although later Jaina puranas give detailed accounts of them both. Once upon a time, a heretic saint (tapasa), called Katha or Kamatha, was practising penance with fires all around, when Parava, the prince, turned up with his attendants, and seeing snakes burning in the logs of wood, pointed out to the tapasa the futility of practices that involved himsa or killing. Enraged at this, Kamatha asked the prince to show in what manner himsa was committed. Parsva immediately removed a log of wood from the fire and broke it into two pieces whereupon, to the surprise of all, a half-burnt serpent came out. The snake died subsequently but became in its next birth the lord of the Nagas and was known as Dharanendra. After death, Kamatha, the tapasa, was born as Megbantail, a god of the Meghakumara class. 202 According to some Jaina accounts, not one but two snakes were burning and after death they became Dharanendra and his queen of the Nagakumara class. Renouncing the worldly ties, Parsva became a monk. Once when he was standing in deep meditation under the shade of a tree, Meghamali saw him, and remembering the past enmity, attacked him first in the shapes of wild animals etc. Later he ordered a fierce thunderstorm which raised a flood of water drowning Parsva upto his nostrils. Seeing this with his clairvoyant knowledge, Dharanendra rushed headlong to the spot along with his chief queens and protected Parsva by covering his head with the seven hoods spread like an umbrella and entwining the monk's body with lengthy coils lifted Parsva above water. Dharana's queens staged a play and danced to divert Parsva's attention from the miseries inflicted by the storm etc., but, throughout the period, the great ascetic Parsvanatha remained indifferent both to the attacks of Meghamali (Sambara acc. to some texts) and to the protective steps taken by Dharanendra. Unsuccessful and repenting, Meghamali bowed before Parsvanatha and gave up his evil ways.203 The Digambara account differs from Svetambara traditions by saying that not one but two snakesone male and the other female-were burning in the log of wood and that they were reborn as king and queen of the Nagas. In the Digambara tradition Kamatha is reborn as Bhutananda (instead of Meghamali in Sve. tradition).204 Since Dharanendra and Padmavati are king and queen of the Nagas, a salient feature of their iconography is that their Naga form or character is invariably emphasised in sculptures and paintings. Padmavati is always represented as having one, three, five, seven or nine snake-hoods over her head. Sometimes when two-armed, she is represented as a mermaid with the lower half of her body represented like that of a snake. Images of Padmavati can be divided into several groups such as: (1) the two-armed variety, (2) the four-armed variety, (3) the six-armed variety, (4) the eight-armed variety, (5) the twelve-armed variety, (6) the twenty-armed variety. (7) the twenty-four-armed variety, and (8) the multi-armed variety.205 She is mostly found in a sitting posture and her standing figures in all varieties except the first two are rare. In some forms she is known by special names such as Bhairava-Padmavati, Totala, Tvarita, Nitja, Kamasadhini, Tripura and Tripurabhairavi. The eight-armed variety is found only in the last two special forms. Her name suggests that she should always carry a lotus as one of her symbols although the principle is not rigidly followed in all representations of the goddess. A. Two-Armed variety Specific dhyanas for this form are not available, but sufficient archaeological evidence is forthcoming to establish a two-armed plastic form of the goddess. In the scenes of Kamatha's upusargas (attacks, obstructions, harassments), Dharana and his queen or

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 267 queens figure invariably. One of the queens holds the umbrella over Parsva, while the rest are shown adoring him with folded hands (as in fig. 142, Panorama of Jaina Art), or dancing, to divert the attention of Parsva from the storm and thereby help him in his austerities. Here the Naga character of Dharana's queens is emphasised by representing them as having a snake-hood overhead and/or by showing some of them as mermaids with half-human and half-snake bodies as at Ellora in one such panel. There is a beautiful scene of attack of Kamatha carved on a boulder at Tirakkol, North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, wherein only one queen bearing the umbrella with both hands and Dharanendra are represented as rescuing Parsvanatha (Fig. 33 in Panorama of Jaina Art). In the Digambara tradition, it is Padmavati who is principally associated with Dharanendra in this act of rescue, and hence in all the Digambara panels at Ellora etc. the umbrella-bearer may be identified as two-armed Padmavati. It must however be remembered that in the cosmographical accounts, especially in the Svetambara tradition, the name Padmavati does not figure in the list of Dharana's chief queens. M.A. Dhaky published two elegant sculptures of this scene from Digambara Jaina temples at Humcha in Karnataka.206 in a miniature painting from the palm-leaf manuscript at Idar, N. Gujarat (Svetambara tradition), Dharanendra and his queen are iepresented standing with folded hands by the side of Parsvanatha. Here Padmavati is painted red and has three snake-hoods over her head. The painting belongs to the fourteenth century A.D.207 It is to be noted that the form of the yaksi with the lotus symbol is absent here. A similar case is found in a miniature painting of a paper manuscript of Kalpasutra (c. 15th cent.) now preserved in the Cleveland Museum (Fig. 76). Padmavati with both the hands folded together is also associated with another type of image representing Parsvanatha. It is not the scene of Kamatha's attack. In such cases, Parsvanatha is the chief figure represented either standing or sitting with Dharanendra and Padmavati occupying the flanks. Padmavati can be seen in these sculptures with two hands folded in the act of worship. A mutilated sculpture from Arthuna, Rajasthan, now preserved in the Rajputana Museum, Ajmere, shows both Dharanendra and Padmavati in the position just described. Padmavati has only one hood overhead. This sculpture has another peculiarity in as much as it has, below the feet of Parsva, two kneeling figures of Dharanendra and his queen, represented half-human and half-snake, with three hoods over the head and both the hands folded (Bulletin of the Clevelend Museum of Art, Dec. 1970, pp. 303ff, fig. 15). In the Mahudi bronze image of Parsvanatha, now in the Baroda Museum, Dharana and Padmavati are similarly represented half-snake and half-human. But here they do not figure as the yaksa and yaksi of Parsvanatha and seem to have been retained in order to suggest the act of rescue performed by them. In the Ajmere Museum sculpture they are twice represented, once perhaps as attendant yaksa and yaksi in their standing postures and once again as kneeling before Parsva in their act of rescue. In a bronze of Parsvanatha preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (Mu. no. 67.23), Dharanendra and Padmavati, both half-human and half-snake, are shown sitting with folded hands on two sides of Parsvanatha, in positions generally assigned to yaksa and yaksini of a Jina. The bronze is assigned to c. 8th cent. A.D. This bronze and the Arthuna sculpture in the Ajmere Museum, referred to above, seem to represent a transitional stage. The introduction of Dharanendra and Padmavati as yaksa and yaksini of Parsva is a later conception. Some images from Bengal, for example the Parsvanatha from Bahulara, Bankura (Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 38), represent the tradition of the Mahudi bronze by showing Dharanendra and Padmavati in worshipful attitude with their lower snake-halves joined and tied in a beautiful knot (naga-pasa), the knot being shown in the centre of the pedestal.208 In the Mahudi bronze we find Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as the yaksa and yaksini. In a Vasantagadh-Pindwada bronze of Parsvanatha, dated in V.S. 1088 = A.D. 1031, we also find Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as the yaksa and yaksi while the half-snake half-human Dharana with folded hands is shown on the right of the simhasana and a similar Padmavati on the corresponding left corner. Here their lower bodies are not tied into a knot. The Bahuiara Parsvanatha noted above dates from c. Ilth cent A.D. The practice of showing Dharana and his queen joined with a beautiful naga-pasa knot seems to have been especially popular in Gujarat and Rajasthan (see Akota Bronzes, fig. 17b and fig. 34). As will be seen from a study of a number of Parsvanatha bronzes published by us in the book Akota Bronzes, at least upto the end of the

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268 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana tenth century A.D. in Western India, Sarvanubhuti and Ambika were usually shown as the yaksa and yaksinl of Parsvanatha. A third form of two-armed Padmavati comes from the Sitalanatha temple at Patan, North Gujarat, where a big loose stone image of Padmavati is still in worship. There is a snake with five hoods over the head of the goddess and a small figure of Parsvanatha surmounts her head. On a full-blown lotus, Padmavati here sits in the lalitasana. Two-armed, she carries the lotus-stalk in her right hand and a cup of sweets or a fruit in the left one (Fig. 144). Two mermaids with folded hands are seen over her shoulders on two sides while two more are shown near her feet. 209 In the famous scene of Kamatha's attack at Kalugumalai (fig. 50, and also see fig. 1 in Panorama of Jaina Art) we find the snake-queen holding something in her raised right hand while the left hand hanging carries nothing. In the Mahavira temple, Osia, Padmavati carries the snake and the fruit in her right and left hands respectively. Her vahana is a kukkuta-sarpa. Tiwari has noted that in the Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur, M.P., we find two-armed Padmavati showing rosary with vyakhyana mudra in one hand and water-jar in the other. Another variety of form in the same temple shows the lotus in her right hand and the gada in the left one. Tiwari has noted two images of two-armed Padmavati at Devgadh, one showing varada mudra and lotus-stalk, the other showing the fruit and the flower.210 In the Navamuni cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, is a two-armed form of the yaksi of Parsvanatha showing the abhaya and the lotus in her right and left hands respectively. A kukkuja-sarpa vahana is shown below. There is no snake-hood seen above the yaksi's head but her figure is carved below the figure of Parsvanatha and is therefore intended to be shown as Padmavati, the yaksi of Parsvanatha (Fig. 89).211 The two-armed Padmavati continued in Jaina worship for a much longer period even after the introduction of her four-armed form, as can be seen from a bronze dated in v.s. 1330 (A.D. 1273) still in worship in a Jaina temple in Baroda. A two-armed form is seen on a mediaeval sculpture of Parsva, no. J.935 in the Lucknow Museum, where Padmavati holds the lotus in her right hand while her left hand rests on her lap. B. Four-Armed Variety of this variety a number of dhyanas as well as representations are found. According to Hemacandra (Sve.), the goddess is golden in complexion and rides on the kukkuta-sarpa. She is four-armed, in her two right hands she carries the lotus and the noose, and in the two left the fruit and the goad.212 Nirvanakalika,212 Acaradinakara,213 Pravacanasaroddhara-tika,214 Mantradhiraja-Kalpa,215 and the Kalalokaprakasa follow Hemacandra; Mantradhirajakalpa adds that a snake with three hoods should be shown over her crown. The Nirvanakalika mentions kukkusa and not the kukkuja-sarpa as her vahana. Possibly there was a scribal mistake in the manuscript used for the printed edition. The Devata-murti-prakarana, describing the symbols of Padmavati clock-wise from the right lower hand, gives the lotus, the noose, the goad and the citron as her weapons. Red in complexion, she rides the kukkufa(-sarpa ?).216 The same form is met with in the Rupamandana. This form is available in Svetambara temples; for example, in cell 4, Vimala vasahi, Abu, we find this form on the pedestal of an image of Parsvanatha. The same form is seen on the southern entrance to the gudhamandapa of the Vimala vasahi. Tiwari has noted a similar form in the Neminatha temple, Kumbharia 217 This form is available in Digambara shrines also. P. Gururaja Bhatt has illustrated such figures in his Studies in Tuluva History and Culture, pl. 444a from Dharmanatha Basti, Naravi, and pl. 429a from Setrabasti, Mudabidure. A bronze image in the temple at Tiruparuttikunsam (Jina-Kanci)218 represents Padmavati as wearing a kirita-mukuta surmounted by five snake-hoods and showing a seated figure of Parsva in front. The goddess stands on the lotus and her vahana, the kukkuta-sarpa, is seen in front of the pedestal. Padmavati carries the goad and the noose in her right and the left upper hands respectively and shows the lotus and

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 269 the citron in the corresponding lower ones (Fig. 127). The image belongs to the Digambara shrine. In the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia, Padmavati carries the same symbols. A sculpture of a goddess, probably hailing from Karnataka, preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, has been identified by Sankalia as Padmavati.219 She has a single-hooded cobra over head and is stylistically similar to a figure of Dharanendra in the same museum. She carries the lotus and the goad in her right lower and upper hands respectively while the noose is held in the left upper one. The left lower hand, partly mutilated, probably carried the citron (Fig. 110 in this book). A beautiful sculpture of this variety exists in the Parsvanatha temple at Humcha, Karnataka.220 The form was popular as such images are available in the Pancakuta Basti, Humcha and Santinatha Basti, Jinanathapur, at Lakkundi, at Dharwar on a standing image of Parsva, in a stone image of Padmavati with 5 hoods in K.R. Institute, Dharwar, at Mudabidri where the devi has 3 hoods and also at Mugad, Karnataka, on a sculpture of Parsvanatha standing. The form offers favourable comparison with the iconographic traditions given by Hemacandra and others noted above as well as with the late bronze from Jina-Kanchi described above. The form was known earlier in south India since it is carved on a rock at Vallimalai, North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, in c. eighth-ninth or ntury A.D. (see Fig. 198 in this book). Sivaramamurti's identification of this relief as representing Srutadevi cannot be accepted.221 The goddess has a beautiful cobrahead above her crown and her figure is carved next to a sculpture of Parsvanatha. This form is also found in a palm-leaf miniature painting of the Dhavala-tika at Mudabidri. A four-armed figure of Padmavati from the Svetambara Kharatara vasahi Caumukha temple at Abu represents the goddess sitting in padmasana and carrying the same set of symbols as described above from Humcha etc. but Padmavati here shows only three snake-hoods overhead instead of five in some of the above-mentioned sculptures. Again, instead of the kukkula-sarpa a mermaid is shown as the vahana. The Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, referred to below, omits the lotus and introduces the varada mudra instead in the above set of symbols as in a sculpture of Padmavati in the Jaina temple at Anatur in Karnataka (Fig. 125), while in a relief in the Badami Jaina cave (Fig. 142) Padmavati's right lower hand shows the abhaya mudra instead of the lotus. The Adbhuta-Padmivati-kalpa,222 composed by Sri-Candra suri, pupil of Yasobhadra Upadhyaya, says that the goddess rides on the swan, and shows the fruit, the varada mudra, the noose and the goad in her four hands (Figs. 46, 100).223 She is further addressed as terrific in appearance (bhairave, raudre), with blood-shot eyes (raudralocanavatare) and is also called Tara.224 The saviouress impregnable, she drives out, by her fierce laughter, the fifty-two ksetra palas, the eighty-four Cetakas, and the hosts of the Bhutas. She is vanquisher of the sixty-four Yoginis and is ever ready to dispose of such supernatural beings as Kala, Vyhla, Vetala, Karala, Karkala, Bhuta, Preta, Pisaca, Yaksa, Raksasa, Gandharva, Kinnara, and Uragendra. The three cobra-heads hissing over her crown melt the pride of the wicked. Red in complexion, Padmavati removes all miseries and is, verily, the wish-giving Cintamani-stone. 225 The Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa of Mallisena gives the set of symbols in the following order: the noose, the fruit, the varada and the goad. This order, according to the commentator Bandhusena, should commence with the left upper hand. 226 According to Mallisena, Padma is three-eyed, red in complexion, and resting on the lotus. Very probably, both Mallisera and Sri-Candra, the author of Adbhuta-Padmavatskalpa, refer to the same form, although the vahana is different in the two cases. This terrific aspect of the goddess was popular since similar dhyanas are also obtained from the still unpublished Jaina Tantra work Vidyanusasana, composed in c. 16th century A.D. According to this work, the goddess Padmavati is three-eyed and sits on a red-lotus. In her four hands she holds the symbols in the following order:227 the noose, the fruit, the varada and the goad. Even though the text does not give the order of the hands it would be reasonable to suppose that it describes the same form as the one in the Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa. According to another dhyana given in the Vidyanusasana, the goddess is called Kamalavati, red in complexion, sitting on a big (full-blown) red-lotus and riding on the kukkutasarpa. The lord of snakes adorns her crown. Symbols are given in the following order: the varada, the goad, the noose and the divine fruit. Obviously the text describes the same form.228 The unpublished Jina-Samhita of Bhataraka Ekasamdhi (c. 11th or 12th cent. A.D.) describes the

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270 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana same set of symbols in two consecutive verses. In the first, it is said that starting from the right lower hand, the goddess shows the varada mudra, the goad, the noose and the fruit. The number of her eyes is not mentioned, and the goddess is called Padmavati. In the second verse the same symbols are given and it is said in addition that the goddess Bhairava-Padmavati has three eyes. It is evident that all these texts describe one and the same form. In this form the devi is variously addressed as Bhairava-Padmavati, Kamalavati and Padmavati. A figure of Padmavati standing to the left of Parsvanatha and showing the same set of symbols can be seen in Fig. 78 from Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belago!a, illustrated in this book. A sculpture of Padmavats from the Jaina Basti, Lakkundi, Dharwar district, Karnataka, illustrates this variety (Fig. 100). The goddess sits with the left knee upright and carries the goad and the noose in the right and the left upper hands respectively while the corresponding lower hands show the varada mudra and the fruit. The same form of yaksi Padmavati is seen on a sculpture of standing Parsvanatha from Parsvanatha Basadi, Rona, Dharwar district, on the figure of Parsva in the set of 24 Jinas at Veour, and in a sculpture of standing Parsva at Lakkundi. Another sculpture, from a pedestal lying in a Svetambara temple, Camhay. illustrates the same variety of form. The devi has three snake-hoods overhead. The pedestal is date in the year V.S. 1332. A third specimen is a bronze from Cambay giving the same form (Fig. 101). Here the kukkufa is also shown. A fourth example is a painting on folio 239 of the palm-leaf manuscript of Vivekamanjari in the Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay. Here Padmavati is painted red and wears a lower garment with red design. A similar form in the Neminatha temple, Kumbharia, shows the rosary along with the varada mudra in the right lower hand of the goddess. Padmavali here has five snake-hoods over the head. In the beautiful sculpture of standing Parsva, illustrated as Fig. 46 in this book, yaksi Padmavati sitting in lalitasana shows the same form. She has one snake-hood. The sculpture is a beautiful specimen of Chalukyan art of c. 12th century, preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. In a paper manuscript of Parsvanathacaritra at Patan (c. 15th-16th cent. A.D.), the devi, with three snake-hoods overhead, shows the goad and the noose in the right and the left upper hands respectively and the varadaksa (rosary+varada mudra) and the lotus in the corresponding lower ones. A kukkutasarpa is her vahana. A sculpture worshipped in a niche in the Navakhanda Parsvanatha temple, Cambay, shows the goddess sitting in lalitasana and carrying the noose and the goad in the right and the left upper hands, thus reversing the order of symbols of the above-mentioned figures. The right lower hand, held in the varada pose, also carries the rosary while the left lower one holds a fruit. The vahana remains unchanged. The devi has five snake-hoods over the crown. Figure 101 in this book illustrates a small bronze image of Padmavati sitting in the lalitasana and having three snake-hoods over her head, and a kukkuta-sarpa below the left knee. The devi shows the same set of symbols as in the sculpture from Navakhanda Parsva temple just described. The bronze is preserved in the Sitalanatha temple, Cambay. Padmavati, showing the same order of symbols but sitting in the padmasana and having a kukkuta-sarpa as her vahana, is shown as a yaksi accompanying a big marble sculpture of Parsvanatha in a Svetambara Jaina temple at Patan, N. Gujarat. The right lower hand of the goddess is here held in the varada midra but does not carry the rosary. On the door-lintel from Khajuraho, illustrated in Fig. 91 in this book, Padmavati is shown as sitting in the lalitasana with five snake-hoods held like an umbrella behind her head and a kukkusa-sarpa near the left leg. The devi carries the noose and the goad in the right and the left upper hands respectively and shows the varada mudra with the right lower hand. The left lower hand is unfortunately mutilated. The Aparajitaprccha gives the following symbols for Padmavati: they are the noose, the goad, the lotus and the varada mudra. The goddess is red in complexion and rides on the kukkusa. The order of symbols is not specified. 229 A beautiful white marble sculpture of Padmavati with an inscription dated in v.s. 1254 (A.D. 1197) is in worship in the Digambara Jaina temple, Idar, N. Gujarat. In her right and the left upper hands, the goddess, sitting in the lalitasana on a kukkuja-sarpa, carries the goad and the noose respectively while

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271 Four More Popular Yaksinis she shows the varada mudra and the lotus in the corresponding lower hands. A miniature figure of a Jina is shown sitting over the crest of the three snake-hoods while two more figures of Jina Parsvanatha are shown on two sides of the devi's head (Fig. 117). The Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa gives a different form. Here she is white in complexion and is dressed in white garments. Sri. Padma, resplendent with three snake-hoods over her head, rides on the white swan and rests on the lotus-seat. Four-armed, Sri-Padma carries the lotus, the goad, the varada and the noose in her hands. The worshipper should meditate on this form in his heart.230 This form of Sri Padma differs from that of the Idar sculpture described above as the kukkula vahana is here replaced by the swan. The form offers an interesting comparison with the Buddhist goddess Durgottarini Tara who shows the same set of symbols and rests on the lotus. The difference lies in the complexion only since the Buddhist goddess is green in colour. Besides, Durgottarini Tara is not associated with snakes, but Janguli, one of the four varieties of Green Tara, is associated with snakes and is a well-known ancient deity connected with snake-charm.231 Thus this variety of Padmavati is a mixture of Janguli and Durgottarini Tara. We have already seen before that in the Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa, Padma, addressed as Bhairavarupivatare and spadme hamsaprshadhiridhe, is also invoked as Tare and Taroratare. A sculpture in black stone, probably from Karnataka, preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, illustrated as Fig. 110 in this book, discussed before, would follow this tradition of Aparajitaprocha and the Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa describing Sri-Padma, if the mutilated left lower hand had shown the varada mudra. A manuscript entitled Padmavati-Puja 232 gives her red complexion and a lotus-seat. Padmavati here shows the noose, the goad, the abhaya mudra and the fruit in her hands. A sculpture of Padmayati sitting in padmasana on a lotus-seat, in worship in the Chandragupta Basti, Sravana Belagola, follows this tradition. The sculpture dates from c. 12th cent. A.D. T.N. Ramachandran illustrated a bronze image of Padmavati of this variety of form.233 Upon a lotus-seat the devi sits with her right foot hanging. She carries the goad and the noose in her right and left upper hands respectively and shows the abhaya mudra and the fruit with the corresponding lower ones. The kukkuja vehicle is shown below her right foot. The goddess has only two eyes in this figure instead of three enjoined by the Padmavati-Puja manuscript. The variety of form noted by this ms. of Padmavati-Puja apppears to represent an old tradition as the Jaina cave at Badami has a relief of Padmavati representing this form. This is referred to before. The relief dates from c. 10th century A.D.234 Two palm-leaf miniatures in the Digambara Jaina Bhandara at Mudabidri also illustrate this variety of form of four-armed Padmavati. The miniatures are assigned to c. 12th century A.D. (Panorama of Jaina Art, op. cit., figs. 392, 394). Sankalia has discussed a sculpture of Padmavati preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum (Mu. no. 130).235 The devi here sits in the lalitasana and has a single-hooded cobra overhead. She carries the gond and the noose in the right and the left upper hands respectively while showing the varada mudra and the snake with the corresponding lower ones. A kukkura figures as her vahana (Fig. 124). An image of this variety, showing Padmavati sitting in the padmasana, also figures as a yaksi on a sculpture of Parsvanatha in a Sve. temple at Patan. A Padmavati stotra refers to the three eyes and three snake-hoods over the head of this goddess who carries the noose, the goad, the snake and the fruit in her four hands.230 The same text gives another form in a different verse according to which Padmavati holds the vajra, the goad, the noose and the lotus in her four hands. Her pleasing countenance is said to be especially noteworthy. 237 The Padmavati-mantramnayavidhi says that the worshipper should meditate upon the goddess who is four-armed and shows the abhuya, the varada, the noose and the goad in her hands. The form of the goddess is invoked for various rites like the varya, vidvesa, k sobha, santika and paustika.238 In a Rsimandala-Pata appears the figure of Padinavati illustrating this variety. The devi is reddishyellow with three snake-hoods over her head and the cock as her vehicle. She holds the goad and the

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272 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana noose in the right and the left upper hands respectively and shows the varada and the abhaya mudras with the corresponding lower hands.239 The symbols and complexion of this form of Padmavati agree with those of the Brahmanical goddess Mitra worshipped in the Sri-Cakra and described in the Sarabha Tantra 240 These symbols also agree with those of the Brahmanical godddess Tripura, 241 one of the twelve forms of Durga. Bhuvanesvari also shows similar symbols.242 In the yantra of Mantradhiraja, the devi is to be placed on the left of Parsvanatha and her colour should be as black as collyrium; she should have three snake-hoods over her head and should ride on the kukkufa.243 Snakes as ornaments should adorn her body. The text here does not give the symbols held by Padmavati.But earlier in the work, while describing the forms of the 24 yaksinis to be drawn in the fifth valaya (circle) of this great Tantric diagram, namely, the Mantradbiraja-Pata, the author gives the symbols of Padmavati. Here she is said to be of golden complexion and riding on the kukkuta-sarpa. Her crown is adorned with three snake-hoods. Queen of the king of snakes, Padmavati shows the noose and the lotus in her right hands and the fruit and the goad in the left ones.244 This form agrees with the form given in Trisasti., Acara-Dinakara, etc. The Sahasra-phana-Parsvanatha-Pata, published in Jaina Citrakalpadrum? voi. i, saows a figure of Padmavati standing to the left of Parsvanatha, the central deity. She is four-armed and carries, in the two upper hands, the goad and the noose, while her two lower hands are clasped against the chest in anjali mudra in adoration of her master Parsvanatha.245 A bronze figure from the Koka-Parsvanatha temple, Patan, may be identified with this form of Padmavati. The goddess has her two lower hands folded against the breasts in anjali mudra. The symbols of the two upper hands, partly mutilated, can still be identified as the goad and the noose. Three snake-hoods are spread over her head. Though late the form seems to have been popular in Jaina worship. W. Norman Brown has published a miniature painting, from a Kalpa-Sutra manuscript, showing Parsva's austerities.246 The Jina is in the centre while Dharana and Padmavati stand on his right and the left respectively. Here two hands of Padmavati are folded while the other two are empty. The kukkufa is shown as her vahana. In a Jaina temple in Bhiloda, Sabarakantha district, N. Gujarat, is worshipped a metal image of Padmavati seated in padmasana with nine snake-hoods spread over her head surmounted by a miniature figure of Parsvanatha. Two snake-goddesses with snake-hoods overhead flank the central devi as attendants. The goddess carries the goad and the noose in the right and left upper hands, the rosary (?) appears in the right lower hand while the water-jar is shown in her left lower hand. The kukkufa-sarpa is her vahana. Another variety of form is shown by a sculpture from Patan (Fig. 140). Here the devi sits in padmasana and carries the same symbols except the pot in the left lower hand (of the Bhiloda image) which is here replaced by the varada mudra. The goddess has five snake-hoods over her crown. In the drawing published by Burgess, 247 Padmavati sits in the lalitasana and has the kukkuja-sarpa as the vahana. Over the crown are seen five snake-hoods. In the two upper hands she holds the goad and the noose, the right lower hand is held in the abhaya mudra while the left lower hand seems to signify the kataka pose. One of the earliest varieties of four-armed images of Padmavati is found at Devgadh, On a pillar near the Western Gate of the Devgadh fort is a beautiful representation of the goddess sitting in lalitasana on a big lotus with a thick stalk; on two sides of the stalk below the lotus-seat are two circular volutes of lotus-stalks. The devi carries lotuses with long stalks in her two upper hands (Fig. 141). Her right lower hand is held in the varada mudra while the left lower hand holds a pitcher--a kumbha of nectar and knowledge. Over the big chignon on the head of the devi are spread like an umbrella five snake-hoods signifying her role as a Naga-queen. On top is a miniature figure of Parsvanatha seated in padmasana. The sculpture dates from late ninth or early tenth century A.D. A very similar sculpture, perhaps from the

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 273 wall of a Jaina temple, is preserved at Sironi, Jhansi district, U.P. and dates from the same age. The only difference between the two sculptures is that the devi has three snake-hoods overhead at Sironi. Perhaps a little earlier in age is a beautifully carved elaborate sculpture of Padmavati from Mahoba preserved in the Lucknow Museum (Mu. No. G.316). There are five snake-hoods held like an umbrella over her head. On top is a seated figure of Parsvanatha with two small attendant camaradharas. On two sides of the head of the devi are two female garland-bearing attendants standing on lotuses while below on two sides of her legs are standing two female camaradharas. The devi sits in lalitasana on a big lotus with her right foot hanging on two sides of which are worshipping, with folded hands, two male devotees who are perhaps the donors of the image. In her two upper hands the devi holds lotuses with long stalks and with the left lower hand a purna-kumbha. Her right lower hand is unfortunately mutilated (fig. 143). Perhaps this beautiful sculpture of the goddess was installed in a separate niche in a Digambara Jaina temple. An inscribed pedestal (?) of c. ninth century A.D. from Tripuri (Tewar), M.P., shows Padmavat! sitting in padmasana in the centre with a goddess on each side in separate compartments (JAA, vol. I, pl. 984, p. 169),. The goddess holds lotuses in two upper hands and shows the abhaya and the water-pot (kalasa) in the right and the left lower hands respectively. Of c. 862 A.D. is the sculpture of standing Padmavati from the set of 24 yaksinis on the walls of Temple no. 12, Devgadh. The devi holds a lotus with a stalk and a board-like thing (book ?) in her right and the left upper hands and shows the varada mudra and the kalasa (water-jar, pot) with the corresponding lower ones. 248 A closely allied iconographic variety of four-armed Padmavati is also found in the Svetambara tradition. A miniature in a palm-leaf manuscript of Pandavacaritra (c. 13th cent A.D.), preserved in the Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay, represents the goddess as carrying the lotus in each of the two upper hands and the water-jar (kalasa) in the left lower one. Her right lower hand, held against the chest, holds a fruit in the open palm. The devi is white in complexion, wears a white lower garment and has three snake-hoods overhead. On one side is seen the kukkuta-sarpa with a rosary in its beak. Only the head and the neck are visible. A figure of later origin, from the pedestal of a sculpture of Parsvanatha, in the Pancasara Parsvanatha temple, Patan, represents another stage in the evolution of iconography of Padmavati. The devi holds the lotuses in her two upper hands, the noose in the right lower and the goad in the left lower hand. A kukkuta-sarpa is her vahana. The form, although not very popular, shows nevertheless a combination of two distinct types of sculptures of four-armed Padmavati. The first and probably the earlier type has the lotuses as the chief distinguishing symbols of Padmavati (lit. the goddess with the lotus). The second type, probably later in chronological order, mainly showed the goad and the noose in her two hands. Another such combination, described below, dating at least from the eleventh century A.D., was popular amongst the Digambaras of the south since authors like Vasunandi,249 Asadhara,250 and Nemicandra251 describe this particular form of the deity. In this form the goddess shows the goad, the rosary, the lotus and the varada mudra in her four hands. Brahmasuri252 also gives the same symbols and adds that the goddess has, in this form, three snake-hoods over the crown, sits on the lotus and is red like the evening clouds. A late metal image of Padmavati from a temple in Cambay shows the devi sitting in lalitasana. She has nine snake-hoods over her head and carries the lotus in her right upper hand, the goad in the left upper. the snake in the right lower and a conch-like object in the left lower hands. The kukkuta-sarpa is her vahana. A peculiar variety of four-armed form is noteworthy since the symbols are entirely different from those of the rest. T.N. Ramachandran has given a form of Padmavat from the popular Canarese Dhyana-slokas recited by temple priests in South India. According to this tradition, the goddess sits in lalitasana and holds the axe and the thunderbolt (vajra) in the two upper hands while the abhaya and the

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274 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana kataka mudras are shown by the two lower ones. The goddess has five snake-hoods overhead and rides on the swan (hamsa).253 In the Father Heras Institute, St. Xavier's College, Bombay, is a mutilated sculpture where yaksi Padmavati shows the axe and the noose in her right and the left upper hands and the varada mudra and the citron with the corresponding lower ones. The sculpture hails probably from Karnataka. In the Panca Basadi, Stavanidhi, in Chikkodi taluq, Belgaum district, Karnataka, is a sculpture of Parsvanatha standing with Dharanendra sitting on his right and Padmavati on his left. The devt has one snake-hood and shows the sword and the shield in her right and the left upper hands respectively and the lotus and the citron in the corresponding lower ones. Special Forms of Padmavati (Four-Armed Variety continued) Mallisena says that Padmavati is known by six other names, namely, Totala, Tvarita, Nitya, Tripura, Kamasadhini, and Tripura-Bhairavi. In addition to these six special forms there exists one more special form, Nowa BhairavaPadmavati which latter is already described earlier along with other forms of the goddess. Forms which are worshipped under special names that do not include the title Padmavati although they are forms of the goddess Padmavati, such as the six noted above, are here treated as the special forms of Padmavati.254 The Vidyanusasana gives a full description of all these six forms. Out of these six mentioned above, tho first four are four-armed, and the next two are eight-armed. These are described below. 1. Totala Totala has four hands showing the noose, the vajra, the fruit and the lotus. The colour and the vahana are not specified in the work; very probably, she is like the principal deity, red in colour, riding on the kuk kuta-sarpa 255 2. Tvarita Tvarita is red in complexion and shows the conch, the lotus, the abhaya and the varada in her four hands. The vahana is not specified.256 3. Nitya Nitya has the noose, the goad, the lotus and the rosary, in her four hands, and rides the swan. She is red in complexion and shines with a halo of flames behind her head.257 4. Kamasadhini Kamasadhini is red like the bandhuka flower and rides on the kukkuta-sarpa. In her four hands she carries the conch, the disc, the fruit and the lotus.258 C. Eight-Armed Variety 5. Tripura The complexion of Tripura is red like saffron and she is eight-armed. She carries the trident, the disc, the goad, the lotus, the bow, the arrow, the fruit and the goad, in her eight hands.256 A beautiful eight-armed form of Padmavati (as Tripura) is available in the vedibandha niche on south, in the Jaina temple at Jhalrapatan (Jhalawar, Rajasthan), dating from c. 11th cent. A.D. The

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 275 goddess, in lalitasana, shows the lotus, the sword, the vajra and the varada in her right hands and the lotus. the shield, the ghanta (bell) and the fruit in the left ones (fig. 111). An eight-armed form of the goddess exists in the Barabhuji cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, but symbols are indistinct.260 6. Tripura-Bhairavi As Tripura-Bhairavi, Padmavati is three-eyed and eight-armed and shines like the Indragopa-flower. She carries the conch, the disc, the bow, the arrow, the sword, the shield, the lotus and the fruit in her hands.261 D. Six-Armed Variety Vasunandi, Asadhara and Nemicandra refer also to a six-armed form. This shows the popularity the goddess enjoyed in the Jaina Pantheon, in the ages in which these authors lived. According to Vasunandi, she holds the noose, the spear, the sword, the crescent, the club and the pestle (musala) in her six hands.282 'the other two authors merely say that the goddess holds the symbols beginning with pasa. According to Nemicandra, Padmavati, when invoked in this form, gives victory over the enemy. E. Twelve-Armed Variety No specific dhyanas for this form are available. But, a beautiful figure on a pillar in the courtyard of temple no. 12 in the Devgadh Fort can safely be identified as Padmavati with the twelve arms (fig. 197). Adorned with five snake-hoods over the crown, the goddess sits on a bhadrasana with her right foot hanging. The figure shows the club, the bow, the lotus, the arrow, the sword (?) and varada mudra in six hands on the right. In her left hands are seen the vajra, the snake, the noose, the bow, and the fruit. The kukkuta-sarpa is here very artistically represented. A sculpture of 12.armed Padmavati seated in padmasana illustrated in fig. 174 is from the Thakur Sahib collection, Shahdol. The goddess shows the varada mudra, the sword, the axe, the arrow, the snake, the vajra, the disc, the shield, the mace, the goad, the bow and the lotus in her twelve hands.263 At Sohagpur in the Bilaspur district, M.P., are found loose images lying near the palace of the local Thakur. One of these is a rare image of Padmavati with twelve arms with a small figure of Parsvanatha over her head. In her right hands she shows the wheel, the thunderbolt, the battle axe, the sword, the arrow and the varada while the bow, the goad, the noose, the mace and the lotus are carried in the left ones. The sixth left hand is unfortunately broken.264 Maruti Nandan Prasad has identified a sixteen-armed devi as Padmavati in the ceiling in front of cell 41 at Vimala Vasahi. I believe the goddess there is Vairoty, and not Padmavati. F. Twenty-two-Armed Variety TI The Padmavati stotra265 gives separate verses for the worship of the symbols held by Padmavati; they are worshipped in the following order: first pair-the vajra in the right and the goad in the left hands, the second pair--the lotus in the right and the disc in the left, similarly, the chatra in the right and the damaru in the left, the bowl (kapala) in the right and the sword in the left, the bow in the right and the pestle in the left, the plough in the right and the flame of fire in the left, the bhindimala in the right and the cluster of stars (taramandala) in the left, the trident in the right and the axe in the left, the cobra in the right and the club in the left, the staff in the right and the noose in the left and lastly, the stone in the right and the big tree in the left hands. A twenty-two-armed figure of Padmavati can thus be reasonably expected, although as far as is known no sculpture has yet been discovered which answers to the above description.

