Comparative Study of Mantrashastra

Author(s): Mohanlal Bhagwandas Jhaveri
Publisher: Sarabhai Manilal Nawab
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006575/1

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Comparative and Critical Study of
MANTRASHASTRA
dain Education International, 2010_03
F
ate & Personal use only
Wwychlilara yerg

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Sri Jain Kala Sahitya Samsodhak Series No. 1
Comparative and Critical Study
of Mantrasastra (With Special Treatment of Jain Mantravada)
Being the Introduction to Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa
By
MOHANLAL BHAGWANDAS JHAVERY
B. A. (Hons.), LL. B., Solicitor
Author of Historical Facts about Jainism Author of Introduction to and Editor of Nirvanakalika and
Author of Introduction to Gathasahasri etc.
Published by - SARABHAI MANILALINAW
Price 2 Rupees
AHMEDABAD
Sarswati
VC
2010_03

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All rights reserved by the Publisher
This Edition is limited to four hundred copies only
out of which this is No.
V. S. 2000
1944 A.D.
Printed by B. Rawat at Kumar Printery. 1454 Raipur Ahmedabad Published by Sarabhai Manilal Nawab, Director Shree Jain Kala Sahitya Samsodhaka Karyalaya,
Nagajibhuder Pole, Ahmedabad
2010_03

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Dedicated to
The Sacred Memory of Late Gurudeva Sri Jayasimhasuriji
2010_03

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CONTENTS
Pages
1-2 2-4 4-6 6-16
16-18 18-23
23-29
1. Purpose and Scope 2. Magic and Magical Symbolism. . 3. Thought-force 4. New Thought, New Psychology
Imagination 7 Desire 10 Triple Key of Success 12 confident
Expectation 13 Will 14. 5. Mentative Energy and Magic 6. Telepathy and Clairvoyance
Rudolf Tichner 19 Subconscious and Super-conscious 21. 7. Contemplation Colours and Emotions
Human Aura-Significance 24 Scientific Recognition 24 Com. position 25 Prāņa-Aura 25 Methods of Developing 25 Key to the Astral Colours 26 Colours and Emotions 26 Atmaraksā
and Protective Aura 28. 8. Mantra-How it acts ...
Views of Western Writer's 29 Tantrik View 31 Tantrik Theory
32 Writer's View 35. 9. Kundalini Shakti .
Yoga 39 Kundalini Shabda Brahman 41 Nāda-Bindu-Kala
41 Six Chakras 42 Shatchakra Vedha 43 Samadhi 45 Mukti 45. 10. Tantras
Western Writer's ignorance 46 Necessity for Practical Method in Religion 47 Ritual and its Utility 47 Attitude of Englisheducated Indians 48 Impartial Criticism, Contents and Characteristics of Tantras 49 Schools and Divisions 50 Common Characteristics 51 Amnayas-Sampradayas 52 Krantas-MatasTăutrik Acharas 53 Antiquity Value of Tantras 55 Objections 56 Panchatattva 57 Jain Bauddha Influence 60 No Panchatattva Worship in Jain Tantra 60 Mantras and Vailik literature 61 Tantras and Vedas 61.
29-39
39-46
46-63
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63-87
88-11
11. Tantrik Sadhana
Aim and Means 63 Guru and Diksā 65 Common Elements 65 Psychological Principles 66 Nila Sadhana-Shava Sadhana 69 Yantra Pūja 70 Mandala 71 Mudra 72 Three Meanings of Mudră 72 Preliminary Rites 73 Objects of different Rites 74 Five kinds of worship 74 Places-Time-Directions for Worship 75 Seats and Postures 76 Rosaries 76 Purification of the Five 77 Bhūtashuddhi 78 Nyasa 79 Jiya-Mātrikā-Vidyā-Rishi Nyasa 80 Shadanga-Kara-Shodha Nyasa 81 Dhyāna 82 Japa 83 Homa, Tarpana, Brāhmaṇa Bhojana etc. 81 Siddhi 85
Upachāra 85 Mahāpūjả 87. 12. Mantrayāna Vajrayāna and Tāntrism amongst the Buddhists
Hindu Mântric system 95 Puranas 100 Någārjuna's Kaksaputa 103 Manjusri-Mülakalpa 104 Conclusion 106 Examination of Dr. B. Bhattācharya's views 108 Earlier and Later
Tantrism 111. 13. Mysticism of Darvishes...
The Darvish orders 118 Darvish Orders in India 124 Religious Practices 130 The Aulia or saints 133 Miraculous Practices 134 Magic 135 Charms and Talismans 136 Diviners 137 AsmāUl-'Husna 138 The Naqshbandi Zikr 140 Spiritual Powers and their Dovelopment 142 Murādbah, Insila and Tawajjuh
143 Spiritual Powers 144. 14. Jain Mantravāda and Caityavāsis ..
.. Sri Pārsvanātha and Pūrva Literature 147 Uvasaggaharam 150 Miraculous Works 151 Pārsvăpatyas and Nimitta 151 Naimittikas-Sārūpikas-Siddhaputras 152 Lax Practices 154 Prabhịtas 155 Angavidyā 157 Panca Parameşti Mantra 157 Nirvåņakalikā 158 Vardhamana Vidyă 159 Tirthānujsa and Våsaksepa 161 Sūrimantra 161 Pūrvaseva and Uttarasevă 165 Unity of Panca Parameşti Mantra, Vardhamāna Vidya and Sūrimantra 166 Siddhacakra 167 Worship of Mantra-Deity not incompatible with Karma Philosophy 169 Hädi Mata 173 Earlier Mantrasiddhas 173 Vidyadharas 175 Vidyadhara Pedhalaka and Vidya-Cakravarti Maheśvara 176 Ratnaprabhasūri
113-14
147-21
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212–254
176 Vidyadhara Kula etc. 177 Caityavāsis 177 Arya Mahagiri and Arya Suhasti 179 Jain Emperor Samprati 180 Period after Samprati 184 Vajraswami 185 Kālakacārya 189 Aryakhaputācārya 191 Mantrasiddhas-Arya Rohana 192 Nāgārjuna 193 Yaśobhadsasüri 194 Mänadevasūri 199 TempleBuilding Activity in the 6th and 7th centuries 200 Mãpatungasūri 202 Haribhadrasūri 203 Bappabhattisūri 205 Siddharşi
206 Sürácārya 207 Jipeśvarasüri 208. Māntrikas Subsequent to 1080 Vikrama Era ...
Abhayadevasūri 212 Virācārya 213 Jinadattasūri 214 Vadidevasūri 216 Hemacandrācārya, Malayagiri and Devacandrasuri 218 Pārsvadevagasi alias Candrasūri 221 Sagaracandrasuri 221 Amaracandrasūri 222 Bālacandrasūri 224 Dharmaghoşasūri 225 Devabhadragaại 227 Pūrņa Kalasagani 228 Jinaprabhasűri 229 Jina Kusalasuri 236 Bhuvanatungasūri 238 Merutungasūri 238 Munisundara sūri 239 Subhasundaragani 241 Hemavimalasūri 241 Jinacandrasūri 242 Upadhyaya Sānticandra 243 Upādhyāya Yasovijaya 244 Pandit Viravijaya
249 Muni Mohanlalji 251. 16. Antiquity of Jain Mantras and Mantric Literature ...
Jain Stūpa and other Antiquities of Mathură 255 Popular Jain Deities 257 Vidyādevis 258 Ambika and other Māptric Deities 258 Vidyādevis and origin of Vidyadharas 260 Sūtrakệtanga Vidyā 262 Vasudevahindi Vidyās 263 Jwālāmālini and Digambara Jain Mantrikas 264 Paumacarlyam, Padmacaritra Trişasthiếalākāpuruşacaritra and Vidyās 265 Sri, Hri, Dhști, Kirti, Buddhi and Lakşmi 267 Jain Narrative Literature Vidyās and Mantras 267 Auspicious and Protective Mäntric Rites 268 Reference to Vidyas and Mantras from Scriptures 271 Acārănga and Uttarādhyayana 271 Thaņånga 271 Samavāyānga Rayapaseni and Jambudvipaprajnapti, 272 Bhagavatisütra, Jnātädharma-Kathānga, Antakrddasånga, Vipāka and Uvavāi 273 Praśnavyākaraņa 274 Vipākasūtra 274 Upangas 275 Dasavaikälika and Prabhävakas 275 Prabhā. vakas 276 Avaśyakasūtra 277 Pindaniryukti 278 Vyavahārasūtra 280 Niśithasūtra 282 Mahānjśītha 284 Bșhatkalpa 284 Ghantika Yakşa and Chantákarna 285 Payannas 287 Popu
255-294
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295-299 300-306
307-352
larity of Sri Părśvanāthas Worship 287 Antiquity of Panca Paramești Mantra 289 Mantra-Kalpas, Mantras and Vidyās
290 Conclusion 293 17. Contents of Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa) 18. The Author and the Commentator ...
Vidyānuśāsana 301. 19. Appendices (of Srī Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa) ...
Appendix 1. Adbhuta Padmvati Kalpa 307 Appendix 2. Padmavati Pujana 309 Appendix 3. Rakta Padmavati Kalpa etc. 309 Appendix 4. Sri Pārsvanāthastotra etc. 310 Appendix 5. Padmavatistotra etc. 311 Appendix 6, 313, Appendix 7, Appendix 8, 314 Appendix 9, Appendix 10, 315 Sarasvati 316 Appendix 11, 318 Appendix 12, 319 Appendix 13, 320 Appendix 14, Appendix 15, Sri Ambikā 322 Appendix 16, 326 Appendix 17 to 19, 327 Appendix 20, 328 Appendix 21, 329 Cakreśvari 330 Appendices 22 and 23, 331 Appendix 24, 332 Appendix 25, 335 Appendix 26, 336 Appendix 27, 338 Appendix 28, 338 Appendix 29, 338 Appendix 30, 339 Appendix
31, 351. 20. Parsis and Mantras ...
The Amesh-spentas or Holy Immortals 353 Yazatas 354 Cult of Mithra 356 Fravashis 356 Principal doctrines 357 Vedic connection 357 Mantras 358 Ahuna Vairya 359 Ashem
Vohu 359 Yepghe Hatām 359. 21. Conclusion.
353-360
360-361
362-365
APPENDIX A.
Månadevasūriksta-Sūrimantrastotra 362 Yoniprābhfta Mantras 363 Māņibhadramantra-Ganadharavalayamantra -Vidyas of Añga-Vidyā: 364 Angavidya-Bhūtikarma vidyā 364 Siddhavidya-Padirūvavidyā 364 Padihāra alias Svaravidyā 365 Mahäpimittavidyā 365.
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INTRODUCTION
"HE purpose and scope of an introduction in these days have become
much wider. Many a time it is not merely an introduction to the work which is being published but is also an introduction to the subject treated therein. That is not all. A history of the subject treated is expected to be given, and in giving the history the writer of an introduction is also expected to solve knotty historical as well as antiquarian problems relating to the subject. Thus an introduction is many a time more in the nature of an independent treatise than confined strictly to its original purpose of introducing the reader to the work.
It is natural, when a subject treated is abstruse or is such that about whose utility diverse conflicting opinions are held or about which doubt is raised whether it can have a place at all amongst the scientific subjects, that more is expected of the writer of an introduction. However, unless the writer can assume that the class of readers for whom the introduction is meant is sufficiently educated and cultured in the lores of the day his task becomes difficult. He may be unnecessarily occupied with the elementarily phases of the subject and may not be able to do full justice to the comparatively advanced and important phases thereof,
The writer has also to bear in mind that the class generally interested in the present subject in this country is comprised largely of members who, though very educated and cultured according to the ancient modes of instruction prevailing in India, are yet comparatively ignorant of the English language and many a time do not have even tolerable acquaintance with the modern thoughts and culture.
While writing therefore, this part of the introduction dealing with the general aspect of the subject, the writer has kept in view before him the well educated reader who is well conversant with Eastern as well as the Western thoughts; but while writing the remaining parts he has kept in view the other class also.
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The work here published is a Jain Tantra entitled "Sri Bhairava Padmavatikalpa." The subject treated therein is Mantrika worship of goddess Sri Padmavati, who is a deity attendant on Sri Parsvanàtha the 23rd of the 24 Tirthankaras worshipped by the Jains.
This brings us to the subject of 'Mantra' or magic which is common to all early religions. We shall quote here what Sir John Woodroffe says on the subject of magic and magical symbolism in his work "Shakti and Shakta."
MAGIC AND MAGICAL SYMBOLISM
"It has been practised, though condemned, in Christian Europe.... It has been well observed that there are two significant facts about occultism namely its catholicity (it is to be found in all lands and ages) and its amazing power of recuperation after it has been supposed to have been disproved as mere superstition."
INTRODUCTION
Magic was dismissed by practically all educated men as something too evidently foolish and nonsensical to deserve attention or inquiry. In recent years the position has been reversed in the West, and complaint is again made of the revival of witchcraft and occultism today. The reason of this is that modern scientific investigation has established the objectivity of leading phenomena of occultism. For instance, about a century or so ago it was still believed that a person could inflict physical injury on another by means other than physical. And this is what is to be found in that portion of the Tantra Shastras which deal with the Shatkarma. Witches confessed to having committed this crime and were punished therefor. At a later date, the witchcraft trials were held to be evidence of the superstition both of the accused and accusers. Yet psychology now allows the principle that Thought is itself a Force, and that by Thought alone, properly directed, without any known physical means. the thought of another, and hence his whole condition, can be affected. By physical means I mean direct physical means, for occultism may, and does avail, itself of physical means to stimulate and intensify the force and direction of thought. This is the meaning of the magic rituals which have been so much ridiculed. Why is black the colour of Marana Karma? Because that colour incites and maintains and emphasizes the will to kill. So Hypnotism (Vashikaranam) as an instance of the exercise of the Power of Thought makes use of gestures, rotatory instruments and so forth." "The Magician having a firm faith in his (or her) power (for faith in occultism as in religion is essential) surrounds himself with every incentive to concentrated, prolonged and (in malevolent magic), malevolent thought. A figure or other object such
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MAGIC AND MAGICAL SYMBOLISM
as part of the clothing, hair, nails and so forth of the victim represents the person. to be attacked by magic. This serves as the 'immediate object' on which the magical thought is expended. The Magician is helped by this and similar aids to a state of fixed and malignant attention which is rendered intense by action taken on the substituted object. It is not of course the injuries done to this object which are the direct cause of injury to the person attacked, but the thought of the magician of which these injuries are a materialisation. There is thus present the circumstance which a modern psychologist would demand for success in a telepathic experiment.
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In all cases the general principle is the same, namely the setting in motion and direction of powerful thought by appropriate means."-Shakti & Shakta: Chapter III, 2nd Edition, pp. 55-57.
Those who give a psychological explanation of this phenomenon "would hold that the magical symbolisms are without inherent force but work according to race and individual characteristics on the mind which does the rest. Others believe that there is an inherent power in symbolism itself, that the "symbol," is not merely such but an actual expression of, an instrument by which, certain occult laws are brought into play. In other words the power of "symbolism" derives not merely from the effect which it may have on particular minds likely to be affected by it but from itself as a law external to human thought. Some again (and Indian magicians amongst others) believe ia the presence and aid of discarnate personalities (such as the unclean Pishachas) given in the carrying out of occult operations."
"There has been, and is, a change of attitude due to an increase of psychological knowledge and scientific investigation into objective facts. Certain reconciliations have been suggested, bringing together the ancient beliefs, which sometimes exist in crude and ignorant forms. These reconciliations may be regarded as insufficiently borne out by the evidence. On the other hand, a proposed reconciliation may be accepted as one that on the whole seems to meet the claims made by the occultist on one side and the scientific psychologist on the other. But in the present state of knowledge it is no longer possible to reject both claims as evidently absurd. Men of approved scientific position have, notwithstanding the ridicule and scientific bigotry to which they have been exposed, considered the facts to be worthy of their inves tigation. And on the psychological side successive and continuous discoveries are being made which corroborate ancient beliefs in substance, though they are not always in consonance with the mode in which those beliefs were expressed. We must face the fact that (with religion) occultism is in some form or another a widely diffused belief of humanity. All however will be agreed in holding that malevolent Magic
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is a great Sin. In leaving the subject of magic I may here add that modern psychology and its data afford remarkable corroboration of some other Indian beliefs such as that Thought is a Force, and that its operation is in a field of Consciousness which is wider than that of which the mind is ordinarily aware."-Shakti & Shakta: Chapter III, 2nd Edition, pp. 57 to 59.
INTRODUCTION
THOUGHT FORCE
That Psychology nowadays considers that "Thought' itself is 'Force-a form of energy and that as stated above various physical results follow through concentrated attention and specially when it assumes emotive form, we shall substantiate by extracts from various works. In his work entitled "Thoughts are things", William Walker Atkinson, while generally showing that Thought is a form of energy quotes Prof. Ochorowicz:
"Every living being is a dynamic focus. A dynamic focus tends ever to propagate the motion that is proper to it. Propagated motion becomes transformed according to the medium it traverses. Motion tends always to propagate itself. Therefore when we see work of any kind-mechanical, electrical, nervic, or psychic-disappear without visible effect, then, of two things, one happens, either a transmission or a transformation. Where does the first end, and where does the second begin? In an identical medium there is only transmission. In a different medium there is transformation. You send an electric current through a thick wire. You have the current, but you do not perceive any other force. But cut that thick wire and connect the ends by means of a fine wire; the fine wire will grow hot; there will be a transformation of a part of the current into heat. Take a pretty strong current and interpose a wire still more resistant, or a very thin carbon rod. The carbon will emit light. A part of the current then is transformed into heat and light. This light acts in every direction around about, first visibly as light, then invisibly as heat and as electric current. Hold a magnet near it. If the magnet is weak and movable, in the form of a magnetic needle, the beam of light will cause it to deviate; if it is strong and immovable, it will in turn cause the beam of light to deviate. And all this from a distance, without contact, without special conductors. A process that is at once chemical, physical and psychical, goes on in a brain. A complex action of this kind is propagated through the gray matter, as waves are propagated in water. . . . Regarded on its physiological side, an idea is only a vibration, a vibration that is propagated, yet which does not pass out of a medium in which it can exist as such. It is propagated as far as other like vibra ions allow. It is propagated more widely if it assumes the character which
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THOUGHT FORCE
subjectively we call emotive. But it cannot go beyond without being transformed. Nevertheless, like force in general, it cannot remain in isolation, it escapes in disguise." Prof. Ochorowicz says further "Thought stays at home, as the chemical action of a battery remains in the battery; it is represented by its dynamic correlate, called in the case of the battery, a current, and in the case of the brain-I know not what; but whatever its name may be, it is the dynamic correlate of thought. I have chosen the term 'dynamic correlate.' There is something more than that; the universe is neither dead nor void. A force that is transmitted meets other forces, and if it is transformed only little by little, it usually limits itself to modifying another force at its own cost, though without suffering perceptibly thereby. This is the case particularly with forces that are persistent, concentrated, well seconded by their medium; it is the case with the physiological equilibrium, nervic force, psychic force, ideas, emotions, tendencies. These modify environing forces without themselves disappearing; they are. but imperceptibly transformed, and if the next man is of a nature exceptionally well adapted to them, they gain in inductive action."-Thoughts are Things pp. 22 to 25.
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What Prof. Ochorowicz calls dynamic correlate of thought has not been yet scientifically named and is known by various names such as 'thought force', 'dynamic thought', and 'mind power'. These terms, however, cover the static as well as dynamic phases of the thought-currents. The better terms would be 'thought-vibrations', 'thought-waves', 'mental currents', etc. "The matter of names, however, is not important, the vital fact being that every person is constantly sending forth mental currents of different degrees of power, character and quality, which often travel to great distances, and which coming in contact with the minds of persons in whom is manifested a degree of harmony with the character of the thought, there tends to induce or reproduce the original thought, emotion, feeling, desire or other mental state." Thoughts are Things pp.-29-30.
Prof. Ochorowicz says "It (thought) is propagated more widely if it assumes the character which subjectively we call emotive." There are, however, "certain fixed persistent abstract ideas which form mental images as clearly defined as the strongest feeling, desire, or emotion for instance, the result of the concentrated thought of an inventor, scientist, or artist, which produces a mental image of a remarkable
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degree of depth and clearness, from which emanate thought waves of unusual power and vitality." Thoughts are Things-p. 33.
INTRODUCTION
We may refer the reader who may be anxious to pursue the subject further to another work by the same writer entitled "Thought Force in Business and Everyday Life", which will convince him how the dynamic force acting in all matters relating to the Practical Mental Science is really "Thought' and how it developes into personal magnetism or psychic influence giving distinct personality to each. Again the whole subject has been treated by what is termed the new Psychology and has been set forth succinctly by the same writer in his work "The New Psychology." This work is principally relied on and utilised while treating the subject in the following pages, and the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to the learned author thereof. NEW THOUGHT-NEW PSYCHOLOGY
A new set of psychologists began working along the lines of a utilitarian psychology-a psychology that could be used in every day life, a psychology that was workable. They unconsciously worked along the lines of what is now called the pragmatic school of thought
"the school that holds that the truth and value of science, philosophy, or idea, consists of its value when applied and set to work." An important feature of the new psychology has been the raising of certain little-understood phases of mental activity from the region of the occult and mystical, and the placing of them among the recognised and at least partially understood phenomena of psychology." But what was formerly regarded as a part of "abnormal psychology" especially that wonderful field of mental activity outside the range of consciousness, generally known as the "sub-conscious", "subjective", or "subliminal" fields, is now freely accorded a place in the normal psychology. Not only that, but "these fields are now regarded as containing within them at least nine-tenths of our mental activities." "The New Psychology has succeeded in showing that, so far as its investigations have extended, there is no super-natural-that every
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NEW THOUGHT-NEW PSYCHOLOGY
thing is natural--that what has been considered super-natural is merely natural phenomena the nature of which has not been understood that natural law and order is ever in evidence in these newly understood phases of the mind." It has considered how these may be turned to account in the everyday lives of the people both in the regions of developing desirable qualities and in the restraining and inhibiting of the undesirable ones. The best authorities on the subject are Lewes, Von Hartmann, Hamilton, Taine, Maudsley, Kay, Carpenter, Halleck, Prof. Gates, Jastrow, Schofield and Sir Oliver Lodge. Leibnitz, we may state here, was the discoverer of the unconscious activities of the mind. The famous philosopher Schopenhauer also was in this respect a fore-runner of the psycho-analyst Freud. Prof. William James has criticised the Sex theory and medical materialism of the Freudian School and deprecated attempts at re-interpretation of religious experiences of mystics and others on the assumption of universal applicability of the Sex-theory. The New Psychology though recognizing the sub-conscious phase of the mind does not accept tl sex-theory nor the medical materialism as any explanation of mysticism or occultism. Although the New Psychology does not hold the activities of sub-conscious plane of mind, as supernatural, "it admits the existence of a superconscious region or plane of mind which has activities which may be considered supernormal and unusual. To some favoured ones of the present race there come flashes from this wonderful region of mind, and we call them genius, inspiration, intuition, etc."
IMAGINATION "The New Psychology regards the faculty of Imagination in its creative aspect with a degree of consideration foreign to the older view." It considers it a positive faculty and urges its scientific control and development. How that can be done is a matter of details.
In combination with Desire and Will, Imagination developes desirable faculties of mind and builds up character. It is thus, much useful for self-development and unfoldment of the latent powers of
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mind. This happens under the two well known laws viz, The Law of Materialization and the Law of Attraction. Under the operation of the first law, thought tends to materialize itself into objective reality; and under the operation of the second, it tends to draw to itself the particular materials conducive to its materialization and expression. The outward manifestation also, that is attainment of any object thought of, takes place under the operation of the same two laws.
INTRODUCTION
It will be noted, therefore, that the Visualisation, that is to say seeing vividly in imagination, is the first step towards attainment. The entire creative and inventive work of man is simply the result of the materialization of his imaginings. But imagination should be distinguished from its negative form "Fancy" i. e. "Day dreaming." Fancy is involuntary imagination and is without purpose or use. It is a mild form of mental intoxication tending to weaken the Will. Positive ima gination is to a purpose and results in action. In its positive phase, Imagination supplies the mould, pattern, or die for the materialization of our ideals.
Imagination means the power of the mind to form images. It is a power more or less constantly exercised by every individual. If the imagination is strong and rich, we have the poet, the musician, the painter, the sculptor, the writer, or the orator-all those who create new forms. Good poetry produces a clear and distinct image in the mind of the reader, not a vague, misty, undefined thought. The poet must therefore have a living imagination to produce vivid images in the mind of the reader. Emerson expresses this fact very lucidly thus:
"The moment our discourse rises above the ground-line of familiar facts, and is inflamed with passion or exalted by thought, it clothes itself in images. A man versing in earnest, if he watch his intellectual processes, will find that a material image, more or less luminous, arises in his mind, contemporaneous with every thought which furnishes the vestment of the thought. Hence, good writing and brilliant discourse are perpetual allegories. This imagery is spontaneous. It is the blending of experience with the present action of the mind. It is proper creation. It is the working of the original cause through the instruments he has already made. The poet, the
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IMAGINATION
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orator, bred in woods, whose senses have been nourishe:1 by the fair and appeasing changes of a country life, shall not lose their lesson altogether in the roar of cities or the broil of politics. At the call of a noble sentiment, again the woods wave, the pines murmur, the river rolls and shines, and the cattle low upon the mountains as he saw and heard them in his infancy. And with these forms, the spells of persuasion, the keys of power, are put in the orator's hands."
"And Indian Fakir can cause spectators to see lions, tigers, elephants, etc., emerge from a tent and furiously attack each other. By long practice of concentration the fakir attains such a degree of perfection in the exercise of the image-making power of the imagination that, through the operation of another law-telepathy, or the transmission of an image from the mental sphere of one person to that of others—the spectators around are made to see as an external reality, the imaginative creation of the fakir." "Ars Vivendi" by Arthur Lowell pp. 106-7, 6th Edition.
These are the instances of the concentrated imagination. When, however, a man loses control over his imagination, this very concentrated imagination produces insanity; and to the affected person, images become clearly visible as the sight of flesh and blood through creative power of the imagination. “The explanation of Magic, sorcery, Witchcraft, second sight, Apparitions and Ghosts is to be found in the Imagination." Just as a morbid idea will eventually bring ab morbid state of body, so a healthy idea will bring about a healthy state of body, and this is the principle on which cures are effected of such diseases as insanity, paralysis, ague, etc. “In fact the force of the healthy imagination is even more powerful in healing, strengthening, and ennobling man than the diseased imagination is in weakening debasing and enthralling him in the bonds of pain, misery and disease." What is required is imagination concentrated and the Will firmly fixed. We may here quote Arthur Lowell from his work "Imagination and Its Wonders” on the Magical Image at pp. 120-1, 1st Edition. "The Magical Image has played its part amongst all sorts and conditions of men and
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INTRODUCTION
women, in every age, in every country. In the most barbaric African village its properties are as well known as in the most ancient civilizations. An image of a person was made of wax, wood, clay or anything else that was suitable to the purpose and pins, nails and daggers were struck all over it with intention of communicating the wound to the victim at a distance, and torturing and killing him according to the intensity of the hatred."
In Indian Magic also many a time such images and objects are employed in Maraņa Karma. It is generally supposed that witchcraft originated in the middle ages of Europe. It is quite true that during the middle ages these practices were more openly prevalent but they were carried on in secret here and there among all nations. In a Papal Bull issued by John XXII in 1317, he complains that his own courtiers were proficient in the Black Art. They had mirrors, rings, circles, and magic images by means of which they could see whai was transpiring at a distance, and could wound and kill."
DESIRE "The strongest desire-the most rigid Will will fail to accomplish any thing for the person who has not formed a clear mental picture or the idea of exactly what he does want."
One must, therefore, pick out the sense that he really wants to accomplish or to acquire and then proceed to build up the strongest kind of desire for those things. In this way he sets into operation the law of thought-materialization and incidentally the law of attraction; and preliminary operations whereby the ideal becomes real are started in motion. Very often you may not be able to form complete mental image at the start, but then try to see the first stage or the first detail as clearly as possible. Then gradually fill in further details till the picture is complete. Then long for it, crave it, hunger and thirst for it. Desire is the fire which produces the steam of action. No matter how a man may be otherwise well qualified with powers of perception, reason, judgment, application or even will.--unless he also possesses strong desire for accomplishment the other faculties will never be brought into action. Desire is the great inciter of mental and physical activities and arouser of the Will. "Desire is at the bottom of all feelings." People have got into the habit of speaking
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DESIRE
and thinking of desire as an unworthy, low, animal, selfish quality and speak of high desires, aspirations, ambitions, zeal, ardour, love etc.
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These are nothing but desire.
Preceding every action there must be desire either conscious or unconscious. Even those people who make a virtue of Renunciation of Desire, and who claim to have "conquered desire absolutely" are acting in response to a more subtle form of Desire."
It is really carrying out the desire not to desire certain things. "Lack of desire" to do a certain thing simply means a desire to pursue an opposite course of conduct and action. Desire is manifest in every action and refraining from action, so long as one has capacity for action. There are good desires as well as bad, and one must learn to distinguish between them. The clearer the mental image of the object of the desire the greater will be the degree of the desire manifested-all other things being equal." One may feel hungry in a degree; but when he sees some particular object of taste, the hunger becomes far more intense. The threefold method, Auto-Suggestion, Visualisation and Acting-out-the Part, will develope desire. The objects of development of desire are that (1) Will may be called into play and that (2) Desire Force may be set into activity and thus begin in its 'drawing', attracting 'work.' 'Many people want things but they do not want them hard enough.' No mere wishing or sighing for a thing will do. The desire must be intense, eager, longing, craving, hungry, ravenous, such that will result in mightier effort and achievement. The ardent, keen desire will clear away the undergrowth of the path of success. It will attract to you the people and things, circumstances and environments, etc., needed for its satisfaction. Desire is the soul of the law of attraction. pp. 228-9 chapter VII, "Secret of Mental Magic" by William Walker Atkinson.
It is generally thought that Will is the great motive power of the mind. This is not correct, unless it is assumed that Will is the active phase of desire. Desire is the motive power that imparts energy to the action. The Will is more as a guiding, directing
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INTRODUCTION
force which applies the energy of the desire. Will is cold and steely - desire is glowing with heat and fire.
All the same, desire requires to be directly controlled and submitted to the judgment of reason and control of the Will.
All mental states have their preceding causes and reason."All desires emerge from sub-conscious region either in the sense of being reproduction of some emotion, or feeling previously experienced and brought into the field of consciousness as a memory, or else in the sense of being a response of the stored up impressions brought into activity in response to the appearance of some outside thing which awakens the latent forces. "In both the cases, Desire emerges from the sub-conscious mind and is a phenomenon of that region of the mind." The Desire is connected on one side with the feeling and emotional phase of mentation and on the other with the phase of volition or Will. "A desire must always have as its basis some antecedent feeling or emotion, and at the same time some antecedent experience, either racial or individual." One never desires a thing unless he has some subconscious experience of feeling; and moreover this expression presupposes some antecedent knowledge of the thing desired. Here we may state what Indian Philosophy says on the point. According to it the sequence is expressed in three words: grarfa, ggfa, gah-One knows, desires and strives for an object). 'Desires grow by the amount of attention and interest bestowed upon them; and wither and decay in proportion that the attention and interest are withheld from them.” Compare the following from Manu-Smriti II Adhyāya:
"न जातु कामः कामानामुपभोगेन शाम्यति ।
हविषा कृष्णवर्मेय भूय एवाभिवर्धते ।।" Desire is never calmed by the enjoyment of the objects of desire; it only grows stronger like fire (fed) by oblations.
TRIPLE KEY OF SUCCESS The triple key of Attainment is (1) Desire a thing most in
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CONFIDENT EXPECTATION
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tensely, (2) Earnestly and Confidently expect it, and (3) Will persistently in the direction of action to bring it about.
CONFIDENT EXPECTATION We have fully considered the first element of success viz. Insistent desire. We shall now take up the next in order viz. Confident Expectation It is a combination of the mental states known as Faith, Hope and Enthusiasm, each of which possesses the power of arousing and maintaining energy, and all inciting to action. Faith unsupported by reason and judgment degenerates into blind credulity and irrational belief, yet supported by reason and judgment it is a most positive mental quality and incites the individual to activities otherwise impossible. Unless a man believes in a thing, he cannot manifest hope and enthusiasm with regard to it and without this trio, very little can be accomplished in life. What is essential is faith and confidence in oneself and in one's activities. Such a man may recognise that others are more intelligent and more qualified than himself, yet he feels deep within himself that there is something in him that is bound to bring success, something that is sure to pull him through somehow or other. Such a man sometimes thinks that it is something outside of himself which in some way works through him. He may call it 'destiny,' 'luck' or 'my star' but the principle is always the same. It is always a faith in himself. The feeling can be well expressed by the words 'I can and I will.' 'Unfaith in one's self has a deadening, depressing, negative influence and acts like a wet blanket in the direction of smothering the fire or desire.'
There is something contagious about Faith and Unfaith. The world believes in one who believes in himself; and equally so, lacks faith in one who lacks faith in himself. Hope is the connecting link between faith and enthusiasm and repersents the essence of confident expectation. When based upon reason and judgment it is a positive mental quality the expression whereof is known as optimism. It is based upon faith and belief and it possesses animating principle of enthusiasm.
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INTRODUCTION
It not only believes a thing but acts upon the belief. It inspires as well as urges on. Tanner says: 'To believe firmly is almost tantamount in the end to accomplishment.' Maudsley says: 'Aspirations are often prophecies, the harbingers of what a man shall be in a condition to perform.' "Simple attention is a powerful psychological force, and when it is blended with hopeful expectancy, it becomes almost irresistible. Attention is the essence of will and hope is one of the most positive emotions; so in expectant-attention we have a combination of both the motive and the emotive mental forces." "Enthusiasm is seen to be but desire fanned by the breezes of faith and hope until it attains the fierce heat of fervor and zeal. It arises from the rousing of the emotive phase of the mind and the blending thereof to the imaginative faculties and the will. In enthusiasm the subconscious is linked with the conscious; emotion is joined to imagination and will. Enthusiasm balanced by reason and judgment, manifests as intense earnestness. This earnestness is an important factor in all successful undertakings and enterprises. It is contagious. It manifests as personal magnetism. All of us emit a sphere, aura, or halo, impregnated with the very essence of ourselves; sensitives know it, so do dogs and other pets. Confident Expectation is based on Faith; and Hope is the connecting link between the insistent desire and persistent will, all of which combine to contribute to attainment.
WILL It is difficult to conceive of the Will acting without desire, consciously or subconsciously exerted. Will may be considered in its three -fold aspects. First aspect of Will is Desire; second, Choice, and the third, Volition or action. In its first phase some distinguish Will from Desire; others hold that it blends with Desire so closely that it is difficult to distinguish. The second phase is according to many the principle function of the Will. It is the act of determining, deciding, making choice, etc. The average person is governed almost altogether by feelings of emotions in making choices of this kind. Only a few who have done some degree of mental control are able to subject
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WILL
15
these conflicting desires to the bright light of the reason and to determine accordingly. In its third phase the latent power of Desire is released in accordance with the decision made. There is a point of hesitation before desire springs into will-action-the point of indecision which occupies but a small fraction of a second; in fact, particularly among the lower members of the race, the action is almost automatic and without rational consideration. Some desires never pass into the stage of action, but are held back either by the power of conflicting desires, or else from want of energy in the desire itself. The new Psychology does not content itself with a mere discourse upon the nature and action of the will; it proceeds to inform one how the will may be trained and applied to the best advantage.
Prof. William James advises the practice of doing things disagreeable to oneself, things which one does not want to do as a means of strengthening the will. It increases the resisting power of the Will and serves one well in time of need.
Prof. Halleck also says: "Nothing schools the Will, and renders it ready for effort in this complex world better than accustoming it to face disagreeable things. A Will schooled in this way is always ready to respond, no matter how great the emergency. While another would be still crying over spilt milk, the possessor of such a Will has already begun to milk another cow." It is by doing that we learn to do; by overcoming that we learn to overcome. The essence of Will is action. Persistency, doggedness, and stamina are the qualities of Will. Emerson said "I know no such unquestionable badge and ensign of a sovereign mind as that of tenacity of purpose, which, through all changes of companions or parties or fortunes, changes never, bates no jot of heart or hope, but wearies out opposition and arrives at its port."
"In the persistent Will we have the manifestation of Will in action, and also in the form of the steadying, and holding in place of the whole mental force. One of the characteristics of the Positive Will is its quality of presistence--that quality which manifests in steadfastness, firmness, and constancy in carrying out and pursuing the
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INTRODUCTION
design, business, or course commenced or undertaken; perseverance in the face of obstacles and discouragements; steadfastress and determination in the face of opposition or hindrance. Stability; decision; perseverence; fixedness of purpose; tenacity--these are the terms applied to the persistent Will. Persistency combines the qualities of continuity and firmness-steadfastness and "stick-tu-it-iveness !"
Another writer says: "He who is silent is forgotten; he who does not advance falls back; he who stops is overwhelmed, distanced, crushed; he who ceases to become greater, becomes smaller; he who leaves off gives up; the stationary is the beginning of the end—it precedes death; to live is to achieve, to Will without ceasing."
MENTATIVE ENERGY AND MAGIC The reason why we are dealing with Imagination, Desire and Will at some length is that they form the Substratum of Magic, White as well as Black. Desire-Force and Will Power are but Phases of the
orce-Mentative Energy. They are really its two poles. The Will Power being the motive and the Desire Force being the emotive pole. Arthur Lovell in his book entitled "Imagination and its Wonders", says that the pith and marrow of Magic Power is Imagination and Will employed in the right way in case of White Magic and Imagination and Will employed for evil in case of Black Art or Sorcery. Certain Laws of nature such as the Sympathy and Antipathy of particular objects to each other are observed and made use of and certain methods more or less efficacious for exciting the Imagination and strengthening the Will are employed. We would refer the readers who are interested in the details of the working of Magic on an o near as well as distant, to the work "The Secret of Mental Magic" by William Walker Atkinson. All the same, we would give in substance what is stated on the subject in the said work. Mentative Influence consists in the Induction of Mental State in other persons. This Induction operates along two lines. (1) The line af Mental Suggestion which requires a physical agent; and (2) the line of Mentative Currents,
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MENTATIVE ENERGY AND MAGIC
17
which produce their effect directly on the mind of the person without the operation of the physical senses, or the physical agents necessary to reach such senses. Mental Suggestion, Persuasion, Charming, Fascination, etc., are instances of the first kind, as they create impression through a physical agent viz, the five senses and principally those of seeing and hearing. Personal Magnetism or Psychic Influence and Telementation i.e. influence at a distance are instances of the second kind, as the impressions here created are not through any physical agent or senses. In case of Hypnotism and Mesmerism both Mental Suggestions as well as Mentative Currents act and induce particular Mental States in persons towards whom the force is directed.
Now we shall show the practical working of Telementation. The Mentator-Magician usually concentrates upon the person or thing that he wishes to affect, and then, by the use of his will, he sends to that person or thing a current or currents of Desire Force or Will Power, or both. The degree of effect depends largely upon the degree of concentration of the Magician and the degree of concentration depends upon the Will. The usual plan is to use the concentrated Will to form a clear Mental image of a person or thing to be affected, and then proceed as if he was actually present. The clearer the image, the greater the degree of concentrated Will employed; and conequently the greater the degree of the projecting power of the current. If the person against whom the force is directed believes in and fears such adverse influence he renders himself negative and thereby he is put in a receptive state; and is easily influenced. If however he asserts his individuality and assumes the fearless attitude, he may defy all such attempts to influence him adversely. The underlying principle of witchcraft and Voodoo practices is the same. The wax images and pith-balls etc. used by them are only the agencies for concentration of the Will. The material objects employed absorb the magnetism of the practitioner, whether good or bad, and do affect persons coming in their contact-and the efficacy of "charms," sacred relics etc, depends upon
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INTRODUCTION
this fact; but the greatest effect is produced by the suggestions of fear to the minds of the persons sought to be affected. The key of Telementation is Mental Visualisation. "Visualisation is to Telementation what the pattern is to the maker of objects; what the plans of the Architect are to the builders; what the "mould" or "matrix" is to the casters of forms. It is skeleton around which the Materialisation of Thought Forms occurs. "As is the Mental Matrix so is the niental form and as is the mental form, so is the physical materialisation." "The Visualised mental Image is the Matrix or Mould into which the Mentative Energy is poured, and from which it takes form; and the form of the Mentative Energy, so created, is what we have called the Mental Image; and around this Mental Image, the deposit of Materialisation forms and thus does Ideal become the Real." The Mentative Energy is of Desire and Will. Then you must hold the Mental Image constantly before you regarding it as something real and not mere imagination which will proceed to surround itself with the material necessary to give it material objectivity or Materialisation.
The working principles of the New Psychology, excluding as far as possible all technical and theoretical discussion have been summarised above without going into the ultimate nature of Mind or Soul.
The keynote of the discussion is that ideas, thoughts, feelings, emotions, desires, imagination and other mental states properlypositively developed controlled and directed by Will and Ego bring about marvellous results and that it is the real mechanism of Successful occult operations also.
TELEPATHY AND CLAIRVOYANCE That the principle of Telementation which underlies the working of magical processes is not a wild speculation but a scientifically proved fact will be seen from the following discussion about Telepathy and Clairvoyance.
We may state that Telepathy' means thought-transference or communication of impressions of any kind from one mind to another
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RUDOLF TISCHNER ON TELEPATHY AND CLAIRVOYANCE
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either conscious or subconscious, independently of the normally recognized
ses. Clairvoyance means (i) the vision of normally invisible, hidden objects near at hand, (ii) the knowledge of events happening at a distance beyond the range of normal senses, and (iii) vision into the past or future. The last is sometimes called prophetic vision or prophecy.
Telepathy itself was unknown as a demonstrable fact before 1882. Rudolf Tischner in his work Telepathy and Clairvoyance says"some years ago, telepathy and clairvoyance were fully recognized facts. Philosophers like Hegel, Schelling, Schopenhauer, T. H. Fichte, Von Hartmann, and a number of prominent medical men spoke of them as accepted facts." P. 6.
Our readers will be interested to learn about the conclusions drawn by Rudolf Tischner and his psychic theory explaining Telepathy and Clairvoyance in his said work.
We give the same below. RUDOLF TISCHNER ON TELEPATHY AND CLAIRVOYANCE
Tischner has given experiments * carried on by him jointly with Dr. W. Von Wasielewski in 1912–1913 dealing with telepathy and clairvoyance, and also his theory explaining the same which is a psychical theory. He criticises the physical theory and the views of other writers. He says further that apart from instances of sub-conscious memory, the mediums give us information really gained supernormally connected with their sub-conscious minds in some way but not belonging primarily to the life of their individual minds, and which they cannot have gained through their senses. "It gives us the impression that the sub-conscious mind-to make use of a spatia! image-is not so clearly separated from its surroundings, but represents a mental field which is connected with the ‘non-individual' or super-individual mind. If we descend from our surface consciousness we gradually reach sub-conscious mental regions which cease to belong to a single individual-as when we follow a watercourse into the interior of a mountain we reach regions where we lose sight of the single
*A large number of instances of spontaneous telepathy are collected in the work *Phantasms of the Living' 2 vols. by Gurney, Myers and Podmore.
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INTRODUCTION
stream but where water pervades the ground all around us. These very deep layers of the sub-conscious mind would thus share in a non-individual or super-individual mind and so have a knowledge of things which are quite unattainable and incomprehensible to the individual mind. The difficulty of raising this knowledge to the surface consciousness would account for the scarcity of these phenomena."
“E Von Hartmann, when speaking about telepathy, in much the same way refers to the telephonic connection with the Absolute,' and he thinks of individuals as in direct mental connexion with the Absolute, xxx Again we meet E. Becher with his views on the "super-individual mind."
"A well-known neurologist, Kohnstamm (Journal f. Psychol.und Neurol., 1918, Beiheft), has lately tried to prove that in the deepest hypnosis a stratum is reached which is beyond the individuality and the personality. His subjects maintain that in the deepest hypnosis they can dive down to strata of their subconscious mind which are impersonal. The utterances of this deepest layer are of general applicability and no longer have to do with the person in question and his characteristics; it might just as well apply to anyone else, as this subconscious mind always thinks objectively; Kohnstamm maintains that he has reached the universal, pure, super-individual, absolute-subject."
Rudolf Tischner in conclusion says:"I do not pretend to explain occult phenomena by the psychic theory alone; of course genuine physical manifestations require the co-operation of some sort of energy to produce them." The facts of telepathy and clairvoyance shed new light on the old philosophical problem of how we are to conceive the inter-relation of body and mind. This field of research has a enormous influence on all departments of philosophy." It extends," says the author, “ further, to the philosophy of religion and to ethics; to both of these the question of how “spirit communes with spirit” is of no little significance."
The author also mentions: "our attempt to explain telepathy and clairvoyance by a psychical theory and to
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SUBCONSCIOUS AND SUPERCONSCIOUS
21
assume the existence of a super-individual mind have nothing to do with spiritualism. It is often supposed that persons who accept the facts of occultism, such as telepathy and clairvoyance, are to be identified with spiritualists. But it is essential to draw distinctions here. The fact that we have been led to experience telepathy and clairvoyance and to assume the existeace of a purely mental factor to explain them, which bas made the existence of a super-individual mind probable, does not prove anything about the fate of the individual soul. My investigations on telepathy and clairvoyance give me no information on the subject. The question whether the individual mind continues to exist or dissolves into the mass of the super-individual mind like a drop in the ocean, is a question which is not yet solved; the propositions of spiritualism seem to me still upproven."
W. W. Atkinson and Edward E. Beals in “Subconscious Power" offer apt remarks about the two phases of the so called "subconscious" (originally termed "unconscious"): the 'sub-conscious' and the "superconscious." They say: "The former contains only that which is placed there byheredity, by suggestion of others, by the conscious experiences of the individual or by the imperfect reflection of the superconscious faculties before the latter have unfolded their message to the conscious mentality. The higher regions-the Superconscious-on the contrary contain much which man has never before experienced consciously or sub-consciously." P. 158 "From the region of the Superconscious comes that which is not contrary to reason, but which is beyond ordinary reason. This is the source of illnmination, enlightenment, genius, inspiration. This is the region from which the true poet obtains his inspiration, the exceptional writer his gift, the real seer his vision, the veritable prophet his knowledge. Many have received messages of this kind from the region of the Superconscious, and have thought that they heard the voice of God, of angels, of spirits-but the voice came from within. In this region are to be found the sources of Intuition. Some of the superconscious faculties are higher than others, but each has its own part to play. Many a man has received inspiration from within, and has given a message which has astonished the world. Many poets, painters, writers, sculptors, have acted upon the inspiration received from their superconsciousness. Certain great poems, certain great writings, certain great pictures, certain great statues, have about them an indefinable something which appeals to us and make us feel their wonderful strength-that mysterious quality absent from the productions of ordinary mental effort." PP. 159-160
"In addition to the offices and powers of the Superconscious which we have mentioned, there is another and a most important
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INTRODUCTION
function of that phase of the mentality which may be called "the protective power." p. 167
"Some of the ancients called it "the kindly genius "; others termed it "the guardian angel"; still others have thought of it as “my spirit friend". p. 167. It is really the superconscious self.
Dr. Francis Aveling, professor of psychology in the University of London, in his book, 'Psychology, The Changing Outlook' observes: "Another highly significant discovery, the full consequences of which
systematic psychology can hardly yet be estimated, is that of the Unconscious as a dynamic reservoir of psychical energy. Perhaps it is scarcely a too far-fetched use of analogy to compare this with the discovery of radio-activity in physics." p. 143
It is however not possible to draw a hard and fast line between the two phases of the subconscious. "These activities frequently blend so into each other that it is most difficult to determine whether they belong to the higher or to the lower. There is, in fact, an indefinite intermediate area in which the higher and lower blend, mingle, and form combinations." P. 156. "Subconscious Power".
We shall conclude this discussion by quoting the views of Prof. William James in his famous work ‘The Varieties of Religious Experience' 5th edition in lecture XX entitled "Conclusions". The author puts forward his hypothesis explaining the experiences of the mystics:
"The subconscious self is nowadays a well-accredited psychological entity; and I believe that in it we have exactly the mediating term required. Apart from all religious considerations, there is actually and literally more life in our total soul than we are at any time aware of. The exploration of the transmarginal field has hardly yet been seriously undertaken, but what Mr. Myers said in 1892 in his essay on the Subliminal Consciousness * is as true as when it was first
*Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, Vol. Vii P. 305. For a full statement of Myer's view's see his posthumous work "Human Personality and its survival of bodily death."
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CONTEMPLATION COLOURS AND EMOTIONS
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written: 'Each of us is in reality an abiding psychical entity far more extensive than he knows--an individuality which can never express itself completely through any corporeal manifestation. The Self manifests through the organism; but there is always some part of the Self unmanifested; and always, as it seems, some power of organic expression in abeyance or reserve'. Much of the content of this larger background against which our conscious being stands out in relief is insignificant. Imperfect memories, silly jingles, inhibitive timidities,
dissolutive' phenomena of various sorts, as Myers calls them, enter into it for a large part. But in it many of the performances of genius seem also to have their origin; and in our study of conversion, of mystical experiences, and of prayer, we have seen how striking a part invasions from this region play in the religious life.
Let me then propose, as an hypothesis, that whatever it may be on its farther side, the more with which in religious experience we feel ourselves connected is on its hither side the subconscious continuation of our conscious life".
CONTEMPLATION COLOURS AND EMOTIONS While dealing with the subject of contemplation of the deity presiding over a particular Mantra, in the present work as also other works of the same or similar nature, the reader will find it stated that the colour of the deity as all its apparels and ornaments should be contemplated as white, golden, red, blue or black according to the temperament or power ascribed to the deity or the nature of the object sought to be achieved by the worshipper. It is also laid down that the worshipper himself should put on garments of identical colour and should have a seat and a rosary also of the same colour.
What is the object underlying all these injunctions ? It is, we should think, to give the Mental Energy of the worshipper in contemplation, the proper direction by exciting the imagination so that the appropriate mental state or emotion is induced and its colour reflected in the mental energy to bring about the desired object. The colours
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INTRODUCTION
laid down for contemplation there, the reader will find, vary from pure white to entire black as the object to be achieved is either positively good or extremely wicked. The intermediate colours represent the intermediate states of mind or emotions necessary for the achieve. ment of particular objects. The subject is treated in details in a work entitled “The Human Aura" by Swami Panchadasi. We shall cull thereout a few passages throwing light on the subject or adapt therefrom as set forth below:
HUMAN AURA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE The human aura may be described as a fine, ethereal radiation or emanation surrounding each and every living human being. *** It assumes an oval shape-a great egg-shaped nebula surrounding the body on all sides for a distance of two or three feet. "It is also called 'psychic atmosphere 'or' 'magnetic atmosphere' 'of a person. In the sense of psychic awareness generally called 'feeling,' it is apparent to a large number of persons. As a matter of fact, *** the aura really extends very much further than even the best clairvoyant vision can perceive it, and its psychic influence is perceptible at quite a distance in many cases". P. 8. In this respect it may be compared to a flame on the physical plane. The aura is a combination of colours reflecting the mental (particularly the emotional) states of the person to whom the aura belongs.
SCIENTIFIC RECOGNITION OF HUMAN AURA
"Leading authorities in England, France, and still more recently in Germany, have reported the discovery (!) of a nebulous, hazy, radioactive energy or substance around the body of human beings. In short, they now claim that every human being is radio-active, and that the auric radiation may be registered and perceived by means of a screen composed of certain fluorescent material, interposed between the eye of the observer, and the person observed". P. 13. It is termed by them the human atmosphere'. They have however failed to discover colour therein and apparently know nothing of the relation between auric colours and mental and emotional states.
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METHODS OF DEVELOPING AURA
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COMPOSITION OF AURA "The fundamental substance of which the human aura is composed is *** best known under the Sanskrit term, Prana, but which may be thought of as Vital Essence, Life Power. etc. " PP. 15-16.
PRANA-AURA The vibratory movement of the prana-aura is like the heated air arising from a hot stove or lamp or from the heated ground. Human magnetism used in magnetic healing is the same as pranaaura. This prana-aura is colourless like a diamond or clear water in an average person but it is of a faint pink tinge and warm in a person of strong vitality. It is therefore known as “Vital Force” or "Nerve Force" and its vibrations as 'vitality vibrations'.
METHODS OF DEVELOPING AURA Having regard to the fact that the aura of an individual is an important part of his personality and affects and influences other persons coming in his contact, it is necessary that he should exert to develop his aura for acquiring desirable qualities and eradicating undesirable ones. The development of aura is thus an important factor in self-development and character-building. It can be achieved in two ways (1) by holding in the mind clear pictures of ideas and feelings desired and thus directly modifying the aura and (2) by contemplating mental images of the colours corresponding to the ideas and feelings desired. The latter method "consists simply in forming as clear a mental image as possible of the color or colors desired and then projecting the vibrations into the aura by the simple effort of the Will." PP. 76-77 The mental imaging of colours may be materially aided by concentration upon physical material of the right colour. By concentrating the attention and vision upon bright red ruby or bright green emerald one may be able to form a clear mental image of the respective colour. The attention instinctively takes up an impression of the colour, and consequently vibrations, from one's surroundings; the latter therefore should be of the desired tint.
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INTRODUCTION
We shall now describe the various states of mind or emotions connected with the various colours--hues, * tints and shades shown in the aura of a person.
KEY TO THE ASTRAL COLORS Red. Red represents the physical phase of mentality.
Blue. Blue represents the religious or spiritual phase of mentality,
Yellow. Yellow represents the intellectual phase of mentality. White. White stands for * * Pure spirit.
Black. Black stands for the negative pole of Being-the very negation of Pure Spirit and opposing it in every way.” PP. 27-28.
COLOURS AND EMOTIONS The Red Group-The clear bright red shade indicates health, life-force, vigour, virility etc., and also strong pure natural emotions like friendship, love of companionship, love of sports, etc. When there are selfish or low motives behind, the shade grows darker and duller; it is muddy red shade. Red very near to crimson is the colour of Love. In its high phase it manifests as a beautiful rose tint. In case of coarse sensuality it manifests muddy crimson. In case of righteous anger it manifests vivid scarlet flashes, and uncontrolled rage deep dull red. The colour of avarice is a combination of dull dark red and dirty green.
The Yellow Group. Here also we find as many varieties of yellow indicating different kinds and grades of intellect. Orange represents pride of intellect, love of mastery and intellectual ambition. Pride-love of power has more of the red hue, but pure intellectual mastery less of it. Pure intellectual attainment and love of the same manifests a beautiful golden yellow. "Teachers of great spirituallity have this "nimbus' of golden yellow, with a border of
* Varied proportions in blending of primary colors produce 'hues'. Adding white to the hues, we obtain 'tints', while mixing black produces 'shades.'
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COLOURS AND EMOTIONS
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beautiful blue tint, strongly in evidence." p. 34. This golden shade of yellow is comparatively rare; a sickly lemon colour is the indication of intellectual power in the great run of persons.
The Blue Group. A rich clear violet tint represents the highest form of spirituality, while the grosser phases of spirituality are indicated by darker and duller hues and shades until dark indigo verging on bluish black is reached. High morality is indicated by beautiful shades of blue. Purple denotes a love of form and ceremony and solemn grandeur in religion.
The Green Group-A restful green indicates love of nature and outdoor life, repose, quiet, etc.; a clear beautiful lighter green indicates sympathy, charity and altruistic emotion; another shade of green intellectual tolerance; a duller shade of green indicates tact and diplomacy; and a still duller shade insincerity, shiftiness, untruth, etc.; an ugly slate coloured green indicates low tricky deceit; and an ugly muddy green indicates jealousy, envious malice, etc.
The Brown Group: It represents desire for gain and accumulation-ranging from the clear brown of industrious accumulation to the murky dull brown of miserliness, greed and avarice.
The Gray Group: "Gray represents fear, depression, lack of courage, negativity, etc."
Black:It stands for "hatred, malice, revenge, and "devilishness" generally. It shades the brighter colors into their lower aspects." It stands for hate, gloom, grief, depression, pessimism, etc.
White:“White is the astral colour of Pure Spirit, as we have seen, and its presence raises the degree of the other colours, and renders them clearer. In fact, the perception of the highest degree of Being known to the most advanced occultist is manifested to the highest adepts and masters in the form of “The great White Light,” which transcends any light ever witnessed by the sight of man on either physical or astral plane for it belongs to a plane higher than either, and is absolute, rather than a relative white. The presence of white among the astral colors of the human aura, betokens a high degree of
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spiritual attainment and unfoldment, and when seen permeating the entire aura it is one of the Signs of the Master- the token of Adeptship." p. 38.
INTRODUCTION
CL
The effect of colour on the moral and mental welfare of people is being recognized in western countries in as much as brighter colours are provided in schools, hospitals and other public buildings. It is said of a judge, in an American journal that he insisted upon his court-room being painted in light cheerful tints instead of old gloomy shades. He said that brightness led to right thinking and darkness to crooked thinking. He further said: White, cream, light yellow and orange are the colors which are the sanest. I might add light green, for that is the predominant color in Nature; black brown and deep red are incentives to crime-a man in anger sees red." This knowledge about colours is being utilized in therapeutics or mental healing also. We may note here that deep concentrated thought or a strong desire or feeling sets up strong vibrations in the person's aura and produces thought-forms of varying shapes but of the colour of his aura. This thought-form is practically "a bit of the detached aura of a person charged with a degree of his prana, and energized with a degree of his life energy. So, in a limited sense, it really is a projected portion of his personality." p. 54.
Just as an individual has his peculiar aura, so also places of abode or congregations have also their collective aura. The persistence of though-forms gives various public and private places their characteristic atmosphere.
ATMARAKṢĀ AND PROTECTIVE AURA
Readers acquainted with Tantras will remember that as a part of the worship prescribed in Tantras and as the first and most important part thereof various forms of Atmarakṣà are prescribed to be effected through recitation of Mantras. The object seems to be to protect the worshipper from adverse psychic influences i. e. by excluding the undesirable psychic influences while allowing an inlet for such as are desired by the worshipper.
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ATMARAKSA AND PROTECTIVE AURA
We give below from the above mentioned book 'The Human Aura' the portion relating to 'The Protective Aura' the underlying principle of which is the same as of Atmarakṣā in the Tantras. The Great Auric Circle of Protection is a shelter to the soul, mind and body, against outside psychic influences, directed, consciously or unconsciously against the individual.
"This Auric Circle is formed by making the mental image, accompanied by the demand of will, of the aura being surrounded by a great band of pure clear white light."
"It is a perfect and absolute protection, and the knowledge of its protective power should be sufficient to drive fear from the heart of all who have dreaded psychic influence, "malicious animal magnetism" (so-called), or anything else of the kind, by whatever name known. It is also a protection against psychic vampirism, or draining of magnetic strength."
"The Auric Circle, however, will admit any outside impressions that you really desire to come to you, while shutting out the others." "The White Light is the radiation of Spirit, which is higher than ordinary mind, emotion or body and is Master of All. And its power, even though we can but imperfectly represent it even mentally, is such that before its energy and in its presence in the aura, all lower vibrations are neutralized and disintegrated." pp. 83-85. The above remarks about human aura and its connection with various emotional states as also about protective aura are endorsed by William Walker Atkinson in his book entitled' Mental Magic.'
29
MANTRA-HOW IT ACTS
VIEWS OF WESTERN WRITERS
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We have dealt with Thought-Force which is at the bottom of all mental processes as is now considered by modern thinkers. The Mantras, however, are not mere thoughts. They are made of sounds, which generally have meaning as words of a language usually have;

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INTRODUCTION
but they some times are only symbolic apparently having no meaning as in case of Mantrabījas but signifying something only by convention. A question naturally arises whether it is merely the Thought Force that brings about the result in a Mantra or whether the words and syllables comprising it also have, apart from the Thought Force, any effect and contribute towards the desired result. If the words or syllables of a Mantra had no particular effect, any words or syllablesor for the matter of that Thought Force alone-should be able to bring about the desired result. Before discussing the matter further we would state what some of the Western writers think about it and also what Tantra Shastra has to say in the matter.
Arthur Lowell in his book "Imagination and its Wonders" says as follows about Spells, Runes, and Mantras: "Spells, Runes, Incantations, Conjurations, Charms, and Mantras are based upon the latent potency of sound when violently set in motion by the living Will and vivid Imagination. There being no hard and fast line between the various forces of Nature, one mode of motion is convertible into another mode. Under certain conditions, a form can be "heard" and a sound can be "seen"; for sound, like everything else in Nature, is a mode of motion of the subtle ether. Cosmic Ether itself is primarily divided into five modes of vibration by the action of the Great Breath. The mode with which the sound is connected is the Akas'a, which is said by the ancient Sanskrit authors to be the first differentiation of Primordial Matter.
"The influence of sound must therefore be exceedingly powerful in bringing about magical results, for it is directly connected with the most subtle of the five kinds of Cosmic Ether. 'Almost all charms,' said an old writer, are impotent without words, because words are the speech of the writer and the imag; of the thing sig rified or spoken of. Therefore, whatever wonderful effect is intended, let the same be performed with the addition of words significative of the will or desire of the operator; for words are a kind of occult vehicle of the image conceived or begotten, and sent out of the body by the soul, therefore all the forcible power of the spirit ought to be breathed out with vehemency and an arduous and intent desire." p. 115
The author, however, says: "The real efficacy of Living Word is not in the actual sound or its pronunciation, but in the Imagination and Will of the individual who invokes. I do not want it to be meant that I attribute no potency at all to the words as combination of sounds,
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such, for instance, as the sound 'Om.' Giving due allowance for the effect of the sound in itself, every thinker must come to the conclusion that in the Divine Power asleep within man lies the real force. Otherwise, how can identical results be produced by uttering different names." p. 119.
"When the imagination is not vivid and the will is not powerful, then no amount of invocation of the Ineffable Name will produce the desired effect." p. 120
TANTRIK VIEW We shall now cite what Tantra Shāstra has to say in the matter:
“Now, to-day many people, through ignorance of Shāstric principles, think that Mantra is the name of the words by which one expresses what one has to say to the supreme Divinity. It therefore follows that I may submit my prayer to Him in whatever language I choose. What, then, is the necessity of my using the ever-ancient words of the Shāstra ? In reply to this we would at the very start point out that the definition which has been given to Mantra by those who hold this view is contrary to Shăstric principles, and consequently incorrect. In defining Mantra, Shāstra says: “That is called Mantra,' from Manana or meditation of which arises the Universal special knowledge (that is, special knowledge embracing the whole universe) or realization of the Monistic truth that the substance of the Brahmānda2 is not different from that of the Brahman. Man of Mantra comes from Manana which leads to Trāna, or liberation from the bondage of Sangsāra) (tra of Mantra comes from trāna), and which calls forth (āmantrana) Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and produces Moksha. 4
1. Derived from the combination of man and tra. 2. Universe or "egg of Brahma". 3. The Sangsära is the coming and going, the cycle of birth, action, death and rebirth; the world in which all live who have not by knowledge of the self (ātmajnāna) and the extinction of the will to separate life attained liberation or moksha. 4. Literally, Svarūpa, of the Devatā. Svarūpa literally means "having its own form", as opposed to the existence or appearance of the same thing in another form.
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"It is sheer ignorance to suppose that Mantra is mere language. Bijamantras, in particular, cannot possibly be language, for they convey no meaning according to the human use of language. They are the Devata Herself, who is the highest spiritual object for us. They are neither language, nor words, nor letters, nor anything which you and I read or write but the Devatā who is eternally possessed of Siddhi, and is the Dhvani, which makes all letters sound, and exists in all that we may say or hear." Principles of Tantra Part II by Arthur Avalon. TANTRIK THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Sir John Woodroffe, writing under the pseudonym Arthur Avalon, giving the Tantrik theory as to how Mantra acts, says in his 'Studies in Mantra Shastra,' part IV, page 17 as follows:
"Artha is either subtle (Sükhsma) or gross (Sthala). The latter is the outer physical object which speech denotes and the former is the Vritti (modification) of the mind which corresponds to the gross Artha: for as an object is perceived the mind. forms itself into a Vritti which is the exact mental counterpart of the object perceived. The mind has thus two aspects: in one of which it is the perceiver (Grähaka) and in the other the perceived (Grähya) in the shape of the mental impression. That aspect of the mind which cognises is called Shabda or Nama (name) and that aspect in which it is its own object or cognised is called Artha or Rüpa (Form), Shabda being associated with all mental operations. In the evolution of the universe the undifferentiated Shabda divides itself into subtle Shabda and subtle Artha which then evolve into gross Shabda and gross Artha. For the cosmic Mind projects its subtle Artha on to the sensual plane which is then a physical gross Artha named in spoken speech. Thus the subtle shabda associated with cognition is called Matrika and the subtle Artha is the mental impression; whilst the gross Shabda are the uttered letters (Varna) denoting the gross outer physical object (Sthula artha)".
He says further in part III of the same work at page 8: "Mantra is thus a pure thought-form; a pure Vritti or modification of the Antahkarana which is Devatā."
5. Literally, Svarfpa, of the Devatā. Svarûpa literally means "having its own form", as opposed to the existence or appearance of the same thing in another form. 6. Varna or Akshara.
7. Unlettered sound.
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"Through Mantra the mind is divinely transformed. Contemplating, filled by, and identified with, Divinity in Mantra form, which is a Sthüla (gross) aspect of Devi, it passes into Her subtle (Sükshma) Light form (Jyotirmayl Devi) which is the Consciousness beyond the world of Mayik-forms."
"So the mind which thinks of the Divinity which it worships (Ishtadevata) is at length, through continued devotion, transformed into the likeness of that Devată. By allowing the Devată thus to occupy the mind for long it becomes as pure as the Devata. This is a fundamental principle of Tantrik Sadhana or religious practice". The serpent Power p. 88.
He says in section IV entitled "Mantra" in 'The Serpent Power' at p. 83 (Third Revised Edition):
"There is perhaps no subject in the Indian Shästra which is less understood than Mantra. The subject is so important a part of the Tantra-Shastra that its other title is Mantra-Shastra. Commonly Orientalists and others describe Mantra as "prayer", "formula of worship", "mystic syllables", and so forth. Mantra science may be well founded or not, but even in the latter case it is not the absurdity which some suppose it to be. Those who think so might except Mantras which are prayers, and the meaning of which they understand, for with prayer they are familiar. But such appreciation itself shows a lack of understanding. There is nothing necessarily holy or prayerful about a Mantra. Mantra is a power (Mantrashakti) which lends itself impartially to any use. A man may be injured or killed by Mantra."
By Mantra in the initiation called Vedhadiksha there is such a transference of power from the Guru to the disciple that the latter swoons under the impulse of it; by Mantra the Home fire may and, according to ideal conditions, should be lighted, by Mantra man is saved, and so forth. Mantra, in short, is a power (Shakti), power in the form of Sound.
Mantra is the manifested Shabdabrahman."
According to Tantrashästra, Sound (Shabda) is Dhwanyätmaka and Varnātmaka. First is caused by striking two things together and is meaningless; the second is Anahata i, e. produced in the Heart Lotus. It is composed of letters, words and sentences and has a meaning. It is said to be eternal-not as audible sounds, but as that
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INTRODUCTION
which finds auditory expression in audible sounds. The Tantrikas follow Mīmāmsā doctrine of Shabda.
"In all cases it is the creative thought which ensouls the uttered sound in the form of Mantra.
Mantra and Devată are one and the same. A Mantra-Devatā is Shabda and Artha, the former being the name, and the latter the Devatā whose name it is. By practice (Japa) with the Mantra the presence of the Devatā is invoked. Japa or repetition of Mantra is compared to the action of a man shaking a sleeper to wake him up. The two lips are Shiva and Shakti. Their movement is the coition (Maithuna) of the two. Shabda which issues therefrom is in the nature of Seed or Bindu. The Devatā thus produced is, as it were, the "son" of the Sadhaka. It is not the Supreme Devatā (for it is actionless) who appears, but in all cases an emanation produced by the Sādhaka for his benefit only. In the case of worshippers of Shiva a Boyshiva (Bāla Shiva) appears, who is then made strong by the nurture which the Sadhaka gives to his creation. The occultist will understand all such symbolism to mean that the Devatā is a form of the consciousness of the Sadhaka which the latter arouses and strengthens, and gains good thereby. It is his consciousness which becomes the boy - Shiva, and when strengthened the full grown Divine power itself. All Mantras are in the body as forms of consciousness (Vijnana-rūpa). When the Mantra is fully practised it enlivens the Samskāra, and the Artha appears to the mind."
The essence of all this is concentrate and vitalise thought and will power. But for such a purpose a method is necessary-namely, language and determined varieties of practice according to the end sought. These, Mantravidyā (which explains what Mantra is) also enjoins.
We give below some further extracts relating to Mantra from Sir John Woodroffe's another work 'Shakti and Shakta':
"Telepathy is the transference of thought from a distance without the use of the ordinary sepse organs. So in initiation the thought of a true Guru may pass to his disciple all his powers." "What, however, is not understood in the West is the particular Thought Science which is Mantra Vidyā, or its basis. Much of the 'New Thought' lacks this philosopical basis which is supplied by Mantra Vidyā, resting itself on the Vedāntik doctrine." p. 237. "Mantra is thus a Shakti (Mantra Shakti) which lends itself impartially to any use. Mantra Vidya is thus that form of Sadhanā by which union is had with the Mother Shakti in the Mantra form (Mantramayi) in Her Sthūla and Sūkshma aspects respectively. The Sādhaka passes from the first to the second (which is Light-Jyoti). This Sādhana works through the letters, as other
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forms of Sadhana work through from in the shape of the Yantra,* Ghata or Pratima."
"A Mantra is not the same thing as prayer or self-dedication (AtmaDivedana). Prayer is conveyed in what words the Sådhaka chooses. Any set of words or letters is not a Mantra. Only that Mantra in which the Devată has revealed His or Her particular aspects can reveal that aspect, and is therefore the Mantra of that one of His or Her particular aspects. The relations of the letters (Varna), whether vowel or consonants, Näda and Bindu, in a Mantra indicate the appearance of Devată in different forms. Certain Vibhūti or aspects of the Devată are inherent in certain Varpa but perfect Shakti does not appear in any but a whole Mantra."
Mantras are manifestations of Kulakundalini.
When, therefore, a Mantra is realised: when there is what is called in the Shāstra Mantra-Chaitanya, what happens is the union of the consciousness of the Sadhaka with that Consciousness which manifests in the form of the Mantra. It is this union which makes the Mantra "work". "It is the union of Sound and idea through a knowledge of the Mantra and its meaning. The recitation of a Mantra without such knowledge is practically fruitless; except that devotion though ignorant is not wholly void of fruit.
WRITER'S VIEW According to Sir John Woodroffe Indian magicians amongst others believe in the presence and aid of discarnate personalities (such as the unclean pishachas) given in the carrying out of occult operations. This is true, but it is not always the unclean pishachas who aid in the carrying out of occult operations. Every Mantra is presided over, sacred to, or identified with a particular deity. It is that deity generally and sometimes a member of his or her retinue acting under his or her order who carries out the occult operations. Whenever a Mantrasiddha, who has been definitely promised aid by the deity of a particular Mantra, on the completion of the prescribed
*यन्त्रं मन्त्रमयं प्रोक्त मन्त्रात्मा देवतव हि
देहात्मनोर्यथा भेदो यन्त्रदेवतयोस्तथा ।। -कोलावलीतन्त्रम् ॥ Some prayers bowever are called Mantras, as for instance the famous Gayatri Mantra. This is because great importance is attached to the particular words comprised in it. The words in the exact form and order are believed to possess particular merit and efficacy. These are not therefore simply prayers but also Mantras.
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INTRODUCTION
Puraşcarana i. e. primary worship, desires to accomplish a particular thing and invokes the deity through the recital of his or her Mantra, the deity appears immediately and is seen by the Mantrasiddha and his desire is accomplished. Both the words of the particular Mantra and the Thought Force of the Mantrasiddha jointly perform the invocation* of the Deity and its consequent appearance. The achievement of the object desired by the Siddha-adept is by the Deity. So far as the first stage is concerned the words of the Mantra are the body of the deity and have the Deity as the soul. This soul remains only an image until vivified by the Thought Force of the Siddha bringing about the connection with the Deity. It is like an electrical installation connecting any place with the electric plant at the powerhouse and the Thought Force of the Siddha is the switch which turns on or off the current producing light. It cannot be, however, said that the words of the Mantra or for the matter of that, Thought Force of the Siddha directly brings about the material result.*
The Jains also believe in the existence of Vidyājșmbhakas (विद्याज़ंभक) and Mantrajxmbhakas (मंत्रज़ंभक) whoaid men through Mantras and Vidyas. See Bhagavati Sātra VIII Sataka 14th. Uddes'a, p. 654-Aga.
*Cf. "By practice with the Mantra the Devata is invoked. This means that the mind itself is Devatā when unified with Devatā. This is attained through repetition of the Mantra (Japa)." *Syadvăda-Ratnākara Pariccheda IV sūtra 7 pp. 632 ff:"येहि सत्यसंकल्पास्त एव मन्त्रानकर्तुं शक्नुवन्ति । xx x निरतिशयप्रभावसमन्वितहिं तैरमुष्मान्मन्त्रादस्येदं फलं भवत्वित्यनुसन्धाय यदा यया कयाचिद्भाषया प्रयुज्यन्ते मन्त्रास्तदा तेषां तत्प्रभावादेव तथाविधार्थक्रियाकरणसामर्थ्य सम्भाव्यते। दृश्यते हि साम्प्रतमपि महाप्रभावमन्त्रवादिन आज्ञाप्रदानानिविधीकरणादिकम्। स चेत्थम्भूतः प्रभावो नेतरपुरुषाणां समस्ति । तेन न सर्वेषां मन्त्रकर्तृत्वम् । न च वाच्यं शब्दशक्तित एव निर्विषीकरणादिफलनिष्पत्तिर्न पुनः पुरुषशक्तेरिति । मुद्रामण्डलादीनां नैष्फल्येनाकरणप्रसङ्गात् । पुरुषाणां विध्यभिसन्धिविशेषानपेक्षित्वप्रसाच्च । पुरुषशक्तितः फलनिष्पत्तौ तु नायं दोषः । तेन हि यथा समयः कृतस्तत्र तथा समयानुपालनात्फलं निष्पद्यते। यां वा देवतामधिश्रित्य मन्त्रः प्रणीतः सैव तत्समभिव्यापारसामर्थ्यात्समयमनुपालयन्तमनुगृह्णाति । राजादिवत् । xxx किंच समयाभिशेनोच्चारितमेककमप्यक्षरं विषापहारादि कार्य कुर्वदुपलभ्यते नेतरैः ॥"
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modaya Samiti edition. It is not, however, shown whether this group of deities acts independently or under the orders of a superior deity. According to a Jain tradition contained in S'ri Haribhadrasuri's commentary on Sri Avas'yaka Sutra the said deities gave Prajnapti and other secret Mahavidyās to Nārada and Paṭavidya to the famous Acharya S'ri Vajraswami. One must presume that at their instance the Mantra deity helps the person favoured by them.
The question naturally arises then, what is the importance of the Thought-Force and the intrinsic force of the sounds or syllables comprising the Mantra. To answer this question, one has to bear in mind the fact that Mantravada is principally Adhidaivika-vāda i. e. subject dealing with deities although ultimately it may merge into Adhyatmika-Vada i. e. subject dealing with soul. In Adhidaivika-vāda, Devata is the central figure through whose grace the Sadhaka obtains everything desired by him. The Mantravāda however goes further and says that even Mokṣa is obtained through Mantra. But here it really merges into Adhyātmika-vãda. A man whose soul-force is fully developed, a true Adhyātmavādi-a Yogi does not require the aid of any deity for performance of any occult operation. He is able to do so through his own power of meditation or what is usually called the soul-force. His thought-force is really his soul-force. In case of such persons, it can be said that without the aid of any particular Mantra, and without the aid of any deity whatsoever, through his own Soul Force, he can achieve anything he desires. In terms of NewPsychology he will be considered a person functioning on the highest plane.
As regards the Sadhakas who have not risen so high, aid of deity is necessary and the occult operations of such Sadhakas are carried out with such aid.
Seeing how the Thought Force-Soul force ultimately is able to
*Some attain these powers through worship (Upasana) of Patron Deity (Ishta-devată). A higher state of development dispenses with all outer agents. See footnote 3, p. 97, The Serpent Power.
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INTRODUCTION
achieve everything, its importance is always to be kept in view. The Thought-Force of an ordinary Sādhaka combined with the soundforce of the Mantra attracts the deity of the Mantra towards him and makes him carry out his desires. Beyond requisitioning the presence and the aid of the deity of the Mantra, the thought-force of such a Sadhaka is not potent enough to achieve much. When his thought force is not working in unison with the sound-force of Mantra, it becomes powerless even to invoke the deity of the Mantra. The writer had the opportunity of consulting some persons versed in occult operations who informed him that if they forgot even one word or substituted through inadvertance another word in the original Mantra, the operation would fail or would have only nominal effect. It is suggested that the nominal effect noted to take place was really the result of the Māntrika's thought force. His Thought Force, however, not being assisted by the Sound-force of the Mantra (through the omission or substitution of a word of the Mantra) failed to invoke the presence of the Mantra deity and the operation therefore failed.
The usual plan in Mantravāda is to rouse the latent and dormant powers of the Sadhaka. He has to perform Sadhanā with the Mantra given to him by his preceptor and when that is done his powers are roused to a certain extent. To favour sometimes pupils incapable of performing sādhană a preceptor prescribes a Pathasiddha Mantra (a Mantra whose inherent force is realized immediately on reading it) where no Sādhanā needs be performed. In this case it is
e sound-force alone which invokes the presence of the Mantra deity. There are such cases noted in Jain scriptures. See the following verse in Vis'eşāvas'yaka Bhāsya of s'ri Jinabhadragani and its commentary given there:
विज्जाहर रायगिहे उप्पयपडणं च हीणदोसेण ।
कहणोसरणागमणं पयाणुसारिस्स दाणं च ।।८६४॥ पृ. ४११ It is narrated there that a Vidyādhara flying through the aid of a Vidyā came down and was unable to fly up straight again, he
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having forgotten a syllable of the particular Mantra or Vidyā.* That shows the importance attached to the sound-force in Mantravāda. It cannot be said that the Vidyādhara using Vidyās daily must not have developed his Thought-Force but the Vidyā-deity would not act merely through his thought--force unaided by the sound force of the particular Vidyā.
We have stated above that when invoked the Mantra-deity appears before the Mantrasiddha and carries out the desired occult operation. This is so in most of the occult operations. There are some minor objects, such as cures of diseases etc., achieved through certain Mantras; and the writer has been informed that in such cases a deity does not appear before the operator, but carries out the desired objects unseen. It may be so or it may be the Thought force of the operator working with the Sound-force of the Mantra that effects the cure by its operation on the subconscious mind of the patient as is considered to be the case by modern psychologists in all faithcures. It is difficult to give more detailed information on the subject, where the general tendency is to conceal and to keep to oneself what one knows, where people would not even acknowledge or admit their having acquaintance with Mantra. This is so because in many places people look down upon the Māntrikas owing to the evil practices of some of their class. This class is gradually becoming extinct and the tradition therefore is not handed down unbroken. It is hoped however that when the main features of occult operations performed through Mantras as here set forth become well known others would publish their experiences.
KUNDALINI SHAKTI
YOGA According to Sivasamhitā there are four kinds of Yoga: Man.
*
* Cf, 197 Etat: Farat aviat ar fhearaiyant a llarg i
स वाग्वञो यजमान हिनस्ति यथेद्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।।
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trayoga, Hathayoga, Layayoga and Rajyoga.* Yoga through the rousing of Kundalini Shakti is Laya yoga. It means the piercing by the kundalini shakti of the six bodily centres or chakras (also called Padmas-lotuses).
INTRODUCTION
Yoga means that process by which the human spirit (Jīvātmā) is brought into near and constant communion with, or is merged in, the Divine Spirit (Paramātmā) according as the nature of the human spirit is held to be separate from (Dvaita, Vis'iṣtadvaita) or one with (Advaita) the Divine spirit. As Shaktas are Advaitavadins, according to them, identity of the two (Jivatmā and Paramātmā) is realised by the Yogi.
According to the Jains, it is the process by which the Selfthe human spirit realises its own real pure nature (svabhāva).‡ Although the Jains believe in multiplicity of souls-all intrinsically pure and equally powerful as far as Yoga of each soul individually is concerned, they might be considered to be practically Advaitavadins. As each individual soul in its ultimate nature (Siddha-Muktasvarupa) is of the nature of the Perfect soul (Paramātma svarupa) and nothing less, in their case the soul realizing and the soul realized are one and the same. The latter is called Paramātmā because it is the highest and purest aspect (Paramasvarūpa) of the Jivatmā.
In short, in their case the Jivatmā is joined to its own Paramātma-svarūpa that is to say, it realizes its own pure nature devoid of all karmas.
* मन्त्रयोगो हठश्चैव लययोगस्तृतीयकः ।
चतुर्थी राजयोगः स्यात्स द्विधाभाव वर्जितः ॥ शिवसंहिता, पटल ५ . १४
+ चतुवर्गेऽणी मोक्षो योगस्तस्य च कारणम् । ज्ञानश्रद्वानचारित्ररूपं रत्नत्रयं च सः ॥ योगप्रकाशः १,१५ अध्यात्मं भावना ध्यानं समता वृत्तिसंक्षयः ।
मोक्षेण योजनाद्योग एष श्रेष्ठो यथोत्तरम् ॥ योगबिंदु श्लो. ३१
x परमात्मसमापत्तिर्जीवात्मनि हि युज्यते ।
अभेदेन तथा ध्यानादन्तरङ्गस्वशक्तितः ॥ द्वात्रिंशत् द्वात्रिंशिका, योगावतार द्वा. लो. १६
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KUNDALINI SHABDA BRAHMAN The relevance of this discussion will be seen from the fact that all Mantras are supposed to be manifestations of Kula Kundalini which is a name for the Shabda Brahman or Saguna-brahman in individual bodies.* Kundalini believed to be in the Mūlādhāra Chakra (or basal bodily centre) is "the cause of sweet, indistinct, and murmuring Dhvani, which is compared to the humming of a black bee. Thence Shabda originates and being first Parā gradually manifests upwards as Pashyantī, Madhyamā, and Vaikhari,(the spoken speech). The substance of all Mantras, being manifestation of Kundalini, is consciousness (chit) manifesting as letters and words. The letters of the alphabet arę called Akşara because they are the diagrammatic representationYantra of the Aksara or Imperishable Brahman. This is realized, however, when the Sadhaka's shakti generated by Sadhanā is united with Mantra Shakti. The different aspects of Devatās as presiding deities of Mantras are the manifestation of the gross (sthūla) form of Kundalini, * who is however extremely subtle. "Mantra and Devatā are thus one and particular forms of Brahman as Shiva-Shakti."
NĀDA-BINDU-KALĀ सच्चिदानंद विभवात् सकलात् परमेश्वरात् । आसीच्छक्तिस्ततौ नादो नादाद् बिन्दसमुद्भवः ।।
-TCCIA , : 975, 1. JES
From the Sakala Parameshvara who is producedfrom Saccidānanda issued Shakti; from Shakti came Nāda; and from Nāda issued Bindu, the latter being perfected out of Ardhachandra issuing out of Nāda becoming slightly operative towards "speakable" (Vāchya). The Bindu
*चैतन्यं सर्वभूतानां शब्दब्रह्मति मे मतिः ॥१३॥
तत्प्राप्य कुण्डलीरूपं प्राणिनां देहमध्यगम् । वर्णात्मनाऽऽविर्भवति गद्यपद्यादिभेदतः ॥१४॥
- E , : 927: g. 9 * Sri Bappabhatti Sūri is the first Jain Acharya to mention Kundalini. See Appendix 12 V. 1
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INTRODUCTION
becomes threefold as the Kāmakalā, * or creative will. This triangle of Divine Desire Kāmakalā is personified as the Great Devi Tripurasundari.
SIX CHAKRAS "Out of the six bodily chakras five lower ones are situated within the spine in the cord-a compound of grey and white brain matter. Mūlādhāra is the lowest in filum termanale in a position midway in the perineum between the root of the genitals and the anus. Proceeding upwards controlling genitals is the Svādhishthāna, controlling the navel region-abdomen Manipūra, controlling the heart Anabata and controlling the throat-larynx Visuddha. Between the eyebrows is Ajnă the sixth Chakra. Above them all in the cerebrum is Sahasrära a thousand-petalled lotus, the highest centre of manifestation of Consciousness in the body.
These six Chakras or lotuses have respectively four, six, ten, twelve, sixteen and two petals which are configurations made by the position of Yoga-Nadis at any particular centre. These Nādis are not those known to the Vaidyas of medical shästras but subtle channels (Vivara) along which the Pranik currents flow. The letters of the Sanskrit alphabet numbering 50 (excluding second La) are in the petals of the six Chakras which also together number 50. (Ha) and (Kșa) are in the two petals of Ajna Chakra, the Sixteen fats (vowels) in the sixteen petals of Visuddha, the 12 consonants (Ka)to 3 (Tha) in the twelve petals of Anāhata,the 10 consonants & (Da) to $ (Fa) in the ten petals of Manipūra, the six consonants (Ba) to (La) in the six petals of Svādhisthāna, and the remaining four consonants a (Va)to # (Sa) in the four petals of Mülādhāra. "The six Chakras have their correspondences in physical body in the following nerve plexuses commencing from the lowest the Muladhāra:--The Sacrococcygeal plexus, the Sacral plexus, the Solar plexus (which forms the great junction of the right and left sympathetic chains Idã and Pingalā) with the cerebro-spinal axis. Connected with this is the Lumbar plexus. Then follows the Cardiac plexus (Anāhata) Laryngeal plexus and lastly the Ajnā or cerebellum identified by some with the pineal Gland, the centre of the third or spiritual eye) with its two lobes and above this the Manas Chakra or sensorium with its six lobes, the Soma chakra or middle Cerebrum and lastly the Sahasrāra or upper Cerebrum. To some extent these localizations are yet tentative. The six Chakras themselves are vital centres of consciousness really within the spinal column in the white and grey matter there." Shakti and Shakta p. 410
* नादबिन्दुकलाभ्यासाज्ज्योतिरुत्पद्यते पुनः । तत्प्राप्ती च मनुष्याणां जायते परमं पदम् ।। श्री चिन्तामणिकल्पः ।।
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We do not propose to enter into a detailed description of these six Chakras here. We would refer the readers interested therein to the scholarly work "The Serpent Power" by Arthur Avalon. Dr. Rele's 'The Mysterious Kundalini and C. W. Leadbeater's The Chakras' may also be referred to. Dr. Rale's identification of Kundalini, however, with 'Right Vagus Nerve' cannot be approved of.
Some books mention Lalană Manas and Soma Chakras and others many more. But the chief ones are the said six Chakras. Sixteen Adharas are also mentioned as suitable points for concentration. In the spine the central Nadi is termed Sushumnā Nādi. On each side, respectively called Ida and Pingala, are the left and right sympathetic cords. Crossing the central column from one side to the other they make with the Sushumnă a threefold knot called Triveni which is the spot in the Medulla where the sympathetic cords join together and whence they take their origin.
SHATCHAKRA-VEDHA
Sir John Woodroffe in his work 'Shakti and Shakta' has aptly described how Kundalini pierces the six centres-Chakras. We would therefore quote the relevant portion abridging the same.
"Shakti when manifestisg divides itself into two polar aspects Static and dynamic-which implies that you cannot have it in a dynamic form without at the same time having it in a static form, much like the poles of a magnet. In any given sphere of activity of force you must have according to the cosmic principle a static back-ground Shakti at rest or 'coiled' as the Tantras say. In the living body there. is, therefore, the same polarisation.***Shakti is never exhausted, that is, emptied into any of its forms. In the body Kundali is the static centre and round this centre the whole of the bodily forces move. The body may, therefore, be compared to a magnet with two poles. The Muladhara, in so far as it is the seat of Kundali Shakti, a comparitively gross form of Chit (being Chit-Shakti and Maya-Shakti) is the static pole in relation to the rest of the body which is dynamic".
This knot is called Rudragranthi. There are other two: Brahmagranthi in the Muladhara Chakra and Visaugranthi in the Anahata Chakra. The force of Maya Shakti is greater at this knots.
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INTRODUCTION
"By Prånāyāma and other Yogik processes this static Shakti-Kundalini becomes dynamic.* When completely dynamic, that is, when Kundali unites with Shiva in the Sahasrāra the polarisation of the body gives way. The two poles are united in one and there is the state of consciousness called Samadhi (Ecstasy). This unity of two poles is in relation to consciousness only. The body actually exists continuing its organic life; but man's consciousness of his body and all other objects is withdrawn because the mind has ceased to function as far as his consciousness is concerned, Then the question arises how is the body sustained. The Tantriks say it is sustained by Amộta-the nectar which flows from the union of Kundalini shakti with Shiva in the Sahasrära. This nectar is an ejection of power generated by their union." Sir John Woodroffe cites the opinion of his friend Professor Pramathanātha Mukhopadhyåva: "the potential Kundali Shakti becomes kinetic shakti; and yet since shakii-even as given in the Müla centre is an infinitude, it is not depleted; the potential store always remaining unexhausted. In this case the dynamic equivalent is a partial conversion of one mode of energy into another. If, however, the coiled power at the Müla became absolutely uncoiled there would result the dissolution of the three bodies gross, subtle and causal, and consequently Videha-Mukti, because the static background in relation to a particular form of existence would, according to this hypothesis, have wholly given way."
"As the Shakti ascends the body becomes cold. It is not due to the depletion of the static power at the Mūlädhāra but to the concentration or convergence of the dynamic power-the Präna which is ordinarily diffused over the whole body. In Yoga it is converged along the axis (Merudanda), the static equivalent of Kundalini-shakti enduring in both cases. Some part of the already available dynamic Prāna is made to act at the base of the axis in a suitable manner by which means the basal centre or Mūlādhåra becomes, as it were, over saturated and re-acts on the whole diffused dynamic power (or Prāna) of the body by withdrawing it from the tissues and converging it along the line of the axis. In this way the diffused dynamic equivalent becomes the converged dynamic equivalent along the axis. What, according to this view, ascends, is not the whole Shakti but an eject like condensed lightning, which at length reaches the Parama-Shivasthāna. There the individual consciousness is merged into the supreme consciousness, the limited consciousness transcending directly intuits the Reality. When Kundali Shakti sleeps in the Müladhāra, man is awake to the world. When she awakes and unites with the supreme static Consciousness he is asleep to the world and is one with the Light of all things."
*Kundaliñi is roused by Tapas i. e, Prånāyāma and Mantra. 'Hüm Hamsah' is the actual Mantra used for the purpose. Generally speaking Panchadashi Mantra is regarded as the most appropriate. 'Hamsah' is the Ajapa Gayatri Mantra.
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"The main principle appears to be that when 'wakened' Kundali Shakti either Herself or in Her eject ceases to be a static power sustaining the word consciousness, and when once set in movement is drawn to that other static centre in the thousand-petalled Lotus (Sahasrāra) which is Herself in union with the Shiva consciousness or the consciousness of ecstasy beyond the world of forms."
It may be noted here that Gayatri Sādhanā is in the highest Chakra viz. Ajnā only and that followers of Samayāchāra do not worship in any of the Chakras below Anāhata.
SAMADHI Practitioners of this Yoga claim that it is higher than any other and that the Samādhi (ecstasy) attained thereby is more perfect. The Samādhi of Laya-Yoga however is said to be Savikalpa samādhi. and that of Rāja-Yoga Nirvikalpa samādhi.
"In Mantrayoga worship and devotion predominate. In the Samādhi of Mantrayoga the state of 'Mahābhāva' is attained marked by immobility and speechlessness." In Hathayoga, contemplation is on the Light:
भ्रुवोर्मध्ये मन ऊर्ध्वं यत्तेजः प्रणवात्मकम् । olesalanyt asema taare | Gheranda Samhitā, VIUpades'a v. 17
In Hathayoga the Samadhi called 'Mahābodha' is attained; respiration ceases and the yogi is without sign of animation. In Layayoga the Samadhi called 'Mahālaya' is attained; there is no outer consciousness but the yogi is immersed in the Ocean of Bliss. In Rājayoga 'Nirvikalpa Samādhi' is attained; there is Nirvikalpa Chit-Svarūpa-bhāva and ultimately Liberation. There are four states of detachment (Vairāgya) from the world corresponding to the four yogas. Mantra, Hatha, Laya and Rāja; they are Mridu (Weak or intermittent) Madhyama, (Middling), Adhimātra (of high degree) and Para (Highest).
MUKTI Not only the Mantrayogi but also the Hathayogi avails himself of this kundalīyoga for Liberation. Then remains the Rājayoga or Jnānayoga which yoga is termed Dhyānayoga.
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There are thus two main lines of yoga, namely Dhyana or Bhāvanāyoga and kundali yoga. The Jains favour Rājayoga-Bhāvanāyoga*. In Dhyana yoga Samadhi is attained through detachment from the world and meditation leading to cessation of all the mental activities or the uprising of pure Consciousness unhindered by the limitations of the mind. This meditation is sometimes aided by auxiliary processes of Mantra or Hatha yoga (other than the rousing of Kundali shakti). The degree to which this unveiling of consciousness is effected depends upon the meditative powers (Jnana Shakti) of the Sadhaka, and the extent of his detachment from the world. In it there is no rousing and union of kundalî shakti with the accompanying bliss and acquisition of special powers (Siddhi). In both Yogas bodily consciousness is lost but there being no union of the central bodily power with the supreme consciousness the Dhyanayogi does not possess the particular kind of enjoyment (Bhukti). There is a difference between the Bhukti of the Divyayogi and the Vīrasādhaka, the latter has only a reflection of the bliss on the physical plane-a welling up of the true Bliss through the deadening coverings and trammels of matter. The so called Mukti of the Vira-sādhaka is only figurative. It is the Divya-yogi who has both Bhukti and Mukti.
TANTRAS
WESTERN WRITER'S IGNORANCE.
There has been much mis-understanding created by Western writers about Tantra. To them it was a jumble of black magic and erotic mysticism cemented together by a ritual which is meaningless mummery. Sir John Woodroffe says:
INTRODUCTION
"A large number of these writers who talk in this strain have never had a Tantra in their hands and such Orientalists as have read some portions of these
* प्राणायामक्रमप्रौढिरत्र रूढयैव दर्शिता ।
क्षपकस्य यतः म्यारोहे भावो हि कारणम् ||५९|| गुणस्थानक्रमारोहः
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TANTRAS: NECESSITY FOR PRACTICAL METHOD IN RELIGION
scriptures have not generally understood them, otherwise they would not have found them to be so "meaningless". They may be bad or they may be good but they have a meaning. Men are not such fools as to believe in what is meaningless. To them perhaps it had no meaning. For otherwise they would not define Mantra as "mystical words "'; Mudra as "mystical gestures" and Yantra as "mystical diagrams".
It does not imply knowledge. Those who speak of 'mummery', ‘gibberish', and 'superstition' betray both their incapacity and ignorance.
NECESSITY FOR PRACTICAL METHOD IN RELIGION
Religion is a practical activity; just as the body requires exercise training and gymnastic, so does the mind. This may be of a merely intellectual or spiritual kind. The means employed are called Sādhanā which comes from the root “Sādh" to exert. Sadhana is that which leads to Siddhi.' Some practical ritualistic Method is necessary for realisation if religion is not to be barren of result. Tantra Shāstra gives that practical method. The mere statement of religious truths is not sufficient. What is necessary is a practical method of realisation. Further ordinary people cannot apprehend nor can they derive satisfaction from mere metaphysical concepts. For them ritualistic methods of self realisation are useful. These people are impressed if one can appeal to the personal principle. Be it Devi or Deva, Shiva or Vishnu, or Buddha or Jina, or for the matter of that any other deity. Further these people require guidance of a preceptor. It is not enough for them to meditate and to uplift their mind in homage to the supreme deity. They need a definite representation of their object of worship as is detailed in the Dhyāna of the Devatās or in their image or Yantra. A ritualistic and pic religion can hold their attention.
RITUAL AND ITS UTILITY “Ritual is an art, the art of religion. Art is the outward material expression of ideas intellectually held and emotionally felt. Ritual art is concerned with the expression of those ideas and feeling which are specifically called religious. It is a mode by which religious truth is presented, and made intelligible in material forms and symbols to the mind. It appeals to all natures passionately sensible of that
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Beauty in which, to some, God most manifests Himself. But it is more than this. For it is the means by which the mind is transformed and purified. In particular according to Indian principles it is the instrument whereby the consciousness of the worshipper (Sadhaka) is shaped in actual fact into forms of experience which embody the truths which Scripture teaches."
It is true that in course of time all these tendencies become accentuated and superstition, mechanical devotion, lifeless formalisin and other abuses result. Buddhism in its origin has been a reaction against excessive and barren ritualism yet it could not rest with a mere statement of truths and the eight-fold path. Something practical was needed. The Mahāyāna was produced. Nāgārjuna in the second century A. D. is said to have promulgated ideas to be found in the Tantras. Theistic notions as also Yoga came to be adopted in the Buddhist systems. The worship of the Shaktis spread. The Buddhist Mantrayāna and Vajrayāna found acceptance. Thus Tantrik Buddhism became fully developed.
ATTITUDE OF ENGLISH-EDUCATED INDIANS
Tantra Shastra governs the household and temple ritual of every Hindu. Sir John Woodroffe asks how is it that such a Shāstra has fallen into complete neglect and disrepute amongst the larg body of the English-educated community. And he answers:--- "In the first place the English-educated people of this country were formerly almost exclusively, and later to a considerable extent, under the entire sway of their English educators. In fact they were in a sense their creation. They were, and some of them still are, the Mānasaputra of the English. For them what was English and Western was the mode. Hindu religion, philosophy and art were only, it was supposed, for the so-called "uneducated" women and peasants and for native Pandits who, though learned in their futile way, had not received the illuminating advantages of a western training.” “Their mind has been so dominated and moulded to a Western manner of thinking (philosophical, religious, artistic, social and political) that they have scarcely any greater capacity to appreciate their own cultural inheri
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TANTRAS: IMPARTIAL CRITICISM OF TANTRAS
ance than their teachers, be that capacity in any particular case more or less. Some of them care nothing for their Shastra. Others do not understand it. x x x The Indian who has lost his Indian soul must regain it if he would retain that independence in his thought and in the ordering of his life which is the mark of a man, that is of one who seeks Svarājyasiddhi.
"Again the cause of this ignorance is the fact that the Tantra Shastra is a Sadhana Shastra, the greater part of which becomes intelligible only by Sadhanā.
93
49
IMPARTIAL CRITICISM OF TANTRAS
An impartial criticism of Tantras may be summed up in the few words that together with what has value, it contains some practices which are not approved and which have led to abuse (for these see post). TANTRAS THEIR CONTENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS
We have mentioned in the beginning that "Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa ", the work here published, is a Tantra. We would, therefore, consider the characteristics and contents of Tantras. We do not propose to enter into a learned discussion about the etymology of the word Tantra'. Readers interested in such discussion will find it in the beginning of chapter II of Shakti and Shakta ' by Sir John Woodroffe. According to the said chapter Tantra means a particular kind of religious scripture. Kamika Agama there quoted gives the following definition:
तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्त्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् । त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ॥
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"It is called Tantra because it promulgates great knowledge concerning Tattva and Mantra and because it saves.
""
CONTENTS
common belief and
"The Tantra deals with all matters of interest from the doctrine of the origin of the world to the laws which govern kings and societies which they have been divinely appointed to rule, medicine and science generally. The Tantra is not