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276 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana G. Twenty-four-Armed Variety The Pratisthasarasangraha of Vasunandi gives a form with twenty-four arms showing the following weapons and mudras, they are: the conch, the sword, the disc, the crescent, the lotus, the stone (upala), the bow, the sakti, the noose, the goad, the bell, the arrow, the pestle, the shield, the trident, the axe, the spear, the vajra, the rosary, the fruit, the club, the leaf, the stalk and the varada mudra.266 Asadhara 267 and Nemicandra 268 also refer to the twenty-four-armed form but do not give all the symbols. They, however, add that the form is invoked for benefic as well as malefic rites. The form was certainly popular as it is referred to by three chief Digambara writers. H. Multi-Armed Variety According to a verse in the Padmavati-stotra269 the goddess carries swords, bows, arrows, pestles, ploughs, vajras, naracas, discs, saktis, salyas, tridents, axes, clubs, staves, nooses, stones, trees, and such innumerable divine weapons in her hands. The goddess is said to destroy the wicked in this form. A form like this is yet to be discovered in sculptures or in paintings. The Gudnapur inscription of Kadamba Ravivarman (Epigraphia Carnatica, vol. VII, S.K.176) refers to a gift of a village (?) Makundi made to the Kamadevalaya at Hakinipalli and the temple of goddess Padmavati (Padmavatyalaya) at Kallili. The record is supposed to date from early sixth century A.D. Ravivarman is said to have built an abode (vesma) for Manmatha (Kama, the god of love). The boundaries given suggest that this temple was near the palace complex. B.R. Gopal,270 discussing the inscription. has suggested that the temple was dedicated to Bahubali as Bahubali is one of the Kamadevas in (later) Jaina texts. The inscription has also called it Kama Jinalaya. G.S. Gai disputes the reading of KamaJinalaya (JIH, 4.2 (1973), pp. 301-303). A. Sundara,271 discussing this, has suggested that this may have reference to Kamadeva or Cupid, the god of love. In that case the Kamadevalaya may or may no be a Jaina temple. If so, the reference to the shrine of Padmavati might not have been a reference to the Jaina goddess Padmavati in view of the fact that a goddess Padma or Padmini is known to ancient literature and art.272 It is interesting to note here that Jinasena (783 A.D.), in his Harivamsapurana, sarga 29, verses 1-5, shows that one Kamadatta installed in (front of the Jaina temple at Sravasti images of Kamadeva and Rati in order to attract people to the Jaina temple. It seems that images of Kamadeva and Rati used to be installed in Jaina temples.273 About the cult of Padmavati in South India, P.B. Desai writes: "Among the secondary deities of the Jaina pantheon chosen for individual adoration as an independent goddess, Padmavali, the Yakshini of Parsvanatha, stands foremost, being the most popular and widely invoked goddess in Karnataka. Though her cult might date from an earlier age, she frequently figures in the epigraphical sources roughly from the period of the tenth century A.D.... Silaharas and Rattas, and many a high official of the state. of the Jaina persuasion, became votaries of this goddess and took pride in styling themselves the favourite devotees of the deity, having adopted the title Padmavatidevilabdha-vara-prasada in their prasasti ... A well-known early instance of a family of subordinate chiefs who adopted Padmavati as their tutelary god dess, are the Santaras,274 ... Jinadatta, a prince of a ruling family of North India, came to the south with an image of Padmavati. The goddess blessed him with the power of transmuting iron into gold, and through her grace he founded the town of Pombuchchapura which became the capital of his kingdom. The goddess, it seems, chose her residence in a Lokki tree of the locality and therefore, came to be called Lokkiyabbe. These events may be referred to the 9th century A.D., though the epigraphs describing them are dated in the 11th-12th century A.D."275 P.B. Desai also states: "As Padmavati figures in the story of the foundation of the Ganga kingdom through Simhanandi, the cult of Padmavati, it may appear, dates from the 2nd century A.D. But this position is misleading because the inscriptions giving this account are dated in the 12th century A.D. which was the period when the cult was in the ascendancy. Compare Ep. Carn., vol. VII, sh. 4."276

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 277 In this context it is important to note that Jatasimhanandi (c. sixth century A.D.) in his Varangacarita does not refer to Sasanadevatas (including Padmavati Yaksi) even when he had scope to do so in canto 2.276. Padmavati enjoyed a unique position in Jaina ritualistic literature, especially in the Jaina tantra. Mallisena (c. 12th century A.D.) wrote a special text called the Bhairava-Padmavati kalpa, discussing all the rites connected with Padmavati, namely, stambha, vasya, akarsana, nimitta-jinana, garuda-tantra, and so on. Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa was composed by a Svetambara writer Sri-Candra suri (c. 12th century A.D.). Indranandi, an earlier Digambara writer, composed a Padmavati-pujanam while a number of texts of uncertain authorship like the Rakta-Padmavat-kalpa, the Padmavati-mantramaya-vidhi, the PadmavatiPujana-Kramah, the Padmavati-vratodyapana, the Padmavati-stotra, the Padmavati-sahasra-nama-stotra, etc., are also available.277 A Padmavati-astaka has been commented upon by the Svetambara scholar Par vadeva gani, and his commentary gives details of various tantric rites.278 Jinaprabha suri composed a Padmavati-catuspadika,279 and writers like Asadhara, Nemicandra and Vasunandi expressly mention that the six-armed form is meant for both propitiatory and cruel rites. Padmavati has a big parivara or group of attendants and companion deities. The AdbhutaPadmavat-balpa gives the following twenty-four companions of the goddess to be worshipped in the mandala: Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanti, Aparajita, Manda, Bhadra, Rudra, Karalika, Yogini, Siva, Nanda, Amala, Kamala, Padma, Mahayogini, Suyantra, Surupa, Citra, Viyuta, Para, Jambha, Stambha, Dambha, Moha, Siddha. The text also refers to four-thousand bodyguards of the devi and five-hundred ceris or slave-girls. The following eight durikas are also worshipped in rites consecrated to Padmavaty and writers like Indranandi, Mallisena, and the author of Vidyanusa sana mention them. They are Padmagandha. Padmavaktra or Padmasya, Padmakamala or Anangakamala, Madanonmadini, Kamoddipini, Padmavarana and Trailokyamohini. Six more are usually found in diagrams of the vasya rites, and seem to be her attending goddesses. They are named as Nitya, Klinna, Mada, Drava, Madana, and Unmada. The famous Padmavati-astaka also expressly refers to the parijana of Padmavati including Bhrogi, Kali, Karali, Candi and Camundi. Besides these, Jaya, Vijaya, Ajita, Aparajita, Jambha, Moha, Stambha and Stambhini are almost invariably worshipped in the yantra of Padmavati. According to Parsvadevagani's vstui on the Padmavatyastaka, the goddess has the surprising total of 48000 attendant deities. Padmavati, according to Rupamandana,280 is one of the four principal yaksis of the Jaina pantheon, the other three being Ambika, Cakresvari and Siddhayika. This is corroborated by the discovery of a large variety of images of the goddess found all over India. If proper search is made many more images besides these are likely to be discovered. A figure of Padmavati has been found at Dorasmudra (Halebid) in the Parsvanatha Basti. The goddess is standing with a three-hooded cobra over the head and showing the goad, the noose and the fruit in her three hands, the weapon in the fourth being mutilated. Another figure of the goddess has been noticed by B.C. Bhattacharya in the Gwalior fort, Eastern roof, but unfortunately, he has not described it.281 Metal images of the goddess are also very common in the Svetambara and Digambara temples. Of the earlier images, the testimony comes from the Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, which refers to an image of Parsva with Dharana and Padmavati, standing at Ahicchatra, the scene of Parsva's austerities. According to the same text, images of Padmavati were also installed at Sankhapura, Dhimpura, Cambay, the ancient Sripura, and the Amarakunda in the Andhra-desa 282 Padmavati was originally a companion of Dharanendra who rescued Parsvanatha and she grew subsequently into a powerful yaksi and a powerful tantric deity, and surpassed the other snake-goddess Vairo ya. But in the earliest lists of Dharana's chief queens Padmavati is conspicuous by her absence: the Bhagavati Sutra gives the names of lla, Sukri, Saclara (? Satara), Saudamini, Indra, and Ghanavidyuta as the six chief queens of Dharanendra.283 The Sthananga Sutra follows the same tradition.284 Earlier writers like Bappabhatti and Sobhana, while offering worship to Ambika, the Vidyadevis, and the Srutadevata, omit Padmavau. Vairogya is invoked by both of them while Bappabhatti dedicates a versc to Dharanapatta-mahila285 a word by which Vairotya is evidently meant, since Dhanapala, commenting upon the title Ahinagryapatni used by Sobhana explains it as referring to Vairo ya and not Padmavati.286

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Archaeological evidence also supports the conclusions drawn above. In earlier images of Parsvanatha dating from periods earlier than the ninth century, it is Ambika, and not Padmavati, who is the yaksi accompanying Parsvanatha (cf. figs. from Dhank, Rohtak etc.). The most notable example of this tradition is supplied by the group of Jaina caves at Ellora, all of which date roughly between the eighth and the tenth centuries A.D. Here there is no sculpture of Padmavati as yaksint even though quite a large number of figures of the yaksi Ambika and also representations of the scene of Parsvana tha's austerities and the attack of Kamatha are found in these caves. However, only one separate figure of a standing Padmavati is found carved on one side of the doors leading to the upper floors of the cave adjoining the Jagannatha Sabha and is perhaps a later addition without plan. An eight-armed form was intended. All the symbols are not clear, but the lotus, the bow and the arrow can be recognised.287 In fact Parsva and Gommata are the most popular figures in these as well as the other Jaina caves like those of Badami and Aihole. The only yaksa and yaksi met with are the common type of the Kubera-like yaksa and Ambika who were unfortunately miscalled Indra and Indrani. In fact, these represented the earlier examples of yaksa and yaksini pair in the Jaina Pantheon. 278 Once Padmavati was introduced in Jainism, she tried to usurp with success the place of the only important snake-goddess in early Jainism, namely, Vairotya. That Vairotya was popular is shown by the fact that both Bappabhatti and Sobhana invoked her in their works. Besides, the Jaina traditions associate Vairotya with Arya Nagila Suri who flourished in the early centuries of the Christian era.288 While the Vimala Vasahi at Abu as well as the Kumbharia temples contain a large number of sculptures of Vairotya of different iconographic varieties, Padmavati is practically absent or thrown into backgrounds which fact clearly shows that at least in the eleventh century A.D., Vairotya remained more popular amongst Jainas of Western India. Such a goddess as Padmavati could never have been underrated by Vimala Saha, Tejapala and others had she obtained, in the age of Vimala Saha, the status which she now holds in Jaina worship. But Padmavati seems to have been more popular in other parts of India since 8th-9th centuries A.D. Padmavati offers interesting comparison with snake deities of Hindu and Buddhist pantheons. Manasa,289 the popular snake-goddess in Bengali folklore and worship, is always represented with snakehoods over the crown, and with a huge snake as vahana. Figures of Manasa, however, usually show a child in the lap or on one side, and two snakes in her two hands. There are other forms also, with the swan as the vehicle and showing the book, rosary, varada and pot. In this form Manasa is similar to Sarasvati,290 But the literature on Manasa only shows the unsettled nature of her origin as well as iconography. Some scholars suggest that Manasa has an affinity with the Buddhist snake-goddess Janguli,291 who "appears to have been the divinity of the aboriginal tribes of India".292 Others are of opinion "that the goddess Mancha of the Dravidians has obtained in Bengal the semiSanskritized name of Manasa" 293 Still others have shown that the Manasa cult first obtained a footing in Aryanised Bengal in the 10th-11th century.294 The attempts to identify Manasa with Jaratkaru of Mahabharata have proved less convincing, and the subject still remains a controversial one. The account of Manasa however shows certain outstanding facts: firstly, her enmity with the famous Brahmanical goddess Candi, and secondly, her origin from the lotus wherefrom she derived her name Padma. She was called Manasa as she was born from Siva's mind. Taking into consideration these two main facts, her origin should be sought from the (non-Brahmin and) Jaina snake-goddess Padmavati who had already become popular in the 10th century A.D. Both have snake-hoods over their heads and both have a snake as the vahana. Besides, the antipathy between the followers of the Jaina and the Brahmanical traditions is well-known. The story of Manasa is possibly reminiscent of the struggle for supremacy and popularity as the most powerful goddess between Padmavati and Candi.295 The former became victorious and was introduced into the Brahmanical worship although in a somewhat modified form. It is of interest to note that the Jaina texts emphasise Padmavati's association with padma or the lotus. She is called variously as Padma, Padmahasta, Padmasamstha, Padma-katini, Padmavadana, and Kamalavati which shows that the goddess originally perhaps held the lotus symbol only, and that the form

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 279 with the goad and the noose was a later development. Archaeological evidence referred to previously also points to the same conclusion. The lotus again is the chief recognition symbol of the Buddhist Taras, and here again Padmavati offers an interesting comparison. One of the forms of Padmavati is almost identical with that of Durgottarini Tara. Again, Visvamata, a variety of white Tara, actually rides on a snake, while the Buddhist snake-goddess Janguli, who sits on the snake-vehicle, is also a variety of Tara. The four-armed Pomini-devi (Padmini-devi) described in the Jaina text Karakanda-cariu, holding the book and the lotus amongst other symbols, 296 finds another Buddhist parallel in the Dhananda Tara,297 Jaina Tantras also identify her with Tara on the one hand and Durga and Gauri on the other. SriCandra suri in his Adbhuta-Padmavati-Kalpa calls her Candi, Tara, Taravatara and Durga, thus suggesting some sort of relationship amongst them. In another place, the same author eulogises the goddess as Padmayati of the Jainas, Gauri of the Saivites, Tara of the Buddhists, Praksti of the Samkhyas, Gayatri of the Bhattamargis and Vajra of the Kaulikas. According to the author, she is found everywhere in every religion and every cult, even the whole universe is pervaded by her.298 The same idea is repeated in the Padmavati Stotra where she is named Tripura.299 It is thus possible that Padmavati originated from the conception of the Buddhist Tara. The earliest texts like the Bhagavati and Sthananga do not mention her in the lists of chief queens of Dharanendra. Padmavati with the lotus symbol is only a later innovation in the mythology of Parsvanatha. In the scenes of Kamatha's attack at Ellora and other places she (Padmavati) is not known and the queen of Dharanendra, holding the umbrella, is called Padmavati (in the preceding descriptions of such reliefs) for the sake of convenience only. In all early sculptures, at least upto the beginning of the ninth century A.D., Padmavati did not figure as the Yaksini of Parsvanatha, but it was Ambika who figured as the Yaksioi for all Tirthankaras. With this it must be remembered that both Padmavati and Tara are chiefly associated with the lotus. Padmavati and Janguli are remarkably alike. The Buddhist snake-goddess Janguli is a variety of Tara, She resides on the snake and has a snake over her crown. Now, Janguli, according to (later) Buddhist traditions, is as old as Buddha himself"300 which suggests that she existed in ancient Indian popular worship in the age of Buddha and Mahavira, or that a prototype of her with any other name certainly did exist. It is always difficult to ascertain the correct age of introduction of a god or goddess in any pantheon, since the presence of the deity is generally noted in the texts much later when the deity is already popular with the laity. As noted above, Jaina texts address Padmavati as Durga and Gauri and say that she herself is Tripura. This is borne out by the fact that the symbols of Tripura given in the Rupamandana exactly correspond to those of Padmavati described in the Padmavati-mantramnaya-vidhi. Both show the abhaya, the varada, the noose and the goad. Tripura in the Brahmanical pantheon is only one of the forms of Gauri. Moreover, deities like Jaya, Vijaya, Ajita, Aparajita---the doorkeepers associated with Padmavati and the deities Mohini and Sthambhini, who find a place in the Yantras of Padmavali, are also included in the lists of pratiharas of the Brah manical Gauri. The lotus is also one of the most common symbols of Gauri and is seen in the hands of Uma, Gaury and Savitri. But Padmavati does not seem to have been directly borrowed from Gauri although one or more forms may be found to possess similarity in symbols. The source of Tara, Padmavati and Gauri-- the three well-known goddesses of the principal Indian sects-should be searched elsewhere, when it is known that Jaina writers regard them as all forms of one and the same deity. And the nearest approach to them is the ancient goddess Padma-Sri, so thoroughly discussed by Coomaraswamy and Moticandra. The lotus symbol was primarily associated with the goddess of wealth and beauty -- Laksmi or Padmi-Sri. The Jaina Padmavati is a mixture of two cults-- one of Sirima Devata and the Naga cult of the ancient Magadha where Jainism had its origin. That Padmi-Sri or the Padmini Vidya is the source of these three goddesses is evident from the following passage, from Bharata, first pointed by J.N. Banerji:

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280 No. 1. 2. 3. In Hindu traditions Padmavati is also referred to as Sakti of Siva where she is also associated with the snakes, cf.: 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Symbols holding chatra over Parsva both hands folded r. h. lotus 1. h. on lap (katihasta) r. h. lotus 1. h. cup with sweets r. abhaya 1. lotus r. snake 1. fruit r. lotus 1. mace g. u. noose r. 1. lotus r. u. goad r. 1. lotus rosary+vyakhyana mudra in one hand, water-jar in the other varada, lotus fruit, flower r. u. goad r. 1. varada r. u. goad r. 1. abhaya same as 4 r. u. goad r. 1. varada same as 6 padminI nAma yA vidyA lakSmIstasyAdhidevatA / tadAdhArazca nidhayaH tAnme nigadataH zruNu 101 Symbols nAmAdhIsvaraviSTa kisanavI bhAsvalatA divAkaranibhAM netratrayodbhAsitAm / mAlA kumbhakapAlanIrajakarAM candrArdhacUDAM parAM sarvajevara bhairavAnanapadmAvata cintaye / / -Markandeya Purana, chp. 86 Iconographic Tables of Forms of Padmavati A. Two-Armed Variety 1. u. goad 1. 1. citron I. u. noose 1. 1. citron 1. u. noose 1. 1. citron 1. u. noose 1. 1. citron 1. u. noose 1. 1. citron Colour red 11 1 B. Four-Armed Variety Colour golden or red red red red Hoods 1 1 or 3 or 5 3 red red terrific red 5 ? 3 111 Hoods 3 1, 3, or 5 1 or 3 1 or 7 3 1, 3, or 5 -- Vahana Jaina-Rupa-Mandana snake mermaid kukkuta-sarpa Vahana k.-sarpa k.-sarpa k-surpa kukkuta swan swan k.-sarpa lotus seat Tradition Dig. Dig. & Sve. Dig. Sve. Dig. Sve. Dig. Dig. Dig. Dig. Tradition Sve. & Dig. Sve. & Dig. Dig. Dig. Dig. Sve. Dig. & Sve.

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 281 Symbols Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition red 2 k.-sarpa Sve. 9. red 3 or 5 k-sarpa Sve. 3 or 5 k.-sarpa Sve. & Dig. 11. 3 k.-sarpa Dig. white Sve. wbite swan k.-sarpa 1 or 3 Dig. & Sve. red golden Sve. or Dig. Sve. cock 16. cock Sve. golden or black kukkuta Sve. kukkuta Dig. kukkuta Sve. r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. 1. varadaksa 1. I. fruit r. u. noose 1. u. goad r. 1. varadaksa 1. 1. fruit r. u. noose 1. u. goad r. 1. varada 1. 1. fruit r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. l. varada 1. 1. lotus lotus, goad, varada, noose r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. I. varada 1. 1. snake noose, goad, snake, fruit r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. 1. varada 1. 1. abhaya r. u. noose 1. u. goad r. l. lotus 1. l. fruit r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. l. & l. 1. folded, anjali mudra r. u. empty 1. u. empty r. 1. & 1. 1. folded, anjali 1. u. goad 1. u. noose r. 1. rosary 1. I. pot r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. l. rosary 1. 1. varada r. u. goad 1. u. noose r. l. abhaya 1. 1. kataka T. u. lotus 1. u. lotus r. 1. varada 1. 1. pot r. u. lotus 1. u. lotus r. l. abhaya 1. 1. pot r. u. lotus 1. u. book? r. 1. varada 1. 1. pot r. u. lotus I. u. lotus r. 1. fruit 1. 1. pot vajra, goad, noose, lotus 1. u. axe 1. u. noose r. 1. varada 1. l. citron r. u. sword I. u. shield r. 1. lotus 1. 1. citron r. u. lotus 1. u. lotus r. l. noose 1. 1. goad goad, lotus, rosary, varada 1. u. lotus 1. u. goad r. 1. snake 1. I. conch T. u. axe I. u. vajra r. l. abhaya 1. I. kataka kukkuta Dig. Dig. u padmasana Dig. Dig. red k.-sarpa Sve. swan Sve. ? Dig. ? Dig. . : Dig. : k-sarpa Sve. 30. lotus-seat kukkuta Dig. Sve. swan Dig. .

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282 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana C. Six-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition 1. red noose, spear, sword, crescent, club, pestle - k.-sarpa Dig. SPECIAL FORMS Bhairava-Padmayati Four-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition k.-sarpa Dig. & r. u. goad 1. u, noose r. l. varada 1. 1. fruit r. u. noose 1. u. goad r. 1. varada 1. 1. fruit fruit, varada, noose, goad red terrific red Sve. I or 3 k.-sarpa lotus seat swan Sve. & Dig. Sve. red (1) Totala 1. noose, vajra, fruit, lotus (red) k.-sarpa Dig. (2) Tvarita 1. (red) k.-sarpa Dig. conch, lotus abhaya, varada (3) Nitya 1. (red) noose, goad lotus, rosary ? swan Dig. (4) Kamasadhini red k.-sarpa conch, disc fruit, lotus Dig. (5) Sri-Padma 1. lotus, goad, varada, noose white Sve. & white swan lotus seat Dig.

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 283 (6) Tripura D. Eight-Armed Variety red k.-sarpa Dig. trident, goad, bow, fruit lotus, sword, vajra, varada disc, lotus, arrow, goad lotus, shield, ghanta, fruit red 5 or 7 k.-sarpa Dig. (7) Tripura-Bhairavi conch, bow, sword, lotus red k.-sarpa disc, arrow, shield, fruit ? Dig. E. Twelve-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition (red) 5 k.-sarpa Dig. right-club, bow, lotus, arrow, varada, sword left--?, vajra, snake, noose, bow, fruit vajra, sword, axe, arrow, varada, shield, disc, mace, goad, bow, lotus, snake (red) 5 padmasana Dig. F. Twenty-two-Armed Variety No. Symbols Sumi Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition 1. red 3 k.-sarpa Dig. r. 1. vajra r. 2. lotus r. 3. chatra r. 4. kapala r. 5. bow r. 6. plough r. 7. bhindimala r. 8. trident T. 9. cobra r. 10. staff r. 11. stone 1. 1. goad 1. 2. disc 1. 3. damaru 1. 4. sword 1. 5. pestle 1. 6. jvala 1. 7. taramandala 1. 8. axe 1. 9. club 1. 10. noose 1. 11. big tree

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284 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana G. Twenty-four-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Hoods Vahana Tradition 1. (red) k.*dzagra Dig. conch, sword, disc, crescent, lotus, stone, bow, sakti, noose, goad, bell, arrow, pestle, shield, trident, axe, spear, vajra, rosary, fruit, club, leaf, (lotus-stalk, varada H. Multi-Armed Variety (red) k.-sarpa Dig. innumerable weapons like swords, shields, bows, arrows, vajras, naracas, faktis, salyas, discs, ploughs, pestles, nooses, etc. XXIV. Yaksini of the Twenty-Fourth Jina Mahavira A. SIDDHAYIKA (Svetambara) Siddhayika is one of the four principal yaksis302 in the Jaina pantheon of both the sects and is worshipped by the same name. Her position as a principal yaksi is wholly due to her Master, Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Jina. Yaksipis like Ambika and Padmavati have attained more prominence the first because of the antiquity of her cult and the second because of her being a snike-deity, and because of being a yaksi of Paravanatha who is a prominent figure in the Jaina Tantra.303 Siddhiyika is worshipped in only one principal variety of form, namely, the four-armed one, in the Svetambara traditions. Her chief distinguishing symbols are the book and the lion vehicle. It should be noted that lion is also the cognizance of her Master, Mahavira. According to Hemacandra, she is greenish in appearance and rides on the lion. In her right hands she shows the book and the abhaya, while she carries the citron and the lute in the left ones. Both the Pravacana-saroddhara-ika and the Mantradhiraja-kalpa follow this tradition.304 According to the Nirvanakalika, the lute in one of the left hands is replaced by the arrow while the rest of the symbols remain unchanged.305 Silpa texts like the Devatamurti-prakarana and the Ripamandana follow the Nirvanakalika.306 The Acaradinakara gives another form. Riding on the lion the goddess shows the book and the abhaya in her right hands while she carries the noose and the lotus in the left ones. The devi is green in complexion. 307 A figure of the goddess is found on a pillar in the raiigamandapa of the Vimala Vasahi, Abu (fig. 194A). The goddess here stands in triblanga and carries the book and the vina in the right and the left upper hands. The right lower one is held in the varada mudra while the fourth hand is mutilated. Her vehicle sitting near the left foot, though mutilated, can still be identified as the lion.3084 Another sculpture of the yaksi is found from a temple in Cambay. 308) The goddess here sits in lalitasana with her left leg tucked up and the other one hanging. Over her head is the miniature figure of her Master Mahavira while a small lion is seen in front of her bhadrasana. The book and the vina are held in her right and the left upper hands. The right lower one is held in the abhaya pose while the corresponding left hand carries the citron (fig. 193). A third sculpture of the yaksi with identical symbols is found from Patan (fig. 194).308.

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Four More Popular Yaksinis On the outer wall of the sanctum of Kharatara Vasahi, Delvada, Abu, is a figure of Siddhayika in a sitting posture and carrying the vina and the book in the right and the left upper hands and showing the fruit and the abhaya mudra in the corresponding lower ones. The tiger is shown as her vahana (see Fig. 102 in this book). A painted figure of the Yaksi with the label Sri Siddhayika Sasanadevata is found on a cloth painting of Vardhamana-Vidya-Pata, assignable to c. fifteenth century, published by U.P. Shah.309 Yellow in complexion, Siddhayika holds the lotus-stalk with her right lower hand, and shows the varada mudra with the right upper one. Her left upper hand carries the goad while the lower one, partly defaced, shows the pravacana mudra. A miniature drawing of her lion vehicle is visible below her right foot tucked up. The goddess sits in the lalitasana on a big cushion. B. SIDDHAYIKA, APARAJITA AND KAMACANDALINI (Digambara) The yaksini of Vardhamana is known variously as Siddhayika, Aparajita or Kamacandali in the Digambara traditions. Of these, the first is the most popular designation while the other two are wellnigh forgotten. The yaksi is called Kamacandali in only one work, namely, the Vidyanusasana. Puspadanta, in his Mahapurana,310 addresses her as Siddhayini, but does not detail her iconographic symbols. 285 The goddess is found worshipped in two principal varieties of form--the two-armed and the twelvearmed. As Kamacandali, she is described as having four arms. APARAJITA Of the two-armed forms of the yaksi of Mahavira, the form known as Aparajita requires to be differentiated from the other two-armed forms when she is called Siddhayika. Firstly, Aparajita represents the oldest known form of the yaksi of Mahavira.311 Secondly, Aparajita seems to represent a wholly different tradition and is not a variety of Siddhayika. Though no dhyana for Aparajita is forthcoming, the Jaina temple no. 12 at Devgadh furnishes an interesting form of the goddess. The slab representing Aparajita has the label "Vardhamanasya" on one side and "Aparajita" below the figure of the yaksi (see Fig. 95 in this book). Thus, in earlier Digambara traditions, the yaksi of Vardhamana was known as Aparajita and not as Siddhayika. It should also be remembered that the group of yaksinis found in this temple represents perhaps the oldest known labelled Digambara set hitherto discovered in North India; the seven yaksis in the Orissan Navamuni Cave probably date from late ninth century but unfortunately they are not labelled. In Devgadh temple 12, Aparajita is represented standing with her right hand in the kataka pose and the left one carrying the fly-whisk.311" Curiously enough, we find Aparajita in the list of the Jaya group discussed elsewhere by us.312 The four goddesses Jaya, Vijaya, Ajita and Aparajita of the group are invoked in the famous VardhamanaVidya,313 a Tantric charm related to the worship of Vardhamana as its name would suggest. The antiquity of the Vardhamana-Vidya is attested by the Mahanisitha sutra and by the tradition that it was first composed by Gautama swami, the first disciple of Mahavira.314 No wonder, therefore, if Aparajita obtained the first chance of being the yaksini of Vardhamana. It will also be advisable to take her as an independent deity and not a variety of form of Siddhayika. We have no evidence to ascertain whether the Aparajita of Mahavira's age had the same form as that on Devgadh temple no. 12 or not. SIDDHAYIKA 1. Two-Armed Variety Vasunandi says that Siddhayika is golden in complexion and has two arms showing the varada and book. The yaksi sits on the bhadrasana,315 Asadhara Pandita gives the same form and adds that the

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286 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana goddess rides on the lion.316 The Pratishatilaka 317 specifies that the book is held in the left hand while the varada mudra is shown by the right one. The Aparajitaprocha 318 gives the abhaya for varada in the above tradition. According to the Canarese dhyana slokas, the yaksi shows the abhaya mudra with the right hand while the left one is held open with the fingers hanging down and the palm upwards (varada muudra ?). The swan is her vehicle. 319 In the Seattle Art Museum (U.S.A.) is a beautiful, almost completely preserved stone sculpture depicting 24 Tirthankaras in all with Mahavira in the centre. The lion cognizance of Mahavira is on the lowermost part of the pedestal. The yaksi on the left end of the simhasana is here two-arnied showing the sword in her right hand and the shield in the left. Her vahana is not shown. The sculpture, probably from Madhya Pradesh, dates from c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. At Khajuraho, on three sculptures of Mahavira, two-armed Siddhayika shows the abhaya mudra with one hand and carries the fruit or the lotus with the other. 320. On pedestals of Mahavira images at Devgadh, Tiwari notes two-armed forms of the yaksi showing the abhaya or flower in one hand and the fruit or the pot in the other. 320) Tiwari has noted one very interesting form of the yaksi of Mahivira from temple no. 11, Devgadh: on an image of Mahavira (1048 A.D.) in this temple, the yaksi has three snake-hoods over head. The devi carries a child and a fruit in her two hands 3200 In the Sahu Samgrahalaya, Devgadh, on a Covisi sculpture of Mahavira (c. 12th century A.D.), the two-armed yaksini displays the abhaya mudra with one hand and holds a book with the other.3204 Two sculptures of Mahavira, Nos. J.808 and J.782 in the Lucknow Museum, have figures of twoarmed yaksi Siddhayika showing the abhaya mudra with the right hand and carrying a kalasa in her left hand.3206 In the Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur, M.P., on a Mahavira image of c. 10th century A.D., Tiwari has noticed a two-armed yaksi holding the vina with both the hands.320/ Amongst mutilated sculptures collected from this shrine is preserved a mutilated sculpture of Mahavira with only the hands and the legs crossed in padmasana remaining and the upper parts lost. The Jina is sitting on a visva-padma resting on a simhasana with the dharmacakra in the centre and lion on each side of the wheel. Another figure of a lion, half seen above the wheel, represents the cognizance of Mahavira. On the right side of the simhasana, is a two-armed pot-bellied yaksa, possibly called Sarvanha, while on the left is the yaksi Siddhayika with her left foot tucked up. Two-armed, she shows the abhaya mudra with her right hand and carries the citron in the left one. Fig. 8 in JOI, vol. 22, op. cit. represents the above mutilated sculpture of Mahavira, reproduced from negative no. 16/93 of the Department of Archaeology of the old Gwalior State, the sculpture seems to date from c. tenth century A.D. On a sculpture of Mahavira, obtained from Arthuna, Rajasthan, and preserved in the Rajputana Museum (no. 279), Ajmer, the yaksi Siddhayika carries a sword in one hand. Two-armed, she has the lion-vahana. Her other hand is mutilated. The sculpture is dated in v.s. 1061 = A.D. 1004. The two-armed variety of Siddhayini images seem to have been quite popular in Southern India. A sculpture of a standing Jina, identified as Mahavira due to the miniature figure of his lion-cognizance carved on the pedestal, is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. The yaksa and the yaksi, shown on two sides near the legs of the Jina, are in a standing pose. Both are two-armed. The yaksi holds the book in her left lower hand, while the symbol of her right hand is not distinct.3214 In the ceiling of the Santinatha Basti, Kambada halli, Mandya district, Mysore State, is a beautiful central panel, carved in bold relief, showing Mahavira sitting on a simhasana with his lion cognizance shown in the centre and attended by four fiy-whisk bearers and flying demi-gods. To the right of the throne is the Matanga-yaksa on an elephant, while the yaksi Siddhayini, sitting in the lalita pose on her lion-mount, is shown on the left end. The goddess is two-armed and carries the lotus in her right hand while her left hand holds the citron. She wears a crown and several ornaments. The beautiful sculpture, carved in fine minute detail, is an interesting specimen of Gangavadi style of c. 1130 A.D. (see Fig. 49 in this book).

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 287 Another beautiful sculpture also hails from Kambadahalli, Pancakuta Basti. On the big ornate crown of the goddess is a miniature figure of Mahavira. The goddess sits on a pedestal in front of which is shown her lion vehicle with two figures riding on it. It would seem these two are the sons of Ambikayaksi and that the sculpture represents the yaksini Ambika. But here the goddess does not sit under a mango tree (which is invariably shown in reliefs of Ambika) and hence it might be better to identify her tentatively as Siddhayini holding the citron in her left hand. The upper part of the symbol held in her right hand is mutilated. This was either a book (palm-leaf ms.) or a fly-whisk 321) Boldly conceived and carved with every minute detail of her costly heavy ornaments and a lower garment with numerous folds, the sculpture shows Cola influence and perhaps dates from the eleventh century. P.B. Desai322 has referred to a two-armed goddess carved on a rock surface at Anaimalai Hill near Madura. She carries the fruit in her right hand while the left hand rests on her lap. The goddess is shown sitting in the lalitasana. P.B. Desai identifies her as Siddhayika. P.B. Desai has also described a rock-cut relief of a goddess riding on a lion found at Settipodava near Kilakkudi, Madurai district.323 The det. "holds a drawn bow in the right hand and arrow in the left, the other two hands also bearing weapons. The lion has grappled an elephant ridden by a male warrior with sword and shield in his hands." The goddess is identified by Desai as Siddhayini, "on account of her characteristic association with the lion." He further adds that "the sculpture probably portrays a familiar episode connected with her exploits." Since this "familiar episode" is not described. nor its source referred to, it would be safer to regard this identification as tentative. The relief probably represents Kottavi or Kottarya, Kottakiriya, a form of Durga discussed in the preceding portion on Ambika. 2. Four-Armed Variety A four-armed form of the yaksini of Mahavira is obtained in the big bas-relief sculpture of Mahavira from the Jaina Cave at Badami. H.D. Sankalia describes her as carrying in the upper right hand a weapon which cannot be identified while her lower right hand shows the abhaya mudra and the upper left one carries a weapon with an ovalish hollow head. On the seat is carved in low relief a bird identified by Sankalia as a swan, but it seems to be of doubtful identification.323" Sankalia's identification of the symbols deserves correction. The right upper hand clearly shows the goad with the top end of the handle partly broken, the left upper hand holds the noose. The right lower hand, partly mutilated, might have shown the abhaya. The left lower holds the citron or pot. The vahana is not clear. The goddess sits under the shade of a tree, which looks like a mango tree. The form is unknown to available Digambara texts, but looking to the probable age of the cave, it represents a now lost Jaina tradition in Karnataka. This and some other reliefs in this cave seem to be somewhat later carvings than the Jaina cave itself which latter is not much later than the Vaisnava cave near it, containing an inscription of Mangalia. It may also be remembered that two-armed variety according to the Canarese dhyana slokas prescribes the swan vehicle for Siddhayika. The swan vehicle reminds one of Sarasvati and the iconography of the goddess Siddhayika in both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions shows her association with one or more symbols connected with a form of Sarasvati. Thus the book according to Vasunandi and Asadhara, or the vina in the Svetambara tradition and on a Maladevi temple sculpture in the Digambara tradition may be noted. The lion is also a vehicle of Sarasvati represented as Vagdevi in the Brahmanical tradition. But the lion vehicle of Siddhayika might have been influenced by the lion cognizance of Mahavira though such a thing has not happened in the case of yaksinis of all other Tirtharkaras. On a c. 10th century image of Mahavira in Temple no. 1, Devgadh, the yaksi shows the abhaya, the lotus with stalk, the lotus stalk, and the fruit in her four hands.323) Tiwari has noticed some new forms of four-armed yaksini of Mahavira at Khajuraho. Since, as shown by him, they accompany figures of Mahavira, we have to identify them as representing some rare

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288 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana varieties of four-armed forms of Siddhayika. As shown by him, on an image in Temple no. 2, Khajuraho, the yaksi, four-armed, rides on the lion and carries the fruit, the disc, the lotus and the conch in her hands. On an image of Mahavira on a wall of Temple 21, Khajuraho, the yaksi rides on the lion and shows the varada mudra, the sword, the cakra and the fruit in her four hands. No. K.17 in the Khajuraho Museum has the yaksi riding on the lion and showing the cakra, the lotus and the conch in her three hands, the fourth hand is mutilated.323c In view of the above evidence from Khajuraho, Tiwari's identification of a four-armed goddess on the uttaranga of Temple no. 4, Khajuraho, and another from uttaranga of Temple 5, Devgadh--both showing the same set of symbols-may be correct.3234 The four-armed goddess in each case rides on the lion and shows the varada mudra, the sword, the shield and the kalasa (pot) in her four hands. Identification of these two figures with the sixteenth Mahavidya Mahamanasi cannot however be ruled out. Douglas Barrett has described a c. ninth century bronze of Mahavira, worshipped in a shrine at Karanja in the Akola district, which shows a four-armed Yaksi Siddhayika who "carries an axe and a lotus in her upper left and right hands, and a citron and a flower (?) in her lower" bando 324 The bronze probably hailed from Karnataka as can be inferred from a bronze in Nahara's collection, in similar style and having an inscription on its back.325 3. Twelve-Armed Variety The titleless palm-leaf manuscript from Jina-Kanchi gives a twelve-armed form showing the sword, the shield, the flower, the arrow, the bow, the noose, the disc, the staff, the varada pose, the blue waterlily, and the abhaya-mudra. The eagle is her vahana.326 A twelve-armed figure of the goddess is reproduced by Ramachandran, from a temple in Jina-Kanchi. The goddess here stands on a lotus and shows in the first row of two hands the cakra and the conch. In the second pair are found the goad and the noose, in the third the arrow and the bow, in the fourth the sword and the shield, in the fifth the blue water-lily and the lotus and in the last or the bottom row the rosary and the varada (fig. 155A),327 S. Settar, op. cit., p. 41, describes a twelve-armed image of Siddhayika accompanying Vardhamana in a cell of Pancakuta Basti, Markuli. The yaksi is "wielding (from right bottom) the varada mudra, a vajra, a kafaka (?), a bana, a khadga, a bana; (from top) a bow, a padma, a shield, a phala, an aksamala, and a bow." 4. Twenty-Armed Variety The seven yaksi is in the Navamuni Cave, Khandagiri, Orissa, date from c. ninth century A.D., as stated above, but these figures do not include any representation of Siddhayika. However, in the Barabhuji Cave near the Navamuni, are found complete sets of all the 24 Tirthaokaras and the 24 Sasanadevis. But these figures stylistically seem to be of a later date, of about eleventh or twelfth century A.D. Here, Siddhayika, the yaksini of Mahavira, is represented as twenty-armed. She shows, in her right hands, the varada mudra, spear, rosary, arrow, small staff (?), hammer, hala, vajra, disc and sword. Of the attributes in her left hands, a water-jar, book, citron (?), lotus, bell (?), bow, nagapasa and shield are identifiable.328 KAMACANDALINI (Four-Armed Varicty) The Digambara Tantric text Vidyanusasana tells us that Kamacandalini is another name of Siddhayika, the yaksini of Vardhamana. The text gives a full sadhana with the mulamantra and the yantra. According to it, Kamacandalini has four arms. Naked, she moves with her hair untied and her person bedecked with ornaments. Dark in appearance, she bears in her four hands the fruit, the golden

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289 Four More Popular Yaksinis jar, the staff of salmali (Bombay Malabericum), and the damaru 329 representations of Kamacandalini are still unknown. The form is of a late origin and Iconographic Tables of Forms of Siddhayika SIDDHAYIKA (Sve.) Four-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Vahana Green Green Green 1. right-book, abhaya; left-vina, citron 2. right-book, abhaya; left-arrow, citron 3. right-book, abhaya; left -noose, lotus 4. r.u. book, I.u. vina; r.l. varada, 1.1. X 5. r.u. book, l.u, vina; r.l. abhaya, 1.1. citron 6. r.u. varada, I.u., goad; r.l. lotus stalk, 1.1. pravacana (?) Lion Lion Lion Lion Tiger (?) Lion (?) APARAJITA (Dig.) Two-Armed Variety No. Symbols Colour Vahana 1. right-kataka, left--fly-whisk SIDDHAYIKA (Dig.) 1. Two-Armed Varicty No. Symbols Colour Vahana Golden Golden Golden Lion Lion Swan 1. r.h. varada l.h. book 2. r.h. abhaya l.h. book 3. r.h. abhaya l.h. varada (?) or hanging down 4. r.h. sword 1.h. shield 5. r.h. abhaya 1.h. citron 6. r.h. lotus l.h. citron 7. r.h. fruit 1.h. on lap 8. vina with both the hands 9. child, fruit (three snake-hoods) 10. abhaya or flower and fruit or pot

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290 No. 1. Symbols r.u. goad 1.u. noose r.l. (abhaya) 1.1. citron or pot 2. r.u. lotus l.u. axe No. r.l. flower 1.1. citron 3. abhaya, lotus-stalk, lotus-stalk, fruit 4. fruit, cakra, padma, sankha 5. varada, sword (khadga), cakra, fruit 6. varada, khadga, khetaka (shield), pot Symbols 2. Four-Armed Variety 1. sword, shield, flower, arrow, bow, noose, disc, staff, varada, nilotpala, abhaya 3. Twelve-Armed Variety 2. 1st pair- cakra, conch 2nd pair-goad, noose 3rd pair-arrow, bow 4th pair-sword, shield 5th pair-nllotpala, lotus 6th pair-rosary, varada 3. varada, vajra, kataka, bana, khadga, bana, bow, padma, shield, fruit, goad, bow 1. fruit, staff, jar, damaru I. r. hands-varada, spear, rosary, arrow, staff, hammer, hala, vajra, disc, sword 4. Twenty-Armed Variety 1. hands-water-jar, book, citron, lotus, bell (?), bow, noose, shield, ?, ? KAMACANDALI (Dig.) Four-Armed Variety Colour 1 1 1 1 1 Colour Dark Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Vahana Lion Lion Vahana Eagle Lion Elephant

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 1. For iconography of Cakresvari vidya, see forthcoming Jaina Rupamandana, Vol. II, chapter on Sixteen Mahavidyas and Shah, U.P., Iconography of Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XV (1947), pp. 132ff and plates. REFERENCES la. Dhaky, M.A., Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I (Bombay, 1968), pp. 337-338. 2. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rabhanatha, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda (JOI), Vol. XX, no. 3, pp. 280-313, Figure 1. 3. Dikshit, S.K., A Guide to the State Museum, Dhubela, Nowgong (1957), pp. 16-17. 4. A standing figure of this variety of form, with a manlike eagle vahana on one side, from Vadnagar, Gujarat, is discussed in Sradhyaya (Carati Jounal, Baroda), Vol. VI, no. 1, p. 1. 5. garutmatpRSTha AsInA kArtasvarasamacchatriH / bhUyAdapraticakrA naH siddhaye cakradhAriNI / Acaradinakara, I, p. 162 ArUDhA garuDaM hemADabhAisamA nAzitAribhiH / pAyAdatravicakA vo bhAsamAnA zitAribhiH // Caturvimsatika (Prof. Kapadia's ed.), v. 28, p. 28 6. tathA praticakrAM taDidvarNAM garuDavAnAM cakracatuSTayabhUSitakarAM ceti / -Nirvanakalika, p. 37 7. Iconography of Cakresvari, JOI, op. cit., figure 4. 8. yA bhinnavarNA naravAhanasthA bhujezvatubhidhUtabhavyacakrA / vibhUSaNAlaGkRtadehabhAgA cakrezvarI to duritAni hantu // 7 // Mantradhiraja-kalpa, 3rd patala, verse 2, Jaina-StotraSandoha, II, p. 240 8a. A serious difficulty, however, is presented by a group of 16 vidyas represented as six-armed and arranged in a circle in a ceiling in front of cell no. 41, Vimala vasahi, where the Apraticakra Vidya is shown as carrying the conch instead of the fruit held by other figures of this Vidya in the same temple. The Vimala-vasahi underwent repairs in the twelfth and later centuries. Hence it all depends upon the age we assign to an image under consideration. In a ceiling of the Santinatha temple, Kumbharia, the Apraticakra Vidya shows the conch instead of the fruit in the fourth hand. 9. The manuscript is preserved in the Samghavi-pada Bhandara, Patan, and can be assigned to the latter half of the fourteenth century A.D. The first parva gives life of Rsabhanatha whose yaksi is Cakresvari. 10. A similar form is also found on the southern outer wall of the gudhamandapa of the temple built by Kumbha Rana at Chitod, see Dhaky & Bapana, Sri Citrakute Kumaraviharam, in Svadhyaya (Gujarati Journal), Vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 561ff, fig. 4. 11. They are: Brahmani, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Varahi, Indrani, Camunda and Tripura. A SarasvataKalpa ascribed to Bappabhatisuri gives Brahmani, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Varahi, Vaisnavi, Camunda, Candika and Mahalaksmi. The Vrddhasampradaya of Uvasaggahara-stotra, verse 1 omits Capdika and Mahalaksmi from the above list but adds Indrani. 11a. For a discussion on Matrkas in Jainism, see Shah, U.P., Some Minor Jaina Deities-Matykas and Dikpalas, Journal of the M.S. University of Baroda, Vol. XXX (1981), no. 1, pp. 75-109 and plates. 12. Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas, JISOA, Vol. XV (1947), pp. 137ff. 13. nAmato'praticakreti hemAbhA garuDAsanA / varapradeSubhuccakripAzibhidakSiNairbhujaiH // vAmahastairdhanuvaM jJacatrAGkuzadharairyutA / 291 tattIrthabhUrabhUtpArzva bhatuH zAsanadevatA // Trisastisalakapurusacarita, parva I, sarga 3, vv. 682-83 14. tathA tasminneva tIrthe samutpannAmapraticatrAbhidhAnAM yakSiNI hemavarNA garuDavAnAmaSTabhujAM varada bANa cakrapANayuktadakSiNakarAM dhanu-vaM catrAkuzavAmahastAM ceti / Nirvanakalika, p. 34 15. Pravacanasaroddhara-tika, I, p. 94. The text calls her Cakvesvari and says that the deity is called Apraticakra according to another tradition. 16. tAkSyaMsthitiH kanakakAntitanustu pAza g=avceforfeber cAkuzAza nidhanu tavAmahastA cakrezvarI sukhakarI bhavinAM sadA syAt // -Mantradhiraja-kalpa, patala 3, verse 51, published in Jaina Stotra-sandoha, Vol. II, p. 247 17. Acaradinakara of Vardhamanasuri, part 2, p. 176. 18. Kala-Lokaprakasa of Vinaya Vijaya, Chp. 32, verses 227-28. 19. For the date of Sagaracandra, the author of Mantradhirajakalpa, see JUB, Vol. IX, part 2, p. 160, footnote 2. Some verses of Sagaracandra are quoted in Ganaratnamahodadhi (v.s. 1197). Another Sagaracandra belonging to Rajagaccha was teacher of author of Samketa comm. on Kavyaprakasa, in v.s. 1226. A third Sagaracandra was made acarya by Jinarajasuri of Kharatara-gaccha in fifteenth cent. A.D. 20. Calcutta Skt. Series, Vol. XII, p. 135 for Devata-murtiprakarana, Chp. 7, verse 19 and p. 44 for Rupamandana, Chp. 6, v. 18. 21a. Tiwari, Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, p. 167. What Tiwari calls challa is to my mind another form of cakra. 21b. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa (Delhi, 1984), p. 224. 22. This as well as the Pratisthatilaka verses are quoted below in the discussion on the twelve-armed variety. 23. Pratistha-tilaka (composed in c. 15th cent. A.D.), 7th pariccheda, v. 1, pp. 340-41. See also Pratisthasaroddhara of Asadhara (c. 13th cent. A.D.), p. 71, verse 156. 24. cakrezvarI tu devI caturbhujA jAtarUpasamavarNA / varadaM cakre phala ca hastuSu dakSiNa (?) kalpyam // cakrezvaryA bhagavatyA vAhana parizeyaH // -Ekasandhi's Jinasamhita, 39th pariccheda (in Ms.)

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292 The Jinasai hita of Ekasandhi, edited by U.P. Shah, will be published later. 25. Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department, 1939, pp. 44ff, pl. VII.2, where it is wrongly called Padmavati. Also see Settar, Chakresvari in Karnataka Literature and Art, Oriental Art (N.S.), Vol. XXVII, no. I. 26. Jaina Vestiges in the Pudducotta State, Quarterly Journal of the Mysore State, Vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 213-214. Santisvara Basadi, built in about 1200 A.D. by Rechana, a general of Hoyasala king Vira-Ballaja II. 28. Illustrated by S. Settar, in Oriental Art, Vol. XVII, no. 1, loc. cit. 29. Described by Krishna Dev, Maladevi Temple at Gyaras pur, Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, p. 262. 30. S. Settar, Chakresvari in Karnataka Literature and Art, Oriental Art, Vol. XVII, no. 1, pp. 63-69. 31. Sharma, B.N., Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. XIX, no. 3, p. 276. 32. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijana, p. 168. 33. Ibid., p. 169. 34. Ibid., p. 170. 35. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khaudagiri Caves, Journ of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta, 1959), Vol. I, no. 2, pp. 127ff. 36. No. D.6 of Vogel's Catalogue of Sculptures in the Curzon Museum, Mathura, p. 95, pl. xvii. One would think of identifying this sculpture as a ten-armed variety of the Apraticakra Maha-vidya of the Svetambara pantheon. Cakresvari or Apraticakra is worshipped as a Mahavidya by the Svetambara sect only, and is said to carry the disc in all the four hands. But no ten-armed variety of the Svetambara Vidya is known to exist elsewhere. Again the Jina figure overhead would suggest she is yaksi. 37. Discussed by U.P. Shah, Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati, Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. X, part 2, Fig. 20. 38. See Bhairava Padmavati-Kalpa, appendix 23. The hymn calls her Sri-Cakra, shining like red-hot gold and carrying the discs, the lotus, the fruit and the thunderbolt in her hands. Terrific in appearance and threeeyed, the goddess is invoked for protection from dakinis and guhyakas, for destroying obstacles, for increase of wealth and for the vasya, mohana, tusi or k obha rites as well. She is said to make a terrific noise and exhibit her teeth. Unfortunately, the text does not specify the exact number of her arms. 39. Bruhn, Klaus, The figures of the two lower reliefs on the Parsvanatha temple at Khajuraho, Acarya VijayaVallabha-Suri-Smaraka-Grantha (Bombay, 1856), English Section, pp. 7ff, esp. p. 25. 40. vAme cakrezvarI devI sthApyA dvAdazasabhujA / dhatte hastadrave vacaM cakrANi ca tathASTam / / 15 / / ekena bIjapUraM tu varadA kamalAsanA / caturbhujA'tha vA caka dvayorgaruDavAhanA // 16 // -Pratishas rasaigrala of Vasunandi, fifth pariccheda (in Ms.) Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 41. Pratishasaroddhara, p. 71, verse 156. 42. a fav 17074: : ! aSTAbhizca phalaM varaM karayugenAdhatta evAthanA / dhatte cakayugaM phalaM varamimAM dobhizcaturbhiH thitAM tAkSya to purutIrthapAlanaparA cakezvarIM saMbaje / / 1 // -Pratishatilaka, chp. 7, pp. 340-41 43. Tiruparutikunram and its Temples, p. 198. 44. S. Settar, Cakresvart in Karnataka Literature and Art, Oriental Art, Vol. XVII, no. 1. 45. I am thankful to Rev. H. Heras for allowing me to take a photograph of this figure. 46. Mysore Arch. Survey Report for the year 1925, pp. 1-2. For a photo published by S. Settar, see Oriental Art, Vol. XVII, no. 1 (1971), fig. 6. 47. Cf. TATT ETTEET roce 1 mAtuliGgAbhaye caiva tathA padmAsanA'pi ca / / 15 / / - garuDoparisaMsthA ca cakezI hegvaannkaa| - Aparijitaprechi (G.O.S., Vol. CXV), p. 566 48. Cf. art fram dvAdazabhujASTacatrANi dacayorTa yameva ca / arafa *4 quruar (681)qft 11 -Devatamartiprakarana (Calcutta Sanskrit Series, Vol. XII), 7th adhyaya, verse 66, p. 142 49. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khundagiri Caves, Journ. of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta, 1959), Vol. I, no. 2, p. 133, p. VIA. 50. Ibid., p. 130, pl. IIA. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, fig. 35. JOI, XX.3, op. cit., Fig. 30. 51. For its position see the diagram given by Jose Pereira in his Monolithic Jinas (Delhi, 1977), pp. 110 and 116. 52. Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 198. 53. Ibid., p. 197. Ramachandran thinks that the tradition of Canarese Dhyana Slokas agrees closely with the icono graphic notes by Burgess in the Indian Antiquary. 54. Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXII, pp. 461-463 and plates. 55. Gupta, S.P. and Sharma, B.N. in "Gandhaval Aura Jaina Murtiyan (Hindi)", Anekanta, Vol. 19, nos. 1-2, pp. 129ff, and fig. 4 refer to a twenty-armed form of Cakresvari. The small photograph published suggests that the figure is probably the same as the one discussed by us here as fig. 121. Our photograph seems to suggest that the goddess had sixteen arms. A proper checking on the spot would be necessary. 56. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, pp. 224 225. 57. This sculpture has been referred to by some scholars as representing a sixteen-armed Cakresvari. Evidently, it is difficult to fix up the exact number of her arms. I am inclined to regard this as a twenty-armed figure from a study of the same on the spot and also from the existence of another twenty-armed figure studied by me in temple no. 2 at Devgadh. A study of the photograph of the figure under discussion, published earlier by us in JOI, Vol. XX, no. 3. Iconography of Cakresvari, fig. 36. will show that it can either be taken as representing a twenty-armed Cakresvari or in an alternative way, an

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293 61. Four More Popular Yaksinis cighteen-armed one, but in no case a sixteen-armed figure. 58. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, JUB, Vol. IX, part 2, figs. 33-34. 59. We have also formerly suggested another name, viz., Sarranubhari paksa, as he is an ancient yaksa daily invoked by Svetambara Jainas by reciting a hymn called Snatasya-stuti. Cf. Shah, U.P., Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 1, p. 46. Tiloyapamatti, Vol. I (ed. by Dr. A.N. Upadhye and Prof. Hiralal Jain), chp. IV, verses 934-937. Vide Pandit Fulchand Shastri's paper "Varttamana Tiloyapaunanti aura usake racani kala adi ka vicara" (Hindi), in Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Vol. XI, no. 1, p. 73. 62. The verse is quoted by Pandit Nathuram Premi, in his paper on Lokavibhaga akra Tiloyapannatti in his Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa, pp. 1-22 63. ghorasammaNipare dalidUNa lddhnnissey| jiNabarA jagave dnnijjaa| middhi disaMtu turida siribAlacaMdaMsiddhatiyappahudibhavvajaNANa samve / / ---Tiloyapannatti, I, chp. 4, verse 1211, p. 303 64. Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. II, introduction, pp. 79fT. 65. Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa (Hindi) by Pandit Nathuram Premi, pp. 293ff. 66. mahAprabhAvasaMpannAstatra zAsanadevatAH / namazcApraticakrAcA vRSabhaM dharmatrakiNam / / -- Harivainsa, I, p. 192, verse 222 Also see op. cit., sarga 66, verses 43-4, p. 804. 67. Mahapurana (ed. by Dr. P.L. Vaidya), Vol. I, pp. 10-11. 68. Paicasaka, chp. 19, verse 24; Lalitavistarafika, p. 60. For Haribhadra's date, see Bharatiya Vidya (Hindi), Vol. 3. Simghi Smrti Number, p. 196. 69. jantha cakkesarI rayaNamayA paNa yataNa ?] TTiyapaDimAsaMghaviggha harei -Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, ed. by Jinavijaya, p. 24 70. AruhA me varati snecaracatriNa yA, nAbheyazApanarasAlavanAzyapuSTA / cakezvarI rucira caRvirocihasnA, mastAra sAH stu navapidumakApakAntiH / -0p. cit.. p. 97 71. Journ. Univ. of Bombay, Vol. IX, part 2, p. 166 and note 4. 72. Muni Sri Jinavijayaji (ed.), Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa of Jinaprabhasuri (the Singhi Jain Granthamila, no. 10). Ambik 1 deri kalpa, on pp. 107-08 of the same work. 73. According to another tradition noted by Jinaprabhasuri, she fell down from the top of the Raivataka hill and died. 74. For similar Svetambara accounts, see Sriddha- guravivarana of Jinaimandira gani (1498 v.s.), p. 25%3; Satrunjaya-mahatmya of Dhanesvara suri, pp. 233-37. According to Prabharakacaritra, pp.44ff, her two 'sons are called Subhamkara and Vibhamkara. 75. For a fuller account see Tiruparurtikurram and its Temples by Sjt.T.N. Ramachandran, pp. 157-60. 76. Ibid., pls. xxix, xxx, figs. 83-4. 77. In one mantra at least we find a buffalo as her vahana: kuSmANDina rakta raktapahiSasamArU nAzubhaM kathaya kathaya ivI svaahaa| -- Ambika-devi-kalpa of Subhacandra (in Ms.) 78. Tbid. 79. siMhayAnA hemavarNA siddhabuddhasamanvitA / __kamrAmrabibhatpANiratAmbA saGgaviSanahat / / 80. Edited by Pt. Dalsukh D. Malvania. Cf. yasminmantradevatA strI sA vidyA ambakUSmAnDayAdiH / yana devatA puruSaH sa maMtra, yathA vidyArAjA hariNAmeSi sarveNeya (sarvAla)-kSaya (pakSa) ityAdi / vizeSAvaNyaka-mahAbhAgya kSamAzramaNa-mahattarIyA TIkA, Palm-leaf Ms. in Samghavi Pala Bhandara, folio 226. Note that here the sarvAja-yakSa is also mentioned along with vidyArAjaH hariNa gamepi. Jinabhadra gani Ksamasramana, according to tradition, lived in c. 520-623 A.D. A manuscript from Jesalmer shows that his Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya was copied (or completed ?) in 609 A.D. See Jinavijaya in Bharatiya-Vidya, Simghi Smrti Arka. 81. C. vaiyAvRtvakarANAM pravacanArtha vyApRtabhAvAnAM yathA'mbakUSmANDIAdInAM zAntikarANAM.... / --Lalitavistara, p. 60 82. gRhIlacatrA'paticakradevatA tathojapattAlayasiMhavAhinI / zivAya yasminiha sannidhoyate kvatatra vighnAH prabhavanti zAsane / / -Harivamza (M.D.J. Granthamala ed.), Vol. II, sarga 66, verse 44 83. Upalesa-Tararigini of Ratnamandira gani, p. 1483 Pandit Nathuram Premi, Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa, pp. 239; Ramaprasad Chanda in A.S.L.,A.R.,1825-26, pp. 176ff; Shah, U.P., in Bulletin of the Prince of Wales ___Museum, no. I, pp. 30ff. 84. Cf. jinavacami kRtArthA saMzritA kamramAmra samuditasumanaska divyasAdAmanIruk / dizatu satatamambA bhUtipuSpAtmakaM naH samuditamumanaska divyaso dAma nIru / / 88 / / siMha'si helayA.la jayati kharanakhaivIMtaniSThe'taniSThe guko gukA neza nAzaM dizati zubhakRtI paNDite'khaNDite kham / yAte yA te jasADhyA taDidina jalade bhAti dhIrA'tidhIrA patyApatyApanIyAnmadinasamaparAddharyAdhama bAdhamambA / / 66 / / ---Caturvinisatika, pp. 143, 162 85. Barro 85. devi prakAzayati santatameSa kAma vAmatarastava karacaraNAnatAnAm / kurvanpuraH praNitA sahakAralumbimambe bilamba vikalasya phalasya lAbham // 6 // -- Jaina-stotra-samuccaya, pp. 143-4 86. hastavinyastasahakAraphalalumvikA haratu duritAni devi jagatyambikA / -Ibid., p. 146 87. hastAlambinacutalumbilatikA yasyA jano'bhyagAda vizvAseninatAmrapAdaparatA vAcA riputrAsakRt / sA bhUti tinotu no'rjuna ruciH siMhe'dhiru DhollasadvizvAse vitatAmrapAdaparatA'mbA cAriputrAsakRt / / 88 / / -Stuticaturvinsatika.p.264 The commentary of Dhanapala, dissolves hastAlambita, etc. as hastAt (? haste) AlambitA, and another commentary quoted by Hemacandra does the same. Hence only sA

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294 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana one hand should hold the bunch of mangoes. This 104. Mitra, Debala, Bronzes from Achutrajapur, Orissa supports the inference given above. (Delhi, 1978), figs. 26, 27, 28, 30, pp. 45-47. 88. From Ms. no. 1425, Sri Hansavijayaji's Collection, Sri 105, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 20. Atmaramji Janamandira, Baroda. See also Bhairava- 106. Dhaky, M.A., Santara Sculptures, JISOA (New Series), Padmavatikalpa, App. 16, p. 89. The author's name is Vol. IV, pl. XVII, fig. 8 and pl. XXII, fig. 19, pp. 84-85, inferred from the last line devI tasya prakAmaM prakaTyati paTa prauDha 89-90. mambA prsaadm| 107. Ibid., p. 209. 89. This Ambaprasada may be identical with Amba prasada 108. The Classical Kannada Literature and the Digambara (Ainvapasaya), the younger brother of Amarakirti, the Jaina Iconography, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, author of the Apabhramsa work Chakkammuvaeso (V.S. Paper 5, p. 38, figs. 8, 12. 1247 or 1274). See also M.D. Desai's Hist. of Jain Lit. 109. Vogel's Catalogue of the Curzon Museum, Mathura, (in Gujarati), p. 34. pp.95-96, pl. XVII. 90. sAndrAmrAlumbihastA taralahaggitA bAlakAbhyAmupetA 110. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, op. cit., fig. 14. 111. Ibid., fig. 15. dhyAtA yA siddhikAmai bighaTitaDamarA sAdhabhaktiyuktaH / 112. Shah, U.P., More Documents of Jaina Paintings, fig. 23. raktA rAgAnurakta: sphaTikamaNinimA klezavidhvaMsadhIbhiH 113. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, op. cit., fig. 17. pItA vazyAnubhAvavihitajanAhitA pAtumAmambikA saa| Asearly as 1914,Coomargemamv published his Notes on 91. Mahapurana of Puspadanta (ed. by P.L. Vaidya), Vol. Jaina Art, in Journal incirun ...., vol. 16, where he ___ I, sandhi 1, 10-4-10, pp. 10ff. described and published this Pata. savyekadhupagapriyaMkarasuprItyai kare bibhratI 114. Journ. of the Univ.of Bombay, IX.2, op. cit., fig.16. divyAghrastabaka zubhakarakarazliSTAnyahastAGga lim| 115. Ibid., fig. 18. 116. Ibid., fig. 19. siMhe bhartR'care sthitAMharitabhAmAmradra macchAyagAM 117. Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 209. vaMdAru dazakAmukojayajinaM devImihAmnAM yaje / / 176 / / 118. Ibid., p. 209. --Pra. Sa., p. 176 119. Indian Antiquary, vol. XXXII, Digambara Jaina Icono92. dhatte vAmakaTo priyaMkarasutaM vAme kare majarI graphy, p. 463; also see pl. IV, fig. 22. AmrasyAnyakare zubhaGkaratujo hastaM prazaste ho| 120. Tiruparuttikugram and its Temples, op. cit., JUB, IX.2, Aste bhartRcare mahAmaviTapicchAyaM zritA'bhISTadA op.cit., fig. 21. yA'mI to nutaneminAthapadayonaMmrAmihAmro yaje / / 121. Trisaspisalakapuru sacarita, VIII, chp 9, v. 385-386: -Pratisthitilaka, VII 22, p. 347 tattIrthajanmA kUSmANDI svarNAbhA siNhvaahnaa| 93. The Tirthankara was formerly identified by us as AmralumbipAzadharavAmetarabhujadayA / / 385 // Adinatha or Rsabhanatha. Now, in the preceding putrAGkuzadharavAmakarayugmA'bhavatprabhoH / chapter on Devadhidevas wbile discussing images of ambikelyabhidhAnena bhatu: zAsanadevatA / / 386 // Santinatha, we have suggested that he might be identi- 122. thInemijinasya ambAdevI kanavAkAntirUciH siMhavAhanA caturbhujA fied as Santinatha. 94. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, figs. 10a, 10b, 11, pp. 28-29. AmralumbipAzayuktadakSiNakaradvayA putrAkuzAsaktadAmakaradvayA ca / 95. See Jaina Satya Prakasa (Journal in Gujarati, -Pravaranasaroddhara, Purvarddha, p.95 Ahmedabad), Vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 86-91; Malavania, ___123. mA ca bhagavaI caubha A dAhiNahatthemU aMbalaMbi pAsa ca dhArecha / thAmaDalsukhbhai D., Ganadharavada, Introduction. hasthesu puNa puttaM aMkusaM ca dhArei / uttattakananavaNaM ca vaNNamubahai 96. Akota Bronzes, fig. 14, pp. 30-31. sarIre / sirineminAhassa sAsaNadevayatti nivayaha revagirisahare / 97. Shah, U.P., Bronze Hoard from Vasant agadh, Lalit Kala, mauDakuMDarUmuttAhalahArarayaNakaganeurAisabagoNAbharaNaramaNijjA pUrei nos. 1-2, pp. 55-65 and plates. All these figures show samadiTThINa manorahe, nivArei digdhasaMghAya / sIe maMtamaMTalAINi only one son with Ambika. 98. Akota Bronzes, figs. 22, 23b, p. 35; also see pp. 36-37 AyahitANaM bhaviANaM dImati aNegarUvAo viddio| and figures 25, 27a, 29b.30a, 30b, 313, 44b, 454, 45c, -Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 107 48a,59,60, 61 etc. 124. siMhAsanA kanakatanu ka vedabAhuzca vAma 99. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper no. 26, figs. hastandve'GakuzatanubhuvI ribhratI dakSiNe ca / 11 and 12. pAzAmrAlI sakalajagatAM rakSaNayAcittA 100. Debala Mitra, Sasanadevis in the Khandugiri Cuves, Jour". of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta), Vol. I, no. 2, p. 129, devyambA naH pradizatu samastaudhavidhvaMzamA gu / / pl. IIB. - Acara-Dinakara, 11.22, p. 178 101. Bruhn, Klaus, TheJinaImages of Deogarh. fies. 14.15. 12. sihAgadAmbikA pItAmralambinAgavANakama / There are also some loose images of this variety showing akuza ca bhayA (? tathA) pRva tasya (syAH) hastapa kArayet / / Ambika sitting in the lalitasana. Besides we find this -Ripiratara two-armed form on some Manastambhus at Devgadh. 126. Both are printed in the Cal. Skt. Serics no. XII; see 102. For example, see ibid., fig. 232. Deratamerti-prakararam, VII, v. 61; ard Rapamazdanu, 103. Sravana Belagola Inscriptions, Epigraphia Carvutica, VI.18. pp. 21-22. 127. See JUB, 11, op. cit., fig. 22.

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Four More Popular Yaksinis 295 128. The work is wrongly attributed to the ancient acarya Padalipta who flourished in the first cent. A.D. As the Pravacanasaroddhora-fika refers to it, the lower limit for the work is v.s. 1248. The work seems to have been composed in the eleventh or the twelfth cent, A.D. Cf. aferita at a Timot 99 fazani catumuMjAM mAtuliGgapANayuktadakSiNakarAM putrAGka zAnvitavAmakarAM - Nir. Ka., p. 38 129. Cf. a asawa Fuffy turgfiramit FTETETT ajunIlakaDimbhAM aGkasthadvitIyaDimbhAM hemavarNAM catumuMjA 39f stora ferr e t TETAT T ag 31477971941 frakt cura - Bhairava-padmavati-Kalpa, App. 19, p. 92. The text gives the following malamantra of Ambik: * T atrazfit ! . . 130. The date of composition of this work is uncertain. Some verses by a Sagaracandra are quoted in the Ganaratnamahodachi (v.s. 1197). Another Sagaracandra belonged to Rajgaccha and was the teacher of the author of Sai keta, the commentary on Kavyaprakasa (v.s. 1226). A third Sigaracandra was made an acarya by Jinarajasuri of the kharatara-gaccha in the fifteenth cent. A.D. 131. og at ff utfart paashmrlumvisRnnistphlmaavhntii| punadvayaM karataTItaTagaM ca neninAthakRmAmbujayugaM zivadA namantI / -Mantridhirija-kalpa, 3rd pajala, verse 64 132. JUB, IX.2, op. cit., fig. 23. Lucknow Museum no. 66.225. 133. Bruhn, Klaus, The Jina Images of Deogarh, p. 106, fig. 58. 134. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratim i-Vijana, p. 228. 135. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima Vijnana, p. 161. 136. Cf. . TEH ITUTETETT fart. pitA zAnidvijAscitA gAMvadevakanyA vAmahastasthita "vimu kAdidhamatA" evaM kameNa devI paTe likhitvA Jo ...." --Ms. of Vidy.imusasana, in the Ailaka Pannala! Dig. Jaina Bhandara, Bombay (now in Beawar) 137. keistartarrat Tzafaat offrezafTAGE afatif SET 79 TFTCIT un Tu tuTOTTITITIT : 2 tafura 41 142. TIA44 fafaragfafaut faciantur aracla car siMhavAhaNA aMbAdevI ciTThai / -Ibid., p. 14 143. Lalitavistari, Caityavandanasutra-vti, of Haribhadra suri, p. 60. 144. Avasyaka sutra with Niryukti and the Vstti of Haribhadra suri, vitti on gatha 931, p. 411. 145. For the Svetambara and the Digambara accounts of the origin, see Shah, U.P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, Journal of the Univ. of Bombay, IX, part 2, pp. 147ff. 146. See J.U.B., IX.2, op. cit., p. 161 and note 1. 147. Sukla-Yajurvediya Vajasaneyi Samhita. ed. by Pt. Jagdishlal Shastri (Delhi, 1971), p. 435. 148. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, I, part 2, p. 358. 149. J.U.B., op. cit., fig. 30, p. 164. Some of the forms illustrated by us in the paper on the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika show the damaru, the pasa, or the vajra-ghanta in one of the hands of the Jaina Ambika which fact is reminiscent of the common origin and close relation of the Hindu Durga and the Jaina Ambika. 150. J.U.B.. op. cit., figure 32. 151. Cf. abhyarcayanneva pure ca Kolinire sphuratk irrikadam bakan-Dharmabhyudaya Mahakavya, 15, V. 14. Also, Ambika-devi-kalpa in Vividha-tirtha-Kalpa of Jinaprabha suri (Simghi Series, no. 10), pp. 107ff. 152. Abhidhana-Cintamani, 2.117-119, pp. 84-87. 153. Tilo yapannatti, vol. II, p. 644, gath, 25; and pp. 648ff. 154. Brhat-Samgrahani, vv. 58ff, pp. 28ff; p. 73, v. 163; Kierfel, Cosmographie Der Inder, pp. 270ff. 155. Samgrahani sutra, verses 30, 32, sce also comm. thereon. 156. Bharatiya-Samskrti-Kosa, vol. II, p. 456. 157. Visnupurana, I.12.13. 158. Bharatiya-Samskrti-Kosa (in Marathi, Poona, 1964), vol. II, p. 456. 159. Also see Baudha Jana Dharmasutra, 3.7.1. 160. Bharatiya Samskrti-Kosa, II (op. cit.), pp. 456-457. 161. Ibid., p. 370. 162. Bannerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography. 163. Bhattasali, N.K., Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmani cal Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, pp. 63-67. 164. Shah, U.P., Harinegamesin, J.I.S.O.A. (old series), vol. XIX for year 1951-52. 165. Bhandarkar, D.R., Charmichael Lectures, 1921, and Madras Lectures, 1938-39. Puri, Baijnath, in Indian Culture, VII.2, pp. 225ff and VII.4, pp. 493ff. 166. Numismatic Chronicle, 1892, p. 118. 167. Cat. C.P.M., p. 197, no. 135 noticed by Whitehead and Cat. C.P.M., p. 207, no. viii, noticed by Cunningham. 168. Mukerjee, B.N., Nana on the Lion, publ. by Asiatic Society Calcutta, 1969. 169. Also see Bhandarkar, D.R., Madras Lectures, 1938-39, p. 16 and Vedic Index, I, p. 440. 170. Mukerjee, B.N., op. cit., p. 3f. 171. Rosenfield, J., Dynastic Arts of the Kusonas, pp. 83tf. B. Chattopadhyaya, The Age of the Kusanas-- A Numismatic Study, pp. 164-67 etc. tu ." 138. Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa, App. 18, p. 91. 139. Cf. also a far for T O KEY TE dUSTasaMcUrNanaM dhArmikArakSaNam" given in the same text. 140. See Vividha-Tirtha-kalpa of Jinaprabha suri, edited by Muni Jinavijaya, in Singhi Jaina Granthamala, no. 10, for all these kalpas. 141. 54 FRI FRATEU (AU TE ?) far taraat " 19 " FUT!) 394 TETETT khittabagalo asAramaavAhaNo nitthassa rakta kaNa ti / - Vividha-Tirtha-kalpa, p. 19

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296 172. Mukerjee, B.N., op. cit., chp. II. For Nana, Ishtar and Hariti, ibid., pp. 26-28, footnote no. 95. 173. A useful study of the development of iconic concept of Nana in India, made by Miss B. Sarasvati, is published in J.A.S. (Calcutta), 1965, vol. VII, pp. 95-98. 174. Shah, U.P., Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata, J.I.S.O.A. (old series), Vol. VI, pp. 52-87. 175. See above Chapter Five, p. 60 and footnotes 46-47. .176. Nana on the Lion, pp. 57ff. 177. Nana on the Lion, p. 58. B.N. Mukerjee has also noted that the term Napaka or Nana was also used in the general sense of coins or wealth. 178. Mukherjee, B.N., op. cit., pp. 57-58. 179. Hanaway, Jr., William L., Anahita and Alexander, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 102, no. 2 (April-June, 1982), p. 289. 180. Hanaway, Jr., William L., op. cit., pp. 289-90. Herman Lommel, Die Yast's des Awesta ubersetzt und eingeleitet (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1972), pp. 3739; also, p. 26, pp. 32-33, p. 53 etc. Yasht V probably dates from the period of Artaxerxes II or slightly later. 181. See note 180. 182. Hanaway, op. cit., pp. 290-291. 183. M. Chaumont, Le Culte d'Anahita a Staxr et les premiers Sassanides, Revue de l'histoire des religions, 153 (1958), pp. 154-175. 184. Hanaway, op. cit., pp. 292-293. Hanaway informs in his paper cited above that Dorothy G. Shepherd has written a paper on the "Iconography of Anahita". Also see L. Ringbom, "Zur Ikonographie der Gottin Ardvi Sura Anahita", Acta Academiae Aboensis: Humaniora, 23.2 (1957), p. 15. 185. Mukherjee, B.N., op. cit., p. 10. 186. For such coins see NC, 1892, pl. VII, nos. 10 and 11; PMC, Vol. I, pl. XVII, no. 66 etc. 187. NC, 1892, pl. VII, nos. 9, 11 and 14; pl. XII, nos. 14, 15; PMC, vol. I, pl. XVII, no. 57 etc. 188. Oriental and Babylonian Records, August, 1892, pp. 1ff; NC, 1892, pp. 77f; Journal Asiatique, 1958, vol. CCXLVI, pp. 422ff. 189. ERE, vol. VII, p. 428. For literary references to Nana, see G. Hoffmann, Auszuge aus syrischen Akten perischer Martyrer, Abhandlungen fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1880, vol. VII, no. 3, pp. 151f. 190. For Nana-Anahita's association with beasts and IshtarNana-Anahita's relation with the Greek goddess Artemis see, Mukherjee, op. cit., pp. 12ff. 191. Mukherjee, B.N., op. cit., p. 14 and fig. 20. 192. Mukherjee, B.N., op. cit., p. 14, fig. 18, also, pp. 16-17; NC, 1892, pl. XIII, no. 2; PMC, vol. I, pl. XVIII, no. 135. 193. Hanaway, William L., Jr., Anahita and Alexander, J.A.O.S., vol. 102, no. 2, April-June, 1982, p. 292. 194. Published by U.P. Shah, Akota Bronzes (Bombay, 1960), pp. 28-29, pls. 11 and 74a. 195. Chanda, R.P., Mediaeval Indian Sculpture in the British Museum, pl. xxi, p. 68; A.S.I. Annual Report for 1934-35, pl. xxiv, fig. a. 196. Yajnavalkya Smrti, Book I, acaradhyaya, transl. by R.B. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Sirisachandra Vidyabhusana (Panini Office, Allahabad). For the text of the Smrti, see the Bombay ed. by Pandit Moghe. 197. Published by Coomaraswamy in H.I.I.A., fig. 177. 198. Glynn, Catherine, Some Reflections on the Origin of the type of the Ganga Image, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (New Series), vol. V, pp. 16-27, pl. VII, fig. 2 (Sudarsana Yaksi); also see pl. VII. figs. 3, 5, 6, 7. 199. The benefic aspect of Ganga is her bringing to life the sixty thousand sons of Sagara. Also see Catherine Glynn, op. cit., pp. 20-22. 200. Published by Dhavalikar, M.K., Paithan Terracottas, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (New Series), vol. VII, pp. 62-68, pl. XXIV, fig. 6. 201. Ibid., fig. 11 illustrates such a male figure from Paithan. 202. Parsvanathacaritam of Vadiraja suri (Manikchand Digambara Jarua Ganthamala, vol. 4), canto X, vv. 81-88; canto XI, vv. 77-85; canto XII, vv. 42ff. Trisastisalakopurusacaritam of Hemacandra, VIII.3. 274-295. Parsvanathacaritam of Bhavadeva suri, V.55-64; VI.170213: VII.827-830; V.463-466. Sri-Parsvanathacaritam of Udayavira gani, canto VII. Pasanahacariu, 14. Also see Mahapurana of Puspadanta and Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra. 203. For representations of the scene of attack by Kamatha (Meghamali or Bhutananda), see Shah, U.P., A Parsvanatha Sculpture in Cleveland, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, for December, 1970, pp. 303311, and fig. 1 (Central India, 9th century, now in Cleveland Museum), fig. 2 (from Jaina Cave, Aihole), fig. 3 (from Tirakkol, North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu), fig. 4 (Badami Jaina Cave), fig. 5 (rock-relief, Kilakkudi, T.N.), fig. 6 (Samnar-koyil, Anamalai, Tamil Nadu), fig. 7 (Kilakkudi, Unmanamalai hill, Madurai district), fig. 8 (also Kilakkudi), fig. 9 (Chitharal, Kerala), figs. 10, 11, 12 (Ellora Jaina Caves), fig. 13 (Indian Museum, Calcutta), fig. 14 (Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur, M.P.), fig. 15 (Ajmere Museum), fig. 16 (National Museum, New Delhi). C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, fig. 33 (Tirakkol, 8th cent.), fig. 88 (Kilakuilkudi, 9th cent.), fig. 94 (Chitharal, 7th-8th cent.), fig. 121 (Aihole, c. 7th cent.), fig. 127 (Badami, c. 7th cent.), fig. 136 (Ellora, cave 32, 9th cent.), fig. 138 (Ellora, cave 32, 9th cent.), fig. 142 (Ellora, cave 32, 9th cent.), etc. 204. Parsvanathacaritam of Vadiraja, X.84-88 and Uttarapurana, 73. 205. Compare--- devI padmAvatI nAmnA raktavarNA caturbhujA / padmAvanAGkuzaM dhatte akSasUtraM ca paGkajam / / athavA SaDbhujA devI caturviMzati sadbhujA || mariagerquadgay i bhujASTakaM samAkhyAtaM catuvizatirucyate // zaGkhAci lendupadmotpalazarAmanam / pAzAGkuzaM ghaMTa bANaM muzalakheTakama / / trizula para kuntaM bhiNDamAlaM phalaM gadA~ / patraM pallavaM dhattaM varadA dharmavatsalA / -Pratisthasarasamgraha, 5.67-71

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Museum. Four More Popular Yaksinis 297 206. Dhaky, M.A.,Santara Sculpture, Journal of the Indian 226. pAzaphalavaradagajavazakaraNa padmaviSTarA pnaa| Society of Oriental Art (New Series), vol. IV (1971-72), sA mAM rakSatu devI trilocanA raktapuSpAbhA / pp. 78-97, figs.9and 13. ---Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, 1.2 and comm., p. 1 207. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, vol. I, pl. XXXII reproduced in ___227. catubhujA paashphlprdaandvipendrvshyaangkittcaaruhstaa| colour. Sarayu Doshi in Marg, vol. XXXVI, no. 3 -The Iconic and the Narrative in Jaina Painting---has trilocanA raktasarojapIThA padmAvatI mAmavatAnamantam / / illustrated, on p. 86, fig. 22, beautiful similar forms of -Vidyanusasana (Ms. Beawar), folio 56 Dharana and Padmavati from a Kalpa-sutra in the 228. The verses are really borrowed from the earlier work of Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Mallisena, namely, Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa, 2, 11-12, 208. For other similar examples of Dharana and his queen's p. 6, pannagAdhipazekharAM etc. bodies tied into a knot, obtained from Eastern India, 229. pAzAGa kuzo padmavare raktavarNA ctubhujaa| see Mitra, Pratip Kumar, Jaina Sculptures from Anai padyAsanA kukkuTasthA khyAtA padmAvatIti ca / / Jambad, Jaina Journal, vol. XVIII.2, pp. 67ff, figs. 3, 4. - Aparajitaprccha, 221.37, p. 568 Anai-Jambad is in Purulia district, W. Bengal. Also 230. nAbhyadratASTapatrakakamalaprAntasthitA sudhAdAma / seeJAA, I, pl. 84b Parsvanatha from Pakbira; ibid.,, vol. II, pl. 161b, Parsvanatha from Orissa, Khiching triphaNAhibhUSitatamasphAraziraskA zubhAGgadharAm / / padyAGka zavarapAzakasambhUSitabhujacatuSTayAM hRSTAm / For the Mahudi bronce, see Shastri, Hirananda, Annual ambhojAsanasaMsthAM zrIpadmA devatAM sthiradhIH // Report of the Archaeological Department, Baroda State, zubhrAmbaraparidhAnAM dantacchedAbhahaMsasaMrudAm / for the year ending 31st July, 1938, plate V(b). dhyAnavidhAnenAntaH zrIpayAM devatA sthiradhIH / / 209. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, vol. I, plate I. --Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa, 4.52-54 published in 210. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, pp. 238-239. Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, App. 1, p. 6 211. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, 231. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, Indian Buddhist Iconography, pp. 189-90, pl. 86, fig. 2. p. 137. For Janguli, ibid.. pp. 786f, 137. 212. tathA padmAvatI devI karka (kukku -) ToragavAhanA / 232. Ms. No. 8765 Government Oriental Mss. Library, svarNavarNA padmapAzabhRddakSiNakaradvayA / / Madras, Catalogue vol. XVI. Cf.-- phalAGkuzadharAmyAM ca vAmadobhyAM virAjitA / zrIpAzrvanAthajananAyakaratnacUDA abhud dvitIyA zrIpAzvaprabhoH zAsanadevatA // pAzAGka shaabhyphlaadditdonctusskaa| --Trisasti., IX.3.364-65 padmAvatI vinayanA tripa (pha) NAvatArA 212a. f. padmAvatI devIM kakaTavAhanAM caturbhujAM padma-pAzAnvitadakSiNakarAM padyAvato jayatu padmakRtAdhivAsA / / phalAGa kuzAdhiSThitavAmakarA ceti / 233. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 211, pl. xxxii, fig.2 - Nirvanakalika, p. 37 and pl. xxxi. fig. 2. 213. Acaradinakara, II, p. 178; Parsvanathacaritra, 7.829-30. 234. Sankalia, op. cit., pp. 161-62 and fig. 3. 214. Pravacanasaroddhara-lika, I, p. 95. 235. Ibid., pp. 158ff. 215. Mantradhiroja-kalpa, 3.65, p. 250. 236. zrIpArzvanAthajinanAyakaratnacUDA 216. padmAvatI raktavarNA kukkuTasthA cturbhujaa| pAzAGka zoragaphalAGkitadozcatuSkA / padma pAzAGka zaM bIjapUraM hasteSu kArayet / / padyAvatI trinayanA triphaNAvataMsA -Devatamurtiprakarana, 7.63: p. 142 padmAvatI jayati zAsana puNyalakSmIH / / Also see Rupamandana, 6.21, p. 44. -Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, app. 5, p. 30 217. Tiwari, Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, p.237. 218. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., pl. XXXVII, fig. 3 and and 237. garjanIradagarbhanirgatataDijjvAlAmahastrasphurat 4 p. 211. sadacAGakuzapAzapaGkajadharA bhktyaamraircitaa| 219. Sankalia, H.D., Jaina Yaksas and Yaksints, Bulletin, sadyaH puSpitapArijAtaruciraM divyaM vapubibhratI Deccan College Research Institute, March, 1940, p. 159, sA mAM pAtu sadA prazannavadanA padmAvatI devatA / / fig. 5. Ibid., p. 27, v. 12 220. Dhaky, M.A., Santara Sculpture, J.I.S.O.A. (New 238. Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, app. 7, p. 44. Series), vol. IV, pp. 78ff, pl. XXV, fig. 26. Also see 239. From the collections of Muni Sri Punya vijayaji, the P. Gururaja Bhatt, op. cit., pl. 444b, pl. 444d, pl. 429b Rsimandala-Paja was first published by Hirananda for more figures of this variety of form. Shastri and Sarabhai Nawab in Sri Atmananda Satabdi 221. Panorama ofJaina Art, South India, p. 57. fig.69. 222. Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa published as Appendix 1 to Smaraka Grantha. 240. bAlAkaMkAntiza zilAJchitavakalazobhAM 240 Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, pp. 1-14. 223. panavadane! padma! sapA haMsapRSThAdhirU he! phalavaradapAzAGa kuza pAzAGakuzau ca varamapyabhayaM dadhAnAm / caturbhuje! devi bhairave! bhairavarUpAvatAre! tAre! tArAvatAre! ....... cinAMzukAM (ca) navaratna vibhUSitAGgIM Ibid., p. 13 mitrAmbikA trinayanAM hRdi bhAvayAmi / / raktavarNaH / / 224. Ibid., p. 8,v.6. Quoted in Sri-Tattvanidhi, p. 9 225. Ibid., p. 13. 241. For the form, see Devatamurti-prakarana, 8.14. p. 146.