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only the basis of popular Hindu practice, on which account it is known as the Sādhanā-Sāstra, but is the repository of esoteric belief and practices, particularly those relating to Yoga and mantra-tattva. Indeed, as regards the last which is one of the most peculiar, and at the same time, most profound aspects of Hindu teaching, the Tantra is to such an extent the acknowledged repository of this spiritual science that its other name is the mantra-shāstra. Its claims to such a name could not have been made good were there not some ground for its assertion that it is a yoga-shāstra for the Kāli age. As to which Tantras, however, are authoritative there appear to be differences of opinion, such differences being due either to a mistaken Sectarianism, or possibly to real divergences as regards doctrinal thought and historical descent.
"Thus the Tantras are concerned not only with worship, spiritual doctrines and popular Hindu practices Religious, Māntrik or Yaugik, but also Science, Law, Medicine and a variety of other subjects. Indian Chemistry and Medicine in particular are largely indebted to the Tantras."
"In short, it is considered an error to regard the Tantra as the petty śāstra of any religious sect only, and a still greater mistake to limit its operation to that which is but one only of its particular methods or divisions of worshippers." Principles of Tantra, Introduction, P. XXIX.
These Tantras are otherwise known as Agamas. It is a common misconception that Tantra is the name of the Scripture of the Shāktas or worshippers of Shakti. This is not so. There are Tantras of other sects also. Tantras of Shaivas, Vaishnavas, Sauras and Gānapatyas.
Sir John Woodroffe says that even the Jains and Bauddhas have their own Tantras ( See Shakti and Shakta p. 78 ). Similarly in Shakti-Sangama-Tantra, Kālī-Khanda, 8th Patala (See p. 92 vv. 12 to 14 ) Jains also are classed among the Tāntrikas.
SCHOOLS AND DIVISIONS There are various divisions and sub-divisions of these Agamas such as Vaidic and Non-Vaidic. Then again the Agamas are divided according as the Ishtadevatā worshipped is: Shakti, Shiva, Vishnu,
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Sürya or Ganapati. The large extent of Tantra literature can be seen from the fact that “the Sammohana Tantra (Chapter VI) mentions 64 Tantras, 327 Upatantras as also Yāmalas, Dāmaras, Samhitās and other Scriptures of the Shākta class; 32 Tantras, 125 Upatantras, as also Yamalas, Dāmaras, Purānas and other Scriptures of the Shaiva class; 75 Tantras, 205 Upatantras, as also Yāmalas, Dāmaras, Samhitās of the Vaishnava class; numerous tantras and other scriptures of the Gānapatya and Saura classes, and a number of Purānas, Upapurānas and other variously named Scriptures of the Bauddha class. It then (chapter VII) mentions over 500 Tantras and nearly the same amount of Upatantras, of some 22 Agamas, Chināgamas (see chapter IV post) Bauddhāgama, Jaina, Pashupata, Kāpālika, Pancharātra, Bhairava and others. There is thus a vast mass of Tantras in the Agamas belonging to differing schools of doctrine and practice. ” The characteristices of Agama are summed up as follows:
सृष्टिश्च प्रलयश्चैव देवतानां तथार्चनम् । साधनं चैव सर्वेषां पुरश्चरणमेवच ।। षट्कर्मसाधनं चैव ध्यानयोगश्चतुर्विधः । सप्तभिर्लक्षण युक्तमागमं तद्विदुर्बुधाः ॥ -वाराहीतंत्रे आगमलक्षणम्
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS In all these, however, it will be found on an examination that there are the same general ideas, characteristics and practices. There is emphasis on devotion (Bhakti), provision for all castes and both sexes. “Instances of common practices are for example Mantra, Bija, Yantra, Mudrā, Nyāsa, Bhūtashuddhi, Kundalīyoga construction and consecretion of temples and images (Kriyā) religious and social observations (Charyā) such as Ahnika, Varnāshramadharma, Utsava; and practical magic (māyāyoga)." "To my mind, one of the most distinctive marks of the Tantrik system is its profound application of psychology to worship, and the manner in which it not only teaches through symbols, but actualy creates, through its ritual methods, the states of mind which are set forth as the end of its teachings.” P. XVI Introduction to Shri Chakra Sambhāra.
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INTRODUCTION
Where there is Mantra, Yantra, Nyása, Diksha, Guru, and the like there is Tantra Shāstra. In fact one of the names of the latter is Mantra Shastra. With these similarities there are certain variations of doctrine and practice between the different schools."
There is only one important matter in which there is difference worth noting i. e. division of the practices of the worshippers into Dakshināchara and Vāmāchara. The secret Sadhanā of some of the latter has acquired such notoriety that to some 'Tantra' connotes this particular worship and its abuses and nothing else. One cannot, however, identify Tantra with the particular practices of a section of worshippers only.
SIX AMNĂYAS AND FOUR SAMPRADĀYAS Tantras mention six Amnāyas which are in order of their origin revealed by the six faces of Shiva looking East (Pūrvāmnāya), South (Dakshināmnāya), West (Paschimāmnāya), North (Uttarāmnāya) the Upper (Ordhvāmnāya) and the Lower and concealed (Adhāmnaya) According to the Devyāgama (1) The Eastern face revealed Shri Bhuvaneshvarī, Tripurā, Lalitā, Padma, Shūlini, Sarasvati, Tvaritā, Nityā, Vajraprastárini, Annapūrnā, Mahālakshmi, Lakshmi, Vāgvādini with all their rites and Mantras. (2) The Southern face revealed Prasādasadashiva, Dakshināmūrti, Batuka, Manjughosha, Bhairava, Mritasanjīvanīvidya and Mrityunjaya with all their rites and Mantras. (3) The Western face revealed Vasudeva, Vishnu, Rāmchandra, Ganesha, Agni, Sūrya, Vidhu (Chandra), Dikpālas, Hanumān and others their rites and Mantras. (4) The Northern face revealed Devis Dakshinakālikā, Mahākālī, Guhyakālī, Smashānakālikā, Bhadrakālī, Ekajatā ugratārā, Tārini, Kātyāyani, Chhinnamastā, Nīlasarasvati, Durgā, Jayadurga, Navadurgā, Vashuli, Dhūmavati, Vishalākshī, Gauri, Bagalāmukhi, Pratyangirā, Mātangi Mahishamardini, their rites and Mantras. (5) The upper face revealed Tripurasundarī, Tripureshi, Bhairavī, Tripurabhairavi, Smashānabhairavi, Bhuvaneshībhairavī, Shatkutabhairavi, Annapūrnābhairavī, Panchami, Shodashī, Mālini, Balabalā with
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their rites and Mantras. (6) The lower face revealed Devatāsthāna, Asana, Yantra, Māla, Naivedya, Balidāna, Sādhanā, Purashcharana and Mantrasiddhi. It is called Ishānāmnāya.
According to Niruttara Tantra the Pūrvämnāya and Dakshinamnāya rites are for Pashu sādhakas. The Pashchimãmnāya is for Pashu and Vira, the Uttrarāmnāya is for Vīra and Divya and the Urddhvämna ya is for Divya. There are four Sampradayas amongst the Shāktas viz. Kerala, Kashmira Gauda and Vilāsa. In each of these there are Paddhatis such as Shuddha, Gupta and Ugra. There is variance of Devatās and rituals. The connection between these Sampradayas and Amnāyas is shown in the following verse.
ऊर्धाम्नायः केरल: स्यात् काश्मीरः पश्चिमो भवेत् ॥ ६॥ विलासाख्यो वैष्णवाख्यो दक्षिगानाय एव च। पूर्वे चैतन्य आख्यातस्तूत्तरे गौड एव च ॥ ६८ ॥
--
Free aget: 928: . vf THREE KRĀNTAS There are again three Krāntas-geographical divisions of India viz, Vishnu Krānta, Ratha Kranta and As'va Krānta being respectively the North-Eastern, North-Western and Southern divisions of India each of which has a separate set of 64 Tantras.
THREE MATAS There are three main Matas viz, Kādi, Hādi and Kahādi. The first has Kāli as the Devatā, the second Tripurasundari and the third Tárā i. e. Nilasarasvati, Gauda Sampradaya considers Kādi the highest Mata, whilst Kāshmira and Kerala worship Tripurā and Tārā. Out of 56 Deshas 18 follow Gauda extending from Nepala to Kalinga and 19 follow Kerala extending from Vindhyāchala to the Southern sea and the remaining Deshas Kāshmira Sampradāya.
SEVEN TĀNTRIK ĀCHĀRAS According to Kulārnava Tantra there are seven Achāras viz, Veda, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Dakshina, Vāma, Siddhānta and Kaula. The first four are considered Pashvāchara. In the fifth and the sixth, a gra
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dual approach is made to the seventh considered the highest. The main divisions of Achāra however are Vedāchāra, Dakshinachāra and Vāmāchāra. Vedachāra is not Vaidikāchāra. The latter is outside the sevenfold Tāntrik division of Achāra. Tāntrik Vedāchāra is Tāntrik Upāsană with Vaidik rites and Mantras with Agni as Devatā. Vedächāra is the lowest and Kaulāchāsa as stated above the highest. According to Vishvasāra Tantra in Vedachāra the Sadhaka should not worship the Deya at night and should be celibate except in the period following the courses of the wife, and should not eat meat and fish on the Parva days. Vaishnavāchára is much stricter. Complete celibacy and Ahimsā (non-killing) are to be observed. It is marked by worship of Vishnu Tapascharyā and contemplation of the Supreme. Shaivāchāra is Vedāchāra with the difference that Ahimsā is to be observed and meditation is on Shiva. Dakshināchāra is so called because of Rishi Dakshināmūrti who is said to have practised it. This is preparatory for the Vira and Divya Bhāvas. Meditation is on the supreme Ishvarī after taking Vijayā (Bhāng). Japa of Mantra is done at night. Siddhi is attained by using a rosary of human bone (Mahashangkha) at certain places including a Shaktipitha. Dakshināchāra does not mean "right hand worship" but is the Achara favourable for the worship of Dakshinā Kālikā who is a Devī of the Uttara Amnāya. Approach is here made to Vira rituals. The Sādhaka here starts on Nivrittimārga, worships not merely an aspect of Deva but Deva-whole i.e. Adyāshakti in whom are united the three Shaktis of Brahman viz, Iccha, Kriya and Jnāna. Vāmāchāra also does not mean "Left-hand worship". It is so called because it is adverse to the popular Pravrittimārga or because Vāmā (woman) enters into the Achāra. What is commenced here is completed in Siddhāntāchara and Kaulāchāra. Kaulas are aptly described in the following verse.
8178: hi afe: dai: azi acurat war: 1
नामरूपधराः कौला विचरन्ति महीतले ॥ "At heart a Shākta, outwardly a Shaiva, in gatherings a Vaishnavain thus many a guise the Kaulas wander on earth."
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AUTIQUITY OF TANTRAS On the antiquity of the Tantra literature, Sir John Woodroffe, in his introduction to Principles of Tantra, says as follows:
"Whatever be the date of the first appearance of specifically Tantric doctrinès, which, owing to the progressive nature of its developments, may never be ascertained, it will be probably found, upon a profounder inquiry into the subject than has been hitherto made, that the antiquity of the Tantra has been much underestimed. This however, does not mean that all the current Tantras, or all their contents, are of great antiquity. Comparatively modern Tantras may, however, be based on older versions now lost.
"The following remarks of Professor Hayman Wilson have a bearing on this point, both on the general question of the antiquity of the Hindu śăstras and that of the Tantra, if, as is commonly done, the date of the latter is to be fixed with reference to the alleged date of the Paurānic period, which, according to general European views precedes them. 'It is', therefore, 'as idle as it is irrational to dispute the antiquity or authenticity of the great portion of the contents of the Purānas in the face of abundant positive and circumstantial evidence of the prevalence of the doctrines which they teach, the currency of the legends which they narrate, and the integrity of the institutions which they describe at least three centuries before the Christian Era. But the origin and development of these doctrines, traditions and institutions were not the work of a day, and the testimony which establishes their existence three centuries before Christianity carries it back to a much more remote antiquity-to an antiquity that is probably not surpassed by any of the prevailing fictions, institutions, or beliefs of the ancient world".
Sir John Woodroffe has also given expression to a generally accepted view according to which "the Agamas did not come into being earlier than a date later than the first and chief Upanishads and perhaps at the close of what is generally called the Aupnishadik age." The Purānas are replete with Tantrik rituals and Sadhanā. Agni Purāna contains worship of several Tāntrik deities and shows that the Tāntrik worship had made considerable progress and was developed to an extent. Shiva Purana V Samhitä, L Adhyāya V. 28-29 actually names the ten Mahāvidyās as emanating from Durgā. The general opinion therefore above cited gives a correct indication of the age of Tantras.
VALUE OF TANTRA Speaking about the intrinsic value of Tantra Shāstra Sir John
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Woodroffe at page 41 of "Shakti and Shakta" 2nd edition, says:
"Thus it (Tantra Shastra) is the storehouse of Indian occultism. This occult side of the Tantras is of scientific importance, the more particularly having regard to the present revived interest in occultist study in the West. "New thought" as it is called and kindred movements are a form of Mantravidyä. Vashikaranam is hypnotism, fascination. There is "Spiritualism" and "Powers" in the Tantras and so forth. For myself, however, the philosophical and religious aspect of the Scripture is more important still. The Main question for the generality of men is not Power (Siddhi). Indeed the study of occultism and its practice has its dangers; and the pursuit of these powers is considered an obstacle to the attainment of that true Siddhi which is the end of every Shastra."
Sir John Woodroffe says further that although worship of Shakti is in some of its essential features very ancient, it is yet, in its essentials, and in its developed form as known to-day, harmonious with some of the teachings of modern philosophy and science. It may be noted here that a large number of publications particularly in America and England on 'New Thought', 'Will Power', 'Vitalism', 'Creative Thought', 'Right Thought', 'Self Unfoldment', 'Secret of Achievement', 'Mental Therapeutics' and the like, embody principles which are essentially those of some forms of Shakti Sadhană both higher and lower. There are also books of disguised magic as how to control others (Vashikarana) by making them buy what they do not want, how to secure 'affection' and so forth which are in certain. respects on the same level as Shabara Tantra a lower class of book on Mantras, Shabara meaning Chandala the lowest of men.
MAIN OBJECTIONS AGAINST TANTRAS
There are two main objections on which it is said that the Tantras are un Vaidic. The first objection is 'Panchatattva' worship or worship with meat, wine, fish, grain and woman. The second is that they contain magic. Taking up the second objection first Sir John Woodroffe says:
"Magic is not peculiar to the Tantras. It is to be found in plenty in the Atharvaveda. In fact the definition of Abhichåra is 'the Karma described in the Tantras and Atharvaveda'.
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"It has been the subject of debate whether the Tantrik Panchatattva ritual with wine and so forth is a product of Buddhism, and whether it is opposed to Vaidik Dharma. Some have supposed that these rites originally came from yellow Asia, penetrated into India where they received its impress, and again made their way to the north to encounter earlier original forms. I have elsewhere put forward some facts which suggest that these rites may be a continuance, though in another form, of ancient Vaidik usage in which Soma, Meat, Fish and Purodasha formed a part. Though there are some Maithuna rites in the Vedas it is possible that the Shākta ritual in this respect has its origin in Chināchåra. Possibly the whole ritual comes therefrom."
We would here refer to 17th Patala (chapter) of Rudrayāmala where Atharvaveda is very much praised so much so that it is stated that Sāmaveda arose from Atharvaveda; Yajurveda from Samaveda and Rgveda from Yajurveda the very opposite of the order in which Vedas are usually taken to have originated. It is stated that all Vidyās and all deities live in Atharvaveda. It is also stated that the principle underlying Atharvaveda transcends all Bhāvās i.e. Pashu, Vira and Divya. Kundali is stated to be the supreme deity of Atharvaveda. It is said to be:
para att af at afgerauft 119911
सर्वमन्त्रात्मका विद्या वेदविद्याप्रकाशिनी ॥१२॥ It also contains the account of Vas'iştha's visit to Mahāchina and his worshipping according to Chinachāra. Similar account is to be found in the first Patala of Brahmayāmala. For the same purpose may be perused the quotation from Shakti Sangama Tantra contained in the Principles of Tantra by Sir John woodroffe. There it is stated "Go to Mahāchina (Tibet) and the country of Bauddhas and always follow Atharvaveda.”
बौद्धदेशेऽथर्ववेदे महाचीने सदा व्रज ॥
PANCHATATTVA. We shall now deal with the Panchatattva. " It is not uncommonly thought that Vāmāchara is that Achāra into which Vāmā or woman enters." This is only partially true that is to say true of the Sādhakas who worship with Shakti according to Vāmāchāra rites;
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but amongst that class also there are Brahmachārīs. They are Aghoras and Pashupatas ( though they do take wine and eat meat). Some Vāmāchāris never cease to be chaste (Brahmachārī), such as Oghada Sadhus, worshippers of Batuka Bhairava, Kanthādhāri and followers of the Nāthas, such as Gorakshanātha, Sitanātha and Matsyendranātha. In Nīlakrama there is no Maithuna. Others comprised in the Vámāchāra class are Kāpālikas, Kālamukhas, Bhāndikeras, Digambaras, Kaulas, and followers of Chināchāra. There are different practices in some sects. Amongst the Kālamukhas the Kālavīras are said to be worshipping Kumaris upto the age of 9 and Kāmamohanas worshipping with adult Shaktis. Some advanced members of Vámāchāri class refrain from wine and meat also. They may be Brahmakaulas. Further according to the account given in Mahānirvāna Tantra of the Bhairavichakra and Tattvachakra " the Panchatattvas are either real (Pratyaksha, “Idealising” -statements to the contrary are, when not due to ignorance, false ), substitutional ( Anukalapa) and esoteric (Divyatattva). As regards the second, even a vegetarian would not object to“ meat " which is in fact ginger, nor the abstainner to "wine " which is cocoanut water in a bellmetal vessel. As for the Esoteric Tattvas they are not material articles or practices, but the symbols for Yogic processes ". It must be said, however, that in some cases there are more unrestrained practices and the accounts given in the Bhairavi and Tattva Chakras may be compared with them.
It would appear that this kind of worship is restricted to one section of the Vāmāchāris, namely Vira class where also it is further restricted to the Svabhāvavīras and Mantrasiddhavīras, the other Viras as well as the Pashu and Divya classes are prohibited from practising the particular kind of worship. There are still further restrictions that a Sádhaka should perform this sort of worship with his own wife (Svakīyāshakti) and it is only when a Sadhaka has no wife or she is incompetent (Anadhikārini) that he may take some other Shakti but it is for the purpose of ritual worship only, and that also only during actual worship. Sir John Woodroffe says that the particular
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ritual practice is generally of historical interest only. Such practice, to-day is under the influence of the time being transformed. The only thing which can be said about this practice, says Sir John woodroffe, is that it is not a modern invention but seems to be a continuation of ancient Vaidik usage. The argument advanced by the Tantrikas in favour of Panchatattva Sadhakas is:- "It is irrational to accept one portion of Shastra as valuable and reject another as worthless. The principle underlying the Sadhana is thus enunciated.
यरेव पतनं द्रव्यैः सिद्धिस्तैरेव चोदिता।
श्रीकौलदर्शने चैव भैरवेण महात्मना । —कुलार्णवे पंचमोल्लासे श्लो० ४८ The Great Bhairava has ordained in the Kaula doctrine that Siddhi (spiritual advancement ) must be achieved by means of those very things which are the causes of man's downfall.
The Tantras themselves contain injunctions against unrestrained indulgence in flesh, wine and woman. Kulārnava Tantra says:
मद्यपानेन मनुजेो यदि सिद्धिं लभेत वै। मद्यपानरता: सर्वे सिद्धिं गच्छन्तु पामराः ।। मांसभक्षणमात्रेण यदि पुण्यमतिर्भवेत् । लोके मांसाशिन: सर्वे पुण्यभाजो भवन्त्विह ॥ स्त्रीसम्भोगेन देवेशि यदि माक्षं व्रजन्ति वै ।
सर्वेऽपि जन्तवो लोके मुक्ताः स्युः स्त्रीनिषेवणात् ।। If a man can obtain Liberation by drinking, all given to drinking would attain Liberation. If one can be meritorious merely by eating meat, all meat-eaters would be meritorious. If they attain salvation by sexual enjoyment with women, all the creatures would be emancipated by sexual intercourse with women.
Sir John Woodroffe says that the usage of wine, meat and so forth is itself very old. "If the subject be studied it will, I think, be found that in this matter those worshippers are the continuators of very ancient practices which had their counterparts in the earlier Vaidikāchåra, but were subsequently abandoned, possibly under the influence of Jainism and Buddhism. In Vaidikāchăra Soma used to be taken instead
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of wine. "Meat” was offered in Māngsåshtaka Shraddha; fish in the Ashtakashraddha and Pretashräddha and Maithuna as a recognised rite will be found in the Vámadevya Vrata and Mahāvrata of universally recognised Vaidik texts. Possibly however this element of Maithuna may be foreign and imported by Chināchåra" Shakti and Shakta (Ch. V).
JAINA AND BAUDDHA INFLUENCE Sir John Woodroffe says (Shakti and Shakta' p. 60)" that the present day general prohibition against the use of wine, and the generally prevalent avoidance, or limitation of an animal diet, are due to the influence of Jainism and Buddhism which arose after, and in opposition to Vaidik usage. Their influence is most marked of course in Vaishnavism but has not been without effect elsewhere."
NO PANCHATATTVA WORSHIP IN JAIN TANTRA
It is clear, therefore, that it is due to Jain influence that indulgence in flesh, wine etc, is generally controlled. Accordingly there cannot be and there is not anything in Jain Tantra to favour indirectly any element of Panchatattva worship. Jain Mantrikas have always emphasized on the absolute necessity of Brahmacharya-celibacy in all the Sadhanās. All thoughts of sex are considered the greatest impediments to attainment of success in Mantras by the Jains. Fasting is also recommended for attaining success in the various Anusthānas. Where complete fast is not possible restriction is placed on even the ordinary vegetarian food which Jains always take and meals are recommended to be cut down to single meal per day during such practices with recommendation to exclude sweets, spices, milk and ghee etc. also if possible. This is with a view to control passions and shut out worldly thoughts and bring about pure contemplation by the action of the soul freed to an extent from the bodily bonds. For this very reason worship is recommended to be performed in lonely places, gardens, banks of rivers, temples, or holy places of pilgrimage. It is due to this that ordinary Jains do not like to be classed amongst Tāntrikas whom they consider practitioners of rites with wine and women.. The general features of Tāntrik worship will, however, be
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noted to exist amongst the Jains by the careful reader of the Tantra here published.
MANTRA AND VAIDIK LITERATURE The learned editor of Sādhanmālā, Dr. Benoytosh Bhattāchāryya though considering magic to be mere superstition says: "If materials were available it could be traceable right upto the beginning of creation, and superstition exists now in more or less aggravated form in almost all civilised countries."
***
*** "India is, therefore, not exception and three principal religions of ancient India, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism alike shared belief in magic. In India, the course of the development of magical conception can be traced through a continuous literature without a break for over three thousand years, and the different phases of development find expression in the Rgveda, the Brāhmanas, Atharvaveda, Kalpasūtras, Dharmasūtras, Purānas, the Tantras and the Pancarätras."
This will convince the reader of the connection of Mantras with the ancient Vaidik literature. "Even Kautilya the famous author of Arthashāstra and the famous Minister of the Emperor Chandragupta recommends to the King to seek the help of magicians to avoid calamities to the State.”
TANTRAS AND VEDAS Hinduism reveals as it were a double framework. on the one hand there are the four Vedas with their Samhitās, Brāhmanas, and Upanishads and on the other what has been called the "Fifth Veda" that is Nigama, Agama and kindred shāstras and certain especially "Tāntrik' Upanishads attached to the Saubhagya Kānda of the Atharvaveda such as Advăitabhāva, Kaula, Kālikā Upanishads. "There are Vaidik and Tantrik Kalpa Sūtras and Sūktas such as the Tantrika Devi and Matsya Sūktas. As a counter-part of the Brahmasūtras we have the Shakti Sūtras of Agastya. There is both Vaidik and Tāntrik ritual such as Vaidik ten Sangskāras and the Tāntrik Sangskaras, such
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as Abhisheka; Vaidik and Tantrik initiation (Upanayana and Dikshā); Vaidik and Tantrik Gāyatrī; the Vaidik Om, the so-called "Tantrik " Bijas such as Hring; Vaidik Guru and Deshika Guru and so forth. This dualism may be found carried into other matters as well such as medicine, law, writing. So whilst the Vaidik Ayurveda employed vegetable drugs, the "Tantrikas" used metallic substances. "This indicates that there must have been two sources of religion one of which (possibly in some respects the older) incorporated parts of, and in time largely superseded, the other." Some of the Avaidika cults must have in course of time adopted certain Vaidik rites such as Homa; the Vaidikas in their turn taking up some of the Avaidika practices. It is not possible to sketch here the development of Tantras through all the stages and compare all the salient features thereof with those of the Vedas. For details we would refer the readers to Appendix II to "Shakti and Shakta." It is shown in the said appendix what was the counterpart of the Tantrik details and rituals in the Vedas. In the Yajnas, Vaidik people principally worshipped the female deity named Sarasvati who is the same as Vāk or Vägdevi and who became a lioness and went over to the Devtas on their undertaking that offerings should be made to her before they were made to Agni. For the purpose of attaining eternal bliss they worshipped Rātridevī. Rātri is substantially the same as, but in form different from Vagdevi; but they are sometimes worshipped as one and the same. Ratri Sūkta describes her as black. It calls Ratridevi by the name of Durgā. Brihad-devatā (II. 79) mentions that Aditi, Vak, Sarasvati and Durgā are one and the same. Taking these ideas with that of Sama-Vidhāna Brahmana we have almost the complete form of Devi who is called at the present day by the name of Kālī. Another devi whose worship is very popular at the present day is Durga, who has a lion for her carrier. We have mantioned how Durga is identified with Vak and how Vak is identified with lion and this explains how Durgā has a lion to carry her. Shiva Purana cited above says from Durga emanated the Tantrik ten Mahavidyās..The worship of Ratri is to be performed at night
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and the worship of Kāli must also therefore be a night performance. The principal male devatā of Tantras is Mahadeva who is admittedly a Vaidik God. Then again the serpent twining round devas or devīs is foreshadowed by Sarparājnī, the Serpent Queen, who is the same as Vāk. It will be interesting to the Jain readers here to compare the fact that Lord Pārs'vanātha has the king of serpents twining round his body and spreading his hood over him and Devi Padmăvati who is the Lord's attendant deity and the serpent-queen raising upon he hood the Lord in contemplation in the flood due to heavy rains, as also the fact that there are certain Mantras set forth in the present work relating to S'rīPadmavati for acquiring learning which means that her worship is as Vāk. The mysterious Kundalini is also supposed to confer knowledge ( Jnāna ) to the yogi worshipper. Kundalini is the serpentine force in the body which when roused passes through the six Chakras or the centres in the spinal cord and goes upto the lotus with a thousand petals namely Sahasrära and the highest bliss is obtained. Practically every Tantrik school has adopted this Kundali Yoga for realisation. There is thus identification of Sri Padmavati with Sarparājnī, Vāgdevi and Kundalini.
There is identification of Sri Padmāvati with various Tantrik Deities also. Sir John Woodroffe states at P. 93 'Shakti and Shakta': "It is said that the Hangsatära Mahavidya is the Sovereign Lady of Yoga whom Jainas call Padmavati, Shaktas Shakti, Bauddhas Tāră, China Sadhakas Mahogrā, and Kaulas Chakreshvari. Thc Kadis call her Kali, the Hadis Shrisundari and the Kādi-Hadis Hangsā.”
TANTRIK SADHANA *
AIM AND MEANS We have given a general indication of the nature and character of Tantras. We shall now describe only the most important features
* अन्यान्यशास्त्रेषु विनोदमात्रम् । न तेषु किश्चिद्भुवि द्दष्टमस्ति।
चिकित्सितज्योतिषतन्त्रवादाः । पदे पदे प्रत्ययमावहन्ति ।।
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of the Sadhana-the particular worship prescribed by them. The aim is the realisation of the pure nature of Atmā whose light is veiled by the body. The means employed are many such as worship (Pūjā) exterior or mental,daily,occasional or special, Shastric learning, austerities (Tapas), Japa or recitation of Mantra, hymns (Stava), sacrifice (Homa),§ Prānāyāma, Kundaliyoga, meditation and so forth. Of all these Japa of Diksha-mantra is the most powerful, because in it the Sadhanāshakti of the Sadhaka works in conjunction with Mantra Shakti which has the force of fire; in other modes of Upāsanā Sādhaka's Sādhanāshakti alone works. The Sadhanā necessarily varies with the character of the object desired. Thus the Sādhanā of the ordinary householder differs from the higher Sadhana of the ascetics which consists of Dama or external control over the ten senses, Shama or internal control over the mind (Buddhi, Ahamkāra, Manas), discrimination between the transitory and the eternal and renunciation of both this world and the heaven (Svarga); and both are different from that prescribed for the practitioners of malevolent magic (Abhichāra). * It again varies with different Sadhakas according to their grades. The Sadhakas are divided into three classes viz, Divya, Vīra and Pashu according as the quality of Sattva, Rajas or Tamas predominates in their temperaments.
§ Homa is an ancient Vaidik rite incorporated with other in the General Tantrik ritual. * That Kamya Karma (Rite to achieve a particular object whether good or bad) is not approved and that in it careful performance of various Nyåsas and Atmarakṣā is necessary appears from the following verses:
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सम्यक कृत्वा न्यासजातमात्मरक्षां विधाय च । काम्यं कर्म प्रकर्तव्यमन्यथाभिभवो भवेत् || शुभं वाऽशुभं वाऽपि काम्यं कर्म करोति यः । तस्यारित्वं व्रजेन्मन्त्रो न तस्मात्तत्परो भवेत् ॥ काम्यकर्मप्रसक्तानां तावन्मात्रं भवेत्फलम् ॥ निष्कामं भजतां देवमखिलाभीष्टसिद्धयः ॥
INTRODUCTION

- मन्त्रमहोदधौ, २५ तरंगे
श्लो०७२-७६

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GURU AND DIKŞA Until a Sadhaka is Siddha he has to practise under the direction of a Guru or spiritual teacher. "It is the Guru who initiates and helps, and the relationship between him and the disciple (Shishya) continues until the attainment of spiritual Siddhi.x It is only from him that Sadhana and Yoga are learnt and not (as it is commonly said) from a thousand Shāstras. Shatkarma Dipikā says:
पुस्तके लिखिता विद्या येन सुन्दरि जप्यते।
सिद्धिर्न जायते तस्य कल्पकोटिशतैरपि।। There is no difference between Guru, Mantra and Deva. "Guru is the root (Müla) of initiation (Diksha). Diksha is the root of Mantra. Mantra is the root of Devatā, and Devatā is the root of Siddhi." Initiation (Dikshā) is the giving of Mantra by the Guru. The latter first establishes the vital power (Prāna Shakti) of the Parama Guru in Sahasrāra, (the thousand-petalled lotus) in his own body. Then "as one lamp is lit at the flame of another, so the divine Shakti consisting of Mantra is communicated from the Guru's body to that of the Shishya.” Without initiation, Japa Pūjā etc. are useless. * The Tāntrik initiation is for all castes and both sexes. The suitability of a Mantra is ascertained from the Kula-chakra described in Tantras. Initiation by a woman is considered efficacious and that by a mother is eightfold so. Besides the preliminary initiation there are a number of other initiations or consecrations (Abhisheka) marking the stages of advance of the Sadhaka called Purnadikshābhisheka and Mahápūrnadikshabhisheka also called Virajā-Grahanābhisheka until Jivana Mukti is attained as a Paramahamsa.
COMMON ELEMENTS OF SÅDHANÅ We should state here that the main elements of Sadhanā are
x उपासनाशतेनापि यां विना नैव सिद्यति ।
तां दीक्षामाश्रयेद्यत्नात् श्रीगुरोर्मन्त्रसिद्धये ॥ कुलार्णवे, १८ उल्लासे, लो० ८८ * अदीक्षिता ये कुर्वन्ति जपपूजादिका क्रियाः ।। - न भवन्ति प्रिय तेषां शिलायामुप्तबीजवत् ।। रुद्रयामले, ३पटले, श्लो. १३
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common to all the schools and divisions of Tantrikas: such as Pūjā* (inner and outer), Pratima (idol) or other emblems, Upachāra, obligatory daily-worship, Homa or sacrifice, Vrata (vows), Tapas (Austerities), Mudrā, Mandala, Yantra, Mantra, Japa, Hymns, Purashcharana, Nyasa, Bhutashuddhi, Dhyana and so forth. We must take this opportunity to contradict Sir John Woodroffe, as far as Jains are concerned, when he says that Vāmāchāra ritual is a common ritual and is or was followed by members of all sampradayas including Jains (see p. 274 Shakti and Shakta). There never was nor is Vāmachāra ritual amongst the Jains, as Jains have always considered Brahmacharya or celibacy absolutely necessary in all Mantrasādhanās, and as they are strict vegetarians-Ahimsa being their most sacred and inviolable principle. We have already made this quite clear in the foregoing portion of this Introduction dealing with Panchatattva.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF TANTRIK SÂDHANÂ
INTRODUCTION
We would now give a summary of psychological principles on which Tantrik Sadhana is based from the chapter entitled 'Shakta Sadhana' in Sir John Woodroffe's famous work 'Shakti and Shakta' to enable the reader to appreciate the great complexity and variety of Tantrik ritual in its proper light. It is well known that mind and body react mutually upon one another. The Sadhana must therefore be both physical as well as mental. It is admitted now on all hands that not only physical health but mental as well as moral well-being much depends upon the nourishment exercise and the general fitness of the body. It is on moral ground that meat and strong drink are prohibited, as they encourage animal passions. The reader would
* Pūjā has several synonyms such as Ijya, Archa, Archana, Vandana, Bhajanā, Namasya, Saparyya etc. emphasizing different aspects of the same. It is again Nişkāma or Kamya. When it is latter, it is preceded by 'Samkalpa' i. e. a stateent of the resolve to worship and the object with which it is done. Thus the attention and the will of the Sadhaka is focussed on the result to be achieved by the particular worship undertaken by him.
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naturally question why then such things are permitted in the secret worship of the Tantrikas. He would find the answer in the foregoing portion hereof dealing with Panchatattva. Tántrik Hatha Yoga lays down methods for bodily cleanliness, recommends moderation in food, sexual continence and physical exercise. Periodical fasts are enjoined and during certain worship 'Havishyānnam' (consisting of fruit, vegetable and rice) is prescribed. There are injunctions, though less strict, even for a householder. There are also rules for regulating his sexual life.
The aim of preliminary Sādhanā is to secure purity of body and mind by restraining the natural appetites, controlling the senses and all excessive selfishness which transgresses the bounds of Dharma.
The mind is never for a moment unoccupied. The worldly objects continually seek to influence it. "The object therefore of Sadhana is firstly to take the attention away from undesirable objects and then to place a desirable object in their stead. For the mind must feed on something. The object is the Ishtadevatā. When a Sadhaka fully, sincerely and deeply contemplates and worships his Ishtadevatā his mind is formed into a Vritti in the form of the Devata. As the latter is all Purity, the mind which contemplates it, is during, and to the depth of, such contemplation pure. By prolonged and repeated worship the mind becomes naturally pure and of itself tends to reject all impure notions. *** Things are not impure. It is the impure mind which makes them so. He learns to see that everything and act are manifestations of the Divine. He who realises Consciousness in all objects no longer has desire therefor. In this way a good Bhāva, as it is called, is attained which ripens into Devatābhāva. This is the principle on which all Sadhana as well as what is called specifically Mantrayoga, is based."
The next principle to be noted is that the objects used to fix in the mind the thought of the Devatā are images, pictures, emblems or Yantras. All these are not meant merely for instruction or for visualising the Devatā in the mind, but for actual worship as soon as they are duly consecrated by Prānapratişthā ceremony. To the superficial persons invocation (Avāhana) of deity and its dismissal (Visarjana) appear absurd. “That which in fact moves is the mind of the Sādhaka in which, if pure, Spirit manifests Itself.” * * * When the Sādhaka's mind fully realises its presence in the Image, the latter as the manifestation
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INTRODUCTION
of that Spirit is a fitting object of worship.” Yantra worship as herein after explained is meant for advanced sādhakas.
Not only is the object of worship subtle or gross but so also is the ritual with which it is worshipped."* * * In ordinary worship there is the offer of flowers. light, incense and the like Upachāra. In the subtle inner or mental worship (Antar Pujā) these are but symbols." There is the offering of 'flowers of feeling' for instance in Antar Pūjā.
"Much ignorant talk takes place as to the supposed worship of the Formless. Worship implies an object of worship and every object has some form. But that form and the ritual vary to meet the needs of differing capacities and temperaments: commencing with the more or less anthropomorphic image (or Doll; Puttali, as those who dislike such worship call it) with its material service reproducing the ways of daily life, passing through pictures, emblems, yantras, and mental worship to adoration of the Point of Light (Jyotirbindu) in which at length, consciousness being merged, all worship ceases." Meditation also is, therefore, gross (sthūla) or subtle (sūksma).
Another principle to be noted is the part which the body is made to take in the Tantrik ritual. Over and above the bodily movement necessary to carry out the ritual all physical action is so prescribed as to aid and emphasise the mental operation. In addition certain suggestive manual gestures (Mudrās) are prescribed. All this is based on the wellknown natural tendency to adopt appropriate movements of the body and gestures of the hands when one speaks with conviction and intensity of feeling.
Like Mudră Nyāsa also is peculiar to the Tantras. In employing the Nyasa "the object of the Sadhaka is to identify himself with the Devatā he contemplates and thus to attain Devatābhāva for which it is, in its many forms, a most powerful means.* Regarding the body of the Devatā as composed of Bija Mantras he not merely imagines that his own body is so composed but he actually places (Nyāsa means placing), these Bijas with the tips of his fingers on the various parts of his own
* The Gandharva Tantra says, "Bhūtashuddhi (i.e., Purification of the elements constituting in their Mahābhūta form the gross body) Rishyādinyāsa, Pithashaktinyasa, Karanyāsa, Anganyāsa, Mātrikānyása, and Vidyānyāsa, O Maheshvari! by means of these Nyåsas a Sadhaka becomes himself full of Devatā". These Nyāsas are said to be for the attainment of some particular object.
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body. The Abhishta Devată is thus in imagination (expressed by outward acts) placed in each of the parts and members of the Sadhakā's body and then with the motion of his arms, he, by Vyåpaka Nyasa, as it were, spreads the presence of the Devată all over his body. He thus feels himself permeated in every part by the presence of Devatā and identified with the Divine self in that its form." Mudrā accompanies some of the ritual acts. Mudrā may be said to be a kind of manual shorthand to express the thought of the worshipper.
Another point to be noted is that the strengthening of the mental Vritti in Tantrik Sadhanā is by accompanying physical action as also by repetition of words and ideas. Japa of Mantra is an instance. Such repetition has the effect of fixing the idea in the mind. "If the same essential thought can be presented in varied forms the effect is more powerful and at the same time less calculated to tire." "That man is a poor psychologist who does not know the effect of repetition when done with faith and devotion. The inner kingdom yields to nothing but the strong will of the Sadhaka, for it is that will in its purest and fullest strength. The mind of the Sådhaka being thus purified by insistent effort, becomes a fit medium for the manifestation of a Divine Consciousness (Devatābhāva)." "Much superficial criticism is levelled at this or other ritual, its variety, complexity, its lengthy character and so forth. If it is performed mechanically and without attention doubtless it is mere waste of time. But if it is done with will attention faith and devotion it must necessarily achieve the result intended. The reiteration of the same idea under varying forms brings home with emphasis to the consciousness of the Sadhaka the doctrine, his Scripture teaches him viz, that in his essence he is spirit. The object of this and all the other ritual is to make that statement real experience for the Sadhaka."
"Even when in devotion, complete understanding and feeling are not attained the intention to gain both will achieve success by quickening the worshipper's interest and strengthening the forces of the will."
The Tantra Shāstra is full of symbolism of all kinds-form, colour, language, number, action; and Tantrik Sadhanā utilises all these to present the essential principle in full variety.
NILA SÅDHANA-SHAVA SADHANA. We may here mention a peculiar Sadhanā of very limited application being practised by only some Vira Sadhakas in the cremation ground. It is called Nīla Sādhanā or Black Sadhana. There are terrifying things in these rituals and therefore only the fearless practise
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them. The Vīra trains himself to be indifferent and above all fear. A leading rite is that called Shava Sadhana which is done with the means of a human corpse. The corpse is laid with its face to the ground. The Sadhaka sits on the back of the body of the dead man on which he draws a Yantra and then worships. If the rite is successful it is said that the head of the corpse turns round and asks the Sadhaka what is the boon he craves, be it liberation or some material benefit. It is said that the Devi speaks through the mouth of the corpse which is thus the material medium by which She manifests Her presence. YANTRA PUJA
A marked feature of the Tantra Shastras is the use of Yantra in worship." It takes the place of idol or emblem when the Sadhaka is sufficiently advanced to worship with the Yantra. Yantra in worship means that by which mind is fixed upon its object of worship i. e. Devata. It is a diagram drawn or painted on Bhūrja leaf, paper or other substances, engraved on metal, cut on crystal or stone. There are extraordinary Yantras* mentioned as drawn on leopard's and donkey's skin, human bones and so forth. The Yantras have different shapes and designs according to the Devata to be worshipped therein. They also vary according to the object of worship. The devatās are not depicted in the metal or stone Yantras, though in Yantras drawn or painted on Bhurja leaf or paper, they do appear with their appropriate Mantras. All Yantras have a common edging called Bhupura a quadrangular figure with four "doors" which encloses and separates the Yantra from the outside world.+ The distinction between the
INTRODUCTION
* शांतौ वश्ये लिखेद्भूर्जे स्तंभने द्वीपिचर्मणि ।
खरचर्मणि विद्वेषे उच्चाटे ध्वजवाससि ||
नरास्थिनि लिखेद्यंत्रं मारणे मंत्रवित्तमः ॥ - मंत्रमहोदधौ २६ तरंगे श्लो० ५८-५९
Pens and writing materials also vary in accordance with the object desired to be achieved. (See Mantra-Mahodadhi XXV Taranga VV. 62 to 65 and 55-56).
+The Yantra of śri Jina is usually a representation of Him as seated in a 'Samavasarana' with triple forts and four doors surrounded by 'Devas,' 'Manusyas' and 'Tiryanchas.'
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Yantra and Devatā is that between the body and the self. Mantra is Devatā; and Yantra is Mantra, in that it is the body of the Devatā who is Mantra. Yantras again vary as they are Pūjā or Dhārana Yantras. Although represented generally by a drawing on the flat Yantras are three-dimensional.
"As in the case of the image certain preliminaries precede the worship of Yantra. The worshipper first meditates upon the Devata and then arouses Him or Her in himself. He then communicates the Divine Presence thus aroused to the Yantra. When the Devata has by the appropriate Mantra been invoked into the Yantra, the vital airs (Prāna) of the Devată are infused therein by the Prānapratishthā ceremony, Mantra and Mudrā (see for ritual Mahānirvāna VI, 63 et seq.). The Devatã is thereby installed in the Yantra which is no longer mere gross matter veiling the spirit which has always been there, but instinct with its aroused presence which the Sadhaka first welcomes and then worships."
MANDALA “The difference between a Mandala (which is also a figure, marked generally on the ground) and a Yantra is that whilst a Mandala may be used in the case of any Devatā, a Yantra is appropriate to a specific Devatā only."Sarvatobhadra-Mandala is a Mandala commonly used in the worship of any Devatā. Agni Purāna, as well as Nirvā nakalikā, the latter an ancient Jain work on Daily worship, Initiation and Installation ceremonies by Sri Pādaliptasūri (edited with an Introduction by the present writer) mention it. Nirvanakalikā also mentions a Nandāvarta Mandala. There are also mandalas appropriate to each of the five Mahabhūtas* viz, Prithivi, Ap, Tejas, Vāyu and Âkās'a or the four Pithas.* The
* अर्द्धचंद्रनिभं पार्श्वद्वये पद्मद्वयांकितम् ॥ • जलस्य मंडलं प्रोक्तं प्रशस्तं शांतिकर्मणि। त्रिकोणं स्वस्तिकोपेतं वश्ये वह्वेस्तु मंडलम् । वृत्तं दिवस्तद्विद्वेषे बिंदुषटांकितं तु तत् ॥ वायुमंडलमुच्चाटे मारणे वहिमंडलम् ॥—मंत्रमहोदधौ २५ तरंगे श्लो० २३-२६ * उड्डीयानं चतुरस्र कामरूपं च वर्तुलम् । जालन्धरं च चन्द्रार्द्ध व्यस्रः पूर्णगिरिभवेत् ॥-कुलार्णवे ६ उल्लासे श्लो० २५
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Mandalas also are varied according to the objects sought to be achieved.
MUDRA
In Tantrik Sadhana the body as well as the mind has to do its part the former being made to follow the latter. This can be seen in bowing, genuflection, Nyasas, Mudras, etc. As all else, gesture is here much elaborated.
INTRODUCTION
"Nyasa, Asana and other ritual are necessary for the production of the desired state of mind and its purification (Chittashuddhi). The whole aim and end of ritual is Chittashuddhi. Transformation of thought is transformation of being, for particular existence is a projection of thought, and thought is a projection from the Consciousness which is the Root of all."
THREE MEANINGS OF MUDRA
The word Mudra has three meanings. (1) In ordinary worship it means ritual manual gestures, (2) in secret worship it means various kinds of parched cereals, taken with wine and other ingredients, (3) in Yoga it means postures or poses in which not only the hands but the whole body takes part. According to Tantraraja the Mudra of Upasana is so called because it pleases the Devatās, it being derived from the root 'Mud', to please. "It is the outward bodily expression of inner resolve which it at the same time intensifies. Use of gestures to emphasize or illustrate while speaking is known to all. So in invoking (Ávāhana) the deity an appropriate gesture is made. The Mudras are numerous. Nirvanakalikā, the Jain work already referred to, has a chapter by itself on Mudras; so also has Vidhiprapa of Sri Jinaprabhasuri which deals with such as are commonly used in Jain rituals. Sir John Woodroffe says from Shabda kalpadruma and Nirvanatantra chap. 11 that the Mudras are 108-possibly more, of which fiftyfive are in common use.* The Mudras also vary according to the object
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* A work dealing with Mudras entitled 'Mudränighantu' is published in Tantrik Texts series together with "Tantrabhidhana' and 'Bijanighantu' as vol. I with an Introduction by Arthur Avalon.

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sought to be achieved. The present work, 'Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa' mentions them in verse 8, Ch. III. Nirvanakalikā actually describes how these Mudrās are formed. Not only Jain Mantrakalpas but the Jain Pratişthākalpas also mention them for use.
Many of the Mudrās of Hatha Yoga will be found described in works on Yoga such as "Gheranda Samhitā (III Upades'a)", "Hathayoga Pradipikā" and others. They are in the nature of healthy gymnastics and special positions required for success in Yoga. These Yoga Mudrās produce physical benefits and cure diseases.
The first six Mudrās mentioned above are to be respectively employed in Santi, Vasikarana Stambhana Vidvesa, Uccātana and Mārana. See also the chapter on Mudrā in Nityotsava pp. 90–93. Cf. Sri Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa III Adhikāra V. 8
PRELIMINARY RITES Certain preliminary rites are performed before commencement of Pūjā rites proper. The Şādhaka on rising in the morning contemplates on Parama Guru in Sahasrāra, performs daily morning duties including ablution and Sandhyā, and after worshipping the deities at the doors of the Pūjāgriha enters the same. "The seat (Asana) of the worshipper is purified as also the Upachāra (Materials for Worship). Salutation is made to the Shakti of support (Adhāra-Shakti) the power sustaining all. Obstructive spirits are driven away (Bhūtāpasarpana) and the ten quarters are fenced from their attack by srtiking the earth three times with the left foot uttering the weapon-mantra (Astrabīja) "Phat" and by snapping the fingers round the head." Other rituals also enter into
* सरोरुहं पाशगदे मुसलं कुलिशं त्वसिः ॥२६।।
षण्मुद्रा: कर्मषटे स्युरथ होमे निगद्यते। मृगी हंसी सूकरीति होमे मुद्रात्रयं मतम् ॥२७॥ मध्यमानामिकांगुष्ठयोगे मुद्रा मृगी मता। हंसी कनिष्टाहीनानां सर्वासां योजने मता ॥२८॥ सूकरी करसंकोचे मुद्रालक्षणमीरितम् । शांती वश्ये मृगी हंसी स्तंभनादिषु सकरी ॥२९॥-मन्त्रमहोदधि: २५ तरंग:
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INTRODUCTION
the worship besides the offering of Upachāra such as Pränāyama or Breath control, Bhūtashuddhi or purification of the elements of the body, Japa of Mantra, Nyāsa, meditation (Dhyāna) and obeisance (Pranāma).
OBJECTS OF DIFFERENT RITES The object of Bhūtashuddhi is to purify the mind of its good and evil tendencies which have rendered the Ego a body-bound, selfish small thing.
The object of Nyāsa is to render the body spiritualized by the sound and Mantra Powers.
Prānāyāma, Dhyāna and Japa are essential to withdraw the mind from external attractions and repulsions and to consecrate it to the deity-worship.
FIVE KINDS OF WORSHIP In the Seventh chapter of the Gautamīya Tantra it is said: "Worship is of five kinds, namely Abhigamana, Upādāna, ljyā, Svādhyāya and Yoga."
Abhigamana' is going to the place of worship cleansing the place where Devatā is seated and removing from the image the pastes, flowers, garlands, etc. 'Upādāna' is collecting materials for worship such as flowers, incense, sandal, etc. Tjyā' is the name given to worship proper of Ishtadevatā with offerings (Upachāras) and with Mantras after Bhūtashuddhi, Prānāyāma, Nyāsa and Mental worship. 'Svādhyāya' is doing of Japa and recitation of hymns. 'Yoga' is the meditation of Ishtadevatā in one's mind. 'Abhigamana' and 'Upādāna' grant 'Sāmīpya.' 'Ijya' grants "Sādịşya' (similarity), 'Svādhyāya' grants 'Sārūpya' (Identity of form), and Yoga grants Sayujya' (Union) as their respective fruits. (See Principles of Tantra Vol. II). The nineteen matters one should know before performing 'Shatkarma' are enumerated in the 4th and 5th verses of 25th Taranga of Mantra Mahodadhi given below:
देवता देवतावर्णा ऋतुदिगदिवसासनम् । विन्यासा मंडलं मुद्राक्षरं भूतोदयः समित् ॥ मालाग्निर्लेखनं द्रव्यं कुंडावलेखनी। षट्कर्माणि प्रयुंजीत ज्ञात्वैतानि यथातथम्॥--मन्त्रमहोदधौ २५ तरंगे श्लो० ४-५
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PLACES FOR WORSHIP The best places are holy grounds, river-sides, caves, Tīrthas, summits of mountains, confluences of rivers, holy forests, solitary gardens, at the foot of bael tree, valleys, places overgrown with Tulasī plants, pasture lands, temples of Shiva without a bull, at the foot of Asvattha or Amalaki trees, cowsheds, islands, temples, seashore, one's own house, the abode of Guru, places which naturally lend to generate singlepointedness of mind and places free of animals and solitary.
TIME FOR WORSHIP "He who desires to reap a full crop of fruits from his rites should begin them in the morning and finish them all by noon."
According to Nigamakalpalatā “The daily worship should be begun after the passing of the half of the first Prahara and finished at the end of ten Dandas (Ghatis)" i. e. 11 hours after sun-rise and before expiry of 4 hours after sun-rise. "If Japa and so forth are performed in the morning, it is not improper to perform worship at noon." The appropriate time for performance of each of the 'Shatkarma' is indicated in the following verses:
ऋतुषटकं वसंताद्यमहोरात्रं भवेत् क्रमात् ॥ एकैकस्य ऋतोर्मानं घटिकादशकं मतम् । हेमन्तं च वसंताख्यं शिशिरं ग्रीष्मतोयदौ ॥ शरदं कर्मणां षट्के योजयेत्कमतः सुधीः ।
— TagITUT 34 aj to 6-9 पूर्वाह्न वश्यकर्माणि मध्याह्न प्रीतिनाशनम् । उच्चाटनं चापराहे संध्यायां मारणं तथा। शान्तिकं अर्धरात्रे च पौष्टिकं प्रातरेव हि ॥
-arrara Roq TO 988-989 Compare the above verses with verses 6 and 7 III Adhikāra, Sri Bhairava Padmâvati Kalpa and note the pratical identity of phraseology.
DIRECTION OF WORSHIP According to Bhāvachūdāmani "one should perform worship and other ritual acts at night, facing the north" and while worshipping Shiva
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always by day as well as night facing the north; while worshipping Vishnu facing east, but facing north is not considered improper; while worshipping Shakti it is best to face north but not improper to face east. Worshipping Shri Krishna facing east during day and north during night, worshipping Kali or Chandika facing north is the best. Worship of Devas should be performed facing east and Devis facing north. Different directions for 'Shatkarma' are prescribed as in the following verse: शिवसोमेंद्र निर्ऋतिपवनाग्निदिशः क्रमात् ॥ तत्तत्कर्माणि कुर्वीत जपंस्तत्तद्दिशामुखः ।
INTRODUCTION
- मंत्रमहोदधौ २५ तरंगे लो० ९-१० Compare Verse 5 III Adhikara of Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa and note the difference.
SEATS AND POSTURES*
Raghava Bhatta says: Japa, worship, and so forth should be performed sitting in postures, such as Padma, Svastika, Vīra, and so forth otherwise they will be ineffectual.
Sitting with a straight back putting feet within the folds of one's knees is Svastika seat. Placing right foot on the left thigh is Vīrāsana. ROSARIES
"Rosaries made of beads of Rudraksha, conchshell, lotus-seed, wild olive (Putranjiva), pearls, crystals, gems, gold, coral, silver, or roots of the Kusha-grass, are prescribed for house-holders."
It is said that Japa may be done with hands except in Kamya Karma in which case suitable rosary is necessary. It varies also with the object sought to be achieved. §
पद्मं स्वस्तिकविकटे कुक्कटं वज्रभद्रके ॥
शांत्यादिषु प्रकुर्वीत क्रमादासनमुत्तमम् ॥ - मन्त्रमहोदधौ २५ तरंगे लो० १५-१६ Compare Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa III Adhikāra, V. 9.
§ See Saradatilaka XXIII Patala Verses 116 to 120.
अक्षमालां समाश्रित्य मातृकावर्णरूपिणीम् ।
अथ मुक्ताफलमयी वा मोक्षफलदायिनी ॥
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___ PURIFICATION OF THE "FIVE " The purificatory rites are five and are preliminary to actual worship.
In the Kularnava Tantra (VI Ullasa vv. 16-22) it is said:"O Devi so long as a Sadhaka does not carry out the five forms of purification, how can he perform worship of a Devata? These are purification of self (Atmashuddhi) of place (Sthanashuddhi), of Mantra (Mantrashuddhi), of articles for worship (Dravyashuddhi), and of Devata (Devashuddhi). Worship wi.hout purification of the five is intended only for abhichara.
_ "1. Purification of the self of the Sadhaka consists of proper bathing, purification of the elements (Bhūtashuddhi), breath-exercises (Pranāyāma), and so forth, and Nyasa of six parts of the body (Shadanganyāsa), and all other forms of Nyāsa.
सर्वसिद्धिप्रदा नित्यं सर्वराजवशंकरी। यथा मुक्ताफलमयी तथा स्फटिकनिर्मिता ॥ रुद्राक्षमालिका मोक्षे सर्वसंपत्समृद्धिदा। प्रवालमाला वश्ये तु सर्वकार्यार्थसाधिका ।। माणिक्यमाला फलदा साम्राज्यफलदायिनी । पुत्रजीवकमालातु विद्यालक्ष्मीप्रदा सताम् ।। पद्माक्षमालया लक्ष्मीर्जायते च महती परा । रक्तचन्दनमाला तु सर्वभोगप्रदायिनी ||-ज्ञानार्णवे १७ पटले श्लो०७-१० Compare Verse 11 Adhikāra III, Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa. Mantra-Mahodadhi, Xxy Taranga describes the different rosaries, and different fingers of the hand to be used in counting beads of the rosary, in accordance with the different objects to be achieved: शंखजा पद्मबीजोत्था निवारिष्टफलोद्भवा । प्रेतदन्तभवा वा हरदोत्था खरदंतजा ॥४०॥ जपमालाः क्रमाज्ञयाः शांतिमुख्येषु कर्मसु । मध्यमायां स्थितां मालां ज्येष्ठेनावर्तयेत्सुधीः ॥४१॥ शान्तौ वश्ये तथा पुष्टौ भोगमोक्षार्थके जपे । अनामांगुष्ठयोगेन स्तंभनादौ जपेत्सुधीः ॥४२॥ तर्जन्यंगुष्ठयोगेन द्वेषोच्चाटनयोः पुनः । कनिष्ठांगुष्टसंयोगान्मारणे प्रजपेत्सुधीः ॥४३॥ The beads of a rosary for an auspicious or approved object may be 108, 54 or 27 and should be 15 in case of an unapprovable object (Abhichāra)
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INTRODUCTION
"2. Purification of place is making the house of worship as clean as the centre of a mirror by dusting, wiping, and so forth, and adorning it with auspicious ornaments, such as powders of five colours, with seat, canopy, incense, lamp, flowers, garlands, and so forth.
3.Purification of Mantra is the performance of Japa of the letters of the alphabet which compose the Mātrikamantra, once in their regular order (anuloma), and once again in the opposite order (viloma), by linking the letters af the Mülamantra with them.
4. Purification of articles is the sprinkling on articles of worship of water sanctified by a recital of the Mülamantra and the weapon Mantra, and then dispiaying the Dhenumudra (cow-mudrä) over them.
5. Purification of Devată is the placing of the image of the Devatā on the Pitha, invoking the Shakti of the Devatā into it by means of Astramantra Pränamantra and so forth, then bathing it (at least) thrice along with recital of Mūlamantra, and finally adorning it with garments, ornaments, and the like, and offering incense, light and so forth. These five forms of purification must be performed first, and then the worship should be commenced." (From Principles of Tantra Vol. II)
BHUTASHUDDHI Bhūtashuddhi, * which is a part of Atmashuddhi, is an important Tāntrik rite and means purification of five 'elements' of which the body is composed. These elements are not to be understood to be gross 'earth,''water,' 'fire,''air' and 'ether' but the five forms in which Prakriti manifests Herself. These have centres of operation in the five Chakras Mūlādhāra to Vishuddha in the spinal cord in the human body. We have described above Kundaliyoga and mentioned Kundalini ordinarily remaining coiled in the lowest Chakra viz, Mülādhāra. She is considered a form of the Saguna Brahman and is also identified with the presiding deity of the Mantra i. e. Ishtadevatā. "In Kundaliyoga she is aroused and brought up through the five centres, absorbing as She passes through each the Bhūta of that centre, the subtle Tanmātra from which it derives and the connected organ of sense (Indriya). Having absorbed all these, She is led to the sixth or mind centre (Ajnā) between the eyebrows where the last Bhūta or ether is absorbed in mind, and the
४ देवार्चायोग्यताप्राप्त
माचरेत् ॥-मन्त्रमहोदधिः प्रथमस्तरंग:
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latter in the Subtle Prakriti. The last in the form of Kundali Shakti then unites with Shiva in the upper brain called the thousand petalled lotus (Sahasrara). In Yoga this involution actually takes place with the result that ecstacy (Samadhi) is attained. But very few are successful Yogis. Therefore Bhutashuddhi in the case of the ordinary worshipper is an imaginary process only. The Sadhaka imagines Kundali, that She is roused, that one element is absorbed into the other and so on, until all is absorbed in Brahman.
He then thinks of the black man of sin', in his body. He inhales meditating on 'Yam' the Vayu-Bija for 16 instants and dries up the sinful body; holds breath meditating on 'Ram' the AgniBija for 64 instants and burns the same with all sinful inclinations;* exhales meditating on 'Vam' the Varuna Bija for 32 instants and bathes the burntbody with the nectar-like water from head to feet. The Sadhaka then thinks that a new Deva-body has come into being. Then meditating on 'Lam' the Prithvi Bija in the Muladhara and by divine gaze he strengthens the same. Then placing his hand on his heart and uttering Mantra 'Ang, Hring, Krong, Hangsah, So'ham he infuses into the new body the Pranas of the Devi (i. e. Ishtadevatā). Thus performing Bhutashuddhi the Sadhaka should think that he is one with the Devi.
NYASA
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Nyāsas should be performed after first purifying the materials of worship (f) and so forth.
Nyasa is a very important and powerful Tantrik rite. It is performed by placing the tips of the fingers and palm of the right hand on various parts of the body accompanied by recitation of Mantra. It is of many kinds, e. g. Jiva-nyāsa, Mātrikā or Lipi-nyasa, Rishi
*Cf. Kalmaşa-dahana rite in Jain Mantra-kalpas which is performed by touching the middle of the left arm and thrice reciting the Mantra:
" विद्युत्स्फुलिंगे महाविद्ये सर्वकल्मषं दह २ स्वाहा ||
د.
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The detailed Jain Bhutashuddhi rite is given at p. 2A of Nirvanakalika. Its similarity to the rite above described may be noted.

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INTRODUCTION
nyāsa, Shadanga-nyāsa on the body (Hridayādi-shadanga-nyāsa) and with the hands (Angushthādi-shadanga-nyāsa) Pītha-nyāsa and so on. The Kulārnava (IV--20) mentions six kinds. Each of these might come under one or the other of the four general heads. "Nyása also has certain physical effects for these are dependant on the state of mind. The pure restful state of meditation is reflected in the body of the worshipper. The actions of Nyasa are said to stimulate the nerve centres and to effect the proper distribution of the Shaktis of the human frame according to their disposition and relations, preventing discord and distraction during worship, which itself holds steady the state thus induced" pp. 292-293 'Shakti and Shākta.'
JIVA-NYĀSA Jiva-nyāsa is infusion into the Sadhaka's body purified by Bhūtashuddhi rite of the life-Prāna of the Ishtadevatā accompanied by recital of Mantra. By this the body is thought to become that of Devatā.
MĀTRIKÃ-NYÁSA Mātrikā-nyāsa is the placing the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, which are considered Mantra-bodies of the Devatā on the body of the Sadhaka. They are so placed, mentally saying 'Om Ham Namah' etc., in the six inner centres (Chakra) in case of Antarmātrikā-nyāsa; and externally on the body in case of Bahyamatrikā-nyāsa. This Mātrīkā-nyāsa again is Sțsti Mātrikā Nyāsa (i. e. Creative) or Sanghāra Mātrika Nyāsa (Dissolving).
VIDYA-NYASA Nyāsa of Vidyā should be done on the head, Mūlādhāra, heart, three eyes, two ears, mouth, two arms, back, knees, and navel."
RISHI-NYĀSA
Rishi-nyāsa consists of salutation on the head to Rishi of the particular Māntra and salutation in the mouth to the particular meter of the verse of the Mantra and in the heart to the Devata and in the hidden part (Guhya) to the Bija and also on the two feet and on the whole of the body.
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SHADANGA-NYĀSA* In Shadanga-nyāsa certain letters are placed with the Mantras Namah, Svāhā, Vashat, Vaushat, Hum, Phat, on the heart, head, crownlock (Sikha), eyes, middle of arms and the front and back of the palms.
KARA-NYASA In Kara-nyāsa the Mantras are assigned to the thumbs, index fingers, middle fingers, fourth fingers, little fingers, and the front and back of the palms. The meaning of Nyāsa thus becomes clear. By associating the Divine with every part of the body and with the whole of it, the mind and body are sought to be made divine to the consciousness of the Sadhaka. They are that already but the mind is made so to regard them.
SHODHĀ-NYĀSASS In Mantramahodadhi (XI Taranga) V. 48 it is stated that Shodhānyāsas and other Nyāsas should be performed for good luck, but are not described for fear of lengthening (of the work) and because they are not compulsory. They consist of Ganesha, Graha (Planet), Nakşatra (Asterism), Yogini, Rāshi (Zodiacal sign) and Pitha Mātrika Nyāsas. They are described fully in the commentary of the said verse 48 of XI Taranga of Mantra-Mahodadhi.
"In the Vira Tantra it is said: "All the sins of a Sadhaka are destroyed if the Shodha-Nyåsa which is the principal of all Nyāsas, is performed. Shodhā-Nyasa overcomes the poison of snakes, prevents death from accidents, and destroys evil Grahas and diseases. All harmful things are destroyed by the force of Shodha-Nyåsa, and enemies are made thereby friendly.
The poems of a Sadhaka who performs Shodha-Nyása sweetly flow in waves like streams of grape-juice. The eight forms of Siddhi, namely Animā and so forth, lie within the hollow of his hands. Contemplation in the performance of Shodha-Nyāsa destroys all sins of body, speech, and mind. All lesser sins are destroyed by recourse to Shodha-Nyāsa. A Sadhaka who has attained Siddhi in Shodha-Nyasa can, if he
* Amongst Jains Shadanga-Nyasa and Kara-Nyåsa appear to be usually employed. Matrika-Nyása is sometimes employed but the other Nyasas are scarcely employed. $ For Maháshodha-Nyåsa see Kulārnava Tantra IV Ullasa.
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desires, enter into whatever form he sees. The life of him to whom a Sadhaka who has done Shodha-Nyasa bows is shortened. Even Devatās, not to speak of men, tremble with fear at the sight of a Sadhaka who performs Shodha-Nyasa." P. 375 Principles of Tantra Vol. II.
INTRODUCTION
DHYANA*
In 'Dhyana' or meditation the form of the deity which is being worshipped is contemplated on with such vivid imagination, concentration of thought and devotion that the image becomes vivified and remains before the mind's eye throughout the course of worship. This 'Dhyana' however is 'Sthula' or gross. The 'Sukṣma' or subtle 'Dhyana' is contemplation of the deity in its subtle aspect as formless or as 'Light'. We have already referred to this (See ante pages 33 and 45). The deity in 'Sthula' or gross Dhyana is contemplated on in its natural complexion or colour and with usual ornaments and vehicle.
यस्य देवस्य यद्रूपं यथाभूषणवाहनम् ।
तद्रूपं ध्यायते नित्यं स्थूलध्यानमिदं विदुः ॥ घेरण्ड संहिता, उपदेश ६ श्लो० ८
Such is the contemplation in Niṣkāma worship whether daily (Nitya), occasional (Naimittika) or special (Mahāpūjā). The Dhyāna is the same in 'Purașcarana' also; because 'Purașcarana' by itself is not 'Kamya' i. e. performed with a particular desire. Purașcarana is only a preliminary to Kamya Karma. When the worship is Kamya' as in Shatkarma, Dhyāna varies in colour. (See ante section entitled 'Contemplation Colours and Emotions' page 23 et seq.) The 'Dhyana' in case of 'Santi' (Peace of body or mind) is contemplation of the deity, its ornaments and apparels as white; in case of Vashikarana (Fascination) or Akarṣana (Attraction) it is red; in case of 'Stambhana' (Paralysing or stopping any person, thing, feeling or activity) it is yellow; in case of Vidveşana (Creating enmity between friends) it is of smoke colour; in case of 'Uccatana' (Driving away a person) also it is of smoke colour; and in case of Marana (killing) it is of black colour.
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*See the present writer's articles on 'Yogiśvara Sri Hemacandracharya and Dhyana -Nirupana' in Gujarati in 'Suvasa' (a magazine published at Baroda) Vol. I, 12 & Vol. II, 2 for further information on Dhyana.

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TANTRIK SADHANA: JAPA
श्वेतं ध्यानं भवेच्छान्त्यै पीतं स्तम्भनकारकम् । वाकर्षणयो रक्तं क्षोभणार्थ प्रियावहम् || कृष्णं व मारणे प्रोक्तं धूम्रमुच्चाटनादिके ॥
- ज्ञानार्णवतन्त्रे २० पटले लो० १७०-१७१
Dhyana is again said to be of three kinds. 'Satvika', ‘Rājasa', and 'Tamasa' and employed for different objects.
शान्तिके सात्विकं देवि श्वेतवर्ण विचिन्तयेत् ॥ वये तु राजसं देवि रक्तवर्ण विचिन्तयेत् । तामसं क्रूरकार्येषु कृष्णवर्ण विचिन्तयेत् । आत्मरक्षां पुरा कृत्वा पश्चात् कर्माणि साधयेत् । योऽन्यथा कुरुते मोहात् स भवेद्देवपशुः ||
83
- कुलार्णवे, १७ उल्लासे श्लो० १२५-१२७
See also V. 6, Appendix 30 to the present work; V. 31 Chapter VIII Yogashastra by Hemachandracharya and VV. 40 and 47 XI Ullasa, Vivekavilāsa.
JAPA
Japa is of three kinds viz. Vāchika or Bhāṣya, Upāngshu and Manasa.* The first is the lowest and the last the highest form. In the first Mantra is distinctly and audibly recited. In the second which is less gross and therefore superior to the first the Mantra is not uttered. There is a movement of the lips and tongue without any articulate sound being heard. In the highest form which is mental utterance there is neither articulate sound nor movement. There is merely meditation on the letters of the Mantra.
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"Certain conditions (See Nityotsava pages 171-172) are prescribed as those under which Japa should be done, relating to physical cleanliness the dressing of the hair, garments worn, the seated posture (Asana), the avoidance of certain states of mind and actions, and the nature of the recitation. Japa is done specified number of times, in lakhs by great Sadhakas. If the mind is really centred and not distracted throughout these long and repeated exercises the result must be successful."
* Nirvanakalika (page 4 B) also says so.

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INTRODUCTION
__HOMA, TARPANA, BRAHMANA-BHOJANA ETC.
Puraşcarana is comprised of five parts: (1) Worship three times a day (ii) Japa (above described) (iii) Homa (Sacrifice) (iv) Tarpana (satisfying the deity with water) (v) Brāhmana-Bhojana (Feasting of Brāhmanas):
पूजा त्रैकालिकी नित्यं जपस्तर्पणमेव च ।
होमो ब्राह्मणभुक्तिश्च पुरश्चरणमुच्यते ।।—कुलार्णवे १५ उल्लासे श्लो० ८ Then there is the rule for substituting at least double Japa instead of the part which cannot be performed:
यद् यदहं विहीयेत तत्संख्याद्विगुणो जपः ।
कुर्याद् द्वित्रिचतुःपञ्चसंख्यां वा साधकः प्रिये ॥-कुलार्णवे १५ उल्लासे श्लो० ९ 'Kundas' or the Sacrificial pits for performance of Homa are of different shapes according to the object desired to be achieved:
योनिकुण्डं वाक्प्रदं स्यादाकृष्टिकरणं भगम् । . लक्ष्मीप्रदं वर्तुलं स्याञ्चन्द्रार्धे हि त्रयं भवेत् ॥ नवत्रिकोणकुण्डं तु खेचरीसिद्धिदायकम् । चतुरनं शान्तिलक्ष्मीपुष्टिवृध्द्यम्बुकारणम् ॥ . षडयं सर्वसपत्तिधनसौभाग्यवर्धनम् । पद्माकं सर्वसंपत्तिकारणं सुरवन्दिते ।। अष्टपत्रं वरारोहे समीहितफलप्रदम् । एतानि सर्वकार्याणि चतुरस्र भवन्ति हि।-ज्ञानार्णवतन्त्रे, २० पटले श्लो०२४-२५ वृत्तं पद्म चतुष्कोणं त्रिषट्कोणं दलेंदुवत् । तोयेशसोमशक्राणां यातुवाय्वोर्यमस्य च ॥
आशासु क्रमतः कुंडं शांतिमुख्येषु कर्मसु ।।-मंत्रमहोदधौ, २५ तरंगे श्लो०६०-६१ 'Samidhs' (Chips of wood), oil, fire' and materials for sacrifice also vary according to the object to be achieved. (See Mantramahodadhi XXV Taranga, Jnānārnava Tantra XX Patala and Nityotsava pp. 170-171.)
Usually the number of 'Ahutis' or oblations to fire in Homa is one tenth of the number of Japa, the number of Tarpana is one-tenth of the number of Ahutis; and the minimum number of Brāhmanas to be feasted is one tenth of the number of Tarpana. Sometimes 'Suvāsinis'
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(Married women) and 'Kumaris' (Virgins) are also feasted. If one cannot afford to feast the number of Brāhmanas stated above, 'Abhişeka' or 'Mārjana' should be performed with Kusha grass dipped in water one tenth of the number of Tarpana, and one tenth of the number of 'Abhiseka' or 'Mārjana' should be the number of Brāhmanas to be feasted.
SIDDHI If success is not attained after completion of one Puraşcarana two or even three puraşcaranas should be performed. If success is not even then attained well known methods of obtaining 'Siddhi' should be employed, because if complete success be attained in respect of a single Mantra, success would be attained in respect of all Mantras and nothing would be impossible to be performed by such a 'Siddha' worshipper:
सम्यक्सिद्वैकमन्त्रस्य पंचांगोपासनेन हि । सर्वे मन्त्राश्च सिध्यन्ति तत्प्रभावात् कुलेश्वरि ।। सम्यक्सिद्वैकमन्त्रस्य नासाध्य विद्यते क्वचित् । बहुमन्त्रवतः पुंसः का कथा शिव एव सः ।।--नित्योत्सवः पृ. १६१
UPACHARA In Tântrik worship the materials used or rites performed are called Upachāras. Commonly they are sixteen in number but sometimes they are more and sometimes less. In the Sanatkumāra Tantra it is said “The Ishtadevatā should be worshipped daily with sixteen Upachāras, or with ten if it is not possible to worship with sixteen, or with five Upachāras if it is not possible to worship with even Ten". Mahānirvānatantra 13th Ullāsa gives the sixteen, ten and five Upachāras in the following verses:
आसनं स्वागतं पाद्यमर्थ्यमाचमनीयकम् । मापर्कस्तथाचम्यं स्नानीय वस्त्रभूषणे ॥२०३।। गन्धपुष्पे धूपदीपो नैवेद्यं वन्दनं तथा ।
देवार्चनासु निर्दिष्टा उपचाराश्च षोडश ॥२०४॥ (1) A seat, (2) welcome, (3) water to wash the feet, (4) offering (of rice, flower, sandal paste, Durvā grass and water in the vessel of kushi), (5) water for rinsing the mouth, (6) Madhuparka (Honey, ghee,
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INTRODUCTICN
milk and curd), (7) water for sipping, (8) water for bathing, (9) clothes (10) ornaments, (11) gandha (scent), (12) flowers, (13) incense, (14) light, (15) edibles, (16) and Vandana (obeisance), are the sixteen offerings prescribed in the worship of Devas.
पाद्यमय॑ञ्चाचमनं मधुपर्काचौ तथा।
गन्धादिपञ्चकं चैते उपचारा दश स्मृताः ।।२०५।। (1) water to wash the feet, (2) offering (of rice, sandal paste, flower, water and Durvā),(3) water (for rinsing the mouth). (4) Madhuparka, (5) water (for sipping), (6) gandha, (7) flowers, (8) incense, (9) light, and (10) edibles. These are known as the ten upachāras.
गन्धपुष्पे धूपदीपौ नैवेयं चापि कालिके ।
पञ्चोपचाराः कथिता देवतायाः प्रपूजने ॥२०६।। (1) Gandha, (2) flowers, (3) incense, (4) light, and (5) edibles, O Kālikā ! are called Panchopachāra in the worship of a deity.
The five upachāras according to the present work however, are set forth in the following verse of the third chapter.
आह्वानं स्थापनं देव्याः सनिधीकरणं तथा।
पूजां विसर्जनं प्राहुर्बुधाः पञ्चोपचारकम् ॥२४॥ (1) Invocation, (2) installation of the goddess, (3) bringing her near to oneself (i. e. one's consciousness), (4) worship and (5) giving her a send off are called by the wise Panchopachāra. Jain Māntrik works generally mention such Panchopachāra Pūjā. Here it must be remembered that word Pūjā here stands for a composite rite in which are offered water for bath, sandal-paste 'Attar' etc. as 'Gandha', flowers, incense, light, rice, edibles and fruits. Amongst the Jains the minimum things offered in Pūjā are these eight from which the Pūjā is called Aşta-Prakārī i. e. eight fold. The Jains have also Pūjās which have either seventeen or twentyone varieties. Really speaking these varieties of Pūjā correspond to the main items in Sodashopachāra worship excluding of course the seat, welcome and obeisance. The Jain rite of offering water and giving bath is preceded by Pancāmộtsuāna in which are included milk, ghee, curd, sugar-candy or sugar-cane-juice and water.
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TANTRIK SADHANA: MAHAPUJA
MĀHÅPOJĀ "The Gandharva Tantra says: " A Mahåpūjā, with all the various articles therefor and complete in all parts, should be performed every month of every year on auspicious days. Besides this, worship of Ishtadevată is a daily work. A Sãdhaka may perform occasional rites when he is capable of thoroughly carrying out those of daily obligation. When he thus becomes an adept in the performance of both the daily and occasional rites, then he may think of performing those which are done for the attainment of a particular end (Kāmya).”
"A great Pūjā, with abundance of materials therefore should be performed on a fourteenth lunar day, or an eighth lunar day, or a full moon day, or between two months (the day between two months or the last day of a month), or on a Mahābhūta day. If the fourteenth day of a dark fortnight be a Tuesday, that day is called a Mahā. bhūta day. Any special performance on this day causes Bhūtas (beings and things) to come within the control of the Sadhaka. Again if there is a conjunction of the Pushya * Nakshatra on that day, performance on that day is productive of countless fruits." (p. 321 Principles of Tantra Vol. II)
* One of the twenty-seven "lunar mansions".
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Mantrayana-Vajrayana
And Tantrism Amongst Buddhists IN course of the foregoing discussion, we have dealt generally with
the Hindu Tantras of all sects of worshippers. We shall now deal with the Buddhist Tantras in particular as they are equally important in the History of Tantras and Mysticism and shall then describe Mysticism amongst Darvishes in a separate section. Finally we shall treat of Mantravāda amongst Jains in comparatively greater details and then in a separate part the contents of the work here published and notes and comments on the works in the appendices and the biographies of the authors thereof.
The Buddhists are divided into two principal sects viz, Mahāyāna and Hinayāna. The Northern Buddhists of Tibet, China and Japan belong to the former sect and they term those of the South i. e. Ceylon, Burma and other places 'Hinayānists' which term is not of a complimentary character. The Mahāyānists i. e. the followers of the Greater Vehicle are so called because they strive for the enlightenment of the whole universe, while the Hinayānists, i.e. the followers of the Lesser Vehicle are so called, because each of the followers seeks Nirvana and Arhatship for himself only. Vajrayāna or Mantrayāna is a development and a branch of the Mahāyāna. Vajrayāna is a form of Tantric Northern Buddhism. At first Buddhism was divided into three Yānas viz, (1) Shrāvakayāna (2) Pratyeka-Buddha Yana and (3) Bodhisattvayāna. With the advent of Padma-Sambhava (the son of the famous Indrabhūti who flourished in circa 717 A. D.) who was the founder of the Mantrayāna school in Tibet, Bodhisattvayāna developed according to Kazi Dawa-Samdup into Vajrayāna and Mantrayāna the same being divided further into the following main divisions: (1) Kriyātantra-Yāna, (2) Charyā or Upāya-tantra-Yāna (3) Yoga-TantraYāna, the last being further subdivided into three (4) Mahā-Yogatantra--Yana, (5) Anuttara-Yoga-tantra-Yāna, (6) Ati-Yoga-tantra
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Yana. The Yogachara school which evolved out of Sunyavada of the Madhyamakas did to an extent contribute to the development of Tantras, but it was the Vajrayana which was the chief contributor.
MANTRAYANA-VAJRAYANA
Vajrayana literally means 'adamantine vehicle' but really 'Sunya vehicle'. Sünyata is called Vajra, because it is firm and sound, cannot be changed, cut or pierced, cannot be burnt, and cannot be destroyed. According to the Madhyamakas Nirvana is Sūnya;according to Yogachara which is a later development of Ṣunyavāda, besides Sünya Vijnāna, a positive element, is present. While according to Vajrayana, besides the two, the element of Mahāsukha 'eternal bliss' is also present. This Vajrayana further introduces the theory of five Dhyani Buddhas,* presiding over five Skandhas, and families of the five Dhyani Buddhas who come forth when needed. Five Bodhisattvas and their Saktis are the first to emanate. It also introduced the worship of various deities with their Saktis and a large number of gods or goddesses and their Sadhanās, Stutis etc. Vajrayana§ can be said to be direct development of the Yogacara school and the Vijnanavāda it inculcates rather than the Madhyamaka school.
Asanga, brother of the famous Vasubandhu, who flourished in the fourth century of the Christian era is said to have introduced
*The five Dhyani Buddhas are Akşobhya presiding over Vijnana Skandha, Vairocana over Rupa Skandha, Ratnasambhava over Vedana Skandha, Amitabha over Samjnä Skandha, and Amoghasiddhi over Samskära Skandha. Their colours are given below. Vajradhara embodies in Himself all the five Dhyani Buddhas, is of blue colour and has two hands crossed on his breast, the right holding an adamant (Vajra) and the left a bell. He is supposed to be over all the Dhyani Buddhas and is called the Sixth. जिनो वैरोचनो ख्यातो रत्नसम्भव एव च । अमिताभोऽमोघसिद्धिरक्षोभ्यश्च प्रकीर्तितः ॥
वर्णा अमीषां सितः पीतो रक्तो हरितमेचकौ ॥ - साधनमाला पृ. ५६८-६९
§ The writer acknowledges his indebtedness for much of the information about Mantrayana and Vajrayana given here to the learned authors of the Introduction to Sadhanamālā,Shaktasampradaya (Gujarati)and Introduction to Shri Chakrasambhāra.
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Tantrism amongst the Buddhists which was transmitted from preceptor to pupil in the most secret manner upto the time of Dharmakirti. The first to openly a vow and preach this doctrine were Saraha, Nagarjuna, Luipada, Padmavajra, Anangavajra and Indrabhūti.
Guhyasamaja alias Śrīsamāja is probably the most authoritative and original work from which Tantrism drew its inspiration. It is written in the form of a Sangīti and believed to have been delivered in an assembly of the faithful by the Sarvatathāgatakāyavākcitta. Dr. B. Bhattacharyya, the learned editor of Sadhanamālā says in his Introduction about this work:
INTRODUCTION
"This is probably the first work of the Tantra school, and Asanga quite conceivably may have had something to do with it, as it is commonly believed that the Tantras were introduced by him from the Tuşita heaven where he was initiated in mysticism by Maitreya. But of course, this view cannot be said to be definite, or to be based on sufficiently strong evidence, and it is very doubtful whether we will ever be in a position to trace the origin of the Tantra in the most precise manner possible."
"Vajrayana incorporated many leading tenets of Mantrayana which was a form of Mahayana Buddhism, where Mantras, Mudras, Mandalas, and gods were given the greatest prominence for the attainment of Siddhis or else Nirvāņa or omniscience." The earliest work of Mantrayana viz. Vidyadharapītaka-forming part of the canonical literature of the Mahasanghikas is not now available; another work of Mantrayana however viz. Mañjushrimūlakalpa is available. It is in the style of Mahāyāna Sūtras in the Sangīti form. Dr. B. Bhattacharyya considers the date of the work to be about 200 A. D.* Mantras and Mudrās therein are not systematised as in the later Vajrayāna works. There is no mention therein of Panchatattva worship. The Mülakalpa mentions Mantrayana but not Vajrayāna which is for the first time mentioned in "Guhyasamāja". Dr. B. Bhattacharyya surmises that there is a history of development of several centuries behind that work and says that if Tantrayāna could be traced to the root probably "the opinion of Sāntarakshita and Kamalaṣila that instructions of Tan
'Winternitz however says: "But his arguments are by no means convincing", that is, to fix the date so early as 200 A. D. See P. 635 History of Indian Literature.
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tras, Mantras, Mudrās and Mandalas were delivered by Buddha himself for the benefit of such of his followers who cared more for the material prosperity than the spiritual” would be found to be correct.
On the authority of Pag Sam Jon Zan he also says that Tántrism was first developed in Uddiyāna and thence transmitted to the other Pithas, Kämākhyā, Sirihatta and Pūrņagiri and the rest of India.
We have mentioned above some of the earliest prominent promulgators of Buddhist Tāntrism. Of them Saraha (633 A. D.) according to both Tārānāth and author of Pag Sam Jon Zan as also Cakrasamvara succession list was one of the earliest promulgator of Buddhist Tántrism. He was also known as Sarahabhadra and Rahulabhadra. Tantrism got publicity with him and therefore its commencement is taken to be seventh century A. D. Heintroduced Buddhakapāla Tantra and Luipā the first Siddhācārya (669 A. D.) the Yogini Sancaryā, Kambala and Padmavajra (693 A. D.) introduced the Hevajratantra, Krsnācāryya (717 A. D.) the Samputatilaka, Lalitavajra (693 A. D.) the three divisions of Krşņayamāritantra, and Dārikapā (753 A. D.) the Kalacakra. We may mention here that the great Tantrika Nāgārjuna flourished in 645 A. D. and was different from Nāgārjuna the founder of the Madhyamaka school who flourished about 150 A. D. The Tantrika Nagarjuna was a prolific writer of Tantras and is said to have imported the worship of Ekajațāx from Bhota i. e. Tibet. Savarīpā (657 A. D.) is another interesting historical figure noted for his magical prowess and can be easily identified as the author of the collection of Mantras distinctly known as Sābara Mantrans. He belonged to the hill tribe called the Savaras or huntsmen in Bengal.
XDr. B. Bhattachâryya's inference-that India knew of no deity as Ekajața before Nā. gārjuna's time-however is unwarranted. The colophon of Ekajațā's Sadhana, in Sadhanamala, does not say so. It only means that the Sadhană was rescued or restored and not that the deity was imported. Besides Nāradiyapurāna Adh. 85 v. 123 actually mentions Ekajațā. Ekajațā is also mentioned in Guhyasamāja at p. 88. Tārā in Näradiya purana Adh.85 is not described with Akşobhya on the crown, nor decked with Mudrās. Kāli, Sarasvati and Bhadrakālicannot therefore be rightly said to be Buddhist in origin.
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INTRODUCTION
He composed a Sādhanā of Kurukullā and was the originator of Vajra. yogini cult where the deity worshipped is of red colour. The Sābara Mantras are referred to by the famous Jain Acharya Haribhadrasūri in his work Šāstravārtāsamuccaya:
मन्त्रादीनां च सामर्थ्य शाबराणामपि स्फुटम् ।
प्रतीतं सर्वलोकेऽपि न चाप्यव्यभिचारि तत् ॥–श्लो. ६२३ ॥ Padmavajra mentioned above also wrote a work named Guhyasiddhi which seenis to have been much popular in Tibet. He advocates there in objectionable rites and practices specially relating to the Mahāmudrā or Sakti. According to him all these rites and practices originated from Buddha himself and were recorded in the work Guhyasamāja alias Srīsamāja. The goal preached by him in the said work is stated as not possible to be reached without the Sakti. It would seem the Panchatattva worship gathered strength from Padmavajra's said work although it must have started about the time of Guhyasamāja. His pupil Anangavajra* (705 A. D.) wrote several works on 'Hevajratantra' introduced by his preceptor. He wrote Prajñopāyaviniscayasiddhi also.
Indrabhūti who flourished about 717 A. D. wrote several works on Tantras and was considered an authority on Vajrayāna and Tantra, long after his time. The Sadhanamālā includes the Sadhanās composed by him named Kurukullā Sādhana. One of his important works viz, Jnānasiddhi describing shortly the principal Vajrayānist doctrines and rites has been discovered and published in the Gaekwad's Oriental Series. This work also preaches that if the kind of knowledge there described is obtained Bodhi can be attained even if one indulges in immoral actions or takes animal food or strong drinks.
Kșşņāchāryya who flourished about 717 A. D. is said to have introduced Tantras in which the male and female deities sit clasping
*Dr. B. Bhattāchāryya in his article 'Glimpses of Vajrayāna' says that Anangavajra renounced Buddhism in his later life and became one of the saints of the Näthapantha, and that he is identified with Gorakşanātha.
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each other. He may be identified with Krsnarāja who introduced worship of Vajrasarasvati. Lakşmīnkarā belonged to the royal family of Uddiyāna and was the sister of the famous Indrabhūti. She wrote an interesting work named 'Advayasiddhi'+ in which she preached certain novel doc trines such as worship of one's own body where all the Gods reside. She said once the truth was known there was no restriction for the worshipper. He may eat or drink anything. He may violate any law and that there was no need to undergo any suffering or to fast or to bathe. She however stated that women of all castes should be respected as they were embodiments of Prajnā. Since her time this new teaching won many adherents who came to be known as Sahajayānists. It would appear that Sahajayāna started with her. We would now mention Dombīheruka (777 A. D.) who is recognised as one of the 84 Siddhas and who wrote on Sahajayāna as well as Vajrayāna. In his work 'Sahaja siddhi' he formulates Kula worship from which come the words Kaulika and Kulācāra. Explaining the word Kula he says that Kulas* are five and originate from the five Dhyāni Buddhas and that the latter are called Kuleshas. This would suggest that Kaulas are Buddhists. The Kaulas declare themselves to be Tantric Hindus. The meaning of Kula and Kaulas in Hindu Tantras is not definite. Although it may be an interesting inquiry whether the Kaulas are Hindus or Buddhists, yet there is practically no difference between the Kaulāchāra and the Tāntric Buddhāchāra.
+ The commingling of Sūnyata with 'Karunā' is 'Advaya' in Vajrayāna. It is the foundation of Sakti worship amongst Buddhists. It is also deified. Heruka and Prajnā are the two deities in whom Sūnyatā and Karuņā are personified. They are in embrace in the Yuganaddha or the Yab-Yum form. * अक्षोभ्यो वज्रमित्युक्तं अमिताभः पद्ममेव च ।
रत्नसंभवो भावरत्नः वैरोचनस्तथागतः ॥
अमोघः कर्ममित्युक्तं कुलान्येतानि संक्षिपेत् ॥ Akşobhya, Vairocana, Amitābha, Rātnasambhava and Amoghasiddhi are the five Dhyāni Buddhas called Kulešas who started Thunderbolt, Lotus, Jewel, Disc (Cakra) and Action families.
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INTRODUCTION
Dombiheruka writes about Mahāsukha which can be had from one's experience. It has four successive stages viz. Ananda, Paramānanda Viramānanda and Sahajananda. During the reign of king Mahīpāla 1st who flourished between 978 A. D. to 1030 A. D. there arose a group of powerful writers on Tantra, like Dipankara, Advayavajra and others and that was the next period of Buddhist Tântric development. The readers who are interested to know the aims and objects of Buddhist Tāntrics may refer to the learned introduction of Dr. B. Bhattāchāryya to Sadhanamālā.
We would here note that of the five kinds of Siddhis described in Patanjalayogasūtrā: ataraq 179: Autor: faga: 118-911 the Siddhis aimed at by the Tântrics are those obtained through the Mantras. The eight great Siddhis of the Buddhists are different from those mentioned in the Yogashāstra.* The Buddhist's Siddhis are (1) Khadga, (2) Añjana, (3) Pādalepa, (4) Antardhāna, (5) Rasa-Rasāyaṇa, (6) Khecara, (7) Bhūcara, (8) Pátāla. The six rites or Satkarma according to Buddhist Tantras are:- Sānti, Vashikaraṇa, Stambhana, Vidveşaņa, Uccātana and Māraṇa, practically the same as mentioned in other classes of Tantras.
The Sadhanā of Suklakurukulla at page 368 ff, mentions the different mental conditions and the dates of the month and the directions to be faced for the due performance of Şatkarma. The deity worshipped for the different rites though same will have different forms, colours and weapons according to the rules regulating the same. Appropriate directions, time, manual gestures (Mudrás) seats and modes of applications of Mantras for the different rites are prescribed also in the work here published.
According to Dr. B. Bhattacharyya, the Mantras of Vajrayāna seem to be a development of the Dharanīs contained in the Vidyadharapītaka mentioned above. The Dharanīs existed in Buddhism from very ancient times and seem to have been devised for those Buddhists
* The eight Siddhis of Yoga viz, Animā and others are covered by the Vaikriya Labdhi (i. e. Siddhi) of the Jains. See 'Senapraśna' p. 76 Answer to quetion 276.
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who cared more for their material welfare than Nirvana. They could not read the Sutras and so they were shortened into Dharanis for being memorised. When further shortened the Dharnis were reduced to Mantras which were sometimes reduced to a single syllable in the form of Bīja * as in the case of Prajnāpāramitā.
HINDU MANTRIC SYSTEM
Dr. B. Bhattacharyya infers Hindu Mantric system to be later than the Buddhist Vajrayana and even that it was incorporated bodily into Hinduism from Buddhism, because he thinks Tantric Mantras make abrupt appearance in Hindu Tantric literature without showing even a faint trace of the earlier and crude stages of development. We beg to differ and point out that Hindu Tantric literature has gradually developed from the Vedas specially the Atharvaveda. Besides what has been stated in the previous section hereof regarding Atharvaveda being the original source of Mantra as well as Tantra we beg to refer the readers to Asurikalpa in which according to the Mantra and Dhyana there given the principal deity Durga is addressed as 'Atharvaṇasya Duhite' and 'Turyavedasya Putri' i. e. daughter of Atharvan.§
It is not only according to Hindu tradition or belief of Hindu Tantrics that Atharvaveda is considered to be the original source from which Tantrism is considered to have developed but also according to Jain authorities. We shall show this by references from two ancient Jain works viz. Vasudeva Hindi by Vachaka Sri Sanghadāsa and
*Buddhist Mantras are of four kinds:-(1) Bija Mantra being monosyllabic (2) Mulamantras are long and may be compared to Hindu Tantrika's Mālāmantras (3) Hṛdaya Mantra being short Mantra for Japa of the principal deity i. e. Ishtadevatā (4) Avaraṇadevată Mantras being generally short Mantras of the deities surrounding the chief deity.
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8 बालेन्दु चेतवणां विकसितनयनां वामहस्त त्रिशूलाम् । दक्षे स्थाल्यंकुशादयां हृदरुणवदनां नागयज्ञोपवीताम् ॥ नानालंकारयुक्तां सुललितवदनां तुर्यवेदस्य पुत्रीम् । दुर्गा पद्मासनस्थामखिलवशकरीमासुरीं त्वां नमामि ॥

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INTRODUCTION
Sūtrakstānga Tīkā by Sīlānkāchārya. This Sanghadāsa is a Bhāshyakārai and is older than even the great Bhāshyakāra Shri Jinabhadragaņiksamáshramana the author of Viseshāvasyaka Bhāshya and Viseshanavati. In his latter work he has mentioned the said Vasudeva Hiņdi calling it Vasudeva charita. We can therefore emphatically state that Sanghadāsa flourished prior to 6th century A. D. In his said work Vasudeva Hindi at p. 151 he has mentioned 'Mantra Niyogas' of Atharvaveda. (2) Similarly Silānka the commentator of Sūtrakritānga refers to Māntric practices of Atharvaveda meant for Abhichāra. See page 169 commentary Sūtrakṣitānga, Āgamodayasamiti Edition.
Not only the Vedas but also the subsequent Hindu literature comprised of Brāhmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Purānas appears to have contributed to the development of Tantras.* We would first refer the readers to what Dr. B. Bhattācharyya says about Vajrayāna at p. XXXVI of his Introduction to Sadhanamāla:"We can thus see that the Vajrayāpa took into account all the good things, tenets, philosophical notions and theories, and incorporated all that was best in Buddhism and probably in Hinduism also, and it was owing to this that it attained great popularily." We would then refer the readers to the several quotations above showing the connection of Tantra and Mantra with Atharvaveda etc. and also the appendix II to 'Shakti and Shakta' by Sir John Woodroffe. We would also refer them then to the work in Gujarati by late D. B. Narmadashankar Mehta entitled "Shākta Sampradāya" which traces the Shakti worship through the different classes of literature beginning from the Vedas. The learned writer quotes the following 'Rik' in praise of Sarasvati from Rigveda at the very start to show the existence of Goddess Sarasvati in Vedic times: gaat praat aftaffstad sarafa5JFT II (Rig. 10, 61,21). He states that the whole of the Vedas may be summarised in two words, 'Yajna' and 'Brahma'. 'Yajna' requires Anuşthāna,
*Wipternitz also says :-"On the other hand, some essential traits of the Tantras can be found as far back as in Atharvaveda, as well as in the Brāhmaṇas and Upanişads." P. 605 History of Indian Literature.
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while 'Brahma' thinking. He then states that Saktivada is connected with the Vedic Upasana Kanda. He then refers to the various Sūktas in praise of Aditi. She is said to be the mother of Gandharvas, Manushyas, Pitaras, Asuras and all Bhutas. Sakti is here worshipped as Mother. She is also called Mahi or Prithvi, Savitri, Gayatri and Sarasvati. Aditi in short is also called Devatamayi. In the Sukta of Uṣādevī, Sakti is praised in the form of Virgin while Sakti in the form of Wife is praised in the Sūkta of Surya. Vaksukta, (Rig. 10-26) and Laksmisūkta in the appendix to Rigveda established worship of Sakti. Further references from Agnirahasyakanda of Yajurveda, Mantropanishad of the Švetāshvatara branch, Chhandogya Upanishad of Sāmaveda, Tāṇdi branch, and Kathaka Upanishad to Surya's wife, Prajna alias Sphuraṇā, Para and Devatāmayī Aditi respectively are given by the said writer in the first chapter of the said work. Vājasaneyi Samhită refers to Ambika (III-57) and Siva (XVI-1). Then the said author traces Saktivāda through Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedāngas.
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In Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Sakti of Brahma is known by the name of Gayatri, Savitri, and Sarasvati. Gayatri is said to be Bhargamayi, Tejomayi and Jyotirmayi. She is called Savitri as she gives birth to the universe. She is Sarasvati as the current of joy (Ananda) of Brahma flows from her. For full exposition of Gāyatri, Gopatha Brahmana (1-30-38), Brihad Aranyaka (7-14) and Maitrāyaṇī (Prapathaka 5) are referred to by the said learned author. He further gives the information given below in Chapter II of his said work. He says that the roots of the technical Tantric terms 'Bindu', 'Bija' and 'Nada' are to be found in the upasana portion of the Aranyakas. They are derived from 'Ikṣaṇa', 'Tapa', and 'Sarjana', of the Vedic literature, and are known as 'Iccha', 'Jnana' and 'Kriya' in Vedanta. This trio of 'Bindu' 'Bija' and 'Nada' is represented by a triangle with a dot in its centre and is known as 'Traipuradhama'. Here 'Bindu' is first divided into 'Parabindu' and 'Aparabindu' and the latter is subdivided into the said 'Trio'. The central dot is the 'Para Bindu' and the
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three points by joining which the triangle is formed are the said "Trio"." The deity presiding over this 'Traipuradhāma' is 'Tripura' and the detailed and complete representation of it is 'Srichakra' and the Vidyā relating to it is 'Srividya'. The other names given to Tripura in the Aranyakas are 'Subhaga' 'Sundari' and 'Ambika'. Kanya, Kumārī, Kātyāyani and Durga are mentioned in Taittiriya Aranyaka. Umā Haimavati and Gauri are equally well-known. The worship of this deity is set forth in Saubhagyakānda which is considered to be a part of Atharvaveda. Some of the Mantras of this Kanda are to be found in Aranyakas in the rites relating to Yajna. Literally their meaning is applicable to the Yajnas, while in reality they relate to the worship of the deity. At page 158 of the said work the learned author says Buddhist Tantrism is evidence of Buddhism having risen from Hinduism and having been ultimately mixed up with it. He also says that apart from Buddhistic Philosophy the Buddhistic literature relating to Vyavahāra-dharma and ordinary rules of conduct was based on the Hindu Tantric literature as the Hindu Tantrics were not particular about Varnashrama-dharma. Referring to the Buddhist Tantra Srichakra Sambhāra he says that worship of Sakti including Mandalas, Bija-Nyāsas, Mantras, Mudras, Upachāras Abhişeka and Dhyana as therein described follows Hindu Tantrashastra, the difference being only in the name of the deities. He says that it would be clear to every critical person that a thing is not changed by being differently named. He further says that as there is extensive Brahmanic Tantric literature relating to Kāli and Srividya, there is extensive Buddhist Tantric literature relating to Tārā. He says that among the Hinayānists also Maņimekhalā is worshipped as the deity presiding over the sea and that there is reference to this deity in 'Mahānipāta' and 'Dasanipata'. We may here translate the verse, rendered in Gujarati by the said learned writer from a Tantra at page 81 of the said work, to show that worship of Sakti is universal:"Maheshvaras call her Sakti, Sankhyas Parā Prakriti, worshippers of the Sun Mahārājnī, Buddhists Tārā, Chārvākas Ashā, Pāshupatas Santā, Jainas Sri, followers of Brahma Sraddha, Vaidikas Gāyatri, and the ignorant
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people Mohini. Referring to the ten Siddha Vidyās, (all of whom are named as emanations of Durgā in Sivapurāna as already shown) the learned writer says that Kāli or Syāmā is much worshipped in the Eastern India, Sundari or Sri in the Southern India, Bhuvaneshvarī in Utkala i. e. Orissa. Tripurā in the Western India but more known under the name of Ambikā and Tárā mainly amongst the Buddhists,
He mentions the fourteen following Upanishads to show the worship of Sakti in the Upanishad period: 1 Tripurā, 2 Tripurātāpinī, 3 Devī, 4 Bahvịcā, 5 Bhāvanā, 6 Sarasvatihțdaya, 7 Sītā, 8 Saubhāgyalakşmi, 9 Kālī, 10 Tārā, 11 Advaitabhāva, 12 Aruņā, 13 Kaula, and 14 Srividyātāraka. He, however, states that Kāli, Tārā, Kaula and Srividyātāraka Upanishads are not traced to the Vedic literature and are later than the rise of Tantrism. Of the Vedāngas he refers to Vyākarana and its philosophy of Sphota' which is Sakti of Brahma and says that the grammarians accept Vāk as Sakti of the soul.
Dr. B. Bhattacharyya states (p. XVIII Introduction to Sā. dhanamālā): "The conception of Gods and Goddesses in the Pauranic literature was so very attractive that the Buddhists in later times could not help incorporating the idea of godhead in their religion; and when they actually did this they deified all important personalities of Buddhism together with the deification of a large number of Buddhistic ideas and philosophical concepts along with a few purely Hindu gods such as Ganesa, Sarasvati etc."
Further Dr. Bhattachāryya himself (at p. XII of his Introduction to Sādhanmālā) states, that the magical conception in India can be traced continuously through Rgveda, the Brāhmanas, Atharvaveda, Kalpasūtras, Dharmasūtras, Purānas, the Tantras, and the Pāncharātras.
We have already traced the development of Hindu Māntric system from Vedas downwards. We would now show its existence in Purānas which would show that when the Buddhists admittedly borrowed from Purānas some of the Hindu Gods and Goddesses and incorporated the idea of godhead in their religion, they could also draw upon the Hindu Mántric system contained therein. Futher we would show by
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references from the earliest available work of Buddhist Mantrayāna viz, Aryamañjushrīmülakalpa itself the existence ofextensive non-Buddhist Māntric literature and particularly the Hindu Mantras and Tantras. We leave it to be judged by the readers whether the evidence adduced proves the existence of ancient Hindu Māntric system or merely a magical conception and also whether it would be correct to state that "Tantric Hinduism drew its inspiration almost wholly from Tântric Buddhism."
Dr. B. Bhattachāryya in his Introduction to Guhyasamāja at p. XXXIV defining Tantra says: "Now for the Tantra to be called a real Tantra there must be the element of Sakti in it. Without Sakti there cannot be a true Tantra or a Tantra par excellence." We may state, however, that even Manjushrikalpa does not restrict the meaning of the term 'Tantra' in this manner. There it means only a systematised Mantrashāstra. Dr. B. Bhattācharyya having not made matters clear in his Introduction to Sadhanamālā as to the connotation of the term "Tantra' as used by him, there is likely to be some confusion. He seems to make a distinction between Tantras of Yoga and Yogatantra classes and others in his Introduction to Guhyasamāja at p. XXXII. He seems therefore to be aware of works which are termed Tantras but do not fall within his above definition.
PURĀNAS Even if the term 'Tantra' is used in the special sense, references to such Tāntric deities with their Saktis are found for intance in Kūrmapurana. In the first Adhyāya Visnu calls Sri his Sakti.
इयं सा परमाशक्तिर्मन्मयी ब्रह्मरूपिणी ।
माया मम प्रियानन्ता ययेदंधार्यते जगत् ॥ श्लो० ३४ In Adhyāya 12 Shivă calls herself Sakti of Maheshvara. Not
मां विद्धि परमां शक्ति महेश्वरसमाश्रयाम् ॥ श्लो० ४८ only that but in verse 88 of the same chapter Himvan describes her as being half the body of Sankara (Sankarārdhasharīrinī). The same Adhyāya 12 includes Sahasranāma of Sivā which is one of the five
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parts of a Tántric Panchanga. The said hymn includes names of many of the Tāntric deities known at present. A very important reference is to be found in the same Adhyaya 12 verse 262 which mentions inter alia Kāpāla Bhairava Yāmala and Vāma shastras which are meant for deluding people, being of Tāmasi nature and opposed to Śruti and Smțiti.
कापालं भैरवं चैव यामलं वाममार्हतम् ।
एवंविधानि चान्यानि मोहनानि तानि तु॥ श्लो. २६२ Similarly Garudapurāna describes Garudavidyā in Adhyāyas 19 and 197 and worship of Tántric deities such as Vişnu, Siva, Sūrya, Ganesha, Hayagriva, Durgā and Tripurā with Mandalas, Mudrās and Nyāsas. It also gives a Sahasranamastotra and a Kavacha of Vişnu both being parts of a Tántric Panchanga. It also gives Panchatattvas and Chakra worship though Panchatattvas known to the later Tantrikas are not described.
Agnipurāna itself says that it contains all the Vidyās:- 89179 fa groSAAT Haag: geferat: 11 Adh. 383 v. 51. What is most important, however, for the present discussion is the fact, that 39th Adhyāya of Agnipurāna enumerates 25 Tantras, which conclusively establishes the existence of Hindu Tantras, contemporaneously with if not prior to Agnipurāna. The limitation of space at our disposal does not allow us to reproduce the said list or the other references given below. The 26th Adhyāya gives Mudrās and the 29th, 30th and 320th Adhyāyas describe Sarvatobhadra and other Mandalas. The 30th Adhyāya further describes 3 kinds of Dhyāna. Adhyāyas 42 to 68 describe characteristics of temples and idols of various Tāntric deities, their installation ceremonies including 'Utsava' as also Jirnoddhāravidhi i. e. repairing or reinstating idols. Then two kinds of Dīkņā are described : Samayadīkņā (Adh. 81) and Nirvāṇadīkșa (Adhs. 83 to 88). Şatkarmas
* पञ्चरात्रं च-इति पाठांतरम् । 1 All references to Puranas are from the publications by Sri Venkateshvara press, Bombay
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are described in Adhyāyas 137 and 138 and various Nyāsas in Adhyāya 145. It is significant that one whole chapter 293 is taken up in the description of the technical terms of Mantra (Mantraparibhāṣā). The 325th Adhyâya gives a Chakra called 'Siddhadyañshakathana' to ascertain whether a particular Mantra will be fruitful or not.
Nāradiyapurāna expressly mentions "Tāntrikas' and Agamoktavidhāna' (Adh. 88 v. 24 and 69). It calls the Māntric portion ‘Mahā. tantra' in its contents (Adh. 97) as also at other places (Adh. 92 v. 21) and gives Mantras, their purification, Dikṣā rite and Kavacha and Sahasranāma stotras of Ganesha, Sūrya, Vişnu, Siva and Sakti. Adhyāya 66 v. 59 mentions Tāntric Sandhyā. Adh. 91, vv. 37–38 contain Dhyāna of Umāpati i. e. Mahesha with Umā in embrace. In course of worship of Sri Ganesha Adh. 68 v. 17 mentions his Dhyāna in which he is accompanied by his Sakti and further on vv. 43-44 mention 'Tarpana' of couples of deities. In Adh. 84 in course of worship of Bhuvaneshi worship of couples of deities is mentioned. Adhyāyas 64 to 91 are taken up with descriptions of Mantras, Kavachas (protective hymns), Sahasranāmas and Stotras of various Tāntric deities, and Mandalas, Mudrās, Nyāsas and Bhūtashuddhi. It is very important that Adhs. 85 to 87 derive ten Mahāvidyās (8 of them being common with those in the current list of Mahavidyās) thus: Vāk or Vāni, Kālī and Tārā as emanations of Sarasvati; Bālā Tripurā, Annapurnā and Bagalāmukhi of Mahalaksmī, and Chinnamastā, Tripurabhairavī, Mātangi and Dhūmāvati of Durgā. This furnishes us with a link in the development of ten Mahāvidyās from 3 Saktis viz, Brāhmī, Vaişņavi and Raudrī. Taking this with the reference from Sivapurāna given in the previous part hereof showing that 10 Mahāvidyās emanated from Durgā and with three forms of Durgā in Durgāsaptashati we are able to infer oneness of Sakti in the beginning. It also shows how Vedic literature has contributed to the development of Sakti worship. The readers will also see that Tārā Chinnamastā and Kālī were not originally Buddhist but Hindu Tântric deities. Finally we would mention Markandeya Purāna which contains the
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famous Durgāsaptashati and state that the antiquarians consider it very ancient and its text untampered by interpolators.
Whatever view as to the date of each of these purānas may be taken it is certain that they are prior to the date when Buddhist Tantras according to Dr. B. Bhattāchāryya became known i. e. about 700 A. D.
NĀGĀRJUNA'S KAKŞAPUTA Dr. B. Bhattacharyya says that Saraha, Nagarjuna and others were chief masters to boldly and publicly preach the Tántric doctrines. Now Nāgārjuna is said to have flourished cir. 645 A. D. He wrote a work named Kaksapuța. This work is published in Calcutta in a collection named Indrajālavidyāsangraha and the above work is called there Siddhanagarjunakaksaputam. At p. 265 of the said work occurs the following passage which speaks for itself and shows the indebtedness of Nagarjuna to Hindu Tantras styled Agamas. It may be noted that it also includes Atharvaņa Mahāveda amongst the Agamas consulted by him for composition of his said work Kakşapuța. He also mentions Sankara as having described in times of yore various modes of attaining success in 'Vidyās' when asked by Pārvati.
संसारे बहु विस्तीर्णे विद्यासिद्धिरनेकधा। प्रोक्तवाञ्छङ्करः पूर्व यदि पृच्छति पार्वती ॥ अन्यैर्देवगणैः सिद्भर्मुनिदेशिकसाधकैः । यद्यदुक्तं हि शास्त्रेषु तत्सर्वमवलोकितम् ॥ शाम्भवे यामले शास्त्रे (शाक्ते v.1.) मौले कौलेयडामरे। स्वच्छन्दे काकुले (लाकुले v.1.) शौचे (शैवे v.1.) राजतन्त्रेऽमृतेश्वरे ॥ उड्डीशे वातुले तंत्रे उच्छिष्टे सिद्धशाबरे। किंकिणी मेरुतंत्रे च काकचंडीश्वरीमते ॥ शाकिनीडाकिनीतंत्रे रौद्रेऽनुग्रहनिरहे । कौतुके शक्तितंत्रे च निराकार गुणोत्तरे ।। हरमेखलके तंत्रे इंद्रजाले रसाणवे।
1 v.I. कालचंडेश्वरे 2 v.1. शाल्यतंत्रे 3 v.1. क्रियाकाल.
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आथर्वणे महावेदे चार्वाक गारुडेऽपि च ॥ इत्येतदागमोक्तं च वक्त्राद्वक्त्रण यच्छ्रतम् ।। तत्सर्व समुद्धत्य दध्नो घृतमिवादरात् ।
साधकानां हितार्थाय मन्त्रखण्डमिहोच्यते ॥ If the work Kakşapuța said to have been composed by Nāgārjuna is the same as the one published and there is none other known-the evidence seems to be conclusive as to the priority of Hindu Tāntrikas and the indebtedness of Buddhist Tāntrikas to the former,
MANJUŚRİMÜLAKALPA Even stronger evidence is furnished by Manjūshrimülakalpa of the ancientness of the Hindu Tantras and Mantras.
Dr. B. Bhattachāryya says about this work in his Introduction to Guhyasamāja that it treats of the Māntric texts of Manjushri Kumārabhūta several times designated therein as Kārttikeya. He is introduced with several Saiva but non-Tântric deities'. It contains practices for obtaining long life, health and happiness and all desired objects. It is in the form of a Sangiti and includes dialogues between Sākyamuni and Kumāra Manjushrī interspersed with querries by the Assembly of the Faithful. He further says: "This work is very important for the history of the development of Tântric ideals, tenets and practices, and provides a landmark in the process of their developments. In this work which has been rightly styled by Dr. Winternitz as a Tântric work we find mention of a large number of gods and goddesses, several ancient works...... a large number of Mudrās, and descriptions of Mandalas with special directions for painting them and innumerable rites for attaining Siddhis or perfections."
"The names of Amitāyus, Amitābha, Locană, Ratnaketu, Vajrapāņi, Avalokiteśvara, Māmaki, Ratnapāņi, etc. are mentioned but not in a systematic form,"
He considers the date of this work to be cir. 200 A. D. It is the earliest available work of Buddhist Mantrayāna.
We do not know why the Saiva deities found in the work are said to be non-Tántric. Kārttikeya alias Skanda himself is a Tāntric deity and so is Siva.
Further there are specific references to Saiva Vaişņava and
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Garuda Tantra and Mantras of Siva, Vişņu, Brahma, Aditya, Garuda, Mahalakṣmi and other deities of Hindu pantheon. There are references also to Laukika (popular) Mantras. This means that Mantras other than those of Buddhist origin called Laukika were prevalent amongst the masses. These must have had their origin in the Vedic literature.* Some time the author of the said work claims that even Laukika Mantras and those of Garuda Tantra and others were promulgated by Bodhisattva. The reader will consider for himself what value should be attached to such claim. The description as Mantrasiddhas of a number of historical and illustrious Hindu personages, such as Arjuna and Asvatthāmā son of the famous Dronacharya of Mahābhārata fame amongst others (see P. 604 ff.) who flourished long prior to the birth of Lord Buddha, proves the existence and practice of the Hindu Mantras even in ancient times. The author of Manjushrikalpa, however, says that they practised one or the other of the Buddhist Mantras. It will be interesting to note that the said work contains a reference to Jain illustrious personages such as Risabha (first Tirthankara of the Jains) his father Nabhi and son Bharata as Mantrasiddhas (see P. 609). The fact that this work calls itself a Tantra is of great importance in fixing the date of the origin of the Buddhist Tantras which will be about 200 A. D. or later if a later date is fixed for the composition of Manjushrīmūlakalpa. Of course if one accepts Dr. B. Bhattacharyya's definition of 'Tantra' this work may not in that sense be called a 'Tantra' but we prefer the evidence of the work itself and consider that 'Tantra' really means a systematised Mantrashastra and not merely a work in which deities are accompanied by their Saktis or where man and woman join in the worship of a deity. We do not consider it a necessary feature of a Tantra. It is only a peculiar
"The great importance of the Atharvaveda-Samhita lies in the very fact that it is an invaluable source of knowledge of the real popular belief as yet uninfluenced by the priestly religion, of the faith in numberless spirits, imps, ghosts and demons of every kind, and of the witchcraft." P. 129 History of Indian Literature by Winternitz.
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feature of most of the Buddhist works since the time of Guhyasamāja. Here are the references mentioned above:--
सर्वस्मिं (sic.) शैवतन्त्रे वै सर्वलौकिकचेष्टितैः ।। पृ.४६८ य एव वैष्णवे तन्त्रे कथिताः कल्पविस्तराः । उपाय वैनेयसत्त्वानां मजघोषेण भाषिताः॥ पृ. ३४ यावन्त: गारुडेतन्त्रे कथिताः कल्पविस्तराः । ते मयैवोदिताः सर्वे सत्त्वानां हितकारणात् ।। पृ. ३४ मन्त्रा सिद्धिं न गच्छेयुः ब्रह्मस्यापि महात्मनः। अनभियुक्ता तन्त्रेऽस्मिन् अदृष्टसमयोदिते ।। पृ.३६ चर्या बोधिसत्त्वानां अचिन्त्या परिकीर्तिता। सर्वमन्त्रेषु तन्त्रोऽयं अचिन्त्यतत्प्रभावतः ।। पृ. ५५९ रुद्रेण भाषिता ये मन्त्रा विष्णुना ब्रह्मणा स्वयम् । तां (sic.) विच्छेद मन्त्रज्ञो विधिदृष्टेन कर्मणा ।। पृ.३६६ आदित्यभाषिता ये मन्त्राः सौम्याश्चैव प्रकीर्तिताः । ऐन्द्रा मन्त्रा प्रसिध्यन्ते पश्चिमे दिशि शोभने । पृ. ३२६ अनेन बद्ध्वा मन्त्रेण कार्तिकेयस्य युक्तितः।। यावन्तो लौकिका मुद्रा शैवाश्चैव सवासवाः ॥ पृ ४९४ त्वदीय कल्पराजे सर्वलौकिक लोकोत्तराणि च मन्त्रतन्त्राणि साधयितव्यानि ।। पृ. १३० यावन्तो लौकिका मन्त्रा शैवाश्चापि सुपूजिता। मन्त्रा गरुत्मने चापि सिद्विहोमफलोन्मुखम् ।। सर्वलौकिकमन्त्रास्तु इन्द्ररुद्रोद्भवोद्भवा । तेस्यु मन्त्रराट् सर्वे निबद्धा विधिहेतुतः ।। पृ. ४६७
CONCLUSION In view of the foregoing it would be clear to the readers that Dr. B. Bhattāchāryya is not right in saying that the Hindus readily incorporated many ideas, doctrines and gods originally conceived by the Buddhists in their religion and literature or that the Hindu Tantras arose only after the Buddhist ideas had established themselves. *
*"It is, however, quite contrary to facts, when B. Bhattācharyya (Sãdhanamālā, pp. IXVI ff., IXXVIII) assumes that the Tantras first came into existence in Buddhism, and went over into Hinduism afterwards." P. 401 History of Indian Literature by Winternitz.
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Even the Tantric Bīja Mantras such as "Om" "Hrim," "Srim" "Bloom" "Aim," "Klim," "Saum" etc, are found in Sarasvatirahasya Upanishad, as well as Tripurātāpini Upanishad. The latter further contains Srividya and many other Vidyas, Mantras, Mudras, as also chakras (Yantras), the several rites for which they are prescribed and also over and above the Shaktamantras, the Mantras of Siva, Viṣņu, Surya and Ganesha. This will convince the reader about the antiquity of the Hindu Mantric system. We would cite here from Arthur Avalon's preface to the Buddhist Tantra Shri Chakrasambhāra, p. XXX :—
"With each fresh acquirement of knowledge as to Buddhism, it seems more difficult to separate it from the Hinduism out of which it emerged, and into which it relapsed."
This however should not be taken to mean that the Buddhist Tantras had no influence whatever on the Hindu Tantras. It is quite possible that Panchatattva worship originated in Tibet (known as Mahachina) and was imported into India and influenced the practices of the Hindu Tantrics. We are however not prepared to concede that because Vajrayāna has Yab-yum deities (i. e. deities in embrace), the worship of Kālī may have been of Buddhist origin. The reason is that worship of Kali is very ancient in India and it is connected with deities described in Vedic literature such as Ratri (See Appendix II to Shakti and Shakta). Besides, the worship of Siva-Sakti in the form of Ardhnārīshvara or 'Samba-Sadashiva' is to be found amongst Hindus from very ancient times. We have already mentioned the existence of worship of deities with their Saktis in Purānas. In further support we would cite from the preface of Shrichakrasambhāra by Arthur Avalon:--
"The Shakta Tantra is also a form of Advaitavada presented in a way suitable for its purpose, namely the practical end of worship. Therein Maya is a Power (Shakti)
"At this late period (when Tara-rahasya of Brahmananda was composed) it also occasionally happened that the Hindu Tantras were influenced by the Buddhist ones." History of Indian Literature p. 401.
* अर्द्धनारीश्वरो भूत्वा ययौ देवस्वयं हरः । शिवपुराण, अ० १५ श्लो०९
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of the Supreme Consciousness. In Northern Buddhism, as in Brahmanism, the Bodhi. sattvas and Devatās are accompanied by their energies (nu-ma) in female form, the Deva being called 'Yab' and his Shakti 'Yum'." PP. XV and XVI.
EXAMINATION OF DR. B. BHATTĀCHĀRYYA'S VIEWS
EXANI
According to Dr. B. Bhattācharyya, the prefix or suffix 'Vajra' to the names of deities is in ninety cases out of a hundred a certain sign of their originating from Buddhism and where gods and goddesses are described as nude and lustful, they also must have had their origin in Buddhism. This is too sweeping a statement to be true. As regards deities whose existence can be shown to be prior to the rise of Vajrayāna the rule would certainly not apply, so the question always remains to be considered whether a deity having vajra in his or her name existed prior to the rise of Vajrayāna. At page 121 of Shree Atmánanda centenary commemoration volume in his article entitled "Jain Iconography-a brief survey," following the same line of reasoning, Dr. B. Bhattā. chāryya says, about Jain Vidyādevis Vajrashỉnkhala and Vajrankushi that they are clearly importations from the Vajrayāna school of Buddhism. If the learned writer had taken care to inquire whether these deities are to be found in any works older than the rise of Vajrayāna, he would not have fallen into this error. We would say that the test itself suggested to ascertain the origin of deities is so crude that the conclusions drawn from it are bound to be faulty. The learned writer being rather more familiar with Buddhist deities is easily led away to infer whenever he sees names either identical or similar to Buddhist deities in other pantheons, that the deities of the latter are really Buddhist. Even when he may not feel certain he ventures into such a statement as "Gandhārī also has a peculiar Buddhist odour." Now the names of all the sixteen Vidyadevis including Vajrashịnkhala, Vajrānkushi and Gandhari* are to be found amongst other works in Nirvānakalikā by Sri Padaliptasūri,
*Gandhäriis one of the forty Vidyās named in Sūtrakstānga II, Sutra 2. We may state that Sūtrakstānga is one of the oldest Jain canonical works. See p. 164 Vasudeva-Hindi where also the name of Gandhari occurs.
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edited with an Introduction by the writer, which is a work of the first century of the Christian era according to him, and is taken to be not later than the second century by others. About the names of Manibhadra and Pūrņabhadra Dr. Bhattacharyya has hinted-by saying that they will be familiar to a student of Buddhist Iconography as the two friends of Jambhala, the (Buddhist) God of Wealth-that their origin also must be Buddhist. Now the names of Purnabhadra and Māņibhadra occur in Sri Bhagvatīsūtra, * one of the most ancient and sacred cannonical works of the Jains. One should not therefore be led away by similarity of names. Vajrayāna naturally stamped the deities it imported from other pantheons with the term Vajra as in case of Sarasvati which is admittedly a deity of the Hindu pantheon. If therefore a deity without the term 'Vajra' is found in other pantheons and with the term 'Vajra' is found in Buddhist pantheon the natural inference would be that it is a Buddhist borrowing from one or the other pantheons.
Further the learned writer says Bhrkuti is Buddhist. Granted that there is a deity named Bhỉkuti in the Buddhist pantheon, does it therefore follow that there cannot be a deity of identical name in any other pantheon unless it is borrowed from the Buddhist. For the matter of that there is a male deity as well as a female deity bearing identical name in the very list of Jain deities given by the said writer in his aforesaid article at pages 116-117. Does the learned writer suggest that although Bhệkuti is a female deity in the Buddhist pantheon there cannot be even a male deity of identical name in any other pantheon. Now we shall deal with the fact that the said list of Jain deities contains also a female deity named Bhrkuti. We shall
Bhagavati Sūtra, Sataka III, Uddeśa 8 p. 201 A. See also Avaśyaka Chūrni p. 320 Ratlām Edn. and Trishashtiśalākāpurushacharitra X Parva 4 Sarga vv 606-607 Agamodayasamiti Edn. where it is stated that Purnabhadra and Mānibhadra used to wor ship Sri Mahāvīra every night during the particular monsoon. See also Vividhatirthakalpa p. 70 where Mānibhadra Yakşa is named.
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apply the test given at page 142 of his Introduction to Sadhanamālā by the said writer himself, viz. similarity or otherwise of the Mantras of the common deities. The Mantra of Buddhist Bhrkuti in Sādha namāla is
IEI". There is no independent worship of the male or female Bhrkutī in the Jain pantheon and their Mantra as given in Achāradinakara is" at 127 FIET.' The Mantras being thus different, it puts a stop to further argument and it must be admitted that except accidental identity of names, there is nothing in common between the Buddhist and the Jain deity. Lastly there being no independent and detailed worship of Bhřkuti current amongst the Jains there was no charm in borrowing a Buddhist name or deity. Further when a set of 24 deities is uniformly given in a pantheon and 23 of them cannot be even distantly shown to have Buddhist connection, how can it be imagined that merely one of them Bhrkuti was borrowed. The Mantras and Svarūpas of Vajrashỉnkhalā, Vajrānkushī, Gandhārī, Bhộkuts and Mānibhadra are given in Nirvāņakalikā (pp. 3,28,35, and 37) and Achāradinakara Vol II (pp. 155,157,162). As they are different from the Mantras and Svarūpas of the respective Buddhist deities of identical names it will convince the reader that there is no case of borrowing here.
We may now refer to two further statements made by Dr. B. Bhattācharyya, for identification of deities. They are with reference to ornamental Mudrās and bearing of a miniature figure of one of the five Dhyāni Buddhas on the crown by a deity. We have nothing to complain against the statements as they stand. We want only to sound a note of warning that Mudrā, in sculptural Tāntric technique is particular disposition of hand and fingers; as such Mudrā aids to the grace and beauty of appearance, in describing any particular statue or idol, it may be described for instance as Jnānamudrā vibhūşită although Jnānamudrā is not an ornament. One should not merely because of the use of the word 'Vibhūsita' jump to the conclusion that an ornamental Mudrā is meant, and that therefore the deity described must be a Buddhist deity. Similarly if one can identify the miniature deity
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borne on the crown of another deity as one of five Dhyani Buddhas he may rightly infer that the particular deity is Buddhist. But one should not jump to such a conclusion merely because one deity bears another deity on the crown. The obvious reason is that in Jain pantheon also Lord Parshvanatha is borne on the crown by Padmavati in many representations and images. There is one other statement of Dr. B. Bhattacharyya in his Introduction to Sadhanamālā (page 33) which we think is unwarranted. For his statement that the Jains borrowed to a certain extent the worthless and immoral practices enjoined in the Tantras (i. e. Buddhist Tantras) and that they could not throw them off even when Buddhism was stamped out of India, the learned writer has not cited any authority. We have already mentioned that Jain Tantrism always remained free from Panchatattva worship. The learned writer proceeds further to attack all Sampradayas calling them organisations for feeding worthless and idle priesthood, and outcome of superstitious belief. He explains that it was so because the Tantric practices were attractive and the Indian people by nature superstitious. Elsewhere in his said article "Jain Iconography a brief survey" (published in 1936) he has stated:
"Such a varied and rich pantheon must necessarily presuppose the existence of widespread Tantric practices amongst the Jains."
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It would appear therefore that his said statement in Sadhanamālā about Jains borrowing worthless and immoral practices must be only a presumption. There being no such practices prevalent at any time amongst Jains, there is no question of their not being able to throw them off.
EARLIER AND LATER TANTRISM
In Sadhanamālā (Vol. I pp. 247 ff.) we would like to note there are Sadhanas of Janguli* for removing the effects of or preventing serpent-bites, which are in Dharani and Sangīti forms and ascribed
*
See Vividha Tirthakalpa, Śrävasti Nagarikalpa p. 70:-See Ibid p. 85.
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to Buddha himself. Similarly the Sādhanā (page 334 Sadhanamālā) of Vajrasarasvati is also said to have originated from Buddha himself. It would appear therefore that the Sangītis, and Dhāranis of Vidyādharapițaka are ancient Buddhist modes of Mantras. They seem to have arisen from the soil of Buddhist sacred literature. We also are inclined to agree with Sāntāraksita and Kamalashila when they say that Mantras were propounded by Buddha himself for certain class of his followers. They must have however been in the form of Şangītis or Dhāraṇīs. I The later Buddhist Tântric development is probably under the influence of Purānas and Hindu Tantrikas, the Panchatattva worship being probably non-Indian. Later Buddhism developed into three grand divisions: Vajrayāna, Sahajayāna and Kalacakrayāna and several minor yānas such as Tantrayāna Bhadrayāna etc.
While concluding this section we may refer to a mystic practice even now current amongst Buddhists of Tibet as described by Alexandara David-Neel in her book entitied "With Mystics and Magicians in Tibet." It is the creation by concentration effected for months and even years on the tutelary deity-Ishtadevtā (called Yidam) of a phantom as a powerful means of protection. This is very similar to 'Dhyāna' prescribed in Mantrasādhanā and the appearance of the deity worshipped to the Sādhaka whenever invoked. There also it is considered a creation of the mind of the Sadhaka. The book also refers to Kundalini Yoga and Telepathy as practised by Tibetans even now.
Winternitz says, having regard to the Chinese translation of Sukhāvati (VIII, 33) made in the 2nd Century A. D, that Dhāraṇīs must be assumed to exist as early as that date, but that it is not possible to trace them to the early days of Buddism, much less to Buddha himself. Ultimately, however, Dhāraņis were completely supplanted by Mantras. Amongst the later Mahayānasūtras the major portion of section II of the prose version of the Käranda-Vyűha and Suvarna-Prabhāsa are in the style of Tantras.
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Mysticism of Darvishes M YSTIC consciousness comes tosome naturally, to some sporadically, IVI and to some by special training.
Mystic consciousness has been methodically cultivated by Hindus, Buddhists, Mohammedans and Christians says Prof. William James in his famous work "The Varieties of Religious Experiences.' He says: "In India, training in mystical insight has been known from time immemorial under the name of Yoga. Yoga means the experimental union of the individual with the divine." The moral discipline and methods employed in the different systems teaching Yoga vary slightly.
Vivekānanda in his 'Rājayoga' says: "That the mind itself has a higher state of existence, beyond reason, a superconscious state, and that when the mind gets to that higher state, then this knowledge beyond reasoning comes... All the different steps in Yoga are intended to bring us scientifically to the superconscious state or Samadhi... Just as unconscious work is beneath consciousness, so there is another work which is above consciousness, and which, also, is not accompanied with the feeling of egoism... There is no feeling of 1, and yet the mind works, desireless, free from restlessness, objectless, bodiless. Then the truth shines in full effulgence, and we know ourselves...free, immortal, omnipotent."
"The Vedāntists say that one may stumble into superconsciousness sporadi. cally, without the previous discipline, but it is then impure." Their test is empirical: its fruits must be good for life. When a man comes out of Samādhi, he remains "enlightened, a age, a prophet, a saint, his whole character changed, his life changed, illumined".
Karl Kellner after carefully comparing the results of Yoga with those of the hypnotic or dreamy states artificially producible by us, says:"It makes of its true disciples good, healthy, and happy men .... By the subjection of his impulses and propensities to his will, and the fixing of the latter upon the ideal of goodness, he becomes a 'personality' hard to influence by others, and thus almost the opposite of what we usually imagine a 'medium' so-called, or 'psychic subject' to be".
Prof. William James says:
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"In the Mohammedan world the Süfi sect and various darvish bodies are the possessors of the mystical tradition. The Sufis have existed in Persia from the earliest times, and as their pantheism is so much at variance wi.h the hot and rigid monotheism of the Arab mind it has been suggested that Sufism must have been inoculated into Islam by Hipdu influences."
Quoting Sir William Jones, Brown the learned author of "The Darvishes' gives the fundamental tenets of the Sufis as follows:
"Their (Süfi's) fundamental tenets are, that nothing exists absolutely but God; that the human soul is an emanation from His essence, and though divided for a time from its heavenly source, will be finally reunited with it; that the highest possible happiness will arise from its reunion, and that the chief good of mankind in this transitory world consists in as perfect ap union with the Eternal Spirit as the incumbrances of a mortal frame will allow; that, for this purpose, they should break all connection (or taälluk, as they call it) with extrinsick objects, and pass through life without attachments, as a swimmer in the ocean strikes freely without the impediment of clothes."
Al-ghazzali a Persian philosopher and theologist, who flourished in the eleventh century, and ranks as one of the greatest doctor of the Moslem Church, says in his auto-biography as quoted by Prof. William James:"The Science of the Sūsis aims at detaching the heart from all that is not God, and at giving to it for sole occupation the meditation of the divine being. Theory being more easy for me than practice, I read (certain books) until I understood all that can be learned by study and hearsay. Then I recognized that what pertains most exclusively to their method is just what no study can grasp, but only transport, ecstasy, and the transformation of the soul. How great, for example, is the difference between koowing the definitions of health, of satiety, with their causes and conditions and being really healthy or filled ...
The first condition for a Süfi is to purge his heart entirely of all that is not God. The next key of the contemplative life consists in the humble prayers which escape from the fervent soul, and in the meditations on God in which the heart is swallowed up entirely. But in reality this is only the beginning of the Sufi life, the end of Sufism being total absorption in God. The intuitions and all that precede are, so to speak, only the threshold for those who enter. ... The transport which one attains by the method of the Sufis is like an immediate perception, as if one touched the objects with one's hand."
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The original sects of the Sufis, it is stated in Malcom's History of Persia are two: the Hülüli or the 'Inspired', and the Ittihadia or the 'Unionists'. Five branches grew out of these viz. (i) Wusūlia or the United (ii) the 'Ashiqia or the 'Loving' (iii) Talqinia or the 'Learned' (iv) Zuriqia (or Zaqia) or the 'Penetrating' (v) Wahidia much resembling the Ittihadia the Unionists, whose chief principle is belief in the Unity of the Deity. We shall say more about the Sufi sects and Darvish Orders in the next section specially dealing with the subject.
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The beginning of Sufism is nothing else than pantheism as shown in the exclamation of Maulana Jalal-ud-din, addressed to his spiritual master,
"O my master, you have completed my doctrine by teaching me that you are God, and that all things are God".
The Sufis compared the creation and God with the rays of the Sun continuously darted forth and reabsorbed and the Sun and the waves of the sea and the sea or the Alphabet and ink with which it is written. Ahmad-ud-din, the disciple of the Shaikh Shubli who was contemporaneous with Murad II, was however condemned by a sentence of the Ulama to be skinned alive, for his teaching that the human soul absorbed in God, or mixed with him, just as rain does with the water of the sea.
Bayazid of Bustām, the founder of Bustamis Order of Darvishes identified himself with the Divinity when he cried out "Glory to me! I am above all things!" Caliph Ali however only said: "I am the living and the speaking Quran."
The spiritualism of the Darvishes having its origin in the religious conceptions of India and Greece differs in many respects from Islamism says John Brown, the learned author of "The Darvishes. " He also says that the existence of Spiritual Principles of the Darvish Orders which existed in Arabia previous to the time of the great and talented Prophet of Islam cannot be doubted. He states further that there are some differences amongst writers of note mostly with regard
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to the estimate placed by each of these upon the character and influence of the Darvishes in the Mussulman world. Muslim authorities including Iqbal Ali Shah, the learned author of 'Islamic Sufism' however deny that Sufism in its origin was in any way connected with or influenced by Aryan or Greek ideas and believe that sufism is an expansion of the esoteric form of the religion of Islam. M. A. Ubicini in his letters on Turkey says:
INTRODUCTION
"Two things must be distinguished among the Darvishes: doctrine and institution. The first is nothing else than the Sufism which existed in the East long previous to the coming of Muhammad."
It is suggested by M. A. Ubicini that of the two great primitive sects existing before the Prophet Muhammad the Meschaiouns (Musha'ioons) or the walkers and the Ischrachaiouns (Ishraqioons) or the contemplatives the former was continued in mutakallim, or metaphysicians, and the latter in the Sufis. H. A. Rose, the editor of Brown's 'The Darvishes', adds however in a footnote that the mutakallimun cannot ber egarded as distinct from the Sufis, or as a school which taught any one definite doctrine.
Sufism of the Darvishes has a strange analogy of doctrine with that of Vedanta, says Brown giving main details of similarity some of which are set forth below. Tne Sufi doctrines are called 'tariqats.' Brahma is the source and origin of all the pantheistic doctrines. Brahma is the Absolute Spirit and the Pure Being of Vedanta. It is the Living Being while the Darvishes contemplate "Hai wa Qayyum" i. e. the "Living and the Eternal." According to Vedanta all except Brahma is Māyā. The Sufis speak of the 'alam-i-misal or 'world of reality'-the 'alam-i-khiyal, the 'world of illusion'. The Sravana, manana and nididhyasana (audition, meditation and contemplation) are the 'Sama' muraqaba, tawajjuh and the Zikr of the Darvish tariqat. The bodha of the Brahman is the 'ilm' and the Jnana is the marifat of the Darvish, without which it is not possible to emancipate the soul. Brown says that all this points out the source and the origin of whatever is pantheistic and mystical in the doctrines of the Darvish tarīgats.
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Dr. M. Hafeez Sayyid Mohamed in his Hindi article 'Sufi's Sādhanā--märga' in the Sadhanānka of the Hindi magazine Kalyana, 1940 identifies 'Dhāt-e-Bahat' or Pure Essence of the Sūfis with (Nirguna) 'Brahma' of the Vedāntist. Just as Brahma manifests in the form of the world because of 'Māyā' which is non-different from 'Brahma'; so also it is through 'Sifāt' or Attributes in the form of the whole creation, which is non-different from Dhāt', that 'Dhāt' is experienced or realized. But all the same Máyā is not itself Brahma nor 'Sifāt' itself 'Dhāt'. An opposite illustration is that of fragrance and flower. Fragrance belongs to the flower but is not itself the flower. 'Sifat' is a manifestation of 'Dhāt.' The soul or 'Rūh' is only a reflection of Amr-e-Rab (Directive energy of God) and therefore there is no difference between the souls.
Pure Dhāt is called by various names viz, Dhāt-e-Sadhaj or uncoloured Dhät, Wujud-e-bahat or Pure Existence. Ghaib-ul-Ghuyub or the Unseen even in thought, Ghāib-e-Mutluq the Absolute Unseen, La Ta'ayyun or the Unlimited, Munqat'a-ul-Isharāt or the dropping of all indications, 'Ayn-ul--Kafur or the Fountain-Reality of camphor, Majhul -ul-Nath or the Undefined by attributes. The four suppositions in Dhāt viz. ilm (knowledge), nūr (light) wujud (existence) and shuhud (self consciousness) are essence itself and not superimposition on essence, just as Sat, Chid and Ananda are the nature or essence of Brahma and not its attributes. Everything is a manifestation of the Deity, but not a Deity in itself; just as every beam of light is not the Sun itself, but a manifestation of the Sun. The Sūtis explain the mystery of the Universe or the origin of things on this theory of Emanation (Tannazzulat or descent). This subject however falls within the province of Haqayiq (Greater Mysteries), and we are chiefly concerned here with Daqayiq (Lesser Mysteries) related to the mystical side of Sūfism.
Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah says:"The Süfi doctrine does not pretend to teach that provided all its tenets are observed, man becomes as God. On the contrary, this can never be. Man, by purging himself of all earthly desire and lust, rids the Heavenly spark in him of earthly things and is
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able thereby to return to God the original nucleus. 'So that naturally man relieved of his earthbound ideas and weaknesses, realizes that the part of him which is God simply returns home."
"Many of the words and terms used by the Sūfīs are not understood by the uninitiated. Perfume, for instance, is the hope of the Divine afflatus-Sleep, meditation or the perfection of God. Wine signifies devotion. The Sūfis often speak of having drunk wine to insensibility. This is naturally misunderstood as it means so devout was their devotion to God that they were entirely under His influence. The tavern is the place of prayer. The tavern-keeper is the Spiritual Head or Leader. Beauty is only spoken of in order to show the perfection of God. Inebriation and drunkenness typify the abstraction of the soul for material things."
THE DARVISH ORDERS According to Von Hammer there were twelve tariqs or orders of Darvishes existing prior to the foundation of the Ottoman empire as set forth below:1. Uwaisi 5. Saqati
9. Qubrāwi 2. 'Ilwāni
6. Qadiri
10. Shāzili 3. Adhami 7. Rifa'i
11. Maulavi 4. Bustāmi 8. Nürbakhshi or 12. Badawi
Suharwardi Twenty-four orders have been instituted since the commencement of the 14th down to the middle of 18th century of the Christian era. Of these later orders the Naqshbandis and the Baqtashis and of the earlier orders the Bustāmīs trace their descent from Abu Bakrus-Siddiq, the first Caliph and all the rest from the fourth Caliph 'Ali. The former are known as Siddiqiā and the latter 'Aliides or Alawīs.
It is said that thirty-seven years after (Hijra) the 'Flight' or ‘Emigration of the Prophet, Archangel Gabriel or Jibrail appeared to Uwais, a native of Karn, in Yaman, and commanded him in the name of the Lord to renounce, and to devote himself to a life of penitence. He had never met the Prophet but when in the battle of Uhud the latter lost two teeth, Uwais in his honour had all his teeth extracted. As Uwais had none for his Pir or spiritual guide, all the Darvishes having no Pir are said to belong to the order of Uwaisis. Both Abu
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Bakr and 'Ali had the prophet for their Pir, not so Uwais. The latter was only 'Ashiq-e-Rasul or the Lover of the Prophet.
The Shaikhs 'Ilwan, Ibrāhīm-ibn-Adham, Bayazid of Bustām, Säri Saqati and others following the example of Uwais founded the orders which took their names and laid down rules of discipline to be followed by the disciples. The most celebrated of such founders as the Pir of the Qadiris, named Shaikh Abdul-Qadir Gilāni (Jilānī) known as Sultan-ul-Aulia or 'the Sovereign of the Saints' and also as Pir Das
We may state here that in earlier times the various orders of Darvishes were not known after the names of their founders but were merely explications of their tenets or principles e. g. Hulūli and Ittihādi etc. We have already mentioned these and others in the foregoing portion of this section. In the footnote by Rose at p. 54 of Brown's 'The Darvishes' a list of 'Approved' (maqbul) Sects * and 'Rejected' (mardūd) sects is given. The latter mentions Hulūli and Hallāji as rejected or mardūd sects. This sect of Hulūlī has long been extinct.
Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah in his work 'Islamic Sūfism' says:"There are some sects, which are known as Sūfis; but which are removed from their inder Court like the Mujassamiyyah (the Corporealists), the Hulūlis (Incarnationists), the Tanāsukkhis (Transmigrationists)."
The first of these sects traces its origin to Abi Halman of of Damascus; and the second, to Munsur Abul Ghayz Hallaj (who lived in Iraq and was a contemporary of Junaid).
Mansur used to say Anal Haq(I am the Truth). He simply there by meant that he was a manifestation of the Truth. Although the fatwa of Mansur's execution was also signed by Junaid, out of regard for the esoteric Shari'at, Junaid said 'Mansur and I are one and the same thing only madness has saved me, and reason ruined him.'
Husain ibn-e-Mansur, and Abu Bakr Shibli gave preference to Ghāib over Huzur; and so in their moments of ecstasy they gave out
* A detailed description of most of these sects and others is given at pp. 23-28 ‘Islamic Sufism'.
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such expression as “I am the Truth" (“Anal Haq”). “There is none under my cloak except God" (Laysafi jubbati siwallah). Others-and they are the vast majority-gave preference to Huzur over Ghāib, like Muhasibi, Junaid, Suhail and Mohamed bin Khalif. These latter are those who take care for this world as well as of the next.
"Ahmad ibn-e-Sabit and his disciples Ahmad ibn-e-Yabūs, Abu Muslim of Khorassan, Shaikh-ul-Ishraq and Omar Khayyam were the exponents of the doctrine of reincarnation basing their arguments on Suratul-Baqara 61-92, Suratul Maidah 55, etc. Druses, who were the followers of Darazi were also believers in it".
The Baqtashis, says Brown, believe in the tanasukh, a system of metempsychosis.
Although originating in Arabia the various tenets or principles of the tarīgs or orders of the Darvishes gained prominence in Persia and Bukhārā. From thence they travelled into Turkey, Syria and Egypt and even along the shores of the Mediterranean, as far as Morocco, and in the East to India. Brown says:"There are many Darvish Orders in Bukhäră, nearly all of the Sunni, or orthodox kind, more closely attached to the dogmas of the Quran and its Prophet than those of Persia, which are almost all Shi'a, and advocates of the Caliph 'Ali." The people of Bukhārā have a strong sympathy with 'Othman, but they are, says Brown, particularly fanatic and hostile to all non-Mussulmans. Brown further says:"The Eastern idea that the spirit or soul returns to this world and lives again in a new body, long after the decease and decay of its primitive corporeal form, is held as true by many of the modern Shaikhs of Persia. With them the belief in the re-existence of the Imam Mahdi is stronger than among any other Muhammadans."
Amongst the Persian Darvishes there are two sects viz. 'Ali Illāhis and Ahl-e-haqq. The former (known as Sabā'iyas) believe in the divinity of 'Ali, while the latter consider that every one may, by superior piety and love of God, become joined to Him or even become God. The readers will be able to identify these respectively with the 'Incarnationists and the followers of Mansur mentioned above.
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Of the various orders of Darvishes the most ancient and the greatest like 'Ilwānīs, the Adhamīs, the Qadiris, the Rifa'is, the Nagshbandis, the Khalwatis, etc. are considered as the cardinals. They call themselves the usuls, or 'originals' and call others the furü' or 'branches' signifying their emanation from the first. "The order of the Naqshbandis and Khalwatis hold however the first rank in the temporal line; the one on account of the conformity of its statutes to the principles of the ten first confraternities, and to the lustre which causes the grandees and principal citizens of the empire to incorporate themselves in it; and the other, because of its being the source of the mother society which gave birth to many others. In the spiritual line, the order of the Qadiris, Maulavis, Baqtāshis, Rifa'is, and the Sa'dis, are the most distinguished, especially the three first, on account of the eminent sanctity of their fourders, of the multitude of the miracles attributed to them, and of the superabundance of the merit which is deemed especially attached to them."
All these different orders of the anchorites have their convents called takiās, khānqās. and Zāwās, spread over different parts of the country.
Although considered as mendicant orders, no Darvish is allowed to beg, especially in public. Baqtăshis are an exception as they deem it meritorious to live by alms. Many however in imitation of Haji Bektāsh their founder, make it a rule to live only by manual labour. * The surplus of the revenues of endowments to their order is distributed among the poor, or is employed in the establishment of private and charitable buildings. The Shaikhs and Darvishes are scrupulously attached to this inviolable principle of their order.
* The doctrine of tawakkul or 'dependence upon God' was carried to excess by the earlier sūris, but in later times instead the duty to live by practice of Kasb or art or industry was inculcated. Pīr Dastagir of the Qadiris is considered in India a patron saint of industries in general. In India the chief orders require the darvishes to live by practice of Kasb.
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Although in no wise bound by any oaths, all being free to change their community or order, and even to return to the world, each one regards it as a sacred duty to end his days in the dress of his order. They are imbued with the spirit of poverty, preserverance, deep humility and perfect submission to their superiors. They are seen moving about with the head bent and the most respectful countenance. "They never salute anyone, particularly the Maulavis and the Baqtashis, except by the name 'Ya Hu"!
Brown says:
"The adoration of the master replaces also for the Darvishes the worship of the Divinity; the end of the being no longer dwelt in the intimate union of the soul with the Creator, but in an absolute conformity to the thoughts of the Shaikh... Such is the first obligation, the only one so to speak, imposed on the Darvish, and expressed by, this species of mental prayer, called rabuta, (rabita?) to which he is not less exact in the performance than the ordinary Mussulman is to his namaz."
INTRODUCTION
We would here give short particulars of the founders of some of the important orders mentioned above.
Shaikh 'Ilwan died at Jedda in 766 A. D; founded the 'Ilwānis. Ibrahim b. Adham died at Damascus in 777 A. D.; founded the
Adhamis.
Bayazid Bustami died at Jabal Bustām, in Syria, in 874 A. D.; founded the Bustāmīs.
Sari saqati died at Baghdad in 907 A. D., founded the Saqatīs. Shaikh 'Abd-ul-Qadir Gilānī died at Baghdad in 1165 A. D. at the age of ninety years founded the Qadiris.
Sa'id Ahmad Rifa'i died in the woods between Baghdad and Basra in 1182 A. D.; founded the Rifa'is.
Shahabud-Din Suharwardi died at Baghdad in 1205; founded the Suharwardis.
Najm-ud-Din Qubra died in Khwarazm in 1220 A. D.; founded the Qubrāwīs.
'Abd-ul-Husain (Hasan b. 'Abd-ul-Jabbar) Shāzilī died at Makka in 1258 A. D.; founded the Shāzilis.
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Jalal-ud-Din ar-Rūmi Maulānā, called the Mullā Khunkār died at Qonia in 1273 A. D.; founded the Maulavis, generally called the 'Turning' or 'Dancing Darvishes'.
Ahmad Badāwī died at Tanta, in Egypt, in 1276 A.D. founded the Badā wis.
Pir Muhammad Baha-ud-Din Naqshband died at Qasr-i'Arifān, in Persia, in 1319 A. D.; founded the Naqshbandis. According to Rose the correct date of his death is 1388 A. D. but the order may be older. It is based upon the principles of the two original fraternities and particularly upon that of the Caliph Abu-Bakr.
Sa'd-ud-Din Jabrā wi died at Jaba, near Damascus in 1335 A. D.; founded the Sa'dis.
Häji Baqtāsh Khurāsāni, called the wali or 'saint' died at Kirshahr, in Asia Minor in 1357 A. D. founded the Baqtashis.
'Umar Khalwati died at Qaisaria in 1397 A. D.; founded the Khalwatis. It is one of the few orders which admit women.*
We now give particulars of some of the orders mentioned in the next section entitled 'The Darvish orders in India'. Shah Ne'matul-lāh Wali is the title by which Shah Nur-ud-Din Yazdi is known. He was born in 1330 A. D. He founded the order of Ne'matullāhis. He travelled widely and possibly visited Afghānistān. He died in 1430 A. D. Timur sent him into an honourable interment at Māhun, in Karman, says Brown.
Qalandar Yusuf Andalūsi, a native of Andalusia in Spain, was for a long time a disciple of Hāji Baqtash, but having been dismissed from his Order on account of his haughty and arrogant character, he made vain efforts to be admitted into the Maulavis, and ended by establishing the Order of Darvishes named after him Qalandarīs. * They *In India all the four main orders viz. the Chistis, the Qadiris, the Suharwardis and the Naqshbandis admit women as murids but they are not made Khalifás or successors to Pirs or Shaikhs. * The Qalandars are not an Order, says Brown. A Qădiri Darvish was named Shābāz -e-Qalandari, as also a Maulavi Darvish named Shams-ud-Din Tabrizi Qalandari,
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have to be perpetually travelling about living on alms. The Qalandarīs are, in view of the treatment of their founder by the Baqtashis and the Maulavis, antagonistic to them.
The Murādīs seem to be an off-shoot of the Naqshbandis. The order may have been founded by Murad, 'the Syrian' who died in 1719 A. D., or by Abdal Murad a companion of Haji Baqtash in the 16th century A. D. In the latter case they may be an offshoot of the Baqtashīs. Haidaria were founded by Qutb-ud-Din Haidar, of Zaush near Nishapur in Khurasan, early in the thirteenth century. They are closely akin to the Rifa'i, and dance on fires. They also wear iron rings on the hands, neck, ears; and even elsewhere-in token of their vow of chastity.
INTRODUCTION
Lastly we may mention the Gulshanis founded by Ibrāhīm Gulshani who died at Cairo in 1533 A. D. They are also called the Roshanis from Dada 'Umr Roshani, preceptor of Ibrahim Gulshani. A sect bearing the name 'Roshanis' had some vogue in North-Western India at or about the same period. Bayazid Ansārī an Afghan known as Pir Roshan born in 1526 A. D. is noted in the Indian History as he and two generations of his descendants headed a formidable resistance to the Mughal power, inflicting at least one grave defeat upon it, and probably succeeding in preventing the complete subjugation of the Afghan hills by the Mughals. Pir Roshan taught that Pīrs are supreme manifestation of God.
We would refer the readers interested in the details of the lives of the saints mentioned above to Brown's 'The Darvishes', Nicholson's 'The Mystics of Islam' and to 'Tazkirat-ul-Aulia' a Persian work or its Gujarati translation entitled 'Muslim Mahātmās'.
DARVISH ORDERS IN INDIA
Sayyid Mohamed Hafeez considers that the Oldest Darvish Order in India is the Chishti Order which traces its origin to Khwajah Abu Abdal Chishti who died in 966 A. D. It was introduced into India by Khwajah Mu'in-ud-Din Chishti of Sistan, a southern district of Afghānistan, where he was born in 1142 A. D. He went to Khurāsān and
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thence to the neighbourhood of Nishāpār near Mashhad. There he became a disciple of Khwājah 'Uthman Chishti Hāruni. After twenty years' discipleship he performed a pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina and thence he travelled through Iraq and Persia in course of which he made the acquaintance of many Sūris such as Shaikh 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani and Khwajah Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtyar Kaki. The latter became one of his disciples. At Baghdad he became acquainted with Najm-udDin Qubră Shiahāb-ud-Din Suhrawardi and other famous sūfīs. He was known as Aftāb-e-Mulk-e-Hind. He came back thence to Herat, Balkh and Ghazni. In 1192 A. D. he came to Delhi with the army of Shihābud-Din Ghuri. At the age of 52 in 1195 A. D. he went to Ajamer which became his permanent residence until his death in 1236 A. D.
Akbar's connection with his tomb at Ajamer is historical. He vowed that if he took the fort of Chitor he would walk on foot from Agra to the tomb of the holy man in Ajamer. The fort was taken in 1568 A. D. He made a similar vow before the birth of Jehangir in 1567 A. D. and for ten successive years he made an annual pilgrimage to it. His last pilgrimage seems to have been in 1579 A. D. The spiritual descendants of Khwājah Mu'in-ud-Din Chishti have been among the most famous Saints of India. Hazrat Nizām-ud-din Awliya* of Delhi was his great grand pupil whose spiritual descendants are called Nizāmis. Similarly his another great grand pupil was Hazrat Makhdum, 'Ala-ud-Din 'Ali Ahmad Sabir of Pirankalir (near Ruraki) whose spiritual descendants are called Sabiris.
Qutb Minar at Delhi according to some is named after Kwajah Qutb-ud-Din friend and pupil of Mulin-ud-Din. Both died in 1236.
*Both Khiljis and Tughlags were closely connected with him. The proverb 'Dilhidfir. hai'i.e. 'Delhi is a long way off' arose out of his reply on being informed of Ghiyåsuddio Tughlag's coming to get moneys alleged to have been deposited with him. Ghiyåsuddin died on his way by the fall of a house and never reached Delhi. Nizamuddin died in 1325 A. D.
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INTRODUCTION
Nizam-ud-Din died in 1325 A. D., and Mukhdum 'Ala-ud-Din died in 1291 A. D. Nizâm-ud-Din Awliya left as his khalifah Nasir-udDin Muhamad, the Lamp of Delhi (Chiragh-e-Dilhi) who died in 1356. A. D. There followed a long line of saints in this order, who became so well known that the Chishti fraternity spread far and wide, One of the most important of these later saints was Shaikh Salim Chishti. He exerted a potent influence in the lives of the Mughul emperors and the royal families of his time. The emperor Jehangir was born in his house, and the saint himself lies buried in a beautiful tomb at Fatehpur Sikri.
During the two centuries following the death of Shaikh Salim Chishti in A. D. 1572, the Chishti movement experienced a period of decay, which became very marked by the middle of the eighteenth century. Towards the close of that century a revival of the order throughout the Punjab and Sind was led by Khwājah Nur Muhammad Oiblah-e-Alam, who was by ancestry a Rajput, and not of Sayyid origin, as had been the case of the former great leaders of the fraternity. Therefore, as Rose points out "it would seem that in a sense the modern rise of the Chishti sect marks an indigenous revival of Islam, under religious leaders of local tribes, instead of the older Sayyid families."
Another order found in India is that of Suhrawardis. One of the sons or immediate descendant of Abul Najīb brought his teaching to India. The Nizam of Hyderabad, says Rose, the Editor of Brown's "The Darvishes," claims spiritual descent as a murid from Shiahāb-ud -Din, who according to Brown founded Suhrawardīs and died in 1206 A. D. Acording to another authority he was the founder of Nürbakhshis who are usually held to be identical with Suhrawardis.
An offshoot af this Order of Suhrawardis is the Indian Order of the Jalālis ascribed to the saint Sayyid Jalal-ud Din, a disciple of Baha-ul-Haqg, the Suhrawardi of Multan. The Jalalis have many curious practices. At initiation they shave completely the head, face,
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and body, burn their clothes, and are branded on the right shoulder. They also wear glass bracelets like those worn by women. This order is regarded as one of the orthodox fraternities which conform to the Shara' or Shari'at.
Brown states that there is a Takia at Constantinople for the wandering Darvishes of India which is called Hindilar Takiasi. He also says that the greater part of the Darvishes visiting Constantinople belong to the orders of the Naqshbandis, Qadiris, Chishtis, Kubrāwis, Ne'matullahis, and Qalandaris. Dr. M. Hafeez Sayyid Mohamed in his Hindi article on 'Sūfi Sādhanā Mārga' in the 'Sādhanānka' of the Hindi magazine Kalyāna,' mentions only the four Orders of the Naqshbandīs, Qadiris, Chishtis and Suhrawardis probably because they are the major Orders in India. Even in Bombay over and above the said four Orders of Darvishes there are the orders of Rifa'iyā, Shaziliya and Qalandariyā, the last however is not considered a distinct or regular Order. (See p.94 'The Darvishes'). Of course the Darvishes of the four orders firstly mentioned above are in majority.
There are also Darvishes belonging to other Orders or offshoots of the main Orders of comparatively lesser importance or without regular silsilā to be found in some parts of India. There are for instance Madariyāhs who are followers of Zinda Shah Madār of Syria whose shrine is at Makanpur in Oudh. Then there are Sa'dis Nūrbakshis,* Muradis, Shatáriás as well as Haidaris. The writer is informed that sometimes at some places in India are found Darvishes of other Orders also, but generally they are wandering Darvishes only temporarily there.
It was through the missionaries of various Orders coming from beyond the North-Western frontier and from Iraq from time to time commencing from the close of the twelfth century of the Christian
*It is a branch of the Naqshbandis and knowo chiefly in Kashmir. Sayyid 'Ali Hamdāpi alias Amir Kabir Ali the Second, its founder, came to Kashmir in 1380 A.D. with 700 disciples, and died about 1386 A.D. at Pakhli. He is known as the apostle of Kashmir. Nürbakshis said to be identical with Suhrawardis are different.
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INTRODUCTION
era that Süfi doctrines and practices have been chiefly introduced into India. Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah says in his work 'Islamic Sūfism':
"Sūfism with its warm mystical yearning after union and fellowship with God, nowhere found a more suitable soil in which to thrive than India, where the very atmosphere was charged with a deep religious longing to find God, with the result that to-day it is estimated that fully two-thirds of India's Moslem population are under the influende of some one or other of the darvish Orders."
During the time of the Sultans of Gujarat many saintly persons came to Gujarat to propagate Islamic faith and settled there. Ten families of Sayyids, who so settled, are mentioned in Mirat-e-Ahmadi. Amongst them the Bukhari Sayyids Hazarat-e-Qutb-e-'Alam and his second son Hazarat-e-Shah 'Alam and their descendants became very famous and wielded great influence over the Sultans of Gujarat. The descendants of Shah 'Alam became known as Shāhiya Sayyids and those of his brother as Qutbia Sayyids. Shah 'Alam's title came to be publicly known through Shah Barek Ullah Chistī (the successor or Nizamuddin Awliä of Delhi) thus:- Shah 'Alam was given by the latter a pot of baked beans to be carried home. On the way a deaf, dumb and blind drummer, who miraculously regained all his senses by Shah 'Alam's touch, announced him out of joy as Shah 'Alam by beating of his drum. The proverb thence became current that "the Chistis baked and the Bukhāris ate." Sultan Muzaffar, who had several years before he became Sultan became a disciple of Qutb-ul-Aqtab Makhdum-e-Jahanian,grand-father of Qutb-e-Alam, personally received the latter when he came to Patan, in Gujarat, in 1399 A. D. at the age of 12 years. Both Qutb-e-'Alam and Shah 'Alam were great mystics. Many miracles are attributed to both of them. Shah 'Alam became particularly famous as visitors to him had their pockets mysteriously filled with money on their return. He was at the age of seventeen appointed the head of Maghrabia Order by Shaikh Ahmad Khattu called Ganj Baksh or Treasure bestower (who died in 1446 A. D.). Qutb-e-'Alam died in 1454 A.D., and Shah 'Alam in 1477 A. D. at the age of 63. Shah 'Alam's beautiful mausoleum can yet be seen at Ahmedabad.
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The Sayyid families next mentioned are Qādariyā and Rifā'iä particulars of which have been already given in the previous section hereof.
Then come four families. Mashhadi Sayyids were sons of Sayyid Sharaf-ud-din, the son-in-law of Makhdum-e-Jahanian; they are buried at Broach. Tirmizi Sayyids were descendants of Makhdum' Sayyid Yahya, successor of Makhdum-e-Jahanian. Makhdum Sayyid Yahya was buried outside Baroda. Bhaktari Sayyids were descendants of Sayyid Badr Bhaktari, another successor of Makhdum-e-Jahanian. Zaidia Sayyids were followers of Sayyid Usman, surnamed' Sham'-eBurhani', the eldest son of Qutb-e-'Alam.
Then come Idrusia Sayyids sons of Sharif Abu Bakr Idrūs, chief of Hadramaut in Arabia. He was buried in Jhaveri wādā of Ahmedabad. His descendants are found in Broach and Surat to this day.
The remaining two families are Shirazi and Arizi (Uraizi ?)Sayyids.
Readers interested in details of the lives of these saints are referred to Mirat-e-Ahmadi published in G. O. Series, Baroda.
A number of Darvishes belonging to different religious orders introduced into India became influential guides of sovereigns, not only in spiritual but in political affairs as well. During life thay enjoyed popular and royal favour; and after their death their tombs became places of pilgrimage for multitudes of devout Moslems.
“The khānqāh (monastery) exercises extensive influence for good or ill in the religious life of the Moslems of India who have elected to follow a spiritual guide, for the various darvish fraternities touch all classes, excepting those who have been influenced by modern education or extreme Wahhabi teachings.
"The effort to effect union of man's soul with God, which is deemed the highest bliss, is the chief function of the religious orders. Thus Sufism has provided the objective or philosophy of life while it remains for the darvish orders to apply the philosophy to the every day needs of the man in the street."
One who guides a pupil for the purpose is called Murshid, Shaikh or Pir and the pupil Murid. The pupil is a traveller (sālik) on the way tariqah). He is to be guided by the Pir until he has advanced
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through the various stages (maqamat) of divine illumination (khatarāt). Various orders of Sufis differ from one another in respect of the rules of meditation (fikr) and ritualistic observance (dhikr) prescribed for regulation of the divine illumination.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES Of the religious practices dhikr (remembering or reciting) has for its object the production of spiritual ecstasy (Wajd). It is of two kinds dhikr-e-jali (perceptible dhikr) and dhikr-e-khafi (imperceptible dhikr). There is a still further advanced khafi form in which the Şalik shuts his eyes, closes his lips and fixes his attention on his inhalations and exhalations. With exhalations he says "La ilāha" (There is no God) ... he annihilates all external objects and with inhalations he thinks he says 'ill-al-lah' (except Allāh). A darvish thinks there is a still more advanced form of dhikr-e-khafi. Every person in his breathing consciously or unconsciously utters the name Allāh, the syllable "Al" being the natural sound produced by the incoming breath, and "lāh" being the natural sound of the outgoing breath.
In India the vociferous form of dhikr is frequently met with. The technique is uttering "Lā ilāha" he throws his head downward towards his right side and then bringing it back he throws it down. ward towards the left side shouting "ill-al-lāh". As he proceeds his shouts become louder and his actions grow more violent, until finally, in utter exhaustion, he sinks back in a stupor, which is generally called a state of ecstasy (wajd).
Unlike the Naqshbandi Sūfis Chishtīs enjoin upon their disciples to perform their recitations in a louder tone. Besides this there is a difference of technique between the parent Order of the Naqshbandis and Chishtīs. Audition or Samā' is not only permissible in the practices of the Chishti Order, but actually recommended.
From another point of view dhikr is of two kinds: one is practised alone and the other by a congregation or group. The first kind is already described. For the second kind, in India, meetings are usually
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held on Thursday evenings; but there seems to be no such attempt to make public displays of them as is the case in Egypt at the present time, and as used to be the case in Turkey.
According to the early School of Sūfis the Initiate must pass through our stages before he can gain reunion with God. Four veils obscure his sight one of which is removed at every stage until Perfection is attained. The first stage is humanity called Hast. The second is called Tarīqat, or the obtaining of potentiality. At this stage the disciple may lay aside all religious observances and think only on the delights of contemplation. The third stage is 'Araff signifying a condition of knowledge akin to inspiration equalling that of the Indian yogi through ‘Samadhi' or that of the angels. He now possesses occult powers. The fourth stage is Haqīqut-Truth. The utmost degree of purity and spiritual thought makes this possible; the man now becomes a saint. He can now commune direct with God, the Divine Sun of whom he is but a spark.
The Qadiris, unlike the Naqshbundis recite in a loud voice the names and attributes of God. There is practically no difference between the Qadiris and Chishtis. The method is two-fold; the recitation of God's name and the recitation of negative and affirmative Kalimā viz. confession of Islamic faith as to God's unity.
“The former is divided into four manners, the first being the recitation of the words, Allāh, Allāh, Allah-God, God, God, with utmost vigour and zeal, in a loud voice, till he becomes out of breath. Then he should tarry awhile and after regaining his breath the wayfarer should begin the recitation in the same way, and continue the process.
“The second manner is that he should repeat the word "Allah" once over his right knee and then over his left knee while sitting in a knee-folded attitude of prayer.
"In the third manner he should proclaim the name of Allāh in a loud voice once over his right knee, then over his left knee, and the third time over where his heart is situated, sitting, as he may be, during the process, with his legs folded.
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"Finally, in the fourth manner, the wayfarer should recite the name of Allah once over his right knee, then over his left knee, and again over where his heart is and the fourth Darb, or Impact, should be vigorously pronounced just in front of himself.
INTRODUCTION
"In the practice of Negative and Affirmative Recitation, the wayfarer should close his eyes, facing Mecca-ward, then begin the recitation of the sentence: Lailah Illallah- "There is no God except God" by starting the phrase Lailah- "There is no God-" from the navel bring it up to his right side where Illal-except-is to be uttered, and finally Lah, to be carried to the left side where the heart is, and finished at that point. It is necessary, however, to concentrate upon the inner meaning of the Negative of all that is not God and in Affirmative of God's Existence..
"The recitation in these manners, uttered in a loud voice, is considered to be conducive of concentration so that the voice of the Wayfarer should drown all other external voices and sounds that detract the attention; and it is further recommended that after the prayer of morning and late afternoon, the Brothers of the Order should sit in a circle in order to perform this recitation in a loud voice in the presence of their Spiritual Guide.
"Anotherspiritual exercise consists of reciting mutely:Allāho-Sami,' Allaho-Baseer, Allaho-'Alleem-God hears, God sees, God knows all. The Sufi should commence with the first name at the point of the navel, carrying the next name to the chest upward and finishing towards the sky with his head upraised. The process is to be repeated in its reverse direction and finished at the navel with the order of the names reversed. The spiritual excellence is reached through continual Meditation and Recitation of the above Methods."
While concluding we shall quote Prof. William James' remarks on the authoritativeness of the mystic consciousness.
"(1) Mystical states, when well developed, usually are, and have the right to be, absolutely authoritative over the individuals to whom they come.
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(2) No authority emanates from them which should make it a duty for those who stand outside of them to accept their revelations uncritically.
(3) They break down the authority of the non-mystical or rationalistic consciousness, based upon the understanding and the senses alone. They show it to be only one kind of consciousness. They open out the possibility of other orders of truth, in which, so far as anything in us vitally responds to them, we may freely continue to have faith."
THE AULIA OR SAINTS.
The Darvish orders put full faith in all the grades of spiritually superior men and angelic beings. The former are termed Auliã or saints. They are designated "the friends of God who fear nothing." "They are those who among men are the nearest united to God, and who consequently enjoy His most intimate presence." "They are favoured with spiritual visions and apparitions, and frequent intercourse with angelic visitors, who appear to them in that semi-existence called a state of bodily slumber. In this world the saint hears the will of God, and in the other he understands it."
Khizr is called the chief of all the auliás, or saints. It is said that the tariqats or paths, are Ali's, and the shari'at or holy law, is the Prophet's. Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah, the learned author of Islamic Sūfism says therein:"Walis are those who are annihilated in their selves, and are an eternal in the beatific vision. There are always 4000 awliya in the world, who keep it going; of these, in the order of ascendancy, are 300 akhyar, and of these latter 40 are abrar, of these latter again, seven are abdals. Then 4 autads, 3 naqibs, and the head of them all is Qutub (the pole around which the existence turns), or Ghaus."
There is a hadīth, or traditional saying, of the Prophet: "If your hearts be oppressed with sorrow, go, seek consolation at the graves of the holy dead." Mussulmans in general pray at the tombs of those whom they consider reputed saints (Auliā), says Brown. They implore their intercession on their behalf. "Belief is also entertained that the souls of departed saints visit the graves where their material remains were entered: so that the way-farer, by blessing such souls, may receive spiritual guidance from the deceased saints by means of
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INTRODUCTION
meditation." "The doctrine of Baruz, in which the rih of a departed saint could foster and cherish and guide the rüh of a living man was in favour with the Sūfis. The rüh is neither within nor without the body; only its vision is on the body, the rüh of a departed "friend of God" could guide the rūh of a living man on whom it has fixed its vision."
Prayer is also offered at ordinary graves for the benefit of the soul of the deceased. If the deceased be in Paradise, the prayer is conveyed as an offering to the happy soul, if in hell it aids it out of that place of punishment. The practice, however, should not be confused with Grave Worship; for in Sufism worship is only intended for One God and to no man excepting the Prophet Mohammed.
Many of the takiās of Darvishes are erected at, or even over, the tombs of eminently pious shaikhs, or other holy men. Much reverence is shown to them irrespective of the position the deceased may have held in the world. At many such Dargāhs lamps are kept burning as emblems of spiritual light shed around. Costly shawls and embroidered cloth are spread over them. With a view to procure relief, through their saintly intercession, from sickness, mis-fortune, sterility, etc. vows called Nazr, are offered up at them by visitors. Miraculous results are declared to have occured at these tombs. Lights are often seen to float over them, or to lead to them.
MIRACULOUS PRACTICES The spiritual exercises of those of the Order of the Rifa'is embrace nearly all those of the other Orders. They excel others in these excercises. The Rifā'īs are the only ones who use fire in their devotions. It is in the last and ecstatic stage of their devotion called Hälat. Then they make use of red-hot irons. Even cutlasses and other sharp -pointed iron instruments are stuck by them with fury into their sides, arms and legs. Over the red-hot irons the Shaikh first recites some prayers and invokes the founder of the Order Ahmad-ur-Rifā'i, and breathes over them before delivering same to the Darvishes. The latter transported by frenzy, seize and gloat upon them tenderly, lick them, bite
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them, hold them between their teeth, and end by cooling them in their mouths. All stoically bear up against the pain which they experience with apparent gaiety. Some time after this the Shaikh walks round and breathes upon the wounds of each of them, rubs them with saliva, recites prayers over them and promises them speedy cures. It is said that twenty-four hours afterwards nothing is to be seen of their wounds.
After the Rifā'īs, the Sa'dis have also the reputation of performing miracles, pretty much of the same sort. To them are ascribed powers especially to handle snakes as they please.
Maulānā Jalal-ud-din the founder of the Maulvi Order could through his spiritual power become invisible to ordinary sight, and would, when absorbed in pious and fervid love for Allah rise upwards in the air and was more than once prevented from entirely disappearing from amongst his devoted companions only by means of music.
MAGIC E. Rehatsek in a paper entitled 'Magic' published in the Journal of The Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay, 1879 says:
"Spiritual magic is either licit or illicit, i. e. divine or Satanic; but there is yet a third kind, which, although it does not belong to the former, can nevertheless not be classed with the latter; most of its branches are however considered licit, and it has been called natural magic (or Simya).
Divine Magic-"There are also prayers, the recitation of which will procure the aid of genii, but everything is accomplished by appropriately uttering the great names of God. The ineffable name was engraved on the Seal ring of Solomon* (Sulaiman) and by means of it he subjected to his dominion not only genii and men, but animals and the powers of nature. This greatest name (Ism-e-a'zam) is revealed only to few holy men, and others must content themselves with the lesser ones,
* Muhr-e-Sulaiman i.e. Sulaiman's or Solomon's scal consisted of two inverted triangles forming the Tantrik Şatkoņa.
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or even with those of the Prophet or the angels, which are also written together with verses from the Korān and used as charms in a variety of occasions. *** Amulets, formulas or recipes against diseases, talismans, and the operations of a magic nature with prayers verses from the Korān, and invocations with great names belong to this branch, and some consider that even sorcery practised for benevolent purposes is a part of divine magic." Such magic is called Ulwi and all other magicSifli.S The former derives its power from revealed Scriptures, God, His Prophet, or superior angels, while the latter derives its power from non-revealed texts and lower entities.
Satanic Magic-The 'Black Art' is called Şehr, and believed nearly always to depend on the agency of evil spirits. By means of enchantment or Sorcery persons may be afflicted with various kinds of diseases and harassed in various ways.
CHARMS AND TALISMANS "They (Shaikhs and Darvishes) claim the power of interpreting dreams, and of healing, by means of spiritual remedies, both mental and bodily diseases. These remedies consist in exorcisings, and prayers" written on small rolls of paper and taken generally from the two chapters of the Qurān which refer to the work of malevolence, enchantments, witchcrafts, etc. Some invalids are asked to throw them into a cup of water, and drink the same afterwards, others are asked to carry them on their persons or in their pockets or to hang them around their necks for fifteen thirty or sixty days reciting now and then certain prayers. Some invalids are treated by the Shaikh or Darvish placing his hand on his head, making mysterious breathings on his person and touching the suffering parts. Not only to the sick but also to the healthy, as preservations against physical ailments and even wounds
$ There are many Mantras current amongst the people generally as also amongst some of the Darvishes in which invocation with the name of God is mixed up with that with the names of Auliás, Pirs, and other persons as also Hindu deities-such as Janjiras for self protection and others. All of them are considered Sifliby the Muhammedans.
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of an enemy-also moral afflictions, are these rolls called Nuskbās, or hamāils (talismans) given, and the Shaikhs say they possess virtue only when given by their own hands, These often contain magic squares, wifq, or figures. They are retained by some on their person all their lives in small trinkets of gold and silver; others fasten them on their arms, or place them on the upper part of their caps or turbans, others again suspend them around their necks with a cord of gold or silk.
DIVINERS Brown says that there is another class supposed by many to be Darvishes, but not really so-known as Khavāsjīlar, They are diviners though dressed like Darvishes and wearing green turbans. By means of 'ilm-e-ramal and by cabalistic calculations, (generally of the numerical value of letters comprised in the names of parties concerned) and consultation of the four elements, 'anāsīr-e-'arba' (to ascertain which of them predominates in the person's system) a nuskhā or charm is written out and delivered to the applicant. These nuskhās are composed of verses from the Qurān, to which is connected a belief of peculiar power in especial cases and are hung about the necks. They are sometimes not from the Qurān but are the original handwritings of certain highly reputed holy men. One kind of these writings is called istikhārā (seeking good; knowing what is best) and are placed under the pillow to influence the dreams of the sleeper or cause visits from benevolent spirits to the sufferer, and to respond to the wishes of the applicant. Istikhārā is according to some divination by means of tasbih or rosary. It is attributed to one of the Prophet's wives. The diviner after repeating Fātiņā (the opening chapter of the Qurân), breathes on the rosary in order to put the magic power of the chapter into the beads. Then he seizes a particular bead and counts towards the 'pointer saying "God, Muhammad, Abu Jahal" or according to some "Adam, Eve, the Devil." If the count ends with Abu Jahal's name or the Devil's the omen is bad, if it ends with God's or Adam's the omen is good, in other cases doubtful.
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ASMA-UL-'HUSNA As amongst Tantrikas Mantras are recited. So among the Darvishes and Mohammedans generally, the names of God are recited. Miraculous effects are attributed to them. Ninety-nine names of God are generally known, although according to Redhouse they may go upto a thousand and one (See also 'The Darvishes' p. 135). In the latter case they may be compared to 'Sahasranāma' and in the former to 'Satanāma' well-known amongst the Tantrikas. These names are called in the Quran the Asmā-ul-'Inisia or 'excellent names.' These names are used as invocations, or as calls upon Him. The Moslems call them the Asma-ul-sifat or names expressing atlritutes. It is believed, hese include the famous Ism-e-Azam or His great name which has the most miraculous powers. The names are divided into two groups, the Asmā-ul-jalalia, or 'awe inspiring,' and the Asma-ul-janälia, or'glorious' attributes, the former being the more numerous. Another more common division is into three classes, of wisdom, power, and goodness, each class containing thirty three names. The tasbih-rosary of ninety-nine beads is also divided into three corresponding sections by oblong separators at which (separators) Kalima is repeated. Most people say 'Allāh' at each bead while some say the ninety-nine names or attributes of God one at each bead. The practice has its origin in the following verse of Qurān. "O believers in the unity of Allah, and the mission of His Prophet) repeat the name of Allāh, ad count His names, night and morning". The rules of almost all darvishes* require them to repeat often during a day the seven first attributes of the Divinity. They call these attributes asmā-e-Ilahi (Names of God). These are as follows:
*The Qadiris recite the following seven pames:-(1) La ilaha ill'Allåb, 100,000 times, light blue (2) Allāh, 78,586 times, light yellow (3) Ism-e-Hũ, 44, 630 times, light red (4) Ism-e-Hai, 20,092 times, light white (5) Wahid 93420 times, light green (6) 'Aziz, 74,644 times, light black (7) Wadud 30,202 times, po light. See p. 106 'The Darvishes' for further information.
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1. "La ilāh ill' Allāh! (There is no God but Allah), a confe
ssion of his unity. 2. Ya Allāh! (0 God), an exclamation referring to Him, the
Almighty. 3. Ya Hū! (O Him), He who is. An authentic acknowledgment
of His eternal existence. 4. Ya Haqq! (O just God). 5. Ya Hai! (Ya Haiyo !) (O living God). 6. Yā Qayyum ! (O existing God). 7. Ya Qahhār! (O punishing God).
These seven attributes allude to the seven heavens called the Sab'āsamā, and the seven Divine lights, called the anwar-e-Ilāhī from which seven principal colours viz, white, black, red, yellow, blue, deep green and light green, are said to emanate. The initiation of Darvishes is generally by means of these mysteries. The Shaikh, that is the chief of the Order breathes thrice into the ear of the pupil each of these attributes in sequel but at interval of days months or years according to the spiritual advancement and disposition of the candidates. The full period is called Chilla and extends over several months and sometimes even more. The Shaikh in his capacity as spiritual guide is called murshid and the candidate during his novitiate is called Kāchak and thereafter murid, (pupil). A reputed saint is commonly called Shaikh, murābit, or wali. The last correctly signifies a favourite of heaven, an eminent and very devout saint, but it is commonly applied to real or pretended idiots also. If he has reached the highest stage of union and is consequently forgetful of this world he is more properly termed majzūb, or maslāb.
The names of God as also prayers from the Qurān such as the famous Panj (five) Surahs (chapters) and particularly Surah-e-yäsin (considered to be the heart of the Qurán) and Ayats (verses) like Ayat-al-Kursi and Daruds like Darud-e-Sharif and others are recited several times and are considered to possess miraculous effects. It is considered that the veil is raised by reciting Darud-e-Sharif and the presence of God is expe.
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rienced. The recitation of all Amals is preceded by and ends with the recitation of Darud-e-Sharif eleven times.
The 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet are believed to have mystical character. Each of the four elements has seven letters. Each of the letters has again distinct numerical value. This knowledge is used for divination, charms and certain occult practices as also medicine and chemistry. Each of the letters is believed to have a separate spirit attached to it-'a servant appointed by Allāh to attend upon it."
THE NAQSHBANDI ZIKR Zikr is the union of the heart and the tongue in calling upon God's name Allāh. It commences with the recital of La-ilah-ill’-Allāh -Wa-Muhammad-ur-Rasulullāh.
Zikr is recited in two ways: loudly or silently. The former is called Zikr-e-Jehr and the latter Zikr-e-Khafi. The practice has reference to the command of the Prophet to Abu-Bakr, the first Caliph, whilst concealed together in a cave, 'to recite the Zikr in silence,' so as not to be heard by their pursuers, and to 'Ali, the fourth Caliph 'to call loudly God's name without ceasing' to receive Divine assistance. The silent recital is however preferred by the Naqshbandīs. Eyes are closed, the mouth firmly shut, the tongue is pressed against the roof of the mouth, teeth held tight against each other, and retaining breath patiently in one respiration one should say Zikr three times with one's heart and not the tongue allowing thus the heart to be impressed with meditative Zikr. The object is to keep the heart occupied with the idea of God. It will be filled with awe, love and respect for Him. Zikr is said to be perfect if one is able even in the company of a crowd to continue to effect the same. A proper conception of the tauhid, or 'Unity of God' is thus retained. The readers will remember that the Tantrikas also consider mental Japa or the recitation of Mantras as the best. (See p. 83 ante).
KUNDALINI YOGA AND OTHER YOGIC PRACTICES. Shaikh Ahmad, Naqshbandi mystic and the Mujaddid of the
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eleventh century, "is the discoverer of six positions in the part of man's body between the neck and the navel, which he has called the six subtleties (Latayif-e-Sittah), one encircling the other, much after the manner of Kundalini of Patanjali. The colour of qulb (heart) his yellow; of soul red; of sir, white; of khafi, black; and of ikfa, green. **** Some say that the colour of nafs is blue, and of ruh ochre. When the nafs entirely disappears, whiteness overshadows. The colour of soul often becomes green, the last stage is colourlessness, 'everything disappearing, and leaving the Salik in a state of fana, the Transcendental wonder'-spoken of by Tennyson, which Sufis call 'Alam-e-Hairat.*** The colour of the cloth, specially the head-dress, is indicative of the stage of the pilgrim's journey, e. g. if this cloth is of ochre colour, it means that his suluk has reached the stage of rūh."
141
The Sufis, however, characterize Nafs with desire, Qulb with knowing, soul with sight, and sir with contemplating, and Dhat with appearing.
Dr. M. Hafeez Sayyid Mohamed in his article 'Sufi's Sādhanā marga,' already mentioned describes certain Sufi practices which very much resemble Yogic practices:
Habs-e-Dam-Chishtis and Qadirīs specially favour this, not so the Naqshbandis. The latter do not consider it as absolutely necessary but consider it useful all the same. This is same as Breath-Control or Prāṇāyāma.
Shughl-e-Nasir (Nazr)-This is a meditative exercise specially recommended by Khwajah Mu'in-ud-din Chishti. It consists in gazing on the tip of the nose without allowing the eyes to twinkle and imagining the 'Infinite Light' while sitting in a knee-folded position. In Yoga this is a Mudra where Nāsāgra-Dṛsti is kept up throughout Dhyana. Shughl-e-Mahmuda-In this exercise the practitioner gazes on the point between the two eye-brows until there is visualization of God in the heart. This is similar to the Yogic Trikuți practice in which during contemplation the eyes are turned upwards and gaze in the Trikuți. Shughl-e-Saut-e--Sarmadi:-This exercise is similar to Yogic
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practice in which the eyes, nose, ears and mouth are closed with both hands for ascertaining which Tattva viz, Earth, Water, Fire, Air or Ether (Akás'a) prevails at any particular time. But here instead the contemplation is on Ism-e-Dhāt or the name of God and attempt is made to hear in imagination a sound as of water falling down from a higher place. Then actual internal sound is gradually heard. This sound is called in Yoga Anāhata Näda. There is an exercise called Sultân--ulAzkār (king of recitations) in which Kumbhaka Prānāyāma is practised; starting from navel saying 'Allāh,' the breath is taken to the head and retained there saying 'Hü' and the eyes are turned internally towards the heart. Another practice called Zikr-e-Pas-e-Anfas is to recite, with the breath, mentally Lá ilāh while inhaling and Illallāh while exhaling. This may be compared with Yogic Ajapā Gayatri in which 'Hamsah' Mantra is recited with breath i. e. 'Ham' while exhaling and 'Sah' while inhaling.
Tawajjuh as also Zikr-e-Jehra special Chishti Zikr and Murätabā - e-Ism-e-Dhat are described by the learned writer. We would refer the curious reader to the original Hindi article.
SPIRITUAL POWERS AND THEIR DEVELOPMFNT
"It is through the performance of the Zikr, by Khalwat (pious retirement for purposes of deep devotion) by the tawajjuh (or turning the face or mind devoutly towards God in prayer), by the murāqaba (or fearful contemplation of God), the tasarruf (or selfm-abandonment to pious reflection and inspiration, and the tasawwuf (or mystical spiritualism), that the fervent Darvish reaches peculiar spiritual powers, called quwwat-e-räh-e-bātinī (a mystical, internal, spiritual power). The life or biography, of every eminent Shaikh, or pīr, details innumerable evidences of this power exercised in a strange and peculiar manner. This exercise is called the quwwat-e-irādat, or the 'Power of the Will. These powers are acquired by constant practice under the instruction and guidance of the Murshid-ashab-e-yaqin i. c. the spiritual preceptor (the 'Guru' of the Tantrikas).
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MURAQBAH, INSILĀ AND TAWAJJUH There are two spiritual conditons resulting from contemplation and prayerfulness: one is called Murāgabah and the other insilā. The former is an ordinary state of pious contemplation in wakeful moments when the senses are overpowered by the soul-force but the body and the soul are unseparated; the latter is the condition when the soul leaves the body and wanders about without regard to time or space. "It was in this latter (condition) that the Prophet is believd to have ascended in the spirit to heaven, borne there on an imaginary celestial animal, called the Burāq"-says Brown. Shaikh Muhyy-ud-Din al-'Arabi describes the insila and also speaks of his having exercised fascination i.e. habs-e-nazr (meaning fixing of the gaze) and having arrested another until he obtained an answer from him so that the latter was unable to move at all until permitted to do so by the former. Ibn-'Isāi founder of the Order of 'Isawis explains in a work written by hin the above phenomenon. Talib signifies the Darvish or the active agent. Matlab is the person desired to appear. Mulälata is the action of thought of the Talib* compelling the Matlab* to appear.
Tawajjuh is the producing of the person. Ahl-e-hal is the person having power of making others appear. Ahl-e-tasarruf is the holy person possessing the power. Hal is the state of ecstasy into which the person goes who makes the absent appear to him. Hal is the condition of perfect submission of the person thus appearing to the power of the Hál. Shughl is operation of the performance of this act of power. Tasawwur is visualizing the matlab in imagination.
Tawajjuh is produced in two manners: firstly by fixing one's gaze upon the heart of the matlāb and secondly not by looking at his heart but hy praying to the Almighty. One must continue to pray with warmth and fervour until the matláb finally appears. Then the Talib blows as it were in the mouth of the matlab reciting the invocation
* Talib and Matlūh are the same as the Sadhaka and Sadhya of the Tantrikas.
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and arrests the mallüb by crying out his name simply and looking fixedly at his heart, reciting a prayer. Another tawajjuh is when the Tālib is desirous of bestowing something upon a matlīb, and he can then so influence the latter by his powers as to impress him beneficially. This is generally done to the Saliks or neophytes under instruction by their murshid.
These powers are instances of personal magnetism and mesmerism or Thought-force.
SPIRITUAL POWERS
"Among the practices of these powers is the faculty of foreseeing coming events, of predicting their occurrence—of preserving individuals from the harm and evil which would otherwise certainly result for them of assuring to one person success over the machinations of another, so that he may freely attack him and prevail over him-of restoring harmony of sentiment between those who would otherwise be relentless enemies--of knowing when others have devised harm against themselves, and through certain spells of preserving themselves and causing harm to befall the evil-minded; and even of causing the death of any one against whom they wish to proceed. All this is done as well from a distance as when near.
"In other parts of the world, and among other people, these attainments would have been attributed to sorcery and witchcraft; in modern times they would be ascribed to Spiritism, or magnetic influences, either of the spirit or of the body; but to the instructed Darvish they all derive the origin in the spirit of the holy Shaikh-the special gift of the great Spirit of God, which commences with the spirit of man from which it directly emanated. The condition or disposition necessary for these effects is called hāl the (state,or frame), and is much the same as that required by the magnetised, and the object of his operation. The powers of the body are enfeebled by fasting and mental fatigue and prayer, and the imagination kept in a fervid state, fully impressed with the conviction that such powers are really
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possessed by the Shaikh, and that he can readily exercise them over the willing mind and body of the disciple. How the Shaikh can produce such strange results on a distant and unconscious person is left to the admiration and imagination of the faithful disciple, as an incentive to exertions in the same true path as that of his Shaikh.
MYSTICISM OF DARVISHES: SPIRITUAL POWERS
"To exercise the power of the will, it is necessary to contract(concentrate) the thoughts suddenly upon the object designed to be effected, so perfectly as to leave no room for the mind to dwell, possibly, upon any other. The mind must not doubt, for an instant, of the success of this effort, nor the possibility of failure; it must, in fact, be completely absorbed by the one sole idea of performing the determination strongly taken, and firmly relied upon. The persons must, from time to time, practise this; and as they proceed, they will be able to see how much propinquity exists between themselves and the Hazrat-eAsma (God?) and how much they are capable of exercising this power,"
As an instance Brown quotes from Rashahat (3rd maqsad, 1st faşl) the miraculous achievements of Maulana Sa'id-ud-Din Kashgari and in particular his taskhir or the subduing faculty making powerful princes to conform to his will and his powers to make his protegés victorious against heavy odds. He could "commune with persons widely separated from him, predict coming events, and aid those in whose welfare and success he felt a pious interest for good." Similar is the instance of 'Ubaid-Ullah, the Khwajah Aḥrar who caused murrain among Mirza Babur's horses when he attacked Sultan Abū Sa'id at Samarqand; and caused a typhoon which caused the younger son of Sultan Abu Sa'id to raise the siege of Samarqand which was in charge of his elder brother Sultan Ahmad. The powers of Maulānā Sa'īdud-Din Kashgari were connected with his prayers offered up to Allah, to whose supreme will he attributed his powers. He constantly performed the Zikr jehr or 'audibly called God's name,' and the frequent repetition fitted him for holy purposes. He had such mesmeric powers that he could, when he so desired, send an individual into a species
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of trance, after which the latter could remember nothing that he had previously known, and continued in this state until the Shaikh chose to restore him to the enjoyment of his ordinary faculties.
The writer acknowledges this indebtedness to several Muslim friends for information on some of the points discussed in this section and to Mr. M. O. Kokil for use of some of his valuable books. The writer's thanks are also due to Mr. M. Y. Haindaday, Advocate (O.S.), who was good enough to read through the whole section and make valuable suggestions. It may be stated that even when not expressly mentioned the writer has frequently drawn upon and adapted passages from the two very valuable books viz. 'The Darvishes' and 'Islamic Sūfism' and he acknowledges his indebtedness to the learned authors thereof.
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Jain Mantravada and Caityavasis M ANTRAS and Vidyās* are said to have covered the whole of IV the tenth Pūrva entitled Vidyānupravāda+ of the fourteen Pūrvas forming the major portion of the Jain Canonical literature. These Pūrvas were very huge in volume and encyclopaedic in character. They are all lost now. According to the Jain tradition the whole of the Jain Canonical literature was comprised in twelve Angasx and the whole Pūrva literature was comprised in the twelth Anga.t Only the first eleven Angas are now available as compiled by Sri Devardhi Gaņi Ksamāsramana 980 or 993 years after the Nirvāṇa of Lord Mahāvíra i. e. 454 or 467 A. D.
ŚRI PARÁVANĂTHA AND PORVA LITERATURE.
'Pūrva' means 'ancient and the literature going under that name must therefore be considered to be older than the rest. The
*For all practical purposes Mantras and Vidyās are the same. A technical distinction is however drawn between them that in the former the presiding deity is a male and in the latter a female or that Sădhnā is strictly ceremonious in the latter but not so in the former. See Viśeşāvaśyaka Bhāşya and Avaśyaka Niryukti V. 931 + The commentary on Samyàyàpga Adh. XIV explains Vidyānupravāda thus: "aaaaar fagfastur auzi-a argaguaigh | That is, Vidyānupravaca wherein are described many kinds of miracles caused by Vidyās (magic). The contents also of all the fourteen Pūryas are there described. See also commentary on Nandisutra, Sūtra 56. According to the Digambaras the 10th Pūrva contained 500 Mahåvidyās (great Vidyās) named Rohini and others, and 700 Alpavidyās (small Vidyās) such as Angușthaprasena (questioning through the thumb) and others, and eight Mahānimittas or great omens or modes of divination. (See Introduction to Satkhandăgama Vol. II p. 52 and Mallişenasüri's Vidyanus'asana Ch. III vv. 18–79.) * See Samavāyānga Adh I for enumeration of the twelve Angas. +Winternitz says the twelth Anga contained only the remanants of the fourteen Purvas collected together at the Council of Pataliputra about 170 years after Nirvana of Sri Mahavira. (P.432 History of Indian Literature Vol. II). The contents described in commentaries on Samavāyānga and Nandisūtra however tell a different story.
ayanga and Nandu erature Vol. II). Th. years after Nirvana