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298 242. Rao, Gopinath, Elements of Hindu Iconography, I, part 2, pp. 371ff. 243. Mantradhiraja-kalpa, 3.119, p. 258 published in Mantradhiraja-Cintamani which is Jaina Stotra-Samdoha, vol. II (Ahmedabad, 1936). The Mantradhiraja-kalpa was composed by Sigaracandra suri. The author pays homage to Abhayadeva, Padmadeva, Lalitaprabha, Sriprabha, Nemiprabha, Punyasagara and Yasascandra in the last verses. One Sagaracandra lived around v.s. 1450-1475, another, a pupil of Nemicandra, of Rajagaccha in c.v.s. 1246 and a third wrote the first copy of Amamacaritra of Muni- ratna suri. A Sagaracandra wrote some verses in praise of Siddharaja. The date of the author of Mantradhirajakalpa is not certain but looking to the great Tantric influence and the iconography of yaksas, yaksinis etc. given in it, the work may be of c. 12th-13th cent. A.D. 244. padmAvatI bhujagarAjavadhurvidhUta vighnA suvarNatanu kukuttsrpyaanaa| pAzAmbujAJcijakarA triphagADhaya mauliH pAyAta phalAGakuzavirAjitavAmapANiH // Tbid.,3,v.65, p. 250 245. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, vol. I, pl. xcviii, fig. 282. 246. Brown, W. Norman, Miniature Paintings of the Kalpa Sutra, pl. 29, fig. 98, p. 44. Brown describes the vahana as a parrot but it is the kukkuja (cock). 247. Burgess, J., Digambara Jaina Iconography, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXII, fig. 23. 248. Bruhn, Klaus, Jina Images of Deogarh (Leiden, 1969), pp. 102, 105-106,315, fig. 57. 249. Pratisthasarasamgraha, 5.60-61. 250. tAM zAntAmaruNAM sphuracchRNisarojanmAkSamAlAM barAm / padmasthAM navahastakaprabhunatAM yAyadhima padmAvatIm / / Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 73,v. 177 251. Pratisthatilaka,7,v. 23,p.348. 252. Pratistha-tilaka of Brahma siri, unpublished, Ms. in the Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana, Arrah. 253. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 210. 254. totalA tvaritA nityA tripurA kAmasAdhinI / devyA nAmAni padmAyAstathA tripurabhairavI / / Bhairara-Padmavati-Kalpa, 1.3, p. 1 255. pAzavaraphalAmbhojabhRtkare totalAhyayA / Vidyanusasana (Ms.), f. 53 256. zaGkhapadmAbhayavaradA tvritaakhyaa'runnprbhaa| Ibid., f. 53 It must be remembered that these forms are not as late in Jainism as the 16th century A.D. when Vidyanusasana seems to have been composed, for, though not described by him, Mallisena knew them. 257. pAzAGka zApayojAtasAkSamAlAkarA braa| haMsavAhAkaNA nityA jAvali (jvAlAvali) vimaMDitA // 3 // Ibid. 258. zaGkhacakraphalAmbhojabhRtkarA kAmasAdhinI / vandhUkapuSpasaMkAzA kukkuToragavAhagA / / 5 / / Ibid. 259. zUlacakrAkuzAmbhojacApavANaphalAGkazaH / rAjitASTabhujA devI tripurA kuMka maprabhA / / 4 / / Ibid. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 260. Mohapatra, R.P., Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, pl. 94, fig. 2, and p. 190. Acc. to Mohapatra the symbols are: right hands-varada, arrow, sword, disc; left hands-bow, shield, lotus stalk, lotus stalk. 261. shngkhckrdhnurbaannkhettkhnggphlaambujH|| lasadbhujendra gopAbhA vyakSI tripurabhairavI // 6 // bid. 262. athavA SaDbhujA devI caturviMzatisadbhajA // 61 // pAzAsikuntabAlendugadAmuzalasaMyutam / bhujASaTka samAkhyAta............. // 62 // Vasunandi, op. cit., 5.61-62 263. Jaina Pratima-Vijhana (Hindi), p. 239, and fig.55. 264. Described by Banerji, R.D., Progress Report, Western Circle, for 1921, p.94. 265. Bhairava Padmavati-Kalpa, app. 5, pp. 32ff. 266. bhajASaTakaM samAkhyAtaM caturviMzatirucyate / / 62 / / zahvAsiba nIleyarapolazArAsanam / zakti pAzAGkuzaM ghaNTAM bANAM muzalakheTakam // 63 // trizUlaM parazaM kuntaM vacamAlAM phalaM gadAm / patraM ca pallavaM dhatte varadA dharmavatsala / / 64 // Op. cit.,5.62-64 267. Op. cit., p. 73, v. 177. 268. Op.cit., p. 348, v.23. 269. Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa, app. 5, p. 28, v. 16. 270. Gopal, B.R., Gudnipur Inscription of Kadamba Ravivarman, Srikanthika, Prof. S. Srikantha Sastri Felicitation Volume (Mysore, 1973), pp. 61-62. S. Settar, in Paper 5 in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 40. Also see Gudnapur Inscription of Kadamba Rarivarman, Studies in Indian History and Culture, Prof. P.B. Desai ___ Felicitation Volume, pp. 57-62. 271. Sundara, A., in Karnataka Bharati, vol. IV, part 2. 272. Banerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography', p. 116, note 1. 273. kAmadatto jinAgArapuro lokapravezane / mRgadhvajasya pratimAM sa nyadhAnmahiSasya ca // 1 // avaiva kAmadevasya ratezcapratimA vyadhAt / * jinAgAre samastAyAH prajAyAH kautukAya saH // 2 // kAmadevaratiprekSA kautukena jagajjanaH / jinAyatanamAgatya prekSya tatpratimAdvayam // 3 // saMvidhAnakamAyaM tana bhAdrakamagadhvajaM / bahavaH pratipadyante jinadharmamahardivam // 4 // prasiddha ca gRhaM janaM kaamdevgRhaakhyyaa| kautukAgatalokasya jAtaM jinamatAptayaM // 5 // 274. Desai, P.B., Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs (Sholapur, 1957), p. 72 and note 2. 275. Ibid., p. 171. 276. Ibid., p. 171, note 1. 276a. Varaigacarita of Jarasimhanandi, edited by A.N. Upadhye (Manikchandra-Digambara-Jaina-Grantha mala, vol. 40, Bombay, 1938). 277. Bhairava-Padmd.-Kalpa, app. 1-9. p. 157. 278. Jaina Stotra, app.gha; pp. 77ff. 279. Bhairava-Padma.-Kalpa, app. 10, pp. 57-60. 280. Rupamandana, p. 45. 281. Jaina Iconography (second ed.), p. 105 and note.

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299 Four More Popular Yaksinis 282. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 84, 98f; 52, 11ff; 77, 101, 103ff. 283. Bhagavati-Sutra, 10.5 (Becharadasa's ed., Vol. III, p. 201). The text gives chief queens of other Indras also. Padma and Padmavati occur as the names of two (out of the four chief queens of Bhima and Mahabhrma, the Raksasendras (ibid., p. 202), also of Sakra (p. 204). 284. Sthananga, 6.3, sd. 508ff reads-Ala (Ila), Sakka (Sukra or Sukla), Sateri, Sotamani (Saudamini), India (Indra), Ghanavijjuya (Ghanavidyuta). 285. suphaNaratnasarIsRparAjitAM ripubalaprahatAbhaparAjitam / smarata tAM dharaNAgrimayoSitaM jinagaheSa yayA'zramayoSitam // 8 // Caturvimsatik 7, text, p. 18 286. Stuticaturvimsatika ed. by Kapadia with 4 commen arrier. p. 268. Bhanucandragani in his comm. raises the same question.. 287. I am thankful to Dr. Wayne Begley for the photograph. 288. Account of Nagila or Naila in the Prabhavakacaritra. 289. For Manasa, see Bhattasali, N.K., op. cit., pp. 212-2273 Hindi Visvakosa, XVI, pp. 639-44; Bhattacharya, B.C., Indian Images, I, pp. 39-40; Brahmavaivarta Purana, Prakriti Khanda, adh. 45-46. 290. Bhattasali, N.K., op. cit., pp. 226ff; pl. Ixxii, fig. b. p. 219. 291. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, op. cit., 78-80. 292. Bhattasali, op. cit., p. 222. 293. Bhattasali, N.K., op. cit., p. 221, p. 224. 294. lbid. 295. It was really a struggle between Padmavati and Candi on one hand and Padmavati and Tara and Janguli on the other. Tara and Candi took time in being reduced, but Janguli was defeated. 296. Karakandacarin, 7.13, p. 68. 297. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, op. cit., 137f, 109f. 298. Compare: tArA tvaM sugatAgame, bhavati gaurIti zaivAgame, bacA kaulikazAsane, jinamate padmAvatI vizru t|| gAyatrI zrutazAlinAM, prakRtirityuktAsi sAMkhyAyane, mAtarbhArati kiM prabhutabhaNitavyApta samastaM tvayA // 20 // ---Sri-Padmavati-stotra, v. 20, published in Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, appendix 5, p. 28 299. Also compare: jaine padmAvatIti tvamazubhadalanA tvaM ca gaurIti zaive tArA bauddhAgame tvaM prakRtiriti matA devi sAjhyAgame lyam / gAyatrI bhadramArge tvamasi ca vimale kaulike tvaM ca vajA vyApta vizvaM tvayeti sphuraduruyazase me'stu padma namaste // 6 // -Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa, 5.6, in Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, appendix 1, p. 8 yA devi tripurA puratnayagatA zIghrAti zIghrapradA yA devI samayA samastabhu bane saGgIyate kaamdaa| tArA mAnavidinI bhagavatI devI ca padmAvatI tAstAH sarvagatAstameva (stvameva) niyataM mAyeti tubhyaM namaH // 26 / / -Sri-Padmavati-stotra, v. 29 published in Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, appendix5, p. 29 300. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, op. cit., p. 78, Bhatta sali, op. cit., p. 222. 301. Banerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography, p. 116, note 1. In the Purana literature, at least in later phase, Padma, mentioned along with Sarasvati, signifies Laksmi, the Goddess of Wealth, cf. Agni Purana, xlii. 7-8 etc. 302. Cf. jinasya muttaMyo'nantAH pUjitAH sarvasaukhyadAH / catasro'tizayayuktAstAsAM pUjyA vizeSataH / / 25 / / zrI AdinAtho nemizca pArtho vIrazcaturthakaH / cakrezvayaM mbikA padmAvatI siddhAyiketi ca / / 26 / / -Ripamandana, 6.25-26, p. 45 303. Shah, U.P., Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Tantras, Acarya Dhruva Commemoration Volume, III, pp. 67ff. 304. Cf. siddhAyikA tathotpannA siMhayAnA haricchaviH / samAtuliGgavallakyo vAmabAha ca bibhratI / / pustakAbhayadI cobhau dadhAnA dakSiNI bhujii| abhUtAM te prabhonityAsanne zAsanadevate / / --Trisaspisalakapurusacarita, X.5, 112-113 Pravacanasaroddhara Tika. I, p. 95; Mantradhiraja-Kalpa, 3.66, p. 250, calls her Siddharthika. M.N.P. Tiwari in Jaina Pratimavijnana, p. 244, says that according to Mantradhiraja-kalpa Siddhayika is six-armed showing in her hands the book, abhaya mudra, varada mudra, kharayudha, vina and fruit. The verse is printed as under in the textsiddhAthikA navatamAladalAlinIla rUk pustikAbhayakarA nakharAyudhAGkA / vINAphalAGkitabha jadvitayA hi bhavyA navyAgjinendrapadapaGakajabaddhabhaktiH // Tiwari makes an emendation in line 2 of this verse and reads ... pustikAbhayakarA (dA) nakharAyudhAGkA / Then he interprets an and are as two symbols. To me it seems that adding ar above is against metre and that in the second line the author intended to give only two symbols, namely, book and abhaya in one group of two hands, in the second group of two hands he refers to vina and fruit and says vINAphalAdbhitabhujadvitayA. Besides, I do not know what symbol is meant by kharAyudha, Tiwari does not explain it. 305. Cf. tattIrthotpannAM siddhAyikA haritavarNA siMhavAhanAM catubhujA pustakAbhayayutadakSiNakarAM mAtuliGgabANAnvitavAmakarAM ceti / / -Nirvanakalika, p. 37 It is just possible that atNa was a scribal error for bINA and that later works like Rupamandana and Devata murtiprakarana were misled by the scribal error. 306. siddhAyikA nIlavarNA siMhArUr3hA cturbhujaa| pustakaM cAbhayaM caiva bANaM syAnmAtuliGgakam / / -Devatamirtiprakarana, 7.65, p. 142; Ripamandana, 6.23, p. 45 307. siMhasthA haritAMgarugbhujacatuSkena prabhAvojitA nityaM dhAritapustakAbhayalasadvAmAnyapANidvayA / pAzAmbhoruharAjivAmakarabhAk siddhAyikA siddhidA zrIsaGghasya karotu vighnaharaNa devAcaM ne saMzritA / / -Acara-Dinakara, JI, p. 173,v. 24

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300 308a. Shah, U.P., Yaksini of the Twenty-Fourth Jina Mahavira, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda (JOI), Vol. 22, nos. 1-2, pp. 70-78, fig. 1. 308b. Ibid., fig. 2. 308c. Ibid., fig. 3. 309. Shah, U.P., Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. IX, pp. 42ff. Also see JOI, Vol. 22, op. cit., fig. 5. 310. Mahapurana, Vol. 1, 1.10.1-15. 311. Known from archaeological evidence, shown below. 311a. JOI, Vol. 22, op. cit., fig. 6. 312. Shah, U.P., Jaya Group of Goddesses, Vijaya-VallabhaSuri-Smaraka Grantha, pp. 124-127. 313. Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata, JISOA, Vol. IX (1941), pp. 42ff. For texts of Simhatilakasuri's VarddhamanaVidya-kalpa, and two others of unknown authorship, see Surimantrakalpa-samdoha, app. pp. 1-28. 314. Comparative and Critical Study of Mantrasastra, p. 159, 185ff; the Mahanisitha, adh. 3, uddesa 11 gives this Vidya. It is also given at the end of adh. 8 after the colophon. 315 siddhAyikA tathA devI dvibhujA kanakaprabhA // varadA pustakaM dhatte subhadrAsanamAzritA / 316. Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 73, 178. 317. Cf. virbhAta yA pustakamiSTadAnaM savyApasavyena karadvayena / bhadrAsanAmAzritavarddhamAnAM siddhAyikAM siddhikarIM yajetAm // -Pratisthasarasaingraha, 5.66-67 318. Cf. dvibhujA kanakAmA ca pustakaM cAbhayaM tathA / siddhAyikA tu kartavyA bhadrAsanasamanvitA // -Pratisthatilaka, 7-24, p. 348 320b. Ibid. 320c. Ibid. 320d. Ibid. 319. Ramachandran, Temples, p. 211. Shah, U.P, Yaksini of the Twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira, JOI, vol. 22, op. cit., fig. 7. -Aparajitaprchha, 221, 33, p. 568 T.N., Tiruparuttikunram and its 320a. Tiwari, M.N.P., Jaina Pratima-Vijnana, pp. 245-246. Elements of Jaina Iconography, p. 61. Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 320e. Ibid. 320f. Ibid. 321a. Shah, U.P., Yaksini of the Twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira, JOI, op. cit., fig. 9. 321b. Ibid., fig. 11. Also see S. Settar, The Classical Kannada Literature and the Digambara Jaina Iconography, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper no. 5, pp. 41-42. 322. Desai, P.B., Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, p. 56. For inscriptions nearby, see Ann. Rep. on South Indian Epigraphy, 1906, Appendix C, nos. 67-74. 323. Desai, P.R., op. cit., pp. 58-59; also see pp. 40, 95. 323a. In the Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, March, 1940, fig. 2, p. 161. Also see Shah, U.P., Yaksini of the Twenty fourth Jina Mahavira, JOI, op. cit., fig. 12. 323b. Jaina Pratima-mm, 245-246. 323c. Ibid. 323d. Ibid. 324. Barrett, Douglas, A Jain Bronze from the Deccan, Oriental Art (N.S.), Vol. V, No. 4 (1959), pp. 162-165. 325. The Nahara collection bronze was published in Jaina Sahitya no Samksipta Itihasa (in Gujarati), by M.D. Desai. Also see Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Paper no. 26 (Jaina Bronzes-A Brief Survey), fig. 23. The symbols of two upper hands are not distinct. In the Karanja bronze, Siddhayika carries the lotus in the right upper hand and not the axe as Barrett thought. 326. Ramachandran, op. cit., p. 211. 327. Ibid., p. 212, pl. xxxiv, fig. 3. 328. Mitra, Debala, Sasanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves, Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta), New Series, Vol. I (1959), No. 2, pp. 127-133 and plates. 329. varddha mAnajinendrasya yakSI siddhAyikA matA / taddevyaparanAmrA ca kAmacaNDAlisaMjJakA / bhUSitAbharaNaiH sarvairmuktakezA digambarI / pAtu mAM kAmacaNDAlI kRSNavarNA caturbhujA || phalakAMcanavalakarA zAlmalidaNDoccaDamaruyugmopettA / japata ( ? ) stribhuvanavadyA vazyA jagati zrIkAmacaMDAlI || --Vidyanusasana (Mss., Bombay, Ailaka Pannalal Dig. Jaina Bhandara), Folios 40-41

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Index Abbayadeva 5 Abhidhana-Cintamani-kosa 10, 258 Abhinandana 118, 134-36 157, 220 Abhogaratina (Abhogar lini), yaksi di Devgadh 215-16 Abstract deities, in Jainism 63 Abu (Mt.) 114, 117, 167, 169 Acalgadh, caumukha temple at 164 Acara-Dinakara 19, 63, 214, 225, 227, 254, 268, 272, 284 Acaranga Niryukti 97 Acaranga Sutra 1, 2, 5, 6, 26, 27 Acaryas, defined 42 Acarya Hemacandra 10 Acchupta (vidya) 155 Acela 27 Achutarajpur 119, 143 Acyuta (yaksi) 137 Adambara Jakkha 207 Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa, of Sri-Candra 269, 271, 277, 279 Adhivasana devi 63 Adho-loka, seven earths 53 Adi-Jina 116 Adinatha 1, 7, 112-14, 116-17, 119, 121, 122-28, 133, 139, 155, 169, 225, 230, 233 Adipurana, 11, 13, 30, 90, 112-13, 220 Adipuranam, of Pampa 235 Adityas, twelve 63 Agama aur Tripitaka 26 Agastyasimha suri 31. 82 A. Ghosh 36 Agni, as skambha 11 Agni-kumaras 57 Agnila, story of 247 Agrawala, V.S. 28 Ahar 155 Ahicchatra 172, 175, 211, 277 Ahmedabad 131 Ahura Mazda 261 Aihole 3, 173-74, 278 Aindri (Matika) 228 Ajanta 263 Ajita, yaksa of Candraprabha 142-43; yaksa of Suvidhi 145 Ajita, yaksi Ajitabala 128, 131 Ajita, yaksi of Aranatha 158 Ajitanatha 10, 118, 128-32, 136, 153, 162, 164, 169, 230 Ajita-Santi-stava 152 Ajivikas 17 Akkana-Basti 193 Akota 7, 167, 177, 191, 213 Akota Bronzes 115, 153, 177-78, 191, 267 Akota hoard 132, 213, 249 Aland 127 Alavaka 206 A.L. Alsdorf 16, 27 Aluara 120, 143 Aluara Bronzes 149, 155, 183 Aluara hoard 157, 168, 193, 251 Alexander Rea 253 Amarakosa 26, 257 Amarasara 115-16, 170 Amaravati 11, 14 Amba 142, 239, 248 Amba-Kusmaodi, yaksi 116, 125, 126, 165, 168, 213, 214, 215, 220, 239, 248, 257 Amba-Kusmandi (vidya) 214, 215, 248, 257 Ambika 115, 117-18, 121, 127, 137, 140, 151, 153, 155, 156. 157, 162, 178-82, 193, 210, 211, 213-14, 225, 239, 267, 268, 277-79 Ambika, associated with Adinatha (Rsabhanatha), Mallinatha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira 238, 256 Ambika, images & temples of 256; worship old 256; earliest ref. to Ambika yaksi 248; origin of Ambika 257-64; iconography 246-65, story of A. 246-47; iconographic tables 264-65 Ambika-devi-kalpa 64, 214, 246, 254, 256-57 Ambika, parivara of 64, 256; terrific form of 256 Ambikasiaka 248 Ambikatatankah 254-55. Akola 125 Aminbhavi 125 Amra 215 Amra-Kusmandini 215, 257 Amra-Amradevi, 215, 252; same as Amra-Kusmandi or Kusmandi 215, 264; same as Amba, Ambika, Simha vahini 257 Amrasalavana, udyana 13 Amsumadbhedagama 237 Ana 184 Anadhiya (Anadsta), gate-keeper of Jambudvipa 260; lord of Jambudvipa 54, 60

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302 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Anadhiya (Anadpta) yaksa 207 (probably same as above) Anagata (Bhavi) Jinas, list of 102 Anahillapuri, Santinatha caitya at 151 Anahita-Anaitis 60; a Persian goddess 260; a goddess of fertility, of water 260ff; a war goddess 261 Anahita cult in Iran 261 Anai-Jambad 120 Anaimalai 140, 173, 287 Anaitis 116, 215 Anandamangalam 252 Apantagumpha, Khandagiri 171 Anantamati, yaksi of Anantanatha 156 Anantanatha, fourteenth Tirthankara, his cognizance, his yaksa and yaksini, tirthas of, images of 150-51 Anatur, Jaina temple at 269 Andesvara-Parsvanatha 179 Angadi 249 Angadtyaru 144 Angavijja 260 Anguttara Nikaya 205 Anihata 215 Ankai-Tankai 125, 184 Ankusa, yaksi of Anantanatha 150 Annavasal 193 Antatundi (yaksa) 211 Anuddisas (gods) 56 Anuttaras 56 Anuyogadvara sutra, ref. to worship of Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Siva, Mukunda, Arya, Kottakiriya, etc. 258 Aparajita, name of gate as well as gate-keeper god 207 Aparajita, gate-keeper goddess in Samavasarana 24; ancient goddess, invoked in Vardhamana-vidya 62 Aparajita, yaksi of Mahavira, at Devgadh 285; yaksi of Mallinatha (Dig.) 159 Aparajita prccha 64, 93, 236, 252, 270-71, 286; passage on Jina-image quoted 103-105 Apraticakra yaksi 131, 137, 214, 217 Apraticakra, vidyadevi 137, 179, 231 Apsarasas 205 Ara 154, 163 (Aranatha Tirtharkara) Aras 1 Aranatha, eighteenth Tirthankara 157, 161; cognizance of tirthas of, yaksa-yaksi of, images of, iconography of 158-59 Arang 154, 159 Arbudacala-Pracina-Jaina-Lekha samgraha 138, 163, 169, 179 Arbudacala-pradaksina-Jaina-lekha-samdoha 163, 164 Ardhaphalakas 6, 7, 28, 43 Arhad-deva-ayatana 28 Arhat 1, 9, 26 Arhats, their qualities 42; fifty-two eternal temples of 55 Arhat Nandyavarta 15, 82, 158, 161 Aristanemi 1, 82; images of 82; scenes from the life of 169 (see Neminatha) Arthuna 267, 286 Arun Joshi 118, 183-84 Arya 215 Arya Mahagiri 6, 35 Arya Nagila suri 278 Arya Raksita 6 Arya Skandila 19 Arya Suhasti 6, 34-35 Aryavati, on Amohini votive tablet 47 Asadhara (Pandit) 214, 239, 273, 275, 276-77, 287 Ascetic Kanha 43 Ashta 162 Asokacandra 149 Asoka tree 11, 13 Asoka, yaksi of Sitalanatha 146 Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture 16, 114, 190 Astal Bohr 180 Aptamangalas 4, 9, 11, 14, 18; on Ayaga patas of Kusana period 19; in paintings, on pajas & Vijnaptipatras 19; significance of 19 Astangahrdaya of Vagbhaja 18 Astamangaie-kalas ! Ascanhika mahotsava 55 Asjapada (Mt.) 1, 15, 17, 20-21, 97, 98, 113, 211; sculpture at Kumbharia, Surat, Ranakpur, Satrurjaya 98 Astapada prasada 98 Asta-tirthika (Jaina image) 178 Asthikagrama 207 A. Sundara 276 Asurakumaras 57 Asvavabodha-Samajikavihara-tirtha 162; paja (tirthodhara) of 162-64 Atanatiya Suttanta, Digha Nikaya 206 Ataru 180 Atharvaveda 205, 212 Atisayas of a Jina 89ff Atita Jinas, table of names 101-102 Aupapatika-sutra, 11, 15, 23, 208 Auspicious Dreams 17 Auspicious objects, belief in 19 Auspicious symbols 9, 10 Avasarpini 1 Avasyaka-curni 5, 15, 90, 161, 211, 239 Avasyaka Niryukti 14, 15, 23, 24, 89, 139, 206, 248 Avasyaka-Vrtti 30 Avatara (uddhara) 21 Avatara (of Satrunjaya and Girnar) 98 Avirmalai 158 Ayagapata 9, 10, 13, 19; dedicated by Sihanadika 16, 19, 20, 87; donated by Sivayasas 16; donated by Vasu 15, 16; set up by Acala 87 Ayodhya 128, 151, 161, 164, 184 Badami 3, 140, 173-74 Badshahi 183 Badnawar 134 Bahubali, a Kamadeva 61, 62, 112, 169, 183, 192, 267, 276 Bahuputrika Caitya 15, 208 Bahuputrika, yaksi 2, 210, 259 Balacandra Jaina 155 Baladevas 61, 121, 163, 166, 167; nine in Jainism, lists 74, 75, 147-50, 158, 160-61; representations 75; same as Balarama 10, 121, 252

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Index 303 Bala-grahas 2, 259; in Vidyanusasana 64 Balipajtas 10, 18, 23 Bala, yaksi of Kunthu 157 Banerji, R.D. 28 Bangladesh 120 Bankura 120 Banpur 119 Banpur Khas 133 B.A. Saletore 168 B.C. Bhattacharya 123, 135, 147, 277 Bahurupi, yaksi of Puspadanta 215 Bahurupini, yaksini of Munisuvrata 161 Bahurupini, yaksi of Naminatha 164 Baijanath 141 Baijnath Puri 259 Baijballa 144 Bajramath 141 Bajrangagadh 155, 157, 59 Bangalore 141 Bappabhatti suri 8, 225, 239, 277-78 Barabhuji Cave (Cave 8), Khandagiri 118, 140, 145, 147, 149-51, 155, 157, 159, 168, 183, 193, 236, 275, 277, 288 Barasana 153 Baripada, Bada Jagannath temple 184 Barkola 183 Baroda 150 Barsi Takli 125 Barua, B.M. 13 Basavakalyana 185 Batesvara 149, 167 Basti (Basa di), Jaina Adda-keri Basti, Karkal 186 Adinatha Basadi, Mugadd 185 Ammanavara Basti, Karkal-Hiriyangadi 146 Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagoja 11, 132, 134, 136-38, 140, 144-45, 186, 232, 270 Bommaraja Basti, Karkal 186 Cananoa Basti, Vindhyagiri (Sr. Bel.) 11 Candragupta Basti, Sravana Belagola 271 Caturmukha-Basti, Caumukha Basti, Karkal 160, 163 Cavundaraya Basti, Sravana Belagola 126, 250 Cikka Basti, Bulleri-Puddabetu 186 Dharmanatha Basti, Naravi 268 Dodda Basti, Aladangadi 186 Eda-Bala Basti, Karkala-Hiriyangadi 146 Eradukatte Basti, Sra. Bel. 126 Guru Basti, Mudabidri 186 Hallara Basti, Karkal 186 Hosangadi Basti, Hosangadi 186 Jaina Basti, Lakkundi 270 Jaina Basti, Mijaru 186 Jaina Basti, Kudi-Baitu 186 Jaina Basti, Arikallu 186 Jaina Basti, Beli-bidu 186 Jaina Basti, Markuli 235 Kajale Basti 126 Kelagina Basti, Venur 186 Kere-Basti, Mudabidure 161 Koto-setti Basti, Mudabidure 169 Mathada Basti, Mudabidri 186 Pasca-Basadi, Stavanidhi 185 Pancakuta Basti, Kambadahalli 126, 169, 185, 192, 252, 287 Pancakuta Basti, Markuli 126, 169, 288 Pancakuta Basti, Humcha 269 Parsvanatha Basti, Candragiri, Sra. Bel. 11 Parsvanatha Temple, Humcha 269 Parsvanatha Basadi, Yamakanamardi 184-85 Paravanatha Basti, Rona 270 Parsvanatha Basti, Manjesvara 186 Ruined Jaina Basadi, Bankur 185 Sankesvara Basadi, Dharwar district 185 Sankha-basti, Puligere (modern Laksmesvara) 168 Sankha basadi, Huligere 169 Santinatha Basti, Jinanathapura 269 Santinatha Basti, Kambada halli 230, 286 Santinatha Basti, Holakere 156 Sasana Basti, Sravana Belagola 126, 251 Settara Basti, Mudabidri 126, 268 Suttalaya of Gommata, Sra. Bel. 132, 134-36, 138, 144 45, 186 Tirthankara Basti, Venur 186 Tirtharkara Basti, Bangavadi 186 Tirthankara Basti, Mudabidri 186 Bayana 116 Bejoy Singh Nahar, Collection of 161, 192 Besnagar 263; Besnagar Yaksi 208 Bellur 141, 150, 185 Beltangadi 144 Belur 156 Benoytosh Bhattacharya 63, 64 Bhaddilapur 146 Bhadra 210, 212 Bhadraba hu 6, 8, 82 Bhadrasalavana 54 Bhadra-tithis 211 Bhagalpur 120 Bhagava Nemeso 2 Bhagavata cult 121 Bhagavati Aradhana 4 Bhagavati Sutra 2, 5, 11, 27, 208, 215, 277 Bhagavati Sutra, list of gods obedient to Va isramana 206 Bhagavati Sutra, list of Caityas where Mahavira stayed 208 Bhagchandra Jain 154, 164, 168 Bhairavas 63; eight 64 Bhairavas & Yoginis in Jainism 220 Bhairava-Padmavati 270 Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, of Mallisena 64, 214, 277 Bhairavasinghpur 119 Bhakti-caityas 81 Bhantira-vaja 211 Bhandira-vana 211 Bhangra 120 Bhanpur 184 Bharata, first Cakravarti 1, 14, 21, 97, 112; representations of 73, fig. 156, 41; erecting the first Jaina shrine 15 Bharata ksetra 1, 54 Bharhut 13, 14, 205, 207; Stupa 10

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304 Bharukaccha 163 Bhatkal 144 Bhatinda 120 Bhattamargis 279 Bhavanadhipatis 24 Bhavanavasi gods 26; crowns of 57; caitya trees of 57-8; ten types of 65; Tables of 57 Bhavanipur 120 Bhava-puja 9 Bhelova 120 Bhiladiyaji (tirtha) 178 Bhinmal 115 Bhojpur 181 Bhrajilasvami 35 Bhrgupattana (Broach) 161 Bhrgutirtha 178 Bilhari 193 Botikas (Digambaras) 6 B.R. Gopal 276 Bbrkuti, yaksa of Naminatha 164 Bhrkuti, yaksa of Munisuvrata acc. to TP 161 Bhrkuti, a Buddhist deity 64 Bhrkuti Yaksi 142, 144 Bhutas 205; seven classes of 58; iconography 58; in front of Jina idols 93 Bhuyaggaha 207 Bhuyaghara 206 Bhuvanesvara 118, 130 Bikaner 115 B.N. Mukerjee 260-62 Bodhi-tree 14, 88 Bodikunda 127 Bone-relics 15 Book of Bharhut 13 Brahmavaivarta Purana 19 Brahmanical influence, in Jaina tantra 214 Brhad-Siddha-Cakra-Yantras 44 Brhat-Kalpa-Bhasya 5, 20, 207 Brhat-Kalpa-sutra 27 Brhat-katha-kosa, of Harisena 6, 16 Brahmadeva, popular in South 63 Brahmadeva Pillars 29 Brahma-loka 56 Brahmani (matrka) 227 Brahmasanti 211 Brahmasuri 272-73 Brahma Yaksa 29, 63 Brahma, yaksa of Suvidhi 145; yaksa of Sitalanatha 146 Brahmi 113 Brhat Samhita 26 Brindaban Bhattacharya 49 Broach 213 Bruhn 130, 154; also see Klaus Bruhn Buddha figure, of sandalwood at Kausambi 37; at Pi-mo in Khotan 37 Buddha, as a fiery pillar 11 Buddha-image 15 Buddha, painting of 40, note 45 Buddhism & Jainism 1 Buddhists 10, 16 Buddhist influence on Jaina Pantheon 220 Budhi Chanderi 122, 124, 181 Bujgarh 176 Burgess 145, 236, 253, 272 Jaina-Rapa-Mandana Caitya 10, 25; of Manibhadra 208 Caityas 11, 13, 36; where Mahavira stayed 208; mentioned in Vivagasuyam 209; Caityalaya at Kurnool 158 Caityas, images 15 Caitya-stambha 11 Caitya-stupas 14, 15 Caitya-tree(s) 9, 13, 15, 26, 88: of Mahavira 26; from Chausa hoard 26 Caitya-trees, of Tirthankaras 51 Caitya-vrksas 13, 14; of Jinas, Table 87-89 Caitya vika, un 26 Candravatarana canya 15 Cakravartins 72-73; Bharata 1; Maghavan 151; Sanatkumara 151; Santinatha 156; Kunthunatha 157; Ara 158; Subhuma 158; Padma 160: Harisena 161; Jayasena 164 Cakravartins, their conquests 73; fourteen jewels (ratnas) of 73; representations of 73 Cakresvari 113, 118, 121, 193, 277; in Jaina parikara 92 Cakresvari, yaksi 117, 119, 122, 123-27, 135, 213; yaksi of Rsabhanatha 224ff; Tables of iconography of C. 240-46 Cakresvari, vidya 213 Cakresvari, temples of, at Ayodhya and Kulpakatirtha 240 Cakresvari-astakam 235 Camaradharas, on Jina images 93 Cambalesvara-Parsvanatha 179 Cambay 144, 148-9, 163, 187 Campa 15, 148 Camundi (Dig.), yaksi of Naminatha 164 Canarese Dhyana-slokas 236, 286, 287 Candana 3 Candanakalasas (mangalakalasas) 94 Canda (Candra), yaksini of Vasupujya 148 Candi 278 Candogra Parsvanatha 186 Candragiri 11 Candranatha 142, 144 Candraprabha 138, 142-44, 145, 184, 215; cognizance of, yaksa-yaksi of, images of 142-44 Candravati 146 Carana-padukas 17 Carana-puja 124 Catherine Glynn 263 Caturmukha shrine 13, 143; Caturmukha temple 115; conception of 26; beginning of concept of 110, f.n. 81a Caturmukha sculpture 96, 129, 153, 157, 172 Caturyama, definition 5; Caturyama samvara 5 Caujjama Dhamma 2 Caumukha pratimas 10, 21, 25, 110 note 77, 139, 152 Caturvimsatika, of Bappabhatti suri 214, 225, 239, 248 Caturvimsati-patta(s) 96, 115, 117, 119, 122, 123, 125, 127, 130, 148, 150, 155, 168, 181-2, 185, 192, 193, 229 Caupannamahapurisa-Cariyam 61

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Index 305 Ceiyavandana-Mahabhasa 92 Cejaka, Uma-Cejaka, tantric sadhana of 64 Chahardi 125 Chalukyan influence 127 Chandigarh 120 Chandogya Upanisad 17 Chandravati 116 Charampa 119, 130, 155, 193 Chattarpur 138, 145, 167 Chandragupta Maurya 6 Chani 150 Charupa 178 Chatra (Charra) 183 Chausa, hoard 114, 139, 176 Chettipatti 186 Chitharal 173, 192, 251 Chola Art 128 Chinta mani Parsvanatha 178 Citra-patas 21 Classification of gods, given by Mahavira 65 Cognizance, on pedestals of Jina-image 83 Cognizances, of Tirthankaras 83, 85 Colapaja 6 Collective deities, in Jaina Pantheon 63 Conqueror's Life in Jaina Paintings 30 Coomaraswamy, A.K.11, 13, 14, 20, 29, 30, 31, 166, 205-6, 208, 210, 212, 253, 263, 279 Cosmos, shape of 53 Covisi, images, sculptures, bronzes 96, 117-18, 122, 127, 155. 170, 179, 181, 185-6, 226, 235, 286 Crest symbols, of Vyantaras 26 Crowned Buddha 36 Crowned Tirthankara 36 C. Sivaramamurti 127, 163, 186, 192 Culesvara Parsvanatha 179 Cunningham, A. 259 Cuttack 138, 184 Cyavana Kalyanaka 4 Devadhideva Tirthankara 79ff Devakula 15, 190, 211 Devakulikas 213 Devakurus 54 Deva and Naga artists 16 Devananda 2 Devanirmita (Devanimmiya) stupa, at Mathura 15, 16, 161, 211 Deva pattana (Somnath-Patan) 142 Deva School of Art 16 Devasena 27 Devatamurtiprakarana 64, 228, 236, 254, 268 devaya-ceiya 11 Devendra Handa 36 Devgadh 121-23, 130, 133, 135, 138, 141, 143, 154, 162, 164, 168, 177, 180, 213, 215, 229, 230, 233-34, 237, 238, 249. 250, 254, 268, 272-73, 275, 285-88 Devgadh ki Jaina-Kala 29, 164 Devipurana 237 Dewalia, Burdwan district 143 Dhamma-Cakka shrine 13 Dhanada (Kubera), a Vesmadevata 65 Dhanada Tara 279 Dhank, Saurashtra 178, 191, 278 Dharadhisa, a Vesmadevata 65 Dharana, chief queen 239 Dharana-Naga 211 Dharanapatta mahila 277 Dharanendra 3, 62, 140, 152, 181, 183, 184, 212, 267, 269, 272, 274, 277, 279 Dharanendra, yaksa of Parsva 179-80, 182, 185-86 Dharanendra and Padmavati, their role during Kamatha's attack on Parsva 266 Dharapet 120, 183 Dharini, yaksi of Ara 158 Dharma-cakra, on pedestals from Mathura 7 Dharma-cakra 9; representations 20 Dharma-cakra, on Jaina images 91 Dharma-cakra pillars 10, 29 Dharma-cakra shrine 14 Dharma-cakra, worship of 17 Dharma-devi 251, 253 Dharmanatha, fifteenth Tiriharkara 150f, 162; cognizanco of 151; images of 151; tirthas of 151; his yaksa-yaksi 151 Dharmasthala 144 Dharapat temple 193 dhatu-caityas 11 Dhavala 4, 252 Dhavalikar, M.K. 264 Dhvajas, cognizances 10-11 Dhvaja-stambhas, pillars 10-11 Dictionary of Pali Proper Names 26 Didarganj ya ksi 207 Digambara Nun 43; figure at Surat fig. 213 Digambaras and svetambaras 1-8 Digambara-Svetambara schism 7, 159 Digba-Nikaya 2, 206 Dik-kumaras, a class of Bhavanavasi gods 57 Dik-kumaris, 36 in number 55-56, 60, 63, 211 Dadhikarna Naga 172 Daivata-caitya 11 Danavulpadu 140, 156, 186 Dance of Nilanjana 10, 17, 128; a Jaina Jataka scene on a sculpture from Mathura 63, 111-12 danda-paunchanam (danda-praunchanaka) 20 Darbarilal Kothia 159 Darpana 9 Dasa-Curni 82 Dasapura, origin of 34 Dasapura (Mandsore) 142 D.B. Diskalkar 151 Debala Mitra 29, 119, 161, 217, 250 deities, of a yatanas, mentioned in Vi vagasuyam 209 Deity, Jaina conception of 8-9 De La Vallee Poussin 205 Delvada 117 Deoli 159 Deyacandra suri 149 Devacchandaka 14, 24