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writer considers that the term 'Pūrva' indicates that the substance of the literature going under that title really belonged to the age of Sri Pārsvanātha which was prior to the age of Sri Mahāvira. Sri Pārsvanātha was the 23rd Tīrthankara and Sri Mahāvīra was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains. Sri Pārsvanātha's Nirvāṇa was only 250 years prior to the Nirvāṇa of Sri Mahāvīra. The parents of Sri Mahāvira used to worship Sri Pārsvanátha.* We would refer those who might be inclined to doubt the very existence of sacred literature of Sri Pārsvanātha's time to Sri Mahāvīra's citation of a statement of Sri Pārsvanātha to convince Srī Pārsvanātha's pupils of the truth of his own statement as to the universe having innumerable 'Pradesas' (parts) (See BhagavatīSūtra V Śataka, IX Uddesa, 226th Sūtra.) + Further it appears that in the Jain Scriptures and specially Sri Bhagavati Sūtra many Pārsvāpatyas or spiritual descendants of Sri Pārsvanātha are described to be well versed in Nimitta Sāstra which belonged to the IX pūrva and some others like Municandrācārya and Nandişenācārya are said to be 'Bahuśruta' i. e. possessing much sacred knowledge. This goes definitely to prove the existence of sacred literature and specially Pūrva literature of the age of Sri Pārsvanātha in the time of Sri Mahāvīra. It may be noted that when the said Pārsvāpatyas are so described, Sri Mahā vīra had not even commenced preaching having then not attained Kaivalyajnána or omniscience. A most convincing proof of the existence of sacred literature including Pūrvas of the age of Sri Pārsvanātha is furnished by the fact that
* See Achåränga II śrutaskandha, Cūlà 3 Sūtra 401 "A of ait HETLITE 87741पियरो पासावच्चिज्जा समणोवासगा याविहत्था।" +“से नूणं भंते अज्जो ! पासेणं अरहया पुरिसादाणीएणं सासए लोए वुइए अणादीए अणवदग्गे परित्ते परिवुडे इत्यादि" | पृ. २४८ भगवतीसूत्र x It is believed that Rşibhāşita contains discourses by 20 Rșis who flourished in the time of the 22nd Tirt hankara Sri Aristanemi, by 15 Rşis who flourished in Sri Pārsvanāthāś time, and by 10 Rșis who flourished in Sri Mahāvira's time. This is also evidence of the existence of older sacred literature.
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Sri Kesi Kumārasramaņa a Pārsvāpatya (or a pupil of Sri Pārsvanātha according to Uttarādhyayana) is described in Raypaseņi an Upānga (See Sūtra 53, p. 118) as possessing knowledge of 14 pūrvas as also being prominent in the knowledge of Vidyās and Mantras. In Uttarādhyayana Adh. XXIII he is described as having reached the end of Vidyā i. e. sacred knowledge and possessing Avadhijnāna i. e. supersensual knowledge. Thus the Jain Māntric literature comprised in Vidyānupravāda may reasonably be supposed to belong to the age of Sri Pārsvanātha.* This may perhaps explain the fact that amongst Jain Māntrikas Sri Pārsvanātha is principally worshipped and invoked.
Several other facts showing the great popularity of Srī Pārsvanātha's worship are set forth in the section hereof entitled 'Antiquity of Jain Mantras and Māntric literature'. These facts would also explain the popularity of worship of Sri Pārsvanātha's attendant deities and particularly of Sri Padmāvatī with which the present work is concerned. One has only to consider the literary activities of the age of Sri Pārsvanatha to find out an explanation for the fact that one whole Pūrva was devoted entirely to Vidyās. He lived from about 876 B. C. to 776 B. C. This was the period when many of the later Mantras of Atharvaveda are supposed to have been composed. This
* According to the Jain tradition the sacred literature was substantially the same in the times of all Tirthankaras. According to the following statement in Jnātädharmakathānga the fourteen Purvas appear to have been studied also in the times of Sri Aristanemi the 22nd Tirthankara ao #4199 Beat effe ori sifat ata5441524 Iraqoate fepala ll" Jnātā V Sūtra 54. Kalpasūtra mentions that there were Sadhus knowing fourteen Pürvas in the fold of Sri Rşabhdeva the 1st Tirthankara as well as that of Sri Ariștapemi, Sri Pārsvanātha and Sri Mahavira. * "The Surest evidence in this respect (for the age of the Veda) is still the fact that Pārsva, Mahavira and Buddha pre-suppose the entire Veda as a literature to all intents and purposes completed, and this is a limit which we must not exceed x x x we shall probably have to date the beginning of this development (of Vedic literature) about 2000 to 2500 B. C. and the end of it between 750 & 500 B. C." P. 310 History of Indian Literature Vol. I Winterniz.
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INTRODUCTION
was therefore an age when Mantras were very popular. It is natural to suppose that being the heir apparent to the Kingdom of Kāsi, the ancient centre of Brāhamanic learning, he was influenced by his surroundings and contemporary literary activities and dealt with subjects of popular interest in the Jain literature composed by him or under his direction. Thus the whole of the tenth Pūrva came to be exclusively devoted to Vidyās and Mantras. That such a supposition is not far-fetched or fanciful can be seen from the fact that as mentioned in Kalpasūtra I, Sūtra 9 all the four Vedas including Atharvaveda Vedāngas etc. in brief the entire Brahmanical learning, it was prophecied by Sri Rşabhadatta, would be learnt by Sri Mahāvīra. It means that Atharvaveda was not then considered as fit to be discarded as we see a tendency generally in the works of Vedic Hindus. This is also supported by the fact that the Brahmana ascetic Arya Skandaka is also described in Sri Bhagavatisūtra (II Šataka, 1 Uddesaka) as knowing all the four Vedas etc. including Atharvaveda; and, the said Sri Rşabhadatta is described as knowing the same in Sri Bhagavatisūtra, 1X Sataka, 33 Uddesaka.
UVASAGGAHARAM
Even Sri Bhadrabāhu, the sixth pontiff, who died only 170 years after the Nirvana of Sri Mahāvira, invokes Sri Pārsvanātha in the hymn named 'Uvasaggaharam' or Remover of calamities, and praises the Mantra * sacred to Sri Pārsvanātha. This hymn is available and well known amongst the Jains and is considered a 'Smarana' i. e. a hymn for daily recital. We may point out that the present work relates to the worship of Sri Padmāvati who is an attendant deity of Sri Pārsvanātha.
*The commentary on 'Uvasaggaharam' of Sri Pārsvadevagani alias Sri Candräcärya written in or about s. y. 1203 describes the said Mantra. It is "Namiūņa Päsa visahara vasaha jina fulinga" It is therefore called 'Visahara fulinga' Mantra in the 2nd verse of the said hymn.
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MIRACULOUS WORKS The following works which are with some variations enumerated in Thaņānga (X, 3, 755) Nandisūtra (Sūtra 43, p. 202) and Vyavahārasūtra (X, 27-28) and Pakkhisūtra are said to be such that, when properly recited once twice or thrice, they cause, without the least desire on the part of the reciter, the deity described in the particular work to appear before the Sadhu reciting the same. The deity would then desire the saint to ask for a boon, which being not desired by him (he having renounced all desires), the deity would after making obeisance to him retire. The said works are:-(1) Aruņovavāya (2) Varuņovavāya (3) Garulovavāya (4) Dharaṇovavāya (5) Velandharovavāya (6) Veşamañovavāya (7) Devindovavāya (8) Nāgapariyāvaniyā. There are other works viz. (1) Teyanisagga (2) Chāraṇabhāvanā (3) Asivisabhāvaņā (4) Diţthivisabhāvanā. (See Vyavabārasūtra X,29) and Praśnavyákarana* (different from the 10th Anga bearing the same name. See Nandīsūtra, Sūtra 54) by recital of which miraculous powers such as engendering fire or causing aerial flight or destruction by curse or gaze and answers to questions in various ways are obtained. Utthānasūya and Samutthānasūya are works by recital of which respectively houses, villages and towns become deserted, or are reinhabited when recited with that intention once, twice or thrice. All these works must have been very old as appears from their references mentioned above. They are however lost now.
PARŚVĀPATYAS AND NIMITTA There is one more fact worth mentioning here which leads us to infer Sri Pārsvanäth's connection with Mantras and Vidyās. In the available Jain Canonical literature 'Parsvāpatyas' or spiritual descen
*A work of 400 gathas (with several commentaries named Lilavati, Cûdāmaņi, Jyoti and one without pame) which may possibly be portion of Praśņavyåkarana mentioned here and which is called Jayaprābhỉta by Mr. C. D. Dalal through mistake-is still in a Pätana Bhandara written on a palm-leaf manuscript. See article entitled “Apaņa Prabhsto' by Sri Kalyāņavijaya-Jain Yuga I, P. 93.
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dants of Srī Pārsva are described at several places. Many of them accepted Sri Mahāvīra's substitution of the five great vows instead of the four (Caturyāma) laid down by Sri Pārsvanatha, after discussion either with Sri Mahā vīra himself or his pupils. There were few however who did not like to give up the easy mode of life adopted by them and latitudes and liberties enjoyed by them. These latter consisted mainly of putting on coloured clothes and keeping bowls for begging, living in one place as long as desired and only occasionally performing 'Pratikramaņa' i. e. Repentance for transgressions of the holy Law and the course of conduct laid down for a 'Sadhu' and employing eight kinds of Nimitta* (Science of divination for obtaining necessaries of life. These continued to live by themselves practising Nimittas. It is recorded in Sri Bhagavatīsūtra, Sataka XV, Sūtra 539 that Gosālaka (who was first a pupil of Sri Mahāvīra but ultimately left him) met some of these Pārsvāpatyas and acquired such knowledge of the eight kinds of Nimitta (which is there said to be part of Pūrva literature) from them that he could pose as an omniscient person. Now some kinds of Nimitta require proficiency in Vidyās and Mantras for purposes of accurate divination. The spiritual descendants of Sri Pārsvanatha therefore knew and employed Vidyās and Mantras. This could not have been possible unless they were the possessors of traditional Vidyās and Mantras coming down from the time of Sri Pārsvanātha. The Jain tradition as mentioned in the footnote at p. 149 definitely assumes existence of fourteen Pūrvas in the times of all the previous Tīrthankaras and therefore also of the 10th Pūrva dealing with Vidyās and Mantras,
NAIMITTIKAS, SĀRŪPIKAS AND SIDDHAPUTRAS
How these were succeeded in the practice of eight kinds of Nimitta, Vidyās and Mantras by Sārūpikas and Siddhaputras is a
* See post discussion on 'Angavidya' and relevant Vidyas set forth in Appendix A. $ The eight kinds of Nimitta are described in Sīyagadãnga I, 12,9. The Commentary thereon says that the science of Nimitta is extracted from the 3rd Vastu (named Acāra) of the 9th Pūrva.
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problem of Jain history not yet solved. We find in the ancient literature like Nisitha-Bhāşya I Udd. 'V. 346 and Bhāşyas on Bțhatkalpasūtra (I, IV and VI Udd.) and Vyavahārasūtra (IV and VIII Udd.) as also later Cūrņis and commentaries including those on Avasyakasūtra, and Sambodhaprakaraņa of Sri Haribhadrasūri references to Sārūpikas and Siddhaputras, who are described as versed inter alia in the science of Divination and accomplished in Vidyās and Mantras. The Siddhaputras are according to Nisitha Cūrni I Udd. Bhāsya v. 346 said to occupy an intermediate stage between Jain householders and Jain Sadhus. Most probably they were Sādhus who reverted to the life of householders. The others, who though lax in the observance of the rules of conduct for Sadhus still continued to put on their garb and live by begging, were called Sārūpikas. They used to put on white garments but neither kept 'Rajoharaṇa' or sweeping brush, 'Danda' or stick, nor 'Patra' or bowl, which the Sådhus keep. They used to have their heads completely tonsured or keep only 'Sikhā' or tuft of hair on the crown. They either lived alone or with their wives. They did not go about begging but earned their livelihood by practising various kinds of Silpa (arts or crafts) Nimitta and Mantra and Medicine. When invited by Jain householders they would take their food with them as ordinary guests. The tradition of Astānaganimitta, Vidyās and Mantras appears to have been continued by this class for a long time. Even in the biography of Sri Mahavira we read of Svapnapathakas or interpreters of dreams. We also read
*Sårūpikas and Siddhaputras are described by Sri Haribhadrasuri in his Sambodhaprakarana at p. 3 thus : "The Sărūpikas practise Vidyas, employ magical collyrium and medicine and have attachment for certain families. They put on variegated apparels though tonsured on the head and face. They however, if asked, preach the correct doctrine about Jainisin." Regarding Siddhaputras we cite the original verses below:
"ससिहा सभज्जगोवि य सिद्धपुत्तो सचिओ भणिओ। नो भिखइ सिप्पाइकम्मं काऊण जीवेइ ॥ ३३३ ।। केविय भणंति पच्छाकडपुत्ता सिद्धपुत्तगो भणिओ। ससिहो वा असिहो वा सभज्जग वा अभज्जो वा ॥३३४॥
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of a Naimittika named Utpala who though a Pārsvapatya had turned a 'Parivrājaka' or non-Jain ascetic. He interpreted, unasked, to Sri Mahāvīra, his dreams. This he did before Sri Mahāvīra became omniscient and composed or directed to be composed the 12 Angas. The Nimitta literature known to him therefore was portion of the Purva literature coming down traditionally from Sri Pārsvanatha. There was also a class of professional Naimittikas or diviners even in the time of Sri Mahāvīra as can be inferred from the fact that Sri Siddhartha, the father of Sri Mahāvīra, consulted and rewarded the Svapnapāthakas, as also from the fact that Naimittikas like Sivadatta used to be similarly consulted by the people. (See pp. 288-289 Avasyakacurni on V. 479 of Niryukti). Pārsvapatyas who did not accept the reforms of Sri Mahāvīra and continued to enjoy liberties or turned Parivrājakas and the subsequent Sārūpikas and Siddhaputras were not professional diviners but were very proficient in that science and utilized their knowledge as occasion required. They were however held in very great esteem by the people as their prophecies were considered to be infallible.
How the Mantric tradition was carried on by Caityavasi Sadhus and in comparatively modern times by Yatis will be seen further on. LAX PRACTICES CONTRIBUTING TO THE RISE OF CAITYAVASIS
We may however state that some of the principal characteristics of the 'Caityavāsis' can be traced back to very old times. They may be noted in such old works as Avasyaka Niryukti (V. 1107, VV. 1175, 1179-81) to be prevalent amongst some of the Sadhus of the times
INTRODUCTION
× Kṣemankaragani, a pupil of Devasundarasuri, of the 15th century of the Vikrama era, mentions in his Satpuruşacaritra (P. 10ff.) a Siddhaputra who derives his origin from Cakravarti Bharata, a son of Rṣabhadeva the 1st Tirthankara, and says that these Siddhaputras were the best of Sravakas who observed the vows of the house-holders, led a celibate life, were versed in Mantras and Vidyas and were possessed of miraculous powers and supersensual knowledge, and were noted for their unshakable faith in and zeal for Jainism.
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who were lax in the observance of the rules laid down for their conduct. These characteristics were 'Nityavāsa' or permanent residence, extreme attachment for 'Caityas' or temples, Kula, Gana or Sangha and taking all kinds of rich food including sweets, ghee, milk, curds etc. and also food obtained through female ascetics. Similarly five kinds of lax Sadhus are also described who are said to be not deserving of obeisance. They are Păsatthās, Avasannas, Kusīlas, Samsaktas and Yathachandas. Their lax practices also seem to have been later on followed to a cosiderable extent by Caityavāsis who also practised and employed Nimittas and Mantras. We think all these contributed to the rise of Caityavāsis. The other causes and circumstances contributing to their rise are dealt with further on.
PRĀBHRTAS We would here mention the Prābhịta* works which are summaries from the Pūrva literature. The first person who appears to be connected with summarising or compilation of these works is Sri Bhadrabāhu already mentioned. He might have composed these because he did not instruct his pupil Sri Sthūlabhadra into the meaning of the last four Pūrvas and he therefore knew that knowledge of the Pūrvas would be lost in near future. As a matter of fact the last Acharya who
* Prabh;ta was the term used to signify a chapter in Purva literature. Etymologically it is said to mean collecting something which may be lying scattered or a beautiful present. See also articles (in Gujară i) by the writer entitled 'Alabhya Prabhịto' in "Jain yuga' Vol. III P.162-163 and Vol.V p. 161-162 and the articles entitled 'Apaņā prabhrato' by Sri Kalyanıvijaya in Jain Yuga' Vol. I p. 87 ff. and p. 127 ff. Vyavahārasūtra IV Udd. Bhāṣva V.12 refers to Påbuda and the commentary interprets it as Yoniprābhsta. The verse also mentions miraculous powers through Vidyās Nimitta etc. The Pāhudas or PrābhȚtas, important for our purpose, are Vijjāpāhuda, Siddhapāhuda Jonipāhuda and Nimittapāhuda. They are all mentioned in Sri Bhadreşvarasüri's Kathāvali in the Prabandha of Padaliptasūri as also in Prabhāvakacaritra. They respectively deal with (1) Vidyās (2) magical applications, collyrium,pills and powders (3) creation of insects and animals an1(4) Divination through astrology dreams and other Nimittas.
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knew even the ten Purvas was Sri Vajraswāmi who died in s. y. 114. He as well as Sri Padaliptasūri are the next persons credited with further abridging or rearranging these Pràbhfta works. *
The importance of these works is that there is a Prabhsta named Vijjāpāhuda dealing with Vidyās mentioned in the biography of Sri Padaliptasūri contained in Kathāvali and also in Prabhāvakacaritra works of the 13th and 14th centuries respectively of the Vi. krama era. There, both the said Sri Padaliptasūri and Vidyācakravarti (Sovereign of Vidyās-magic) Aryakhapuțācārya who flourished about the beginning of the Vikrama era are described as versed in Vijjāpāhuda. After Vidyānupravāda this Vijjāpāhuda was considered to be a comprehensive work on Vidyās and Mantras. It is however lost now.
Yonipräbhịta referred to in the footnote on p. 155 is a work of the Prābhịta class. An incomplete manuscript of the said work is available in a mutilated condition with many lacunae and mixed up with Jagatsundari Yogamālā, a work on medicine by Muni Jasakīrti and/or Harişeņa. Pahnasramaņamuni is mentioned as the author of the said work Yoniprābhịta in the said manuscript.* The writer has not personally seen the manuscript but has seen the notes taken therefrom by an acquaintance and a transcript of Chs. 35 to 43 from another incomplete manuscript also in the Bhāndārakara Research Institute Library. It contains Mantras at various places. At it is reputed to be an old work, some of the Mantras therein contained are set forth in Appendix A hereto.
* See Vividha-tirtha-Kalpa, Satrunjaya-Kalpa V. 122 and Revantagiri-Kalpa V. 1 and its colophon. * The manuscript is in the library of the Bhāndārkar Research Institute and bears old No. 266/A 1882-83 and New No. 31. According to the colophon, the date of this manuscript is s.y. 1582 (Saka 1447) Srävana Krsna 3rd. The work inter alia contains Maptras of Jvälàmålini and Kuşmåndini alias Ambikā. Māņibhadra and Gañadharavalaya Mantra. The last two are given in the appendix A hereto. Several articles on Yonipräbhrta are published in Anekānta (Vol. II) a Hindi magazine published at Sarsavā, Dist.Saharanpur; they may be persued by the readers interested in the subject.
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JAIN MANTRAVADA AND CAITYAVASIS ANGAVIDYA
ANGAVIDYA
We have referred above to Aṣṭanaganimitta the eight-fold science of divination. One of its eight divisions is 'Anga' or Body. It means principally divination from throbbings in or touching the various parts of the body. The work which dealt with this part of Nimitta called Angavidya is available. It contains several Vidyas, most of which resemble the famous Vardhamānavidya which is said to have been separated from Gaṇabhṛd Vidya alias Sūrimantra i. e. Vidya of Gaṇadhara or Mantra of Acharya. Some Vidyas resemble the Surimantra also. We shall have occasion to deal with the latter at some length later on. A few Vidyas are selected and given verbatim in the Appendix A. From its language Angavijjā seems to be a very old work.* One can see from the Vidyas cited that both Vardhamānavidya and Ganabhṛd Vidya alias Sūrimantra also must be very old. The five Parameṣṭipadas may be noted in the beginning of Vidyas 1 to 3 and two at the beginning of Vidyas 4 to 6 set forth in the said Appendix A. They show the existence of Pancaparameşti Mantra or Vidya in olden times.
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PANCAPARAMEŞTI MANTRA
We think we should here explain that the Pancaparmeṣṭi Mantra contains obeisance to each of the five classes of revered persons: Arihantas, Siddhas, Acharyas, Upadhyayas and Sadhus and the 'Falaśruti' i. e. narration of the fruit of such obeisance. It is said to be the destroyer of all sins and the chief Mangala or auspicious thing.
The greatest sanctity is attached to this Mantra. It is considered to be the essence of the fourteen Pūrvas and capable of giving worldly happiness as also ultimate salvation. It may be fitly called the Jain Gayatri and is meant to be daily recited morning and evening as also in all religious ceremonies and Pūjā or worship. It is
* Värähi Samhită of Varahamihira Adh. 51 deals with Angavijja which is a method of answering questions relating to future or unknown matters by the gestures and position of the questioner and the words comprised in his question.
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recited at the commencement of the reading of all sacred scriptures. It is considered to be the greatest Mantra and compared to the wishgranting gem-tree-pot-cow. It is said in Mahānisitha Sūtra, Adh. V that there were several Niryuktis Bhásyas Cūrnis i. e. commentaries on the Panca-Mangala-Mahāśrutaskandha. Pancaparamesti Mantra is said to have been extracted therefrom by Sri Vajra-swāmi and incorporated in Mūlasūtra.* It appears in the beginning of Avasyakasūtra (See the Cūrni Edn.).
Angavijjā mentioned above belongs to the Prakirņaka or Payanno class of the Jain sacred literature. This class of work is believed to be the composition of Sri Mahāvīra's pupils other than the chief ones called Gañadharas. We may however safely take this one to be not later than the first century of the Vikrama era that is the time when Sri Vajraswāmi, the last person who knew all the ten Pūrvas flourished. It belongs to the time when summaries from Pūrva literature were being prepared.
We find from Prabhāvakacaritra that Sri Viragani of the tenth century A. D. learnt Angavijjā from Sri Vimalagani and also acquired from him Ganivijā alias Sūrimantra.
NIRVANAKALIKA
There is another work which though not principally dealing with Mantras throws considerable light on the Mantras and Mantric deities
* It is considered incorporated in all the scriptures-see Viśeşåvaśyaka Bhāşya V. 9. See also ibid v. 5:
"कयपंचनमोक्कारस्स दिन्ति सामाइयाइयं विहिणा ।
आवसयमायायरिया कमेण तो सेसय सुर्यपि ॥ There are hymns, Mantrakalpas and Raksā-Mantra relating to Panca-ParameştiMantra. The importance of Pancaparamesti Mantra in Vidyās and Mantras is that it must be recited at the beginning of all Vidyās:
"सर्व विद्यास्मृतावादौ पूर्णा पंचनमस्कृतिः ।
यद्वा पंचनमस्कृतिः यद्वा पंचपदी वाच्या ॥ मुनिना प्रणवादिमा इत्यादि-सिंहतिलकसूरिकृतवर्धमानविद्याकल्पे लोक २२, पृ. २
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in olden times about the 1st century of the Christian era. It is Padaliptasūris Nirvāṇakalika already referred to in the section hereof entitled 'Buddhist Mantrayana and Vajrayana.' It contains daily rites, Mantric initiation and installation of idols and in course of treatment of the aforesaid subjects gives Mantras and describes various deities of the Jain Pantheon.
The chapters dealing with the daily rites and Mantric initiation are specially important as they describe the ancient Jain practices useful to the practitioners of Mantras. The work contains not only references to Surimantra and other Vidyas but at several places sets forth the same verbatim. This furnishes us a very useful test to ascertain the correctness of the tradition and the text of Mantras contained in Kalpas dealing principally with the subject. There are several Prākṛta verses quoted in the work as of Agama which show the
existence of Mantras in the ancient times.
VARDHAMANA-VIDYA
Now we come to the two works which are very old and deal principally with Vidyas and Mantras. We may first mention the Vardhamana-Vidya-Kalpa ascribed to Sri Vajraswāmi who died in s. y. 114. It is comprised as Ch. III in Simhatilakasuri's work bearing identical name and appears to be a very old work on the sacred Vidya of Sri Vardhamana Mahāvīra the 24th Tirthanakara of the Jains, which is meant to be recited by all Sadhus daily, except Acharyas who have to recite Sūrimantra instead, and also on all religious occasions viz. initiation, installation etc. It also refers to Surimantra and therefore proves the existence thereof in olden times. There is also a reference to Kalikunda-Parsvanatha-Mantra and Vidyas of Mahāniśitha which proves the antiquity thereof. The other chapters of Sri Simhatilakasūri's said work comprise Pancaparamești-Mantra-Kalpa and RṣimandalaStava-Yantra and other Mantras.
ANUBHAVASIDDHA-MANTRADVATRIMŠIKĀ
The next work is Anubhavasiddhamantradvātrimsika which is
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published as appendix No. 30 in the present work. It is stated to be by Sri Bhadraguptácārya. But this Bhadraguptācārya cannot be the preceptor of Sri Vajraswāmi as in the body of the work, it is stated in the eighth verse of the first chapter that Vajraswami culled out from the third Prābhịta (chapter) of Vidyāpravāda Pūrva (i. e. the 10th Pūrva so called) the Mantra mentioned therein. It can be ordinarily explained only on the supposition that the author of the work was later than Vajraswāmi. It does not however definitely exclude the possibility of Vajraswami's preceptor having written this work as he appears to have lived for several years after teaching the ten Pūrvas to Sri Vajraswami. The author has in two places referred to Paramāgama or the great Agama and Agamamahāmbhodhi or the great ocean of Agama (See Ch. III verse 30 and Ch. IV verse 19): and he states that he has himself culled out the Vidyās mentioned in Ch. 1V from Agamamahāmbhodhi. That the reference is to some Jain Agama or canonical work is certain because the Vidyas mentioned are not known amongst non-Jains. One thing in Ch. V which pointedly draws our attention is that over and above gift of food, clothes and bowls gift of best gold is recommended to be made to the preceptor. This is a piece of evidence of Caityavāsi influence in very early times.
The reference to Setubandha in Ch. IV, V. 30 leads us to infer the date of the work to be subsequent to the composition of Setubandha mahā-kavya i. e. 123 A. D. or (according to Cunningham) 432 A. D. (See discussion about the date of Setubandha in the footnote on P. 127 of Kavyamālā Vol. I and Indian Antiquary Vol. XII p. 243). Further the verse containing the said reference reminds us of a similar comparison by the poet Bāņa at the commencement of Harsacarita and in that case we must take the work to be not earlier than the 7th century A.D. It is possible however that the verse may have been interpolated by a later writer as it is not strictly required to be there by the context.
We shall consider this work in its other aspects further on and also show how the famous Hemacandrācārya has drawn upon it while
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writing Chapter VIII of his Yogasāstra dealing with Padastha Dhyāna i.e. Mantra-Yoga.
TIRTHĀNUJNA AND VĀSAKŞEPA We may draw our reader's attention to the ceremony with which Sri Mahāvīra granted permission to his chief pupils called Gañadharas in respect of the Tirtha, Dharma and Gaņa. He is described as taking up a handful of scented powder from a tray held by Indra and dropping same first on the head of the first pupil Sri Gautama and then on the heads of others saying to each "Permission is granted to thee in respect of the Tirtha in all its various aspects.” (See Trişasti Salākā Puruşa Caritra, Parva X, Sarga 5, VV. 176-180). This ceremony is called "Tīrthānujnă' and the dropping of scented powder is Vasaksepa'. It was thereafter repeated on similar occasions accompanied by recitation of Sūrimantra composed by Sri Gautama at the instance of Sri Mahāvīra for such use in future. This is how Sūrimantra or Gaņividyā originated. *
SORIMANTRA Amongst the Jains the Sūrimantra alias Gaņivijjā is traditionally believed to have been handed down from preceptor to pupil from
* Sri Munisundarasūri in his unpublished Stotra on Sūrimantra addressed the Sūrimantra as Tirthakệt, Tirtha, Gautama and Sudharman and states that it originated through Gautama the leader of the gaccha under the direction of Sri Vardhamana :
"त्वं तीर्थकृत् त्वं परमं च तीर्थ त्वं गौतमस्त्वं गणभृत्सुधर्मा । त्वं विश्वनेता त्वमसीहितानां विधिः सुखानामिह मंत्रराज ॥२॥ श्री वर्धमामस्य निदेशतस्त्वं प्रतिष्ठितो गौतमगच्छनेत्रा।
सिद्धी: समग्रा : शिवसंपदश्च सर्वोग्रपुण्यफलानि दत्से ॥७॥ Śri Jinaprabhasūri who flourished earlier also calls Sūrimantra to be the first cause of the emanation or advent of the Tirtha in his Siddhäntägamastava (Kavyamalā Pt. VIII P. 94)
सर्वश्रुताभ्यन्तरगां कृतैनस्तिरस्कृतिं पश्चनमस्कृति । तीर्थप्रवत्तः प्रथमं निमित्तमाचार्यमन्त्रं च नमस्करोमि ॥४५॥
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Sri Gautamaswami the first Ganadhara of Sri Mahaviraswami. Of course the tradition also connects it with the first Lord, Sri Rsabhadeva and his Ganadhara Sri Pundarika as shown further on. There are references to Sūrimantra in all the three works above mentioned, viz. Nirvānakalikā, Vardhamāna-Vidyākalpa as well as Anubhavasiddhamantradvātrimsikā. The reference in the last named work is as Ganabhrd
-vidya (See Chapter I verse 12). It states that it originated from the mouth of Gaṇabhțd. The connection of Sri Gautama with Sūrimantra * is amply evidenced by the hymn in praise of Sūrividyā published as Appendix 29 to this work. It also states that all the numerous deities presiding over Sūrimantra make obeisance to Sri Gautama and worship his feet; and that Sri Gautama should be contemplated as seated in a golden thousand-petalled lotus possessing miraculous powers and that one who repeats the Vidyā one lac times or the Mantrarāja three lac times would be another Gautama. T stotra is included in the work containing Devendrasūri's Sūrimantrakalpa published by Sri Prītivijayaji and ascribed to Sri Māndevasūri. There is however nothing therein to connect it with Sri Mānadevasūri.
The Sūrimantra stotra by Sri Mānadevasūri (author of Laghuśānti published in Appendix 31 of this work) is historically very important. It is, however, not yet printed. We therefore give it in appendix A hereto. At the end of it occurs the name of Sri Mānadevasūri as its author. It shows that Sūrimantra with all its five Pithas or sections or divisions was practically the same in the time of Sri Manadevasūri (3rd century of Vikrama era, he having died in
* Śri Jinaprabhasūri in his hymn to Sri Gautama refers to him as 'Vidyamantraprabhava' or the source of Vidyas and Mantras. (Kavyamālā Pt. VIII P. 112).
There are several Sūrimantrakalpas by different Achäryas. One by Sri Simhatilakasūri called Mantrarājarahasya is hereafter discussed in details. Two others by Sri Jinaprabhasūri and some Achårya of Pūrņamiyaka gaccha have been published by Sri Pritivijayaji which, perhaps because printed from a single manuscript, very much lack correction.
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s. y. 261) as is known to us today. It proves the authenticity of the Mantric tradition.
According to a tradition contained in Sūrimantrakalpas including Mantrarajarahasya by Sri Simhatilakasuri Sūrimantra is connected with the first Lord Sri Ṛṣabhadeva also and it was in his time that Brahmi became the deity presiding over the first Pitha known as Vidyāpīṭha out of the 5 Pithas of Sūrimantra. The fact that the 2nd Pitha has Bahubalividya included in it testifies to the tradition being correct, Bahubali being the son and disciple of the first Lord, who ultimately became a Siddha. According to the said Mantrarājarahasya 1000 Vidyas* are comprised in the first Pitha; 20 Vidyas being comprised in each of the 50 Labdhipadas forming the first Pitha. It is stated there that by contemplation of those who are possessed of Labdhis (i. e. Miraculous powers of the soul) Vidyas are acquired by the worshipper. 1000 Mantras are stated to have been included in Mantrarāja Pitha and on attaining success by contemplation of the said Pitha 1000 Mantras automatically become Siddha i. e. accomplishment is acquired in respect thereof. The said Mantrarājarahasya with its commentary Lilavatī is a collection of Sūrimantrakalpas belonging to different gacchas and as such furnishes us the different versions+ of Sūrimantra in a single work. In the 50th verse of the said * The number of Vidyas being 1000 can be seen from Aṣṭapadagiri-Kalpa, p. 93 Vividha Tirtha Kalpa, where Ravana is said to remember 1000 Vidyas before he lifted up Astāpada mountain " विज्जा सहस्सं सुमरित्ता उप्पाडीओ गिरी ।" That the small Vidyās are 700 in number can be seen from the following: "Hagefe agafarà" at p. 19, Section dealing with Manträmnåyas of Sri Namaskara Mahamantra in the work entitled "Mahaprabhāvika Navasmarana", by the present publisher. See also 'Vidyanusasana' by Śri Mallişenasuri Ch. III, VV.18-19. There the Mahavidyās like Rohini and others are said to be five hundred and the 'Angusthadi' small Vidyas are said to by seven hundred by Sri Mallişenasūri.
+ The variations chiefly relate to the 1st and the 5th Pitha. In the former by inclusion of a lesser or greater number of 'Stuti-padas' or 'Labdhipadas' the Vidya evolved is of 13, 16, 24, 31, 32 or 39 padas and in the latter the number of Merus being differently taken to be 5, 6, 7 or 13 causes the variation.
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work it is stated that from the first Tirthankara Sri Rşabhadeva to the eighth Sri Candraprabha Vācanā or the text was the same but varied afterwards. Therefore in the temple of either of them or in the temple of Sri Mahāvīra, the last Tīrthankara, one should contemplate in one's heart on Sri Pundarika, the first Ganadhara of Sri Rşhabhadeva, or Sri Gautamaswāmi, the first Gañadhara of Sri Mahā. vīra, seated in a golden thousand-petalled lotus. This also connects Sri Rşabhadeva with the Sūrimantra. It is further stated that the Sūrimantra as given by Sri Rşabhadeva to Sri Pundarīka consisted of 300 verses, that the Sūrimantra given by Sri Mahāvīraswāmi to Sri Gautama consisted of 2100 letters and that Sri Gautamaswāmi by the Lord's order abridged it to 32 verses (i. e. 1024 letters). With the lapse of time ultimately Dusprasahasūri's Sūrimantra, it is foretold, will be reduced to a little more than 8 verses. At present according to one version it consists of 10 verses and 12 letters i. e. 332 letters. The Mantra being the same in the line of Gañadhara Sri Sudharmāswāmi, by worship of Sri Gautama it is said that all the preceptors are considered to have been worshipped. Then follow several Mantras of Sri Gautamaswami. Thereafter the Satkoņa Yantra of Sūrimantra is described with all its Valayas,
There is a reference to Şațkarma and a statement that by observing the rules relating to directions, time, seats, Mudrās (manual gestures * etc. the desired object can be achieved. Then contemplation on Omkāra in different manners is described. Thereafter contempla. tion on Hrīņkāra and contemplation on Arhambija, with the different results that are thereby achieved, are described. Then variations as
to directions or seasons, times of the day, seats, Mudrās, rosaries and Mantra-Vinyāsas (Mantra-suffixes) and the different objects thereby achieved are described. The work also deals with Pūjārahasya i. e. mysteries relating to worship and describes the Nyāsa or the symbolical
* The rules as to directions etc. are generally similar to those described in the present work which have been already compared with the rules prevailing amongst the other Täntrikas in the section hereof dealing with Tāntrika Sadhana.
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placing of various deities in the various Mantra-padas and various modes of Dhyāna.
In another Sūrimantrakalpa it is stated that Sūrimantra from Sri Gautamaswāmi to Sri Prabhavasūri was the same and the latter redacted it for Srtakevalis (Persons equalling the Omniscient through learning). Thereafter Vajraswāmi separated the Vardhamāna Vidya from Gani-Vidyā alias Sūrimantra. This fact is evidenced by several Kalpas. This gives us the various stages through which Sūrimantra has passed and shows its antiquity and sacredness.
PORVASEVĀ AND UTTARASEVĀ We may note here and explain the two technical terms Pūrvasevā and Uttarasevá used amongst Jains in connection with Mantrasādhana. According to one explanation the former means the ceremonies including Japa upto Homa and the latter means Homa and ceremonies incidental thereto (See Appendix 31, Adh. IV, vv.8-9) According to another explanation the ceremony prior to Siddhi or success is Pūrvasevā and the recital of the Mantra or Vidyā thereafter for a limited number of times daily or the rite required to be gone through for use or employment of the Vidyā or Mantra is Uttarasevā. See P. 346 Sadhanamālā Vol. II "wa: gotiaana eta tal qana FF FATHERII”. We may also note that the Homa amongst the Jains is only with materials like dried fruits, rice and ghee, and appears to be in substitution of 'Bali' originally offered in Sādhanā of Vidyās-See Vasudevahindi P. 52. +
The writer considers that the preliminary worship as a result of which the Sādhaka obtains permission from the Mantra-deity to undertake the Sadhanā proper is Pūrvasevā and the Sadhanā proper including Homa is the Uttarasevā-See Yantra-Cintāmaņi-Kalpa, pp. 7-8. II Pithikā, vv. 27-30 where such method to obtain permission is recommended. The said portion being important is reproduced below :
+ 'विजाओ य पुरचरण-बलिविहाणेहिं सिझंति।'
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“यस्य कस्य प्रयोगस्य विधिरेष प्रकीर्तितः । दिनत्रयं प्रकुर्वीत पूजाभोगविधानतः ॥२०॥ त्रिरात्रं भूमिशायी स्याद् ब्रह्मचर्यरतः शुचिः। त्रिदिनाज्जायते स्वप्नं साधकस्य वरानने ॥२८॥ सिद्धं साध्यमरिं चैव सुसिद्धमथवा ध्रुवम् । अवश्यं वदति स्वप्ने मन्त्राधिष्ठानदेवता ॥२९॥ यदा न जायते स्वप्नं तदासाध्यं विनिर्दिशेत् । नो चेद्यथाश्रुतं स्वप्ने तत्तथैव विनिर्दिशेत् ॥३०॥
-श्रीयन्त्रचिन्तामणिकल्पे, द्वितीयपीठिका ॥ It is not stated above but is understood that during the three day's worship the Sadhaka should recite the Mantra at least 12500 times; in case of a mere Yantra, Pūjā alone for three days is deemed sufficient.
According to Lalitasahasranama-Bhasya (P. 5) Purascarana means preliminary worship after initiation (Mantra-Dikṣā) and before 'Upāsti' i. e. actual worship. Actual Upāsti is therefore 'Uttaraseva'. Visesavasyaka-Bhasya V. 1199 and Haribhadrasāri's commentary on Avasyakasūtra (P. 74B) explaining the same are cited below as they give a similar explanation.
पाएण पुन्धसेवा परिमउई साहणंमि गुरुतरिआ । होति महाविज्जाए किरिया पायं सविग्घा य ।।
-विशेष. भाध्य श्लो. ११९९ "The Pūrvasevā-preliminary worship is generally easy and the rites of Sādhanā relating to Mahāvidyā are very difficult and are generally full of obstacles". .
"अनेकसंवत्सरानुपालिताचाम्लादि-पुरश्चरणक्रियासादित-गुणान्तरोत्तरसहायक्रियारहित-विद्यासाधकवत् साधने (विद्यासाधने-मोक्षसाधने) क्रिया दुर्लभा प्रायः सविघ्ना (चित्तविघातादिप्रचुरविघ्नत्वात् )| Here also actual Sadhanā is distinguished from Pūrvasevā and is thus identified with Uttarasevā. These authorities bear out the writer's view. UNITY OF PANCA-PARAMESTI-MANTRA, VARDHAMĀNA-VIDYA AND
SORIMANTRA According to Simhatilakasūri's Vardhamāna Vidyākalpa, page
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54, Parmestividyā together with some Stutipadas* and a portion extracted from Sri Sūrimantra's Saubhāgyavidyā etc., i. e. from the 2nd Pitha, formed the Vidyā for Upadhyāyas. This must have been done probably in the time of Sri Vajraswāmi and for reasons similar to those which prompted the separation of Sri Vardhamāna Vidyā from Sri Ganividyā alias Sūrimantra. That they must have been one and undivided can be very well inferred from the following convention contained in the I part of Sri Vardhamānavidyākalpa of Sri Simhatilakasūri which contains the separate vidyās of all the twenty four Tīrthankaras.
"सर्वविद्यास्मृतावादौ पूर्णा पंचनमस्कृतिः। यद्वा पंचनमस्कृतिः यद्वा पंचपदी वाच्या।
मुनिना प्रणवादिमा ॥ It means that at the time of recital of all Vidyās at the commencement should be said by the Sadhaka complete Panca Parameşti Mantra or only the first five clauses comprising Panca Parameșți Namaskțiti proper or the five (initial) syllables (A-SI-A-U-SÅi.e. 3fa313) with Omkāra at the very beginning.
This shows that Panca-Parmeșți-vidyā, Vardhamāna-Vidyā and Ganividyā were formerly one and undivided. When, therefore, Sūrimantra is shown to have been connected with the first Lord, one can conclude that Pancaparamestividyā also must have been so connected. It stands to reason that in the time of a particular Tirthankara his Vidyä must have been incorporated in the Sürimantra and must have been finally substituted by that of the last Tīrthankara.
SIDDHACAKRA We shall now deal with the worship of Sri Siddhacakrax which is the representation in a circular Yantra or diagram of Pancapara
* U spligfooru, FH arritffmur, Jagcatfefuit, quiaifafanui I are the four Stutipadas which usually follow the five Padas of Panca-Parameşti-Mantra. All the pine padas are also known as Nāndipadas.
It is wrongly rendered as 'Saint-wheel' by European scholars.
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mesti and the four essentials+ for salvation (together forming Navapada i.e. nine padas) as it is very old and has been mentioned in Nirvāņa kalikā and is connected with the Panca-Parmesti Mantra. We mention this because worship of Sri Siddhacakra alias Navapadapūja is even now very popular and is attended to by hundreds of worshippers both male and female and performed with great devotion and eclat.
This Siddhacakra worship must have become specially popular since the bifurcation of the ancient Gaņivijjā into Sūrimantra and Pancaparamești Vidyā. This is supported by the inclusion of all the 'Labdhipadas' which form the first Pitha of Sūrimantra in Sri Siddhacakra Bșhadyantra. The worship of Sūrimantra is so to say a privelege of the Achāryas; the ordinary Sadhus must be satisfied with the worship of Vardhamāna Vidyā, formerly a part of Sūrimantra, and the relative Yantra. The worship of Panca-Parmești is performed by the laity in the form of Navapadapūjā. Different kinds of austerities have to be performed in all the three kinds of worship. Many elements of Tantrika worship of the purer kindx can be seen in Navapadapūja. Large congregations of people jointly offer worship and there is chanting of hymns to the accompaniment of music. There is recitation of Mantras by each worshipper for the number of times prescribed. The period of worship extends over nine days; and on each of the nine days, one of the nine padas, which include Panca Parmești, is principally worshipped, beginning from the 7th day of the bright half and ending on the 15th thereof in the months of Âśvina and Caitra. During this period the worshippers take only one meal a day consisting of simple spiceless food, devoid of milk, ghee, oil, sugar and vegetables. Sri Siddhacakrayantra is worshipped daily and a five-coloured Navapada-Mandala is also drawn in the centre of the place of worship.
+ They are faith, Knowledge, good conduct and austerity i.e. ria, sat, a t and ani
Contemplation on the five 'Tattvas' is a requisite for the Divya' or divine class of Tāntrika worshippers. The five colours given to Panca-Parameşti in Navapada-Pūjā are said to be meant for such Dhyāna.
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The worshippers read or hear from Sadhus the biography of Srīpāla from Sripālarāsa a work composed by Upadhyāya Sri Vinayavijaya and the famous Jain logician Upādhyāya Sri Yasovijaya about s. y. 1738. The Siddhacakra worship is completed when it is performed nine times i. e. for nine periods of nine days. It thus takes four and a half years to complete. When completed each worshipper celebrates it by offering special worship and distributing gifts amongst the wor. shippers. One of the places believed to have been visited by the legendary King Srīpāla, who is described as an ideal worshipper of Sri Siddhacakra, in course of his voyage, is believed to be the town "Sopāraka", not far from Thānā. In fact at Thānā, a temple of Sri Navapada alias Sri Siddhacakra is being constructed to commemorate this visit as a result of the preachings of Sri Jinațddhisūri and his learned pupil Sri Gulābamuni. A large Siddhacakrayantra is represented there in the form of a large many-petalled lotus carved in stone. WORSHIP OF MANTRA-DEITY NOT INCOMPATIBLE WITH
KARMA-PHILOSOPHY We may here refer the readers, desirous of knowing the Jain view as to how Mantra acts, to the writer's view set forth at p. 35 et seq.; and also draw their attention as to how Mantravāda which is essentially Adhidaivikavāda merges ultimately into Adhyātmikavāda. One may question as to how the Jains who are staunch believers in the philosophy of Karma reconcile with it Mantravāda or Adhidaivikavāda. How can a Mantra-deity make anyone happy or otherwise ? We do not desire to tax our reader's patience with any philosophical discussion about the matter. To explain we would only cite what Yasodevasūri, pupil of Sri Candrasūri, says in his commentary (written in S. Y. 1180) on Pakkhisūtra (P. 72) as to why Śstadevatā or Sarasvati sould be worshipped. The worship of 16 Vidyādevis 64 Indras, atten
* Thănă also appears to be an old town. It is mentioned in the commentary of Sri Malayagiri (who flourished circa 1160 to 1220 of the Vikrama era) on Sri Vyavahāasūtra, I Uddeśāka P. 127.
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dant deities of Tirthankaras like 24 Sasanadevis and 24 Sasanayakṣas,* 9 Planetary deities (Nava Grahas), 10 Wardens of Directions (Dasa Dikpalas) and Warden of land (Kṣetrapāla) and various Mantra-deities presiding over various Mantras, Miraculous works, Sutras§ and Stotras, deities presiding over Gacchas, Gotras, Kulas, villages, towns, forests etc. is to be similarly reconciled. Here is the explanation by Sri Yasodevasūri. He cites the following verse from Kalpa Bhāṣya, which says "All that is endowed with good characteristics or excellence is presided over by a deity and Sutra having been propounded by the omniscient is so endowed";+ and says that Sṛtadevata i. e. the deity presiding over the sacred literature therefore does exist. If it is urged that devotion to the sacred literature personified as a deity may be justified as such devotion is known to destroy the veil of one's Karmas but not that of Sṛta-devata, a deity merely of the Vyantara or similar class as she cannot be supposed to have power to destroy other's Karmas. The answer is "As the Dhyana of Sṛtadevata is said to destroy the Karmas (of the worshipper), to say that Sṛtadevata does not exist or is incapable of doing anything is irreverence in reference to her."
* In Senaprasna by Sri Vijayasenasuri, in answer to the question No. 16, it is said that worship of Ekākṣa Nalikera (a kind of cocoanut) like that of conch curved to the right for worldly benefit and prosperity is not considered want of faith i. e. a transgression of Samyakdarśana.
The Jains like others believe some gåthas or verses of their Scriptures to be endowed with miraculous qualities. The first that may be mentioned is the benedictory verse of Candrapannatti sutra, and the next the benedictory verse of Daśavaikālikasutra. Uttaradhyayana has also a gåtha considered to be so endowed. It is:
"चइत्ता भारहंवासं चक्कवट्टी महिडिओ ।
संती संतिकरो लोए पत्तो गइमणुत्तरं ॥ १८ अध्ययन, श्लोक ३८
INTRODUCTION
The hymns for daily recital also are supposed to have miraculous qualities and particular verses of some of them are considered to be especially miraculous. There are Mantra- Kalpas also in respect of some of these hymns.
+ सब्वं च लक्खणोवेयं समहिन्ति देवता ।
सुत्तं च लक्खणोवेयं जेण सव्वणुभा सियं ॥
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सुयदेवयाए जीए संभरणं कम्मखयकरं भणियं । नस्थिति अकनकरी व एवमासायणा तीए ।
Readers interested in a detailed discussion are referred to Sāmācārī Sataka by Upadhyāya Sri Samayasundara P. 186 et seq. There a further objection against worship of deities, who have not attained salvation, is raised that they are at a lower stage of spiritual progress (Guņasthānaka) viz. the fourth while even a layman who has taken vows meant for the laity is on the fifth and Sadhus on still higher stages and that it is not proper that a person more advanced spiritually should worship one who is at a lower spiritual stage. The author while meeting this objection cites a verse to the effect that even a layman knowing only Pancaparamești-Mantra (and therefore not gone beyond the fourth stage of spiritual progress) should be looked upon with such regard as is shown to the best of friends.* This is on the principle that even the slightest merit does deserve praise and praise of one possessing the right faith destroys the veil of Karmas. It is therefore natural that the deities possessing the right faith though only on the fourth stage of spiritual progress being endowed with great miraculous powers and supersensual knowledge may be worshipped for obtaining the right faith, higher knowledge or miraculous powers or worldly happiness. By obtaining the right faith and higher knowledge one advances on the path leading to salvation and thus worship of Mantra-deities also can contribute towards spiritual uplift and ultimate salvation of the worshipper. But those who care for final beatitude only will naturally prefer to worship as their ideal deity only one who is Siddha and Mukta. They are pure Adhyātmavādis. Some intermediary deities however are much pleased with such a truly
* " तम्हा सव्वपयत्तेणं जो नमुकारधारओ । सावओ सोऽवि दिव्वो जहा परमबंधवो | "
8 "जा दिट्टीदानमित्तेण देइ पणयाण नरसुरसमिद्धिं ।
सिवपुररज्जं आणारयाण देवीइ तीइ नमो ॥ आराधनापताका ॥
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INTRODUCTION
spiritual worshipper and voluntarily aid him in whatever he does though he never desires their aid. It is thus that Mantravāda which is principally connected with Adhidaivikavāda leads to Adhyātmavāda and is practised even by persons striving only for final beatitude. Om, Hrim, and Arham are the Mantra Bijas usually recited by such Adhyātmikas.
We may here mention that of the various Tāntrika Sampradāyas already mentioned the Jains may be said to follow Kashmere Sampradāya, for the reasons that Jain worship is essentially Sāttvika and that Jains are known from the most ancient times to worship Sarasvati or Sștadevatā, the goddess of learning, and the principal quality of Tirthankara is omniscience universal knowledge,* and Sarasvati is known to be a Sáuvika deity, principally worshipped in Kashmere Sampradaya, and Kashmere is known to be her abode.+ It is true that sometimes she is worshipped there under the name of Tripurā, but it is only another name of Sarasvati. It is said by a Tāntrika writer that of the 51 or 52 Pithas $ in various parts of India, the Pitha at Kashmere is of Ksira-Bhavānix who can be easily identified with Sarasvati who is known to be of milk-like whiteness. According to Bhagavati Bhagavata the Pitha there is of Medhā or intellect. According to a legend the famous scholar Hemacandrācārya also proceeded towards Kashmere for the Sadhanā of Sarasvati but she was pleased to grant him the desired boon on the way and he returned to Cambay having achieved his object. Similarly as Jain Acāra is Sāttvika it can be
* See Nirvånakalikä P. 34 where Shakti of Arhan is said to be Jnanashakti i. e. Sarasvati. + 'नमस्ते शारदे देवि काश्मीरपुरवासिनि ।'-सरस्वतीरहस्योपनिषत् । § The Pithas are considered to be 72 or 108 according to other authorities. * The Pitha is situate near Gandharval which is fifteen miles to the north of Srinagar, the capital of Kashmere. The temple of Kșirabhavāni is in the midst of a Kunda or tank. The deity is variously known as Yogamåyå or Mahāmāyā. A fair is held in her honour on Jyeștha Suklā Aşgami each year. See p. 639 Shakti-issue Vol. IX Kalyāna, 1934.
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compared to Samayācāra which has been propounded by Sri Sankarācārya in his famous hymn 'Saundaryalahari'. His other works propounding Samayikamata are Anandalahari, Prapancasāra, Lalitātriśatī Bhāṣya as has been stated by the learned author of 'Sakta Sampradaya' in Gujarati (See P. 33 and P. 100). It must be noted however that Panchatattva worship is not countenanced in Jainācāra in any form whatsoever. At P. 69 Sakta Sampradaya it is said "only in Jainācāra these things i. e. Panchatattvas have no place."
HADI MATA
Strictly speaking there are no distinctions made amongst Jains in respect of Matas based on the worship of different deities or on different Mantras as they begin with the letters 'Ka' or 'Ha' etc. As however in what is termed the Jaina Bīja 'Arham' the principal letter is 'Ha' and because 'Hrim' is considered an equally important Bija amongst Jains indicating 24 Tirthankaras with their male and female attendant deities and is the central Bija in Rşimandala Yantra and because 'Hrim' is also the 'Ekākṣarī Mantra' of Sri Padmavati identified with Tripura the deity principally worshipped in Hadi Mata (See P. 53 ante) and Kashmere Sampradaya and because in Surimantra, the principal Mantra amongst the Jains, the Bijas adopted along with 'Om' and 'Hrim' and 'Arham' and not any Bija beginning with the letter 'Ka' the Jains may be generally speaking said to follow Hadi Mata without thereby suggesting acceptance thereof with all its implications. EARLIER MANTRASIDDHAS
The name of Sri Gautamaswami stands at the forefront of Mantrasiddhas as he was the first Ganadhara of Sri Mahāvīra and composed Sūrimantra under his direction. He was possessed of all kinds of miraculous powers (Labdhis). Exercising one of them he flew up the Aṣṭāpada Mountain unapproachable by ordinary beings, and made
173
*See Nirvāņakalika P. 7 for principal rules of Jainacăra. Digambara Jains also hold identical views on Mantra and Acāra, see the article by Pt. K. Bhujabali Śāstri entitled Jain 'Mantra-sastra', Jain Siddhanta Bhaskara Vol. IV, 3, P. 135 ff.
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INTRODUCTION
obeisance to the Sasvata Caityas or permanent images of the Tirthankaras there, and exercising another he fed 1500 ascetics from his single bowl full of Ksira (milk and rice preparation). Invocation of his name in the morning is believed even today to keep the devotee well fed, clad, provided for and free from want of every kind. The readers will learn in the next section that according to a set description all Gañadharas are said to be Mantrapradhāna and Vidyāpradhāna or prominent in Mantras and Vidyās and that not only Gautamaswāmi but Sudharmāswami and Kesikumāra Sramana a spiritual descendant (of:Śrī Pārsvanātha) also are expressly so described. Similarly many of the 'Therās' or old Sadhus are so described at p. 32 of Sri Aupapā tika Sūtra.
We have already mentioned how the sixth pontiff Sri Bhadrabāhu composed the Māntrika hymn 'Uvasaggaharam' *
The Achāryas who may be noted next are the ninth pontiffs, Sri Susthitasūri and Sri Supratibuddhasūri (291 to 372 of Vīra era). They gave to the Nirgrantha gaccha the name of the Koţika Gaccha, as they recited Sūrimantra a crore (Koti) times. Next Achārya in the main line was Indradinnasūri who died about 421 Vīra era. Priyagranthisūri was his co-pupil. In Pattāvali and commentaries on Sri Kalpasūtra an annecdote is related about him that he recited Mantra on Vása (scented powder)
* Muni Sri Punyavijayaji in his recent article in the Silver Jubilee issue of Sri Mahāvira Jaina Vidyalaya considers the hymn to be by a later Bhadrabāhu, of the Sixth century of the Vikrama era, probably a brother of the astrologer Varāhamihira. He has however not shown therein that the knowledge of Mantra or Nimitta was in any way inconsistent with the knowledge of 14 Pūrvas of the Srutakevali Bhadrabāhu, the sixth pontiff. We have shown above that Nimitta was a part of the ninth Pūrva and Vidyås and Mantras of the tenth Pūrva. Niśitha is admitted to be by the 1st Bhadrabāhu and was extracted by him from the ninth Pūrva which also comprised Nimitta. Nisītha itself refers in its 13th Uddeśa to Vidyas Mantra and Nimitta. Sthūlabhadra, the pupil of the 1st Bhadrabāhu, while studying the tenth Pūrva employed a Vidyā and assumed the form of a lion and was taken to task by his preceptor for such wanton employment of Vidya. This shows that the 1st Bhadrabāhu knew Nimitta, Mantras and Vidyās and there is nothing against his having composed the hymn 'Uvasaggaharam.'
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and caused it to be dropped on the goat tied to the sacrificial post for being sacrificed and it flew up in the sky and, inspired by Sri Ambika, extolled in human speech the doctrine of Ahimsa and directed the Brahmanas there to approach Sri Priyagranthisüri for learning the true Dharma. They thereupon approched Priyagranthisūri and thereafter strictly observed the doctrine of Ahimsā.
Chronologically we should mention here Arya Rohaņa, Kālakācārya, Revatimitra Vidyacakravarti Arya Khapuṭācārya, and Upadhyāya Mahendra, then Srīguptācārya, Vajraswami, Pādaliptasūri, Nāgārjuna and others but as details from their lives are given further on we need not say anything about them here. We would only mention Arya Nandila (circa 600 Vīra era) here. He composed the famous Mantrika hymn to Sri Vairoṭya one of the queens of Dharanendra. This hymn is preserved and printed. The details about the life of Arya Nandila the readers can learn from Prabhavakacaritra.
AIN MANTRAVADA AND CAITY AVASIS: VIDYADHARAS
VIDYADHARAS
We have described in details in the next section the origin of Vidyadharas through the two brothers Nami and Vinami, in the times of Sri Rṣabhadeva, the first Tirthankara, who were gifted with 48000 Vidyas of Gandharvas and Pannagas by Dharanendra the Indra of the serpent-deities (See p. 161-162 Avasyakacurņi) and who used to worship Sri Rṣabhadeva as also the presiding deities of the several Vidyas. As these are more or less legendary persons we describe below
*That daily worship of Vidyadevis was current in the ancient times amongst Jains is evidenced by such mention thereof in Vasudeva-Hindi (P. 366) as the following: "रोहिणी विज्जादेवयं सदा अच्चेमि ॥ "
i. e. "I always worship Vidyadevi Rohiņi." The importance of this reference would be immediately recognised when it is remembered that it occurs in a work written by Śri Sanghadāsagani who holds an unique position amongst Jains as a Bhasyakara of Siddhanta. The above is not a solitary instance. On a careful perusal of the said work, several instances of worship of Vidyadevis and other deities for accomplishment in Vidyas would be found. See p. 318 ibid for worship of the idol of Dharanendra. A reference to worship of the idol of Harinegamesi is found in Antagaḍadasānga, III, 8, Sutra 6: “ततेणं सा सुलसा वालप्पभिति चेव हरिणेगमे सीभत्तया या विहोत्था हरिणेगमे सिस्स पडिमं करेति । "
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Vidyādharas who were contemporaneous with Sri Mahāvīra. VIDYADHARA PEDHĂLAKA AND VIDYACAKRAVARTI MAHEŚVARA
At pp. 685 ff. of Srī Haribhadrasūris commentary on Avasyakasūtra are described the doings of Vidyāsiddha Pedhālaka who was a non-Jain ascetic contemporaneous with Sri Mahavira and his son Satyaki who accomplished the Sadhanā of Mahārohini killed Pedhālaka and became known as Rudra and overpowered Kālasaņdīpaka who created three Puras or bodies in the fight. He thus became Vidyacakravarti and was given the name 'Mahesvara'. He had two pupils Nandiśvara and Nandi who were also similarly accomplished. Th important feature of this annecdote is the belief amongst Jains in the extraordinary powers acquired by Sadhanā of Vidyās such as Mahārohiņi and others even in such early times. We need not add that Rohiņi is the first in the group of sixteen Vidyādevis + in the Jain Pantheon.
In the next section we shall show by references from Sūyagadañgasūtra, Paumacariyam and Vasudeva-Hindi that Vidyās used to be employed by Vidyadharas from the most ancient times. and how Sri Pārsvanātha's worship became extremely popular.
ŚRI RATNAPRABHASORI In the line of Sri Pārsvanātha in 52 Vīra era flourished Achārya Sri Ratnaprabhasūri. He was a pupil of Svayambhavasūri and a grandpupil of Sri Kesikumāra Sramana. It is related about him that he was a Vidyadhara accomplished in Vidyās especially Akasagamini or the flying lore and Bahurūpiņi or the lore enabling one to assume as many bodies as one liked and bore before his initiation the name Ratnacūda. He revived the son of a minister bit by a serpent and given up as dead by his magical power and converted lacs of people headed by the said minister to Jainism and formed them into the Ośwāla caste which exists to
+ "Of all the conceptions found in the Jains Iconography, none is so original as the conception of the Vidyādevis or the Goddesses of learning". Page. 163, The Jain Iconography by Prof. B. C. Bhattacharya
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this day amongst Jains. He was such a powerful and accomplished preacher that he made even the deity Cāmundā accept the doctrine of Ahimsã who was thence known as Satyikā or Saccikā. He founded the Upakesa Gaccha and Saccikā became the patron-deity thereof as also the Gotradevī of Ośwāla families. He installed simultaneously in the two cities of Upakeśa and Koranțaka the idols of Sri Mahāvīra by projecting his double at Koranțaka. For details about him and other Acharyas of Upakeśa Gaccha gifted with miraculous powers the readers are referred to Upakesa Gaccha Pattāvali in Sanskst published in Jain Sāhitya Samsodhaka Vol. II, 1.
VIDYADHARA-KULA ETC. It is worth noting that there is a Vidyādhara kula, Gaccha, Vamsa or Sākhā known amongst the Jain Sadhus. Vidyadhara Gopāla, one of the several pupils of Susthitasūri and Supratibuddhasūri, on the one hand and Vidyādhara, the pupil of Vajrasena and grand-pupil of Vajraswāmi on the other, are credited with starting the same. The writer thinks that Vidyādhari Sākhā, Gaccha or Vamsa was started by Vidyā. dhara Gopāla and Vidyadhara kula by Vidyadhara the grand pupil of Vajraswāmi. It is but natural that one of the pupils of Achāryas, who were credited with doing one crore Japa of Sūrimantra, should be a
Vidyādhara i. e. one accomplished in Vidyās and start a Sakhā or Gaccha-Vamsa known after his name. This really indicates that from Susthita and Supratibuddha Achāryas commenced great activities to acquire proficiency in Mantras and Vidyās. These activities ultimately produced such grand personalities as Kālakācārya, Vajraswāmi, VidyāCakravarti Arya Khapuțācārya, Upādhyāya Mahendra, Pādaliptasūri, Arya Nāgārjuna and others.
CAITYAVĀSIS Although Caityavāsi Sādhus had great authority and influence over Svetāmbara Jains for about a thousand years, their connected history is not available nor is it possible satisfactorily to reconstruct it. We have to rely generally upon probabilities and can draw only
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tentative conclusions. We have some information about some Acharyas who were Caityavasis or disciples of Caityavāsi preceptors or in whose life we find Caityavāsi practices. The causes and the circumstances which contributed to the rise of the Caityavasis seem to be practically buried in the past except for our suggestion in the foregoing portion hereof that practices similar to those prevalent amongst them did exist in the past as noted in Avasyaka Niryukti and might have contributed to their ultimate rise. We can therefore place only such facts before the readers as can be gathered on the subject together with our suggestions as to what might have probably occurred which would satisfactorily explain the situation as it might be imagined to have gradually developed. We do it in the hope that it may give an impetus to the antiquarians working in the same field to discover further materials with which a more satisfactory Jain history can be reconstructed.
INTRODUCTION
Although nowadays 'Caitya' means a temple or an idol originally it meant also a memorial constructed on the place of cremation of a dead body or the abode or temple of a Vyantara deity or Yakṣa or a sacred tree around which some sort of platform was constructed. Some time in the beginning of the Vikrama era it came to be commonly understood as a temple. 'Caityavasis' meant those Jain ascetics who took up their residence in Jain temples. The Jain Sastras however never permitted such residence which was more or less of a permanent character and brought in its train the management and ultimately the ownership of the temples where the particular Sadhus resided. Consequently much laxity in the observance of the rules of conduct for Sadhus prevailed amongst them. The liberties taken originally were slight e. g. acceptance of honorofic paraphernalia of a king such as horse, elephant, palanquin, umbrella and chowries, as an Acharya was considered not only the head of the Sadhus but the spiritual head of the people in no way lesser than the temporal head, a king. In fact, according to Nirvāṇakalikā, when Achāryaship was conferred upon a Sādhu, it was the practice inter alia to present to him the
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royal paraphernalia above described. (See page 9-B Nirvāņakalikā). The author of Nirvāņakalikā is Pādaliptasūri above referred to who flourished about the first century of the Christian era. * Now about the time this practice of presentation of royal paraphernalia to an Achārya arose, he must have had also some place to keep them. It can be well imagined that they must have been kept somewhere near a place which he might have taken up as his residence for the greater part of the year; that such a place was usually connected with a Jain temple appears to be proved by the accounts we are able to gather of the Caityavāsis. We would therefore be justified in inferring that about the time of Sri Pādaliptasūri Caityavása must have been considerably old to allow an Achārya to accept, and maintain even royal Paraphernalia.
ARYA MAHĀGIRI AND ĀRYA SUHASTI On a careful study of the ancient Jain literature we find that the question of residence of the Jain Sadhus assumed prominence which it had not done before, first about the time of Arya Mahāgiri and Arya Suhasti the two joint pontiffs who succeeded Sthūlabhadra in or about 215 Vira era. The former is generally supposed to have died about 245 and the latter about 291 Vira era.
Arya Mahāgiri resolved to follow, as far as possible, Jinakalpa or the strict course of conduct which had been followed by most of
* Sri Kalyāņavijayaji in his introduction to the Gujarati translation of Sri Prabhåvakacaritra has tried to show the date of Pädalipta sūri, the author of Nirvanakalikā, to be from about the end of the 2nd century to the first half of the 3rd century of the Vikrama era, on the supposition that the word 'Murunda' which means 'master' could have been applied to the ruler at Patliputra only after it came under the sway of the Kuśāna rulers, and that it came under their sway between s. y. 177 and 219, and from the date of Arya Nagahasti given in 'Yugapradhāna-Pattāvali viz. s.y. 151 to 219. He has however not explained the mention of Tarangavaikkāra, (author of Tarangavati novel) i.e. Padalipta sūri, by Aryarakṣita sūri in his work Anuyogadwara. Āryarakṣitasūri, who is supposed to have died in s. y. 127 (s. y. 114 according to Sri Kalyanavijaya himself), could not have mentioned Padaliptasūri supposed to be born later. The writer therefore considers the 1st century as the correct date of Sri Padalipiasuri.
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the Sadhus who were Sri Mahāvira's contemporaries. It had however gone out of vogue after him owing to the hardships it entailed. Arya Mahagiri as a rule remained away from cities and villages. Even when he did visit them it was only for a very limited time except that during monsoon he would stay at any one place throughout. He performed severe austerities and underwent hardships incidental to the practice of Jinakalpa.
Arya Suhasti on the other hand, having regard to the lack of requisite stamina in the Sadhus of his time, preferred taking up residence in towns and villages, which was again of much longer duration than that allowed to the followers of Jinakalpa. It also appears that Arya Suhasti did not prevent his pupils from accepting food offered to them by persons in charge of the Royal alms-houses out of what came to their share. These keepers of the alms-houses did so as they were promised and paid price thereof by the King. Arya Mahāgiri suspecting this remonstrated with Arya Suhasti, and when the latter did not admit his connivance, Arya Mahāgiri threatened not to take food jointly with Arya Suhasti and his pupils. Arya Suhasti thereupon apologised to him and Arya Mahagiri accepted the apology but remarked that it was a fault occasioned by the decadent times and left the place. Thus arose the separation in food or "Asambhogikatā." among different groups of Sadhus.
JAIN EMPEROR SAMPRATI
INTRODUCTION
It is a generally accepted historical fact that Emperor Asoka had a son Kuṇala (called Suyasas by some Purāņas) whose son was Samprati (or Sampadi according to the Buddhists). Samprati governed Ujjain alias Avanti for a considerable time as a Viceroy during the reign of Asoka. According to the Buddhist sources Sampadi was the heir apparent during the life time of Emperor Asoka and during the last illness of Asoka prevented the latter from entirely squandering away the Royal treasury by making very huge gifts of crores of gold coins to the Buddhist monastery Kurkuṭārāma. He was crowned King
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on the death of Asoka. (See Divyāvadāna, * XXIX Avadāna, pp. 430–433. See also Bodhisattvāvadāna Kalpalatā, Pallava 74, vv. 8-12 p. 597).
Matsyapurāņa (Adh. 272) which is considered the most reliable among Purāṇas, mentions Saptati i. e. Samprati as the grand-son of Asoka and that he ruled for 10 years, and that Dasaratha, his son (i. e. Asoka's son) for eight years. The only other Purāņa which mentions Dasaratha is Vişnupurāņa. It mentions 'Samyuta' (i. e. Samprati) as his successor. Bhāgavata, Vāyu and Brahmāndapurāņa do not mention Dasaratha at all. Bhāgavata mentions Sangata and Brahmandapurāņa mentions Bandhupālita instead as successor to Suyasas alias Kusala or Kunāla. It would appear from this confusion that Purāņas generally had no reliable tradition or exact information about Maurya Kings subsequent to Asoka. According to the Jain tradition * Samprati was a great emperor and his kingdom extended in the north beyond Takşasilā and in the south included Andhra and Dramila or Dravidian territory. This Samprati saw Arya Suhasti + when the latter was going in a religious procession (Rathayātrā) at Ujjain or Vidišā (modern Besnagar or Bhilsa a town about 120 miles to the East of Ujjain). He thereupon interviewed him. Being impressed by the deep and wonderful knowledge and religious discourse of Arya Suhasti, Samprati embraced Jainism. His life since that time shows his great zeal for
* According to Rhys David Divyāvadāpa appears to have been written about 3rd century A.D. x The earlier references to King Samprati are as follows: Bịhatkalpabhāşya (circa 6th century A.D.), Uddeśa I., vv. 3275-3289, Vol. III, pp. 917-921; BỊhatkalpacūrni p. 22; Višeşāvaśyakabhāşya (circa 645 A.D.), V. 861 and commentaries thereon. See Nišithabhāşya and Niśīthacūrņi, v Uddeśa,(circa 6th and 7th centuries respectively), p. 191 (Ms.), and p. 437 s.y. 1995 edn.
संपति २ण्णुप्पत्ती सिरिघर उज्जाणि हेठे बोधव्वा ।
अज्जमहागिरि हत्थिप्पभिती जाणइ विसमंगो (विसंभोगो) ॥ २५९ब, भा० गा८२१४२ + 85819ETAIS SAUT, AVO 7 gen HEUTTI
पावयणम्मि य भत्ती, तो जाता संपति रण्णो । ६० भा०,गा० ३२७७
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Jainism. He is credited with building numerous Jain temples throughout his kingdom and installing idols of Jina. Magnificent processions with the idol of Jina carried in a chariot used to be taken out not only by Samprati tut also by kings under his suzerainty. Special worship used to be performed in Jain temples on such occasions. I By his influence he spread Jainism throughout his kingdom § and made through missionary activities even border countries fit for the visit and stay of Jain Sadhus. The missionaries went there dressed like Jain Sādhus and instructed the people there into the practices of Jain Sadhus and the rules regulating their mode of obtaining food and other necessities*
+ अणुजाणे अणुजाती, पुष्फारुहणाइ उकिरणगाई।
पूयं च चेझ्यागं, ते वि सरज्जे कारिंति ॥ बृ०भा०,गा० ३२८५ इ जति मं जाणह सामि, समणाणं पणमहा सुविहियाणं ।
दम्वेण मे न कज्जं, एयं खु पियं कुणह मज्झं ॥ बृ०भा०, गा० ३२८६ * Some important later Jain references to Samprati are: 1. Yaśodevastiri's commentary on Devaguptācārya's Navatattva-Prakaraña (1174
Vikrama era) describes the life and doings of Samprati (pp. 4 to 12). 2. Maladhāri Šri Hemacandrasūri's Puşpamåla-Prakarana wi.h his own commentary
(12th century Vikrana era) v. 244, P. 426. 3. Sri Hemacandräcārya's Parisiştha Parvan (13th century Vikrama era). 4. Dharmaghoșasūri's Rşimandala Prakarana v.184(1328 Vikrama era);commentary
on ditto by Sri Padmamandiragaņi. 5. Satrunjaya Kalpa by Sri Dharmaghoșasūri (14th century Vikramı cra). 6. Satrunjaya Kalpa by Sri Jinaprabhasūri v. 35 (14th century Vikrama era). 7. Kakkasūri's Nābhinandana Jinoddhāra-Prabandha (1393 Vikrama era) III, v. 100. 8. Sri Jayasekharasūri's Prabodha Cintamani (1462 Vikrama era), Adh. VI vv. 77
to 80. 9. Sri Ratnamandiragani's Upadeśatarangini (Circa 1517 Vikrama era) pp. 104-107. 10. Sri Jinasundara sūri's Dipālikā-Kalpa (1483 Vikrama era). 11. Sri Subhasilagaội's Sri Bharateśvara Bahubalivṛtti (1509 Vikrama era) pp. 168
to 173. 12. Kalpadipikā p. 144 A (1677 Vikrama era).
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European historians like Vincent Smith think that Maurya Kingdom was perhaps divided on the death of Asoka between Dasartha and Samprati, the former taking the eastern and the latter the western provinces; but the fact that Purāņas mention the name of Samprati amongst rulers of Magadha contradicts such a conclusion. Further, Buddhist works like Divyavadana state that Samprati succeeded to the throne of Asoka and was crowned as king on the death of Asoka. Even the inscriptions of Nagarjuna hills recording gift of three caves by Dasaratha to Ajivikas do not say that Dasaratha was the successor of Asoka nor do they bear any date. Further the inscriptions do not describe Dasaratha as a Maurya. He is there styled 'the beloved of the gods' (alfa). This is the only phrase which may lead one to consider that Dasaratha might possibly be a Maurya. If we take the Buddhist and Jain evidence together it definitely proves that Samprati was the successor of Asoka. We have considered it necessary to go rather in details into this question as the meeting of Samprati with Arya Suhasti and his efforts for the spread of Jainism as detailed above form the central plank in the history of the Caityavasis. Although the Caityavasis as a body came to be organized much later, Caityavāsa and various lax practices found with it had already taken roots about this time and gradually grew and gathered strength by about the 2nd century of the Vikrama era.
13. Kalpasûtra's commentaries: Kiranavali (1628 Vikrama era) p. 165, Kalpalata (1685 Vikrama era) p.224, and Subodhika (1696 Vikrama era) p. 163 B-all being of the 17th century Vikrama era.
14. Upadhyaya Sri Samayasundara's Ghanghäni or Dhandhani Tirtha Stotra which records finds of idols of Samprati on Jetha Sud 11th 1662 Vikrama era, P. 178 Sri Jain Svetämbara Conference Herald Vol. XIV, Nos. 4 to 6
15. Vijayalakşmişuri's Upadesaprasada (19th century Vikrama era).
+ Even Vinceat Smith admits that "there is no clear evidence to support this hypothesis." P. 181 Early History of India.
* Arya Mangu a contemporary of Sri Kalakācārya being fond of rich food remained at Mathura continuously for a long period till he died there and became Yakşa. He is cited as an instance of lax practice although he was otherwise a great Acharya.
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PERIOD AFTER SAMPRATI The innumerable temples constructed and the far more innumerable idols installed in the most distant parts of Samprati's kingdom might have found from amongst those who were freshly converted to Jainism necessary worshippers and care-takers not only during his reign but also for some time thereafter. Ultimately however the duty must have devolved upon those who were hereditarily Jains, and where they were very few or non-existant the Jain Sadhus must have been compelled to take upon themselves the care of the temples. Many of these temples were built in far distant parts of Samprati's kingdom, to travel where, the Jain Sadhus must have experienced great hardships. Gradually, those Sādhus who were not very self-sacrificing constantly to undertake travels in strict accordance with the letter of the rules of conduct for them must have remained near about such temples for longer periods and must have ultimately taken up their residence in temples themselves. This must have of course taken finally to crystallize obout a couple of centuries. There must have been also forces of ideal Sādhus trying to check and counteract this downward tendency. In fact we find such efforts in the biography of Sri Vajraswāmi. How the times aided this downward tendency can be seen from the occurrence of several famines including three long famines * since Nirvaņa of Sri Mahavira each extending over a period of twelve years, which devastated the land and annihilated men and animals and put an end to all culture. The wonder is that good conduct, learning and culture at all survived these recurring long famines. All the same they took their toll; and we find the best of Sadhus fasting unto death with Sri Vajraswami.
Before we deal with the life of Sri Vajraswāmi we would briefly describe the times after Samprati as evidenced, by history. Within 50
* The first occured a little prior to the death of Sri Bhadrabāhu i.e. 170 years after Sri Mahavira's Nirvana and the second a little prior to the death of Sri Vajraswami 584 Vira era and the third was about 980 Vira era.
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years from the death of Asoka Puşyamitra Sunga, * the greatest oppresser of the Buddhists and Jains, usurped the throne of Magadha by slaying his master Bșhadratha. His dynasty ruled from 184 B. C. to about 72 B.C. until the murder of Devabhūti the last king of the dynasty. In such mad persecution and dire calamity Jains must have naturally resorted to the Achāryas noted for their magical prowess and great Mantrasiddhas like Susthita, Supratibuddha, Arya Rohaņa, Priyagranthisūri, Vidyādhara Gopāla + Revatimitra, Kālakācarya, Srigupta, Aryakhapuțācārya and Upadhyāya Mahendra did or must have done what they could to protect the Jain fold. The effect of all this was however to increase the value of Māntrikas immeasurably in the eye of the people and therefore also in the eye of the Sadhus. Protection of Sangha and Caityas became the main duty of all whether laymen or monks. The importance of royal friendship and favour were also considered necessary at first for the protection and then for the spread of the Jain faith.
From all these necessities and the resulting atmosphere arose the Caityavāsis.
SRI VAJRASWĀMI In the biography of Sri Vajraswāmi we find that he also for some time made exception to the ideal rules of conduct for Sadhus and for a time helped his pupils with food obtained by his magical powers. We also find that employing Pața-Vidyā he removed the whole of the Jain Sangha from a town afflicted with famine, and carried the whole body flying over to another place named Puri. Further though a Jain Sadhu is not permitted to touch a flower even for worship of Jain idols, Sri Vajraswāmi through his flying-lore few over from place to place gathered flowers and brought them down for
x Sri Kalyanavijaya identifies him with Kalki.
+ Vidyadhara was not merely his family-name, as his family-name (Gotra) is addi: tionally mentioned as Kåśyapa. He was therefore very probably a Vidyasiddha and so came to be known as Vidyadhara and started Vidyadhari Sakhā of Sadhus.
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INTRODUCTION being used for worship in Jain temples. The later Sadhus took all these as precedents and justification for their own laxity. They never cared however to take a lesson from his conduct in preferring death to taking food obtained through magic, but as mentioned in Avasyaka Niryukti vv. 1179-81 they preached that even Sådhus should worship Jain idols with flowers and other materials (i.e. perform Dravya-Pūjā) from the said example of Sri Vajraswāmi and that such worship was one of the causes leading to salvation. They thus defended their own laxity. It may be assumed that till Vajraswāmi there was no Caityavāsa,but extreme devotedness to Caityas does appear from his biography. He is credited with deciphering of the flying-lore, through his miraculous intellectual power, from 'Mahaparijnā-Adhyayana' of Sri Acārāngasūtra.* He is said to have incorporated 'Pancamangala Mahāśruta Skandha' i.e. the sacred Panca Parmesti Mantra (which was formerly an independent Sūtra) in Mülasutras. It also appears as already stated that Sri Vajraswāmi separated Vardhamāna Vidya from Sūrimantra.+ It appears from Sri Jinaprabhasūri's Vividha Tirthakalpa that Sri Vajraswāmi rearranged certain works extracted by Sri Bhadrabāhu from Kalpaprābhịta and also extracted others from Vijjāpāhuda which was a summary by Sri Bhadrabāhu from the 10th Pūrva. These are said to have been abridged by Sñ Pādaliptasūri. All these facts go to show Vajraswāmi's great interest and proficiency in Vidyās and Mantras. It must also be remembered that according to Svetambara tradition, he was the last Achārya versed in the ten Purvas, the tenth Purva being the Pūrva relating to Vidyās and
* जेणुद्धरिया विज्जा आगासगमा महापरिण्गाओ। वंदामि अज्जवइरे अपच्छिमी जो सुयहराणं ॥ आवश्यक नियुक्ति, गा० ७६९ ॥ Sri Munisundarasīri praises Sri Vajraswāmi thus:
"या प्रज्ञा यच्च सौभाग्यं यः प्रभावश्च या मतिः।
श्रीमद्वज्रगुरावासंस्तानि नान्यत्र विष्टपे॥ गुर्वावली, लो० २१॥ + SriCandrasena Kşamāśramaņa, probably the grand pupil of Sri Vajraswāmi, a great Māntrika is coasidered by some to have done this.
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Mantras. * As such Achārya he was expected to summarise or cull out important matters from the Pūrva in which he was the last man versed. Naturally, therefore, to Vajraswāmi are ascribed such works in the nature of summaries from the Pūrva literature styled Prābhịtas. He was such a great Mantrasiddha that his name like that of Sri Gautamaswami is invoked for obtaining food and other necessaries of life.Ş
• We have described above (pp. 152 ff. supra) Sārūpikas and Siddhaputras. It would appear that they were in existence much prior + to the rise of Caityavāsis and were probably concerned with the preservation and carrying on of the Mantric and Naimittika tradition of the ancient Pārsvāpatyas and Naimittikas. They also appear to have existed side by side with Caityavāsis as appears from Sri Haribhadrasūri's Sambodha Prakaraṇa. All the same they influenced Caityavāsi practices both being practitioners of Mantra, Vidyā and Nimitta. The real difference between Caityavāsis on the one hand and Sārūpikas and Siddhaputras on the other is that the former inspite of some of their lax practices were Sādhus while the latter were not. As Sādhus, Caityavāsis had their predecessors in the five kinds of lax Sādhus (of whom Kusīlas practised Vidyās, Mantras and
x Yativīşabha the author of Tiloyapannatti, a work well-known amongst the Digambara Jains, refers to 'Vairajasa'as the last of Pahnasamaņas (v.70); and Prof. Hiralal Jain of Amraoati the learned author of the Introduction to and one of the Editors of Şațkhandägama considers that this reference may be to Arya Vaira mentioned in Svetämbara works as the latter mention him as possessed of Padánusāri Labdhi a miraculous power connected with intellect, which quality is also included in the term Pahnasamana see Avaśyaka-Niryukti V. 767 "TEA Byoutig are cagh OPACITA I
af $3 AGAT, 9210afé AA II" SThe Mantra is:' नमो भगवते श्री वज्रस्वामिने सर्वार्थ सिद्विसंपन्नाय स्थानं भोजनं वस्त्रार्थलाभं देहि२ स्वाहा' + Hemacandrācārya describes Närada as a Siddhaputra who would break up a sacrifice if the idol of Sri Jina were not kept underneath the sacrificial post. See Parisistha Parva, biography of Sri Prabhavasūri.
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Nimitta *) and Pārsvāpatyas above described. As practice of Mantras and Vidyās required certain facilities for Sadhanā, so they took their clue from Pārsvāpatyas. It would appear that as Sri Pārsvanātha was especially worshipped by Pārsvāpatyas he came to be the Māntric deity par excellence of Jain Māntrikas.
As the Sadhus became more and more associated with temples, they naturally took part in the rites and ceremonies relating thereto as also in the installation ceremonies in performing which Mantras are usually recited. Taking part in such rites accompanied by Mantric recital, in the eye of the public, they came to be considered masters of magical lores. As men of the world wished for health, wealth and happiness, the aid of such Sadhus must have been freely sought but restrictedly given. Various facts which appear to have contributed to the development of Caityavāsa and its lax practices can be easily gathered from the biographies of some of the prominent Achāryas of olden times.
We have noted above at pp. 174-175 how, the pupils of Aryasuhasti, Sri Susthita and Sri Supratibuddha came to be known as Kautika and Mantravāda gained impetus with them. Arya Rohana was also a pupil of Arya Suhasti and was a Mantra-siddha as shown below. Next came Priyagranthisūri whose Mantric achievements are described at P. 174 supra. Vidyādhara Gopāla and other Mantrasiddhas, who flourished about this time, we have already mentioned above.
All of them were famous as Mantravādis and Mantravāda was one of the chief factors that helped the progress of Caityavāsa. Another factor was the establishment of contact with kings and through them realization of the ambition to spread Jainism. The effect was that the contact of Achāryas with the rulers of the land culminated
* See Sambodha-prakarana p. 13 v. 16.
. कोउयभूईकम्मे पसिणापसिणे निमित्तमाजीवी। कककरुयाइ लक्खणमुवजीवइ विज्जमंताई ॥१६॥
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usually into such intimate relations that the Achāryas commenced accepting emblems of royal honour such as palanquin, elephant, horse, chowries etc. They thus became lax in observing the rules of conduct for Sädhus. We would give concrete instances. We have already mentioned how it became a practice to give such presents when Acharyaship was conferred upon a Sadhu as recorded in Nirvāņakalikā of Pādaliptasûri. Padaliptasūri himself had come in intimate contact with king Murunda of Patliputra as also king Hāla or some other king of Sātavāhana Dynasty. He is also known to have possessed magical powers. A verse recording this fact is found in Nisītha Bhāșya:
जह जह पएसिणिं जाणुअंमि पालित्तओ भमाडेइ ।
तह तह सिसिरवियणा पणस्सइ मुरंडरायस्स ॥ He used to visit five Jaina Tirthas flying daily. He was a poet, a novelist(having written the first novel Tarangavatī), and knew astrology and other branches of Nimitta Sāstra (science of Divination). In Ga. tliāsaptasati are found several verses ascribed to him (Palitta). He composed 'Praśna Prakāsa', a work on astrological mode of answering questions as mentioned in Prabhāvakacaritra, the Prāksta commentary on Jyotişkarandaka (see p. 26 same work with Malayagiri's commentary), and commentary on Kālajnāna (i. e. knowing approach of death before hand). His only available work is Nirvānakalikā already described above. According to Kalpacūrni Padaliptasūri was a Vācaka. *
ŚRI KĀLAKÀCÀRYA Some time prior to Padaliptasūri flourished the famous Kāla. kācārya, who on abduction of his sister Sadhvi Sarasvati by king Gardabhilla deposed him with the aid of Persian princes. There have been other Kālakācāryas before and after him with whom we are not here concerned. The Kālakācārya who deposed king Gardabhilla is said to have learnt the science of Divination (Nimittasõstra) from Ajīvakas and
* See Introduction to Satkhaņdāgama p. 59 where the title 'Mahăvăcaka' is considered the highest.
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wrote a comprehensive work containing biographies and stories pertaining to Caritānuyoga, the first division of Jain literature and also started Gandikānuyoga i. e. Prakrañagranthas versifying sūtras. He also changed Paryusaņā Samvatsarī from the 5th of the bright half of Bhādrapada to the 4th of the bright half of the same month at the request of Sātavāhana the king of Pratisthanapura. + All these facts are referred to in Pancakalpacūrni, Nisithacūrni, Vyavahāracūrni Avasyakacūrni or Kalpacūrni.
With Sri Kālakasūri's precedent Sadhus realised that when an important occasion arose they must have power and be prepared to redress the wrong to Sangha and Mantrasiddhis came to be valued more and more.
This deposition of king Gardabhilla by Sri Kālakācārya was in 453rd year of Vīra era i. e. 17 years prior to the commencement of Vikrama era. Sri Revatīmitra, Arya Mangu and Arya Samudra Wire his contemporaries. One incident in the life of Srī Kālakācārya is important to us, as it shows his magical powers. It is that when accompanied by Persian princes, he came across a kiln where bricks were being baked, the Achārya sprinkled some magical powder on it, which put out the fire and turned the clay-bricks into gold-bricks. This supplied the Achārya and the Persian princes with sinews of war. It appears from the life of Sri Kalakācārya that although he was strict in observance of the rules of conduct for Sadhus, he was bold and courageous enough to make a great exception, when he saw in the abduction of his ascetic-sister by the king Gardabhilla an insult to the Jain religion, and a danger to the Sangha, and went the length of leading an army and deposing the king. His example must have been looked upon by his contemporaries as well as successors with greatest regard and admiration. The real significance of the incident is that it must have impressed on Sadhus the very great necessity of possessing magical powers, by which even a king
+ According to some this was by a later Kalakācārya who flourished about 980 or 993 Vira era and the King concerned was Dhruvasena of Anandpur alias Vadnagar.
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could be punished, if such an occasion arose. This must have given a great impetus to the practice of Mantras and acquisition of miraculous powers. ARYA KHAPUTACARYA
We see the same thing in the life of Vidyacakravarti * (Universal monarch of magical lores) Aryakhapuṭācārya. He flourished about the same time but must have been a younger contemporary of Kalakācārya. He died about the 484th of the Vira era, and was a contemporary of Balamitra and Bhānumitra, Kings of Broach, who were the sons of the famous Kalakācārya's sister. As stated by the writer at page 11A of his introduction to Nirvāṇakalika, "about the time the Buddhists had great influence in various courts of India and controversies between Buddhists on one side and Jains on the other were very common. Aryakhapuṭācārya and Upadhyāya Devendra (Mahendra) his pupil were Jain Sadhus well known for their learning and accomplishments in magical lores. One Buddhist from Gudasastrapura, who was defeated by a Jain Sadhu in a controversy before the King of Broach, died and became a malevolent spirit and began troubling the Jains. The services of Aryakhapuṭācārya were requisitioned, and by his prowess he made the Buddhist Yakṣa (spirit) do his bidding and follow him out of the town. The king was thus won over, and the spirit gave up harassing the Jains. Devendra (Mahendra) similarly punsihed the jealous Brahmins in the Court of King Dahada at Patliputra by twisting
* See Viseṣāvasyakabhāṣya:
191
विज्जाण चकवट्टी विज्जासिद्धो स जस्स वेगावि ।
सिज्झिज्ज महाविज्जा विज्जासिद्धऽज्जखउडु ॥ ९३२ ॥
He who is accomplished even in one great Vidya like Vidyasiddha Arya Khapuṭācārya is one who is accomplished i. e. adept in Vidyas or the universal monarch of the magical lores. Similarly verses 933 and 934 ibid say that one who is accomplished in a principal Mantra or several or all Mantras is a Mantrasiddha like the Sadhu who drew away columns of a royal palace and one versed in important magical powders or applications is a Drvyasiddha like Arya Samiti, the maternal uncle of Sri Vajraswami, who divided the river Bena to cross over to the other shore.
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back the faces of the Brahmins by his magical prowess. When they promised to become Jain ascetics they were released and the King thenceforth never insisted on the Jain Sadhus bowing to the Brahmin householders. Both these preceptor and pupil were respectively versed in "Vidyā-Pāhuda" and "Siddha-Pāhuda"". The said Aryakhapuțācārya thus acquired great fame by protection of the ancient Jain
Tirtha at Broach known as Asvāvabodha against the Buddhists. We may mention here that Aryakhapuțācārya has been mentioned as a Vidya. siddha twice in Nisīthacūrni. Sri Kalyāņavijaya suggests that Dāhada might be Devabhūti, the last king of the Sunga dynasty who died in or about 72 B. C.
MANTRASIDDHAS According to a statement in Sūrimantrakalpa Revati (Circa 414 -450 Vira era), Rohini-really Rohaņa, a pupil of Arya Suhasti, (Circa 300 Vīra era), Nāgārjuna, (Circa 813 to 891 Vīra era) Arya khapuțācārya (Circa 484 Vira era) and Yasobhadra are the five Achāryas who are known as Mantrasiddhas obeisance to whom aids worshippers in acquisition of Mantrasiddhis. * Revati is most probably Revatimitra + who was a Yugapradhāna-leader of the age, a famous Anuyogācārya contemporary with Kālakācārya (who deposed Gardabhilla), and flourished circa 414-450 Vīra era. No details of his life are known.
ARYA ROHANA "Rohiņi" as such we are unable to identify. It is probably a corruption of 'Rohana' by some scribe owing to the name of Vidyādevī Rohiņi being well-known and as it follows 'Revati' which was possibly misapprehended as the name of a female.
This must be so because Achāryaship is not conferred on a female ascetic. We find in one of the Mathurā inscriptions mention
* See Avašyakasūtra p. 509 A: it fratroi facrifa qarsifal FFATI
___आयरिअ नमुक्कारेण विज्जामंता य सिझंति ॥ नियुक्ति गा० १०९७ + There has been a later Revatimitra who flourished circa 676 to 735 Vira era.
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of one Ārya Rohaņa who founded a school-gana. (See page 179 'On the Authenticity of the Jain Tradition' by G. Buhler). The said iniscription is dated 98th year of king Vasudeva, i. e., the 2nd century A. D. and refers to Arya Devadattagani who belonged to the Gaņa or Kula founded by Arya Rohaņa. It means that Arya Rohaņa must have been a spiritual ancestor of Arya Devadatta. So considerable time must have passed between Arya Rohana and Arya Devadatta, It appears from the same inscription that he must have also started 'Parihāsaka' Kula and 'Paurņapatrikā' Sakhā mentioned in the inscrip. tion. Arya Rohana is mentioned in Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra p. 166 (Devachand Lalbhāi Edn. with Subodhikāvstti) as the first of the 12 pupils of Arya Suhasti. It is also stated therein that he started Uddeha gana which had four Sākhās and six Kulas including Paurņapatrikā Sākhā and Parihāsaka Kula mentioned in the inscription. We have no more information about Ārya Rohaņa. Aryakhapuțācārya, we have already described.
SRI NAGARJUNA Sri Nāgārjuna here referred to could not have been the RasaSiddha* or alchemist who learnt the ingredients of Pādalepa (i. e. foot application) for flying from Sri Pādaliptasūri as he is not known to have been initiated as a Jain Sādhu. He could not therefore have acquired accomplishment in Sūrimantra which is communicated by a preceptor to pupil only on conferment of Achāryaship on him. He must be the famous Acharya Nāgárjuna (circa 813 to 891 Vira era) who is responsible for the Vallabhi Vācanā of the sacred scriptures of the Jains contemporaneously with Skandilācārya (circa 827 to 840 Vira era) who was responsible for the Mathuri Vācanā and who is said to be of same spiritual line viz. Vidyādhara as that of Padaliptasūri. There have been several Nagarjunas and the one who started the Madhyamaka school of Buddhists has nothing to do with Nāgārjuna of Vallabhi
* One who can convert base metals into gold with the help of special mercurial preparations.
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Vācanā. There was also a later Buddhist Tāntrika named Nāgārjuna, who flourished in the 7th century of the Christian era. Kaksaputa and Ascaryayogaratnamālā ascribed to Nāgārjuna are claimed to be the works of the Buddhist Tantrika Nāgārjuna.
ŚRI YASOBHADRASŪRI We make some observations about Sri Yasobhadrasūri at this place as he is one of the five Mantrasiddhas mentioned above although he flourished so late as the 10th century of the Vikrama era.
Sri Yaśobhadrasūri belonged to Sāndera Gaccha and was not therefore a member of Caityavāsi Gaccha. He was however very famous as a Mantravādi. He was the pupil of Sri Isvarasūri. He was born of Prägvät parents Sāpu (of Nārāyana Gotra) and Guņi. His name was Sudharma. He lived with his parents at the Village of Palāsi in Rohai Khanda near Mt. Abu. As a child he took an inkpot of a Brahmin co-pupil and accidentally broke it while replacing it. The Brahmin student insisted upon the identical ink-pot being returned. The demand could not possibly be satisfied by Sudharma and the Brahmin student vowed that he would eat rice-meal in the skull of Sudharma. The latter retorted "If I am a true Bania I would kill you even if dead.” The said Isvarasüri being in quest of a good pupil worshipped a deity named Badarī who informed him that the said Sudharma was a fit pupil to be initiated and become his successor. Thereupon Isvarsūri came to Palāsi village and initiated the said Sudharma. Then they went to Mudāhada town and Acharyaship was there conferred on Sudharma, and at the time his name was changed to Yašobhadrasūri and Badaridevi promised to help him. Then they came to Pāli for stay during the monsoon when the Sun-god was pleased with Yasobhadrasūri and gave him a boon promising to fulfil all his desires. Isvarasūri died there during the monsoon and as soon as it was over Yasobhadrasūri with his co-pupil Balibhadrasūri went to Săndera and there in a new temple installed the idol of Sri Sreyāņsanātha in s.y. 969. In the same year as a result of Yośobhadra
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sūri's preaching another temple was constructed at Mudāhada. In the Sangha-dinner given at Sānderã on the occasion of the installation ceremony Ghee (clarified butter) used for preparing food was exhausted owing to a very great number of people unexpectedly attending the dinner. The Achārya, at the request of Dhanrāja the leading layman managing the function, through the aid of Vīras (Powerful Māntric deities) obtained 'Ghee' immediately from Pāli though much distant. On the third day Dhanrāja reached Pāli and offered to pay for the 'Ghee' to the merchant there. The latter having learnt the object for which it was utilised refused to take the moneys and the same were given in charity at Pāli by Dhanrāja. Yaśobhadrasūri visited Ahada, Khamanūra, Karhetaka, Kavilāna, Bhesūra and other places and by his preachings made many to embrace the Jain faith. Yasobhadrasūri came from Chitor to Ahada i.e. Aghata at the request of the minister of Ahada and installed the idol of Sri Pārsvanātha in the temple constructed there. The said Balibhadrasūri cured the Queen of Ahada who was possessed by a malignant spirit named Revati. Ultimately he came to Nādalāi for stay during monsoon. The Brahmin student being too poor to maintain himself became pupil of a Kānafattā Yogi (i.e. a follower of Nátha Yogis, one who puts on big thick rings in large holes made in the centre of the ears) and learned black magic. Searching for the Bania student he came upto Nadalāi and came to the place where the Achārya was preaching. He produced serpents from his matted hair and there was a panic amongst the hearers there. The Achārya recognising him as his old co-pupil produced with the aid of Badarī deity from strips of his mouth-cloth mungeese and the serpents immediately disappeared. The Yogi thus baulked of his object went away thoroughly disappointed. Then there was a competition between the two to bring temples from other towns and the Achārya brought down from Kāntinagara and Vallabhi towns the temple of Sri Rşabha and the Yogi brought down a temple of Sambhu. Then the Yogi made the faces of the Jain idols distorted
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and the Acharya by giving them bath of Mantric-waters restored them to their original appearance. Then the Yogi made the columns and the seats in the temple quake and the Acharya stabilized them with his magical powers and brought down the cupola from the turret of the temple of Sambhu. Yasobhadrasuri died in 971 Vikrama era according to Viravamsavali but 1029 Vikrama era according to "Aitihāsika Rasa Sangraha Part I". When his body was placed on the burning pyre the Yogi brought down rains to extinguish the fire and obtain the natural gem from the skull of the Acharya, but the rain was intercepted by a cover raised on the pyre and Badaridevi, who was angry at the hostility of the Yogi even to the dead Acharya, threw him on the burning pyre and he died.
Sri Kalyāṇavijaya says at page 73 of his introducion to Prabhāvakacaritra that according to Pattavalis Caityavāsis arose in 882 Vira era, i. e. 412 Vikrama era but that really it is the date when they had gathered great strength and much power and influence and had outnumbered Sadaus who were observing strictly the rules of conduct laid down in the scriptures for them. He further says that according to statements in Bhāṣyas and Cūrnīs on Jain Sūtras Caityavāsis appear to have been in existence even before the said date. That the decadent times helped the growth of Caityavāsis would appear to be probable from the fact that according to Vincent Smith "The period between the extinction of the Kushan and Andhra dynasties about 220 or 230 A. D., and the rise of the imperial Gupta dynasty, nearly a century later, is one of the darkest in the whole range of Indian history." (P. 257 Early History of India).
ŚRI MANADEVASURI
Sri Manadevasuri flourished from the end of the 2nd century to 261 Vikrama era. His grand preceptor Devasuri, before Acharyaship was conferred on him by Sarvadevasuri, was known as Upadhyaya Devachandra and managed the temple of Sri Mahāvīra at Koraṇṭaka alias Korață in Marwar. This, if true, establishes the existence of
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Caityavāsis in the beginning of the 3rd century of Vikrama era, Mānadevasūri having died about 261 Vikrama era.
At the instance of Sri Sarvadevasūri, Upadhyāya Devachandra gave up the management of the temple and commenced observing the rules of conduct for the ideal Sādhu, and ultimately Achāryaship was conferred on him. It is said in the biography of Sri Mānadevasūri that in his time there were 500 Jain temples at Takşasilā (Taxilā) and that there was a great population of the Jains at that place. Once there was a great epidemic at Taksasilā and the Jain Sangha having assembled to learn the cause thereof and its remedy was informed by the Sāsanadevi that the only remedy was to approach Sri Mānadevasūri at Nāndol in Mārwār. Śrī Mānadevasūri was such a Mantrasiddha that deities Jayā and Vijayā used to remain in attendance upon him. Sri Mändevasūri having been requested to help the Sangha composed Sāntistava containing Mantrādhiraja (Mantra of Sri Pārsvanātha as propounded by Kamatha) and Mantra of Sri Sāntinātha and informed the representative Viracandra, who had come there at the instance of the Sangha of Takşasilā, that the epidemic would end and would not harm those who would recite the said Stotra and sprinkle round about their residence water over which the hymn was recited. The said Stotra is now known as Laghūśānti to distinguish it from the Bșhadśānti (big Sānti) of Vadivetāla Säntisūri. He has also composed a Sūrimantra-Stotra published in appendix A hereto. There was a later Mandevasūri a contemporary and friend of Sri Haribhadrasūri, about whom it is said that he having forgotten Sūrimantra learnt it again from Sri Ambikādevi.
As it would be interesting to investigate since when the Sadhus commenced taking up residence in temples, we would note here the following facts.
. At page 318 B of Avaśyakasūtra with Haribhadrasūri's commentrary, it is stated that Srīguptācārya (Circa 533-548 Vira era) resided at a temple (of Vyantara deity) named Bhūtagsha or Bhūtaguha in the town named Antaranjikā. This gives us a clue to the practice
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of Jain Sadhus taking up residence in Caityas or temples of non-Jain* deities before they commenced doing so in Jain Caityas. Srigupta was an Upādhyāya and should not be confounded with a pupil of Arya Sūhasti bearing the same name. This Srigupta was versed in several Vidyās, and taught them to his pupil Rohagupta, who had accepted the open challenge of an ascetic for a religious controversy. The said pupil succeeded in the bout both intellectual as well as magical. He would not however admit at the instance of his said preceptor Srīgupta that Jains did not believe in the Trirāsika principles propounded by him as a stratagem to defeat his shrewd adversary and was driven out of the fold. We may, therefore, infer that sometime after expiry of Vajraswāmi in the 2nd century of Vikrama era Caityavāsa became common and continued to be more common until it gathered great strength about s. y. 412 as noted in Pattāvalis, and as noted in the biography of Sri Siddhasenācārya the latter accepted palanquin and elephant from king Devapāla.
SRI SIDDHASENA DIVĀKARA Sri Siddhasenācārya was a grand-pupil of Skandilācārya, famous for Mathurivācanā. He must be therefore taken to have flourished not earlier than the 5th century of Vikrama era. Some put him down even to the 5th or 6th century A. D. He wrote a Bhāşya or a versified commentary on Nisītha Sūtra. His name also occurs in Mahanisīthasūtra. He is referred to in Nišithacūrni, which is a work of the 7th century of the Vikrama era, as Siddhasenakşamāśramana and Siddha
* See Jnatadharmakathånga P. 107 A for practice of Jain Sädhus taking up residence temporarily. The places mentioned include Devakulas i. e. Caityas which there mean non-Jain temples: "ga! 7 BIRTAS 35510g gagay ang yang seisafstalg analg afegifei 9789. STRIES gfrafophici fagufa dei fagri II" i.e. Oh Suka! that is harmless (not involving injury to living beings) residence which is taken up by us in gardens, parks, temples, meeting places and places for supplying drinking water, not frequented by women and eunuchs, where seats, sleeping boards and grass beds are only borrowed for use.
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senāyariya. From several references in the same work it appears that he must have written Bhāsyas or commentaries on the Jain canon. At one place in Nisīthacūrni, it is stated that he created horses by a magical process contained in Yoniprābhsta. It is also stated about him that from a column at Chitor, he obtained a book on magic and read a page containing methods to prepare gold from base metals and create warriors. It really means that the Achārya was versed in magical lores and that he helped a king-friend to overcome his enemies. That is the reason why he got the name of Siddhasena i. e. one possessed of magical army. He also composed the famous Kalyāņamandira stotra, which he recited, when a king insisted on his making obeisance to Mahādeva, and on his reciting the 13th verse, there appeared the idol of Sri Pārsvanātha from out of the phallic Siva. A Mantrika hymn imitating Sakrastava praising Sri Jina by various epithets is also ascribed to him. * At the beginning of his life he expressed a desire to translate all Prakrta scriptures into Sanskrit, which offended his preceptor and the Sangha and he was excommunicated for twelve years, the condition of re-admission being that he should do some. thing, by which the reputation of the Jain religion may be greatly enhanced in the estimation of others. He fulfilled the condition. He was since known as Divākara. He was a great poet and composed Dvātrimsikās. He was a great controversialist and composed the famous Sanmatitarka. He made several kings accept Jain faith by his magical prowess and he was thereupon re-admitted to the Jain fold. There is no doubt that in his time Caityavāsis had already gathered great strength, otherwise an Acharya of his attainment would not have dared to ride an elephant and use a palanquin. It would also appear that Caityavāsa and Mantravāda were going hand in hand.
ŚRI MALLAVĀDISORI In the biography of the famous logician Sri Mallavādisūri who
* See Bhaktamarādistotratryam (Devachand Lalbhai Edn. No.79) PP. 242-245. Note the epithets 'Sarvamantramayāya' and 'Siddhasenädhipäthäya' given to Sri Jina.
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flourished in the 5th century of Vikrama era, it is stated that he conquered in debate the Bauddhas and their Vyantaras* (deities) also. It is said that this Mallavādisūri had obtained a boon from Sarasvati after six months worship in the cave of a mountain named Girikhanda. He composed Nayacakrasāra, by virtue of the said boon, based on the single verse which he was allowed to read of the original work on Naya, by Sarasvati. He was thus a great Mantrika. He also wrote a commentary on the famous Sanmatitarka of Sri Siddhasenācārya.
TEMPLE-BUILDING ACTIVITY IN THE 6th & 7th CENTURIES.
The importance given to Jain temples from the time of Samprati rose gradually; and whenever a Jain Acharya succeeded in bringing a king into the Jain fold we find that grand temples were constructed at different places by such king. We find great activities of templebuilding going on in Gujarat as a result of the preachings of the predecessors of Dāksinyacinha the author of Kuvalayamālā in or about sixth and seventh centuries of the Vikrama era. In the colophon of Kuvalayamālā it is said:-"There are two regions and only two countries--Uttarā patha and Dakşiņāpatha; amongst them Uttarāpatha is the country full of learned men. In Uttarapatha there was a prosperous town named Pavvaiya (Parvatikā) on the beautiful shores of the river Chandrabhāga (Chenab), which was like the beloved of the Sea with a lotus-like face. It was the capital of King Torarāja (v.l. Toramāņa). His preceptor Hariguptācārya of Gupta dynasty had taken up his residence there. His pupil was the great poet Devagupta. (Devagupta's pupil) Sivacandra Mahattara went on pilgrimage from place to place for making obeisance to Jinas. He ultimately stayed like the wishgranting tree at Bhillamāla. His pupil Yakşadatta Gaņi, possessing qualities of a Kșamāśramana and a Mahātmā, was very famous. His many pupils possessed of miraculous powers of speech, austerity and
* श्री वीरवत्सरादथ शताष्टके चतुरशीतिसंयुक्ते। जिग्ये स मल्लवादी बौद्धांस्तव्यंतरांश्चापि ॥ प्रभावकचरित्र, पृ.७५, श्लो०८३॥
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strength of soul adorned the country of Gujarat with temples. Of them the chief were Nāga, Vinda, Mammața, Durga, Acharya Agnisarma and the sixth Vateśvara. Vateśvara got a beautiful Jain temple constructed at Akašavapra* seeing which even an angry man would be calmed. Another pupil of his named Tattvācārya was possessed of the lustre of austerity and character, with which he destroyed sin and darkness of ignorance-true to his name like the Sun; and his pupil (Udyotanasūri) bearing the appellation of Dākṣinyacinha has composed this story of Kuvalaymālā being inspired by the sight of Hridevi. + "Achārya Virabhadra and Haribhadra were his Vidyāgurus the former in respect of sacred scriptures and the latter in respect of logic. From a coin found by Cunningham bearing words 'Sri Mahārāja Hariguptasya' on the obverse and a Kalasa with flowers i.e. Kumbhakalasa on the reverse, and from the fact that such a Kalasa is unmistakably the sign of Jainism, it appears that he must be a Jain. As the coin is supposed to belong to the sixth century of the Vikrama era he must probably be the same as Hariguptācārya mentioned in the colophon quoted above and a contemporary of the famous Toramāņa of the Hūņas. The readers will note that the temple building activity was a special characteristic of Caityavāsis and that it was thus carried on in the 6th and 7th centuries of the Vikrama era.
* This is modern 'Vadnagar alias Anandpur in Gujarat' according to Sri Jinavijaya but 'Amarkot alias Ambarkota' on the border of Sind according to Sri Kalyāņavijaya. + According to Ācāradinakara pp. 235 ff. Śri, Hri, Dhști, Kirti, Buddhi and Lakşmi are the six deities who are invoked to bring prosperity to the worshipper. Of the well-known six objects of Mäntric worship they are worshipped for Puşti: " et
ag: #fagfedezte Goagiaa: 016 igre aiføå granny gar li" See loc. cit. for Dhyanas of Hridevi and the other five deities. tat291-" ixafezaaza gratuite विभूषितकराधृतरक्तवस्त्रा। हीघोरवारणविघातनवाहनाढया पुष्टीच पौष्टिकविधी विदधातु नित्यम् ॥" So, Sri Bhagavatīsūtra, 1X Sataka, 11 Uddeśa, 430 Sūtra records a present of the idols of these six deities on the occasion of marriage.
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ŚRI MÂNATUNGASURI (Circa 7th Century A. D.) We then come to Sri Mānatungasūri who was a contemporary of Bäņa and Mayūra and composed Bhaktāmarastotra to show that the Jains also possessed magical powers. Mayūra composed his famous hymn in praise of the Sun to remove leprosy from which he was suffering. Bāņa Vying with him composed his famous hymn Candiśataka in praise of Candi through whose favour his hands and legs which had been got amputated were miraculously joined to his body as if nothing had happened to him. Mánatungasūri was invited by the king to his Court at the instance of his minister who had informed the former that the Jains also possessed miraculous powers. Mānatungasūri when requested in the Court to show some miracle said: "Like house-holders we do not do anything of the sort for money having taken a vow of poverty, but merely to show that Jains are not devoid of such powers I also shall perform a miracle."
asked the king to put him in a prison chained and locked with as many locks as he liked. It is said that 48 locks were put on the chains and he was locked up in a prison. He then commenced composing the famous hymn in praise of Lord Rşabhadeva now known as Bhaktămarastotra which originally consisted of 48 verses. As he composed and recited each verse one of the locks broke open till all of them broke and the prison doors also flew open and he walke out amidst the applause of all. He has also composed the famous Bhayaharastotra popularly known as Namiuņa stotra. It contains the famous Cintamaņimantra of Sri Pārsvanātha. It is intended to remove all kinds of fear and diseases. He has also composed the famous PancaParamești stotra called 'Bhattibbhara' from its first words. This Acharya flourished in the 7th century of the Vikrama era being a contemporary of the King Sri Harşa. The tendency to impress and win over kings through miraculous powers and by their friendship to propagate the Jain religion can be noted in Mānatungasūri's biography. His performing the miracle mentioned above would not be justified
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according to the strict rules of conduct to be observed by Sadhus as the only exception recognised is that in times of great calamity to the Jain fold such powers may be exercised without committing sin. Perhaps justification might be urged that the result of the performance in the Court would contribute greatly to the spread of Jainism but such exception is not recognised in the strict rules of conduct for Jain ascetics. It is an illustration of the tendency of the times and influence of Caityavāsi Sadhus.
In brief, temple building activities, recurring famines, foreign invasions, internal feuds and unwillingness to undergo hardships incidental to acting upto the ideals of Sadhu's conduct, Sadhus taking up residence in population instead of forests, contact and friendship with kings, anxiety to protect Jainism from the onslaughts of rival religions, desire to succeed in constant debates, necessity of magical powers to meet disputants belonging to rival religions who were reputed to be Tāntrikas possessing magical powers, all jointly and severally contributed to the rise and continuance of the Caityavāsis for nearly a thousand years.
ŚRI HARIBHADRASŪRI (Circa 8th Century A.D.) We have to note here that at no time during the period of nearly one thousand years Caityavāsis were so powerful that they could completely overwhelm or root out the ideal Sādhus. Although the latter were comparatively few in number, they existed side by side; and when by sheer strength of character and learning a member of the latter class rose to leadership Caityavāsis did suffer a set-back for a time. The famous Haribhadrasūri is the Achārya who so opposed the Caityavāsi's lax practices, although it is said that he himself arranged for food being given to the hungry and a conch used to be blown inviting the hungry to meals before he would himself partake of food-which practice is not in conformity with the vow of poverty i.e. not to have any belongings. Some explain this practice by saying that it was not Sri Haribhadrasūri himself but a Srāvaka
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a layman devoted to him who used to distribute food as stated above. This Haribhadrasūri appears to have been himself a great Mantrika. * He defeated the Buddhists who were assisted by their Patron-deity 'Tāra' in debate. He had on his side the Jain Amnāya deity Sri Ambikā to help him through. There is one tradition about him which says that when he learnt of the death of his two favourite pupils, who had gone to the Buddhists to learn their scriptures, at the hands of the Buddhists he with his great magical powers drew them flying through the air to be dropped in a pan of boiling oil but desisted when reminded of the sin he was about to commit by his preceptor who sent three verses for his benefit showing the consequences of such revenge. It is said that he composed his famous "Samarāiccakahā" on the basis of the said verses to atone for his sinful resolve.
The generality of the Sādhus in his times was however unwilling to undergo the hardships incidental to the ideal ascetic life prescribed in the scriptures and took up their residence in particular temples and sometimes in separate houses termed Mathas. As already noted they had formed themselves into a Gaccha known as Caityavāsi Gaccha. Their activities have been well described by Sri Haribhadrasūri in his Sambodhaprakarana (pp 13-18). One should not, however, from the said description jump to the conclusion that all Caityavasis were from the beginning so lax in every respect. The fact is that once liberties commence to be taken the habit grows and gathers strength and what was originally perhaps a venial transgression becomes an unpardonable sin. We have not sufficient materials to show this development through all its stages. We have noted and would note the various exceptions made and liberties taken from time to time as appears from the biographies of different Achāryās who were otherwise great and even now command respect.
-
* In his commentary on Avašyakasutra at p. 411 he mentions Ambā Kuşmandi and Hariņegameşias instances of Vidyas and Mantras respectively and Maha-puruşadatta as an instance of Mahavidya.
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SRI SILAGUNASURI (Circa 8th century A.D.)
We then come to the times of the famous Silagunasūri who brought up under his personal care the famous Vanaraj of the Chāwdā dynasty who founded Anhilapurpatan in s.y. 802. In Prabhavaka Caritra the name of the Acharya who brought up Vanarāj is given as Devacandra. This Devacandra was himself a pupil of Sri Silagunasuri and it might be that he took charge and care of Vanarāj under the orders of Sri Silagunasūri. According to the inscription No. 510 in the 2nd volume of the Inscriptions collected by Sri Jinavijaya he was a pupil of Sīlagunasūri : "श्रीचापोरकट वंशोद्भवमहाराज श्रीवनराज गुरु श्रीनागेन्द्रगच्छे श्री गुणसूरि शिष्य श्रीदेव चंद्रसूरिमूर्तिः " This suggests that the idol bearing the inscription was of Sri Devacandrasuri and that he was the preceptor of Sri Vanarāj. According to Sri Prabhāvakacaritra, Vanarāj had given a writing to the Caityavasi Sadhus that only those Sadhus who were permitted by the Caityavasis should stay in his capital and others not so permitted should not stay. Caityavāsis were considered as Kulgurus (i.e. family-priests of Chāwdā dynasty) as appears from the following Duha (couplet). It also shows that there were other Gacchas also at that time such as Sandesara, Chaudasiya (as distinguished from Paurņamikas) and others known to be family-priests of other royal dynasties: " शिसोदीया संडेसरा चउदशिया चोहाण | चैत्यवासिया चावडा कुलगुरु एह वखाण ॥"
205
P. 188 Short History of Jain Literature by M. D. Desai.
SRI BAPPABHATTISŪRI
We then come to Sri Bappabhattisūri alias Bhadrakīrti. He was a great poet and also a great dialectician and has composed several stotras of which Caturavimsati-Jina-Stuti and hymns to Sarasvati and Santidevată only are available. He lived from 800 to 895 Vikrama era.
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The most noteworthy feature of his life is his intimate friendship with king Ama and that is the reason why he was called Rājapūjita. He was also friendly with a king named Dharma of Gaudadesa whose capital was Lakşaņāvati. He was a contemporary of the famous poet Vākpatirāja. Sri Bappabhatti got temples constructed at Kanoj and Gwālior by king Ama. He defeated the Digambaras in a peculiar kind of debate which necessitated possession of great magical powers on the question of the right of precedence in worship at and the ownership of the Girinār Tirtha. It also appears that Sri Bappabhatti and his co-pupils used to reside in Jain temples. Bappabhatti and his pupils are said to have resided in a temple named Amavihāra. He composed 52 literary Prabandhas one of them being Tārāgana reference to which is made by the Jain poet Dhanapāla in his work Tilakamanjari.
ŚRI SIDDHARŞI ŚRI VIRAGANI AND ŚRI SĀNTISORI
We have already mentioned that although Caityavāsis were in power they had not completely rooted out those who were still following strictly the rules of conduct laid down for Sadhus. Sri Siddharsi is an instance. He wrote his famous Upamitibhavaprapañcakatha in s. y. 962. He used to give religious discourses sitting in the Agramaņdapa of Jain temples. Although it was the practice in former times to give religious lectures in the Agramaņdapa of Jain temples and although there was nothing objectionable in it from the scriptural point of view, it being wrongly taken to be one of the activities of Caityavāsi Sādhus was stopped by the reformists. Similarly there were such Sådhus as Sri Vīragaņi who were ideals of renunciation and asceticism. He was a Mantrika all the same and learnt Angavidyā* together with Gaņividyā from Vimalagani through his book kept in the niche in the dome of a temple. According to Sri Kalyāņavijaya he must have flourished in the 11th century of Vikrama era and not in the 10th as stated in Sri Prabhāvak ıcaritra.
* According to Himvat Sthaviravali Balissaha a pupil of Arya Mahāgiri extracted Angavidyā from the 10th Purva. See p.174 Vira Nirvana Samvat and Jain Kala Gañana.
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Coming to the famous Achārya Vādivetāla Sri Sāntisūri, we find that on his defeating 84 disputants in the Court of king Bhoja he got the said title of Vādivetāla and 84 lacs of Mālvi rupees equal to 12,60,000/- rupees of Gujarat. He had obtained such miraculous powers by virtue of a boon from Sarasvati that he could make even inanimate objects carry cn successful debates and could silence all opponents merely by raising his hand while debating. He spent all the moneys in getting Jain temples constructed. He is the author of the famous Bșhadsanti containing Mantras for peace and prosperity which is even now recited by Jains in their periodical expiatory rites namely Pratikramanas. This shows that he was versed in magic. It is noted in his biography that once he cured through his Māntric powers, the son of a Jain merchant bitten by a serpent and given up as dead. * In his biography his place of residence is twice called Matha. One may, therefore, infer that there was laxity in observing the ideal rules of conduct for Sadhus, particularly in resi ect of residence, in the Gaccha to which he belonged. He died in 1096 Vikrama era.
ŚRI SŪRĀCARYA (Circa 11th century A. D.) We then come to Sri Sūrācārya who was the son of King Sangrāmasinha and bore the name of Mahīpāla as a house-holder. His paternal uncle was the famous Droņācārya. Mahīpāla's mother, having lost her husband e urly during the childhood of Mahīpāla, entrusted him to Dronācārya who made him versed in all the branches of learning and initiated him as his chief pupil and gave him the name Sūrā. cārya. The said Dronācārya was the maternal uncle of king Bhimadeva of Patan. Sūrācārya was a highly intelligent scholar well versed in logic and poetics but was rather proud and of angry temperament.
* From this fact we infer that he was rightly called Gandharva as the title used to be given in ancient times to one versed in curing persons bitten by serpents through magical powers. Sri Kalyanavijaya thinks that Gandharva Vadivetāla Säntisūri was a contemporary of Sri Devardhigani and assisted bim in Agamavácană, we should think, on insufficient evidence-See Vira-Nirvåņa Samvat and Jain Kala Gananā p. 118.
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He was scolded by his preceptor for being cruel to his pupils and taunted that if he was so anxious to make his pupils great disputants why did he not himself go to the Court of Bhoja and defeat his famous disputants. On that he vowed to do so and ultimately went there and defeated all the disputants of the Court of King Bhoja. He was not, however, discreet and pointed out mistakes in the work on grammar composed by the king himself and would have been punished for his audacity but with the help of the poet Dhanapāla he secretly escaped from his Upåśraya and safely reached Gujarat. He was a Caityavāsi as in fact his grand preceptor Govindasūri owned a Jain temple at Patan where male as well as female dancers used to dance on ceremonious occasions such as Parvas. When he entered the town of Dhārā and also on his return to Pátan he rode an elephant. All this goes to show how Caityavāsis flourished at the time at Patan.
ŚRI JINEŚVARASORI We would now note the fact that Sri Jinesvarasūri defeated in debate Caityavāsi Sädhus at Patan in the presence of King Durlabharāja in s. y. 1080. According to the followers of Kharataragaccha the leader of the Caityavāsis who lost in the debate was Sūrācārya. At the date however Durlabharaja was not the ruler of Patan. From this day reformists gained ascendance and Caityavāsis became gradually extinct.
Although Caityavāsis met with a reverse in or about s. y. 1080, they did not all disappear from the scene at once. For over a hundred years thereafter we hear about them in some connection or other. Their influence however continued for a long time thereafter and a gradually increasing number of Sādhus continued to be lax in the observance of the rules of conduct laid down for Sadhus; and ultimately about 300 years back they were distinguished under the name of Yatis or Jatis. These may with some justification be called the successors to Caityavāsis as the latter as also Sărūpikas and Siddhaputras were of Parśvāpatyas, Naimittikas and the five kinds of fallen Sādhus viz. Pāsatthas,
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Avasannas, Kuśīlas, Samsaktas and Yathacandas. Reforms were introduced from time to time by various Achāryas like Sri Jagaccandrasūri, who received the title of Tapā by his great austerities and founded the Tapāgaccha and Sri Hiravijayasūri of Tapāgaccha and Sri Jinacandrasūri of the Kharatara Gaccha in Akbar's time and lastly by Pannyāsa Sri Satyavijaya (s. y. 1674 to s. y. 1756) * amongst the followers of Tapāgaccha and by Sri Kșamākalyāņa amongst the followers of Kharatara Gaccha. But Yatis and their chiefs called Bhattārakas have continued side by side with varying fortunes all the same. They might be compared with Caityavāsis and Sārūpikas of olden times. They put on the white garments of Sadhus but would practice Vidyā, Jyotis and Cūrna i. e. Magic, Astrology and Medicine. They lost most of their influence and power over the Jain laity since the advent of Sri Atmārāmaji alias Vijayānandasūri. They however still exist in comparatively small number and practice Medicine, Astrology and Mantra. The western education, the modern atmosphere and the activities of the other Sādhus have taken away most of their adherents. Generally the backward sections of the Jain population residing far away in small towns and villages beyond the influence of modern civilization and education still support them. Some of them have their hereditary Jāgirs and allowances conferred on them by States for services rendered in the past by their predecessors. They earn their livelihood otherwise by practice of medicine. It should not be understood however that the reformed Sadhus did not or do not believe in Mantras. They are required for religious purposes to do Japa at least of Vardhamānavidyā or Panca Parmeşți Mantra. The Acāryas have to do Japa of Sūrimantra. The difference is in theory only, and it is that the reformed Sádhus are to be real Adhyatmikas and are not therefore to practice Mantras for gaining worldly prosperity or happi
* The reformed Sådhus of Tapagaccha since his time and those of Kharataragaccha from the time of Kşamākalyāņa commenced putting on yellow garments instead of white to distinguish themselves from others who continued their lax practices. These are known as 'Samvegis.' Sadhus of Kharatara Gaccha have resumed putting on white garments.
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ness either for themselves or others. All however do not strictly observe this restriction and the conduct of those amongst Samvegi Sadhus also who take liberties in this respect is not approved of by ideal Sadhus. The fact however that Mantravāda existed and exists amongst Jains cannot be denied by anyone.
We would here note the names of the famous Jain Mantrikas * who flourished since 1080 Vikrama era about which time the Caityavāsis were defeated in the debate as already stated. Yasobhadrasūri of Sāndera Gaccha, who died in 1096 Vikrama era we have already mentioned-(See supra pp. 194 et seq.) Abhayadevasūri, Vīrācārya, Jinadattasūri, Vādi Devasūri, Hemacandrācārya, Malayagiri, Devendrasūri of Nagendra Gaccha of Serisa-Tīrtha fame, Sri Pārsvadevagani alias Candrācārya (Circa 1203 s.y.) author of Upasargaharavrtti and Padmavatyastaka-Vịtti, Sāgaracandrasūri, Amaracandrasūri the author of Bāla Bhārata and several other works, Bālacandrasūri, Dharmaghoșasūri of Tapāgaccha, the Guru of Pethadashah who became very famous by his charities, Devabhadragaņi author of Pratyangira-Kalpa in Prāksta,Pūrņakalasagaņi author of Sri Stambhana-Pārsva-Jina-Stavana with commentary(circa 1307 s. y.) Jinaprabhasūri, Jinakusalasūri, Bhuvanatungasūri and Merutungasūri of Ancalagaccha, Munisundaraşüri Subhasundaragani, Hemavimalasūri, Jinacandrasūri (of Kharataragaccha, a contemporary of Akbar),
* It is not possible to give an exhaustive list, as almost all the Sådhus of note who wrote any work in Sansksta, Prāksta, Apabhramsa, or Gujarăti include obeisance to Sarasvati in the opening benedictory verses. Some like Amradeva and others are kpown as having their distinctive Mantras for worship of Sarasvati, but no Mántric works of theirs are available nor any miraculous achievement of theirs known to us. Even such a prominent personality as Sri Hiravijayasuri though known to have been opposed to performance of miracles or fortune-telling was a Måntrika be having achieved accomplishment in Sūrimantra. (See Hirasaubhāgya poem cantos VIItoIX)Amongst Digambara Jains, besides the author of the present work, Sri Mallişeņasūri,there were before him Sri Elācārya alias Helācārya (who first composed, Jvālāmālini-Kalpa) and Sri Indranandi and after him Sri Subhacandrācārya author of Jnāpārnava and, Bhattāraka Subhacandrācāryā author of Ambika-Kalpa and others.
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Upadhyāyas Sānticandra, Yasovijaya and Meghavijaya, and Viravijaya the poet who composed several Gujarāti Rāsās and Pūjās, lyrical poems, Sajjāyas and Stavanas (hymns). Coming to the modern times Sri Mohanlälji, as a memorial to whom a library and Pathaśāla are even now being conducted in Bombay, was a famous Mantrika. He died at Surat in 1963 Vikrama era. Amongst contemporary personages who have the reputation of being Māntrikas we may mention the famous Yogisvara Acārya Sri Sāntivijayaji who is 'Guru' to several rulers of the Native States of India. Only a few years back H. M. the king of Nepāl sent a deputation to wait on him and honour him as 'Rājaguru' of Nepāl. We may also mention Sri Jayasimhasūri who has drawn all the Yantras in this work and other works like Mahāprābhāvika Navasmaraņa, Mantrādhirāja Cintamani etc. published by the publisher of the present work. The writer has come in close contact with Sri Jayasimhasūri and has great regard for his knowledge of Mantraśāstra and Jain Architecture.
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Mantrikas Subsequent to 1080 Vikrama era.
TV JE shall now make a few observations on the lives of the various
W Māntrikas mentioned above, referring specially to their magical powers and miraculous achievements.
SRI ABHAYADEVASŪRI Srī Abhayadevasūri is the famous Achārya who has commented on nine out of the eleven Angas-Jain sacred scriptures. His parents were Mahidhara and Dhanadevī of Dhārā. He was initiated by Sri Jinesvarasūrī already mentioned. Achāryaship was conferred on him at the age of 16 years about 1088 Vikram era. The nine commentaries on the nine Angas mentioned above were written by him at the instance of Sãsanadevi who as the legend goes made a present of one of her ornaments bedecked with jewels to provide moneys for making the first copies of the nine commantaries. He also wrote a Bhāşyagloss on his preceptor's work 'Şațsthānaka' and Sangrahani on the 3rd Pada of Prajñāpanā and commentaries on Upānga Uvavāi and Haribhadrasūri's Pañcāsaka. He also wrote Āgama-Astottari and ArādhanāKulaka. Srī Abhayadevasūri's health was greatly impaired by the continuous strain of writing the voluminous commentaries and when he went to Dholkā after completing them he suffered from a skin disease. He was, however, cured of the same by Dharanendra. Thereafter being directed by Dharanendra, he went guided by a goddess in white to a place on the bank of the river Sedhika-near modern Cambay and discovered the idol of Sri Pārsvanātha by reciting the Jayatihuaņa hymn composed by him extempore. It is said that the last two verses of the hymn havin special magical effect were kept secret at the instance of the presiding deity Dharanendra. The idol is known as Sri Stambhana Parsvanātha and the place Stambhanapura, (modern Thāmbhana) a village near Cambay, The supervision of the construction of the temple of Sri Stambhana Parsvanātha was entrusted to Sri Amreśvara, a pupil of Mallavādi of Mehsäņā, and he was paid one Dramma (a silver coin) per day as remu
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neration. This is very significant and shows the depth in the downward tendency to which the Caityavāsis had sunk.
Amresvara, however, lived like a true Sādhu obtaining his food by begging and applied his remuneration to the construction of a small temple. Abhayadevasūri died in 1135 Vikrama era at Kapadvanj.
ŚRI VIRĀCĀRYA Srī Vīrācārya was a contemporary of King Siddharāj of Gujarat. In his biography contained in Prabhāvakacaritra details about the place and date of his birth and parentage are not mentioned nor are the dates of his initiation or death given. He was a pupil of Vijayasimhā. cārya of Sandilla Gaccha. Once Siddharāj out of kingly pride told the Achārya that his importance was due to the King's friendship. Thereupon the Achārya informed Siddharāj of his intention to leave his capital immediately. Siddharāj said that he would not allow him to leave his capital. Thereupon the Achārya flew away by his miraculous power from Pāțan to Pāli in Marwār. King Siddharāj coming to know of it sent his ministers to request him to come back to Pāțan. The Achārya however did not immediately return but promised to go there in due course. He defeated several noted disputants in religious debates at several places including Gwālior. The King of Gwalior thereupon being pleased with him presented to him the royal paraphernalia. Thence he went to Nagore. Siddharāj again sent his ministers to escort the Achārya back to Pātan and accordingly he returned there. He defeated there a Sānkhya disputant named Vädisimha carrying on his debate in verse, employing the metre and figure of speech stipulated by his opponent. It is stated in his biography that he owned a Caitya (temple) and that at Siddharāj's request he recited a benidictory verse on the occasion of Siddharāj's leading an attack on Mālwā. As Siddharāj succeeded in his said expedition, on his return he hoisted a flag on Viräcārya's temple. Thence started the practice of hoisting flags on Vīrācārya's temple whenever important missions were undertaken. Some remnants of Caityavāsi practices can be noticed in Virācārya's life. It shows
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that the influence of Caityavāsis persisted for a considerable time after 1080 Vikrama era.
Vīrācārya was endowed with such miraculous power through worship of Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning, that he once made even a girl of five years successfully carry on a learned debate with a Digambara dialectician named Kamalakīrii on the subject whether women can attain salvation.
ŚRI JINADATTASURI Sri Jinadattāsūri was born in s. y. 1132 of Vacchiga father and Bahadadevi mother of Humbada caste at Dhavalak (modern Dholkā). He was initiated in s. y. 1141 by Sri Dharmadeva a pupil of Sri Jinesvarasūri. He was ordained Achārya and was declared successor to Sri Jinavallabhasūri (who had died in s. y. 1167) by Sri Devabhadrācārya (a pupil of the famous Navāngavsttikāra Sri Abhayadevasūri) in s. y. 1169 and received the name, 'Sri Jinadattasūri.' He was thus a contemporary of the famous Vādi Devasūri and Kalikāla. sarvajña Hemacāndrācārya. He was a great Māntrika and was successful in securing control through Sadhanā over the famous 52 Viras (Powerful male Mântric deities) and 64 Yoginis. (Powerful female Māntric deities) as also 5 Piras * presiding over and having their abode at the confluence of the five rivers named Pañjnad with the Indus in the Panjāb. At Ajmer he secured control over the deity presiding over lightning and obtained a boon. He made thousands of people of all castes including several princes embrace Jainism by his preachings and miraculous powers. He warded off an epidemic at Vikramapura, modern Bikāner, and thousands embraced Jainism as a result. It is said that a Jain layman named Nāgadeva worshipped Srī Ambikā to find out who was the 'Yugapradhāna', the leader of the age, and Sri Ambikā wrote a verse in his palm and said that he who would read the verse was the Yugapradhāna. Nāgadeva went round showing his palm and ultimately came
* See p. 243 post for Sadhana of 5 Piras.
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to Sri Jinadattasūri who put Vása (fragrant powder made of Sandal. wood saffron etc.) on his palm and asked his pupil to read it and to the surprise of the hearers he read the verse which mentioned the name of Sri Jinadattasūri as Yugapradhāna.+ The verse ran as follows:
दासानुदासा इव सर्व देवा यदीयपादाब्जतले लुठंति।।
__मरुस्थलीकल्पतरुः स जीयाद् युगप्रधानो जिनदत्तसूरिः॥ His favourite Mantra was 'Om Hrim Namah' which he recited crores of times. Sri Jinaprabhasūri describes it in his Padmăvati Catuspadikā and attributes it to Sri Jinadattasõri (See Appendix 10 vv. 16-18). Sri Pūrņa Kalasagani, in his commentary on v. 1 of his Māntric hymn of Sri Stambhana Pārsvanātha (p. 50 Jain Stotra-Sandoha Vol. II), cites two verses describing the said Mantra and attributes the same 'to Sri Jinadattasūri.* The said verses are really taken from Sri Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa, Ch. III, and are verses 33 and 34 there. They describe the Ekāksarī Mantra of Sri Padmăvati. As Sri Jinadattasūri was probably the first Achārya to propound the said Mantra amongst Svetambara Jains, it is attributed to him. The worship of Sri Padmavati appears to have become more popular amongst Svetambara Jains about his time. * Sri Jinadattasūri and Sri Jinakusalasūri and Sri Jinacandrasūri, whose achievements are recorded below, are said to respond to devotional Māntric invocation even after their death. They are known under the honorific title 'Dādāji' or grandfather as they promptly fulfil the desires of their devotees and protect them as a grandfather would protect his grand-children. They can, therefore, be said to be Mantrikas par-excellence. They are worshipped and invoked
+ This title is mentioned Kharatara in the colophon of the palm-leaf Ms.of Pattávali by Jinacandra written in 1171 Vikrama era. See Catalogue of Jesalmere p. 17 under No.150. * For an explanation of the discrepancy see p. 229 post. * See Supāsanāhacariyam (s.y.1199) p. 131, verse 54 for a reference to Sri Padmāvati as a very famous Vidyā:
"अस्थि सुपसिद्धविज्जा विज्जासाहगसहस्सनयचलणा। मंतसरोरुहसरसी देवी पद्मावती नाम ||"
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like Sri Gautamaswami and Sri Vajraswami. They were all ideal Gurus and it is through such Gurus that Gurupūja on which special stress is laid in Mantrasāstra can be justified.
Sri Jinadattasuri was also a scholar and composed Ganadharasardhaśataka, Gaṇadhara-saptati, Sandehadolávali, Carcarī Prakaraṇa, Kalasvarūpa Dvātrimsikā, Upadesarasayana, Prabodhodaya, Padasthapanavidhi, Pattavali and several Kulakas and Stotras. He died at Ajmer on Thursday, on Aṣādha Sud 11th, 1211 Vikrama era. A shrine was constructed in his memory on Visalapur lake and his footprints were installed therein. The said shrine still exists and the place where it is situate is known as Dadawadi. The footprints of Sri Jinakusalasūri mentioned below, are also installed there.
VĀDI DEVASÛRI
Vādi Devasüri was a contemporary of the famous Mantrikas Sri Jinadattasūri, Sri Hemacandracharya and Sri Malayagiri. He is famous for his historic debate with Digambara Sri Kumudacandra, which took place in 1181 Vikrama era at Pāṭan in the Court of Siddharaj Jayasing King of Gujarat, in which he successfully established that women can attain salvation. The debate between them was as representatives of the two main factions of the Jains, Sri Devasuri representing the Svetambaras and Sri Kumudacandra the Digambaras. The condition of the debate was that whosoever was defeated therein should leave the province of Gujarat with his followers. Sri Devasuri succeeded in the. debate and Sri Kumudcandra had to leave Gujarat with his followers. Siddharaj offered one lac gold mohurs to Sri Devasuri on his succeeding in the said memorable debate which was however refused by him in conformity with the rules of conduct for Sadhus. The said sum was thereupon spent by Siddharaj in the construction of a temple wherein quddruple idols of Sri Rṣabhdeva were got installed by four Acharyas in 1183 Vikrama era.
Sri Devasuri was born in a Pragvat family of Devanaga and Jinadevi parents in Madahṛta in Gujarat (Modern Maduã near Mt.
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Abu) in 1143 and was initiated by Sri Municandrasuri in 1152 and was ordained an Acharya in 1174 Vikrama era. He wrote Pramāṇanaya-tattvāloka containing 374 aphorisms on Jain logic and an encyclopaedic commentary thereon named Syādvāda-Ratnākara said to be of the size of about 84000 verses of which a portion of about 20000 verses in size is still available. The said work is a standard work on Jain logic and is a testimony to the great acumen and the vast knowledge of the various systems of philosophy of its learned author.
There is a curious magical bout recorded to have taken place at Broach between Sri Devasuri and a Yogi named Kanhado who had with him different kinds of snakes with deadly poison. The Yogi prompted them to bite Sri Devasuri and the latter drew three lines around him which they would not cross. On that the Yogi let loose a pair of snakes one riding the other. They approached the magical boundary and one of them, the rider, rubbed it off with its tongue and they were about to proceed onwards when the goddess Kurukulla, who was pleased with Sri Devasuri, in the form of a kite picked off both the snakes. Thus ended the bout in which Sri Devasūri triumphed over the Yogi. There is a Mantric hymn of Sri Kurukulladevi composed by Sri Devasuri still available which is believed to be of such miraculous efficacy that those who recite the same are said to be safe from the danger of snake-bites (See p. 230 Jain Stotra-Samuccaya). Both Sri Devasuri and his preceptor Sri Municandrasuri have composed Mantric hymns of Sri Kalikunda-Parsvanatha (See p.118-120 Jain-StotraSandoha).
It would appear that Sri Devasuri having been a grand pupil of Gandharva Vādivetāla Srī Säntisūri must have inherited from him the
*
It appears from the biography of Sri Säntisüri that a serpent goddess (Nagini-devi) used to attend his preachings. It shows his connection with serpent deities and elucidates his title of Gandharva. Śri Devasuri cured minister Ambāprasāda who was bitten by a snake while going up Mt. Abu. Reaching the top thereof, he made obei
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Mantras and Vidyās which ensured protection tothe Sadhaka against snakes and success in debates. As Santisūri had achieved extraordinary success in the Sadhanā of Sarasvati his grand-pupil also must have been similarly successful. His other Mántric achievements in removing the troubles created by the said Kumudacandra are described in his biography in Prabhāvakacaritra and elsewhere and we need not narrate them here. He performed installation ceremonies in new temples constructed at Falodhi and Arāsaņa (modern Kumbhāriā near Mt. Abu) in 1204 and died in 1226 Vikrama era.
ŚRI HEMACANDRĀCĀRYA SRI MALAYAGIRI AND ŚRI DEVACANDRASORI
Tradition says that Sri Devacandrasūri Sri Hemacandrācārya and Achārya Sri Malayagiri jointly performed the Sādhanā of Siddhacakra and obtained boons from the presiding deity. Sri Hemacandrācārya was granted the boon which endowed him with powers to convince king of the truth of the Jain doctrine and to make him accept the Jain faith, Sri Malayagiri obtained the boon enabling him to conment on the Jain canon and Sri Devacandrasūri, by the boon, secured to himself power by which Vira-deities may be at his command so that he might get them transfer temples idols and things from distant places whenever he desired. Now Devendrasūri, the Achārya who actually installed in a temple at Serisā idols brought there in a single night from Ayodhyā to Serisā was of Nagendragaccha and flourished later (Circa 1264 Vikrama era). He could not, therefore, be one of the three Achāryas concerned in the aforesaid Sadhanā. This anachronism can be explained by the supposition that the Achārya concerned was Devacandrasūri, the preceptor of Sri Hemacandrácarya and not the said Devendrasūri. He might have been the recipient of the said boon. He was actually
sance to Sri Rşabhadeva and then before Sri Ambikādevi he recited a hymn in her praise on which she appeared before him and advised him to return immediately to Patan as his preceptor was destined to die there after eight months from that day. Sri Santisūri is also credited with the restoration of Angavidya.
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credited with powers to turn base metals into gold. It is a well known fact that Sri Hemacandrācārya made king Kumārapāla accept the Jain faith and the latter issued proclamations prohibiting killing of living beings for any purpose whatsoever. Sri Hemacandrācārya wrote Yogaśāstra which describes four kinds of Dhyāna viz. Pindastha, Padastha, Rūpastha and Rūpātita and while describing Padastha Dhyāna sets forth several Mantras meant for obtaining salvation as well as other worldly objects. * He was an encyclopaedic writer of very versatile intellect and wrote standard works on every branch of literature which need not be recounted here. His works include Sansksta and Praksta grammar, lexicon, logic, metrics, poetics, poetry, biographies and history.
In more senses than one he was an epoch-making Achārya and a great scholar. Not only was he a Jain scholar but also the foremost savant of his times and the foremost savant of Gujarāt for ages to come. He has, therefore, rightly received the title of "The omniscient of the Kali Age.'
We have already referred to his having received a boon from Sara. svati and his works bear ample testimony to his having been a divinely gifted scholar and a genius. The hymn to Sarasvati contained in Appendix No. 13 hereto is really his composition and is wrongly attributed to an unknown Sivāryā only through misapprehension. It seems practical Yoga had acquired much popularity by his times, and that explains his dilating on Hatha Yoga practices in his Yogaśāstra. He was born at Dhandhukā in a Modha Baniã family of Cacca and Cāhini parents on Kārtika Sukla 15th, 1145, Vikrama era. He was initiated by Sri Devacandrasūri in 1154 and was ordained Achārya in 1162 at Nāgore in Mārwār. He was present in the Court of Siddharāj with Sri Devasūri in 1181 Vikrama
* He has composed 'Arhannāmasahasrasamuccaya', a hymn containing a thousand names of Sri Arhan-Tirtharikara, which is one of the five parts (Pancānga) of Mäntric worship. It is published in Jain-Stotra-Sandoha, Pt. I, pp. 1-13. Amongst these names the following as epithets of Tirthankara are significant: 99 at 164 4727 मन्त्रमूर्तिरनन्तरः, महामन्त्रो महातन्त्र इत्यादि।"
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era at the time of his said memorable debate. He was on the best of terms with King Siddharāj and composed his famous Sansksta and Prāksta grammar Siddhahema at his instance. He was a 'Guru' of King Kumarapal in every sense of the term.
Sri Hemacandrācārya cured minister Ambada (the second son of Minister Udayana) who was seriously affected in health under the malefic influence of Yoginis at Broach when engaged at the instance of Sri Hemacandrācārya in carrying out the repairs of the old wooden temple of Sri Munisuvịataswāmi. It is narrated in his biography how Sri Hemacandrācārya accompanied by his pupil Sri Yasascandragani went to the temple of Sri Saindhavadevi outside the fort of Broach making offerings (Bali) at various stages and ultimately pursuaded Sri Saindhavadevi to order the Yoginis leave off affticting the minister Ambada. This incident illustrates the Mantric accomplishinents of the great Achārya. *
Further when King Kumārapāla was threatened with an invasion by the King of Kalyānakataka Sri Hemacandrācārya recited Sūrimantra and was informed that the said King would die on the 7th day on the way and his army would withdraw. As a result of Sri Hemacandra. cārya's preachings King Siddharāj built two temples 'Rayavihāra' and 'Siddhavihāra' and King Kumārapala built 'Kumāra Vihāra', 'Tribhuvana Vihāra', 'Trivihāra' and several other temples.
Achārya Malayagiri is an exceptionally lucid commentator of great acumen and independence of thought. His life very probably extended from about 1150 to 1220 Vikrama era. In his commentary on Sri Avasyakasūtra at p. 11 he cites the 30th verse of Hemacandracārya's Anyayoga-vyavaccheda Dvātriņsikā and there mentions him by the respectable title of 'Guru'. It is therefore possible that Sri Hemacandrācārya may have been at least his Vidyāguru.
* He was respected by all Pithas (deities thereof) Jalandhara and others-See Prabhavakacaritra P. 341 v. 748 of his biography.
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ŚRI PĀRSVADEVAGANI ALIAS ŚRI CANDRASORI
Sri Pārsvadevagani received the name of Candrasūri when he became Achārya. He was a pupil of Sri Dhanesvarasūri of Candrakula. There are several commentaries written by him on some of the sacred scriptures of the Jains especially on the five Upāngas going under the name of Nirayāvalis. He also composed 'Sukhabodhā Sāmācārī,' a work on rituals for Sadhus as also laymen which includes a chapter on installation ceremonies. The Upanga commentaries and 'Sukhabodhā Sāmācārī' are composed by him under the name 'Candrasūri'. There is a Panjikā commentary written by him in 1169 Vikrama era under the name of Pārsvadevagani on Sri Haribhadrasūri's commentary on the manual of Buddhist logic 'Nyāya-Pravesa' by the famous Buddhist Acārya Dinnāga. Among his Māntric writings are his commentaries on Sri Bhadrabāhu's hymn 'Uvaşaggaharam' and the hymn Sri Padmăvatyastaka.' He shows therein intimate knowledge of Mantrasāstra.* He flourished from about 1150 to 1228 Vikrama era.
ŚRI SĀGARACANDRASURI (Circa 1246 Vikrama era)
Srī Sāgaracandrasūri is the author of Sri Mantrădhirāja Kalpa, a work in five Pațalas (chapters) on the famous Mantrādhirāja of Sri Pārsvanātha, as propounded by Kamatha, giving details of worship of Srī Pārsvanātha, diagram, Dhyānas of Vidyādevis Sāsanayakşas. Sāsanayakșinis and Şāțkarma and several other Mantras incidentally. + The author states in the colophon that the said work was one of the nine Kalpas relating to Pratyangirā and cthers. The said statement is sufficient to establish the Mantric character of the author. He has also stated in the fourth Patala that he is giving details from various old Kalpas.
* At one place he refers to Śri Candrasena Kşamåśramaņa as an old and recognised authority. The title of Kşamāśramaņa shows that he must have flourished when Pūrva literature was not entirely lost. + He gives the following Mantra of Sri Padmăvati, p. 264 Mantradhirāja Cintamani: ॐ ऐ हँक्ली हस्क्ली हसौ देवी पद्मावती नमः ।।
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INTRODUCTION
As there have been several persons bearing identical names it is difficult to state with certainty who amongst them was the author of the said work. From the references however in the said work to Sriprabha, Nemiprabha, Lalitaprabha, Sri Padmadeva and others we think that he probably belonged to Rājagaccha and was the pupil of Sri Nemicandra. His pupil Maņikyacandrasūri wrote in 1246 Vikrama era the commentary named Sanketa on Kavyaprakāśa of Mammațācārya and Pārsvacaritra (1276 Vikrama era) and also Sāntināthacarita
ŚRI AMARACANDRASORI Sri Amaracandrasūri, author of Balabhārata Mahākāvya ranks among the great classical SanskȚta poets and his fame is not restricted merely to the Jain world but has spread far and wide amongst all Sansksta-knowing people. He was a contemporary of ministers Vastupāla and Tejapāla and flourished in the 13th century of the Vikrama era. He is known as a Siddha-Sarasvata Kavi i. e. one who has been fortunate in securing the favour of the goddess of learning Sarasvati by her Mantric worship. His life is described in Sri Rajasekharasūri's Prabandha Kosa from which an extract is also given in the introduction to his poem Bālabhārata published by Nirnayasägara Press. It is stated in his said biography that he obtained a Mantra for worship of Sarasvati from Kavirāja Amarasimha, * a devotee of his preceptor Sri Jinadattasūri of Vāyadagaccha, and successfully performed the Sadhanā of Sarasvati, for twenty one days accompanied by necessary Homa. At the end of the said Sadhana Sarasvati appeared before him, in her divine form, at midnight from the disc of the moon that had risen in the sky, gave him nectar from her own bowl to drink and gave him the boon that he might be an accomplished poet honoured
* He was a protegee of Vastupåla and wrote Suksta Sankirtana praising the good deeds of the minister Vastupāla. At the end of each of its 11 cantos five verses are by Sri Amaracandrasūri in course of which he praises the poetic powers of Amarasimba and calls him the full-moon of the great ocean of nectar of Sarasvati. This shows the great regard he had for Amarasimha.
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by all the kings. His preceptor Sri Jinadattasüri was accomplished in Yoga and knew the art of animating the dead body of any creature by transferring his soul to the same. He belonged to the line started by Sri Jinadevasūri whose life and miraculous achievements are described in Prabhāvakacaritra.
As in his poem Balabhārata he introduced an original comparison comparing the Veņi (a braid of hair) with Kệpāņa (Sword) he became known in the poetic world as 'Venikspaño-marah.' Here is the said verse:
'दधिमथनविलालल्लोल दुग्वेणिदम्भादयमदयमनङ्गो विश्वविश्वेकजेता। भवपरिभवकोपत्यक्तबाणः कृपाण
wafaa fanat olematittojafth II' (surfeqa-o 99 tento ) Višaladeva King of Gujarāt having heard of him as a great poet sent his minister Vaijala to invite and escort him to his capital Dholkā.
Thereupon Sri Amaracandra went to his Court. Here various poets at the instance of the King proposed to him 108 samasyās-parts of stanzas for appropriate completion by him which he did immediately to the satisfaction and delight of all. The Court and the King were so much engrossed in this pastime that they sat there without rising for meals till the evening, which shows Amaracandrasüri's powers to keep his hearers delighted and spell-bound. The King thereupon remarked that Amara was really the universal monarch of poets. * We would cite here only one Samasyā proposed by the poet Nānāka for completion by Sri Amarcandrasūri. It is ofta Hargfaari yafafára E L' which was completed thus:
__'श्रुत्वा ध्वनेर्मधुरतां सहसावतीर्णे भूमौ मृगे विगतलाञ्छन एष चन्द्रः।
मागान्मदीयवदनस्य तुलामितीव गीतं न गायतितरां युवतिर्निशासु॥' Besides Bālabhārata he composed 'Padmānanda Mahākāvya' Kavikalpalata with Kavišikşā commentary, Chandoratnāvali, and Syādisamuccaya. His Sūktāvali, Kalā-Kalāpa, Alankāraprabodha and Kavyakalpalatāparimala with Mañjari commentary are not yet found.
* ieri famat: 3147:1
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INTRODUCTION
SRI BĀLACANDRASORI
Sri Balacandrasuri was born at Modherã in Kadi of Brāhmana parents Dharādeva and Vidyut. He was named Munjäla. He was initiated by Sri Haribhadrasūri. The best part of his life was spent in the later half of the 13th century of the Vikrama era. Padmāditya the famous Rājaguru of Chaulukyas was his teacher. He obtained SārasvataMantra from Udayasūri, an Achārya in the line of the famous Vadidevasūri. He wrote the famous Mahākāvya Vasantavilāsa in the beginning of which he himself mentions his having worshipped Sarasvati and having obtained a boon from her to be a Mahākavi-great poet like Kālidāsa. He also describes himself as the adopted son of Sarasvati (Vāgdevīpratipannasūnu). He was thus a Mantrasiddha. He must have written some works on Mantras as would appear from his short Pratyangira-Kalpa in the form of a hymn. The writer has in his possession the said Pratyangira Stotra of 25 verses. We give below the opening verse, and also the last verse as it mentions the name of the author.
स्तोत्रं गोत्रभिदादिकेरपिसुर्रर्माहात्म्यतादात्म्यतः। शक्यं नैव निजावबोधसहितं कर्तु भवत्पादयोः॥ तस्मात्त्वद्वदनोगतागमगणव्यारव्यानमारव्यास्यतः। तन्मे नास्ति मनुष्यमात्रवपुषो प्रत्यंगिरे दूषणम्॥१॥
श्रीमान् बालकविः कृती त्रिभुवने चंद्रः कलासंपदाम् । विख्यातो रचयांचकार यदिदं दिव्यागमोक्तक्रमात् ॥ स्तोत्रं तत्पठतां विनम्रमनसां प्रत्यंगिरा प्रत्यहम् । संतुष्टाखिलसंपदः प्रकुरुते सर्वाश्च हत्यापदः ।। २५॥'
From the reference in the last verse to Divyāgamā one might surmise that he was a student of the Divyamārga of the Sāktas and their Agamas. He also wrote a drama named Karuņā-Vajrāyudha and commentaries on the two noted works of his contemporary Asada named Vivekamanjari and Upadesakandali. He has been praised by Sri Pradyumnasūri in his 'Samarādityasamkşepa' as the author of many Prabandhas.
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He was praised also by the minister Vastupala for his high poetic merit.* ŚRI DHARMAGHOŞASŪRI
Sri Dharmaghoṣasuri was a pupil of the famous Devendrasuri* of Tapagaccha and became the 46th pontiff. He was born at Ujjain of a merchant Jinabhadra about the end of the 13th century of the Vikram era. His name was Bhimasimha. His elder brother was named Viradhavala. As a result of Sri Devendrasūri's preachings, when Viradhavala was about to marry, he renounced the world and was initiated. in 1302 Vikrama era. Sometime thereafter his younger brother Bhimasimha was also initiated. The former was given the name of Vidyananda and the latter Dharmakirti. In 1323 the former was ordained Acharya and the latter Upadhyāya. Both Śrī Devendrasūri and Sri Vidyananda died in 1327 at an interval of 13 days and thereafter in 1328 Dharmakirti was ordained Acharya and named Sri Dharmaghoṣasūri. He was a great Mantrika and possessed prophetic powers of divining future. Minister Pṛthvīdhara alias Pethad, when in ordinary circumstonces approached him to take a vow not to retain in his possession or enjoyment properties aggregating in worth over one lac rupees. Śrī Dharmaghoṣasuri having known by his prophetic powers that he would attain great prosperity and become extremely wealthy in future asked him not to take such a vow. Ultimately Pethad became a great man and a minister of the King of Mandavagadha and acquired much wealth, a large portion of which he spent in building 84 temples and constructing seven Bhandāras or libraries for keeping manuscripts of Jain religious and secular literature. He also celebrated the entry of Sri Dharma
* 'बहुप्रबन्धकर्तुः श्रीबालचन्द्रस्य का स्तुतिः ।
मन्त्रीशवस्तुपालेन यः स्तुतः कवितागुणात् ॥' प्रद्युम्न सूरिकृत समरादित्यसंक्षेपात् ।
* He is famous as the author of five new Karmagranthas-works on Karma philosophy with commentaries, three Bhāṣyas, Vandāruvṛtti, Sādhusāmācārī, Śrāddhadinakṛtya with a commentary, commentary on Dharmaratna prakaraṇa, Sudarśanacarita, Siddhapancasika with a commentary, Siddhadaṇḍikā several hymns, Kulakas and a Sūrimantra Kalpa.
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ghoṣasuri in Mandavagadha spending a very large amount. He had an only son Zañzaņa who also was very religious and became famous for his charities.
INTRODUCTION
We shall now shortly describe Sri Dharmaghoṣasuri's miraculous achievements. In Prabhāsapāṭaņa by reciting a Mantric hymn he made the rising sea offer jewels to the Jain temple on its shore. There he made the old heretic Kapardi Yakṣa, who appeared before him attracted by his contemplation, accept the Jain faith and undertake the duty of protecting the idol of Sri Jina. Once he punished the women who sought through charmed food to adversely affect Jain Sadhus but let them off when they begged his pardon and prayed for mercy. He himself was once adversely influenced magically in the midst of his religious discourse at Vijapur(Gujarat) by female magicians of a different pursuasion who created obstruction in his throat with a view to affect his voice. They were thereupon paralysed and stuck to the ground, where they were seated, by the Acharya, and were let off only when they promised not to trouble any one of his followers. His most important Mantric bout was with a Yogi at Ujjain who would not allow any Jain Sadhus to remain there in peace for any length of time without creating various troubles for him. As was his wont, he threatened the disciples of Sri Dharmaghoṣasuri, when once they went to Ujjain along with their preceptor. They did not however pay heed to his threats and only informed their preceptor about them. Very soon the Yogi giving vent to his ire created swarms of ferocious rats in the Upasraya-the place for stay of the Sādhus. Śrī Dharmaghoṣasuri thereupon recited Mantras over an earthen pot, which was covered up with a piece of cloth, and the Yogi was compelled to come down there crying with excruciating pain. He asked to be forgiven for his malicious misdeeds and was let off on his promising not to trouble any Sadhus in future. Sri Dharmaghoṣasuri was once bitten by a snake and informed by his prophetic powers the Jain Sangha assembled there that a man with a bundle of fuels who would be entering the city-gate at a particular time would have in the bundle a medicinal herb which was an antidote and a positive
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cure for snake bite. It was thereupon procured and Sri Dharamaghosasūri was cured. As a penance for using green herb, even when faced with such situation, against the rules of conduct for Sadhus he gave up all sweets, milk, curds, ghee, oil etc. for the rest of his life and lived only on Juwari-bread.
He composed many hymns some of them being Māntric. He also composed Sanghācāra-vítti and Kālasaptatikā, Samavasaraņa Kāyasthiti and Bhavasthiti Prakaraņas.
His pupil was Sri Somaprabhasūri who was so strict in observing the rules of conduct for Sadhus that apprehending possible abuse he did not accept the book of magic which was offered to him by his preceptor Sri Dharmaghosasūri. This throws a considerable light on the high ideals and selfless and pure life led by these Sädhus.
ŚRI DEVABHADRAGANI There is a Pratyangirākalpa in Prāksta consisting of 76 verses by Sri Devabhadragani who describes himself in the last verse thereof as a bee in the feet of Pradyumnasūri and alludes to Devendra and Munindra. He is not, therefore, the famous Upādhyāya Devabhadragaņi of Caitravālagaccha the preceptor and co-worker in the Kriyoddhāra (the reinstatement of the original religious practices and observances) of the famous Sri Jagaccandrasūri who having remained invincible in 32 debates with Digambara cialecticians in the Court of King Jaitrasimha of Aghāta (near modern Udaipar) received the title of 'Hirala' i. e. 'Diamond' meaning of 'adamantine quality'and also the title of 'Tapā' because of the performance of severe austerities and gave that name to his Gaccha, which till then bore the name of Vadagaccha or Bșhadgaccha, in 1285 of Vikrama era. He must have been a pupil of the famous scholar Sri Pradyumnasūri * who wrote Samarādityasamksepa in 1324 Vikrama era.
* He also wrote Pravajyávidhāpa in 1338. He also critically examined and revised works of Udayaprabha, Devendra, Dharmakumāra, Prabhacandra, Bålacandra, Mānatunga, Munideva, Ratnaprabha, Vinayacandra and others.
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INTRODUCTION
The reference to Devendra might be to Devendrasūri (a pupil of SriCandrasūri of Candragaccha) whose Upamitibhava-Prapañca,-KathāSāroddhāra was revised by Sri Pradyumnasūri and the reference to Munindra might be to Munideva in the line of Vadi Devasūri who wrote Sāntināthacaritra in 1322 Vikrama era and also a commentary on Dharmopadeśamālā. Both were revised by Sri Pradyumnasūri. Both flourished circa 1300 Vikrama era. The date of Sri Devabhadragaņi author of Pratyangirākalpa would therefore be the same. Worship of Pratyangira seems to have become popular amongst Jains about this time, as Sāgaracandrasūri already described above also wrote a Pratyangirā Kalpa. There is no wonder that her worship was popular as she is conceived as a deity counter acting the malevolent Krtyā as well as all kind of Māntric influence of others from the time of Atharvaveda as her name literally means counter to Angiras i. e, adverse Mantric practices of Atharvaveda. *
ŚRI PURŅAKALASAGANI Sri Purnakalasagani was a pupil of Sri Jinesvarasūri of Kharataragaccha and flourished circa 1307 Vikrama era. His Māntric hymn 'Sri Stambhana-Pārsvanātha-Jina Stavana and its commentary establish him not only as a Mántrika but also as one proficient in the use of medicinal herbs. It also appears from some of the Mantras contained in his said commentary that a beginning was already made to assimilate non-Jain Mantras some of them being on a par with Sābara Mantras. *
* "The oldest name, however, by which this Veda is known in Indian literature is Atharvangirasah, that is "the Atharvans and the Angiras." The two expressions atharvan and angiras, however designate two different species of magic formulas; atharvan is "holy magic, bringing happiness," while angiras means "hostile magic, black magic." Among the Atharvans, for example, are the formula for the healing of diseases, while among the Angiras are the curses against enemies, rivals, evil magicians and such like."
P. 120 History of Indian Literatute Vol. 1 by M. Winternitz. * ॐ उदितो भगवान् सूर्यः पद्माक्षो वृक्षकेतनः
आदित्यस्य प्रसादेन अमुकस्या भेटक नाशय २ स्वाहा ।।गा० १३ टीका * See commentary on V. 37 of the hymn.
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In his commentary on the first verse of the said hymn he quotes verses 33&34 from Ch.III of Sri Bhairava Padmāvatī-Kalpa wrongly attributing them to Srī Jinadattasūri. A possible explanation of the mistake is that Sri Jinadattasüri must have incorporated some portions including the said verses, of Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa in some work of his own, possibly a work on Hrimkāra or Māyābīja which Mantra is known to be a favourite Mantra of Sri Jinadattasūri, and since his time of the followers of Kharataragaccha, and then amongst all the Jains. The dates of his birth, initiation etc. and details of his parentage and place of birth are not known. He studied under Śri Jináratnācārya. There is no doubt that he was a very learned man as his commentary on Sri Hemacandrācārya's Prāksta Dvyāsraya Kávya composed in 1307 of Vikrama era shows conclusively.
SRI JINAPRABHASORI The exact years of the birth and the death of Sri Jinaprabhasūri are not known, but his life most probably extended from about 1320 to 1390 Vikrama era.* It appears from an account contained in a Pattāvali of the 17th century that he was the third or the fifth son of a Bania merchant of Tāmbi Srimāla Gotra who lived at Zuznu (Vadodrā according to another version) in Vāgada. According to an older account the merchant lived at Sohilavādi or Mohilavādi and his name was Ratnapāla. His wife Khetalladevi gave birth to a son named Subhațapāla who was initiated in 1326 or 1336 Vikrama era, by Sri Jinásimhasūri of Kharatagaccha at the suggestion of Sri Padmāvatidevi who promised to be the tutelary deity-Istadevatā of the suggested pupil.
* In the addendum to Kannānaya-Mahăvira-Kalpa by Śrī Vidyātilaka (alias Somatilakasûri, a pupil of Sri Sanghatilakasūri who has described Sri Jinaprabhasūri as his Vidyāguru although he was a pupil of Sri Gunasekharasūri), Sri Jinaprabasūri is described as living and his doings upto 1390 Vikrama era are narrated.
As Ibn Batūtah the famous Moorish traveller, who came to the Court of Mahomed Tughlaq adout 1390 Vikrama era does not mention Sri Jinaprabhasūri, although he describes several prominent persons in the Court, it may be presumed that Sri Jinprabhasūri was not living then.
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This Subhaṭapala was given the name of Sri Jinaprabha on initiation and ultimately became Śrī Jinaprabhasūri. Srī Jinasimhasūri appointed him as his successor at Kidhiwāṇā in 1341. He performed the Sadhanā of Sri Padmavatīdevī some time after his initiation, as directed by his Guru, and Sri Padmavati appeared before him and promised to attend whenever invoked. Once Sri Jinaprabhasūri inquired of Sri Padmavati the place where he would rise and attain fame and was told that it would be at Delhi. He thereupon went to Delhi and met Sultan Mahomed Tughlaq on or about Poşa Sud 2nd 1385 and impressed upon him the truth of the Jain doctrine, and its basic principle of Ahimsa. He made the Sultan restore to the Jains the famous idol of Sri Mahāvīra of Kannāṇaya (modern Kannāņā which is four miles from Dadri in Jind State. * It is said to be in Vāgada near Āsikā i. e. Hāņsī) which was temporarily removed to a temple in Malik Tajdin Sarai in Delhi and subsequently to the temple at Sultan-Sarai. It was Śrī Jinadevasūri, the learned pupil of Sri Jinaprabhasūri, who had secured the grant of the Sarai named after the Sultan for the habitation of the Jains. The Sultan also got a temple and an Upāśraya-monastery built therein at his own expense.
Sri Jinaprabhasūri obtained through his influence with the Sultan Firmāns for the protection of the sacred shrines (Tirthas) of Satrunjaya, Girnar and Falodhi. He similarly secured protection of the Jain temples at Devagiri alias Daulatābād built by the minister
+That Śri Jinaprabhasuri was constantly helped by Sri Padmavati is a fact mentioned in lyrical poems composed in his praise some of which werewritten when he was actually living. See also V. 5 of his own hymn (p. 129 Appendix to Vidhiprapă): सिरिसूरिजिणप्पभत्तिष्भरे, सुताणिहि मंनिउ विविह परे ।
परमावर सानिधि सयल जए चिरु नंदउ देहिगु संघवए ॥ "
See also V. 13 in the colophon of Vidhiprapa p. 120
INTRODUCTION
"जीए पसायाउ नरा सुकईसरसत्थव लहा हुंति ।
सा सरसई य पउमावई य मे दिन्तु सुयरिद्धिम् ॥"
According to Pt. L. B. Gandhi it is modern Cannanore in the South.
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Pethad, Shah Sahaja and Thakkur Through his intercession hundreds of prisoners were released by the Sultan.
Once again about 1388 Vikrama era he was invited by the Sultan and he went from Devagiri to Delhi. The Sultan was much pleased to see him. He received him with great pleasure and kissed his hand. Sri Jinaprabhasūri thereafter stayed at a sarai which was built in 1389 by the Sultan near his palace. It was named after him as Bhaṭṭārakasarāi.
Once the Sultan started for Gujarat and camped under a large shady Banyan tree in the first stage of the march. The Sultan liked the tree very much. Śrī Jinaprabhasūri thereupon asked him whether he would like the tree to move along with him. The Sultan replied that he would be pleased if it did so. Sri Jinaprabhasuri thereupon made the tree move along with them for a considerable distance shading them from the heat of the sun. Then the Sultan requested the Acharya to send the tree back which he did.
He was wonderfully accurate in his prophecies, and consequently the Sultan was much pleased with him. *
Once the Sultan heard from Sri Jinaprabhasūri the miraculous qualities of 'Vijaya Yantra'. It was thereupon got prepared under the direction of Sri Jinaprabhasūri. It was found that the person or animal under the protection of 'Vijaya Yantra' was immune from every sort of harm or injury.
× Sri Jinaprabhasūri in his Siddhantågamastava (Kavyamālā, Pt. VII, p. 94) says: "यस्या भवन्त्यवितथा अद्याप्येकोन षोडशादेशाः ।
सा भगवती प्रसीदतु ममाङ्गविद्यानवद्यविधिसाध्या ||४१ || "
and at p. 119, Vidhiprapā in Angavijjāsiddhivihi he describes the rites incidental to the Sadhana of Angavijjā as taught by Saiddhantika Sri Vinayacandrasuri and says: "विहिणा पुण आराहिय एयं सिज्झत अवितहाएसो ।
छउमत्थो वि हु जायइ भुवणेसु जिणप्पभायरिओ || "
This shows his great faith in Angavidya for accurate predictions. Probably he himself might have employed Angavidya for the purpose.
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INTRODUCTION
These were times when persons reputed to possess miraculous powers used to be welcome at the Royal Court. They used to vie with each other to establish their superiority and to belittle their opponents. There was one Raghavacaitanya + proficient in Mantras who became a favourite of the Sultan. He once thought of driving away Sri Jinaprabhasūrī. He, therefore, by his magical powers removed the ring from the finger of the Sultan and clandestinely introduced the same in the Rajoharaña (sweeping brush) of the Achārya. Sri Jinaprabhasūri was immediately informed of this by Sri Padmāvati and he thereupon introduced the said ring unnoticed in the head-dress of Rāghavacaitanya himself. When the Sultan missed his ring, Raghavacaitanya accused Sri Jinaprabhasūri who told the Sultan that the ring was in the head-dress of Rāghavacaitanya and it was found there on the head-dress being searched. Thus worsted in his own art Rāghavacaitanya left the court crest-fallen.
Once a Qalandar (Muslim Darvish) came to the royal court and offered to show miracles. He threw up his Kulah (cap) and it remained hanging in the air without any support. He challanged any one to bring it down. When no one else came forward and the Sultan turned his eyes towards Sri Jinaprabhasūri he brought it down with his Rajoharaņa. Then the Darvish kept earthen water-pots which were being carried by a woman, hanging in the air. The Acharya asked him to keep the water therein so hanging without the earthen pots to support it. He was unable to do so. The Achārya thereupon got the earthen-pots which were hanging in the air broken up. But the water therein still remained in the air without support. The Achārya thus triumphed over the Qalandar.
Amongst the Muslim Darvishes of the time was the famous Nasir-ud-din Mahomed, Chiragh-e-Delhi, he having succeeded in 1325 A.D. the famous Nizam-ud-din Awliyā as his Khalifa. It is possible that
+ See his Jwalamukhidevi Stotra (Prācīna Lekhamāla, Vol. II, Lekha 100), and Maha Ganapatistotra (Kävyamālā Pt. I, p. 1).
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the relations between the said Nizam-ud-din and Ghiy suddin Tughlag having been strained Nasir-ud-din might not have been on the best of terms with Sultan Mahomed Tughlaq especially because the latter was not interested in the propagation of the Islamic religion. This fact as well as the influence exercised by the Jains over him are borne out by the following extract from an article by Dr. A. B. M. Habibullah published in the issue of the 'Sunday Standard' dated 18th August 1940 A. D.
"Not interested in the propagation of the Islamic religion, his belief in which was known to be shaky, he specially favoured the Hindu on a number of occasions. And a writer evidently belonging to the opposition, bitterly laments that the Sultan destroyed the best Mussalmans in India and replaced them by the 'infidels' whom he consistently patronised. Contemporary writers accuse him of not only inclining towards atheism but also to excessive intercourse with Hindu jogis and Brahmans; while evidence has come down to us, in the form of a Jaina Manuscript, of his active patronage extended to a distinguished Jain scholar named Simhakirti. *"
Sri Jinaprabhasūri at the request of Sultan Mahomed also cured Sultānā Bālāde who was possessed by an evil spirit invoking Kșetrapāla Meghanāda for the purpose. He also secured control over sixty four Yoginis + (powerful female spirits) and obtained a boon from them that
According to Firishta Mahomed Tughlaq desired that Shaikh Nasir-ud-din Chiragh -e-Delhi should attend upon him for personal service viz. dressing him, and imprisoned him on his refusal to do so and released him only when he agreed to perform the said service. * Perhaps Śri Jinasimhasūri is meant by this name. He was the preceptor of Sri Jinaprabhas īri who acquired considerable influence over Sultan Mahomed Tughlaq, The mistake might be due to the mistranslation of the Sanskrit manuscript due to which preceptor's name is given and the pupil's name is omitted. Epigraphia Carnatica Vol.88, pp. 377-78, inscription No. 46 however mentions Bhattāraka Simhakirti who was connected with Sultan Mahomed of Delhi. + The following are the names of sixty four yoginis given by Sri Jinaprabhasūri in his famous Vidhiprapă (composed in S. Y. 1363) a work on rituals for laymen and monks at pp. 116-117:
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they would not trouble Acharyas in his line when they visited any of the four towns famous for the Pithas (abodes) of the sixty four Yoginis, viz. Delhi (formerly known as Yoginipura), Ajmer, Ujjain and Broach. Sri Jinaprabhasūri had acquired such influence over Sultan Mahomed that the latter went with him to the famous Satrunjaya temples at Palitana and also to Girnar. On the Sultan performing at Satrunjaya, at the instance of Sri Jinaprabhasūri acts of devotion appropriate to a leader of Jain Sangha the Acharya made famous Rāyaṇa tree (Piyāla tree)
rain milk over the Sultan.
He preached the Jain doctrine to the Khandelvals of the Jungle country i. e. Rajputānā and in consequence they embraced the Jain faith and gave up the trade of distilling alcoholic liquor from molasses on which they were engaged. He got repairs to the famous Jain Stupa
" वाराही १ वामनी २ गरुडी ३ इन्द्राणी ४ आग्नेयी ५ याम्या ६ नेॠती ७ वारुणी ८ वायव्या ९ सौम्या १० ईशानी ११ ब्राह्मी १२ वैष्णवी १३ माहेश्वरी १४ विनायकी १५ शिवा १६ शिवदूती १७ चामुंडा १८ जया १९ विजया २० अजिता २१ अपराजिता २२ हरसिद्धि २३ कालिका २४ चंडा २५ सुचंडा २६ कनकनंदा २७ सुनंदा २८ उमा २९ घंटा ३० सुघंटा ३१ मांसप्रिया ३२ आशापुरा ३३ लोहिता ३४ अंबा ३५ अस्थिभक्षी ३६ नारायणी ३७ नारसिंही ३८ कौमारी ३९ वामरता ४० अंगा ४१ वंगा ४२ दीर्घदंष्ट्रा ४३ महादंष्ट्रा ४४ प्रभा ४५ सुप्रभा ४६ लंबा ४७ लंबोष्ठी ४८ भद्रा ४९ सुभद्रा ५० काली ५१ रौद्रो ५२ रौद्रमुखी ५३ कराली ५४ विकराली ५५ साक्षी ५६ विकटाक्षी ५७ तारा ५८ सुतारा ५९ रजनीकरा ६० रंजनी ६१ श्वेता ६२ भद्रकाली ६३ क्षमाकरी ६४ ।
चतुःषष्टिः समाख्याता योगिभ्यः कामरूपिकाः । पूजिता: प्रतिपूज्यन्ते भवेयुर्वरदाः सदा ॥
अमुं श्लोकं पठित्वा योगिनीभिरधिष्टिते क्षेत्रे पट्टकादिषु नामानि टिक्ककानि वा विन्यस्य नामोच्चारणपूर्वे गन्धाद्यैः पूजयित्वा नन्दिप्रतिष्ठादिकार्याण्याचार्यः कुर्यात् । चउसहिजो गिणीउवसमप्पयारो ३०”
They are differently given in Acăradinakara at pp. 207-208 and another set of names is found in Mantric literature (See Appendix No. 24). Tantrasara gives Sadhana of Yoginis.
Vacanācārya Sri Caritravardhana, the famous commentator of Raghuvamsa and Naiṣadha, who was known as male embodiment of Sarasvati (Naraveșa-Vāņi) and was a spiritual descendant of Sri Jinaprabhasūri praised him thus: तत्पट्टपूर्वाद्रिसहस्ररश्मिर्जिनप्रभः सूरिपुरन्दरोऽभूत् । वाग्देवताया रसनां यदीयामाच्छादपटं जगदुर्बुधेन्द्राः ॥"
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(tope) of Mathurā executed through his preaching. Amongst his contemporaries were Sri Somaprabhasūri and Somatilakasūri. Sri Jinaprabhasūri met the latter at Pāțan. Their relations were very friendly. Sri Jinaprabhasūri composed and presented to Sri Somatilakasūri hymns for the instruction of his pupils. Out of these about 75 available hymns show the great poetic powers of Sri Jinaprabhasūri. Some of them are Māntric and establish his Mántric proficiency. Amongst them are two hymns of Sarasvati, a Catușpadikā of Sri Padmāvati and a hymn of Vardhamānavidyā. He studied and acquired great mastery over the Persian language. He has composed a hymn of Sri Rşabhadeva and a hymn of Sri Sāntinātha in Persian which shows how much he was in advance of his times. Vidhiprapā we have already mentioned. His Tîrthakalpa alias Kalpapradīpa is a work of great historic value. It contains kalpas (treatises) of several Tirthas or sacred places and also of deities devoted to the Jain faith like Kapardi Yaksa, Ambikādevi Kohandiyadevi i. e., Kuşmāņdidevi another name of Ambikādevi, and Padmavatidevi. One of the Kalpas relates to Sri Satruñjaya and is named Rājaprasāda by him as on its commencement the Sultan was pleased with the Jain Sangha. It therefore establishes Sri Jinaprabhasūri's connection with the Sultan by his own account. He composed Sūrimantrāmnāya in 1381 Vikrama era, and also wrote a Mayabijakalpa, a Mantric work on Hrīmbija. He wrote several commentaries like Kātantravibhramatikā, Kalpasūtravștti named Sandehavişausadhi, Ajitasantistavavętti, Upasargaharastotravștti, Bhayaharastotravịtti and a commentary on Sri Padaliptasūri's Virastava. Another work of his is Rahasyakalpadruma which is not available. This shows that he was a great scholar. * He also helped Sri Mallisenasūri in writing 'Sydvāda Manjari' and taught philosophical works like Sridhara's Nyāyakandali to Sãdhus of other Gacchas like Srī Rājasekharasūri of Harsapuriya Gaccha. He was also a Vidyāguru of Sri Sanghatilakasūri.
We may note here the fact that both Srī Jinaprabhasūri and his pupil Sri Jinadevasūri rode elephants having been entreated by
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Sultan Mahomed Taghluq to do so, when they returned to the Upāśraya (place for stay of Jain Sādhus) after their first interview with him. Caityavāsis used to do so formerly and their opponents considered it to be one of their lax practices. Sūrācārya did so and before him Siddhasena Divākara as well as Bappabhattisūri did so. It really illustrates the necessity for making exceptions even on the part of the ideal Sadhus on special occasions for the greater good of the Jain fold and for enhancing the credit of the Jain religion in the eye of the public.
The reasons why Sri Jinaprabhasūri's services to the Jain Sangha do not appear to have been fully appreciated appear to be (i) that he was not in the main line of Khartaragaccha (ii) the unseemly quarrels which sometimes took place between members of different gacchas and (iii) the absence of a suitable biography. We consider his achievements even higher than those of Sri Hiravijayasūri as religious bigotry was at its zenith in his times and he had to deal with a Sultan who was nicknamed 'the mad' owing to his senseless conduct devoid of reason. *
Sri Guņabhadrasūri, Sri Munibhadrasūri, Sri Mahendrasūri the famous astronomer and mathematician and Sri Ratnasekharasūri were recipients of great honours at the Court of Firoz Tughlaq. This shows that the position and influence aquired for the Jains by Sri Jinaprabhasūri were retained during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq although the latter was a great fanatic and followed strictly verdicts of Ulemas and spared no pains to convert Hindus to Islam.
ŚRI JINAKUŠALASURI After Sri Jinadattasūri and Manidhāri Sri Jinacandrasūri, it was Sri Jinakusalasüri who bore the honorific title of 'Dādāji'. He is equally famous as a great Māntrika as already stated. He was born in 1337 Vikram era at Samiyāņā of Jilhāgar and Jayantasri parents of Chājhadagotra and
* For some of the information about Sri Jina prabhasűri the writer is indebted to the small but valuable Gujarati book of bis learned friend Pt. Lālacandra B. Gandhi entitled "Sri Jinaprabhasűri and Sultan Mahomed."
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Oswāl Caste, was initiated in s. y. 1347, became Achārya in s. y. 1377 Jyesta Vad 11th and died in s. y. 1389 Fālguna Vad 5th or 30th (Māru). 1200 Sādhus and 105 Sadhvis were his pupils. He wrote a commentary on Caityavandana-Kulaka which is published at Surat. His another important work which seems to have been lost was Vandana Kulaka-Vịtti. There are several hymns composed by him. One of his pupils Sri Vinayaprabha Upādhyāya composed the famous 'Gautamarāsā' in Gujarāti for his brother, who became rich again by recital of the Rāsa and Mantra incorporated therein. Many are the miracles attributed to his Mantric powers, one of them being the protection granted by him to Dumgarasimha, a Rajput ruler of Nadol, against the wrath of the Sultan of Delhi (probably Sultan Mahomed Tughlaq or his predecessor Sultan Ghiyāsuddin Tughlaq) whereupon the whole family of Dumgarsimha embraced Jainism. It is said that owing to his preachings and miraculous powers over 50,000 persons embraced Jainism. How, even after his death, protection is granted to his devotees immediately he is invoked-is illustrated by Sri Samayasundara Upādhyāya by his own experience. He was in the Punjab and was crossing the Pañjnad* to go to Uchnagara in a boat. Suddenly, it began to rain heavily and the weather became stormy and the boat was about to capsize owing to whirlpool and sudden flood. He invoked Sri Jinakusalasūri and was brought to the shore safely. He composed a hymn to celebrate this escape commencing with the words “Ayo Ayoji Samarantā Dādoji Ayo". Similary he says, at the commencement of Mrgāvati Caritra, II Khanda, that on his being invoked in the city of Marot it rained immediately. This is the reason why shrines of 'Dādaji' are found in almost all places of importance. There are such shrines in several
* The confluence of the five rivers viz. Jhelum, Chenāb, Rāvi, Beas and Sutlej till they meet the Indus is known as Pañjnad. This is the place where Achāryas of Kharataragaccha like Sri Jinadattasīri, Sri Jina-Kusalasūri and Sri Jinacandrasûri performed Sadhanå of the presiding deities thereof known as Panca Piras viz. (1) Khadira (2) Lanja (3) Kanhu (4) Somarāja and (5) Khañja and Sri Māņibhadra and Khodiyā Kșetrapāla.
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temples in Bombay, one at Byculla temple being considered of special note. In practically every temple in the management of Kharataragaccha shrines of 'Dādāji' are usual by installed. The popularity of his worship can be easily judged by the great number of his shrines spread over hundreds of places in India. See the hymn of 108 Stupas of Sri Jinakusalasūri by Sri Rajaharṣa.
INTRODUCTION
ŚRI BHUVANATUNGASŪRI
Sri Bhuvanatungasūri was an Acharya of a branch of Ancalagaccha. He attained fame as a Mantrika as in a bout with snakecharmers he invoked Takṣaka Naga the chief of the Nagas (snakes) and made him appear in the royal court of Khengāra IV (who ruled from 1336 to 1390 Vikrama era) at Junagadh and none of the 16 Garudis (snake-charmers) present could control Takṣaka. They were therefore declared defeated in the Mantric contest with Sri Bhuvantungasüri who in his turn controlled all the various Nagas of the said Garudis. As a result he made these Garudis give up catching snakes and made the said King Khengāra prohibit casting of 1 lacs of fish-nets and stop 500 Bhaṭṭhis or ovens and accept the principle of Ahimsa or non -killing.
SRI MERUTUNGASURI
Sri Merutungasūri was born of Porvad parents Vhora Vairasimha and Nhālaṇade at Nani village in Jirṇapur in Marwar in 1403 Vikrama era. He was initiated by Sri Mahendraprabhasūri of Ancalagaccha in 1418 and ordained Acharya in 1426. After the death of Sri Mahendraprabhasuri in 1444 he became the leader of his Gaccha in 1446 and died in 1471 Vikrama era. He was a poet of note besides being a grammarian and a scholar of the different systems of philosophy. He wrote Mahakāvyas-great orclassical poems viz. (1) Nābhivamsa (2) Yaduvamsasambhava (3) Nemidūta and (4) Meghadūta etc. vying with the great Sanskṛta poets Kālidās and Magha. His summary of the six systems of philosophy is Şaddarśana-Samuccaya. His grammatical works are Dhatupārāyaṇa and a commentary on Katantra. He wrote Sataka-Bhāṣya
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and a commentary on Saptati-Bhäşya, works relating to Karma philosophy. He also wrote Bhāvakarmaprakriya, Satapadikāsāroddhara, Laghu Satapadi, Dharmopadeśa, Sri Kankālaya-Rasádhyāya, Susrāddha -Kathā and commentaries on Upadeśamālā and the hymn Namutthuņam'. . The most important for our purpose is however his work 'Sūrimantra -Kalpasāroddhāra.' He also wrote a 'Padmavati-Kalpa'. That he an accomplished Māntrika * is proved by his achievements narrated in Ancala-Gaccha Pattávali viz. by composing the hymn of Sri Jīrikāpalli Pārsvanātha beginning with the words 'Om namo devadevāya etc.' in Lolād village near Sankheśvara-Tirtha he warded off the threatened calamity and also caused the army of Sultan Mahomed to turn back from the said village by invocation of Sri Pārsvanātha. Through the same hymn he cured the son of the Mayor of Vadanagar (a nāgara ty caste) who was bitten by a snake. Consequently 300 Nāgara families accepted the Jain faith. The said hymn is published in Stotrasandoha part II at p. 48. The Mantra of Sri Pārsvanātha incorporated therein is known as 'Tribhuvana-vijaya-patākā' i. e. 'The triumphal flag of the conquest of the three world.'
SRI MUNISUNDARASORI Amongst Māntrikas Sri Munisundarasūri is famous as the author of the Mantric hymn 'Santikaram', which is one of the Smaraņas i. e. hymns meant for daily recital. The said hymn was composed by Sri Munisundarasūri to ward off the epidemic caused by Yoginis (powerful female deities) at Delwadā. He performed Sadhana of the Sūrimantra, it is said, twenty-four times and became a great Mantrasiddha. That he was a great Upāsaka of Sūrimantra is clear
* He refers to his own experience thus in the hymu referred to further on.
__ "यथा नादमयो योगी तथा चेत् तन्मयो भवेत् ।
तदा न दुष्करं किश्चित् कथ्यतेऽनुभवादिदम् ॥१०॥ $ The hymn also discloses his proficiency in practical Yoga, see also v.5 of the same hymn:
पूजाकोटि समं स्तोत्रं स्तोत्रकोटिसमो जपः। जपकोटिसमं ध्यानं ध्यानकोटिसमो लयः ॥ प्रबन्धकोश, रत्नश्रावकप्रबन्धः, श्लोक ३, पृ. ४
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from the said hymn wherein he has invoked for removal of calamities Sri Santināth and the presiding deities of the five Pithas of the Sürimantra viz. Vāni alias Sarasvati, Tribhuvanaswāmini, Sridevi alias Laksmi, Yakşaraja Gapipițaka as also twenty four Sasana Yakşas and Yaksinīs, Planetary deities, Guardian deities of the quarters, Indras, sixteen Vidyādevīs, the four kinds of deities, Vyantaras and Yoginis devoted to the protection of the Tirtha that is the Jain fold. The Colophon mentions that in the hymn the author employs the Siddhi relating to Ganadhara Vidyā obtained by the good grace of the preceptor Sri Somasundara of Tapāgaccha. The writer has in his possession hymns by the same author of Sūrimantra and the presiding deities thereof which are not hitherto published. It appears from them that the author was a great Upāsaka of Sūrimantra.
We shall now shortly state such details of his life as are available. He was born in 1436 and initiated in 1443 Vikrama era. He was ordained Vācaka in 1466 and Achārya in 1478 and died in 1503 Vikrama era at the age of 67 years. He had such an extraordinary memory as enabled him to attend to a thousand matters simultaneously. He was therefore known as Sahasrāvadhānī. He was a great poet and dialectician and being of dark complexion received the title of Käli (Black) Sarasvati and Vädigokula-Şandha i. e, a bull in the herd of cows of dialecticians. Owing to his great Māntric powers such prominent goddesses as Padmāvati used to be at his beck and call and helped him in carrying out his self-less work for the welfare of all living beings. Sahasramalla a King of Sirohi proclaimed in his kingdom at the instance of the Achārya prohibition against killing of living beings and Sri Munişundarasūri warded off the calamity of famine threatened by swarms of locusts in the fields. He wrote several works amongst which are Adhyatma-Kalpadruma, UpadesaRatnakara with a commentary, Jayānandacaritra, Tridasatarangini (which included the available Gurvãvali) and several hymns including Sri Jinastotraratnakosa being a collection of hymns (I Prastāva of 23 hymns is published in Stotrasangraha, part II).
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SRI SUBHASUNDARAGANI
Sri Subhasundaragani composed the Delāulā Mantric hymn of Sri Rsabha Jina styled Delavādāmandana. It also contains Yantras and medical prescriptions. The allusions to Munisundara and Laksmi. sāgara in the twenty fifth verse establish the author to be their contemporary. His life extended from about 1436 to 1517 Vikrama era. Other details of his life are not known. The said hymn with an Avacūri commentary is published at pp. 353 ff. in Jain Stotra Sandoha part I. The Avacūri appears to be by the author himself. There is assimilation of non-Jain Mantras and especially LaukikaMantras and Sabara Mantras. There are references to PancāngulideviMantra and Atte-Matte Pārsvanātha-Mantra known as TribhuvanaVijaya-Patakā-Mantra and to the hymn incorporating the last Mantra composed by Sri Ajitasimha possibly of Añcalagaccha (1283-1339 Vikrama era). The peculiar bath described in the comment on the 23rd verse of the hymn is suggestive of the influence of popular Tāntrika treatment. The commentary on V. 17 contains the following interesting Mantra in which invocation is with the truth-telling nature of Sri Jina and other omniscient personages : "3 Hoa 1878 SET RE# 9 ani एएण पचवाएण एवं निमित्तं मा वभिचरउ स्वाहा ।।"
ŚRI HEMAVIMALASURI Sri Hemavimalasūri was born of Gangāraj and Gangārāņi parents in 1522, was named Hadakumāra, and was initiated by Sri Sumatisadhu in 1538 Vikrama era. He did Kriyoddhāra i. e. reinstated the original religious practices and observances in 1556. He was ordained Acharya in 1548 and died about 1583 (1584 Māru) Vikrama era. He twice performed Sadhanā of Sūrimantra. It ts said that he obtained a boon from Sri Māņibhadra Yakșa * and since his time Sri Mäņibhadra became the presiding and protecting deity of Tapāgaccha.
x"8461247 97818"
See page 10 Manibhadradeva and Padmavatidevi's Chandas.
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According to Tapāgaccha Pattavali of Upadhyaya Sri Dharmasagara however it was Sri Anandavimalasūri pupil of Sri Hemavimalasūri who appointed him as the presiding deity of Tapāgaccha.
ŚRI JINACANDRASURI
Sri Jinacandrasuri was born at Vadali village near Timarinagar or at Khetasara in Jodhpur of Shah Srīvant and Siriyadevi parents of Rihadagotra and Oswal Caste in 1595 Vikrama era and was named Sultan Kumara. He was initiated in 1604 and named Sumatidhira and ordained Acharya in 1612 and named Jinacandrasūri at Jesalmere when the occasion was celebrated by Raut Maladeva King of Jesalmere. At the instance of Karmasimha son of Minister Sangramasimha he went to Bikaner after effecting Kriyoddhāra by reinstating the old religious practices and observances. There he triumphed over the advocates of the heretic doctrine deprecating idol-worship. He also compelled fallen Yatis to give up the garb of Sadhus and put on turbans as an insignia of house -holders and made others follow religious injunctions strictly. By his prophetic and miraculous powers he made Sivā (Sadā) and Somjee two non-Jain brothers of Pragvat caste rich and they embraced the Jain faith with their families. He installed quadruple Jinas on Sri Satṛuñjaya and repaired and renovated the group of temples in Kharataravasa hi there. Sada and Somjee also built a temple of Sri Santinatha in Dhana Suthara's Pole at Ahmedabad and installed therein an idol of their preceptor Śrī Jinacandrasuri. As stated in Kharatara Pattavali he established before representatives of 84 Gacchas in 1617 Vikrama era that Sri Abhayadevasūri who composed commentaries on nine Angas belonged to Kharataragaccha and that Kumati-Kuddāla a work of Upadhyāya Sri Dharmasagara of Tapagaccha contained wrong statements and was not authoritative. By his miraculous powers the doors of the Jain emple at Falodhi, which were locked to bar his entry to the temple by the followers of Upadhyāya Sri Dharmasagara, flew open in 1632 Vikrama era. Emperor Akbar heard about him through minister Karmacandra and invited him to his court. On Fagana Sud 12th 1648 he
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had thereupon an interview with Akbar at Lahore in course of which he impressed upon him the truth of the Jain doctrine and made him issue Firmāns-orders prohibiting killing of every sort for a week from Aşadha Sud 9th to 15th. Emperor Akbar conferred upon him the title of Yuga-pradhāna i, e, the leader of the age. At the instance of Akbar he conferred Achāryaship on his pupil Mānasimha who was named Jinasimhasūri.
In 1652 Vikrama era he successfully performed at the confluence of the five rivers of the Punjab near Uchnagar the Sadhanā of the deities presiding over Pañjnad-viz 5 Piras. Māņibhadra Yakşa, Khodiyā Kşetrapāla and other deities. * In 1669 he made Emperor SalimJehāngir revoke the order issued by him prohibiting stay of Sadhus, who were not married, in his kingdom. He is known as one of the 'Dādās' amongst the followers of Kharataragaccha who believe that even after his death he helps his devotees whenever invoked by them and protects them as a grand-father would protect his grand children. He died at Bilada in Mārwār on Asvin Vad 2nd (Māru), and Bhadarvā Vad 2nd (Gujarāti), in 1670 Vikrama era. There are celebrations held on this day at Bombay, Surat, Broach, Pāțana and other places every year.
UPADHYAYA SRI SĀNTICANDRA Upādhyāya Sri Sānticandra was a pupil of Sakalacandra and a grand pupil of Sri Vijayadānasūri, the preceptor of the famous Tapāgacchācārya Jagadguru Sri Hīravijayasūri who convincingly preached the Jain doctrine to Emperor Akbar and impressed upon him the basic principle of Ahimsā or non-killing and obtained Firmāns from him prohibiting killing of every sort on certain days and during certain periods and abolishing Jaziā-tax, releasing prisoners and making a grant to Sri Hiravijayasūri of holy places of pilgrimage of the Jains. Sri Hiravijayasūri conferred the title of Upādhyāya on Sri Sānticandra in
* See pp. 48–49 Kharataragaccha Pattavalisangraha by Sri Jina vijaya. The authors of 'Yuga pradhāna Sri Jinacandrasūri' at p. 128 of their work give the names of the five Piras; see also note p. 237 ante.
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1640 Vikrama era. When Sri Hiravijayasūri left Agra for Gujarat in 1642 Vikrama era he left Upadhyāya Sri Santicandra with Akbar. Santicandra also made Akbar prohibit fishing in the Damar lake near Fatehpur-Sikri. He composed Kṛpārasakosa a panegyric on the Emperor praising his humanity and merciful deeds. The work inspired Akbar to perform many merciful acts and charitable deeds including abolition of Jazia-tax and release of prisoners. He also wrote a commentary on one of the Upangas Jambudvipa-Prajñapti in 1650 Vikrama era.
Upadhyaya Santicandra was a very learned man and could perform Satavadhāna i. e. attend to a hundred things simultaneously. He was a great dialectician and triumphed over the Digambara disputant Bhaṭṭaraka Vädibhūṣaṇa in the Court of the King Nārāyaṇa of Idargadha and over Digambara Acharya Gunacandra in the presence of Sri Mānadeva (nephew of the King of Jodhpur) at Ghaṭasila in Vagada. As for his magical powers it is stated in Paryuṣaṇa-aṣtähnika-vyākhyā. na (II Vyakhyāna, P. 5) of Sri Vijayalakṣmisüri that through his miraculous powers Akbar succeeded in taking the fort at Attock which he had not been able to do for several years. He died about 1660 Vikrama era as might be inferred from the addendum to the Colophon of his commentary on Sri Jambudvipa-prajñapti which was appended in 1660 by the revisers of the said Commentary after his death. UPADHYAYA SRI YASOVIJAYA
Sri Yasovijaya was born of Bania parents Nārāyaṇa and Saubhagyadevi at Kamhodu village near Dhinoj in or about 1680 Vikrama era and was named Jasavant. He had a brother named Padmasimha. They came in contact with Sri Nayavijaya and were taken by him to Sri Vijayadevasūri who initiated them as Nayavijaya's pupils and named them Yasovijaya and Padmavijay respectively. Sri Yasovijaya studied under his Guru and went with him to Ahmedabad in 1699 where he performed Aṣṭāvadhāna i. e. attended to eight things simultaneously. Thereupon one of the leaders of the Sangha there named Dhanji sura suggested that Sri Yasovijaya deserved to be sent to
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Kasi-Benares to study there the six systems of philosophy and that ultimately he might become an ornament to the Jain fold. He offered to spend Rs. 2000/-for the purpose. Thereupon both the preceptor and the pupil went to Kāšī. Sri Yasovijaya prosecuted his studies under a Bhattācārya versed in the six systems of Indian philosophy and proficient in logic and the art of dialectics. Paying a rupee every day as Gurudaksinā or fee Sri Yasovijaya studied there for three years continuously. About the time a Sannyasi disputant came to Benares who was defeated in a debate by Sri Yasovijaya before a meeting of Pandits. He then composed a hymn in praise of Sri Pārsvanātha. He was then given the title of Nyāyaviśārada by the Pandits who had witnessed his great performance in the said debate. Then Sri Yasovijaya went to Agra for further prosecution of his studies particularly in logic of the New School termed Navya-Nyāya and studied the same under a Nyāyācārya for a further period of four years. The Sangha there offered to spend for him Rupees Seven hundred, which was accordingly spent for purchase of books and in giving scholarships and presents to other students. Sri Yasovijaya then went to Ahmedabad where he was welcomed by the Sangha there with great eclat and stayed at Nāgorisarah. Mohabatkhăn the Suba of Gujarat having heard about him invited him to his Court where he performed Astādasávadhāna i. e. attended to eighteen things simulataneously. The Subā was very much pleased with his performance and praised him greatly.
The title of Upadhyāya was conferred on him in 1718 by Sri Vijayaprabhasūri (the successor to Sri Vijayadevasūri) after he performed the Visasthānaka-worship and austerities. He also received the title of Nyāyācārya from the Pandits of Kasi after he composed a hundred philosophical and logical treatises. This fact is mentioned by himself at the beginning of his commentary on Pratimāsataka and in the colophon of his another work Jain Tarkaparibhāsā. He has also written several works ending with the word 'Rahasya' probably because the famous neo-logician Mathurānātha was his favourite author and
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the latter had composed works bearing names ending with 'Rahasya'. He similarly wrote Mangalavada, Vidhivāda as his contemporaries were using names ending with the word Vada or Treatise.
He came in intimate contact with Yogindra Sri Anandaghana, as appears from Aṣṭapadi or the panegyric of eight verses composed by him in praise of Sri Anandaghana.
INTRODUCTION
He has made much use of 'Aloka' of the famous neo-logician Pakṣadharamiśra in his philosophical works. He was an allround scholar and wrote on philosophy, Yoga as well as Adhyatma. He has adopted several passages of Sri Bhagavadgīta and Yogasūtra in his Adhyatmasara and Adhyatmopaniṣad and Dvātrimsikās. He wrote a commentary on Kammapayadi, an old work dealing with Karma philosophy. He wrote in Sanskṛta, Prākṛta and Gujarāti with equal ease and grace. He was a philosopher, logician as well as a poet. He also revised Dharmasamgraha of Upadhyaya Srī Mānavijaya and the latter has praised him in its colophon for his vast learning, reasoning and disquisitions full of Pramāņa comparing him to persons who equalled the omniscient through learning. His biographer Srī Kāntivijaya called him 'id' or 'Bearded Sarasvati'. It is unnecessary to enumerate here his many works. He completed the famous Srīpāla Rasa in Gujarati which was commenced by Upadhyāya Sri Vinayavijaya. He has commenced almost all his works with the syllable 'Aim' being the Mantra-bīja sacred to Sarasvati having obtained a boon from her at the conclusion of her Sadhana performed by him on the bank of the Ganges in Benares. He has himself stated this fact in his works Mahāvīra-Stava alias Nyaya-khandanakhadya and Jambuswami Rāsa respectively as follows:
*His authoritative biography is contained in 'Sujaśaveli' a metrical work composed by Sri Kantivijaya one of his contemporaries, a complete copy whereof was recently in S. Y. 1984 discovered by the writer's friend Mr. M. D. Desai.
× For a description of his works see pp. 643-645, Short History of Jaina Literature by M. D. Desai.
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ऐं कारजापवरमाप्य कवित्ववित्त्ववाञ्छासुरखुमपगङ्गमभारङ्गम् । सूक्तैर्विकासिकुसुमैस्तव वीर शम्भोरम्भोजयोधरणयोर्वितनोमि पूजाम् ।।
न्यायखण्डनखाद्य "Having obtained a boon, on the bank of the Ganges through the recital of 'Aim' (Mantra bija sacred to Sarasvati), the veritable wishgranting tree for fulfilling the desire for poetic and scholastic powers, and which gives continuous joy, I offer worship with full-blown flowers in the form of beautiful verses of praise to the feet of Sri Mahāvīra who is real Sambhu."
શારદ ! સાર દયા કરી આપો વચન સુરંગ, તું તૂઠી મુઝ ઉપર જાપ + કરત ઉપગંગ ૧ તર્ક કાવ્યો તે તદા દીધો વર અભિરામ,
ભાષા પણિ કારિ કલ્પતરુ શાખા સમ પરિણામ. ર”—જંબુસ્વામિરાસ He also wrote a small astrological work called Falā-fala-Pșcchā (Jain Sāhitya-Samsodhaka Vol. III 2, pp. 162 to 165). He died at Dabhoi in 1743 and on Maha Sud 5th 1745 a Stupa-tope was constructed there as a memorial to him and his footprints were installed therein. It is interesting to note that a Siddhacakra Yantra in the temple of Sri Kalyāņa Pārsvanātha at Vadācautā, Surat, which was installed according to the inscription thereon by Mahopadhyāya Sri Yasovijaya. gani of Sri Vijayadevasūrigaccha and got prepared by Sri Fulbai daughter of Sri Näthibai on Poşa Sud 1st, Sunday and Puşya (asterism) s. y: 1737.
UPADHYAYA ŚRI MEGHAVITAYA He flourished from about 1700 Vikrama era. He was a pupil of Kịpāvijaya who was fifth in the line of the famous Jagadguru Sri Hiravijayasūri. He was a grammarian, logician and poet and was also versed in astrology, palmistry and Mantraśāstra. His knowledge of Mantraśāstra can be gauged to an extent by perusal of his work on Visa-Yantra (Diagram of the number 20) which also describes
+ v. 1. rycmy.
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Arjuna-Pataka alias Vijaya-Yantra based on the diagram of the number 15 and its multiples and also by perusal of his Varsa-prabodha alias Meghamahodaya as the latter contains Yantras and Mantras for causing as well as stopping rainfall and Sarvatobhadra and other Yantras. For a detailed description of his works the readers are referred to Mr. M. D. Desai's "Short History of Jaina Literature" pp. 651-655. We may mention however that his Sanskṛta poems Devānandabhyudaya, Meghadūta Samasya and Santinatha Caritra are illustrations of completions of Samasyas-portions of verses taken from classical poems like Sisupälavadha, Meghadūta and Naiṣadhiya respectively. He also composed Digvijaya mahakavya. His unique Saptasandhāna Mahākāvya describes simultaneously the biographies of five Tirthankaras viz. Sri Rṣabhadeva, Sri Santinath, Sri Neminatha, Sri Parsvanatha and Sri Mahāvīra and Sri Ramacandra and Sri Krsna each verse being applicable to the biographies of all the seven personages. This is sufficient to show his command over the Sanskṛta lanauage. He has composed a commentary on Vijayadeva-Mahatmya and also on Bhaktamara Stotra of Sri Manatungasuri, Laghutrişaṣṭhi Caritra and Pancakhyāna. His Candraprabha is a parallel to Siddhanta Kaumudi and deals with the Sūtras of Siddhahema in the same manner as the latter deals with Panini's Sūtras. It is also in three versions-short, medium and large. His Udayadipika and Ramalasastra are works on astrology and divination through casting of dice and Hastasanjīvani alias Siddhajnana deals with palmistry. His Matṛkāprasāda deals with Adhyatma. He also wrote Arhadgītā in 36 Adhyayas and Brahmabodha. His Yuktiprabodha in Prākṛta with a Sanskṛta commentary contains a refutation of the contentions of Banarasidas and his followers and Dharma Mañjuṣā contains a refutation of the contentions of Dhundhakas a sect of the Jains against idol-worship. He has also written some minor works in Gujarati.
INTRODUCTION
That he was a Mantrika is also proved by the fact that he begins almost all his works with a Mantra and obeisance to Sri Sankheśvara Parsvanatha. The Mantra is "ॐ ह्रीं नमः"
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SUBSEQUENT MANTRIKAS: PANDIT SRI VIRAVIJAYA
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We cite here a passage from his Meghamahodaya pp. 68-69 in support of Mantric worship.
"279 anos para FET9:a fe: ata | | XXXX एवं च लौकिकलोकोत्तरशास्त्रविरुद्धं देवाः किं कुर्वन्ति ? योगमन्त्रादिप्रभावात् किंस्यात् ? सर्व स्वकर्मकृत्यमित्यादिमूढवचो न प्रमाणीकार्यमित्यलं विस्तरेण । तन्नारितकमतं त्यक्त्वा प्रतिपद्यारितकागमम् । देवताराधने यत्नः कार्यः सम्यगदृशाप्यहो ।"
PANDIT ŚRI VIRAVIJAYA Pandit Sri Vīravijaya was born at Ahmedabad, Santidas Pādo near Gheekānţă, of Audicya Brāhmaṇa parents Yajnesvara and Vijkore on Aso sud 10th 1829 Vikram era. He was named Kesavarām. He had a sister named Gangā. He was married to a lady named Raliāt at Dehgām before he attained the age of 18 years. As a result of some domestic quarrel between the mother and the son, the latter left home. The mother searched for him and learnt that he was at Rocaka village. He however did not return and the mother died. heart-broken. It is said that his sister Gangā also on hearing this news died. Kesavarām after leaving home wandered from place to place till he met Sri Subhavijaya either at Bhimanātha village near Dholerā or at some place near Pālitāṇā. He was then seriously ill but recovered through the good offices of Sri Subhavijaya. He then asked leave of Sri Subhavijaya to return home, but the latter pursuaded him to lead the life of a Sadhu and Kesavarām agreed. He was then initiated at Pansar and named Vīravijaya on Kartak Vad 1848. Then both went to Cambay and they entered Cambay in a procession taken out by the Sangha which had assembled on the outskirts of the city to receive them. Sri Subhavijaya had previously thereto initiated two other pupils named Dhīravijaya and Bhāņavijaya. Both the preceptor and the pupil stayed at Cambay for about five years i. e. upto Jeth Sud 5th 1853. During the period Sri Vīravijaya made great progress in his study of Sansksta, studied the five Malākāvyas and the six systems of Indian philosophy as also the religious scriptures. The title of Pandit was thereafter conferred upon him some-time before his
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preceptor died on Făgan Vad 12th 1860 at Ahmedabad Pandit Sri Vīravijaya was greatly devoted to his Guru. His major works are Prasna-Cintamanix in Sanskrta (1868) and Surasundari Rāsa (1857), Dhammila Kunvara Rāsa (1896) and Candrasekhara Rasa (1902) and commentary on Adhyātmasāra of Upādhyāya Sri Yasovijaya in Gujarāti. Amongst his minor works are Subhaveli being the biography of his Guru in verse, Pūjās, Sajjāyas and Stavanas. The hymn of Sri Mahaviraswami's 27 births is of fine lyric quality. His Pūjās specially Panca Kalyāņaka Pūjā (1889) contain pieces of beautiful lyric poetry. There is a Viravijaya Nirvāņa Rāsa written by his pupil Rangavijaya which gives authoritative information about his life. He lived at Surat during the monsoon of 1871. There yatis quarrelled with him apparently on the question of Tithi-Date i. e. which dates should be considered authoritative by the Jains and contended that Viravijaya was wrong. They even went the length of going to Court on such a flimsy pretext, but there Sri Vīravijaya successfully proved that his opinion was correct. Now this dispute arose really because Pandit Sri Vīravijaya was a Samvegi or Reformist Sadhu in the line of the great Reformist Sri Satyavijaya Pannyāsa (Pandit). In 1878 a member of the Dhundhiā or Sthānakavāsi section which was opposed to idol-worship filed a suit against the members of Visā Srimāli caste of Ahmedabad and V vijaya was the leading Sadhu cited there as a witness. The sādhus of the other sect were also cited. There Vīravijaya successfully proved that idol-worship was in accordance with the Jain sacred scriptures. He was very learned in canonical literature and publicly expounded such abstruse philosophical work as Sri Višeşāvaśyaka Bhāsya with commentary. Since 1865 when an Upāśraya was built at Bhatthini-Pole Ahmedabad, Viravijaya whenever he came to Ahmedabad stayed there, and it came to be known after his name.
See V. 6 which shows his having successfully performed Sadhana of Sarasvati;"
"श्री शारदा शरदशर्वरीशविभाविराज्यज्ज्वलकायकांतिः। ममोज्ज्वलध्यानपथावतीर्णा वाणीमपूर्वी विमलां तनोतु ॥"
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SUBSEQUENT MANTRIKAS MUNI MAHARAJA SRI MOHANLALJI
He took a leading part in the Anjana-salākā and installation ceremonies got performed by Seth Motisa in his group of temples on Satruñjaya Hills in 1893 and also in similar ceremonies at Seth Hathising's Temple at Ahmedabad in 1903. In 1899 he was in a Sangha going on a pilgrimage to Pancatirtha. Before it left the borders of Gujarat cholera broke out and people dispersed in small groups. The group which stuck to Sri Viravijaya was brought back by him safely to Ahmedabad, by his Mantric powers. At every stage on the way back Sri Viravijaya used to sprinkle charmed water around the camp.
251
In his Rāsās Sri Viravijaya has made special obeisance to Sarasvati and Padmavati. The writer is reliably informed that Sri Viravijaya was a devoted worshipper of Padmavati and performed Mantric Sadhana of Rakta (Red) Padmavati (See Appendix 3).
*
The beauty and charm of his poetry are themselves sufficient proof of his being a gifted writer. He is a poet of the first order in Gujarati and many of his lyric pieces entitle him to be called the Dayāram of the Jains. He died on Bhadarva Vad 3rd 1908. Vikrama era Sri Viravijaya was so modest that although Sri Vijayadevendrasuri Acarya of Tapagaccha offered to confer upon him the title of Upadhyāya he did not agree to receive the same. It is said that Sri Rūpavijaya was his rival in composition of Pūjās and Stavanas. His footprints were installed in the said Upäśraya at Bhaṭṭhini Pole on Maha Sud 6th 1909.
Amongst his contemporaries was the poet Sri Padmavijaya, the preceptor of the said Rūpavijaya who flourished from 1792 to 1862. Vikrama era
MUNI MAHĀRĀJA SRI MOHANLALJI
Sri Mohanlalji was born at Candpur in Marwad of Brāhmaṇa parents Badarmalji and Sunder on Caitra Vad 6th 1885 Vikrama era. *The Rakta Padmavati Mantra is given here from the writer's collection:ल्क ब्लूँ सः त्रिभुवनक्षोभिणी त्रिभुवनमोहिनी हाँ श्री रक्तपद्मावती नमः ॥