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306 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Diksa, Kalyanaka 99 dinara-mala 18 Dipavali parva 190 Dombas 207 Douglass Barrett 288 Dravya-puja 9 D.R. Bhandarkar 25, 163, 259 Dreams, belief in 18; ten seen by Mahavira 18; fourteen seen by Trisala (acc. to Sve. belief) 17; sixteen (acc. to Dig. belief) 17-18; representations of 17-18 Dreams, seen by Mothers of Salakapurusas-Cakravartis, Baladevas, Vasudevas 18 Dreams, painted on wooden book-cover 30 Dudhai 154 Duipalasa Ceiya 209, Duipalasa ujjana 207 Durga 215, 252 Durgakonda 186 Durggottarini Tara 271, 279 Duritari, yaksi 132 Durjanpur 145 Dvaraka 165, 169 Dvarika 150 Dvarapalas, gate-keepers, of four-gates of Jambudvipa 60; in a Samavasarana 64 Dvipa-kumaras 57 dvi-tirthi 120, 193 dvi-tirthika image 130, 131, 134, 136-37, 151, 155, 160, 162, 193 eka-sataka Nigganthas 5 eka-tirthika, eka-tirthi 125, 182, 185 Ellora (Jaina Caves) 3, 167, 176, 184, 233, 236, 251, 263-64, 278-79 Epic Mythology 206 Erandol 184 Gandhaval 236, 253 Ganditinduga Jakkha 206 Ganesa, Vinayaka 228, 252, 258, 263 Ganesa, in Jaina temples 63 Ganga 215 Ganga Art 141 Gangachari 126 Gangadharam 233 Garuda, yaksa of Santinatha 152 Gate-keepers of a Jaina shrine 64 Gauri (Hindu devi) 258 Gauri 113, 239, 279 Gauri, yaksi of threyamsa 147 Gauri, a Vidyadevi 62 Gautama Buddha 1 Gautama Indrabhuti 3; dialogue between Kesi and Gautama 5; Gana Mahavira 21, 97 Gautan.d-svami 142 Gaya 123 Gayatri 279 Gerrosoppe, Hiriya Basadi at 186 Ghantakarna, in Jaina worship 64; a. Vira 207 Ghantika Jakkha 207 Ghasesvara 120 Ghatge, A.M. 27 Girnar 21, 169; dispute over ownership of Jaina temples at 8 Godhra 115 Golakot 123 Gomedha, yaksa of Neminatha 165, 214; yaksa of Naminatha acc. to TP 164 Gommata 278 Gomukha, yaksa 113, 116-7, 119, 122-27, 135, 226-27, 229, 231-32, 238 Gondalmau 136 Gorak sakar (Sadashiv) 125 Gotra-devatas, in Jainism 64 Gotra-devis 64, 119 Graiveyaka, heavens 56 Green Tara 271 Gudar 157, 159 Gudigeri 128 Gudnapur inscription 276 Guha 206 Gulbarga 127 Gurjara-Pratihara art 116 Guna 26, 115, 136, 155, 157, 181 Gunasila Caitya 15, 210 Gurgi 168 Gwalior 138; Gwalior Fort, Urwahi group 157, 164 Gyaraspur 123, 141, 154, 176, 193 Halebid 127; Basti Halli at 186; Parsvanatha Basti 277 Halli 127 Hanamakonda 187, 192 Harappa, red stone statue from 33 Harappan torso 7 Haribhadra suri 14, 16, 257 Haridas K. Swali 169 Harihara Singh 27 Fa-Hien, his account of sandalwood image of Tathagata 38 Five Paramesthins 43; representation at Nadol, fig. 38 Five Supreme Ones 41 Festivals, celebrated by gods 32, note 125 Festivals and worship, of Indra, Rudra, Vaisramana, Naga, Yaksa, Bhuta, Vasudeva 15 Four-fold sculptures 11 Four Gates of Jambudvipa-Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita 54 funeral caityas 11 funeral stupa 11 Gadachandi 184 Gai, G.S. 28, 276 Gamaya Sannivesa 206 Ganadharas, eleven of Mahavira 3; figures of 43; figs. 167, 170 Gandhabba 205 Gandhakuti 24, 25 Gandhari 62, 118, 239 Gandhari, yaksi 148, 149, 164 Gandharvas, classes, iconography 59, 205-6 Gandharva yaksa, of Kunthunatha 157

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Index 307 Harinegamesin 2, 9, 10, 27 Harisena 16 Hariti 2, 208, 210, 212, 259 Harivamsa-purana 26, 90, 113, 166, 167, 214, 217, 239, 248 Harmashra 183 Hathigumpha inscription 7, 33 Sankalia (H.D.) 269, 271, 287 Hemacandracarya 18, 34-35, 239, 284; his account of Jivantasvami image 37 Hero-worship, Jaina worship in essence 60 Himadevi (or Bhima devi), yaksi at Devgadh 215 Hindu influence, in Jaina Pantheon 220 Hindupur 187 Hinglajgadh 181, 250 Hiradikka Jakkha 207 Hirananda Shastri 145, 153 History of Dharmasastra 13 Hiuen-Tsang 37 Hrada-devis, list 60 Hoskote copperplate 6, 28 Huligere 169 Humaca, Humca 144, 174, 186, 192, 193, 251 Humbucha 144 Hastikalikunga-tirtha 175 Hunchalige 192 Hundika-yaksa 213; shrine of at Mathura 211 Jaina bronzes, hoard from Aluara 120 Jaina Cave, Aihole 140, 191 Jaina Cave, at Badami 192, 193, 213, 269, 271, 287 Jaina Caves, Ellora 173-74, 213 Jaina Cave, at Sittanpavasal 6; at Udayagiri 181 Jaina Church, schisms in 3 Jaina classification of souls 61 Jaina conception of a deity 8-9 Jaina conception of Time 1 Jaina Cosmography 53ff Jaina Deities, classification 57; four types acc. to Traivarni kacara 64 Jaina Jataka, scene from 63 Jaina Iconography 123, 135 Jaina monks, representations of 42 Jaina Monuments of Orissa 184 Jaina Mythology, scenes from 10 Jaina nuns, dress of 109 note 71 Jaina Pantheon, collective deities 63 Jaina Pantheon, evolution of 63; growth of 62: Buddhist and Hindu influence in 62-63, 64 Jaina Pantheon-Notes on 53ff Jaina Pantheon, Supernatural Beings in 64 Jaina pillars 25 Jaina ritual, Hindu influence on 64 Jaina Sadhus, dress etc. 42-43 Jaina Sadhvis, dress etc. 42-43 Jaina Samgha 3, 6 Jaina sculpture, earliest from Lohanipur 7 Jaina shrine, first erected by Bharata 15, at Mathura 15 Jaina shrines at Devgadh 27 Jaina Stela, from Sat Deulia 97 Jaina stupa 9; conception of 15; at Kankali Tila 139; representation on hyaga pata dedicated by Vasu 16 Jaina temple, plan, of Mauryan age 37 Jaina temples 10 Jaina worship 9 Jainkul 184 Jainism, a living religion 1 Jainism, introduction in the South 6 Jakkha-ayatana 11 Jakkha-deula 206 Jakkhagga ha 207 Jakkha Sumano 210 Jakkhaya yana 207 Jakkavesa 207 Jalor 156 Jambhala 208, 212 Jainbhira 168 Jambhiyagama 3 Jambu-dvipa 53, 54; lord of 207 Jambudvipa prajnapti 15, 97, 207 Jambunada 225 Jambusvamicarita 16 Jamner 134 Jamunda 184 Janguli 271, 278-79 Jainism, antiquity of If Janmabhiseka Kalyanaka, performed on Mt. Meru 54 Idar 270 Ila, Vedic goddess 211 Image worship, in the age of Mahavira 15 Image worship, in Jainism 33 Images of Padmavati 277 Images of Kamadeva and Rati 276 Images of Tirthankaras, no drapery on them with la fichanas 83 Indaggaha 207 Indra(s) 11, 56, 61, 206 Indrabhuti (Gautama) 2 Indra-Dhvaja 11, 14 Indrakulagrha 126 Indra-maha 11, 29 Indranandi 277 Indra-sabha cave, Ellora 174 Indra-Vytra fight 3, 175 Indra-ya si 29 Indus Valley seals, figures on 33 Iruvattur 144 Isana 205 Isanendra 220 Ishtar 261 Itava 193 Isvara yaksa 63, 135, 147 10; identified Jaina Bastis in Tulunadu 144 Jain, J.C. 2, 27 Jaiminiya Brahmana 205 Jaina Agamas 15 Jaina Art and Architecture 27, 28, 115, 118, 155 Jaina art, at Mathura 10

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308 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Jyotiskarandaka 63 Janma-Kalyanaka 98-99 Jaratkaru 278 Jaso 122-23 Jatasimhanandi 277 Javas 136 Jaya 24, 62 Jayadhavala 4, 16 Jaya group of goddesses 285 Jayanta 207 Jayanta 62 Jayantavijaya, Muni 138, 158, 163 Jaya, yaki of Aranatha 158 Jesalmer 62, 179 Jeypore 236 Jhalrapatan 274 Jinabhadra gani ksam asramana 20, 213, 214, 239 Jina-bimba-laksanam, acc. to Traivarnikacara 105-6 Jinabhadra Vacanacarya 114, 153, 213, 249 Jina-body, description in Vasudevahindi 96 Jina figures 14 Jinadasa Mahattara 239 Jina images 7; acc. to Manasara, Varahamihira, and Vasunandi Saidhantika 79; in sve. and Dig. traditions 80; postures of 80; Jina images, made of 80 Jina images (caityas), classified into four types 81 Jina image, conception of 86; drapery on 10 Jina images, in groups of 20, 170, 96, 72, 148, 185 Jinas 97; different types of 96 Jina images, on door-lintels at Mathura 81 Jina images, known as Mangala-Caityas 81 Jina images, on tops of pillars 11 Jina-image, called a caitya, pratima, bimba or arca 81 Jina-image, origin of 33-40: prototype of 37 Jina-image, parikara of, acc. to Aparajitaprccha and Traivarnikacara 105f Jina-image, worship of 15, 80 Jina-image, terracotta images 80; painted on cloth, palm leaves and paper 80; on temple-walls 80 Jina-kalpa 5,6 Jinakalpi monks 28 Jina-Kanchi 26, 236, 251-52, 268-69, 288 Jinalaya 158 Jinaprabha suri 63, 114, 139-42, 145, 146, 187, 240, 277 Jinasamhita of Ekasamdhi 230, 269 Jinasena 13, 16, 24 Jivajiva bhigama Sutra 11, 14, 93 Jivantasvami 137; earliest reference 34 Jivatasvami-pratima, images 33-40, 163, 191; conception of 39 note 18; from different places 35-36 Jivita (Jivat-)-svami 137 Jnana-Kalyanaka 99 J.N. Banerji 29, 279 Jnatadharmakatha 209 Joanna Williams 28 Jrmbhaka gods 206 Jvalagardabhas 64 Jvalamalini, yaksi of Candraprabha 142-44, 214-15 Jyotirlingas 29 Jyotiska gods 23,59 Kadapuyana (Kajhaputana) 207 Kadi 178 Kadipata 6 Kagarol 181 Kahaon pillar 11, 25, 181, 212 Kailasa (Mt.) 1 Kakapur 118, 143 Kalakacarya 17 Kali (yaksi ?) invoked by Haribhadra suri, possibly a Vidyadevi 239 Kali 135; Kalika yaksi of Abhinandana 135; yaksi of Suvidhi 145; yaksi of Suparsva 139 Kali, a Vidyadevi 207 Kalidasa Datta 164 Kalika (possibly same as Kali), yaksi of Abhinandana 135 Kalinga-Jn", image 15, 33, 171 Kalinjara 119 Kaliya 175 Kaliya-damana, relief in Vimala Vasahi, Abu 76, 172 Kalpa-druma 26 Kalpa heavens 56 Kalpa-sutra 206, 213, 272 Kalpa-sutra Sthaviravali 28 Kalpa-sutra, tradition of 24 Jinas 82 Kalpa-sutra, miniature paintings of 128 Kalpatita heavens 56 Kalpa-VIksas, of Jaina mythology 70-71; their functions 71 Kalugumalai 3, 173, 192, 251, 268 Kalyanakas 96; belief in 99-100; five named 100, 220 Kalyanaka-tapa 96 Kamacandali, yaksi of Mahavira 285 Kamacandalini 288 Kamadeva (Cupid), worship of, temples of, in Jainism 61, 212, 276 Kamadevas 276 Kamadeva Sanatkumara 151 Kamadevalaya 276 Kama-Jinalaya 276 Kamalavati (same as Padmavati) 269, 270 Kamasadhani 274 Kamatba 3, 140, 171, 175, 278-79 Kamathopasarga (Kamatha attack) 3, 17267, 268 Kambadahalli 126, 141, 193, 251, 286, 287 Kampilya 149 Kamta Prasad Jaina 145 Kancanasagara-suri 137, 146 Kandarpa, yaksi of Dharmanatha 151 Kangda 141 Kanha Samana (Krsna Sramana) 7, 172; Tablet depicting 97, fig. 21 K.A. Nilakantha Sastri 28 Kankali Tila 9-10, 15, 16, 23, 25, 28, 62, 96, 113, 121, 139, 207 Kankhedi 154 Kannada traditions 147 Kaparddi Yaksa, at Satrunjaya 63; temple of 98 Karanja 288

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Index 309 Karadipatti 193 Karaikoyil 173 Karandai 158 Karcha 162 Karentitodi 144 Karitalai 131, 151, 155, 160, 162 Karkal 160; image of Parsva 186 Karkala-Hiriyan gadi 144 Karkanda-cariu 279 Karnapisacini 64 Kasyapa Samhita 210 Katibandha 6 Katyayana Smrti 263 Kaumari, matka 227 Kausambi 37, 153, 158, 162 Kausambi, Candravatarana Caitya 15 Kayadvara 145 Kayotsarga mudra 7,50 K.D. Bajpai 15, 133, 158 Kedua 183 Kesariyaji 114 Keonjhara 184 Keravase 144 Kesin, a follower of Parsvanatha 27; dialogue between Kesin and Gautama 5 Kevalajnana 3 Khajuraho 114, 133, 154, 162, 170, 182, 193, 229, 231-32, 234, 235, 254, 270, 286-88 Khajuraho, figures of acarya and disciple 43 Khandaggaha 207 Khandagiri 118, 130, 136, 140, 143, 147 Kharatara Vasahi, Delvada, Abu 225 Kharavela 7, 15, 33 Khatikabhumi 25 Khed Brahma 153 Khendra, yaksa of Aranatha 158 Khiching 184 Khijjinga 118, 183 Khuntapal 184 Kilakkudi 287 Kilakkudu 173 Kil-Satta mangalam 158 Kimpurusas 10; classes, iconography 59 Kimpurusa, yaksa of Dharmanatha 151; yaksa of Santinatha 152 Kinnaras 9; classes (Sve.) 10; classes (Dig.) & iconography 58-59 Kinnara, yaksa of Dharmanatha 151 Kirit Mankodi 185 Kiskindha 152 Klaus Bruhn 27, 123-24, 175-77, 181, 235 Kodinna and Kogavira, first disciples of Sivabhuti 6 Kogali 127 Kohandi (Kusmandi, Kusmandini) 247, 248 Koraput 119, 184 Krishna Dev 116 Korkai 193 Kosthaka Caitya, at Sravasti 15 Kotakiriya 287 Kogarya 287 Kottavi (Korravai) 258, 287 Kopavya 258, 262 Kriya-devas 64-65 Krishna 1 Krona, figures of 10, 121, 165-67, 205, 252 Krsna Sramana 28 Krsna-Vasudeva 61, 121 Ksamasramana Samghadasa 34 Ksemakirti 34 Ksetrapala 63, 127, 142, 181, 193, 269 Kubera 24, 65, 205, 208, 210, 212, 239, 252, 258 Kubera, yaksa of Mallinatha 159; yaksa of Aranatha 158 Kukkuramaha 120 Kula-devas 64 Kula-devis 64 Kulakaras 112; Sve. list 69; Dig. list 70; representations of 70-71 Kulpaka Jaina tirtha 185 Kumaraggaha 207 Kumarapala 131; recovered ancient Jivantasvami image 35 Kumarapalacarita 93 Kumaravibara, Jaina shrines erected by Kumarapala, at Girnar, Satrunjaya, Prabhas Patan, Abu, Khambhat (Cambay), Tharad, Idar, Jalor, Div, Mangrol 169 Kumara yaksa 63; of Rohitaka 209 Kumara, yaksa of Vasupujya 148 Kumbhadhara yaksa 211 Kumbharia 138, 167, 278 Kumbhandas, servants of Rudra 259 Kundadharas, in front of Jina idols 93 Kundakunda 9 Kunthu, Kunthunatha, seventeenth Tirthankara 154, 159; his cognizance 157; his yaksa-yaksi 157; tirthas of 157; images of 157-58 Kuppalanatham 138, 169 Kurnool 157 Kurukulla, in Jainism 64 Kusalgadh 179 Kusana art, at Mathura 142 Kusana period 9-11, 17 Kusmandas-Kohandas--a class of Vyantaras 258-59; as Siva's ganas 259 Kusmanda-homa 259 Kusmanda-Rajaputra 215 Kusmandini 169, 215 Kusmandi-Vrata 259 Kusuma, yaksa of Padmaprabha 137 Ladol (Latapalli) 155 Laghu-Santi-stava 152 Lakkundi 126-27, 185, 269 Laksmi 121, 122, 210, 212, 232 Lalitavistara tika, of Haribhadra suri 214, 239, 248, 257 lanchana 10, 119 lanchanas, introduction of 86; dhvajas or heralds of Tirthan karas 86-87; origin discussed 85; points of difference between Sve. & Dig. 85; mode of representation 128; exceptions in Rajgir sculptures 86

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310 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Lanka 152, 163 Lesyas 65 Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jaina Canons 27 Lilva Deva 115, 180 Lion-Pillar, circumambulated 17 Lodrava (Lodurva) 179 Lohanipur torso 7, 8, 33, 36, 37 Lokantika devas, list 56, 63, 112; on a Jaina sculpture 63 Lokapalas 63 Lord of Arbatas, representation acc. to Varahamihira 79 Lives of Tirthankaras, common facts 98; scenes from and panels depicting main events 100 Lonaasobhika 16 Luders 15, 16 Lona Vasahi, Abu 162, 165, 169, 175, 229 madaga-ceiya 11 Madanpur hill 159 madaya-thubhiya 11 M.A. Dhaky 27, 148, 174, 267 Madhura-patna 144 Madura 138 Mahabharata 13, 19, 206, 208, 209, 211, 263, 278 Mabadhavala 4 Mahakali, Vidya devi 131 Mahakali, yaksi of Sumatinatha 136 Mahakalika, yaksi of Suvidhinatha 145 Mahamanasi, Vidyadevi 137, 155, 288 Mahamanasi, yaksi of Santinatha 152 Mahamanasi, yaksi of Kunthu 157 Mahamayuri 205, 209-10 Mahanisitha sutra 285 Maha-pratiharyas, eight 83, 87ff, 210 Mahapurana, of Jinasena & Gunabhadra 166 Mahapurana, of Puspadanta 239, 248 Mahapurusalaksanas, acc. to Aupapatika sutra 95.96 Mahapurusas 61 Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta 142, 145 Mahavidyas 62, 140, 232, 239; paintings on book-covers 81 Mahavira 1-3, 9, 10, 85, 91, 120, 125, 135-39, 142-43, 145, 154, 157, 167, 175, 178-80, 184, 187, 212-15, 230 Mahavira, life and wanderings 1-3; visited and stayed in Yaksa-ayatanas 12; Caityas visited by M. 15; his portrait statue--Jivantasva mi-pratima 33-37; origin of his first image 34; scenes from the life of 165-166, 190; representations of upasargas of M. 175, 190 Mahavira Vardhamana, life etc., his cognizance, his yaksa yaksi, images of M. 187-93; a historical person 33; as a follower of Parsva 5; Mahavira's Parents 2, 36 Mahavira Commemoration Volume 30 Mahavira gumpha, Khandagiri 134-35, 145, 147, 149-51, 155, 157, 159, 168 Mahavira Jinalaya 116 Mahayaksa, yaksa of Ajitan atha 128, 131-32 Mahendradhvaja 14, 93 Mahesvari, matrka 227 Mahisamarddini, worshipped in Jainism 63 Mahoba 122, 136, 273 Mahoragas, classes of and iconography 59 Mahudi 129, 153 Maihar 167 Majjhima Nikaya 205 Mala 144 Maladevi temple, Gyaraspur 154, 193, 217, 286-87 Malalasekhara 26 Malli 163 Mallinatha 169; nineteenth Tirthankara 4, 159-61; cogni zance of 160; images of 160-61; tirthas of 160; yaksa yaksi of 159 Mallisena 274, 277 Malini 237 Malvania, Dalsukh D. 27 Manadeva suri 152 Manasa devi 183, 208. 278 Manasi, yaksi of Dharmanatha 151; yaksi of Santinatha 152 Manastambhas 11, 25, 29, 214, 230 M avala la..bha 11, 99 Manavaka-caitya-stambhas 11 Manava-Grhya-Sutra 205, 263 Manavi, yaksi of Sitalanatha 146; a Vidyadevi 155 Manbhum 118, 120, 155, 164 Marcapuri cave 15 Mandoil 120, 155 Mangadevanpatti 252 mangalas, acc. to Ramayana & Saunaka karika 33 Mangala-Caityas 81 mangala-dravyas 19 mangala-kalasas 94 mangala-mala 19 Manhwara 231 Manibhadra, yaksa 64, 205-6, 207 Manibhadra-bhaktas 208 Manikyadandaka 161 Manimekhalai 6 Mani-Naga 211 manipithaka 11 manipithika 14 Manivara (Manicara, Manimat) 208 Maniyar Math 211 Manjesvara 144 Manmatha (Kama) 276 Manorama udyana 13 Manovega, yaksi of Padma prabha 137-38; yaksi of Candra prabha 142, 144 Mantradhiraja-kalpa 225, 228, 254, 268, 284 Mantradhiraja-Pata 272 Manus, conception of 61 Manusottara (Mt.) 55 Mara 175; attack of 3 Mardala 144 Markandeya Purana 280 Markuli 126 Marudar 193 Marudevi 112, 114 Matanga, yaksa of Suparsva 139; yaksa of Padmaprabha 137; yaksa of Mahavira 190, 214; yakya of Parsva 171 Matangas 207 Matangi, tantric sadhana of 64

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Index 311 Mathura 7-8, 10, 19, 112-14, 121, 128, 133, 139-40, 150, 153. 158, 161, 165-66, 171 Mathura art 10 Mathura council 14, 19, 33 Mathura, centre of Naga worship 211 Mathura, Devanirmita Stupa at 16; Five Jaina Stupas at 16 Mathura pur 164 Mathura School 133 Mathura, Stupa of Suparsvanatha 139 Mathura, temple of Arhats 190 Matrkas 227-28 Matrkas, in Jainism 63, representations in Vimala Vasahi 63 Matrkas & Ganesa in Jainism 220 Matika-pujana 64 Mau 162 Mayurbhanja 118 Mauryan age 15, origie of Jaina image worship 33, Mauryan polished torso, from Lohanipur 33 Mavilpatti 193 Mayuravahi, yaksi at Devgadh 215 Mediaeval Indian Sculpture in the British Museum 120 Meghakumaras 23 Meghamalin 140 Melsittamur 251 Michael Meister 213 Midnapur 155 mina-yugala 9 Mitra, Brah. goddess 272 M.N.P. Tiwari 36, 115, 128, 130, 133, 139-40, 230, 233, 254 55, 275 Modi, P.K. 5 Moggarapani yaksa 207 Mohen-jo Daro seals 33 Mother of Tirthankara at Devgadh 47; paintings of Mothers of Ts on book-covers 81; stone plaques or paras of mothers 47 Moti Chandra 3, 21, 125, 166, 279 Moti Chandra Memorial Lecture 29 mtaka-caitya 11 mrtaka-stupa 11 Mt. Meru 54 Mucalinda Naga 175, 211 Mudabidri (Mudabidure) 132, 135, 137-38, 144.46, 147, 149-51, 154, 158, 159, 161, 163, 164, 168-69 Mugad 269 muhapatti 20 mukhamandapa 14 Mulacara 4, 26 Mularappatna 144 Mulki 144 Mulivaru 144 Municanda, contemporary of Mahavira 5 Muni Jayanta vijaya 156 Muni Kalyanavijaya 27 Muni Nagraj 26 Muni Punyavijaya 18, 62 Munisuvrata 9, 15, 82, 95, 158, 215; stupa of 82; twentieth Tirthankara, bis cognizance 161; his yaksa-yaksi 161; tirthas of 161; images of 161-63; stupa at Visala 161 Muni Uttama Kamala Jain 27 Museums, institutions and collections-- Ajmer Museum 267 Allahabad Museum 122-23, 143, 153-54, 162, 168, 255 Archaeological Museum, Gwalior 146, 168, 181 Archaeological Museum, Jhansi 133 Ashutosh Museum 143, 162 Baroda Museum 115, 140, 180 Berlin Museum 117 Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi 129, 156-57, 166, 191 Bharatpur Museum 168 Bhuvanesvara Museum 119, 155, 184 Bidar Museum 185 Bikaner Museum 180 Boston Museum 215, 255, 263 British Museum 136, 177, 234, 249-51 Brooklyn Muscum 192 Central Museum, Jaipur 162 Cleveland Museum of Art 174-75, 250, 267 Dhubela Museum 122, 155, 162, 168, 225 Digambara Jaina Samgrahalaya, Ujjain 134 Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner 115, 170 Government Museum, Hyderabad (State Museum, Hyderabad) 141, 186, 251 Horniman Museum 168 Indian Museum 118, 123, 138, 143, 146-47, 166, 173, 182, 207 Jardine Museum, Khajuraho 122, 154, 182 Jaisingpura Jaina Archaeological Museum 162 Jeypore Museum 184, 230 Jhansi Museum 182 Khajana Building Museum, Golconda 160, 186 Khajuraho Museum 122, 133, 168, 182, 229, 230-34, 255, 288 Khiching Museum 184 Kota Museum 180 Los Angeles County Museum of Art 150, 155, 178, 213, 250 Lucknow Museum (State Museum, Lucknow) 16, 19, 63, 114, 121-22, 124, 129, 133, 138, 141, 143, 147, 149, 154, 158-61, 166-67, 171-72, 176-77, 180, 190-91, 193, 212, 230-31, 233-34, 255, 258, 268, 273 Madras Museum (Govt. Museum, Madras) 127, 128, 140, 141, 144, 159, 176, 186 Mathura Museum 16, 114, 124, 153, 159, 166, 167, 172, 176, 180, 190, 230, 234, 252 M.G.M. Museum, Raipur 149 Malava Prantiya Dig. Jaina Samgrahalaya, Ujjain 135-36 Musee Guimet 91, 118 Nagpur Museum 250 National Museum, New Delhi 118, 124-25, 127, 131, 135, 137, 141, 146-47, 150, 160, 162, 168, 174, 180, 184, 186, 229, 233, 250-51 Paina Museum 114, 130, 143, 149, 155, 157, 168, 176-77, 183, 193, 251 Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay 125, 147, 149, 184, 238, 267, 269, 271, 286 Pudukkottai Museum 127, 177

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312 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Raipur Museum 131, 151, 155, 160, 162 Rajputana Museum, Ajmer 155, 157, 175, 179, 267, 286 Rajshahi Museum 155 Rani Durgavati Museum, Jabalpur 134, 154, 182, 193 Rietberg Museum, Zurich 116 Sahu Samgrahalaya, Devgadh 286 Sarnath Muscum 147, 149 Seattle Art Museum 286 Shivpuri Museum 130, 134, 136, 138, 147, 151, 154-55, 157, 160, 168, 182, 193 Site Museum, Halebid 264 State Museum, Bhanpur (Bhanpur Mu.) 176, 181, 250 State Museum, Bhuvanesvara (Orissa State Museum) 130, 143, 193 State Museum, Gandharvapuri 181 State Museum, Jaipur 168 Tulsi Samgrabalaya (Ramyan), Satna 122, 160, 177 Victoria and Albert Museum 156, 176, 181, 185, 250 Vidisha Museum 250 American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi 140 Museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Bombay (Father Heras Institute, Bombay) 235, 249, 253, 273-74 Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar 126, 185, 26 L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad 124, 155 Punyavijaya Collection, L.D. Institute 124 Bejoy Singh Nahar's Collection 251 Collection of Narendra Sinhji Singhi 251 Collection of Rajendra Sinhji Singhi 253 Thakur Saheb Collection, Shahdol 275 Nanda, tutelary goddess of Rajagpha, Magadha 210, 259 Nanda king 15, 33 Nandanavana 54 Nanda.puskarinis 93 Nanda-tithis 211 Nandi a 167, 191 Nandikesvara 135 Nandisena acarya 152 Nandisvara-dvipa 11, 17, 122; described 22-23, 55; account in Jivajivabhigama sutra 32; representations of 22-23; fifty-two Siddhayatanas on N.-dvipa 86, fig. 179 Nandivardhana 142 Nandisvara-pankti-vrata 23 Nandivardhana Yugadinatha 114. nine nidhis 24 Nandyavarta, diagram 9 Paradas, rinism 61 INaradatta, yaksi of Munisuvrata 161-62 Narhad 162, 168 Narwar 130, 134, 136, 138, 141, 147, 149, 151, 155, 157, 160, 162, 168, 182, 193 Nasikkapura (Nasik) 142 Nasiyan 179 Nathuram Premi 28 Nativity figures 48 Nava-Devata, worship of 44; diagram in Dig. tradition, figs. 36, 37 Navagadh 159 Navagrahas and Dikpalas 220 Navakara mantra 9 Nava muni cave (cave 7), Khandagiri 118, 130, 134-35, 143, 168, 183, 217, 234, 238, 250, 268, 288 Nava-Pada 17, 44 (see Nava-Devata) Nava-Pada-Aradhana-vidhi 44 Nava-Pada-yantra 44-45 Nayadhammakahao 4, 159-60, 206, 211 Nejamesa (Naigamesa) 2 Nemicandra 273, 275, 277 Neminatha, Nemi or Arisganemi 1, 10, 75, 85, 97, 121, 126, 129, 134, 157, 160, 162, 180, 212, 214, 238; cousin brother of Kysna 33; twenty-second Tirthankara 16470; cognizance of 164; yaksa-yaksi of 165; scenes from the life of 165-66; historicity of 165; tirthas of 165; images of 165-70; Pata of Neminatha 99 Neminatha-Caritra 253 Nerenki 144 Nidanakatha 210 Niddesa commentary 208 Nidhis, Padma and Sankha 186 Nigantbas 1, 5 Nigantha Nataputta 1 Nine Worthies 44 Niraj Jain 155, 157, 159 Nirgranthas 1, 2 Nirgrantha Arhatayatana 15 Nirvanakalika 214, 218, 225, 228, 254, 268, 264 Nirvani, yaksi of Santinatha 152 Niryuktis 9; age of 27 Nisidis 17 Nabhi 112 Nachna Kuthara 177 N.C. Mehta 21, 131 Nadloi 169 Naga-bali 211 Naga cult 172 naga-danta 11 Naga figures, in front of Jina idols 93 Nagaghara 206, 211 Nagakumaras 57, 113 Nagamangalam 141, 185 Nagaphana-Parsvanatha 178 Nagarjunikonda 175 Nagas 9, 205, 206, 211-12 Naga shrine 172 Naga-yajna 211 Nagamalai 158 Nagda 157 Nagendra kula 124 Naigamesin 61, 155 Nalgora 250 Namaskara Niryukti 51 Namaskara-Valaya 45 Naminatha, twenty-first Tirthankara, cognizance of 163; yaksa-yaksi of 164; tirthas of 164; images of 164 Nami and Vinami 113 Nana 116, 215; Babylonian goddess 260 Nanaia 211, 215, 259-60

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Index 313 Nisidhi 141, 144 Nitya 274 Nowgong 162 N. Venkataramanayya 233 Odette Viennot 29, 30 Omanjuru 144 Orai 121 Osia 115, 128, 193, 213 Pabhosa 154 Padalipta suri 62, 214 Padhavali 130, 134, 143, 155, 168, 181 Padma 9 Padmacarita 83, 113 Padmanabha Jaini 5, 26-7 Padmap: 5a 12; sixth Tirthankara, his cognizance, his yak, 1-yaksi, his images 137-39 Padma 276 Padma-Sri 279 Padmavati, as Gotra-devata 64 Padmavati, yaksi of Parsvanatha 118, 124, 127, 171, 179, 180, 182-86, 212-13; iconography of 266-84; iconographic tables of 280-84; special names and forms of 266; terrific aspect 269; origin of 279; Padmavati cult in S. India 276; six names and forms of P. 274-75; parivara of 277; eight dutikas of 277, six attendant goddesses of P. 277; door-keepers associated with P. 279; comparisons with Hindu & Buddhist deities 278-79 Padmavati-astaka 277 Padmavati-catuspadika 277 Padmavati-Mantramnaya-vidhi 271, 277 Padmavati-puja (ms.) 271 Padmavati-Pujanam 277 Padmavati-Pujana-Kramah 277 Padmavati-sahasranama-stotra 277 Padmavati-stotra 271-72, 275-77 Padmavati-vratodyapana 277 Paharpur copper-plate 16 Paithan 215, 264 Paintings of Mothers, of Mahavira, Nemi, Parsva and Rsabha 47 Pakbira 120, 147, 155, 157 Pala art 120 Paladi 140 Pallava Simha visnu 6, 28 Palma 120, 130, 164 Panantabailu 144 Panca-Mahavratas, of Mahavira 2 Panca-Merus 17, 20-22; representations 98 panca-musti-loca 87 Panca-Namaskara-Kalpa 45 Panca-Paramesthins 17, 41-46, 96; representations 42 Panca-Paramesthi-Kalpa 45 Panca-Paramesthi-mantra 9; employed in tantric rites 41 Panca-Paramesthi Namaskara 41 Panca-Pratikramana Sutra 214 Pancasaka 239 Pancastupanikaya 16 Pancastupanvaya 16 Panca-tirthi, Pancatirthika images 96, 116-18, 121-23, 125. 132, 135, 137, 139, 141-43, 145-47, 149-50, 154, 160, 162. 164, 181, 184, 193, 210 Pancatirthi-paca, painted at Campaner 21 Panchika 210 Pandavacarita (ms.) 253 Panna 230 Pannavana sutta 206 Pannasa Jataka 38 Panorama of Jaina Art 125-27, 173-74, 186, 192, 251-52, 267 Parasanatha Killa 133 Parasanatha (Mt.) 128 Parauli 179 Parents of Jinas (Tirthankaras) 47-52, 62, 125, 167, 183; names etc. Table 50; -representations 48, figs. 80, 81, 85A Paresnath Mahadeva Beda 120 parikara, of Tirthankara images 10. 140; parikara discussed 88-92; earliest tradition 94-95; evolution 89ff, 128; parikara, acc. to Acara-Dinakara 90; acc. to Nirvanakalika 92; acc. to Vastusara of Feru 92; acc. to Aparaji taprecha 103-105; parikara of Kusana pericd 129 Parkham Yaksa 207 Parsvadeva gani 277 Parsvanatha, (wenty-third Tirihar kara 1, 2-3, 86, 118, 123 26, 139-41, 143, 145, 158, 167, 169, 180, 192, 211-13, 267-69, 274, 276-78; life of P. 3, 170ff; a historical person 33; scenes from the life of 165-66; scenes of attack of Kamaha 186; canopy of hoods over P. 171; cognizance of 170; images of 171; Parsva and Naga cult 172; yaksa-yaksi of 171; stopa of 16 Parsvanatha, worshipped variously as: Andesvara Parsva natha 179; Bhavabhayahara P., Bhavya-Puskaravartaka P., Chaya-P., Cintamani-P., Kalikunda P., Kalpadruma P., Koka-P., Pafcasara-P., Patala-Cakravarti P., Sri-P., Sahasra phana P., Stambhana-P., VisvagajaP., Visvakalpalata-P., Upasargahara-P., 187; P. a deity of Jaina Mantrasastra 187. Par va yaksa, of Parsvanatha 171, 179 Parsvanathacarita (ms.) 270 paryanka-asana 14 pasada-torana 15 Paja (Paja) 97; Paja of 72 Jinas 97; Paca of 24 mothers 47 Patala city 165 Patala-linga-Neminatha 165 Patalikhanda 206 Patala yaksa, of Anantanatha 150 Pataliputra 7, 8 Patan 144, 148, 164 Patancheru 147, 186 Pathari, sculpture identified as Mother of a Jina 48. 52 Pattaini Devi 255 Pattankudi 186 Patyan devi, shrine at Pithaura 218 Paumacariyam 166, 240 Pava pura 190 Pavitra-Kalpa-sutra 18