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He was initiated as 'Yati' in 1903 by Sri Mahendrasuri and was made a pupil of Sri Rupacandji himself a pupil of Sri Mahendrasuri and became a Samvegi (Reformist) Sadhu in 1931. In those times Bombay was not considered sufficiently holy for visit or stay of Sadhus. Sadhus used to come only upto Daman and never proceeded southwards beyond Daman. Srī Mohanlālji considered it his duty to preach Jain doctrines to the Bombayites also and make them follow the path of religion. As a Samvegi Sadhu he visited Bombay for the first time in 1947 then again in 1951, 1952 and 1957. When in Bombay he so much impressed Jains as well as non-Jains by his simple holy life that he earned great respect and regard of all Bombayites without distinction of caste and creed whether rich or poor whether literate or illiterate. What impressed the people most was his pure and simple ascetic life. His unassuming nature and his preachings founded on the basic principles of all religions appealed to the heart of every one of his hearers. His speech seemed more to be the speech of a saintly soul rather than of a mere scholar. His hearers were impressed and convinced because his discourse appeared to be specially meant for every one of his hearers and suit them inspite of their divergent tastes. It always appeared to be a heart-to-heart talk. His manners were charming by their very simplicity. He seemed always to be frankly disclosing whatever passed in his mind. Although religiousminded he had sympathy and love for the worldly-minded and used always to guide them to better ways and simpler but higher sphere of life. By his holy life and saintly thoughts directed towards the welfare of every creature and his concentration on the ideal of Ahimsa he had so to say created a very holy and peaceful atmosphere around him and whosoever came in contact with his hallowed personlity enjoyed real peace of mind and many times such occasion became the turning point of his life. The writer though then very young had the privilege of hearing his very impressive discourses and he still retains the highest regard for his simple unassuming but truly humane, holy and ideally ascetic life.
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Without his asking anyone specially, people spent lacs of rupees for religious and charitable purposes. The richest used to wait upon him daily to learn even by a mere word or hint of his pupils what would meet with his remotest desires and used to vie with each other to carry out the same. The period of his life prior to 1947 was really the preparatory ground for his immense popularity in his later life which went on increasing till he died at Surat on Chaiter Vad 12th 1963 Vikrama era. During the period of 16 years from 1947 to 1963 he spent monsoons at Surat in 1948 and 1950 and at Bombay in 1951 and 1952 and stayed at Surat during the mcnsoons of 1955 and 1956 and again stayed in Bombay from 1957 to Māgha 1963 and visited Surat last in 1963 when he departed this life. During the year 1949 he went with a Sangha on pilgrimage to Satrunjaya in Pālitāņā and stayed there during the monsoon of that year. The monsoon of 1953 he spent at Ahmedabad and that of 1954 at Patan. As a result of his preachings several Libraries and schools for religious and secular education and charitable funds were started at Bombay, Surat, Pālitānā and Ahmedabad. An Industrial school also imparting religious education named Rao Saheb Hirāchand Motichand Jhavery and A. S. Jayakore Udyogasālā was started at Surat. There is a library and Sanskrta Pāțhaśālā established in his memory at' Bombay which is even now rendering very useful services to the Jains as well as non-Jains.
We have already described the charming personality of Sri Mohanlalji. Adverting to his Māntric powers, we apprehend that to describe particular incidents would involve mention of names of contemporaries so we would say generally that he was believed to possess Vacanasiddhi-miraculous power by which whatever he said came to pass. In or about 1930 when he was on the outskirts of Jaipur city and had to pass a night in the Jungle near a Váv (a stepwell) a tiger approached him. He thereupon stood in meditation in Kāyotsarga-pose. The tiger thereupon nodded his head and went away. In or about 1945 when he was at a place near Kaira, probably
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INTRODUCTION
Matar about the month of Caitar, a buffalo was about to be sacrificed during Navarātra in the temple of a Hindu goddess. When pressed by the Jain Sangha to do something to save the buffalo he got charmed powder (vāsa) dropped on the buffalo and it immediately became wild and turbulent and escaped. Thenceforward the animalsacrifice was discontinued there. He had much influence wit] king of Sirohi and obtained permission from him for Jains to const a temple with a turret at Rohidā which was being objected to by local Brahmins and others.
Many have experienced what may be described in yaugic terms his Anugraha Sakti. Whomsoever he blessed became prosperous in every respect. People of Surat held him, and even now hold his memory in high regard, all attributing their prosperity to the blessings of the Guru Mahārāja Sri Mohanlalji.* His photoes are to be seen in much greater number in the houses and shops of the Jains than of any other Jain Sādhu. His name is remembered in the morning by Jains as they remember the name of Sri Gautama. Once when Sri Mohanlālji was in Bombay the rain was delayed for a very long time and people became very anxious and a Rathayātra i. e. Procession with the idol of Sri Jina installed in a chariot was taken out under his directions and the rain poured down immediately.
* "gra »TC1 87F7 waits e ta: 1
किंवदन्ती त्वियं सत्या कू कूर्चेऽपि लक्षणम् ॥"
-मोहनचरितम् , सर्ग १३ श्लो० ५०
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Antiquity of Jain Mantras and Mantric Literature IVE have already stated that Vidyānupravāda, the tenth Pürva,
W was entirely devoted to Mantras and Vidyās and that the Māntric literature comprised therein may be reasonably supposed to belong to the age of Sri Pārsvanātha. We also indicated its possible connection with earlier Tirthařkaras including the first Tirthankara Sri Rşbhadeva by reference to Kalpasūtra and the Jain tradition (See note p. 149 ante).
JAIN STOPA AND OTHER ANTIQUITIES OF MATHURĀ
Tradition connects Sri Pārsvanātha with the famous Jain Stūpa at Mathurā which has been described in the Inscription (No. XX Epigraphia Indica Vol. II) dated the year 79 of Kusāna King Vasudeva i.e. 157 A.D. as 'built by the Gods'. Smith says in his Jain Stūpa and other Antiquities of Mathurā' (p. 13);
"Its original erection in brick in the time of Pārsvanātha the predecessor of Mahāvīra would fall at a date not later than B.C. 600. Considering the significance of the phrase in the inscription 'built by the Gods' as indicating that the building at about the beginning of the Christian era was believed to date from a peried of mythical antiquity, the date B.C.600 for its first erection is not too early. Probably, therefore, this stūpa of which Dr. Fuhrer exposed the foundations is the oldest building known in India."
Sri Jinaprabhasūri also in Mathurāpuri Kalpa contained in his work Vividha-Tīrtha-Kalpa p. 19 describes it as built by Gods (aqFAFFABIT), and in his Caturasīti-Mahātirtha-nāmasangraha-kalpa he describes it as 'built by Mahālakṣmi' (Acizi heimelafaat: G Fa:), the name Mahālakṣmi being perhaps taken to be a synonym for Kuberā, Kubera being the famous god of wealth and Kuberā being his female counterpart and therefore identified with Mahālaksmi.
According to the account contained in the said Mathurāpuri Kalpa the original Stūpa was of gold and built by Kuberā, a sylvan
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INTRODUCTION deity presiding over the forest where two Sadhus in the 'Tirtha' (spiritual regime) of Sri Supārsvanātha spent the monsoon, as she was much pleased at their saintly character and severe austerities, and wished that their desire to make obeisance, along with the Sangha, to the images of Jina on Mt. Meru might be fulfilled. It was a representation of Meru with its triple girdles and four idols of Jina facing the four quarters on each of the three girdles. A dispute arose amongst the followers of different religions regarding the ownership of the Stūpa, and it was agreed that the same should be decided by divine intercession and that the disputants should for that purpose keep vigil during the night and worship the particular gods they believed in by burning incense etc. before their representations on Pața (canvas or a piece of cloth). In a cyclone which occured during the night all the Pațas except that of Sri Supārsvanātha were torn and destroyed. Consequently the Stūpa was declared to belong to the Jains. In the time of Sri Pārsvanātha the Stūpa was encased in bricks as a precaution against bad times predicted by Sri Pārsvanātha. A temple was built outside the Stūpa and an idol of Sri Pārsvanātha was installed therein. The Stūpa was ultimately repaired at the instance of Sri Bappabhattisūri in 1300 Vira era. The said account and the various images and Ayāgapatas discovered from the excavations of the Stüpa are impo to prove ancient worship of Ayagapata and Patas in general as also of Sarasvati and Ambikā whose images have been found from the excavations by Dr. Fuhrer. Mathurā Inscription No II (Vienna oriental journal Vol. III 1889) relates to the dedication of the image of Sarasvati in the year 84 of Kusāna kings i. e. 162 or 172 A.D. The Mathurā image of S'ri Ambikā is preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. It is made of red stone. Other early images of Ambikā are the rock-cut images in the Navamuni cave, Khandagiri, Orissa and at Dhānk* in Kathiawar. The importance of these images of Sarasvati and Ambikā is that they
* "Stylistically also the (Dhänk) sculptures belong to the early fourth century between Kuśānas or (Kșatrapas) and the Guptas"-Dr. H. D. Sankalia, P. 430 J. R. A. S. 1938.
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are independent and not merely as attendant deities. They, therefore, prove independent ancient worship of Sarasvati and Ambikā.
POPULAR JAIN DEITIES There is mention of both Sarasvati and Ambika in Nirvāņakalikā but not Kuberā. Subsequent works on installation ceremonies dealing with Santika vidhi-Propitiatory rites include special verses in praise of Kuberā the deity presiding over the Jain Stūpa at Mathurā and Acchuptā (a Vidyādevi, see p. 38 Nirvāņa Kalikā) besides the popular Sāsandevatās + viz. Apraticakrā, Padmavati, Ambika and Siddhāyikā. Sri Jinaprabhasūri gives these verses in Nandirayaņavihi, Vidhiprapā p. 30. As in Mahānisītha Sūtra Srutadevatā or Sarasvati, Amrakuşmāņdi, Acchuptā and Indrāņi are mentioned as standards of comparison they appear to be very popular from ancient times. The reason of the popularity of the four deities mentioned above is probably that Apraticakrā, Padmāvati, Ambikā and Siddhāyikā are respectively the deities presiding over the famous Tirthas Satruñjaya, Sammetasikhara alias Pārsvanātha hills, Girnār and Pāvāpuri-Vaibhāra hills. As the Jains gradually moved to Western India Girnār and Ambikā gained in importance. Satruñjaya in ancient times had fallen
+ According to Rūpamandana images of Sri Adinatha, Sri Nemináth, Sri Pārsvanātha and Sri Mahāvīra are endowed with miraculous qualities as also image of Sri Cakre. śvari, Sri Ambika, Sri Padmăvati and Sri Siddhāyikā and are especially worshipped:
"Fart nazistrat: qfrar: gaf: aleger: 1 चतस्रोऽतिशयैर्युक्तास्तासां पूज्या विशेषतः ॥२५॥ श्री आदिनाथो नेमिश्च पाश्वों वीरचतुर्थकः ।
चक्रेश्चर्यम्बिका पद्मावती सिद्धायिकेति च ॥२६॥" रूपमंडन अध्याय ६, पृ. ४५. x “सेणंपूज्जा xxx सेणं सुयदेवया (सेणं सरस्सई] सेणं अंबाहुंडी सेणं अच्छुत्ता सेणं इन्दाणी।" Adh. II Uddeśa 8, Mahāniśitha; (Ms. p. II A) see also the following in PancaKalpabhăşya, 5th Kalpa where Kusmåņdi alias Ambikā is invoked along with Sarasvati for obtaining learning:
"सम्बसूयसमूहमती वामकरे गहियपोत्थिया देवी । जक्खकुहुंडीसहिया देंतु अविग्धं मम नाणम् ॥
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INTRODUCTION
into the hands of the Buddhists. It is said that even Kapardiyaksa, one of the presiding deities thereof, when Sri Vajraswāmi in the beginning of the Christian era visited Satruñjaya, had turned heretic and was replaced by another deity by Sri Vajraswāmi. During that period Girnār was the only Tirtha which could be easily visited by Jains in Western India. Girnār therefore became a popular place of pilgrimage and Sri Ambikā came to be considered the Jain Amnāya * deity. Sri Apraticakrā or Cakreśvarī being connected with PancaParamesti-Mantra and the Sūrimantra-Yantra and Siddhacakra-Yantra continued to be a popular Māntric deity. Sri Padmāvatī being connected with Sri Pārsvanātha the ideal of Māntrikas and the most popular Tirthaïkara who earned the title of Purisādaniya has continued to be an equally popular Māntric deity. The importance of Sri Siddhāyikā is owing to her being an attendant deity of the last Tirthankara Sri Mahāvīra.
VIDYĀDEVIS The worship of Vidyadevis amongst Jains is most ancient as would be evident from references given further on.
They are essentially Māntric deities presiding over all Mântric literature. Of course as Srutadevi alias Sarasvati is the deity presiding over the whole literature sacred as well as secular, she occupies the pre-eminent position amongst Māntric deities, and Vidyādevis are considered deities allied to her but holding comparitively a subsidiary position. In the Jain pantheon Sāsana-Yakşas and Sasana-Yakṣiṇīs are concerned with the protection of the Jain fold and the Jain doctrine.
AMBIKĀ AND OTHER MANTRIC DEITIES Sri Ambikā appears to have been invoked on various occasions
x “तत्र देव्यत्रिधा प्रासाददेव्यः १ संप्रदायदेव्यः २ कुलदेव्यश्च ३ xxx संप्रदायदेव्यः अम्बा सरस्वती त्रिपुरा तारा प्रभृतयः” (आचारदिनकर पृ २०६); "यासां च देवीनांअप्रसिद्वत्वात् कल्पादर्शनात् गुरूपदेशाभावात् नामोद्दिष्टो मन्त्रो न ज्ञायते तासां अम्बामन्त्रेण वा चण्डीमन्त्रेण वा त्रिपुरामन्त्रेण वा प्रतिष्ठा विधेया । अत्र देवीप्रतिष्ठायां शासनदेवीगच्छदेवीकुलदेवीपुरदेवीभुवनदेवीक्षेत्र देवीदुर्गादेवीनां सर्वासामेक एव प्रतिष्ठाविधिः।" (आवारदिनकर पृ. २१०).
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by various Achāryas and laymen for the fulfilment of the objects of the Sangha. We have seen how Priyagranthisūri invoked her and succeeded in impressing the Jain doctrine of Ahimsā on the Brahmaņas intent on the sacrifice of a goat. Māndevasūri, different from the author of Laghuśānti, once forgot the text of Sūrimantra and learnt the same again by invoking Ambikā. The famous Haribhadrasūri was aided by Sri Ambika * when he defeated the Buddhists who were assisted their patron-deity Tārā in the debate. Bappabhattisūri was aided by Sri Ambikā in his dispute with the Digambaras regarding precedence in worship at Girnar. It is unnecessary to multiply instances of worship of Sri
Ambikā amongst Jains in the ancient times. We may conveniently mention here that this fact is borne out by the poetic literature consisting of hymns viz. Caturviņšati Stotras and Stutis. We would specifically mention Caturviņsatikā Stutis by Sri Bappabhattisūri, Srī Sobhanamuni and Nyāyavisārada Sri Yasovijayaji. All the three have verses in praise of Sarsvatī, Vidyādevis and also in praise of Sri Ambikā although she is not a Vidyādevi but is a Sāsandevī particularly an attendant deity of Sri Neminātha. As the Stutis relate to the twenty-four Tirthankaras verses in praise of 24 Sāsandevis would have been quite appropriate. But the fact that Vidyādevīs are praised instead shows the ancient character of their worship and also of Māntric worship. Bappabhattisūri has twice praised Vairoțyā,x the chief queen of Dharanendra and Kapardiyaksa. In his times they must have been amongst Māntric deites usually worshipped. Sobhanamuni has additionally praised Sāntidevatā and Brahmasāntiyakşa (See also p. 7 & p. 8 Nirvānakalikā), who must have been therefore amongst the Mantric deities commonly worshipped in his times. Sri Yasovijayaji has several
* See Sri Haribhadrasūri's commentary on Avaśyakasūtra p. 411 for mention of Ambă and other deities. See also foot-note on page 204 ante. * We have Vairoțyāstava of much earlier date by Aryanandila wherein both Sri Vairoțya and Sri Padmăvati are described as queens of Sri Dharanendra. See also p. 36 & p. 38 Nirvāņakalikā.
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verses in praise of Sarasvati instead. It is quite natural in his case as he is known to have been an Upāsaka of Sarasvati. Further instead of Vairotyā he praises Sri Padmavati which shows that worship of Padmāvati was more common in his times. Sri Jinaprabhasūri also in his Caturvimšatistava (Kāvyamālā Part VII p. 170) praises Sarasvati and Ambika. The same is the case with Caturviņsatistuti by Sri Dharmaghosasūri. In the numerous hymns composed in the intermediate period of 700 years between Sri Sobhanamuni and Sri Yasovijayaji Sarasvati appears to have been usually praised varied sometimes by the praise of Sásandevis, but worship of Sarsvati and Ambikā seems to have been current uninterruptedly from the most ancient times to this day.
Referring to 'Aindrastuti' by Sri Yasovijayaji the prefernce of Sri Yasovijaya for praise of Sarasvati instead of Yakşas might be noted. The fact that the worship of Brahmasānti and Kapardiyakşa had gone out of vogue during the interval of 700 years between Sri Sobhana muni and Sri Yasovijaya might account for it. The available Māntric literature also confirms this inference, as it does not include Mantra Kalpas of these Yakşas. (In an unpublished list of manuscripts of the first and second Stambhas of Bhāțhaïki Kundi at Jeselmer dealing with Mantra Medicine and Astrology bearing No. 843 to No. 1004-a copy of which is with the writer-there is a Kapardiyaksārādhanā-Kalpa being No. 877-7 leaves. But it is not available anywhere else).
VIDYĀDEVIS AND ORIGIN OF VIDYĀDHARAS
As promised we shall now deal with the origin of Vidyadharas and worship of the Vidyādevīs. The oldest account as to the origin of Vidyādharas and worship of the Vidyādevīs is found at pp. 163-164 Vasudevahīņdi of Sri Sanghadāsagani (circa 600 A. D.). A similar account is given at pp. 161-162 of Avasyaka Cūrņi as well as at pp. 143-144 of Sri Haribhadrasūri's commentary.
Briefly it says that in times of S'ri Rsabhadeva after he renounced the world and turned an ascetic, two princes named Nami and Vinami
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sons of Kaccha and Mahākaccha, followed him from place to place, attended upon him sword in hand and served him zealously. Dharaṇendra, the king of snake-deities, who came to make obeisance to the lord, saw them serving the lord humbly, diligently and respect. fully. Out of curiosity he inquired what their object was in thus serving the lord. They replied that the lord distributed lands amongst his sons and other Ksatriyas when they were in a distant country and that they were then serving the lord in order that the lord might do them some favour. Dharņendra replied with a smile that the lord was beyond favour and disfavour and indifferent even to his own body, was without any possessions or belongings and free from attachment like a lotus, and that as they had however served the lord for a long time he would give them lands on both the sides of Mt. Vaitādhya as its reward. As the lands were not approachable on foot, he said that, he would give them the flying-lore and also other Vidyās with the aid of which they might induce people to go with them there. They thanked him and Dharņendra gave them forty-eight thousand Vidyās of Gandharvas (Deities) and Pannagas (Snake-deities) including amongst them Mahārohiņi,* Prajnapti, Gaurī, Vidyunmukhi Mahājwālā, Tiraskārini, Bahurūpā and others. Nami and Vinami founded on the South and North sides of Mt. Vaitādhya fifty and sixty towns respectively. Their subjects were divided in sixteen Nikāyās or groups, eight Nikāyās belonging to Nami and the other eight to Vinami. The respective groups took their names from the names of the Vidyādevis presiding over them e. g. Gaurikas from Gaurī, Gāndhāras from Gāndhāri, Mänavas from Mänavī, Mátangas from Mātangi, Kälakesās from Kālikā etc. They installed Lord Rşabha in the courts in their towns as also the particular Vidyādevi presiding over the particular group of Vidyadharas.
* Ayaśyakacūrņi additionally mentions that amongst the forty-eight thousand Vidyås Gauri, Gandhåri Rohiņi and Prajnapti are Mahāvidyās.
Sri Dharaṇendra laid down rules for the observance of Vidyadharas: (1) No One
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Thus arose the Vidyadharas. We may refer the readers to p. 176 ante for an account of some Vidyadharas who flourished about the time of Sri Mahavīra.
Most of the stories comprised in Vasudevahindi relate to Vidyadharas and their achievements through the employment of Vidyas which are nearly forty in numbers. Mahājwālā is described there as the most powerful Vidya being counter to all other Vidyās. An interesting account of Sadhana of Mahājwālā and other Vidyas involving worship of Sañjayanta and Dharmendra appears at p. 318 et seq. Vasudevahindi Pt. II. The reader interested in them may refer to them himself. What is comparatively of greater importance for our purpose is the enumeration of a number of Vidyas in one of the most ancient Anga viz. Sūyagadangasūtra, II Sruta Skandha, Adh. 2, Sūtra 30 թ. 318
SUTRAKṚTANGA-VIDYĀS
INTRODUCTION
The said Sutra calls those who employ Vidyas for the purpose of getting food, drink, clothing, bedding, house or any other object of enjoyment, non-Aryans and misguided and states that such persons would after their death become demons or pariahs amongst gods and would thereafter be reborn quite dumb and blind as a result of such misuse of Vidyās. It is clear that what the passage condemns is the employment of Vidyas out of selfish motives. The Vidyas are therein classed amongst Papaśruta i. e. sinful or evil learning
About forty Vidyas are enumerated in the said Sutra of which twenty eight are Vidyās proper and the remaining twelve are meant for astrological predictions. They are explained in the commentary on the said Sūtra. The famous Tantric Şaṭkarmas and many other objects are said to be achieved by these Vidyas. One of the Vidyas Atharvani-apparently connected with Atharvaveda-is said to cause injury to another at once. This would support what we have stated before that Tantra and Mantra
shall in any way offend a Sadhu (ii) nor offend or do injury to a person who has taken refuge in a Jain temple (iii) nor abduct a woman against her will and that if any one transgressed these rules he would lose his Vidyās. P. 227 Vasudevahindi Pt. II.
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have their origin in Atharvaveda. Pākasāsani is the same as Indrajāla causing illusions, Mohanakarā causes fascination or infatuation, Garbhakarā brings about conception, Durbhagākarā makes even a goodlooking person ugly and Subhagākarā even an ugly person goodlooking. Vaitālī attacks with a staff and Ardhavaitāli counteracts the former. Avaswāpini causes deep sleep, Tālodghāțanī opens locks, Svapāki is a Vidyā of Candālas otherwise known as Mātangix. Sambarī, Drāvidi and Kalingi are so called because they are connected with the respective countries of Sambaras, Dravidas and Kalingas or are composed in their respective languages. Gāuri and Gandhari are amongst the sixteen Jain Mahā. vidyās. Avapatani causes one to fall down and Utpatani to rise up. The latter is the same as the flying-lore. Jțmbhaņi terrifies the opponent, Stambhini paralyses them. Slesaņī means either one which sets a thing on fire or joins things together, Amayakaraṇī causes or spreads disease, Visalyakaraṇi removes foreign substances like ar heads etc. from the body and heals it up. Prakrāmaņi causes swift forward movement. Antardhāni causes persons and things to disappear. Ayamaņi means that which lengthens out or stretches forth; if it stands for Achamani it means one which swallows up.*
VASUDEVAHINDI-VIDYĀS Of these Avaswāpinī, Tālodghāțanī, Gauri, Gándhārī Jşmbhaņi Stambhani, Vaitālī, Svapāki-Matangi and Tiraşkaraṇi-Antardhāni are also found amongst Vidyās described in Vasudevahindi. The first two and the fifth are mentioned at page, 7, eighth at page 84, sixth at pp. 317-319 and the remaining at p. 164 of Vasudevahiņdi. For names
x Gauri and Gandhari are described as Matanga-Vidyās in Nis'itha Bhăşya Udd, XVI v. 63 and Bșhat-Kalpa Udd. I, v. 2508. See also Paris'iştha Parva II, where two Vidyadharas marry Cảndalakanyās to acquire accomplishment in a particular Vidya. * We would note here other references to Vidyā and Mantra occurring in Sūtrakstānga or in its Niryukti. Mantra: Sūtrākstānga, Adh. VIII v. 4, p. 168; Vidya-Mantra: Niryukti v. 98, p. 169; Mantra: Sūtrakstānga, Adh. 14 v. 20, p. 248.
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of Vidyās mentioned at various places in Vasudevahindi see appendix IV, 74, at p. 51 Vasudeva hiņdi Part II. It also mentions Mahārohini Prinapti, Mahājwālā Mānavi and Kālī besides Gauri and Gandhāri, mentioned above who are amongst the 16 Jain Mahavidyās.
JWALAMALINI AND DIGAMBARA JAIN MÃNTRIKAS
We have already stated that according to Vasudevahiņdi the most powerful Vidyā is Mahājwālā alias Mahājwālini alias Jwālāmālini. Vidyādharas accomplished in this Vidyā are there described to be always victorious over their opponents who may be accomplished in other Vidyās. This is, perhaps, the reason why this Vidyādevī, who is also the attendant deity-Sāsandevī of the eighth Tirthařkara Śrī Candraprabha, is popularly worshipped and has independent Mantrakalpas. The oldest Mantrakalpa available of Srī Jwālāmālini alias Jwālinī is of Sri Helācārya alias Elācārya a Digambara Acharya and a Mantrika of great repute. He has also composed a hymn in praise of the deity. There is another Kalpa by Sri Indranandi, also a Digambara Jain Achārya, based upon the said old Kalpa of Sri Helācārya. Srī Malliseņasūri, author of the present work-Sri Bhairava Padmāvati kalpa has included in his "Vidyānusāsana", an abridged Jwālāmālini Kalpa and has also composed an independent Mantra-Kalpa of this deity. We may note here that according to the Digambara tradition famous Mantrasiddhas began with Sri Pūjyapāda (6th century Vikrama era) followed by the said Sri Helācārya (of Drāvida Sangha) who flourished circa 9th century Vikrama era and Sri Indranandi (of Drāvida Sangha) who flourished circa 996 Vikrama era i.e. Saka 861. Then came the author of the present work Sri Malliseņasūri who was followed by Sri Subhacandrācārya, author of Jnānārņava, Bhattāraka Sri Aristanemi and Bhattāraka Sri Subhacandra (circa s.y.1608), who was a pupil of the famous Bhattāraka Jnānabhūșaņa. Sri Ariştanemi wrote Sri Sridevi Kalpa and Sri Subhacandra wrote Srī Ambikā kalpa. There have been others also of lesser note who need not be mentioned here.x
X Bhattáraka Simhanandi (circa 16th ceatury Vikrama era) wrote 'Namaskāra-Mantra
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PAUMACARIYAM,PADMACARITRA,TRISASTHISALAKÅPURUSACARITRA
AND VIDYĀS
AN
There are several references to Vidyās in Paumacariyam. It is a work composed in 530 Vīra era, i.e. 60 Vikrama era according to its colophon. Its author Vimalasūri describes himself as belonging to Nāila Kula. Now Nāila Kula is synonymous with Năila Sakha which started from Arya Nāila a pupil of Sri Vajrasena about 150 Vikrama era.* So the work may be taken to have been written about that date. Jacobi considered it to be not earlier than the 4th or 5th century A.D. Dr. Kieth, Dr. Woolner and some other scholars considered it to be of about 3rd century A.D. because of the occurrence in the work of the word Dinār and certain Greek astrological terms; but Dr. Winternitz, Dr. Leumann and other scholars consider that there is no justification for doubting the date 530 Vira era given in the colophon of the work itself.
We would draw the attention of the readers particularly to the passage occuring in the 7th Uddesa from v. 135 to v. 145. About 61 Vidyās are enumerated in the said passage. Their names generally indicate the objects achieved through them. Amongst them may be noted Prajnapti which is one of the 16 Jain Mahāvidyās and Animā and Laghimā two of the well known eight Siddhis (Astasiddhi). The flying lore is stated there to have been acquired by Rāvana, Bhānukarņa alias Kumbhakarņa as also Bibhīşaņa.
Of the Vidyās named in the said passage Prajnapti is also found in the passage from Vasudevahiņdi (p. 164) referred to above.
kalpa'; Gunanandi (circa 16th century Vikrama era) wrote Rşimandala-Yantra-Pūjā; Arhaddåsa a contemporary of Asadhara wrote Sarasvatīkalpa and Āsādhara (1235 to 1300 Vikrama era) wrote Gañadharavalaya and Pratișthăsăroddhåra alias Jinayajdakalpa'. Padmanandi (1385-1450 Vikrama era) who made an image of Sarasvati speak and Trikālya Yogi (circa 11th century) are some of the other Digambara Jain Måntrikas.
* See Viranirvāņa Samvat and Jain Kälagañană P. 123.
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Stambhinī noted above as a common Vidya is found here as Jalastambhini (one which freezes or stops water) and Agnistambhini (one which cools down or extinguishes fire). Jaya and Vijaya may also be noted, as these Vidyas and the deities of identical names presiding over them are mentioned in Surimantra as well as Vardhamāna Vidyā. The Prākṛta Vaubbhava might mean Vägudbhava i.e. Sarasvati or Vayudbhava meaning one that generates stormy wind or cyclone. Isānī, Shakti and Kauberi are Vidyas apparently connected with Sankara, Shakti and Kubera. Cāndālī is the same as Svapākī or Mātangi and Nindrānī is the same as Avaswāpinī noted above. The flying lore is here thrice referred to. It is also mentioned in Vasudevahindi and as Utpatani in Sūtrakṛtānga. Bandhani (one which binds) and Mocani (one which releases) are also found in Vasudevahindi.
INTRODUCTION
We should note here the fact that Padmacarita alias Padmapurāṇa, which appears to be a very close Sanskrit rendering by Sri Raviṣena a Digambara Jain Acharya (634 Vikrama era) of Paumacariyam, has the said passage from Paumacariyam rendered verbatim in Sanskrit. There are two or three differences which can be accounted for by variant readings. We might however, note one which cannot perhaps be so accounted for: Adarsani for Visanna. Adarsani can be identified with Tiraskariņi alias Antardhānī already mentioned. Instead of Avaswāpini we have Nindrāṇī.
Sri Hemacandrācārya in Triṣaṣṭhisalākāpuruṣacaritra Parva 7, canto 2 appears to have taken the said passage describing Vidyas from the said Padmacaritra but has additionally mentioned Rohiņi, Gauri and Gandhārī, which are mentioned in Vasudevahindi as well as in Avasyakacurni (pp. 161-162) as Mahavidyās. All the three works describe Rāvana as accomplished in 1000 Vidyās. (See Pauma. VIII, 6; Padma. IX, 134-all Vidyās; and Trişaşṭhi loc. cit.).
The importance of the above references is that they occur in works which were composed long before the influence of Tantrikas made itself felt on contemporary literature and at least as regards
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Sūtrakstānga in a work composed earlier than even the origin of Tantras.
They prove the existence of Vidyās not only about the time these works were written but also in very ancient times specially because they are described in such a matter-of-fact way in Sūtrakstānga and are associated with legendery characters of great antiquity described in the said subsequent works.
ŚRI, HRI, DHĶTI, KIRTI, BUDDHI & LAKŞMI We have already shown existence of Jain Māntric deities in olden times. We might here refer to the footnote on page 201 ante giving a reference from Sri Bhagavati Sūtra IX, 11, Sūtra 430 to a marriage-present of the idols of the six deities. Sri, Hri, Dhști, Kirti, Buddhi and Lakşmi. They seem to have been chosen as marriagepresent because they are believed to bring prosperity. It was Hridevi amongst these who inspired Udyotanasūri otherwise known as Dāksinya --cinha to write his beautiful story named Kuvalayamālā.
JAIN NARRATIVE LITERATURE VIDYÂS AND MANTRAS
Not merely the works already referred to but the whole of the Jain narrative literature is full of stories containing descriptions of miraculous achievements performed through the aid of Mantra, Mani* or gems, or Medicine and of Vidyadharas, Mantra-sādhanās and their incidental dangers. We would particularly refer to Sri Haribhadrasūri's Samarāiccakahā, the said Kuvalayamālā, Sri Siddharşi's Upamitibhavaprapañcā-Katha * , Sri Dhanapāla’s Tilakamanjarī, Srī Lakşmaņagaņi's Supāsanāha-cariyam and Srī Hemacandrācārya's Trisașthi-salākā-puruşa -caritra and Sri Somaprabhācārya's Kumārapāla-Pratibodha.
We shall give some references from Tilakamanjari. At p. 25 ff. occurs Mântric initiation of the king when he obtained Aparājitā Vidyā for Sadhana of Rājalaksmī; at p. 37 occurs worship of Sri and at p.
* अचिन्त्यः खलु प्रभावो मन्त्रमणिरोषधीनाम् ।
* Its famous author Siddharşi calls it composed by the goddess of speech (teau fatear) in the colophon thereof.
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326 ff. occurs Sadhana of Vidyas through Mantric worship of their idols. Eight chief Vidyas including Prajnapti and Rohini are there described. They come to this world from heavenly nether regions to offer boons to the Sadhaka. This last is an important reference as it shows that of the sixteen chief Vidyādevīs presiding over the two regions of Vaitādhya eight are described as they preside over one of the said two regions. Limitation of space does not permit us to discuss the numerous references even from the works already named. We would refer the curious reader to the article "Magic and Miracle in Jain Literature" by Kalipada Mitra commenced in The Jain Antiquary Vol. VII No. II p. 81 and continued in subsequent issues.
AUSPICIOUS AND PROTECTIVE MANTRIC RITES
We must however state that there are frequent references to Bhuikamma or Bhutikarman, Kautuka, Mangala, Prayaścitta, Balikarma and Rakṣāvidhāna, in the canon. Bhūtikarma is besmearing the body or an object with ashes or earth or tying to it an amulet, charm or thread accompanied with recital of Mantras for protection of the person or the object against evil eye, evil influence, evil spirits or even illness and theft. Rakṣāpoṭṭalika used to be tied by Dikkumaris (female deities) to the wrist of a newly born Tirthankara as protection against evil spirits and evil eye.
Balikarma is worship of or oblation to household deities. Rakṣāvidhāna is a protective rite. Kautuka is putting a mark with ashes, soot or black pigment on the forehead, with the object of warding off evil. Mangala means auspicious objects like curds, unhusked rice Dūrvā grass and Siddhartha i.e. Sarṣapa or white mustard and Prāyaścitta means expiatory or propitiatory rites toward off apprehended evil indicated by bad dreams or movement or transit of planets. See Bṛhatkalpa bhāṣya I, 1308 ff. Sūtrakṛtānga II,2, 32; Bhagavati Sūtra IX, 33, Sūtra 380; Uttarādhyayana XXII, 9; Aupapātikasūtra II & 27; Jambudvīpapannatti V, Sutra 114; Jnātādharmakatha I, 1 Sūtras 12 & 14 and I, 14 Sūtra 99; Vipākasūtra I, Sūtra, 28 p. 77; Praśnavyākaraṇa I, 2 Sütra
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7; Rājaprasniya, Sūtra 54 p. 120; Vyavahārasūtra Sutra I; Kalpasūtra III, Sūtra 67 p. 62; Upāsakadasānga, I Sūtra 3 & VII, Sūtra 43, Avasyaka -bịhadvștti p. 518 and Pancāsaka XIII, 24.
Obtaining answers by questioning seers, who know future by gazing on a piece of cloth, mirror or crystal, sword, water, or wall aided by deities, or through Vidyās giving answers in dreams, or through a deity like Ghanţika Yakşa communicating the answer to the ear of a Dombi-is also classed with the above along with Nimitta or Divination in Bșhatakalpa I, v, 1314 which says that one employing these through pride is tainted with 'Abhiyogika' Karma which makes him subservient to other deities in the next life but if one employs these without any desire for personal benefit and only for enhancing the credit or reputation of the Jain fold and the Jain faith he becomes an 'Aradhaka' or faithful devotee and earns Karma which would make him high-born in the next life. +
We would stop here for a moment to show how this is a complete answer to all objections against Mantras and Vidyās and an explanation of what is really meant by inclusion of Mantras and Vidyās in Pāpa-sruta. * It means that by themselves they are not sinful but it is their abuse that makes them so and that they are called Pāpasruta only because of such possibility of their abuse; otherwise the fact that
+ Cf. Bhagavatīsūtra III, 5; Uttarādhyayana XXXVI, v. 262 p. 709. See Thāņånga IV, 4, 354 p. 274 for 5 Bhāvanas. * Besides Sūtrakstānga II, 2, Sūtra 30 already referred to Thāņānga 1X,3, Sūtra 678 p. 451, and Samavāyånga XXIX p. 49 term Mantras and Vidyās ‘Papaśrutas'. The last mentions works on Vidyas like Rohiņi and others, works on Mantras of Cetakas and others, and works on Yoga i.e.herbs or powders meant for other's fascination or control. Uttarādhyayana XXXI v. 19 also prohibits employment of Papaśruta; strangely the Sangrahani verse cited by the commentator does not include Mantras and Vidyas but only Nimitta of eight kinds and sciences of singing, dramaturgy, architecture, medicine and archery and cites a Sangrahaņi verse in support which is also cited at p. 660 Āvaśyakasūtra by Sri Haribhadrasūri in his commentary.
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Vidyā is defined as Srutā comprised in Pūrva would be a direct contradiction as all Purvās are sacred and Vidyā being part thereof is also sacred (See commentary on Vijjācāraṇa Sūtra 683 p. 794 Bhagavatisutra XX). Vidyācāraņas actually employ Vidyā to enable them to move about in the air. They would not have done so if such use of Vidyās had been prohibited or considered sinful. Sri Vajraswāmi an ideal Achārya also used Vidyās (See his life described ante). *
Had there been anything objectionable in Mantras and Vidyās per se the person employing the same properly would not have been considered an Arādhaka. Not only that but as we shall show further on a Mantrika failing to employ Mantra on a suitable occasion is termed a Virādhaka or an offender against Faith. Of the triple essentials namely Darsanafaith, Jnāna-knowledge and Cāritra-conduct Māntric Sadhanā and Mantra-prayoga involve slight transgression against conduct only which can be atoned for by expiatory rite as is performed by a Sādhu after even careful movement for necessaries of life of an ascetic. That would be the case if there is no abuse of Vidyās and Mantras; otherwise it might be an offence against all the three essentials including the prime essential-faith. * The Jains ordinarily recognise Mantras and Vidyās for peace and tranquility of body mind and soul. See the following Sūtra which is a part of Pratikramana i. e, confession and repentence ceremony daily performed by the Jains wherein deities devoted to the service of the Jain fold are invoked for the peace and tranquility of the body mind and soul:
वेयावच्चगराणं संतिगराणं सम्मदिद्विसमाहिगराणं करेमि काउस्सग्गं ।
* Uttarādhyayana XXXVI v. 262 elucidates the point, also Thaņānga IV, 4 sūtra 354. * Bhagavatisūtra III, Udd. 4 to 6 dealing with projection of forms and things through Vaikriya Labdhi include a passage in Udd, 5 question 18 and 19 and answers thereto which says that a person employs miraculous power only because of Kaşāya (anger, pride, deceit and covetiveness otherwise termed Räga-attachment and Dveșa-aversion) affecting him and that therefore confession and repentance are necessary. This woulo apply equally to employment of Vidyās and Mantras.
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REFERENCES TO VIDYAS AND MANTRAS FROM SCRIPTURES
Jain scriptures while giving rules as to how a Sadhu should obtain his food by begging state that he should not in obtaining food commit any of the sixteen faults including employment of Vidyā, Mantra, Cūrņa or magical powder and Yoga-a mixture of drugs or Mūla i, e., roots or herbs meant for a charm:
धाई दुइ निमित्त आजीव वणीमगे तिगिच्छा य । कोहे माणे माया लोभे य हवंति दस एए॥ पुब्धि पच्छा संथव विज्जा मंते य चुम्न जोगे य ।
उप्पायणाइ दोसा सोलसमे मूल कम्मे य ॥-पिण्डनियुक्ति, ४०८,४०९
ACÃRÃNGA AND UTTARADHYAYANA Besides Pindaniryukti, commentary on Acārānga II, 1 Sūtra 273 and commentary on Thaņānga III, 4 Sūtra 196 also describe the said sixteen faults. Similarly Uttarādhyayana XV, vv. 7 & 8 say that he is a Sadhu who does not maintain himself by employment of Vidyā, Mantra and medicine and gives them up. Uttarādhyayana XXIV vv. 21-25 while describing eight essentials for observance of Sadhus called 'Pravacanamātřs' and particularly the three 'Guptis' say that a Sadhu should carefully control himself from a resolve involving injury to others and execution thereof through concentration or recital of Mantras. Similarly Uttarādhyayana XVIII, 31 says that a Sādhu should turn back from divination through questioning deities etc, and from employment of Mantras for fulfilling desires of others.
There is a reference to Omkāra in Uttarādhyayana XXV, 29. Uttarādhyayana-Niryukti v.88 refers to Angavidyā and v.118 to Prāsādapātana Vidyā i. e. Vidyā which brings down a palace. Commentary on Uttarādhyayana VI, p. 263 describes Kāmaghața i. e. a wish-granting pot obtained through Vidyā.
THAŅANGA Thāṇānga V, 2, Sūtra 440 mentions Ķddhi-Labdhi i. e. miraculous powers acquired by development of the soul, and the commentary thereon describes some of the principal ones. Thāņānga V, 3, Sūtra 449 men
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tions five kinds of purifications which include Mântric purification through Sucividyā. * Thāņānga IX, 3, Sūtra 692 mentions Ambada who was a Vidyādhara and a Jain layman in the time of Sri Mahāvīra. Thäņānga X, 3, 755, mentions the miraculous works described at p. 151 ante; and Sūtra 776 mentions Tejolesyā i, e, miraculous power of destruction acquired by performance of austerities which could burn a person to death or consume any object. Sitalesyā is a counter to the said Tejolesyā and extinguishes the fire generated by the latter. Sri Mahāvīraswami employed Sitalesyā to protect his pupil Gośāla from being burnt to death by an ascetic named Vesiyāyaṇa through Tejolesyā directed against Gośāla. See for the said account Bhagavatīsūtra XV, Uddesa 1, Sūtras 543, Avasyakacūrni pp. 298-299 and Trişaşthisalakāpurusa. caritra IV, vv. 117-119. Sri Gautamaswāmi went up Mt. Aştāpada by use of miraculous power viz. Janghācāraņa-labdhi to make obeisance to the images of the twenty-four Tirthankaras in the temple constructed there by Sri Bharata, the eldest son of Sri Rşabhadeva-See Avasyakacùrni p. 383, and Avasyaka Bộahat-tīkā p. 287. The reader would see from these accounts that there is no absolute prohibition against the use of miraculous powers.
SAMAVĀYANGA RÃYAPASEŅI AND JAMBUDVIPAPRAJNAPTI
Samavāyānga LXXII, p. 83 mentions seventy two arts for man which include Vidyā and Mantra as the 47th and 48th arts. The names of the 45th and 46th arts are the names of two Vidyās mentioned in Sūtrakstānga II, 2, Sūtra 30 described ante. Rājapraśniya, Sūtra 83 des. cribes them differently; commentary on Jambudvīpaprajnapti II, Sūtra 30 reproduces the 72 arts from Rājapraśniya but gives independently 64 arts for woman which include Mantra and Tantra as the 4th and 5th arts. As these seventy two or sixty four arts were expected to be acquired by everybody i. e. all house-holders who desired to be classed amongst the learned according to the standard prevalent in former
* Sucividyā is described at p. 14 B of Nirvāņakalikā.
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times, it shows that the generality of people used to be versed in Vidyās and Mantras in those times. BHAGAVATISUTRA, JNĂTĂDHARMAKATHANGA, ANTAKŘTDASANGA,
VIPAKA & UVAVÃI At Page 149 ante we have given a reference to Rāyapaseņi, Sūtra 53 which describes Sri Kesi Kumarasramana as being prominent in the knowledge of Vidyas and Mantras (विज्जप्पहाणे मंतप्पहाणे). Similarly at p. 174 ante we have stated that according to a set description all Ganadharas are said to be Mantrapradhana and Vidyāpradhāna. We would cite Jnātādharmakathā I, 1, Sūtra 4 and Vipākasūtra I, 1 Sūtra 1 where Arya Sudharma is so described. We have also referred to p. 32, Aupapātika Sūtra where "Therās” are also similarly described. Bhagavatīsūtra 5, Sutra 108 has a similar description of 'Theras' of Sri Parsvanātha. These descriptions conclusively show how the Jain canon views Vidyās and Mantras. It would not have so described-as it has done-Gañadharas and Therās, if it considered Vidyās and Mantras had something inherently sinful or derogatory, because in that case such description would not in anyway redound to their credit or properly represent the very high qualities acquired by living ideal ascetic life by these persons. As the said attributes are in juxtaposition with others describing the very high and rare qualities of Gañadharas and Therās the said attributes also must be taken to describe their very high and rare qualities-not merely approved of but greatly acclaimed. Jnātādharmakatha I, 14, Sūtra 99 mentions inter alia Cūrņayoga and Mantrayoga. The said passage throws considerable light on the condition of society in ancient times as it was commonly believed that ascetics were possessed of miraculous powers or had knowledge of Mantras or charm with ashes, clay or thread, magical powders or herbs, roots, bark, creeper, or a blade of Silika grass, pills, medicine or combination of medicines which would cause enchantment, fascination or bring good luck or prosperity to a person. Suvratā the Jain female ascetic, says that she would not even hear such things,
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much less instruct anyone to employ same. As mentioned in the footnote on p. 175 ante Antakțddasānga III 8, Sūtra 6 mentions worship of the image of Sri Hariņegameși.
PRAŚNAVYĀKARANA Praśnāvyākaraṇa 1, 1 Sūtra 7 (p. 28 et seq.) is a long Sūtra and contains several references to Mantras important for our purposes. There are the following references:-'Yantras' meaning 'Diagrams' for the purpose of driving away the opponent etc; 'Àhevaņa' meaning 'Attracting people and according to a variant reading 'Ahivvana' meaning 'Rendering inimical', 'Avindhana' meaning making 'one possessed'. 'Abhiyogya' meaning 'making one subservient'-all this being do through Mantras or medicine. Further the Sūtra refers to controlling' which destroys the mental power or will of the medium. These, though true in form, involve injury to living beings, so are, in spirit, untrue; and those who teach these to others are condemned. It includes taking or giving bath with charmed waters for prosperity, good luck etc., protective magical rites, as also śāntikarma i. e. oblation to fire for obtaining peace or good health accompanied with recitation of Mantras. This shows widespread prevalence of Mantras and Māntric rites.
Prasnavyākaraņa ll, 2, Sūtra 24 (pp. 113–114) praises 'Truth'. Truth is said inter alia to contribute to accomplishment in the flying -lore of Vidyādharas and Cāraņas (flying-ascetics) as also Mantras, Medicine and Vidyās. It also says all Mantras, Magical powders, recitation of Mantras, Vidyās* and Jambhagas (i. e. the deities concerned with Mantras, Vidyās and Wealth), Economics, weapons, Arts and Scriptures have truth as their base.
VIPAKAŚRUTA The last of the 11 existing Angas is Vipākassuta. Its II Srutaskandha, Sūtra 4 (p. 54) narrates the story of one Priyasena who would control the king, lords and others by employing Vidyās and magical
* Mantras as of Sri Hariñegameşi and Vidyās such as Prajnapti and others.
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powders for fascination or being invisible or charming, controlling or making others subservient. This does not require further comment. UPANGAS
Coming to the Upangas besides the references already given Uvavai p. 28 refers to Sri Mahavira's Sadhus possessed of various miraculous powders (Labdhis) including Caraṇas which according to the Commentary means Janghācāraņas and Vidyācāraņas (Sadhus possessing miraculous powers through austerity and Vidya enabling them to fly through the air),-see Bhagavati XX, 9, Sūtra 683 p. 793 and commentary thereon p. 794. Vijjāharas (persons accomplished in special Vidyas like Prajnapti and others), and Agāsātivaino (persons capable of bringing down from the sky in form of rain desirable objects like gold etc. and also undesirable objects like dust, pebbles etc). Rāyapaseņi Sūtra 80 inter alia refers to Mantraprayoga thought of by queen Suriyakantā to kill king Paesi. Pupfiya-Puṣpikā IV (p. 31 A) refers to Vidya-prayoga and Mantraprayoga for getting issue. DASAVAIKALIKA AND PRABHAVAKAS
Amongst Mulasutras Daśavaikālika Adh. II, v. 6 mentions 'Agandhana' snakes who would not suck up again poison from the part of the body bitten by them once they have emitted it and would prefer to be burnt to death under Mantric compulsion. The other kind of snakes called 'Gandhana' are the common snakes who when forcibly drawn back by Mantras suck up the poison from the bite being compelled to do so by Mantrikas. Daśvaikālika Adh. VIII, 2, 51 says that a Sadhu should not communicate inter alia Mantra or Medicine or magical powder or the science of divination or dreams or astrology as the same involves injury to living beings. This presumes knowledge of Mantra etc. on the part of the Sadhu. Commentary p. 41 et seq. Daśavaikālika I mentions Avanāminī and Unnāminī Vidyās (the former brings down objects and things and the latter raises them up) possessed by a Matanga
*
*
Quoted by Malayagiri in his commentary on Vyavahārasutra, Pithikā, p. 28. See also Niśitha Bhāṣya, Pithika v. 33 (p. 20) which is the same with a variant reading.
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(a member of the depressed class) and acquired from him by king Srenika. Commentary p. 58 Dasavaikālika Adh. I mentions invocation of a deity through Vidyā for inducement of faith in a pupil and commentary p. 40 mentions reaching destination over a long route quickly through Vidyā. The following v. 183 of Dasavaikälika-Niryukti (p. 101) mentions eight kinds of persons who through their respective qualities add to the glory of the Faith. They are (1) persons possessing supersensual knowledge (2) or Miraculous power 'Labdhi' (3) Acharyas (4) Dialecticians (5) Excellent exponents of religion (6) Ascetics performing severe austerities (7) Diviners (8) Persons accomplished in Vidya and persons respected by the Royalty or the people.
'अइसेस इडियायरिय वाइ धम्मकही खमग नेमित्ती। विज्जारायगणसंमया य तित्थं पभाविति ।।' १८३
'PRABHĂVAKAS We give below a verse usually cited to describe eight kinds of persons who add to the glory of the Jain faith.
"पावयणी १ धम्मकही २ वाई ३ नेमित्तिओ ४ तवस्सी व ५।
विज्जा ६ सिद्धो य ७ कई ८ अटेव पभावगा भणिया ।।" 'Eight kinds of persons are said to add to the glory of the Jain faith and they are (1) Exponent of religion (2) Exponent of religion through stories (3) Dialectician (4) Diviner (5) Ascetics performing severe austerities (6) Person accomplished in Vidyā (7) Person accomplished in Mantras, magical powders, root and herbs (8) and Poet.'
The readers would note that persons accomplished in Vidyās and Mantras are recognised as Prabhāvakas (adding to the glory) of the Religion. It would not have been so if Mantras and Vidyās were considered inherently sinful or if there was absolute prohibition against their employment. Avasyaka Sūtra and its Cūrni and Bșhat-tīkā by Sri Haribhadrasūri have numerous references to Mantras, Vidyās, Māntrikas, Vidyādharas, Siddhas and allied subjects. We would comment only on the important amongst them. The same remarks apply
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to two of the Six Chedasūtras viz: Vyavhāra Sūtra and Bșhat-Kalpa, their respective Bhāşyas and commentaries.
ĀVAŠYAKASOTRA Avasyaka-Niryukti v. 927 mentions eleven kinds of Siddhas including Vidyāsiddha, Mantrasiddha and Yogasiddha; and the following verses give their illustrations (See Cūrni p. 539 ff. & Brhattikā p. 408 ff.). Niryukti v. 931 defines and distinguishes between Vidyā and Mantra as mentioned in the note * on p. 147 ante. Niryukti v. 932 says that the universal monarch of Vidyäs is he who is accomplished in Vidyas or at least one Mahāvidyā like Mahāpuruşadattā as was Aryakhaputācārya. The commentary thereon says that Vidyās are accomplished even by obeisance to a Vidyāsiddha. Niryukti v. 933 says that he is accomplished in Mantras who has mastered all Mantras or many Mantras or even a single principal Mantra as was the Sādhu who through Mantra pulled out and drew away through the air the columns from the front of a palace-gate. Niryukti v. 934 says that he is a Yogasiddha who is fully acquainted with all the mixtures of magical powders of miraculous effect or even one of them as was Arya Samita. (See note: p. 191 ante). At p. 452 there is an interesting account of Sādhanā with a dead body and the miraculous effect of Pañcaparamesti Mantra which protected the boy meant to be sacrified to the Vetāla by an ascetic who was seeking Siddhi as to Suvarņa Puruşa i. e.goldman. At p. 407 obeisance to Arihanta is said to be the meaning of twelve Angas, as all the Angas are meant for purification of thought which is achieved by such obeisance also. Bșhat-tīkā p. 392 mentions Parasu Vidyā acquired by Parasurāma and p. 401 describes 'Cāņdālas' who were Vidyāsiddhas. Bịhat-tīkā p. 812 mentions a compromise effected between a person who had recently embraced Jainism and one of the deities previously worshipped by him, where by the layman agreed to worship the deity on account of insistance by the latter if the deity agreed to remain by the side of the images of Jinas. This shows that as long as a person worships Tirthankara as the only divinity who
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could lead him on the path to Salvation, he would not be committing an offence against Faith if he worshipped a deity either subsidiary to or attendant on Jinas for some wordly object or only out of compulsion.
The story of Gandharva Nagdatta p. 65 ff. Cūrņi and p. 565 ff. Bṛhat-tikā, Avasyaka Sūtra shows the prevalence of snake-charming and curing persons bitten by snakes through Mantras in ancient times. It was otherwise known as Garuda Vidya. The persons accomplished in it were styled Gandharvas, perhaps because snakes are charmed by Mantras to the accompaniment of music. P. 605 Bṛhat-tikā cites the following verses from Dhyanasataka of the famous gloss-writer Jinabhadragani Kṣamāśramaņa wherein the removal of poison from the body of a person bitten by a snake through Mantras is given as an illustration of how soul is freed from the poisonous brooding of the mind by Sri Jina.
INTRODUCTION
जहसव्वसरीरगयं मंतेण बिसं निरुंभए डंके । ततो पुणोऽवणिज्जइ पहाणयरमंत जोगेणं ॥
तह तिहुयणविसयं मणोनिसं जोगमंतबलजुत्तो ।
परमाणुमि निरुंभइ अवणेइ तओवि जिणवेज्जो ॥ ध्यानशतकं श्रो. ७१-७२
Niryukti vs. 220, 227 & 228 state that 'Kautuka' through application of ashes, science of divination and obtaining answers by questioning Inkhiņika-Dombi (who ties small bells to her ears and jingles them when Ghanțika Yakṣa whispers in her ears the answer to her question which she communicates to the person consulting her) arose in the time of Sri Rṣabha. Niryukti v. 508 mentions Mahabhūtika Indrajālika i. e., one who is able to create hallucinations. Niryukti v. 218 says that Pūjā-worship of Nāgas and others arose in the time of the universal monarch Bharata, son of the first Tirthankara Sri Rṣabhadeva. Utsava-celebration in honour of Indra also arose in his time.
PINDANIRYUKTI
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ascetic who is constantly attended upon by deities pleased with him because of his severe austerities. V. 462 (p. 133) refers to miraculous powers obtained inter alia through Vidyā such as driving away or killing an opponent. V. 465 (P. 134) refers to 'Labdhi' (miraculous power obtained through development of soul). Pindaniryukti vv. 494-500 and Bhāşya v. 44 refer to Vidyā, Mantra, Cûrņa, Añjana and Yoga.
They mention as illustrations of their employment a Sādhu who obtained rich food from a very miserly and mean person through previous enchantment of his house; Padaliptasūri who cured King Murunda of severe headache by moving his index-finger round his own knee accom panied with mental recitation of Mantra; two young sādhus who became invisible by application of magical collyrium to their eyes and who used to dine with King Chandragupta unknown to him, but were discovered by Cāņakya; and Arya Samitasuri (see note p. 191 ante) who through mixture of magical powders divided the waters of the river Benā and crossed over to the opposite bank. The said passage also describes the evils likely to follow from the employment of Vidyā or Mantra viz. that the opponent might employ counter-Vidyā or Mantra and might paralyse, drive away or kill the person who first used Mantra or Vidyā; or there may be a scandal amongst the people that the person employing Vidyä or Mantra is deceitful and lives sinfully, harming others, and might be arrested, tortured, made to give up the dress of Sadhu or might be capitally punished on a complaint being made to the Government that he is a magician injuring others through magical practices. Pindaniryukti v. 499 states that there might be an exception in the case of a properly qualified person; Achārya Malayagiri in his commentary thereon says that such a person should employ Mantra for the sake of the Jain fold. This makes it quite clear that the Jain scriptures although prohibiting employment of Mantras and Vidyās generally recognise an exception and recommend employment of Mantras and Vidyās by a properly qualified person for the sake of the Sangha.
x “सङघादिप्रयोजने मन्त्रोऽपि प्रयोक्तव्य इति भावार्थः ।"
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VYAVAHĀRA SUTRA Bhāşya v. 118 of Vyavahāra-Pithikā (p. 41) prescribes contemplation through Pañcamangala i. e. Pañcaparamesti Mantra in case of any ill-omen. Vyavahāra I, Bhāşya v. 82 (p. 74) says that a Sadhu may stay on with another who is possessed of Vidyā or Nimitta till he learns the same from him. Commentary on Bhāşya I, v. 90 (p. 76) says that as a rule one should not enter into a controversy with a powerful king. If he, however, persists he should be controlled through Vidyā Cūrņa etc. Bhāşya I, (p. 84) vv. 130 and 131 recommend that a debater about to enter into a debate should be inter alia taught Vidyās which are counter to those of his opponent. Vyavahara Bhāsya I, p. 121 says that a Sadhu possessed of Labdhi or Vidyā should bring round an inimical king through Labdhi, Vidya or Mantra. Vyavahāra Bhāşya I, p.137 says that one desiring to confess and repent should resort to Korantaka garden in Broach and invoke the presiding deity observing a three day's fast and carry out expiatory austerities as might be prescribed by the deity.
Vyavahāra Bhāşya III v. 181 et seq. refer to the case of a Sadhu who becomes distracted having been charmed through Vidya, Mantra or magical powder and prescribe that if he cannot be cured of such fascination by persuasion of the person employing the same, counter-Vidyā should be employed to remove such fascination and engender repugnance instead in the mind of such person towards the Sādhu. As an example is mentioned the austere Sadhu who through his miraculous powers protected a Jain female ascetic from the clutches of the Buddhists. Bhâşya II, v. 185 throws abundant light on the propriety of employment of Mantras in such cases * and v. 191 says that a Sādhu should be protected from his opponent through pursuasion or threats or by employment of such miraculous power as one possesses;
* विसस्स विसमेवेह उसहं अग्गिमग्गिणो । मंतस्स पडिमंतो उ दुज्जणस्स विवज्जणा ॥१८५।।
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how can one neglect one's adherents although he has power to protect them.
अणुसासण भेसण या जा लट्टी तस्स तं न हावेज्जा ।
किं वा सति सत्तीए होइ सपश्खे उवेक्खाए ॥१९१।। If a Sādhu who had been a slave is claimed back by his master Vyavahära Bhāsya II, v. 220 prescribes that Vidyās or Mantras should be employed to secure his freedom.
Vyavahāra Sūtra Bhāşya IV, v. 12 states inter alia that Vidyās have to be repeated and Prābhịtas and Nimitta are to be studied in a solitary place; Achārya and Upādhyāya may do so going elsewhere. Vyavahāra Bhāşya IV, v. 339 refers to Sūtra commencing with Namukkāra, i. e. Pancaparamești Mantra. Vyavahāra Bhāşya V, v. 18 refers to Vidyā, Mantra, Cūrņa Nimitta and astrology. Vyavahāra Bhāşya V, v. 121 et seq. state that an Acharya must acquire Vidyā Mantra etc. to remedy serpent-bites. V. 136 describes various Vidyās such as 'Dūta' where the messenger or representative is treated instead of the person who is ill and the latter is cured; 'Adarsa' in which the reflection in a mirror is magically treated and the person who is reflected is cured; Vastra' in which with a piece of cloth over which Mantra is recited passes are made over the body of the affected person and he is cured; ‘Darbha' in which a blade of grass is so used; "Tālavịnta' in which a palmyra fan is so used, and the affected person is cured; 'Capetā' in which someone is slapped and the affected person is cured; and 'Antahpura' or harem in which passes are made over one's own body instead of that of the affected person and the latter is cured. Bhāşya V, vv. 139-140 say that a female ascetic may recite Mantra but not Vidyās unless it has been previously acquired by heri.e. before initiation.
Vyavahāra Bhāșya VI, v., 148 says that an Achārya must be protected lest a woman should cast a spell upon him or bring him under her control. Vyavahāra Bhāşya VI, v. 154 says that an Achārya has to recite Vidyās and Mantras and study sciences dealing with Nimitta and Yoga in a solitary place, so he should not go out to beg food.
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INTRODUCTION
If there be any doubt still lingering in the minds of the readers as to Sadhanā or practice of Vidyās and Mantras by Jain Sadhus it should be thoroughly dispelled by vy. 251-252, Vyavahārasūtra Bhāşya VI, which say: 'Achāryas repeat Vidyās on every 'Parva' i. e. the middle day of the month or the fortnight. The middle day of the fortnight i. e. the eighth day is considered 'Parva,' so also the middle day of the month, i. e. the fourteenth day of the dark half (of the month); other 'Parvas' being the days of the eclipse of the sun and the moon.' * .
Siddhaputras and Siddhaputrīs are referred to at various places as also Sārūpikas in Vyavahārasūtra-Bhāsya, (See Udd. IV v. 134 ff; Udd. V v. 74 Udd. VII vv. 13, 17; Udd. VIII v. 288). Nimitta, Vidyā, Mantra, Cūrņa and Yoga are referred to in v. 3 Udd. VII V. 187 * Udd. VII uses as an illustration the fact that whatever the universal monarch of Vidyā utters becomes Vidyā, but that it is accomplished at the proper time and place; so the utterances of Jina which are possessed of eight qualities should be recited with due regard to time and place and not indiscriminately at all times and at all places. V. 201 Udd. VIII refers to 'Abhiyoga' superior force i. e. charming or controlling. Sūtra 8, Udd. X, p. 97 and the Bhāşya thereon respectively refer to and explain 'Gaņasobhi' i. e. one who adorns the fold. It says: 'A dialectician as mentioned in the 1st Uddeśa, an exponent of the religion through appropriate stories, a diviner and one possessing miraculous powers through Vidyā adorn the fold.' .
NIŚĪTHA SUTRA Nisītha Sutra XIII Uddesa is full of references to Kautuka
* विज्जाणं परिवाडी पव्वे पव्वे य देंति आयरिया । मासद्धमासियाणं पव्वं पुण होइ मज्झं तु ॥२५१॥ पक्खस्स अठमी खलु मासस्स य पक्खिअं मुणेयव्वं ।
अण्ण पि होइ पव्वं उवरागो चंदसूराणं ॥२५२॥ - जहा विज्जा नरिदम्स जं किंचिदपि भासियं । विज्जा भवति सा चेह देसे काले च सिज्झइ ||१८७।।
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etc., Nimitta, dream, Vidya, Mantra, Yoga and Curna and says that if they are employed for or communicated to the followers of other religions or even to Jain householders, the Sadhu so doing shall perform penance as therein prescribed. It is apparent from this that he does not commit any sin if the same are employed for or communicated to Jain Sadhus. We are however not left to gather the meaning in such an indirect manner for Bhāṣya verse 4284 and the Cūrni thereon (p. 841 s. y. 1996 Edn.) state the exceptions clearly: one should in exceptional circumstances employ Kautuka etc. or communicate Mantra. The exceptional circumstances are specified to be epidemic, famine, kingly oppression, fear, illness, blockade of roads, necessity to ascertain the cause of any strange happening, debate, or for adding to the glory of the faith. *
Nisitha Pithikā (pp. 8-9) refers to Matanga Harikeśa who was accomplished in Avanāminī and Unnāminī Vidyas and illustrates how humility and respect for the Guru are necessary in a Sadhaka for acquiring accomplishment in Vidyas. Nisitha Uddeśa I, Bhāṣya v. 410 (see Cürni thereon p. 125) states that for the purpose of acquiring Vidyas a Sadhu may cultivate friendly relations with a householder or a lax Sadhu (Pasattha). Nisītha Uddeśa XVI, Bhāṣya v. 63 refers to Ratnadevată, Suci-Vidyas and Matanga Vidyas named Gauri and Gāndhārī; compare Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya Udd. I, v. 2508. Niśītha Uddeśa XVI Bhāṣya v. 472 says that one may adopt another Āchārya as a preceptor for acquiring Vidya Mantra and Nimitta and it would be deemed to be done for enhancing the glory of the Faith. +
The most important reference however is at p. 1105 Nisithacurni Uddeśa XVI, Bhāṣya v. 571 which states that in case Sadhus get accidentally lost in a dense jungle and are unable to find their
x असिवे ओमयरिए, रायदुट्टे भए व गेलणे । अद्वाणरोहकज्जेऽट्टजा य वादी पभावणता || भा० ४२८४ ॥
+ Cf. Bṛhatkalpa Udd. V. Bhāṣya v. 5473.
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way to an inhabited quarter, they should resort to contemplation of the sylvan deity (who may be attached to the Jain Faith), assuming Kāyotsarga pose. The deity thus invoked would tell them the way to an inhabited place or guide them there through some miracle such as the appearance of an illusory herd of cows in some part of the forest going to such a place. The significance of the said reference is that the Jain sacred scriptures under special circumstances sanction invocation of such deities by Sādhus for such and similar purposes, just as Vyavhārasūtrā Udd. X p. 137 sanctions invocation of the deity presiding over Koranțaka at Broach for ascertaining appropriate expiatory austerities for due performance of Repentence. I
MAHĀNISITHA
Adh. III Udd. 11 gives Vardhamānavidyā alias. Aparājitā Mahā. vidyā. It is also given at the end of Adh. VIII after the colophon. Srutadevatā Vidyā is set forth in Adh. 1 v. 46ff. It is to be recited one lac times in a temple. These are known as two Mahānisītha Vidyās. Adh. VII Uddesā 4, Aryā verses 19-20 give Kurukullā Mantra: FEIET * for protection against all kinds of dangers (vv. 19-23).
BRHATKALPA SUTRA
Commentary on Brhat Kalpa Pithikā Bhāşya v. 20 states that just as Vidyā and Mantra are acquired by worship with due regard to material, place, time and devotional feeling so Mangala or Benedictory verse comprising a prayer in the beginning of a work brings about completion thereof without obstacle and confers the desired fruit on the pupils studying the work.
Cf. Bịhatkalpa Bhāşya Udd. I. vv. 3104 to 3110 and also the writer's article entitled 'Place of Mantra, Vidya and Tantra in Jainism' Jain Yuga Vol. V, 1-3 pp. 53-56. * Kurukullä is referred to in such an ancient work as Rudrayāmala at p. 92" DAT Fift
Taraftl" as in Mahānisitha. It will not therefore be correct to say that Kurukulla is a Buddhistic deity borrowed by other pantheons.
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Pithika Bhāṣya v. 146 refers to miraculous works which the commentary interprets as Mahāparijñā, Aruņopapāta etc. Pithikā Bhāṣya v. 291 mentions the incident of a Vidyadhara invoking a Vidya of which a word or two were forgotten by him and how Prince Abhaya by his 'Padānusari' power supplied the same and acquired from the Vidyadhara the Vidya in return. Bhāṣya I, v. 1009 mentions as an illustration Sadhana of Vetāla and its dangers when not properly performed. Bhāṣya I vv. 1308-1314 we have already referred to as describing Kautuka, Bhutikarma etc. and showing how and when a person employing the same as well as Vidya and Mantra become 'Ārādhaka' and acquires Karma which would make him high-born in the next life.
GHANTIKA YAKŞA AND GHANTAKARNA
Bhāṣya I, v. 1312 (pp. 403-404) refers to Ghantika Yakṣa who may probably be the same as Vira Ghaṇṭākarṇa. Tha Mantra of Ghaṇṭakarna styled Ghaṇṭādi Vidya is given after vv. 10-12 Ch. VI, Vidyānusāsana and also in the commentary on v. 1 of Namiuņa Stava. + As some are under the erroneous impression that Ghaṇṭākarna is a Buddhist deity we may note that Agni-Purāņa Adh. 50 vv. 41-42* describe his Dhyana with eighteen arms. He is therein described as destroyer of diseases and particularly Visfoṭaka-tumours or small-pox as is mentioned in his famous Mantra. The ancient lexicographer and
घंटाकर्ण महावीर सर्वभूतहिते रतः । उपसर्गभयं घोरं रक्षरक्ष महाबल स्वाहा ॥ + 3 घंटाकर्ण महावीर सर्वव्याधिविनाशक । विस्फोटकभये प्राप्ते रक्षरक्ष महाबल स्वाहा ॥ * घण्टाकर्णोऽष्टादशदोः पापरोगं विदारयन् । वज्रा सिदण्डचक्रेषुमुसलाङ्कुशमुद्गरान् ||४१|| दक्षिणे तर्जनीखेटं शक्तिं मुण्डं च पाशकम् । चाप घटांकुठारं च द्वाभ्यां चैव त्रिशूलकम् ।
घण्टामालाकुलो देवो विस्फोटक विमर्दनः || ४२ || अग्निपुराण, अ० ५० ।
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grammarian Vyadi, a contemporary of Panini (circa 350 B. C.) according to Kathāsaritsagara, IV Taranga, but who flourished certainly before Katyāyana mentions Ghaṇṭākarna as a 'Gaņa' of Siva: " गोपालो ग्रामणीमालुर्घटाकर्ण करन्धमौ".
See Svopajnatīkā on v. 124 Abhidhānacintāmaṇi II, P. 89. Skandapurāṇa, Kāśīkhaṇda, Uttarardha, Adh. 53, v. 8 and vv. 30 to 43 (p. 232) also mention Ghaṇṭākarna as a 'Gana' of Siva. Harivamsa Bhaviṣyaparva Adhs. 79 to 83 refer to Ghaṇṭākarṇa and his meeting Srī Kṛṣṇa in Badarikāśrama and his worship of Viṣṇu.
INTRODUCTION
Yogini Tantra (p. 461) v. 101 also mentions Ghaṇṭākarna as one of the Viras. Jinaprabhasüri refers in his Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa (p. 86) to a shrine of Ghaṇṭakarna Mahavira on Sri Parvata really referring to the last Tirthankara Mahāvīra. It may be of interest to note that outside the main temple of the famous Sri Badari Narāyaṇa is a small temple wherein an image of Ghaṇṭakarna is even this day found installed.
Bhasya I, v. 1318 says that employment of Nimitta i. e. Divination through excess of pride would engender Asurī Bhāvanā (Demonic mood) which would bring about next birth in the Demon-class of deities. Commentary on Bhāṣya I, v. 2681 mentions creation of horses through the aid of Yoniprabhṛtā by Sri Siddhasenācārya. Bhāṣya I, v. 2824 refers to Vidya. Bhāṣya I, vv. 2958-2964 mention employment of Vidya to ward off danger from beasts of prey, invocation of a deity for the purpose through contemplation by a Sadhu usually performing severe austerities, as also heroic physical self-defence. Besides Gauri and Gāndhāri Vidyas already referred to (Bhāṣya I, v. 2508) there are references to Prajnapti Vidya (p. 56), Mohini and Stambhani Vidyās (Bhāṣya III, v. 4809, p. 1291; also commentary on Bhāṣya I, v. 2744) and Abhogini Vidya (Bhāṣya III v. 4633, p. 1250).
+ एक जघोनलश्चैव कर्दमालिप्तविग्रहः ।
घण्टाकर्णस्ततोर्वश्च दक्षिणं पार्श्वमास्थिताः || १०१ || योगिनीतन्त्रम् ।
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Bhāṣya III, v. 4624 mentions a case in which Mantra or Nimitta may be employed. Bhāṣya III, vv. 4632-4638 mention employment by Sadhus of Vidyās like Ābhoginī, Nimitta and divination in case of theft of things meant for their use. Bhāṣya III v. 4809 mentions employment of Stambhani and Mohani Vidyas as also physically dealing out punishment if the Sadhu is able enough through requisite training to do so e. g. to fight a thousand persons simultaneously. Bhāṣya IV. v. 5593 mentions the qualifications of an Acharya who would depose a king inimical to the Jain fold and amongst such qualifications special mention is made of possession of miraculous powers through Vidyā like Aryakhapuṭācārya. It also mentions Kālakācārya who punished king Gardabhilla. Bhāṣya VI vv. 6270-71 mention protection of the fold through employment of Vidya, Mantra, Cūrṇa etc. Bhāṣya VI v. 6302 and commentary on vy. 6304 and 6308 mention cases in which Vidya, Mantra and charmed pills may be used.
PAYANNAS
In Payannas the reference to Vidya Mantra Cūrṇa and Nimitta in vv. 798-799 Titthogāli Payanno may be noted. There injury to others through Vidya etc. is deprecated and is said to entail wandering in unending cycle of births and deaths. The date of Titthogali Payanno is about the beginning of the 5th century Vikrama era.
Angaculiya Ms. p. 3 refers in course of the ceremony of initiation to the rite of Vasakṣepa over which Mantra has been recited by the Acharya after performance of Digbandhana rite i. e. the rite to ward off undesirable spirits and adverse influence from all quarters. It also refers to Vardhamana Vidya. P. 20. refers to false Sadhus who practice astrology, Vidya, Mantra and Tantra and keep laymen and laywomen pleased through practice of Karmaņa, Mohana and Vasikarana. The concluding portion refers to Vaggaculia and Vidya-MantraPrayogas therein for Santi.
POPULARITY OF SRI PARSVANATHA'S WORSHIP
At the commencement of the privious section hereof namely
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'Jain Mantravāda and Caityavāsis' we stated how the Māntric literature comprised in the tenth Pūrva, Vidyānupravāda may reasonably be supposed to belong to the age of Sri Pārsvanātha. Then we stated how he has been invoked in the hymn Uvasaggaharam and described the life led by several Pārsvāpatyās who employed Nimitta invol use of Mantras and Vidyās for obtaining necessaries of life and how Mantrikas adopted Sri Pārsvanātha as the Mantric deity par excellence. Dharanendra, the principal attendant-deityx of Sri Pārsvanātha is connected with the origin of Vidyās as stated above. Naturally, therefore, Vidyādharas + as well as all Sadhakas of Mantras and Vidyās especially worshipped Sri Pārsvanātha. 'Purisādāņiya'-respected by the people-is the title of Sri Pārsvanātha given in Kalpasūtra which aptly describes his popularity not only during his life but also thereafter. Moreover those Mantras and Vidyās become popular of which the presiding deities are alert and respond quickly. It is believed that the attendant deities of Sri Pārsvanātha are alert and respond at once when invoked. Further from Jnātādharmakathānga II Srutaskandha it appears that many of the female ascetic disciples of Sri Pārsvanātha
came on their death the chief queens of Indras of different heavenly regions. All the chief queens of the twenty Indras of Bhuvanapatideities, of sixteen Indras of Vyantara-deities, of the Moon and the
* After Sri Bhadrabāhu, Sri Padaliptasūri also invoked Sri Pārsvanātha in a Mantric hymn of 7 verses which is in the writer's collection. We give here the first and the last verses thereof: 77551ET, Farofattarefacuta!
नामग्गहणं वज्जं धरेइ न हु तस्स उवसग्गा ॥१॥
इय (मह) सप्पहावेगवीस-मंतक्खरगभिय-महायुतं ।
qonaggi, faat 49979 x “विजया जया य कमठो पउमावइ-पासजक्ख वइरुटा ।
धरणो विज्जादेवी सोलसऽहिद्वायगा जस्स ॥" श्रीपार्श्वनाथ कल्प + "3faa: TFTHET Fora Paaratamattor
पूर्व हि वैताढयगिरौ जिनं तं वन्दे सदा शङ्खपुरावतंसम् ।।"
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Sun and the Vaimānika Indras Sakra and Iśāna were disciples of Sri Pārsvanātha in their previous life. Naturally, therefore, when invocation is with the name of Sri Pārsvanātha these highly placed powerful deities respond promptly and effectively aid and grant the desires of such worshippers. This also accounts for the popularity of the worship of Dharanendra and Padmāvati amongst Jains as they are the principal attendant deities of Sri Pārsvanātha. We may add here that Sri Pārsvanātha is worshipped at various places under hundreds of different attributes. Some of them are mentioned at p. 86 Vividhatīrthakalpa, line 10 onwards. The several Kalpas of Sri Pārsvanātha included in Vividhatirthakalpa also show the popularity of his worship. The connection of Sri Pārsvanātha with the ancient Jain Stüpa at Mathura also points to the same fact.*
It is significant that Mānadevasūri, the author of the hymn Laghusānti, although invoking Sri Sāntinātha, the sixteenth Tirthankara, for securing peace and tranquility incorporates therein the Mantra of Sri Pārsvanātha as propounded by Kamatha (an attendant deity of Sri Pārsvanātha) called Mantradhirāja. Similarly Vādivetāla Sri Sāntisūri in his hymn named Bșhat Sānti invokes Sri Pārsvanatha thus: 9 FIIET I Fargil itardaigh aige li' Similarly in Indranandi's Jvālinīmata (Mantra Kalpa of the attendant deity of the 8th Tirthan. kara Sri Candraprabha), III Adh., vv. 58, 59 it is stated that whatever a Mantrika does, should be in the name of 'Pārsva Jina' and that whatever he utters saying 'Pārsva Jināya' becomes Mantra. This shows with what great regard Mantrikas viewed invocation with the name of 'Sri Pārsva'. It is therefore unnecessary to dilate further on this point.
ANTIQUITY OF PAŅCAPARAMESTI MANTRA We shall note below some inscriptional proof as to the antiquity
* Epigraphia Indica II, Insı. XXIX p. 207 is an inscription on the image of Sri Päráva as is actually mentioned therein. It is a proof of the ancient and popular character of the worship of Sri Pārsva.
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of Pancaparamești Mantra. The famous Khārvel inscription which belongs to a date about two centuries before Christ begins thus:
'NAMO ARAHANTÂNAM, NAMO SAVA SIDHĀNAM**
These two clauses are practically the same as the first two clauses of Pancaparameşti Mantra. Cunningham's Archaeological survey of India XX (which describes Mathurā Inscriprions) Insn. No. XI, Plate XIII + begins with obeisance to Arhantas and Siddhas thus, ‘Namo Arhantānam Namo Siddhānam' These two clauses are the same as the first two clauses of Pancaparameşti Mantra. It also refers to the fourfold congregation and is dated the year 62 which is equivalent to 140 Vikrama era. The said inscription shows that the said clauses were most probably borrowed from the famous Panca paramesti Mantra and establishes the antiquity thereof. Again Epigraphia Indica
1. I p. 383, Insn. No. III begins thus 'Namo Arahantānam' i. e. ‘Adoration to the Arhantas' which is the first clause of Pancaparameșți Mantra. I
That Sri Bhagavati Sūtra, Kalpasūtra and Avasyakacūrņi commence with the fivefold obeisance comprising the principal part of Pancaparamesti Mantra also shows the antiquity thereof.
MANTRAKALPAS, MANTRAS AND VIDYAS Mantrakalpas are works dealing with Mantras and Yantras of various deities, their Pūjā and its essentials, their Sadhanā Homa, Bali etc., and Prayogas being particular employment of Mantras and Yantras for achieving various objects. Besides Mantrakalpas mentioned in this Introduction and Anubhavasiddhamantradvātrimsikā, Padmavatikalpas, Sarasvatīkalpas and Ambikāmantras contained in the appendices hereto, we note below some important available Mantrakalpas, Mantras and Vidyās:
* See J. B. O. R. S., IV, p. 397 & XIII p. 22 and Pracina Jaina Lekha Sangraha Vol. I by Sri Jinavijaya. + See Vienna Oriental Journal Vol. I (1887) p. 173.
Ipsns. Nos. XVII (p. 390 ) and XXXIV (p. 397) Vol. I and Insns Nos. XXX to XXXII (p. 207) Vol. II Epigraphia Indica have the same obeisance.
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1 Namaskāramantrakalpa 2 Pancanamaskārakalpa 3 Pancaparamesti Maha Mantra Yantra Bșhatkalpa 4 Mayūravāhini Vidyā 5 Candraprabha Vidyā 6 Candrapannatti Mantra Sádhana 7 Omkārakalpa 8 Hrīņkārakalpas 9 Uvasaggaharamşalpas 10 Santikarastavāmnāya 11 Tijayapahuttastotrāmāya 12 Sattarisayayantravidhi 13 Nami. ūņakalpa 14 Bhaktāmarakalpas 15 Kalyāṇamandirakalpas 16 Logassa kalpa 17 Sakrastavakalpa alias Namutthuņamkalpa 18 Cintamanikalpas 19 Cintämaņikalpasāra 20 Cintämaņisampradaya 21 Cintāmaņi Mantrāmnāya 22 Cintāmaņi Mantra Paddhati 23 Mantrādhirāja Kalpa 24 Atte Matte (alias Tribhuvana Vijayapatākā Mantra Mantra Kalpa 25 Dharaṇoragendrastava Kalpa 26 Kalikuņda Yantra Mantra Kalpas 27 Kalikundārādhanā 28 Sri Pārsvanāthakalpadrumamantrāmnāya 29 Sighra sampattikara Pārsva Mantra 30 Pārsvanāthamantrārādhana 31 Jirāuli Pārsva Mantra Kalpa 32 Pārsva Stambhani Vidyā 33 Vasyakara Gauri Gāndhari Pārsva Mantra 34 Uvasaggahara Pārsva Yantra 35 Vişāpahāra Pārsva Mantra 36 Putrakara Parsva Yantra 37 Sarvakäryakara Jagadvallabha Pārsva Yantra 38 Santikara Pārsva Yantra 39 Vāda vijayakara Parsva Mantra 40 Pārsva Cakra Mantra 41 Rsabha Cakra Mantra 42 Aristanemi Cakra Mantra 43 Vardhamāna Cakra Mantra 44 Sīmandhara Mantra 45 Dharanendra Laksmīkara Mantra 46 Dharaṇendra Kastāpahāra Mantra 47 Rakta Padmā. va ti kalpa 48 Rakta Padmăvati Vțddha Pūjana Vidhi 49 Saivāgamokta Padmāvati Pūjana including Sādhanās of Rakta Padmāvatī, Hamsa Padmāvati, Sārasvati Padmavati, Sabari Padmavati, and Moksa Padmāvati 50 Kāmesvarī Padmavati Mantra Sadhana 51 Bhairavī Padmāvati Mantrasādhana 52 Tripurā Padmāvati Mantrasādhana 53 Nityā Padmavati Mantrasādhana 54 Padmāvati Dipā vatāra 55 Padmăvati Kajjalā vatāra 56 Mahamohini Padmavati Vidya 57 Putrakara Padmavati Mantra 58 Padmāvatistotrakalpa 59 Padmavati Svapna Mantrasādhana 60 Padmāvatikalpalatā 61 Padmāvati
* Kalikunda yantra is given even in such a work on astrology (Svaraśāstra) as Narapatijayacaryā, pp. 277-278.
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Mantra Kalpas (by Merutunga & others) 62 Satrubhayanāśanī Pārsva Vidya 63 Paravidyocchedani Parsva Vidya, 64 Sürimantrakalpas 65 Vardhamana Vidyakalpas 66 Gaṇadhara Valayakalpas 67 Caturvimsati Tirthankara Vidyās 68 Vidyānusāsana 69 Surapati Vajrapāņi Mantra 70 Cakreśvarī alias Apraticakrakalpas (containing Rakṣā, Vādavijaya, Satrunāśa, Svapna, Ghaṭāvatāra, Lakṣmi, and Sarvasiddhikara Mantras) 71 Ambikā alias Kuṣmāndinīkalpas 72 Jwālāmālinī alias Jwalini Kalpas, Yantras and Mantras 73 Siddhāyikā alias Kāmacāndālinī Kalpa 74 Kurukulla Mantra Sadhana, 75 Pancangulikalpas 76 Pratyangira Kalpas 77 Ucchiṣṭacāndālinī Mantrasadhana 78 Karna Pisacini alias Karņa Pisacikā Mantrasadhana 79 Cakreśvarī Svapna Mantra Sadhana 80 Svapnavati Mantra Sadhana 81 Ambika Svapna Mantra Sadhana 82 Ambika Ghața-Darpaṇa-Jala-Dīpāvatāra 83 Srutadevatāghaṭāvatāra 84 Sasanadevi Mantra 85 Sri Rṣabha Vidya 86 Santinatha Vidya 87 Sàntidevatā Mantrasādhana 88 Ghoṇaşa Vidya 89 Aparajita Maha Vidyā 90 Rogāpahāriņi Vidya 91 Vasupūjya Vidyamnaya 92 Acchuptă Mantra 93 Brahmasanti Mantra 94 Gajamukha Yakṣa Mantra 95 Şodasa Vidya-devi Mantras 96 Bhārati kalpa 97 Vāgvādinīkalpa 98 Sarasvatikalpas 99 Sarasvata Mahāvidyä (by Sri Bhadrabāhu) 100 (a) Srutadevatāvidyā (b) Aparājitāmahāvidyā alias Vardhamana Vidya (c) Kurukulla Vidya mentioned in Mahānisitha Sutra 101 Sridevikalpa 102 Laksmi Mantra 103 Mahālakṣmi Mantra 104 Yogini Mantrasadhana 105 Yakṣiņi Mantrasādhana 106 Siddhacakrakalpa 107 Rṣimandalakalpa 108 Sri Vidyakalpa 109 Brahmavidyākalpa 110 Manibhadrakalpas 111 Ghantākarņa Kalpas 112 Ugra Virakalpa 113 Kṣetradevata Mantrasādhana 114 Kṛṣṇa Gaurakṣetrapālasadhana 115 Khodiya Kṣetrapala Mantrasādhana 116 Bhairava Mantrasādhana 117 Batuka Bhairava Mantrasādhana 118 Svarṇākarṣaṇa Bhairava Mantrasādhana 119 Catussaṣṭhi Yogini Yantra 120 Sri Gautamaswāmi Mantrasadhana 121 Sri Vajraswami Mantrasādhana 122 Sri Jinadattasūri Mantrasādhana 123 Sri Jinakusalasūri Mantra Sadhana 124 Sri Jinacandrasuri Mantra sadhana 125 Sri Hemacandrācāryakṛta Mantras 126 Panca Pīra Sadhana 127 Jnānārṇava-Mantras 128 Visākalpas
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(relating to diagram of 20) 129 Pandaria Kalpa (relating to diagram of 15) 130 Uvasaggahara Caturvimšati Jinavarayantra 131 Sarvakaryakara Catustrimsat Yantra 132 Pānsațhiā Kalpa (relating to diagram of 65) 133 Botteriā Kalpa (relating to diagram of 72) 134 Vijayayantrakalpa 135 Vijayapatākākalpa 136 Jaitrapatākā Kalpa 137 Arjunapatākākalpa 138 Hanumatpatākā Kalpa 139 Trailokya Vijaya Yantra 140 Ghanțārgala Yantra 141 Vajra Pañjara Mahāyantra Kalpa 142 Vajra Pañjarārādhanā 143 Mộtyuñjayasādhana 144 Candrakalpa (of Jagatsetha) 145 Diagrams of various numbers 146 Various Ausadhikalpas with relative Mantras e.g. Svetārka, Svetaguñjā, Aparājitā, Rudanti, Mayūrasikhā, Sankhāvali, Sahadevī, Siyālassngi, Märjārī etc. 147 Mantrāvalis 148 Pratisthākalpas.
CONCLUSION Summing up the foregoing discussion on Jain Mantravāda and its history from the most ancient times to the present day we nay observe that it would be clear to the readers on a careful consideration of the materials placed before them that Jain Mantravāda has its roots in the hoary past and is connected with Sri Pārsvānätha, and possibly with Sri Rşabhadeva, Pārsvāpatyas, Naimittikas, Sārūpikas, Siddhaputras, Caityavāsis and numerous illustrious Achāryas and Yatis who kept the Māntric tradition alive from generation to generation. It has remained an integral part of Jainism and has not separated from it and developed into an independent school of thought or philosophy like Vajrayāna which did develop into an independent school of Buddhism. The rigour with which the Jains dealt with laxity in observance of the rules of conduct for Sādhus by driving out of the fold those who least dared to tamper with the sacred fountains of Jainism, branding them as 'Nihnavas', acted as a great check upon the activities of the Jain Mantrikas and Jain Mantravāda did not degrade to the depth of adopting the abominable practices of Cinācāra etc. Jain Mantravāla has taken its legitimate place in Jainism as a kind of Yoga-Padastha Dhyāna, providing a practical and popular method of self-realisation through natural and convenient stages: Mantrayoga
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for achieving individual or personal welfare, Mantrayoga for the general welfare and Mantrayoga without any exterior or worldly object meant only for the realization of the self. It has thus harmonised itself with the tenets of Jainism.
Thus Mantars and Vidyās have been recognised amongst Jains for securing the peace and tranquility of the body mind and soul from their respective afflictions howsoever caused. Mantrayoga is believed thus ultimately to confer even salvation on its practitioners if practised only with the object of realization of the soul. In the Pūrva literature as there are Jnānapravāda and Karmapravāda so there is Vidyānupravāda all forming important parts of the body of doctrines known as Jain philosophy. We may compare them with Jnāna, Karma and Upāsanā of the Vedic philosophy. Here we conclude the general part of this Introduction.
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Contents
TV JE now come to the work proper. It is entitled Sri Bhairava Padmā
VY vati Kalpa as it deals principally with Mantras of Bhairavi Padmavati,* 'Kalpa' is explained by the commentator as Mantravāda-samüha or a collection of Mantras. We have already stated that it deals with the Māntric worship of Sri Padmavatī, an attendant deity of Sri Pārsvanātha. There are ten chapters in this work. The first chapter describes the high qualifications necessary for a Sadhaka. The second chapter deals with Nyāsas+ and Sakalikarana or the protective rite and the rite corresponding to Bhūtasuddhi and Dhyāna (v. 12). It also describes the method to ascertain whether a particular Mantra is favourable to the Sadhaka or otherwise. The third chapter deals with the mode of worship of the deity. The methods for the achievement of the sixfold Māntric object (Şatkarma) are first described and the different Māntric Pallavas, Vinyāsas, Postures, Mudrās, rosaries, modes of telling beads,
* Ch. I v. 3 identifies Padmavati with Totală, Tvarità, Nityā, Tripurā, Kāmasādhini and Tripurabhairavi. Nityās are sixteen, Tripurasundari being Mahānitya. Tvarită is the eighth Nitya and Kämasādhini is perhaps Kameśvari Nitya-see Nitya Şodaśikārņava I, p. 26, vy. 26–30. Tripura has twelve 'Bhedas' i. e. variant forms-see jñānārņavatantra XII, p. 39 ff. Uddhărakośa Tantra (p. 6 a) gives the twelve names including Bhairavi “fager at faa fagan afturae
चामुंडा नारसिंही च ऐंद्री हैमवतीश्वरी ॥ मृडानी वारुणी दुर्गा महा त्रिपुरसुन्दरी।
देव्या द्वादशनामानि प्रोक्तान्येतानि शूलिना।। Tripurābhairavi is one of the names of Tripurasundari- see jñānārņavatntra VI Pašala. This explains why Padmavati is styled Bhairavi Padmavati and this work Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa. There is no doubt that the author indentifies Sri Padmavati with Śri Vidyă alias Şodasi. According to Niruttara Tantra Sundari and Bhairavi belong to Srikula. For different forms of Padmăvati mentioned here, see Vidyānuśăsana, Samuddeśa IV, vv. 2 to 6 in Padmāsādhana. For identification of Tară with Padmavati see Sadhanamālā vol. II p. 594 and of various deities with Padmāvati see appendix 5 v. 20, as also p. 63 ante. + Note the use of the five clauses of Pancaparamești Mantra for the purpose.
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directions and periods of time are prescribed for the achievement of the different objects of Māntric worship. The yantra for the worship of the Sri Padmāvati is then described followed by Pancopacāra Pūjā (five kinds of worship). Then the Mūla-Mantra (principal Mantra), sixlettered, three-lettered and single-lettered Vidyās of Sri Padmāvati and Homa are described. The Mantra of Pārsva Yaksa and Cintamani Yantra are also described.
The Pancāúga or the five parts relating to the Māntric worship of a deity are Patala, Paddhati, Stotra, Kavaca and Sahasranāma or a thousand names. This Pancānga is a later innovation. In modern works like Sāktapramoda there are Dasāngas or ten parts and even Dvādasāngas or twelve parts. This kind of elaboration has nothing to commend as it merely mixes up the essentials with the nonessentials. The present work itself does not contain Stotra, Kavaca or Sahasranāma of Sri Padmāvati but the same composed by other authors are given in the appendices to the main work. The third chapter as far as it deals with Mantroddhāra can be said to correspond to Pațala and the matter contained in the second chapter viz. Nyāsas, Dhyana etc. combined with the remaining matter of the third chapter would correspond to Paddhati. One of the Satkarmas viz. Māraņai is termed Nisedha i. e. one which is prohibited in conformity with the Jain doctrine of Ahimsā.
The mention of Pārsva Yaksa is important to show that in the time of the author each Tirthařkara had a separate attendant Yaksa and Yakşiņi. The last verse describes Cintamaņi Yantra different from the famous Yantra of that name. We may note here that ancient non-Jain works like Nāradiyamahāpurāna describe Mantra for
Some Kalpas like Sri Cintāmani-kalpa go further and say that one should not even think of such karmas (see p. 33 Jain Stotra-sandhoha Vol. II). It is stated in Jñānārnava that such undesirable rites are described by sainily people only to satisfy the curiosity of ordinary people who would like to know whether Jain Mantras can achieve all kinds of objects which other Mantras are able to achieve.
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Bali or oblation which is a Mantra of Padmavati. It is " ॐ पद्मे पद्मे महापद्मे "(See Nāradīyamahāpurāņa Adh. 85, vv. 133-134). Note the Prakrit dative inflection of Padmavati which shows the Jain origin of the Mantra as the Jains used only Präkrit in the beginning. The fourth chapter describes twelve Yantras or diagrams for achieving different objects. The fifth chapter sets forth Yantras for accomplishing Stambhana i. e. stopping or paralysing persons and their activities and passing successfully through various ordeals. One of these Yantras relates to Vārtāli alias Vārāhi who is a Vidya allied to Sri Vidya and is known as Dandini.* It is meant for stopping motion, paralysing an army or the tongue of a rival debater or appeasing an angry person. A Prakrit Mantra invoking the 1st Tirthankara Sri Rṣabha referred to in v. 8 and set forth verbatim in the commentary thereon is a part of this Yantra. This establishes the connection of Sri Rṣabha with Mantravāda. We may also note that the commentary on v. 4 gives a Prakrit Mantra eulogizing Pancaparameşți Mantra which is said to stop water and fire and to ward off great calamities caused by an enemy, epidemic, a thief or the king. Mantra of Ucchista Candālinī (Anga-Vidya of Raja-Matangi or Rāja Syamala who is again a Vidya allied to Sri Vidya) given in v. 12 as part of the diagram for successfully facing various ordeals shows the popularity that Mätanga Mantras had already attained. The sixth chapter gives Yantras and Mantras for attracting and fascinating women. Śrī Ambikā (whom the author perhaps identifies with Nityaklinna as appears from her Mantra) Kṛṣṇa-Matangini, Nityaklinnā (the 3rd Nitya), Padmavati and Katyāyani (a Vidya allied to Sri Vidyā) are invoked for the purpose in the various diagrams described in this chapter. The seventh chapter describes Yantras and Mantras for controlling and making others amenable to the will of or subser
CONTENTS
Bahvṛcopanişat identifies Sodasi alias Srividya with various deities as follows:" या भाव्यते सैषा षोडशी श्रीविद्या पञ्चदशाक्षरी श्रीमहात्रिपुरसुन्दरी बालाम्बिकेति बगलेति वा मातङ्गी स्वयंवर कल्याणीति भुवनेश्वरीति चामुण्डेति चण्डेति वाराहीति तिरस्करिणीति राजमातङ्गीति वा शुकश्यामलात लघुइयालेति वा अश्वारूढेति वा प्रत्यङ्गिरा धूमावती सावित्री गायत्री सरस्वती ब्रह्मानन्दकलेति ॥ "
*
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vient to the Māntrika. Mantras arising from the five first syllables of Pancaparameşti Mantra and Anahatavidyā and Prākrit Mantra invoking the 22nd Tirthankara Sri Aristanemi, and Mantras of Nityaklinnā and Candesvara may be noted.
The eighth chapter gives various Mantras for divining future through gazing in a mirror or lamp-flame or sword or water or the thumb to which soot and oil are applied. V. 13 describes such a Mantra for gazing in a mirror which is there stated to have been composed by Srī Jina. This is very important as it ascribes authorship of a Mantra to Sri Jina. The ninth chapter describes various herbs, medicines and powders for charming and fascinating men and women and making them subject to one's will, for gaining popularity, for striking terror in the heart of the enemy, for being invisible at one's will, for increasing business or vigour and for contraception. The commentary on v. 18 gives a Mantra invoking the eighth Tirthankara for preparing collyrium meant for charming.
The tenth and the last chapter deals with Gārudavidyā i. e. Vidyā for controlling and catching snakes and treating persons bitten by them. Mantras invoking Sri Pārsva, Garuda, Bherundā Suvarnarekhā and Kurukulla* are described. A magic serpent is described who would go to and bite the enemy named. Then a Mantra is given to prevent such serpent from biting. The method of initiating a person and imparting to him the traditional Mantra is described. Pancaparamesti Mantra with Jaya, Vijayā, Ajitā, Aparājita, Jambhā, Mohā, Stambhā and Stambhini are there described for worship in a Yantra and also 'Svarnapādukās' of Sri Bhairava Padmavatī. The pupil is warned not to impart the Mantra to a person who is not devoted to the
* Garudapurāņa Adh. XIX vv. 14-15 gives Kurukulla Vidyā" 3
Falet 11" which is said to have been possessed formerly by Garuda for the protection of the three worlds. Náradiyamahāpurana Adh. 85 v.12 refers to Kurukullā. Garudapurāņa Adh. XIX v. 23 & v. 19 respectively describe Bheruņda (a Nitya) and Suvarnarekha Vidyās.
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Jain Faith and that he should impart it only to a person devoted to the Jain divinity, Jain preceptor and the Jain Faith. The author then mentions his preceptor Ajitasenagaņi and the fact of his having secured a boon from Sarasvati and composed Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa.
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The Author and the Commentator M ALLIŞEŅASŪRI is the author of Sri Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa IV and Bandhusena is its commentator.
Mallişeņasūri a Digambara Jain Achārya of Sena-gana traces his descent in the colophon of the said work. He was the pupil of Kanakasenagani and the grand-pupil of Ajitasenagaņi to whom all the kings rendered obeisance. This Ajitasenācārya was none other then the famous Guru of King Rācamalla of Ganga dynasty and his minister and general Camundarai. In the colophons of his Nāgakumāra Kavya and wālinikalpa also he describes himself as the pupil of linasensūri. As Mallişeņasūri in the colophons of his work Mahāpurāna, and Bhāratīkalpa describes himself as the son of Sri Jinasena, one is inclined to think that Jinasena must have been his father also. One cannot, however, be certain about it as Gurus are even now regarded in India as spiritual fathers. We have no more information about his parentage.
Mallisena in the colophon of his said wark, Mahāpurāna gives its date as Jyestha Sukla 5th Saka 968 (1104 Vikrama era). As his other works do not bear any date we are unable to fix even the period of his literary activity with any more certainty. We can only say that he flourished about the beginning of the twelth century of Vikrama era.
From his titles* given in his various works, we can say that he was not only a great Mantrika but also a great poet of Sanskrit and Prākrit, a grammarian, a dialectecian and also versed in all the sacred scriptures and was favoured by Sarasvati with a boon. From his two Sanskrit poetical works, Mahāpurāṇa and Nagakumāra Kavya it appears that he wrote in a simple and lucid style. Mahāpurāna contains the biographies of 63 eminent men in 2000 verses and Nāga
*" Tartarad, 3439 ftat, qafael,
सकलागमलक्षणतर्कवेदो, सरस्वतीलब्धवरप्रसादः, योगीश्वर इत्यादि।"
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ANA
kumāra Kavya is a small poetical works in 5 cantos containing 507 verses. His fame however, rests on his Mántric works which apear to be mines of rare information on a cult which has always been very secretive and jealous of any information passing beyond its esoteric circle of adepts and initiates. Besides Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa his Mantric works are Bhārati alias Sarasvati-Kalpa, Jwālinikalpa and Kāmacāndālini alias Siddhāyikā Kalpa.
VIDYĀNUSÅSANA Vidyānusāsana, a great compendium of Māntric treatises comprised in twenty four chapters containing nearly 7000 verses, is also ascribed to him. Probably, it is edited and enlarged by him. The text as now available contains several later additions and interpolations of Pandita Asādhara's and Hastimalla's Ganadharavalayas, Ašādhara's Sarasvatistotra, and Rāvana's Bālagraha Cikitsā and quotations from Imadi Bhattopadhyāya's Gānabhrd-Yantra-Pūjā-Vidhāna and Mahasena's Trivarṇācāra. On a consideration of the opening verses 1 and 2 and the verse 139 of the colophon which allude to Matisāgara we are inclined to believe that the author of at least the original nucleus was one named Matisāgara. The work contains a hymn of Sri Pārsvanātha and large extracts from Jwālāmalini Kalpa both by Sri Indranandi of Dravida Sangha who was the pupil of Vappanandi and a grand-pupil of Vasavanandi and a famous Māntrika who flourished circa Saka 861 i. e. 996 of Vikrama era which is the date of his Jwālinikalpa. It must be therefore Matisāgara who, iss is stated ni the beginning of the work, extracted from and summarised ancient Māntric works of different authors, * and he must have flourished subse
तेषु विद्यानुवादाख्यो य: पूर्वो दशमो महान् । मंत्रयन्त्रादिविषयः प्रथितो विदुषां मतः ॥९॥ तस्यांशा एव कतिचित् पूर्वाचार्येरनेकधा । स्वां स्वां कृति समालंव्य कृताः परहितैषिभिः ॥१०॥ उदत्य विप्रकीर्णभ्यस्तेभ्यः सारं विरच्यते । ऐदंयुगीनानुद्दिश्य मंदान् विद्यानुशासनम् ॥ ११ ॥
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quent to the said Indranandi. We know that the preceptor of the famous Vādirāja, who was a contemporary of Mallişeņasūri, was Matisāgara. Vādirāja and Mallişeņasūri appear to have been connected with each other, as Vādirāja in the second verse of the colophon of his Nyāyaviniscaya-Vivaraṇa refers to Kanakasena who is most probably the grand-preceptor of Mallișeņa and Narendrasena the co-pupil of Jinasena the preceptor of Mallişeņa. Further Matisägara was a Mathapati of Simhapura and belonged to Dravida Sangha (which is called Jainābhāsa by Devasenasūri in his Darśanasāra) whose members being lax in the observance of the strict rules of conduct for Sãdhus have been termed by Pt. Nāthurām Premi Digambara Caityavāsis, as their practices were very similar to the practices of Svetambara Caityavāsis described in the foregoing pages hereof including practice of Mantra, Nimitta and Medicine, Matisāgara, the preceptor of the famous Vādirāja, is therefore very probably the author of the original collection of Mantric treatises comprised in Vidyānusāsana. As the work was principally a collection, it has induced later writers to add thereto or interpolate therein subsequent treatises and passages from various known and unknown writers which can be removed without affecting the unity of the work.
The question which is most material for our purpose, however, is why is the work ascribed to Mallisena and whether he had any and if so what part in the preparation of the text of Vidyānusāsana devoid of later interpolations.
We may infer from what we have already stated before that a sort of summary prepared by Matisāgara of ancient Māntric treatises did come to the hand of the person who prepared the present enlarged text (without the later interpolations) of Vidyānusāsana. Mallisena's connection with it, on a cursory survey of the text is only that it includes a hymn of Jwālini which bears his name. Perhaps the inclusion in Vidyānusāsana of the treatises on Padmāvati, Sarasvati, Jwālini, Kamacāndālini and Bālagrahacikitsā may further connect him in some
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uncertain manner as he himself is said to have treated all these in independent treatises. Fortunately we have been able to secure a firmer footing in this connection by a detailed comparison of the text of Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa with the present text of Vidyānusāsana. It is that Vidyanusasana contains within itself more than five sixths of Bhairava Padmavatīkalpa. To be exact outof 308 verses (including 5 verses of colophon) of Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa 258 have been traced by us spread over fourteen different chapters out of the twenty four chapters of Vidyānusāsana. All the verses in chapters II to VII of Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa are traced; the untraced verses in chapters I, II, VIII, IX and X are only 10, 5, 4, 6 and 25 respectively. The subject in ch. X of Bhairava Padmavatikalpa is Garuda (snake-charming and charms against snake-bites) which being a speciality of the author, as is apparent from his title 'Garudamantravādavedi,' he has added new matter comprised in new verses which for that reason could not be traced in Vidyānusāsana. This accounts for the 25 untraced verses in the said X chapter, 5 of which form the colopon containing the author's lineage. The first chapter is introductory and describes the qualifications of a Mantrika. Here the matter to be treated being not Mantric and the author being a poet, he composed fine new verses.
A considerable portion of Sarasvatīkalpa of the author has been also traced by us in Vidyanusāsana. Portions of Jwalini Kalpa and Kāmacāndāli Kalpa are also traced in Vidyānusāsana. The text of Balagrahacikitsa being not available to the writer has not been compared.
When we undertook the investigation, we never thought that such a large portion-practically the whole-of Bhairava Padmavatīkalpa would be traced in Vidyānusāsana. What is the inference to be drawn? This cannot be a mere coincidence. It can neither be interpolation nor plagiarism. It cannot be former because it cannot be taken off from Vidyānusāsana without interfering with the current of narration and without interfering with the method, arrangement and sequence of the text. The portion is spread over practically the whole of Vidyānusāsana
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and cannot be taken off without disturbing the unity of the work. This is the reason why we think that Mallişeņa must have been at least a redactor if not the author that is to say he has added much more of his own in Vidyānusāsana than the portion of Bhairava Padmavati. kalpa traced by us.
We cannot even imagine that an author of Mallișeņa's proud position bearing titles of being universal poet and an adept in Garuda and Mantravāda could ever be supposed to be guilty of such wholesale plagiarism. From a statement in Jwālinisādhanavidhāna in ch. IV of Vidyānusāsana that the three-lettered Vidyā of Jwālini is not written by the preceptor so it should be learnt from him personally, we think that the editor or redactor was guided in the editing or preparation of the text by a living Guru who would have written the Vidyā if he chose. This shows that the redactor had a kernel or nucleus in writing composed by the living Guru who could be approached to learn the three -lettered Vidyā of Jwālini. Probably the reference may be to Matisāgara who may have been living when Mallişeņa redacted the work under the guidance of the former. Probably Matisāgara might have been Vidyāguru to Mallişeņa being an adept in Mantravāda. It is significant that Vidyānusāsana is styled 'Arşa' (ancient or composed by ancient sages) at the end of all the twenty-four chapters of the work and no name of the author is mentioned. If it was of sole ownership of Mallisena he would not have failed to subscribe his name as he has done in his other works. The only proper conclusion to be drawn is that he was the editor and redactor of the work.
We may note here that we have been led, as a result of the comparison of the text of Bhairava Padmāvati Kaspa with Vidyānusāsana to believe that the former was composed after the redacted edition of Vidyānusāsana was prepared. Sarasvatīkalpa, Jwālinikalpa and Kamacandālikalpa also appear to have been subsequently composed.
Vajrapañjara-Vidhyāna, and Bālagraha-Cikitsă are other Mantric works ascribed to him. Having had no access to them, we express no
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opinion on the point. Sajjanacittavallabha, Adipurāna, Pravacanasāratikā and Pancāstikāyatīkā ascribed to Mallisena are not really his works. Pt. Nāthuräm Premi in his recent compendium entitled “Jaina Sahitya aura Itibāsa" in Hindi surmises that Mallisena must not have been a Vanavāsi Sādhu i. e. a strict Sädhu living in a forest but must have been a Mathapati* i. e. one owning and residing in a monastery to which used to be attached lands and other properties yielding considerable income. He must have been practising Mantra, Nimitta and Medicine for the benefit of his pupils particularly his lay-followers.
Regarding the commentator Bandhușeņa he only gives his name in the Mangala verse to his commentary. As he gives his name in plural we may surmise that he may have been an Acharya. As his name has the suffix 'Sena' we may infer that he belonged to 'Sena gana' or Sangha which was formerly called 'Panca Stūpānvaya'. From his obeisance to Sri Pārsvanātha, we may infer that he was a Jain. As he calls the work the best of Kalpa we may infer that he held the work and its author in high esteem. In his commentary he does not merely explain difficult terms but supplements what is left unsaid by the author and even supplies Mantras and other details not given by the author. He thus shows extensive and intimate knowledge of Mantras and Mantric rites. He is equally at home while commenting on various herbs named in the original work and gives synonyms thereof from the local Karnātaki (Kanarese) language (See Com, on ch. IX vv. 21, 25 and 35). As he supplements detailed information where it is lacking in the original, and sets forth verbatim Mantras+
* Pt. Nathurām Premi in his article"Vanavāsi Aura Caityavāsi Sampradāya"(p.347 ff.) in his above.ment oned work says Maţia patis or Mathavasis (including later Bhattārakas or Yatis) amongst Digambara Jain Sadhus correspond to Śwetāmbara Caityavāsis and may be termed Digambara Caityavāsis as they equally indulged in lax practices. + See Com. v. 38 ch. III, which gives Sri Pārsva Yakşaś Mantra, Com. v. 17 ch. V gives Candasūlini Mantra, Com. vv. + acd 19 ch. VI respectively give Krşņa Mātañgini Mantra and Kätyāyani Mantra; Com. vv. 10 and 17 ch. VII respectively give Anābata. vidyā and Aristanemi Mantra.
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not even alluded to in the original, we may surmise that he must have been very closely connected with the author and might have been his junior co-pupil (Maillṣeņa describes himself as the elder pupil of Jinasena in the colophon of his Jwālinī Kalpa) or his pupil. It is a fact however that much of such information and Mantras are given by the commentator from Vidyānusāsana as we have ascertained from a detailed comparison of the work and the commentary with Vidyanusāsana. There is no doubt that he has very ably commented on such a specialized work and laid the readers under great obligation by furnishing very accurate and exhaustive information on the subject. We may also infer that both the author and the commentator might have belonged to Karnatic from the references above mentioned in the commentary. About the author we can say from the knowledge of Puranic Mantras shown by him in the last chapter as noted in the 'Contents' of the present work that he was well acquainted with the Puranic literature and particularly Garudapurāṇa and Nāradīyamahāpurāṇa. The verses cited in the footnote from the colophon of Kamacāndāli Kalpa show that he wrote prose as well as poetry in Prakrit as well as Sanskrit in a charming style, was versed in uetrics or Prosody and Poetics, had such a marvellous Memory that he would not write any portion of his work till he completed the whole and that he was a favourite of Sarasvati. From a verse omitted in Sarasvati Mantra Kalpa Appendix 11 after verse 76 we find that he styled himself Yogindra.
X
" भाषाद्वय कवितायां कवयो दर्प वहति तावदिह । नालोकयति यावत्कविशेखरमल्लित्रेण मुनिम् ॥१॥ छंदोऽलंकारशास्त्रं किमपि न च पर प्राकृत संस्कृतं वा
काव्यं तच्च प्रबंधं सुकविजनमनोरंजनं यः करोति ।
कुर्वन्नुर्वीशिलादौ न लिखति किल तद् याति यावत्समाप्तिम्
स श्रीमान्मलित्रेणो जयतु कविपतिर्वाग्वधूमण्डितास्यः || २ || "
* "
INTRODUCTION
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'वाक्पतेर्वादिवेतालादभयें दोश्च पद्मलात् । श्री मलिषेणयोगींद्रा देशाद्विद्या समागता ॥
""