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3.14 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Puspadanta (Suvidhi), ninth Tirthankara 126, 169, 239; his cognizance, his yaksa-yaksi, images of 144.45 Puspa (Kusuma) yaksa 138 Putanas 2, 210 Quadruple image 135 Quarter Guardians (Dikpalas) 63 P.B. Desai 276, 287 P.C. Das Gupta 155 P.C. Nahar 162 Peddatumbalam 193 pedestal of a Jina-image 10 P. Gururaja Bhatt 144, 146, 150, 186, 268 Penukonda 186 Pilani 162 pillar-worship 86; dhvaja-pillar 11 Pindwada 16, 115, 238 Pindaniryukti 207 Pisacas, classes of & iconography 58 Planets, worship in Jainism 63; on Jina-images 91 P.L. Gupta 164 Podasingadi 118-9, 184 Ponnur 158 Porbandar 148 Portrait-statue, of Mahavira 33-34 Poyagaimalai 169 Prabhavati, queen of Uddayana 34; legend of 36 Prabhasa 142, 238 Pracina-Caritra-Kosa 29 Pradyota 34 Prajapati 206 Prajnapana sutra 259 Prajnapti, Vidya 62, 113, 140, 225 Prajnapti, yaksi of Sambhava 118, 132, 134, 235 Pramod Chandra 123, 162, 177 Prasenajit 38 Prata paditya Pal 124 Pratapanagari 184 Pratiharyas 83, 123, 128; conception of 210 Pratima-sarvato-bhadrika 10, 25-26, 96, 114, 128, 139, 153, 172 Pratip Kumar Mitra 120 Pratisthanapura 161 Pratisth asarasamgraha, of Vasunandi 235, 252, 275 Pratishasaroddhara, of Asadhara 214, 218, 230, 235, 248 Pratishatilaka, of Nemicandra 230, 235, 249, 286 Prati-Vasudevas, nine listed acc. to Jainism 76-77 Pravacanas aroddhara 33; tika on 228 Prayaga-tirtha 146, 158 preksaggha-manda pas 14 Prihvi, Vedic goddess 211 Priyakarini, mother of Mahavira 2, 27 Pethvi-sila-paca 11, 13 Pujya pada-acarya 64 Pundarika svami 113 Punnabhadda ceiya 210 Punnata kingdom 6 Punyjsrava-katha 247 Purnabhadra and Manibhadra, their queens 58 Purnabhadra caitya 11, 13, 15, 23, 208 Purnabhadra yaksa 12, 15 Purusadatta, Vidyadevi 131 Purusadatta, yaksi of Sumatinatha 136; yaksi of Supars vanatha 139 Purva Caityas 34 Purulia 120, 155, 183 Radhadesa 120 Radhanpur 134 Raidighi 164 Raivataka (Mt.) (Girnar) 165 Rajamalla 16 Rajanagar (Ahmedabad) 132 Rajgir 7, 8, 15, 117, 128-30, 135, 142, 177 Rajimati, image of 169 Rajnakin Khinkhini 184, 250 Retrana 20, 190 Rajpara 155 Raksasas, seven classes, iconography 58 Rakta Padmavati-Kalpa 277 Ramachandran 147, 288 Ramagupta, image installed by 91 Rama Prasad Chanda (R.P. Chanda) 28. 117, 118, 120. 129, 138, 166, 168, 183-84, 208, 230, 236 Ramayana 19, 206 Ramatirtham 127, 186 Ramgadh 180 Ranakpur 115, 179, 226 Ranava hapura 151 Ranchi 120 Randa, tantric sadhana of 64 Rathavjrapura 6 ratha-yatra 35; of Jivantasvami image 38 Ratnas (jewels) of Cakravarti, representations 73 Ratnagiri, Rajgir 166 Ratnagotravibhaga 96 Ravindra Nath Chaudhari 193 Rayapa senaiya sutta 19, 27 R. Champakalaksmi 27 R.C. Agrawala 36 R.C. Sharma 129. 190 RD. Bannerji 191 Revati 2, 210; Revati, Putana 259 Revati Sasthi 208 Rgveda 205, 257 R. Nagaswamy 28 Rohini, a devotee of Vasupujya 149 Rohini, Vidyadevi 62, 131, 137, 140, 179, 226 Rohini, yaksini of Ajitanatha 118, 128, 132 Rohitaka, shrine of Dharana Jakkha at 209 Rohtak 180, 278 Rona 185 Roruka 34 Rsabhadeva (Kesariyaji tirtha), temple 178 Rsabhanatha (Rsabha, Rsabhadeva, also Adinatha), the first Tirthankara 1, 8, 14, 85, 97, 112, 115, 117-23, 124-28, 135, 136, 138, 143, 145, 153, 157, 178, 180, 183-84, 193, 207, 229, 231-36: compared with Siva 87, 113, 120; life

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Index of, cognizance of, yaksa-yaksi of, tirthas of, images of 111-28; scenes from the life of 128, 166, 169 Rsimandala-pata 271 R. Subramanyam 28 Rudras, in Jainism 61; eleven 63 Rudrayana 40 Rupamandana 180, 228, 237, 254, 268, 277 Rupavatara 64, 254 Saccika, devi, worshipped by Jainas 63; images at Rewada and Osia 63 Sadadi 238 Sadharmika Caityas 81 Sadhus 20, 42-43 Sadhvi 43, fig. 214 Sagara Cakravarti 128 Sagaracandra 225 Sahasraphana Parsvanatha 179; para of 272 Sahet-Mahet (Sravasti) 123, 136, 147, 159, 167 Sahri-Bahlol 212 Sailada 193 Saketa 207, 211 Sakka 205 Sakra 220 Sakyavarddhana yaksa 205 Salabhanjikas 23 Salakapurusas 54, 61, 63; conception of, evolution, list and representations 71-72; painted wooden book-covers of 70-73, 81 Saletor, B.A. 28 Samana Gangeya 2 Samana Niggantha 5 Samannaphala Sutta 2 Samavasarana 11, 13, 15, 17; conception of 26; plan of 24; square or circular 25; described in Adipurana, etc. 23-25, 32; patas of 21; representations 25; described and discussed by D.R. Bhandarkar 32; Samavasarana of a Jina, of Rsabha, Santinatha etc. 89-90 Samavayanga sutra 26, 89, 137 Samayika samyama (=Samayika caritra) 5 Sambhavanatha 118, 130-34, 136, 138, 162; the third Tirthankara, his cognizance, yaksa-yaksi, images, etc. 132-34 Samghadasa gani Ksamasramana 5, 239 Sammeta (Mt.), Sammeta Sikhara (same as Parasanatha hill) 2, 20-21, 128, 132, 135-37, 139, 142, 145-46; temple of, representation of 98 Samnarkoyil, cave temple, Jaina reliefs at 140, 173 Samprati 6, 7, 33, 35-6 Samyutta Nikaya 13, 210 Sanauli 116-17, 121, 229 Sanchi 14, 19 Sandalwood portrait, of Mahavira 36 Sank 120 Sankha-Jina 169 Sankha-Jinalaya 165, 168-69 Sankhayana Grhya Sutra 205, 208 Sankhesvara 178 Sanmukha, yaksa of Vimalanatha 63, 148-49 Santa, yaksi of Suparsva 139 Santi-devata, Santi-devi, the goddess of Peace 63, 122, 131, 143, 148, 152, 155, 182, 193; identified with Nirwani, yaksi of Santinatha 152 Santinatha, the sixteenth Tirthankara 114, 129, 131, 133-34, 145, 157, 159, 162, 169, 180, 184, 193, 230; his life, cognizance, yaksa-yaksi, tirthas and images 151-56; scenes from the life of 165 Santinatha Bhandara, Cambay 253, 270, 273 Santyacarya 5 Sapta-Tirthi, Sapta-Tirthika, image 142, 183, 184 Sarabhai Nawab 187 Sarabha Tantra 272 Sarasvati, image of, from Kankali Tila, Mathura 10, 62 Sarasvati 130, 140, 226, 232 Sarasvati, yaksi, at Devgadh 215 Sarasvati-kalpa 214 Saranth 128 Sarvanubhuti, Sarvanha, yaksa 29, 114, 116, 121-23, 125-27, 130. 136-37, 140, 151. 153, 155, 157, 162, 165, 167-68, 178-82, 192-93, 208, 213-14, 220, 249, 267-68, 286 Sarvastramahajvala, a Vidyadevi 62. 137, 140. 155, 179 Sasanadevatas 118, 205ff, 212-13, 215, 238, 277 Sasthi 2, 64, 210, 259 Sasvata Caityalayas 22; Sasvata-Caityas 81, 86 Sasvata-Jina-&yatanas 11 Sasvata-Jinalayas 52; on Nandisvara-dvipa 23 Sasvata-Jinabhavanas 54 315 Sasvata-Jinas 55, 100 Sasvata-Jinas, four named-Candranana, Varisena, Rsabha & Vardhamana 86 Sasvata-Jina-Pratimas 15, 86, 94-95 Satapatha Brahmana 25, 205 Satrunjaya (Mt.) 21, 26, 97, 113-14, 131, 134-35, 137, 144, 146, 164, 187, 226-28 Sat-Tirthika, image 115, 178-79, 249 Satya-devas 64 Saudharmendra, Saudharma-Indra 99, 220 Sauryapura 165 Savitri 279 Schubring 28 Sedum 127 Selaga Jakkha 206 Sembuthu 252 Sensuous Immortals 124 Settipodava 287 Shahdol 140, 148, 168, 182 Shah, U.P. 13, 28, 29, 115 Sisupalagadh 184 Shivpuri 159, 181 Shrines, of Arhats 33; of Tirthar.karas 36 (see Temples) Siddha 99, fig. 185 Siddha-Cakra 17 Siddha-Cakra-Yantra 43-45, fig. 39 Sidhai (Siddhayika ?), yaksi of Munisuvrata at Devgadh 215 Siddha-ksetra 56 Siddhartha 2, 17 Siddhartha and Trisala, paintings of 48 Siddhas, fifteen classes cf 41-42; representations of 42

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316 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Siddhascna Divakara 114 Siddhasena suri 254 Siddha-sila 99 Siddhayatanas 11, 13, 14, 21, 55, 86, 93 Siddhayika, as Gotra-devata 64 Siddhayika, yaksi of Maha Vira 190, 217, 239, 277, one of the four principal--more popular-yaksinis 284; icono graphy 284-89; iconographic tables 289-90 Sikkaka 11 Silapata 10, 12, 13, 15 Silappadikaram 6 Sila Sumana (Sumana-sila) 13 Simhasana, of Jina-images 10, 94; of Kusana period 94 Simha-dhvaja, sculpture from Mathura in Lucknow Museum 86-87 Simhanisadya-ayatana 15 Simhanisadya Caitya, shrine on Astapada 21; described 97-98 Simhapur 149, 165 Simhavahini (Ambika) 248 Sindhu region, Bhadrabahu migrated to 6 Sindhu-Sauvira 34 Singhbhum 120 Singpur 140 Sinivali, Vedic goddess 211 Sira Pahari 177; sculptures from 85 Sirohi 140 Siron Khurd 124, 234 Sironi 273 Sirpur 115, 124 Sitalanatha 162; tenth Tirtharkara, his cognizance, his yaksa-yaksi, his images 145-47 Sitalpur 120 Sittannavasal, Jaina cave 141, 186; fresco paintings in 25 Siva 3, 120, 152, 205 Sivabhuti, pupil of Kanha, sthavira and head of a schism 3, 6-7 Siva Mfgesavarman, Kadamba ruler 6, 28 Sivanaga, artist 16, 115 Siva-Pasupati seal 33 Sivaramamurti 269 Six goddesses--Sri, Hri, Dhiti, Kirti, Buddhi, Laksmi 53 Skanda 2, 61, 206 S.K. Dikshit 28 S.K. Sarasvati 164 Smith, V.A. 13 Smith, V.A., Jaina Stupa 16, 28 Snatasya-stuti 214 Sobhana, Muni 248, 277-78 Sohagpur 275 Solasa (Sulasa), yaksi of Dharmanatha 151 Soma 206 Somadeva 16 Somnath Patan (Prabhasa-Patan) 142 Son Bhandar Cave 117, 128-29, 135, 152, 193 Sonkh 172 Soparaka (surparaka tirtha) 113-14 Sramana Bhagwan Mahavira 27 Sravana Belagola 11, 25, 132, 144, 147, 149-51, 154, 156, 158-60, 163-64, 169, 185-86, 193, 271 Sravana Belagola Monuments 27 Sravasti 15, 123, 132, 136; sandalwood image of Tathagata at 38 Sreyamsanatha, cleventh Tirthankara 146-47; cognizance of, tirthas of, images of 147 Sri, tutelary city-goddess 64; goddess of wealth 62 Sri-Cakra 272 Sri-Candra suri 277, 279 Sri-devi 65 Sri-Laksmi, as Kuladevata 64 Sri Kumbhariyaji Tirtha, Gujarati book 131 Sri-Padma 271 Sri-Parvata (Mt.) 160 Sri-Vatsa, mark 9, 93, 95 Sriyadevi, yaksi at Devgadh 215 Sruta, venerated in Jainism 62 Erntedavata 211, 277 J. Stat. I, 29, 214, 233, 252, 288 Stambhatirtha 165 Stanita-kumaras 57 Stavanidhi 274 Sthananga sutra 26, 277; on Jaina deities 57 Sthapana 9, 15; at Devgadh, Khajuraho, Abu, Kumbharia etc. 20; explained by Pindaniryukti, etc. 31 Sthapanacarya 17, 19-20 (see Sthapana) Sthavirakalpa 5, 6 Sthuna 11 Stone-beds, for Jaina monks 6 Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Muscum 123 Stone Umbrellas from Mathura 30-31 Studies in Jaina Art 13, 15-17, 20, 114, 120, 136, 148, 179, 183, 211 Studies in Tuluva History and Culture 144, 268 Stupas and Caityas, origin of 14 Stupa of Kankali Tila, origin of 16-17 Stupa, worshipped by Suparnas & Kinnaras, sculpture from Mathura 16 Stupa, of Munisuvrata 9 Stupa, of Suparsvanatha 16, 139, 211; of Parsvanatha 16 Stupa-worship in Jainism 9; at Mathura 29 Stuticaturvimsatika 248 Suciloma sutta 13 Sudarsana yaksa, at Mathura 211 Sudha-kunda Jivitasvami 114 Sudharma and Jambusvami, miniature painting 43 Sudharm Sabha 11, 13 Sudhin De 155 Sugriva Vanararaja, tantric sadhana of 64 Sui 236 Suissa 117 Sukla-Yajurveda Vajasaneyi Samhita 257 Sulapani Yaksa 3, 15, 61, 207, 220 Sulocana, yaksi at Devgadh 216 Sumalini, yaksi at Devgadh 215-16 Sumatinatha, fifth Tirtharkara, yaksa-yaksi of, cognizance of, images of 136-37 Sundari 112, 134; tantric sadhana of 64 Sun-god, images worshipped by Jainas 62 Suparna-kumaras 57

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Index 317 Suparsvanatha 16, 126, 157, 158, 169, 184, 230, 239; seventh Tirthankara, his cognizance, his yaksa-yaksi, his images, etc. 139-42 Suraksita, yaksi at Devgadh 215 Surambara Jakkha 206 Surapriya Yaksa 15; wooden statue of 207 Surohar 120 Surya prajnapti 62 Surat 149 Sutara, ya ksi of Suvidhi 145 Suvidhi (Puspadanta) 162; ninth Tirthankara, his cognizance his yaksa-yaksi, his tirtha, his images 144-45 Suvihita-Samacari 63 Suvrata, ancient rsi (sage) 9 Svastika 9 Svayambhu, Vasudeva 149 Svetambaras and Digambaras 1-8 Svetambar: Digambara differentiation in images 4 Svetambara canon 5 Svet ambara acarya, figure at Sevadi 43 Sveta patas 6 Syama, yak sa of Candraprabha 142-43 Symbol Worship in Jainism 17ff Taittiriya Aranyaka 259 Taittiriya Samhita 257 Talkad 127 Tamil Brahmi 6 Tamralipti 211 tankite manco (stone platform) 13 Taranga hill 131 Taranatha 16 Taras 63 Tattvartha Bhasya 206 Temples and Shrines Temple of Bahuputrika 208 Cintamani Parsvanatha temp. 178 Shrine of Dharana Jakkha at Rohitaka 209 Kamajinalaya (shrine of Manmatha) 276 Caitya of Manibhadra 208 Shrine of Umbaradatta Jakkha 206 Temple of Sulapani yak sa 15 Temple of Sura priya yaksa 15, 207 Shrines of Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparajita 207 Shrine of Nanda 210 Temple of Hundika yaksa at Mathura 211 Naga-ghara, to N.E. of Saketa 211 Temple of Skanda at Savatthi 15 Temples of Mahavira at Osia, Ghanerao, Satrunjaya, Girnar, Baroda, Ahmedabad ctc. 193 Temple & Shrines (Jaina) at different placesMt. Abu-Vimala Vasahi 138 Luna Vasahi 138 Acalgadh, Abu-Santinatha icmplc 227 Agra---Moti Katara Panchayati Dig. Jaina Mandir 133 Aihole- Meguti temple 213, 252 Anatur-Jaina temple at 269 Cambay-Cintamani Paravanatha T. 254 Cambay-Navakhanda Parava. Temp. 270 Cambay-Sambhavanatha Temp. 156 Delvada, Mt. Abu-Kharatara Vasahi, Caumukha shrine 225 Luna Vasahi 134, 138, 162 Pittla hara Temp. 117, 227 Vimala Vasahi 131, 135, 137-38, 143, 146, 156-58 Devgadh-Neminatha Jinalaya 168 Dorasamudra-Nagara Jinalaya 156 Girnar-Kumara vihara Temp. 169 Gyaraspur-Maladevi temple 154, 175, 232-33, 268 Hakinipalli-Kamadevalaya 276 Halli-Malli Jinalaya 127 Hallur-Jaina Temp. 185 Jinanathapur-Santinatha Jaina Temp. 231 Kallili--Padmavatya layam 276 Karkal-Purusa-gudde 169 Khajuraho-Temple of Adinatha 121. 130 --Ghantai Temple 122, 233 -Matangesvara Temple 254 -Parsvanatha Temple 122, 135-38, 143, 235, 250 Kulpaka-Kulpaka (tirtha) temple 114 Kumbharia-Adinatha T. 225 Mahavira T. 128, 131, 135, 150, 155, 162, 165, 187 Neminatha T. 138, 145-47, 150, 155, 162, 165, 187, 190, 225, 227, 253 Parsva T. 131, 136, 138, 143, 145, 146, 147, 149, 155, 162, 170, 179, 226 Santinatba T. 128, 138, 145-47, 150, 155, 165, 187, 190, 225, 253 Nagda-Adbhudji T. 157 Padmavati T. 157 Osia-Mahavira T. 115, 140, 179, 268 Patan-Adisvara T. 226 --Koka-Parsvanatha T. 272 - Kumara Vihara T. 169 --Paicasara Parsva T. 148, 225-26, 273 Sitalanatha T. 268 Pithaura-Temple of Pattaini devi 255 Prabhasa Patan-Kumara Vihara T. 169 Radhanpur-Temple of Adisvara 139 -Ajitanatha Temp. 143, 150, 152 -Cintamani Parsva T. 142-43, 152 -Dharmanatha T. 143, 151 --Mahavira T. 152 -Neminatha T. 145, 152 Godi Parsvanatha T. 152 - Kalyana Parsva T. 152 --Kunthunatha T. 152 ---Rsabhanatha T. 152 - Sambhavanatha T. 152 --Simandhara T. 152 --Sitalanatha T. 152 ---Santinatha T. 152 .-Sahasraphana Parsva T. 152 -Vasupujya T. 152 --Vimalanatha T. 152 Ranakpur-Caumukha shrine 187; same as Dharana Vihara Temple 228

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 318 81, 191, 249 T.S. Sundaram 127 Tumain 123, 181 Tumburu 24, 64, 136 Twarita 274 U Rohida--Parsva T. 164 Satrunjaya-Temple of Ajitanatha 229 -Kharatara vasahi T. 147, 149 --- Kumaravihara T. 169 Sravana Belagola--Suttalaya of Gommala 126 Sravasti - Jaina Temple 276 Stavanidhi-Pasca Basadi 273 Singpur-Pancanatha Temple 182 Tenkari 193 havana (sthapana) 20 The Age of the Imperial Guptas 191 The Jina Images of Devgadh 27, 28, 123, 176-77 The Jaina Path of Purification 26 Thera-Theri-gatha 205 thirty-four atisayas 83 Tibetan Tales from Kah-gyur 205 Tiloyapannatti 11, 26, 30, 83, 215, 218, 238-39 Tindivaram 128 Tirakkol 173, 267 Tirtharkaras 61; belief in 24 Ts. 82; Past, Present & Future Tirtharkaras 26, 101-103: Ts. of present Avasarpini in Bharataksetra 81; in Airavata ksetra 81-82; 24 Ts. of this age, their complexions, their cognizances 84, 87; Postures of Tirthankara images 4; differentiation from Buddha image 4; bone of Tirtharkaras 15; cremation of 15; postures of Ts., Tirthankara images made of 79-80; terracotta images of Ts. 80; scenes from lives of Ts. 80; paintings of Ts. on book-covers 80; Tirthai kara images on Manastambhas, door-lintels, pillars, etc. 80; Tirthankara images, different groups of 96 Tirthankaras, iconography of 10, 112ff; images of Kusana pericd 7, 94; images 119, in Navamuni & Barabhuji caves 217-18 Tirtharaja Abu 164 Tirumalai 160. 169, 186, 251; paintings at 25 Tiruparuttikunram 158, 169, 247, 251; paintings at 25 Tithi-devatas 63 Tiwari (M.N.P.) 146, 155, 163-64, 166-67, 179, 182, 193, 286-87 T.N. Ramachandran 15, 22, 145, 235-36, 251-53, 273 Tonk 139 T.O. Shah 148 Totala 274 Traivarnikacara 64 Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras 115, 124 Tree of Life 26 Tree-Worship in Jainism 26-27, 88 Tribhuvana-vihara 169 Trilokasara of Nemicandra 238 Trimukha (yaksa) 132, 134 Tripura 274, 279 Tripura-Bhairavi 275 Tripura Sundari 263 Tripuri (Tewar) 123, 146, 273 Tri-ratna, symbol 7 Trisala, mother of Mahavira 2, 17, 27 Trisastisalakapurusacarita 10, 61, 166, 218, 229, 254 Trisula cave 130, 136, 138, 146, 183 Tri-Tirthika image 96, 114, 125, 130, 137, 143, 177-78, 180. Ucchista-Pisacini 64 Udai (Udayibhadra) 36, 116 Udadhi-kumaras 57 Udayagiri, Jaina cave at 181 Udayagiri, Rajgir 182 Udayana of Kausambi 36 Uddayana 3-7, 34 uddhara (avatara) 21 Udyotakesarin 118 Ujjain 6, 34, 114, 134-35 Ujjuvalia, river 3 24! 16 Uma 211, 279 Umakant Subuddhi 119 Umbrella-bearers 93 Ummanamalai hill 173 Unao (Unnava) 160 Upadhyayas 42 Uppinangadi 144 U.P. Shah 163, 179 Upanisads 205 Upasakadasah 210 Upasargas of Mahavira 3, representations 190 Upasargas of Parsva 190 Urdamau 138 Urdhva-loka, heavens in 86 Uttamapaliyam 169 Uttaradhyayana Niryukti 6 Uttaradhyayana sutra 5, 27, 165, 215 Uttara kurus 54 Uttarapurana 142 utsarpini 1 Vacaka Samghadasa gani 34 Vacanas, of Jaina canons 13 Vagdevi 287 Vahni (or Vahni) yaksini at Devgadh 216 Vaibhara giri, Rajgir 117, 142, 154, 161, 166, 183, 212, 251 Vaidikhia 184 Vaijayanta 207 Vaijayanti 6 Vaikavur 160, 169Vaimanika gods 23, 57, 59-60 Vairoti (Vairoya), yaksi of Vimalanatha 149 Vairocya, snake-goddess 62 Vairo!ya, Jaina Mahavidya 62, 137, 140, 179, 211, 226, 277-78 Vairogya (Dharanapriya), yaksi cf Mallinatha 159 Vaisali 2 Vaisnavi, matrka 227-28, 234, 237 Vaicadhya (Mt.) 54 Vaiyavittakaras 215 Vajra 279 Vairrikusi (Vajra kusa) 64, 131, 137. 140, 155. 225-26

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Index Vajrasrakhala 64, 118, 131, 137, 140, 179, 225 Vajrasrakhala, yaksi 135 Vajrasvami 114 Vajratara Mandala 63 Vajrayana 64 Vala 125 Valabhi 142 Valabhi council (Valabhi vacana) 33, 86, 238 Vallimalai 186, 192, 269 Vamana Purana 19 Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw 166 Vanamantari (Vyantari) Salejja 207 Varahamihira 8, 26, 28 Varakhana 21 Varanandi, yaksa of Suparsva 139 Varanasi 129, 142, 191, 212 Varanga 144, 169 sinhanandi 83, 277 Varingacarito, of Vardhamana Mahavira 1, 158, 288: scenes from the life of 169; Vardhamana Svami 133. Vardhamanacari 126 Vardhamanaka 9 Vardhamanapura 207 Vardhamana suri 214, 225 Vardhamana-Vidya 62, 260, 285 Vardhamana-Vidya-Paja 44, 285 Varmana 116 Varsadhara parvatas 53 Varuna, yaksa of Mallinatha 159 Varuna, yaksa of Munisuvrata 161, 162 Varuna 206, 212 Vasantagadh 16, 113, 115, 129, 137, 177-79, 213, 249 Vastupalavihara, at Girnar 98 Vastu-vidhi 63 Vastuvidya 139 Vasubindu Pratisthapatha 30 Vasudevas 61, 121, 147-50, 160-61; called Ardha-Cakrins also 73; nine acc. to Jainism 73-74; representations 75 Vasudevas and Baladevas, acc. to Samavayanga sutra 78, note 38 Vasudevahindi 2. 13, 30, 34, 90, 172, 207, 210, 211, 213, 239, 240 Vasunandi 230, 273, 275-77, 285, 287 Vasupujya 118; twelfth Tirthankara, his cognizance, his yaksa-yaksi, his tirthas, his temple at Campa, his images 147-49 Vasus, eight 63 Vajesvara 180 Vaitanguliraja Jataka 38 Vayu-kumaras 23, 57 Vedic goddesses, a Jaina list 60 Vedic Indra, role in Jainism 220 Venkundram 144 Venur 126, 132, 134-35, 137-38, 144-47, 150-51, 154, 158-60, 163-64, 169, 186, 193, 235 Veralur 158 Vesamana 207 Vesma-devas 64 Veyavacca 215 Vibhelaga Jakkha 206 Vidhimargaprapa 63 Vidisa (Vidisha) 7, 34, 124, 145-46, 181 Vidisha Museum 145 Vidita, yaksi of Vimala 149 Vidya-devis 62, 131, 137, 277; on walls of Mahavira temple, Osia 213; worship older than that of 24 Sasanadevatas 240 Vidyanusasana 214, 227, 255, 257, 269, 274, 277, 288 Vidyaraja Harinegamesi 214 Vidyas 113; of Matanga class 207 Vidyadharas 113 Vidyunmali, a demi-god 34 Vidyut-kumaras 57 Viharamana-Jinas 97, 100-101 Vijaya, shrine of 207 Vijaya, yaksa of Suparsva 139; yaksa of Candraprabha 142 43 Vijaya, invoked in Vardhamana Vidya along with Jaya, Jayanta & Aparajita 62 Vijaya, gatekeeper in Samavasarana 24 Vijaya (or Jaya), yaksi of Kunthunatha 157: yaksi of Mallinatha 159 Vilivakkam 193 Vimalanatha, thirteenth Tirthankara, his cognizance, yaksayaksi, tirthas (temples) and images 149-50 Vimala Sri-Arya-Tirtha (Vimalanatha) 158 Vimala Vasahi 21, 115, 135, 148-51, 162, 164, 179, 225-27, 238, 249, 253, 268, 275, 278, 284 Vimanavasi gods 23 Vinayakas 263 Vindhyagiri 11, 161 Vinita 1, 207 Vipulagiri, Rajgir 166 Viras 63 Virasena 238 319 Visakhacarya, disciple of Bhadrabahu 6 Visala 9, 15, 161, 208; Jaina stupa at 82 Visalavijaya (Muni) 131, 137-38, 143, 156, 162 Visesavasyaka Mahabh sya 31, 215 Visnu 121 Visnupur 183. 193 Visnupurana 259 Visvesvaris 65 Vitabhaya-pattana 34 Vivagasuyam 206; udyinas and cities mentioned in 209 Vivekamanjari (ms.) 270 Vividha-tirtha-kalpa 240, 277 Vodva Stupa 15; Vodve thupe 16 Vogel 234, 237 Votive columns 11 Vrataraja 259 Visibhasena 113 Vrtra 175 V.S. Agrawala 166, 171 V.S. Srivastava 115 Vyaghresvari, Cakresvari worshipped as 226 Vyantara gods 23 Vyantaras 24, 57-59; eight groups of 26, 58; eight more

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Jaina-Rupa-Mandana 320 classes acc. to Prajnapana 59; class of yaksas 207 Warangal 127 Western Chalukyan 128 W. Norman Brown (or simply Brown) 166, 272 Worship in Jainism 37 Worship of Astamangalas, Dharmacakra, Manastambha, Indra-dhvaja, Caitya-trees, Silapatas, Ayagapatas, Stupas, Tri-Ratna 17 Worship of Pillars 29 Yadwad 192 Yajnavalkya Smrti 258, 263 Yakkha-cetiya 13 Yakkha's haunt 13 Yakkha Suciloma 210 Yaksa-ayatanas 15, 36; stock description of 10 Yaksa-Caityas 13, 88 Yaksa cult 26 Yaksa shrine 11 Yaksas 9, 24, 205, (Guhyakas) 206-207 Yaksa-devatas 207 Yaksagrahas 206, 207 Yaksas and Nagas in Jaina worship 62 Yaksas, classes, iconography 58; thirteen types 206; Y. and water-cosmology 212; images of 13; in front of Jina idols 93; 13 groups (Sve.) & 12 groups (Dig.) 58 Yaksa holystead 210; yaksa statues 36; prototypes of Jina image 37; Y. statues, made of wood, painted annually 37 Yaksanayaka yaksa 135 Yaksa-Naga cult, mode of worship 35, 37 Yaksara ja 239 Yaksendra (Yakset, Yaksesvara), yak.a of Ara 158 Yaksesvara yaksa 135, 238 Yaksa worship in Jainism 205ff, 215 Yaksas & yaksinis, first stage, in Jainism 220; old forms at Abu, etc. 218-20 Yaksa-Yaksi-Laksana 235, 253 Yaksi Cakresvari 116 Yaksi Lawaya 208 Yaksis, in Navamuni Cave 217; reliefs in Barabhuji Cave 217-18; set in Temple 12, Devgadh 213; earliest set of 24 yaksinis 216; list of figures on image of Ambika (Patykna-dayi temple) 218; Table of 24 yaksinis 216-17 Yaksi Sarasvati, at Devgadh 218 Vaky Smalini, sculpture at Devgadh 218 Yaksinis & Vidyadevis, lists compared 218 Yamakanamardi 184 Yantrapurusa 15 Yapaniyas 28 Yasastilaka-campu 16 Yativrsabha 238 Yavanika 6 Yavanika samgha 28 Yoginis 63 Yupa 19 Zalrapatan 146 Zodiac signs, dhyanas in Jainism 64 ERRATA P. 83 P. 135 P. 177 P. 213 P. 230 P. 258 P. 279 line 8 from below read: Abhidhana Cintamani for Adidhana Cintamani line 11 from below read: Abhinandana for Ajitanatha line 10 from below read; object in left hand for object in each hand line 3 from end read: theoretically for theorically line 22 read: Pratisthasarasamgraha for Pratisthasaroddhara line 9 read: tato=Ambikam for tato-Ambikam line 8 read: Dhanada Tara for Dhanauda Tara

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List of Plates with Acknowledgements Frontispiece (Pl. I). Kamatha's hordes attacking Parsvanatha. From Eastern Rajasthan or U.P., now in Indian Museum, Calcutta. Age, c. seventh century A.D. Ref. Shah, U.P., A Parsvanatha Sculpture in Cleveland, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art for December 1970, pp. 302-311 and plates. Copyright, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Fig. 1 (Pl. II). Mutilated, headless, red-stone statuette from Harappa. A surface-find only, cannot be definitely assigned to the Chalcolithic period. The circular frontal depressions on shoulder-fronts suggest that either extra hands or something was attached which goes against the identification of the statuette as that of a Tirthankara. Ref. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 1, pp. 3-4. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 2 (Pl. II). Polished stone torso of a standing Jina figure from Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar. The site is an extension of the ancient site of Pataliputra at Kumrahar, Patna. The torso with parts of legs and arms mutilated has the typical Mauryan high polish on it. Ref. Jayaswal, K.P., Jaina Images of the Mauryan Period, JBORS, XXIII.1, pp. i-iv, 130-132 and Banerji-Shastri, Mauryan Sculptures from Lohanipur-Patna, JBORS, XXVI.2, 120ff, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 5-6, Fig. 2. Note that the figure stands in the typical Jaina kayotsarga posture. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna, Bihar. Attempts are made recently to assign it to c. 1st-2nd cent. A.D. since the polish continued for a few centuries after Mauryan period. The polished shining N.B.P. ware in different colours was found from foundations of Ghositarama at Kausambi. Shall we assign the finds from foundations of Ghositarama to second cent. B.C. or even to 2nd cent A.D. since the N.B.P. seems to have continued for a long time? This type of reasoning advanced for post-dating everything is not valid. Only silver punch-marked coins and bricks of a size also popular in Mauryan period were found from this Jaina temple site. As already noted the site is an extension of ancient Pataliputra site. Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, is well-known in ancient Jaina traditions as a convert to and a great patron of Jainism. Even now all orthodox Jainas assign all traditionally known old images to the gifts of Samprati. Udayana, the successor of Ajatasatru, is known to Jaina canons as having built a temple to a Jina at Pataliputra. Kharavela in his inscription refers to the image of Kalinga Jina once carried off by Nanda king which shows that image worship in temples seems to have started already in Pataliputra not long after the Nirvana of Mahavira. A few years ago, B.B. Lal has unearthed a terracotta Jina figure, assigned to c. 3rd cent. B.C., from Ayodhya. Fig. 3 (Pl. III). Metal image of standing Parsvanatha, now in Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Findspot or source not known. For detailed discussion about the age of this image assigned by us to c. 1st cent. B.C., see Shah, U.P., Jaina Bronzes-A Brief Survey, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 273-74. Chemical analysis of the metal alloy used in this image is overdue. Copyright, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Fig. 4 (Pl. IV). Brass or Bronze image of standing Rsabhanatha with hair on head and hair-locks falling on shoulders. From Chausa, Bihar, now in Patna Museum, Arch. no. 6538. Modelling shows Gandhara influence. Age, c. 3rd or 4th cent. A.D. Ref. H.K. Prasad, Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum, Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, p. 280; Patna Museum Catalogue, Pl. XX. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna.

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322 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Fig. 5 (PL. IV). Adinatha (Rsabhanatha) sitting in padmasana. From Chausa, Bihar, now in the Patna Museum, Arch. no. 6554. Brass or Bronze, c. 5th cent. A.D. H.K. Prasad, op. cit., p. 282. Patna Museum Catalogue, Pl. XIX. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna. Fig. 6 (Pl. IV). Brass or Bronze image from Chausa hoard, Bihar, now in Patna Museum, Arch. no. 6552. Identified generally as Candraprabha, the sixth Tirthaokara, on the basis of the crescent moon on top of the image. Note the plain halo with beaded border and the back-seat with makaramukha endings on top, both suggesting an early tradition. Crescent moon as cognizance on top of halo is unusual. H.K. Prasad, op. cit., p. 283. Note locks of hair falling on his shoulders and the hair arranged in top-knot on head. It may be that this is an image of Adinatha. The crescent on top bas to be investigated. It may be mutilated part of something. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna. Fig. 7 (Pl. IV). Stone, Harinegamesi from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. E.1 in Mathura Museum. Age, Kusana. Note the typical triangular shaped necklace with pointed end on chest. God with goat-head wearing a crown with typical cudamani front ornament of Kusana period. For Harinegamesin, see Shah, U.P., JISOA, vol. XIX (1952-53), pp. 19-41; Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, Vol. XXIII (1950), p. 66 aninht, Mathura Museum, Mathura. Fig. 8 (Pl. V). Brass or Bronze image of standing Parsvanatha from Chausa hoard, Bihar, now in Patna Museum, no. 6531. Much corroded. Age, c. 1st cent. B.C.-1st cent. A.D. H.K. Prasad, op. cit., p. 281, Fig. 6, Patna Museum Catalogue, Pl. XX, Akota Bronzes, Fig. 16. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna. Fig. 9 (Pl. V). Headless stone image of standing Jina, Kankali Tila, Mathura. Now No. J.7, State Museum, Lucknow. Inscription on pedestal dated in the year 9. Front shows a monk and a nun to the right and left respectively of the Jina's legs. On the other three sides of the sculpture are similar smaller figures of Jaina laymen and laywomen, see Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 53, Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12; Luders' List, no. 229; The Scythian Period, Fig. 64, pp. 295-96. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 10 (PI. VI). Ayagapata, set up by Acala, wife of Bhadranandi, Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. J.252 in State Museum, Lucknow. Ref. Buhler in Epi. Ind., II, p. 207, no. XXXII; Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 10, pp. 82-83. Note the auspicious symbols-four in top row and eight in the last row. For discussion on assamangalas, see Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 109ff. In this Tablet of Homage a pillar on the right is surmounted by a lion, i.e. this is a Simha-dhvaja pillar; the pillar on left is surmounted by a dharmacakra. Lion is the cognizance, the dhvaja of Mahavira. The Jina in the centre must therefore be identified as Mahavira in front of whom (whose temple) is the Simha-dhvaja pillar, cf. Garuda-dhvaja pillar at Vidisa. The Jainas also raised pillars with dharmacakra on top, cf. U.P. Shah's Moti Chandra Memorial Lecture published in Journal of Indian Museums, volume. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 11 (PI. VII). Ayagapata, set up by Sihanadika, Kankali Tila, Mathura, now in State Museum (on. J. 249), Lucknow. Note four auspicious motifs in top row-pair of fish (mina-pugala), unidentified sign, sri-vatsa, powder-box (vardhamanaka)- and four in last row-tri-ratna, padma (full blown lotus), bhadrasana and mangala-kalasa. The pillar on the left of the Jina in centre is surmounted by an elephant, i.e. it is a Gaja-dhvaja-stambha. Elephant is the dhvaja or cognizance of Ajitanatha, hence the "Jina in centre is Ajitanatha Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 13 and pp. 79-80. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 12 (PI. VII). Pedestal of Vardhamana image set up by daughters of Damitra in 162 A.D. in the reign of Vasudeva. From near Kankali Tila, Mathura, now Mathura Museum no. 490. Note the Caturvidha-samgha (sadhu, sadhvi, fravaka, sravika) on two sides of Dharmacakra pillar shown in relief on pedestal. Installed by Okharika, daughta, of Damitra, in the year Samvat 84. Agrawala, V.S., Cat. of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, XXIII, p. 38. Copyright, Mathura Museum, Mathura. Fig. 13 (Pl. VIII. Image of Aristanemi standing, from Mathura, now Lucknow Museum No. J. 8, inscribed, dated year 18. Luders' List, no. 26. Note halo with scalloped border and flower design, A Jaina layman and a Jaina lay woman standing to the right and left of the Jina. Pedestal shows two monks on two sides of the Dharmacakra-Pillar, Kusana, c. 2nd 3rd cent. A.D. Ref. Euolution of Jaina

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List of Plates 323 Iconography and Symbolism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper 6, Fig. 19. Photo Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 14 (PI. VIII). A four-fold image-Pratima-Sarvato-bhadrika--from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. B.70 in the Mathura Museum. The Jina facing us is Parsvanatha having as attendants near pedestal a male and a female Jaina lay devotees. Age, Kusana. Note the peculiar attachment (like a piece of cloth) to the palms of the hands of the Jina. Inscr. dated in the year 35. Agrawala, V.S., Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, XXIII, p. 37. Agrawala notes that there is a round mortice in the top of the stone. The base is broken. Obviously another stone could be attached to it because of the mortice. This sculpture was, therefore, part of a pillar. Photo Copyright, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Fig. 15 (PI. VIII). Lower part of an image of a standing Jina, with the inscribed pedestal better preserved. From Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. J.10, Lucknow Museum. Luders' List, no. 28. Dated in Samvat 20. Image of Vardhamana dedicated by Datta Sravika. Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 9. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. rgio PI. IX). A wheel-Dharmacakra-of brass or bronze from the Chausa Hoard, now in the Patna Museum, Arch. no. 6540. Ref. H.K. Prasad, op. cit., p. 280; Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper 26, Fig. 3, Age, Kusapa. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna. Fig. 17 (PI. IX). Caitya tree, brass or bronze, from the Chausa hoard, now in Patna Museum. Found along with Jaina bronzes, this may be regarded as a Caitya-tree separately worshipped by the Jainas in the early centuries of the Christian era. It is not known whether a Jina image was placed under it near the trunk or whether the tree was separately worshipped. It is very likely that this was worshipped as a Caitya-tree. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper 26, Fig. 4. H.K. Prasad, op. cit., p. 280. Note the female figure (perhaps a yaksi!) on top which shows that the tree dates from the Kusana period. For the worship of the Caitya tree and other trees in Jainism, see Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 65-76. Copyright, Patna Museum, Patna. Fig. 18 (Pl. X). Dance of Nilanjana--Scenes from the Life of Rsabhanatha. Stone relief from Kankali Tila, Mathura. In two pieces, nos. J.609 and J.354, Lucknow Museum. Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 5, p. 11, n. 4. The relief panel is partly preserved and we miss other scenes from the life of Rsabhanatba. What is preserved is in two pieces. The piece on the left, a bigger piece, no. J.354 in Lucknow Museum, represents the scene of Dance of Nslanjana in a pavilion before Rsabhadeva. Nilanjana is said to have died dancing. The Laukantika gods appear. They are shown standing behind Rsabhadeva who is seated and dressed as a king. With folded hands they request Rsabhadeva to renounce the world. Transitoriness of worldly life and pleasures is shown by the death of Nilanjana. Rsabhanatha retires, turns a naked monk, and practises penance sitting in meditation. The dress and treatment of different figures in this panel shows that the reliefs date from c. 2nd-Ist cent. B.C. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 19 (Pl. X). A mutilated panel from Kankali Tila representing "Bhagava Nemeso" according to the letters carved on the lower border. See Smith, Jain Stipa, Pl. XVIII, p. 25. Now in Lucknow Museum, no. 626. Ref. Shah, U.P., Harinegamesin, JISOA, Vol. XIX (1952-53), pp. 19-78, where we have shown that the scene does not depict transfer of Mahavira's (embryo by Harinegamesi. Nor does the scene of dancing and rejoicing on the back side of this piece (see JISOA, XIX (1952-53), op. cit., Fig. 4) necessarily refer to the Transfer-incident. Age, Kusana. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow, Fig. 20 (PI. XI). Image of Sarasvati, from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now in State Museum, Lucknow. This was supposed to be the earliest image of Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning, so far discovered in India, but a figure carrying vina, from Bharhut, is now identified as Sarasvati. Inscr. dated in year 54. An attendant devotee on her right carries a kalasa--a purna-kumbha-a pitcher of nectar, life force, knowledge, etc. In ancient times, kalasa seems to have been a symbol of learning, and of Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning. A seal from Bhita, having pitcher symbol on it, has the words

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324 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Sarasvati below the kalasa, see Bannerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography (second ed.), p. 197; and A.S.I.A.R. for 1911-12, p. 50, pl. XVIII (for the Bhita seal). Sarasvats in this sculpture sits in a peculiar posture with leg tucked up from knees, i.e. with "knees up", which was the posture in which Mahavira obtained highest knowledge (Kevala-jnana according to Jainism). The goddess carries a book in her left hand. The right hand is broken but beads of a rosary held in this hand are preserved near the wrist. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. In Jaina iconography, this is the earliest form of this goddess. Later, in the bronze image of Sarasvati from Vasantagadh (ref. Akota Bronzes, Fig. 19) and in the loose images of Sarasvati from Akota, Sarasvati is two-armed and shows the lotus and the book with her right and left hands respectively. See Akota Bronzes, Pls. 18, 33, 37, pp. 34, 43, 46. For Iconography of Sarasvati-Srutadevata-see Shah, U.P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati in Journ. of the University of Bombay, Vol. X (September, 1941), pp. 195-79 and plates. Fig. 21 (Pl. XI). Tablet of Kanha Samana (a stone Tablet of Homage-ayagapata) depicting the ascetic Kanha (Klsna), from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. J.623, State Museum, Lucknow. Dated Samvat 95(=173 A.D.). Ref. Smith, JS, pl. XV 208 24; Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, paper no. 6, Fig. 15 and p. 61. Note the Stupa in the upper panel of this Tablet, perhaps it is a model of the Jaina stupa at Mathura. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 22 (Pl. XII). Brass or Bronze statue of Adinatha from Akota, now in the Baroda Museum, no. AR.542. Ref. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, Figs. 8a, 86, pp. 21 and 25. This is the earliest image so far discovered showing a Jina with a lower garment. The image is assigned to c. 450-500 A.D. For its bearing on Jaina image worship, see Shah, U.P., Age of Differentiation of Digambara and Svetambara images and the earliest known Svetambara Bronzes, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, no. 1. Photo Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 23 (Pl. XII). Parsvanatha in padmasana with a canopy of seven-hooded snake at the back overhead. Stone, from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now no. J.39 in State Museum, Lucknow. The Jina seems to have a clean-shaven head; age, Kusana. Faint Srivatsa mark on chest. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 24 (Pl. XIII). Stone sculpture of Paravanatha in padmasana, from Rajgir, Bihar. Age, early mediaeval, c. 7th cent. A.D. Parsva with a canopy of seven snake-hoods over which are the triple umbrellas, on two sides of the latter are two divine garland-bearers. On the right of the Jina, beginning from the top (below the mala-dhara), are four planets headed by Surya. Similarly on the left are four remaining planets, the last one being Rahu. Ketu is not shown. Upto about the end of the tenth century only eight planets are shown in Jaina sculptures. The pedestal face is only partly preserved. But the figure of elephant to the left of the now defaced dharmacakra in the centre is quite clear and better preserved. This is a very rare instanco where an elephant, rather than the snake, is shown as the cognizance of Parsvanatha. There is another smaller stone sculpture of Parsva at Rajgir where a conch on each side of the dharmacakra is shown as cognizance of Parsva. Photo Courtesy & Copyright, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Fig. 25 (Pl. XIV). A stone sculpture of Rsabhanatha standing in kayotsarga mudra, from collections of Musee Guimet; probably hails from Orissa. The beautiful sculpture shows the first Jina with a high (crown-like) jata overhead and hair-locks on shoulders, arms reaching knees, attended by a standing camaradhara each side. Above these are small figures of four planets on each side of the Jina. Above them there are heavenly mala-dharas (suggesting sura puspavesti, an atisaya, a part of parikara) and a pair of hands beating the drum, on each side, representing the heavenly music and drum-beating (dundubhi). Above the jata of the Jina are the triple umbrellas with a leaf on each side suggesting the caitya-tree, the asoka-tree. Behind the head of the Jina is the bhamandala (halo). The Jina stands on a double-lotus (a visvapadma) under which is the small figure of a bull (rsabha), the cognizance of the first Tirthankara; the yaksa-yaksi pair is not shown. The sculpture, of Pala art of c. 9th and 10th cent., shows an evolved parikara of the Jina image representing most of the asta-mahapratiharyas. Preserved in Musee Guimet (Paris), no. 3944. The tradition of representing the planets on two sides of the Jina

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List of Plates 325 was current all over Eastern India in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa, cf. Fig. 47 below from Ajodhya (Orissa). Cf. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 44 Candraprabha from Bihar; and fig. 38 Parsvanatha from Bankura, Bahulara, Bengal, etc. In Western India and Madhya Pradesh, the planets figure on top of the pedestal or at the end of the pedestal, cf. Akota Bronzes, Figs. 22, 25, 276, 49, 566. Photo Copyright & Courtesy of Musee Guimet, Paris. Fig. 26 (Pl. XV). Neminatha, age of Candragupta II (inscribed) from the old temple, Rajgir. Age, early fifth century, Gupta. Neck and face mutilated. Pedestal shows in the centre the cakrapurusa in front of the dharmacakra, with a conch on each side representing the cognizance of Aristanemi (Neminatha), the twenty-second Tirthankara. Two figures of Tirthaikaras in padmasana are also shown on the pedestal. Upper parts of the sculpture are lost. Ref. Studies in Jaina Art, p. 14, Fig. 18. Ramaprasad Chanda in A.S.I.A.R., 1925-26, pp. 125ff. Note that on each side of the dharmacakra, the cognizance is shown in the Gupta age--not the usual pair of deer as in sculptures of the mediaeval period where the cognizance is shown elsewhere on the pedestal. Photo Copyright, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Fig. 27 (PI. XVI). Image of Puspadanta, inscribed, from Durjanpur near Vidisa, now in the Vidita, Museum. Gift of Maharajidhiraja Ramagupta at the instance of a grand-pupil (name lost) of paniputrika (acarya) Candra-ksamana. Ref. G.S. Gai, Three Inscriptions of Ramagupta, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. XVIII, pp. 247ff and Ep. Ind., XXXVIII, pp. 46ff. Installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta, the elder brother of Candragupta II, the sculpture does not show the introduction of the cognizance on two sides of the dharmacakra. This however came only a few years later during the rule of Candragupta II, cf. the Neminatha from Rajgir in Fig. 26 above. Note the beautiful figures of attendant camaradharas and the lotus-halo with scalloped-border. Age, late fourth cent. A.D. The inscriptions on the three images from Durjanpur (all installed by Maharajadbiraja Ramagupta) show that the titles ksamana and ksamasramana were started at least in the fourth cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 28 (Pl. XVI). Adinatha from U.P. in the Mathura Museum, no. 00, B.64. The halo is more ornate and the sculpture, dating from Gupta period, c. 5th cent. A.D., is in the style of sculptures from Sarnath. The central part of the simhasana is much defaced but the Jina is identified as Adinatha on account of hair-locks on shoulders. Ref. Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 26, pp. 13-16, also see ibid., Figs. 25, 27. 23. 24 for other specimens of Jina images of the Gupta age. Also see Sharma, R.C., Jaina Sculptures of the Gupta Age in the State Museum, Lucknow, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume (English Section), pp. 143-155 and plates; Joanna Williams, Two New Gupta Images, Oriental Art, XVIII.4 (1972), pp. 378-80; Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh, Figs. 20, 21; U.P. Shah, Jaina Art and Architecture (ed. A. Ghosh), Vol. I, Central India, chap. 12, and R.N. Mishra, Chap. XI on East India, in ibid., pp. 117ff, N.P. Joshi, chap. X on Mathura, in ibid., pp. 107ff. Copyright, Archaeological Museum, Mathura. Fig. 29 (Pl. XVI). Jivantasvami installed by Nagisvari Sravika, Akota, bronze, now in the Baroda Museum. Ref. Shah, U.P., A Unique Jaina Image of Jivantasvami, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. I, pp. 72-79 and Akota Bronzes, pp. 27-28, Fig. 12a, where the art and the inscription on this image are discussed. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 30 (Pl. XVII). Jivantasvami, brass or bronze image with pedestal lost, from Akota, now in the Baroda Museum. Only the bust is illustrated here. For the full figure, see Akota Bronzes, figs. 9a, 9b and pp. 26-27. This is an exquisitely cast beautiful image of the Gupta age, c. late fifth century A.D. Also see M.N.P. Tiwari, Jivantasvami Images, Bharati, New Series no. 2 (1984), pp. 78ff. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 31 (Pl. XVIII). Brass or Bronze image of Jivantasvami from a Jaina temple in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Very well preserved image, c. 8th cent. A.D. Note elaborate crown. Eyes studded with silver. Ref. Shah, U.P., More Images of Jivantasvami, Journal of Indian Museums, Vol. XI, pp. 49-50 and plates. For images of Jivantasyami from Osia, etc. see Devendra Handa, Jaina Sculptures from Osia, Panjab Univ. Research Bulletin (Arts), Vol. XIV, no. 1 (1983), pp. 172-174. Copyright, U.P. Shah.

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326 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Fig. 32 (Pl. XVIII). Brass or Bronze image of Rsabhanatha from Orissa, now no. 9243 in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Note the high crown-like jaja and hair-locks falling on shoulders. Bull cognizance on pedestal. The Bull (Nandi) cognizance, the big jaja and name Rsabha all remind one of Siva riding over Nandi. Such figures with elaborate big jata etc. are reminiscent of Siva. Photo Copyright, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Fig. 33 (PI. XIX). A caumukha sculpture of Gupta age from Sarnath in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi (no. 850). On one side in the photo is seen the figure of Ajitanatha with his elephant cognizance on each side of the dharmacakra on pedestal. On the other side is Kunthunatha, whose goat cognizance is shown on his pedestal. A very large number of Caumukha stone sculptures and bronzes are available all over India in Jaina shrines, see Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 11-12, 85-95 etc., Figs. 28 (Rajgir), 74 (Terahi, Madhya Pradesh), 84 (Surat); Akota Bronzes, Figs. 70a, 706, 71a; Jaina Pratima-Vijnana (Hindi), Figs. 67 (Ahad, M.P.), 68 (Pakbira, Bengal), 69 (Guna, M.P.), etc. Fig. 34 (Pl. XIX). Adinatha in padmasana, brass or bronze from Vasantagadh hoard, now in a Jaina shrine in Pindvada. Eyes silver-studded, line with a copper-slip. Note the treatment of hair on head suggesting a jaja; also mark the typical horse-shoe shaped arch around head serving the purpose of a halo. Twigs of a caitya tree hang from the centre of this halo. Hair-locks on shoulders and a bull on each end of the pedestal with tho dharmacakra in centre help us to identify the image as representing Rsabhanatha. Age, Gupta, c. 6th cent. A.D. The practice of showing the cognizance on each of the two sides of the Wheel of Law seems to have been discontinued after the Gupta Age or towards the end of the sixth century A.D. The back seat with makara-ends is also noteworthy. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 35 (Pl. XX). Rsabhanatha (or Santinatha) installed by Jinabhadra Vaca nacarya, from Akota hoard of Jaina Bronzes, now in the Baroda Museum. The Jina standing in kayotsarga mudra has hairlocks falling on shoulders, hence he was formerly identified by us as Rsabhanatha. In front of his feet is the dharmacakra with a deer on each side. Sarvanubhuti Yaksa (or Sarvapha Yaksa) with a fruit and a money-bag in his right and left hands respectively is sitting on a lotus near the right end of the pedestal. On the corresponding left end is the two-armed Ambika Yaksk with an amralumbi in her right hand and holding her son on the lap with her left hand. This is the earliest instance, so far discovered, of the introduction of this Yaksa-Yaksi pair in Jaina images. Jinabhadra Vacanacarya has been identified with the famous Jinabhadra Gapi Ksamasramana since according to Jaina traditions (e.g. sthaviravali of the unpublished Kahavali) Vacanacarya, Ksamasramana and Divakara are epithets which are synonymous. The date of this great scholar Jinabhadra Gani, the author of Visesavasyaka mahabhasya, etc., is supposed to be about 500 A.D. to about 610 A.D. according to Jaina traditional accounts. Also see Akota Bronzes, Figs. 10a, 105, 11, and p. 28. The bronze should date from about 550-600 A.D. Formerly I had assigned this figure to c. 500-550 A.D. but now I think the image dates from somewhat after 550 A.D. and before the end of the sixth century A.D. It is not unlikely that this image represents Santinatha whose cognizance is the deer, shown on two sides of the dharmacakra. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 36 (Pl. XXI). Nava-Devata, stone, from Tamil Nadu. Discovered by R. Nagasvami, this is datable to c. 11th cent. A.D., and is the earliest archaeological evidence so far discovered of the worship of the Nine Dignitaries or Deities - namely--the Arbat, the Siddha, the Acarya, the Upadhyaya, the Sadhu, the Caitya (image), Caityalaya (shrine), the Dharmacakra (Wheel of Law), and the Sruta or the Scripture (here shown on a stand, a sthapana). This is according to Digambara tradition. The stone is partly mutilated. Also f. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Fig. 23 which represents only the Panca-Parameshins in Dig. tradition, and Fig. 25 representing the Nava-Devata (Dig. tradition). Also cf. Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 77, pp. 97-103. Photo Copyright and Courtesy of R. Nagaskami, Dept. of Arch., Madras State. Fig. 37 (Pl. XXI). Nava-Devata (Dig.) brass or bronze, from a Jaina temple, Sravana Belagola. For references to Nava-Devata, see notes on Fig. 36 above. Also see Jaina Art and Architecture (ed.

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List of Plates 327 A. Ghosh), Vol. III, chap. 35, Figs. 308 and 309b for bronzes representing Panca-Paramesphins and Nava-Devata. Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 77 from Jina-Kanchi. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 38 (Pl. XXII). Panca-Paramesthi-(Sve.), stone from Jaina temple, Nadol, see U.P. Shah, Chap. 35 on Iconography, in Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. III, pp. 477ff and Pl. 307. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 39 (Pl. XXI). Siddha-Cakra (Sve.), bronze, now in Baroda Museum, Baroda, see Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 97-103, Fig. 85; Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. III, pp. 477ff. Copyright, Baroda Museum, Baroda. Fig. 40 (Pl. XXIII). Rsabhanatha meditating, with Nami and Vinami standing on his sides. From Satrunjaya. Nami and Vinami, the grandsons of Rsabha, were not present when Rsabha divided his kingdom amongst his sons before he turned a monk. Nami and Vinami later came to Rsabha when the latter was standing in meditation as a monk, and requested that both of them may be given some share. At this, Dharanendra, a demi-god, is said to have approached and bestowed on Nami and Vinami lordship over cities of Vidyadharas situated on the southern and northern slopes of the Vaitadhya mountain. For fler account of the story see Trisastisalaka-purusacarita, 1.3, 124-233, GOS, vol. LI. p. 170ff. U.P. Shah, Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas, JISOA, Vol. XV (1947), pp. 114ff. M.A. Dhaky, Apropos of the Image of Rsabha with Nami and Vinami, S.K. Saraswati Commemoration Volume, pp. 59ff, assigns this sculpture to c. 1240-41 A.D. Copyright and Courtesy, American Institute of Indian Studies, Centre for Art and Archaeology, Varanasi. Fig. 41 (Pl. XXIV). Sculptures of Bharata and Bahubali on the Satrunjaya hill. Representations of Bahubali in Svetambara shrines are rare. Of course amongst miniature paintings of the Kalpa-sutra, ono often comes across paintings of Bahubali standing in meditation with creepers entwining his body and his sisters-Brahmi and Sundari-standing, one on each side, and requesting him to give up his subtle egoism. The sisters said, "Please come down from the elephant".--the elephant symbolising ego. Here, in Fig. 41, the image on the right is of Bahubali having a long beard and creepers entwining his body. On each side is his sister. On the pedestal is carved a figure of an elephant as if it were a cognizance of Bahubali. No literary evidence is known for such a cognizance of Bahubali and perhaps this is an innovation of the artist or the donors of this image. The idea of the elephant symbol could have been inspired by the story of Brahmi and Sundari requesting him to come down from the elephant (his subtle egoism), i.e. to give up his subtle egoism. According to the inscription on this image, it was the gift of Vyavahari Dhadasimha and installed in the Sri Santinatha Vidhicaitya at Sri-Pattana by Sri Jinapadma suri of Kharatara gacca in the year Samvat 1391 (=1334 A.D.). See M.A. Dhaky, Image of Jina Rsabha with Nami and Vinami, S.K. Saraswati Memorial Volume, pp. 56-67 and note 49. The image on the left in this illustration (our fig. 41) represents Bharata Cakravarti, the son of Rsabhanatha. The Wheel on the pedestal is the cognizance of a Cakravartin. Here Bharata stands in the kayotsarga mudra and hence the image represents Bharata after he renounced the world and became a Jaina monk. The inscription on the pedestal shows that it was also installed (like the Bahubali image) in the Sri Santinatha Caityalaya at Sri-Pattana by Jina padma suri in Samvat 1391 (1334 A.D.), the donor being the wife of Vyavahari Dhadasimha. Copyright & Courtesy, American Institute of Indian Studies, Centre for Art & Archaeology, Varanasi. Both the images are now on the Satrunjaya hill alongside of the image of Rsabha with Nami and Vinami illustrated in Fig. 40. Fig. 42 (Pl. XXV). Miniature painting showing different Kalyanakas from the life of Aristanemi, Folio 60 from Ms. of Kalpa Sutra in L.D. Institute of Indology, Muni Sri Punyavijayaji Collection, size 8 x 8.7 cms. Assigned to V.S. 1403 = 1346 A.D. by Punyavijayaji and U.P. Shah. Divided into four sections, the upper two sections show the Mother with Child Aristanemi in the section to the right, and Aristanemi being carried in a palanquin when he goes out to renounce the world and be initiated as a monk (this represents part of his Diksa Kalyanaka) on the lower two sections, one on the right shows Aristanemi plucking out hair on his head which are being collected in the palm of his hands by four

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328 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana armed Sakra sitting near Nemi. The scene represents the Diksa-Kalyanaka. The last section shows the Samavasarana with the Jina in the centre. This represents the Kevalajnana of the Jina who after obtaining the highest knowledge gives his first sermon. Gods have created a circular structure-an audience theatre-with three fortifications dividing the audience in three circular compartments, and having four gates in four different directions. For scenes of different Kalyanakas from lives of Jinas Rsabha, Neminatha, Parsva and Mahavira, sce Brown, W. Norman, Miniature Paintings of the KalpaSutra, and Sarabhai Nawab's Jaina Citrakalpadruma, Vols. I & II. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah; Courtesy, L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. Fig. 43 (Pl. XXV). Miniature painting of Parsvanatha with Dharanendra and Padmavati from the illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of Dhavala + Jaya-Dhavala + Mahadhavala, Digambara Jaina Bhandara at Mudabidri (Karnataka). Age, c. 12th cent. A.D. Ref. Sarayu Doshi, Twelfth century illustrated manuscripts from Mudabidri, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 8 (1962-64), pp. 29-36, C. Sivaramamurti, South Indian Painting (New Delhi, 1968), pp. 90-96. Parsva here sits on a simhasana (lion-thronel and has on each side an attendant fly-whisk bearer. A canopy of seven snake-hoods is arrangi from behind his head so as also to look like an ornamental halo. On the right end of the miniature is a big figure of Padmavati canopied by snake-hoods. Fourarmed, the goddess carries the goad and the noose in her right and left upper hands respectively. The right lower hand seems to have carried the lotus while the left lower holds the fruit. For other miniatures from this group, see Bussagli & Sivaramamurti, 5000 Years of the Art of India, Fig. 328. To the right of Padmavati is a swan-like figure whose head is more like that of a serpent. The figure intended by the artist is that of kukkufa-sarpa though it is not convincingly rendered. To the left of Parsva's simhasana stands the four-armed Dharanendra, showing the abhaya and the varada mudras with the right and left lower bands respectively. His left upper hand holds the noose (pasa) while the symbol of his right upper hand is not distinct (may be goad!). Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 44 (Pl. XXVI). Bronze image of Mahavira from Singanikuppam, S. Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, now in the Government Museum, Madras (Mu. No. 389/57). A beautiful specimen of Cola art of c. mid-eleventh century A.D. The lion cognizance is shown on the pedestal. Copyright, Government Museum, Madras. Fig. 45 (Pl. XXVI). Standing Neminatha--the Sankha-Jina from Mudabidri, Karnataka. The Jina here stands on a conch of enormous size. Conch is the cognizance of Neminatha or Arisganemi. In the Karnataka is a famous Sankha-Jinalaya, of c. 11th cent. A.D., at Mulgund, Dharwar district, vide C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, South India, Figs. 473, 474. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 46 (Pl. XXVII). Inscribed image of Parsvanatha from Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Age, c. late 11th cent. A.D. From Karnataka, style Chalukyan. A beautiful specimen. To the right of Parsvanatha is sitting his yaksa Dharanendra carrying the goad and the noose in his right and left upper hands respectively and showing the lotus and the fruit in the corresponding lower hands. Dharanendra has one cobra-hood overhead. Padmavati, with one cobra-hood overhead, is sitting to the left of the Jina and shows the goad and the varada-mudra in the right upper and lower hands respectively while she holds the noose and the fruit in the corresponding left hands. Parsvanatha has a canopy of seven cobra-hoods overhead. The body of this huge cobra is shown in zig-zag pattern behind the body of the Jina. Ref. Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 1546, Fig. 323B. Copyright & Courtesy, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fig. 47 (Pl. XXVII). Parsvanatha from Ayodhya, Orissa. For this figuro see notes on Figs. 24 & 25. On the pedestal, in the centre aro figures of snake-queens of Dharanendra who come and sing and dance and play on musical instruments to alleviate the suffering of Parsvanatha and divert his attention from Kamatha's attack. For different representations of Kamatha's attack, see A Parsvanatha in Cleveland, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, December 1970. Fig. 48 (Pl. XXVII). Ambika-Yaksi and a row of Tirthankaras on a boulder, Anandamangalam, Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu. Ambika here stands on a lion, as if in some dancing pose and has

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List of Plates 329 placed her left hand on the head of a female figure standing on her left side. Her right hand is held akimbo. Near her right leg are her two sons. The carvings seem to date from c. seventh century A.D. Mark the big cushion behind the Jina in the centre. Behind this round oblong cushion is the backrest with a horizontal bar resting on two pilasters shaped like two standing animals. Marks of nudity are not clear on the figures of any of the three Tirthaikara images. For Apandamangalam and these figures, see K.G. Krishnan, Jaina Monuments of Tamil Nadu, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 99, Fig. 8. There is a one line inscription on the boulder which records "the gift of gold for feeding one devotee in Jinagiripalli by Vardhamanapperiyadigal ..." The inscription is of the 38th year of Cola Paraptaka I, d. 945 A.D. The sculptures on the rocks date from a period before 945 A.D. C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, S. India, p. 16. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 49 (Pl. XXVIII). Tirthankara Mahavira with different pratiharyas in parikara, central panel, asta-Dikpala ceiling, rangamandapa, Santinatha temple, Kambadahalli, Karnataka. Age, c. end of the tenth century A.D. Besides two usual camaradharas behind the seat of the Jina, we have here one more camaradhara on each side of the Jina; these are not yaksas but are nagas (snake-deities) having five ssake-hoods overhead. The Yaksa and Yaksi are each two-armed. The Yaksa Sarvanubirati Sarvanha) rides on an elephant and holds a lotus-stalk in his right hand. Symbol of the other hand is not distinct. Yaksi Ambika here holds lotus in her right hand and rides on the lion; symbol of the other hand is not distinct. Ref. M.A. Dhaky, Ganga Jaina Sculpture, paper no. 16, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 195-203 and Fig. 8. Copyright & Courtesy, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 50 (Pl. XXIX). Attack of Kamatha on Parsvanatha, Kalugumalai, Tamil Nadu. Age, c. 8th century A.D. Style, Pandyan. Ref. U.P. Shah, A Parsvanatha Image in Cleveland, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum, Dec. 1970, pp. 303-311, giving the story of attack by Kamatha and its various representations on stone, mainly in S. India. For the Kalugumalai relief, see C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, coloured plate facing page 11, and Fig. 37. For other reliefs of this scene, see ibid., figs. 38 & 39, 44 (from Tirakkol, North Arcot district, age, c. 8th cent. A.D.), fig. 80 (from Karaikoyil, c. 8th-9th cent. A.D.. style Pandyan), fig. 121 (from Aihole, age, c. 7th cent. A.D.), fig. 127 (from Badami, c. 7th cent. A.D.), fig. 136 (from Ellora, cave 32, c. 9th cent.), fig. 138 (also from Ellora, cave 32, 9th cent. A.D., style Rastrakuta), fig. 142 (also from Cave 32, Ellora, 9th cent. A.D., Rastrakuta). For Sve. representations in paintings, see W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasutra. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 51 (Pl. XXIX). Tirthankara Vimalanatha standing in kayotsarga posture. From Sarnath or Varanasi, now in Sarnath museum, no. 236. Age, c. 9th cent. A.D. Attended by a camaradhara on each side, the Jina is recognised with the help of the figure of his cognizance-the pig-carved in the centre of the pedestal. Fig. 52 (Pl. XXIX). Neminatha standing in kayotsarga mudra from Padhavali (M.P.). Pedestal shows the dharmacakra on the left, a female in a dance pose with folded hands, and on the right is a conch, the cognizance of Neminatha. Obviously there is a slight departure from the arrangement in which the dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal was flanked on each side by the cognizance of the Jina. Note the winged animal on top of the pillar on the left side. Age, c. tate 6th century A.D. Copyright, Dept. of Archaeology, old Gwalior State, now Madhya Pradesh. Fig. 53 (Pl. XXX). Sambhava Jina with horse cognizance and Jina Abhinandana with the monkey as cognizance. The lanchanas shown in the centre of simhasana of each Jina. From Cave 9 on Khandagiri, Orissa. The Cave is described as Mahavira-Gumpha, R.P. Mohapatra, Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pp. 170-171, 60-61, pl. 10, Fig. 2, p. 174. For images of Sambhava in NavamuniGumpha, Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumpha, see ibid., Pl. 85, Fig. 1, Pl. 88, Fig. 1, and Pl. 97, Fig. 1. For Abhinandana, ibid., Pl. 85, Fig. 2, Pl. 88, Fig. 1 and Pl. 97, Fig. 1, and p. 175. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 54 (Pl. XXX). Sumatinatha and Padmaprabha, with curlew (kraunca) and lotus respectively

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330 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana as their cognizances from Mahavira Gumpha, Khandagiri, Orissa. Also see ibid., Plates 88 and 97 for figures from Barabhuji and Mahavira Gumphas, and ibid., p. 175 for descriptions. Fig. 55 (Pl. XXXI). Rsabhanatha, from Kankali Tila, Mathura, now No. J.78 in the State Museum, Lucknow. Age, c. 7th-8th cent. A.D. In the centre of the simhasana, on one side of the dharmacakra is the figure of a bull, the cognizance of Rsabhanatha. On the other side of the Wheel is a small indistinct figure which may be a deer suggesting the dharmacakra with the deer motif which seem to have been borrowed by the Jainas from the Buddha images after the Gupta age. Head of the Jina mutilated. On the right side of the Jina stands Balarama with snake hoods overhead while on the left stands Klsa-Vasudeva. Ordinarily the Jina would have been identified as Neminatha, the cousin brother of Krsna, but here the absence of the conch cognizance of Neminatha and the presence of bull symbol of Rsabhanatha makes certain the identification of this Jina as Adinatha. Krsna and Balarama figures are added to show the superiority of the Jaina deity over the Brahmanical deity who was very popular in and around Mathura. Two-armed Sarvanha Yaksa and Ambika Yaksi figure as sasanadevatas on two ends of the simhasana. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 56 (Pl. XXXII). 'Candraprabha, standing with his yaksa and yaksini standing by the side of his legs. Crescent symbol on pedesta!. Age, c. 12th-13th cent. A.D. From Humca, southern Karnataka. Triple umbrella above and oblong halo behind head. Note absence of other members of the astapratiharyas. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 57 (Pl. XXXII). Covisi with Rsabhanatha in centre, from Surohar, Dinajpur, Rajashahi district, Bengal. A beautiful typical sculpture of Pala art; Rsabhanatha in the centre has a typical high jata which is especially common in sculptures from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 58 (Pl. XXXII). Sambhavanatha standing with attendant camaradharas on the sides of his legs. Dharmacakra flanked by the horse cognizance in the centre of the pedestal. Triple umbrella on top. Two branches of the caitya-tree on the sides of the head and two divine garland bearers. No other members of the parikara. Figure represents one side of a four-fold stone sculpture found in the Son Bhandara cave, Rajgir. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 59 (Pl. XXXIII). Ajitanatha with Mahayaksa and Rohini yakst in the Suttalaya of Gommata, Sravana Belago!a, Karnataka. Age, late 12th cent. A.D. These sculptures of Hoyasala period in the groups of 24 Tirthankaras usually show the triple umbrella, yaksa and yaksi, halo behind head of the Jina and his cognizance on the pedestal. Other members of the parikara are hardly portrayed in these groups. Copyright and Courtesy of S. Settar, Dharwar. Fig. 60 (Pl. XXXIV). Tirthankara Puspadanta with Ajita yaksa and yaksi Mahakals. Digambara tradition. From Suttalaya of Gommata, Sravana Bela gola. Age, c. 1200 A.D. Beautiful workmanship. Copyright and Courtesy, Prof. S. Settar, Dharwar. Fig. 61 (PI. XXXV). Suparsva standing with a big cobra with five snake hoods behind him and attended by his yaksa and yaksini standing near the legs. The svastika cognizance of this Jina is shown on the pedestal. To the left of this figure is a sculpture of Candraprabha, the eighth Tirtharkara, standing with his yaksa and yaksini on the sides and the crescent moon symbol on the pedestal. From the Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belago!a. Age, 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 62 (Pl. XXXVI). Tirthankara Puspadanta standing with his yaksa and yaksi. From Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, age, 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 63 (Pl. XXXVI). The tenth Tirthankara Sitala standing with his yaksa and yaksi. His cognizance of Sri-druma is shown on the pedestal. From Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola. c. 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 64 (Pl. XXXVI). Tirthankara Vimala sitting with the sukara symbol in centre of simhasana. To the left of this figure is sitting Jina Ananta with the bear as his cognizance. From Barabhuji Gumpha, Khandagiri, Orissa. R.P. Mohapatra, Udayagiri & Khandagiri Caves, pl. 90, fig. 1, pp. 59, 170-173, 178. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India.

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331 List of Plates Fig. 65 (Pl. XXXVII). Tirtbankara Sreyamsa standing with his yaksa and yaksi. Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola. c. 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 66 (Pl. XXXVII). Tirthankara Dharmanatha standing with his yaksa and yaksi. Vajra (thunderbolt) lanchana on pedestal. To his left is sculpture of sixteenth Tirthankara Santinatha standing with his yaksa and yaksint. Deer cognizance on pedestal. Both sculptures from the group of 24 Tirthankaras, Jaina temple, Mudabidri, Karnataka. Age, c. 14th century A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 67 (Pl. XXXVIII). Tirtha okara Vasupujya standing, cognizance mahisa (buffalo) on pedestal and the yaksa and yaksini by the side of the Jina. To the left of this sculpture is a figure of Tirthankara Vimala standing with his yaksa and yaksini. Cognizance varaha on pedestal. Both the images from Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola, c. 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 68 (Pl. XXXVIIT). Seventeenth Tirthankara Kunthu and the eighteenth Jina Ara, each sitting on a double-lotus placed on a simhasana. Kunthu and Ara have the goat and the fish respectively as their cognizances. R.P. Mohapatra, op. cit., pl. 101, fig. 1, p. 179. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 69 (Pl. XXXIX). Pancatirthe image with Tirtha kara santinatha sitting in the centre on a simhasana. The deer cognizance on a cloth hanging over the simhasana. Full parikara with yaksa and yaksi. From Pabhosa, U.P., now in the Allahabad Municipal Museum. Ref. Pramod Chandra, Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Museum, p. 158, fig. 455. Copyright and Courtesy of American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 70 (Pl. XXXIX). Twelve-armed figure of Cakresvari yaksi on the left wall of the verandah of Barabhuji cave, Khandagiri, Orissa. One of her right hands is in varada mudra, two others hold the sword and the cakra. Of her left hands, one is held against the chest and three other hands carry the shield, the ghanta, and the cakra. Symbols of the remaining hands are damaged and indistinct. Mohapatra, op. cit., pl. 95, fig. 1. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 70A (Pl. XXXIX). Sculpture of Munisuvrata at Rajgir, Vaibharagiri, Bihar. Pala art, c. 8th9th cent. A.D. Note rendering of devadundubhi on two sides of the triple umbrella. See also text, pp. 161-162. Debala Mitra, Iconographic Notes, Journ. of the Asiatic Society, Vol. I, no. 1 (1959), pp. 38-39. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 71 (Pl. XXXIX). Parsvanatha from Godavari district, now in Madras Museum. Seven cobra-hoods overhead. The Jina sitting in ardhapadmasana is attended on each side by a standing male Naga having one snake-hood over the crown. The Nagas are holding one end each of a big garland of flowers. This is a rare example of a Jina image attended by Nagas. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 72 (Pl. XL). Munisuvrata with tortoise cognizance on pedestal, and dated in Samvat 1063= 1006 A.D. From river Yamuna near Agra Fort, now No. J.776 in State Museum, Lucknow. A unique composition of miniature figures of other Jinas and Jivantasvami figures along with main image of Munisuvrata, see text, p. 163. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 73 (Pl. XLI). Mallinatha with the pitcher as cognizance and Naminatha with a bunch of blue-lotuses shown as cognizance on the simhasana. From Mahavira-Gumpha, Khandagiri, Orissa. Mohapatra, op. cit., pp. 179-180, pls. 93, fig. 1, 94, fig. 1, 101, fig. 2. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 74 (Pl. XLI). Tirthankaras Munisuvrata and Neminatha from Mahavira-Gumpha, Khandagiri. Mohapatra, op. cit., pp. 180-181, pls. 86, 93, 94 and 102. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 75 (Pl. XLII). Standing Santinatha with Garuda yaksa and Mahamanasi yaksi, from Mangayi Basti, Sravana Belagola. Age, c. 1325 A.D. Copyright and Courtesy of Prof. S. Settar, Dharwar. Fig. 76 (Pl. XLII). Austerities of Parsvanatha, painting from a paper manuscript of Kalpa-sutra, c. 15th century A.D. Copyright & Courtesy, The Cleveland Museum of Art (The Edward L. Whittemore collection). Fig. 76A (PI. XLII). Eighteen-armed Cakresvari. Miniature painting on palm-leaf Ms. folio in the lih

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332 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana collections of the late Shri Bahadursinghji Simghi, Calcutta. Photo Courtesy, Prof. Ernest Bender, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Fig. 77 (Pl. XLIII). Sculptures of Parsvanatha and Mahavira standing with their yaksas and yaksinis. From Bhandara Basti, Sravana Belagola. Age, 1159 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 78 (PI. XLIV). Image of Vardhamana installed in the year 35. Kusana. From Kankali Tila, Mathura, now J.16, Lucknow Museum. Ref. Luders' List, no. 39. The Scythian Period, pp. 249-50, Fig. 60. In the centre of the pedestal, dharmacakra with rim facing us, is placed on a peculiarly shaped pillar. To the right of the Wheel of Law, a naked monk with the broom in raised right hand and a piece of scarf hanging from his left hand wrist covers his male organ. Modern scholars recognise such monks as ardhaphalakas. These may as well be the monks of the Yapaniya sect. Next to him on his right, a standing sravaka (Jaina layman) with garland in right hand and some object in the left hand. He wears a dhoti and a dupatta. Next to him, two small male devotees with folded hands. To the left of the dharmacakra stands a female with raised right hand carrying a broom-like object. She wears a coat-like upper garment and a serf as lower garment, and holds an unidentified object with left hand. She must be identified as a Jaina nun. Next to her, on her left, is a standing sravika (a Jaina laywoman) wearing a lower garment, ornaments, etc., and holding a long wreath of flowers in her right hand. Next to her are two small figures of female devotees with folded hands. Thus the pedestal shows the Dharma (cf. Dharma of the Buddhist formula-Dhammam saranam gacchami), represented by the dharmacakra, and Samgha represented by a monk (sadhu), a nun (sadhvi), and Jaina laymen (sravaka) and laywomen (sravika), cf. the Buddhist Formula: samgham saranam gacchami. The Jina figure on top of pedestal is the chief object of worship (cf. Buddham saranam gacchami of the Buddhists). Thus the conception of the Jina sculpture of Kusana period is analogous to the Buddhist conception of the three saranas. Full parikara of the Jina image, obtained in mediaeval sculpture, was not yet evolved. Cf. Shah, U.P., Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, pp. 497f and figs. 16-21, 9-12 for Jaina images of the Kusana period and Figs. 4, 5, 6, 13, 14 for later periods, Fig. 23 for an evolved parikara of mediaeval age. Note the typical Srivatsa mark on the chest of Vardhamana in the figure under consideration. No cognizances are shown on any part of Tirthankara images of the Kusana period, nor are the two deer shown on two sides of the dharmacakra which latter practice, adopted by the Jainas since about the end of the Gupta period, is clearly in imitation of the Buddhist practice. In Buddhism, this symbolism signifies Buddha's setting into motion the dharmacakra by delivering his first sermon in the deer-park at Sarnath. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 79 (Pl. XLV). Ajitanatha standing with the horse symbol below the simhasana and the dharmacakra on the lowermost end of the sculpture. To his right is standing Sambhavanatha with horse symbol similarly shown. This is the practice in sculptures from this region. From Narwar, Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh. Now No. 16 in Shivpuri district Museum. This is a dvitirthi sculpture, both the Jinas are carved on one stone. In the centre of simhasana of each Jina is sitting, in a niche, a small figure of a ganadhara or an acarya. This also is typical of the sculptures from this region. Below this figure is the dharmacakra. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Centre for Art and Archaeology, Varanasi. Fig. 80 (Pl. XLVI). Parents of a Jina. From Lacchagir, U.P., now No. 244 in the Allahabad Museum. Age, c. 8th cent. A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 81 (Pl. XLVI). Parents of a Jina from Khajuraho Museum, Khajuraho. The fact that the yaksa and yaksi are shown separately on the ends of the pedestal proves that the main figures are Parents of the Jina on top and not the yaksa and yaksi. Ref. Shah, U.P., Parents of the Tirthankaras, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 5, 1955-57, pp. 24-32 and plates. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 82 (Pl. XLVII). The two rows in the middle are of Parents of the Tirthankaras, all with names carved below each figure. On the analogy of these panels the loose sculptures in examples like figs. 80, 81, 85A can be identified as Parents of the Tirthankaras. From a ceiling in the Mahavira temple,