कामचांडाली कल्पात्
सरस्वतीमंत्रकल्पातू

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APPENDIX 1-ADBHUTA PADMAVATI KALPA W E now turn to works in appendices. 'Adbhuta Padmāvati Kalpa' of
Candrasūri, a pupil of Swetambara Upādhyāya Yāsobhadra, is contained in Appendix I. It is a work in six chapters but the first two chapters are missing. Indranandi is mentioned in v. 50 ch. IV and after v.15 ch. V of the said work and described respectively therein as Guru and Mantravādi -Vidyā-Cakravarti-Cūdāmaņi This is enough to identify him as the famous Digambara Jain Māntrika who flourished circa 996 Vikrama era. The very high regard shown by the author for Indranandi shows that it was probably under the influence of his Māntric works that 'Adbhuta Padmāvati Kalpa' was written. The mention of 24 companion-deities and 20 Dandesas of Sri Padmāvati in the Yantra described in ch. IV of the work is novel. The arrangement of the Yantra is probably borrowed from some work of Indranandi. * Inclusion of Pratyangirā, Ambikā, Jwālāmālīni and Cakresvari in the Yantra shows the popularity of these deities at the time. + Details of worship of Sri Padmavati are also given in the said chapter. V. 53 ch. IV gives Dhyāna of Padmavati which is different from that given in Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa in that one of her arms bears a lotus instead of the divine fruit. V. 19 ch. IV gives Padmāvati's following Mantra. "
past and 14 #: ,"
This is different from the five Mantras described in Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa. The third chapter describes protective rite and
* Cf. Mälämantra in ch. VI with Mālämantra given in the beginning of Indranandi's Parimavatipūjana in Appendix 2.
Jinsenācārya who composed Harivamśapurāņa in Saka 705 i. e. 840 Vikram era refers to 24 Sāsanadevatās and praises therein Apraticakră alias Cakreśvariand Ambika which shows popularity of their worship at the time. Here is the verse:
प्रहीतचक्राप्रतिचक्रदेवता तथोर्जयन्तालयसिंहवाहिनी । शिवाय यस्मिन्त्रिह सविधीयते व तत्र विघ्नाः प्रभवन्ति शासने ॥४४॥
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Bhūtasuddhi. We surmise that the first and second chapters of the work may have contained Mantrilakṣaṇa and Divyādivya grahalaksaņa as are contained in Jwālinikalpa of Indranandi. The fifth chapter deals with invoking the deity in the body of a suitable person. The sixth chapter gives Sri Kalikunda Pārsvanātha Yantra to cure affliction by evil spirits and also to remove other troubles. Another Yantra and Mantras are then described for the same purpose.
The importance of this work is that it very probably reflects an earlier mode of worship and gives Mantra and Yantra of Padmāvati as in vogue in the time of Sri Indranandi that is at least a century prior to Mallişeņasūri.
It is difficult to say who Candra and Yasobhadra Upādhyāya were and when exactly they flourished. From v. 6 ch. V in which Padmavati is identified with various principal deities of other cults we are able to surmise that the author must be later than 1203 Vikrama era when Pārsvadevagani wrote his cominentary on Padrāvatyastaka as he had not the verse 20 of Padmavatīstotra (Appendix 5) before him and did not therefore comment upon it. The fact is that the hymn being very popular several subsequent additions to it have been made from time to time and v. 20 is a part of such later addition. This verse appears to have been paraphrased as v. 6 ch. V of Adbhuta Padmavati Kalpa. We can therefore only say that the author must have flourished considerably later the 1203 Vikrama era. We may also note that there was one Yasobhadrasūri of Harsapuriya Maladhari Gaccha who in 1270 Vikrama era took part along with others in revising Devaprabhasüri's Pāndavacaritra. He may be supposed to have had a pupil named Candra when Yaśobhadra was only Upādhyāva and not Achārya or Sūri. The famous Saiddhāntika and logician Municandrasūri, the pupil of Yasobhadrasūri of Bịhadgaccha was cartainly not the author. That the author had not perhaps before him Mallişena's Bhairava Padināvati Kalpa can be explained by the fact that after the historic debate in Siddharaj's time in 1181 Vikrama era and the defeat
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309
therein and consequent expulsion from Gujarat of Digambara Jains the works of the latter were not readily available to Swetambara Jains.
APPENDIX 2 PADMAVATIPOJANA Appendix 2 contains 'Padmāvatīpājana' by Indranāndi already mentioned. He is styled Yogīndra. He recast the old Jwālini Kalpa of Sri Helācārya alias Elācarya, as it was difficult to understand, completing it at Mānyakheta, the capital of King Sri Krsnarāja, on Vaisakha Sukla 3rd Saka 861 i. e. 996 Vikrama era. Indranandi in his Jwālinīkalpa mentions Gāngamuni (Elācārya's pupil), Vijābja, Aryā Kşāntirasabbā, Viruvatta, Kandarpa and Gunanandi as the seven persons through whom knowledge of Jwālināmata was handed down to him, he having been directly instructed by the last two jointly. We may therefore reasonably suppose Elācārya to have lived about 150 years earlier i. e. about 850 Vikrama era. Indranandi was a very famous Digambara Jain Māntrkia and must have written other Māntric works also. From the fact that Vardhamānasūri (1468 Vikrama era) mentions at p. 150 in his Acāradinakara Vol. II Indranandi along with others as authors of Pratiştha-Kalpas (works on instāllation ceremonies), we may infor that he must have written a Pratișthākalpa. Vidyānusāsana ch. V gives a hymn of Pārsvanātha with commentary which mentions him as its author.
APPENDIX 3-RAKTA PADMAVATI KALPA ETC.
Appendix 3 contains Rakta Padmavati kalpa'. It comprises Mantras, Yantras, a hymn and a special mode of worship of Padmāvati. From the fact that the Yantra is called second in the subscription one may think that there must have been the first Yantra which is now inissing. From the abrupt and unconnected manner in which different subjects are treated one gets the impression of there being lacunae in the work. There is no data even to venture a surmise as to the author of the work. From the language of Pujanavidhi one may think it to be not earlier than the 15th century of Vikrama era. The other parts are in Sanskrit and we are not sure whether they were written
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at one and the same time. We may note here that there is a redcoloured image of Sri Padmāvati in a standing posture carrying Sri Pārsvanātha's image on her head in Sri Pārsvanātha's temple at Narodā near Ahmedabad and that as stated before (p. 251 ante) Pandita Sri Vīravijaya performed Sadhanā of Rakta Padmāvati.*
There is also in Sri Pārsvanātha's temple at Tokersha's pole, Jamālpur, Ahmedabad, a red-coloured sand-stone image of Sri Padmāvati with five hoods carrying thereon an image of Sri Pārsvanātha and holding in her two upper hands a goad and a lotus and showing Varadamudrā with the other two.
APPENDIX 4 ŚRI PĀRŚVANÅTHASTOTRA ETC.
Amongst the works contained in this Appendix, the really important and old work is the hymn commencing with the words Sri -maddevendra-Vịndā' etc. There is a very famous Mantric hymn of Indranandi commencing with the words 'Srimannāgendra-rudra' etc. The former does not bear the name of the author but the later bears that of Indranandi. The former is given in Vīdyānusāsana after the latter. In Vidyānusasana ch. IV in Jwālinīsādhanavidhi is given a hymn of Sri Jwalini which begins with the words 'Srimaddaityorugendra' etc. This is followed by a hymn by Sri Mallisenasūri, which means that the hymn of Jwalini given first is very probably by an older writer. If we are justified in indentifying the author of this hymn with the author of Sri Pārsvanātha's said hymn, which follows Indranandi's Sri Pārsvanātha's hymn in Vidyānusāsana, because both commence with 'Srim', then we may say that he must have lived after Indranandi and before Mallişeņasūri i. e. between 996 and 1104 Vikrma era. One feels a little doubt as Indranandi's hymn also begins with 'Srim', but there
*In Sri Ajitanātha's temple in the rear of the Upāśraya at Bhatthini-Bāri at Ahmedabad which came to be known as Viravijaya's or Vira's Upāśraya (see p. 250 ante) there is a bronze image of Sri Padmāvati before which, as was reported by Sri Gulābvijayaji a sādhu in his line, Viravijayaji performed Sadhana and obtained a boon from Sri Padmāyati.
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is really no scope for it because Indranandi appears to expressly men. tion his name in the body of his hymn or work as he has in fact done in the said hymn of Sri Pārsvanātha and also his Jwālinīkalpa. That Jwālinistotra commencing with the words 'Srimaddaityorugendra' is not Indranandi's is certain as the vehicle of Jwālini in the first verse thereof is said to be a lion instead of the he-buffalo mentioned by Indranandi in his Jwālini-kalpa. Both Elācārya and Mallisena describe the vehicle to be a he-buffalo.
We may here state in anticipation that we are inclined to think that the same author also composed the famous Padmāvatyastaka which has been much enlarged by subsequent additions as given in Appendix 5.
The other works in Appendix 4 viz. two Aştakas, Jayamālā etc. are in ungrammatical Sanskrit and are meant to be recited while performing Pūjā.
APPENDIX 5-PADMAVATI STOTRA ETC. Appendix 5 gives the enlarged version of the famous Padmavatyaştaka. The first eight verses are the original verses and with verse 32 as the 9th verse comprise the original hymn, the ninth verse being meant to narrate the fruits to be gathered by the recital of the hymn. The 33rd verse of the hymn, as given, in this appendix, is of a similar nature and contains 'Falasruti' by the redactor. VV. 34 to 36 prove conclusively that the original hymn contained only eight verses. Because the 32nd verse has the word 'Dānavendraih' some think it must have been composed by some Dánavendrasūrī. We are not aware of any such Sūri. As the hymn was popular even in the time of the commentator Pārsvadevagaņi i. e. in 1203 (he terms it 'Lokaprasiddha') it must have been written at least a century earlier. We think, as already stated above, that the author of this hymn must be the same as the author of Pārsvanāthastotra and Jwālinistotra above mentioned. The five other works are Aştaka, Pratyekapājā, Jayamālā, Padmavatidaņdaka and Padmāvati Patala. All these except Daņdaka
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appear to have been composed under the influence Padmavatyaṣṭaka. Aṣṭaka is merely an adaptation of Sardaṣṭaka' contained in Sarasvatikalpa of Arhaddāsa. The latter contains only eight verses while the former contains twelve verses. Only the last four verses appear to be newly composed by the writer adapting Sardaṣṭaka. The Mantras at the end of the Dandaka are probaly from another Mantrakalpa. The language of Pratyekapuja and Jayamālā at many places borders on Sankritized Hindi and at other places it is ungrammatical Sanskrit.
Referring to Padmavati Pațala we can say that some one has composed it in close imitation of the famous Padmavatyaṣṭaka We may refer to a similar hymn viz. Śrī Cakreśvaryaṣṭaka contained in Appendix 23. The unknown authors had perhaps the same model of Sri Padmāvatyaṣṭaka before them and might be identical. Aṣṭaka, Pratyekapūjā and Jayamālā are probably by some Digambara Jain writers.
We would note here that Bhaskararãi the famous author of Bhāṣya on Lalitāsahasranama cites while commenting on the words q faqa' in v. 36 a passage* from Rudrayāmala which gives names of some well-known Shaktis. Both Padmavati as well as Tarā are included therein. As noted by us in the footnote at p. 295 ante Padmavati is identified with various deities including Tara. If one is rash enough to infer from such identification that Padmavati was not independently worshipped and that Padmavati is only another name of Tara the above passage from Rudrayamala would be an
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INTRODUCTION
"पराशक्तिश्चादिशक्तिरिच्छा ज्ञानक्रियाबला | बालन्नपूर्णा बगला तारा वाग्वादिनी परा ॥ गायत्री चैव सावित्री सिद्धलक्ष्मीः स्वयंवरा । नकुली सुरगारूढा कुरुकुल्ला व रेणुका ॥ संपत्करी च साम्राज्यलक्ष्मीः पद्मावती शिवा । दुर्गा भद्राकृतिः काली कालरात्रिः सुभद्रिका । छिन्नमस्ता भद्रकाली कालकण्ठी सरस्वती ॥"

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eye-opener for it names Padmavati and Tārā as distinct Shaktis. Further carried to its logical extreme such argument would eliminate all the deities identified and one would have to come to the absurd conclusion that no deity except Tärä ever existed. The passage also shows that both Padmavati and Tārā were known before the advent of Buddhist Tantras, as Rudrayamala is known to be an earlier work. Further, Vairotyāstotra of Arya Nandila (circa 130 Vikrama era) expressly mentions Padmavati.
"जा धरणोरगदइया देवी पउमावई अ वइरुहा ।
सप्पसहस्सेहिं जुआ देवी फिर किंकरा जाया ||२||" मेरो व्यास्तोत्रम् ॥
313
Nirvanakalikā p. 37 also mentions Padmavati. The text of Uvasaggaharastotra purporting to include the Mantric gāthās belived to have been secreted away to prevent abuse thereof also mentions Padmavati in three of them as follows:
"ॐ ह्रीं श्रीं पास विसदर विज्जामंतेण शाणज्झायम्यो । धरण पउमावइदेवी ॐ ह्रीं यूँ स्वाहा ||८|| ॐ धुणामि पास ॐ ह्रीं पणमामि परमभत्तीए । अक्खर धरणिदपउमावई पयढियकिति ॥९॥ जस्स पयकमले सया वसई पोमावई धरणिंदो । तस्स नामेण सयले बिसहरविसं नासेई ||१०|| "
This will conclusively prove the ancient character of the worship of Sri Padmavati much earlier than the 7th century A. D.
APPENDIX 6
Appendix 6 contains a hymn to Sri Padmavati by Municandra alias Municandranatha who cannot be identified with any of the three famous Municandrasüris who flourished in the 12th century of Vikrama
× They are probably of later date than the original text of 5 gathās.
+ Sri Padmavati's 'parivara' can be ascertained from her Yantra, vv. 13 to 21, ch. III, Bhairava Padmava i Kalpa. It may be interesting to note that there is a marble image of Sri Padmavati in a Jain temple at Idar showing the same symbols as are described in her Dhyana in v. 12, ch. II ibid. as has been observed by Mr. Sarabhai Nawab the publisher hereof.
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era as the hymn is neither in correct Sanskrit nor free from metrical faults. We can only conjecture that the author may perhaps be identified with Municandra who wrote 'Rasāulo' in 1577 Vikrama era or with Municandra of Paurņamikagaccha who flourished circa 1550 Vikrama era. The correct name of the hymn as appears in the colophon of a copy thereof in the writer's possession is 'Prakața Padmāvatīstotra' and the said colophon also mentions it to be a part of 'Devīpātha'. The author there is said to be Municandrācārya. It is apparently in imitation of 'Durgārājastotra' which begins with the words are agregar' The only noteworthy feature of the hymn is the effect produced by alliterative words therein.
APPENDIX 7 Appendix 7 contains the famous Cintāmani Mantra of Sri Pārśvanātha and various Mantras and Dhyana of Sri Padmăvati and Mantra of Hamsa Padmāvati. The work really ends before the words
Arsla qardagigo91: For Fascua 1 Another Kalpa of Padmāvati is commenced with the said words. Of this Kalpa only the first two Mantras are given and it is then left incomplete. The author of the work is not known. In imitation of non-Jain Mantras the author has given Rşi (seer) etc. While mentioning 'Kilaka' he has not realized that Jain Mantras do not require any Suddhi or Purification nor any removal of Kīlaka or Sãopddhāra See vv. 60-61 ch. 24 (P. 222), Mantra Mahodadhi.
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APPENDICES: 9-10
In this hymn Padmavati is described as 'Mantrarūpā ca Mantrajnā Mantradā Mantrasāgarā' identifying her with Mantra. We would note here some of the important appellations identifying her with various well-known deities: Lakṣmi, Mahālakṣmi, Kamalā, Srīrupā, Ramā, Maheśvari, Mahādevī, Šivā, Sati, Candi, Durgā, Vṛṣārūdhā, Bhuvanesvarī, Sarasvati, Bhārati, Sadhvi, Bhagavati, Khecarī, Kāmadhenu, Kālī, Kālikā, Bālā, Vajrā, Vedamātā, Vīramātā, Jinamātā, Jaineśvarī, Yogini, Yogeśvarī, Nāginī, Nāgakanyā, Nāganātheśavallabhā, Bhujagākāraśāyinī, Kundalinī, Satcakrabhedavikhyātā, Lilavati, Tripura, Sundari, Tripurasundari, Tripurabhairavi, Bhairavī, Bhīmā, Tārā, Totală, Tvarita, Kāmasādhinī, Katyāyani, Sivadūti, Gauri, Gāndhārī, Jwālinī, Jwālāmukhī, Ambikā, Cakreśvarī, Cintamani, Jayā, Vijayā, Jayanti, Omkararūpā, Hrimkārarūpā, Tārā and Tārāmānavimardini. From the last appellation which is found in v. 29 of Padmavatyaṣṭaka, we may surmise that probably this hymn was composed after the redaction of Padmavatyaṣṭaka i. e. circa 17th century Vikrama era as we surmise that to be the date of the redactor (perhaps some Jayavijaya see v. 33) of Padmavatyaṣṭaka. Nothing is known about the author of Padmavatisahasranama.
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APPENDIX 9
This appendix 9 also contains a hymn of Padmavati containing identifications of Sri Padmavati with well-known deities. Some of them not already noted above are Vairoṭya, Prajnapti, Mahākālī, Bhadrakali, Kāmākṣā, Jagadambā, Annapurṇā, Srividya, Bhavani, Matangi, Rājamātangi, Hingulāja, Pītā (not Piṭhā) or Bagalamukhi, Vägvādini, Saradā, Kuṣmaṇdi, Sākambharī, Camunda, Mahāmāyā, Gayatri, Vardhamānavidyā and Bahubali. Her Vāhanas are said to be the lion and the swan. V. 11 refers to the single lettered, threelettered, six-lettered and fifteen-lettered Vidyas of Sri Padmavati. We are unable to trace the author of this hymn.
APPENDIX 10
This appendix 10 contains a hymn of Sri Padmāvatī in Apabhramsa dialect by Sri Jinaprabhasuri whose life we have already
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described and have also shown therein the Mulamantra and the singlelettered Vidya of Padmavati contained in the said hymn. There is a reference to Yantra of 65 in v. 25 and in v. 34 it is stated that the benefit received by the favour of Sri Padmavati obtained through the recital of Cintamani Mantra ( :-see v. 18) which grants every desire equals to that received by the combined favour of all the 16 Vidyadevis through perfection achieved by the Sadhaka through their Sādhanā.
SARASVATI
As all the works contained in Appendices 11 to 15 relate to Sarasvati, we shall offer some preliminary remarks relating to the ancient character of her worship and her various 'Vahanas' and symbols. The images including those of Sarasvati and Ambika discovered from the excavations of the Jain Stupa at Mathura proves that Sarasvati and Ambika were worshipped by the Jains in ancient time (see ante p. 256). The statue of Sarasvati discovered there is headless. "The goddess is shown sitting squatted with her kness up on a rectangular pedestal, holding a manuscript in her left hand. The right hand which was raised has been lost. The figure is clothed in very stiffly executed drapery, a small attendant with hair dressed in rolls stands on each side. The attendant on the left wears a tunic and holds a jar-the attendant on the right has hands clasped in adoration." Plate 99, p. 56, The Jain Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura by V. A. Smith. Sri Bhagavatisūtra Vol. III p. 979 and Pakkhisūtra p. 71 have verses in praise of Srutadevatā alias Sarasvatī which show that the worship of Sarasvati amongst Jains is very old; see also the passage from Mahānisītha cited in the footnote at p. 257 ante.
INTRODUCTION
It is interesting to note that Sutradhāra Mandana gives 12 'Bhedas' or variant forms of Sarasvati* with their names in his
*
[ अथ द्वादश सरस्वत्यः ] विराजिता ( : ) |
एकवक्त्रा (:) चतुर्भुजा मुकुटेन
प्रभामण्डल संयुक्ता ( : ) कुण्डलान्वित शेखरा ( : ) ॥७९॥ [ इति सरस्वतीनां साधारणलक्षणम् ]
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Devatāmūrtiprakarana, Adh. VIII, vv. 79 to 85, pp. 159-160. Of these the symbols of Sarasvati as described in v. 81 are identical with those of Srutadevatā alias Sarasvati in Nirvāņakalikā. * According to Agnipurāņa Sarasvati holds a book, a rosary and Viņā or lute (in two hands). Vāyupurana describes her as showing in her right (lower) hand Varadamudrã and holding in the right (upper) hand a rosary and in the left (upper) hand a book and showing in her left (lower) hand Abhayamudrä. Most of her Purāņic descriptions as also Sarasvatirahasya Upanişad give her a book and a rosary. According to the Jain tradition however most of the older descriptions give her a lotus and a book and describe her as sitting in a lotus-See Kalyāņakandam Stuti and Sri Haribhadrasūri's Samsāradāvā Stuti; see also v. 11 Sarasvatīstotra, Appendix 12, also Bappabhattisūri's Catūrviņsatikāstuti v. 76, v. 26 Ch. 4 Anubhavasiddhamantra-dvātrimsika, Appendix 30 and the Stuti from Pancakalpabhāsya (see footnote p. 257 ante.)
अक्षप वीणा पुस्तकं (पुस्तं) महाविद्या प्रकोर्तिता ।
[इति महाविद्या १] अक्षं पुस्तकं (पुस्त) वीणापमं महावाणी च नामतः ॥८॥ [इति महावाणी २ वराक्षपद्मपुस्तकं शुभावहा च भारती ।
[इति भारती ३] वराम्बुजाक्षपुस्तकं सरस्वती प्रकीर्तिता ||८१||
[इति सरस्वती ४ बराक्ष पुस्तकं पद्मं आर्या नाम प्रकीर्तिता ।
[इत्यार्या ५] वरपुस्तकाक्षपद्मं ब्राह्मी नाम सुखावहा ||८२॥
[इति ब्राह्मी ६] वरपद्मवीणा पुस्तकं महाधेनुश्च नामत: ।
[इति महाधेनुः ] वरं च पुस्तकं वीणा वेदगर्भा तथाम्बुजम् ।।८३॥ [इति वेदगर्भा ८] अक्षं तथाऽभयं पद्म पुस्तकेनेश्वरी भवेत् ।
[इतीश्वरी ९) (असपप्तं ? अक्षाभयं) पुस्तकं च महालक्ष्मीस्तोत्पलम् ।। ८४।। [इति महालक्ष्मीः १०] अक्षं पद्म पुस्तकं च महाकाल्यभयं तथा ।
इति महाकाली ११] अक्षपुस्तकमभयं पद्मं महासरस्वती ॥८५॥
[इति महासरस्वती १२] श्रुतदेवतां शुक्लवर्णां हंसवाहनां चतुर्मुजां वरदकमलान्वितदक्षिणकरां पुस्तकाक्षमालान्वितवामकरां चेति । पुस्तकाक्षमालिकाहस्ता वीणाहस्ता सरस्वती ।
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Very early Vīņā or the lute seems to have been substituted for Varadamudrā-see v. 6 Sarasvatīstotra, appendix 12, also Visņudharmottarapurāna, III, Adh. 64, vv. 1&2. Vīņā then continues to be very popular and becomes an invariable symbol of Sarasvati. Her seat of lotus loses popularity and Hamsa or swan is universally accepted as her Vāhana. It is a fact that amongst Svetambara Jain sculptures the image of Sarasvati with the vehicle of a pea-fowl or pea-cock has not yet been found. It was the famous painter Ravivarmā who was responsible for showing a pea-cock as the Váhana of Sarasvati. The confusion is perhaps due to an unwarranted identification of Saraswati with Kaumāri i. e. Sakti of Kumāra whose Váhana is a peacock. Because Sarasvati is traditionaliy believed to be Kumāri i. e. virgin, she is taken to be the same as Kaumārī Sakti. Amongst Jains also there is Prajnapti Vidyādevi whose Vāhana is 'Mayūra' or a peacock and there is a Mayūravāhini Vidyā referred to in Pancaparamesti Mahā. mantra Yantra Bșhat Kalpa: but none of these is Sarasvatī.
Asādhara in his Pratisthāsāroddhāra gives the Mantra of Mayūravāhini and says that with that Mantra Vägvädini should be installed. Thus ainongst the Digambara Jains Sarasvati came to be identified with Mayūra vāhini and since Asadhara's time some Digambara Jain sculptures of Sarasvati are found with the peacock as her Vāhana. Asādhara himself has also described Sarasvati as Pundarīkāsanā having the lotus as her seat. Later Digambara Jain writers have following Asādhara described her either as Mayūra vāhini or Pundarikāsanā and some as Hamsavāhanā.* The confusion is perhaps due to loss of the old tradition and mixing up of Mayūravāhini with Sarasvati. It can however be said without fear of contradiction that no ancient image of Sarasvati is found with the peacock as her vehicle.
APPENDIX 11 Sarasvatikalpa by Sri Mallişeņasūri, the author of Sri Bhairava
* See hymns to Sarasvati by Malayakirti and Arhaddāsa contained in Malayakirti's Sarasvatīkalpa.
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Padmāvati Kalpa, is comprised in Appendix 11. V. 2 thereof gives Dhyāna and symbols of Sarasvati. V. 28 refers to the single-lettered Mantra viz. Hrīņkāra for achieving perfection in the Sadhanā of Sarasvati. It may be noted that the Mantra is the same as the single-lettered Vidyā of Sri Padmāvati. There are lacunae (1) after vv. 34 and (2) after v. 37 (p. 64) and (3) after the Mantra given after v. 65 (p. 66) and (4) after v. 76 (p. 67) which the readers will find filled in the footnote * from the writer's copy of Sarasvati Kalpa.
APPENDIX 12 In this appendix is a beautiful Mântric hymn to Sarasvati by Sri Bappabhattisūri. He flourished from 800 to 895 Vikrama era. This was the time when Buddhist Tāntrikas known as Siddhas * made Tantras as well as Kundaliniyoga popular. With Sahajayänists who followed the earlier Siddhas Pañcatattva worship and other objectionable practices spread and ultimately Sri Sankarācārya, (circa 8th century A. D.) in opposition to Vāmācāris advocated Samayamata. It lays
* 13 ही कौं क्ली जम्भे मोहे अमुकं वशं कुरु २ वषट् ॥ बझ्ययन्त्रम् ॥ (तद्यथा) २ 3 ओं को ही अम्बे अम्बाले अम्बिके यक्षिदेवि यम्र्यु ब्ले यूँ हसी ब्ले हसौ रररर
रां नित्यक्लिन्ने मदद्रवे मदनातुरे अमुकं आकर्षय २ घे २ संवौषट् ॥ ३ द्वादशसहस्रजापैः दशांशहोमेन सिद्धिमुपयाति ।
मंत्रत्रिभुवनसारः गुरूपदेशात्स विज्ञेयः ॥ ४ वाक्पते दिवेतालादभयेदोश्च पद्मलात् ।
Aftuzioaren aral !! * Luipå or Adisiddha (cira 669 A. D. according to Dr. Bhattacharya but circa 769-809 A. D. according to Pt. Rahula Sănkstyāyana) and Jalandharapă alias Hådipā known as Adinātha, his pupil Matsyendranātba, and the pupil of latter Gorakşanātha alias Ananga vajra (circa 705 A. D. according to Dr. Bhattachārya but circa 809-819 A. D. according to Pt. Rahula Sänkstyāyana) were some of the famous 84 Siddhas who believed in no God but Sünya, Vijnāna and Sukha. The Näthas who believed in one God appear to be the spiritual descendants of the Siddhas and came to light about 1200 A. D. The famous Yogi Jnāneśvara, who lived from 1275 to 1296 A. D. traces his descent in his commentary on Sri Bhagavadgitā from Sri Adinātha alias Jālandharapa.
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INTRODUCTION
stress on internal worship while Kaula worship is mainly external. In Samayācāra Dhyāna is in Sahasrära-cakra and not in such lower cakras as Mūlādhāra and Svadhisthāna. It is interesting to note that Sri Bappabhattisūri was well conversant with Kundaliniyoga as is clear from this hymn and recommends Dhyāna which is according to Samaymata and different from Kaula practices. In v. 8 he speaks of the identity between Sabdabrahma and Paramabrahma and in v. 10 gives the Sārasvata Mantra which is set forth as Mūlamantra in the Mantra Kalpa which follows. In the biography of Sri Bappabhattisūri contained in Prabhāvakacaritra (vv. 738-739) it is stated that he practised Adhyatmayoga for 21 days fasting unto death and expired like a real Yogi, his soul leaving the body through Brahmarandhra or Dasamadvāra. He is the first Jain Achāraya to refer to Kundalini. Sri Munisundarsūri (1436-1503 Vikrama era) also refers to Kundalini and Dhyāna in Sahasrāra-cakra respectively in vv. 2 and 4 of his Sāradāstavāstaka. In the Mantrakalpa which follows the hymn, detailed Dhyana in Şaţcakra is described; Bịhad Sarasvata Yantra and another Sārasvatayantra as also important Mantras with directions for worship of Sarasvati are therein described.
APPENDIX 13 The 'Om Arhanmukhakamala-vāsini' etc. in Appendix 12 is the Mantra which is also incorporated in the hymn in this Appendix 13. This hymn is wrongly ascribed to an unknown Sadhvi Sivāryā merely from the words 'Sadhvi Sivāryā' occuring in v. 8. This is apparently a mistake as can be seen from the verse occuring after the said Mantra 'Candracandana-gutim' etc. which mentions Hemasūri i. e. Hemacandrācārya as the Acharya who prescribed the pill prepared from sandal-wood paste and pure camphor-the pill over which the said Mantra * was to be recited for increasing the intellectual powers
* Sri Hemacardrācārya mentions the said Mantra in his Yogaśāstra ch.Villv. 72 des. cribing it as 'Pāpabhakşini Vidyā' i.e. Vidyä which destroys sirs and sets forth the same verbatim in his commentary on the said verse.
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of his pupils. It is clear therefore that the Stotra contained in this appendix which contains the same Mantra is the composition of Sri Hemacandrācārya and not of any Sadhvi named Sivāryā. Each of the words Sáchvī, Sivá and Arya is a name of Sarasvati-see Sarasvati-sahasranāma, Pancāngasangraha (Benares, s. y. 1954). We give in the footnote Sārasvatavidyā by Sri Bhadrabāhu * from the writer's collection for comparison. V. 7 of the hymn in this appendix 13 describes Jnānamudrā as a symbol of Sarasvati instead of Vīņā, the other symbols being book, and two lotuses. The swan is mentioned to be the vehicle.
We have already described the life of Sri Hemacandrācārya (see pp. 218-220). We may however add that about his time last of the Tantrika Siddhas flourished and the Nātha cult was about to rise. His Yogasāstra belonged to this transitional period when the people appreciated and valued miraculous powers but strongly disapproved of the Vāmācāri practices. The way had already been paved for this by Samayamata preached by Sri Sankarācārya.
As an illustration of his faith in the efficacy of Mantra, we may refer the readers to his Kāryānusāsana, where he mentions Pratibhā' or genius as the cause of poetical powers and says that it is of two kinds: (i) natural and (ii) acquired through Mantra by the grace of Māntric deity etc. He adds however that in the latter case also there is temporary or permanent removal of the veil of Karma showing that Māntric powers were not inconsistent with the Jain philosophy of Karma.
। श्री भद्रबाहुकृता सारस्वत विद्या । * " नमो भगवईए सुयदेवयाए सव्वमुअमायाए बारसंगपत्रयण जणगीए सरस्वईए सच्चवणि मुवनानि ओअर २ देवि मम सरीरं पविस मुहं पविस सव्वजणमयहरोए अरिहंतमिरीए 7 किरि २ मिहिरे मिहिरे नमः।" लक्षत्रयजापेन वरदा भवति । महाव्रतधारिणा भाव्यं । पठितन आदेयवची भवति ॥ I "PASTIFT (
FFI) : 97 TAHIRKAR HT aratai" 4.caragli अलंकारचूडामणिवृत्ति:-“मन्त्रदेवतानुग्रहादिप्रभवोपाधिकी प्रतिभा । इयमण्यावरणक्षयोपशमनिमात ।
दृष्टोपाधिनिबन्धनत्वात्तु औपाधिकीत्युच्यते ।''
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APPENDIX 14
Appendix 14 contains 'Sārdāstavana'a Mantric hymn to Sarasvati by Sri linaprabhasūri whose life we have already described (see 229-236). It is a beautiful hymn and may serve as an illustration of the great poetical powers of its author and his fondness for Mantras. As in the writer's copy of the hymn instead of stayedo' in v. 4 the reading is stagare. there appears to be an allusion to the great Māntrika Indranandi. V. 7 describes a rosary, a lotus, a Viņā or lute and a book as the symbols of Sarasvati who is said to be residing in a lotus. It is expressly stated in v. 9 that the hymn contains a great Sarasvata Mantra which is probably this:"ॐ ऐ ही श्रीं वद २ वाग्वादिनि भगवति #rafa jaf"
APPENDIX 15 The Devistotra comprised in the 15th Appendix is probably composed by some non-Jain writer. It contains various names of Sarasvati, Laksmi, Yoginī and others. It may be noted that the author identifies Devi with Jainesvarī, Bauddhamătar and Jinamátar. It is easy to identify Jainesvari as Sri Ambikä as she is described as riding on a lion.
ŚRI AMBIKA As the works in Appendices 16 to 21 relate to Sri Ambika, we shall offer a few preliminary remarks about her.
We have already shown that Sri Ambikā has been worshipped by the Jains from very ancient times and that she is considered to be the Jain Amnāya deity. Many have been perplexed as to why Sri Ambika is associated with the images of various other Tirthankaras although an attendant deity of the 22nd Tirthankara Sri Neminātha. The reason is that she is the deity taken to represent the Jain Amnāya as Tārā represents the Bauddha Amnāya. Not only is she associated with other Tirthankaras but her images also are found installed in the temples of various other Tirthankaras-not merely in the temple of Sri Neminātha. For instance, Sri Jinaprabhasūri in his Vividhatirtha Kalpa on
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p. 19 describes her as riding on a lion and guarding the Tirtha of Mathurā and her image is actually found from the excavations of the Jain Stūpa at Mathură (see p. 256 ante). In the same work in Ahicchatrā Kalpa p. 14, it is stated that there was an image of Sri Ambikā in Ahicchatrā in the vicinity of the fort riding on a lion with the image of Sri Neminātha on her crown. Now it should be noted that Ahicchatrā is a Tirtha sacred to Sri Pārsvanātha. The same work mentions that images of Sri Ambika were found installed in the temples at Hastināpura, Pratişthänapura alias Paithana, Girinār, Dhimpuri and several other places. Even this day in the famous temple of Sri Antariksa Pārsvanātha at Sripura alias Sirpur is an image of Sri Ambikā accompanied by an image of Ksetrapāla. * Similarly in the famous Serisā Pārsvanátha Tirtha (near Kalol) is found when the Tīrtha was recently discovered a large stone-image of Sri Ambikā in a sitting posture carrying on her crown the image of Sri Neminātha holding a bunch of mangoes in her left hand and supporting a child on her lap with the right. Another child stands beside her and the lion crouches at her feet. In Prabhāsa Pātaņa also, in the temple of Sri Dādā Pārsvanātha is an image of Sri Ambikā-see fig. 87 ‘Bhār:nām Jain Tīrtho'. She is shown as sitting under a mango tree, carrying on her crown an image of Sri Neminātha and holding a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and supporting with the left a child on her lap. Another child stands on her right. Her vehicle the lion is also shown. From an inscription it appears that an image of Sri Ambikā was formerly installed in the temple of Sri Candraprabha at Prabhāsa Pātana. In the famous Ellora caves there are several carved images of Sri Ambikā. One large image going under the name
* 'Raivatakagirisarkşepa', Vividhatirthakalpa and "Sātruñjayamāhātmya' II, 13 give names of several Kşetrapālas and other deities presiding over various parts of the Mt. Girnar. They are associated with Sri Ambikā in the Jain narrative literature. Some of them are Kālamegha, Meghanāda, Girividāraņa, Kapăța, Simhanāda, Khodika, Raivat, Siddhavināyaka, various Rudras, Gomedha Yakşa and Mahā wālā.
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INTRODUCTION
of Indrāni is that of Sri Ambika. She is show., in a sitting posture shaded by a fine mango tree carrying an image of Sri Nemināth on her crown. Her right hand which is mutilated probably held a unch of inangoes and the left hand supports a child on her lap. There is a lion crouching at her feet and attendants round about her. Peacocks are shown on the top of the mango tree indicating the advent of spring.
In several metal images of Sri Rsabhadeva is associated the image of Sri Ambikā instead of Sri Cakresvari. Sometimes she is associated with the images of Sri Pārsvanātha and other Tirthankaras also. This can be explained only on the ground of Sri Ambikā being the representative Jain Amnaya deity. This proves the antiquity and popularity of the worship of Sri Ambikā.
In the hymns (Appendices 16-18, 20-21) and Sri Ambikā Mantra Kalpa (Appendix 19) Ambikā is variously described. She is said to have two, four or more arms and to be of golden colour or of red, white or dark-blue colour. We may state here that one and the same deity is differently described as the object desired to be achieved differs. Broadly speaking a Sadhaka may contemplate on the Sattvika (tranquil or peaceful) form of the deity if the object desired by him is Sättvika (peiceful i. e, devoid of passion); similarly the form is Rājasa (imbued with grandeur) or Támasa (terrific), if the object ciesired by the Sadhaka is Rajasa (imbued with passion or desire) or Tamasika (malignant).* Generally the 'Sāttvika' form of a deity is clescribed as having two arms and being in : sitting posture, the Rājasi as having four arms and being in a standing posture and the Tāmasa as having many arms and actually in such action as is in
* यथा कामं तथा ध्यानं कारयेत्साधकोत्तमः । कर कार्येषु सर्वेषु ध्यानं वै तामसं स्मृतं ॥२४॥
बदय विद्वेषण स्तंभे राजसं ध्यानमारितम् । सात्त्विक शुभ कार्येषु ध्यानभेदःसमीरितः ॥२५॥ बालसूर्याशुसंकाशं राजरां ध्यानमुत्यत । सात्त्विक श्वेतवर्णं च कृष्णं (वर्ण )तामसमुच्यते ।।२६।।
- ज्योतिषार्णवे श्रीबटुकभैरवोपासनाच्यायः १२४ ।।
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consonance with the object desired by the Sadhaka. In Sättvika Dhyana the colour of the deity is white, in Rajasa red-sometimes yellow, and in Tāmasa dark blue or black. Peace, knowledge, selfless devotion or propitiation of the deity are Sättvika objects; prosperity happiness and other worldly objects imbued with passion or desire are Rājasa objects; and adversely affecting an enemy etc. are Tāmasa or malignant objects. Further, some deities are by their nature Sattvika some Rājasa, some Tāmasa and some have all the three qualities. +
1 Sadhaka makes his selection accordingly. This is the reason why special deities are recommended for worship for special objects (See Srimad Bhāgavat Sk. II, Adh. III, vv. 2-9 specially 6 & 7). This ilccounts for variations in the 'Svarūpa' or form of a deity. We think the deciding factor in ascertaining the nature of a particular deity or its image is the actual impression created on the mind of the Sadhaka. Amongst postures symbols and colours of a deity the most important factor is the colour as it most affects the Dhyāna.
As some deities have all the three qualities and some only one of them any inference as to worship of a particular form of a deity being ancient or otherwise which does not take into account the original conception as to the nature of the deity is likely to be erroneous. Sri Ambikā is not only a Sasanadevī but as already stated is also the Jain Amnāya deity and as such has been invoked for achieving various objects from time to time. She is therefore conceived
+ See 'Saptaśati Prădhānika Rahasya' and 'Saptaśati Vaikrtika Rahasya'. * See p. 259 ante for the various purposes for which Sri Ambika was invoked from time to time. Sri Haribhadrasūri invoked her for obtaining success in the debate against Buddhists who were aided by their patron-deity Tärā. In 'Anubhavasiddhamantra-dvātrimśikā'ch. IV vv. 7 to 15 is described the worship of Sri Imbikå for divination. See also Sri Ambika's Mantra for divination at p. 93 Appendix 19, where she is invoked as Vägiśvari. Her various Mantras in the said Appendix 19 show the various purposes for which she is invoked. Instead of the last Mantra on p. 93 Appendix 19 Pancaparamești Vahāiantra Yantra BỊhatkalpa gives this Mantra: न ही रक्ते २ महारक्ते २ सौ हम्लयू २ शासनदेवि एहि २ अवतर २ स्वाहा ।।'
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to possess all the three qualites. It would not therefore be correct to state in relation to her that worship of her two-armed form is ancient and that of other forms is otherwise, merely because only two-armed ancient images have come to light. Having regard to her nature as originally conceived it is equally possible that further discoveries may bring to light her other ancient forms also. In regard however to deities like Sarasvati originally conceived as possessing a single quality viz. Sattva it can be stated without fear of contradiction that her two-armed form is ancient both because that is the only ancient form yet discovered and specially because that is the form in conformity with her Sättvīka nature as originally conceived.
We would now refer the readers to Acáradinakara Vol. II pr. 207-209 where Bhagavatīmandala is described to be worshipped as a part of installation ceremonies of goddesses. As it is a Yantra common to goddesses including Sri Ambikā it furnishes a clue to her 'Parivāra' which includes 8 Mātļkās, 16 Vidyādevis, 64 Yoginis, 52 Viras, 8 Bhairavas, 10 Dikpālas, 9 Grahas, Kśetrapāla and others.
Sri Ambikā is also known as Kuşmāņdī, Amrakuşmāņdi, Kuşmā. ņdini, or Kohandi because her 'Vimāna' or heavenly abode is named Kuşmāņda or Kohanda-see Vividhatirtha Kalpa p. 107. Sri Durgā is also known as Kuşmándi because it is said that she is fond of the offering of Kuşmaņda i. e. a red pumpkin or gourd, which however is not the case here. Sri Ambikā is called Amrakuşmāņdi refering to the mango in her hand, perhaps to distinguish her from Sri Durgā.
APPENDIX 16
We would now consider the question of the authorship of the hymn in Appendix 16. As the name Ambāprasāda is cleverly introduced in the last verse of the hymn, it is presumably by some Ambāprasāda. We have referred to the minister Ambāprasāda who was cured of a snake bite by Vádi Devasūri on Mt. Abu-see foot-note at pp 217-218 ante. There has been another Ambāprasāda, the younger brother of the Digambara Jain poet Amarakīrti. The latter
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refers to him as Ambā pasāya i. e. Ambāprasāda in his Apabhramsa work 'Chhakammuvaeso' written in 1247 Vikrama era.
As there is in v. 3 of the hymn a reference to Kuberanagara (perhaps Kodināra), * which is the name of the town where Sri Ambikā resided with her husband according to the Svetāmbara tradition, we think the author of the hymn is very probably the said Svetāmbara minister Ambāprasāda. It may also be noted that the Digambara tradition describes Sri Ambikā to be of dark-blue (Harita) colour which colour not mentioned at all in the hymn although her three different Dhyānas are given where Sri Ambikā is to be contemplated as of three different colours. None of the said colours is 'Harita' or dark-blue.
APPENDICES 17 TO 19 The hymns in Appendices 17 and 18 do not furnish any clue as to their authoriship. The Mantra incorporated in the hymn in Appendix 17 is one of Sri Ambika's Mantra set forth in Appendix 19. We think Appendix 19 is a continuation of the work contained in Appendix 18 and the two verses given in the beginning of Appendix 19 are the verses containing 'Falasruti' of the hymn in Appendix 18 and are followed by the Kalpa of Sri Ambikā containing her various Mantras meant for achieving various objects. As the hymn in Appendix 21 by Sri Jineśvarasūri, the pupil of Sri Jinapatisūri, does not give the full-grown Mantra incorporated in the hymn in Appendix 17 the latter hymn is probably later in date than the hymn in Appendix 21.
According to v. 1 of the hymn in Appendix 17 Ambikā is the protectress of all the creatures of the world and according to v. 8 the protectress of all the Jain temples. Both the hymns in Appendices 17 and 18 and the first Mantra on p. 93 describe her as devoted to the Jain Faith. The correct readings in the 2nd half of
* See Vividhatirtha Kalpa, Ambikādevi Kalpa p. 107 which mentions Kodināra, also Satruñjayamāhātmya II, 13 which mentions Kuberanagara.
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v. 3, Appendix 17 are a tal, etc.' and '21 ao etc. and that in the 15th line of the hymn in Appendix 18 is organiza eff arfaat i
APPENDIX 20 The author of the hymn contained in this appendix is Vastupāla the famous minister of Viradhavala. The author styles bimself in y. 10 a poet, the minister of the sovereign of Gujarat and the ocean of learning or Sarasvati. He addresses Sri Ambikā as Kūsmāndi, Ambā, and Sarasvati. The former term has already been explained. He clescribes Ambikä as always prompt in the protection of the Jain fold. The author in a poetic fancy says that Lakşmi who resides in lotus would never leave the devotee who bears in his heart the lotusfeet of Sri Ambikā, being fond of the advantageous and novel lotusabode in the form of Sri Ambikā's feet. Ambikā's Väliana the lion is also praised. She is said to be holding a bunch of mangoes before her as a token of the fruit to be reaped immediately by her worship. In the 7th verse are mentioned the eight dangers which are warded off by Sri Ambikā. The author compares the hymn to a song to be sung in a circular dance. According to Rājasekhara's Çaturvimsatiprabandha Sri Ambikā and Sri Kapardiyaksa * were the patron-cleities of Vastupāla and Tejapāla.
Vastupāla was not only a great minister but also a great general and defeated King Sankha of Lāta when the latter invaded Cambay as also the Muhammedan chieftain named Hammira alias Mojdin Sultân, who may perhaps be identified with Mahomed Ghori, * near Mt. Abu. Besides, he was a scholar, a critic and an accomplished poet whose Sūktis i.e. (pithy memorial verses are found in Sārangadhara's and Jalhana's anthologies. He wrote Naranārāyanānanda Mahākāvya in the style of great classical poems. The wonder is that even with his varied
* Śatruñjayamāhātmya describes Kapardiyakşa to be of golden colour riding on an elephant and carrying in his four hands a rosary, a goad, a noose and a citron (bijoru) and having the banyan tree as his resort. Kapardiyakşa Kalpa mencions a long purse instead of the rosary.
See Jain Sahitya Samsodhaka Vol. III, 1, pp 153-160
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activities he found time to copy manuscripts himself (see the Ms. of Dharmabhyudaya Kavya dated 1290 Vikrama era in the handwriting of Vastupala preserved in Sri Santinatha Bhandara at Cambay). He was a great patron of literature and rewarded poets and men of letters so liberally that he earned the title of Laghu Bhoja or II Bhoja. For his scholarship he was compared to the famous Hemacandrācārya. His munificence was without distinction of caste and creed. He spent large sums in building Jain and Saiva temples and even mosques for Muhammedans and libraries, rest-houses, alm-houses, wells, step-wells, tanks, lakes etc. for the public.
He established three big libraries or Pustakabhandāras at the huge cost of Rs. 18 crores. It is however the Delwara temples, of which Lunigavasahi was built by Tejapala the brother of Vastupala at a cost of crores of rupees, which have earned for the brothers lasting fame. Vastupala was born of Asvaraja and Kumaradevi, the latter being the daughter of Dandapati Abhu. The exact date of his birth is not known but it must be circa 1230 as it is reported that he performed a pilgrimage to Satruñjaya with his father in 1249 Vikrama era. He had two wives Lalitadevi and Vejaladevi of whom the former being very clever was frequently consulted by Vastupala even on intricate state-problems. He had a son Jaitrasimha by Lalitadevi who was appointed the governor of Cambay in 1279 during the lifetime of Vastupala. He died on Magha Sud 5th 1296 Vikrama era. He had earned 24 titles such as Sarasvati-Kanṭhabharaṇa i.e. the neck-ornament of Sarasvati etc. His ideals may be summed up in a single verse of his own:
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"शास्त्राभ्यासो जिनपदनति: संगतिः सर्वदार्यैः सत्तानां गुणगणकथा दोषवादे च मौनम् । सर्वस्यापि प्रियहितवचो भावना चात्मतत्त्वे सम्पद्यन्तां मम भवभवे यावदाप्तोऽपवर्गः ॥
APPENDIX 21
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debater Jinesvarasuri who defeated Caityavasis in 1080 Vikrama era. He was born of Nemicandra Bhāṇdāgārika and Lakṣmi at Maroța in 1245 Vikrama era and was named Ambada. Nemicandra accepted the Jain Faith at the instance of Sri Jinapatisuri and thereafter wrote Saṭṭhisaya Payaraṇa. Śrī Jinapatisuri initiated Ambada in 1255 and named him Viraprabha. He was ordained Acārya in 1278 at Jalore by Sarvadevasuri and named Sri Jinesvarasūri. He wrote Sravakadharmavidhi in 1313 and a commentary thereon in 1317. He died in 1331 Vikrama era. His pupils were Sri Pūrņakalasagaņi (see ante pp. 228-229) Lakṣmitilaka, Abhayatilaka, Candratilaka, Jinaprabodhasūri (who wrote Mantrarādhanavidhi), Jinaratnasūri, Devamūrti, Vivekasamudragani and Sarvarajagani-all learned scholars and writers.
SRI CAKREŚVARI
The hymns in both the Appendices 22 and 23 are in praise of Sri Cakreśvari. We shall therefore offer some remarks regarding her iconography. Sri Cakreśvari has the eagle for her vehicle and according to Nirvāṇakalikā has eight arms. She shows in her four right hands Varadamudrā, an arrow, a discus, and a noose and in her four left hands a bow, a thunderbolt, a discus and a goad. A marble image with eight arms showing the said symbols is installed in a niche to the left of the flight of steps leading to Caumukha's Tūnka (group of temples) on Mt. Satruñjaya. Another image of Sri Cakresvarī with four arms is installed in the temple of Sri Vastupala and Tejapāla on Mt. Girnar. She holds in both her upper hands discuses and in the lower right hand a garland and in the lower left hand a conch. Her Vahana viz. the eagle is also shown. The unmistakable symbol of Sri Cakreśvari is the discus; sometimes it is shown in her two hands and sometimes in all the four. One can easily understand that these are variations made to give different artistic effects by the sculptor, whose only restriction is that he shall not omit the distinguishing symbol of the deity viz. the discus in the case of Sri Cakreśvari and the bunch of mangoes and a child in the case of Sri Ambikā.
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Sri Cakreśvari is a Sāsanadevī (the deity presiding over the fold) being the attendant deity of Sri Rșabhadeva the first Tirthankara, so the other 23 Sāsanadevis are her companion-deities. She being one of the deities presiding over Sūrimantra, Panca paramești Mantra and Siddhacakrayantra, the other presiding deities thereof are her allied deities. Besides the deities usually shown in the Yantra of a deity viz. 16 Vidyādevīs, 10 Dikpālas, 9 Grahas and Kșetrapāla,* Sri, Hri, Dhști, Kirti, Buddhi and Lakşmi are shown in her Yantra in the collection of the writer as her Angadevatās. 64 Yoginis and 52 Viras and 8 Bhairavas are the usual attendants of a Devi as can be seen from Bhagvati-Mandala given at pp. 207 to 209, Acāradinakara. Sri Siddhacakrayantra mentions Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanti, Aparajitā, Irml Mohā, Stambha and Andhā as the eight attendant deities and Pūrņabhadra, Mānībhadra, Kapila and Pingala as four Viras and Sri Vimalesvaradeva as one of the principal presiding deities. This will furnish sufficient information as to Sri Cakreśvari's 'Parivāra'.
APPENDICES 22 and 23 Both the hymns of Sri Cakreśvari in the Appendices 22 and 23 show her "Vahana' to be the eagle and describe her distinguishing symbol viz. the discus as wielded by her. The second hymn suggests that she wields discuses in her two hands and states that with the other two she holds a lotus and a fruit.
The hymn in Appendix 22 is by the famous Mantrika Achārya Sri Jindattasūri whose life we have already described-see pp. 214-216 nte. * We have already made our remarks as to the authorship of the
* At page 181 Ācāradinakara Vol. II are gives several current names of Kșetrapāla viz. Kalamegha, Meghanāda etc. and he is described to be of 5 colours namely KȚşņa (black), Gaura (white) Kāñcana (golden) Dhūsara (dusky) and Kapila (variegated). * In his hymn 'Siggham avaharau viggham' he invokes Sri Cakreśvari thus:--
"चक्केसरि चक्रधरा विहिपहरिउछिन्त्रकंधरा धणियं । सिवसरणलग्गसंघस्स सम्बहा हरउ विग्घाणि ||"
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hymn in Appendix 23 while discussing the works contained in Appendix 5. • There are some incorrect readings in the said hymn which can be properly corrected if a correct manuscript can be obtained. As regards the hymn in Appendix 22, we would only note that the opening words of the 4th line of v. 1 should be 'मातमा तनयं' instead of 'मात मन्ति नयं ।'
APPENDEX 24 The hymn given here enumerates the names of 64 Yoginis. Another set of 64 names of Yoginis is given in vv. 19 to 28, Adh. 146 Agnipurāņa, which describes them as belonging to the eight families of Mātrkās, a set of 8 Yoginis being related to each of the eight Mātrkās. Still another set of 64 names is given at pp. 67-68 Mantra
mahodadhi and at p. 85 thereof is given the 91 lettered Mantra + of Yoginis, which is really an invocation for protection on offering being made to Yoginīs. We may refer the readers to the foot note on pp. 233-4 ante for other sets of names of 64 Yoginis. Rudrayāmala (Uttaratantra) contains a hymn to Yogini (see pp. 263-64), but there Yogini is the deity connected with Mūládhāra-cakra. Nirvāņakaliká (v. 5) gives the Jain Mantra * to be recited on offering oblation to
"ऊर्द्ध ब्रह्मांडतो वा दिवि गगनतले भूतले निष्कले वा पाताले वा तले वा सलिल पवनयोर्यत्र कुत्र स्थिता वा । क्षेत्रे पीठोपपीठादिषु च कृतपदा धूपदीपादिकेन प्रीतादेव्यः सदा नः शुभबलिविधिना पांतु वीरेन्द्रवंद्याः ॥ यां योगिनीभ्य स्वाहा ॥" योगिन्यो भीषणा रौद्रा देवताः क्षेत्ररक्षकाः । आगत्य प्रतिगृह्णन्तु जिनेष्टानुविधायिनः ।।१॥ ये रुद्रा रुद्र कर्माणो रौद्रस्थान निवासिनः सौम्याश्चैव तु ये केचित् सौम्यस्थाननिवासिनः ॥२॥ सर्वे सुप्रीतमनसः प्रतिगृह्णनित्वमं बलिम् । सिद्धिं यच्छन्तु नः क्षिप्रं भयेभ्यः पान्तु नित्यशः ॥३॥
Here is a Mantra of 6+ Yoginis from the writer's collection: " ए हो श्री क्ली हसौ चतुःषष्टियोगिनीभ्यो नमः ॥"
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Yoginis, which is also an invocation for protection and success. The Yoginis are there described as protectresses of land (Kṣetra-rakṣakās), which suggest that they are subordinate to Kṣetrapala who is the chief warden of the land. 52 Vīras usually mentioned along with 64 Yoginis are also described as protectors of land and may be identified with the different Kṣetrapālas of different places. Sometimes Kṣetrapāla is considered to be Vīrādhivīra or the Chief of Viras in which case Vīras would be taken to be subordinate to him. According to Nirvāņa -kalikā it would appear that most of the Yoginis are in their nature terrific while only some are peaceful. Sri Jwalamālinīstotra (Appendix 25) also refers to Yoginis. There is a hymn of 64 Yoginis noted in Jain Granthāvali.
Agnipurāņa as stated above relates 64 Yoginis to 8 Matṛkās; Durgāsaptasati describes Mātṛkās as companion-deities of or emanations from Sri Candika (See Adh. X vv. 5-6). Yoginis are thus related to Sri Candikā or Sri Durgā or Nārāyaṇī mentioned in the hymn. That the worship of Yoginis was prevalent in ancient times will be apparent from the fact that Agnipurāņa Adh. 52 refers to their idols. At Ujjain, the ancient capital of the famous King Vikramaditya whom legends describe as having controlled Vīra Vetāla and 64 Yoginis and as having obtained boons from his patron deity Harasiddhi, there are to be found ruins of a temple said to be of 64 Yoginis. This shows that the worship 64 Yoginis is very old. The fact that their Pithas are said to be at Delhi-Yoginipura, Ajmer and Broach besides Ujjain (see p. 234 ante), all which places have been capitals of powerful kingdoms in the past, leads one to conjecture that the King used to worship them and 52 Viras for protection of their kingdoms especially during wars and epidemics or public calamities. In a hymn of 15 verses commencing with the words "Jaga-gaja-vasaṇīņam" etc. in the collection of the writer they are praised for removal of various diseases and their Mandala or diagram of 64 squares containing figures 1 to 64, the total vertically horizontally and diagonally being 260-is described.
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Savarīpā (657 A.D.) was the originator of Vajrayogini cult where the deity worshipped is of red colour (see p. 92 ante). This would suggest that Vajrayogini cult where the deity worshipped is of other colours existed prior to Savaripă. Luipa (669 A. D.) introduced Yogini Sancarya (see p. 91 ante). This shows how Yogini worship spread amongst Buddhists. It should be noted however that in the said Buddhist Tantra Yogini is not one of the 64 Yoginis nor for the matter of that the principal Yogini but, judged from her Dhyāna and Mantra, can be identified with Chinnamasta, one of the 10 Siddha Mahavidyas of Hindu Tantrikas.
The Yoginis were however well-known during the time of Sri Jinadattasūri and Sri Hemacandracārya as can be seen from their biographies (see p. 214 and 220 respectively).
INTRODUCTION
We may note here an annecdote relating to the 64 Yoginis who having taken possession of the 64 Koṭhās or towers of the new fort built round Ahmedabad by Sultan Ahmed Shah harassed him. The Sultan having not been relieved of his trouble inspite of various remedies was advised to seek the aid of a Jain Acharya named Sri Ratnasimhasūri, a pupil of Sri Jayatilakasūri of Bṛhat Pausālika branch of Tapagaccha. Sri Ratnasimhasuri employed the mystic diagram of 65 formed with the figures 1 to 25 representing the 24 Tirthankaras and the Sangha which is considered to be the most sacred body next to the 24 Tirthankaras and therefore taken to be represented by the figure 25. The Sultan was thus saved from the harassment of the 64 Yoginis.
As Yoginītantra gives Sri Padmavati's Mantra for foreseeing the future through dreams ('ॐ ह्रीं पद्मावतीदेवि त्रैलोक्यवार्ता कथय २ स्वाहा ||' to be recited daily for 2 years), it probably considers Padmavati to be a Yogini. Similarly Mahayakṣini Tantra gives Sri Padmavati's Mantra ( ́at qurant earer') calling it Aṣṭamahasiddhi-Yakṣiņi-Prayoga, which
*
See Vṛddha Tapagaccha Pattavali and also the hymn Caturvimsati-Jina-stotram relating to the diagram of 65 commencing with the words "afafa alfa 1"
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would suggest that Sri Padmavati is also considered to be Astamahāsiddhi -Yakşini. The latter Tantra also gives Sri Cakreśvari's and Sri Kalikuņda's Mantras. This shows the popularity of these deities.
Verses 9 to 12 with better readings are given in the footnote below from a copy of the hymn in the writer's collection. * Nothing is khown about the author of the hymn.
APPENDIX 25 This appendix contains the famous Jwalāmālinistotra and a hymn in praise of the Mantrabija Hriņkāra which is known as Máyābija, We have offered our remarks regarding the worship of Jwālāmālini at p. 264 ante. Jwālāmālini is believed to be a Vidyā counter to all Vidyās and Mantras of the opponent. She is said to cure all diseases, to ward off all kinds of snakes and untimely and unnatural death and above all to counteract the adverse influence of planets and ward off evil spirits of all kinds: she is described as Mahāvasī-great subdueing or controlling power, When appropriately invoked she would fascinate and charm all. The text of the hymn is according to the Swetambara tradition. Although it is slightly different from that in Indranandi's Jwālini-Kalpa and Vidyanusāsana, its author is very probably Indranandi. The hymn being popular has been much imitated. The Málāmantra at pp. 12-13 (Appendix 1), the hymn at p. 13-14 and the hymn at pp. 19-20 (Appendix 3) viz. Sri Padmāvati-āhvāna-stava may be compared for the purpose. Non-Jain hymns similar to this hymn are Sudarsana-Kavaca-stotra and Narasimha Sudarsana-Kavaca-stotra.
चतुःषष्टिः समाख्याता योगिन्यो मे वरप्रदाः । त्रैलोक्ये पूजिता नित्यं देवदानवयोगिभिः ॥९॥ चतुर्दश्यां तथाष्टम्यां संक्रान्तौ नवरात्रिके । यः पठेत् पूजयेन्नित्यं तस्य विघ्नं प्रणश्यति ॥१०॥ राजद्वारे च संग्रामे तथा च रिपुसंगमे । अग्निचौरभयं नास्ति तत्रसंस्थोऽपि मुच्यते ॥११॥ स्मृत्वा नारायणी देवी सर्वोपद्रवनाशिनी । प्रातमध्याहसंध्यायां पठितव्यं विचक्षणः ॥१२॥
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The diagram given after Sri Māyābija-stotra is only one ofthe several Yantras. Sri Jwālāmālini current among Jain Mantrikas.
As regards the second hymn, we have to note that the text requires to be corrected with the aid of a good manuscript. Sri Hemacandrācārya, in his Yogasastra (VIII, vv. 47-56), has described the Sādhanā of Hriņkāra. It is one of the Mantras of Sri Padmăvati. It is the principal Mantrabīja worshipped by Sāktas who call it Devi -Pranava and consider it perhaps more sacred than even Omkāra. $ According to the famous Kalyāņavěstistava the Vedas declare Hrīņkāra alone to be the name of Tripurasundari+. It is called Saktibija, Trilokībija, Adimantra, Atmabija, Paramestibija and Siddhavidyā. The hymn describes the three kinds of Dhyāna viz. white, red and yellow for achieving different objects. Nothing can be said about its authorship but perhaps the words 'Saubhāgyalakşmi and Mahodayapadam' occuring in vv. 13 and 16 respectively may furnish a clue. We would only state that there did live one Udayaprabhasūri the preceptor of the famous author of Syadvādamañjari circa 1300 Vikram era if one is inclined to read his name in the phrase 'Mahodayapadam.'
APPENDIX 26 The correct title of the hymn contained in this Appendix would be "Srividyā-garbhastotram", as the hymn like the famous Kalyāņavsșțistava includes the 15 syllabled Srividyā formed by taking the initial syllables of the verses 3 to 17, but the initial letter of v. 17 should be 'Hrim' and not 'Srim'. V.3 expressly mentions Pancadasākşari.
वियदीकारसंयुक्तं वीतिहोत्रसमन्वितम् । अर्धेन्दुलसितं देव्या बीजं सर्वार्थसाधकम् ॥१८॥ एवमेकाक्षरं ब्रह्म यतयः शुद्धचेतसः । ध्यायन्ति परमानन्दमया ज्ञानाम्बुराशयः ।।१९।।
-2 cozyasthi 'हीकारमेव तव नाम गृणन्ति वेदाः मातत्रिकोणनिलये त्रिपुरे त्रिनेत्रे ।' इत्यादि
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The initial syllables of the verses 1 and 2 viz. Hrīm and Srim are additional Mantra-bijas at the beginning of the Pancadaşāksari Vidyā proper. Such an addition is technically called 'Sirah' or the head of the Mantra or Vidyā. The Upāsanā of Srividyā gained greater currency because the same was set forth together with the relative diagram Sricakra by Sri Sankarācārya in his hymn Saundaryalahari (See vv. 1,11 and 32* and Kamesvarasūri's commentary on the same). The addition of Ramābīja i.e. Srīm at the end converts Pancadasākşarī into Sodasākşarī Srividya +. When out of the three Khandas of Pancadasākşarī the first Khanda is 'Ha Sa Ka La'instead of 'Ka E I La' it is called Lopā. mudrā or Hadi Vidyā as it begins with the syllable 'Ha', the other being called Kādī as it begins with the syllable 'Ka'. Tripurasundari with 15 Nityās preside over Sodasakşari or the 16 syllabled Srividyā which forms the basis of the Samaya mode of worship. I
$ Śri Devyatharvasirşopanişad describes Pancadaśákşari Srividyā, Bahvịcopnişad refers to Srividya and Tripurātäpini and Bhāvanopadişad describe Sricakra.
fara: fen: FA: falary pa: tarat: स्मरो हंसः शक्रस्तदनु च परामारहरयः अमी हल्लेखाभिस्तिसृभिरवसानेषु घटिता
भजन्ते वर्णास्ते तव जननि नामावयवताम् ' ॥३२॥ + See all the hymns in Sri Lalitāstavacamaņimāla' (published by Nirnayasagara Press) which contain the 16 syllabled Srividyå formed by putting together the initial syllables of the 16 verses of each of the hymns.
"The first four syllables of the Sodasākşari constitute the first Khanda, relating to Agni, representing Kriyāśakti, the Jāgrat state, the Visva-vitti and Tamoguņa. The next five syllables constitute the second Khanda, relating to Sürya, representing Iccha-Sakti, the Swapna state, the Taijasavștti and Rajo-guņa. The Hţi-lekhā between the two represents the Rudra-granthi. The next three syllables constitute the third Khanda relating to Soma, representing Jñana-Śakti, the Sușupti state, the Prājñavịtti and Sattva-guna. The Hộl-lekhá between the second and third Khandas represents the Vişņu granthi. The fourth Khanda of one syllable, known as the Candra. kalā, which should be imparted by the Guru, is implied after the three aforesaid Khandas. The HỊl-lekhā between the third and fourth Khandas represents the Brahma
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APPENDIX 27 Referring to the hymn in this Appendix its language besides being ungrammatical is so poor that the hymn cannot be ascribed to any person of note. Some one named Sridharācārya is mentioned as the author.
APPENDIX 28 Referring to Padmāvati Kavaca in this appendix, we may repeat that such hymns have probably been composed on account of the eagerness of some one to have complete Pancānga of Sri Padmāvati (see v. 14 which mentions the object mat fra at ! 21:fafialia i'). It is probably written after the composition of Padmāvati-sahasranama -stotra (see v. 13). The author is probably a non-Jain as would appear certain from v. 14 which says that it was narrated by Nandi and was being published to Girinandini i. e, Parvati. The opening words (v. 1) lead us to the same conclusion.
APPENDIX 29 This appendix contains Sūrividyā-stotra. It is in praise of the deities presiding over the 5 Pīțhas of Sūrividyā alias Sūrīmantra on which we have offered our remarks at pp. 161-165 ante. The first 3 Pithas are presided over by female deities and are therefore called Vidyās. They are Sarasvati, Tribhuvanaswămini and Sri alias Laksmi. The fourth Pitha is presided over by Yākṣarāja Ganipițaka and is therefore a Mantra. The fifth Pitha having Indras as principal presiding deities is also Mantra. It is also presided over by 16 Vidyādevis, 24 Yaksas and 24 Yakşiņis being the attendant deities of the 24 Tirthankaras. It being the best of Mantras and having a number of deities presiding over it is called Mantrādhirāja. That a bath with a little water is allowed and the Sadhaka is directed to put on a fine piece of cloth (v. 17) shows that exceptions were being made by Sādhus for Mántric Sadhanā. In Sūrimanträrādhanavidhi by Sri Devendrasūri, published
granthi.” PP. 126-127, Saundarya-Lahari, by Pt. S. Subrahmanya sastri and T. R. Srinivasa Ayyangår.
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339 by Sri Prītivijayaji, this very hymn is given and ascribed to Sri Mānadeva sūri, but it is not his. Sri Mānadevasūri's genuine Sūrimantrastotra is given by us in Appendix A hereto. This Manadevasūri composed Laghusantistava contained in Appendix 31. We would here reproduce verse 11 from a hymn of Sri Gautamaswami by Sri Vajraswāmi published at p. 114, Jainstotrasandoha, Pt. I, as it mentions all the presiding deities of the five Pithas in their proper order in a single verse and shows that Sūrimantra was the same in the time of Sri Vajraswami.
'श्रीमद् गौतमपादवंदनरुचिः श्री वाङ्मयस्वामिनी मर्त्य क्षेत्रनगेश्वरी त्रिभुवनस्वामिन्यपि श्रीमती । तेजोराशिरुदात्तविंशतिभुजो यक्षाधिप: श्री सुरा
धीशाः शासनदेवताच ददतु श्रेयांसि भूयांसि नः ।। We have already referred to Sri Vardhamāna-Vidya Kalpa of Sri Vajraswāmi incorporated by * Sri Simhatilakasūri (1322 Vikrama era) pupil of Sri Vibudhacandrasūri in his Vardhamāna-Vidya Kalpa as the 3rd chapter thereof. We may note here that the correct reading instead of 'r' in the 4th verse of the hymn is 'agull
APPENDIX 30 This appendix contains Anubhavasiddhamantra-Dvātrimsikā about which we offered a few remarks at pp. 159-161 ante, particularly about its connection with Vidyapravādapūrva and Jain Agamas and in relation to the probable date of the work, the lower limit of which has been stated to be the 7th century A. D. The upper limit of its date would be the date of Bhadraguptācārya and Vajraswami i. e. the 1st century A. D. As promised there we shall now make further observations especially on the question of the priority between Hemacandrācārya's Yogasastra and Subhacandrācārya's Jñānārņava alias Yogapradīpa. * Besides Vardhamănavidya-Kalpa Simhatilakasûri wrote in 1322 Vikrama era Mantrarājarahasya with Lilavati commentary and in 1326 commentary on Bhuvanadipaka (a work on the method of answering questions astrologically) of Padmaprabha and Gaņitatilakavstti.
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PRIORITY BETWEEN YOGAŠĀSTRA AND JÑANĀRNAVA
Pt. Nathuram Premi in his work Jain Sähitya Aura Itihasa' refers to the colophon contained in the manuscript (No. 13) of jñānārņava of the Bhandāra at Patan called Khetarvasi which is dated 1284 Vikrama era and was written for Digambara Sahasrakirti. It mentions the fact that a manuscript was got written for and given to Yogi Subhacandra by Jāhiņi. This is certainly the reference to the original manuscript from which the one for Sahasrakirti was written. Pt. Premiji thinks it curious that there is no mention of the fact that the work was composed by Subhacandra himself and is therefore inclined to believe that the author of jñānārņava must be some prior Subhacandra probably a grand-preceptor of the Subhacandra referred to in the colophon as in those times the name of an Achārya was many times given to his grand-pupil. Pt. Premiji infers from this that there must be an interval of about 25 to 30 years between Sahasrakirti's manuscript and Subhacandra's manuscript and an interval of about 30 to 40 years between Subhacandra and his supposed grand-preceptor Subhacandra who wrote Jñānārņava. Pt. Premiji would thus fix the date of jñānārnava to be about 1214 Vikrama era although through an apparent mistake of calculation (as ascertained from him by the writer) he mentions it to be the last quarter of the 12th century of Vikrama era.
The weak link in Pt. Premiji's argument, it would be apparent to the reader, is the supposition of another prior Subhacandra as the author of Jñānārņava. Pt. Premiji himself admits (p. 447) that the various qualifications * of Subhacandra mentioned in the colophon in all respects apply to the author of Jñānārņava. The truth therefore is that it really describes the author and the manu
'तया कर्मक्षयस्यार्थ ध्यानाध्ययनशालिने । तप:श्रुतनिधानाय तत्त्वज्ञाय महात्मने ।। रागादिरिपुमल्लाय शुभचन्द्राय योगिने । लिखाप्य पुस्तकं दत्तमिदं ज्ञानाणवाभिधम् ॥'
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script was the first copy or Prathamadarsa of the author and the supposition of a prior Subhacandra as the author is quite redundant as there is nothing to support it except a mere doubt arising from an omission which may be accidental. Further, we do not think that the mention of Subhacandra himself being the author in the colophon recording Jahini's gift of the manuscript which is stated to have been got written for him is so material as to warrant the kind of inference drawn by Pt. Premiji. The proper date of Jñānārṇava would therefore be circa 1254 Vikrama era. Hemacandrācārya the author of Yogasāstra having died in 1229 Vikrama era it would be clear that Yogasāstra was written earlier than Jñānārņava. Its probable date is about 1216* as it is referred to in Trişaṣṭhisalakāpuruşacaritra written between 1216 and 1229 Vikrama era. Before going further into this question, we would tell the readers that this question is being discussed because in Yogasastra there are several verses which practically agree verbatim with some verses in the first chapter of Anubhavasiddhamantradvātriņšikā and the same verses appear in Jñanārṇava apparently paraphrased.
All the three works describe Mantras for achieving various worldly objects as also for attaining final beatitude. Compare vv. 1, 4 and 6,1, Anubhavasiddhamantra-dvātrimsika with vv. 31, 43 and 44, VIII, Yogasastra and vv. 36-37 and 60-61 XXXVIII, Jñānārṇava. Srï Hemacandrācārya in his own commentary on the said verse 31 says that contemplation on 'Om' as of yellow and other colours is described as it may be sometimes useful. Sri Subhacandrācārya in v. 4, XL, Jñana. says that the best of sages have published many 'Karmas' from Vidyānuvāda (i. e. X Purva) to satisfy the curiosity of people though they are achieved only through malignant Dhyana. Mantras and Vidyas for achieving laudable objects are considered to be part of
*Both Dr. Buhler and Rasiklal C. Parikh the learned author of the Introduction to Kāvyānuśāsana consider the date of Yogaśastra to be shortly after 1216 Vikrama era and that of the commentary on it a few years later.
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Dharma-Dhyāna especially Samsthānavica ya just as Piņdastha, Rūpastha and Rūpātita Dhyānas are a part of the said division of Dharma-Dhyāna. Mantras and Vidyās for achieving evil objects are part of Arta or Raudra i. e. Malignant Dhyāna. To them, who would not distinguish between Mantras and Vidyās for achieving good and bad objects and condemn all Mantras and Vidyās absolutely calling them Pāpasruta, this will be an eye-opener. It is needless to add that both Sri Hemacandrācārya and Sri Subhacandråcārya must have been great believers in Mantras and Vidyās, when they introduced this novel mode of describing Dhyānas + as Pindastha, Padastha, Rūpastha and Rūpātīta and described them as a part of Dharma-Dhyāna, and set forth the ancient holy Mantras while treating Padastha Dhyana.
In the said verses the readers would find that Yoga. closely follows Anubhava., while jñānā. paraphrases and expands the same idea. Even 'Vidyāratna' occuring in v. 1, I, Anubhava. is echoed as "Tattvaratnāni', in v. 81, VIII, Yoga. and as 'Tattvāni . . . . Ratnāni' in v. 115, XXXVIII jñānā. Comparing vv. 8 and 15, I, Anubhava, with vv. 74 and 81, VIII, Yoga, and vv. 106 and 115, XXXVIII, Jñānā., we find that Anubhava. and Yoga. agree that the Mantra or Yantra described therein had been extracted from Vidyapravāda Pūrva mainly by Sri Vajraswāmi * , while Jñānā in the said verse 106 says that it was by sages Sañjayanta and others. The former two works represent the Svetāmbara tradition in as much as both of them ascribe the extraction of Mantra or Yantra from Vidyānupravāda to Sri Vajraswāmi, so well known as the last 'Dasapūrvadhara' amongst Svetämbara Jains, while jñānā., following probably the Digambara tradition ascribes it to Sanjayanta and others. The next verse 75,
+ See the writer's article in Gujarati entitled 'Yogišvāra Śri Hemacandrācārya and Dhyananirūpaña' in the monthly named 'Suvasa' Vol. I, 12 & Vol. II, 2. * The correct reading in v. 8, I, Anubhava. as appears from a copy made by the writer form another manuscript is 'श्री वरस्वामिसूरिभिः' instead of 'श्री वीरस्वामिसूरिभिः' Vairaswāmi being the Praksta rendering of Vajraswami.
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VIII, Yoga. appears to be reflected in the verse 107, XXXVIII jñānā., while the former is word for word the same as v. 15,1, Anubhava. except for the difference of reading viz. 'Janma' instead of 'Karma' in the latter. We may also note that 'Praśāntimeval in Anubhava. is a misprint for 'Prasantinava'. The sequence also of vv. 74 and 75 Yoga. appears to have been followed in vv, 106 and 107 in jñānā. The readers would note the close agreement between Anubhava. and Yoga. and that Jñānā. paraphrases while borrowing and that many a time as here the paraphrase by Jñānā. is far from happy-it is rather clumsy in this case. From the close agreement between Anubhava. and Yoga. we infer that Yoga. borrows from Anubhava., and from the fact that the sequence of Yoga. is retained in jñānā. we infer that the latter borrows from Yoga. The fact that Jñānā. paraphrases shows the anxiety of the later writer to conceal the fact of his borrowing from the former work. Further Yoga, has vv. 64 and 65 in ch. VIII which are word for word the same as verses 13 and 14 in ch. I Anubhava., but there are no verses in any way similar to them in jñānā which conclusively proves that Yoga. had Anubhava. before it and borrowed from it and not from Jñānā. Further Jñānā. has no verses which are not in Yoga. but are in Anubhava., so jñānā. had not Anubhava. probably before it. Now if one has the audacity despite these facts to suggest that granting Jñānā. had not Anubhava, before it the same sequence of verses in Yoga. as well as Jñānā, may as well be due to Yoga. borrowing from Jūānā. as the latter from the former. To him our reply is that the said verses, being admittedly similar to the verses in the earlier work Anubhava., are not the original composition of Jñānā. It must therefore be first shown from what independent source (such as would not be available to Yoga.), they have been taken by Jñānā before it can be suggested that they are taken by Yoga, from Jñānā. On the contrary as the said versesin Yoga. closely agree with those in Anubhava. itis certain that Yoga.), took them from Anubhava.and that therefore jñānā., having had no other source to borrow from, borrowed them from Yoga., and while doing so paraphrased them. The clumsiness of Jñänā. in paraphra
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sing and expanding is clear from its said verse 107, where it recommends the scripture propounding 'Siddhacakra' for contemplation, forgetting that in the preceding verse what has been recommended for contemplation is 'Siddhacakra' it self. The reason given therein that because of its preaching in regard to 'Siddhacakra' the scripture should be contemplated instead of 'Siddhacakra' shows how far-fetched it is from the main theme. Yoga, as well as Anubhava. speak of Siddhacakra' alone for contemplation and have nothing to say about the scripture propounding 'Siddhacakra'. We are not basing our conclusion on isolated verses in these works. There is a complete agreement between verses 9 to 14, I, Anubhava. with verses 60 to 65, VIII, Yoga, except that instead of ' Fr' in v. 11 Anubhava. there is a lart' in v. 62 Yoga., which leads us to believe that the latter has borrowed from the earlier Anubhava. The said verse 9, I, Anubhava, and the said verse 60, VIII, Yoga, appear to have been expanded into verses 86 and 87, ch. XXXVIII by Jūānā. by resorting to figurative language and by addition of redundant phrases. It would be clear to any discer ning man that this is an instance of expansion by a later writer and not an abridgement in a later work of an idea expressed in details in a previous work- The next verse 88, XXXVIII, Jñānā. though shown to be a part of the original text in the printed edition of Jñānā., is really a quotation as shown by Pt. Nathuram Premi in his work “Jaina Sāhitya-Aura Itihāsa' (pp. 450-51) by a reference to the two old manuscripts of jñānā. The said verse 88 expresses in a different meter and in other words the same idea as is contained in v. 10, I, Anubhava. and v. 61, VIII, Yoga., both the latter verses being word for word the same and in Anustubh meter except for the difference in reading viz. t' in Yoga. instead of war in Anubhava. In this case the verse in jñānā., being admittedly not an original verse and having not been taken from any other known source, must be taken definitely to have been borrowed from Yoga. As there are innumerable verses in jñānā. which are similar to verses in Yoga. and are not similar to any verses in Anubhava. the inevitable conclusion
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is that Jñana. has borrowed from Yoga. The reader would like to know why is the verse which is admitted to be a quotation happens to have been paraphrased in Jñanā. The answer is that the author of jñānī. appears to prefer Aryā meter to Anuştubh and has there. fore to paraphrase while converting it to that meter or that being anxious to conceal his borrowing from Yoga.,he paraphrases even the quotation. We have, made our remarks relating to v. 11, 1, Anubhava, and the corresponding verses in the other two works. The next v. 12 I, Anubhava. is word for word the same as v. 63, VIII, Yoga. The verse 91, XXXVIII, Jñānā. is on the face of it a paraphrase of the said verse. The reader would note how happy is the adjective 'Anavadyām' in Anubhava. and Yoga. and compare the corresponding 'Acintyavikramām' of jñānā. and further note how Jõānā. again uses the same adjective 'Acintya' in the same verse. If it had been the poet's original composition he would not have been driven to use the same adjective twice in one and the same verse. Further what the other two works describe as the Vidya emanated from Gañadharas is described as emanated from Lord Vira by Jñānā. The tradition however is that Lord Vira communicated 'Tripadi' to the Ganadharas and the latter composed all the scriptures. Of course, Pūrvas, we consider to be ancient and in that way the Vidyās contained in one of the Pūrvas can be said to have emanated from Lord Vira or rather from the first Tirthan. kara as far as the present cycle of time is concerned. This verse proves the antiquity of Sūrividyā which is the same as Ganabhỉd Vidyā or Sūrimantra. The next verses 13 and 14, I Anubhava, which are word for word the same as vy. 64 and 65, VIII, Yoga. have been already dealt with by us.
We refered to v. 88, XXXIII, Jñānā. above which is really a quotation in the said work and is a paraphrase of v. 61, VIII, Yoga. and stated that it must have been therefore borrowed definitely from Yoga. Other instances are v. 3 Jñānā. p. 392 and v. 2, Jñānā. p. 407 which are shown as quotations therein and are respectively a
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paraphrase of vv. 24 and 79, VIII, Yoga. 'Further there are quotations in the author's own commentary on v. 5 and vv. 18-22, VIII, Yoga, which are also quotations in Jñānā. v. 2 (quoted), XXXVIII, p. 388 and v. 1 (quoted), p. 391 Jñānā. A later writer abridging a former work would not relegate to his commentary the verses quoted by the former writer in the text, for the simple reason that even the previous writer considers them sufficiently important to quote them in the body of the text. Here Jñānā. considering the verses quoted in the commentary on Yoga. sufficiently important quotes the same in the body of the text. This is also a proof as to jñānā. borrowing from Yoga. as well as its commentary. It may be noted that the verses quoted either in the text or the commentary, ch. VIII, Yoga. are more or less faithfully reproduced in jñānā., while the verses which form part of the text of Yoga. even if quoted in Jñānā. are not reproduced there in the same words. Strangely enough there are some verses forming part of the text of both the said two works which are word for word the same except sometimes a slight difference in readings-see v. 37 and 69. VIII, Yoga. and vv. 46 and 100, XXXVIII, Jñānā.; cf. also v. 5, X, Yoga. with v. 4 XXXIII, Jñānā. We shall also note v. 79, VIII, Yoga. and v. 2 (quoted) p. 407, Jñānā. as they are quotations in both the works and agree with a slight difference in reading viz. 'अन्येप्रन्थविम्तरा:' in Yoga. and 'अन्यद्ग्रन्थविस्तरः' in Jūānā. The verse 22, XXXVIII, Jñānā. is very important as it refers to another author or Achārya, who makes variations of letters in the Dhyāna of Mantrarāja or Mantrādhipa viz. 'Arham'. Comparing ch. VIII, Yoga. with ch. XXXVIII, jñānā. we find almost all the verses of Yoga. assimilated in Jñānā. but vv. 6 to 17 remain untouched. We think jñānā. refers to this portion of Yoga. and its author Hemacandrācārya in the said v. 22. At several places jñānā. has added merely laudatory verses in the said ch. XXXVIII while expanding the matter taken from ch. VIII, Yoga. Jñānā. amplifies by expanding a single verse of Yoga, into two or more verses and adding Puränic illustrations and resorting to figurative language and sometimes to
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indirector abstruse mode of expression and adding unnecessary adjectives, descriptions or eulogies. If the reader would read ch. XXXVIII, of jñānā. for himself he would be convinced of the truth of our aforesaid remarks. We would not therefore exhaust our reader's patience by taking him through the said chapters verse by verse. As we have minutely compared all the verses in the said chapters, we feel certain that the reader also would on an independent examination of the said chapters come to the same conclusion. The reader would find also in some of the verses not noticed here clear evidence of Jõānā. having borrowed and paraphrased verses from Yoga.
We shall now consider what other scholars have said on the question of the respective dates of the authors of the said two works. Pt. Nāthuram Premi has, while discussing in his work 'Jain Sāhitya Aura Itihāsa', the date of Subhacandrācārya and his work Jñānārņava, stated that he first discussed it in 1907 A. D. in his Introduction to Jnānārņava believing Bhattāraka Visvabhūsaņa's Bhaktāmracaritra to be authoritative; but that in the special issue of 'DigambaraJaina' (Śrāvaņa 1973 S.Y. i. e. 1917 A. D.) in the article entitled Subhacandrācārya', he controverted his own arguments in the said Introduction as the historicity of the greater portion of the narrative literature written by later Bhattārakas appeared doubtful to him. The said Bhaktāmaracaritra has absurdly described Bhoja, Kālidāsa, Vararuchi, Dhananjaya, Mānatunga, Bhartshari, Māgha and several others to be contemporaries, although every historian knows that they were not so. It also describes Subhacandrācārya to be a brother of the famous Bhartphari as also of King Bhoja. How can anyone be a brother to persons who lived centuries apart? Pt. N thuram Premi rightly complains that the publishers of Jnānārņava, though duly informed of his having revised his opinion expressed in the said Introduction and his having controverted the same in the said article entitled 'Subhacandrācārya' published in "Digambara-Jaina', have published two further editions of jñānārnava with the same old Intro
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duction. They could have atleast appended a note about Pt. Premiji's latest and considered views.
EXAMINATION OF MR. PATEL'S VIEWS
We are surprised however, to see the same unhistorical Bhaktāmaracaritra being relied on in fixing the date of Subhacandrācārya by Mr. Gopaldas Jivabhai Patel in his Introduction to 'Yogaśāstra', which purports to be a free rendering by him in Gujarāti of the original Yogaśāstra. Relying on the said work he takes Subhacandrācārya to be a brother of the famous King Bhoja whose date he takes to be 1078 Vikrama era. He ascribes the same date to Subhacandrācārya and consequently considers him to be about 70 or 80 years older than Hemacandrācārya. Starting with such incorrect assumption Mr. Patel compares their respective works. Although he notes that Yogasāstra is a concise and systematic work and that jñānārņava is a work written in the loose style of a religious discourse, he credulously says that there is greater reason to suppose that Yogaśāstra was composed by systematizing and abridging jñānārņava. We are inclined to think that if Mr. Patel had minutely compared both the works or if he had realised the unhistorical nature of Bhaktámaracaritra he would have probably come to a different conclusion. He himself has felt doubts about his own conclusions and he has expressed the same in his Introduction. He also says that Hemacandrācārya, having been surrounded by many enemies, always ready to denounce him, could not have dared to commit such plagiarism. He has however not been able to free himself from the tangle of Bhaktámaracaritra, and has landed himself in an inextricable hole, when he hazards the conjecture of a very large portion of Yogaśāstra viz. chs. V to XI being interpolation by some unknown and unnamed overzealous pupil of Hemacandrācārya with the object of enhancing the glory of his great Guru. He does not assign any reason for his conjecture except that Hemacandrācārya himself could not have been guilty of devoting disproportionately a large portion of his work to the
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description of Prāṇāyāma. He suggests that the object of such a pupil might have been to give to his preceptor the credit of describing miraculous matters from such a popular work as Jñānārṇava. There is no evidence whatsoever of Jñānārṇava having become popular immediately or even during the supposed interval of 70 or 80 years between Subhacandrācārya and Hemacandrācārya. It is also not shown that Jñānārṇava was the only work containing description of miraculous matters. Our readers know that not only Anubhavasiddhamantradvātrimsikā but also Vidyānusāsana and various works of the famous Mantrikas Indranandi and Mallişenasuri in fact dealt with such matters. They were all prior to the date of Sri Hemacandrācārya. As regards the supposed disproportionateness of the portion relating to Praṇāyāma in Yogaśāstra, as Mr. Patel himself has noted at p. 37 of his said Introduction, the said portion contains various methods of knowing beforehand the exact date or hour of one's death. He mentions only astrology and omens. As a matter of fact besides Prāṇāyāma and the said two methods of divination the author has described other methods of divination such as divination through one's breath, dreams, or gazing on one's shadow, or by listening to words of different classes of people, or through employment of Vidyas or Mantras or Yantras. He further describes in the same ch. V the method of entering the body of any other creature. Mr. Patel is not right when he says Hemacandrācārya has devoted 300 verses to the description of Prāṇāyāma. In fact he has devoted only 35 verses to that topic. The remaining portion of ch. V is taken up in the description of the said various methods of divination and the Yogic miracle of entering the body of another creature. To Mr. Patel these methods of divination may be uninteresting, but to judge the author with such a bias is not to judge him truly. The proper standard of examination can be had only if one takes into account the times in which and the people for whom the work was written. The fact that every one of the subjects treated in the said ch. V has independent treatises written on it from ancient times shows rather the popularity of the subjects treated in Yogasästra and the comprehensive nature
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of the said work, which should add to its merit rather than detract from it in any way. Again it would hardly be correct to say even today, that the methods of divination have lost their charm, when we actually see representatives of all classes of people running after the palmists, astrologers, spiritualists and various other fortune-tellers and diviners and when the list of their patrons include the elite of the society. When thus the main plank of disproportionateness in the theory of interpolation has slipped the whole structure of the supposed interpolation falls to the ground. Further the simplest test to find out whether a particular portion of a work is interpolated or not is to remove the suspected portion from the work and see whether the remaining work has completeness and whether the unity of theme remains intact. Had the said test been applied, it would have been immediately found out that out of the eight well-known parts of Yoga only Yama, Niyama and Asana remain, while the remaining five are taken off, as they are treated in chs. V to XI of Yogaśāstra. Nobody would ever imagine that the great author of Yogasāstra while writing on Yoga dealt only with the three preliminary parts and said nothing regarding the remaining five important parts of Yoga. This conclusively proves, that Mr. Patel's theory of interpolation in Yogaśāstra by some overzealous pupil is really a myth.
Besides the allegation of want of proportion Mr. Patel speaks about repetition in Yogasästra because the author of Yogaśāstra describes Dhāraṇā in v. 7, ch. VI, having described Dhāraṇā of breath in ch. V, vy. 27 to 35. The simple answer is that in ch. V he deals with Dhāraņā as a part of Prāņāyāma, where control of breath is the principal element and the object to be achieved is the fixing of the mind. In v. 7 ch. VI he merely mentions various parts of the body for the exercise of Dhāraṇā, which are not mentioned in ch. V. In Dhāranā mentioned in ch. VI, the fixing of the mind is the principal element and the control of breath is secondary, and the object to be achieved is Dhyāna, the details of which are described
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in the subsequent chapters. The readers would thus see that there is no truth in the said charge of repetition. One is really amused to see that while Mr. Patel is hypercritical about the supposed want of proportion and repetition in Yogaśāstra, he is quite oblivious of the frequent repetitions, panegyrics and laudatory verses occuring at various places in Jñānārņava. We are however sure that Mr. Patel's attention was not drawn to Anubhavasiddamantradvátrimsikā published in 1937 A. D. as Appendix 30 to Sri Bhairava Padmāvati Kalpa, a year prior to his 'Yogaśāstra', otherwise he would not have failed to take it into account while considering the question of priority between Yogaśāstra and Jñanārņava.
We should like to note here a fact which has not been considered in the discussion about the priority between the two works. As a result of the historic debate, already mentioned at p. 216 ante, between Svetāmbara Vādi Devasūri and Digambara Kumudacandra, which took place in the court of Siddharāja in 1181 Vikrama era, the Digambara Jains had to leave the country ruled over by King Siddharāja. The new works composed by Digambara Jains were not therefore available to Svetambara Jains. On the other hand, whatever Srī Hemacandrācārya wrote was widely circulated by his Royal patrons. There is therefore a greater probability of Yogaśāstra having come to the hands of Sri Subhacandrācārya and having been largely drawn upon by him for writing Jñānārņava rather than Jñanārnāva coming to the hands of Sri Hemacandrācārya.
APPENDIX 31 This appendix contains the famous hymn 'Laghusānti' of Sri Manadevasūri pupil of Pradyotanasūri. He was born of Jinadatta and Dhāraņi at Nadol. We have already described his life (see pp. 196-7 ante). We have also stated that the epidemic at Taxilā was the occasion for the composition of this hymn (see p. 197 ante). He was a great Mantrika and was constantly attended upon by the deities Jaya and Vijayā (according to Gurvāvali also by Padmā and Aparājitā). In the
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hymn he has praised Jayā, Vijayā, Ajitā and Aparājitā. He is also the author of the famous hymn Namiūņa which comprises the famous Cintāmaņi Pārsvanātha Mantra. There is an Avacūri and another commentary on Laghuśānti, the latter by Upādhyāya Sri Guņavijaya (s. y. 1659); the one given here is by Sri Dharmapramodagaại. The Mantra mentioned in v. 14 is Mantrādhirāja relating to Sri Pārsvanātha. The entire Mantra of Sri Santinātha as given in the commentary on v. 15 may be compared with Sāntibalimantra given in Nirvāņakalikā pp. 25-26, as also with Santidevi's two Mantras, especially the 2nd Mantra, at pp. 6-7 Acāradinakara Vol I. A special sanctity attaches to this hymn as it forms part of both the morning and evening Prati kramaņa (Confession and Repentence) ceremonies.
We have to note that it was at Taxilā that Sri Bahubali, son of the first Lord Rşabhadeva, got Dharmacakra installed, when he could not see the Lord when he went to make obeisance to Him in the morning. According to Mahānisītha Dharmacakra at Taxila related to Sri Candraprabha, the eighth Lord. When Huen-tsang came to India in the 6th century of Vikrama era, it was in the possession of the Buddhists who believed it to be of-Candraprabha Bodhisattva. The fact-that only a few years back remains of Jain temples were discovered at Taxilā while excavations were being carried on there under the supervision of the archaeological department-bears out the tradition recorded in Prabhāvakacaritra that even till the time of its author brass and stone images were supposed to exist in the underground cellars at Taxilā.
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S some of the writer's Parsi friends have desired that we should A also deal with Parsi's belief in Mantras, we would very briefly do so as limitations on space at our disposal would not permit us to treat of the same in details. “Zarathushtra recognized the worship of only one Supreme Being, the Great Lord alone, the one without a second. He also declared the six Attributtes of the Lord to be worthy of our adoration, and in places spoke of Them as Divinities, the Holy Immortals. * * * Atar (Fire), being the living symbol of Zarathushtra's Faith, was also given a place in the Gāthās. Besides the six Holy Immortals and Atar, there are two other Beings mentioned in GăthāsSraosha and Ashi-who are also to be taken in much the same way as the Amesha-Spentas." P. 91, 'The Religion of Zarathushtra' by Dr. I. J. S. Taraporewala. *
THE AMESH-SPENTAS OR HOLY IMMORTALS
The Amesh-Spentas are six; sometimes Ahura Himself is mentioned together with them and then they are spoken of as the seven Holy Immortals. We describe them below particularly.
1. Asha-Vahishta (the highest or the best Asha). Very early He represented fire, the symbol of the Zoroastrian Religion. In the Pabla vi language His name is Ardibesht. He is the Lord of Fire. Originally Asha--Vahishta meant the highest Truth or Righteousness or the Spiritual or Divine Law or the Law of God.
2. Vohu-Manõ is later Bahman. In later times Bahman occupies the first place among the Holy Immortals, while Ardibesht takes second. Literally Vohu-Manõ means Good Mind implying loving kindness and good will towards all beings, including the animal creation. "Quite logically, therefore, many Parsis have held that early
* The writer acknowledges his great indebtedness to the said valuable work of Dr. Taraporewala in writing the present section.
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Zoroastrians must have abstained from meat-eating." (P. 86). * It is Vohu-Mano who leads mankind upto Asha. Emphasis laid on purity of mind-Cittasuddhi by the various systems of Indian Philosophy may be advantageously compared. Amệtabindu Upanişad also speaks of two kinds of Mind pure and impure. +
3. Kshathra-Vairya means the Supreme Power, the Perfect Strength, or the Omnipotence and the Universal Sovereignty of the Lord. Divine Power is attained by one who treads the path of Truth or obeys the Law of God. Kshathra-Vairya later becomes Shahrivar the Lord of Mineral Kingdom.
4. Spenta-Armaiti or Holy Devotion stands at the head of the feminine group of the three Holy Immortals as Asha stands at the head of the masculine group of the three Holy Immortals. She has been also identified with Mother Earth. She is the Spirit of Earth and also Divine. Wisdom and Grace. She is the Guardian of the Faith of Zarathushtra. In Gujarati she is called 'Spendārmad'.
5 & 6. The twin Amesh-Spentas, Haurvatāt and Ameretatāt stand for 'Wholeness' and 'Immortality'. Haurvatāt is Spiritual Perfection. Haurvatāt and Ameretatāt are the Guardians of the waters and of the vegetable Kingdom respectively. In Gujarati they are called 'Khordād' and 'Amerdād' respectively.
YAZATAS Yazatas (the Adorable Ones) are Divine beings who may be called the Angels to distinguish them from Amesh-Spentas who may be called the Archangels. They correspond to the 'Devas' of Hindus. In later Zoroastrianism, the three most important Yazatas are Atar Ashi and Sraosh. The number of Yazatas including Amesh-Spentas
* "There are clear indications in the Gathās about the sin of killing animals." P. 90, "The Religion of Zarathushtra'
ॐ मनो हि द्विविधं प्रोक्तं शुद्धं चाशुद्धमेव च । अशुद्धं कामसंकल्पं शुद्ध कामविवर्जितम् ॥१॥
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usually given is thirty-three like that of the Vedic gods. The Yazatas are regarded as Powers subordinate to Ahura Mazda, the Supreme God, and as the servants of His Will. While some of them are only personifications of Divine Attributes, others represent the Elements i. e. the Powers of Nature or the original Indo--Irānian Deities.
Among these Sraosh stands for obedience to the Divine Law and is the Guardian Angel of Humanity, for Obedience to the Law of Mazda is the highest protection humanity could have. He guards night and day all the creatures of Mazda holding uplifted His double weapon. The most efficacious of His weapons are the Holy Chants (Manthras), His body is the Holy Chants (Tanumanthra). He is the special Guardian of the Zoroastrian flock. His aid is invoked at night when the powers of evil stalk abroad, and the cock, who ushers in the day is the bird sacred to Sraosha. He is very closely associated with the human soul after death. Rashnu and Mithra are the two Divinities closely associated in later Avesta with Sraosh in the task of judging the souls of the departed. Ashi Vanguhi (Holy Blessings) has been constantly associated with Sraosh. In later ages the blessings were uuderstood more in the material sense of riches and Ashi became a sort of Goddess of Fortune actually translated as Lakshmi in the Sanskrit version of the Avesta texts by Nairyosang (circa 1200 A. D.). Her aid has been invoked by the great prophets and Heroes of Irān. She is also the guardian of Matrimony.
Among the Powers of Nature invoked in the Avesta are the Fire or Atar, the waters or Aradvisūra, Anāhita, the Wind or Rāman (the ancient Váyu) and the Earth or Zain. Anāhita is mentioned as the patron of the King of Kings side by side with Ahura Mazda and Mithra (or Mitra-the sun). The image of Anāhita was worshipped in Persia as recorded by Greek writers. In the Yasht (hymn of praise) dedicated to Rāman, the list of His suppliants is headed by Ahura Himself. Hvarekshaětra-later Khurshid-the Sun, Māongha--the moon, Ushahina (or Ushah or the Dawn), Tishtrya or the Dog-star are
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some of the older Indo Iranian Deities, whose worship was revived in post-zoroastrian ages. Asha Vahishta then became the Archangel of Fire. Nairyosangha is the Messenger of the Supreme Ahura mazda to mankind. Atar-Verethraghna becomes in later language Atash Behram meaning the most sacred Zoroastrian Fire Temple.
CULT OF MITHRA
In later Achaemenian days the cult of Mithra developed into a definite school of religious thought in Iran and grew into an important esoteric school of occultism. Certain mystic rites and ceremonies were early associated with this cult. The cult spread throughout the Greek and later the Roman world and all over Europe. Even in far off England shrines of Mithra have been found. The worship of the ancient Aryan Sun-God was a very dominant cult in the early days of Christianity and influenced the new religion as well. Airyaman is the Deity associated with Mithra and Varuņa in the Veda where he is invoked during marriage ceremony and a short hymn dedicated to him is still used among the Parsis today as an essential part of the marriage ceremony.
Another Aryan Deity whose worship was revived in the later Avesta days was Verethraghna (Vedic, Vṛitrahan), the slayer of the Arch-Fiend Vritra. He is the Angel of Victory. Later He is called Behram.
INTRODUCTION.
FRAVASHIS
Parsis thus worship besides the Supreme Being several Deities and offer hymns of praise to them (Yashts). They also invoke the Fravashis of the departed, for the Fravashis of the good are regarded as the guardians of creation. The Fravashi is the highest and the eternal principle in all beings. The Yazatas and the Amesha-Spentas and even Ahura Mazda have their Fravashis. They are said to be archetypal souls clothed in ethereal forms. This worship has its parallel in the Hindu worship of Pitris and the Roman worship of the Manes.
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PRINCIPAL DOCTRINES Of the several methods to reach God treading the path of Asha (Spiritual life) such as knowledge, Devotion and Action the method most emphasized in Zoroastrianism is that of Action, although there are hints about all these three scattered in Avesta. "Zoroastrianism is above all a Religion of Action-Karma Yoga, to use the Hindu phrase. xxx The whole Teaching has been compressed into three commandments-Humata, Hūkhta, Huaarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds). And though, as necessarily, thoughts come first, as the roots of all action, still Good Deeds constitute the chief qualification in treading the Path of Ash. Xxx Never has seclusion from the world and from worldly duties formed part of the Zoroastrian belief". The Law of Karma or the Law of Action and Reaction has been clearly recognized in Zoroastrian theology but nowhere is there a reference to condemnation or reward through all eternity. As for the doctrine of Reincarnation which is a necessary corollary to the Law of Karma Parsi scholars say that it may be deduced by a sort of implication, but is not expressly put forward in Gathās. The popular belief of Parsis however is that there is life after death.
VEDIC CONNECTION
'Athravan' is the term used in Avesta for the Priest which is phonetically connected with Atharvaveda. It indicates that the cult of Fire had been definitely established in Irān. We have shown (see footnote* 228 ante that Atharvans and Angiras of the Atharvaveda respectively signified the white or holy and the black or hostile magic. Perhaps it may furnish a clue to the use of the term 'Angrõ-Mainyu' for the Power of Evil which Zarathushtra conquered. Historically it may have reference to the struggle between the two factions of Aryans, one of which was helped and guided by Rșis of the Angiras Kula, and the other by those of Atharvan Kula. According to Mr. Mānshanker P. Mehta, the learned author of the Gujarati book entitled 'Ahunavara' (published by Sri Forbes Gujarati Sabha), it
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appears from the Rgveda that the fire cult was started in ancient times by the Ṛsis of Bhṛgu, Atharvan and Angiras Kulas; that Bhrgus were against the worship of Indra introduced by Angiras; that Bhṛgus and Atharvans, the spiritual guides of the faction of Aryans which left India and ultimately went to Iran, stuck to the ancient fire cult and Soma-cult; and that Zarathustra although a reformer retained fire-worship and the worship of Soma of the Vedic Gods like Agni, Surya, Mitra, Aryamā, Varuņa (Asura Varuņa) and others as subordinate to the Supreme Being called Ahura Mazda. The 'Devas' of the Veda were however degraded to the position of the Demons and Asura Varuna became the Supreme Being-Ahura Mazda, while the other leading Vedic deity Indra was reduced to the position of the chief lieutenant of the Evil One.
MANTRAS
The 61st chapter (Ha) of Yasna refers to the miraculous powers of the three small prayers viz. Ahuna-Vairya, Ashem Vohu and Yenghe Hātām; they are used by the Parsis even this day. It says that they are very effective in overcoming magicians, evil spirits, thieves, robbers, atheists, the wicked and the liars. The most ancient and according to many pre-Zoroastrian in date is the prayer known as Ahuna-Vairya. It is said that "if this prayer is repeated properly even once in the correct rhythm and intonation, and with a clear understanding of its meaning, it is equal in efficacy to the repetition of a hundred other hymns put together. Zarathushtra Himself is said to have chanted this prayer in order to defeat the Evil Spirit when he came to tempt Him. And again and again the Avesta states that "the Ahuna-Vairya protects the Self (tanu)"-P. 68. "The Religion of Zarathushtra'. It embodies within itself the essentials of Zoroaster's Teaching, and that is the reason according to Dr. Taraporewala why such special efficacy is attached to it. The curious reader would do well to persue the said very instructive work of Dr. Taraporewala (specially p. 68 et seq.) as it treats of the inner meaning of the hymn.
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with great lucidity. We would be content to quote from the said work only its translation and the translation of the other two sacred prayers viz. 'Ashem Vohu' and 'Yenghe Hatām' to which miraculous powers are said to be attached.
AHUNA VAIRYA "Just as a Ruler (is) all powerful (among men), so (too, is) the Spiritual-Teacher, even by reason of His Asha; the gifts of Good Mind (are) for (those) working for the Lord of Life; and the strength of Ahura (is granted) unto (him) who to (his) poor (brothers) giveth help.”
ASHEM VOHU "Asha is the highest good, (it alone) is (true) happinness.
Happiness is for him (alone) who (is) righteous for (the sake of) the highest Asha." In point of sanctity it ranks second only to the Ahuna Vairya.
YENGHE HĀTĀM (That man) among those that are about whom, because of his Righteousness.
Mazda Ahura knoweth (that he is) verily better as regards acts of worship (than others)-(All such), both men and women, do we revere.
Regarding 'Ahuna-Vairya' it is laid down that if one does not know one or the other of the Yashts (Hymns of Praise) he may recite 'Ahuna-Vairya' a certain number of times instead of the said Yashts and he would have the merit of having recited the said Yashts. Similarly 'Ahuna-Vairya' is directed to be recited for achieving various objects and also as thanksgiving for benefits received.
It would be clear that although Ahuna-Vairya is a prayer, it is believed to be a Mantra just as Hindus believe Gayatri or Jains believe Panca Paramesti Mantra to be a Mantra. The same remarks apply to the other two prayers. Both 'Ahuna-Vairya' and 'AshemVohu' are used as part of Kusti-Prayers by Parsis.
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It is customary amongst Parsis to recite the hundred and one names of Ahura Mazda as Muhammedans recite the 99 names (Asma-ul-husna) of Allāh, or as Hindus and Jains recite Satanāma or Sahasranama of the Divinity worshipped by them. Parsis generally use rosaries made of 101 amber-beads. It is not known however that there is anything similar to Tantric Sādhanā amongest Parsis for acquiring accomplishment or perfection (Siddhi) in any particular Mantra so that the Sadhaka thereafter becoming a Siddha or an adept is able infallibly to achieve his desired object with the aid of such a Siddha-Mantra. There are however historical instances of Upāsanā of Yazatas like Aradvisūra Anāhita and Ashi Vanguhi by the great heroes and kings of ancient Irān for achiveing various objects.
CONCLUSION We are glad to bring this Introduction which has grown beyond the farthest expectation and the widest estimate of the writer and the publisher, to a close. We take this opportunity to offer our apologies to the readers of the work for keeping them waiting for the Introduction beyond all reasonable expectation. The only thing which we would like to mention, not as an excuse for the delay but as a matter of fact, is that the Introduction was undertaken when the work itself was practically ready for publication and that we could only devote our leisure hours to the work although many a time we had to encroach upon the business hours also. The readers can well imagine the difficulties besetting the path of the Press and the Publisher in these times of stress, struggle and strife. The readers would therefore appreciate the more the enterprize of the Publisher in placing this very exhaustive work in their hands in such times. We thank the Press and the Publisher for the consideration shown by them and also thank the several friends who have been from the very beginning taking keen interest in the progress of the work and have been selflessly and unstintingly helpful in various ways in the preparation of this work. We would not attempt to describe the kind
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of service rendered by each of these esteemed friends. We would however expressly acknowledge the very great help received from the books issued to the writer from time to time by Muni Sri Mohanlalji Jain Central Library, Madhav Baug, Bombay. ARHAM OM!
15 Dhanji St., Bomby, 27th April 1944, Vaisakha Sukla Pancami s. y. 2000.
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APPENDIX A । श्री मानदेवसूरिकृतसूरिमंत्रस्तोत्रम् । रागाइरिउजईणं, नमो जिणाणं नमो महजिणाणं' एवं ओहिजिणाणं, परमोहीणं तहा तेसिं ।१। एवमणतोहीणं, णंताणंतोहि-जुअ-जिणाण नमो सामन्नकेवलीणं भवाभवत्याण तेसि नमो। २। उग्गतवचरणचारिण', मेवामित्तो नमो नमो होउ चउदससदसपुवीणं, नमो तहेगार' संगीणं । ३ । एएसिं सव्वेसिं, एव किच्चा अहं नमोक्कार' जमियं विजं पउंजे, सा मे विजा पसिजिजा। ४ । निच्चं" नमो भगवओ, बाहुबलिस्सेह पण्हसमणस्स12 न वग्गु वग्गु निवग्गु, मग्गुं सुमग्गु गयस्स तहा । ५। सुमणेवि अ सोमणसे, महुमहुरे जिणवरे नमसामि इरिकाली पिरिकाली, सिरिकाली तहा महाकाली । ६ । किरिआए हिरिआए, पयसंगए तिविह आयारिए सुहमव्वाहयं तह, मुत्तिसाहगे14 साहुणो वंदे । ७ । नँ किरिकिरि कालि पिरि, पिरिकालिं च सिरिसिरि सकालिं हिरि हिरि कालि पयंपिअ", सिरिं तु तह आयरिय कालिं। ८। किरिमेरु पिरिमेरु सिरिमेरु तय होइ हिरिमेरु आयरिय मेरुपयभवि साहंते मेरुणो वंदे । ९। इअ मंतपयसमेया, थुणिआ सिरिमाणदेवसूरिहिं जिणसूरिसाहुणो" सइ, दितु थुणंताण सिद्धिसुहं । १० ।
1 मणोजिणाणं; महंहोउ 2 एव 3 तेसि 4 जुय 5 भवाभवत्थाणं 6.चारीण 7 तहकार. 8 काउं 9 नमुक्कार 10 जमिउं 113 निचं 12 पण्णसमण्णस्स 13 यंविरए 14 साइए 15 पयमिय 16 अ 17 सूरिणो.
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। योनिप्राभृतांतर्गतमंत्रौ ।
। श्रीमाणिभद्रमंत्रः । ॐ नमो भगवते माणिभद्राय कपिलरूपाय अनंतशक्तिसहिताय नवनागसहस्रबलाय अतुलबलवीर्यपराक्रमाय किंनरकिंपुरुषगरुडगंधर्वयक्षराक्षसभूतपिशाचसर्व शाकिनीनां निग्रहं कुरु २ फट् स्वाहा ॥ सर्वनिग्रहमंत्रः ॥ १॥
। श्रीगणधरवलयमंत्रः। (नमो जिणाणं नमो ओधि) नमो परमोधि नमो अणंतोधि णमो कुट्टबुद्धिणं णमो पादानुसारीणं णमो संभिन्नसोयाणं नमो (सयं) संबुद्धाणं नमो पत्तेयबुद्धाणं नमो (उ)ज्जुमदीनं नमो विउलमदीनं नमो दसपुवीणं नमो चउदसपुवीणं नमो अठंगमहानिमित्तकुसलाणं नमो विजाहराणं नमो चारणाणं नमो आगासगामीण (नमो घोरतवाणं)' नमो आसीविसाणं नमो दिह्रिविसाणं नमो उग्गतवाणं नमो दित्ततवाणं नमो महातवाणं नमो घोरतवाणं नमो घोरगुणबंभचारीणं नमो आमोसहिपत्ताणं नमो खेलोसहिपत्ताणं नमो विप्पोसहिपत्ताणं नमो सम्वोसहिपत्ताणं नमो मणबलीणं णमो वचबलीणं णमोकायबलीणं नमो वीरसप्पीणं नमो सप्पिासवाणं नमो अमयमहुसप्पीण नमो सव्वऋद्धीणं नमो भयवदो गणधरवलयस्स सव्वे सव्वं कुणंतु ॥ गणधरवलयमंत्रः ॥२॥
दिरका आणाकाले असजदोसे निमित्तसाहणए गुरुउवसग्गे जाये(अ) वेर(हि)म्मि भणह (इम) मंतं ॥
• 1 एतत्पदमधिकं भाति । अग्रे एतदेव पदं यथास्थानं निवेशितं द्रष्टव्यम् ।
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॥अंगविद्यांतर्गतविद्याः॥
। अंगविधा। नमो अरिहंताणं नमो सिद्धाणं नमो आयरियाणं नमो उवज्झायाणं नमोलोएसव्वसाहूणं। नमो जिणाणं नमो ओहिजिणाणं नमो परमोहिजिणाणं नमो सव्वोहिजिणाणं नमो अणंतोहिजिणाणं नमो भगवओ अरहओ अव्वओ महापुरिसम्स महावीरवद्धमाणस्स नमो भगवइए महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए सहस्सपरिवाराए (स्वाहा) ॥ १॥
। भूतिकर्मविद्या । णमो अरहताणं नमो सिद्धाणं नमो आयरियाणं नमो उवज्झायाणं नमो लोए सव्वसाहूणं । नमो महापुरिसस्स महइ महावीरस्स सव्वणुसव्वदरिसिम्स इमा भूमिकम्मस्स विजा । इंदि आलिंदि आलिमाहिदे मारुदि स्वाहा । नमो महापुरिस्सदिण्णाए भगवईए अंगविज्जाए सहस्सवाकरणाए क्षीरिणीविरण उडुंबरिणीए सह सर्वज्ञाय स्वाहा सर्वज्ञानाधिगमाय स्वाहा । सर्वकामाय स्वाहा । सर्वकर्मसिद्धयै स्वाहा ॥२॥
(क्षीरवृक्षछायायां अष्टमभक्तिकेन गुणयितव्यं क्षीरेण च पारयितव्यं । सिद्धिरस्तु । भूमिकर्मविद्याया उपचारः चतुर्थभतेन कृष्णचतुर्दश्यां गृहीतव्या षष्ठेन साधयितव्या । अहतवत्थेण कुशसत्थरे ।)
। सिद्धविद्या । णमो अरहताणं णमो सिद्धाणं णमो आयरियाणं णमोउवज्झायाणं णमो लोएसव्वसाहूणं । णमो आमोसहिपत्ताणं णमो विप्पोसहिपत्ताणं णमो सव्वोसहिपत्ताणं णमो संभिन्नसोआणं णमो रवीरस्सवाणं णमो महुस्सवाणं । णमो कोड बुद्धिणं णमो पयबुद्धिणं णमो अरवीणमहाणसाणं णमोरिद्धिपत्ताणं णमो चउदसपुव्वीणं णमो भगवईए महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए सिद्धे सिद्धाणुमए सिद्धासेविए सिद्धचारणाणुचिण्णे अमियबले महासारे महाबले अंगदुवारधरे स्वाहा ॥ ३ ॥ (छटुग्गहणी छटुसाहणी जपो-अटुसयसिद्धा भवति ॥)
पडिरूवविज्जा। नमो अरिहंताणं णमोसिद्धाणं णमो महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए णमोकारइत्ता इमं मंगलं पउंजइस्सामि सा मे विज्जा सव्वत्थ पसिज्झउ । अत्थस्स य धम्मस्स य कामस्स य इसि(स)स्स आइञ्च चंदनक्रवत्तगहगणतारागणाण (जोगो) जोगाणं णभम्मि अजं सव्वं तं सव्वं इह मज्झं (इह) पडिरूवे दिस्सउ । पुढविउदधिसलिलाग्गिमारुएसु य सव्वभूएसु
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APPENDIX A
365 देवेसु जं सव् तं सव्वं इध मज्झ पडिरूवे दिस्सउ । अवेतु (उ) माणुस सोयं (दिव्वं सोय) पवत्तउ। अवेउ माणुसं रूवं दिव्वं रूवं पवत्तउ अवेउमाणुसं चक् दिव्यं चक्खू पवत्तउ । अवेउ माणुसे गंधे दिव्वे गंधे पवत्तउ । एएसु ज सव्वं तं सव्वं इध मज्झ पडिरूवे दिस्सउत्ति । णमो महति महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए ज सव्वं ते सव्वं इध मज्झं पडिरूवे दिस्सउ । णमो अरहताणं णमो सव्वसिद्धाणं सिझंतु मंता स्वाहा ॥ ४ ॥ (एसविज्जा छटुग्गहणी अठ्ठमसाधणी जापो अट्ठसयं)
। पडिहारविज्ञा-स्वरविजा । णमो अरिहंताणं णमो सव्वसिद्धाण णमो सव्यसाहूणं णमो भगवतीए महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए उभयभए णतिभये भयमाभये भवे स्वाहा । स्वाहा डंडपडीहारो अंगविज्जाए उदकजत्ताहि चाहिं सिद्धिं ॥ णमो अरिहंताण णमो सव्वसिद्धाणं णमो भगवईए महापुरिसदिण्णाए अंगविज्जाए भूमिकम्मं सव्वं भणंति । अरहंता ण मुसा भासंति। खत्तिया. सव्वे णं अरहंता सिद्धा सव्वपडिहारे उ देवया अत्थ सव्वं कामसव्वं सव्वयं सव्वं तं इह दिसउत्ति । अंगविज्जाए इमा विज्जा उत्तमा लोकमाता बंभाए वाणपिया पयावइ अंगे एसा देवस्स सव्वअंगम्मि मे चक् सव्वलोकम्मि य सव्वं पव्वज्जइसि सव्वं व जं भवे । एएण सव्ववइणेण इमो अट्ठो दिस्सउ । उत (उत) पव्वज्जे । विजयं पव्वज्जे सव्वे पव्वज्जे उडुंबरमूलीयं पव्वज्जे । पव्ववि (इ) स्सामि तं पव्वज्जे । मेघडंतीयं पव्वज्ज स्वरपितरं मातरं पव्वज्जे खरविज्ज पव्वज्जेंति स्वाहा ॥ आभासो अभिमंतणं चउदकजत्ताहिं सिद्धं ॥ ५॥
। महाणिमित्तविज्जा । णमो अरिहंताणं णमो सव्वसिद्धाणं णमो केवलणाणीणं सव्वभावदंसीणं णमो आधोधिकाणं णमो आभिबोधिकाणं (पव्वज्ज?) णमो मणपज्जवणाणीणं णमो सव्वभावपवयणपारगाणं बारसंगवीणं अट्ठमहाणिमित्तायरियाणं सुयणाणीणं णमो पण्णाणं णमो विज्जाचारणसिद्धाणं तवसिद्धाण चेव अणगार सुविहियाणं णिग्गंथाणं णमो महाणिमित्तीणंसव्वेसिं आयरियाणं णमो भगवओ जसचओ (? अरहओ) महावीरवद्धमाणस्स ॥ ६ ॥
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- Jaip Education thiet kiena 2D TO 03