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List of Plates 333 Kumbharia. Age, eleventh century A.D. The first and the fourth panels in the illustration show scenes from the life of Parsvanatha. Photo Courtesy, Shri Amritlal Trivedi, Palitana. Fig. 83 (Pl. XLVII). Ambika Yaksi with two sons and the lion vahana on her left. Her right hand rests on head of a small female figure on her right. There is a bigger dancing figure with one hand raised, on the right end of the relief. This cannot be identified. From cavern on the hill, Kalugumalai, Tamil Nadu. Age, c. 9th-10th cent. A.D., Pandyan. Compare with this, for iconography, a relief sculpture of Ambika, carved on a boulder at Anandamangalam, Tamil Nadu. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 84 (Pl. XLVII). Panels of Past and Future Tirtha karas of this age, from a ceiling in the Mahavira temple, Kumbharia. All figures have inscribed labels below them. Age, eleventh cent. A.D. Also see text, p. 103. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 85 (Pl. XLVIII). A sculpture, cylindrical in shape, with Rsabhanatha in the uppermost panel and in all 148 miniature figures of standing Tirthakaras in the seven rows below. See text, p. 97 for explanation. From Sat Deulia, Burdwan district, West Bengal. Ref. P.C. Das Gupta, A rare Jaing. icon from Sat Deulia, Jaina Journal, vol. VII, no. 3, pp. 130-32 and plates. Fig. 85 A (Pl. XLVIII). Parents of the Jina Rsabhanatha identified with the help of the bull cognizance. From Khajuraho Museum. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Ref. Shah, U.P., Parents of the Tirtharkaras, Bull. of Prince of Wales Museum, No. 5. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 86 (Pl. XLIX). A Covisi (Caturvimsati-pata) of Rsabhanatha (with Rsabhanatha in ardhapadmasana in the centre). Brass or Bronze, from Lilva Deva, Pancha Mahals, Gujarat, now in the Baroda Museum, Acc. No. A.C. 8.89. Age, c. tenth century A.D. Style, Rashtrakuta. Ref. Shah, U.P., Seven Bronzes from Lilva-Deva (Panch-Mahals), Bull. of the Baroda Museum, vol. IX.I-II, pp. 43-52 and plates. Fig. 87 (Pl. XLIX). A Sat-tirthi bronze of Parsvanatha from Vasantagadh. Dated v.s. 1055= A.D. 998. Ref. Shah, U.P., Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, Lalit Kala, 1-2 (1955-56), pp. 55-65 and plates; Akota Bronzes, fig. 63a. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 88 (Pl. L). Sculpture of Ambika-devi from Meguti temple, Aihole. Age, 634 A.D. Ref. H. Cousens, The Chalukyan Architecture, Arch. Surv. of India, New Imperial Series, vol. 42, p. 31, pl. 4. Shah, U.P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, Journ. of the Univ. of Bombay, vol. IX, part 2 (1940-41), pp. 147-169. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 89 (Pl. L). Two-armed Ambika from Ellora, Cave 32. Also see Jose Pereira, Monolithic Jinas. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 90 (Pl. L). Two-armed Padmavati yaksi of Parsvanatha and to her left two-armed Ambika, the vaksins of Neminatha, from wall carvings of the Navamuni cave, Khandagiri, Orissa. Padmavati shows the abhaya mudra with her right hand and holds a lotus flower in the left hand. Below her lotus seat is her vahana, the kukkuta-sarpa. Ambika, sitting in lalitasana under a mango-tree, holds a child on her lap with the left hand while her right hand is held in the abhaya mudra. A defaced figure of the lion is seen below the lotus seat. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Mohapatra, op. cit., pp. 189-190, pl. 86, fig. 2, also see pl. 84, fig. 2 for figures from Barabhuji cave. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 91 (Pl. LI). Door-jamb from Khajuraho, found in the compound near Matangesvari temple, shows Ambika, Cakresvari and Padmavati and smaller figures of the nine planets. Ambika, four-armed, carries amralumbi in three hands and the left lower hand holds her son on the lap. Lion vehicle. Cakresvari, in the central projection, four-armed and riding on the eagle, holds the gada and the cakra in her right and left upper hands and shows the varada mudra with the right lower hand. The left lower hand symbol is mutilated. Padmavati on the left end projection is four-armed with a canopy of seven snake-hoods overhead. In the right and left upper hands she holds the noose and the goad respectively while the right lower hand is held in the varada-mudra. The fourth hand is mutilated. A kukkuja-sarpa is her vahana. Age, c. 10th century A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 92 (PI. LI). Old pedestal of a big brass or bronze image of Parsvanatha, from Patan. Twoarmed Sarvanha (Sarvanubhuti) and Ambika on two ends and nine planets in a row. Dharanendra and

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334 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana bis queen, half-human, half-snake, each with folded hands and a snake-hood above crown, have their snake-tails tied into a beautiful naga-pasa knot in the centre. Age, c. tenth century A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 93 (PI. LII). Two-armed Ambika sitting under a big mango-tree. Amralumnbi and the citron in her right and the left hands respectively. A child on lion on her right side and another son standing by her left side. Beautiful example of art, c. 12th century A.D. From Camundaraya Basti, Sravana Belago!a. Copyright, Department of Archaeology, Karnataka State. Fig. 94 (Pl. LII). Four-armed Cakresvari on the eagle, carrying the cakra in each of the two upper hands, the fruit in the left lower and holding the right lower hand in the abhaya mudra. From Kambadahalli. Mandya district, Karnataka. c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 95 (PI. LII). Standing two-armed Aparajita, the yaksi of Vardhamana Mahavira. Temple 12, Devgadh, U.P. Right hand on her kafi and the left holding a lotus-bud. Age, middle ninth century A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 96 (PI. LIII). Two-armed Ambika vaksi sitting in lalitasana under a mango-tree rendered like an arch behind the head of the goddess. Fron Vidisa, in the Vidisha Museum. Age, c. 10th century A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 97 (Pl. LIII). Two-armed Ambika from a cell in the Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. Age, c. 1032 A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 98 (Pl. LIV). A beautiful sculpture of Rsabhanatha sitting like a great yogi in padmasana, with a big jata on the head and flowing hair strands falling on the shoulders. The Adipurana of Jinasena, composed in tho ninth century A.D., invokes Rsabhanatha with names of Siva, such as Isana, Aghora, Sadasiva. Tatpurusa and so on. This sculpture represents Rsabha like Siva Mahayogi. From Kukkuramatha, Mandla district, M.P. Age, c. 8th-9th century A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 99 (Pl. LV). Eight-armed (Cakra-)Dhrti riding on the eagle. Name inscribed on pedestal, the first two letters of the name are worn out but part of ca is still visible. This is Cakresvari, the yaksi of Rsabhanatha, the Jina figure is shown on top of the sculpture. Style, Gurjara-Pratihara, probably from M.P., region around Maladevi temple, or from Maladevi temple (?). c. 9th century A.D. Now in the British Museum, London. Ref. Ramaprasad Chanda, Mediaeval Indian Sculptures in the British Museum. Copyright and Courtesy of British Museum, London. Fig. 100 (Pl. LVI). Four-armed Padmavati from Lakkundi, Dharwar district. Goad and noose in the right and the left upper hands respectively, fruit in the left lower and the right lower in the varada pose. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 101 (Pl. LVI). Four-armed Padmavati, bronze, Jaina temple, Cambay. c. 14th century A.D. Photo Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 102 (PL. LVI). Siddhayika, the yaksi of Mahavira, on a lion. Four-armed, Veenu and the book in the right and the left upper hands respectively, citron in the right lower hand, and the left lower held in the abhaya mudra. From the Kharatara Vasahi shrine, Mt. Abu. Age, c. 1458-59 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 102A (PI. LVT). Four-armed Cakresvari with eagle as vahana. From Jinanathapura near Sravana Belago!a. Age, 12th century A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fie. 103 (PI. LVII). Tirthaokara Mallinatha in padmasana, with head lost. Developed breasts suggest that Tirthankara Malli is here represented as a female according to Svetambara tradition. The only known example of a sculpture of the nineteenth Jina Malli represented as a female. The back in Fig. 104 shows a long veni. Cognizanco in front of pedestal defaced. From Unnay in U.P., now no. J.885 in the State Museum, Lucknow. Ref. Shah, U.P., A Rare Sculpture of Mallinatha, Vijaya-Vallabhasuri Smaraka Grantha, p. 128. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 104 (PI. LVII). Tirthankara Mallinatha in padmasana, with head lost (back). Fig. 105 (Pl. LVIII). Four-armed standing Ambika yaksi from Dhar, in Malva, M.P. Hitherto wrongly identified as Sarasvati, correctly identified recently by Kirit Mankodi in Sambodhi, vol. 9. pp. 96-103. Image in the British Museum, London. Photo by U.P. Shah with the courtesy of British Museum. www.jainelibrarorg

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List of Plates 335 Fig. 106 (Pl. LVIII). Two-armed standing Ambika from Sravana Belagola, Jaina temple in the Math. Brass or Bronze, c. 17th cent. A.D. This form, with lotus bud in the right hand and the left hand hanging loose, is also known as Dharmadevi at Jina-Kanchi, vide T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunsam and its Temples, p. 209, pl. XXXII, fig. 3. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 107 (PI. LIX). Standing Rsabbanatha from Candravati, near Mt. Abu. A very beautiful marble image of c. 10th century A.D. now in the Zurich Museum, Switzerland. Photo Copyright and courtesy, Zurich Museum. Photo courtesy, B. Moosbrugger. Fig. 108 (PI. LX). Mahavira Vardhamana, elaborate relief with parikara, from Badami Cave IV. Late sixth or carly seventh century A.D. Note the evolution of the parikara. Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Grittli Mitterwalner, Munich, W. Germany. Fig. 109 (Pl. LX). Parsvanatha from Arthuna, now in the Ajmer Museum. See text, p. 175. A very interesting beautiful sculpture with several small figures of Naginis with folded hands on both the sides of Parsvanatha. Age, c. 9th century A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 110 (PI. LXI). Four-armed Padmavati from Karnataka, now no. 121 in the Prince of Wales Muscum, Bombay. Age, c. 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies. . . Fig. IU (PI. LXD). Eight-armed Padmavati from Jhalrapatan, Rajasthan. From vedibandla niche, south wall, Jaina temple. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Photo kind courtesy and Copyright of Prof. Michael Miester and American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 112 (PI. LXI). Four-armed Ambika, Brass or Bronze, dated 1460 A.D. Gujarat or Rajasthan, now in Philadelphia Museum. Copyright, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Fig. 113 (Pl. LXI). Twelve-armed Cakresvari, from Trikuta Basti, Markuli. "Reveals details laid down by Pampa. The devi has twelve arms, of which eight bear the cakras, two the vajras, of the other two, one bears the padma and the other the varada-mudra." Ref. S. Settar, The Classical Kannada Literature and the Digambara Jaina Iconography, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 28. Copyright and Courtesy of Prof. S. Settar, Dharwar. Fig. 114 (Pl. LXII). Eight-armed Cakresvari from Pillar II, Temple I, Devgadh. Ref. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, JOI, XX.3, pp. 280-313. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 115 (Pl. LXII). Eight-armed Cakresvari, Ellora, Cave 32, first floor, left niche shrine. Symbols of right hands, from top, are: cakra, trisula (or vajra ?), sword (?), varada mudra. Symbols of the left hands, from top, are: cakra, cakra, sword (?), abhaya mudra. Goddess sitting in ardhapadmasana. Ago, c. 9th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 116 (Pl. LXII). Padmavati, four-armed, from Humcha, Shimoga district, Karnataka. Parsvanatha Basti. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Fig. 117 (Pl. LXII). Marble image of four-armed Padmavati from Dig. temple, Idar, North Gujarat. Dated in V.S. 1254=1197 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 118 (Pl. LXIII). Pancatirthi sculpture of Rsabhanatha. Below the seat of the Jina Rsabhanatha, in the middle compartment of this sculpture, is a Ganadhara or an acarya sitting with a book (ms.) in hand and preaching to the disciple in front, a sthapana placed between the two monks. In the last panel or compartment we find at the right end a two-armed Ambika (instead of a yaksa usually) and at the left end a four-armed Cakresvari. This is rare type of composition of figures in a Jaina sculpture. Age, c. 11th century A.D. Ref. Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh, pp. 182-83, figs. 231-233. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 119 (PI. LXII). Four-armed standing Cakresvari from Temple No. 12, Devgadh. Ref. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, JOI, XX.3, pp. 280-313. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 120 (PI. LXIV). Eight-armed Cakresvari on the pedestal of a sculpture of Rsabhanatha from Orai, U.P., now no. 178, State Museum, Lucknow. Ref. Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, JOI, XX.3, fig. 27. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 121 (Pl. LXIV). Sixteen-armed standing Cakresvari from Gandhawal (Gandharvapuri), Devas district, M.P., now no. S.17 in the State Museum, Gandharvapuri. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi.

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336 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana Fig. 122 (PI. LXIV). Eight-armed Yakst Cakresvari from Kharatara Vasabi (the Caumukha temple), Delvada, Mt. Abu. Age, 1458-59 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 123 (PI. LXIV). Four-armed yaksi Cakresvarl from pedestal of sculpture of Rsabhanatha, no. 322. State Museum, Lucknow. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 124 (Pl. LXV). Jaina Yaksi Padmavati, four-armed, from Karnataka, now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies (ALIS), Varanasi. Fig. 125 (PI. LXV). A beautiful sculpture of four-armed yaksi Padmavati from Anatur, Chikamangalur district, Karnataka. Age, c. 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 126 (Pl. LXV). A sculpture of Tirthankara Vasupujya sitting under a big tree, from a Jaina shrine, Surat. See text, pp. 148-49. Ref. M.A. Dhaky, T.O. Shah and M. Vora in Sambodhi, vol. 3. nos. 2-3, pp. 21-24. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 127 (PI. LXV). Four-armed standing Padmavati from Jina-Kanchi, Tamil Nadu. Brass or Bronze. Age, c. 18th cent. A.D. Ref. T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparutrikunsam and its Temples, pl. xxxiii. Copyright, Madras Museum, Madras. Fig. 128 (Pl. LXVI). Elaborate scuipture of Covisi of Mahavira with his yaksa and yaksi on the pedestal ends. From Rajasthan, now in the Seattle Museum, U.S.A. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Copyright and courtesy of Seattle Museum, Seattle, U.S.A. Fig. 129 (Pl. LXVII). Seated figure of Mahavira from Tamil Nadu, now in the Brooklyn Museum, U.S.A. Bronze. Age, Pallava-Cola transition, c. 9th cent. A.D. Ref. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture. Paper 26. Copyright, Brooklyn Museum, New York, U.S.A. Bronze lent by Drs. Arthur M. Raymond and Mortimer Sackler. Fig. 130 (PI. LXVII). Standing Mahavira as Jivantasvami. From Khimvasar, Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, now in Jodhpur Museum. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Compare the conception of Crowned Buddha. Dhaky has discovered Jivantasvami sculptures from temples at Abar and Sewadi. Ref. R.C. Agrawal, An Image of Jivantasvami from Rajasthan, The Adyar Library Bulletin, vol. xxii (May 1958), pp. 32-34. Copyright, Department of Archaeology, Rajasthan State. Fig. 131 (PI. LXVII). A Covisi-Caumukha sculpture, i.e., a four-fold image with six Tirthankara figures facing each side thus making this a Caturvimsati Jina image (Covisi). From Padhavali, M.P. Age, c. 8th cent. A.D. Copyright, Department of Archaeology, Madhya Pradesh. Fig. 132 (PI. LXVIII). Two-armed Sarvanha yaksa, Camundarai Basti, Sravana Belagola. Age, c. 10th century A.D. Copyright, Prof. S. Settar, Dharwar. Fig. 133 (P1. LXVIII). Harinegamesi flying with the foetus of Mahavira in the act of taking it to the womb of Trisala. Goat-faced, with peacock vehicle. Painting from a paper ms. of Kalpa-sutra, private collection, Cambay. Age, c. 15th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 134 (Pl. LXVIII). Mahavira with his eleven Gamadharas, full page illustration from a palmleaf manuscript of Avasyaka-Laghuvstti, dated A.D. 1388. Gold liberally used in this miniature. Copyright, U.P. Shali. Fig. 135 (Pl. LXVIII). Door-lintel in the compound of Temple no. 12, Devgadh, with figures of Tirthankaras, acaryas, upadhyayas and sadhus (monks). Age, c. 9th-10th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 136 (PI. LXIX). Relief panel showing attack by Kamatha on Parsvanatha and protection by Dharanendra and his chief queen, Badami, cave no. 4, the Jaina cave. Age, c. late sixth or early seventh century A.D. Copyright and Courtesy of Prof. Grittli Mitterwalner, Munich. Fig. 137 (PI. LXIX). Relief panel of Kamatha's attack on Parsvanatha. Dharanendra protecting with his snake-hoods and his chief queen holding an umbrella. Kamatha, defeated and repenting, bowing down before the Jina meditating. From Jaina cave, Aihole, Karnataka. Note five snake-hoods above head of Parsvanatha. Age, c. seventh century A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 138 (PI. LXX). Kamatha's attack on Parsvanatha, elaborately carved relief panel from cave 31, Ellora. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 139 (PI. LXX). Standing Parsvanatha with his yaksa and yaksi seated by the side of his legs.

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List of Plates 337 From Pancha Basadi, Stavanidhi, Chikkodi taluq, Belgaum district, Karnataka. Age, c. 14th cent. A.D. Photograph by P. Gururaja Bhatt. Fig. 140 (PI. LXXI). Four-armed Padmavati in padmasana, Sve. Jaina temple, Patan, N. Gujarat. Age, c. 16th-17th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 141 (PI. LXXI). Four-armed Padmavati on a pillar, Devgadh fort. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 142 (PI. LXXI). Four-armed Padmavati from Badami cave 4 (the Jaina cave). Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 143 (Pl. LXXII). Four-armed yaksi Padmavati from U.P., now no. G.316, State Museum, Lucknow. Ago, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 144 (Pl. LXXII). Two-armed seated Padmavati from cellar of Sitalanatha temple (Svetambara). Patan. N. Gujarat. Attended by four miniature figures of Naginis, showing in her right hand an ornamental lotus bud with stalk and in the left a cup with fruit. Age, c. 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 145 (PI. LXXII). Kaolin figure of a female yaksi (?) riding on some animal, perhaps a horse. The horse vahana separately moulded is lost. The female figure, two-armed, holds an am.clumbi in her right hand and a parrot is held with the left hand. From Paithan. Satavahana period. Perhaps a prototype of the Jaina Ambika. Copyright and courtesy of AAA, Ann Arbour, Michigan, U.S.A. Photo kindly supplied by Prof. Dhavalikar, Poona. Fig. 146 (Pl. LXXIII). Two-armed Ambika sitting beside a tree, with one son on her right riding a lion and the other sitting on her left. Palm-leaf manuscript of Dhavala etc., Mudabidri, Karnataka. Age, c. 12th century A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 147 (PL. LXXIV). Two-armed Ambika standing under canopy of a mango-tree, the mangoes on ends of the branches are mutilated and lost. Right hand mutilated, left holds the child on her kafi. Three small sitting goddesses on each side of Ambika may be parivara-devatas (or some other goddesses). Five Tirthaikara figures on top. Lion vehicle near the right leg. Beautiful sculpture, perhaps from Hinglaigadh, now in the Indore Museum. Age, c. 10th 11th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 148 (PI. LXXIV). Four-armed Ambika sitting under a mango-tree arranged like an arch. The wholo enshrined in a shrine with trefoil shaped torana arch supported by pillars having, on each side, four miniature goddesses not identified but who may be parivara-devatas of Ambika. From a Sve. Jaina shrine, Cambay, Gujarat. Age, c. 13th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 149 (Pl. LXXV). Two-armed Ambika sitting with a lotus-bud with a long stalk in the right hand and a child held on the lap with the left. From a Jaina temple, Humcha, Karnataka. Santara art of early tenth cent. A.D. Ref. M.A. Dhaky, Santara Sculpture, JISOA, New Series, Vol. IV, pp. 78-97, pl. XVII, fig. 8. Copyright, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi (ALIS). Fig. 150 (PI. LXXV). "Two-armed Ambika sitting with the lotus in her right hand and the son held with the left one. From Jaina temple, Humcha, Karnataka. Ref. M.A. Dhaky, ibid., JISOA, New Series, Vol. IV, pp. 78ff, pl. XXII, Fig. 19. Age, 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 151 (Pl. LXXVI). Standing Parsvanatha with Kamatha standing on his right, from Devgadh. c. 10th cent. A.D. A rare sculpture. Ref. Klaus Bruhn, Further Observations on the Iconography of Paravanatha, Mahavira and His Teachings (Ahmedabad, 1972), pp. 371-388 and plates. Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Klaus Bruhn, Berlin, West Germany. Fig. 151A (PI. LXXVI). Parsvanatha and Kamaha, Jaina Cave (32 or 33). Compare 151 above. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 152 (PL. LXXVII). Ananta virya, tentatively identified as Future Tirtha kara with his parents. See text, p. 103. Probably from M.P., now in the British Museum. Ref. Ramaprasada Chanda. Mediaeval Indian Sculptures in the British Museum, pl. IX, pp. 41-42. Copyright, British Museum, London. Fig. 152A (PI. LXXVII). An incident from the life of Mahavira. Mahavira playing amalakikrida with boys when a jealous god tries to test the courage of Mahavira. For the full account, see Masterpieces of the Kalpasutra Paintings, fig. 224 and description of plates, ibid., p. 44. Miniature painting on

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338 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana a paper manuscript in the Atmarama Jaina Jnanamandira, Baroda, no. 1401/1, folio 57b. Age, 16th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 153 (PI. LXXVII). Astamangala plaque, silver-plated brass. From a Svetambara Jaina shrine, Gopipura, Surat. Age, modern. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 154 (Pl. LXXVI). Four-armed Ambika with camaradhara females and dancers as attendants. From corner ceiling of Sabhamandapa, Vimala Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. Age, 12th century A.D. Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Grittli Mitterwalner, Munich. Fig. 155 (Pl. LXXIX). Twelve-armed Cakresvari, Ellora, cave 30. Age, c. 9th-10th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 155A (Pl. LXXIX). Standing goddess Siddhayini, the yaksini of Mahavira, from JinaKancbi. Brass or Bronze. Ref. T.N. Ramachandran, op. cit., pl. XXXIV. Copyright, Madras Museum, Madras. Fig. 156 (PI. LXXX). - Bharata Cakravarti, standing with the different ratnas of a Cakravarti by his sides. From Devgadh, Temple 31 (?). Convright and courtesy of Prof. Klaus Brulin. Fig. 157 (PI. LXXX). Sarvanha Yksa riding on the elephant. Digambara tradition, from South India, now in the Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 158 (PI. LXXX). Brahmasanti yaksa, miniature painting on a palm-leaf manuscript, Chhani near Baroda. Age, 13th century A.D. Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Klaus Bruhn, Berlin. Fig. 159 (Pl. LXXX). Manibhadra riding on an elephant. From a Svetambara Jaina temple, Gopipura, Surat. c. 18th-19th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 160 (Pl. LXXXI). Four-armed Kaparddi-yaksa from Vimala-vasi Tunk, Mt. Satrunjaya. Age, 14th century A.D. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 160A (PI. LXXXI). Bharata Cakravarti with his ratnas. From a shrine in Devgadh. Age, c. 10th-11th cent. A.D. Temple no. 2, Devgadh. Copyright and courtesy of M.N.P. Tiwari, Varanasi. Fig. 161 (Pl. LXXXI). Kubera Dikpala dancing with attendants, from a corner-ceiling, Sabhamandapa of Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. Age, 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 162 (PL. LXXXII). Two-armed Ambika, standing, with omralumbi in her right hand caught by a son standing near her right leg. Her left hand is engaged in holding her son on the kati. From Devgadh. Age, c. ninth cent. A.D. Photo Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Klaus Bruhn, Berlin. Fig. 163 (Pl. LXXXIII). Four-armed Ambika sitting with two sons on laps held by her two normal hands and amralumbi's two ends held by two upper hands. Gujarat or Rajasthan, now in St. Xavier's College, Bombay, Museum of Rev. Heras Institute. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 164 (PI. LXXXIII). Four-armed Ambika, dated 1490 A.D. From possibly Rajasthan, now in the Boston Museum, U.S.A. Brass or Bronze. Photo kind courtesy of Dr. A.K Coomaraswamy'. Copyright, Boston Museum. Fig. 165 (Pl. LXXXIII). Four-armed Ambika with the noose and the vajra-ghanta in her right and left upper hands. From U.P., now no. 66.225 in State Museum, Lucknow. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 166 (PI. LXXXIV). Five rock-cut Jaina relief sculptures with Mahisasuramarddini at the right end and two-armed Siddhayika (?) at the left end. Karadipatti, Madurai district. On the vaulted surface of the natural cavern at Samnarmalai. Pandyan, c. 8th cent. A.D. Mahisasuramarddint was possibly known as Kottavi or Kottavya in the south. In the north, Jaina authors like Jinabhadra gapi Ksamasramana, Haribhadra suri and Jinadasa Mahattara have called her Kotfarya, or Kottakriya, a terrific form of Durga. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India, Fig. 167 (Pl. LXXXIV). Mahavira under a big caitya-tree. From a garden in Annamvasal, old Pudukkotai state, Tamil Nadu. Style, Muttaraiyar (?), c. 9th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India (AST). Fig. 168 (PL. LXXXV). Four-armed Santi-devi in the centre of the simhasana of the colossal image of Ajitanatha at Taranga, North Gujarat. A mediaeval development in place of dharmacakra which now is shown below the simhasana. Age, c. 14th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah.

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List of Plates 339 Fig. 169 (Pl. LXXXV). Mothers of the twenty-four Jinas worshipped in a group in a stone plaque, Svetambara Jaina temple, Patan, North Gujarat. An earlier plaque of eleventh century was published by U.P. Shah, in Vardhamana-Vidya-Pata, JISOA (Old Series), Vol. IX (1941), pp. 52-87 and plates. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 170 (Pl. LXXXV). Gautama-svami, the chief Ganadhara of Mahavira, from a Jaina Pata published by Coomaraswamy, in 1914. Reproduced from a photograph of the Pata kindly given by Dr. A.K. Coomaraswamy. Fig. 171 (PI. LXXXVI). Isanendra or Solapani-yaksa. From corner ceiling of sabhamandapa of Luna-Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. Age, 13th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 172 (Pl. LXXXVII). Two-armed Ambika sitting with right hand in the abhaya mudra and the left hand probably in the varada mudra. On each side is a son riding on a lion. A rare iconographic type. Palm-leaf miniature, Mudabidri, Karnataka. c. 12th century A.D. Photo copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 173 (Pl. LXXXVII). A rare type of four-armed Ambika with the book and the mirror in her two upper hands. Influenced by Hindu form of Durga holding a mirror. From U.P., now no. G.312 in State Museum, Lucknow. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 174 (Pl. LXXXVIII). Twelve-armed Padmavati sitting in padmasana and showing the varada mudra. sword, axe, arrow, vajra and cakra in her right hands and the shield, gada, goad, bow, snake and the lotus in her left hands. The vahana in front of her lotus seat is a curious representation of the kukkuta sarpa sitting and facing us and not a tortoise as supposed by M.N.P. Tiwari. From Shahdol, Thakur Sahib's collection, Shahdol, M.P. Age, c. 11th cent. A.D. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 175 (Pl. LXXXVIII). Twenty-armed Cakresvari, Temple no. 12, Devgadh. Age, c. ninth cent. A.D. Ref. Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, JOI, Vol. XX, no. 3. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 176 (Pl. LXXXIX). Colossal sculpture of Simandhara Jina, one of the Viharamana Tirthankaras. In padmasana, with bull cognizance in the centre of the seat. The crown etc. are attached by Svetambaras during puja. From a modern Jaina temple built at Mehsana in the last decade. Photograph courtesy of the Temple Trustees, Mehsana, North Gujarat. Fig. 177 (Pl. LXXXIX). Pundarika Ganadhara sitting in the padmasana on a lotus with a long thick stalk. Installed in memory of Muni Sangamasiddha, according to the inscription on the pedestal. On one side of the stalk is Sangamasiddha, facing him on the other side of the stalk are his pupils. Installed in v.s. 1064 1007 A.D. A typical sculpture of the style of the age. According to the inscription it would seem that it is a sort of memorial in honour of Sangamasiddha who died of voluntary starvation-Sallekhana! Fig. 177A (Pl. LXXXIX). Sri Merucandra-suri-Jivitsvami-murtih. An image (portrait ?) of Sri Merucandra suri installed in his life-time (jivitsvami-murtih). Installed in v.s. 1491A.D. 1434, the image shows the Suri (acarya) standing with folded hands and a rosary of beads held by the hands. The broom-stick shown at the back of his head. Svetambara monk. On his right is a miniature figure of Sri Pralayacandra suri and on the left is standing Sri Munitilaka suri according to the labels inscribed beside these figures. From a Jaina temple, Cambay, Gujarat. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 178 (Pl. XC). Parents of Mahavira. Inscription on pedestal reads: Priyati Siddhah. Inscription read by V.S. Agrawala. Mathura Museum no. 278. Priyati perhaps refers to Priyakarini the Mother of Mahavira according to Digambara tradition, Siddhah stands for Siddhartha, the Father of Mahavira according to both the traditions. Copyright, Mathura Museum, Mathura. Fig. 178A (Pl. XC). Bronze figure of Rsabhanatha standing in the kayotsargu mudra. No cognizance on pedestal. Some parikara figures, perhaps the yaksa, yaksini and the halo etc., seem to have been lost as suggested by two vertical attachments on the sides. The Jina identified with the inscription on back. Age, c. 12th cent. A.D. From Tindivaram, Tamil Nadu, now in the Madras Museum. Photo, U.P. Shah, with the kind permission of the Madras Museum. Fig. 179 (Pl. XCI). Big stone Pata (plaque) representing the 52 Sasvata-Jinalayas on the Nandisvaradvipa. Ref. U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 119-121, fig. 89. From the Caumukha temple, Ranakpur. Age, c. 1439 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah.

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Jaina-Rapa-Man Jana Fig. 180 (PI. XCII). Sahasra-kuta or Sammeta Sikhara (?), from Dharana-Vihara Caumukha temple, Ranakpur, Pali district, Rajasthan. Age, c. 1476 A.D. See Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 116-118. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 181 (Pl. XCIII). Representation of Mt. Astapada from Dharana-Vihara Caumukha shrine, Ranakpur, Rajasthan. Dated v.s. 1551=A.D. 1495. See Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 116-118. Copyright, AIIS, Varanasi. Fig. 182 (Pl. XCIV). Stone sculpture representing Samavasarapa with three fortifications. Vertical representation. From cell 20, Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. Age, c. 11th-12th cent. A.D. Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 85-95. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 183 (Pl. XCV). Brass or bronze plaque representing 185 Jinas in all. Digambara Jaina shrine, Surat. Age, c. 15th-16th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. 340 Fig. 184 (Pl. XCVI). Representation of Mt. Meru, brass or bronze, from Dandianu Dehru (shrine), Digambara Jaina shrine, Surat. Dated v.s. 1513=A.D. 1456. Ref. Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 116-118, fig. 78. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 185 (Pl. XCVI). Siddha-Pratica. Erange of a Siddha. Stencil cut, Brass. A Siddha is said to be free from the bondage of his body (a-sariri), so he is represented without the body. No early stencil-cut Siddha images are known. The practice of representing Siddhas in this way seems to be very late. From Digambara Jaina temple, Vidisha, M.P. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 186 (Pl. XCVII). Satrunjaya-Girnara-Tirtha-Uddhara. Representation (a sort of mapping) of the various tirthas (shrines etc.) on Mt. Satrunjaya and Mt. Girnar. Stone plaque from Sve. Jaina temple, Varakhana, Rajasthan. Age, 15th cent. A.D. Such representations, technically called uddhara or avatara, have been popular in Western India from c. fourteenth century onwards. The practice could have started earlier but no earlier representations in stone or paintings are yet discovered. Such representations on cloth are preserved in the Calico Museum, Ahmedabad and in the National Museum, New Delhi, etc. Such modern representations on walls of the mandapas of Jaina temples are quite common in Gujarat. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 187 (PI. XCVIII). Fourteen dreams seen by a Jina's mother. Four-armed Sri in the centre. Svetambara tradition. Paper Ms. of Kalpa-sutra, Jaina Jnana-mandira, Baroda. 16th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 188 (Pl. XCVIII). Four-armed Sri and Kamadeva shooting an arrow. Palm-leaf manuscript of Oghaniryukti, dated v.s. 1117=A.D. 1060, Jesalmer Bhandara. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 189 (PI. XCIX). Lower part of a sculpture of Parsvanatha, showing the simhasana, below which in a row are figures of the nine planets, one small figure of Ambika and another of a yaksi on two ends of the row of planets. Bigger figures of Parsva yaksa and Padmavati yaksi on two sides of the simhasana. There are besides figures of devotees and attendants. Must have been an elaborately carved sculpture with upper parts now lost. Age, c. 11th-12th cent. A.D. Findspot not given on the photograph (neg. no. 1559) supplied by the Department of Archaeology, Madhya Pradesh State, Bhopal. Copyright, Department of Archaeology, Madhya Pradesh. Fig. 190 (PI. XCIX). Indra dancing with attendants. Corner ceiling of Rangamandapa, Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. Age, 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 191 (Pl. C). Circumambulation of a Dhvaja-stambha, having lion on top. From Kankali Tila, Mathura, now in the State Museum, Lucknow. Age, c. 1st cent. B.C. Ref. Shah, U.P., Jaina Anusrutis etc., Moti Chandra Memorial Lecture, Journal of Indian Museums, Vol. 34. Copyright, State Museum, Lucknow. Fig. 192 (Pl. C). Srutaskandha-yantra. Brass or Bronze. Jaina Kastha Samgha temple, Karanja, Maharashtra. Photo kind courtesy of Mrs. Sarayu Doshi. Fig. 193 (Pl. CI). Four-armed yaksi Siddhayika from Cambay. Age, c. 13th-14th cent. A.D. Ref. Yaksini of the Twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira, JOI, Vol. XXII, nos. 1-2, pp. 70-78. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 194 (Pl. CI). Four-armed Siddhayika yaksi from Patan, Gujarat. c. 14th cent. A.D. Ref. Yaksini of the Twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira, JOI, XXII.1-2, pp. 70-78 and plates. Copyright, U.P. Shah.

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341 Fig. 194A (PI. CI). Fig. 195 (PI. CII). c. seventh century A.D. Fig. 196 (PI. CII). Iconography of the Jaina Four-armed Siddhayika standing. From pillar in the Sabhamandapa, Vimala Vasahi. c. 12th-13th cent. A.D. Ref. see above no. 194. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Sarvanubhuti (Sarvanha) yaksa and Ambika, on rock, Gwalior fort, M.P. Age, Copyright, Dept. of Archaeology, Madhya Pradesh State, Bhopal. Two-armed Ambika, no. D.7, Mathura Museum, Mathura. Ref. Shah, U.P., Goddess Ambika, JUB, IX.2. Copyright, Mathura Museum, Mathura. Fig. 197 (Pl. CII). Twelve-armed Padmavati on pillar, Devgadh. The goddess shows the padma, vajra, snake, noose, bow and citron in her left hands and the padma, goad, arrow and varada in the right hands. Symbols of two right hands are indistinct. Kukkuta sarpa as vahana. Copyright and courtesy of Prof. Klaus Bruhn, Berlin. Fig. 198 (Pl. CIII). Four-armed Padmavati with one snake-hood on crown. A figure of Parsvanatha above. Relief on rock, Vallimalai, Tamil Nadu. Age, c. 9th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 199 (Pl. CIII). c. 15th century A.D. Shah. Fig. 200 (PI. CIII). Photo Copyright, U.P. Fig. 201 (Pl. CIV). Four-armed Ambika from Palitana-Satrunjaya, Saurashtra, Gujarat, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. c. 10th century A.D. Copyright, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fig. 202 (PI. CIV). Age, c. 9th cent. A.D. Two-armed Ambika, with lotus in right hand, from Sembuttu, Tamil Nadu. Copyright, Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu. Parents of a Tirthankara. From Deopara, district Rajashahi, now in Dacca Copyright, Dacca Museum, Bangladesh. Fig. 203 (PI. CIV). Museum, Bangladesh. Fig. 204 (Pl. CIV). Rock relief of Ambika, Chitharal, Kerala State. Age, c. 850 A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. Fig. 205 (Pl. CV). Sculpture in three panels, Devgadh, U.P. The uppermost panel shows five Tirthankaras standing. The middle panel represents Sarvanha yaksa and Ambika. The lowermost panel represents Parents of some Tirthankara. Age, c. 10th cent. A.D. Copyright, Archaeological Survey of India. List of Plates Four-armed Ambika on wall of Parsvanatha temple, Ranakpur, Rajasthan. Copyright, U.P. Shah. 12... Four-armed Ambika from a cell in the Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. 13th cent. A.D. Fig. 206 (Pl. CV). Brass image of the Siddha from the Jaina temple in Shahpuri, Kolhapur. Identified as Siddha by late Prof. A.N. Upadhye. Digambara tradition. Worshipped as Siddha in the temple. Photo by Mr. B.B. Bage, kindly taken for me and supplied by the late Prof. A.N. Upadhye. Fig. 207 (Pl. CV). The Jina-Mother, with 24 Jina figures suggesting that this represents the JinaMother. Temple no. 4, Devgadh. Ref. Studies in Jaina Art, fig. 39. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 208 (Pl. CVI). Krsna subduing the Kaliya Naga. Scene of Kaliya-damana. Hindu influence in Jaina art. Corridor ceiling, Vimala Vasahi, Mt. Abu. c. 12th cent. A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 209 (Pl. CVI). A Yantra of Padmavati. From a manuscript of Vidyanusasana, now in the Digambara Jaina Bhandara, Beawar, Rajasthan. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 210 (Pl. CVII). A page from a manuscript of Samgrahani sutra in the collections of Yasovijaya suri, Palitana. Showing Asurakumara, Nagakumara, Suparnakumara, Vidyutkumara, Agnikumara, Diva(Dipa)kumara, Udadhikumara, Disakumara, Vayukumara, Stanitkumara. Photo Copyright, Ramesh D. Malavania. Fig. 211 (Pl. CVII). Painting from a manuscript of Samgrahani sutra, showing Pisaca, Bhuta, Yaksa and Raksasa of Jaina cosmographical belief. Age, 17th cent. A.D. From the Jaina Jnanamandira, Baroda. Photo, U.P. Shah. Fig. 212 (Pl. CVIII). Tirthankara on top with figures of acarya and his pupil below. A sthapana between them. From Khajuraho, c. 10th cent. A.D. Photo Copyright and courtesy of Sri Niraja Jaina, Satna. Fig. 213 (Pl. CVIII). Sculpture dated Samvat 1544 (A.D. 1487), of an Arjika (Aryika), female

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342 Jaina-Rupa-Mandana ascetic, Digambara tradition, in a Digambara Jaina shrine, Khapatia Cakla, Surat. Ref. M.K. Kapadia, Surat Digambara Jaina Murti-lekha-samgraha. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 214 (PI. CVIII). A marble image of a Svetambara sadhvi-nun-from Astapada temple, Patan. Ref. Vijaya Vallabha Suri Smaraka Grantha, Gujarati section, pp. 172-173. Acc. to inscription on it, this is an image of Demati-gani installed in v.s. 1255-1198 A.D. Copyright, U.P. Shah. Fig. 215 (Pl. CIX). A board (pafali-paffika) with embroidered cloth wrapped on it. The embroidery work shows Assamangalas according to Svetambara Jaina tradition. Modern. Collection of Muni Sri Punyavijayaji in the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. For Asramangalas, Studies in Jaina , Art, pp. 109-112. Photo Copyright, Ramesh D. Malavania, Ahmedabad. Colour Pictures Front page of Jacket Jivantasvami (Bronze from Akota Hoard) Courtesy & Copyright: Baroda Museum Back page of Jacket Jina on Siddha-Sila after attaining Nirvana (Kalpa-sutra, c. 1417 A.D., Jnana Mandir, Baroda) Title page (1) Vasudeva (2) Baladeva (3) Prati-Vasudeva (4) Cakravartin Some Salakapurusas (from a wooden Book-cover in Jesalmer, c. 12th cent. A.D.) Courtesy: Muni Sri Punyavijayaji

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Plate CVI 208 jahAvaradAyanamaH udayanAthamaH birAcaranAyarAmA liIopanamaH hApADanAyanamA jayA yanamaH hitopnmH| uhAcyA 1503 Ematic nyAnamaH uhAmi adadAyana anamaH takamA zrIpadAranAya namaH LEKERSE yAnimAyena anupAva devIpamA hAsImAnamaH uvijayApainamaH FEEDiarcApanA mahAadhaH sadanAyanamaH vatI TEEK khenama POPUR sapanamaH yenamaH himA KHUSA IHED987 IPuvejkse BEDEkAra NEERED HALALAIMARRELEM..

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late CVII 2009.28 1Bi 1 Bibi TRUE , BER 088,Yi Hou Yi Jing Chu Augus:22 010 211 210

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Tong v eka vidyA 214 213 Plate CVIII

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AUTHOR Dr. Umakant P. Shah, the author, is an eminent Indologist who has spent a life-time in researches in Jaina art and literature. Author of over two hundred research papers including those on Iconography of the Jaina Ambika, Sarasvati, Sixteen Vidyadevis, Cakresvari, Siddhayika, Harinega mesin etc., and of works like Studies in Jaina Art, The Art of the Akota Bronzes, Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras, New Documents of Jaina Painting (jointly with Dr. Moti Chandra), Minor Jaina Deities etc., he has been for about two decades Deputy Director, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Editor, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (New Series, Calcutta), General Editor of the Critical Edition of Valmiki's Ramayana and edited, in the Gaekwad's Oriental Series, Sanskrit texts including a rare old text on Music and Dancing, entitled Sangitopanisad-saroddhara composed by a Jaina monk. He is at present President of the Indian Association of Art Historians. ISBN 81-7017-208-X

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224 nevAya

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